UC-NRLF

!

*

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

GIFT OF THE

STATE VITICULTURAL COMMISSION.

Accession No.

, January, 1896.
Class No.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PAPERS

*

HORTICULTURAL AND KINDRED SUBJECTS,

BY

WILLIAM SAUNDEKS,

HORTICULTURIST AND LANDSCAPE GARDENER,
Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

REPRINTED FROM REPORTS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE, 1863-1889.

--•• Of TBM

JU7BRSITT

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

1891.

/
3

1,1

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Washington, D. (7., June 5, 1891.

SIR : I have the honor to submit herewith for republication a series
of papers on horticultural and kindred topics previously published in
various Annual Reports of this Department, which are no longer avail-
able for distribution. These papers have been brought together, in
accordance with your suggestion, to afford a convenient means of reply-
ing to many requests for information on these topics.

WILLIAM SAUNDERS,
Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds.
Hon. J. M. EUSK,

Secretary of Agriculture.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Landscape gardening , 7

On draining lands 37

Sowing seeds and raising yonng plants of forest trees 38 >

Making and keeping lawns 40

Spring and fall planting of trees 42

Keeping hedges 44

Cultivation 44,

Mechanical preparation of soil 46 /

Mulching 47

Situations for orchards 49

Orchard planting 49

Management of orchards 50

Pruning 51

Remarks on pear culture 53

Native grapes 60

Grapes — mildew 63

Propagating native grapes 66

Foreign grapes in glass structures 67

Inside borders for graperies 70

Thripson grapes 70

Propagating by cuttings 71

Sowing seeds 73 /

Seed saving 74

Rotation in cropping 75

Expedients for promoting fruitfulness in plants 79

Importance of a uniform supply of water in plant culture 80

Liquid manure for plants in pot culture 82

Flowerpots 83

Night temperature in glass structures 83

Watering plants in pots 85

Water plants 86

Glazing greenhouse roofs wvJ^.~.^I^^i^ v 87

Raspberry culture

Figs

Vanilla

India-rubber plants

Citron

Special inquiries and answers

Well-ripened wood 777777777. Ill

Notes on orange culture and the pineapple 114

5

PAPERS ON HORTICULTURAL AND KINDRED SUBJECTS.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

Landscape gardening is a comprehensive art, combining the genius
of the landscape painter with the art of the practical gardener ; the
exact knowledge of the engineer with the poetical imagination of the
artist. The professor of this art should also possess a competent knowl-
edge of the general principles of botany, architecture, geology, hydrau-
lics, hydrostatics, mechanics, laws of heat and ventilation, horticulture,
and vegetable physiology. This may seem rather a formidable array
of acquirements, but in the multifarious details of selecting and arrang-
ing the style and location of rural residences and their accompanying
domestic auxiliary structures ; the drainage of lands ; the location and
construction of roads ; the preparation of garden sites and the erection
of horticultural buildings ; the decoration of grounds for the purposes
of beautifying the surroundings of rural homesteads, the more ambitious
suburban villas, and public buildings of every description ; and th'e
artistic disposition of arborescent growths, so as to produce the most
varied yet distinct beauties of which the scenery is susceptible, neces-
sitate a knowledge more or less intimate and extensive with these as
well as with other branches of science.

During the last twenty years much attention has been given to land-
scape gardening, both in the laying put of private grounds and in the
design and construction of public parks. Some of the latter are de-
serving of the highest commendation, both in design and execution,
and have been the means of instructing and familiarizing the public
with the capabilities and beauties of the art, and in educating the pop-
ular taste to an appreciation of the development of rural improvements
and their beneficial effects upon the moral and physical condition of
society.

It can not be too forcibly urged upon the attention of those who are
intrusted with educational institutions that one of the most certain
means of encouraging a desire for studies in natural history, and form-
ing correct principles of taste in young minds, is that of landscape em-
bellishments of school houses and college grounds. This has become
one of the greatest wants in existing systems of education and can not
long remain neglected.

7

8

It is not proposed to offer a treatise on landscape gardening, but
rather to allude briefly to some of the more prominent points and sub-
jects that will naturally arise for consideration in the location of resi-
dences and public buildings, and in the arrangement of the principal
accessories and the execution of various details connected with rural
improvements.

GARDENING AND CIVILIZATION.

Gardens are of the most remote antiquity. Our first parents were
placed in a garden, and the writings of the oldest historians and poets
contain various descriptions and traditions concerning the extraordi-
nary beauty of the gardens. History proves that a taste for gardening
has kept pace with the progress of civilization, and that it has always
exerted a powerful influence upon the passions and feelings of mankind.
Much of the decorative beauty of architecture has resulted from study
of the combinations and graceful lines of the vegetable kingdom. Two
thousand years before the Christian era Lydia was famed for its gar-
dens. The gardens of Babylon are traditionally ranked among the
greatest successful combinations of skill and wealth. The Persian
kings were very partial to gardens, which were cultivated as much for
their beauty as for their fruit, and even in gardens of limited extent
the trees were arranged in regular lines and figures, and the walks bor-
dered with tufts of roses, violets, and other odoriferous plants. The
Greeks copied from the Persians, both in their gardening and their
architecture. Epicurus took great delight in his garden, and there
taught his philosophy. The Greeks excelled in architecture more than
in gardening, although a public park or garden was planted by Cimon,
the general, at Athens, furnished with streams of water and supplied
with shady groves, with gymnasia and places for exercise. They had
flower markets which were well patronized, and learned or distinguished
men wore crowns of flowers, and successful warriors were decorated
with wreaths and garlands. Their garden decorations partook largely
of statuary and other architectural appendages.

The Romans devoted much of their wealth to the adornment of their
gardens and pleasure parks. Lucullus seems to have had large ideas
of magnificent expenditures in this direction, being represented as hav-
ing sumptuous villas in different parts of Italy, so that he could enjoy an
agreeable climate every month in the year. Cicero had fine plantations
at his Arpinum villa. Sallust, who made a fortune in the government
of Numidia, devoted largely of his means to the laying out of gardens
which were for a long period the pride of Koine. Pliny's villa appears
to have been laid out with more taste and less of ostentations display
than some others, since the pastoral beauty of his grounds is highly
praised. It is apparent, however, that the principal features of orna-
mentation were derived from vases, fountains, and similar works of art
that bore the resemblance of wealth, and were at once objects that con-

veyed impressions of grandeur and magnificence, without necessitat-
ing patient waiting for effects produced by artificial plantations, which
require time for their development and a higher appreciative taste for
their enjoyment.

The Eoinans also devoted much attention to culinary vegetation, and
carried their knowledge of science and the arts into such countries as
they colonized, so that a great degree of wealth and enlightened pros-
perity accompanied their footsteps to an extent that the world has
rarely seen equaled.

With the reign of the emperors commenced the decline of the empire.
The reign of barbarism was triumphant, and the finest palaces, coun-
try houses, and gardens were destroyed. For five centuries the monks
were almost the only class who cultivated gardens and kept alive the
culture of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and medicinal herbs during the
dark ages. To them we are indebted for the preserving and handing
down of the arts of gardening and architecture.

It was not until the middle of the fifteenth century that the arts of
peace and commerce were so prosperous as to awaken a love for the fine
arts ; and the examples of former grandeur that still remained, together
with traditions of ancient magnificence, stirred up a desire of imita-
tion, and Italian gardening attained a perfection and standing that are
still recognized and distinguished among rural improvements.

STYLES OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

There are two very distinct modes of laying out grounds, known as
the geometrical and the natural. Various terms have been used from
time to time by descriptive writers on these subjects to designate styles,
but they are all easily referred to one or the other of these modes.
Under the geometrical may be placed the formal, Eomau, architectural,
and ancient, as well as the Italian, French, and Dutch varieties of this
style, tinder the natural we may, in a similar manner, place the gar-
denesque, modern, irregular, English, and graceful.

A third style is commonly included, but has never been very suc-
cessfully defined, either practically or hypothetically ; that is, the pic-
turesque. The former two are sufficiently comprehensive for the pres-
ent purpose.

THE GEOMETRICAL STYLE.

In the earlier ages of the world the possessor of wealth exhibited
his riches by surrounding his residence with such improvements as were
most distinctive from the common scenery of the country. Hence gar-
dens were ornamented with ballustraded terraces of massive masonry,
magnificent flights of steps, elaborately decorated arcades, costly foun-
tains, architectural grottoes, and lofty, clipped hedges arranged with
niches and recesses for the display of statuary. His less wealthy
neighbor contented himself by substituting a sloped grass bank for the

10

stone terrace, shaped his small lake in a square or circular form, and
clipped his trees and shrubs into fantastic shapes, aiming at ostentation
without regard either to propriety or good taste.

Such a style is well fitted for immediately producing startling if not
grand effects; and during early stages of society, and in countries
abounding with the irregular and natural forms of uncultivated scenery,
distinction is at once imparted by introducing perfectly level or regu-
larly sloping surfaces of ground, trees planted at uniform distances
apart, and lakes or ponds bounded by geometrical lines, so as to leave
no chance of mistaking any portion of the scene as having been the re-
sult of unassisted arrangement, but unmistakably conveying the impres-
sion of a display of wealth and refinement, and to indicate ownership
by distinguishing the country residence from the natural, uninclosed,
rude scenery of the neighborhood.

In the strictly geometrical style everything is architecturally accu-
rate in its lines, perfect symmetry pervades the whole, and all parts
are equally balanced. Statuary of all kinds, fountains, steps, ballus-
ters, and pediments, broad walks, straight-planted avenues, formal-
shaped flower beds, all belong to this species of garden and landscape
decoration.

THE NATURAL STYLE.

In the geometrical style the hand of the artist is evident in every
detail ; but in the natural style artificial interference is not so conspic-
uously apparent. In the disposition of the material used for the devel-
opment of landscape views and scenic effects there is nothing, so far as
general impressions are concerned, to indicate where the hand of the
improver has been operating, or anything appearing beyond a natural
production, or what may be indigenous to the locality. All natural
beauties are carefully preserved so far as is consistent with objects of
use or convenience, and the element of utility enters more largely, per-
haps, into our ideas of the beautiful in this than in the geometrical
style ; and while there is no desire to avoid the appearance of art in
operative details, it is not rendered obtrusive, and the effects produced
need not suggest%the idea of painful and laborious operations.

The perception of the beauty ought to be the first impression, and not
that of the art by which it has been produced. The beauties of nature
are imitated in the disposition of trees and shrubs, and, so far as gen-
eral scenic effect is concerned, the arrangement might be taken for a
natural group ; yet a close examination of details will lead to the dis-
covery that the plants employed are not indigenous to the locality,
and thus art and design will be recognized. So also in a district where
evergreen trees do not exist in the surrounding natural woods their in-
troduction in the scenery will at once convey the impression of an arti-
ficial plantation, so far as regards the materials of which it is com-
posed. While therefore the general effects produced in this style are

11

similar to those with which we are familiar in natural scenery, the de-
tails are dictated by convenience, utility, and adaptibility to the end
in view.

A neglected footpath seen in the distance, curving gracefully around
the sides of a hill or on the banks of a stream, now embracing a thicket
of trees and undergrowth, and lost in a maze of tangled vines, then
emerging and tracing across the meadow, alternately widening and
narrowing, and at times altogether lost in the massive foliage of grasses
and other natural growths, is what might truly be termed a natural
path. Let it be trimmed and widened, however, its surface neatly ad-
justed and covered with gravel, its curves well defined, and its sides
made perfectly parallel, and it will have lost much of its beauty as a
natural woodland path, although the contiguous scenery has not been
disturbed nor in any degree impaired. It is now invested with the
beauty of utility, and however much we may have admired it in its
original condition, yet for comfort as a dry and convenient walk we
greatly prefer its improved condition ; and in addition to the charms
associated with its position, it has those of adaptability and fitness to
the end in view.

CHOOSING A LOCATION FOB BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS.

In choosing a location one of the first considerations is that of access
to and egress from a city, and if daily intercourse is contemplated, it
becomes a question of special interest. The time, trouble, and expense
of travel on bad roads are a severe tax upon country pleasures. A
drive of half an hour on a hard road during a fine summer evening is
a recreative pleasure which may not be appreciated when an hour and
a half are spent on the same distance during a stormy winter morning,
A good road in dry weather may become very indifferent after rains,
and be impassable for three-fourths of the year.

In these days of railroads and steamboats it is difficult to indicate
what might be considered a convenient distance from the city. Upon
a well-managed railroad a distance of 20 miles may be more accessible
than 2 miles upon a common road. Proximity to a railroad station will
always secure a certainty of convenient transit, even, allowing the dis-
tance to be within an easy carriage drive. This facility should not be
overlooked when it can be secured.

Healthiness of locality is of paramount importance. Low, flat lands
are generally damp and cold, and should never be selected for the habi-
tation of man or beast, if there is any choice in the matter. Valleys,
or even depressions, are equally unsuitable. The air after sunset is
always dense in such places, dews are heavier and more frequent, and,
as a consequence, frosts are more prevalent than on elevations. Fogs
are more frequent on low lands. The extremes of temperature are also
greater, especially if surrounded by forests, which prevent the free
circulation and equalizing influence of winds. Wide and long valleys,

12

between uniform hills are frequently subjected to sweeping blasts.
Even the vicinity of such localities ought to be avoided. A person may
drain, cultivate, and otherwise improve his property, and still be sub-
jected to the injurious influences of unimproved lauds over which he has
no control.

An elevated situation is generally healthy. The extent of prospect
it secures is also an advantage; yet it is not well to place too great a
value on distant views. For permanent residence the exposure of ele-
vation is a disadvantage. Though cool, airy, and agreeable in summer,
they may be bleak, chilly, and exceedingly uncomfortable during win-
ter. The tender and delicate varieties of flowers and shrubbery, as
well as fruits and culinary products, are less likely to flourish when
fully exposed to cold and unbroken winds.

SELECTING A BUILDING SITE.

This is too commonly settled by selecting the highest point of the
ground, but not always wisely. A modern house set up on a sharp
knoll has an isolated appearance which is not readily altered or im-
proved by trees, and it is with difficulty approached by roads, if the
grounds slope suddenly from it.

A somewhat level plateau, partially surrounded by higher ground,
forms a good position for a dwelling house. The ground should fall
from it in all directions, more rapidly in front than back, where the
descent may be merely sufficient for drainage. Back of the house,
positions should be selected for the vegetable garden, stables, and other
buildings, such as greenhouses and graperies, all of which will be shel-
tered and protected by the higher ground beyond.

The nature of the soil should receive attention in selecting a spot for
a house. Clay soils are retentive of water, and, even when artificially
drained, the surface is disagreeable after rains. Clay, in contact with
foundation walls, keeps them damp and cold. The expansion of clay
when wet, and shrinkage when dry, unfit it for a safe foundation. If
every other condition is secured in a site, art can do much towards
ameliorating the physical qualities of the soil ; but, for all the purposes
of human comfort and enjoyment, in the immediate vicinity of a house,
a light, open, porous soil is decidedly the best.

It is always desirable to secure the beauty and utility of a natural
plantation; but to select the site for a mansion in the center of a grove
of old trees, with the intention of making them a nucleus for future
landscape effect, will generally prove unsatisfactory. In natural forests
the trees grow too closely together ; their trunks are long, slender, and
destitute of branches; and if thinning is attempted, those that are left
seldom flourish for any length of time. If the thinning out is gradual,
and the best of the remaining trees are judiciously pruned, they may
ultimately recover and make a satisfactory appearance.

13

Where old trees abound it is difficult to prepare or keep a good lawn
or introduce new sbrubs or flowers. The roots of the trees prevent
thorough renovation of the soil and the shade of their branches inter-
feres with the growth of plants. There is a steady antagonism between
the old and the new, both with regard to individual growth and laud-
scape effect, until either the one or the other predominates. It is no
matter of doubt or uncertainty, but a settled question with all who have
any experience in remodeling or adapting old woods or groves to modern
improvements, that it is measurably better to commence on a treeless,
naked field ; as a judicious selection and intermixture of fast-growing
trees, properly planted in good soil, will in a few years serve all useful
purposes, produce such effects as are contemplated, and give far more
satisfaction than can be derived from the accidental position and growth
of natural forests, at least so far as relates to improvements in the im-
mediate vicinity of a rural residence.

PLAN OF IMPROVEMENTS.

The grounds being secured and the site fixed upon for the house, the
next step is to prepare a well-defined working plan for contemplated
improvements, and this is of equal importance whether the grounds
are extensive or quite limited. To strike out the rude and simple out-
lines of an arrangement for the various accessories and conveniences
of a country residence requires a mind thoroughly imbued with the
principles of taste and conversant with the application of art to the
development of beauty ; and, although we admit that every individual
best knows what will meet his ideas of comfort and convenience in the
abstract, there are few who can tell all the details or satisfactorily in-
troduce and fit all the disjointed parts so as to produce a complete
whole.

As it is wisdom on the part of those who are about building a house
to enlist the services of a competent architect, so it is essential to con-
sult with a landscape artist in the preparation of a plan for the improve-
ment of the grounds ; as to what trees to plant and where to plant
them ; the proper introduction and construction of roads and walks ;
locating and erecting barns, stables, glass houses, and other buildings;
selecting and preparing the soil for vegetable and fruit gardens; making
lawns, and the numerous details that are involved in perfecting all the
indispensable, useful, and ornamental adjuncts to a suburban house and
grounds.

All plans should be definite and simple as possible, and not over-
loaded with mechanical embellishments, as an excess in this respect
generally indicates a deficiency in more important particulars. They
should be accompanied with ample references, wnere each tree and the
most important shrubs should be distinctly named and referred to
numbers on the plan. Intelligible reasons should be given for every-
thing proposed, both with reference to immediate and to future effect,

14

with clear instructions and suggestions with regard to the operations
proposed, and the relative order in which they should be conducted.
It may be taken as a rule that no proprietor should undertake improve-
ments until he sees clearly the objects and intentions of the design or
plan ; and if this information can not be conveyed by inspection and
explanation, it is a strong presumptive evidence of defect either in the
design or in the explanation, or in both.

in transferring designs to the ground, the most correct and speedy
method is to divide the plan into squares by lines drawn on it in both
directions, the side of the square being of any length that will best
serve the purposes of accuracy. Squares of 60 feet for the side will
be found a convenient length ; but in intricate designs, such as those
for flower gardens, squares of 30 feet, or even shorter, may be nec-
essary. The ground, or space to be operated upon, is to be divided
into squares of the same size, and a stake set firmly at each point of
intersection of the lines, and numbered to correspond with the num-
bers on the plan. A still more distinctive method is to use numbers
for one direction and letters for the other; each stake will then be
marked with a number and a letter. The plan and grounds being thus
prepared, the placing of a tree, or the laying down of a walk, or any
other object, can be executed with the greatest facility. It also ena-
bles the work to be commenced at any point, and a short practice will
enable any one, by looking at its position in the square on the plan, to
place a tree in its relative position in the square on the ground, with-
out having recourse to exact measurements. A plan carefully prepared
with references, and accurate to a scale, may thus be transferred to the
ground by any person capable of reading letters and figures.

ARRANGEMENT OF OUTBUILDINGS, STABLES, ETC.

The selection of sites for the various buildings required near a coun-
try or suburban residence is second in importance only to the selection
of a site for the mansion. Convenience dictates that these buildings
should be as near the house as is practically consistent with their ob-
jects and character. The dwelling house will, of course, occupy the best
and most advantageous position, and its superior size and style of arch-
itecture will always be such as to render all other necessary structures
of secondary and subordinate appearance. Such buildings as stables
and icehouses are so obviously necessary to domestic comfort that their
presence is not only expected, but their absence conveys an impression
of poverty or incompleteness altogether inconsistant with our ideas of
what a country home should be.

Instead, therefore, of endeavoring to entirely conceal these structures
by plantations and other expedients, as is frequently advised, they
should be located on the most eligible sites, and display in their archi-
tectural details and ornaments an expression of the purposes for which

15

they are intended, and be judiciously exposed to view without rendering
conspicuous the operations necessarily connected with the structure.

The best location for these buildings will be governed to some extent
by local circumstances; but, where there are no grades, views, or other
exceptional features to interfere with the selection, a point in a north-
east direction from the house will combine the greatest number of ad-
vantages. •,

While the stables and other farm buildings should not be entirely
hidden from view at certain points, at the same time it will be obvious
that a due amount of privacy in and about the buildings themselves, as
well as in the line of view from the dwelling house, will be essential,
and can readily be effected by the int roduction of trees and shrubs at
the points indicated.

LAYING OUT ROADS AND WALKS.

The guiding principle in designing the position of roads and walks is
utility. Nature forms no roads. They are works of men and animals,
and would undoubtedly always proceed in straight lines from point to
point if obstructions of various kinds did not interfere and cause devia-
tions. Necessity will therefore suggest where and how they should be
introduced. So far as regards approaches and walks to and from build-
ings, the object of their introduction is sufficiently apparent; but, in
laying out pleasure grounds and lawn fronts, it is a common practice to
introduce walks for the mere purpose of variety. This is a very ques-
tionable reason at the best, and not always successfully accomplished ;
but even in cases of this kind they should appear to aim for some defi-
nite object, or lead to points of sufficient importance to suggest their
utility.

Unnecessary roads and walks should be carefully avoided. They are
expensive in their construction, if properly made, and require constant
attention to keep them clean and in repair. Nothing looks so woebegone
and poverty-stricken as a weedy, neglected road to a house, or walks
through pleasure-grounds or garden. They detract much from the
beauty of the surroundings, no matter how elaborate or intrinsically
worthy they may be. An oversupply of roads and walks is always a
serious infliction.

The beauty of curved lines sometimes prompts to a deviation from
the more available direct course ; and, where it can be done without
too great sacrifice of utility, it is not objectionable. ' But no walk should
be turned from its obvious direct course without an apparently suffi-
cient reason. A change of level in the grounds, a tree^ or a group of
plants or other similar obstruction will induce, and seemingly demand,
a change of line.

There are many locations where the straight line should be preferred
as a matter of taste in design. As a connecting link between the
strictly horizontal and perpendicular lines of a building, and the irreg-

16

ular surfaces surrounding it, a perfect^ straight walk is m the best
taste and adds greatly to the effect of the architecture, while a fre-
quently curving walk detracts from it. So also a walk along the side
of a straight boundary fence should not curve if both lines are visible
at the same time. Most persons are aware of the great beauty of
straight walks and avenues of trees ; and for public parks of lesser
order, inclosed by formal outlines, they can always be introduced with
great effect, as well as convenience, where curving walks would be the
reverse. In this case beauty depends upon harmo ny rather than con
trast, and more than either upon utility.

When roads or walks are carried over irregular surfaces the natural
turns and windings necessary to follow an easy or uniform grade and
keep as near the original surface of the ground as possible will usually
develop pleasing curves. A little studied attention in this matter of
the course of a road will not only increase the beauty of curves by add-
ing to them the grace of utility, but also deep and expensive cuttings,
as well as heavy embankments, will be avoided, and easy grades and
economical construction be more certainly secured.

When it is necessary to branch a second road from the main line it
should leave the latter at as nearly a right angle as convenient, and at
the same time be somewhat narrower, so that its appearance may con-
vey the proper idea of it being subordinate, and to avoid confusion and
mistake; otherwise the roads leading to the stable, ice house, or gar-
den may be mistaken for the road to the mansion. Under no circum-
stances should walks be made conspicuous in views of natural scenery.
If it is essentially necessary that a walk should cross a lawn where it
would interrupt a continuity of view and destroy breadth of effect it
should be sunk beneath the line of vision by placing it in a slight ex-
cavation, which may be further assisted by throwing up a small mound
on the side nearest the point of view. These expedients, as also that
of planting thick groups of low-growing shrubs, will be effective and
satisfactory if properly executed.

In laying out curving roads it is not advisable to closely follow geo-
metrical rules, or to set the curves out to any regular radius. This
plan may occasionally prove perfectly satisfactory on a strictly level
surface, but it will have quite an opposite effect where the ground is
greatly undulating. The curves, to be pleasing, must be " eye-sweet n —
not too sudden or abrupt — and properly blended at their points of
j unction.

CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND WALKS.

Yery much of personal comfort and pleasure in rural residences
depends upon good roads. A smooth, firm, dry road is one of the great-
est conveniences and enjoyments, while a rough, soft, muddy road is
one of the greatest drawbacks and annoyances of country life. Bad-
roads form the greatest obstacles to progress and permanent improve-

17

ments in all the neighborhoods that are blasted with their presence ;
they have a demoralising effect upon the inhabitants, and are a sure
sign either of poverty or mismanagement, or both.

Water is the worst enemy to good roads. It is therefore a leading
principle in road-making so to construct them that they may be kept
dry. In absence of a timely recognition of this principle many costly
roads have proved to be failures ; but wherejt has had prominent rec-
ognition and its value has been properly appreciated good roads have
been made at a trifling expense.

After locating the road and marking out its course, the sides should
be brought to the proper grade and finished by a layer of sod as a guide
to further operations. In crossing a sloping surface it is not neces-
sary to have both sides perfectly level, but the nearer this can be se-
cured, with due regard to getting rid of surface water, the better it
will admit of a neat finish and the more easily will it be kept in repair.

The roadbed is then formed by excavating and removing the soil to
a depth of 6 inches at the sides, curving slightly higher in the cen-
ter, and made perfectly smooth by rolling, producing a uniform surface
upon which the material of the road is to be placed.

The best stone for road metal is tough granite. Hard, brittle stone
is more readily reduced by pressure, but in a well-kept road this differ-
ence is not important. It is, however, all important that the stones
should be broken small. The largest should pass easily through a 2-
inch ring, and if one-half of them are small enough to pass through a
ring of only 1 inch diameter the road will ultimately become all the
more compact.

The road should be filled with this broken stone to a level with the
sides, increasing in depth towards the center at the rate of 1 inch to
the yard. Thus a road 16 feet in width would have a depth of about
9 inches in the center. The utmost care should be applied to regulating
the surface, and the smaller stones should be used on top, in order to
secure an even, compact, carefully molded grade, which should be com-
pressed by repeatedly passing a heavy roller over it, wedging every
stone and making the surface almost as smooth and solid as a pavement.
A thin layer, not more than 1 inch in thickness, of fine clayey gravel
should then be evenly distributed over the stones and the roller again
applied until the surface becomes homogeneous, firm, and close.

The surface of the road will thus be higher than the sodded edgings ;
water will therefore pass readily from it, and one of the main points of
keeping a good road will be secured.

This will form a first-class road for ordinary carriage drives, or for
all purposes required in public parks or private grounds ; and if kept in
good surface by frequent rolling, so as to prevent the forming of ruts
while it is settling, and if a facing of gravel is applied when necessary,
it will permanently fulfill all requirements of a good road.

The quality of the gravel deserves notice. Wash gravel, consisting
28581 2

18

only of sand and rounded pebbles, should never be used. No amount
of pressure will render it firm, and it is the most disagreeable material
to walk upon. The best gravel is that to be found in banks composed
of pebbles mixed with reddish clay, and the stones must be small. No
detail in road-making is of so much importance as this. If a wagon
wheel or the foot of a horse press on one extremity of a stone the other
end of it will probably be slightly raised, allowing small particles of
sand to fall into the crevice when the stone is loosened, and will roll
on the surface ; hence the necessity of using only very finely divided
stones on top, so that they will be smaller than the pressing point, and
not become deranged from leverage or compound action.

Where stone can not be conveniently obtained the roadbed may be
filled with refuse matters of many kinds, such as coal ashes, clinkers
from furnaces, and shells. Oyster shells are plentiful in many places
near the seaboard, and form an admirable road ; but the permanency
as well as the efficiency of these materials in a roadbed will depend al-
together upon the care of surfacing with proper gravel. Where it is
impracticable to procure or deemed inexpedient to use any of the fore-
going materials, an earth road may be rendered very serviceable by
proper attention to the leading principle ; that is, to keep it dry. In
this case, instead of excavating the road bed, slight excavations should
be made at the sides and the material spread over the center : and that
surface water may pass to the sides more rapidly and thoroughly a
greater convexity may be given to the curve. In some sections of the
country good roads are kept up in this manner, but they are carefully
repaired whenever necessary, and all ruts and tracks are filled up as soon
as they are formed. The same general principles apply to the formation
of walks and footpaths. The depth of material, however, need not ex-
ceed a few inches. It is certain that much unnecessary expense is fre-
quently laid out upon mere foot-paths. A porous, gravelly, or sandy
soil is in itself a good walk if properly shaped. Such walks admit of
greater convexity than carriage roads, which is equivalent to a saving
of material. Walks should be well filled up. There is no more dis-
agreeable object, or one that conveys so meager an expression, as deep,
raw edgings to a walk, looking as if they had been trimmed with a
plow. Walks in this condition may be serviceable as water courses,
but they are not comfortable footpaths.

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LAWNS.

A fine lawn is the most beautiful of external ornaments. Soft, vel-
vety, elastic turf, smoothly shorn and of fine color, is always pleasing,
but not always attained. Formerly the emerald lawns of European
pleasure grounds were considered to be unequaled, and it was thought
that nothing approaching to their beauty could be realized in this
climate of scorching sun and summer droughts; but it has been demon-
strated beyond any doubt that lawns may be produced and
$ gne ®$ those U> be fouu4 \u any country,

19

The primary requisite is thorough preparation of the soil. Without
this failure is probable ; but if properly done at the outset, success is
certain, with subsequent intelligent management. First of all a good
foundation must be laid by draining and subsoiling, trenching, manur-
ing, or otherwise loosening and enriching the soil. With limited lawns
spade-trenching will be at once thorough and permanent ; but where a
plow and other implements can be used, the work may be executed
much more economically, and by using the subsoil plow in connection
with the common surface-turning, a depth of 18 inches will be reached,
which on ordinary good corn-producing lands will be ample prepara-
tion for a good lawn. Previous to the final plowing a heavy dressing
of manure should be applied. This should be well decomposed, more
especially if the soil is partially of a gravelly or sandy character.

The surface must be rendered smooth and regular. Careful plowing
can accomplish much towards making a smooth surface ; but whatever
the expense may be, the finish should be made perfect before sowing
the grasses. There are two seasons for sowing — autumn and spring —
either of them appropriate ; and the choice will depend upon circum-
stances, and is of secondary consideration compared to the preparation
of the land. To get rid of weeds and clean the ground before laying
it down in grass it is a commendable practice to plant it with early
potatoes. These, if cultivated with ordinary care, will soon cover the
surface with their leaves, and prevent the growth of weeds : and the
operation of digging up the crop and removing it tends to pulverize
and loosen the soil. The potatoes can be removed and grass seed sown
by the middle of August to the middle of September, and the grasses
will vegetate and cover the surface before frosts. A top dressing of
thinly sprinkled manure will protect the young plants during the win-
ter, and a good thick-set lawn will be secured early in the following
summer.

In hard, clayey loams, where a sufficiently comminuted surface is not
so easily obtained, the ground should be prepared in the latter portion
of the year and plowed over, so as to leave a rough surface to be acted
upon by frost during the winter. This will insure a friability not easily
attainable by mechanical means on tenacious soils. The seeds should
be sown as early as can be done in the spring, but not until the ground
is dry. Working a clayey soil when it is wet is ruinous to the future
crop.

In the immediate preparation of the ground before seeding the sur-
face should be pulverized by the harrow and roller if necessary. The
seed will be sufficiently covered by passing a light harrow or roller over
the ground. The former is best in clayey or baking soils, and the roller
on light and sandy soils.

The best grasses for permanent lawns are red top (Agrostis vulgaris)
and June grass (Poa pratensis.) The following proportions have been
used in the lawns of this Department with great satisfaction : One
red top, 2 bushels June grass, 1 quart timothy to each acre of

20

land. These should be thoroughly mixed before sowing. This is heavy
seeding, but experiments demonstrate that a good lawn can only be
secured by heavy seeding when sown in the spring; autumn sowing
may be thinner, but the thick seeding will be most satisfactory. There
is no grass equal to the June grass for fine lawns ; this is also known
as green grass and Kentucky blue grass. The red top also forms a
good swajd where the soil is good and the summers comparatively cool
and moist ; but during dry warm weather it becomes hard and wiry.
The timothy grass vegetates quickly and greatly assists the growth of
the others.

The practice of sowing oats, barley, or other grains with the grasses,
under the impression that they will protect the young plants from the
sun and drought, is altogether wrong, as it practically does much more
harm than good. The larger growing plants rob the soil of its moisture,
to the destruction of the tender and more feebly rooting grass plants.
No such protection is necessary even were it possible to supply it with-
out injury. With fair preparation of ground, the seed put in as soon as
practicable in the spring, the lawn will be fit to mow in June at latest.

A very successful improver, especially in the making of lawns, sows
down in August and adds about 2 pounds of turnip seed to the acre.
The gradual growth of the turnip foliage forms a congenial damp shade
for the vegetation and spread of the young grass plants. The larger
leaves of the vegetable also protect the grass against injury from the
early frosts. Their gradual decay and ultimate removal are effected
before the grasses are so far advanced as to be hurt by continuous
shade, and a thick sward is secured before winter. A slight covering
of strawy manure will be of advantage to autumn-sown lawns, particu-
larly so if the soil inclines to be wet, and therefore liable to have the
young plants thrown to the surface by the alternate action of freezing
and thawing. A heavy roller should be passed over it as early in the
spring as the firmness of the soil will admit, in order to tighten the
earth around the roots, and press down such plants as have been loos-
ened during the winter.

While it is true that a fine lawn can not be produced without good
preparation, it is equally true that a fine lawn can not be maintained
without frequent mowing. The recent improvements in lawn-mowers
leave but little to be desired so far as mowing facilities are concerned.
They also roll the lawn at the same time that it is cut, which is essential
to the most perfect keeping. That which was formerly regarded as a
formidable operation is now one of the easiest, and the lawn is kept in
good order at less cost than any other portion of the pleasure grounds.
One of the best points in the lawn-mower is its incapacity for cutting
long grass, thus compelling frequent mowing, which is the great secret
in keeping a superior lawn. Mow early and often is the rule. Even
on newly seeded lawns the mower should be at work as soon as the
grass is high enough to cutj indeed, much injury results from procras-

21

tination at this time ; weeds will gain the ascendency, and unequal
growths follow. A lawu sown down in April was cut six times before
the first of August, and had the appearance of a thick-set sod.

Neither in the preparation and formation of a lawn, nor in its keep-
ing in this climate, are there any half-way compromises. The work
must be done thoroughly to begin with, and then timely attention to
cutting all through the growing season will insure a satisfactory result.
Neither soil nor climate can justly be blamed for poor lawns, although
it is a very convenient mode of shifting responsibility, and one fre-
quently adopted.

As already remarked, lawn mowing machines will not operate to any
good purpose where the grass is long ; hence it has been recommended
to leave the cut grass as a mulch. During the first year this course
may be followed with advantage ; but experience shows that a long
continuance of the practice injures the lawn materially, particularly
during early spring or late in the season. In the hottest portion
of summer the cut grass dries up so thoroughly as to be but of slight
influence either way.

The lawn will be benefitted by a top dressing once in three or four
years; not, however, by throwing over it an unsightly covering of
rough, strawy litter, which, however beneficial, is not commendable in
neatly kept grounds. A compost made up of fresh stable manure and
any ordinary good surface soil, thrown together in layers, and inter-
mixed and pulverized by frequent turnings during the summer, will be
in condition for application any time in early winter. This should be
evenly distributed, broken up, and raked in among the roots, taking
advantage of frost to assist in the work of disintegration, and removing
the rougher portions altogether before rolling the lawn in the spring.

BELTS OR MARGINAL PLANTATIONS.

In suburban districts, where surrounding properties are likely to be
improved and the scenery is liable to be changed at any time, too much
value should not be given to neighboring views. It frequently occurs
that the site for a dwelling house is selected mainly on account of its
commanding certain distant views, even to sacrificing other important
considerations in order to secure the prospect, and before the house is
completed the fine views are obstructed by operations on an adjoining
property. In localities of this kind the interest of the position should
not so much depend upon external beauties that are beyond control as
upon the internal improvements and local objects. Preliminary to this
acquirement the grounds should be isolated by an umbrageous boundary
of trees and shrubs, which will form a pleasant margin to the ground
improvements, and provide that seclusion, retirement, and privacy which
are always congenial to home comfort.

Whether the place is large or small, a carefully planted boundary of
selected trees and shrubs should encircle that portion of the grounds

V
•cril

22

appropriated to gardening purposes. With regard to small places in
thickly populated neighborhoods this should be the first consideration.
The place will thus be made to look larger and the house can be partly
surrounded by a somewhat open lawn, which will be distinctly defined
and fringed by the border of shrubs. In grounds of greater extent
shelter and protection, both to plants and animals, will be largely se-
cured by thickly set evergreen trees on the most exposed quarters.
Distinctiveness of arrangement will also necessitate the formation of a
well-marked division between the garden, the lawn, and the open fields
beyond, and here a continuous belting of foliage will serve to render
the boundary line more pleasing if not less conspicuous.

Much of the efficiency as well as the beauty of this boundary belt
will depend upon the form of its ground plan, as well as upon its sky
outline, which is a curving line, widening and narrowing at certain
points, as heavy masses of planting may be made to hide deformities
or openings left through which to view the distant scenery. In arrang-
ing openings it is not necessary to arrest the continuous line of shrub-
bery. This can be maintained by using very low growing plants oppo-
site to the selected openings. This will further have the effect of
varying the sky outline both by elevation and perspective. The pro-
jecting points giving space for larger growing plants, will enhance va-
riety in sky outline. These occasional masses of heavier plantings
produce a pleasing variety of effect when contrasted with open spaces
of lawn and groups of low-growing shrubbery.

The selection of the species and varieties, as well as the disposition
of plants in a marginal border, requires skill and forethought. The
proper gradation of heights, the contrasting and harmonizing of forms
and colorings of foliage and flowers, and the general adaptation of the
whole to the extent of grounds and to the requirements of the archi-
tectural and other improvements, will influence, to a certain degree,
both the selection and disposition of the plants.

Where the grounds are so extensive as to admit of a plantation belt,
varying in width from 50 to 200 feet, thus affording space for the growth
of the largest trees, the selection of sorts will be less difficult than
where the space limits the border to a maximum breadth of 50 feet.
The following list includes some of the best trees of the smallest size,
suitable to small grounds:

Acer campestre. Laburnum vulgare.

Acer Pennsylvanicum. Madura aurantiaca.
Amelanchier Canadensis, var. ~botryapium. Magnolia conspicua.

Aralia spinosa. Magnolia glauca.

Carpinua betulus. Paliurus aculeatus.

Cercis Canadensis. Prunus mahaleb.

Chionanthus Virginica. Prunus padus.

Cornus florida. Ptelea trifoliata.

Elcoagnus angustifolia. Pyrus aucuparia.

Fraxinus viridis. Pyrus coronaria.

Halcsia tetraptera. Shephcrdia argentea.

Hamamelis Virginica. Sophora Japonica.
Kcelreuteria paniculata.

23

FENCES AND HEDGES.

Some sort of fence is usually necessary to guard against intruders, or
to designate ownership, and the kind of fence used will generally be
governed by necessity.

Whichever material may be used for outside fences, they should be
strong and substantial. Inside fences for ^uch purposes as that of sep-
arating the lawn from the vegetable garden may be of lighter construc-
tion, especially if a fence crosses a lawn, as seen from the house with an
open view beyond, it should be as light and elegant as is consistent with
strength and durability. In such cases it is often desired to conceal
the fence as an intrusive object in the landscape by adopting the sunken
fence. This may be described as a ditch-like excavation 4 or 5 feet in
depth, finished by a perpendicular wall on the lawn side and the ground
flatly sloped on the opposite.

The propriety of persistently concealing the fence in such positions
may be questioned. Utility is a strong element of the beautiful, and if
no visible barrier intervenes between the pleasure ground and a grazing
field we at once condemn the incongruity. We can not distinguish
where the flower garden ends or the grazing meadow begins, and must
suppose that the cattle can perambulate the flower garden if they
choose; we can imagine the result, and we feel that a fence becomes a
necessity to separate objects that can not be united without injury to
one or both. Wire fences are well adapted to this purpose, as they are
so light as not materially to interrupt the view, and if properly con-
structed are sufficiently strong and permanent.

Even in those happy communities where cattle are not permitted to
run at large some kind of fence will be necessary to designate boundary
lines of property. It has been claimed that the highest degree of rural
beauty is a village without fences or any other distinctive marks to
properties. As well might it be claimed that the best arrangement in a
picture gallery will be produced by taking the paintings out of the
frames and nailing the canvas to the walls. The love of exclusive
possession is the mainstay of society. Well-defined boundary lines to
property greatly enhance its enjoyment, especially when applied to
lawns and gardens.

For this purpose the live fence is by far the most appropriate, and
that formed of evergreen plants the most permanently beautiful.
The Siberian arbor vitae, Nootka cypress, and hemlock spruce are
among the best for northern climates. In the South the Chinese arbor
vitse, Japan euonynius. and other evergreen shrubs may be added to
the list. If deciduous plants are preferred, a selection may be made
from the following list: Japan quince, buckthorn, elseagnns, Japan
privet; and, if a somewhat formidable fence is desired, the Osage
orange and honey locust will answer that purpose.

Hedges are also useful as shelter to gardens, rendering them earlier,

24

more productive, and greatly exempt from casual! ties of climate and
locality. In the growth of all kind ot small fruits as well as those of
larger orchard growth, shelter is always of the greatest benefit. Many
of the diseases of our fruit trees and imperfections in tbe products
can be effaced by sheltering hedges and plantations, facts that are now
being fully appreciated by fruit-growers.

In grounds of very limited dimensions, where the boundary lines are
at no great distance from the house, an evergreen hedge set inside the
fence will afford great relief to the eye and form a background, as it
were, to the shrubbery and flower borders. The stiff line of the hedge
can be modified in appearance by planting small diversified groups of
shrubs or low-growing evergreens along its front. A continuous border
varying in width and curving outline, running a direction parallel with
the hedge, and thickly planted with flowering shrubs of variety, inter-
spersed with such flowering herbaceous perennials as hollyhocks,
phloxes, chrysanthemums, delphiuums, etc., is one of the best modes
of treating a small pleasure garden and lawn.

ROCKERIES.

A rockery properly located and tastefully arranged is capable of
affording much of interest and pleasure to those who can appreciate
the beauties of nature. It is not advised to attempt the imitation of
rocky scenery, which can rarely be successfully accomplished, even with
the command of unlimited means. Abortions of this kind, where the
means have been made more conspicuous than the end, have tended to
discard rockeries from situations where they would be highly prized,
were their real purpose fully understood.

The simplest form of rockwork may be described as a mound of soil
covered with stones ; and its purpose that of securing conditions for
culture of the native plants of our woods and dells, as mosses, ferns,
and others of similar habits, which will not flourish in the ordinary
borders or bed.s of the flower garden, where they are too much exposed
to sultry suns and drying winds.

A secluded spot or corner of the pleasure grounds shaded by trees,
but not directly under them, is the position for a rockwork of the kind
in question. Here, concealed from all points by an inclosure of shrub-
bery, or by an evergreen hedge, and approached by a rustic pathway
through a leafy thicket, the rockery may be located, without any vio-
lation of good taste or interference with other and more ambitious dee-
orations.

A basin to contain water may be cheaply constructed of brick and
cement, and will add very much to the variety of the plants that may
be grown. Shade and humidity, which are essential to the growth of
many woodland plants, such as the sarracenias or pitcher plants, and
also a constant evaporation during dry periods will enable these and

25

plants of similar habits to flourish as luxuriantly in an artificial state
as they do in their native wilds.

A circular basin, 8 or 10 feet in diameter and 12 to 16 inches in
depth, surrounded by a rock-covered mound of varied breadth and ele-
vation, will afford space for a large number of plants. It will also
allow scope for tasteful arrangement, both in the construction of the
work and in the distribution of the plants. If some of the largest
pieces of rock are allowed to project over the water, in varied shapes
and masses, some of them forming foundation for miniature perpen-
dicular cliffs, and others for rapidly receding cavities, a pleasing play
of light and shadow will be thrown over the surface of the water.

An additional feature may be given by running through and around
the rockwork a concealed pipe, with numerous small perforations over
its surface through which water will be conducted to the plants, trick-
ling over the rocks and dropping into the pool below, producing at once
a charming rural effect and a congenial atmosphere for the vegetation.

This, or some similar simple method of arrangement, will usually be
more satisfactory then an iron or even a marble fountain, with numer-
ous fanciful jets and basins, supported by questionable statuary, dis-
played in a conspicuous position on the lawn.

By the use of small stones and cement a center ornament may be
erected in the basin, and a jet inserted, through which the water is
delivered in a finely divided spray. This will provide hygroinetric tem-
perature peculiarly adapted to such situations and objects.

There are but few country places where the means for securing these
specialties can not readily be obtained. The water supply may not
always be convenient, still by exercising a little ingenuity plans may
be devised for its introduction, either by utilizing the waste from cis-
terns or forcing it into elevated receptacles. It may be mentioned that
small jets are sometimes supplied by rainwater collected in cisterns,
although this is not recommended as a plan likely to prove satisfactory.

A species of rock garden of more elaborate character may be formed
by laying out a small geometric plan of raised beds of earth, supported
by irregular-shaped stones. Old tree-roots may also be used to elevate
and diversify the sky outline. These will in time become covered with
foliage of creeping plants, ferns, mosses, and other low growths. The
beds should be planted with low-growing hardy evergreens, such as
various species of Juniperus, Cupressus, Biota, Thuja, Taxus, and Retino-
spora. The Mahonias are well suited to plant in such positions. Yuccas
are admirable, giving a somewhat oriental character when massed in
groups. Larger trees may be used where space will admit. The hem-
lock spruce is beautiful everywhere ; the silvery deodar cedar will give
variety of color; and the Pyracanth, Rhododendrons, and Kalmias,
with many others, may be formed into picturesque groups of great
beauty, depending very much, however, upon their location and skill-
ful arrangement.

26

The more robust plants may be pruned when necessary to keep them
within prescribed limits, and shaded spots will be found where the
Epigseas, Mitchellas, ferns, and kindred plants can be introduced, de-
sirable and interesting either for their floral beauty or their histori-
cal and botanical associations.

WATER— LAKES.

When appropriately introduced the effect of water in pleasure
grounds is always pleasing; frequently it is strikingly beautiful, and,
of all the materials that enter into the composition of natural scenery
there are none that produce a greater amount of varied interest and
beauty. It is therefore eagerly desired as an adjunct to the mere arti-
ficial improvements of private residences, public institutions, and city
parks, and is always a valuable acquisition where it can be secured.

To form an artificial lake the first requisite is an ample supply of
water at all seasons. There can not well be a more unsatisfactory
object in artificial grounds than a lake where the supply of water is in-
sufficient to keep it properly filled, and where natural facilities for a
constant supply does not exist, its construction should not be attempted.
The surface water or casual supply derived from rains and snows may
be sufficient during winter and spring, but entirely inadequate to meet
the evaporation during the summer; and lakes that are dependent
upon thjs source, and become partially empty and stagnant during the
warm season, are as injurious to health as they are opposed to all cor-
rect ideas of beauty.

Water for ponds is sometimes procured from the discharges of under-
ground drains, and where the drained area is extensive enough to fur-
nish all the water necessary, which can be ascertained by observations
during summer, a pond may be excavated at the lowest point, allow-
ing the surface of the water to be on a level with the discharge pipes
of the drains. The excavated soil can be used in forming banks of
varied heights and configurations. The outline of the pond, like that
of a belt of trees or shrubbery border skirting a lawn, should be varied
and irregular, with bold points and deep indentations, and these should
be few and bold rather than frequent and tame. The resemblance be-
tween a level lawn, surrounded by curved outlines of shrubbery, and
that of a smooth sheet of water in a pond or small lake, with jutting
banks and retiring bays, is very close so far as relates to their artistic
treatment in ornamental planting.

The most natural position for a sheet of water is in a hollow or low
ground occupied by a constantly running stream. It frequently occurs
that small streams are so situated that by skillfully throwing a dam
across the valley hollow through which the water runs a large surface
may be flooded and the water permanently retained. The water level
on the surrounding ground will probably show a beautifully varied
outline, which may be increased or rendered more definite by deepening

27

bay-like recesses and adding to prominent or jutting points. This,
together with the effects that may be produced by planting, will give
variety to otherwise monotonous outlines.

In geometrically arranged flower gardens simple basins of water may
be introduced with good effect either with fountains or without them.
In these situations the marginal finish or connection between the grass
and water should be of an architectural description. Any attempt
made toward a rugged or what is usually termed a natural-looking
finish will certainly prove unsatisfactory.

ENTRANCE GATES AND CARRIAGE TURNS.

First impressions are strongly influencing and oftentimes prove to
be the foundation of lasting prejudices. A neatly designed and taste-
fully arranged gateway at the entrance of a property creates the favor-
able expectation of finding these characteristics pervading other im-
provements. An imposing entrance way therefore becomes an impor-
tant feature; but it should always bear a close relation to the general
style and scale of the situation, and if it is architectural in design,
should harmonize with the style of the mansion to which it is an adjunct;
at the same time it may be more highly ornamented, keeping strictly
in mind that no amount of mere decoration will compensate for any
appearance of insufficient strength or utility.

Iron gates appear to greatest advantage when they are hung to stone
posts or attached to pillars of masonry. A single block of granite,
fashioned into a post forms a very satisfactory support for an ordinary
iron gate. Large, heavy, and elaborately constructed iron gates de-
mand heavier and more massive supporting pillars, ornamented to cor-
respond with the style and finish of the gate. The main or principal
entrance gate to any place, even of the most humble description, should
be placed on a line receding more or less from the line of the outside or
public road, being connected with the latter by a curved line of fence.
The extent of this recess will vary with the extent of the place, facili-
ties of position, and size and style of the gate, but 10 to 30 feet may
be given as a range. Even in places of quite limited extent the former
distance will be sufficient to give a decided effect without encroaching
too severely on the grounds, and will establish a largeness of expres-
sion to the whole surroundings. In placing posts for gates the mistake
is frequently made of setting them parallel to the public road instead
of having them at a right angle to the road to which they properly be-
long. When the private road leaves the public one at right angles
and continues in a straight line for some distance the gate will, of
course, be properly placed in a line parallel to the public road ; but
where the front lawn is small in extent and it becomes a necessity to
branch the road suddenly to right or left the importance of adhering
strictly to the rule of placing the gate at a right angle to the carriage
road will appear very conspicuous, for if the posts are set parallel with

28

the public road it will be found to be a matter of much nicety to drive
a carriage through the gateway without either coining in contact with
the post or allowing the horses to walk on the grass or road edging.
Examples of this may be seen in most suburban districts.

The greater the inequality of the respective distances between the
posts and the line of the outside or public road the more difference will
there be in the length of the curved lines connecting them with the
fence. One will be much shorter and have a different radius from the
other; but this will not destroy the symmetry of composition which a
gateway should possess, since the apparent utility of the arrangement
will convey a strong reason for its adoption, which can be further in-
creased by the judicious planting of trees ; besides, it should be remem-
bered that an expression of symmetry can be obtained without having
a strict adherence to uniformity in detail.

A space sufficiently large to allow a carriage to turn is a necessary
convenience to a house, and should be as near the main entrance as
practicable. In the front of very large buildings a gravel space wide
enough for this purpose is sometimes provided ; but when the house is one
of ordinary dimensions, and the grounds of only moderate extent, a large
gravel space will very materially abridge the breadth of the front. The
reflection of heat from gravel is not pleasant, neither is it so agreeable
to the eye as the grassy lawn. Some of the objections to an open gravel
space are removed by forming a circular carriage-way directly in front
of the house, inclosing a bed for shrubbery or a grass plot. The amount
of roadway is, by this mode, somewhat reduced, but the evil of break-
ing up the front still exists ; nor does it provide all the requirements
of a carriage turn, as there is no alternative but to perambulate the
circle when retiring ; and the annoyance of having vehicles and animals
obstructing the view from the principal windows of the house is also a
great objection to this arrangement. The best position for a carriage-
turn is beyond the house, so that a vehicle, after approaching the main
entrance can proceed on ward, turn, and approach the house again in the
opposite direction. The turn in this case can be partially screened from
the house by planting shrubbery ; and arrangements for tying horses
can be made in unobjectionable positions where they will not present
annoying features as seen from the house. This allows the grass or
lawn to be carried closer to the building, the roadway only intervening,
and the side grouping of plants can be executed much more effectively.
The curve of the road, entering into the grounds on one side, will be
balanced by a similar curve on the other side towards the turn. In this
proximity to a building, the walks, as well as artificial plantings, should
be symmetrical in their tendencies and in keeping with the formal style
of treatment which such a position demands. The central view from
the building will be open, and impart an expression of freedom and
apparent extent of lawn, which is always pleasing, particularly in lim-
ited areas.

29

PLANTING ROADS AND AVENUES.

In the planting of straight roads and avenues it is essential to pre-
serve regularity of line, as also uniformity in the color and shape of
the trees. The nearest approach to the sublime in landscape gardening
is in effects produced by extended uniform lines of trees. Continuity
of line and uniformity of object, when combined with great extension,
produce sublimity. Objects are sublime which possess quantity and
simplicity in conjunction. It is not on a small rivulet, however trans-
parent or beautifully winding it may be; it is not on a narrow valley,
though variegated with flowers of a thousand hues; it is not on small
elevations, though they are clothed with the most delightful verdure,
that we bestow the epithet sublime ; but it is upon Niagara, the Missis-
sippi, the Andes, the ocean, the wide expanse of the firmament, or the
immensity of space uniformly extended, without limit and without
apparent termination. To produce this effect it is therefore imperative
that only one variety of tree should be used. Anything that tends to
break up the uniform continuity will at once destroy it. A straight
avenue planted with a variety of trees of varied forms, some broad and
spreading, others tall, pointed, and spiry, is as much at variance with
good taste as would be a Grecian fagade furnished with columns embrac-
ing all the different orders of architecture. Among the best trees for
planting wide avenues are the tulip tree, the sugar and the silver
maple, lindens, sycamores, walnuts, oaks, and chestnuts. For narrower
roads, those from 16 to 20 feet in width, the Norway maple, the black
and white ash, the horse chestnut, and those of kindred habit will be
more suitable.

On long and wide avenues, in positions where aside view of the lines
is prominent, the wall -like effect may be very much softened and toned
down by setting a double or even triple row of trees, and this will be
still further increased by planting each opposite row, respectively, with
a distinct kind. An avenue of tulip trees will in this arrangement be
well supported by an outside line of red maples, their forms will blend-
pleasingly, and the contrast of their spring verdure and autumn color
ings will be agreeable. In a similar disposition the sugar maple, sweet
gum, and ash-leaved maple may be used. Such combinations may be
indefinitely varied and adapted to the embellishment of avenues as their
extent and importance may demand or require.

In planting curving roads, the disposition of the trees will obviously be
determined by the general character of the grounds through which the
road passes.

In places of G to 10 acres in extent, and in form nearly of a square or
parallelogram, with the mansion placed 100 yards back of the front
line, the entrance gate may be judiciously set near one of the comers,
and the road gradually curve to the building. A single continuous
row of trees on one side of this road would have a monotonous effect,

30

and a row on each side would destroy and completely break up any at-
tempt at breadth of view. The road should rather appear to curve
round and pass through masses of trees and shrubbery plantations.
While attention may be given to partially shading the road by placing
suitable trees mainly on the south and west sides, yet these shade trees
should form only a portion of groups, with an occasional isolated single
specimen tree ; or, what is still better, two trees of the same kind set 6
to 10 feet apart, so that when they grow up they will give a distant ap-
pearance as of a single tree, with the additional variety of aspect when
closely viewed. The planting of groups should be more extensive and
massive on the inner circle, around which the road will curve, with
frequent open vistas looking in upon the lawn. The width and length
of the road and extent of lawn will designate the size of the groups,
and also suggest the particular kind of trees and shrubs of which they
are to be composed. Shade trees may be thus introduced in sufficient
quantities, even on winding roads, to answer the combined purposes of
shade and garniture, without producing an appearance of strained ef-
fort to secure it.

Where the road is wholly on the southern side of the dwelling, decidu-
ous trees should be used in front or near the building. If the entrance-
and the road are north of the house, a straight avenue of evergreen
trees will form an admirable feature, if ample space is allowed for both
road and trees. The Norway spruce is, perhaps, the first choice of tree
for such planting. The hemlock spruce is the more graceful and the
best adapted to short roads or narrow grounds. The Austrian, the
Scotch, and the white pine may be used where the grounds are exten-
sive. Even when the Norway spruce is used the parallel lines should
be 60 feet apart, not only to admit of sun and winds to act directly on
the roadway, but also to give ample room for the spread of the lower
branches of the trees ; and in no case should they be planted nearer
than 16 feet from the edge of the road, and when the larger and more
widely-spreading pines are used, a space of at least 20 feet should be
given. A very meager effect will result from planting close to road-
ways, narrowing them into mere strips, which for at least one-half of
the year are seldom dry.

PLANTING NEAR BUILDINGS.

A mischievous error, and one too frequently perpetrated, is that of
placing trees close to buildings. Although trees and shrubs are the
chief decorative ornaments of a place, they become not only disagree-
ble but positively injurious to animal life, when closely massed around
a habitation, by shutting out light and preventing the rays of the sun
and drying action of the winds from exerting their salutary influence on
the walls, which in consequence are constantly damp and unhealthy.
Where large trees are allowed to spread and overhang the roofs, choking
gutters and water }ea4ers? au4 causing a, Deposit of mold ancj other

31

fungoid growths as far as their influence extends, it is impossible for
the house to be dry, comfortable, or healthy for human beings. Many
of the older houses throughout the country are rendered almost unin-
habitable by the dense surroundings of trees and shrubbery, and the
evil is greatly aggravated when the trees are of evergreen species.
Ventilation is produced by heat, and a building shaded from the rays
of tbe sun by lofty trees and sheltered from, currents of air by thickets
of shrubbery is deprived of the influences most conducive to health,
and is a fitting subject for the attention of a sanitary commission.

Plantings of the finer species of dwarf flowering shrubs may be
placed in moderately large masses on the lawn near the house with-
out any great injury if not too frequently repeated; but even the
smaller growing shrubbery, if planted in continuous thickets near
the building, in any way except a northerly direction, will sensibly
exclude the genial cool breezes so grateful during the summer. A
house nestling on the sunny side of an evergreen plantation is sug-
gestive of comfort, and presents a cheerful, sheltered appearance dur-
ing winter. It is as economical as it is attractive, as many persons can
testify who have had the foresight to plant sheltering borders of ever-
greens in bleak and treeless situations, and in consequence are realizing
a higher thermometric temperature ; but even these, to be of greatest
benefit, should not approach within 100 feet of the house, at least not
in a mass. Isolated specimens of rare or otherwise specially interesting
trees may be planted nearer, but only on the northern sides of the house.

A certain amount of shade is very desirable in connection with a
house, especially in climates where, during a great portion of the time,
it is more agreeable out of doors than it is in rooms ; yet it had better
be secured by covered verandas than by trees. It is also more con-
ducive to health to sit under a covered roof. Exposure to evening dews
is a well-known fruitful source of sickness, and the partial protection
afforded by the overhanging branches of trees is not sufficient when
dew is forming.

Trees of the large-growing species should not be planted nearer than
60 feet to the walls of a dwelling house. Such trees are the sugar and
the silver maple, the sycamore, elm, linden, ash, chestnut, and poplar.
Trees of medium growth, such as the Norway and the English maple,
and others of this class that do not attain a height of more than 30 feetx
may be planted 30 to 40 feet from the building.

Another disadvantage resulting from surrounding the building with a
thicket of foliage is, that it shuts out the views of immediate and distant
scenery ; as seen from the house at the same time the house, as an object
of the local landscape, is completely hidden from view. If the architec-
ture of the structure has received any study as a work of artistic design,
it should in itself form a picture which to be properly appreciated must
be seen and viewed as a whole, so that its proportions, outlines, eleva-
{4ons? and ornamental details may be taken in at one view. Even beds

32

of low shrubbery, if abundantly introduced near the base of a building,
will foreshorten the elevation, obstruct the view of the horizontal base
line, and seemingly destroy architectural proportions. Many of the
finest structures, both public and private, are ruinously shorn of their
beauty by careless or ignorant planters, who, in their endeavors to beau-
tify a building, succeed only in concealing those salient lines and pro-
jections that give it character and distinctiveness.

A proper connection of the house with its surroundings is the first
point to which attention should be given in laying out grounds, as it is
the most prominent and leading detail of improvements. A house
should not appear to have risen out of the green lawn like a tree. It
is necessary that some evidence should be apparent of suitable prepa-
ration having been made for the building ; at least a level platform of
more or less width should project from the base line. The ground line
should be level, and all walks should correspond with the lines of the
ground plan. Zigzag and curving walks close to the straight lines of
a large or even the most humble building are directly opposed to
beauty or propriety ; they are sure evidence of unskilled labor.

The principal front of a building should show a terrace, either archi-
tecturally treated or at least with the architectural appendages. The
level line of the terrace will furnish a uniform base to the building, and
masses of low-growing plants may be introduced below the terrace where
they will not interfere with the view of the structure. A few trees may
be planted at the ends or in the rear, which will serve to connect the
house with the grounds and their scenery, and this can be done with-
out either hiding or overshadowing the building.

It has long been laid down as a general principle that round-headed
trees contrast best with the prevailing perpendicular lines of Gothic
architecture, and those of the pointed or conic shape with the hori-
zontal of the Grecian. It may be questioned whether either of these
rules is sufficiently accurate to be worthy of consideration ; certain it is
that there may be found compositions of expressive beauty where the
arrangements are the reverse of those proposed in this general princi-
ple. It is perhaps nearer the facts to state that in the arrangement of
forms harmony will prove more pleasing than contract; but when ap-
plied to colors contrast will develop the most distinct and expressive
compositions.

GROUPING TREES AND SHRUBS AND PLANTING IN MASSES.

Among the various operative details in landscape gardening the
arrangement of vegetation is the most important, and there is no other
that shows so distinctly the artistic skill and arboriculiural knowledge
of the operator. While this is the most decisive as to the ultimate
beauty and value of the improvements, it is acknowledged to be the
least understood ; for artists of considerable repute, who may establish
grades, run lines of roads, and stake out places for groups and single

33

trees, fail to designate the kind of plants to be used, thus leaving to
mere chance the only features where artistic merit can be developed.
Some of the principal and most conspicuous effects that may be real-
ized from grouping and placing trees are as follows :

1. The formation of distinct groups of the various species and varieties
of trees. — In planting public parks, college and school-house grounds,
or private grounds, if of sufficient extent, a great amount of aiboricul-
tural interest will be iuduced by forming groups of certain families,
genera, or natural orders or plants. It might be presumed that this
mode of arrangement would sacrifice beauty, in order to carry out a
rneie mechanical system of disposition, such as may be seen in orchards,
and would prove monotonous, and destitute of that variety which re-
sults from a combination of different species. This is to a certain extent
true where the grounds are not extensive and the planting is confined
to one principal group. In that case the use of diversified materials
will invest the group with a greater variety of interest to the lover of
trees, and that also without impairing the landscape effect, if the ar-
rangement is properly carried out ; but where the, plantation is ex-
tended over several acres, the groups will be more definite and distinct-
ive in character if each is chiefly planted with the plants of one genus.
This may be partly illustrated by supposing that there are twelve prin-
cipal masses to be planted, and twelve species of trees are employed.
If each mass is composed of a mixture of the twelve species, theresult
will be twelve groups of precisely the same character; whereas if each
group is strictly confined to one species, the groups will be entirely dis-
similar, each forming a distinct feature. Thus groups of maples, oaks,
birches, elms, etc., will follow in succession; and where whole families
are thus connected, there will be sufficient difference in form and habit
of growth among the species to give variety to the group when inspected
in detail, and at the same time the mass will present distinctive fea-
tures peculiar to the genus represented. In ornamenting the grounds
of colleges and other seats of education this mode of planting is par-
ticularly appropriate, affording admirable facilities for studying the in-
dividual trees and comparing them with other species of the same
family. The beauty of this arrangement will depend upon the harmo-
nious connection of forms and adaptation of the respective growths to
certain positions in the groups.

2, Planting evergreens with a view tojorming a distinct winter scenery. —
No effective or perfectly satisfactory results will be produced from a
general intermixture of deciduous and evergreen plants. In forming
shrubbery borders this distinction is not so strictly important as it is in
the case of trees ; but even in the arrangement of shrubs afar more
polished and artistic finish will be given by placing the larger growth
of deciduous plants in the background, and bordering towards the front
with some of the low-growing evergreen species. One of the most de-
£irable plants for an edging to % border of shrubbery j§ the Mahonio,

28581 3

34

acquifolia. It grows in a compact, rounding form, and is beautiful at
all seasons, whether in the glossy brightness of its varnished foliage
during winter, the profuse cluster of its yellow blossoms in spring, the
fern-like delicacy of its young foliage in .early summer, or when laden
with clusters of its dark-colored berries. Where the mercury frequently
sinks below zero this plant will not prove ornamental. The recent addi-
tions to our hardy evergreen shrubs have been notable and valuable.
The retinosporas alone comprise great variety. The Euonymus japonicus
and its silver and gold striped varieties, furnish valuable material where
they will withstand the winters. The taxus, cupressus, juniperus, and
thujas furnish numerous plants of dwarf growth for the shrubbery.

Ln respect to the heavier tree growths, it is clearly manifest that the
finest examples of arrangement are those where evergreen and decidu-
ous trees are treated as forming distinct scenery; and of these the
evergreens are, perhaps, the most valuable because they furnish a win-
ter clothing to the landscape, with but little aid from deciduous plauts,
while the summer assistance of the latter only supplement and adorn
the forms and colors of the evergreens.

To produce the best winter effect from evergreens, they should be
planted mainly in the foreground, particularly on such projecting points
as are conspicuous, so that while these points or groups may be rather
widely separated, they will have a continuous appearance by the tops
of those in one group apparently connecting with the lower branches of
the group beyond, as seen from the principal points ot view. An indis-
criminate mixture of all kinds of trees is destructive of beauty. The
deciduous varieties diminish the beauty of evergreens during winter by
breaking up the continuity of color and respose so essential to the best
effects, either in gardening or painting ; and during the summer sea-
son, the more numerous the branches and broader expanse of foliage of
the deciduous trees, if close to evergreens, will overpower the latter,
and, in time, completely destroy them, by an excessive amount of shade,
and also by the extraction of moisture from the soil. For defining out-
lines or rounding off groups, no plant is so appropriate or can so well
be adapted to any position as the hemlock spruce. Its wavy branches
convey a more finished impression than any other hardy evergreen, and
no other can excel it either in beauty of growth or general usefulness in
producing the best effects of landscape gardening.

3. To gradually Mend evergreen and deciduous plantations by pleasing
connections. — The majority of evergreen trees are conical and pointed
in form, while among deciduous species the prevailing habit is flat or
round-headed; but trees of those opposite forms may be found in both
classes. Spiry topped and conical forms are seen in the larches, Caro-
lina cypress, Lonibardy, and other poplars, and round-headed ever-
greens ere seen in the Scotch and Austrian pine. Many species of the
pine tribe, although of a pyramidal or pointed form when the plants
are young, assume an open, spreading habit as they become older.

35

To connect evergreen and deciduous groups those trees that partake
of intermediate characteristics should be employed in blending the two
classes, where the plantation "is continuous; and where a more distinct
but not abrupt line of separation is required between the two, it may be
judiciously accomplished and the margin of each group be toned down
by introducing a few of the most graceful trees of both classes, such as
the Norway and English maple, negundo, and yellow wood among
deciduous, and the hemlock spruce, Lawson's cypress, arbor vitses, and
retinosporas among evergreen species. The rather novel difference
between the arboreal aspect and the botanical classification of the Salis-
buria adiantifolia renders it peculiarly appropriate for an intermediate
position between evergreen and deciduous trees.

4. To place certain trees in conspicuous positions. — Trees that are pre-
eminently notable, on account of their rarity, beauty, or botanical his-
torical associations, may be placed as isolated specimens in prominent
positions on the lawn. This interpolation, however, should be carefully
studied ; a single tree, if wrongly placed, may destroy a fine picture.
Indeed, it is everywhere evident that the greatest prevailing error in
arranging ornamental plantations is the oft-repeated singletree, dotting
every spare surface with a plant, producing a spottiness quite opposed
either to beauty or design.

Single trees may be made still more conspicuous by planting them on
slightly elevated mounds; this will add to their general effect, and
allow perfect freedom for assuming their normal habit of growth.
Trees worthy of so distinguished sites, for their beauty of growth, are
very numerous ; but for extensive grounds, where the largest class may
be introduced, the Magnolia acuminata, the sugar and Korway maple,
Cladastris tinctoria, Osage orange, negundo, willow-leaved oak, and
English maple may be noted as a few of the deciduous ; while among
evergreens, the hemlock and Norway spruce, Himalaya pine, Nordinan
fir, Nootka cypress, and Siberian arbor vitse, may be specially mentioned.

Of rare and interesting trees the list is extensive, and will vary ac-
cording to individual tastes and studies; the extent of ground and
general disposition of other plants will also influence the selection and
number of single specimens.

5. Plant with reference to individual beauty, as also with regard to that
resulting from a combination of forms. — Isolating the trees, as alluded
to in the preceding paragraph, will produce the highest degree of indi-
vidual beauty and development. But to realize all the variety that
may be obtained from contrast of forms, foliage, and flowers requires
more careful study and preparation. Irregularity of distance between
plants will in itself affect variety in composition. Very little either
of beauty or interest can attach to lawns where every tree is equi-
distant, or apparently so, from its neignbor, like so many cabbages or
currant bushes. If we observe the disposition of trees in any natural
group that attracts our attention, we shall learn that the influence of

36

unequal distance in massing foliage and causing minor groupings of
branches and stems is very great. To produce a similarly pleasing
variety of stems and outlines it will be essential to imitate to some
extent the mode in which natural groves are formed, even to placing
several trees together so as to present the appearance of several stems
issuing from the same root. A degree of naturalness will thus be im-
posed upon groups, even should there not be any attempt at contrast-
ing or harmonizing forms ; but this latter will show more decidedly the
foresight and skill of the designer.

6. To produce a pleasing sky outline to all heavy masses or distinct
groups. — The sky outline composition of groups is a pleasing and
noticeable feature. The monotonous sameness in the aspect of a peach
or an apple orchard is a familiar result and example of what may be
intensified by closely planted masses of formal growing trees. But it
is a rare occurrence to find such monotony in natural forest scenery.
A great diversity of sky outline will prevail, especially on the margins
of groves, where the foliage is continued by suitable undergrowths
down to the surface of the ground. Such distinct and unique forms as
theLombardy poplar, deciduous cypress, larches, and similarly pointed
trees will give a spirited effect to the most commonplace groups.

The edges of plantations composed of larger growing trees will be
softened by the introduction of drooping forms ; and one of the most
beautiful compositions, with reference to direction and curvature of
branches, as well as to sky outline, is that produced by surrounding
two or three Lombardy poplars with a circle of weeping willows. The
poplars should not be more than 12 feet apart, and should form one
central figure ; if spread out singly the distinctive feature of a spiry
column will not be secured.

Similar effects may be secured with groups of evergreen trees. The
balsam fir is admirably effective as a center to a mass of lighter col-
ored evergreens, owing to its heavy, dark hue. The Scotch pine and
the Austrian are well adapted, both in color and form, to accompany
the balsam fir, and the beauty of finish can be added by introducing
the wavy branchlets of the hemlock spruce.

7. Plant with regard to autumn coloring and the introduction of flower-
ing trees. — The cheerful appearance of flowering trees should be made a
point of attraction in any arrangement of groups or masses. These can
be introduced under any system, as they are mainly trees of the third
class, such as dogwood, Judas tree, Virginia fringe, silver bell, etc.
Their appropriate position is on the margin of groups, and an occa-
sional dogwood planted where its white flowers will be displayed
against a darker color of evergreen will brighten the early summer
scenery. The dwarfer growths of spirceas ,/ 'or sythias, deutzias, cydonias,
and other species of flowering shrubbery may be so introduced, with
the finest effect.

Iu arranging trees for the purpose of producing strong contrasts

37

from tlie changing colors of autumn foliage there is a wide field for the
artist.

The most conspicuous colors are the scarlet of the sour gum, red
maple, wild cherry, and some of the oaks, and the yellow of the hick-
ories, tulip tree, sugar maple, and others. The dogwood and sassafras
are also decided in their fall colorings.

The beauty of groups will greatly depend upon their definiteness,
distinction, and separation by expansive open, green lawns. These
grassy openings are the lights of the natural picture, while the trees
and vegetation furnish the shade. The error of too much planting is
frequent and disastrous in its effects. The open, clear, well-kept lawn
should largely predominate, for, as Bacon remarked 300 years ago,
"there is nothing more pleasant to the eye than green grass kept finely
shorn."

ON DRAINING LANDS.

The statement is sometimes made that draining is of but little use in
a climate where hot dry suns and dry weather are so common ; that in-
stead of trying to get rid of the water we should rather try to retain it;
but those who reason in this way do not seem to be aware that the pur-
pose served by draining laud is the removal of superfluous water only,
and not that of extracting all the available moisture which it contains.
Every variety of soil has its relative degree of porosity or power of re-
taining moisture. Peaty or mossy soils, which are mainly composed of
organic matter in different stages of decomposition, are very porous,
and in consequence absorb water readily and in great quantities. Clay
soils, on the other hand, being close and compact, absorb water slowly
and to a limited degree as compared with the first mentioned. Draining
a peaty soil will not deprive it of porosity. It may be likened to a sponge,
which will retain all the water which may be poured on it until its
pores become filled; afterwards the water will drop from it as fast as it
is poured on. So it is with draining soil; no water will escape by the
drains until the soil is saturated and is unable to contain any more;
then the superfluous water passes off by the drains, leaving the land
always in a condition for healthy plant growth, which is completely
reversed when the superfluous water is only removed by the slow and
chilling process of surface evaporation.

Clay soils can not be cropped to their best advantage until they are
drained. The ordinary operation of plowing has a tendency to form a
hard surface at the bottom of the furrow, which in time becomes com-
pacted and acts as a basin holding water. Soils of this kind are well
designated as cold. The heat of the sun can not warm the soil until
the water is first removed by evaporation, a process which produces
cold ; so that, in addition to the impracticability of putting in crops early
in spring, every heavy summer rain cools the earth, and the plants

38

growing in it receive a series of checks iii their progress towards matu-
rity. Draining removes all these evil consequences.

Briefly, it may be stated that some of the advantages of draining are
the removal of superfluous water from the soil, thus keeping the tem-
perature of the earth near the surface at its normal state. This makes
early planting possible, and hastens the growth of the crops; it equal-
izes the temperature of the land; it equalizes the moisture of the soil,
and growing plants are thus, to a great degree, exempted from the
evils which follow either deficiency or excess of rainfall ; the roots of
plants are more generously supplied with soluble food carried down by
rains; the formation of plant food is increased by admission of air to
the soil; the land is more economically worked, and cultivation suffers
less interruption at all seasons, and, as a consequence, crops are in-
creased to their maximum production, at least so far as they are de-
pendent upon the physical condition of the soil, a factor of equal impor-
tance with that of its chemical constitution, and one which is greatly
underestimated.

SOWING SEEDS AND KAISING YOUNG PLANTS OF FOEEST

TREES.

Seeds should be sown as soon as practicable after they are ripe.
They will vegetate sooner if sown immediately after being gathered
from the plant than they will at any other time. Exposure to the air
hardens their outside coverings, which tends to prevent germination,
so that the time required for a seed to germinate after being sown de-
pends greatly upon the amount of drying and exposure to the air to
which it has been subjected since gathered from the plant. But it is
not always practicable or convenient to sow seeds immediately after
they are gathered. Some ripen so late in the season that they can not
be sown immediately on account of frost; therefore the alternative is to
preserve them in the best manner to retain their vitality and facilitate
speedy germination when sown. Among those which do best when
sown in the fall are the seeds of the peach, cherry, chestnut, hazelnut,
walnut, hickory, oak, horse-chestnut, Judas tree, hackberry, yellow
locust, Osage orange, and the magnolia. These mostly form very hard
shells when exposed to the air for a length of time, and are afterwards
very slow to vegetate. If they have to be kept over winter for spring
sowing they should be kept from the air by mixing them with dry sand,
and kept in a cool, ventilated shed or cellar. If kept damp and warm
they will either vegetate prematurely or decay. Acorns are specially
liable to lose their vegetative power by exposure to dry air. They can
be best preserved by spreading them on the surface of the ground in
the open air and covering them with 1 or 2 inches of light soil or sand,
but no water should be allowed to lodge around them, otherwise decay
is certain.

39

There are some seeds that ripen early in summer and will not keep
well, consequently have to be sown immediately when gathered so that
the young plants may attain some size and strength before winter. Of
these the silver maple, elm, and poplar may be mentioned. Silver-
maple seed is usually ripe in May, and if then sown young plants from
2 to 4 feet in height will be produced before winter.

Small see' Is, and those which are light and chaffy, such as seeds of
the alder, birch, sycamore, paulownia, mulberry, and tulip tree, as
also some of the later-ripening winged seeds, as the sugar maple,
negundo, and the species of ash, should be gathered when ripe, and
spread thinly in an airy, shady situation to partially dry, then stored
in coarse bags in a cool place until wanted for sowing in spring. Larch,
pine, and seeds of coniferous plants generally should be kept in a
similar manner during winter. Seeds of the tulip tree should be sown
very thickly, as they are mostly very imperfect.

To succeed in raising healthy plants it is essentially necessary that
the seed should be sown in deeply worked loamy soil. It should not
only be deeply pulverized, but also as rich and fertile as it can be made.
No half-way measures should be tolerated in a thoroughly good prepara-
tion of the soil ; as a general rule there is altogether too little account
made of this greatest source of success, and numerous failures at rais-
ing plants from seeds are clearly traced to the use of poor, thin soil,
while the want of success is attributed to the poor quality of the seeds,
or reflections are cast upon the reliability and good faith oftho.se who fur-
nished them. The most convenient method for after culture is to sow in
drills. The distance between the drills will be guided by circumstances.
If hand culture only is to be employed, 18 inches apart will be a good dis-
tance for most tree seeds, although some of the finer or smaller kinds and
such as require several years' growth before the plants become large
enough for removal may be placed closer. All the pine family belong
to this class. The depth of covering will also be regulated by the size
of the seed and to some extent to the kind of soil and the situation. On
sandy soils the covering may be deeper than when the soil is liable to
form a crust on the surface after rains. This character of the soil is
not well fitted for raising young plants in dry climates, unless rains
can be prevented from beating on the surface immediately above the
seeds. Acorns and the larger kinds of nuts should be covered with
about 2 inches of soil, and if this covering is composed of light mold
and sand, somewhat firmly pressed over the seeds, moisture will be
secured more uniformly, and the young shoots will meet with no im-
pediment in their growth ; a slight covering of short straw or chaff may
be used to great advantage if carefully removed after vegetation has
started. Chaff is an admirable covering for seeds, and only the most
slender growths will require its removal.

Light and small seeds, such as those of the birch, catalpa, paulow-
nia, and mulberry, should be sown on the surface of the soil, which is

40

afterwards raked evenly and smoothly without disturbing the; regularity
of the seeds, and this will afford sufficient covering. By passing a light
wooden roller over the surface a finer pulverization will be given, and
the pressure will tend to preserve the moisture of the soil from rapid
evaporation. A. finely pulverized, firm surface acts as a substitute for
mulching.

The ordinary care given to crops, such as weeding, hoeing, or merely
loosening the surface, will be necessary when the young plants appear
above the soil, so as to encourage their growth. There are various
kinds of hand cultivators now in use which answer an admirable pur-
pose in removing weeds from young plants that are iu drills, especially
on light soils, and even on tenacious soils they can be used to advantage
when the soil is softened from previous rains; but judgment is required
in selecting the best time to work on these soils; if tramped upon when
wet they become caked and lumpy; on the other hand, when stirred at
the proper time they ean be finely pulverized.

Very small seeds can be sown in boxes and covered with glass, or
otherwise protected against rapid evaporation. Such coverings may
be removed when the young plants have sufficient roots to supply
moisture to the leaves.

MAKING AND KEEPING LAWNS.

To have a perfect lawn it is absolutely necessary to have it properly
laid down to begin with. The primary requisite is the proper prepara-
tion of the ground. There is nothing that can be done to the soil with the
view of making it productive and in the best condition for plant growth
that is not necessary to be done to soil intended to support a permanent
green lawn. Draining, deep working, manuring, and thorough pulver-
ization are all requisites to the best degree of success. In preparing a
lawn of any great size, where it is practicable to use a plow, the work
should be done with exact thoroughness. It will in all cases be best
to work the ground in autumn if it is of a clayey character. It should
be turned over as deeply as practicable, and a subsoil plow should follow
in each farrow, breaking up but not turning over the subsoil, nor
bringing any of it to the surface. Subsoiling is often so slovenly per-
formed that it is of but little benefit, but it is of so much importance
that special care should be given to its proper execution, so that it be
someching more than a mere scratching of the ground. In the imme-
diate preparation of the surface previous to seeding in spring, the ground
should again be plowed over so as to turn under any of the poorer portions
of subsoil which may have been brought to the surface by the previous
deep plowing. This is very important where the subsoil is at all of a
clayey, adhesive nature, as a surface soil of this character prevents the
uniform growth of the young grass plants, and becomes hard and com-
pact on the surface, destroying the grass even after it has vegetated.

41

Previous to this shallow plowing a dressing of barnyard manure should
be spread on the surface and covered. This may be substituted by an
application of bone fertilizer of not less than 500 pounds to the acre,
harrowed in just before sowing. After sowing, a light harrow should
be run over it. followed by a roller to press the seed into the soil, but
no rolling should be given to clayey land unless it is thoroughly surface
dry at the time.

The one best grass for a permanent lawn is the blue grass (Poa pra-
tensis}, and under favorable conditions of soil and weather no addition
is needed. But the seed of this grass is rather slow to vegetate and, if the
surface becomes hard and compact before the young plants make their
appearance there will be much loss. The best general mixture, after
various trials with other kinds and mixtures of grasses, is to mix 2
bushels of blue grass, 1 bushel of red top (Agrostisvulgaris), and 1 quart
timothy (Phleum pratense) for 1 acre. This is a heavy seeding, but ex-
periments show that there is a gain in rapidly securing a thick sod by
seeding thus heavily. Some prefer to add about 1 pound of white clover
to the above, which may assist in forming a dense lawn, but the best
lawns are those in which white clover is not to be found. The practice
of sowing oats, barley, or other grains with the grass seeds, under the
impression that these latter plants will protect and foster the young
grass plants from sun and drought, is altogether wrong and ruinous to
a young lawn. It may be asserted that no good lawn was ever pro-
duced in one year where graiu crops are sown with the grasses. Yet the
practice is continued, and continued disappointments follow. When
the mixture of grasses just given is sown in a proper manner about the
early part of spring, the grass will be ready for the lawn-mower by the
middle of June; after two or three weekly cuttings the lawn will have
the thickness and appearance of old sod. But when the oats are sown,
they will be cut over once or twice until their stubble dies, and the few
weak grass plants which have struggled into existence will succumb to a
week of dry, sunny weather ; then weeds take the place of grass, and the
lawn will have to be renewed by additional sowings. While it is true
that a good lawn can not be produced unless everything has been prop-
erly prepared, it is equally true that a good lawn can not be maintained
without proper attention to mowing and fertilizing. Lawn-mowing
machines are now so cheap and efficient that the cutting of the lawn is
merely a mechanical operation, and one requiring but little skill in its
performance, and the numerous fine lawns now everywhere to be seen
are, in a great degree, due to the introduction of these machines.

When a lawn becomes thin and the growth of the grass declining in
vigor, the best treatment is to apply a heavy dressing of well-rotted
stable manure during the latter part of December. 'It is important that
manure for this purpose should be well rotted before being used, and
as occasion offers during winter it should be broken up and harrowed
or raked, so as to distribute it equally over the surface and settle down

42

and nourish the grass. When spring opens, all the rough and strawy
portions should be removed; otherwise it will interfere with the action
of the mower.

Bone-meal is one of the best applications that can be given to a lawn.
The practice of allowing the cuttings from the mowing machine to re-
main on the lawn is, upon the whole, very injurious. With newly-
formed lawns it is of some value for one or two cuttings; after that it
tends to injury.

SPKING AND FALL PLANTING OF TKEES.

The relative advantages of spring and fall planting have given rise
to many opinions, and it is not strange that a wide difference in opin-
ion should be held on the question, since so much of success or failure
depends upon the season, locality, and other attendant circumstances.
The influencing agents of vegetation are subject to such vast variety
of modifications, which can neither be foreseen nor prevented, that no
isolated observation, however truthfully noted, will suffice as a guide in
establishing definite rules; and it may be remarked that the many
seemingly conflicting opinions upon certain points of practice could, in
most instances, be reconciled if all attending facts and circumstances
were clearly produced, but these items are difficult to obtain.

Perhaps the strongest argument in favor of fall planting is the par-
ticularly favorable peculiarities in the relative conditions of the soil and
the atmosphere at that season. Independent of this, it is theoretically
true that autumn is the best time for removing trees. A plant that has
occupied its position for several years can not be removed without cur-
tailing and injuring its roots more or less, but there are certain portions
of the year when the roots are of a minimum importance to the plant.
It is very evident that they are most essential when the tree is in full
foliage and vigorous growth, and during this period any reduction of
roots would be speedily perceptible; on the other hand, when the sea-
sonable growth is completed and the plant defoliated, the offices of the
roots are less important. From the above we learn that the best time
to transplant is between the fall of the leaves in autumn and the burst-
ing of the buds into growth in the spring or during what is termed the
dormant season.

The " particularly favorable conditions of the soil and air" may now
be noted. During the month of October the soil averages 10° warmer
than the atmosphere. This forms a species of natural Lot bed into
which we place a newly removed tree, the formation of young roots is
encouraged, and before many weeks elapse the plant is well established
to withstand the vicissitudes of winter and make an earty and vigorous
start in the following spring. The low atmospheric temperature pre-
vents any growth in the branches, which is so far favorable under the
circumstances.

In spring we find these physical conditions reversed ; the soil is then

43

cold, and accumulates heat slowly while the air rapidly increases in
warmth; the buds are excited to growth, new leaves are formed in ad-
vance of the roots, each leaf acts as a pump extracting sap from the
branches and trunk of the tree, which as yet has no active roots to
supply the demand ; and if evaporation is severe and continued, the
plant must either succumb or receive such a check as will require the
whole season to recover. Hence it may frequently be observed that
spring-planted trees will show a profusion of leaves, apparently vigor-
ous and healthy, but suddenly wither and decay under the influence of
clear, dry, and warm weather.

These, so far, show great ad vantages 'in favor of fall planting, but
there are other considerations to be canvassed before deciding the ques-
tion. It is very clear that unless planting is performed within a certain
period the advantage of immediate root-growth will not be secured; if
delayed beyond the first week in November, success will be less certain.
The best period is undoubtedly as soon as the leaves change color, strip-
ping off the foliage before removal.

The character of the soil and location will also materially influence
success. In undraiued clayey soils the trees may not get sufficient
root hold to enable them to resist the throwing-out tendency of alternate
freezing and thawing, or the young spongioles may be destroyed by
constant saturation. Again, in very bleak and exposed localities the
drying winds of spring may exhaust the juices faster than the young
roots can supply the demands of evaporation. Of course the very evi-
dent precaution of securing the plant from swaying should be attended
to; otherwise many of the young rootlets will be twisted off. Staking
may have to be done where the trees are tall, but it is much pref-
erable to stay them with a slight mound of soil over the roots, which
can be removed when of no further use. It will also be of great benefit
if the frost can be kept from penetrating to the roots. A covering of
loose material will be a protection, a wise precaution, even on well-es-
tablished trees.

In northern latitudes, where the winters commence early and continue
long and severe, fall planting will not so generally be successful as in
more temperate regions, except in particularly favorable localities.
Early spring planting, taking the precaution to prune the branches, so
as to restore the balance destroyed by the root mutilation inseparable
from removals, and mulching over the roots, so as to retain moisture
during summer, will be the most likely auxiliaries towards success.

Evergreens can, in all cases, be most successfully transplanted just
as growth commences. When the young shoots exhibit symptoms of
pushing, they can be removed without risk 0f failure with ordinary
care. They may also be removed in August and September, so that
they can have a good season to furnish new roots before winter. Early
spring removal of such trees is not advisable, as they have a large
evaporating surface, which, when subjected to drying spring winds, re-
quires a constant action of root to maintain life.

44

KEEPING HEDGES.

One of the principal objections urged against the employment of live
fences or hedges is the cost of keeping them in efficient repair, for it
admits of no qualification that unless they receive proper attention
they will prove to be of but little value as a fence against live stock.

Unfortunately, our best hedge plants so far are of strong growth, es-
pecially when young, and consequently require to be trimmed two or
three times during the summer, at least for several years after plant-
ing, and this at a time when farm crops demand attention, so that in a
vast number of cases the hedge is neglected and soon ceases to be serv-
iceable. The best hedge plant is one that could be kept by winter
trimming only, because in that season of comparative leisure it would
probably receive attention, but with such strong growing plants as the
osage orange and honey locust, our two popular hedge plants, it is
impracticable to produce a close fence without frequent summer trim-
mings. There is one thing, however, which should be put to their
credit, that after a few years the growth will be less profuse; the weak-
ening effect of continued summer pruning ultimately weakens the
plants, so that they become easier managed. This also prevents them
from sending out their roots to a great distance, so that they do not in-
terfere with cultivated crops, an evil which soon becomes visible when
a hedge is neglected and allowed to take care of itself. When a hedge
gets into a condition that one summer trimming and one winter trim-
ming will keep it in fairly good condition, the labor and cost is re-
duced to a minimum. It will also have a tendency to retard the ex-
uberance of early summer growth, if the winter trimming is delayed
until after the buds begin to push in spring. This will make a differ-
ence of several weeks in regard to summer trimming, and will prove of
some importance when summer pruning is confined to one operation.

The weakest part of a hedge is always nearest the ground. The cri-
terion of a well-kept hedge is that of thickness at the bottom ; this
should also be its widest part, and it should taper upwards to a point.
Unless this form is strictly maintained, the lower branches will grad-
ually weaken and ultimately die out, leaving gaps which are not easily
closed. Hedges which become weak and full of gaps through neglect
may be renewed by cutting them down in early winter to within 18
inches or so from the ground ; the plants will then branch out vigor-
ously, and, by proper pruning, soon be all that need be desired as a
fence.

CULTIVATION.

The great aim of all thorough cultivators is to maintain a continued
healthy and vigorous growth from the period the seed vegetates until
the plant reaches its maturity. The word " cultivation " may be defined
as a term whereby we recognize those operations necessary to maintain

a constant and proper equilibrium of the elements 01 plant growth.
Therefore, in order that we should be able to do so understaudingly, it
is absolutely necessary that we be thoroughly conversant with the prin-
ciples governing vegetable growth. In the absence of such knowledge
practice is merely empirical.

One of the prominent operations in culture is that of stirring the
surface of the soil around growing crops. The soil may be looked
upon as the laboratory of nature, where her decomposing agencies, air
and water, prepare the food of plants, and the object of culture is to
facilitate these chemical operations as far as our knowledge will admit;
and experience fully proves that frequent forking, loosening, or stirring
the surface stratum of the soil, thus allowing an unimpeded access of
air and moisture to penetrate and follow the various ramifications of
plant roots, is undoubtedly the most essential item in what is termed
cultivation.

The efficacy of this treatment depends, however, upon the nature and
condition of the soil, as also upon the time and mode of performing
the operation. Unless the subsoil is also porous and permeable, its
benefits will be comparatively slight. Hence soils that are not natu-
rally pervious must be rendered so by draining and subsoiling.

Soils so treated will continue to support vegetation in a healthy and
luxuriant growth even in long-continued dry seasons. This is owing
to the facility with which the rain water can penetrate deeply, its
downward passage being encouraged by the admission of air, and
when, in addition to drainage, the surface is kept loose and open, the
rains of a heavy shower penetrate at once instead of passing off on the
surface, as will be the case when the top soil is compact and the sub-
soil undisturbed. Clayey and tenacious soils require more careful
treatment than those of a gravelly or sandy character; these are liable
to become hardened on the surface after even slight showers. This is
occasioned by their easy solubility, and good management of such soils
demand that they should be surface- stirred after every heavy rain.
Much now depends upon the time such stirring is performed. Between
the softening of JtFie surface by rains and its hardening again by sun
and dry air there is a period when it is in the most favorable condition
for culture. Here it is difficult to lay down a definite rule, as the prac-
tice that would be suitable for one soil and climate would be unsuited
to another differently circumstanced. The principle being understood,
the practice may readily be deduced. In order to facilitate cultivation
all crops should be grown as far as practicable on the drill system.

There is room for improvement in this respect, especially in garden
culture. Garden crops should invariably be grown in. drills suffici-
ently wide apart to admit of deep hoeing and forking. And it may be fur-
therremarked that there is a wide distinction between what is frequently
termed a well-kept garden and one that is well cultivated. The former
may be kept perfectly clear of weeds by tUe use of the lioe and rake,

46

every spot smooth and polished, and although vegetation may wilt and
present a starved and stunted aspect, yet many people would pronounce
such gardening as perfect. This, however, is not cultivation. Hoeing,
as understood by a thorough culturist, means more than merely killing
weeds. He aims at having the soil deeply and thorougly broken up,
and left loose, rough, and untramped. His criterion oi beauty here is
not influenced by the element of smoothness.

MECHANICAL PEEPAEATION OF SOIL.

The physical or mechanical condition of the soil, its relation to air
and water, has not received the attention from agricultural chemists
which its importance demands. They have devoted their investiga-
tions almost solely to its chemical constituents, seeming to lose sight of
the fact that the permeability of the soil to atmospheric influences is of
more importance than the most approved manures. If half the money
that has been expended upon artificial manures during the last twenty
years had been devoted to drainage, subsoiling, and trenching, the
products of the country would have been vastly increased.

The soil performs various offices towards growth of plants. It serves
as a basis in which they may fix their roots and sustain themselves in
position ; it also supplies inorganic food during all periods of their
growth, and may be looked upon as a laboratory in which many chemic
changes are taking place; preparing the various kinds of food which it
is destined to yield to the growing plant. Analyses have shown that
in most soils the presence of all the constituents of the ashes of plants
may be detected, though in variable proportions. But the mere pres-
ence of certain substances in soils does not insure productiveness, for
it has been shown that crops have failed even in soils possessing all the
mineral ingredients required, because, although present, they were not
in a sufficiently soluble state to be available. Thus in wet, clayey
soils, although containing enough of plant food, the water prevents
free access to the decomposing influence of the atmosphere, and crops
perish, not because of a deficiency of raw material, but on account of
the processes for its preparation being arrested.

This leads to the foundation of all improvements of such soils, viz,
draining. It is a remark frequently made by those having no expe-
rience that draining must be worse than useless in a climate where
summer droughts are among the greatest calamities against which the
cultivator has to contend. All who have witnessed the effects of
draining need not be told that even in soils not particularly retentive,
draining, in connection with deep culture, will secure a more ample and
lasting supply of moisture in dry weather and maintain a growing
vegetation during the most severe droughts. Draining increases the
capability of the soil for absorbing moisture ; all soils have their cer-
tain absorbing properties ; like a sponge, they absorb until their pores

47

are filled, and only the superfluous water that can not be taken up passes
through the drains.

Draining is only the first step towards improvement. The soil must
be deeply loosened and pulverized, either by subsoiling or trenching.
Either process will be beneficial, and circumstances will decide as to
which is to be adopted. Trenching involves a thorough reversion of the
soil of more or less depth, according to its nature and the purposes for
which it is to be used. Subsoiling is merely a loosening or stirring up of
the immediate subsoil without reversing its position. When the ground
is intended for a permanent crop, such as fruit trees, grapevines, etc.,
trenching may be adopted. The top surface of good soil will then be
placed where the roots will be immediately benefited by it and the crude
subsoil brought to the surface, where it can be enriched by the aid of
manures and the ameliorating processes of cultivation.

On the other hand, if the ground is to be immediately cropped with
small seeds, as in some portions of a vegetable garden, a finely pulver-
ized surface is necessary, and few subsoils can be made available or be
reduced to that condition while in their crude state. Subsoiling will,
in such cases, be most advisable, and trenching can be executed as
crops will admit of the operation.

The first process, then, towards securing a profitable depth of soil is
draining; next, breaking into the subsoil, taking into consideration
whether, in vie^ of the crops to be cultivated, it will be most immedi-
ately profitable (of ultimate profit there is no uncertainty) to trench it
at once or merely break up and loosen the subsoil, admitting water and
other fertilizing agencies to penetrate, and by a gradual trenching im-
prove to the required depth. When all this has been satisfactorily
accomplished manures can be applied to the greatest advantage and
failures from droughts almost entirely obviated.

MULCHING.

This is an auxiliary operation in cultivation that would be more gener-
ally practiced if its beneficial effects were better understood.

The objects to be obtained by mulching are twofold, viz, to preserve
a uniform degree of moisture in the soil during summer, and to protect
the roots of plants from severe frosts during winter. These conditions
are obviously important to vegetation, and they can be very efficiently
secured by covering the surface with a stratum of porous materials,
such as tan bark, charcoal dust, leaves, or strawy manure, which will
prevent the surface soil from becoming compact or hard, and at the same
time assist in maintaining a uniformity in its mechanical texture favor-
able to the retention of moisture. Air is the best nonconductor, and
bodies are represented as good or bad conductors just as they are solid
or porous. Iron is a better conductor than wood, granite stone a better
conductor than brick, hard-pressed soil is a better conductor than soil

48

that is loose and porous. A hard trodden path is warmer in summer
and colder in winter than the cultivated ground alongside of it. When
the soil particles are in pressed contact, the condition is favorable to
rapid conduction ; summer winds passing over such a surface carry off
the moisture which the heat evaporates, the surface is speedily parched
dry, and vegetation languishes.

When the surface is covered with a mulch of such porous materials
as those enumerated it in effect secures a stratum of air in repose be-
tween the soil and the causes of radiation and evaporation. In the case
of recently planted trees, the preservation of a uniform degree of mois-
ture in the soil surrounding their roots is a great point towards their
successful growth, and, other things being equal, they will languish
or flourish in proportion as this condition of uniform moisture is secured.

Although muclhing is a very simple operation, yet serious losses have
occurred from its misapplication. We have seen trees destroyed from
too heavy mulchings of grass, manure, and tan bark. Before applying
the mulch to a recently planted tree, if in spring, shape the soil around
it in basin form, extending the rim beyond the extremities of the roots ;
by this configuration of surface rains will be retained and, if required,
artificial waterings can be applied to best advantage. With regard to
fall planting, the process should be reversed and a slight mound formed
towards the stem of the plant, so as to throw off the heavy rains of
winter. Of course such mound should be removed before the following
summer.

As already remarked, the principal use of winter mulching is to pre-
vent frosts from reaching the roots. The best material for this purpose
is charcoal dust. Where manure is used it should not be thrown close
up to the stem of the plant, otherwise it might prove a harbor for
ground mice, which in rough ground or under a coarse covering are
sometimes very destructive, by eating the bark of young trees. When
they are troublesome the precaution should be taken to trample firmly
over the roots and around the stem after heavy snows and keep the
surface dry and compact.

In order to be effectual it is not necessary that summer mulching
should be heavy. When tan or char coal dust is used a layer of 2 inches
in depth will be quite sufficient. Grass cut from lawns is very suitable,
but a mere sprinkling only should be applied at a time. Thick coatings
promote fungoid growths, which frequently destroy the trees. Fruit
or ornamental trees that have been transplanted will rarely be much
benefited by mulching after the first year's growth. The advantage of
mulching to growing vegetables are equally important. Cabbages,
potatoes, peas, onions, and other crops will thus be enabled to main-
tain growth during the driest weather. This covering is not intended
to supersede stirring the soil, but when plants become so far advanced
in growth as to be beyond the hoe and plow, mulching may be applied,
and those wUo give it a fair trial on their crops in a dry season will not
require further promptings to repeat the practice.

49

SITUATIONS FOE OEOHAEDS.

From the circumstance that fruit orchards which are situated in val-
leys and in low, sheltered places are not so healthy and prolific, and
are more liable to injury from changes of temperature than those situ-
ated in more elevated and exposed places, it has been argued that all
kinds of protection and shelter to fruit trees should be condemned as
injurious, and that the coldest and bleakest positions on northern slopes
are greatly to be preferred for fruits. This is probably going from one
extreme to another. It is conceded that one of the very worst situations
for a fruit orchard is in the rich laud of a contracted, sheltered valley,
for in such a position the trees are subjected to great extremes of tem-
perature; a difference of 20 degrees is not uncommon between the
temperature of the valley and that of a point on the hillside 60 feet
above it during periods of severe frosts. It is very evident that such a
site would be of the worst selection, and, so far as topography is con-
cerned, the elevated northern exposure would be greatly preferable;
but, a sufficiently elevated site once selected, it does not follow that it
should not be judiciously sheltered, locally, from the exhausting effects
of arid or cold winds. The benefits of local shelter are well known, and
should not be confounded with the evils which follow a bad selection, as
above stated.

OECHAED PLANTING.

It is a common observation that the outer rows of trees in established
orchards are finer and more productive than the trees in the interior
plantation. This superiority is all the more conspicuous if the orchard
is bordered by cultivated fields, and it is fair to presume that the extra
luxuriance is owing to the trees having a greater extent of unoccupied
soil for the ramification of their roots. Something is also undoubtedly
due to the greater space available for the expansion and spread of the
branches ; but it is in accordance with all experience in the cultivation
of plants that a rotation of crops is absolutely essential towards secur-
ing the best results of the fertility of the soil. Keeping these facts in
view, it is suggested that an improvement upon the present method of
planting orchards would be gained by planting two rows of trees from
18 to 25 or more feet apart, depending upon the nature of the trees,
and alternating the plants in the rows. Then allow a space, varying
in extent from 30ft feet to any greater distance, before planting another
series of rows, and so increase the plantation as far as may be desired*
The intervening spaces between these double rows of trees would be
available for the cultivation of the ordinary crops of the farm. The
roots of the trees would not only participate in the benefits of cultiva-
tion, but would also have practically unlimited room for extension
before meeting with other roots of their kind. Immediately under the.
285SX 4

50

trees and for a distance on each side of the rows as far as the branches
spread the surface could be kept in grass. If not sown down immedi-
ately after planting, which might not be desirable in all cases, it should
be done after the trees attain a fruit-bearing size, or from five to seven
years after setting out. The shelter which will be afforded to other
crops by these orchards will be found valuable as a protection from
winds as well as in forwarding early crops. This method is particularly
applicable to apple and pear trees.

MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS.

Whether the land occupied by orchard or fruit trees should be plowed
and cultivated, or sown in grass or clover and remain undisturbed, is
still a frequent subject of inquiry in the correspondence of the Depart-
ment. The object in planting fruit trees, it is hardly necessary to state,
is to produce fruit, and that course of general treatment which best
maintains the trees in a healthy state of growth and at the same time
keeps them in a condition of productiveness may be considered as being
good, whether the treatment involves the plowing and cultivation of the
soil or whether these good results are attained by sowing the orchard
in grass and keeping the surface covered with sod. It is well known
that eminently productive and profitable orchards can be shown under
both of the above systems of management, for the time being. Culti-
vation or noncultivation are simply expedients to be adopted in gaining
certain wished-for results 5 the primary mistake is to attempt to turn
either expedient into a fixed and unchangeable system.

It is understood that the processes generally included in the term
"cultivation," such as plowing, harrowing, etc., are all favorable to
the encouragement of growth in plants, and when applied to fruit trees
the usual result of increased vigor will be produced. But it is also
well understood that the greatest vigor of growth is not always com-
bined with the greatest productiveness of fruit ; on the contrary, it is a
recognized fact that a tree can not display unusually great vigor of
growth and at the same time be correspondingly fruitful. On the
other hand, it is common knowledge that trees growing in poor soil,
arid without receiving cultivation of any kind, will not long continue
to maintain sufficient vitality to enable them to produce perfect fruit,
nor, indeed, fruit of any quality. These extremes of poverty and lux-
uriance are similar, inasmuch as neither condition is the best for
the production of fruit, and therefore the efforts of the fruit-grower
should constantly be directed towards a medium between these ex-
tremes. When young trees are planted in ordinary good soil, aud
afterwards receive good care, so far as cultivating, stirring, and ma-
nuring the soil is concerned, they usually make strong growths. It is
well to encourage this luxuriance at this stage of their existence, the

51

only precaution being to guard against an immature condition of wood
when frosts occur.

Mistakes are sometimes made, in climates where the season of active
growth is comparatively short, in stimulating the plants to such a de-
gree that the wood fails to ripen thoroughly and the young shoots are
destroyed by frosts while in an immature state, giving rise to various
diseases, such as yellows in the peach, etc. When the trees reach the
fruit-bearing size, but give no evidence of fruit-bearing disposition, it
may be assumed that their barrenness is owing to excessive growth,
and it will therefore be in order to adopt some means of checking the
growth, and, as a consequence, induce the tree to bear fruit. Various
measures may be pursued to effect this object, but perhaps there is
none so simple and so easily applied as that of laying the orchard in
grass. The absence of all culture will speedily cause the formation of
fruit buds and satisfactory crops of fruit, and so long as this continues
no change need be made ; but if the trees become weak, from over-
bearing or from want of nourishment, top dressing of manure will
again renew their vigor ; and, further, if the trees appear stunted and
do not respond to surface stimulants, the grass may be plowed under
and a system of thorough culture inaugurated and kept up so long as
observation determines that it is the best practice to follow.

The condition of the trees will, therefore be the best evidence as to
whether the orchard should be cultivated or kept in grass. Each
orchard will answer the question for itself. It is not a question as to
the advisability of establishing a system based upon either expedient,
although it is usually and erroneously submitted in that shape.

Pruning is an operation of vast importance in the management of
trees, and the principles upon which it is founded must be clearly un-
derstood before complete success in fruit culture can be attained.

Plants left to nature maintain a well-balanced reciprocal action be-
tween their branches and roots ; and every branch, bud, or leaf that is
removed must exercise an influence either injurious or beneficial, and
no one should attempt to remove branches unless they foresee the effects
and influence of such removals.

The time of pruning, whether during the summer or during winter,
will depend upon the object to be attained ; a brief consideration of
plant growth will assist us in determining this question.

When a seed is deposited in a suitable germinating medium, its first
effort is to send a root downwards in the earth, and then push a shoot
upwards in the air. The seed contains within itself all the nutriment
necessary for this process; but as soon as the young plant is so far
formed, its mode of existence is changed, and it becomes dependent upon
the soil and atmosphere for future support.

52

The elementary substances absorbed by the roots undergo decompo-
sition through the influence of the leaves, and the material is thus pre-
pared for further root-growth and extension. The roots have no inherent
power of extension, but are dependent upon the health and action of
the foliage ; and although in germination the roots are first formed,
their growth is due to the action of the foliage of the plant that pro-
duced the seed from which they emitted.

It is, therefore, apparent that the increase in size of the plant, the
quality and quantity of its secretions, and the extension of its roots are
all dependent upon the healthy action of the leaves.

When it is considered how essential the foliage is to the healthy de-
velopment of the plant, we may well pause before infringing upon the
reciprocal action nature has established between the roots and branches,
for it is evident that every branch or leaf removed has an effect either
for good or for evil upon the plant. The correlative action between
the leaves and roots being so intimately connected, it follows that any
mdiiuution of leaf growth during the period of active vegetation must
retard root development. Hence it is an axiom, now becoming recog-
nized, that summer pruning weakens growth, while winter pruning
produces a contrary effect.

Summer pruning can be useful where wood-growth is to be checked,
and it will be repressed in proportion to the severity of the removal of the
foliage. Fruit trees, when planted in a generous soil, frequently attain
a luxuriance incompatible with a fruitful habit, and their flowering may
be somewhat hastened by judicious pruning or pinching, so as to retard
wood-growth; but care must be exercised, and much observation and
experience are requisite before the object can be safely attained.

Winter pruning invigorates wood-growth. When a portion of the
branches of a tree is removed after the fall of the leaves, the balance of
growth is destroyed and the roots have the preponderance ; the re-
maining buds will now shoot forth with increased vigor — an important
consideration with trees or vines that have become weakened from over-
bearing or any other cause, imparting new vigor to weak and sickly
plants.

The time for winter pruning may be regulated by the condition of the
plant; if pruned immediately after the leaves fall or ripen, the shoots
will be stronger the succeeding season than they would be if the opera-
tion had been delayed until spring. This arises from the fact that dur-
ing winter the plant still continues to absorb food by its roots, which
is distributed over the branches; and as the principal flow of sap is
always directed to the extreme points of shoots, the highest buds are
most fully developed. If, therefore, pruning is delayed till spring, this
accumulation is cut and thrown away, and to that extent the plant is
weakened. Early winter pruning is eminently advantageous to native
grapes. As the retained buds become charged with sap during winter,
they start and advance rapidly — a matter of much moment where the

53

summers are rather short for ripening the fruit and wood of these
plants.

There is a tendency in many varieties of trees to form strong central
growths at the expense of the side branches, more especially while the
plants are young. Pruning these strong shoots in winter only increases
the evil, unless summer pruning is attended to by pinching out the ends
of every shoot before it gains sufficient headway to injure the growth
of the lower branches. Strong growths should be pruned in summer
and weak ones in winter. In the management of hedges, where uni-
formity of growth is all important, this rule should constantly be kept
in view.

When the size of a tree is the only object sought, summer pruning
should not be practiced. But it may be said that pruning of any kind
is a negative operation, and probably it is within the limits of possibility
that trees may be trained to any form and maintained in a fruitful con-
dition without any instrumental pruning whatever, unless to remedy
disease and casualties. It is much easier, for instance, to rub off a bud
in May than it is to cut out a branch in December; and if a judicious
system of disbudding and pinching was strictly followed there would
be no occasion for winter pruning ; or, were it possible to place a tree
in such a soil, and under such conditions that it would only make a
moderate growth of well-matured wood, little, if any, prunning would
be required. But as all of these conditions are difficult to realize in
in happy combination, we have to resort to pruning, and a knowledge
of the principles involved will materially assist the operator.

EEMAEKS ON PEAR CULTUEE.

The value of the pear as a domestic fruit is second only to that of
the apple. For culinary purposes the latter is probably more highly
esteemed, but for the dessert the pear is almost universally held as
much superior. The pear tree is hardy and attains to a great age,
greater, it is conceded, than the apple, notwithstanding the popular im-
pression that it is subject to more casualties and is not so enduring.
History proves that the pear is of very ancient cultivation, although
it has not been so largely or so generally planted as the apple ; various
reasons may have influenced this discrimination, the most prominent of
which are the greater care required in harvesting the crop, and the
difficulty of keeping and ripening the fruit to its highest degree of per-
fection. Even at the present time the management of the finest varie-
ties is far from being generally understood. The prevailing opinion
that the tree is constitutionally tender, and more subjected to diseases
and casualties than other fruit trees, has undoubtedly exerted a strong
influence against its extended culture ; but, however much these rea-
sons may have gained credence in the past, they have now lost their
efficacy, and many extensive pear orchards have been planted during
the past fifteen years, and their number is constantly increasing.

54

SITES AND SHELTER OF PEAR ORCHARDS.

Low situations should be avoided on account of the greater extremes
of temperature prevalent in valleys than places of moderate elevation,
and the consequent probability of injury from late spring and early
winter frosts. A sloping hillside, contiguous to a well-defined valley,
forms the choicest orchard site, not only for pears, but for other fruits
as well. To insure the greatest advantage from position the trees
should not be planted lower than within 100 feet of upright elevation
from the lowest point in the valley. The cold air will then settle dur-
ing the night in a stratum below the trees, and the warm air accumu-
lated in the lower ground during the day will be pressed up to the
higher altitude occupied by the orchard, and thus afford considerable
protection in cold nights.

The obvious necessity of shelter to pear orchards has led, in some
instances, to the mistake of selecting low grounds for their apparently
well-protected position, which, for the reasons given above, are the
worst possible localities. Contrasted with valley planting, even what
might be termed bleak exposures have the preference, and the unsatis-
factory results attending orchards in low protected grounds has led to
a supposition that shelter is injurious rather than beneficial.

The addition of shelter to an otherwise judiciously selected site is
altogether different from endeavoring to secure it by choosing a low
situation. The efficacy of protection is now generally well understood,
especially by those who attempt pear culture in regions that are com-
paratively treeless. ' Even the White Doyenne, the famed Virgalieu, or
butter pear, worthless in exposed situations, is produced in all its priy-
tine excellence where the tree is protected, as may be seen in many old
gardens in cities, where this variety is very common.

The shelter required is not so much to repel or alleviate mere ther-
mometric cold as it is to arrest evaporation and its accompanying ex-
haustion of vitality, by checking the rapid and penetrating action of dry
winds.

Evergreen trees afford the most perfect shelter in the least space. A
single row of Norway firs, Austrian pines, or other equally hardy ever-
green trees will give shelter for a considerable distance ; thickly planted
belts of deciduous trees will also render effective service. How far
apart these belts and hedges should be placed, and in what direction
they will be most useful, will depend upon the surroundings and local
specialties. As the best mode of draining the field will depend upon
its surface undulations, so the best mode of sheltering will be guided
by the general aspect and position of the orchard.

SOIL.

The pear will exist in a variety of soils, but attains greatest perfec-
tion in clayey loam. Even on stiff clays the tree will grow and pro-

55

duce very satisfactorily under the ameliorating influences of the prep-
aration and culture which such soils require. Draining first and
subsoiling afterwards are the chief requisites for gradual amelioration ;
in short, while a water-soaked clay is the most utterly worthless of all
lands for the growth of any crop, a properly drained and aerated clay
soil is by far the most valuable, and only requires careful management
to render it available for the best productions of the orchard, farm, or
garden. The prominent precaution in managing a clayey soil is never
to work on it while wet, but only when it is dry to friability. No expe-
dient or process of culture will compensate for the injury sustained by
working clay soils during summer, when saturated with water; the
injury can not be remedied except by a winter's freezing, which will
again produce friability, under proper treatment.

Soils of a sandy or gravelly character are not well adapted to the
pear. In these soils, so variable in their degree of moisture, the trees
ripen prematurely and drop their foliage if the weather proves dry
towards the end of summer; then, in the event of moist weather fol-
lowing a period of drought, a late secondary growth will be produced,
which, failing to mature, induces a tendency to blight, and predisposes
to other diseases. Surface dressing of compost, repeated cultivation,
or constant mulching will counteract, to some extent, the effects of
uncongenial soil for the pear roots, but where it is impracticable to
select any but a thin gravel or sand for the growth of this fruit, the
dwarf tree is preferable, as the roots of the quince can be confined to
a small area, which may be prepared and maintained to meet all the
requirements of growth.

PLANTING.

Where the soil has been prepared by deep tillage it will not be neces-
sary to dig holes deeper then required to merely cover the roots of the
plants. In heavy soils that have not been prepared in the most thorough
manner the holes should be made wide rather than deep. In gravelly
subsoils pits may be dug 18 Inches in depth, the surface soil and the
subsoil being thrown out at opposite sides, and filled in equally until
the proper height is reached for setting the plant. In either case about
a bushel of compost, made up of leaf mould, rotted manure, and light
soil, if carefully spread around the roots, will form an admirable root-
ing medium; this should be finely pulverized and rather dry than wet
when used.

Deep planting and shallow planting are the injurious extremes in
setting trees. The plain and incontrovertible rule is to set the plant
so that the point from whence the stem and roots proceed in opposite
directions will be about 1 inch below the surface of the ground. It is
infinitely better to plant so that future surface dressing may be re-
quired to cover the swelling, exposed roots, than to have them buried
below the ready influence of atmospheric heat and air.

56

MULCHING.

The preservation of a proper degree of moisture in the soil surround-
ing the roots of the tree is the principal object of culture during the
first summer after planting. Both the kind and amount of care will
depend upon the nature of the soil and the condition of the weather;
something will also depend upon the first preparation of the ground.
Where the soil has been drained, deepened, and pulverized, and the
surface is loose and mellow, nothing further will be required than
merely to prevent a growth of weeds. If the surface is tenacious, fre-
quent stirring, especially after rains, will probably suffice, but where
the soil is shallow and largely composed of sand or gravel mulching
will most effectually accomplish the purpose.

Any loose material will answer for a mulch, such as coarse manure,
strawy litter of any kind, or short grass cut from lawns. Where a few
trees only are to be cared for, tan bark and refuse charcoal dust are fre-
quently employed. Mulch should not be applied before the middle of
June, unless the weather proves very dry and warm previous to that
time, and on clean ground it may remain during the following winter,
or be renewed if exhausted; but in rough, soddy ground, where field
mice may lurk, the soil around the trees should be thoroughly commi-
nuted and kept clean and compressed.

CULTURE.

The best mode of treating the soil in pear orchards is an important
question both in regard to the health of the tree and the production of
fruit. Laying aside all special circumstances, it appears evident that
the condition of the plants will indicate the treatment required. The
object being to maintain health and encourage fruitfulness. the measure
of successful accomplishment of these conditions will greatly depend
upon the knowledge of the principles governing vegetable growth pos-
sessed by the cultivator. When the^ trees are young the chief object is
to encourage judicious growth by employing expedients known to favor
vegetable extension, such as the application of manures, breaking up
and pulverizing the soil, surface stirring, and other similar operations.
By judicious growth is meant a luxuriance not incompatible with matur-
ity, and as this will depend upon climate and locality it is evident that
a discriminating knowledge of cause and effect will largely influence
success. In northern latitudes, where the season of growth is confined
to 5 months' duration, it will be impossible to mature the same amount
of wood that can be produced on trees in a locality having 7 months of
growing season. In the latter case stimulating applications may be
used with the best effects that would only tend to dissolution in the
climate of short summers. The great desideratum in fruit culture is
ripened wood ; all useful cultivation begins and ends with this single
object in view, and is the criterion of good or bad management.

57

To cultivate or not to cultivate is a question to be determined by
climate and condition of soil. Where it is deemed advisable to
encourage growth it will be proper to employ such appliances of culture
as are known to produce that result ; and again, when ample luxuriance
is secured, and the tendency is still in that direction, all surface culture
should be abandoned and the orchard laid down in grass, cultivation
to be again practiced when the trees indicate its necessity.

PRUNING.

The pear tree is usually a victim of excessive pruning. It is pruned
in winter to make it grow, and pruned and pinched in summer to make
it fruit. Why it is that the pear more than other spur-bearing fruit
trees should be supposed to require so close and continued pruning
does not appear of easy explanation. It is evident that this immoderate
pruning is not followed by satisfactory results, for while apple, plum,
and cherry trees fruit with abundant regularity, with but little atten-
tion to pruning, unfruitfulness in the pear is a frequent cause of com-
plaint, especially with those who pay the strictest attention to pruning
rules, showing clearly that successful pear culture is not dependent
upon pruning alone. While it is perhaps equally erroneous to assert
that pear trees should not be pruned at all— an extreme which no ex-
perienced cultivator will indorse — it is worthy of inquiry whether un-
pruned trees do not exhibit a better fruit bearing record than those
which have been subject to the highest pruning codes. How far the
proverbial liability of the pear to suffer from blight may be due to the
interference and disarrangement of growths caused by summer prun-
ing it may not be possible to decide, but the tendency to late fall
growths, and the consequent immaturity of wood which is thereby en-
couraged*, is well known to be of much injury and greatly conducive
to disease. Perhaps no advice that has been given is so fruitful a-
cause of failure and disappointment in fruit culture as that embodied
in the brief sentence, " Prune in summer for fruit."

The physiological principle upon which this advice is based is that
which recognizes barrenness in fruit trees as the result of an undue
amount of wood growth, and that, in accordance with acknowledged
laws, any process that will secure a reduction of growth will induce
fruitfulness. The removal of foliage from a tree in active growth will
weaken its vitality by causing a corresponding check to the extension
of roots, but the removal of the mere points of strong shoots has no
palpable effect in checking root growth, the roots proceed to grow and
the sap seeks outlets in other channels, forming new shoots, which in
no way increase the fruitfulness of the plant.

While it may be confidently stated that, as a practical rule, easily
followed, and of general application, summer pruning for fruit can not
be recommended except as an expedient rarely successful, it is also true
that there are certain ueriods in the growth of a plant when the

58

removal of a portion of the shoots would tend to increase the develop-
ment of the remaining buds without causing them to form shoots. For
example, if the growing shoots of a pear tree are shortened or pruned
by removing one-third of their length, say, towards the end of June, the
check will immediately cause the remaining buds on these shoots to
push into growth and produce a mass of twigs as far removed as may
be from fruit-bearing branches. Again, if this pruning is delayed until
August, and the season subsequently proves to be warm and dry, the
probabilities are that the remaining buds will develop into short spur-
like shoots, from which blossom buds may in course of time be formed ;
but if the season continues wet, and mild and growing weather extends
late into the fall, these same shoots will be lengthened into weakly,
slender growths, which never mature, and are of no use whatever.
There is no certainty as to the proper time to summer prune, because
no two seasons are precisely alike, and trees vary in their vigor from
year to year ; and yet this uncertain, indefinite, and constantly experi-
mental procedure is the base upon which the advice to " prune in sum-
mer for fruit " is founded.

The pear tree, in fact, requires very little pruning, and that only so
far as may be necessary to regulate branches in either of two exigencies-
In the first place, when the young tree is placed in its permanent posi-
tion in the orchard its roots will be greatly disturbed and many of them
destroyed; it will therefore be expedient in this exigency to abridge
the branches, so as to restore the balance of growth that existed between
the roots and branches previous to removal.

This pruning at transplanting has its opponents on the theoretical
grounds that, as the formation of roots is dependent upon the action
of leaves, it must follow that the more branches and leaves left upon a
plant the more rapidly will new roots be produced ; but there is one
important element overlooked in this reasoning, namely, the loss of sap
by evaporation, which speedily exhausts the plant, while it has no active
roots to meet the demand. The proper practice is to reduce the branches
so as to give the roots the preponderance, and many kinds of trees
can only be successfully removed by cutting the stem off close to the
ground.

If the tree has been pruned close back at planting, the first summer
will develop the foundation for a well-balanced, symmetrical plant, but
as this result depends upon a good start, it is well to keep an eye on
the young growths during the first season, and if any of the shoots
appear to be developing to the detriment of others equally necessary
for future branches, the points of such shoots should be pinched off,
but in doing so, let there be as small a removal of foliage as possible,
the object being not to weaken, but merely to equalize growth. As a
general rule no advantage will be gained by pruning any portion of the
shoots after the first season, unless in the case of weakly trees, which
will be strengthened by pruning down in winter. The removal of

59

branches during the summer weakens growth, but when a portion of
the branches are removed after growth is completed, the roots, not
having been disturbed, will have the preponderance, and the number of
buds being diminished, those that are left will receive increased vigor.

It should never be forgotten that there is nothing more certain than
that by shortening in or pruning back the ends of shoots, either in sum-
mer or winter, the fruit-producing period is retarded and the fruit-
producing capabilities of the trees abridged. Fruiting spurs will not
form where the growths are constantly interrupted and excited by
pruning; but after the third or fourth year, young shoots will, in the
majority of cases, become covered with fruiting spurs the second year
after their formation, if left to their natural mode and condition of
growth. Of course this refers to trees in soils of moderate fertility,
grown in a climate favorable to the plant.

The only pruning then that is really essential after the plant has be-
come established will be confined to thinning out crowded branches ;
and this forms the second exigency for pruning. If low-headed trees
are preferred, those branches that have become destitute of fruiting
spurs near the body of the tree may be cut out and a young shoot be
allowed to take the place of the one removed. There will be no lack of
young shoots for this purpose, as they will be reproduced from the base
of the cut branch, selecting the strongest and best placed to occupy the
vacancy, if such occupany is desired. This mode of cutting back
branches will be more particularly essential in the case of dwarf pears,
as the quince roots are unable to support a tall, heavy-headed tree, but
in all other respects dwarf pears should be treated the same as standards.

INFLUENCE OF STOCKS ON GJROWTH AND QUALITY OF FRUIT.

In comparing remarks and observations made by different cultivators
with reference to the merits of varieties, their growth, productiveness,
size, and quality of fruit, arid other characteristics, there is found so
great a disparity as to lead to a supposition that different varieties are
being discussed under the same name. No doubt this is occasionally
the case, but the difference caused by the influence of the stock upon
which they are worked is frequently to blame for these discrepancies.
Every nurseryman is aware of the great irregularity of growth in plants
of the same variety ; they may have been grafted at the same time on
stocks of equal size, planted on the same day and in the same soil, yet
their comparative growths will vary considerably ; so much difference
exists that the plants will be classed into two or more sizes and held at
different valuations. Although the vigor of growth is thus varied, the
habit of the variety is not changed, the upright form of growth will still
characterize the Buffum, and the spreading habit of the Kostiezer will
remain with each individual of that variety ; but in a plantation of fifty
of any sort there will be some weak growers and an occasional speci-

60

men that after lingering on in a sickly condition for several years will
finally be removed.

It is reasonable to expect these diversities in the growth of stocks
produced from seed, and the influence they impart to the graft, but it
is seldom that allowance is made for the many peculiarities that may
undoubtedly be traced to this cause. This is still further confirmed by
the more uniform growth of dwarf pears, the stocks of which are pro-
duced from cuttings or layers, and are consequently of more uniform
vigor, being an extension of one individuality instead of the separate
individualities of seedling plants.

BLIGHT.

The greatest drawback to extended pear culture is the disease famil-
iarly known as blight. The predisposing cause of this malady has not
been specifically determined ; the active cause of dissolution is known to
parasitical fungi. This much, however, experience seems to confirm:
that trees placed in positions and under circumstances of soil and cli-
mate that insure a growth of moderate vigor, which growth shall become
perfectly matured and solidified before the advent of winter, are so sel-
dom" attacked by this disease as to be, for all practical purposes, exempt.

A safe practice, and one that will probably become general when
further and extended experiments prove its value, is to cover the body
of the tree and all the principal branches with a wash, formed by plac-
ing 1 peck of lime and 4 pounds of sulphur in a vessel and adding suf-
ficient boiling water to slack the lime. If the white color is objection-
able it can be changed to any other more suitable. The spread of the
fungi on the bark of trees has been arrested by timely applications of
this mixture.

DISTANCES APART FOR PEAR TREES.

The opinion is now becoming prevalent that close planting, so that the
trees shelter each other, is advantageous. For standard trees, 18 feet
apart is considered a good maximum, and 10 feet for dwarfs. These
distances preclude the practicability of using horse-power in the culture
of the soil, at all events after a few year's growth, which, all things being
considered, may be regarded as a step in the right direction.

NATIVE GEAPES.

It is very generally conceded that the culture of native grapes is not
so promising a remunerative industry as could be desired. New varie-
ties, some of them possessing merit, are still being announced, but there
is no improvement in their adaptability to general culture in ordinary
localities. It was formerly the custom to compare the grape zone, as it
was called, to that of Indian corn, which was intended to convey the
idea that where this crop would mature the native grape would also

61

reach maturity. So far as heat and cold are involved in temperatures,
this criterion is probably nearly correct, the amount of heat necessary
to insure a crop of corn being also sufficient to mature most of the va-
rieties of cultivated grapes which have been derived from our native
northern species ; but the numerous failures in profitable grape cul-
ture prove that other factors besides those of heat and cold have an im-
portant influence upon the health of a vineyard.

To those who are conversant with the history of the progress of grape
culture in the United States for the past 30 years and have acquainted
themselves with the cause of varying failures and successes, it must
seem difficult to account for the fact that grape-growers in general have
been slow, and apparently unwilling, to recognize the true reason for
most of the failures which occur. In some of the earliest reports of the
Department of Agriculture the statement was dwelt upon that the
greatest obstacle to complete success in grape culture could be referred
to the deterioration of the plants consequent upon the injury they sus-
tained from mildew on the leaves. This explanation of failure was not
generally considered as conclusive. Both grape-growers and authors
of treatises on grape culture, especially the latter, usually referred fail-
ures to some other cause or causes, which were expressed by the phrase
"improper treatment," and this was considered a sufficient answer to
all inquiries regarding failures.

This profound explanation was generally accompanied by the further
advice that by giving vineyards " proper treatment" they would be ex-
empt from failure or loss. When called upon to define " improper " and
"proper" treatment, the answers would be often contradictory, and
more frequently unsatisfactory. This want of recognition of the true
source of trouble has been greatly against progressive grape culture.
Yarieties ot grapes much lauded for their superior qualities have been
procured at great expense and extensively planted, the result only add-
ing another disappointment to the planter. The main cause of failure
has been frequently pointed out, and from time to time the Department
has published lists of those varieties best adapted to general culture,
as also those which require special localities, and further experience
has borne conclusive evidence of the value and accuracy of these re-
ports. It was distinctly shown, and it is now clearly admitted, that the
distinguishing feature of a good grape climate is that where there is
entire absence of mildew on the foliage or on the fruit of the vines.
While making this statement prominent it is not forgotten that heavy
losses are occasioned by rot in the berry. This disease is not, however,
confined to varieties subject to leaf mildew, but it is equally prevalent
in those which are rarely attacked by it. We need no stronger proof
of the influence that the presence or absence of mildew on the leaves
of our native grapes has upon the determination of their value than
to turn to the list of the varieties which are most extensively cultivated,

62

when it will be found that they are valued more because of their free-
dom from disease than from the qualities of their fruit.

Again, it is clearly ascertained that the most fatal species of mildew
is caused by dampness, so that the further statement may be made that
where we find a locality in which grapes are specially remunerative we
will find that its climate is characterized by the absence of heavy dews.
It is only in these latter localities and under their special conditions
that the best varieties afford a profitable return. Where heavy dews
prevail during the summer mouths it has been found unsatisfactory to
cultivate such varieties as the lona, Walter, Eumelan, Diana, Croton,
Delaware, Catawba, and others of first excellence. Partial success may
sometimes be attained, owing to local conditions of protection and shel-
ter; and, as has long been thoroughly demonstrated and reported, all
these varieties can be grown to perfection when they are protected from
heavy dews, either by artificial or natural expedients, such as those
of covering the trellis upon which they are tied by a canopy of boards,
canvas, or glass, or by allowing the vines to grow up in trees whose
foliage will protect that of the vine.

But little further progress can be attained in the culture of the grape,
either for table use or for the manufacture of wine, until a. distinction
is practically recognized between the species and their varieties which
are severally best suited for these respective purposes. In Europe,
where all the cultivated grapes are said to have been produced from one
species, the varieties are numerous, but they are divided into distinct
classes based upon their values as regards suitableness for wine, for
table use, or for drying into raisins.

In the United States we have several distinct native species, from one
or other of which have been originated all the varieties now in cultiva-
tion. The only classification of these which has been presented look-
ing to the arrangement of varieties under the species from which they
have been produced will be found at page 81. of the Eeport of the De-
partment of Agriculture for the year 1869. An attempt was there made
to draw attention to the most valuable peculiarities of the different spe-
cies, peculiarities which are more or less inherited by the varieties which
have originated from them, as also the climates to which they seemed
best adapted. Since then some attention has been given to the signifi-
cance and importance of the points embraced in that classification, but
the subject is still unrecognized by the majority of those engaged in
grape culture.

The idea that our native grapes would be more rapidly improved by
securing hybrid kinds between them and the foreign species has long
been entertained ; and, although it has constantly been argued by some
that no good result could be obtained, yet of late years much attention
has been directed to this mode of improvement, and, as was to be ex-
pected, varieties of very superior merits have been produced, many of
them equal to the best of the foreign varieties, in flavor as well as in

63

appearance, but no variety so produced has yet proved able to maintain
itself as worthy of general cultivation ; in fact, they are altogether un-
reliable except under conditions where even foreign grapes can be raised
with a good degree of success. This is much to be regretted, but it is
nevertheless the truth that nothing of value and reliability has by this
means been added to our list of hardy grapes, and all experience, so
far, in this direction only tends to prove the wisdom of the advice given
many years ago that the line of improvement should be confined to
hybridizing our native species with each other, and by selection ulti-
mately procure varieties of reputed merit both for table use and for the
manufacture of wines. But this improvement can not be systemat-
ically pursued unless accompanied by a very distinct and clear under-
standing of the respective merits of American species.

Until quite recently varieties of the fox grape ( Vitis labrusca) have
mostly been produced, and these have been recommended and culti-
vated both for wine and table use, and but little attention has been
given to the improvement of other species, notwithstanding that the
summer grape (Vitis cestivalis) and its varieties have vastly superior
merits as wine grapes. No better evidence of this fact need be desired
than the estimate given to these wines in foreign countries. Most of
the American wines which have been specially recognized at foreign
expositions have been the products of this class of grapes. But the
ultimate value of these grapes will not be realized until vineyards of
them are established in localities where they can be ripened. They
require a longer warm season than suffices for varieties of the labrusca
family; consequently they are not successfully grown in localities where
the improved fox grapes are most largely cultivated, and for that reason
the summer grapes are but little known, and in the localities where
they may be produced in perfection the culture of wine grapes has not
yet become an established industry.

Among the best known varieties of this eminently wine-producing
species may be mentioned the Lenoir, Herbermont, Devereaux, Alvey,
Cynthiana, and Norton's Virginia Seedling. These varieties yield wines
of very high excellence and of varied qualities. But they can only be
grown to perfection in certain locations in the States of North Carolina,
Virginia, and other States having similar climates.

It therefore appears probable that in the further improvement of
hardy grapes these peculiarities of species and the purposes for which
they are best adapted must receive more attention than has hitherto
been given them.

GEAPES— MILDEW.

ID some of the earlier reports of this Department much attention was
given to grape mildew, its causes and preventions, with practical deduc-
tions based upon extended observations on the subject.

In the report for 1865 mildew is characterized as " the great obstacle

64

in the way of extended grape culture," and a summary of some points is
made as follows :

The Peronospora, or mildew, which attacks the leaves on their under surface, is
encouraged by the atmospherical conditions accompanying dull, cloudy weather,
with occasional showers; or when heavy dews are deposited in positions where the
rays of the sun can not penetrate, or at least where the moisture can not readily
be evaporated. That, so far as is known, no peculiar constitution of soil or mode of
soil culture has any influence on its prevention. That, so far as is known, no mode
of pruning or training, except so far as they agree with the next paragraph, has
any effect in warding off the disease. That shelter and protection by covered trel-
lises, or masses of foliage, will greatly modify if not entirely prevent injury from
mildew.

The distinguishing peculiarity of a good grape climate is, primar-
ily, that of an entire absence of mildew on the foliage. The pres-
ence of water or moisture on the leaves is necessary for the extension
of mildew, therefore the best grape climates in this country are those
of greatest immunity from dews.

A covered grape trellis was described in the Patent Office report
for 1861. A trellis similar to that described was erected in the garden
of this Department in the spring of 1803. The grapevines grown on
this trellis were entirely free from mildew on the leaves and from rot in
the fruit, and many varieties ripened under this protection that failed
to mature on common trellises a few yards distant on account of the
failure of the leaves during summer from mildew. The philosophy of
the action of protection in this particular case seems to be its tendency
to arrest radiation of heat, thus protecting the foliage from the cooling
effects of night temperatures, which in turn prevents condensation of
atmospheric moisture on the leaves, thereby checking, to a certain
extent, the predisposing cause of mildew.

In experimenting with registering thermometers it was found that
during clear, still nights of July, an exposed thermometer, projecting
four feet from the covered trellis, would mark from 6° to 10° lower
than would a thermometer fastened to the trellis ; the foliage being
thus kept warmer and drier on the protected plants, mildew was in real-
ity prevented. It was also found that the fruit ripened on protected
vines some time before that on vines not protected.

It would therefore appear that the best grape climates or localities
would be those where dews were light or altogether absent. Such lo-
calities can be found. Indeed, it may be observed that wherever native
grape culture has become popular and extensive it is in localities where
exemption from heavy or frequent dews prevail. The localities may be
found either surrounded by large bodies of water or on hillsides at cer-
tain elevations.

The influence of large bodies of water in ameliorating climates is
well authenticated, and is often turned to practical advantage in fruit
culture. Briefly stated, the water accumulates heat as warm weather
prevails* which is radiated at night, and its influence is felt on vegeta-

65

tion in islands, which may occur as well for a considerable distance in-
land from the margin of the water. The presence of this stratum of
air is evidenced by the absence of light frosts during late fall, and the
freshness of vegetation as far as the heated atmosphere extends, while
immediately beyond its influence a wintry aspect prevails.

In this case the cause of exemption from cold also prevents the for-
mation of dew, and is so far favorable to the healthy growth and free-
dom from mildew of the grape.

Again, in districts where hills and valleys are closely and distinctly
defined, there are, at certain elevations on the hillsides, a zone
or belt where dews are not known and where frosts are modified. The
width of this belt varies according to the degree of cold and, to some
extent, configuration of surface, but it exists in all countries that are
traversed by high mountains and deep valleys. Several years ago,
when collecting data on this subject, a correspondent in Matjon County,
North Carolina, wrote as follows:

The frost line is not permanently fixed at any particular height on a mountain, but
takes a higher or lower range according to the degree of frost that produces it ;
within the space of 11 years its maximum height has been 300, and its minimum
height 125 feet, vertical. Another fact ascertained is that there is no fixed dew line
on our mountain sides, but that it gradually abates as you ascend, and at the height
of 300 feet the dew is too Ifght to produce either rot in the berry of the grape-
vine or mildew on its leaves. Hence we understand why the thermal zone is both
warm and dry. I will not venture to say that the grape will never rot within the
limits of that zone, but I can say that the Catawba grape is altogether unreliable
when planted in our low valleys, but where the vines are growing on the slopes of
the mountains they have not failed to ripen their fruit for more than 30 years, whether
the season was wet or dry. It is a fact that all attempts to cultivate the grape in
our low damp valleys have utterly failed, the plants invariably being destroyed by
mildew on the leaves, while the few vines that grow upon the small farms lying
high up on the mountain sides have ever matured their fruit in the greatest perfec-
tion.

In view of these facts, I say confidently that any well-conducted effort at grape
culture will succeed, whether it be upon the slopes of our Alleghauies or upon the
mountain sides that skirt the valleys of more northern States, and all that is required
to insure success is to ascertain where this warm belt is, and to plant the vine within
its limits.

In the report of the Department for 1867 mention is made of the
great success in grape culture in the region near Harnrnondsport, Steu-
beu County, New York. Here the Catawba and other late grapes ma-
ture and reach remarkable perfection, taking the latitude into consid-
eration. These vineyards are mostly on hillsides extending for several
hundred feet above the valley and surface of Keuka Lake. The soil is
a drift formation, and the surface is thickly covered with loose shale.
The marked adaptability of this locality for grape culture may be
attributed to its elevation and nature of the soil. The general elevation
of the land prevents the deposition of heavy dews, and as it is supple-
mented by the heat absorbed during the day by the abounding stony
Surfaces, mildew is unknown, and the growth proceeds unchecked until

66

it is arrested by frost. There is a happy combination of favorable con-
ditions; the soil is of a character that insures a healthy but not over-
luxuriant growth ; the young shoots commence to mature at an early
period during the summer, and when they cease to lengthen they are
brown and hard up to their extreme points. Then the fruit is fully
ripened, and the quality is of the best, for thoroughly ripened grapes
can not be gathered from immature growths.

I consider this matter of selecting good grape-growing localities as
of the greatest importance at the present time. In all localities where
mildew prevails successful grape culture can not*be realized without
constant vigilance in the application of correctives and preventives,
and even these can not always be depended upon. Failures will occur
under the best management where the environments are inimical to
best success, and in no event can an imperfect climate compare with a
perfect one. In view of the fact that perfect localities for grape culture
can be selected under climatic conditions of the most favorable char-
acter for the protection of the best vines, the subject can not be too
strongly urged for the consideration of cultivators of the grape.

PROPAGATING NATIVE GRAPES.

For the past few years most of the grapes raised in the garden have
been propagated in beds in the open air. Hard, well-ripened wood is
selected and made into cuttings, which are each about 4 inches in
length. Whether the cutting contains one bud or eye, or more, is not
important, and if a single eye can be obtained with 3 inches of wood
attached, it is considered a good cutting, although lengths which are
under 3 inches are looked upon as uncertain should the weather during
the early portion of summer prove to be hot and dry.

The ground is prepared by turning it over to a depth of 12 inches in
the fall, leaving it as rough as possible, so that it may be effectually
permeated by frosts. As early in spring as the ground can be worked
the surface is carefully forked over and broken up as minutely as prac-
ticable; it is important that the soil should be deeply pulverized.

Previous to inserting the cuttings the surface, is further broken by
using a rake having iron teeth 4 inches in length. This operation does
not merely consist in raking over the surface, but in pushing the rake
to and fro to the full length of the teeth, so as to thoroughly comminute
the soil as deep as they will reach.

The beds are marked off in breadths of 10 feet, with 3 feet wide alleys
between. The cuttings are inserted in rows across the beds ; they are
placed about 2 inches apart, and the rows are formed about 6 inches
from each other, so as to admit of a narrow hoe to be run between
them.

To avoid tramping on the soil a wide board is used to stand upon

67

while planting the cuttings. The whole of the catting is pushed into
the soil, so that the upper bud or end (the cutting being closely cut
above a bud) is level with the surface.

The bed is afterwards covered over with a layer an inch in depth,
consisting of a light friable soil ; pure sand may be used if nothing
better can be procured ; a mixture made of ou'e part of sand and one-
half rotten tan bark is preferable to the pure sand ; swamp muck, dried
and pulverized, so that the finer portions of it can be secured by sifting,
forms the very best material for this purpose. In the garden of the
Department the sweepings of the streets are sifted and used with good
results.

When the buds of the cuttings commence to swell an additional half
inch or more of the covering is evenly distributed over the surface. The
young shoots push vigorously through the surface dressing, and it
serves as a mulch to retain moisture during summer. Although the
cuttings are rather closely set, owing to the limited area of the grounds,
yet the largest portion of the plants are sufficiently strong for perma-
nent planting when 1 year old.

FOREIGN GRAPES IN GLASS STRUCTURES.

The simplicity and certainty with which the foreign grape can be
produced in glazed houses is not generally known. Many amateurs,
whose success with other fruits is quite satisfactory, feel doubtful of
their ability to manage the exotic grapery.

To those whose only acquaintance with the subject is derived' from
perusing publications on the growth of the fruit the supposition of in-
ability is pardonable, for there is certainly much to appal the beginner
in perusing the various ideas of soil and border making, the conflicting
opinions relative to watering, and the multitudinous, fussy details of
management which he will find in print.

So much has been written of late years on this subject that it would
not now be referred to were it not with a hope that information might
be imparted that would tend to dispel the i'lea of difficulty or mystery
in connection with the culture of this, without exception, most economi-
cal of fruit productions. It is well known that in favorable locations
the Ohasselas, Black Hamburg, and many other of the varieties of the
foreign grape will occasionally produce perfectly ripened fruit with no
further care than that usually given to the Isabellas, or any other
native variety. But although the result may occasionally be reached,
it is well known that all attempts to cultivate the foreign grape in the
open air east of the Rocky Mountains have sooner or later proved abor-
tive.

That these failures are attributable either to a deficiency of sunlight
or to a deficiency of summer heat are questions easily answered j for

68

we find that in the climate of Britain, where the dull, sunless days are
more abundant, and the summer heat of less intensity and of shorter
duration than with us, the Hamburg and other exotic grapes ripen
yearly trained on outside walls and trellises, and this in a climate where
the heat is not sufficient to mature Indian corn, tomatoes, or even
peaches in common field culture, as with us. Neither can it be sup-
posed that our own summers are too hot or our winters too cold, as it
is well known that there is scarcely any plant that will not withstand
extremes of summer heat and winter cokl so well as the grape pro-
vided it maintains good health. But, unfortunately, there are climatic
conditions here during which the grape is rendered subject to the
attack of fungoids, by which its growth is checked, the wood prevented
from maturing, and a general debility engendered which enfeebles the
plant to a degree that sooner or later ends in its total destruction.

This tendency to mildew is, then, the only obstacle in the way of
successful open-air culture in this section of the best wine and table
grapes of Europe, and is the only reason why glass structures have to
be employed in their culture, where an artificial temperature, more in
accordance with their requirements, may be maintained. The tendency
to mildew in the foreign grape having been found so great a barrier to
its extended culture in the open air, recourse was had to glass houses,
where protection could be afforded and means adopted for the exclu-
sion of this malady ; but in many cases even here success has not been
equal to expectations. The mistaken eagerness of many to keep the
plants in an artificial instead of a natural condition has led to frequent
failures. It appears very obvious that a plant which occasionally suc-
ceeds in the absence of any particular protection would be enabled to
do so uniformly by a very slight additional care, provided that this
additional care was bestowed in the proper direction ; and that such is
the case has been proved beyond a doubt.

Having on another page of this report treated more particularly on
mildew and its origin, it may suffice to remark here, that it is altogether
dependent upon the amount of atmospheric moisture and proper venti-
lation; and without proper attention to these points, mildew is just as
likely to destroy the plants under glass as it would be those in the open
air. Keeping in view that these remarks are intended to refer to the
general routine management of what is now more definitely known by
the term cold grapery, we will briefly allude to what is considered the
main points of treatment.

The principal points, then, are a low night temperature, exclusive top
ventilation, and the constant presence of moisture available for evapo-
ration. The baneful effects of a high temperature in plant houses has
V>eeu shown in previous reports. It has been proved repeatedly that
Jow or bottom ventilation in a grapery is conducive tQ mildew, and
aridity must be prevented by the presence of moisture.

69

It would require considerable space to enter fully into the elucidation
of all the principles involved ; it will, therefore, be considered sufficient
for the present to briefly trace the course of practice deduced from
many years7 extended observation and experience in the growth of the
foreign grape.

As soon as spring growth commences attention is at once directed to
the night temperature, so that it will fall at least 20° below the
average heat in the house during the day. In dull, cloudy weather,
of course, this difference between day and night may not be so great,
and if the nights are frosty it will be necessary to close the house ; but
in the absence of actual external freezing the ventilators should not be
wholly closed, even during the night. When all danger from night
frosts is passed — which will vary, according to locality, from the mid-
dle of May to the middle of June — the ventilators may be left open day
and night. During dull, cold weather it may be necessary to partially
close the ventilation both day and night ; but, as a general rule, the
same amount is used day and night. We have seen graperies where
the ventilators were never disturbed from the period of blossoming
until the ripening of the fruit. No constant anxiety is, therefore, felt
about shutting or opening sashes, and the liability to create sudden
changes of temperature, that frequent alterations of the ventilators are
sure to produce, are prevented. The temperature of the house will,
therefore, participate in the general changes of external atmosphere,
and though warm during sunlight, will be cool during darkness. Dur-
ing the warmest part of the summer the day temperature may vary
from 90° to 100° by day to 65° to 80° during the night. This lower-
ing of temperature during darkness insures a hardihood of growth
that enables the plants to endure any unfavorable change that may
occur, without sustaining the least injury.

As air is heated its capacity for abstracting and containing moisture
increases, and unless the moisture is supplied from other sources it will
be drawn from the plants. To supply this evaporation, the soil in the
house should be kept damp on the surface. Once a day at least m
bright weather the soil will require to be sprinkled. It is a good rule
never to allow the surface soil to be entirely dry until the fruit is color-
ing to ripen ; but it is important to know that, unless in connection
with constantly night ventilation, this treatment may prove injurious.

So far as the management of the atmosphere is concerned, this is all
the care required, and a crop of grapes is thus as easily grown as a
crop of potatoes, only with more certainty, because more under our
control.

With regard to soil, pruning, etc., we will at present only remark,
that soil capable of growing good cabbages will grow good grapes, and
the strongest yearly growths give the best fruit.

70

INSIDE BORDERS FOR GRAPERIES.

It has been strenuously advocated that the soil in which foreign
grapes are grown should be wholly under the glass, and many of these
structures have been so arranged, but not with successful or satisfac-
tory results. There were two very distinct and seemingly weighty rea-
sons urged by those who advocated this mode, first, that in the case of
forcing houses it was essential to have the soil for the roots in the same
temperature as the branches; and, second, that in the case of cold
graperies, when the borders are exposed, the roots are influenced by
rains during the ripening of the fruit, retarding maturity and inducing
rot in the bunches. These results may be guarded against by the use
of inside borders; nevertheless, as ordinarily managed, they have
proved failures. They are useful to a certain extent where early-
forced fruit is an especial object of culture. The plants will succeed
for a few years very satisfactorily, and by a renewal of both plants and
soil from time to time the practice may be sustained ; but, in the man-
agement of what are termed cold graperies, the ordinary warmth of the
soil is all-sufficient; and as far as regards the second consideration,
viz, the protection of the roots from heavy rains when the crop is attain-
ing maturity, that may be secured by less costly expedients ; light
wooden shutters have been used for covering the borders, and when
the surface is sloping a covering of leaves or straw will answer every
purpose. The main reason for alluding to these borders here is for the
purpose of noting that where it is practicable to remove the sashes or
roof, so as fully to expose the border to the action of the weather for a
period extending from the ripening of the wood until forcing again com-
mences, it will tend to maintain the healthy action of the soil for a long
series of years. Winter rains, snows, and slight frosts are all of great
benefit, as has been fully realized with an inside grape border in this
garden.

THRIPS OF GRAPES.

For several years the foreign grapes under glass have been severely
injured by thrips. All efforts and expedients to eradicate them have
been but partially effective. During the early part of the growing sea-
son the insects could be kept in check, either by fumigations with to-
bacco, syringing with water in which tobacco had been steeped, or
spraying the foliage with a weak solution of quassia chips; but when
the fruit approached maturity, or rather when it commenced to color,
these applications had to be discontinued, so that the fruit would not
be rendered unfit for use; then the insects would increase rapidly and
injure the foliage so that the fruit became comparatively worthless.
Further than this, the annual destruction of the foliage before the
growth was matured was gradually weakening the plants, so that their

71

utter destruction was only a question of time unless some means could
be adopted to annihilate the insects.

This means has been adopted. It consists simply in covering the
floor of the house with tobacco-stems, the refuse of cigar manufactories;
this mulching proves quite effectual, as, since the application was made,
no thrips have been seen, and, although the insect has spread consid-
erably before the tobacco-stems were used, they rapidly disappeared
after the application.

It is perhaps worthy of remark that since using the tobacco mulch-
ing no sign of mildew has been observed on the grapes. Of course it
is known that mildew may be avoided by strict attention to ventilation,
but in the early part of the season, when the ventilators have to be
closed at night and opened during the morning, it is not always prac-
ticable to prevent cold currents of air from striking some portions of
the foliage, a circumstance which will induce fungus growths on the
leaves ; not the slightest indication of mildew has been observed since
the tobacco-stems were sprinkled over the floor.

PKOPAGATING BY CUTTINGS.

To be successful in any pursuit it is very necessary that we should
be conversant with the rationale upon which our operations are
founded, and in no horticultural process does this apply with so much
force as in plant propagation by cuttings.

There is, however, much in connection with this subject that remains
unexplained. We know not why it is that some plants will propagate
readily, while others, seemingly of similar structure, with the greatest
tardiness and difficulty.

A cutting may be described as a portion of the branch of a plant that
is removed and placed in a position to form roots, so as to become an
independent individual, possessing all the properties and being a liv-
ing representation of the original from which it was taken. Cuttings
are of various kinds. Young, tender shoots, perfectly matured growths,
and wood in all stages of maturity intermediate between these ex-
tremes are used for cuttings.

The best condition of wood growth also varies with the kind of plant.
This is a question that can only be ascertained by experiment. We
know of no external appearance that will indicate the special propor-
tionate arrangement of the constituents of plants most favorable for
the formation of roots from cuttings.

As an extension of roots is dependent upon the previous or simul-
taneous action of foliage, it is found that in general the best shoots
for propagation are those possessing a considerable portion of the or-
ganized matter consequent upon a ripening of wood growth, but in
which the process of vegetation is still in full operation ; in other
words, those shoots that have commenced to mature, but are still

72

possessed of healthy and active foliage, familiarly termed " half-ripened
wood."

The art of" striking " cuttings mainly consists in guarding against
the exhaustion of the sap of the shoot by evaporation until the roots
are formed to support it.

The various expedients resorted to, such as keeping the cutting in
close frames, covering them with bell glasses, shading from sun, etc.,
have for their object the preservation of the juices of the shoot.

The reason for the adoption of these expedients being known, their
necessity in individual cases will be readily understood. The greatest
care is required in the case of young, tender cuttings, and the least
with those of matured wood. Cuttings of the latter frequently succeed
when planted in the open air without further care or attention. On the
other hand, a young succulent cutting, furnished with one or more
leaves, must be carefully guarded against excess of light and aridity.
Shading from bright sun will be required to prevent the foliage from
wilting, and its surrounding atmosphere must be sufficiently moist to
prevent evaporation from its surfaces.

The great stimulants of vegetable life are heat, air, light, and mois-
ture, and in the management of cuttings these must be regulated with
care and precision.

"Under certain conditions, cuttings will grow and will produce a few
leaves without any attempt at the formation of roots, while under dif-
ferent circumstances the same kind of cuttings will produce roots with-
out indicating the slightest symptoms of bud growth. Heat is the
active stimulant of the vital forces of plants, and when the atmosphere
by which they are surrounded is of a comparatively higher temperature
than the soil in which they are placed, the branches are excited before
the roots receive any impulse. On the contrary, when the soil is warmer
than the air, the root-forming process will be active, although the
branches show no indication of growth. Of course neither of these
conditions can continue exclusively for any lengthened period, for with-
out a reciprocal action all growth will in time cease. These effects
are frequently illustrated in tree planting in spring. Towards the lat-
ter portion of spring and the early part of summer the air is many de-
grees warmer than the soil ; the heated atmosphere excites the buds,
and leaves are developed j but the recently disturbed roots in the colder
soil have not yet been excited, and are not in a state to supply the de-
mands of the foliage, the juices of the tree are soon exhausted, and the
promised healthy growth suddenly and hopelessly checked.

The main point of consideration, therefore, in the management of
cuttings, so far as mere application of heat is concerned, is to stimulate
into action the processes carried on in the vessels of the cutting in-
serted in the soil, while the upward bud growth is retarded. This is
secured by heating the soil and not heating the air. The rule is that
cuttings should be kept in an atmospherical temperature as low as the

73

nature of the plant will allow, and the soil in which they are inserted
should be as high as the roots will endure. The more completely these
conditions are maintained the greater the certainty of success, and with
ordinary care few failures need occur.

" Bottom heat," as it is termed, or a warming of the soil, may be at-
tained by various means. Those whose requirements are extensive
usually have a structure specially fitted for the purposes of propaga-
tion, where the soil is heated by hot water either in pipes or wooden
or cement tanks. The latter mode is perhaps the best ; but where the
quantity desired is limited to the wants of an ordinary flower garden
or greenhouse no special structure need be necessary. A small hot
bed, with frame, will afford considerable convenience ; and those who
have a greenhouse may form one of the best propagating shelves
by inclosing a portion of the heating channel, whether flue or pipes, at
the warmest end, so as to form a tight chamber, with the heater pass-
ing through it. Usually there is a front shelf in greenhouses over the
heating apparatus, so that by simply inclosing a space below it an air-
chamber will be formed, where the heat will collect and warm a bed of
sand or soil laid on the shelf. For all ordinary purposes this will be
found sufficient, and the space can be enlarged to suit the wants of the
propagator.

SOWING SEEDS.

The Department is frequently in receipt of letters wherein the writers
complain of their inability to raise plants from seeds distributed by it,
as well as from those procured from other sources. The cause of fail-
ure is at once attributed to the quality of the seeds, and the source
from whence they were obtained is denounced for sending out a bad
article. It is safe to state that good seeds are the rule, and bad seeds
the rare exception. So far as the Department is concerned, there is
proof of their good qualities, as most of them are germinated and the
plants grown here ; and every respectable seedsman in the country uses
all the precautions that experience and business competition suggests
in order to secure seeds of the best quality. The truth is that they fail
to germinate because they are improperly managed ; and of all the causes
of failure the most frequent is that of covering them too deeply with
soil, where they either rot, owing to the excess of water and want of air,
or the feeble germ is unable to overcome the weight of soil it has to
move before reaching the light. The proper depth for each seed must be
judged by its appearance. The rule has been given to cover with a depth
of soil equal to the diameter of the seed, which is probably as nearly
correct and as definite as can be reached. The greatest difficulty is in case
of small seeds, which succeed best when merely scattered on the sur-
face and pressed into the soil. In the moist atmosphere of a greenhouse
or similar structure they will do very well; but when sown in the open

74

air expedients must be used in order to keep the earth suitably moist,
such as sprinkling the surface with chaff, moss, leaves, or straw, taking
care to remove immediately after the seeds germinate. This will also
prevent the soil from becoming hard and compact, and thereby obviate
another cause of failure. It is also a fatal error to sow too early; the
soil should be dry, friable, and warm in order to excite germination and
maintain an uninterrupted healthy growth. Unhealthy plants are
sure to result when heat and moisture are presented in varying quanti-
ties to the tender germ.

Seeds that are inclosed in a hard shell vegetate most freely when sown
as soon as ripe. For instance, seeds of the grape, if planted immediately
when the fruit is ripe, will vegetate in a few weeks, but if kept dry
until the following spring and then sown but few will vegetate until
they have lain in the soil for twelve months.

SEED-SAVING.

Whether it is best for farmers and gardeners to save their own seed
or make yearly purchases depends very much upon circumstances, or
rather upon the particular kinds of seeds in question and the manner
of saving them. Seed-raising is a business which requires skill in cul-
ture and great discriminating knowledge, which can only be acquired
by observant practice. As a general rule it is cheaper in the long run
to buy seeds than attempt to save them ; this remark applies with
greater force to the seeds of improved varieties than species which are
reproduced with more certainty from seeds. It is one of the great arts
in seed-raising to keep varieties true to their descriptive peculiarities,
and with some kinds of seeds this requires an amount of attention and
labor of which the majority of those who purchase seeds have but a
faint conception. As an example we will specify the cabbage, and in
the first place we would remark that it is now held that cabbage seed
raised near the seacoast is always better than that raised inland ; so
confident of this are the market gardeners around New York that they
endeavor to procure their early cabbage seed from growers on the east-
ern Atlantic side- of Long Island. The seed raiser is, as a matter of
course, very careful as to the seeds he sows for his cabbage crop ; but
in order that any variety should be maintained as near to its perfection
as possible, the crop is carefully inspected after the plants have headed,
and all those that do not come up to the perfect standard in regard to
compactness, size, shape, and time of heading are destroyed, and only
those which pass inspection are retained. The seed dealer who acquires
a reputation for care and accuracy in this matter can sell his seed at
highly remunerative prices, which may be double the amount asked by
others for the same variety, but which has been carelessly and indis-
criminately saved. Varieties must always be grown very widely apart
for seed, for so far as bees can fly there is danger of crossing with other

75

and inferior kinds. Of course any farmer or gardener who uses the
same precautions can have similar results, but where the attempt is
made to grow several varieties in one field the distinctive characteris-
tics of each variety can not be maintained.

Climates have also much to do in the matter of seed-saving. When
seeds are grown in a climate unsuited to their best maturity they will
perpetuate a weak progeny. For example, the oat plant requires a
cool, moist climate for its perfect development ; hence seed oats grown
in a warm, dry climate are very inferior. In countries suited to the
plant it is not difficult to find seed that will weigh 45 pounds and more
per bushel. Yet these heavy seeds if sown in the middle States will
rapidly deteriorate ; no matter how carefully crops may be managed
an annual shortage will be found both in the quantity and quality. In
cases of this kind it is the best economy to procure seeds from the best
localities, for no efforts towards acclimation will prove of any value.

But in climates entirely suited to the growth and full development
of a plant it is possible to gradually improve its qualities by carefully
selecting seeds from the most perfect plants only, and this is within the
reach of every person who desires to save his own seeds.

Then the question of cost may be considered. Those who make a
business of growing seeds can do so much more advantageously in most
cases than the amateur in this line. We know that there is often much
complaint about bad seeds, but in most instances these complaints have
originated through bad management in sowing. The most common
mistakes are those of covering the seeds too deeply with soil and negli-
gence in firming the surface after the seeds are sown ; rolling the sur-
face after seeding is one of the most important points in seeding.

ROTATION IN CROPPING.

It may be surmised that the necessity for rotation of crops soon be-
came apparent to the earlier cultivators. They would discover that
their best efforts in appliances were unavailable in maintaining a con-
tinuous profitable growth of the same kind of plant on the same soil.
When soils became unproductive it was supposed that the land required
rest, hence the practice of fallowing was introduced. Fallowing was
a common practice among the Romans. It was their usual course to
allow the land to rest after each crop — a crop and a year's fallow suc-
ceeding each other. Where manure was applied two crops were taken,
and on some lands several crops were taken between the fallowing
periods. It was a very natural deduction that the land required rest
when observation showed that after successive crops of the same plant
it refused to grow, although the land had not apparently diminished in
fertility.

The agriculture of the ancient Egyptians being confined to the banks
and lowlands adjacent to rivers, where from annual overflows a rich

76

deposit of mud and sand was left on the surface, which formed an an-
nual layer of. fresh material, did not include the process of fallowing or
resting lands, because constant fertility was maintained by the annual
top dressing which was left by receding waters.

The practice of resting and fallowing soils, or that of changing the
crops more or less systematically, has always been tound to be advan-
tageous, although the reasons for its necessity have not been satisfac-
torily explained.

Various theories have been offered by physiologists explanatory of
the principles upon which the benefits of rotative cropping depends.
Modern chemistry has shown that plants require certain mineral sub-
stances for their support, and that although the same primary elements
may be found in all, yet they are found to be in very difterent propor-
tions in different kinds, some showing a mere trace of a substance which
may abound in others. These mineral matters being obtained from the
soil, it follows that if they are not present in sufficient quantities, or do
not exist in a sufficiently soluble state so as to be taken up by the roots,
the plant which demands them for its normal growth must suffer in
consequence of such deficiency 5 and in regard to specific inorganic
substances, it is evident that the plant which requires a large percent-
age of such would fail to succeed where another plant requiring only
a trace of the substance would maintain a healthy growth. Some
plants require much potash or soda, some much lime, others a large
proportion of silica. A rotation which would allow these plants to fol-
low each other in succesion, or cause one crop which requires only a
small quantity of any particular inorganic substance to succeed another
which requires that substance in large amount, would consequently be
beneficial.

Taking these facts as a basis, the theory is propounded that the ne-
cessity for a rotation of crops is caused by the exhaustion of certain
inorganic substances which, if supplied in due quantities, would insure
the successful growth of the same plant on the same soil for an indefi
nite period. But in the absence of the knowledge indispensably nec-
essary for an accurate estimate of the exact quantities required, a sys-
tem of rotation is not only advisable but it is the only resource of the
cultivator until science determines the exact specific relations ^hich
exist between the plant and the soil from whence it receives its food.

The deductions naturally following the above explanation regarding
plant food led to the supposition that chemical analysis would indicate
with a degree of certainty the exact line of practice to be followed in
regard to rotation of crops, or perhaps obviate the necessity for any
change except that of convenience. This was to be effected by analyz-
ing the soil and the plant to be grown in it, so that the ingredients
removed by the latter could be replaced, and thus the fertility of the
soil indefinitely maintained. But at present there are no indications
that such accurate knowledge is forthcoming, neither the analyses of

77

soils nor the analyses of plants furnishing the data seemingly neces-
sary for practical purposes.

The phenomena attending tbe growth of certain crops for a series of
years on the same soil apparently includes certain factors that are not
readily explained. For instance, it is observed that even in the case of
such humble plants as the petunia and verbena, if they are continued
for a few years in the same ground they will cease to give satisfaction,
even although the soil is annually manured with ground bones, rotted
stable" manure, or other kinds of ordinary manurial applications. In
flower gardens, when it is desired to grow these plants year after year
in the same spot, it is found necessary to renew the soil yearly by re-
moving 6 or 8 inches from the surface and replacing it by fresh earth
from other sources.

The same results have been found in the culture of the grape. For a
number of years past it has been customary for the Department to
propagate several thousands of plants, embracing many varieties of
native grapes. These are mostly grown from single-eye cuttings in
sand beds under glass, and placed singly in pots when rooted. About
the end of May they are turned out of the pots and planted out in the
open field rather closely in rows which are about 3 feet apart. When
they have finished growth for the season they are lifted and removed
from the field, the ground receives a coating of rotted^ manure, which
is either plowed in or worked with a spade, leaving the surface rough,
to be acted upon by the frost. In the following spring the surface is
again worked over and the soil placed in good order for planting. At
the proper period young grapes are again planted as before. These are
removed at the end of the season, and the ground receives similar
treatment to that of the previous year. Notwithstanding this treat-
ment the third crop is very indifferent, and if a fourth crop is planted
it will prove to be an entire failure.

Experience shows that by selecting a field which has never been
occupied with grapes the young plants will make an average growth of
about 4 feet in length the first year ; the average growth of the second
year will reach about 2 feet; the growth of the third year will be ex-
ceedingly weak, the best plants reaching to about 18 inches in length,
many weak kinds not reaching the length of I foot.

This result of diminishing yearly growths has not been sensibly
affected by the application of different manures, and the question nat-
urally arises that if a deterioration of growth becomes so marked in so
short a time, and with such attention to the soil, what may be expected
when acres are closely planted with grapes, as in the case with vine-
yards, where the entire soil speedily becomes filled with roots *? It need
not be a matter for surprise if vineyards become unproductive after
producing several unsatisfactory crops.

It is well known that nurserymen who pride themselves in maintain-
ing a high standard of quality jn their stpck of pear or other kinds of

78

fruit trees are careful not to attempt to grow two successive crops on
the same land. Even after employing all kinds and qualities of ma-
nures that their skill and experience may suggest, the quality of their
young stock will depreciate if grown on the same soil unless long peri-
ods elapse between the rotations. These and facts of a similar kind
might be assumed as an indication that there may be some as yet un-
recognized cause that exerts an influence in plant nutrition.

Many years ago the hypothesis was advanced that plants secrete or
form certain matters during their growth which they exude by their
roots, and the accumulation of these ingredients in the soil exercises an
injurious influence upon future crops of the same plants, but does not
prevent the growth of plants of a different kind. It was even surmised
that the exudations of one species furnished nutritious matters for a
different species, and for this reason a rotation of crops becomes advan-
tageous and furnishes an explanation for the benefits consequent upon
the practice.

The experiments and explanations brought forward in behalf of this
hypothesis have not been considered sufficiently conclusive to establish
a theory upon which to base any definite action, and has not of late
years been entertained as a factor worthy of consideration in the study
of plant life or as pertaining to plant culture. And yet every practical
cultivator must have observed phenomena in the course of his practice
which appears to be more readily explained upon the supposition of the
formation of some injurious matters than from the exclusive action of
exhaustion ; and this may occur without conceding that there is neces-
sarily any function of an excretory character in the roots of plants.

If we attempt to remove a silver maple tree of 3 or 4 years' growth
from the seed we will find that the soil closely surrounding the stem
and circling for several feet beyond it is filled with small fibrous roots,
mostly dead ; active spougioles will be found mainly at the extremities
of the larger or main roots. But if we take a tree of the same species
which has attained the age of 10 years and dig similarly around its
stem, we will not find so many roots as in the case of the younger tree,
but instead we will find a few large roots which are destitute of fibers
except at their extremities. It seems evident that there is an annual
decay of these fibrous roots, and it is a question whether the decom-
position of this mass of fiber may not be obnoxious to the plants which
produced it, and at the same time not be injurious to plants of a differ-
ent species.

Instructions relative to the removal and replanting of trees are usually
very explicit in regard to the special necessity of protecting the small
fibrous roots because of their great importance to the future growth of
the plant. In reality these roots are of no value after they are sep-
arated from the soil, as they immediately decay on removal. The
larger roots, if healthy and their outer bark uninjured, are only to be
depended upon for the emission of an abundance of fresh and vigorous
spougioles.

79

It will be admitted that examples can be found where the same crop
has succeeded measurably well on the same soil for a series of years,
but close observation and accurate comparisons will show that such
instances are rare indeed ; but even the successes have not enabled us
to remedy the failures, and it seems probable that the causes have not
been fully explained.

EXPEDIENTS FOR PROMOTING FRUITFULNESS IN PLANTS.

All expedients for inducing early fruiting are founded upon the well-
known law that excessive growth and great prolificness can not simul-
taneously exist in the same plant. Some of the most familiar modes of
inducing fruit are as under:

BY DWARFING.

In horticultural parlance, trees are said to be dwarfed when grafted
or budded on stocks of weaker growth than themselves. Thus we have
the pear on the quince, the cherry ou the mahaleb, the apple on the
Paradise stock, the peach on the plum, etc. This is a popular and effi-
cient mode of rendering trees fruitful. Properly speaking, any low
tree is dwarf; the term when applied to a system is merely technical.

BY BENDING THE BRANCHES.

This process practically consists in allowing the branches of a young
tree to grow undisturbed by the pruning knife for several years until
the plant attains considerable size ; the young shoots are then bent
down and secured to pegs fastened in the ground. This mode is emi-
nently adapted for standard pear trees, especially such varieties as
Dix, Bartlett, Sheldon, and others that make long yearly shoots. These
when bent down soon become studded thickly with blossom spurs, and
very ornamental and symmetrical trees can be formed by a little atten-
tion to the bending and regulating the shoots ; the pendent form soon
becomes fixed, and trees so treated are certain to be productive, The
proper season to commence tying down is the month of August; the
young wood will then be sufficiently matured to bend, and many of the
most forward buds will form short fruit spurs, and bloom the following
spring. Trees and plants of all kinds can be incited to flower and fruit,
no matter how luxuriant their growth, by careful observance of the
bending process. Horizontal training is a modification of this system,
and is a well-known method of encouraging fruitfuluess.

BY PRUNING THE ROOTS.

When a tree has reached a fruit-bearing size, and shows no symptoms
of a fruit-bearing disposition, but instead throws out vigorous branches,
root-pruning is a very efficacious mode of checking growth. In highly
cultivated gardens, where trees are planted and the roots have access
to the rich soil, an immense crop of branches will be produced, but

80

little if any fruit. Boot-pruning will check such growths most effectu-
ally and render the trees fruitful. The operation is performed by dig-
ging out a circular trench at a distance of from 3 to 6 feet from the
stem, according to the size of the tree, and cutting all the roots that
are encountered or can be reached. The soil is again thrown back and
the process is completed. If done in August, the supply of sap will
immediately be lessened, the wood-maturing principle accelerated, the
fruit buds formed. The operation has beeu performed in. spring with
but little benefit, but if done in the fall can not fail in. producing the
desired results.

Root-pruning has been successfully applied to young evergreens that,
in consequence of growing late in fall, are liable to have the points of
shoots injured by early frost. When growth is stopped by root-prun-
ing the shoots mature sufficiently to withstand the winter without be-
ing injured. A few years of such treatment when the plant is young
is found sufficient, as the specimen will attain hardihood with age.

BY RINGING THE BRANCHES.

This operation is performed by removing a ring of the bark from a
branch, so as to arrest circulation. This, however, is done with a view
to hastening the ripening process of fruit, and has long been practiced,
particularly on the grape vine. It is, however, of doubtful utility, as
the branch beyond the point of operation is destroyed. It has the effect
of not only hastening the ripening, but the fruit will be somewhat in-
creased in size. Grapes produced in this manner are easily recognized
by their thick skins and the coarse texture of the fruit.

BY LIMITING ROOT GROWTH.

The most satisfactory application of the principle is that of restrict-
ing the growth by confining the roots in pots, boxes, or other similar
conveniences, as is well exemplified by the great crops produced on
fruit trees in pots. Florists are also alive to the fact that their flower-
ing plants will blossom most profusely when the pots become well filled
with roots.

IMPORTANCE OP A UNIFORM SUPPLY OF WATER IN PLANT

CULTURE.

If there is any one element in plant growth of more importance than
another it is water. Crops usually fail or succeed in proportion as they
receive an equal distribution or uniform supply of this element. Fail-
ures are more frequently referred either to a deficiency or a surplus of
rainfalls than to any other cause. Hence one of the chief essentials to
culture is to maintain the presence of a proper amount of available
water to crops, and, as far as practicable, guard against excess on either
side. And this is entirely within the control of the cultivator. The three
operations of draining, subs, piling, and middling, when properly undef-

81

stood, comprise all the requisites of success, and enable him in a very
great measure to regard with comparative indifference whether the
season prove unusually wet or unusually dry ; if the former, the drains
remove all superfluous water, and the loosening of the subsoil allows
the egress of water through all its pores, which are speedily filled ; and
mulching the surface, so as to prevent evaporation, retains the water
where plants can reach it, instead of its being rapidly consumed by
drying winds sweeping over the soil.

Of all operations relating to soil culture, there are none whose values
are so well established as these, and yet they are operations to which
the great majority of cultivators are strangers. Crops may be deluged,
starved, for want of proper depths of soil, or burned up by drought and
heat, yet the well-known remedies against such extremes are practically
ignored.

Objectors to draining frequently argue that in a climate subject to
long-continued droughts His worse than useless, as it would still further
increase the evils resulting from a deficient supply of moisture. It
seems not to be generally understood that draining in connection with,
proper culture increases the capability of the soil for absorbing and
retaining moisture. Place a sponge in a vessel and sprinkle it with
water; fora time it will all be absorbed, but as soon as the pores are
tilled it ceases to be taken up. Soils act in a similar manner. They
also have their respective absorbing capacities, varying of course ac-
cording to their nature, whether a compact clay or a peaty morass. The
last is of such an absorbent character as to be called spongy. The ob-
ject in draining is simply to allow the superfluous water to pass off.
No water can reach the drains until the pores of the soil are satisfied
or filled. It is therefore evident that the deeper the soil is drained the
greater becomes the reservoir of contained moisture, so that on soils of
gravely or sandy nature a more luxuriant vegetation will be produced
after they are artificially drained. With clay soils this improvement
is still more obvious ; no good clay soil can be considered in best crop-
ping condition until drained. Tillage, manures, and seed are to a cer-
tain extent wasted on the best clays without this fundamental improve-
ment.

The utility of deepening the soil can not be questioned. In common
parlance, a good soil is seldom mentioned without the addition of the
word deep, thus testifying to the value of this property, yet how few
make any attempt to deepen a shallow soil. The probability of bring-
ing to the surface a poor strata has been given in argument against
subsoiling. Even if this were the result it would be an additional
reason in favor of the process, as it would place the soil where it can be
enriched ; but subsoiling proper only loosens the under strata. Trench-
ing, which implies a reversal of the soil, may occasionally afford grounds
for this objection, at least for a time, until it becomes properly amel-
iorated.

28581 6

82

Draining and subsoiling therefore increase the amount of available
moisture in the soil. To keep it there for the benefit of vegetation, and
prevent its escape by mere surface evaporation, we have recourse to
mulching. As it is generally known, this operation consists in cover-
ing the soil with any loose material, such as straw, wood chips, tan
bark, etc., and although it may not be practicable to carry out this
process to any great extent in agriculture, yet in orcharding, and in-
deed all tree culture, as well as in the case of small fruits, it is a com-
mendable practice, the advantages of which are well authenticated.
Especially in newly formed plantations is its great value conspicuous ;
not only is evaporation arrested, but the soil is secured against the
compacting effects of heavy rainfalls, weeds are kept down, and root
growth encouraged. But where it is not expedient to apply foreign
matter to the surface an efficient substitute can be had in the soil it-
self by simply keeping the surface loose by cultivation. A few inches
of loose, powdery soil on the surface forms a capital nonconducting
stratum, and likewise has the great advantage of being easily secured.

It can not be too often repeated that the three cardinal operations in
soil culture are drainage, subsoiliug, and mulching.

LIQUID MANUKE FOE PLANTS IN POT CULTCTEE.

The importance of liquid manure in general cultivation is acknowl-
edged, but the expense of its application on an extensive scale, such as
to farm crops, furnishes a strong reason against its use.

It is also asknowledged that the liquid state is the best in which stim-
ulating and fertilizing ingredients can be presented to the roots, as they
can absorb nourishment only through the medium of water, and all
matters that enter into the interior of plants must be in a soluble con-
dition, or so minutely divided as to be carried along with the water
before they can enter into the vessels of the plant.

In the pot culture of plants, where the amount of soil is limited, the
use of liquid manure is of vast service when judiciously applied, but
much harm may be occasioned by its indiscriminate use. Many persons
consider it necessary to resort to the use of guano and other solutions
on sickly plants, and are surprised to find that the application only
hastens the dissolution of the patient.

It is only healthy and well-rooted plants that are to be benefited by
manures, and such as are supplied with hungry roots but growing
slowly for want of nutriment. Such plants as have been for years in
the same pot or tub, as we frequently find orange and lemon trees,
camelias, oleanders, etc., will be greatly stimulated by the application
of manurial liquids during their period of growth. For plants of all
kinds that have their pots filled with roots it will be serviceable, and
to such as fuchsias, pelargoniums, cineraries, etc., while in flower, they
will bloom longer and in greater perfection. But it should be kept in

83

that stimulants should not be applied while flower buds are form-
ing, as it might induce an increased wood growth at the expense of the
flowering principle.

Manurial liquids may be applied most freely when growth is active,
discontinued during the formation of flower buds, and applied more
sparingly during the expansion of the blossom. It is a safe rule to
dilute severely and use the solution in a perfectly clear state. Thick,
muddy water will not be of much benefit and stops up the pores in the
soil, preventing free action of atmospheric gases to the roots.

Almost any substance that has manurial properties and will dissolve
readily may be rendered available. Every greenhouse or conservatory
should have a barrel fitted for the purpose. If furnished with a false
bottom or close wire and a tap between it and the bottom of the barrel
for drawing out the liquid, manure water can be easily prepared.

FLOWER POTS.

The relative value of hard-burned and soft or porous flower pots, so
far as culture of plants is concerned, is a subject of occasional inquiry.
Hard-burned pots are not generally esteemed and many persons con-
sider them unfit for the best results of plant culture, while others find
no objection to them, and use indiscriminately glazed pots or even
slate tubs when they can be procured. The only difference seems to
be that the porous pots require more water than will be found neces-
sary in the case of hard-burned pots or slate tubs. The porous pot
will part with much water by evaporation from its sides, especially
when exposed to the sun or a dry atmosphere. In a dry atmosphere
the hard, close-grained pot will retain more moisture in the soil. Plants,
therefore, require water less frequently in the hard pots ; and in the
ordinary greenhouse, where a considerable amount of humidity gen-
erally prevails, special care will be required in order that water is not
given in excess. The same amount of water applied to plants of simi-
lar size and vigor, some of which are in hard and others in soft pots,
will speedily show unhealthiuess in those in the hard pots. It is per-
fectly practicable to grow plants equally well either in soft or in hard
pots, but the details of management are different, and to those who
are not experts in plant culture the porous pots will be most suitable.

NIGHT TEMPERATURE IN GLASS STRUCTURES.

One of the most prevalent and injurious errors in the management of
greenhouses and other plant houses is that of keeping the temperature
too high during the night. With many the aim seems to be to main-
tain as high a degree of heat during the darkness as during light, a
practice opposed both to science and the results of experience, and one
that can not be too severely condemned.

84

It has been observed that plants will lengthen very fast during dark-
ness in a high, moist atmosphere, and it has therefore been supposed
that a gain in growth is thus secured; but strictly this is not the fact.
Any extension of growth made under such conditions is at the expense of
that made during the presence of light, as it is only then that those
chemical changes are in operation that change the matters absorbed by
the roots into the woody fiber and other constituents of plants. Conse-
quently the same quantity of material is simply elongated, as in draw-
ing out a wire, which may be lengthened without adding anything to
its structure.

Plants grown in a nearly uniform temperature under glass seldom
ripen or mature their wood in a thorough manner; the buds are imma-
ture and make feeble growth, and the whole plant contracts a delicate
habit of constitution, which renders it incapable of withstanding the
slightest neglect without injury, thus entailing great care to keep it,
even in its sickly condition, and never by any means developing its
natural capacities. On the contrary, plants constantly subjected to a
suitable lowering of night temperature are more robust, have short-
jointed and matured growths, flowers not only expand more fully, but
remain longer in perfection, fruits better colored and flavored and more
perfect in every respect than those developed in an atmosphere of uni-
form heat and moisture.

With regard to greenhouse plants, it should be remembered that they
require no heat during the night further than to exclude frosts. It has
been stated and urged as a reason for keeping a higher temperature
that it is necessary to do so in order to secure a succession of bloom,
but it had been amply proved that by allowing a more liberal heat, say
from 70° to 80° during the day, that a more profuse crop of flowers
will be gained than in the more equable conditions insisted upon.

Another injury consequent upon a high night temperature during
winter arises from the extraction of moisture from the atmosphere. To
maintain an inside temperature of even 50° when the, external is near
zero involves a rapid generation of heat, and as the capacity of air for
taking moisture increases in proportion to its rise, a great demand is
made upon the plants and everything in the house capable of giving
up moisture. The quantity of water thus carried off may be seen by
the deposition of ice on the inner surface of the glass after a night of
severe frost. Ice one-fourth of an inch in thickness is often found
under these circumstances, the result of condensation and freezing of
the water carried from the contained moisture in the atmosphere and
from the surfaces of the plants. The parched and unhealthy aspect
of the plants subjected to such treatment is sufficient evidence against
the propriety of the practice. The expense of fuel and labor required
to maintain this injurious temperature is also an important consider-
ation.

85

WATERING PLANTS IN POTS.

"How often should I water my plants'?" This question is very fre-
quently asked, and it is a rather perplexing one to answer definitely 5
a general answer would be: Never apply water to a plant until it re-
quires it, that is until it is dry, and then apply a sufficient quantity to
saturate the soil, which will be indicated by the surplus passing through
the drainage.

Novices in plant culture usually make the mistake of merely sprink-
ling the surface of the soil, perhaps daily, without any time applying
enough water to saturate the mass. Plants can not flourish under
such conditions ; the surface will appear wet, while the main body of
the soil is hard and dry. One drawback to properly watering plants
in parlor and window gardening (to which these remarks are more par-
ticularly directed) arises from the inconvenience attending the use of
water in sufficient quantities; another evil is the dryness of the air.
Both of these obstacles to success can be greatly modified by the use of
a table properly fitted for the reception of the flower pots or small
vases in which the plants are kept. This table may be of any required
size ; a surface of 2 by 3 feet would be suitable for most windows; it
should be made tight and neatly fitted. A ledge is made by fastening
a strip 3 inches wide around the edge ; then fill with 2 inches of clean,
white sand, upon which the plants are placed; lining the table with
zinc would completely guard against drip. The table should be fitted
with rollers to facilitate the operation of watering and cleaning the
plants. With a table of this kind the plants can be watered freely,
and occasionally sprinkled, without any injury to surrounding objects.
The sand should be kept constantly wet, so that moisture will be evap-
orated from it, and thus overcome, in some degree, one of the chief
obstacles to the successful culture of plants in dwelling rooms — a dry
atmosphere.

There are a few general rules with regard to watering plants which
may be noted. Watering should be preferably applied during the
early part of the day, especially so in the winter season. Plants in pots
well supplied with roots will require much more water than those which
are newly potted or have a quantity of soil with few roots. Plants with
narrow or small foliage will not use so much water as those with large
spreading leaves. Plants in the shade will not need as much water as
will those in the sun ; a damp atmosphere will also reduce the necessity
of water at the roots. Plants that are growing freely will require a reg-
ular supply, as they are sensible of a check at this period ; on the other
hand, plants which are comparatively resting will need but little, and
the supply gradually diminished as growth is being completed.

But in cases when water is applied it should be done copiously, and
when gradually withheld the watering should be less frequent, not less
in quantity, when it is necessary to make the application.

86

WATER PLANTS.

In improving that part of the grounds formerly occupied by the
canal advantage was taken of the position to construct a small lake,
mainly for the purpose of introducing a collection of native water
plants.

The ornamental as well as the picturesque effects of this class of
plants are mostly quite neglected in modern landscape gardening. It
is not uncommon to find artificial lakes in parks and pleasure grounds
wholly destitute of this class of vegetation, and although water surface
is seldom uninteresting in scenery there is no reason why it should not
possess all the attractions and sanitary effects which can be imparted
by the introduction of suitable flowering plants.

No flower in the garden border can excel, either in beauty of form or
indelicacy of fragrance, the white water-lily, Nymphcea odor at a ; the
large cup-shaped yellowish flowers, boldly projected out of the water
on long foot stalks, of the Nelumbium luteum ; and the less showy
blossoms of the yellow pond-lily, Nupliar advena, in connection with
the massive spread of the large leaves, especially those of the Nelum-
bium, which are frequently 18 inches in diameter, produce an effect
equal to the best efforts of the most distinguished artist in that popu-
lar formation of u foliage" plants known as "carpet bedding."

In addition to the water-lilies, various other interesting species of
water plants have been introduced and are spreading rapidly in the
lake. Several of the curiously horned seeds of the Trapa natans were
thrown in, and in due time the small triangular-shaped leaves made
their appearance on the surface, neatly arranged in roseate form. Sev-
eral plants of a tropical Limnocharis spread rapidly daring the summer,
and produced abundantly of its yellow flowers. The duck-weed, Lemna,
thrown in a sheltered cove, speedily covered the surface with its diminu-
tive greenery. In deeper water, plants of the eel-grass ( Vallisneria
spiralis] were planted, and in shallow recesses various species were in-
troduced, as Potamogetan, Calla, Pontederia, Caltlia, Acorus, Polygonum,
etc. On prominent points, tall, reedy plants will be disposed, such as
Typhas and Sparaganiums, with Cyperus, Juncus, and smaller growths
as marginal plants to the taller central groups.

A small island was formed, having its surface raised about 6 inches
above the water level with sphagnum, in which various low-growing
bog plants were inserted, such as the pitcher plant (Sarraceniapurpurea),
the horse-tail grasses (Equisetums], with Habenarias, and similar low-
growing forms that are to be found in woody swamps and wet meadows.

The effective arrangement of water and bog plants in and on the
margins of lakes should be as much a subject of artistic study as is the
arrangement of trees and shrubs in park scenery. This branch of land-
scape decoration is wholly neglected, but it is destined to become popu-

87

lar, and it will awaken an interest in an extensive class of^-plants that
are but little known and that possess a characteristic individuality of
form and beauty which, when received in connection with their natural
surroundings, can not fail to recall pleasant associations to the mind
compared to which the landscape effect produced by a group of flower-
ing shrubs will appear exceedingly tame and uninteresting.

GLAZING GREENHOUSE EOOFS.

The ordinary method of fastening glass in window sashes is to lay in
the glass without a putty bedding, secure it with small triangular bits
of tin, then complete the operation by filling the outside of the sash-bar
with putty, lapping it slightly over the glass. When this method is
applied to greenhouse roofs it causes a great amount of trouble to pre-
vent leakage. The presence of moisture, which is almost always to be
found on the inside of the roof during cold weather, and the action of
frosts and rains on the outside, have a tendency to loosen and destroy
the patty, so that an annual overhauling is necessary to keep it in re-
pair. But there are now very few greenhouses glazed in the above
manner. The old plan has given place to a more permanent and more
effectual system so far as regards a tight roof. This plan consists in
placing a layer of the best putty on the sash-bar, then pressing the
pane of glass until it reaches a firm uniform bed, and so working up a
portion of the putty that it will fill all spaces between the edge of the
glass and the sash-bar. After the surplus putty is trimmed oif it is
allowed to dry for a day or two, which will cause it to shrink slightly
from the wood; then a coat of thickish paint is applied, which effectually
fills up all crevices and makes a perfectly water-tight finish. No putty
is used on the outside, and consequently there is no leakage from its
decay ; and instead of tin fastenings the glass is secured by brad-nails
three-fourths of an inch in length, four to each pane, fastened at the
corners.

The popular method of roofing glass structures is what is known as
a fixed-bar plan. In this plan no framed sashes are used ; the rafters
are placed about 8 feet apart, their exact distance depending upon the
size of the glass, so that, for a neat job, the glass bar will come in the
center of the rafter. Between the rafters horizontal purlines are in-
serted to support the sash-bars. The sash-bars are usually made an
inch and a half in depth and 1J in width ; these are fastened in paral-
lel lines, their distance apart depending upon the size of glass em-
ployed; after testing various-sized panes, the size 10 inches by 12 iuches
is generally preferred. For this size the sash -bars are placed 12 £ inches
apart, measuring from their centers, allowing one-fourth inch rebate for
the glass to rest upon on each side. In setting the panes of this size it is of
some importance to place the concave surface uppermost, which makes

88

the center of the pane the lowest point, so that the water which falls on
the roof will be diverted from the sides to the center of the line of glass.
The glass should not lap more than one-sixteenth of an inch ; wide laps
hold dust, which in turn hold water, which may freeze in very cold
weather and split the glass. This method of glazing admits of laying
roofs nearly flat without trouble from leakage. Ventilation is provided
for by hinged sashes on the roof, which may be arranged in various ways
to prevent them from leaking 5 the amount of ventilating space allowed
will have some dependence upon the purposes to which the structure will
be devoted.

EASPBEEEY CULTURE.

Within a few years back a notable change has been introduced in
the general management of the raspberry. The only pruning formerly
given to this plant was confined to cutting out the old stems which had
fruited, thinning out the young stems which were to produce the next
crop, and shortening them by cutting off a portion of their tops. These
would then be fastened to a stake or some similar support, and this
completed the pruning for the season. But the more modern system
obviates the necessity of any kind of support and the plants are man-
aged so that they are able to support themselves when full of fruit.
This is accomplished by allowing the first year's growth of newly set-
out plants to grow undisturbed; the second year two or more shoots
will be produced, and when these have reached to a height of about 2
feet their tops are pinched off, so as to stop their further upright growth;
they will then proceed to push out side shoots or laterals on all sides,
balancing and supporting themselves very effectually and appearing
like small evenly headed trees. When growth has been completed for
the season and the leaves have fallen these side shoots are pruned
back so as to leave them from 12 to 16 inches in length, according to
their strength. This pruning can be done quite rapidly with pruning
shears. At the same time, if not before, all the old stems or canes
which have fruited are also removed; but many cultivators prefer to
remove these old stems immediately after the fruit has been gathered,
claiming that by so doing the young canes have greater freedom of
growth; also, that by promptly removing the old canes many kinds of
insects which lodge in the old wood and have cocoons and nests upon
it are thus destroyed by burning all the pruuings as they are collected.
This system is continued annually; no greater number of young shoots
than is required are allowed to grow, all others being destroyed as they
reach a few inches in height. The summer topping is attended to as
previously stated, and the result of this routine treatment is a self-
supporting plant and improved fruit.

89

FIGS.

The culture of figs has never attracted much attention in the Middle
and Northern States owing to the susceptibility of the plants to cold.
They are perfectly adapted to the climates of the Southern States,
where they have long been cultivated for domestic purposes, but not
produced in sufficient quantities to be included among commercial
products.

The fig may be fruited in sheltered localities in the Northern States
by taking the precaution of covering the branches during winter, so as
to protect them from severe freezing. This is not difficult to accomplish,
the most simple and effectual method being that of bending down the
branches, and fastening them as close to the ground as practicable, in
which condition they can readily be covered with 8 to 10 inches of soil,
or an equally thorough coating of forest leaves protected by a covering
of boards to exclude rain.

The fig bears most satisfactorily when it is planted in gravelly or
sandy soils ; in strong, rich soils luxuriant growths are produced, and
the young fruit will drop prematurely; the wood will also ripen imper-
fectly, and thus diminish the number of perfect fruit buds. After the
fruit makes its appearance, and all during its progress toward ripening,
the plants require an abundance of water ; if the roots are kept dry at any
time during this period the fruit will probably drop ; but when the fruit
becomes soft, indicating ripeness, a less supply of water will improve
its flavor, and further tend to harden and ripen the annual growths of
the tree.

VANILLA.

The opinion prevails that the vanilla plant can be successfully culti-
vated in Florida, and applications for plants and inquiries as to their
growth and culture are frequently received.

The vanilla belongs to the family of orchids and grows wild in Mex-
ico, Peru, Brazil, and other parts of South America. It is also found
in Trinidad, Jamaica, and other West India islands, and it is exceed-
ingly doubtful if the climate of any portion of Florida would prove
suitable for its profitable cultivation.

The vanilla is a climbing plant and is propagated by cuttings inserted
near the stems of trees, upon which it climbs, adhering to the bark by
its fleshy roots.

The best marketable pods are supposed to be produced by the species
Vanilla planifolia, and the principal supply comes from Vera Cruz.

Assertions have been made that the vanilla plant grows wild in Flor-
ida. In answer to requests for specimens, leaves of Liatris odoratis-
sima have. been received. This plant has aromatic foliage and is some-
times used for flavoring cigars and tobacco, and is locally known as
wild vanilla, but it has no relation whatever to the vanilla plant that
produces the fragrant pods of that name.

90

INDIA-KTJBBER PLANTS.

In the praiseworthy endeavors to introduce new industries into the
Southern States, requests are made for economic plants of many kinds
that are strictly tropical productions, and among these may be placed
the India-rubber-bearing trees.

Various plants afford caoutchouc, the elastic gummy substance bet-
ter known as India rubber, but as far as it is known it is solely pro-
duced by plants of tropical climates. In the East Indies it is collected
from Urceola elastica ; from several species of Ficus, mainly from Ficus
elastica, and from a few other species, natives of the East Indies and
western tropical Africa.

South American rubber is also extracted from plants of different
genera. The best is said to be obtained from Hevea brabiliensis, a native
of the Para forests, considered to be distinct from the Sophonia elastica,
which furnishes the largest portion of the rubber entering into the
commerce of that country. The sand-box tree, Hura crepitans, yields
a milky juice which is similarly converted into caoutchouc by evapora-
tion. These plants belong to the natural order Euplwrbiacece, a large
family of plants, mostly yielding a milky juice, containing acrid and
poisonous properties.

Mexican rubber is extracted from a native tree, the Castilloa elastica,
which grows abundantly near the Gulf coast. This plant is botanically
allied to the rubber producing Ficus of the East Indies.

A new elastic gum has recently been produced in Mexico, which is
said to be derived from a native herbaceous plant allied to the family
of asters. This plant would probably succeed in the Southern States.

These are strictly tropical trees, for which we have no suitable cli-
mate ; but attention might profitably be directed to the gum-producing
Mesquite tree of Texas, Algarobia glandulosa, which yields a nonelastic
gum of the nature and possessing all the essential qualities of gum.
arabic.

CITEOK.

CITRUS MEDICA.

The thick rind of the citron is valued for the purpose of candying
or preserving in sugar for use in confectionery, etc. Growers of citrous
fruits in California and Florida have repeatedly requested information
as to the method of preparation and manufacture of this condiment. As
contributing to this information, the following extract from an authen-
tic source is offered :

In all the countries I have mentioned above as contributing the raw fruit for this
industry, it is treated in the same manner for the over-sea passage. The fruit is simply
halved and placed in hogsheads or large casks filled with a fairly strong solution of
brine, the fruit being halved merely to insure thorough preservation of the rind by
an equal saturation of the interior as well as the exterior surface. In these casks it
arrives at the doors of the manufactory.

91

The first process to which it is then subjected is the separation of the fruit from
the rind. This is done by women, who, seated around a large vessel, take out the
fruit, skillfully gouge out the inside with a few rapid motions of the forefinger and
thumb, and throwing this aside place the rind unbroken in a vessel alongside them.

The rind is next carried to large casks filled with fresh cold water, in which it is
immersed for between 2 and 3 days to rid it of the salt it has absorbed. When taken
out of these casks the rinds are boiled with the double object of making them tender
and of completely driving out any trace of salt that may be still left in them. For
this purpose they are boiled in a large copper cauldron for a time varying from 1 to
2 hours, according to the quality of the fruit and the number of days it has been im-
mersed in the brine. When removed from this cauldron the peel should be quite free
from any flavor of salt, and at the same time be sufficiently soft to absorb the sugar
readily from the sirup, in which it is now ready to be immersed.

The next process to which the rind is subjected is that of a slow low absorption of
sugar, and this occupies no less than 8 days. Needless to say that the absorption of
sugar by fresh fruit in order to be thorough must be slow, and not only stow, but it
must be gradual — that is to say, the fruit should at first be treated with a weak solution
of sugar, which may then be gradually strengthened, for the power of absorption is
one that grows by feeding. The fruit (and this holds good more especially with the
rind) would absorb with difficulty and more slowly if plunged at once into thick
sirup than if gradually treated with weak solution easier of absorption, and by
which it has been thoroughly permeated first. It is a knowledge of this fact that
governs the process I now describe.

The fruit has now passed into what I may call the saturating room, whereon every
side are to be seen long rows of immense earthen ware vessels about 4 feet high and 2-J
feet in diameter, in outline roughly resembling the famed Etruscan jar, but with a
girth altogether out of proportion to their height, and with very short necks and large,
open mouths. All the vessels are filled to their brims with citron and orange peel in
every stage of absorption, i. e., steeped in sugar of (roughly speaking) eight different
degrees of strength. I said before that this is a process that occupies almost always
8 days, and as the sirup in each jar is changed every day, we may divide the mass of
vessels before us into groups of eight. Take one group of this number, and we are
able to follow the fruit completely through this stage of its treatment. With vessels
of such great size and weight, holding at least half a ton of fruit and sirup, it is
clearly easier to deal with the sirup than with the fruit. To take the fruit out of one
solution and to place it into the next stronger, and so on, throughout the series,
would be a toilsome process, and one, moreover, injurious to the fruit. In each of
these jars, therefore, is fixed a wooden well, into which a simple suction-pump being
introduced the sirup is pumped from each jar daily into the adjoining one.

" How is the relative strength of the sirup in each jar regulated?" is the next ques-
tion. "The fruit itself does that," is the foreman's reply; and this becomes clear
from the following explanations : Number your group of jars from 1 to 8 respectively,
and assume No. 1 to be that which has just been filled with peel brought straight
from the boiler, in which it has been deprived of the last trace of salt, and No. 8 to
contain that which, having passed through every stage of absorption but the last, is
now steeped in the freshly prepared and therefore strongest solution of sirup used
in this stage. "We prepare daily a sirup of the strength of 30 degrees, measured by
the 'provino,' a graduated test for measuring the density of the sirup," continued the
foreman, "and that is poured upon the fruit in jar No. 8. To-morrow the sirup frt m
this jar, weakened by the absorption from it by the fruit of a certain proportion of
sugar, will be pumped into jar No. 7, and so on daily through the series. Thus, No.
1, containing the fruit itself, regulates the strength of the sirup, as I said." "But
if the sirup has lost all its strength before the seventh day, or arrival at jar No. 1?"
we ask. "Care must be taken to prevent that, by constant testing with the * pro-
vino,' " is the reply ; " and if that is found to be the case, a little stronger sirup must
be added to the jar."

92

A slight fermentation takes place in moat of the jars, but this, so far from being
harmful, iw regarded as necessary, but of course it must not be allowed to go too far.

There is yet another ' stage, and that perhaps the most important, through which
the peel has to pass before it can be pronounced sufficiently saturated with sugar.
It is now boiled in a still stronger sirup, of a density of 40 degrees by the testing
tube, and this is done in large copper vessels over a slow coke fire, care being taken
to prevent the peel adhering to the side of the vessel by gentle stirring with a long
paddle-shaped ladle. The second boiling will occupy about an hour.

Taken off the fire, the vessels are carried to a large wooden trough, over which is
spread a coarse, open wire netting. The contents are poured over this, and the
peel distributed over the surface of the netting, so that the sirup— now thickened
to the consistency of treacle— may drain off the surface of the peel into the trough
below. The peel has now taken up as much sugar as is necessary.

Now comes the final process, the true candying of the covering of the surface of
the peel with the layer of sugar- crystals which is seen upon all candied fruits. To
effect this a quantity of crystallized sugar — at Leghorn the same quality of sugar is
used as is employed in the preparation of the sirup — is just dissolved in a little
water, and in this the now dried peel, taken off the wire netting, is immersed. The
same copper vessels are used, and the mixture is again boiled over a slow fire. A
short boiling will suffice for this, the last process, for the little water will be quickly
driven off, and the sugar upon cooling will form its natural crystals over the sur-
face of the fruit. Poured off from these vessels, it is again dried upon the surface
of the wire netting, as before described. The candying is now complete, and the
candied peel is ready for the packing room, to which it is carried off in shallow bas-
kets.

In the packing room may be seen hundreds of boxes of oval shapes, or, if I may so
speak, of rectangular shape, with rounded corners and of different sizes, for each
country prefers its boxes to be of a particular weight, Hamburg taking the largest
of 15 and 30 kilogrammes ; the United States of America preferring smaller, of 10 and
12 kilogrammes ; whilst England takes the smallest, of 5 kilogrammes, and one con-
taining about 7 English pounds. The wood of which the tops and bottoms of these
boxes are made comes to us in thin planks from Trieste, and a skillful packing is
generally done by women, and the boxes are lined with white paper. They are
then packed in cases of 100 kilogrammes, ten of the smaller American boxes filling a
case. The candied peel is now ready for export.

SPECIAL INQUIRIES AND ANSWERS.

That portion of the official correspondence of the Department which
relates to subject-matter connected with the operations and specialties
of the horticultural division, and is referred to the horticulturist for
consideration and reply, embraces a variety of subjects upon which ad-
vice is repeatedly asked by different individuals; and as the replies
made, so far as the Department is concerned, reach only to the indi-
vidual addressed, and as this correspondence is largely of general ap-
plication and directly practical in its nature, I have selected the follow-
ing from the many similar communications with a view to lessen repe-
titions of these particular inquiries:

VANILLA.

S. M. R., Polk County, Florida. I understand that the Vanilla Bean grows well in
all parts of Mexico and in cool places. I am sure it would do well in this county,

93

and would be obliged to you for some plants for trial. Also would be glad to know
something about its cultivation and preparing the crop for market.

Answer. — The vanilla beau ( Vanilla planif olio) is a native of tropical countries. It
is produced in the warmer parts of Mexico, and not by any means in cool places: in
fact its area of profitable culture is said to be limited to certain favorable localities
near the Gulf coast. It is very doubtful, indeed, whether the plant can be grown
profitably in any part of Florida.

The vanilla is a climbing orchid, or air plant, having a fleshy stem and succulent
leaves. It is progagated by cuttings of the stem planted close to the tree upon which
the plants climb. They usually receive but little cultivation further than to keep
down growths which might interfere with the gathering of the fruit, the plants re-
ceiving their nourishment mostly from the atmosphere.

The peculiar odor of the bean is developed during the process of curing, and much
of the commercial value of the article depends upon its preparation for the market.

The fruit is gathered before it is quite ripe. If allowed to remain on the plant the
pod splits and becomes black ; when drying it exudes a dark-colored unctuous liquid,
and when quite dry becomes brittle and devoid of perfume.

In Guiana the pods are cured by placing them in ashes until they begin to shrivel,
when they are wiped, rubbed over with olive oil, then huugin the open air to dry.

In Peru the pods are dipped in boiling water, then hung out in the open air for a
month, afterwards smeared with castor oil and tied in bundles for sale.

In Mexico the curing process is more elaborate and varied. The pods are placed in
a heap under protection from the weather until they begin to shrivel, when they are
submitted to a sweating process. This is accomplished by wrapping the pods in
blankets inclosed in tight boxes; afterwards they are exposed to the sun. They are
now tied into small bales or bundles, which are first wrapped in woolen blankets,
then in a coating of banana leaves, first sprinkled with water, then placed in an ovon
heated up to above 140° F. Here they remain for from 24 to 48 hours, according to
the size of the pods, the largest requiring the longer time. After this heating they
are exposed to the sun daily for 50 or 60 days until they are thoroughly dried and
ready for the market.

In the valley of Mazation the vanilla abounds in a wild state and the article is of the
finest grade. The curing is thus described: "To cure properly requires about 90
days, and the manipulation is almost infinite, each beau being handled critically from
three hundred to five hundred times in the procets by the Indians. The beans, as
gathered, are disposed of in layers, first a layer of beans and then a blanket, and so
on till a pile is formed. This is called the sweating process, and during its contin-
uance the piles are turned two or three times a day until most of the water is sweated
out. This process is followed by drying in the sun, and here the natives exercise the
utmost care and attention. When finished the beans are to be the color of a very
dark cigar. The attendant picks up each bean occasionally for examination, and if
he observes any part of the pod is coloring more rapidly than another lie twists a bit
of the leaf around the spot until the action of the sun shall have affected all alike."

MAHOGANY TREE.

J. S., Eastern Shore, Maryland. I inclose a few seeds of the mahogany tree which
grows in this part of the State. Since I learned that this tree was the mahogany I
am saving the seeds and mean to plant all I can get, and would ask you where I can
get a supply, as I suppose that the tree is in other parts of this country.

Answer. — The seeds sent are those of the Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus cana-
densis), and has no botanical relation to the tree which yields the mahogany wood
of commerce.

It is called coffee tree for the given reason that the early settlers in Kentucky,
where the tree grows in the forests, used the beaii as a substitute for coffee.

The timber of this tree is of a fine compact grain and is sometimes used in cabinet
work, hence it is in some places called the mahogany tree.

94

COCHINEAL.

J. H., Guadalupe County, Texas. I take tlie liberty of writing to you, as I wish
to know if you could give me any information about cochineal. We have plenty of
prickly pear (cactus), and believe it is the same kind used in Madeira for the growth
of the insect. I should be very thankful if you would let me know something about
the matter.

Answer. — The cochineal insect (Coccus cacti} feeds upon different kinds of Opuntia,
or prickly pears. Opuntia tuna and Opuntia or Nopalea coccinellifera are the species
principally used in Mexico, and these, with Opuntia ficus indica, are employed for a
like purpose in the Canary Islands, New Grenada, and Madeira.

In arranging plantations, or, as they are sometimes termed jiopaleries, for raising
the cochineal insect, the plants are set out in formal lines several feet apart, so that
they can be cultivated similarly to a carefully checkered cornfield, and when the
plants are large enough the insects are distributed upon the plants. These soon give
origin to countless numbers of minute insects, of which the females soon increase
rapidly in size until they almost lose the appearance of insects and look like small
warts. At this stage of their growth they are gathered by detaching them from the
plant by a flat, wedge-like stick, and placed in a bag, which is then dipped in boiling
water to kill the insects, afterwards drying them in the sun.

It has been estimated that 70,000 of these insects are required to make a pound of
cochineal.

It may be surmised that the profits of this industry will greatly depend upon the
cost of the labor required for these manipulations.

TREATMENT OF LAND.

J. G. T., Delaware. Two years ago I took in hand a piece of ground completely
exhausted through continued cropping without manure, and so full of wire-worms
that not even weeds can be got to grow. The ground is a very heavy loam, lying
upon a stiff clay ; every shower of rain makes it a puddle, and forty-eight hours of
sunshine makes it so hard that it is next to impossible to break it up; manure
plowed in can be turned up months afterwards in the condition in which it was put
on. I have used lime at the rate of 25 bushels to the acre, but not with the result
expected, and intend to apply the same quantity of common salt, in the hope that it
will destroy the worms.

Will you kindly say if I have adopted the proper method ? Any advice you may
tender will be very kindly received and carefully followed.

Answer. — There can be no permanent or satisfactory improvement made upon such
land as described until it is thoroughly tile-trained. Thorough draining would in-
volve parallel lines of tiles not more than 25 feet apart, and placed to a depth aver-
aging 30 inches. Then it should be deeply plowed in the fall ; fall plowing is an
important factor in the management of heavy land, and no mechanical appliances
can pulverize it so effectually as the influence of frost.

After plowing in the fall, sow salt at the rate of 15 to 20 bushels to the acre, and
when it is dry enough to work in spring, spread lime over the surface at the rate of
from 50 to 75 bushels per acre and harrow it in before putting in a crop.

It should be well understood that land of this character should never be worked
when wet. After heavy summer rains there is always a period between wetting and
drying when it can be pulverized on the surface and thus effectually prevent its
becoming hard and compact.

Draining will greatly modify the tendency to cake or become hard on the surface.
It will also allow of a gradual deepening of the plowed stratum, and is, in fact, the
foundation of all improvement towards increasing the productiveness of lauds rest-
ing upon a clay subsoil.

95

APPLE TREES.

J. K. E., Fairfield County, South Carolina. Also, I want what information you
can give me about apple trees for this climate. I am told that the Northern-grown
trees, or trees from Northern nurseries, are not desirable, as the fruit will not keep
for any length of time during the winter, or after it is taken from the tree. I am
comparatively a new-comer here, but would like to set out some apple as well as
other fruit trees, and would act advisedly in the matter.

Answer. — So far as it concerns the trees, provided they have been well grown,
healthy, and wood properly matured, it probably makes but little difference whether
they are from Northern or from Southern nurseries : but when it comes to the selec-
tion of varieties, especially winter-keeping kinds, it is essential to recognize that
most of the Northern winter varieties become summer and fall ripening kinds when
grown in South Carolina.

It therefore becomes n'ecessary to procure the best kinds from Southern nurseries,
where attention has been given to the propagation of fruit specially adapted to their
sections, of which there are numerous varieties which for size, beauty, and quality
are equal to any produced in more northern regions.

COFFEE.

W. W., Erie County, New York. I am desirous of gaining information in regard
to the cultivation and raising of coffee.

I should like to get cuttings or slips of the coffee tree for grafting purposes. I have
a ranch in California upon which there is wild coffee growing which produces a berry
similar to Mocha, only smaller. If I could get cuttings or buds to graft I should like
to make an effort to see what could be done in the matter.

Answer. — The so-called wild coffee of California is the seed of a plant belonging to
the buckthorn family, called Ehamnus calif ornicus, and has no more relation to Arabian
coffee than it hai to a hazel bush or a maple tree.

Of course it would be wholly impracticable to graft or bud the coffee into a Rha-
mus and expect the scion to grow.

The coffee plant, so far as experiments have been noted, has not been a success in
California.

The tropical summer period is too short and the winter temperature too low over
by far the greater portion of the State. The coffee plant suffers or is checked in
growth when its surrounding temperature is so low as 40° F.

LOTUS PLANT.

H. S., New York City. Can I get from you a description and sketch of the lotus
plant of Egypt ?

Answer.— The Egyptian lotus is given by some authorities as being the fruit of a
water plant, Nymphcealotus. The fruit of Nelumbium speciosum, also a water plant, is
also known as lotus.

The fruit of Zizyphus lotus, a prickly branching tree allied to the jujube tree, is
supposed to be the true lotus of the Lotophagi. This fruit is described as small fari-
naceous berries, of a yellow color and delicious taste. This farinaceous substance,
when dried, is pounded into a kind of flour, which, being formed into cakes with
water and dried in the sun, makes a kind of sweetish bread.

LE CONTE PEAR.

B. B., Lake County, Florida. I have about a dozen Le Conte pear trees which have
made fine growth, and are bushy trees some 12 to 15 feet in height, but they do not
bear any fruit. For several years past a fe\v sickly looking flowers would appear,
but no fruit.

96

I write to ask you if you think that they need to be fertilized. The soil grows
orange trees well; of course they receive some fertilizer, but the pear trees were
treated the same.

If you could advise me what to do I would be much obliged.

Answer. — The main reason why the Le Conte pear fails to fruit with you is that the
climate is too continuously warm and the trees have no decided or definite period of
rest. This continued activity of growth prevents the formation of flower buds and
encourages growth of shoots. If the growth of the plant is arrested or checked in the
early fall it would tend towards the formation of flower buds, and possibly secure a
crop of fruit. This may be effected by pruning the roots. Practically this operation
would consist in digging out a circular trench about 4 feet from the stem of the tree,
cutting out all the roots encountered to a depth of 30 inches, then undermine the ball
so as to sever all deep-running tap roots. Then throw the earth back into the ditch,
firming it properly as the filling proceeds.

If this operation is performed about the end of August it would check longitudinal
growth of shoots and tend towards the formation of fruit spurs on the older branches.

This is not a new or untried process, but has long been practiced successfully in
rendering barren trees fruitful under conditions similar to those here mentioned.

LAWN-MAKING.

J. S., Baltimore County, Maryland. Now I want to tell you about my lawn, or
rather I should say my failure in trying to get one. Two years ago I had the ground
plowed deep ; at least my instructions were to plow it deep and good, but I now
think that it was not very deeply plowed. It was then made smooth and level; was
fertilized with 300 pounds of superphosphate (it is about half an acre), and lawn-
grass seed sown and harrowed over. With the bushel of grass seed was mixed about
2 pecks of oats. It was sown about the end of March, and came up beautiful and
green in a few weeks, at least the oats did. When the oats were about to head I was
advised to mow them so as to let the grass grow. This was done ; weeds came up,
but very little grass was seen, and, in short, although the weeds were mown down
several times during the summer, the grass made no show, and when the most of the
weeds were killed by the frost my poor lawn looked very sickly indeed, with here
and there a tuft of grass and clover ; but the greater portion looked as bare as the
day the seeds were sown.

I was advised to cover it all over with a coating of manure just before setting in
of winter, which was done. When the spring came round the coarse portions of
manure were removed and the finer portions harrowed into the soil. It was again
seeded as before, and the oats did well, but not the grass, and I have yet no lawn.

Please tell me why I have failed and how I can get a good lawn.

Answer. — The letter indicates very clearly the cause of failure. First, the soil was
probably imperfectly prepared ; second, the allowance of grass seed was too small ;
and, third, the oat seed allowance was so large that, even if the other two factors
had been of the best, the oat crop would have rendered it a failure.

To secure a good lawn the primary requisite is proper preparation of the soil.
Where this can be done by the plow a deep furrow should be thrown out with the
turning plow, and a subsoil plow run into the bottom of each furrow. This will turn
and loosen to a depth of from 15 to 18 inches, according to the thoroughness of the
work. If done by hand labor it should be spaded as deep as the spade can penetrate
and the subsoil loosened with a pick, but in no case should the subsoil be brought to
the surface if the sowing is to be immediate.

The next operation is to level the surface so that it may be made smooth and regu-
lar. No pains or expense should be grudged to make the surface perfect at this stage
of the work, as it will be difficult to make corrections after sowing.

If good barnyard manure can be provided a heavy dressing of it should be spread

97

over the surface and plowed in. This soil preparation is best when done in the fall
and the surface left rough during the winter.

Even with the above manuring the second plowing should not be omitted. As a
substitute for the fall manuring apply bone dust at the rate of at least one-half ton
per acre in the spring on the surface and harrow it in. Before sowing the surface
should be harrowed and cross-harrowed until a smooth, even surface is produced ;
then sow the seed and cover it by rolling.

The best lawn grass is Poa pratensis, variously known as blue grass, green grass,
and June grass, and the many mixtures sold as lawn grasses are largely composed of
this species. A good mixture is 2 bushels of the above, 1 bushel of red top (Agrostia
vulgar is), and 1 quart of timothy (Phlem pratense). The timothy seed is included
because it vegetates quickly and strongly, loosens the surface soil, and thus facilitates
the growth of the other grasses, and soon disappears. If sown under good conditions
from the first of March to 'the middle of April, it will be fit for the lawn mower by
first of June, and by the end of that month will present the appearance of a good
lawn.

A fine lawn can not be maintained without frequent mowing, and now that numer-
ous and cheap and efficient lawn mowers are to be found everywhere, there is really
no excuse for imperfectly kept lawns.

During the first summer the cuttings of the mower may be allowed to remain on
the surface as a mulch, but experience shows that the practice is not to be com-
mended after the first year.

It is pernicious to sow oats, rye, barley, or other grains with the grass seed. These
strong-growing plants rob the soil and injure the growth of the lower grasses. They
do not require any protection of this kind, and many failures in lawn-making can be
traced to the practice of mixing these with the grass seeds.

BRAZIL NUT.

W. W. W. , Iowa. I wish to know whether the tree that bears Brazil nuts will thrive
in the United States, and whether they will bear much, if any, frost without injury,
and whether they will thrive where oranges and almonds do. Also, best mode of
starting young trees from the nut.

Ansicer. — The tree that yields these nuts is the Bertholletia excelsa, a native of
Guiana, Venezuela, and Brazil. It is found in large forests on the banks of the Ama-
zon, and is therefore strictly a tropical tree, and would not be at all likely to grow
to any degree of perfection in Florida.

Climates suited to almonds and oranges are no criterion for tropical vegetation.
The former will grow wherever peaches do well, and a bearing orange tree will with-
stand 10° of frost without injury.

CHICLE GUM.

K. P., New York City. Among the importations at this port is an article called
Chicle Gum. After considerable inquiry I have not been able to find the name of the
plant which produced it, but have learned that it comes from Mexico.

If you can tell me the name of the tree or plant, and where it can be obtained, I
should like to try it in Clay County, Florida, where I have interests.

Answer. — Chicle Gum is furnished by Sapota achras, a tree of the West Indies and
of some parts of Mexico.

The fruit is called Naseberry, or Sapodilla plum. It is stated that the succulent
gnrnrny pulp surrounding the seeds is named chicle, and that it is employed in the
preparation of gum-drops.

The tree will not flourish in Clay County, Florida, although it is to be found grow-
ing in the southern extremes of the State, where it has been introduced.
28581 7

98

OPIUM POPPY.

C. E., Liberty County, Georgia. I have reason to believe that the opium poppy
will do well here, and would try it if I had enough seed of the right variety to make
a plantation of several acres. Can you furnish seed or procure it for me at my ex-
pense ?

I should be obliged for any information in regard to its culture, and how best to
get the opium from it.

Answer. — So far as climate is to be considered the poppy plant will grow in Georgia,
and, indeed, in most of the United States, and seed can easily be secured, and the plants
are easily raised. The soil should be very finely pulverized on the surface, and the seed
sown in shallow drills, or rather mere marks. The seeds are very minute and should
be mixed in fifty parts of dry sand, then sand and seed sprinkled thinly on the sur-
face and covered simply by passing a light roller over them. These drills may be 2
feet apart, and when the plants appear they are thinned out so that they will be
from 6 so 8 inches apart.

It is highly improbable that it can be profitably produced in this country, as may
be gleaned from the details of collecting the juice.

When the seed pods are properly matured the milky juice is obtained by making
incisions in the pods with small lancets. This requires great care, so that the incis-
ion is not made through the entire substance of the pod ; the surface is only scari-
fied. The cutting being performed in the afternoon, the opium is allowed to exude
and remain on the pod till next morning, when it is scraped off, drop by drop, and
thus collected in a small cup. Successive incisions are required to secure complete
exudation.

It is thus seen that the process is slow and tedious, and it is stated that the average
pay of the operators does not reach 10 cents per day.

The factory operations in preparing the article for commerce are also tedious and
complicated, involving much manual labor, which is cheaply procured in Asiatic
countries.

CAMPHOR TREE.

J. S. R.^Hernaudo County, Florida. A camphor tree received from your Depart-
ment 6 years ago has grown up into a fine tree some 15 feet in height. It is a beau-
tiful ornamental tree, and is valuable on that account alone, but if this is the tree
from which the camphor of trade is obtained I would be obliged if you can inform
me how to get it. I have tried cutting the bark, but could not see any exudation
of gum.

Answer. — The camphor tree (Camphora officinarum) is a native of China and Japan,
and yields the camphor of commerce.

Camphor is obtained by chopping the wood into small pieces and boiling them
with water in an iron vessel till the camphor begins to adhere to the stirring utensil;
the liquor is then strained, and the camphor concretes on standing. It is afterwards
mixed with finely powdered earth and sublimed from one metallic vessel into an-
other.

In Japan the chips are boiled in a vessel to which an earthen head containing
straw has been fitted, and the camphor sublimes and condenses on the straw. Crude
camphor very much resembles moist sugar before it is cleaned j it is refined by sub-
limation, an operation which requires care and experience.

E.S., Putnam County, Florida. I have seen a statement that the Bahia orange,
as seen in the greenhouse in Washington, has no pollen on its blossoms, and that is

99

given as a reason for its poor bearing in Florida. I would like you to answer me the
following questions :

If the want of the pollen is the cause of its not fruiting in Florida, why does it
fruit so well in California?

If it has no pollen, how does it happen that it affects trees all around it and causes
them to produce navel oranges ?

Answer. — The statement has not been made that because the Bahia orange flowers
are lacking in pollen here this variety does not fruit well in Florida, but rather that
it does not fruit well there for the same reason, that is, want of pollen to properly
pollenize the pistil; this we know to be a fact from personal inspection of trees of
this variety when in flower in Florida. Since the first flowering of the Bahia here,
quite a dozen years ago, this defect has been recognized. After the fruit became pop-
ular in California it was ascertained by inquiry that while the trees did not bear so
abundantly as many other varieties, yet it produced a fairly profitable crop in that
State.

It therefore seems probable that the climatic and cultural conditions permit of a
better development of pollen in California than in Florida and in some other places.
This would not be an exceptional case. It is well known that climatic conditions
affect the pollen of plants. Those who are in the habit of saving seeds know that
plants will often fail to set seeds in the extreme heat of summer, but will produce
fruit and seed abundantly later in the season when the temperature is lower. The
reverse of this is also known ; some plants will only seed well during the warmest
part of the season, and fail to do so in cooler weather. Whether the flowering season
of the Bahia in California is more favorable to the ripening of its pollen than is its
flowering season in Florida is a point to be determined.

With regard to the question : If this navel orange has no pollen, how does it hap-
pen that it affects trees all around it and causes them to produce navel oranges ? it
may be stated that this question has been frequently similarly presented for expla-
nation. Presented in this manner it suggests doubt as to the accuracy of the ob-
servation of those who have been unable to find pollen in the flowers of this variety
of orange; at the same time it furnishes no proof of the existence of pollen on the
trees which are stated to exert so powerful an influence upon their neighbors. The
question can therefore only be looked upon as an imaginary hypothesis.

The absence or presence of pollen in a blossom is a matter easily determined; a
few minutes of inspection would enable the observer to state definitely whether it
has no pollen or the reverse.

If the statement is varied, that the tree has an abundance of perfect pollen, the
cause of nonproductiveness would then become a question of further inquiry. This
direct evidence of an abundance of pollen would be entitled to a degree of respect
which is certainly not afforded by the supposition that because other fruit show a
navel mark therefore the suspected tree must have had an abundance of perfect
pollen.

The navel mark on oranges is a very indefinite article. Sometimes fruits may be
taken from a tree some of which will have a scarcely preceptible indentation as a
mark, while others will show a protuberance half an inch in diameter. The cause of
this mark has not been explained. This much may, however, be looked upon as
certain, that if a vegetable physiologist picked a fruit having something of a navel
mark from a tree of the St. Michael's, or from a tree of Maltese oval, or from one of
any variety not known as a navel, he would not be apt to attribute the appearance
of the mark to pollen influence of any kind. X^ V/

CANARY SEED.

G. M. E., Cecil County, Maryland. I. write for information upon the subject of canary
seed. I have in view the subject of planting it for a crop if it will grow here and

pay. ' I shall be obliged for what information you ean give mq as to the character of

J ^~ f~*-.

^ ', \ fa . 1^-1

A 1 . _ _\ ^ ^. . . PI *Ci ^ ' .*• 4/ I FTT't^«^>£^C^*V*?*'

100

the plant, the probability of its successful growth here, yield per acre, time of sow-
ing, etc.

Answer. — Canary seed is produced by a species of grass, Phalaris canariensis, said
to be a native of Asia, but found growing wild in various parts of the eastern world.

But little is known here about its yield or the profits pertaining to its culture. It
is stated that the amount entering into consumption annually is about 200,000
bushels, and it is chiefly from Turkey and Barbary.

As cultivated in these countries the seeds are sown early in spring, in drills 6
inches apart, and the plants thinned to 2 inches apart in the rows. It is a slow-
growing, slender-stemmed plant, requiring frequent hoeing to keep weeds from
destroying it. Much care is required in harvesting, as the seeds fall off easily. Birds
are fond of it when it is opening. In some countries the seeds are fed to race horses,
as they are said to strengthen muscle without being fattening. No doubt the plant
will grow well in Maryland. Probably there would be but little profit in its pro-
duction. This can only be ascertained from a practical experiment.

TREE-PLANTING.

J. R. E., Fairfax County, Virginia, The question as to the best time to plant
shade trees, of apple and pear trees, has been discussed at our club meeting. Some
prefer fall planting because the soil becomes well settled about the roots before spring
and the trees do much better than those planted in the spring ; others maintain that
fall planting has no advantages, but, on the contrary, they have lost trees which
were set out just before winter set in, and consider spring planting to be more reli-
able. Can the Department of Agriculture advise us of the results and conclusions
reached on these points ?

Answer. — Fall planting is preferable to spring planting because the conditions of
the soil and climate are then more favorable. In propagating plants by cuttings it
is found that rooting is most successful when the bed in which the cuttings are
inserted is 15 or 20 degrees warmer than the atmosphere surrounding them. The
heated soil encourages the formation of roots, while the cool atmosphere prevents
bud growths. When these conditions are reversed the cutting will grow for a time
without forming roots.

It is found that during the month of October in this locality the soil averages sev-
eral degrees warmer than the atmosphere. This gives a kind of natural hot-bed into
which we place a newly removed tree ; the formation of young roots commences at
once, and in a few weeks a good system of roots is established, enabling the tree to
stand the vicissitudes of winter and make an early and vigorous start the following
spring.

If planting is delayed until spring these physical conditions of soil and atmosphere
are to a certain degree reversed; the soil is then cold and accumulates heat slowly,
while the air rapidly increases in warmth. Trees planted at this time will have the
buds excited to growth, and leaves will be formed in advance of the roots; these ex-
tract sap from the branches and the stem of the tree, which as yet has no active roots
to supply this demand. If the weather proves to be dry and warm the evaporation
will either destroy the tree or greatly check its growth and well-doing. This is the
reason why spring-planted trees occasionally come out into leaf, apparently vigorous
and healthy, but will suddenly wither and die under the influence of dry weather.

From the above it will appear evident that fall planting should be performed as
soon as the leaves drop. In fact it is most successful when the leaves are stripped
from the trees, not later than the middle of October, and planting done at once. If
delayed beyond the middle of November in this locality success will be less certain
and none of the advantages of fall planting secured. Many failures occur by thus
delaying the work, and fall planting is denounced as wrong in practice.

101

PKAR BLIGHT.

J. D., Kansas. What effect has the stock on pear blight ? The original Kieffer tree
is said to be free from blight, and for years it was claimed that all Kieffers were
blight-proof, yet of late years we have undoubtable evidence that they do blight.
Now, why this change? Is it from foreign sap introduced into the tree throngn
buddhig and grafting ? First it was budded on the common pear stock, then scions
from that were grafted on another, and so the process was continued until the original
sap, we might say, has all been worked out, and as a consequence we have blight.

The Le Conte pear was claimed to be exempt from blight, yet we find in late years
it has blighted. Those who profess to know say that there has never been a case of
blight on any tree that can be traced back to the original cuttings, but the blight is
only on trees which have been grafted.

Now the question arises, are any pear trees blight-proof; and if so, can they be kept
in that condition by propagating only from cuttings?

Answer. — It may be said that those who claimed that the Kieffer pear would be
blight-proof simply made a mistake. As its culture extended and plantations were
set out in different localities cases of blight were reported. When the Kieffer comes
under the influences which cause blight, it seems to be just as sensitive as many other
varieties of its species.

The causes of blight on the pear are not yet understood. The opinion that it is
caused by bacteria is quite prevalent, but there are many others who maintain that
bacteria is not the cause of the disease, but exists because of the disease ; in other
words, that bacteria has nothing to do with the origin of disease in plants or animals,
but let the animal tissue die and it is in the condition to decompose, and can only do
so by bacterial growth. The same with plants. The germs of bacteria swarm in the
air and are always ready to light upon disorganized tissue and perform the great and
important task of reducing the vegetable world to its ultimate elements.

Budding upon other than the Kieffer stock can have nothing to do with blight. The
entire foliage being Kieffer will naturally determine and control the cell growth of
the whole plant.

The claims pjade for the Le Conte pear as being blight-proof rest on no better foun-
dation. Trees of this variety procured from Thomasville, Georgia, which were propa-
gated from cuttings, have blighted badly, so badly as to entirely destroy the tree.
They have suffered more than the Kieffer under similar conditions ; that is, they were
growing within 40 feet of each other.

If any variety of pear is blight-proof it has not yet been made known, and it is
beyond controversy that pear trees raised from cuttings are just as liable to be at-
tacked by blight as are varieties propagated by any other method.

COFFEE.

W. H. M., Sanford, Florida. , I shall be pleased to receive, at your earliest conven-
ience, as many coffee plants as you can spare me ; also as much coffee seed as you
can send.

I have had several years' experience in coffee growing in southern India, and want
to try it here, as I think the climate and soil well adapted to successful cultivation
of coffee.

Answer. — The Department of Agriculture has for nearly a quarter of a century
made yearly distributions of coffee plants, sending them to the warmest localities in
the United States, but the returns have not been of a nature to warrant further con-
tinuance of the distribution of these plants so far as relates to the object in view of
establishing a profitable industry.

It is true that several years ago a small quantity of ripened berries were produced
on coffee plants growing near the Manatee River, but it was understood that these
plants were in a very well sheltered position, and received additional protection

102

during the severest weather in winter. Subsequently these trees were frozen to the
ground by a cold of unusual severity for that locality.

It is quite certain that coffee can not become a profitable crop at Sauford, Florida,
where a lowering of temperature down to or below the point of fieezing occurs
almost every winter. Although the freezing point may not be reached, yet oc-
casional low temperatures in the fall or early winter months retards the ripening of
the fruit, even when the plant is apparently uninjured. A tropical climate means
something more than mere exemption from frost.

Experienced coffee-growers state that the culture is not commercially profitable in
a climate where the thermometer falls below 50° F. at any time during the year.
The plant will survive a much lower temperature than the above, but this estimate
refers to the value of the crop.

MUSTARD SEED.

J. W. H., West Virginia. I am using in my business a large quantity of mustard
seed, and being desirous of raising the seed in this section I write for information as
to its culture.

Answer.— Black-seeded mustard (Sinapsis wi#ra)and white-seeded mustard (Sivapsis
alba) are the kinds usually cultivated. The former is said to have the preference for
manufacture into flour.

As far as can be learned there have been but few attempts to cultivate the mustard
plant in this country, and the results obtained have not been very satisfactory.

Mustard requires a rich, loamy soil for its growth. It is sown in spring, usually
broadcast, although sometimes in drills about 1 foot apart. The soil requires to
have a finely pulverized surface before sowing, so that the seed may be equally cov-
ered by harrow and roller ; if they are covered more than one-half inch with soil
they may remain dormant for many years. It is found that buried mustard seeds
will remain dormant for decades and vegetate when brought near the surface; so it
is difficult to get rid of it in fields where it has once been grown, the seeds shaken
out in harvesting being sufficient to furnish a crop, as weeds, for many years.

About one-half peck of seed will sow an acre, and a good crop will return 30 bushels •
per acre. This quantity is procured only where soil and climate conduce to best
results. In dry seasons this amount would be much reduced.

GRAPE ROT.

J. K., Fairfax County, Virginia. My grapes were, I may say, a complete failure
this year from rot. Ever since my vines commenced bearing they have suffered more
or less, some seasons less than others. Four years ago I may say that the crop was
as total a failure as this. Last year I saved a good half crop. I need not say that I
am discouraged, and will abandon the culture if this disease continues, but I am loath
to dig them up if anything can be done to save them. They have been carefully
pruned and fertilized with bone, the land is not poor, and the vines make plenty of
growth.

What is the general result of putting paper bags over the bunches ? If any parti-
cular point in culture or management can modify or extirpate this ruinous infliction
I would be glad to know it.

Answer. — As to the general result of putting paper bags over the bunches, it may
be stated that it is successful. Some few report unfavorably, but it has been found
necessary to place the bunches in bags as soon as the berries are formed, and that,
when the covering is delayed much beyond this period, rotted berries have been
found in the bags.

It has long been observed and noted that grapevines protected by a canopy or cov-
ering, such as the projecting eaves of a building, or even the casual protection af-
forded them when growing up through the branches of a tree, are measurably exetnp-
from fungous diseases. Recent reports show that grapes under a board or even must
lin cover are almost entirely exempt from rot. A protected grape trellis is described

103

and figured in the Agricultural Report for 1861. and was in use in the garden of the
Department for many years, with the best results. This board- covered trellis was
substituted by a T-shaped trellis, the flat top being wired, and the vines allowed to
cover it with a dense mass of foliage. This arrangement was found to be quite as
effectual in protecting from mildew and rot as the more solid but more expensive
cover of boards. In this case the more robust growing varieties of grapes were
planted at intervals of 30 feet, and trained exclusively on top of the trellis. So far
as economy is concerned this plan has an advantage over all others, inasmuch as the
vines used for protection also yield their crop of fruit.

Even on the ordinary wired trellis exemption from rot has been observed when
the summer growth has been allowed to accumulate on the top wire, and the ends of
long shoots and laterals allowed to hang down like a screen over the plants. To
secure this heavy top growth summer pruning will be abandoned, which is perhaps
an advantage to the crop. Summer pruning, when done at all, is usually overdone,
and is but little practiced by the most successful grape-growers.

LICORICE.

P. W. J., Accomack County, Virginia. I would be greatly indebted if you will let
me know what you think about the culture of licorice in this county. Our winters
are not quite so severe as at Washington, District of Columbia, and my soil is some-
what sandy. I am anxious to learn something about its cultivation, and whether
the crop would be a profitable one to raise.

Answer. — So far as regards the cold of winter the licorice will not be injured, but
its profitable culture may be considered as doubtful.

To produce good licorice roots the soil must be rich, and it must be deeply worked,
at least to a depth of 2 feet. It is very essential to have a deep soil to allow the
downward growth of the roots, which increases their commercial value and enables
the plant to withstand hot, dry summers, for if the plants are weakened or checked
in luxuriance they are liable to the attacks of the red spider, which destroys the
foliage.

The plants are propagated by the slender side roots, which are removed in trim-
ming the saleable portions. They are set in the prepared soil by making a perpen-
dicular hole with a sharp pointed stick or dibble and inserting the root slip so ttat
it will be covered entirely, exactly as horseradish sets are planted.

Frequent hoeing will be necessary during the summer, not only to destroy weeds,
but to maintain growth, and the deeper the culture, without hurting the roots, the
better the plants.

As winter approaches the tops will become yellow, and after growth is completed
they can be cleaned off and the plants covered with manure.

At the end of the third summer's growth, if the plants have done well, the roots
will be large enough for market. The process of digging out and harvesting the
roots is perhaps the most tedious operation with the crop. They run from 2 to more
feet in depth and can only be secured safely by the use of the spadfy so that the
whole root may be secured without breakage.

The marketable portions are trimmed of all side roots, washed, dried, and tied in
bundles for sale.

The labor and cost of manure for thorough preparation of the ground from 2 to 3
feet in depth, the planting and cultivation for 3 or 4 years in producing one crop,
and the cost of harvesting the roots leads to the opinion that its profitable culture is
doubtful, at least while the price of the article remains as at present.

PRUNING GRAPES.

. F. M. D., Steuben County, New York. There seems to be a diversity of opinion as
to the best time to prune the grapevine. Some prune in the fall and others any time
during the winter or spring. Many growers think there is no particular time better

104

than another so far as fruit is concerned. If the Department of Agriculture has any
rule for this operation I would be obliged for information as to the time, and why
any particular time is preferred.

Answer. — The best time for the winter pruning of grapes is soon after the fall of the
leaves, and the sooner the better, for the reason that the buds will push with more
vigor in spring, will bear better fruit, will ripen somewhat earlier. This arises from
the circumstance that the plant during winter continues to absorb more or less nu-
triment by its roots, which is distributed in the branches or wood. If, therefore,
pruning is delayed until the approach of spring this winter accumulation is largely
destroyed and lost. When, however, the vine is pruned in the fall the winter accu-
mulation of increase will be deposited in the buds and parts left after pruning, and
such buds will start vigorously and, in consequence of their better development, the
fruit they show will be increased, and the shoots will advance rapidly in growth and
attain maturity sooner than those from weaker buds, as may be tested by compara-
tive trials and close observation of results.

This becomes a matter of considerable importance in localities where the growing
season is barely of sufficient length to ripen the fruit.

TONKA BEAN.

N. B. G., Orange County, Florida. Among other tropical plants which I am trying
to grow I would like to raise the Tonka bean plant, and would be greatly obliged
for some plants or seeds of it for trial, also some information as to the particular value
and use of the bean.

I hear of a wild vanilla said to be growing in some parts of this State ; would like
to know something about it and where seeds or plants can be secured.

Answer. — The Tonka bean is the seed of a tropical tree of Guiana, called Dipterix
odorata, which reaches to a height of 60 or 80 feet. The bean has a strong odor,
somewhat resembling that of cloves, and is due to the principle called coumariue, a
fragrant principle found in the dried leaves of the vernal grass, Anthoxantkum odora-
fuw, and in the leaves of the yellow melilot, Melilotus officinalis. The Tonka bean
has been used to scent snuff, hence it is called the snuff bean. It is sometimes em-
ployed to adulterate vanilla. It imparts to true vanilla a sharp, rank odor and taste,
which some persons think indicate " strength," but it detracts from the genuine va-
nilla flavor.

The Dipterix would not succeed with you, as it requires a strictly tropical climate.

The term wild vanilla is given to a composite plant of the Southern States, called
Liatris odoratissima. The driud leaves emit a peculiar odor, alao due to the princi-
ple coumarine. The leaves are used in scenting tobacco and snuff. The Liatris is
found in swampy woods throughout Florida, which, with the assistance of a local
botanist, you can procure without much trouble or expense.

ZANTE CURRANT.

H. H. M., San Bernardino County, California. I am anxious to test the soil here
in producing the "Zante Currant," and desire to know the kind of vine that pro-
duces this fruit and where plants can be obtained.

Answer. — The Zante Currant is the product of a variety of the foreign grape and
will undoubtedly grow where other varieties of Vitis vinifera flourish.

It is merely a seedless form of a black grape ; the origin or cause of its being seed-
less has not clearly been explained, except that it results from a deficiency of pollen
at the blooming period of the flowers. Similar results are not uncommon with Black
Hamburg and other varieties when grown in glass structures; bunches will some-
times fail to be properly pollenized, so that a few berries may reach full size with a
more or less percentage of small seedless fruits.

Statements have -been made that Zante currants can be produced only in Greece,

105

and that in other countries where it has been tried the plant will produce so many
full-formed berries as to depreciate its value as a currant crop.

The plant has long been introduced into California and is advertised for sale by
various nurserymen throughout the State.

LIME WASH FOR TREES.

E. D. S., Steuben County, New York. I am told that the Department recommends
the whitewashing of fruit trees as a cure for blights, yellows, and other diseases. If
this is true, may I ask what this wash consists of, and how applied so as not to injure
the tree. Will not the clogging of the pores in the bark of the tree by a coating of
lime or other wash do more harm than good?

Some of my apple and pear trees have blighted to some extent, but I have seen it
stated that washing the bark of trees has no effect, either as a preventive or as a
cure for blight. Can you inform me on this point ?

Answer. — The reports of this Department have nowhere recommended whitewash-
ing as a cure for "yellows and other plant diseases," but frequent mention has been
made of the application on pear and other trees as a preventive of blight, at least on
the parts covered with the mixture. No harm need be feared in regard to clogging
the pores in the bark, as there are no pores in the bark that can be harmed by the
application.

The wash is prepared by placing one-half bushel of lime and 8 pounds of powdered
sulphur in a vessel of any suitable kind, covering with boiling water to properly
slacken the lime.

The mixture is applied with a brush, covering all parts of the tree that can readily
be reached. The most potent ingredient of the wash is the sulphur. The heat of the
sun acting upon the wash evolves sulphurous gases which are fatal to bacteria and
microscopic fungi, which, as has been demonstrated, are active agents in blight. It is
well known that these microscopic spores are destroyed by sulphurous gases and heat
is required to evolve them. Sulphur applications are often made for the destruction
of mildew on roses and on other plants, but the efficacy of the sulphur depends upon
its connection with a certain degree of heat ; but it must not ignite. The gases of
burning sulphur are fatal to the higher order of vegetation and are speedily destruc-
tive to all plants.

Those who have used this lime and sulphur wash on their orchard trees are pleased
with the results and have faith in its efficacy in preventing blight.

But it is well to keep in view that, while blight will not maintain on the portion
covered with the wash, the fumes of the sulphur may not be sufficient to prevent blight
on the extreme points of branches which can not be reached with the brush. If
blight is discovered on a twig or on a branch it should be removed without delay.
With this attention and covering the main branches with the wash losses from
blight need not greatly be feared.

RHUBARB.

N. E. C., Walton County, Georgia. I am anxious to purchase a small quantity of
seed of the true medicinal rhubarb. If you will .kindly inform me of its botan-
ical name and where it can be obtained, and anything you may know about its cul-
ture or preparation for market, you will place me under great obligations. I want
the best Turkey rhubarb, or the best commercial kind.

Answer. — Efforts hitherto made by the Department to procure seeds of the best
medicinal rhubarb have not been successful. It appears that medico-botanists differ
in opinions as to the species of rhubarb which yields the best medicinal root ; on the
other hand, it has been stated that the roots of the common kinds, grown for culinary
purposes under the name of pie- plant, yield good medicinal roots, and that much of
the article in commerce comes from this source.

106

It is an article of very ancient use. It is said to be mentioned by Chinese writers
4,500 years ago. It is mentioned by early writers as having been brought from
beyond the Bosphorus. The Rha, which came into Europe by the ancient
caravan routes from northern China, by Bokhara and Asia Minor, was Rha -ponticnm,
and that which came by Russia and Danube was called Rha-barbarum. The
designations Turkey, Russia, East India, and Canton rhubarb merely indicate the
commercial channel through which the article has been derived in modern times.

To the species Rheum paJmatum has been attributed the origin of Persian, Turkey,
Russian, and Muscovite rhubarbs, and Chinese rhubarbs are said to be produced
chiefly, if not wholly, by Rheum australe.

It is now claimed that the source of the best medicinal rhubarb is Rheum officinale, a
native of Thibet.

The ordinary species of rhubarb are herbaceous perennials, with a thick root stock
and deciduous leaves. In Rheum officinale, after the third or fourth year of its growth
from seed, the root stock gradually decays and a stem is formed above ground from
which roots are emitted to support the plant. These stems have thick branches, often
from 6 to 8 inches in diameter, and are the parts used in medicine, and not the rhi-
zome or root.

It is considered that very much of the difference of appearance and quality of
commercial rhubarb is largely owing to the time of lifting the root and the care given
in its preparation for market. The roots are in many places taken up early in autumn.
The Chinese dig up the roots early in spring, just before the leaves appear.

When the roots are lifted they are first divested of all small fibers, then thoroughly
cleaned by washing. After drying in the sun for several days they are cut in thin
slices, and after a further due exposure to the sun a hole is bored in each slice and
strung on a thread until properly dried.

The pieces are then put through a finishing process by being placed in a close cyl-
inder where they are subjected to abrasion by the rapid revolution of the vessel.
This smooths their surfaces, liberating at the same time a fine dust or powder which
envelopes each piece with a fine bloom, like that upon the surface of a ripe plum.

There is no reason to doubt that the root if grown in the warmer climates here
would be equal to the best, provided species which yield a good article could be pro-
cured. Its culture is simple and its preparation easily accomplished.

GINSENG.

P. W., Albemarle County, Virginia. Has the Chinese ginseng plant been culti-
vated in this country ? I would try it if I knew where to purchase seed. If you can
give me any information as to how seeds or plants can be had and how it is culti-
vated I will be obliged j also would like to know the probable profit of the crop,

Answer. — So far as can be learned ginseng has not been successfully cultivated in
this country. It is a product of the woods, and efforts made in its culture have not
proved satisfactory. Chinese ginseng is closely allied to our native species; seeds
have occasionally been received from China and Japan, but so far as ascertained they
have not vegetated. It is possible that they soon lose their germinating power, as,
it is stated, the Japanese deposit the seeds in the ground as soon as they are collected
in order to keep them fresh until wanted to sow.

The Japanese cultivate the plant to some extent, and their method is to select a
sheltered position and make a bed of leaf mold in which the seeds are sown, and
where the plants remain until they are ready for use. These beds are protected
from the sun by a roof of straw laid on poles, which are supported on posts. After
growing 4 years the roots are lifted, carefully washed in boiling water, then dried in
a high temperature until they become brittle. The best article sells for about $5 a
pound in Japan. It is a plant w^hich does not submit readily to culture, and its pro-
duction as a profitable crop would be very doubtful.

107

HORSE-CHESTNUT TREE.

B. D., Oswego, New York. I understand that horse-chestnuts are raised in con-
siderable quantities in France, and are used as food for horses, cattle, and hogs to
fatten them. The nut has a bitter taste, and it is said that the French people use
some kind of alkali to kill this bitter taste and thus make it palatable to their cattle.
I wish to find this out, and my reason is that in this city and county horse-chestnuts
are grown for shade trees, and thus large quantities of the nuts are grown and go to
waste, and we want to know how to use them. Also, the wood is white and could be
used for fancy work and finishing furniture. Have you data on the utilization of
the horse-chestnut tree?

Answer. — The nuts of the horse-cliestnuttree, &8culus Jiippocastanum, contain about
20 per cent of starch, but contain a bitter principle, which makes them unpalatable
to most animals, although it is stated that goats, sheep, and deer eat them. They
are some times boiled, whicli reduces their bitterness, and are then fed to poultry.
When the nuts are dried and reduced to a coarse flour the bitterness is removed by
simply washing the flour with water. A paste made with this flour before washing
is used by bookbinders and pasteboard manufacturers, its bitterness saving it from
the attacks of insects. The bitter principle is called esculin.

The following products are obtained from the nuts in France :

(1) An alkali lye from the burnt seed vessels.

(2) A charcoal from the skin of the nut, which forms the base of different printing
inks.

(3) From the amylaceous pulp the fecula is extracted, which can be transformed
into dextrine, glucose, alcohol, or vinegar.

(4) A fatty matter, which serves to make a kind of soap, and which is also em-
ployed to render certain mineral colors more fixed and solid.

(5) A yellow coloring matter, which serves for various purposes of dyeing.

(6) The ashes of the burnt nut contains 75 per cent of potash.

(7) The bark has been used as a substitute for cinchona.

(8) Tannin is found in all parts of the tree, leaves, bark, and fruit.

(9) Water in which the nuts are boiled is used for bleaching hemp, flax, and other
fibers.

INDIA GRAINS.

M.H.N., Texas. During a residence in India I became acquainted with several
kinds of gram which are superior to anything grown in this country as feed for stock.
These grains are grown in the dry regions, and for that reason I think, they would be
specially adapted to southwestern Texas. There is a kind called Gram grown in
central India, and in southern India another kind also called Gram. These are ground
before fed to stock. Then there is a grain called Bajery, which is used for making
bread, of which the yield per acre is very large.

The Department might procure these seeds through the consular service or from
merchants in Bombay. If they can be secured I will have them tried in southwestern
Texas and make known the result.

Answer.— The word Gram is used in India to designate various kinds of peas and
beans grown for food, just as we use the word grain to designate various useful seeds.
Among the species known as Gram the following are noted : Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus
of many kinds, Dolichos uniflorus, Soja hispida, and various species of Vigua, which
are largely grown in the Southern States under the name of cowpeas. These, how-
ever, are not peas ; they are small beans.

Bajery or Bajree is a name applied to the seeds of Penicillaria spicata, which is
well known here as pearl millet, and may be procured from most dealers in agricul-
tural seeds in the United States.

108

SEEDLING ORANGES.

M. E. R., Frederick County, Maryland. I have three orange and one lemon tree in
tubs; the plants are about 4 feet high; the lemon tree is the tallest. They have
not had any blossom, and I am told that before they will flower they must be cut
down and grafted ; but the plants are so tine, and I value them so highly, having
raised them from seeds planted by myself, that I will be very sorry to have them cut
if it can be helped. Please inform me if it is true that they will not flower unless
they are grafted.

Answer. — Undoubtedly they will flower without being grafted. Probably one-half
of all the fruit-bearing orange trees on this continent have never been grafted, but
they seldom blossom until they are 8 or 10 years old, unless under special treatment.
This special treatment consists in what is technically known as "stunting" the
plant, or allowing it to become "pot-bound," thus retarding its growth for want of
nourishment, which in all cases tends to the formation of blossom buds, and checks
the growth of wood. But this must not be carried so far as to interfere with the
general health of the plant, because it would then have a tendency to produce dis-

Orange trees are grafted or budded only when it is desired to extend by propaga-
tion any particular variety.

The orange reproduces itself from seed more closely than most varieties of tree
fruits, but no dependence can be placed upon this mode of reproduction for absolute
similarity in all of the essential qualities. But budding or grafting has a tendency
to hasten the flowering period, and the operation is often performed for this purpose
on the orange where it is grown only as an ornamental plant.

PEEN-TO PEACH.

B. F. G., Wilmington, Delaware. I have applied to several nurseries for plants of
the Peen-to peach, but have not been successful. In reply to my last application I
was informed that the variety would not live in Delaware, and also that the fruit
was small and not worth having.

This does not conform with what I have heard about the fruit as grown in the South,
where it is claimed to be the earliest and best peach that they can grow. What
is the experience or knowledge of the Department on this tree and fruit ?

Answer. — The Peen-to peach will not do well in your climate; the winters are too
severe for it.

As to the fruit, it is, when well grown, not above the medium size, and when fully
ripened on the tree is of fairly good quality for so early a fruit, but if gathered before
full maturity it has somewhat of a bitter taste.

In portions of Florida, where the common peach rarely bears fruit, the Peen-to is
the earliest and best peach they grow, and it will undoubtedly be the parent of a
class of trees particularly suited to that climate. It is stated that already seedlings
of the Peen-to have been procured which prove to excel the parent both in size and
quality.

INDIGO.

H. S. B., Sanford, Florida. I should be much obliged if you could give me any
information as to the planting, fertilizing, and preparation of indigo, and also if it
would flourish in this soil and climate.

Answer. — The indigo (Tndigofera tinctoria) is a native of Asia, hut has been culti-
vated in many parts of the world. Indigo was at one time an article of export from
South Carolina and other Southern States, but its production in the States has long
ceased to be of commercial importance.

The plant requires a moderately rich soil, the seeds being sown early in spring,
sometimes broadcast, but preferably in shallow drills about 16 inches apart, so that
weeds can be removed or kept down by hoeing. The plant will be ready to cut in

109

about 3 months after sowing the seeds. They are cut just before coming into flower,
and if conditions of growth are favorable a second crop may be cut in about 2
months afterwards.

The coloring matter does not exist as indigo in the plant, but when the plant is
steeped in water and subjected to certain processes the blue color is educed.

As soon as the plants are cut they are thrown into vats of water, where they are
allowed to remain until sufficiently macerated. The liquid is then drawn into an-
other vat, where it is subjected to agitation by beating with rods for several hours,
or until the water changes from a greenish to a deep purple color. It is then allowed
to settle. The water gradually clears and the indigo sediment is found on the
bottom of the vat.

It is then boiled, strained through bags, and otherwise treated until prepared for
commerce.

All the processes require careful, skilled treatment to secure the best results.

Indigo was produced near St. Augustine prior to the year 1700, and records
show that it was cultivated in Virginia about 1680.

There seems no reason to doubt its adaptability to the climate of southern Florida,
provided the seed is sown in deep rich soil, but it is somewhat doubtful that it wouh
prove to be a profitable crop.

NAVEL ORANGES.

From Putnam County, Florida. As there seems to be an uncertainty about the
proper distinction regarding navel oranges, I would be pleased to have you inform
me whether or not the Bahia, Washington navel, Riverside navel, and Parsons navel
are all one kind. Also, would like to know if any of these were ever sent to Florida
by your Department.

Answer. — Of the above the only variety of the navel orange sent out from this De-
partment was the Bahia. This variety was imported from Bahia some years ago,
and to designate it from other navel oranges the name of Bahia was attached to it.
Young plants of this variety were distributed in California and Florida about the
same time, but mostly in Florida, where there are now large trees of first distribu-
tions. However, the conditions of climate, probably,in California seemed to suit the
variety better than Florida. At all events, its value there soon brought it into no-
tice, and as it first fruited at a place named Riverside it received that name, also
that of Washington, thus ignoring the name on the label attached to the plant when
received.

As to the variety known as Parsons navel, this Department has no knowledge of
its origin.

With regard to the distribution of the Bahia from here, as between California and
Florida, many more have been sent to the latter-named State.

NETTLE FIBER.

From South Carolina. I wish you would advise me of any improvements or develop-
ments that have been made recently in the preparation of nettle fiber. Our country
is overrun with nettles, and it would be a blessing if they could be put to some use.

Answer. — The Department is not aware that nettle fiber enters into commerce to any
extent. Ramie, one of the best fiber plants of the nettle family, has considerable
commercial value, but the expense of its preparation for market has, hitherto at
least, prevented its profitable culture, although machinery for its profitable prepara-
tion has lately been announced.

EUCALYPTUS TREE.

From York, Pennsylvania. I have seen it stated at various times that Eucalyptus
globulus trees were being planted in the public grounds in Washington on account of
their supposed power to preyept malarial emanations from the soil.

110

Desiring to plant a shade tree in front of my house, I desire to ascertain whether
the Eucalyptus is likely to thrive well in this climate.

Answer. — The Eucalyptus globulus has not been planted in the puhlic grounds at
Washington.

The tree is altogether too tender for this climate. It will not withstand more than
5° or 6° of frost, and has been killed by cold at Galveston, Tex., and in Florida as far
south as latitude 29°.

PERUVIAN TEA.

E. H., North Carolina. Can you furnish me with any plants of the Peruvian tea
cr mate" for experiment here ?

Answer. — The plant which yields the leaves used as tea in Brazil and Peru is Ilex
paraguayensis, a large-sized tree, which would not grow in North Carolina.

It seems unnecessary to ignore the Chinese tea-plant, Camellia thea, which will grow
well in most parts of North Carolina, and contains more theine than the Peruvian
plant.

BLACK PEPPER.

A. C. P., Portland, Oregon. If possible I should like to be supplied with seeds of
the Black pepper tree or vine from the most northern latitude where it nourishes. I
would try the experiment of raising it in the warm valleys of southern Oregon.

Answer, — The Black pepper vine, Piper nigrum, is a tropical plant, therefore it
would be futile to expect it to grow in any part of Oregon ; it requires even a warmer
climate than either the Pineapple or the Banana, neither of which can be cultivated
profitably in Oregon.

RAMIE.

B., New York. Can Ramie be successfully grown in this State ?

Answer. — Ramie can be grown in New York State by lifting the roots during the
fall and preserving them all winter, like potatoes. But for commercial purposes this
process would not be profitable, unless the profits on the crop were greater than they
are at present. South of Maryland the plant occupies the ground like clover, and
once planted no renewal is needed for many years.

MAHWAH TREE.

A. P., South Carolina. I send you a slip from a newspaper strongly advocating
the introduction of the Mahwah tree from Africa as a sugar-producing plant of more
value than any other sugar-plant now in cultivation. Please send me some seeds or
plants for trial here, or inform me where they can be procured.

Answer. — The Mahwah tree, Bassia latifolia, is a native of Bengal and other highly
tropical districts in the East Indies, and it is far from probable that it would flourish
anywhere in the United States, but certainly it could not stand the climate of South
Carolina. The flowers of this tree are sweet to the taste, and are eaten raw by the
natives of Guzerat and other places where the trees abound. A fiery kind of spirits
is distilled from the flowers.

The sugar of these flowers is mainly uncrystallizable. Analysis of sun-dried flowers
yield 56 per cent of sugar and 15 per cent of water; further analysis showed that
sucrose (cane sugar) was only present in the proportion of 2 per cent while glucose
(Isevulose and dextrine) yielded 52 per cent. Hence it can not possibly be substi-
tuted for cane or beet sugars. Of nitrogenous matters the flowers contained 2 per
cent. The usual proportion of useful nitrogenous food should have one part of flesh
formers to five saccharine ; but in Mahwah flowers it was only two to fifty-five, hence
these have but little of nutritious value.

Ill

OSAGE ORANGE.

L. B. C., Missouri. I write to ask if you can tell me of a way to destroy the osage
orange hedge fence. This is becoming unpopular among the best farmers on account
of the cost of trimming, making it hog-proof, and its taking the substance of the
ground for such a wide space each side of it. Cutting it, letting it dry, and then
burning will not do, as it will sprout again from the old roots.

Answer. — The best method of destroying the hedge is to cut the tops of the plants
so that the remaining stock and roots can l>e grubbed out, and the more effectually
these are removed the less trouble will result with sue kers ; but when these do ap-
pear they should be hoed out as other weeds are destroyed. Plowing the ground
deeply for several feet on each side of the original hedge line will break and bring to
the surface some of the roots, every fragment of which should be removed. It will
not be practicable to get rid of every piece of root at once, but if timely attention is
given to the removal of such growths as may appear, the whole will eventually be
eradicated.

WELL-KIPENBD WOOD.

This is a technical phrase much used by fruit-growers to indicate a
favorable condition of fruit-bearing plants, and as indicating the basis
of success for fruit production and healthy vitality of the plant. No
plant can long remain in a state of health if placed under conditions
where its yearly growths do not mature, and it can not be too vividly
impressed upon the mind of the cultivator of fruits that full and com-
plete maturity of the seasonal growths of his trees and plants is the
foundation of success. Without it, so far as fruit production is con-
cerned, failure is inevitable.

The amount of cold which plants can endure without injury depends
greatly upon the degree of maturity of their growths. Too much im-
portance can not be placed upon the recognition of the fact that what-
ever tends to render plant tissue moist increases the susceptibility of
the plant to injury from cold, and whatever tends to reduce humidity
and hasten the conversion of fluid matter into woody fiber increases its
power of resisting cold, and it is clearly within the province of the cul-
tivator to largely control this power of resistance in plants so far that
failures or successes will in many cases depend upon his perception of
the application of principles influencing vegetable growth.

It would be no easy task to determine how much of the disappoint-
ments and failures in fruit culture are due to luxuriant late growths which
have been struck by cold, and growth arrested before reaching maturity.

The amount of cold that plants can resist without being injured can
not be definitely answered, because a plant will sometimes be destroyed
by a degree of cold that it previously encountered without harm. This
simply shows that the resisting powers of plants are not constant, but
that they are dependent upon the condition of growth with reference
to its maturity.

Future investigation will undoubtedly determine that most of the
so-called diseases of plants originate from injuries received from sudden
checks of growth, and it will likely be found that the results, although

112

ultimately fatal, may linger for long periods before final termination,
and observation has led to the conviction that such instances are by
no means rare.

It may often be observed that in an orchard or plantation of trees of
any kind individual plants will suffer and show disease while closely
neighboring plants remain in perfect health. In such cases it will be
found that the injured plants are those which, for some reason, are the
most succulent of growths, and succumb to influences from which
those of mature growths are exempt, and thus " the one is taken and
the other left."

The result of cold acting upon succulent shoots is well exemplified in
the case of peach trees. The disease known as " yellows " has long
been attributed by reliable authorities, and this on grounds which have
never been successfully controverted, to the freezing of immature
shoots in the fall.

Downing, 40 years ago, in his " Fruits of America," referring to
peaches, says :

And it is well worth remarking that certain fine old sorts, the ends of the branches
of which have a peculiar mildewed appearance, which seems to check the growth
without impairing the health, are rarely if ever attacked by the yellows. Slow-
growing and moderately productive sorts are almost entirely exempt.

Again, on the same subject, he states —

The most luxuriant and healthy growing varieties appear most liable to it. Slow-
growing sorts are rarely affected.

In Britain peaches are always grafted on plum stocks, which has a
somewhat similar effect upon the peach as that produced by grafting
the pear on the quince ; that is, the growth is checked, and succulent
late summer shoots prevented.

The following extract from a late number of an English periodical
shows how the yellows in peaches is produced in that climate:

I never had to deal with peach trees on peach stocks, but the history of the peach
stock is not favorable in some climates. The late Mr. Thompson, of the Chiswick
Gardens, relates how the trees on the peach stock at Chiswick ''invariably became
affected" and were done away with as useless. In America the peaches are on the
peach stock, and the trees perish wholesale from the same disease that attacked
them at Chiswick, viz, the yellows.

If T could be sure of a blazing sun and long hot summers I would use the freest
growing stock I could get, but I am told that peach stock makes gross roots which
produce equally gross shoots that can not always be ripened here, even under glass,
and not at all out doors, and a foundation of ill-ripened wood is the beginning of
all evils.

The following remarks are taken from a Maryland paper of date
November, 1870 :

I am clearly of the opinion that the great drawback to the peach is that in many
places it has no chance to fully ripen its wood ; I mean that the trees grow so con-
tinuously, and sometimes very luxuriantly, until their foliage is suddenly destroyed
by frost. There is no gradual change of color in the foliage during autumn, followed

113

by natural fall of leaves before cold weather, as we see in most other trees, bat on
the contrary, the trees maintain their green foliage and keep pushing out young
leaves until a severe frost occurs and completely checks growth. This sudden check
and its effects upon the vitality of the plant produce, in my opinion, the disease called
yellows.

It is in the power of the cultivator, in some cases, to modify the
conditions which encourage late growths, as well as to lessen the evil
effects which result from frosted growths. It is readily apparent that
trees set in constantly damp or very rich soil will have their growing
season prolonged beyond those planted in dry or poor soils. It is also
evident that in districts where the season for active growth is compar-
atively short, the soil should be well drained and manures sparingly
applied, and only in spring. In such cases stimulating culture should
not be prolonged through late summer, and even should weeds appear
they should be mowed over with a scythe rather than to disturb the soil
by cultivator or plow.

But something can be done even with plants that have been injured
by the freezing of unripened growths, and that is the immediate re-
moval of the injured shoots, pruning them back to sound wood. If this
is performed in time the plant may escape further injury.

In some parts of Florida the orange trees occasionally suffer from
slight frosts. During an unusually severe frost a few years ago many
of the young orange groves suffered quite severely from freezing of
succulent shoots. Hundreds of plants were destroyed and were re-
moved during the following summer, and hundreds of others lingered
on for a time, making sickly, yellow-leaved shoots, indicative of the
cause of their unhealthiness. A prompt removal of the injured shoots
would have saved most of these trees from utter destruction.

One of the most effectual methods of hastening the maturity of yearly
shoots is that of pruning the roots, or by restricting their growths.
The restriction of root growth is applicable to plants in pots or tubs.
Florists recognize the fact that, with many kinds of plants, the best
flowering results are obtained when the pots in which they are growing
become well filled with roots. When this condition is reached vigorous
growth is checked and flower buds are produced in profusion. With
some perennial plants this cramped condition of roots is allowed to
exist for years, the plants being stimulated during the period of wood
extension by applications of liquid manures.

Pruning the roots to hasten maturity of wood growth is of long and
successful practice. In no instance have we seen it so marked as when
applied to the roots of Asiatic conifers, and also those of our own
Pacific coast. These plants have a tendency to make late growths
during the moist autumn weather of the Eastern States, and this
growth is mostly destroyed by early winter frosts. A marked instance
is recorded where an avenue of the Japan cedar, Cryptomeria Japonica,
had each alternate tree root-pruned in August, which completely
stopped their growth for the season. The trees not operated upon
28581 8

114

added from 18 inches to 2 feet to their growth, after the root-pruned
specimens had ceased to lengthen. The result was that the trees op-
erated upon stood through the winter unharmed, while those not root-
pruned were frozen back so severely that they never recovered, but
gradually died of the yellows.

^

NOTES ON OEANGE CULTURE AND THE PINEAPPLE.

Recent visits to Florida in the interest of the Department have en-
abled me to acquire some knowledge of the climate, soil, and produc-
tions of that State as far south as latitude 28°. The following desultory
remarks, the result of observations made, are offered for what they may
afford in the way of answering some of the many inquiries constantly
being directed to this division by prospective cultivators and residents
of Florida.

For at least 9 months of the year the climate over the larger por-
tion of the State may be considered as being tropical, so the most of the
vegetation of warm countries will find a congenial atmosphere during
that period. Occasionally this tropical season is longer than that stated
above, especially in the most southern parts; but there is a liability to
a brief season of low temperature about the end of November sufficient
to injure tender vegetation, although the weather may afterwards as-
sume its tropical conditions for weeks. During the winter months an
occasional depression of temperature, running down to or below the
freezing point, may occur at any time up to the end of February or
later. These fitful periods of low temperatures are very injurious to
early crops of culinary vegetables, as well as to all plants which have
started into growth.

The early winter frosts are also hurtful to plants which have succu-
lent shoots not sufficiently matured to withstand the low temperature.
This is especially noticeable on young orange and lemon trees which
have been subjected to constant culture or to recent applications of
fertilizers, causing a stimulation to late growths. Trees of any age, if
so treated, will be liable to injury from slight frost, but when the shoots
of the previous season on old trees are well matured they are not sen-
sibly hurt by frost severe enough to injure their matured fruits ; but
young trees are more sensible in this respect, so that the management
of young orange groves requires a greater degree of discriminate care
and consideration than is necessary with trees of deciduous habits.

Orange groves located in the neighborhood of Indian Eiver have long
been noted for their superior productions, and packages of oranges
marked u Indian Eiver" command a higher price than those from other
sections of the State. Inquiries have frequently been made with a view
of ascertaining the cause of the reputed superior qualities of these
fruits, but answers to these inquiries have not been explicit or satis-
factory. A recent visit in that section of the State, and a studied in-

115

spection of the soil, culture, and general condition of orange trees in
places where the products were typical of the best results of that re.
gion, resulted in the conviction that the superiority of the fruit was,
primarily, owing to the sheltered and shaded position of the trees.
The soil in which they are growing does not differ from that in many
parts of the State, although it contains a larger portion of organic
matter than can be found in numerous localities where orange trees are
planted, but even when this deficiency is supplied on lauds openly ex-
posed to sun and winds, the products will not generally compare favor-
ably with those from sheltered groves ; so that the conclusion seems
clear that the superior quality of the fruit is owing to the fact that the
trees producing it are afforded an ample degree of shade and protec-
tion. It may further be presumed that in any part of the orange belt
or climate where the trees are similarly sheltered fruits may be pro-
duced equally good in every particular.

In passing through the country the effects of shelter, especially on
young trees, is everywhere apparent. It might truthfully be stated
that the best looking young groves are those which are best protected.

As the trees increase in height and expanse they will, in a certain
degree, shelter each other, and so far as they shade the ground and
break the force of drying winds so far will evaporation of moisture be
reduced ; but a recognition of all the facts pertaining to the growth of
the orange would tend to the conclusion that the trees would be bene-
fited by being well sheltered, if not also partially shaded, no matter
what their age may be.

What might be termed conclusive evidence on this point is afforded
by the localities in which the sour or bitter orange has become natural-
ized. This plant asserts itself as an example of the u survival of the
fittest " of the Citrus family in this State, under strictly natural condi-
tions of propagation and growth.

There are throughout parts of Florida extensive tracts of rather low
lands, where the palmetto abounds and flourishes, interspersed with a
variety of oaks and undergrowths. Here also is found the so-called wild
or sour orange, luxuriating in and forming a part of the dense thickets,
nourished by a soil rich in organic matter, and sometimes growing in
places where their roots are covered with water for weeks at a time.

Some of the most valuable orange groves in the State have been
formed by a partial clearing out of these thickets, removing the tops
of the wild orange trees and budding the plants with the best varieties
of sweet oranges. Looking into these seminaturalized groves we ob-
serve an indiscriminate assemblage of orange trees and tall palmettos,
the latter towering above the former, which give evidence by the vivid
color of their leaves and the brightness of their fruits that they enjoy
the shade and protection thus afforded them. The fruit from these groves
is noted for fine appearance and quality, and if intermixed with " In-

116

dian Biver" oranges the task of separating them would be difficult if
not impracticable.

The comparative freedom from rust on the fruit produced in groves
where the trees are afforded protection is worthy of special notice. It
is attributed to the ravages of a minute insect* but I find that many
persons are undecided as to whether the insect is the cause or only a
consequence of a diseased condition which has been produced by other
influences.

If we now direct our attention to thousands of acres of young orange
groves which may be found throughout the State planted in sandy soils
on high pine lands, and contrast their condition and appearance with
those which have been described, the difference will be found as strik-
ing as it is apparent, even to the casual observer.

In the preparation for planting an orange grove on pine lands the
first process is that of removing all the forest trees, taking them up by
the roots, and clearing up the laud so that it can be broken up with the
plow. After thorough preparation by plow and harrow the soil is ready
for the orange trees, which are carefully set out. Without shade, shel-
ter, or any kind of protection from the scorching sun and arid breezes,
the young trees are subjected to great vicissitudes. When rains are fre-
quent vegetation proceeds rapidly j a week or two of dry weather inter
venes, and active growth receives a check for a time $ the foliage of the
young tree loses its vivid color, and this is considered as indicating the
need of a manurial dressing. Fertilizers of some kind are applied, rains
follow, and growth again proceeds satisfactorily so long as sufficient
moisture is present in the light sandy soil.

This somewhat erratic condition prevails in a more or less decided
manner during the active growing period of the year, and may extend
into the early winter with but a slight lowering on the general summer
temperature, until a sudden depression is experienced, and the ther-
mometer indicates that the freezing point is reached. The temperature
again rapidly rises, and the scorching rays of the sun, pouring through
a cloudless sky, produce disastrous effects upon the frost-bitten tender
shoots and leaves.

When young trees have been subjected to such casualties it is a diffi-
cult matter to prognosticate the extent of the injuries they have re-
ceived ; much depends upon the individual plant j but in a general way
those which have shown the greatest luxuriance will suffer most. Of
course injuries from frost depend upon its severity. Six to eight de-
grees of frost may prove fatal, even although the plants may linger
between life and death for a year or two. If the sap of the plant be-
contaminated from that of the frozen shoots or branches, an early death
is quite certain.

A simple precaution, and one that may be looked on as an effectual
preventive from further injury to the frost-bitten plant is to remove the
injured twigs as promptly as practicable. The longer this is delayed

117

X

the deeper seated the injury becomes. The diseased portions will ex-
hibit a discoloration in the wood, and all such parts should be removed.
The following extract from a recent publication was communicated
by a well-known horticulturist and successful orange-grower, and is
worthy of the serious consideration of every person contemplating the
establishment of an orange grove on forest lands :

I wish to say a word about the plan of deadening the timber instead of making a
naked clearing, which is often referred to as a "shiftless cracker way." I came to
Florida many years ago with these same prejudices very strong against the "shift-
less cracker" deadening. I cleared off every tree and stump and planted to oranges
and lemons 25 acres of heavy pine timber. I think I have learned something by
experience, and I can now see the " crackers " were right and I was wrong.

A deadening is vastly superior to a naked clearing in economy and favorable con-
ditions for the growth and health of the newly set grove.

As soon as the timber is deadened it ceases to make damaging drafts on the soil,
and it makes a semi shade on the ground very grateful to the young tree in its new
quarters. It also breaks the sweep of the winds and thus decreases the evaporation
from the tree and the soil in which it is placed. After awhile the leaves begin to
come down and cover the ground with a thin mulch, retaining moisture and protect-
ing the soil from the blazing rays of the sun. A year or more later the smaller twigs
and fragments of bark are added to the leaves, and when the ground is plowed a
most valuable dressing of vegetable matter is incorporated in a soil whose greatest
want is humus. At the end of three years your grove is well established and the
decaying timber begins to be dangerous. Then chop it down. All the branches and
much of the bark will break into fragments so small the plow will dispose of them.
Cut up the bodies in some 10-feet lengths and pile them in the checks midway
between the rows. In 3 years more the sap wood and a large part of the heart will
be thoroughly rotted and can be spread and plowed in like a manure pile. Those
hearts that remain sound are valuable for posts, rails, and fuel. The cost of clearing
a lot after it has been dead 3 years is about two-fifths of the cost of clearing green tim-
ber. In fact, the interest for 3 years on the cost of clearing green timber will nearly
clear the deadening.

But, after all, the great gain is in the superior vigor of the young grove the first
few years and the great improvement to the soil by the shade and add^d humus.

There are many hundreds of acres of young orange groves which
would be greatly assisted by the introduction among them of some kind
of tree for shelter. Additional trees would involve additional expenses
for manure ; the trees should therefore be of such kinds as would af-
ford some remunerative crop. Peach trees and Japan persimmon might
be tried, although an evergreen tree would be more valuable. The Lo-
quat, known in many localities as Japan plum, having heavy foliage,
would afford effective protection ; it is also much hardier than the
orange. Perhaps the olive tree might be profitably employed. Of
course any tree used for this purpose would be removed when their
presence was no longer required.

PLANTING A GEOVE.

There are numerous methods in vogue for establishing an orange
grove. That most widely adopted, according to my observation, is to
set out trees three or four years from the seed.

118

Those are produced from seeds which have been saved from good
kinds, so that, in the event of the trees not being budded, they will
produce fruit of at least average merit. It is well ascertained that the
orange reproduces its kind more closely than does any other class of
long cultivated fruits ; but there is still much difference in the quali-
ties of oranges from groves where the trees have not been budded, a
fact which purchasers of these fruits soon discover. It is questionable
if this method is the best that can be followed for either of the two
purposes in view; that is, whether these trees are the best for budding,
and, again, whether it is advisable to trust to seedling trees for the
best marketable products.

Trees of the ages mentioned are too old to be set out for budding.
After being s^t out they are usually allowed to establish themselves for
some time before being budded. By that time they have made a well-
developed top of small branches, all in a healthy and vigorous condition.

The trees are budded in their main stems at points varying in their
distances from the ground, and seemingly as found most convenient to
the operator, and after the buds are well started the entire top of the
stock is removed. This is a severe check to root extension. The plant
will make efforts to restore the former balance which existed between
the roots and the leaves by throwing out young shoots or suckers, which,
right or wrong, are promptly removed, thus throwing the whole force of
the plant into the growth of one shoot, which progresses rapidly, pro-
ducing large leaves and a bulky succulent shoot; a condition which
maintains until its growth is suddenly arrested by cold nights, and if
frosts occur the results are disastrous.

There are thousands of orange trees in Florida, to my personal knowl-
edge, which are in stunted, scrubby condition from causes such as those
outlined above, and which should, as a matter of pure economy, be re-
moved at once, and their places supplied by a better class of plants.

The best class of trees are those which are produced by budding
healthy stocks not more than two years from seed, and when the buds
have made a growth in the nursery the trees will be in good condition
for permanent planting. In some countries the orange is mainly propa-
gated by grafting; in Florida it may be said that budding is the only
method practiced.

With regard to the relative merits of the sweet and the sour orange
as stocks opinions are varied. The sour stock is regarded as being
more hardy under low temperature, and as withstanding greater ex-
tremes in respect to wetness or dryness of soil. The opinion which is
sometimes mooted, that the sour stock impairs the sweet flavor of the
fruit, does not seem to be of much importance, since it is well known
that some of the best fruits are produced on these stocks.

Some growers expressed an indifference as to the kinds of stock they
used for budding upon, but the preponderance of answers in reply to
interrogatories on this point was in favor of the sour stock.

119

Northern orchardists find it to their advantage to purchase their
young fruit trees from reliable nurserymen whose business it is to propa-
gate and supply such trees, healthy as to vitality and authentic as to
name and character. Promoters of orange groves will ultimately learn
that it will prove most economical and in every way to their advantage
to procure their young trees from similar sources.

As to trusting to seedling trees for the best marketable products,
it is found that opinions do not vary so much on this point as they did
some years ago. Consumers are learning that there are differences in
oranges as there are in apples, pears, and other fruits, and shipments
of choice named kinds will take precedence over those which contain
fruits of various merits as gathered indiscriminately from groves of
seedling trees and whose uniformity can not be guarantied.

THE PINEAPPLE.

The pineapple can not be considered as a perfectly safe crop in Florida
north of the twenty-eighth degree of latitude. Its cultivation is some-
times attempted a full degree north of this limit with winter protection,
and unless the thermometer sinks below 30° they will pass through the
winter unhurt. Being allowed ample space and freely manured, the
plants attain large size and produce fruits from 4 to 9 pounds in weight
varying according to the variety.

Pineapples are commonly protected by erecting a horizontal platform
of small poles or laths, supported by posts, and elevated high enough
so as not to interfere with the upward growth of the plants. This plat-
form is closely covered with palm leaves during the winter, and forms
a good protection againt light frosts. A slight shade is always allowed
during summer. This, it is claimed, enhances the value of the fruit,
causing it to be more tender and juicy than it would be if exposed to
the full force of the sun throughout the summer. The plants are usually
grown in beds 8 or 10 feet in width ; the covering is thus easily applied.

North of the latitude mentioned pineapple production in the open
field does not appear promising, unless in exceptionally favored places
and under the best conditions of culture. In the plantations visited,
on an island near the southern junction of the Indian and Banana Eiv-
ers, the plants appear to be set about 18 inches apart, in masses, thus
preventing effective cultivation. The brown and bleached aspect of the
leaves indicate injury from cold weather. The fruits are mostly small,
and having to enter markets in competition with fruits of the same
kind imported from the West Indies, which sometimes sell at prices
not much above those given for the best oranges, the profits are not
encouraging.

When plants are allowed space for full development, and due atten-
tion given to the slight protection necessary during the winter, fruits
weighing from 6 to 10 pounds are produced, and these command
remunerative prices.

INDEX.

Page.

Apple trees for South Carolina 95

Avenues, trees for 29

Bahia orange, pollen of 98

Bean, Tonka or snuff, culture of. . . 104

Belts or marginal plantations 21

Bending of branches to promote fruiting 79

Boundaries, trees and shruhs for 21

Brazil nut, habitat of 97

Buildings, arranging details of 13

selecting sites for 11,12

Camphor, method of obtaining 98

Canary seed, culture of 99

Carriage turns 27

Chicle gum, sources of 97

Citron, preparation of 90

Cochineal industry 94

Coffee, cultivation of 95

plants, distribution of „.„ 101

tree, Kentucky 93

Cropping, rotation in 75

Cultivation of crops 44

Currant, Zante variety of 104

Cuttings for grape propagation 71, 77

Drainage of lands -.37,46,94

Driveways, construction of 16

laying out of 15

Dwarfing to promote fruitfulness 79

Dwellings, selecting sites for 11, 12

Entrances to grounds 27

Eucalyptus trees, tenderness of 109

Evergreens for winter scenery 33

transplanting of 43

Fences 23

Fig-culture 89

Flowerpots , 83

Forest trees from seeds and plants 38

Fruit trees, necessity of ripened wood Ill

Fruiting, expedients to promote 79

Gardening, antiquity of

Gateways 27

Ginseng culture 106

Grain, varieties from India 107

Grape rot, remedies for 102

Grapes, foreign, in glass structures 67

mildew of 63,68

121

122

Page.

Grapes, native, propagation of 66

varieties of 60

propagation by cuttings 71,77

thrips of 70

Graperies, inside borders for. 70

Grapevines, pruning of 103

Greenhouses, glazing roofs of 87

night temperature in 83

Grounds, arranging details of 13

location of 11,12

Hardiness of fruit trees, sources of Ill

Hedges, desirability of 23

management of 44

Horse chestnuts, utili zation of 107

India, varieties of grain from 107

India-rubber plants 90

Indigo, production of 108

Lakes, artificial , , 26

plants for , 86

Landscape gardening 7

styles of 9

Lawns, formation and care of 1 H, 40, 96

grasses for 19, 41

Le Conte pear in Florida 95

Lemon trees, flowering of :.. 108

Licorice, culture of 103

Lime wash for trees 105

Lotus plant, fruit of 95

Mahogany tree, so-called 93

Mahwah tree, as a source of sugar 110

Manure, liquid, used in pot culture 82

Mildew of grapes 63

Mulching 47

Mustard, culture of 102

Navel oranges, varieties of 109

Nettles, utilization of 109

Opium, method of production 98

Orange, Bahia, pollen of 98

culture, notes on 114

groves, planting of 117

trees, flowering of 108

Oranges, navel varieties of 109

Orchards, management of 50

planting of 49

situations for 49

Osage orange, method of destroying Ill

Outbuildings, arrangement of details oi' 14

Peach, Peen-to variety of 108

Pear blight 60,101

culture 53

orchards, culture of 56

mulching of 56

planting of - 55

pruning of 57

Bites and shelter of 54

123

Page.

Pear orchards, soils suited for 54

stocks, influence on fruit 59

trees, distance apart for setting 60

Peeu-to peach, hardiness of 108

Pepper, black, habitat of 110

Peruvian tea, habitat of 110

Pineapple culture, notes on 114, 119

Plants, expedients to promote fruiting of 79

for lakes and ponds 86

in pots, watering of 85

Ponds, artificial . 26

plants for 86

Poppy culture for opium *. 98

Pot culture, liquid manure for 82

use of water in 85

Pruning, notes on 51

of grape vines - 103

pear trees 57

roots to promote fruiting 79

Ramie, culture of 110

Raspberries, culture of I. . 88

Renovation of land 94

Rhubarb, medicinal. 105

Ringing of branches to promote fruitfulness 80

Roadbed, construction of 17

Roads, trees for 29

Roadways, construction of 16

laying out of 15

Rockeries. ,. 24

Root-pruning, for maturity of wood growth 113

to promote fruitfulness 79

Roots, limiting growth to promote fru iting 80

Rotation in cropping 75

Seeds of forest trees, planting of 38

saving of 74

sowing of 73

Shrubs for vicinity of buildings 30

grouping and massing of 32

Sites for buildings and grounds 11,12

Soil, mechanical preparation of 46

Stables, arrangement of details of 14

Stocks, pear, influence on frui fc 59

Subsoiling 47

Thrips of grapes 70

Tonka bean, culture of 104

Tree seeds, planting of -. 38

Trees, arrangement for various effects 33

for roads and avenues 29

vicinity of buildings 30

grouping and massing of 32

spring and fall planting of 42

time for planting in Virginia 100

varieties for boundaries 22

Trenching 47

Vanilla plants, culture of 89

124

Walks, construction of

laying out of

Water, importance of supply in plant-culture

plants

use in the ornamentation of grounds

Watering of plants in pots

Whitewashing of fruit trees 105

Wood growth, hastening maturity of 113

Zante currant 104

Page.
16
15
80
86
26
85

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY.

BULLETIN No. 1.
ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE

ON THE

COMMUNICABILITY OF PEACH YELLOWS

AND

PEACH ROSETTE.

BY

ERWIN F. SMITH, So. D.,

SPECIAL AGENT. '

PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1891.

NOTE.

Owing to the fact that the Section of Vegetable Pathology of the Bo-
tanical Division has recently been made a separate Division by act of
Congress, it has been thought best to begin a new series of publications
of which this is Bulletin No. 1.

Below is given a full list of publications of the Section and Divi-
sion to date. Frequent requests are received for bulletins which are
out of print. Those still on hand for distribution are indicated by an
asterisk (*). It will be seen that in this series Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are
missing. These represent bulletins of the Botanical Division.

1. Bulletin No. 2. Fungous Diseases of the Grape. 1886, pp. 136, pi. 7.

2. Bulletin No. 5. Report on the Experiments made in 1887 in the Treatment of

Downy Mildew and Black Rot of the Grape. 1888, pp. 113.

3. Bulletin No. 7. Black Rot. 1888, pp. 29, pi. 1.

4. Bulletin No. 8. A Record of Some of the Work of the Division. 1889, pp. 69.

5. Bulletin No. 9. Peach Yellows. 1888, pp. 254, pi. 36.

6. Bulletin No. 10. Report on the Experiments made in 1888 in the Treatment of

Downy Mildew and Black Rot of the Grape, pp. 61.

7. Bulletin No. 11.* Report on the Experiments made in 1889 in the Treatment of

Fungous Diseases of Plants. 1890, pp. 119.

8. Journal of Mycology, vol. 5, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. 1889, pp. 249, pi. 14.

9. Journal of Mycology, vol. 6, Nos. 1, 2,* 3,* and 4\ 1890-91, pp. 207, pi. 18.

10. Circular No. 1. Treatment of Downy Mildew and Black Rot of the Grape. 1885,

pp. 3.

11. Circular No. 2. Grape Vine Mildew and Black Rot. 1885, pp. 3.

12. Circular No. 3. Treatment of Grape Rot and Mildew. 1886, pp. 2.

13. Circular No. 4. Treatment of the Potato for Blight and Rot. 1886, pp. 3.

14. Circular No. 5. Fungicides or Remedies for Plant Diseases. 1888, pp. 10.

15. Circular No. 6.* Treatment of Black Rot of the Grape. 1888, pp. 3.

16. Circular No. 7.* Grape Vine Diseases. 1889, pp. 4.

17. Circular No. 8.* Experiments in the Treatment of Pear Leaf Blight and Apple

Powdery Mildew, pp. 11.
18 Circular No. 9. Root Rot of Cotton. 1889, pp. 4.

19. Farmers' Bulletin No. 4.* Fungous Diseases of the Grape and their Treatment.

1891, pp. 12.

20. Circular No. 10.* Treatment of Nursery Stock for Leaf Blight and Powdery

Mildew. 1891, pp. 8,

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Letter of transmittal 7

Letter of submittal 9

PART I.— PEACH YELLOWS.
I. — Introductory :

(1) Destructive nature of yellows 11

(2) Characteristics of the disease 12

II. — Inoculations :

Experiment 1. The Barnard trees 16

Experiment 2. The Shallcross trees -18

Experiment 3. The Nicholson trees 21

Experiment 4. The Barnard trees 21

Experiment 5. The Department trees 22

III. — Excisions :

A.— Orchard of William Brothers, Dover, Delaware 24

B. — Orchard of James W. Green, Magnolia, Delaware 25

C.— Orchard of George Gildersleve, 'Rising Sun, Delaware 27

D.— Orchard of John A. Nicholson, Leipsic, Delaware 2?

E.— Old orchard of George Davis, Still Pond, Maryland 28

F.— Young orchard of George Davis, Still Pond, Maryland 29

G.— Orchard of F. H. Harper, Still Pond, Maryland 29

IV. — Observations and experiments bearing 011 immunity :

(1) Are trees from healthy localities exempt ? 38

(2) The Kerr trees (peach on plum) 38

(a) Plantation in Mr. Greene's orchard 40

(&) Plantation in Mr. Harper's orchard 40

fc) Plantation in Dr. Maxwell's orchard 41

(3) Stones from Persia 42

(4) Yellows in old trees 42

V. — Conclusions :

Facts established 43

Hypotheses rendered probable 44

Inquiries suggested 45

PART II. — PEACH ROSETTE.
I. — Introductory :

(1) Plants attacked 45

(2) Characteristics of the disease 45

(3) First appearance and present distribution 48

II.— Inoculations :

Experiment 1. The Husted trees , 49

Experiment 2. The Husted trees (peach on plum) 52

III. — Conclusions 54

Explanation of plates. 55

Index 59

5

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the investi-
gations and experiments made the past three years by Dr. Erwin F.
Smith, under the direction of this Division, with a view of obtaining
evidence as to the communicability of peach yellows. There is no
longer any doubt as to the contagious nature of this disease, and it
now remains as a part of this line of work to determine definitely its
period of incubation, methods of spreading other than by budding, and
the nature of the contagium. Investigations bearing on these points,
as well as exceedingly extended and laborious ones with fertilizers, are
now, and have been for some time, under way.
Respectfully,

B. T. GALLOWAY,

Chief of Division.
Hon. J. M. EUSK,

Secretary of Agriculture.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

SIR : In accordance with your request I submit herewith a report on
the evidence now at hand respecting the communicability of peach
yellows.

Although some of the experiments described in the following pages
have not been completed, it has been thought best to report upon
them all at this time, so that peach-growers, and more especially scien-
tific workers, may know not only just what has been done, but also
what is now under way. To make the report complete the beginnings
of certain experiments from the first bulletin on yellows have been
repeated. A brief account of the disease, for the sake of those into
whose hands the former report did not fall and also for a clearer
understanding of what follows, has also been prefixed.

The histological and bacteriological part of this inquiry is as yet
incomplete, and for this reason it is omitted entirely. In accordance
with your instructions no report on the effect of fertilizers will be made
until the results of a third year's work can be included.

A peach disease prevalent in Georgia and Kansas has also received
considerable attention. This was formerly confused with yellows, but
is now believed to be distinct and is so described. It is a disease of
the same peculiar type as yellows and may be considered very properly
in connection with the latter. The inoculations herein described demon-
strate for the first time its dangerous, contagious nature, and point to
prompt destruction as the best method of dealing with affected trees.

In conclusion, thanks are due to many peach-growers who have fur-
thered my inquiries, and very especially to the men whose names are
mentioned in the body of this report and whose warm interest in
in the advancement of horticulture has made them willing, even at a
personal sacrifice, to place their orchards and nurseries at the disposal
of the Department for experimental purposes. Without this cordial
cooperation much of my labor would necessarily have been fruitless.
Kespectfully,

ERWIN F. SMITH,

Special Agent.

B. T. GALLOWAY,

Chief of Division.

9

ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE ON THE COMMIJNICABILITY OF PEACH
YELLOWS AND PEACH ROSETTE.

By ERWIN F. SMITH.
PART I.— PEACH YELLOWS.

I.— INTRODUCTORY.

(1) Destructive nature of yellows. — Peach yellows is a perplexing and
destructive disease. Oil all bands it is conceded to be one of the most
serious with which American fruit-growers have to contend. Form-
erly this disease was confined to a small district on the Atlantic coast,
but during the last twenty years it has invaded distant regions hitherto
free, and has entirely ruined the peach industry over very considerable
areas. Within ten years the disease has taken a fresh and very strong
hold upon orchards in the Delaware and Chesapeake region, the north
portion of the peninsula, and has destroyed thousands and thousands
of trees, rendering a great industry unprofitable or precarious. It
seems to be native to the eastern United States, having, so far as we
know, not been reported from California. Diligent inquiry also has
thus far failed to bring to light any notice of its occurrence in Europe
or other parts of the globe.

The last negative evidence is from Mr. Newton B. Pierce, of the Di-
vision of Vegetable Pathology. From May to October, 1890, he was in
Mediterranean countries investigating vine diseases. Mr. Pierce trav-
eled extensively in France, Italy, Sicily, and Algeria, and looked care-
fully for this disease. He examined peach trees in a great many local-
ities, and observed the fruit in the principal markets, but failed to find
any traces of yellows. Inquiries of many persons devoted to the scien-
tific study of agriculture and horticulture also proved fruitless. They
had not seen or heard of anything resembling this disease.

The distribution of the disease and the losses occasioned thereby
were set forth somewhat fully in my first bulletin and do not concern
us at this time. It is proper to state, however, that the losses continue
in the infected districts; that the disease has appeared in new localities ;
and that regions now healthy are also threatened. The yellows is
certainly as far south as southern Virginia and probably as far west as

11

12 PEACH YELLOWS.

Arkansas and northeastern Texas. Peach-growers are earnestly ad-
vised to stamp out the disease upon its first appearance, and are warned
against the importation of trees from infected districts. These remarks
apply with especial force to the Pacific coast, and in this connection it
is well to remember that the apricot and almond are also subject to yel-
lows. It would be much safer for the Californians to grow their own
peach trees than to introduce any from the eastern United States. If
trees are imported it should be known beyond question that they
are from regions where this disease does not occur. The mere fact
that the nursery stock is healthy at the date of shipment is not a
sufficient guaranty that it will continue so.

(2) Characteristics of the disease. — The primary and peculiar symp-
toms of peach yellows are only two: (1) The red spotting and abnor-
mally early maturity of the fruit; and (2) the premature germination of
ordinary winter buds, or of obscure buds buried in the bark of the trunk
and limbs or formed in the cambium. All other symptoms result from
these, or are only the common indications of disease and decay in plants.

Plate I represents two peaches, natural size, one healthy and the other
diseased. They are of one variety and were gathered the same day.
They were picked from neighboring trees, but might have come from
the same tree, since in the first stages of yellows both sorts are usually
found upon the same tree. The unspotted peach (Fig. 1) was hard,
green, and normal in all respects. It would not have ripened under two
weeks. When ripe its skin would have been creamy white with a blush
on one cheek, composed of very minute and nearly uniform crimson puuc-
tations. Its flesh would have been melting and juicy, slightly acid, aro-
matic, and delicious. The color of the flesh would have been uniformly
white, except for a narrow zone of crimson immediately surrounding the
stone. The diseased peach (Fig. 2) was fully ripe. Its size was normal;
its color, abnormal. The skin was beautifully mottled and blotched with
crimson, giving an appearance quite unlike that of healthy fruit. Many
of these spots were large enough and sufficiently unlike the rest of the
skin to admit of being easily photographed. The flesh was also copi-
ously streaked and spotted with crimson. On tangential section these
brightly colored portions were usually oval or roundish ; on radial sec-
tion they appeared more often in the form of streaks or elongated spots.
There was also more than the usual amount of color around the stone.
The flavor of the peach was inferior. This diseased peach was only one
out of thousands occurring that year in the infected districts. High-
colored, premature fruits are one of the conspicuous symptoms of the
disease, and are easily distinguishable even from a car window. Iti
July, 1891, I saw hundreds of bushels of this worthless fruit in upper
Maryland and Delaware, and the entire loss thereby in 1891 certainly
exceeded half a million dollars.

The amount of color appears to depend somewhat upon variety.
Sometimes there is comparatively little crimson spotting, and again,

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DISEASE. 13

it is a very marked feature, the skin being almost purple and the flesh
of the deepest crimson, even in pure white varieties. In an experience
covering four years and including a great many thousand trees dis-
eased by yellows, I have never known but one in which there was
entire absence of red spotting in the fruit. This tree bore premature,
insipid peaches and the characteristic shoots. The time of ripen-
ing also varies within wide limits. I have known such peaches to ripen
forty days in advance of the proper time, and also to ripen with the
healthy fruit or only a few days in advance. Generally they ripen two
or three weeks in advance and are gone when the healthy fruit matures.
In size the prematured fruit is usually normal the first season, and
sometimes even noticeably large and showy. If any is produced the
second year it is commonly small and inferior. The taste varies as
much as the color, running from tolerably good to mawkish or bitter.
Such fruits are generally insipid, even when of good size and color,
and their sale not only defrauds the consumer but also reacts upon the
grower, seriously impairing the subsequent demand for healthy fruit.

In many cases the red-spotted, prematurely-ripened fruits are the first
indications of disease, or at least the first symptoms striking enough to
attract general attention. They are very often borne exclusively upon
one or two limbs of otherwise healthy-looking trees. These limbs are
not different in appearance from the rest of the tree. They bear vig-
orous shoots and full-grown, smooth, dark green foliage; often, also,
green half-grown fruits, which afterwards ripen in a normal manner.
There is no indication of disease except in the fruit, which, in color and
size, contrasts strikingly with the fine green foliage and the normal im-
mature fruit. Occasionally, in places, the foliage already begins to
look yellowish green, while weak, pale sprouts begin to push through
the bark. Sometimes branches bearing good foliage are covered from
ba&e to tip with these feeble shoots. They grow vertically through the
bark on the upper surface. Later, in summer or autumn, or the follow-
ing spring, such branches begin to show marked indications of disease.
The spring foliage is yellowish or reddish green, dwarfed, rolled, and
curled; and the shoot-axes are stunted. Commonly, especially in
moist seasons, many feeble branched sprouts are developed on the
trunk and the base of the main limbs. Again, stem and limb shoots
will grow normally and very vigorously for several feet and then all at
once branch repeatedly near the extremity in a very feeble and peculiar
way. Many of these growths are due to the excessive and abnormal
development of obscure buds hidden in the deeper layers of the bark
or developed from the cambium. Why they should germinate in such
numbers, and often in midsummer or autumn when the tree has passed
its period of active growth, remains to be explained. The appearance
suggests a profound disturbance of the distributive metabolism of the
plant followed by an equally profound distubance of the function of
assimilation. The branched character of many of the growths results

14 PEACH YELLOWS.

from the premature and abnormal development of ordinary winter buds.
These begin to grow as soon as they are formed in the leaf axils, and
the feeble shoots to which they give rise develop buds which also ger-
minate the same season, and so on (plates v and vi). The winter buds
upon healthy-looking terminal branches and stem and limb shoots
may also unfold prematurely into diseased growths. This may take
place at any time from early spring to late autumn. It is very com-
mon in September, October, and November, and is one of the strik-
ing characteristics of this disease (plate n, from a photograph made
at Amherst, Massachusetts, December 4; see also plates in and iv,
made from photographs taken in Maryland in the autumn of 1890).
Plate ii represents a shoot taken from the trunk near the earth. Plate
in represents one healthy shoot and three diseased shoots taken from
the base of main limbs. The spring foliage remains on the healthy shoot
(Fig. 2) and its winter buds are dormant. On the contrary, nearly all of
the spring foliage has fallen from the diseased shoots (Fig. 1), and many
of the winter buds, terminal and axillary, have germinated. Plates iv
and vi represent the same appearances in terminal branches. The pre-
maturity extends also to the blossoms, which generally come out earlier
than on healthy trees, and appear sometimes even in autumn (plate
IV, made from a photograph taken October 15, 1890). My attention
was first drawn to this symptom in the spring of 1890, but extensive
observations were then impossible. In the autumn of 1890, and again
in the spring of 1891, about 0,000 trees were examined with special
reference to the effect of yellows upon the blossoms. All of these trees
are in Maryland and Delaware, and all were healthy in the autumn of
1890. About 500 of them were found diseased in whole or in part in
the spring of 1891, having developed yellows between fall and spring.
The most characteristic symptom was the general pushing of leaf buds
one to two weeks in advance of the proper time. This was peculiarly
striking by contrast whenever the trees developed symptoms on one or
two limbs only. On many of these trees some of the blossoms also
came out very early, and were destroyed by frosts, but in general, the
disease could be detected in these trees before the blossoms opened.

In this climate under normal conditions winter buds of the peach do
not germinate until after a considerable period of rest. They never un-
fold in the autumn, and it is difficult to induce them to do so even in
winter. This period of rest may be shortened somewhat by mild winters
and early springs, or by artificial means, e. </., June budding, but it is
not abrogated in nature, so far as I know, except under the influence of
this peculiar disease, and the one described in Part II.

When the winter buds become affected in spring, the growths to
which they give rise are occasionally more extensive but are somewhat
variable, their appearance depending, of course, to a great extent, upon
the length of the iuternodes and the amount of branching. Different
forms of these terminal spring and summer growths are shown in plates

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DISEASE. 15

V and vi. Plate v is from a Michigan tree, and is very unusually tufted.
Plate vi, No. 1, is the ordinary Delaware form; while No. 2 of the
same plate is an appearance common in late autumn. In Delaware and
Maryland these last were more than usually abundant in the tops of
vigorous trees in the summer and autumn of 1890.

So much concerning the characteristics of the disease. Now, in con-
clusion, some words upon its progress.

Gradually or simultaneously, as the case may be, all of the limbs de-
velop the same symptoms. Consequently, the tree falls into a decline
and finally dies. Trees once attacked rarely, if ever, recover. This
statement is still in dispute, but I feel quite sure. Hundreds of yel-
lowed and decaying orchards on the upper part of the Chesapeake and
Delaware peninsula bear witness every day to the truth of this asser-
tion. In a very few instances I have had trees pointed out to me as
once diseased and now recovered, but no such cases have ever come
under nay own observation. Always such trees have shown symptoms
of disease later on, or else there was some uncertainty connected with
the original diagnosis of the case (p. 30),

The duration of the disease varies greatly. If the symptoms progress
slowly from limb to limb, the tree may live a long time. If the whole
tree is speedily involved, decay and death are correspondingly rapid.
I have known trees to die at the end of the first season, but such is not
usually the case. In Maryland and Delaware, as well as in regions
farther north, the affected trees generally live from two to five years,
and possibly longer in some cases. Incidentally I am keeping watch
of several hundred trees to determine this point more accurately. The
trees are worthless from the start and should be removed as soon as
the disease appears. If allowed to remain, complete death occurs, very
frequently, the third or fourth year, the last feeble sign of vitality
being a few yellowish tufts on the trunk or some of the limbs (plate
Vila). The tree shown in plate vnfr was attacked in the spring of 1887,
when it was 5 years old, i. e,, set 5 years. At that time the tree was
remarkably vigorous and handsome. It died in the summer of 1890,
i. 6., about 3| years from the time it first developed symptoms, but its
foliage was yellowish the second year, and vegetation during the last
year of its life was very scanty and feeble, being confined principally
to branching sprouts on the bases of the larger limbs.

Generally speaking, the longer the disease has prevailed unmolested
in any locality the greater is the number of cases annually, and the less
is the probability of getting trees up to bearing age before they are
attacked. This peculiar and interesting fact has been observed repeat-
edly in Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, and
Michigan.

16 PEACH YELLOWS.

II.— INOCULATIONS.

Experiment 1. — The trees selected for tins series of inoculations were
grown from Smock seed, procured in Kent County, Maryland. They
formed part of a large nursery owned by Norris Barnard, Still Pond,
Maryland. When first seen the seedlings were about 5 mouths old, and
were being worked for commercial purposes. They numbered more
than 100,000, and all presented a very healthy, thrifty appearance.
The trees devoted to the experiment were in one corner, and not dif-
ferent in appearance from the rest.

The buds for inoculation were cut in an orchard on the Bay farm of
James S. Harris, Still Pond, Maryland. They came from diseased shoots
on 15 or 20 vigorous, 4-year old trees. These trees had shown no symp-
toms of disease until that summer, when they bore the red-spotted, pre-
maturely ripened fruit as well as the characteristic shoots.

The buds were cut August 12, 1887, and inserted the same day. The
manner of insertion was like that ordinarily practiced in reproduction
by budding, i. e., the bud, with a portion of the surrounding bark and
often some of the underlying wood, was inserted under the bark of the
seedling about 6 inches from the ground, by means of a T-shaped slit.
The insert was then bound into place securely by strings, which were
cut or loosened at the expiration of ten days. According to their size
the trees received one or two buds, none more than two.

In most instances the wood and bark which were inserted healed on
quickly and retained their vitality over winter, but there was no growth
from the buds that autumn, nor any symptoms of disease in the stocks.
The seedling tops were removed in the spring.

One year from budding these trees were reexamined. Three-quarters
of the inserted buds had failed to push. Of the rest some had grown
into diseased shoots; others (a few) had grown into shoots which did
not yet show the characteristic symptoms of yellows. The effect on the
stocks was marked. About 34 per cent of the whole number (202) had
become diseased beyond question, while only 23 per cent were entirely
healthy. Some of the trees had died during the summer, evidently
from the effects of the disease. A few yet living were badly affected,
but most of them showed only slight symptoms. Nevertheless, here
were the feeble shoots and the winter buds germinating 6 mouths in
advance of the proper time.

The evidence seemed to be overwhelming and complete, for while
the experiment was performed in a region were the disease occurs it
was on a large scale, and moreover the remainder of this nursery and
other nurseries in the same region, subject so far as known to the same
influences, were examined in vain for anything which would correspond.
The 542 trees in adjoining rows, which were examined critically for
comparison, showed no traces of the disease, although all other condi-
tions appeared to be identical. The fact that peach yellows in that

THE BARNARD TREES. 17

locality was comparatively rare in trees under 3 years of age, is also
opposed to tbe view that the proximity of diseased orchards had any-
thing1 to do with this special case. With a full knowledge of the facts
the conclusion was irresistible that the infection came only from the
inserted buds.

An examination made in November, i. e., 3 months later, showed
plainly that the disease was progressing — more trees were dead and
fewer were healthy. At that date the number of stocks clearly affected
amounted to 40 per cent. The control trees were still free from the
disease, although they stood close upon both sides in parallel rows.
Plate vm, made from photographs, shows the condition of 3 of these
inoculated trees November 3, 1888.

Ten of the inoculated and diseased trees were removed that autumn
and set in Washington on the grounds of the Department of Agricul-
ture. The remainder were left over winter in the nursery rows. In the
spring of 1889 the latter were carefully removed and set out' on the farm
of Dr. W. S. Maxwell, some miles distant. None made any growth
worth mentioning and all died within a year — some from the shock of
transplanting and the rest with plain symptoms of yellows.

The ten trees set on the Department grounds made considerable
growth in 1889, and developed into very characteristic specimens of
yellows. The germination of the winter buds 6 or 8 mouths in advance
of the proper time occurred freely on many shoots arising from the
stock and fully set at rest all lingering doubts respecting the nature
of the disease. The foliage was yellowish or reddish, and the total
growth as compared with neighboring healthy trees was also very
meager and stunted (plate ix, from a photograph made October 21,
1889, wherein the trees are contrasted with two healthy seedlings — each
1 year younger). Plate x, from a part of the same row, brings out
certain details more distinctly. These trees were again photographed,
November 21, 1890, at which time the unbudded seedlings were much
larger and still healthy, while the inoculated trees were dead or
nearly dead (plates xt and xn). Between this date and the time
when the trees were set they were examined repeatedly and shown
to various persons. During all this period they had unmistakable
symptoms of yellows and became gradually more and more feeble.
The moving of the trees into different and fertile soil did no good. The
five unbudded seedling trees standing in the same row are more than 100
times as large, although one year younger. There was no shock from
transplanting, and the difference in size must be ascribed to the stunt-
ing effect of the disease. Jn passing, it is interesting to note that the
5 healthly seedlings are those noted in my first Eeport,* p. 145, as hav-
ing grown from the pits of premature peaches. These trees have con-
tinued healthly and now bear a heavy crop of green fruit (July, 1891).

* Peach Yellows : A preliminary report. U. S. Department of Agriculture, 188d,
1G09— Bull 1 2

18 PEACH YELLOWS.

Of the entire 202 trees inoculated August 12, 1887, only 3 are now
living, and each of these is badly diseased and likely to die within
6 months. Of this experiment it may be said that all doubts con-
cerning the nature of the disease were long since set at rest. It has
corresponded exactly in manner of development and in results to the
disease in the trees from which the buds came. Exception must, of
course, be noted that none of these trees have ever borne fruit.*

The virulent nature of the disease is shown by the fact that only one
or two buds, i. e., 1-2 square centimetres of diseased surface, were in.
serted into each tree. Its slow progress through the tissues is inferred
from the fact that no symptoms were visible until after 3 months
and probably none until the following May or June — 8 to 9 months
after the date of inoculation. It should also be noted that the inserted
buds produced the same effect, although cut from many different trees.

Experiment 2. — The trees selected for this series of inoculations were
much like those used in Xo. 1. They were grown from Tennessee seed
and formed part of a large nursery owned by Thomas J. Shallcross, Lo-
cust Grove, Maryland. The seedlings numbered about 100,000, and were
very thrifty. I first saw them at budding time, when they were about
5 months old. The trees devoted to this experiment were two outer
rows, not different in appearance from the rest.

The buds for inoculation were cut from an orchard on the same farm.
They came from healthy -looking shoots on a vigorous 6-year-old tree.
This tree had shown no symptoms of disease until that summer, when
some of its limbs bore premature fruit and the characteristic shoots.

* So far as I know, the only well-authenticated case in which buds taken from a dis-
eased tree and inserted into a healthy stock have lived long enough and developed
vigorously enough to bear peaches, is one communicated by Prof. E. S. Goff, horti-
culturist of the State Experiment Station, Madison, Wisconsin. This experiment was
begun on the grounds of the Experiment Station at Geneva, New York, in 1886. Pro-
fessor GofPs statement from memory is as follows :

"The tree budded was a very vigorous seedling of bearing size. In the latter part
of the summer in 1886, 1 budded several of the branches with buds of two (or three ?)
varieties of the peach, sent me by a young man of western New York whose orchard
was badly infested with yellows and who was deeply interested in the subject. He
assured me at the time that the buds came from diseased trees.

"More than one-half the buds failed, but several survived and made a good growth
the following season, without exhibiting any abnormal appearance. The next season
(1888) the branches from the buds bore a good crop of fruit, and the peaches early
began to manifest a peculiar appearance, which I recognized from description as the
yellows. The ground of the fruit became a golden-yellow color, sprinkled and
blotched on the sunny side with very bright or sometimes with deep red. I am not
personally familiar with the yellows, having seen but a few trees affected with it,
but I came to the conclusion that the branches from the buds inserted into this tree
were attacked with the disease. I came away from Geneva in the spring of 1889,
and in the fall of that year, anxious to know what further symptoms this tree had
manifested, if any, I wrote to Mr. Churchill, who then had charge of the fruit trees,
and was informed by him that the tree had died."

Dr. Collier, the present director of the Geneva Station, says that the tree was in an
exposed situation and died from an accidental injury.

THE SHALLCROSS TREES. 19

One limb of the tree was badly diseased only a short distance from
where the shoots were cut.

The buds were cut August 3, 1887, and inserted the same day. One
bud only was put into each tree. The manner of inoculation was sub-
stantially like that already described. Subsequent examination showed
that a union between bud and stock had taken place in every instance,
or nearly every one, the budder having been very expert. No buds
pushed and no symptoms of disease developed that autumn.

In the spring of 1888, while the buds were yet dormant, these trees
were removed to Hubbardston, Michigan, and set 10 by 10 feet apart,
principally upon a moderately fertile, sandy loam, which had been used
for a garden. This location was selected as, on the whole, the best that
could be had at that time. The soil has been cleared of forest and
brought under cultivation since 1850. There were and are no known
cases of yellows within 40 miles, and the nearest commercial orchards are
20 miles away, and not extensive, By long residence I am familiar with
the whole country, and believe that the only peach trees in that town-
ship or the adjoining ones are such as have been planted very sparingly
in gardens or around houses. To most farms and gardens this tree is
an entire stranger. The principal objection to the location, and a serious
one, was the danger from low winter temperatures and sudden fluctu-
ations, which in the past had frequently killed peach trees to the ground,
and consequently had long since very effectually discouraged planting.
However, the risk was taken, and, as good fortune would have it, the
winters of 1889 and 1890 were so mild that the trees did not suffer in
the least.

Altogether 336 trees were set, and upon my father's place, that I
might have the land more fully under control. Two hundred and ten
were the inoculated trees already mentioned and 126 were unbudded
seedlings from the same nursery to be used in making comparisons.

These trees were set out April 24, under personal direction, and
were examined carefully, one by one, as late as June 26 of that year.
At that date there was no difference in the appearance of the two lots.
Six of each were dead, apparently from the shock of transplanting.
The remainder of the unbudded trees were perfectly healthy j and the
remainder of the inoculated ones appeared to be so, with the exception
of one tree which began to look suspicious. In 60 per cent of the in-
oculated trees the bud had failed to push, although the bark inserted
with it was yet alive in most instances.

In 96 per cent of the seedlings the top was purposely allowed to re-
main at the time of transplanting, only enough being removed to
balance the slight loss of roots.- The others were cut back to the in-
serted bud. The trees suffered no injury in transit, were provided with
excellent roots, and, with the exception of 87 set in new ground on
upturned and tough sod, grew vigorously from the start and promised
well.

20

PEACH YELLOWS.

In autumn, on several occasions, my father reported tbat some of the
inoculated trees had begun to look yellow and sickly. However, I did
not see them until July 1, 1889, i. e., one year from the previous ex-
amination and twenty three months from the insertion of the buds.
The change was then so great that I could scarcely credit my eyes,
With one exception, the uubudded trees continued healthy and had
made a good growth. On the other hand a very considerable number
of the inoculated trees were already dead, and most of the remainder
were in all stages of decline, dwarfed, yellow, and sickly. Evidently
some sort of virus was communicated by the inoculated diseased bud
to the previously healthy seedling, and this was probably transmitted
to all parts of the tree. At least, symptoms were visible to the very
extremities of the branches, 3 to 4 feet from the point of inoculation.
A few trees only had made a tolerable growth and seemed to be resist-
ing the evil influence.

As in Experiment 1, here were the feeble, branched growths and the
winter buds germinating months in advance of the proper time. Again
there could be no question as to the nature of the disease. Some rep-
resentative photographs (plates xui-xvii) made July 1, 1889, show,
as well as can be done in black and white, the strikingly different
appearance of these two lots of trees. The exact conditions in August
were as follows :

TABLE I. — Resiilt of inoculations two years from the time the buds were inserted as shown
by comparison of budded and imbudded trees.

126 unbudded trees.

210 budded trees.

Healthy.

Doubtful.

Diseased.

Dead.

Healthy.

Doubtful.

Diseased.

Dead.

117

1

0

8

3

16

1
103

83

From that day to this the contrast has become greater and greater
as the condition of the inoculated trees has gone on from bad to worse.

The orchard was reexainiiied July 29-31, 1890, and another series of
photographs procured (plates xvm-xxiv). The condition of the in-
oculated trees was found to be much worse than last year. All which
were doubtful or seemed to be healthy in 1889 had become diseased, and
many more had died with the characteristic symptoms of the yellows.
Only two of the inoculated trees made any noteworthy growth in 1890,
and the best one of these two is shown in plate xvin, fig. 1. Of the
entire 219* trees which received diseased buds August 3, 1887, only 15
were living at the expiration of the third year. Nearly all of those
which died were more or less stunted and showed symptoms of yellows
either in the form of branching summer growths or of winter buds
which germinated in autumn.

*Nine were rejected at time of planting on account of injuries received in digging.
The number 198 given in my Preliminary Report is a typographical error.

THE NICHOLSON TREES.

21

Up to date only one case of yellows has developed in the imbudded
trees, the tree noted as suspicious in 1889.

A number of the unbudded trees at one end of the orchard died in the
spring of 1890 from some unknown cause, not yellows. They dried up
suddenly, much as if they had been injured by plowing or by moles.
The roots, however, seemed intact and the origin of the trouble was not
to be learned in July. It is sufficient that it was not yellows or any-
thing suggestive of that disease. Four of the trees set on sod ground
also dried up during the summer. All the rest of these trees (86) made
an excellent growth in 1890 and were thrifty and beautiful to look upon
(plates xxin and xxiv).* The photographs from the unbudded trees
represent average specimens, while those from the inoculated trees in-
clude the best, and, in fact, almost everything.

For several reasons this experiment is more interesting than No. 1,
although the results are identical. First, the inserted buds were taken
from shoots that appeared to be healthy ; second, the disease developed
more slowly than in Experiment 1, owing probably to the different char-
acter of the buds ; third, a smaller amount of infective material was
used ; fourth, the inception and progress of the disease occurred in a
locality entirely free from yellows. This experiment confirms No, 1.
In addition, it proves that yellows may be communicated by parts of a
tree which seem to be healthy and renders it probable that the disease
is incubating in all parts of a tree when it appears in any part. In
passing, it may be said that the results of the excision experiments de-
scribed in Part III point to the same conclusion. It is also noteworthy
that each of these trees was infected by a single bud, and that all of
these buds were cut from a single tree. The inference is very strong
that this one tree contained infective material sufficient to destroy en-
tire orchards if properly introduced into the trees. Both experiments
go to show that the germ or virus of the disease must be quite uni-
formly distributed through the affected parts.

Experiments 3 and 4 (the E. (r. Nicholson trees and the D.P. Barnard
trees) are incomplete, owing to the temporary discontinuance of this
investigation in the spring of 1888.

* These trees were re-examined August 12, 1891, with the following results:
Average height of the north two rows (37 trees), 9.9 feet; average circumference
of trunk, 8 inches. Average height of the south three rows (49 trees), 8.1 feet; aver-
age circumference of trunk, 5.7 inches. Twelve of the trees have mildewed badly
this year, one has yellows, and several others are small. Otherwise all are healthy
and growing vigorously. The difference in amount of growth is referable to the un-
like methods of treatment. They have been cultivated with crops as follows:

Plot.

1888.

1889.

1800.

1891.

North two rows

Strawberries

South thiee rows ..

Corn

Wheat

Clover

Corn.

The growth of a crop of wheat in 1889 and the absence of cultivation the follow-
ing year, when the trees were in clover sod, checked the growth of the south three
rows nearly one-third. Of the inoculated trees only six remain, and they are like the
three left from Experiment 1.

22 PEACH YELLOWS.

At the time of removal Mr. Barnard reserved ten trees from experiment
4, and set them with others of the same age in an orchard on his farm.
According to his statement, January 10, 1889, they made a good
growth in 1888 and were as healthy as any trees. September 20, 1890,
Mr. Barnard reported that the trees were still healthy, but they were
not personally inspected until January 26, 1891.

At that date the following conditions prevailed : One tree was gone ;
one tree had made no growth worth mentioning and was dead with
symptoms of yellows ; three were much smaller than should be and
were suffering from yellows or at least presented what seemed to me
satisfactory symptoms ; one was doubtful ; and four were nice trees.
The latter had made a reasonable growth and appeared to be free from
disease. Plate xxv shows the best one of the healthy trees. These
trees were budded in a locality where yellows is very prevalent and have
remained there ever since, i. <?., over 3J years. Therefore, it can not be
asserted unqualifiedly that the diseased trees resulted from the insertion
of diseased buds, since the possibility of subsequent infection is not ex-
cluded. The possibility, however, is not great, because the trees were
badly dwarfed, as if they had been diseased from the start, The trees
which still appear to be healthy are, therefore, the only really interest-
ing ones. Their behavior during the next year or two will be a matter
of considerable interest, as throwing additional light on the question
whether the whole tree is diseased when symptoms appear in any part
of it.

For this experiment the buds were selected with great care from ter-
minal branches upon the healthy-looking side of a diseased seedling tree
which was about 4 years old. If any portion of the tree was free from
the disease these branches should have been. The buds were cut and
inserted September 7, 1887. The tree from which they were taken
manifested symptoms of yellows in all parts in the spring of 1888, and
died that summer.

One failure of another kind remains to be recorded. A large and
vigorous seedling tree in the yard of Prof. Cleveland Abbe, in Wash-
ington, was inoculated in a dozen terminal branches with buds taken
from one of the 10 trees set on the Department grounds and described
under Experiment 1. The buds were cut August 15, 1889, and inserted
the same day. The growth of the tree from which the buds came had
been stronger and healthier looking than that of the others, but fully
one-half of the winter buds were then germinating and the inserted
buds were of this character.

This tree has remained healthy, but no stress should be laid upon the
fact because owing to the use of a dull knife or to the fact that the
shoot-axes had already pushed, all of the buds dried up in a few days
and entirely failed to unite with the branches. So far as relates to the
propagation of yellows it must be classed with pruning and other
experiments of simple contact and I have not yet obtained any indis-

THE DEPARTMENT TREES. 23

putable evidence that the disease can be spread in this way, although it
seems very probable. Several extensive experiments of this kind are
now in progress. In experiments 1 and 2, in all or almost all of the
inoculations there was a distinct union between the bud and the stock,

1. e., between the diseased and healthy tissues, some months prior to
the first appearance of symptoms in the stocks.

Experiment 5. — In order to be absolutely certain as to the healthy
character and sound constitution of the seedlings, stones were pro-
cured in quantity from three localities free from yellows. These
were planted November 8, 1889, upon well drained and fertile soil in
the grounds at the Department of Agriculture. Row No. 1 were Ten-
nessee pits. "These pits were bought of Johnson & Stokes, Philadel-
phia, and came from London, Tennessee." I procured them from Charles
Wright, Seaford, Delaware. Eow No. 2 came from Sussex County, Dela-
ware, and were also procured, from Mr. Wright, who had purchased
them for his own use. Concerning them he wrote : "The Delaware
pits were collected by myself of William P. Brown, of Seaford, and
were saved from old seedling trees in his orchard near town." Row
No. 3 came from Caroline County, Maryland. They were collected by
J. W. Kerr, of Denton, for his own use.

The seedlings came up satisfactorily and made a good growth in the
season of 1890. About 100 of each row were inoculated and the rest
were reserved for future experiments.

The buds for inoculation were selected with the greatest care from
17 diseased trees in the older orchard of James W. Green, Magnolia,
Delaware (No. 14 of first report). I did not have an orchard map
when the buds were cut, but, judging from the appearance of the
trees, all were cases of 1889. Each one was plainly diseased by yel-
lows, but none were wholly diseased, i. e., none appeared to be so.
One-third .to one-half of each tree was more or less yellow and bore
the diseased shoots, but the other side was green and thrifty and although
examined very minutely gave no indication of disease. Two shoots
were taken from each tree (different limbs). These were 2 to 3 feet long,
robust, well matured for the time of year, and to all appearances per-
fectly healthy. Each shoot came from the healthy-looking side of the
tree, and all bore smooth, green, and vigorous leaves, 6 to 9 inches long.
Better looking buds were never used. These shoots grew out at much
greater distances from diseased parts than those used for Experiment

2. They were, cut July 18, 1890, immediately stripped of foliage, and
wrapped in damp cloths. Row 1, was budded July 19; row 2, July 21;
and row 3, July 22. All of the buds were used except some on the
base of the shoots which proved too large for the stocks. Two buds
were put into each seedling, but owing to dry weather and unskillful
manipulation, many of them failed to unite with the stock. Others
healed on satisfactorily but made no growth. Still others made a
growth of 1 to 10 inches, although the tipper portion of the stocks was
purposely left uncut in order to prevent this.

24 PEACH YELLOWS.

The stocks were healthy (December 13, 1890), and it was only the
few buds which had already developed into shoots that I desired to
notice here. None of these appeared to be perfectly healthy, and
some of them had developed very characteristic symptoms of yellows.
Plate xxvi, from photographs, represents two good examples. One is
from row 1, the other is from row 3. In both a majority of the winter
buds germinated in autumn. Since then there have been new devel-
opments. At this date (July 16, 1891), 28 stocks show symptoms of
yellows, and the foliage on five or six vigorous shoots, which have
grown from inserted buds, begins to take on a peculiar yellow tint
very suggestive of this disease. There are cases in each of the rows,
but most at present in the S. row.

This experiment is, in part, a repetition of No. 2. Whether these
trees (the stocks) will all perish in the same way remains to be seen. An-
other point important to be settled is whether any of the inserted buds
will develop into healthy trees. The seedlings will be transplanted
at an early date to a locality entirely free from yellows and kept under
observation until this can be determined.

III.— EXCISIONS.

Symptoms of peach yellows, as already noted, frequently appear at
first on one branch only, or on one side of a tree, while the rest remains
for several or many months, to all appearances, perfectly normal. The
symptoms of the disease are progressive from part to part until the whole
tree is involved, and this has favored the idea that the disease is local
at first and only constitutional or universal after the lapse of considerable
time. Generally, in bearing years the earliest plain symptoms are
found in the fruit, and this fact has led to a strong popular belief that
the disease is communicated from tree to tree by pollen, through the
instrumentality of bees or otherwise. There is, however, absolutely no
foundation in observation for any such belief. The following experi-
ments were undertaken in the hope of determining whether the disease
is local or constitutional when the first symptoms appear. Assuming
that the cause of the disease is a contagium which has gained an en-
trance into the tree through such blossoms as develop into prematurely
ripened fruit, then it follows that the disease is first of a local nature,
as the appearances indicate ; and it would seem that it might be re-
moved, in some cases at least, if the excisions were very prompt and
rigorous. Anyway, this was the theory on which I proceeded.

The experiments are as follows :

A. — Orchard of William Brothers, Dover, Delaware. — Trees set 3| years ; both of them
cases of 1887; selected out of 27 as being most suitable for this experiment. The
limbs which bore affected branches were cut away close to the body of the tree, and
the stumps were painted.

(1) September 16, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. This tree seemed to be healthy,
except parts of one large limb. This limb showed slight beginnings of diseased
sprouts, and bore one peach, wbich was ripe, red-spotted on the skiu and red spotted
and streaked in the flesh. The limb was removed.

EXCISIONS AND RESULTS. 25

RESULT.— August 16, 1883. The tree is full of peaches, and three-fourths of them
are now ripe and red-spotted. The proper time of ripening of this variety in this
locality is about the middle of September. Only two small limbs bear green, healthy
fruit. The foliage of the affected limbs is yellowish, and they bear a few small dis-
eased shoots.

(2) September 16, 1887. Variety not recorded. This tree bore no fruit, but dis-
eased sprouts had developed on one limb, and to a greater extent than on No. 1. This
limb was cut away. The rest of the tree seemed to be healthy.

KESULT.— August 16, 1888. The tree is badly diseased. It now bears premature
fruit on all parts. Also on all of the main limbs there are many diseased shoots, and
some of them are large.

All of the diseased trees, except these two, were removed in 1887.

B. — Orchard of James W. Green, Magnolia, Delaware. — Trees set 5£ years ; all cases of
1887 ; selected out of several hundred as being freest from symptoms of yellows. In
all of these trees the disease appeared to be localized on one or more of the several
main limbs. In fact, I was at great pains to select trees which showed the prema-
ture poaches and feeble shoots only upon a few limbs. Many otherwise promising
trees were rejected because of slight symptoms upon the base of the main limbs. In
several cases there were yet no diseased sprouts. In none were there very many. In
some of the trees healthy shoots of that summer had grown out between the diseased
parts and the point of amputation. The limbs were sawed off smoothly and the
stumps were painted. Whenever a small diseased branch joined a larger healthy
limb I severed both, cutting below next to the body of the tree in order to be more
certain of success. In most cases, from one-third to one-half of the tree was removed.
All that was left, and much of what was cut away, appeared to be perfectly healthy.
In some trees the symptoms of disease were more pronounced than in others, but the
final results were the same.

(1) September 15, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. Two main limbs were removed;
five of the same size were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. The tree now bears premature fruit on every main
limb. It also bears diseased shoots. Some of the smaller branches bear a few sound
peaches.

(•2) September 15, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. Three limbs were removed; three
were left.

RESULT.— August 17, 1888. The tree bears many peaches, most of which are pre-
mature. Upon two of the three main limbs, some branches only still bear green,
healthy peaches. The trunk and limbs also bear diseased shoots.

(3) September 15, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. One small limb, 1£ inches in
diameter at the base, was removed ; four large limbs with many branches were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. The tree is now badly diseased in every limb; and
bears almost nothing but premature fruit, i. e., there are not over 40 green peaches
on the entire tree. Diseased shoots have also grown from every limb and from the
trunk near the earth.

(4) September 15, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. A smaller tree than No. 3. One
limb was removed, two were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1883. One of the two main limbs bears green, healthy
peaches ; the other bears mixed fruit. That on two branches is premature; that on
three others is healthy. There are no diseased shoots.

(5) September 15, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. A large, fine tree. One limb was
removed, four limbs were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. The tree is now full of fruit and at least one-half of it
is premature. The diseased peaches are not confined to any special part but are
borne on all of the main limbs. There are also characteristic, feeble shoots on the
trunk.

(6) September 15, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. A large tree. One limb was
removed, four were left.

26 PEACH YELLOWS.

RESULT.— August 17, 1888. Two of the four limbs bear green, healthy peaches ; and
two bear premature ones, far out toward the ends of the branches. Diseased shoots
have also grown from the base of these two limbs and from the trunk below the
excised limb. There are a few green peaches on the prematured limbs.

(7) September 15, 1887. Variety, Wilkins' Cling. Two limbs were removed, three
were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. One limb is sound, i. e., no symptoms have developed.
The other two bear mixed fruit ; on some branches it is premature and now fully
ripe, on others it is healthy and still green. Both limbs bear branched and very
characteristic yellows shoots.

(8) September 15, 1887. Variety, Wilkins' Cling. One branch was removed from
a large limb. The remainder of this limb and three other limbs were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. One limb bears green, healthy peaches; the others
bear prematurely ripe fruit and branched and unbranched yellows shoots. But some
branches bear sound peaches. The limb from which the branch was removed is not
worse affected than another on the opposite side of the tree.

(9) September 15, 1887. Variety, Wilkius' Cling. One small limb was removed ;
three larger ones were left.

RESULT.— August 17, 1888. Most of the peaches on this tree are green and healthy,
but branches upon two of the three limbs bear ripe red-spotted peaches and the
diseased shoots.

(10) September 15, 1887. Variety, Beers' Smock. One limb was removed; throe
limbs were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. There are many premature peaches on all parts of the
tree, but some of the branches still bear green ones. There are no sickly shoots.

(11) September 17, 1887. Variety, Crawford's Late. One limb was removed;
three were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. Most of this tree is healthy, i. e., appears to be. Two
branches of one limb only bear premature, ripe fruit, and small feeble shoots. A
large branched shoot, very typical of yellows, has also grown from the body below
the excised limb.

(12) September 17, 1887. Variety, Crawford's Late. Two limbs were removed;
three were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. There are premature peaches and characteristic yellows
shoots on every main limb. Some of the branches on these limbs also bear green,
healthy fruit.

(13) September 17, 1887. Variety, Old Mixon. One limb was removed; three
were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. Most of the tree bears green, healthy peaches. One
limb, however, bears nothing but ripe prematures. A small branch on another limb
also bears this kind of fruit. The sickly shoots have developed on both and on the
trunk below the excised limb.

(14) September 17, 1887. Variety, Old Mixon. Two limbs were removed; three
were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. All of the main limbs bear premature peaches and dis-
eased shoots. There are also two much-branched, yellows shoots on the trunk — one
below the excised limbs and one on the opposite side. The tree still bears some green,
healthy peaches.

(15) September 17, 1887. Variety, Stump the World. One limb was removed;
three were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. One limb bears green, healthy peaches. The other two
bear mixed fruit, i. e., premature, fully ripe peaches on some branches and immature
normal ones on other branches. There are no diseased shoots. One small branch on
this tree bears premature peaches upon three twigs, and green peaches upon two
others. One of the latter is 3 inches and the other is 14 inches below the lowest twig

EXCISIONS AND RESULTS. 27

bearing the prematures. The foliage and bark on this branch appear to be perfectly
normal, and I can see uo difference between the twigs bearing sound peaches and
those bearing diseased ones.

(16) September 17, 1887. Variety, Stump the World. One limb was- removed;
three were left.

RESULT.— August 17, 1888. This tree bears a great quantity of fruit and only a
very a little of it is premature. One diseased shoot has grown from underthe excised
limb, and there are several noticeable ones at the junction of the stem and roots.
Otherwise the foilage is normal and the tree appears to be healthy.

(17) September 17, 1887. Variety, Stump the World. One limb was removed;
four were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. There are premature peaches and numerous diseased
shoots upon every limb. Some of the shoots are much branched.

(18) September 17, 1887. Variety, Stump the World. One limb was removed ; three
•were left.

RESULT.— August 17, 1888. This tree bears only a few peaches. On two limbs
there are a few prematures, and one shoot which has grown from the trunk beneath
the excised limb does not look perfectly healthy. The foliage of the tree is normal,
and as in No. 16 the symptoms are slight.

(19) September 17, 1887. Variety, Stump the World. One limb was removed;
three were left.

RESULT. — August 17, 1888. There are premature peaches on every limb, and also
many diseased shoots. There are sound peaches on one branch of one limb only.

These 19 trees were reexamined in the autumn of 1889. All of them were then
yellowish and quite badly affected. Few bore any fruit. They were again examined
in the autumn of 1890. At that date all of the shoot-axes were dwarfed, many win-
ter buds were germinating, and the trees bore no healthy foliage. The leaves were
stunted and pale green, yellowish, or red. Many branches were dead, but no entire
trees. They bore no fruit in 1890.

So far as I can see, the progress of the disease in these trees was not retarded by
the excisions. They are now neither better off nor worse than many other cases
of 1887, left for comparison. In 9, 16, and 18 the symptoms on the remaining limbs
were not very numerous in 1888, but I can not be sure that such might not have been
the case in any event, because sometimes the entire tree does not succumb until the
third year.

C. — Orchard of George Gildersleve, near Rising San, Delaware (G. D. Jackson, ten-
ant).— Trees set 6 years; all cases of 1887 : selected out of several hundred as being
freest from symptoms of yellows and, therefore, most suitable for the experiment.
The trees were free-growing, thrifty specimens, and in each the disease appeared to
be localized on the upper part of one limb. This was cut away next to the stem
and the stump was painted.

(1) September 1 9, 1887. Variety, Smock. One main limb was removed ; two were
left.

RESULT. — August 18, 1888. One of the limbs bears premature peaches on all parts,
and also many diseased shoots. The other bears green, healthy peaches, and shows
no indication of disease.

(2) September 19, 1887. Variety, Smock. One limb was removed; four were left.
RESULT.— August 18, 1888. This tree bears healthy fruit and foliage on all parts,

except one branch of one limb. This bears premature peaches and about 30 diseased
shoots. The effects of the disease are also apparent in the spring foliage and in the
terminal growths. The union of this branch with the main limb, which otherwise
seems healthy; is 4 feet above the stump of the excised limb.

(3) September 19, 1887. Variety, Reeves's Favorite. One limb was removed; two
were left.

RESULT. — August 18, 1888. This tree now bears only a few peaches. There were

28 PEACH YELLOWS.

no prematures, unless a few may have ripened very early and disappeared. The
foliage is healthy, and the only indications of disease are copious yellows shoots on
the trunk at the earth's surface, just below the excised limb.

D. — Orchard of John A. Nicholson, Leipsic, Delaware. — September 21, 1887. An
effort was made to cut the disease from 3 trees forming part of a 3-year-old, 39-acre
orchard on the farm of John A. Nicholson, near Leipsic, Delaware. There were 19
diseased trees and I selected the ones which seemed most favorable, removing
large limbs.

This orchard was not revisited, but I was told that the remainder of each tree
showed yellows the following season and that there were 500 new cases.

All these experiments were begun in mid-September. The next year I repeated the
experiments in other orchards, cutting away the limbs in August, i. e., 5 weeks
earlier.

E. — Orchard of George Davis, Still Pond, Maryland. — Trees set 19 years; cases of
1888; selected from about fifty as most suitable for the experiment. The trees were
very large and vigorous for their age, trunks, about 1 foot in diameter ; height, 25 to
30 feet. I was particular in the selection of trees and cut back very severely, wast-
ing much good fruit. The limbs were severed next to the body of the tree -and the
stumps were painted.

(1) August 9, 1888. Variety, not recorded. The tree was full of peaches, nearly
all of which were green and healthy. Two small branches had been cut away re-
cently because they bore premature fruit. The large limb which had borne these
branches still bore a few ripe, red-spotted peaches, but most of its fruit was healthy.
This limb was cut away next the trunk, the stump being 6 inches in diameter and
sound. Part of the other maiu limb, with much sound fruit, was also cut away be-
cause a few twigs on one branch bore premature fruit. One comparatively small
limb was left. This bore green peaches and appeared to be perfectly healthy. There
were yet no diseased shoots on any part of the tree.

RESULT.— September 20, 1889. Tree gone. Supposed to have been removed acci-
dentally in spring or summer on account of disease, the order being to remove all
diseased trees.

(2) August 9, 1888. Variety, Mountain Rose. A small branch which bore prema-
ture peaches had been removed recently, and another small branch on the sam* limb
bore the ripe and red-spotted fruit. There were no other indications of disease.
Even on this limb nine-tenths of the fruit and all of the foliage appeared to be per-
fectly normal. The limb was cut away close to the trunk. The sound stump was 7
inches in diameter. The limb which remained bore thrifty foliage and was full of
green, healthy peaches. A very careful examination of all parts showed no trace of
disease.

RESULT.— September 20, 1889. There is no fruit. One branch bears three diseased
shoots, but the spring foliage of the tree is still normal in size and color.

(3) August 9, 1888. - Variety, Reeves's Favorite. Parts of one limb showed symp-
toms of disease; a small branch had been cut away recently on account of yellows
and two other small branches bore large, red-spotted, ripe fruits, which were in very
marked contrast to the unripe peaches upon the remainder of this limb and upon
other parts of the tree. Eighteen inches above the cut a feeble shoot, one-fourth inch
long, was pushing through the rough bark. Eighteen inches farther up the limb
was a shoot, 2 to 3 years old, which bore diseased sprouts on its base and also 6 feet
above in its top. These sprouts were small, i. e.} recent growths. There were no
other diseased sprouts on the tree, and, even on this shoot, most of the buds were
dormant and most of the foliage was green and full grown. The limb which bore
these premature peaches and diseased sprouts was cut away close to the body of the
tree, although almost the whole of it bore only healthy fruit and all of it bore only
dark-green and vigorous spring foliage. The stump was six inches in diameter and
decaying at the center. One limb remained. This bore green, healthy peaches upon

EXCISIONS AND RESULTS. 29

all of its branches. Its foliage was also full grown, dark green, and very healthy in
appearance. There was not the least indication of disease.

RESULT. — September 20, 18?9. There is no fruit. This tree now bears an abund-
ance of healthy foliage and there are no diseased sprouts or other indications of yel-
lows— none whatever.

This tree was reexamined October 20, 1890, and found to be diseased in all parts.*
The wind had blown away the top 9 feet above the ground, but three small branches
remained. These bore many diseased sprouts. The trunk also bore similar sprouts.

F. — Orchard of George Davis, Still Pond, Maryland. — Trees set 5 years; cases of
1888; selected out of about thirty as most suitable for the experiment. The whole
orchard was thrifty and fair to look upon.

(1) August 9, 1888. Variety, Smock. Two limbs were removed; one was left.
Those which were cut away bore premature peaches. The one which was left bore
green fruit, and seemed to be healthy.

RESULT. — September 20, 1889. Still diseased.

(2) August 9, 1888. Variety, not recorded. This tree ramified near the ground
into three main limbs. Two small branches on one of these limbs bore premature
peaches. The remainder of that limb, i.e. most of it, and the rest of tho tree, bore
green, healthy fruit. There were no diseased sprouts, and no other indications of
yellows, the foliage of the whole tree being green, full-grown, and healthy.

RESULT.— September 20, 1889. The tree is now diseased in all parts.

<}. — Orchard of F. II. Harper, Still Pond, Mart/land.— Trees set 7£ years; all cases of
1888; selected out of several hundred as being freest from symptoms of yellows, and
therefore most suitable for the experiment. As in Mr. Greene's orchard, and else-
where many otherwise promising trees were rejected because of slight symptoms on
the base of some of the main limbs. All of these trees were free-growing and thrifty.
None of the spring foliage was rolled, curled, or yellowish, except upon one tree.
The fine green color and robust growth of this foliage, even on affected limbs, was
very noticable. The trees were freer from symptoms of disease than at Mr. Greene's,
but a larger portion of each was cut away. In fact, the excisions were very severe
and wasted a great many baskets of good fruit. Roughly stated, I removed from
one-third to two-thirds of the whole top of each tree, only a small portion of which
in most cases showed any indications of disease. The limbs w»ire cut close to the
body of the tree, and their stumps were carefully coated with paint. These were 3
to 4 inches in diameter.

This orchard was believed to be well adapted to the experiment because of the
healthful appearance of the trees, and because of the very gradual manner in which
many of them had succumbed to the disease in 1887 and 1888. The cases of 1887 were
dug out and removed that fall or the following spring; the cases of 1888, exclusive
of the trees under consideration, were cut back to the stem that autumn, but were
not removed until the end of the next growing season.

(1) August 10, 1888. Variety, Christiana. One limb was removed; two limbs
were left. The excised limb bore premature fruit on a small portion only, i. e. two
small braoches. The remainder of its fruit was green and healthy. The limb was
sound and there were no diseased sprouts. The fruit upon the remaining limbs was
green and healthy and the foliage was excellent.

RESULT.— May 13, 1889. Apparently healthy.

September 17, 1889. Still diseased ; slight symptoms upon two limbs. No fruit
this year.

October 11, 1890. Tree decidedly inferior looking. Foliage, red, yellow, dwarfed,
and rolled. In marked contrast to neighboring healthy trees. Tree, very twiggy ;
many of the small, unbranched, sickly shoots which grew early in the season have
dried up. A few winter buds are now pushing, and the terminal buds on a num-
ber of shoots germinated about 6 weeks ago, No fruit this year.

* See note to G 3.

30 PEACH YELLOWS.

(2) August 10, 1888. Variety, Old Mixon. One limb was removed; two limbs
were left. The excised limb bore sound green peaches on nearly all parts ; but there
were premature peaches on one small branch. Foliage, excellent; no diseased
sprouts; stump, sound. The limbs which were left bore green peaches and beauti-
ful foliage.

RESULT.— May 13, 1889. Apparently healthy.

September 18, 1889. Still diseased, but the symptoms are slight. No fruit this
year.

October 10, 1890. Plainly diseased in all parts. The spring foliage is reddish.
Some weeks ago many terminal buds pushed on branches in the top of the tree, and
each now bears a whorl of pale green, spindling leaves, 2 to 3 inches long. On
many of these branches the lower buds have also germinated, but more recently.
The same symptoms occur on a dozen shoots which have grown from the base of the
main limbs. No fruit this year.

(3) August 11, 1888. Variety, Old Mixon. One limb was removed; one was left.
The excised limb branched into two equal forks 16 inches above the cut. The stump
was sound and the foliage on both forks was full-grown, green, and healthy. All of
the fruit on one fork was green and healthy. Most of that on the other was also
green and healthy, but two small branches bore ripe, red-spotted fruit, and also two
diseased shoots each only about one-fourth inch long. The remaining limb bore
green peaches and perfectly healthy foliage. There was not the least sign of yel-
lows.

May 13, 1889. Doubtful. Vegetation is not far enough advanced to tell positively.

September 18, 1889. Excision apparently entirely successful. No symptoms of
yrllov/s. There are no diseased sprouts or germinating buds. The foliage also is
thrifty and of the proper form and color. Half a dozen vigorous shoots have grown
from the base of the remaining limb. These are 2 to 3 feet long, and bear excellent
foliage. No fruit this year.

October 10, 1890. The tree is now diseased, but the symptoms are confined to one
shoot. This grew in the summer of 1890 upon the base of the main limb. It is ro-
bust, unbranched, and 2 feet long. The terminal bud developed some time ago, has
grown 2-J inches, and now bears a whorl of immature leaves. Below, on the same
shoot, a dozen buds have germinated recently and sent out leaves which are one-
fourth to three-fourths inch long.

Otherwise the tree looks as well as its healthy fellows, and but for this one shoot I
should certainly think it sound.

Apparently the disease was not removed by the excision, but has hung about the
tree, or been dormant in it, ever since 1888. *

(4) August 10, 1888. Variety, Old Mixon. Two limbs were removed, both from
one side. On one of these limbs was a small branch bearing 8 or 10 premature peaches,
on the other were two small branches each bearing IX) to 12 premature peaches. The
remainder of the peaches on both limbs, 200 or more, were green and healthy. The
spring foliage was abundant, full-grown, and healthy. A few small diseased shoots,
one-half inch long, were pushing from the base of a small limb 3 feet above the cut.
There were no other signs of disease and the stump was sound. The foliage upon

* On September 20, 1889, Mr. J. Frank Wilson, of Still Pond, Maryland, took me to a
tree in one of his older orchards, No. 4 of my first report, which then appeared to be
perfectly healthy, but which he said had shown unmistakable symptoms of yellows
in the fall of 1888, at which time he had cut away all but one small limb. At the
date of my visit this limb seemed likely to grow into a new and healthy top. This
tree was reexamined October 15, 1890, and found to be so badly diseased in all parts
that I was compelled to believe that it had not been free from disease at any time
since 1888, although it developed no symptoms in the season of 1889.

Several cases similar to this one have come under my observation, but usually the
period of immunity has been shorter.

EXCISIONS AND RESULTS. 31

the rest of the tree was entirely healthy. The peaches were numerous, green, and nor-
mal.

May 13, 1889. Apparently still diseased. Some puny-looking sprouts are growing
from the base of the excised limbs and from the trunk under them.

September 17, 1889. To casual observation this tree is as healthy as No. 3, but I
find scars on the stub of the excised limb from which some one has broken shoots. A
search in the weeds under the tree brings to light several dried up but much-branched
and quite characteristic yellows shoots, which correspond to the scars on the stub.
There are no present indications of yellows, but unquestionably the tree is diseased.
No fruit this year.

October 11, 1890. Most of the foliage has fallen, probably nineteen- twentieths.
Some of it is redder than should be. It is not yet a bad-looking tree, although plainly
diseased. Winter buds are now germinating on half a dozen shoots. I counted four-
teen on one not over a foot long.

(5) August 10, 1888. Variety, Reeves's Favorite. One limb was removed ; one was
left. The excised limb bore 25 to 30 premature peaches distributed on two branches.
The rest of the limb bore many sound, green peaches. There were no diseased
sprouts, and the foliage of the entire limb was full-grown, and of a healthy green.
The limb which was left bore green, healthy peaches and healthy foliage.

May 13, 1889. Apparently healthy.

September 17, 1889. There are now slight but unquestionable symptoms of dis-
ease, i. e. a half dozen feeble shoots on the trunk and limbs. The spring foliage is
dark green ami thrifty. No fruit.

October 11, 1890. The tree is well provided with good foliage, and there are only
a few diseased shoots. One is a terminal bud which has grown about one-half inch,
developing a whorl of immature leaves now 2 to 3 inches long. Another is a small,
feeble shoot on the trunk.

(6) August 10, 1888. Variety, Reeves's Favorite. One limb was removed ; one was
left. The excised limb tri-parted a short distance above the cut ; two of the three
parts bore premature peaches upon some branches and green ones upon others. The
third fork bore only green, healthy fruit. The foliage of this tri-partite limb was
full-grown, green, and healthy. There were no diseased shoots and the stump was
sound. The remainder of the tree bore green, healthy poaches, and excellent foliage.
There was no least sign of yellows.

May 13, 1889. Appears to be diseased.

September 17, 1889. At first sight this tree appears to be as healthy as No. 3. The
entire foliage is vigorous and of a healthy green. Seven lusty shoots have grown
out of the trunk just below the excised limb. These are 3 to 4 feet long, and most
are one-half inch in diameter at the base. All look healthy and bear excellent foli-
age. However, on the base of the remaining limb, 4 inches from the cut, there is a
scar easily overlooked. Some one wrenched a shoot from this spot in the summer.
Search in the weeds under the tree brings it to light. This shoot is 2£ feet long and
branched in the characteristic manner. There is, therefore, no doubt that the tree
is still affected, although at present it shows no symptoms of disease. No fruit this
year.

October 11, 1890. Tree much like No. 5. There is an abundance of good foliage,
but upon two shoots about a dozen winter buds are now pushing.

(7) August 10, 1888. Variety, Beers's Smock. One limb was removed. This limb
biparted just above the cut. On one fork two small branches bore about a hundred
red-spotted peaches which were ripe or nearly ripe, while 5 or 6 others of about equal
size bore only green, healthy fruit. The other fork bore nothing but healthy peaches.
There were no diseased shoots, and the foliage of the entire limb had every appear-
ance of health. The stump was sound. The rest of the tree seemed healthy. It
bore sound, green peaches, and full-grown, green foliage.

May 13, 1889. There are diseased shoots at the base of the excised limb. A few
have also grown from the base of the adjoining limb.

32 PEACH YELLOWS.

September 17, 1889. Still diseased. The symptoms are confined principally to the
stump of the excised limb and to one other limb, the top of which was cut out in the
spring or summer daring my absence. No fruit this year.

October 11, 1890. Not recovered and not better looking than other diseased trees
in the same orchard. All of the foliage which remains is unnaturally rolled, curled,
red and yellow. The tree bears diseased sprouts and some of its winter buds are now
pushing.

(8) August 10, 1888. Variety, Christiana. One limb was removed; three were
left. The excised limb biparted 8 inch.es above the cut. One furk bore 230 prema-
ture peaches and only a few healthy green ones. On the lower part, pushing from
the bark, were several diseased growths each only about one-half inch long. One of
these was within 18 inches of the cut. The spring foliage was full-grown, dark-
green, and healthy. The winter buds were dormant and there were no other indica-
tions of disease. The other fork, which was of the same size or a little larger, bore
healthy foliage and between two and three hundred healthy, green peaches. The
limbs which remained appeared to be perfectly healthy. They bore only green
peaches and healthy-looking foliage.

May 13, 1889. Apparently still diseased. There are some feeble shoots with red-
dish foliage on the main limbs near the trunk.

September 17, 1889. The symptoms of yellows are more apparent on this tree than
on any of the preceding seven, yet the tree would not be called badly diseased.
There is no fruit to judge by, but the spring foliage on the entire tree is somewhat
curled and yellowish. There are also a number of feeble shoots, and winter buds are
now germinating in a number of places upon both the main branches of a limb oppo-
site to the one which was excised.

October 11, 1890. Most of the foliage has fallen; what remains is unnaturally rolled,
curled, and red. The tree is rather twiggy from last year's diseased shoots now
dead. On one branch and on one stem-shoot, the winter buds are now germinating.
Not many diseased sprouts appeared this year and the tree has made a fair growth.

(9) August 10, 1888. Variety, Old Mixon. One limb was removed ; two limbs were
left. The excised limb biparted 14 inches above the cut. The larger fork bore 100
to '200 healthy, green peaches ; the smaller fork bore about one-half as many prema-
ture peaches, but also some green ones on tie top branches. A few sprouts near the
base of the smaller fork are not quite healthy, and the smallest, which is only about
one-half inch long, is not over 2 feet above the cut. The stump was sound, and
the spring foliage on the entire limb was full-grown and healthy. The peaches and
foliage on the remaining limbs were perfectly healthy in appearance.

May 13, 1889. Signs of disease are now visible on the trunk just below the stump
of the excised limb.

September 17, 1889. Still diseased. A tuft of yellowish, much-branched, feeble
sprouts has grown from the stub of the excised limb. One of the main limbs bears
diseased growths at its base, 6 feet above, and on the extremities of several
branches, at a distance of over 10 feet from the trunk. The other main limb looks
healthy, except that the terminal buds on two thrifty " watershoots" began to grow
in August, something very unusual in healthy peach trees in this climate, although
not uncommon in Georgia in midsummer. The spring foliage on both limbs con-
tinues to look healthy.

October 11, 1890. Most of the foliage has fallen. The remainder is unnaturally
reddish. Terminal buds pushed some time ago in the top of the tree, and several
lusty stem-shoots are now full of germinating buds.

(10) August 10, 18&8. Variety, Keeves's Favorite. One limb was removed. It

EXCISIONS AND RESULTS. 33

bore 20 to 30 green peaches and about the same nurubei of fully-ripe ones,* but none of
the latter were within 10 feet of the cut. There were no diseased sprouts or ger-
minating winter buds. The foliage was full grown and entirely healthy. The
remaining limbs bore healthy peaches and excellent foliage. One small shoot, how-
ever, on the base of the east branch, did not appear quite right, yet I could not say
it was affected by yellows. It was 14 inches long and unbranched. The leaves
were somewhat paler than normal and were attacked by a shot-hole fungus, which
is quite common on the leaves of diseased trees.

May 13, 1889. The enlire top was blown away by a tornado which occurred soon
after the excision, but the stubs of the limbs appear to be diseased.

September 17, 1889. Numerous yellowish, much-branched, feeble, spindling shoots
have grown from the stub.

October 11, 1890. The trunk is now dead.

(11) August 10, 1888. Variety, Reeves' Favorite. One limb was removed. This
subdivided 2$ feet above the cut into four branches, three of which bore a few
large, ripe peaches, while the fourth bore about twenty green ones. The proper time
for the ripening of this variety in that orchard is August 20. The foliage was full
grown and healthy looking, and there were no diseased shoots either from winter
buds or obscure buds.t The stump was sound. The remaining limbs bore healthy,
green peaches and excellent foliage. There was no sign of yellows.

May 13, 1889. The entire top was blown away by the tornado. There are no vigor-
ous shoots on the trunk or stubs of the limbs, but only three or four buds pushing
feebly and two small, dried-up shoots. The stump looks nearly dead, but this is
probably due in part to the effect of the wind.

September 17, 1889. Dead. No growth of any sort since spring.

(12) August 10, 1888. Variety, Reeves' Favorite. One limb was removed. This
bore about twenty large, showy, ripe peaches, and about the same number of much
smaller green ones— all of the latter upon one branch. There were no diseased
shoots; the foliage was healthy; and the stump was sound. The remaining limbs
appeared to be healthy. They bore green peaches-and vigorous foliage.

May 13, 1889. Doubtful ; a feeble shoot is pushing just beneath the stub of the ex-
cised limb.

September 17, 1889. The tree is diseased, but the symptoms are slight and confined
to the trunk. There is a diseased shoot 6 inches below the excision, and another
stouter one on the margin of the cut. The winter buds upon the latter are now
germinating. The foliage of the entire top looks healthy and is vigorous for the
time of year. Had these two shoots been removed prior to examination, or had they
never grown, any one would have pronounced the tree entirely healthy.

October 11, 1890. Still diseased. Most of the foliage has fallen ; what remains is
abnormally reddish. Numerous winter buds are now germinating upon two shoots.

*The premature peaches on this tree, like those on all the others, were large and
showy; the skin was red-spotted and high colored ; the flesh was also much streaked
and spotted with bright red. Many of these spots were to be seen on radial as well as
tangential sections. They were about one-sixteenth inch in diameter, and were not
confined to the nbro-vascular system, but formed part of the ordinary parenchyma
of the fruit. The streaks of color were limited principally to radial sections, but did
not extend from from pit to skin. Some of these peaches tasted very well ; others
were insipid or sickish. Sometimes, even, one-half ot a peach tasted well and the
remainder was not palatable.

t Upon the diseased trees in this orchard there were fewer yellows shoots in 1888
than in 1887. This was also true for all the other orchards in that region. It was
correlated with dry weather, which also had its effect upon the total growth. At
least, in this orchard, where I examined most particularly, the healthy terminal
growths of 1888 were considerably shorter than those of 1887. There have been
rather more cases, however, in the dry seasons than in the wet ones.
1609— Bull. 1 3

34 PEACH YELLOWS.

(13) August 10, 1888. Variety, Reeves' Favorite. One limb was removed; two
limbs were left. The excised limb bore about a dozen large, ripe peaches and more
than one hundred green ones. There were no diseased shoots; the foliage was full
grown and vigorous and the stump was sound. The remaining limbs bore healthy,
green peaches and excellent foliage.

May 13, 1889. Apparently diseased, i. e.} there are a few feeble shoots on the trunk,
but it is too early in the growing season to decide positively. One large limb was
blown away by the tornado.

September 17, 1889. Still diseased. There are a few sickly shoots on the base of
the trunk below the excision, but some robust, healthy-looking shoots also grow from
the vicinity. Diseased shoots also grow from beneath the base of the limb which
was blown away by the tornado. The crown of the tree still bears full-grown, dark-
green foliage, but on one branch some of it curls and droops a little. There are no
other signs of disease. No fruit this year.

October 11, 1890. The tree is well provided with good-looking foliage, but diseased
sprouts have grown from the base of the trunk, and many winter buds are now ger-
minating. No fruit.

(14) August 10, 1888. Variety, Old Mixon. Two limbs were removed, i.e., about
two-thirds of the whole top ; and two were left. One of the excised limbs was loaded
with peaches which were ripe, and red-spotted on the skin and in the flesh. The
other limb bi parted one foot above the cut. The larger fork was loaded with ripe
peaches; the smaller one bore many green peaches and only a few premature ones.
This smaller fork had lost a branch and was dozy at the heart from that point down-
ward for a distance of 3 feet, rain having entered. One stump was sound ; the other
showed two small dozy spots in the center, the result of the downward movement of
the decay which began at the base of the broken branch. There were no diseased
shoots and the foliage was healthy. The remaining limbs were healthy, i. e., seemed
to be. The peaches were green, and the foliage was excellent. I mention condition
of stumps because yellows has been attributed to injuries. In this connection it may
be noted that these trees were covered with smooth, sound bark and were very free
from injuries of any sort on any part, limbs, trunk, or roots. The entire orchard has
escaped the attacks of the borer (^Egeria) to a remarkable degree. Most of the trees
used in this experiment were entirely free from them and hud always been so while
none of them had been seriously injured. Possibly the character of the soil has had
something to do with this immunity. I find this insect most troublesome upon sandy
or friable soils. On the light sands of Sussex and Caroline Counties the borers have
to be removed onco a year and sometimes twice. Otherwise the orchards would soon
be destroyed.

May 13, 1889. Apparently still diseased. The suspicious appearances are upon the
trunk near where the limbs were removed.

September 17, 1889. Still diseased. Six inches below the lowest excision there is
a feeble, much-branched yellows shoot. The smaller limb was blown away by the
tornado. The remaining limb is now plainly diseased. Its spring foliage is full
grown, but lighter green than should be, and is somewhat inclined to droop and curl.
There are also well-marked, feeble yellows shoots on several branches at distances of
8 to 10 feet from the excision. No fruit.

October 11, 1890. Most of the foliage has fallen; what remains is abnormally reddish.
The tree is twiggy, and there are signs of disease in the top. One stem shoot also
bears fifteen buds, which have germinated recently. No fruit this year.

(15) August 10, 1888. Variety, Christiana. Two limbs were removed, both from
one side ; one limb was left. Nearly all of the fruit on both of the excised limbs was
premature ; on both limbs 3 feet above the cut diseased shoots had pushed through
the rough bark, but were only from one-half inch to 2 inches long. On one of the
limbs at the same height there were also stout, healthy-looking shoots of this season's
growth. The other limb bore an additional 15 or 20 feeble shoots 5 to 8 feet above the

EXCISIONS AND RESULTS. 35

cut. These were 1 or 2 inches long and bad also developed from obscure buds buried
iu the bark or formed in the cambium. The stumps were sound and the spring foliage
was healthy. The remaining limb bore green peaches and healthy foliage, but I had
little hope of saving it, owing to the number of branches which manifested symp-
toms. ' .

May 13, 1889. Apparently still diseased. A number of feeble shoots are pushing on
the base of the limbs.

September 17, 1889. Still diseased. Half a dozen lusty shoots have grown from the
the base of the remaining limb, and three of these are mu^h branched, feeble at the
extremities, and badly diseased. The leaves upon the crown of the tree are of normal
size and color, but are somewhat curled.

October 11, 1890. The spring foliage is of good size, but it is unnaturally rolled
and curled, reddish and yellowish-green and unhealthy looking. The winter buds
are germinating upon four different shoots, in the same manner as shown in Fig. 1,
Plate in.

(16) August 10, 1888. Variety, Old Mixon. Two limbs were removed, both on one
side. Each of the excised limbs bore a few high-colored, red- spotted peaches, and a
much larger number of green ones. About 4£ feet above the cut one branch bore a
few small unbranched, but diseased sprouts. There were no others on the tree. The
stumps were sound. The remaining limbs bore many green peaches and excellent
foliage. There was no trace of yellows.

May 13, 1889. Apparently still diseased. The suspicious shoots are on the base of
the main limbs.

September 17, 1889. The tree is still diseased, and in all parts. Numerous, branched,
feeble shoots have grown from the trunk and from the stubs of both excised limbs.
These feeble shoots also occur on all of the larger branches and even iu the top of the
tree. The spring foliage is curled and yellow. This tree is much worse than any yet
examined. No fruit this year.

October 11, 1890. Nineteen-twentieths of the foliage has fallen; what remains is
rolled, curled, and very red. The winter buds are now germinating on a dozen dif-
ferent shoots. No fruit in 1890.

(17) August 10, 1888. Variety, Reeves' Favorite. One limb was removed. This
biparted 10 inches above the cut. The larger fork bore healthy, green peaches and
the smaller one bore 20 to 30 ripe peaches, which, however, were confined to two small
branches. There were no diseased shoots. The stump was sound and the foliage
was luxuriant. The remaining limbs were loaded with greeii peaches and the foliage
was like that of the excised limb.

May 13, 1889. The entire top was blown away by the tornado of Aug. 21, 1888.
Apparently, the stubs of the limbs are still diseased.

September 17, 1889. Branched, diseased growths now cover the whole upper part
of the trunk. They have grown from the stubs of each limb, and also very abundantly
from several places on the body below the excision. On the trunk they are very wiry
and feeble.

October 11, 1890. This stub is trying hard to live. It now bears thrifty shoots,
provided with an abundance of foliage of normal size and nearly natural color, which
is now yellowing and nearly ready to fall. But it also bears a half-dozen spindling,
sickly, branched shoots, and winter buds are now pushing on a number of others.

(18) August 10, 1888. Variety, Reeves's Favorite. One small limb was removed ;
two larger ones were left. The excised limb bore ripe and nearly ripe peaches on
many branches, and bore no green fruit. There were some small, diseased shoots
well out upon one branch, and a feeble shoot one-fourth inch long had developed
from an obscure bud and pushed through the bark only 1 inch above the cut. This
was not discovered in time or the tree would have been rejected. The spring foliage
was full grown, but in places it began to look yellowish. The stump was sound.
The remainder of the tree was full of green peaches and healthy foliage.

OF TH1

36 PEACH YELLOWS.

May 13, 1889. Doubtful. A few feeble shoots are growing on the trunk below the
stub of the excised limb, and on the base of another limb.

September 17, 1889. Symptoms of yellows are now present. From the stub of the
excised limb have grown two much-branched, feeble shoots upon which winter buds
are now germinating. Such a shoot has grown also from the trunk, 14 inches below
the cut. There is also a small, diseased shoot on the base of a main limb, 12 inches
above the excision. Otherwise the tree appears to be healthy. There was no fruit
this year.

October 11, 1890. The foliage is abnormally reddish, and the winter buds are now
germinating upon two large shoots, which have grown from the base of the main
limbs. No fruit in 1890.

(19) August 10, 1888. Variety, Keeves's Favorite. One limb was removed. Two
small branches bore ripe, red-spotted fruit. These branches joined the main limb
about 8 feet above the cut. Six other branches of about the same size bore green
peaches. The entire limb bore full-grown, dark-green foliage ; and there were no
diseased shoots. The stump was sound. The remaining limbs bore healthy, green
peaches and excellent foliage.

May 13, 1889. There are a few sprouts of uncertain character on the stub of the
excised limb. Otherwise the tree appears to be healthy.

September 17, 1889. The top bears good foliage and looks healthy, but several
branched and feeble diseased shoots have grown from the stub of the excised limb.
There is no fruit, and I can find no certain indications of disease on any other part of
the tree.

October 11, 1890. For the time of year there is more than the usual amount of foli-
age on this tree, and it is of better size and color, and less curled than on many of the
trees. However, several terminal buds have pushed in the top of the tree, and win-
ter buds are now germinating on six different shoots which have grown from the
base of the main limbs. One of these shoots pushed twenty-eight buds in late sum-
mer or early fall. These made a spindling growth of 2 to 4 inches, and are now dead.
On the same shoot sixteen additional buds are now germinating. There was no fruit
in 1890.

(20) August 10, 1888. Variety, Old Mixon. One limb was removed ; three limbs
were left. The excised limb bore premature peaches on nearly every branch. One
diseased shoot, one-eighth inch long, was pushing through the bark about 2 feet above
the cut, and a half dozen others, one-eighth inch to 1 inch long, were visible higher
up. There were no others, and the spring foliage was healthy. The remaining limbs
were full of healthy foliage and green peaches, which Mr. Price said ought to ripen
from 9 to 12 days later.

May 13, 1889. Doubtful. There are some indications of disease near the stub of
the excised limb.

September 17, 1889. The tree is now badly diseased. A half dozen rank-growing
branched yellows shoots have pushed from the trunk below the excision and from the
base of the limbs above it. Feeble yellows shoots are abundant on both main
branches of one limb all the way to the ends of the twigs in the top of the tree, i. e.,
12 feet above the excision. The spring foliage on this limb is also dwarfed, curled,
and yellowish. On another limb the spring foliage is normal, but there is a diseased
shoot at its base, and another about 3_feet up. The third limb appears to be entirely
healthy. No fruit.

October 11, 1890. The foliage is very red and unhealthy looking, and sickly shoots
have grown not only in the top of the tree but also next to the roots and on the base
of the limbs ; and winter buds are now germinating. The tree bore no fruit this
year.

This closes the excision experiments. The results varied considerably,
but in no case did the removal of affected parts stop the progress of the

CONCLUSION FROM EXCISIONS. 37

disease. The symptoms appeared again the following season in all but
two of the trees, and in these two they came back the second season.
Even when the entire top was removed, as by the tornado in G 17, the
disease quickly reappeared.

The inference that the disease was really cut out and that all these
cases are reinfections is inadmissible, because nothing of a similar
nature occurred elsewhere in the orchards. To establish this we have
only to trace the history of these trees for 1 year from the date of the
excisions, and to compare that with the history for a similar period of
other trees in each orchard, i. e., those which were healthy when the
excisions were made.

In Mr. Greene's orchard 100 per cent of the excised trees showed fresh
symptoms of the disease in 1888, but only about 12 per cent of the
others became affected ; L e., the new cases in 1888 amounted to only
12 per cent of the whole number of healthy trees. In Mr. Harper's
orchard 95 per cent of the excised trees showed fresh symptoms of the
disease in 1889, but only about 2 per cent of the others became affected.
Most of the excisions were made in these two orchards, and no record of
cases in the other orchards was kept for comparison.

In a few instances I have known 50 per cent of the trees of an orchard
to become affected with yellows in 1 year, but never 100 per cent, and
very rarely more than 15 to 25 per cent, even in the worst affected dis-
tricts. It would seem, therefore, that the disease persisted in these
trees, i. e., that the symptoms subsequent to the excisions were not the
result of reinfection.

It remains to ask whether the excisions exerted any retarding in-
fluence. One year from the date of the excisions the trees in Mr. Har-
per's orchard were freer from symptoms of yellows than had been those
in Mr. Greene's orchard (Experiment B), and the same relative differ-
ence was apparent at the end of the second year. It might not be
proper, however, to draw the inference that the development of the
disease was slower on account of the excisions. There is some doubt as
to whether the excisions retarded the progress of the disease, for the
following reasons : (1) The trees manifested only very slight symptoms
to begin with, i. e., much slighter than the trees in Mr. Greene's orchard j
(2) They bore no fruit in 1889 or 1890, whereas the trees in Mr.
Greene's orchard experienced the strain of a large crop in 1888, and of
a partial one in 1889 ; (3) The natural progress of this disease is some-
times very slow, requiring a third season for the development of the
symptoms in all parts of the tree. It is therefore not impossible that
the disease might have progressed in these particular trees with the
same slowness, had no limbs been removed. The most that can be
said is that the severest excisions, e. #., those in Mr. Harper's orchard,
appeared to exert a retarding influence on the progress of the disease.

Of course, the results obtained do not preclude the possibility of cut-
ting out the disease in some cases. The evidence to the contrary is,
however, reasonably conclusive, and sufficient for all practical purposes.

. 7

38 PEACH YELLOWS.

The experiments also throw considerable light upon the nature of
the disease but do not settle the question as to whether the disease is
latent in the whole tree when symptoms appear in any part of it. This
will require additional experiments of another kind.

IV.— OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS BEARING UPON IMMU-
NITY.

(1) The question of immunity is a very important one. If we could
somewhere find peach trees hardy enough to resist this disease, a great
practical problem would be solved. It has been said that seedlings are
much less subject to yellows than budded trees. In the localities where
I have studied this disease seedling orchards are infrequent, but from
what data I have been able to gather I should say that seedling trees
derived from budded fruit are equally subject.

On the Delaware and Chesapeake peninsula the belief is also pretty
general that budded trees imported into diseased districts from healthy
localities are as much subject to yellows as those grown at home, or at
least do not escape the disease. On the other hand, I have been told
by growers that they have had little trouble from yellows since they
have formed the practice of selecting their own buds and stocks. The
well-known habit of certain nurserymen to buy trees wherever they
can, and sell them again as their own stock, obscures what would
otherwise be a somewhat simple problem. In many cases in studying
orchards it has been difficult to determine the origin of the stocks,
and impossible to learn anything about the location or character of
the trees from which the buds were taken. Because nursery stock
was grown in a locality free from yellows it by no means follows that
the buds came from the same locality. Buds are often procured directly
from a distance, or are taken from young trees recently introduced into
a neighborhood. In case of new varieties, I have several times known
trees to be propagated from young trees recently introduced from
localities where this disease is very prevalent. In buying trees much
depends upon the integrity of the nurseryman, which is often an un-
known factor and sometimes a negative quantity.

The fact that growers in the diseased districts have bought trees
from a good many nurserymen with pretty much the same results is
tolerably strong evidence, although not entirely conclusive.

A knowledge of these facts led me to plan an experiment in which
I should know in advance the character of the stocks and the buds,
and be able to watch the behavior of the parent trees as well as the
progeny so long as might be necessary.

(2) EXPERIMENT 1. — The trees for this series of inoculations were
1,000 Mariana plums rooted by J. W. Kerr, at Denton, Maryland, in the
spring of 1888 from cuttings made in his own orchards. They were
divided into five lots and inoculated in August, 1888, with buds taken
from five healthy peach trees also in Mr. Kerr's own orchards. These

IMMUNITY PEACH ON PLUM. 39

five trees were carefully located and have been under observation ever
since. I examined them particularly May 23, 1890, making the follow-
ing memoranda :

The character of the trees from which carae the buds used in working the peach on
plum roots is as follows, all of the buds of one variety having been taken from one
tree :

(1) Old Mixon. — Exact origin unknown ; set out by T. A. Smith, of Deiiton; age,
38 years; entirely free from yellows; foliage of a healthy green.

(2) Crawford's Early. — Budded by Mr. Kerr from a bearing tree in Caroline County;
set in 1874; entirely free from yellows ; foliage vigorous.

(3) Mountain Rose.— Budded by Mr. Kerr from a bearing tree! n Caroline County ;
set in 1876 ; entirely free from yellows; foliage vigorous.

(4) Crawforffs Late.— Budded by Mr. Kerr from a bearing tree in Caroline County ;
set in 1876 ; entirely free from yellows; foliage vigorous.

(5) Beers'' Smock. — Budded by Mr. Kerr from a bearing tree in Caroline County,
set in 1876 ; entirely free from yellows ; foliage vigorous.

These trees are old and broken, but they are not diseased.

The entire orchard was examined at that time. It contains about
500 trees. They remind me of trees in the old orchards at Seaford?
Delaware. Like them they suffered severely during the winter of
1881-'82, * and are rough, broken, shaggy with lichens, and frequently
two-thirds dead. Here and there a tree is missing. Others have lost
their entire top, healthy growths from the trunk having partially taken
its place. The foliage on all was green and thrifty. There were no
cases of yellows and no suspicious trees. All of the younger orchards
on the same farm were likewise examined with a similar result.

This experiment is the only one in which I did not superintend the
inoculations personally. At that time other duties engaged my atten-
tion, and having entire confidence in Mr. Kerr, I trusted it entirely to
him, being assured that all the details would receive his personal at-
ention.

Yellows has never appeared in any orchard on his farm, or in any on
the adjoining farms ; was not reported from Caroline County until 1887
is still rare in that county ; and is not certainly known to occur any
where in the immediate vicinity of Dentou. If cases do exist at Den-
ton, they must be sporadic antf rare. Otherwise I must have seen them
or heard of them. Such being the conditions, I could at the date of
these inoculations think of no place where one would be more likely to
secure buds free from any taint of yellows.

A hailstorm in June, 1889, destroyed the tops of many of these trees.
The remainder were removed from the nursery in November of that

* The severity of that winter killed the dormant peach buds in Caroline County,
Maryland, — a thing never known before or since. It also injured the wood of many
limbs. The same injuries occurred at Seaford, Delaware. However at neither place
did yellows supervene, and the belief that this disease is due to autumn frosts or
severe winters is wholly untenable. There is not one fact offered in support of this
view which may not be explained equally well in other ways.

40 PEACH YELLOWS.

year, and were planted in three badly affected orchards farther up the
peninsula.

(a) The trees which went to James W. Greeii, Magnolia, Delaware,
were set in the southwest corner of an orchard on his home farm, No.
14, map iv, of my first report. Yellows appeared in this orchard in
1886 and has been very destructive, more than 50 per cent of the trees
having become affected. Thedisease is also very prevalent in neighboring
orchards, including a younger one on the same farm. The spot selected
was specially adapted to the experiment, because the disease first ap-
peared in that part of the orchard, and speedily involved many trees.
In 1889 this corner of the orchard contained very few healthy trees,
but none had been dug out, and none were entirely dead. The diseased
trees were removed in March, 1890, and the land then received a heavy
dressing of barnyard manure, i. e., over 100 loads. The young trees,
which had been trenched in over winter, were then set in the spots pre-
viously occupied by the affected trees, each being given a handful of
phosphate. One hundred and thirty-six trees were sent to Mr. Green
(94 Beers' Smock and 42 Old Mixon), but only 124 were set. Some were
quite small, but all were healthy. The Smock trees were planted next
the highway.

These trees were under observation from time to time during the
growing season and were critically examined September 18, 1890. Only
47 had made a satisfactory growth. Of the remainder, 24 were dead
and 53 were dwarfed and yellowish as though suffering from defective
nutrition. None, however, showed any signs of yellows. These trees
received good cultivation, were not shaded, and did not appear to be
suffering from root aphides* They had been set very deep, and 1
was at a loss to account tor the appearance of the sickly ones, unless
this might have to do with it. Later, I discovered that in all of the
dwarfed and yellowish trees the tops had overgrown the stocks, and
that in all the vigorous trees the growth of the stocks had kept even
pace with that of the tops. The dead trees were killed in spring by the
black peach aphis, which sapped and smothered the tender shoots.

(b) The trees which went to F. H. Harper, Still Pond, Maryland,
were planted in the east end of one of his orchards on the Howard farm,
No. 6, map n, of my first report, in places made vacant by the removal
of diseased trees. This orchard also appeared to be a good place to try
the resisting power of healthy trees. Yellows first developed in 1886
and is still present, the cases having amounted to over 25 per cent of
all the trees. The disease is also very prevelant in other orchards in
the vicinity, including a younger one on the same farm.

Mr. Harper received 125 trees — 50 Mountain Eose and 75 Crawford's
Late. All were healthy, of medium size, and in good condition for
planting. Part of them were set in November and the remainder in
early spring. In some cases the diseased trees were removed just pre-
vious to this planting ; in others, they had been out for a year or two.

IMMUNITY PEACH ON PLUM. 41

The peach upon plum were not set in a body, but were scattered among
the large trees.

I saw them the last of May, 1890, at which date they looked more
promising than either of the other plantations. They were reexamined
October 11, 1891), but many were choked and overgrown by weeds so as
to be scarcely visible. Part of them had also been injuriously shaded
by the older trees. Some were dead and very few had made a satisfac-
tory growth, but none were suffering from yellows. Their bad appear-
ance was attributable in part to neglect. Young trees set into older
orchards require special care.

(c) The remainder of the trees — 75 Mountain Kose, 100 Crawford's
Late, and 107 Crawford's Early — were set on Dr. W. S. Maxwell's farm,
at the mouth of Sassafras Eiver, Kent County, Maryland. The 2
acres selected for this orchard are on a level hilltop, overlooking or-
chards No. 1 and No. 18 of my first report. This field seemed very well
adapted to the experiment, having been already once in orchard and
being in the center of a region of diseased orchards. The remnants of
the first orchard, about 75 trees in all stages of yellows, were re-
moved in the spring of 1890. They were then 9 years old, i. 0., set 9
years, arid were the last to become affected. The rest of the trees had
succumbed earlier and were dug out at various times, most of them in
1888. The trees had grown vigorously and were large.

The peaches on plum roots were received November 7 and were set
the same day, midway between the places occupied by the old trees.
Three-fourths of these trees were very fine ; the rest were small. They
were set shallow with a view to lessening the attacks of borers.

About one pound of unleached, hardwood ashes was distributed
around each tree at planting, and tomatoes with phosphate were grown
in the field in the summer of 1890.

The black peach aphis appeared upon the tops of these trees in early
spring, and destroyed many of them. The remainder were seen as late
as the last of May and then promised well.

These trees were reexamined October 8, 1890. At that time 88 were
dead, mostly from the attacks of the black aphis. Of the remainder,
42 were stunted and yellowish like similar trees in Mr. Greene's orchard,
while 152 were very thrifty and still bore dark-green foliage. In the
former, in every ca^e, the peach top had overgrown the plum stock,
producing a distinct bulge. In the latter the stocks had kept even
pace with the growth of the tops, and the abundant foliage was still
vigorous. In fact I have seldom seen finer yearling trees. Photos 1
and 2, plate xxvii, were made October 18 from representative trees of
each group. None of these trees showed any signs of yellows.

The five trees which furnished the buds were reexamined very care-
fully July 22, 1891, i. e., 3 years from the beginning of the experiment.
They were still entirely free from yellows, or any symptoms suggestive
of that disease, and were more vigorous than in 1890, owing to the
turning under of a crop of scarlet clover.

42 PEACH YELLOWS.

Of course, it is impossible to predict the results of this experiment.
We must wait and see. I shall continue to watch the parent trees as
well as their progeny. I feel reasonably confident that trees with sound
constitutions have been secured, and I know beyond a doubt that they
are in excellent locations to test their resisting power.

(3) A twice repeated effort to introduce a sound race of peaches from
Turkestan has miscarried. It seemed like an easy matter to procure
peach stones in quantity through our consul at Teheran, but it has
proved very difficult. The second attempt was made in 1889 through
the Department of State, but with no better results.

It appears to me safer to import stones than trees. If the latter are
introduced, great care should be exercised to avoid the introduction at
the same time of animal and vegetable parasites which might prove
worse than the yellows. The history of the introduction of the cottony
cushion scale into the orange groves of California, and of phylloxera,
peronospora, and black rot into the vineyards of Europe ought to be
sufficient warning. The danger is a very real one.

In Mediterranean countries and also in Australasia there is a fruit fly
(Tephritis) which once introduced into this country would work great
mischief. It deposits its eggs in the fruit after it is nearly full grown,
and these hatch into swarms of maggots, which pupate in the ground.
Externally the fruit is said to be fair, but within it is disgusting corrup-
tion. The peach is specially subject to this fly, but apples, pears,
plums, and other fruits are also attacked. The -loss is great and no
remedy is known. In Japan there is a codlin moth which is said to
affect 90 per cent of the ripe fruit. This insect probably occurs also
in China. In the Australasian region there is also a very destructive
root fungus, not confined to the peach. The mycelium of this fungus
creeps through the soil long distances destroying almost every green
thing in its path. There is also an obscure peach disease fully as de-
structive as yellows and apparently of a totally different character. The
orchards of the north island of New Zealand have been almost com-
pletely destroyed by it, and it probably occurs elsewhere in that region.

This enumeration by no means exhausts the list of parasites which
might be introduced into this country with imported peach trees. As
the case stands we have enough of our own without importing any.

(4) Additional experiments will be necessary to determine what pro-
portion of cases are attributable to the careless selection of buds.
Yellows is undoubtedly communicated in this way, but it must spread
in other ways. I have known many orchards of budded fruit where the
trees flourished and bore abundantly for 15 or 20 years, or even longer,
before the disease appeared. In such cases, admitting the contagious
nature of the disease, we are driven to one of two conclusions : the
cause of the disease has entered the tree from without, or has been
dormant in it from the time it was budded. The former is reasonable;
the latter is absurd, especially in the light of the comparatively speedy
results obtained from inoculations.

FINAL DEDUCTIONS. 43

One of the most striking examples which has come under observation
is a tree on the home farm of James S. Harris, near Still Pond, Maryland.
Since one case in point is as good as many, I have been at some pains
to learn the history of this tree. This tree is 36 years old. It is one
of a number of accidental seedlings which came up from stones thrown
out in the fall of 1854. It then stood back of an old shop. This was
afterwards removed and other changes made so that for quite a good
many years the tree has stood in sod ground, in the lawn, somewhat
isolated from other peach trees. It was budded by Mr. Harris himself
in the fall of 1855, and has been under his observation and care ever
since, with exception only of a few years when he did not reside on this
farm. The variety is Crawford's Early. The tree has been hardy and
productive. Its last crop was in 1888, since when, in common with
other trees in that region and owing solely to unfavorable seasons,
it has borne no fruit. The tree is about 25 feet high and has a
good top ; the trunk is nearly a foot in diameter and still quite well
preserved. I have seen this tree each year since 1887, and always it
seemed to me good for another 10 years. This tree was budded from
a neighboring tree when there was no yellows in the vicinity. Some
years after, perhaps 10, the disease appeared and gradually de-
stroyed many younger trees upon the same farm, one of the badly
affected orchards being within a stone's throw of this tree. The disease
has increased from that time to this, and has been very destructive
for the last 5 or 6 years in all that region. This old tree, however, kept
on the even tenor of its vigor until the summer of 1890. Then for the
first time it developed unmistakable symptoms of yellows on one small
limb (plate xxvin). Next year, undoubtedly, the disease will be mani-
fest on other limbs if it does not involve the whole tree.*

Admitting the contagious nature of yellows, and this, I think, can
be doubted no longer, I am at a loss to explain the appearance of the
disease in middle-aged and old trees except by infection from without.
If such be the case, then, of course, every tree which becomes affected
is a fresh source of danger, and ought to be removed and destroyed as
soon as possible.

V— CONCLUSIONS.

The intelligent reader will draw his own conclusions. It is not out
of place, however, for me to present my view of the case. This is as
follows :

FACTS ESTABLISHED.

(1) The disease is contagious. It seems to me that Experiments 1,
2, and 5 settle this point beyond dispute.

* Examined July 24, 1891. The diseased limb and the adjoining healthy one have
been removed and the remainder of the tree shows no symptoms. The tree bears
green peaches.

44 PEACH YELLOWS.

(2) It may be conveyed by seemingly healthy buds when these are
taken from diseased trees. This is proved by Experiments 2 and 5.

(3) Only a very small amount of infective material is necessary, pro-
vided it be in the forms of living cells, which can be induced to unite
with the actively growing tissues of the tree.

(4) The disease has a longer period of incubation than we have been
accustomed to suppose. (See Experiment 2, especially Table i, columns
5 and 6, and plate xvm, Fig. 1. See also the Excisions, especially
B 16, 18; E 3; G 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 19; and the note under G 3.)

(5) The death of the entire tree occurs, ordinarily, only after a very
considerable period, i. e., several years.

HYPOTHESES RENDERED PROBABLE.

(1) The whole tree is affected when symptoms appear in any part of
it. This inference rests upon Experiment 2 ; a small part of Experi-
ments 4 (?) and 5 ; and almost all of the excisions, 52 in number. It is
hoped that experiments now underway will settle this point definitely.

(2) In some cases, perhaps in many, the period of incubation, i. e.9
the time between the insertion of a diseased bud and the appearance of
the disease, is longer than any yet clearly established. This is sug-
gested by many things, especially by the behavior of some of the Bar-
nard trees (Experiment 4); by the Excisions E 3, G 3, and the Wilson
tree ; and by Professor Goff's tree.

(3) The disease is also communicated to budded trees in some other
way than by bud inoculation. This is probable in case of many young
trees, and is almost certain in case of old trees. In some of my ex-
periments the period of incubation was very considerable, and this
is one of the striking peculiarities of yellows, but it is too brief to
account for the appearance of the disease after the second or third
year, except possibly in case of some of the trees budded at Colonel
Barnard's. The evidence in favor of outside infection becomes stronger
in proportion as a tree gets older. Of course, it goes without saying
that additional experiments may demonstrate the period of incubation
in some cases, and perhaps in many, to be much longer than any yet
established.

(4) The trees are not infected through the blossoms. This is inferred
from the result of the excisions, and from the fact that, in some cases,
the disease appears to develop between fall and spring, and to stimu-
late the blossoms themselves to an unnaturally early development.
About fifty cases of this kind came under observation during the very
mild winter of 1889-'90, and many additional ones in the spring of
1891.

(5) Since diseased trees have been shown to be very full of infectious
matter it must be that for unknown reasons much of this fails to find
an immediate entrance into healthy trees. Otherwise the peach would
soon disappear entirely.

FURTHER LINES OF INQUIRY. 45

INQUIRIES SUGGESTED BY THE FOREGOING EXPERIMENTS.

Three special lines of inquiry are now under consideration, and will
receive undivided attention as soon as the laborious experiments
with fertilizers have been completed. These are as follows :

(1) The period of incubation of the disease prior to its first appear-
ance, i. e.9 the greatest length of time a tree may be aftected before it
shows any symptoms of yellows.

(2) The exact nature of the contagium.

(3) Its method of spread other than by bud inoculation.

PART II.— PEACH ROSETTE.
I.— INTRODUCTORY,

The second part of this report will be devoted to a peculiar disease
prevalent in Georgia, and first referred to as probably a Southern vari-
ety of peach yellows,* but since described under the name of The Peach
Rosette.]

The disease does not appear to be due to any ordinary fungus, or to
insects. In some respects it is quite like peach yellows, but in others
it differs very materially. This year additional observations have con-
firmed the belief that it is a disease distinct from yellows, and I shall
so consider it until proof to the contrary is forthcoming.

(1) Plants attacked. — As stated elsewhere (I. c.), the Rosette attacks
many varieties of peaches. None appear to be exempt. It occurs in
budded fruit and seedlings. The latter do not escape even when grow-
ing in fields and thickets without cultivation. This disease is not con-
fined, however, to the peach, but also occurs in plums — budded trees
and seedlings, cultivated, uncultivated, and wild, and is equally
destructive. I have not seen it in varieties of Prunus domestica or in
the Mariana, but it occurs in the wild Prunus Chicasa, in the Cumber-
land, and Wild Goose, and also in the Japanese varieties known as
Kelsey and Botan. Probably the disease is capable of attacking many
other sorts, and requires only a suitable opportunity.

This year in an orchard near Griffin, Georgia, which I know to have
been nearly free from disease in 1890, and quite thrifty and well cared
for, 1 counted about 40 bad cases of rosette, divided nearly equally
between Kelsey and Botan. These trees were 5 or 6 years old, and
the loss must have been considerable.

(2) Characteristics of the disease. — As in peach yellows, this disease not
infrequently attacks one or two branches only at first, but in a much
larger per cent of cases, the whole tree is diseased from the start, and
the disease runs its course in a much shorter time. Six months is
usually sufficient to destroy a tree, and I have known no cases to last

* Peach yellows : A preliminary Report, IT. S. Dep. Ag. 1888.
t The Journal of Mycology, Vol. 6, No. iv.

46 PEACH ROSETTE.

more than two seasons. Such a thing as the lingering on of a diseased
tree from year to year, as in peach yellows, is not known. I have seen
trees completely diseased in June and dead in November, which first
showed symptoms in early spring and were in apparently perfect health
the preceding autumn. This is the common course of the disease.

When a tree is attacked in part, the shoot-axes and foliage of the
remaining limbs often appear to be perfectly healthy, but these limbs
always develop rosettes, and die the following year. Not infrequently
I have observed the disease to progress gradually from the affected side
to the healthy, i. e., the parts on the healthy side first to be attacked
being the bases of the limbs. The bark of trunk and limbs on affected
trees presents no peculiar or symptomatic differences. Undoubtedly
there are changes in the cambium cylinder corresponding to the short-
ening of the terminal shoot-axes, but these are not visible externally.

The following are some of the more noticible symptoms :

(a) Young shoot-axes. — Commonly the disease first appears in the un-
folding shoot-axes, i. e., in early spring when the buds first open. In
healthy trees only a small proportion of the winter buds develop into
branches. The rest die or remain dormant. In this disease a very large
part of the winter buds grow into shoot-axes and also a very considera-
ble number of dormant buds on the older and larger branches. The
shoot-axes in healthy trees, especially the terminal ones, generally attain
a growth of 6 to 20 inches and develop ten to_twenty vigorous leaves
with dormant blossom and foliage buds in their axils. As the season
advances such shoots ripen their wood, cast their foliage, and remain
quiescent until spring invites the opening of their buds and the re-
newal of vegetative activity. In diseased trees, the shoot-axes push
only 1 to 3 inches, lose, almost completely, the ability to develop and
ripen wood, and to form dormant buds. The buds on such shoots grow
as soon as they are formed, or rather, as soon as they receive the initial
differentiation, developing into diminutive soft branches, which fre-
quently branch again, but never attain any good degree of size, vig-
or, or maturity. It is ordinary to find 15 to 30 primary branches and
often some additional secondary ones, on a shoot-axis less than 3
inches long, and not over one-eighth inch in diameter at its base. The
tendency of this effort of branching is from below upward, i e., the
oldest and largest branches are near the base of the shoot, but almost
always not quite from the base, the buds remaining undeveloped in
some of the lowest leaf axils.

(b) The foliage. — The leaves on these dwarfed branching shoot-axes
are multiplied correspondingly, and the result is compact tufts or
rosettes containing 200 to 400 diminutive leaves, and many additional
green stipules which are frequently misshappen and abnormal. The
older and larger leaves near the base of the shoot frequently reach a
length of several inches and are characterized by a very pronounced
inrolling of the margins of the leaf, and by a certain stiffness due to a
peculiar straightening of the midrib. These leaves turn yellow in early

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DISEASE. 47

summer and fall very readily. Jarring causes them to fall by the hundred,
as if it were autumn. Very often they are blotched, browned, and dead
in places, especially at the ends and margins, from the attacks of various
leaf fungi. The younger and central leaves of the rosette remain small
and green and free from fungi. They are usually somewhat folded, but
seldom rolled. As summer advances these rosettes dry up and die un-
der the attacks of Scolytus rugulosus or from the effects of the disease.
The foliage of some affected trees is much greener than others. Gen-
erally the prevailing color from a distance is yellowish green or oliva-
ceous. The bunching of the leaves is conspicuous and makes the trees
noticable at a long distance. There is not enough foliage to give shade
or hide the branches.

(c) Flowers and fruits. — So far as I can determine by inquiry, the
trees which developed this disease in 1891 in Mr. Husted's orchards
did not blossom in advance of other trees, but were somewhat tardy.
On the contrary, other trees in the same orchard, imported from New
Jersey and affected with an entirely different disease, and what appears
to be genuine yellows, blossomed ten days in advance of the proper
time.

Trees attacked by rosette generally drop their fruit early and while
it is still green or yellowish green. In June, 1891, 1 saw scattering
fruits on many diseased trees, and none of them were premature or bore
any of the characteristic symptoms of peach yellows. The fruit, even
on badly affected limbs, when there was any at all, was small, green, or
yellowish green, and often more or less shriveled. Fruits of this kind
were also common on the ground under such trees. Plate xxxm shows
two peach twigs bearing green fruits ; the right-hand figure was from
the healthy-looking side of a tree, the left-hand one from twigs just
beginning to develop rosettes, and very close to branches bearing thor-
oughly diseased and very typical rosettes. Its own buds were also
pushing into rosettes above the fruit and below. One yellowish green
shriveling fruit remained and another had fallen. In one instance the
disease was observed in Alexanders which were full of ripening fruit
and affected by the rosette only on about one-half of the limbs.
Most of the fruit had already fallen from the diseased limbs, green
and shriveled, but a few peaches remained on the healthier portions,
and these, like those on the other limbs, were neither premature nor
red-spotted, but were ripening at the proper time and in the normal
manner. The diseased branches bore hundreds of yellowish rosettes;
the healthy ones bore an abundance of dark green, handsome foliage.

My .search for premature fruit was the more careful because I had
ventured the assertion that it would, no doubt, be found to precede the
rosette. In one or two instances only, I heard of premature peaches,
but on examination they were clearly attributable to borers and not
the sort produced by yellows. In one orchard where the borers had
been left undisturbed for several years, I saw fruits prematuring on
many trees, but there were no symptoms of yellows. The color and

48 PEACH ROSETTE.

flavor of these fruits was natural and they were ripening only a week
or ten days in advance of the proper time.

(d) Roots and rootlets.— Superficially the roots appear to be normal,
but the rootlets are dead and shriveled as in peach yellows.

(e) Gummosis. — The green and shriveling fruits from resetted limbs
were full of minute gum-pockets, but this symptom was afterwards
observed quite frequently in imperfect fruits taken from healthy trees.
The" June-drop " from Elbertatrtes was very copious at Griffin, Georgia,
in 1891, and most of these fruits were smooth externally but gummy
within, the entire seed-cavity being changed into a gum-pocket in many
cases. These fruits were an inch by an inch and a half in diameter
at time of dropping.

Many of the roots of resetted trees were honeycombed by gum-pockets
(June, 1891). This symptom was found to be nearly constant j i. e., it
occurred on some roots of nearly every affected tree. But it was also ob-
served to a slight extent on the roots of two trees which stand very near
diseased ones, but which have not yet developed any symptoms of the
rosette. Many of the roots were so gummy as to feel sticky when
bruised. By making a clean cut at right angles to the main axis of the
root the gum-pockets were frequently visible without the aid of a trip-
let, especially when the oozing of gum was copious. These pockets were
confined generally to the outer part of the wood cylinder, and in several
cases, known to have been healthy in November, 1890, the cylinder of
gum-cavities was confined to the wood laid down in 1891, or to the
dividing line between this wood cylinder and the next inner one, and
did not extend into the wood formed in 1890.

These closed gum-pockets involve few to many wood fibers, and fre-
quently include the very resistant cells of the medullary rays. On
cross-section they appear like an interrupted ring, or like a necklace of
triangular beads, in which each member corresponds to a pocket. The
base of these triangular cavities was always nearest the pith. Occa-
sionally two cylinders of gum-pockets were observed, one in wood formed
early this spring when the disease first appeared in the trees and the
other formed in wood recently laid down. In a few cases they occurred
also in the bark. The walls were brownish and irregular, with modified
and frequently hyper trophied and projecting cells. These cavities ap-
peared to be free from mycelium and bacteria, and cultures from the
walls and the exuding gum gave no positive results.

The roots of about fifty trees were examined for this symptom, but
lack of time prevented the examinations from being as extensive and
complete as desirable.

(3) First appearance and present distribution. — So far as I can learn
by diligent inquiry this disease first appeared in Georgia about 10
years ago. It may have existed longer, but satisfactory evidence of
this is wanting. It occurs in the middle and north part of Georgia
quite generally, but I have not observed it in South Georgia or in Flor-
ida, nor in South Carolina or States to the north.

INOCULATIONS. 49

This disease, or one very much like it, also occurs in Kansas. It
appeared at Manhattan in 1889, and is now quite prevalent in that
locality, but has not been reported from other parts of that State.

The disease is very destructive in both States. Mr. T. 0. Wells, of
Manhattan, Kansas, lost his entire orchard in 2 years. Mr. E. C. Fryer,
of Shiloh, Georgia, has lost several orchards, each in a space of about

3 years. In other parts of Georgia the disease has progressed less
rapidly, but no less surely. About Griffin. Georgia, the seedling-peach
orchards, and the wild plums have suffered most, but the disease has
been in the budded orchards for some time, and is gaining ground
every year. Next to peach yellows, I regard it as the most dangerous
enemy to peach culture in the United States. In some respects it is
worse than yellows, because it runs its course more speedily and is
more apt to take the entire tree from the start. Should it become as
prevalent in Kansas and Georgia as yellows now is in north Mary-
laud and Delaware, profitable peach growing will be entirely out of the
question.

II.— INOCULATIONS.

Experiment 1. — One hundred and twenty-five trees were selected for
this series of inoculations. They were grown in 1889 by J. D. Husted,
Vineyard, Georgia, and formed part of a nursery of several thousand
seedlings, which were not budded that year, but were cut to the ground
in the spring of 1890, so as to be suitable for budding the following
summer. All of them appeared to be healthy and the shoots of the
season were vigorous and in good condition for inoculation. The trees
selected were the outer five rows in the southeast corner, and were not
different in appearance from the rest of the nursery.

The buds for inoculation came from several 5-year old trees in an
orchard on the same farm. These trees were badly diseased in all parts,
but were vigorous and free from any sign of disease in 1889. They
were dug out and burned soon after the buds were taken, but, judging
from the rapid progress of the disease in other trees similarly affected,
they would not have lived through the growing season. It was impos-
sible to find dormant buds, so I selected, the base of such diseased shoots
or rosettes as had pushed only a little way, removing from them all of
the foliage. They were cut June 21, 1890, and inserted the same day.
two into each tree, in the customary way. The inoculation was skill-
fully performed, and an examination two weeks later showed that
nearly all of the buds had healed on satisfactorily and were alive. As
in Part I, Experiment 2, the tops of the seedlings were purposely
allowed to remain.

Some of these trees began to show signs of disease in August, i. e.t
within 2 months, but they were not examined until November 3, i. e.,

4 months and 12 days from the date of inoculation. Then a careful ex-
amination revealed the following conditions : Of the 125 seedlings which

1609— Bull. 1 4

50 PEACH ROSETTE.

were inoculated, 57 were healthy, 66 were diseased, and 2 appeared to
be dead.

In 6 of the 57 healthy, one or both of the inserted buds had pushed
into diseased growths; in the rest, the buds had made no growth (the
majority), or only a slight growth of uncertain character. In most
cases the bark inserted with the buds was still living.

Sixty-six of the stocks had the same disease as the trees from which
the buds were cut. The diseased shoots pushed out indifferently above
or below the inserted buds, or from both places. These stocks might
have been grouped into four classes according to the severity of the symp-
toms: (1) Doubtful, 4; (2) very slight symptoms readily overlooked,
20 ; (3) worse affected than No. 2, but also not likely to attract casual
attention, 36 ; (4) bad cases which no one could overlook, 6. Five of
the latter were photographed, and two are represented on plate xxxiv.
Some of these growths were as much as 6 inches from the nearest
inserted bud. In 39 of these trees the inserted buds did not grow, or
grew only slightly, the bark which was inserted with them being yet
alive. In 27, one or both of the buds had grown into diseased shoots.
All but 1 of the 6 bad cases fell into the second category. The charac-
ter of these growths was much like yellows, except that the shoot-axes
were greatly reduced, making them much more tufted. The winter
buds pushed in the same way — prematurely.

The remainder of this nursery was used for comparison, but a care-
ful examination of many trees brought to light no traces of this disease.
The orchards on the same farm might also have served for control.
This disease occurs throughout the surrounding country, but is not
what might be called epidemic. The farm contains about 100 acres of
peach orchard of various ages. The disease first appeared on it in 1887,
and the number of cases each year has been as follows: 1887, 2 ; 1888.
5; 1889,13- 1890, 31; 1891,47. This year, in which more cases devel-
oped than any previous year, they numbered only about one-third of
1 per cent. In the nearest orchards on other farms the per cent of loss
has also been slight.

This experiment attracted some local attention, and the trees which
furnished the photographs were shown to many persons at a meeting
of the Middle Georgia Horticultural Society, November 6, 1890.

The rapid progress of the disease was surprising. Over one-half of
the stocks became affected in less than 5 months, whereas results were
not expected until 1891, if at all.

These trees were re-examined June 3-6, 1891, at the urgent request
of Mr. Husted, who desired to get rid of them. The results surprised
and delighted me beyond expectation. The diseased trees were dis-
tinguishable at a great distance, and at first glance it looked as though
every part of every tree was affected. The actual conditions were as
follows:

(1) Four trees were entirely free from disease and Lad made an excellent growth,
their average height being about 4 feet*

RESULT OF INOCULATIONS. 51

(2) Two trees were badly diseased, but a few small branches bad developed normal,
or nearly normal, leaves and shoot-axes, while a few others bore sickly yellowish
leaves and no rosettes. These trees were dwarfed, and at least nineteen-twentieths
of the branches bore yellowish green rosettes.

(3) The remaining trees, 113 in number, were diseased in all parts, exactly as
had been the trees from which the buds were taken. The leaves and shoot-axes
were stunted, yellowish green, and bunched into striking rosettes. Out of this
large number of trees there was not one which bore a single healthy leaf or a nor-
mally-developed shoot-axis. Every part of each tree was completely diseased. The
greater number were still alive in all parts, but a few were withering (see left-hand
figure of plate xxxv), and a few were already dead. Almost all of the winter buds
developed into rosettes in spring, and in some cases these appeared also on the stems
above and below the location of the inserted buds (plate xxxv).

A more satisfactory outcome could scarcely be desired for any ex-
periment whatsoever.

Each tree was carefully examined, and notes were made on the con-
dition of each inserted bud, These observations were also verified, at
my request, by Mr. W. T, Swingle, of the Division of Vegetable Path-
ology, so as to leave no doubt whatever concerning their value.

In the four trees which remained healthy the inserted buds failed to
unite with the stocks and were thrown off. the bark of the stock hav-
ing healed over under them. The only uncertainty was concerning a
small fragment of the bark of one bud, and the evidence of union in
this case was so unsatisfactory that it was entered as "very doubtful.'7
Three of these trees received two buds each, but by accident the other
received only one bud.

In one of the 1.15 diseased trees the evidence of union between the
stock and the two inserted buds was also doubtful. In all of the others
some part of one or both buds had united with the stock, and in many
instances was still living. This was also true of the 6 trees removed
in 1890. Often, however, only small fragments of each bud healed on.
Occasionally less than one-fourth of 1 square centimetre of the bark of
one bud was all of the diseased tissue that had actually united with
the stock, and yet this was sufficient to induce the disease. None of
the inserted buds pushed over 3 inches, most failed entirely or pushed
only one-fourth inch to 1 inch and then died.

The diseased seedlings were noticeably smaller than the four healthy
ones. On an average they were about 3 feet high with a proportionate
spread of branches.

The contrast between the November and June examinations is note-
worthy. In November, when the disease had been acting less than
5 months, only 66 of the stocks showed any symptoms whatever.
None of them were wholly diseased; most showed no signs of disease
at a distance, and even a large part of the six worst cases was still free
from symptoms (plate xxxiv). In June, after the disease had been
acting nearly a year, 121 of the original 125 trees had become affected,
and 115 so completely that it was almost impossible to find any healthy
branches. The only uncertainty is concerning the six which were
removed in November for photographic purposes. Their condition,

52 PEACH ROSETTE.

however, at that time (plate xxxiv) warrants one in believing that
they too would have become wholly diseased long before June.

This experiment was the more striking, because in the same field,
forming part of the same nursery, and separated from these five rows
only by the width of a one-horse cultivator, are about 4,000 Elberta
trees, which were budded on the same stocks and at about the same
date with buds cut from healthy trees on the same farm. These trees
were carefully examined for the rosette, but in the whole nursery there
was not one case, nor even one suspicious tree. The line of separation
between these healthy trees and the five inoculated rows was sharp as
could be desired, and the contrast was most astonishing (plate xxxvm).
Two of these Elberta trees are also contrasted on plate xxxvn with
two inoculated and diseased trees from the adjoining row, only about
2£ feet distant.

Plate xxxvi contrasts one of the inoculated and diseased seedlings
with one of the four which failed to take the disease. Plate xxxv
shows part of one inoculated row with rosettes on some of the stems
as well as on all of the terminal growth. The foliage on the left-hand
tree had already begun to wilt and shrivel. Plate xxxvin gives a
birds-eye view of the field, contrasting some of the inoculated diseased
trees with the neighboring healthy Elbertas.

Naturally, the results of this experiment attracted considerable
attention in Georgia, especially the appearance in the spring and sum-
mer of 1891. The trees were examined by many persons, including Col.
E. J. Kedding, director of the Georgia Experiment Station ; Gustave
Speth, Horticulturist of the Georgia Experiment Station ; Prof. J. E,
Willet, of Macon; H. W. Hasselkus, of Griffin, and Rudolph (Etter, of
Vineyard. A summary of the final results was given before a meeting
of the Middle Georgia Horticultural Society June 9, 1891. The matter
was also brought to the attention of Mr. Berckmans and other members
of the State Horticultural Society.

Experiment 2. — This was also performed at Vineyard, Georgia, on the
farm of J. D. Husted.

The 56 trees selected for this series of inoculations were vigorous,
well-rooted cuttings of the Mariana plum. They formed part of a small
nursery grown in 1889, but not budded that year, being cut to the
ground in the spring of 1890, so as to secure fresh shoots for budding
the following summer. These trees formed the east end of the south
row and were not different in appearance from the rest. All were
the picture of health.

The buds for inoculation were taken from the north side of a seedling
peach tree which was growing by the wayside near Pomona, Georgia.
This tree may have been 4 years old. The south one-half of it was dis-
eased by the rosette, and the remainder appeared to be healthy. Well-
matured terminal shoots from the healthy-looking branches were selected
for use in budding. All of them bore full-grown leaves of a healthy

RESULT OF INOCULATIONS. 53

green, and their buds showed no tendency to germinate. Moreover, all
of the foliage on the branches in the immediate vicinity was full grown
and healthy, and there were no signs of disease nearer than the base of
the main branches, 4 to 6 feet below. The buds were cut July 1, 1890,
and inserted the same day — two into each tree— in the usual way. A
subsequent examination showed that many of them had healed on and
were living. The tops of the cuttings were not removed until some
weeks later.

These trees were reexamined November 3, 1890. At that time only
32 of the 56 stocks bore peach shoots. Upon the rest the buds failed
to take or died soon after commencing to grow. In 30 of the stocks
the buds had grown into shoots, which were 15 to 30 inches long. In
many cases both buds grew. The foliage, which had not yet fallen, was
normal, except for slight parasitism of Puccinia pruni, Pers., and the
shoots were vigorous. There were no rosettes, no winter buds were
germinating, nor were there any other signs of the disease. One bud
only developed in each of the other two. One had grown only about 8
inches, but was normal j the other had grown only -J inch and the foli-
age was reddish and unhealthy. All of the stocks appeared to be as
healthy as when the buds were inserted.

The parent tree was also examined at this time. The disease had
made considerable progress, but careful search failed to discover any
germinating buds or sickly shoots upon that part of the tree which
supplied the buds for inoculation. There were signs of disease at the
union of the main limb and the stem, but none further up. All large
parts of the tree were still alive.

This tree was reexamined June 8, 1891. It bore no normal leaves
or shoot-axes. The limbs which were first to manifest disease in 1890
were now dead in great part, and all other portions of the tree were
badly diseased, including the branches from which the buds were taken.
Unfortunately the extreme ends of the branches were dead without
symptoms of rosette or foliage of any sort, but they were living last
November and are now alive to within 1 foot of the cuts, and bear
very sickly rosettes.

The peach tops inoculated upon the Mariana plums were again exam-
ined June 22, 1891, and the contrast between them and the condition
of the tree which furnished the buds was very great. They looked as
healthy and vigorous as did the north side of the parent tree when the
buds were cut.

Fifteen stocks bore double shoots and 16 bore single shoots, making
a total of 46 living peach shoots on 31 stocks. A very few of the
remaining Mariana stocks died; the rest grew thriftily and were cut
back to the earth at the time of this examination. None developed any
symptoms of rosette. The average growth of the peach shoots to
date is 3 to 3J feet, and their diameter at the base where they join the
plum is f to f inch. They show no symptoms of rosette or decline,
while the parent tree is now affected in all parts and already half dead.

54 PEACH ROSETTE.

In another way this experiment establishes the same fact as No. 1,
i. e., the gradual transmission of a germ or virus of some sort from dis-
eased to healthy parts. Clearly something is now affecting the tissues
of the north part of the parent tree which was not in them one year ago.
Otherwise the 46 peach shoots should now be diseased exactly like that
part of the parent tree.

It is obvious that some years must elapse before this experiment is
complete, but enough has been observed already to make it almost certain
that the disease was not communicated by these buds. It is the same
kind of an experiment as No. 4 of Part I.

III.— CONCLUSIONS.

(1) The rosette, as now understood, differs from peach yellows in the
following particulars :

(a) The more tufted character and somewhat different appearance of the diseased
growths.

(&) The much greater tendency of these compactly tufted growths to develop ID
early spring from winter buds and to appear all over the tree.

(c) A less tendency to develop sprouts upon the trunk and main limbs.

(d) The absence of premature fruit.

(e) The general early fall of leaves and fruit on affected trees, the fruit being small,
yellowish green, and more or less shriveled and gummy.

(/) Gummosis of the roots.

(#) The occurrence of the disease in plums.

(ft) The much more speedy destruction of affected trees.

(2) The disease is virulently contagious (Experiment 1), and it is
probable that something might be done toward checking its increase
by the prompt destruction of all affected trees. This should be done
in early spring, as soon as the disease appears and before the leaves
begin to fall.

(3) The disease may exist for a short time in part of a tree without
being in the rest of it (Experiment 2), but it soon involves the entire
tree. In other words, it would seem from Experiment 2 that the cause
of the disease must enter the tree at some particular point or points
and be carried gradually to all parts through the circulation. A com-
parison of the November and June examinations in Experiment 1 also
confirms this belief.

(4) As in peach yellows, the admitted fact that neighboring trees are
not always the next to take the disease is no argument against its com-
municable nature.

(5) This disease has gained a strong foothold and is on the increase,
especially in that part of Georgia known geologically as the Archa3an.

(6) If Georgia peach-growers would save their orchards and main-
tain the successful cultivation of the peach, the necessity for prompt
and concerted action appears to be very great.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 55

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
I. — PEACH YELLOWS.

I. Fig. 1, healthy fruit of Stump the World or Old Mixon, nearly full grown,
but still green ; Fig. 2, prematurely ripe, red-spotted peach of the same
variety, picked the same day from a neighboring tree, affected by yellows.
Photo. August 20, 1888, Dover, Del. Natural size.

II. Growth from the trunk of a diseased tree, showing premature unfolding
of winter buds. Photo. December 4. 1890. Upper orchard on the grounds
of the State agricultural college, Amherst, Mass.

III. Fig. 1, represents three shoots taken from the main limbs of a diseased tree

in the autumn of 1890. The spring foliage has fallen almost completely,
and what remains has developed unnaturally from winter buds. Fig. 2,
represents a healthy shoot taken from the trnnk of a neighboring tree.
The droop of the foliage is due to loss of water after the shoot was pulled
and before it could be photograped. Photo. October, 1890, Still
Pond, Md.

IV. Terminal shoots taken from diseased trees in the autumn of 1890. In Figs.

1, 2, and 3, the spring foliage has fallen almost completely, and what
remains has developed unnaturally from winter buds. In Fig. 4 some of
the spring foliage remains. In Figs. 2 and 4 the disease has induced
the autumn development of blossoms. Photo. October 15, 1890, Still
Pond, Md.

V. Terminal spring growths from a tree at South Haven, Mich. Branches
very compactly tufted for yellows, and somewhat approaching the Ro-
sette, but believed to be distinct, Foliage removed from one tuft to show
manner of branching. All above X is the growth of one season. Reduced
to one-half natural size. Photo. July 23, 1869.

VI. Terminal summer and autumn growths from trees in Delaware. Fig. 1 is
more advanced than Fig. 2. All shoots above X and x' are the growth of
one season. In each very little spring foliage remains. This is the com-
mon appearance of the disease. Photo* Fig. I, September 27, 1887; Fig. 2,
September 27, 1890; Dover, Del. About one eighth natural size.

Vila. A tree in the last stage of yellows. Diseased for several years. Smyrna, Del.
Photo. July 21, 1891. Orchard No. 8 of First Report.

VII&. Represents a tree killed by yellows in 3-J- years' time, and shows branched
character of the last feeble growths. The entire corner was full of thrifty
trees, but they are now badly diseased, and the orchard has been allowed
to grow up to grass and weeds. Formerly it was very carefully tilled.
Tree became affected in the spring of 1887 and died in the summer of 1890.
Photo. September 30, 1890, Magnolia, Del.

INOCULATION EXPERIMENT NO. 1.

VIII. First results, year 1888. Three figures showing unusual number of sprouts
and the unfolding of the winter buds in autumn. Fig. 1, a and a' are
the inserted buds; a failed to grow but, a1 grew into a vigorous shoot,
on which all the winter buds pushed; bbb are diseased growths from the
stock. Fig. 2, a and a' represent growths from the inserted buds. The
lower shoots are diseased growths from the stock. Fig. 3, a and a' repre-
sent the inserted buds ; a failed to grow, but a' grew into a branching dis-
eased shoot, which was cut away ; &, &', and b" are diseased growths from
the stock, most of b having been cut away. All the foliage is from winter
buds. Time, 14 months from date of inoculation. Photos. November 3, 1888.

56 PEACH YELLOWS.

IX. Year 1889. This plate represents a row of peach trees on the Depart-
ment grounds. Figs. 1 and 12 are healthy seedling trees, grown from
pits, which germinated in the spring of 1888. All the rest are trees 1
year older, but very badly dwarfed and diseased by yellows. Time, 26
months from date of inoculation. These are the ten trees mentioned
in the text, and some of them are the ones which furnished the pho-
tographs for Plate VIII. They were carefully transplanted in the
autumn of 1888 and suffered no injury. Nos. 2, 3, 7, 10, and 11 were
already dead at the time this photograph was made. The difference
in size is attributable to the dwarfing effects of the disease produced
by the inserted buds. The diseased growths in 4, 6, and 9 are prin-
cipally from the inserted buds; those in 5 and 8 are almost altogether'
from the seedling stock. Photo. October 21, 1889.

X. Two trees from same row as Plate IX but enlarged to show certain de-
tails of the disease. These are Nos. 8 and 9. Much of the foliage is from
winter buds, which unfolded in summer and autumn.

XI. Year 1890. Contrast of diseased and healthy trees. Same as Plate IX, but
13 months later, i. e., 3 years and 3 mouths from inoculation ; 1 and
12 are still entirely healthy. They have continued to grow, and have
shed their foliage for winter. Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 9 are all that remain
of the 10 trees moved and also all that remain of the entire 202 inocu-
lated trees ; No. 4 is dead, and 5, 6, and 9 are badly diseased in all
parts. All the foliage is from winter buds which developed in autumn,
Photographed November 21, 1890. These three trees have proved very
resistent and are all alive (August 16, 1891), i. e,, 4 full years from
date of inoculation.

XII. Part of same row as Plate XI, showing three of the inoculated and dis-
eased trees more in detail (Nos. 4, 5 and 6), also a few branches of
No. I. Photo. November 21, 1890.

INOCULATION EXPERIMENT NO. 2.

XIII. Year 1889. Two figures showing seedling trees completely diseased ; x

indicates the location of the inserted buds which are now dead. Trees,
27 months old. Diseased buds inserted August 3, 1887, i. e., 23 mouths
prior to date of photograph. Photos. July 1, 1889, Hubbardston, Mich.

XIV. Year 1889. Same series as XIII. In Fig. 1 the inserted bud was on the op-

posite side of the camera and was dead. In Fig. 2, x grew from the
inserted bud in 1888 but died in 1889. Both trees bore yellowish foliage
and were diseased in all parts. The living shoots on the trunks are
not from inserted buds. Photos. July 1, 1889, Hubbardston, Mich.
XV. Year 1889. Same series as XIII and XIV. All parts of both trees dis-
eased. In Fig. 1 the healthy-looking part of the tree is the shoot which
grew from the inserted bud. In Fig. 2 the inserted bud was dead. Time,
23 months from date of inoculation. Photos. July 1, 1889, Hubbardston,
Mich. The trees represented on these three plates were grown by
Thos. J. Shallcross, Locust Grove, Md., in 1887. They were budded
August 3, 1887 ; were moved in the spring of 1888 to Michigan, and
set at Hubbardston on April 24 of that year. They showed no symp-
toms of disease until after July, 1888.

XVI, XVII. Year 1889. Healthy unbudded trees for comparison with those shown
on Plates XIII to XV. Trees of same age, i. e., 27 months, from same
nursery, removed at same time, and set in same field. Reduction the
same. Photos. July 1, 1889, Hubbardston, Mich.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 57

XVIII. Year 1890. From same series as XIII to XV, but 13 months later.
Trees diseased by yellows in all parts and very sickly. Fig. 1
shows the best one of the 210 inoculated trees. Fig. 2 nearly dead.
Time 3 years from inoculation. Trees 41 months old. Photos. July
30, 1890, Hubbardston, Mich.

XIX-XXI. Year 1890. Plates showing effect of inoculations on seven previously
healthy trees. Different stages of the disease. Time 3 years. Some
entirely dead and others nearly so. Fig. 1, Plate XIX, shows two of
a row of healthy trees in the background. The very characteristic
branching shoot on the base of Fig. 2, Plate XXI, did not grow from
the inserted bud x but from the seedling stock some distance above
it. Photos. July 30, 1890, Hubbardston, Mich.

XXII. Year 1890. Forty trees killed by yellows in less than 3 years from
date of inoculation. Pulled and photographed in one group. July
31, 1890, Hubbardston, Mich. Some died ia the fall of 1889, others in
the following winter, and the small remainder in the spring of 1890.
XXIII, XXIV. Year 1890. Two unbudded healthy trees of same age for comparison
with Plates XVIII to XXII. These figures represent average speci-
mens of all now living (86) of the whole lot set for comparison.
Some were larger than those here shown and others a little smaller.
These trees were 3 years old from the seed when photographed and
have had only ordinary treatment. Photos. July 29, 1890, Hubbards-
ton, Mich.

INOCULATION EXPERIMENT No. 4.

XXV. Year 1890. Barnard tree inoculated in the fall of 1887 from a terminal
shoot on the healthy looking side of a diseased tree. Possible long
period of incubation. The top here shown was derived from the
inserted bud. Photo. January 28, 1891, Delaware.

INOCULATION EXPERIMENT No. 5.

XXVI. Year 1890. Two seedling trees. In Fig. 1 the growth from the inserted
bud was about 10 inches long, and more than one-half of its winter
buds had unfolded into feeble sprouts. Photo. October 30, 1890.
In Fig. 2 the spring foliage had fallen, but the same symptoms were
manifest. Photo. December 13, 1890, Washington, D. C.

IMMUNITY.

XXVII. Peach on plum. Trees budded on Mariana stock in August, 1888,
set November 7, 1889. Photos. October 18, 1890, Still Pond, Md.
Fig. 1, healthy and very thrifty. The white spot on the trunk
indicates the point of union between the plum stock and the peach
top. Fig. 2, tree badly stunted with yellowish and reddish foliage,
but no symptoms of yellows. The peach top had overgrown the
plum stock and there was a noticeable swelling just above the point
of union.

XXVIII. Resisting power of old trees. Budded peach tree, 36 years old, farm
of James S. Harris, Still Pond, Md. The limb marked a? developed
symptoms of yellows in 1890. This tree has stood in a region of
diseased orchards for many years, but it was somewhat isolated and
well along in years before the disease appeared. Photo. October
18, 1890. The distance marked off on the trunk is 5 feet.

II. — PEACH ROSETTE.

XXIX. Fig. 1, budded peach tree, 5 years old, and diseased in all parts by
the rosette. This tree was healthy in 1890. It first manifested
symptoms of disease in the spring of 1891, and at the time it was
photographed did not bear one healthy or full size leaf or nor-

58 PEACH ROSETTE.

mal shoot axis. Such trees generally die in the summer or autumn
of the same year ; Fig. 2, healthy budded tree of same age from
the same orchard. It might have been only 20 feet distant. Photos. '
June 3, 1891, Griffin, Ga. Trees about 14 feet high. Part of the left
side of each photo is omitted to bring it within the requirements of
the plate.

XXX. Terminal branches from a budded tree of bearing age. Fig. 1, still per-
fectly healthy to all outward appearances. Fig. 2, in first stages
of the rosette ; Fig. 3, com plete, typical rosette , All from the same
tree. Reduced to about one-seventh natural size. Photos. July 5,

1890, Griffin, Ga.

XXXI, XXXII. Shoots from a seedling tree of bearing age showing progressive stages
of the rosette from appearance of perfect health to complete dis-
ease. Fig. 1., perfectly healthy and very thrifty. Foliage smooth
and green. Fig. 2, leaves commencing to roll, straighten, and
become yellowish ; Fig. 3, spring foliage worse diseased than in
Fig. 2, and yellowish, rolled, and somewhat injured on the margin
by leaf fungi. The winter buds on the upper part of the shoots
are unfolding into rosettes. Fig. 4, rosettes developing and fully
developed. Photos. July 2, 1890. Tree found in a thicket at Sunny
Side, Ga. Reduced to about one-fourth natural size.

XXXIII. Fruit from diseased and healthy looking side of an affected tree.

Fig. 1 from a badly resetted branch. The foliage of this twig was
yellowish, and its buds had begun to push into rosettes both above
and below the fruit, which was yellowish green and had begun to
shrivel slightly but was not strikingly different from Fig. 2. Fig. 2
healthy twig and green, half-grown fruits from same tree* Photo.
June, 23, 1891, Griffin, Ga.

INOCULATION EXPEEIMENT No. 1.

XXXIV. First results, year 1890. Two of the worst affected trees. Time, 4

months and 12 days from date of insertion of the diseased buds. In.
both figures the bits of white paper indicate the location of these
buds. In Fig. 1 both buds united with the stocks, but neither one
pushed, the nearest diseased shoot being from the stock. In Fig. 2
the lower bud grew into x, while the upper bud did not push. In
Fig. 2 the base of the uppermost diseased shoot was 5 inches
above the uppermost inserted bud. The left side of each tree ap-
peared to be perfectly healthy. Inoculations June 21, 1890. Photo*
November 3, 1890, Griffin, Ga.

XXXV* Year 1891* Row of seedling trees inoculated June 21, 1890. Photo.
June 6, 1891, Griffin, Ga* All diseased throughout and left one
drying up. The diseased buds were inserted near the earth and the
seedling tops were not removed.

XXXVI. Year 1891. Trees inoculated June 21, 1890. Fig. 1, healthy seedling,
two buds were inserted, but failed to heal on. Fig. 2, seedling dis-
eased in all parts; one or both of the buds healed on. Photo. June
6, 1891, Griffin, Ga.

XXXVII. Year 1891. Fig. 1, several trees inoculated June 21, 1890, and now
diseased in all parts; Fig. 2, two healthy seedlings inoculated
with healthy Elberta buds about the same date. Photo. June 6,

1891, Griffin, Ga.

XXXVIII. Year 1891. Result of inoculatiaiw^ Part I bird's-eye view of rows of
seedlings diseased by the rosette as the result of inoculations made
June 21, 1890. Part II bird's>eye view of adjoining healthy nursery
of Elberta. Photos. June 6, 1891, Griffin, Ga.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891,

PI,ATI$ I.

TBRSIT7

Bull, i, Div. Vego Pathology, 1891.

YEI,I,OWS-— AUTUMN GROWTH FROM WINTER BUDS.

Amherst, Mass.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

I:*.

III.

Fig. i.

Fig 2.

PEACH SHOOTS.

i. Diseased by yellows. 2. Healthy.
Still Pond, Md.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

YE;I,I,OWS— AUTUMN GROWTHS FROM WINTER BUDS.

Still Pond, Md.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

AND SUMMER GROWTHS.

Very unusually tufted.
South Haven, Mich.

>>^0? THH ~V4^

[UNIVERSITY;

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

PLATE .T

^
.5

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

PI,ATU Vila.

YEI,I,OWS— THE IVAST STAGS.

Smyrna, Del.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, x8gi.

PIRATE VHb.

a

KIW,ED IN 3^ YEARS.

Magnolia, Del.

TJHIVBESITY

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891

VIH.

ssvoasosat

YEW«OWS — RESULT OF INOCULATIONS.

Experiment i, year 1888.

UHIVBESIT7

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

IX.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

off INOCULATIONS.

Experiment i, year 1889.

01 TH1

ITFIVBRSITT

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891

PI,ATE XL

TJHJVBESIT7

Bull, i, Div. Vego Pathology, 1891.

PIRATE XII

5.

o* INOCDI^TIONS.

Experiment i, year 1890.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

PI.ATE XII

Boll, i, DIv. Veg. Pathology, 1891

PIATE XIV.

Bull, i, Div. Veg, Pathology, 1891.

PI.ATK XV.

TOT

tJlSUVBRSITT

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

YEWJWS— EXPERIMENT 2, YEAR 1889.

Healthy tree for comparison. See Plates XIII-XV.

sj&Q? TB3* * X^

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

XVIII.

Ym,w>ws— RESUI/T OF INOCULATIONS.

Experiment 2, year 1890.

XIX.

YELLOWS— RESULT OF INOCULATIONS.

Experiment 2, year 1890.

UFI7ERSIT7

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

YEU,OWS— RESUI/T OF INOCULATIONS.

Experiment 2, year 1890.

Bull, i, Div, Veg. Pathology, 1*91

PLATE XXI.

YELLOWS — RESULT OF INOCULATIONS.

Experiment 2, year 1890.

UITI7EESIT7

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

XXII.

YBI,I,OWS— RESUI/T OF INOCULATIONS.

Experiment 2, year 1890.

TJ1UVSRSITT

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891-

PLATE XXIII.

YEUX>WS— EXPERIMENT 2, YEAR 1890.

Healthy tree for comparison.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

XXIV.

YEI<I,OWS— EXPERIMENT 2, YEAR 1890.
Healthy tree for comparison.

UIUVEESIT7

Bull, i, Div..Veg. Pathology, 1891.

PLATE XXV.

YELLOWS — RESULT OF INOCULATION — TREK STILL HEALTHY.

Experiment 4, year 1891.

Bull. i. Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

PI, ATE XXVI,

YBUX>WS— RESULT OP INOCUI.ATIONS.

Experiment 5, year 1890.

TJHI7ERSIT7

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

XXVII.

OfXHB J^

tflUVISBSITYj

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

XXVIII.

PEACH TREE— 36 YEARS Ow>.

(Free from yellows until 1890.)
Still Pond, Md.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

XXIX.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

ROSETTE— BUDDED TREE.

A healthy branch and two stages of the disease.
Griffin, Ga.

Bull, i, Div, VCR. Pathology, 1891

PI<ATE) XXXI.

ROSETTE-— SEEDUNG TREE.

Fig. i. Healthy Fig. 2. Slightly diseased.
Sunny Side, Ga.

Of THB

JJ7IESITY]

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

PI.ATE xxxn.

I

UH1VBESIT7

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891

PI,ATE XXXIII.

if;

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

XXXIV.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891

XXXV.

; :,

UHIVBRSJT7

Bull. 1, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

PI.ATB XXXVI.

F a
S

" §

UKJ7BESIT7

Bull, i, Biv. Veg. Pathology, 1891

XXXVII.

Bull, i, Div. Veg. Pathology, 1891.

xxxvm.

^

m

>.A

INDEX OF NAMES.

Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, 22. Jackson, G. D. , 27.

Barnard, D. P., 21. Johnson and Stokes, 23.

Barnard, Norris., 16 Kerr, J. W., 23, 38.

Berckmans, P. J. , 52. Maxwell, Dr. W. S. , 17, 41.

Brothers, William, 24. Nicholson, John A., 28.

Brown, William P., 23. Nicholson, R. G., 21.

Churchill, Mr. , 18. (Etter, Rudolph, 52.

Collier, Dr. Peter, 18. Pierce, Newton BM 11.

Davis, George, 28, 29. Redding, Col. R. J., 52.

Fryer, R. C., 49. Shallcross, Thomas J., 18, 56.

Gildersleve, George, 27. Smith, T. A., 39.

Goff, Prof. E. S., 18. Speth, Gustave, 52.

Green , James W. , 23, 25, 40. Swingle, W. T. , 51.

Harper, F. H. , 29, 40. Wells, T. C., 49.

Harris, James S. , 16, 43, 57. Willet, Prof. J. E. , 52.

Hasselkus, H. W. , 52. Wilson, J. Frank, 30

Husted, J. D. , 47, 49, 52. Wright, Charles, 23.

69

INDEX

Page.
jEgeria exitiosa :

Most troublesome on sandy land 34

Yellows not due to 34

Algeria, exemption from yellows in 11

Amherst, Massachusetts, yellows at 14

Aphides, young trees killed by 40, 41

Arkansas, probable occurrence of yellows ill 12

Australasia, fruit fly in 42

Bees, popular belief that yellows is spread by 24

Black peach aphis 40, 41

Blossoms :

Trees probably not affected through 24,44

Yellows causes premature unfolding of 14,44,47

Borers :

Peaches prematured by 47

Yellows not due to 34

Botan plum, rosette in _„. 45

Bud inoculation :

Manner of.... T.r 16

Kosette induced by 50,51

Yellows induced by 16,18,23

Buds:

Effect of June budding on 14

Premature unfolding in yellows 12, 14, 16, 20, 24

California :

Danger of introducing yellows into 12

Exemption from yellows 11

Caroline County, Maryland :

Buds from healthy orchards in 39

Peach borer in 34

Peach pits from 23

Chesapeake and Delaware peninsula, yellows on 11, 15

Connecticut, observation on yellows in 15

Contagious nature of rosette 54

Contagious nature of yellows 16

Control trees 17,18,21,50,52

Cumberland plum, rosette in 45

Delaware and Chesapeake peninsula, yellows on 11, 15

Delaware, yellows in 11,14,15,24,25,27

Denton, Maryland, experiment at 38

Department of Agriculture, inoculation experiments on grounds of 17, 23

Dormant buds:

Effect of June budding on 14

Effect of rosette on 40

Effect of yellows on 14

61

62 INDEX.

Page.

Dover, Delaware, excisions at 24

Dry seasons conducive to yellows 33

Excisions - 24

Conclusions from 36

Retarding influence of , 37

Successful for a time ___ 28,30

Experiments with rosette, conclusions from „ 54

Experiments with yellows, conclusions from , 43

Flowers, yellows may cause premature unfolding of : 14, 44

Foliage, very early fall of, in rosette 47

France, exemption from yellows ...,,., 11

Frosts, relations to yellows ,,, 39

Fruit, premature, in yellows 12

Fruit flies.., , 42

Geneva, New York, inoculation experiment at , 18

Georgia :

Occasional double growth of peach trees in 32

Peach rosette in 45,49,54

Peach yellows in 45, 47

Griffin, Georgia, rosette at 45,49

Gummosis in rosette , 48

Hubbardston, Michigan :

Inoculation experiment at..., 19

Peach trees, why set at...... 19

Immunity :

Excisions did not secure 37

Observations and experiments on , . - „ . 38

Experiment la 40

Experiment 1& , , . . . 40

Experiment Ic , ., 41

Injuries, yellows not due to , , , 34

Inoculations :

Rosette spread by 49

Yellows spread by 16,18,23

Italy, yellows not observed in 11

Japan, peach codlin moth in 42

Japanese plums, rosette in 45

June budding, effects of 14

June drop 48

Kansas, rosette in 49

Kelsey plum, rosette in 45

Kent County, Maryland, inoculation experiments in 16, 18, 21

Leipsic, Delaware, excisions at 28

Locust Grove, Maryland, inoculation experiment at 18

Magnolia, Delaware:

Diseased buds from 23

Excisions at 25

Peach on plum at 40

Manhattan, Kansas, rosette at 49

Mariana plum, rosette not observed in 45

Mariana plum stocks, peaches budded on 38, 52

Maryland, yellows in 11,14,15,28,29

Mediterranean countries :

Exemption from yellows 11

Fruit fly in 42

INDEX. 63

Page.

Michigan, observation on yellows in 15

Mildew on peach trees 21

New Jersey, observation on yellows in 15

New York:

Observation on yellows in „ ....,..,. 15

Yellows destructive in western part of '. , r 13

New Zealand, obscure peach disease in „ , T r . , 42

Nurserymen, methods of , , 38

Nursery stock, yellows may be carried in r , 12,20

Old trees, hardier than young ones 43

Orchards badly diseased by yellows 15, 25, 29, 40, 41

Pacific coast, danger of introducing yellows on 12

Parasites, danger of introduction with peach trees 42

Puccinia pruni 53

Peach borer, yellows not due to ..., 34

Peach trees, method s of nurserymen 38

Peach yellows inoculations :

Experiment 1 ,.„ 16

Experiment 2 18

Experiments 3 and 4 21

Experiment 5 „ 23

Peach :

Abnormal in yellows , , 12

Description of diseased and healthy 12

Normal habit of growth , 14

Plum stocks for 38,52

Symptoms in, due to rosette 45

Symptoms in, due to yellows 12, 33

Peaches, varieties of:

Alexander 47

Beers' Smock 24,25,26,31,39,40

Christiana 29, 32, 34

Crawford's Early , , 39,41,43

Crawford's Late 26, 39, 40, 41

Elberta , 48,52

Mountain Rose 28,39,40,41

OldMixon 26,30,32,34,35,36,39,40

Reeves' Favorite 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36

Smock 27,29

Stump the World , 26,27

Wilkins' Cling 26

Plum, rosette also affects 45

Plum stocks for peach 38,52

Plum stocks, a disadvantage of 41

Pollen, yellows probably not spread by 24, 44

Pomona, Georgia 52

Premature fruit, great quantities in Maryland and Delaware 12

Premature growth of buds in yellows 12, 13, 14

Premature peaches :

Absent in rosette 47,54

Appearance of, in yellows „ 12, 33

Borers induce one sort of 47

Taste of, when due to yellows 33

Premature pits, healthy seedlings from 17

Pruning, yellows not known to be communicated by 22

64 INDEX.

Page.

Primus Chicasa, rosette in... , ,-..-.. , „ ... 45

Pruuus domestica T, . . .. 45

Rainfall, yellows not worse when excessive . , , . 33

Red spotting of fruit, a symptom in yellows 12, 13, 33

Rising Sun, Delaware, excisions, near...T ,„ 27

Rosette :

Cases by years at Vineyard, Georgia. ..„..,...., „ ,, 50

Conclusions respecting nature of . , 54

Dangerous nature of , , , 49,54

Flowers and fruits in ..„,.... T T , 47

First appearance and present distribution of , 48

Foliage in , „ „ 46

Gum-pockets in , 48

Healthy-looking buds did not produce , . . 52

How different from yellows T. . , . . „ 54

How induced . T -?---- TT T . - . . 49

Plants attacked by 45

Premature fruit absent m 47,54

Rapid progress in plants attacked T .... ...r ..,.45, 49, 54

Roots and rootlets in „ „ ^--- ,rr ... 48

Shoot-axes in ....„., .--rr- . 46

Small amount of diseased tissue required to produce T T . . r , , 51

Symptoms of. „., „ ,. 45

Sassafras River :

Peach on plum at mouth of . r , , T . . r . . . . , „ T . 41

Peach yellows destructive in vicinity of , 41

Scolytus rugulosus, resetted trees attacked by..... 47

Seaford, Delaware :

Healthy old orchards atr , . 39

Peach pits from , 23

Seedlings :

Healthy ones from premature peaches 17

Subject to yellows 38

Shiloh, Georgia, rosette at 49

Shriveled fruits in rosette 47,54

Sicily, exemption from yellows 11

Smock seedlings for inoculation 16

Sprouts due to yellows 13

Still Pond, Maryland :

Excisions at 28,29

Inoculation experiment at 16

Peach on plum at 40

Sussex County, Delaware :

Peach borer in 34

Peach pits from 23

Symptoms of rosette 45

Symptoms of yellows ' 12

Tennessee pits...* 18,23

Tephritis, danger of introduction of 42

Terminal branches :

Buds for inoculation from 22,52

Diseased growths from 14, 46

Texas, probable occurrence of yellows, in northeast part of 12

Turkestan, peach stones from 42

INDEX. 65

Page.

United States, yellows native in eastern part of 11

Varieties (see Peaches).

Vineyard, Georgia, inoculation experiments at 49,52

Virginia, yellows in........... 11

Washington, District of Columbia, inoculation experiments in 17,22,23

Wet seasons, yellows not worse in 33

Wheat, effect of in peach orchard 21

Wild Goose plum, rosette in 45

Winter buds, premature growth from (see also Excisions) 12, 13

Winter freezing, not the cause of yellows • 39

Yellows:

Annual increase of cases 15

Bud inoculation not only method of spread 42,44

Chronic nature of. « 15

Conclusions from experiments .. — -.... 43

Destructive nature of. 11,15

Due in part to careless selection of buds 42

Duration of affected trees . — 15

First symptoms of 12,24

Green foliage, usually found in first stage of 13, 24, 25, 28, 29

Gradual progress of 13,24

Healthy looking buds may produce ......18,23,44

How best to deal with 12,43

How different from rosette 54

Immunity, by careful selection of buds and stocks 38

Influence of locality on 38

Injuries not the cause of 34

Inoculations 16

Parts first affected 12,24

Period of incubation in 44

Reference to losses occasioned by 11, 15, 18, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 40, 41, 43

Severe winters do not cause 39

Slow progress of, in affected trees 15, 18,21,24,37,56

Small amount of diseased material necessary to produce 18,21,44

Symptoms of (see also Excisions) 12

Symptoms of, in early spring 14,44

Trees affected before symptoms appear 20,44

Trees seldom or never recover 15

Virulent nature of 18,20

Where native 11

1609— Bull. 1 5

YC 6C22)

'

1AM

•

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