UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS S E M I T I C "P hTlO LO G Y
Vol. 1, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 57-444 August 6, 1918
STUDIES IN BIBLICAL PARALLELISM
PART I. PARALLELISM IN AMOS
BY
LOUIS I. NEWMAN
PART II. PARALLELISM IN ISAIAH, CHAPTERS 1-10
BY WILLIAM POPPER
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY
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STUDIES IN BIBLICAL PARALLELISM
PART I. PARALLELISM IN AMOS
BY
LOUIS I. NEWMAN PART 11.
PARALLELISM IN ISAIAH, CHAPTERS 1-10
BY
WILLIAM POPPER
FOREWORD
The studies presented in these pages are in great measure the result of work done in the University of California in the year 1915-16. They were prompted in the first instance by a desire to arrange for class-room work a suitable text-book with which to introduce students of Hebrew to the prophetic literature. Surely students of no other language must work with texts as full of difficulties as is the most of that literature. Courses in the Prophets often consist mainly of lectures by the instructor offering explanations of linguistic and stylistic abnormalities; so loud is the creaking of the critical apparatus that the student is constantly distracted from any literary appreciation of the text itself. It seemed to me that in preparing a text for students the editor should not only remove those evident errors which even conservative critics admit and which are easily rectified, but he should also wherever there is a great difficulty and a fairly strong presumption of error boldly adopt some satisfactory emendation. It is generally possible to find another and clearer passage in the literature treating of the same subject as does the suspicious passage, expressing what is evidently its intended thought, and offering a basis for emendation in a spirit which the editor can feel sure does no violence to the ancient Hebrew.
After such a treatment of the text of Isaiah had been begun it became evident that whether that prophet regularly delivered his oracles in parallelism or not, the clear preponderance of par- allelistic structure therein must preclude the acceptance of any emendation which does not retain or reestablish such a structure. It became clear also that the greatest difficulties in the present text are found just where the parallelism is defective. It seemed a worthy task, therefore, to go further into the subject ; reexam- ine some considerable portion of prophetic literature from this standpoint; consistently apply the test of parallelism to every passage therein, and along the lines suggested by that test seek
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some solution for every problem, however difficult. Accordingly while I was myself working at the text of Isaiah, Amos was chosen for a similar study by the Hebrew seminar. The text was analyzed, certain problems were formulated, and a method of possible solution was suggested.
Mr. Newman's article in its first form contained his answers to the questions raised; later it was expanded into a thesis pre- sented for the degree of Master of Arts from this University, though for its final draft Mr, Newman gathered material while he was a student at Columbia University. After his study was almost completed several modifications were made on the basis of George Buchanan Gray's Forms of Hebrew Poetry; a reading of this book, however, did not affect Mr. Newman's results materially, except where indicated; its main influence was in the adoption of Gray's system of symbols for the schematization of the parallelism.
While in Mr. Newman's Amos studies the material has been classified by types, in my paper the first five chapters of Isaiah have been studied verse by verse, the Authorized English trans- lation given at the head of each paragraph or stanza discussion, the nature of the parallelism pointed out, and one or several emendations suggested wherever the parallelism either is itself defective or indicates other stylistic defects. In chapters 6-10 only those passages have been treated which are apparently defective or otherwise call for special comment ; the parallelism of the remaining portions will be recognized upon reference to the translation of the reconstructed text.
In not a few eases in both the Amos and the Isaiah studies the proposed solution involves a transposition of words and phrases; and as in a recent article in the Journal of Biblical Literature, XXXVI (1917), p. 63, dealing with the Book of Hosea, objection is apparently raised to such transpositions in general, a word in justification of this principle of emendation should be said. The copyist of Oriental manuscripts, however careful he may be, sometimes omits not only letters and words, but also phrases and whole sentences; and a later copyist then inserts such marginal or interlinear passages, sometimes in the
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wrong place. Moreover, authors themselves sometimes make such corrections and insertions in their own manuscripts, as well as in the manuscripts of other authors (so the Arabic chronicler Ibn Taghri Birdi narrates) ; I have worked with an Arabic autographic manuscript in which considerable study was some- times necessary to determine where such insertions were intended to be placed ; and different manuscripts of the same Arabic poem show a variation in the order of lines (for example, see the University of California Publications in Semitic Philology, II, 20). In the several hundred years that elapsed between the delivery of the prophecies of Amos and Isaiah and the date at which the written word came to be venerated and the text fixed — centuries which saw a change not only in the form of the alphabet used by the Hebrews but also in the language of their daily speech — it is hard to believe that the manuscripts of those prophecies did not suffer the same vicissitudes which other manuscripts suffered at a much later epoch and in a much shorter space of time. The reader's attention is called particu- larly to Isaiah 7.8 ; if he does not believe that this verse has been edited into the text, and at the wrong place — that even if it be retained, it must be transposed — he will have little sympathy for many passages in these studies; but if he accepts the trans- position, he must admit the probability of a similar solution in places where form and sense of the text are even more obscure and can be improved thereby. As for the transposition of whole sections from their present sequence, this much is certain: Isaiah did not write his prophecies in the order in which they have been handed down ; for if he had done so, the sixth chapter would stand first in the book. Quite probably the prophecies were first written on different pieces of whatever writing material was used and were arranged later, as was the case with the Koran ; and there can at least be no objection to transposing chapters into chronological sequence, or any other sequence which helps in an appreciation of the contents. Furthermore, since chapter divisions are known to be late, we may disregard them also in the transposition of sections where internal evidence warrants the change.
[V]
The question of successive editions of prophetic literature has been raised several times in the paper on Amos. In studying Isaiah I have touched upon this question but rarely, since in most cases it does not affect the question of parallelism. After an even larger portion of Isaiah has been examined, it will be of interest to determine whether supposed differences of author- ship coincide with variations in the nature of the parallelism. Mr. Newman's conclusion that Amos almost invariably uses the couplet structure in piarallelism, and my own conclusion that it is possible to find many variations from this simple structure in Isaiah, suggest that there may have been individual prefer- ences in this matter on the part of the Hebrew writers.
My purpose of letting the laws of parallelism suggest emen- dations has induced me to neglect as far as possible emendations suggested by others; this was not possible, however, in the case of those suggestions recorded in the frequently consulted Brown- Driver-Briggs lexicon ; no doubt others of my emendations, also, were in reality due to my previous readings on the subject, and I beg to be pardoned for not tracing them to their sources and for not giving credit where credit may possibly be due.
Typographical difficulties have led to the use of transliter- ation^ in place of Hebrew characters in these studies ; as this necessitates the insertion of vowels into a text written originally with consonants only, it has the disadvantage that emendations sometimes seem to involve more radical changes than they in reality do. Moreover, for typographical reasons the printing of extensive portions of the reconstructed text has not been attempted, except in the case of the Amos Doom Song ; in general the transliteration has been confined to the emended words. In the case of Isaiah I have offered instead a translation of the whole of the reconstructed text. In this translation my purpose was again to emphasize the parallelism. Accordingly absolute
1 It was not found possible even to follow the system of transliteration generally accepted in the United States to-day; but the student of Hebrew will easily recognize that q represents the Hebrew gadhe (dotted s) ; q the Hebrew qoph (dotted fc) ; % the Hebrew x^th (dotted h) ; while simple s represents the Hebrew samelch and sin, and in a few cases Arabic sad (i.e., gad). Proper names, however, have in general been left without diacritical marks or accents of any kind; e.g., Hariri instead of Xariri.
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literalness has not always been insisted upon ; active and passive constructions have sometimes been interchanged; single words expressing the spirit of the original have been used where lit- eralness would have demanded some longer paraphrase ; and unimportant particles have sometimes been omitted (e.g., the connective "and") where the meaning was not thereby altered. The attempt has been made also to represent something of the assonance, rhythm, and other stylistic characteristics of the Hebrew, all of which devices have been used in the translation in about the same proportion, though not always at the same point of the couplet, as in the original.
Being convinced, however, that the affinities of Hebrew par- allelism are with the prototype of the Arabic saf and not with the classical system of meters, I have not attempted to show exact regularity in the rhythm. Little is known concerning the prophet's method of delivering his oracles. It has been pointed out that saj' in Arabic means "the cooing of the dove," and that Isaiah speaks of ' ' wizards that peep and mutter " ; it might be added that n^'um (applied to the utterance of the prophets in the ecstatic state, and translated "saith") comes from a root meaning in Arabic "to groan or sigh"; that ndhhi' ("prophet") itself comes from a root meaning ' ' to utter a low sound, " or "to bark faintly ' ' : hence perhaps a very striking instance of para- nomasia in Is. 56.10, referring to false prophets, who are "dumb dogs; they cannot bark" {linbd<^x ^or linbo', just as hozim, "ravers," in the same sentence is used instead of x^^s^w, "seers"). But whether Isaiah's ridicule of the "chirping" of wizards implies that the true prophet had some other special vocal method of delivering his oracles, or that he spoke in the method of ordinary speech, is not clear. If the prophets chanted, perhaps, the number of syllables or even of words in a sentence would not be of much importance, for a single syllable might have been held for the length of time normally given to two or more syllables, or two or more syllables or words be spoken in the time, and even with the number of "beats," normally given to one ; or a pause or rest might compensate for the absence of a word — this particularly in the case of lines in which some part
[vii]
of a sentence must be supplied in thought from a preceding line ; while the words in a particularly short line, e.g., at the end of certain prophecies, might have been held for special emphasis.
Mr. Newman wishes to express his appreciation for several suggestions (particularly with reference to the relation between primitive parallelism and magical incantations) made by Rabbi Martin A. Meyer of San Francisco, Lecturer in Semitic History in the University of California ; for active aid and criticism by Professor Richard Gottheil of the Department of Semitic Lan- guages, Columbia University, New York ; and for information furnished by Professor Max Margolis of Dropsie College, Phila- delphia, Professor Israel Frielander of the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York, and Dr. Nahum Slouschz of the Rab- binical College of America.
My thanks are due to several of my colleagues, particularly Professor F. J, Teggart and Professor C. I. Lewis, for suggesting changes in the wording of my translation; likewise to Professor M. Jastrow, Jr., of the University of Pennsylvania, who was in California while these studies were in progress and first suggested to me that they might be worth publishing.
William Popper. Berkeley, California, June 27, 1917.
[These papers will appear also as a volume of the Semicentennial Pub- lications of . the University of California, f olioed independently, but in addition bearing in brackets the corresponding folios of the present series.]
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CONTENTS
PAKT I.— PAEALLELISM IN AMOS Chapter I. — Introduction. page
Origin of parallelism 57
Evolution of parallelism 58
Non-Semitic parallelism :
Finnish 61
Chinese 68
Near-Eastern parallelism:
Egyptian 76
Sumerian 85
Babylonian-Assyrian 87
Arabic :
Classical (including Turkish and Persian) 95
Neo-Arabic 109
Abyssinian Ill
Hebrew 113
Conclusions 115
Later Development of Parallelism:
In the Apocrypha and the Apocalypses 120
In Greek originals by Jevi^s 121
In the New Testament 121
In Syriae 124
In rabbinical literature 125
In medieval Jewish literature 129
In modern Hebrew literature 132
Chapter II. — Paeallelism in Amos.
Introduction 136
Prose 137
Parallelistic poetry:
Complete parallelism 137
Double structure 140
Incomplete parallelism 141
Without compensation 142
With compensation:
Double structure 145
Fresh term structure 147
Four term variations 151
Keduplication 155
Alternate parallelism:
Clear parallelism 158
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Near-prose : page
Synonymous saj' 163
Non-synonymous saj' 165
Qind parallelism 165
Synthetic couplets 166
Clear synthetic 167
Doubtful synthetic 170
"That say," or quotational couplets 171
"In order that," or conjunctival couplets 173
Eelative couplets 174
Ka'csher, or simile couplets 176
Triplets and monostichs 178
Conventional historical prophetic phrases 185
Prelude and postlude prophetic phrases 188
Strophic formations:
Grief song 189
Series of Visions:
First pair _ 193
Second pair 195
Prose-poetic narrative, 7.10-17 198
Chapter III. — The Doom Song, Amos 1.3-2.8. Verse and stanza parallelism
Reconstruction of Doom Song 202
Variations in the eight stanzas 206
Analysis of the eight stanzas 209
Stanza 1. Damascus 209
Stanza 2. Philistia :..- 216
Stanza 3. Tyre 224
Stanza 4. Edom 228
Stanza 5. Ammonites 233
Stanza 6. Moab 242
Stanza 7. Judah 248
Stanza 8. Israel 253
Date of the Prophecy 254
Conclusions on the Doom Song 256
Classification and Tables — - 258
Conclusions - 262
Index of verses _ 265
PART II.— PARALLELISM IN ISAIAH, Chapters 1-10
Index of Translations : 266
Translation of the reconstructed text 268
Notes 293
Tables and Summary 435
Synonymous and complementary parallelism 436
Synthetic and incomplete parallelism _ 438
Suspensive parallelism 439
Subordinate clauses in parallelism 440
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS SEMITIC PHILOLOGY
Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 57-265 August 6, 1918
PARALLELISM IN AMOS
BY
LOUIS I. NEWMAN
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Origin of Parallelism
Parallelism in poetry is the expression of universal psycho- logical principles. It is a law of biological life that ' ' ' deep calleth unto deep, ' tree to tree, bird to bird, all the world over, ' '^ So in the field of literary expression, thought answers thought and word answers word. For the human mind, richly-stored, rarely contents itself with a single formulation of a theme close to its interests : to express a thought in brief laconic form merely once, does not satisfy it. In prose, the author usually seeks to reaffirm and elaborate his statements either by repetition of favorite phrases, or by the use of new words and expressions ; and this is true even more strongly of poetry, the language of feeling. "So soon as the heart gives way to its emotions, wave follows upon wave. "^ The poet or prophet in moments of inspiration pours forth metaphors and characterizations of his subject in rich flood. Yet a sense of inner orderliness prevails ; the most eloquent prophets are usually most skilled in poetic
1 Smith, The Early Poetry of Israel (London, 1912), p. 16.
2 Herder, The Spirit of 'Hebrew Poetry; translation by James Marsh (Burlington, 1833), p. 43. ' Herder gives one of the best analyses of the psychology of parallelism.
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58 University of California Publications. [Skm. Phil.
forms.^ This feeling for organization and regularity guides the repetition; and though it is possible for the poet to heap up a series of similar statements, as is seen in the most primitive poetry, it will be found that a later process demands ordinarily the use of only two, in couplet structure. Herein a principle of balance seems to enter whereby the poet consciously or unconsciously places one statement opposite to another either synonymous or unlike. Two psychological rules thus appear to interplay: one demanding repetition, in the same or different words, of a special thought; the other demanding orderliness and restricting this repetition to a couplet formation. These two tendencies are apparent in the rise and evolution of primi- tive poetr3^
Evolution of Parallelism
The origin and development of primitive poetry are marked by three great stages: first, indefinite iteration, unchanged, and unvarying; second, incremental repetition; third, artistic par- allelism.* Iteration may be designated as the earliest form of poetry ; it was communal, the spontaneous expression of emotion, beginning in the crowd, and carried forward and backward without cease, almost under the influence of mob hypnotism. Usually a single verse, a statement of fact, or in the first in- stance, a fact stated not formally but by repetition of words in a rhythmic period, was the subject of iteration.^
Incremental repetition arises when communal mass song is supplemented by the assertion of individual poetic genius. A variation suddenly breaks into the iteration from the lips of a daring singer, moved by an inner impulse. He supplements the stock of communal refrains with those of his own invention. At first, this must have occurred at the end of a long series of iterations, to interrupt the monotony; gradually, the series of
3 Kaplan, PsycJwlogy of Prophecy (Philadelphia, 1908), p. 60ff. For a clear statement of the psychology of parallelism in its relation to the development of balance and rhythm, see Hup f eld, Die Psalmen (Gotha, 1888), II, p. xxviife.
4 See Gummere, Beginnings of Poetry (New York, 1901), pp. 208-209.
5 Ibid., p. 250 ; Gummere cites as examples of iteration the beginnings of the vocero, the repeated cries of the Africans, the Fuegians, the Boto- cudos, and other savage peoples.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 59
repetitions must have been shortened by more frequent varia- tions, and finally, the period of complete freedom of variation must have appeared, though this marks a late stage in the development of poetry.*'
Parallelism marks a third distinct major division in the evolution of ancient poetry. In order to trace the steps through which bald iteration became artistic parallelism, it is necessary to turn to those literatures of antiquity wherein parallelism is most apparent. These divide themselves into two classes : first, the literatures of several non-Semitic peoples, including the Finnish and the Chinese ; second, the literatures of several Semitic and Semitically influenced peoples, including the Egyp- tian, the Sumerian, the Babylonian-Assyrian, the Arabic and the Hebrew. Since the pivot of this study is Hebrew parallelism, investigation into parallelism outside of the Bible will be largely comparative.
Parallelism is so simple a poetic motif that it is discoverable in some degree in almost every literature. Isolated couplets can be selected from the Greek,^ the Latin, Indian,* Germanic® and Anglo-Saxon^*' literatures. But it is of little value to gather these illustrations from all sides; they merely indicate an obvious fact, namely, that the tendency to express the same thought in varying language is confined to no one group or
6 Ibid., p. 200-201 ; Gummere gives illustrations from English ballads (p. 206ff.) and includes therein cases in which the same line or stanza is sung indefinitely, with the use of a new name, number, or fact in each repetition. In songs of lament, labor, triumph, processions, festal refrains, the threefold process of poetic development is present, in almost all litera- tures.
7 See Schleusner, Dissertatio de parallelismo membrorum egregio inter- pretationis subsidio (Leipzig, 1817), p. 11; Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa (Leipzig, 1898), II, 813-824; Schmidt, Ueber den bau der pindarischen Strophen (Leipzig, 1882), passim.
8 Fried rich v. Schlegel professed to have found in the Sanskrit sloTca a close affinity between the Indian proverb and the Hebrew, though the former is much more regular in its use of four equal measure, eight syllable feet than the free and loose Hebrew structure. Saemmtliche WerTce; ed. 2 (Vienna, 1846), I, 121-124. Eosenkranz, Handbuch d. allg. Geschichte d. Poesie (Halle, 1832), I, 77, finds no basis for this comparison, and therein seems justified; for parallelism plays no role in the Sanskrit.
9 Wuttke, Die deutscJie Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1869), p. 157. He regards parallelism as perhaps the most important formal ethnic thought ("formale Voelkergedanke") in existence. "In forms such as 'Mond nimt zu, Warze nimt ab,' 'Glocken gehen Toten nach, Warzen gehn mit ' there lies a genuine and original folk-poetry, a parallel-
60 University of California Publicatio7is. [Sem. Phil.
assembly of peoples, but is universal. It is imperative, however, to turn to those literatures wherein parallelism is u if not the dominant poetic law; herein are included Chinese and Finnish poetry, in which even the casual reader at once perceives that parallelism is not merely prevalent, but highly developed, and especially the literatures of the Semitic and Semitically in- fluenced peoples of western Asia, who, it will be shown, adopted the motif of parallelism virtually as their own; it appears to have been the common substratum for the literatures of Egypt, Babylonia, Arabia and Judea. Egypt, it is true, failed to attain great heights in its use, and remained on the low levels between iteration, incremental repetition, and parallelism. Arabic liter- ature after maintaining a species of parallelism for centuries, broke away into new fields of poetic forms. Babylonia and Assyria accepted the prevalent literary forms of their Sumerian predecessors, and gave the expansion of parallelism great im-
ism of thought as in Hebrew literature, particularly the Proverbs. ' ' Other examples of Germanic parallelism are as follows:
"Wer hat gesehen dass des Bockes Horn zum Himmel reicht? Wer hat gesehen dass des Kameels Schwanz zur Erde reicht?"
Or Or
"Was gedenkst du die Voegel des Himmels zu fangen? Was gedenkst du die Fische des Meeres zu fangen?"
' ' Des Menschen Dummheit ist inne,
Des Viehes Buntheit aussen. " (Radloff, Proben der V olkslitteratur der tuerTcischen Staemme Sued- Siheriens, St. Petersburg, 1866, I, 6-7). Also in the Germanic, parallelism is associated with magical formulas:
"In des Hunds Zahn moeg ' er schwinden.
In des Wolfs Zahn moeg' er wachsen,
In des Nordes Wind entweichen,
Aus dem Wind hinaus ins Leere. ' ' (Mythisohe u. magische Lieder der Ehsten, St. Petersburg, 1854, p. 87.) 10 Smith, pp. 14-16. These selections from English folk songs, nursery rhymes and ballads often show rather incremental, repetition than par- allelism. (Gray, Forms of Hebrew Poetry, London, 1915, pp. 38, 128-131.) Longfellow's Hiawatha (see below) is perhaps one of the best examples of parallelism in English, but it is an imitation of Finnish structure and hence not native and original. Many English proverbs show the almost universal antithetic parallelism:
"Laugh and the world laughs with you.
Weep and you weep alone." Or
"To dare to fail is noble,
To fail to dare ignoble." Parallelism is scattered through Anglo-Saxon and English literature; both, however, are ruled by a completely different literary psychology from the ancient Semitic literatures, and parallelism is never dominant.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 61
petus. The Hebrews, however, the inheritors of a long literary tradition, welcomed parallelism as a national poetic usage ; and, in their hands it attained its most notable expression.
NON-SEMITIC PAEALLELISM
Finnish Parallelism
Finnish poetry is remarkable for its singular rigidity of form; it is terse and epigrammatic, and derives its style and aroma from a tradition dating back perhaps 3000 years." Its two main peculiarities are alliteration, or the rhyme of letters, which is practiced to such a degree that often not only do the words of the same verse begin with the same consonant, as is generally the case in old northern poetry, but also with the same following vowel ; and parallelism, or the rhyme of sense. Its similarity in this latter respect to Hebrew poetry has been noted by several investigators;^^ and it is in parallelism, called runon kerto, that the Finnish regularity and conciseness demonstrate themselves most notably. ''In Finnish the second line of a couplet is nearly always a repetition in other words of its predecessor and stands in apposition to it. If there is no sub- ject or no verb in the second line, this must be understood from the line above, though sometimes it is vice-versa. "^^ Com- paretti states the following formulation of the principle : ' ' Every line must contain a complete idea, or a part complete in itself of a greater idea, and this must be repeated in different words in the succeeding line."^*
The law of parallelism influences the outward form of Fin- nish verse, for it renders almost necessary the rhyme of sub- stantival or verbal endings. Herein is the germ of developed
11 Billson, Popular Poetry of the Finns (London, 1900), p. 3. This contains a bibliographical index of works in English, French, and German on Finnish poetry.
12 Brown, People of Finland in Archaic Times (London, 1892), p. 279- 280; and others mentioned below, particularly Comparetti, Traditional Poetry of the Finns, translated by Isabella M. Anderton (New York, 1898), p. 35; Porthan, Ve Poesi Fennica (Abo, 1766-1778), p. 20.
13 Abercromby, "Magic Songs of the Finns," Folklore (London, 1890), I, 22 ; Comparetti, op. cit., p. 33.
14 Ihid., p. 36.
62 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
rhyme. Comparetti regards parallelism as a primitive motif, prior and subordinated to regular metre. His opinions are valuable for a consideration of parallelism in Arabic literature, where an early parallelism seems to have been overlaid by intri- cate poetical devices. When poetry is in a primitive condition and makes abundant use of parallelism and of consonances and assonances of every kind, then the metrical verse, if it exists, is apt to be roughly indicated, unequal, or variable in length and in the number of its syllables. As soon as metre makes good its claims, imposes number in a measurement of lines, and fixes rhythmical rules based not so much on the quality as on the quantity of sounds, the verse becomes varied, and the law that governs the quality and recurrence is either limited or lost. Alliteration also disappears. Rhyme remains, but no longer as free as in primitive poetry^^ ; it is linked with the complex laws of metre, and becomes obedient to laws regarding distribution, position and combination of verses. It is important to observe that the Finnic rune follows the eight-syllable trochaic un- rhymed measure. This adherence to a constant law may be a sign of the maturity of the poetry. At the same time, Finnish rune knows only this one kind of metre, and has not yet arrived at the stage of producing various forms, as it has not yet learned to group the lines into stanzas, and "has not advanced beyond the use of such primitive, even archaic means as alliteration, free rhymes, parallelism."^"
Parallelism also affects the very substance and ideas of the poem. In lyric poetry, the repetition or the variation in other words of an image or thought does not make for monotony, but as Xavier Marmier has noted, leaves in the mind an impression of indefinable charm, of deep melody, of rich variations of thought ; parallelism colors, heightens, multiplies poetic expres- sion, generates emphasis and warmth. In the epic, however, in the narrative, traditional historical poetry, the sameness of verse and the smallness of resource afforded by parallelism prevent the attainment of this lyric warmth, movement, and
15 In Hebrew poetry, it will be seen that rhyme is accidental and rare.
16 Comparetti, p. 36,
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 63
impetus ;'^'' instead of sharpening the outlines of the idea, paral- lelism oftentimes renders it tremulous, undetermined, or generic. Finding no exact synonym or image adapted to repeat an idea, the laulaja, or popular singer, substitutes another which he thinks appropriate ; hence often the specific idea becomes blurred and is forgotten.^^
This leads to a statement of the probable origin of Finnish parallelism. It may lie in magical incantations, similar per- haps to the Sumerian and Babylonian- Assyrian. The first stage seems to have been, mere repetition. Among the Samoyedes, the Shaman or magic-man begins by beating the magic drum, and singing a few words to gloomy awesome music; then another performer of less importance comes in, and they sing the same words together, after which the first remains silent while the second repeats alone what he sang. The song of these Samoyede Shamans consists of a few words, and is almost entirely im- provised. Among the Lapps, the magical incantations, spoken in a sing-song manner, accompanied by the roll of the magic drum, betray a rudimentary, oscillating and variable near-metre, a kind of rhythmic prose. The Finnish magical formula in a late period of development, though it was pronounced by one person, still contains much repetition. In short, while the evidence is not entirely clear, the earliest origins of Finnish parallelism may be traced back to magical rites wherein repe- tition played the important role.^^"
In Finnish epic poetry, richer evidence as to origin is avail- able. It is the ancient custom for the runes to be sung by two men, of whom one is the chief, the precentor; the other is his assistant, the repeater, kertoja. Seated side by side, or opposite to each other, they join hands; during the song, their bodies
^T Ibid., p. 33.
18 Ibid., p. 67. ' ' The laulaja will say that Vainamoinen, having fallen into the waters, 'went about there for six years, there for seven summers, tossed for nine years,' where the numbers oscillate by reason of the par- allelism, and we obtain the result of a long, indeterminate period of time. Such a phenomenon does not occur in Hebrew, where the second term serves rather to heighten than to obscure the clarity of the terms. Herein is one of the points which shows the difference in composition, surely m origm, of the Hebrew parallelism.
18a /bid. See also pp. 171ff.; Beauvais, "La magie chez les finnois," Bevue de I'histoire des Religions, V, 1; VI, 251 (1882).
64 University of Calif ornid PuhUcations. [Sem.Phil.
are in a constant swinging movement. One of the singers begins by singing a rune stiehos alone, in the last bar of which the other joins, simply repeating the stiehos, and so on to the end. During this repetition the first singer finds the needful time to reflect on what his next line is to be. The second singer when he repeats the line, generally introduces some word of approbation, but seldom does he correct the first singer, or vary, or add to his first stiehos. The Finnish practice, then, is mainly a feat of memory, dependent upon the conservative spirit of tradition, which relies upon the agreement of two memories; though it is also to some extent a feat of literary ingenuity, especially when the line is improvised,^® for the second singer must know, or guess in time, the end of the line that he is to sing with the first singer. If it were that the second singer took up the general thought of the first and repeated it in different meta- phors and images, then this phenomenon would indubitably deserve recognition as the basis of Finnish parallelism, as the practice of the Hebrew singing women at the Red Sea, and the return of David, seem to suggest the origin of Hebrew par- allelism. But even as the matter stands, it must be concluded that wuthin the general sphere of the epic. song the method of the first appearance of parallelism is probably to be sought.^*'
The basic form of Finnish parallelism is obviously the coup- let, though combinations of more than two lines are frequent. There are many varieties of parallelism; repetitions often occur in more than two lines, especially in magic songs, where they are continued for a great number of lines. Sometimes par- allelism is absent, and there are even lines- whereof the sense is completed only in the following line; repetition also occurs not only from line to line, but also in the same line. For in the use of the various motifs of Finnish poetry, the laulaja, though he is bound absolutely to the eight syllable trochaic metre, and
19 Comparetti, p. 69.
20 Amongst the Karels, the old manner of singing is kept up, and one meets with many of the old songs there (Brown, op. cit., pp. 278-279). It must be observed, however, that in some eases, though this is doubtful, the second singer repeats the thought of the first in different words. See Paul, The Kalevala (Helsingfors, 1885-1886), I, vii. But in several poems the thought does not become apparent until the addition of the second stiehos.
Vol. 1.] Newman. ^Parallelism in Amos. . 65
is bound in a measure also to the use of alliteration, rhyme and
parallelism, reserves to himself full liberty as to the mode of
employing the latter, so that he can improvise without being
unduly hampered.-^
Synonymous parallelism is very frequent in Finnish poetry.
Countless examples are to be found in the Kalevala, the Finnish
national epic, and other long poems :^^
Many men that live to murmur, Many women live to censure.
Many speak Avith evil motives, Many they with wretched voices
Curse me for my wretched singing, Blame my tongue for speaking wisdom,
Call my ancient songs unAvorthy, Blame the songs and curse the singer.
Be not thus, my Avorthy people. Blame me not f Or singing badly ;
Unpretending as a minstrel,
I haA'C never had the teaching, Never lived with ancient heroes, Never learned the tongues of strangers, Never claimed to knoAV much wisdom.
Others have had language masters.
Nature Avas my only teacher. Woods and aa aters my instructors. . , .
Be this as it may, my people,
This may point the Avay to others, To the singers better gifted.
For the good of future ages, For the coming generations. For the rising folk of Soumi.23
21 Comparetti, p. 34. The use of a regular metre takes the Finnish out of the territory of the Hebrew, for in the latter, as will be seen, the rules of metrical formation cannot be clearly formulated.
22 On the Kalevala, see Crawford, The Kalevala (New York, 1889), Porter, Selections from the Kalevala (New York, 1868). See also Paul, Kanteletar, die Volkslyrik der Finnen (Helsingfors, 1882) ; Eetzius, and others.
23 Examples of synonymous and mixed parallelism are numerous in the Kalevala; this one is taken from Abercromby, p. 26:
"A maiden walked along the air's edge — A girl along the 'navel' of the sky.
66 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
This quotation shows that the same problems which confront the investigator in Hebrew are present in Finnish poetry. The dominant characteristic is parallelism, and the couplet is most frequent. There are several loose monostichs, however; there are several triplets ; there are portions which show no parallelism, and which would be near-prose were it not for their stichic form.2* So-called synthetic parallelism is a frequent accom-
Along the outline of a cloud — Along the heaven's boundary.
In stockings of a bluish hue,
In shoes with ornamented heels."
24 Each printed line has at least a comma at the end of it, due to the division between line and line consequent on the complete idea, or complete part of an idea which each one offers; this establishes a rhythmic division in the ideas themselves in their order and succession, and this division is felt in direct proportion to the shortness of the lines. See Comparetti, pp. 33-34. An example of this stichic completeness may be found in the following selection from the Kalevala: "A hundred sayings do I possess.
Fastened to my girdle, to my ring, to my side;
Which every child cannot sing, Nor every lad the half of them
My songs are my learning. My verses my goods;
From the roads did I dig them,
From green boughs did I pluck them,
I Avrenched them from the heather plants;
When I a little one was herding, A little child was tending lambs.
Up from the honeymounds. Across the golden hillocks,
Songs did the wind waft me, The air cradled them by hundreds,
Verses surged around me, • .
Sayings rained down like water. ...
My father would sing them as he fitted a new handle to his axe; From my mother would I learn them as her spindle twirled."
Examples of monostichs inserted in the midst of good parallelism may be found in the next quotation. In may be noted that the number of incom- plete, part stichoi in the Finnish which depend upon the verb in another couplet is larger than in Hebrew, "And the wind rocked him
To the unknown gates, To the strange abodes,
To lands without a priest, To countries unbaptised. Behold me, poor wight,
Tossed on a rolling tree.
Tossed on a withering trunk. ..."
Vol. 1.] Neurman. — Parallelism in Amos. 67
paniment of good parallelism; since, however, it must be con- ceded that synthetic parallelism is not in reality parallelism at all, it must be concluded of the Finnish, that parallelism is not the only, though it is perhaps the major, motif of its poetry ; there is a twilight zone wherein prose and poetry meet. This general conclusion drawn from the Finnish may assist in a determination of the character of the Hebrew.
Antithetic parallellism appears in Finnish proverbs, which have "much resemblance in their form to those of Solomon, "^^ and generally display the same varieties of complete and of incomplete parallelism with and without compensation. Fin- nish parallelism is also an aid in exegesis; though the text has not been injured through transmission, several instances obtain where the presence in a second stichos of a synonymous word serves to clarify the meaning of a dubious phrase corresponding to it in the first.
Among peoples akin to the Finns, also, parallelism is found. Among the Lapps, for example, influenced by Finnish literature though themselves of another race, the Finno-Mongolic magical songs bear a slight resemblance in structure to the Finnish ; while in the epic and mythical literature, especially that relating to the ' ' Child of the Sun, ' ' the form of the Finnish rune is clearly recognizable with its metre, alliteration, and parallelism.^*'
Finnish parallelism has been responsible for similar poetry in a channel far removed from it. Longfellow's Hiawatha is built upon the Finnish scheme. The poet is known to have derived the suggestion for its form from Schiefner's translation of the Kalevala; when he heard the trochaic measure, he pro- nounced it to be the one for the discovery of which he had been waiting and longing, since it was peculiarly adapted to give expression to the thoughts surging in his mind. The use of parallelism in the poem was evidently conscious and deliberate, and by contrast indicates that its appearance elsewhere in English poems is generally accidental, and irregular. ^'^
25 Brown, p. 282; Gottlund, De ProverMis Fennicis (Upsala, 1818).
26 Comparetti, p. 43.
27 See p. 60, note 10.
68 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Hiawatha possesses the same style and also the same problems
as Finnish parallelism, namely, the relation of single lines,
couplets and triplets, the interplay of prose and poetry, and
the stichic division of lines. The couplet form is frequent,
though not constant over long tracts of text ; sometimes two lines
are necessary to complete merely one thought, while each stichos
does not have the necessary half -though of a good couplet:
Suddenly upon the greensward All alone stood Hiawatha.28
Moreover exact synonymity is rare over long periods in the
poem, even when the couplet form recurs; the second stichos
usually adds much to the thought of the first ; most of the lines
and distichs fall within the field of synthetic parallelism. But
examples of regular parallelistic structure can be found :
All your strength is in your union All your danger is in discord;
Therefore be at peace henceforward, And as brothers live together. ...
Big words do not smite like war-clubs, Boastful breath is not a bow-string, Taunts are not so sharp as arrows,
Deeds are better things than words are, Actions mightier than boastings.29
Chinese Parallelism
Points of resemblance between Chinese and Hebrew literature
have often been noted. The language and style of several
Cantonese love songs show similarity to passages in the Song of
Solomon and other Hebrew poems.^° Far more striking, how-
28 Cf . Lowth 's and Gray 's discussion on Ps. 2.6 ; see also below, p. 173.
29 Another example wherein there is a variation of the couplet form, and where a fifth stichos sums up the thought of the preceding four:
"As unto the bow the cord is, So unto the man is woman; Though she bends him, she obeys him. Though she draws him, yet she follows ;
Useless each without the other." The first couplet with its introductory conjunctions finds numerous counter- parts in the ka-'asher couplets in Hebrew; cf. Amos. 3.12, 5.19, etc. soClementi, Cantonese Love Songs in English (Oxford, 1904), p. 6.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 69
ever, is the presence of parallelism in Chinese literature. Its usage therein was noted by J. F. Davis, whose work, Poeseos Sinensis Commentarii, "On the Poetry of the Chinese, "^^ has become standard. Almost every investigator of Chinese prosody since 1829 has restated and reaffirmed Davis' conclusions,^^ Davis remarks that the dominant construction of Chinese poetry is found in "lines of every length used in measured couplets, or sentences in pairs, nicely balanced in words and sense. ' ' He notes the "striking coincidence" with Hebrew poetry, and adopts the terminology of Bishop Lowth, giving the motif the name "parallelism" and dividing it into three types — synonymous, antithetic and synthetic.
It is necessary first, however, to approach Chinese parallelism from the viewpoint of its three major characteristic divisions — parallelism of tone, of grammar, and of thought. The first two are unique in Chinese literature, and present few points of comparison with Hebrew; it is doubtful whether they may be included under the name of parallelism.
Parallelism of tone demands merely that the syllables, instead of being counted, must follow each other in tones that vary according to rule, just as the cadence of English verse is deter- mined not solely by rhyme and by enumeration of the syllables, but also by the relative position of the accented syllables and •those on which no stress is laid.^^ Distinction is made between two classes of tones, the even or similar tones, and the uneven or dissimilar tones. The two even or equal tones are spoken with the same stress and strength of voice and are differentiated only by a variation of tone levels. The three unequal tones are the rising, the falling and the contracting, " eingehende, " that is, one in which the voice rises upward, or sinks to the lower notes, or the tone breaks off abruptly. These tones or accents
31 Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society (London, 1829), II, 410- 419. Eepublished in 1834 and 1870. For this work the 1829 paging is used.
32 Scarborough, Gabelantz, Heilmann, Grube, Bethge, Chamberlain, Cran- mer-Byng, and others whose works are cited below. For the use of par- allelism in the interpretation of difficult and even mutilated passages see particularly Schlegel, La loi du parallelisme en style chinois (Leyden, 1896).
33 Chamberlain, Classical Poetry of the Japanese (Boston, 1880), pp. 3-4; remarks on Chinese poetical formations.
70 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
must be divided according to definite rules, so that they stand in parallels.3* It will be seen that one of the most difficult questions in a classification of Hebrew parallelisms is bound up with the use of the accents. The Chinese system differs from the Hebrew in several respects, not the least important of which is the regularity and constancy with which the accentual system is maintained.
A parallelism of • grammar or syntax also characterizes Chinese poetry. It demands that the single words in two suc- cessive verses shall correspond exactly not only according to their position in the stichoi, but also according to their gram- matical and syntactical category. For each noun, pronoun, and adjective of the first stichoi, the same grammatical value must stand in the identical place in the second :
(On-the) mountain (the) Sun quickly (towards) the West sinks, (On-the) sea (the) Moon slowly (towards) the East rises.35
Another rule assists this regularity. The fact that in Chinese each word is indicated by a sign or character helps to bring to light the many-sided and changeful correspondence of the terms and the feet of the stichoi ; and the use of ideographic determinatives oftentimes of itself indicates to the eye the sim- ilarity of parallel word-concepts and word-classes. Moreover, the characters are arranged deliberately by the poet in artistic harmony. This device may be called parallelism of word-signs. It is peculiar to the Chinese, finding no counterpart in Hebrew,^®
Parallelism of thought and figure, however, brings Chinese
34 i I Therefore in the 8 line strophe with 7 foot verses, the rule is that the unequal syllables, namely, the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th, may have an optional tone, while in the equal, namely the 2nd, 4th, and 6th, the tones must exchange with each other, so that when the 2nd syllable has an equal or even tone, the 4th must have an unequal, the 6th an equal, or vice versa. Moreover, in 2nd and 3rd, 4th and 5th, 6th and 7th verses, the corresponding equal syllables agree exactly in tone, and the first verse must correspond exactly to the 8th. In five foot verses, the first syllable of each verse stands at the option of the poet; for all the others, a rigid schematic rule exists. ' ' Heilmann, Chinesische LyriTc vom ISten Jahrhundert v. Chr. bis zur Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1905), pp. xxviiff. ; Grube, Die chinesische Liter- atur, in Die orientalischen Literaturen (Leipzig. 1906), p. 341. See also below, Scarborough's remarks on antithetic parallelism.
35 Grube, p. 342 ; Heilmann, p. xxvii.
36Gabelantz. Z. f. VoelTcerpsych. X (1878), 230ff. "It is worthy of observation that out of this parallelism of form, the custom arises often- times to write without punctuation. The Greek also does not need punctu- ation for his Gorgias. " Norden, Die antiJce Kunstprosa, II, 8-24.
Vol, 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 71
poetry within the same domain as the Hebrew: two successive verses, rather stichoi, are joined together by a parallelism of ideas or of figures, which rests upon the condition either of similarity or of opposition; it is not merely formal or external, but is internal parallelism. Chinese differs from the Hebrew only in that the peculiar structure of the language generally and the strict observance of the law of syntactic parallelism men- tioned above, render the synonymity much closer and more obvious; it is usually word for word, the one written opposite the other :
The white stone, unfractured, ranks as most precious; The blue lily, unblemished, emits the finest fragrance.
The heart, when it is harassed, finds no place of rest;
The mind, in the midst of bitterness, thinks only of grief.
Be not discontented, though your land be narrow, and your garden small ;
Be not disturbed, though your family be poor, and your means con- tracted. »
Antithetic parallelism is a favorite Chinese motif. It is
commonly perfect both in sentiment and terms, ''The Chinese
is a stylistic connoisseur of the most delicate sensibilities, and
greatly admires sharp antitheses." The symmetrical form,
wherein term answers for term, is even more regular than in
Hebrew. As in the Proverbs of Solomon, so in Chinese maxims
and aphorisms antithetic parallelism is used most extensively:^^
With few cravings of the heart, the health is flourishing. With many anxious thoughts, the constitution decays.
Unsullied poverty is always happy; Impure wealth brings many sorrows.
Consider not any vice as trivial and therefore practice it. Eegard not any virtue as unimportant and therefore neglect it.
Prosecuting virtue is like ascending a steep; Pursuing vice, like rushing down a precipice.
It might be noted here that there are several varieties of parallelism in Chinese proverbs. Antithetic parallelism is known as the tui-tzU and is formed according to strictly tech-
3T Davis, Maxims (London, 1823), cited on p. 412 of On Poetry of Chinese.
72 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
nical rules,^* Another form of proverbs wherein antithesis plays
a part is lien-chii, or "connected sentences";^'' while a third
class of parallistic couplet-proverbs is composed of those that
rhyme. *°
Antithetic parallelism appears also in general poetry, where
it is used less often than for aphorisms and wise sayings. But
it is found to exist in every degree, from the strong mutual
opposition of all the corresponding words in a couplet — the
"complete parallelism" of Gray*^ — to that of some of them —
"incomplete parallelism."
Look on life as an uncertain guest, that cannot remain; Believe that death is fixed, and cannot be escaped.
When the region of the heart is at rest, the body too enjoys ease; But the passions being excited, then disorders of the body arise.
Supinely gazing, now I vent my sighs.
Now, bending down, in tears my sorrow flows;
The wealthy alien claims connubial ties, The needy kinsman no relation knows.42
38 Scarborough, Collection of Chinese Proverbs (Shanghai, 1875, pp. x-xi). "A tui-tzu may contain any number of words, but the most fre- quent number is seven in each line. It must be so written that the order of the tones in the first line shall be, firslily deflected, secondly even, and thirdly deflected; in the second line, firstly even, secondly deflected, and thirdly even, or vice-versa. Should the first, third or fifth characters violate this rule, it is of no consequence ; the second, fourth, and the sixth cannot be allowed to do so. It is essential also that the last character in the first line should be in a deflected tone, and the last in the second line, in an even tone. The same characters may not be repeated in either line, and it is essential that there should be an antithesis, as well in the sense as in the tones, of the words composing the two lines of the couplet. It is also a rule that particles must be placed in antithesis to particles; and nouns, verbs, etc., to nouns, verbs, etc. ' ' .
39 The proverbs of the class of ' * connected sentences ' ' are very plenti- ful; they are of various lengths, of different styles of composition, and are informal in all else but the corresponding number of words in each line. There is generally a sharp antithesis between the first and second lines :
"The poor must not quarrel with the rich; Nor the rich with magistrates. "
"It is not hard to talk about good works. But to do them." Compare on this last example, Amos 9.12b.
40 The couplet-proverbs which rhyme are detected only by the native ear. The explanation of this is that in order to rhyme to a native ear, the tones must correspond.
41 See below, in chapter on Parallelism in Amos, p. 137.
*2 It is imperative to bear in mind that these are translations ; as in Hebrew the parallelism is evident through the translations; but the savor of the original cannot be retained.
^oi^- !•] Newman. — Parallelism in Afnos. 73
Synthetic parallelism is the most common species in Chinese poetry. Here, as in Hebrew, each word and line does not exactly answer to its fellow as either equivalent or opposite in sense; but there is a marked correspondence and equality in the con- struction of the lines, such as nouns answering to nouns, verb to verb, member to member, negative to negative, interrogative to interrogative. As in Hebrew, synonymous and antithetic par- allelisms are generally accompanied by synthetic, and are rarely found without it; correspondence of construction even stands alone without correspondence in equivalency or opposition. Synthetic parallelism pervades Chinese poetry universally and forms its foremost characteristic feature ; it is the source of much "artificial beauty." It also presents difficult problems of prosody; and there is doubt whether it deserves classification as a branch of parallelism.
Thus alone and dauntless he walked — all confident in his courage; Thus proud and reserved — he must needs possess high talents, Courage — as if Tszeloong, the hero, had re-appeared in the world; Talents — as though Lepih, the poet had again been born.
A hundred — a thousand — ten thousand projects are hard to accom- plish. Five times — six times — ten years very soon arrive. When you have found a day to be idle — be idle for a day; When you have met Avith three cups to drink — then drink your three cups.43
The point at which synthetic parallelism shades into prose, and deserves the appellation "near-prose," is as uncertain as in Hebrew. For this constructional parallelism of sentences extends to prose compositions and is frequent in fine writing, wun-chang, which is a measured prose, though not written line beside line like poetry; it savors somewhat of Arabic rhymed- prose, though it emploj's no rhyme. Indeed, synonymous, an- tithetic, and constructive parallelisms are met with occasionally in every description of writing that rises above the style of mere conversation or narrative. Davis quotes the following prose sentence as an instance wherein coincidence of sentence
43 This suggests the alternate parallelism of the Hebrew. These ex- amples are taken from the poem of The Fortunate Union, cited by Davis, and from Cranmer-Byng, A Feast of Lanterns (London, 1916), p. 31.
74 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
and a hint of parallelism occur; it is to be noted, however, that three and not two parts, or stichoi, are present :
The highest order of men (called Shing, perfect or inspired) are vir- tuous, or wise, independently of instruction; the middle class of men (Heen, good or moral) are so after instruction; the lowest order (Yu, stupid or worthless) are vicious in spite of instruction.
Another question arises with reference to the unit of Chinese parallelism. The couplet, as in Hebrew, seems to be the funda- mental form. "This may be accounted for by the fact that couplet making is a favorite amusement of the educated classes and that couplets when well turned, are objects of their intense admiration."** Dodd holds that the poem of four lines which had its vogue from 699 a.d. is the unit of Chinese poetry.*^ But in the majority of poems the authors leave sufficient space between pairs of lines to indicate that they intended couplet- groupings ; often, however, the series is in fours.*" Though this point has not yet apparently been emphasized in a discussion of Chinese poetry, it may be stated in view of the majority of distich formations that the basic unit of even the four-line poems, and of Chinese poems in general, is the couplet.*^
The use of parallelism in Chinese offers additional evidence relative to the origin and age of parallelism. The oldest
44 ' ' The Chinese are so fond of their parallelisms that the most com- mon decorations of rooms, halls and temples, are ornamented labels hung opposite to each other, or side by side, and called Tuy-leen, Avhich has precisely the meaning of the English term. These are sometimes inscribed on coloured paper, sometimes carved on wood, and distinguished by paint- ing and gilding, but always in pairs." Davis, p. 418.
*^ Chinese Poems (London, 1912), p. 21, in remarks on "Technique of Chinese Poetry. ' '
46 Bethge, Die chinesische Floete (Leipzig, 1910).
47 A suggestion of a form in Chinese poetry similar to the long swiiig- ing lines of Arabic rhymed prose minus the rhyme, and similar to several lines in Amos 3.12, etc., may be found in the following instances:
' ' From the Pine Forest the azure dragon ascends to the Milky Way ; From the Dryandra cordata, the crimson phoenix aspires to the borders of the variegated clouds."
"Experience and discernment of the human passions may both be called learning; Deep and clear insight into the ways of the world also constitute subtle genius. ' '
"Fame and ambition themselves must have their intervals of repose;
Eetirement and leisure are, after all, preferable to labor and
anxiety. ' '
There is the same correspondence of terms found in Arabic rhymed prose,
and in several Hebrew passages; these passages seem to hover near the
edge of prose.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 75
authentic documents of Chinese poetry in which parallelism appears are supposed to be nearly three thousand years old, and even then the parallelism was so intricately developed that it can hardly be called a primitive system. "In no other lan- 'guage could parallelism be carried to such heights as in Chinese ; the exact equality in the number of words which form each line of a poetical couplet, and the almost total absence of recurring particles that encumber European languages, admit of its adop- tion with peculiar effect" and its maintenance despite the rise of metre and rhyme. The question needs analysis and careful consideration to determine whether such parallelism represents relatively a lower form of poetical evolution than the numerous forms of Islamic poetry and of modern literature.
Japanese poetry, closely akin to Chinese, betrays a rather frequent parallelism, but follows no regular method.*^ Its essential rule is that every poem must consist of alternate lines of five and seven syllables, with generally an extra line of seven syllables to mark its close. The parallelism used in Japanese poetry as an occasional ornament, suggests the use of the un- rhymed trochaic measure of Hiawatha, which seems calculated to give such parallel verses their due effect.*'' Examples of Japanese parallelism are found scattered through many poems:
I call her every day, till daylight fades away,
I call her every night, till dawn restores the light.^o
All the mighty gods assembled, All the mighty gods held council, Thousand myriads held high council. ...
O'er the middle land of Eeed-plains, O'er the land of waving Eice-fields.si
Perhaps it was through the influence of the Chinese that parallelism crept into the Japanese ; it may be, however, that the universal tendency towards some form of symmetrical structure, despite the asymmetrical nature of Japanese poetry, dictated its appearance therein.
48 Chamberlain, p. 3.
*9 See remarks on Finnish poetry, p. 62, and on Hiawatha, p. 67.
50 Chamberlain, p. CO ; He and She ; Song.
51 Zftid., Elegy on the death of Prince Hinami (689 a.d.), p. 71.
76 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
NEAE-EASTERN PARALLELISM
Egyptian Parallelism
The similarity of Egyptian to Hebrew poetry has been noted by several investigators; so close is the affinity that the lay reader who meets with skilful translations of Egj-ptian poems will immediately associate them with biblical productions ;^^ they are wholh'' unlike those of the majority of the western nations.'^^ Though the history of the ancient Egyptians was written in a dry and uninteresting style, the poetry was more highly advanced;^* it will be seen, however, that in general even the poetical compo- sitions Avere restricted in scope and variety, and that they failed to attain the standards not only of Indo-Germanic peoples, but also of other Semitic peoples. For this relative sterility, the antiquity of Egyptian poetry is responsible.^^ Its beginnings are lost in the mists of the past; though the oldest monuments betray the existence of a literature fairly rich in images and language, it bears the stamp of primitive origins. Hence is it valuable in a comparative study of the historical background of Hebrew and other Semitic poetry.
52 Ebers, ' ' Alliteration u. Reim in Altaegyptischen, ' ' Noi-d und Sued, I, 106. "The old Egyptian can be compared with the Hebrew text minus punctuation"; also, "Der Klang d. Altaegyptischen u. d. Reim," Z. f. Aeg. Sprache, XV (1877), p. 43.
53 Budge, Literature of the Ancient Egyptians (London, 1914), p. 241.
54 Stern, Becords of Past, VI, 127 ; Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, 1, 132-133.
55 Egyptian poetry soon became the victim of fixed laws, which com- pressed it into an immovable mould. The conservatism of the Orient restrained free expansion. See Wiedemann, "Die Anfaenge dramatischer Poesie im alten Aegypten," Melanges Nicole (Geneva, 1905), p. 562. In Mahaffy, Prolegomena to Ancient History (London, 1871), p. 411, the following strictures on Egyptian literary style occur: "An honest critic must therefore confess that a sense of form in literature, such as the Greeks possessed so perfectly, is almost totally absent from Egyptian writings. Its symmetry consists in wearisome repetitions of formulae, while the poetry is a clumsy parallelism which so frequently wearies in Hebrew, but which is so often there, though seldom in Egyptian WTitings, the vehicle for striking effects. This absence of form is not a shock in the everyday letters or documents of judicial character, etc., but when we turn to the properly poetical or more especially those which treat of noble subjects we feel a very great inadequacy of the expression as com- pared with the thought."
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 77
Metre exists in Egyptian poems ; the short verses into which the poems fall seem to indicate this; since, however, only the consonants and not the vowels are known, it is impossible to state the character of this metre.^** A favorite device of old Egyptian is alliteration, a trait apparent in almost all early literatures.'^' Rhyme also is present; this is not a regular re- current rhyme at the end of the verses, ' but an ornament of poetical speech introduced because of the pleasing character of similar musical sounds, and the desire to bring into harmony the sound of the poetry and its sense. The rhymes occur mostly in the magical, never in the narrative texts.'^^
Perhaps the earliest stage of Egyptian poetry was repetition. It abounds in identity of phrase and sound, both throughout complete sentences and in the opening and closing words of a line. These repetitions must have comforted the Egyptian though they irritate the modem ear. The custom became so popular that it finally was fixed as a law of poetry; a thought which in modern poetry is expressed merely through the verb, received in Egyptian its linguistic expression through the repe- tition of identical, or similar roots, first as a verb, then as a noun.'^^ This repetition, which at first may have been maintained in exactly the same words and forms over long periods of text, both in magical formulas, songs, incantations, and in prayers, later was varied and became incremental repe- tition; this incremental repetition, wherein part of the line was repeated, but either the end or the beginning was changed, contained the seed of parallelism in the same way that the repetition of the introductory or closing words of a verse was
50 Erman, Die aegyptische Literatur in Die orientalischen Uteraturen (Leipzig, 1906), p. 29.
57 See Ebers, Alliteration, cited above; also Ebers, "Ein Strophisch- angeordneter Text von einer Mumienbinde," Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XVI (1878), p. 50-51, gives numerous examples of alliteration.
58 See Ebers, "Der Klang," p. 45.
59 The poet does not say, "I smell," but "I smell the odor," or still better, "my nose smells the odor." Eeiteration is found on every side in Egyptian literature: see the Sepulchral Inscription of Panhesi, wherein phrases descriptive of the Sun God's, triumphal progress through heaven are heaped up interminably; Stern, XII, 138; Litany of Ea, VIII, 103, 119, etc.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (London, 1897), p. 44.
78 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
the foundation for rhyme/'" Egyptian and, as will be seen, Babylonian-Assyrian and Sumerian poetry afford substantiation in the field of Semitic literatures for the theory that the chron- ological evolution of poetry is first, repetition, or reiteration; second, incremental repetition, and third, parallelism.
Egyptian poetry uses all three devices, particularly the last- named. Its parallelism is "uralt""^ and dominates Egyptian literature: "Wherever an Egyptian speaks in elevated style, the parallelism shows itself infallibly." The poetry delighted in synonyms and antitheses; it even transcended Hebrew in its ** rhythmic arrangements, in the balance of lines, the close cor- respondence of clause to clause and the strict observance of rhythmic laws."*''^ Breasted affirms, indeed, that parallelism is the usual form of Egyptian poetr3^''^
A special mechanical device distinguishes this poetry: red points stand at the end of each verse and mark the stichoi which are combined into couplets, triplets, or still larger groups. In hymns to the gods, in songs of praise which celebrate the deeds of kings, and in similar compositions in hieroglyphic script, the stichoi are clearly divided ; while in papyri in hieratic script the verse division through the red dots serves to show the chain of parallelism; the stichoi themselves are as patent as in the book of Job. These red dots function also as musical marks for the support of the reciter or the singer."* They are not always employed, however, in poetry: the Dirge of Menephtah is not divided by red dots, although it is clearly poetic in style.**^
While nothing seems to be present- in Egyptian comparable to the horizontal lines which in Assyrian-Babylonian parallelism mark off the couplets, rubric writing helps to mark off the
60 Ebers, Alliteration, I, 110.
61 Erman, op. cit., p. 29.
62 Stern, VI, 127.
es Biblical World, I, 55.
64 The red points are referred to often in works on Egyptian litera- ture: Spiegelberg, "Der Siegeshymnus des Merneptah, " Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XXXIV (1896), p. Iff., illus., p. 10; Erman, "Gebete eines ungerecht Ver- folgten u. andere Ostiake," Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XXXVIII (1900), p. 19ff.; Turajeff, "Zwei Hymnen an Thoth>" Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XXXIII (1895), p. 120ff. The red dots in this poem do not stand above the line as else- where ; Cook, ' ' Hymn to the Nile, ' ' Bee. of Past, IV, lOSff .
65 Birch, ' ' Dirge of Menephtah, ' ' Bee. of Past, IV, 49ff .
Vol. 1.] Newman.- — Parallelism in Amos. 79
stanzas; and the regular formation of numerous poems points to the use of regular strophie arrangements in ancient Egyptian poems. Between the various stanzas, there is rarely much inter- parallelism, though there is much repetition and parallelism within the confines of each strophe.*"' Several poems character- ized by stanzas do not show completely regular form ; the number of lines in each varies widely. The Hymn to the Nile contains fourteen stanzas, of ten stichoi each on the average, but the number of lines ranges from eight to fourteen.''^
Examples of the various types of parallelism are abundant. Synonymous parallelism occurs oftentimes over long stretches, though it appears most frequently in a mixture of the several tj^pes. One of the finest and longest hymns betraying parallel- ism is the Hymn to Amon Ra which has come down from the Twentieth Dynasty;*'® the parallelism here suggests the Hebrew, but is not thoroughly maintained and is subject to great laxity.
Lord of Power, he seizeth the sceptre,
Lord of Protection who holdeth the scourge
He casteth down his enemies by flames of fire, His eye it is which overthroweth the wicked.
The one is he who forms the existent,
The sole one is he who fashions the substance.
Men went forth from his eyes;
Gods arose at the command of his lips.
66 The Hymn to Amon-Ra falls into five unequal parts, and the strophes are shown by the rubrics. See Stern, Z. f. Aeg. Spr. (1873), p. 76. Ebers, ibid., XV, 51, says that the text falls into three sections, divided by an external sign, and that each part contains five sections. Strophie formation is also found in Ebers, "Ein strophisch-angeordneter Text von einer Mumienbinde, " Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XVI (1878), pp. 50-55. See Wiedemann, in Melanges Nicole, pp. 569-570, on strophe and dance.
67 Cook, loc. cit. In this poem, the first word of each strophe is writ- ten in red letters, and each also has a red point at the close. The number of lines in each of the fourteen stanzas runs thus: 11, 8, 8, 10, 10, 8, 10, 11, 12, 10, 9, 8, 14, 8. Compare number of lines in Amos 1.2-2.6, below. The resemblance of this poem to several of the earliest Hebrew poems has been pointed out by Cook in his Introduction to the Book of Psalms, and Notes on Exodus, in the Speaker's Commentary on the Bible.
68 See Stern, loe. cit.; Goodwin, "Hymn to Amon-Ra," Bee. of Past, II, 127ff.; it is supposed to date from the fourteenth century B.C. (Ebers, Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XV, 45). For other examples see "The Stele of Beka," Bee. of Past, X, 7; "The Foundation of the Temple of the Sun of Heli- opolis," ibid., XII, 51ff.; Breasted, Aiicient Becords of Egypt (Chicago, 1906), 4 vols., passim.
80 University of California Publications. [Sem.Phil.
An example of a poem from the Old Kingdom (third millen- nium B.C.) follows:
No beggar was there in my days; No hungry in my time.
The Song of the Harper, composed in the Eighteenth Dynasty, is "very remarkable for the form of old Egyptian poetry which like that of the Hebrew delights in a sublimer language, in parallelisms and antitheses, and in the ornament of a burden"; it seems to be rhythmic, having verses of equal length ;^'' exam- ples taken from it at random, even through a rhymed translation, show the parallelism :
As Ka rises up every morn, And Turn every evening doth set.
So women conceive and bring forth, And men without ceasing beget.
Each soul in its turn draweth breath. Each man born of woman sees Death.^o
Examples of antithetic parallelism are frequent :
His hands reward those Avhom he cherishes, But his enemy he plunges into the flames.^i
Ea is mighty, weak are the godless, Ra is exalted, lowly are the godless.
Synthetic parallelism is most frequent in Egyptian as in all other literatures in which the parallelistic motif is current, though often fairly close synonymity is present. The follow- ing example gives evidence of the interplay of couplet and triplet formation, while monostichs are also at hand :
69 stern, VI, 127. The length of the verses can be seen from this transliteration :
Ured urui pu md
Pa shau nefcr Icheper
Khetv. her sebt ter reh Bd
Jamdu her at r ast-sen. See also Stern, Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XI (1873), p. 58ff. ; Duemichen, Historische Inschrifien, II, 40; and others, among them Brugseh (see below).
TORawlinson, I, 143.
71 Compare Ps. 20.8, 9. Several poems have refrains similar to the Psalms.
Vol.1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 81
Honor his majesty in your hearts,
He is "Sa" of the hearts, His eyes search each body,
He is the suu who sees with his rays,.
He illuminates the two lands with the sundisk.
He makes verdant more than the great Nile, He fills the two lands with strength.
He is the life which cools the nostrils,
He gives food to those who are in his train, He nourishes those who follow his way.
He it is who causes what is, He is the Chnum of each body."2 Again :
How gentle is this in the hearts of the people. How beautiful is this before the gods.
Thou makest mountains of Osiris,
Thou adornest him who is before the dwellers of the West.
Excellent for his deeds.
Mighty in the naming of his name. ...
I gave the priests to know what concerned them, I put right the ignorant of his ignorance.
I strengthen who were in terror, I thrust back the evil from them.73
Though the sjaionymity and correspondence of terms is close here, other passages could be cited wherein the same species of constructive distich formation as in Hebrew obtains.
The question of synthetic parallelism bears upon the relation of Egyptian prose to poetr^'. The transition from one to the other seems to have been easy because of the looseness of Egyp- tian poetic structure. In a discussion of the hymns, Lefebure has remarked :^* "The Egyptians cared little for the composition of their poems ; instead of grouping the details to produce a
72 Translated by Breasted, Biblical World, I, 55. Compare Ps. 146.6-10.
73 Ibid., Hymn found in the Temple of Osiris at Abydos.
'!* Traduction compares des hymnes au soleil (Paris, 1868), p. 15.
82 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
desired effect, they made scarcely any effort to combine them in any order ; they follow the whims of the feeling and memory. ' ' Psychologically such stylistic transition may perhaps be related to another unaccountable peculiarity in Egyptian style, the practice of abrupt changes from the first or second to the third person, with as sudden a return from the third to the first or second, and an equally abrupt change of tense.^^ It is supposed that these startling transitions for which no discernible reason has been discovered, were viewed as elegances of style according to Egyptian taste. They occur largely in the more ambitious literary flights, and may have been a trait of the ' ' fine writers. ' ' Mahaffy is of the opinion that the loose and haphazard character of Egyptian poetical construction may be a key to similar loose- ness in the Hebrew. He sees in Egyptian as in Hebrew com- positions, the first step towards a loose blank verse and irregular caesuras. "These cadences are not necessary, but only occur when the author warms to his subject, just as the Hebrew authors pass from prose to poetry, a feature common to Indian and Chinese plays also. "^"^ Mahaffy may err in viewing par- allelism as a stage prior to blank verse; it may be immediately prior to the unrhymed saf of the Arabic, or also preliminary to rhymed and even strictly metrical verses, as Arabic poetry seems to demonstrate.^'^ The erratic character of Egyptian parallelism raises another question : Was parallelism an in- stinctive or a cultivated motif among Egyptian poets? Psycho- logically it has been noted that a high state of lyric exaltation tends to produce balance and rhythmic repetition of thought. In Hebrew, it will be seen that the prophetic parallelism is at once apparently spontaneous and carefully chiselled. In Egyp- tian, it is probable that the poetry, being nearer to its primitive origins, embodies more of the unconscious element ; it is difficult, however, to believe that in the well coordinated hymns and songs of praise, no deliberate artifice entered. It may be con- cluded then that Egyptian parallelism has emerged from the
75 Birch, Bee. of Past, II, ii.
76 Mahaffy, p. 412.
77 See below, on the relation of rhymed prose to HebreAV parallelism, and to later Arabic metres.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 83
instinctive stage, and has progressed along the scale of poetical evolution towards the finished and intricate Hebrew parallel- ism.^^
At any rate, in the late Egyptian poetry of the Greek-Roman period Junker has found well developed devices in a number of texts which were hitherto regarded as stereotyped and formless. These small festal songs and hymns from Dendera show metre, strophe, and parallelism to a degree reached in only a few Egyptian compositions. Refrains are present and responsion plays an important role. The metre seems to be found in two, three, and four stresses or accents, though it is difficult to dis- cover the laws which govern it."
An example of four two-line strophes, with a two-line refrain, wherein parallelism is consistently maintained, the verses having two stresses, is present in the following :
The Pharaoh comes to dance,
He comes to sing (to you).
Oh, his Mistress, see how he dances,
Oh, Bride or the Horus, see how he skips.
The Pharaoh whose hands are washed.
Whose fingers are clean.
Oh, his Mistress, see how he dances,
Oh, Bride of the Horus, see how he skips.
When he sacrifices it to you,
This mnw-vessel,
Oh, his Mistress, see how he dances, Oh, Bride of the Horus, see how he skips.
His heart is true, upright his body,
No darkness is in his breast,
Oh, his Mistress, see how he dances,
Oh, Bride of the Horus, see how he skips.
An example of Egyptian repetition with incremental changes
is found in this :
His abhorrence is the sadness of your Ka,
His abhorrence is your hunger and thirst.
His abhorrence is the pain of the Sun-Goddess.
78 Parallelism assists in the exegesis of Egyptian poetry. It is often employed for this purpose: Breasted, Be Hymnis in Solem (Berlin, 1894), pp. 4-5; Brugsch, "Das Gedicht vom Harf enspieler, " Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XXXII (1894), 123-134; Spiegelberg, Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XXXIV (1896), 18.
79 Junker, "Poesie aus der Spaetzeit," Z. f. Aeg. Spr., XLIII (1906), lOlff.
84 TJniversity of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
An example of a refrain at the head of the stanza, so that in a sense it becomes a formula, may be found herein :
He comes to dance, He comes to sing.
With his bread in his hand,
He does not let spoil the bread on his hand,
His food is clean in his arms,
For it comes from the eye of Horus,
And he cleanses his sacrifice to you. He comes to dance, *
He comes to sing, >
His dbh.t is of twn,
His basket is of rushes.
His sistrum of gold.
His mnl.t of southern green stone;
His feet hurry to the mistress of the jubilation,
He dances for her, and she likes what he does.so
The following is a Procession Song which has survived in fragmentary form ; it consisted originally of stanzas in each of which an antiphonal couplet preceded a quatrain, and couplets and quatrains respectively began with the same word. Of the four parallel verses of the strophes, the last three contain the explanation and continuation of the first. The verses have three stresses, excepting the last of each strophe, which has only two. Junker makes use of parallelism and interparallelism to fill up some of the great gaps in the poem; though the parts which have survived do not suffice to afford a basis for recon- struction, it is easy to see that the structure of the mutilated stanzas, three and four, agrees with stanzas one and two.^^ This general principle is helpful in a reconstruction of the Amos Doom Song on the basis of stanzas of equal length and type.
1. Oh how fine and pleasant when the Golden One thrives, When the Golden One blooms and thrives. To you jubilates the Heaven with its Gods, Both Sun and Moon adore you. The Gods pay honor to you, The Goddesses sing joyfully to you.
80 Ibid., Fourth section of a song series in honor of the Goddess of Wine, p. 104.
81 Ibid., p. 127. As the song stands, the third and fourth stanzas have three instead of four main lines as in the first and second.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 85
2. Oh how
To YOU JUBILATES the whole globe; In joy all animals dance; Egypt and the lands adore you, Even unto Nenet at its four ends.
3. Oh how
To YOU JUBILATE
To you shout the foreign lands.
4. Oh how
To YOU JUBILATE all men,
SuMERiAN Parallelism
In the Sumerian literature which forms much of the liturgy of the Babylonian religion, parallelism appears.^^ These Sumer- ian texts, some of which date back nearly to 2900 B.C., are similar in style to many Egyptian compositions. The interplay of repetition, incremental repetition, and parallelism tends to place Sumerian poetry low in the scale of historical evolution ; in the character of its parallelism, however, it stands slightly higher than the Egyptian, for the couplet formation which is frequent in the later Babylonian-Assyrian, now begins to make itself clear and definite.^^
The unending repetitions of Sumerian literature are perhaps its most noticeable characteristic : in the adorations, where terms of praise are heaped up, while the refrains occur for long periods in identically the same words; in the incantations and magical texts, where repetitions are most numerous ; in the hymns, where
82 For examples of parallelism in Sumerian literature, see Haupt, * ' Die Sumerisch-Akkadische Sprache," Intern. Orient. Cong. (Berlin, 1881) I, 2, 273; Vanderburgh, Sumerian Hymns (New York, 1908), passim. Reis- ner, Sumerische-Bahylonisclie Hymnen (Berlin, 1896), passim.
83 Parallelism in the Sumerian is striking in view of the fact that it may be a non-Semitic language, though of course deeply influenced by Semitic civilization. Hymn to Adad, Vanderburgh, p. 42. Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms (Paris, 1909) ; also Babylonian Litur- gies (Paris, 1913), p. 59.
86 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
incremental repetition with variation at the beginning or the end of the lines is a regular trait.
The lofty one — ^when he bellowed, he shattered the mountain, The lofty one — when he bellowed, he shattered the mountain, He named of good name — ^when he bellowed, he shattered the moun- tain. The Eecorder of the Universe — when he bellowed, he shattered the mountain.^*
Examples of incremental repetition are plentiful. The fol- lowing is taken from an incantation with ethical contents :
Has he set a son at variance with a father? Has he set a father at variance with a son?
Has he set a daughter at variance with a mother? Has he set a mother at variance with a daughter?
Has he set a daughter-in-law at variance with a mother-in-law? Has he set a mother-in-law at variance with a daughter-in-law ?85
Has he set a brother at variance with a brother?
Has he set a friend at variance with a friend?
Has he set a companion at variance with a companion?
Has he not set free a prisoner, or loosed a captive? Has he not let a prisoner see the light?
Has he said of a prisoner, "Seize him" or of a bondman, "Bind him"?
Identical refrains or endings are frequent; as in the first quotation cited, and as in the Hj^mn to Tammuz :^^
I am queen, my consort abides no more,
My Damu " abides no more,
Dagalushumgalanna abides no more,
The lord of Aralu abides no more,
The lord of Durgurgurru abides no more,
and so forth, twelve times in all.
Though the couplet structure and triplet combinations seem to adhere at moments to some regularity, distichs wherein the second stichos repeats in different words and varied images the
84 Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament (New York^ 1912), p. 171.
85 Note the inversion here which the Arabic * aks employs. See below.
86 Rogers, p. 183.
Vol, 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Aynos. 87
thought of the first, after the fashion of the eloquent Hebrew
style, are relatively rare. Here is an isolated example :
Since the canal is gone, the flood overflows, Since the clay is gone, the shore is destroyed.87
The development of the Sumerian liturgy appears to have traversed many centuries. The shir originally was sung to musical instruments, and was marked by insistently repeated refrains, and a certain rhythmical motif which served to dis- tinguish it from prose. At first the liturgies consisted of a single song, but these later gave way to a succession of shorter melodies. In early worship, it appears to have been customary to bow and sway the body; perhaps this may have assisted in the development of a rhythmical distich formation. Double and single lines served to mark off the divisions of the songs, but these have no relation to couplet or strophic divisional marks, such as the horizontal lines found later in Babylonian- Assyrian ; they were rather musical aids. The Sumerian liturgy seems to reveal an effort towards metre ; each line is an element in itself, perhaps the basis for the later usage both in the Babylonian- Assyrian, and Hebrew poetry. Lines were sometimes divided into hemistichs; but no regular system of prosody appears to have existed.^® Clearly then the Sumerian literature deserves recognition as the forerunner of Babylonian- Assyrian ; but the uncertainty which enshrouds its various phenomena permits only an indication of the direction in which its evolution tended.
Babylonian-Assyrian Parallelism The wealth of material at hand in the Babylonian-Assyrian literature, however, makes it possible to lay down certain general laws of poetics and prosody. In it both rhyme and alliteration are used.^** Metre and strophe are present, and will be dis- cussed below. Of primary importance here, however, is the abundant use of parallelism.''^
87 Langdon, Bahyl. Liturgies, p. 117.
88 Ibid., Introduction, p. xlvff.
89 Budge, "Communication upon the Fourth Tablet of the Creation Series," FSB A, VI (1884), 5-9; Casanowicz, Paronomasia in the Olden Times (Boston, 1894), p. 24.
90 It is not generally known that one of the first to note parallelism in Assyrian-Babylonian was Eberhard Schrader in Bie Hoellenfahrt der
88 University of California Puhlications. [Sem, Phil.
The original inscriptions of Babylonian-Assyrian civilization clearly show the form of "poetical works, whereas it has been necessary in the Hebrew to discover it by direct and difficult means. The hymns, prayers, and epic poetry are so written on the tablets that the various types of poetic structure at once become apparent to the eye. In the first place, each verse is written as one complete line; these individual stichoi are shown to be in relation to the preceding or following verse by symmetry' and proximity."'
The second important fact in tablet-writing is that oftentimes two stichoi of poetry are marked off by a horizontal line from other verse-pairs or couplets which are similarly combined. This division into distichs and oftentimes into tristichs was a favorite device with the Babylonians."- Many monuments show this mechanical designation of poetry, and several illustrations in works on Babylonian and Assyrian hymns have reproduced the phenomenon.""* Several questions arise, however, in connec- tion with its extensive usage. It is found in many bilingual
Istar (Giessen, 1874); also in "Semitismus und Babylonismus : Zur Frage nach d. Ursprung des Hebraismus, " Jahrb. f. Protest. Theol., 1, 116ff. Heinrich Gunkel's work on Schoepfung und Chaos (Goettingen, 1895), p. 401, n. 1, brought the question of parallelism and metre to the attention of Heinrich Zimmern whose numerous essays and books have presented the results of careful investigation on the two points. See "Ein vor- lauefiges Wort ueber Babyl. Metrik," ZA, VIII, 121; X, 1, 292; XI, 83, 339; XII, 382. Zimmern 's suggestion, ZA, VIII, 122, that editors and translators should show graphically the parallelism, metre, and strophes of poems has found echo in the work of several writers: Pinckert, Hymnen und Gebeten an Nebo (Leipzig, 1907), p. 13; Jensen, " Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen, " Keilinschrif. Bibliothek, VI, Teil 1, s. xiii; Mar- tin, Textes religieux assyriens et babyl., Biblioth. de I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, CXXX (1900), p. xxii; Hussey, Some Sumerian-Babylonian Hymns of the Berlin Collection (Chicago, 1907), p. 13; Gray. The Somas Beligious Texts (Univ. of Chicago, 1908), p. 11: "Throughout the hymn is found a parallelism which is strikingly similar to the parallelism of the Hebrew poetry, and which corresponds in general to the paragraphs."
91 Zimmern, ZA, VIII, 123.
82 Zimmern, ZA, XI, 87.
93 Bruennow, "Assyrian Hymns," ZA, IV, Iff.; V, 55ff. ; these two hymns to Shamash and Merodach, and a hymn to Nebo, and various smaller fragments * ' belong to a well-marked class, the distinctive feature of which is the horizontal line, occurring after every second or occasionally third line of the text, and generally, though not always marking divisions in the sense. ' ' Bruennow 's translations, however, do not demonstrate this practice. See also Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Beligious Texts (Leip- zig. 1895), I, passim. It is found on tablets, K. 3474, 8232, 3312, 3182, 2650, 8233, 3459, 8298, 8236, etc.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism hi Amos. 89
hypms, the first line being Sumerian, and hence non-Semitic, the second line Assyrian. Did then this practice arise through the repetition of the same thought in different languages ; moreover, did Babylonian-Assyrian parallelism originate from the same custom? This hypothesis is weak, for in reply it may be said that the horizontal lines occur most frequently where the two stichoi are in the Assyrian language, and where the thought though the same, is expressed in different terms in each stiehos. Again it must be noted that the horizontal lines are used not merely to designate couplet and triplet divisions, but oftentimes they mark off groups of two, three, four, five and more lines ;^* though in several tablets they occur with such regularity at the end of every two lines that the inscriptions have an almost striped appearance, and though in others they mark off equal strophes at regular intervals, at times they are employed indis- criminately without scheme or plan. It may however he asked : Since the Babylonian-Assyrian originals used dividing lines to mark off distichs and larger combinations, may not the originals of Hebrew poetry, even including prophetic literature, have had a similar device to differentiate poetry from prose, and above all to mark off the couplets and strophes?
The question of the unit of Babylonian poetry has concerned several investigators. It is evident that strophes exist in the compositions.^^ Oftentimes these are indicated by the open spaces between the various stanzas, as well as by horizontal lines.'^*' Mueller busies himself with strophes of six, eight, ten, and twelve lines, and neglects entirely the couplet; for him, the normal strophe consists of eight lines.''^ Delitzsch regards the
94 In Craig's editions, II (1897), 14, lines are used in K. 255, obv. col.. I, in the arrangement of4-f-2-|-4-{-2-f4, etc., evidently a regular strophic arrangement built upon the couplet as a unit. But in K. 255 rev. col., I, the combination is %-{-5-\-5-\-^-\-\.
95 Zimmern, Bahylonische Busspsalmen (Leipzig, 1885), p. 66; Lenor- mant, Essai de commentaire des fragments cosmogoniques de Berose (Paris, 1872), p. 458; Haupt, "Die Akkadische Sprache, " p. xxxv to p. 25. Perhaps the most significant works are Mueller, Die Propheten in Hirer wspruenglichen Form: I. Strophenhau und Eesponsion in der Keil- schriftliteratur (Vienna, 1896) ; Delitzsch, Die babyl. Weltschoepfungsepos (Leipzig, 1896), Abh. d. phil-hist. Classe d. Tc. saechs. Ges. d. Wiss., XVII, Num. 11, passim.
96 Delitzsch, p. 68.
97 Mueller, p. 8.
90 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
four-line strophe as the basic form; where without artificiality a complete strophe is not possible, half-strophes of one plus one stichoi may be formed but these, he says, are soon compensated by a second half -strophe if they stand in the midst of a longer strophic arrangement. He groups his text in four stichic com- binations, and pays little heed to the couplet.
Zimmern takes issue with both Delitzsch and Mueller. Not in strophes,* which afford only accidental evidence, but in the verse and the distich is the real basis of Babylonian poetical forms to be found. Mueller overestimates the part which the eight-line strophe plays in the Creation Epic ; Delitzsch also ignores the obvious couplet structure of this poem; Zimmern asserts that the distich combination is vital for a proper under- standing of the text. Herein the nwtif of parallelism plays an all-important role. The tablets show the horizontal lines which designate the couplets only when the two stichoi are bound together by inner reasons, of sense and thought-rhythm.**® This makes an appreciation of parallelism imperative for an under- standing of the meaning of the lines, for the synonymous, anti- thetic, or synthetic relation of the first to the second stichos is a key to an interpretation of the text. From the standpoint of thought, it is apparent that the couplet is the fundamental unit of Babylonian- Assyrian, as it will be found to be of the Hebrew poetry ; it must be remembered however that couplets do not follow each other in unbroken succession, for as the hori- zontal lines and internal data prove, various larger combinations are not onlj^ possible but frequent.
From the standpoint of metre, however, the unit of the poetry is discoverable in the hemistich. Each distich is made up of four quarters; each of these four parts has two tonal accents, or stresses. This quartering is often portrayed by the mechan- ical device of perpendicular lines dividing each hemistich.^" It seems certain that the Babylonians employed consciously a regular metrical scheme, and that they counted and correctly apportioned the number of accents in each hemistich. The tonic
»8 Zimmern, ZA, XI, 86ff.
99 Gunkel, p. 401, n. 1; this occurs on the original tablet (London, Sp. II, 265 a.). See Zimmern, ZA, VIII, 121ff.
^OL. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 91
accentuation stands in close agreement with the Hebrew and
Aramaic methods, and in the strongest contrast to the classical
Arabic.^''" The progress of the scheme of Assyrian-Babylonian
poetry seems then to be from the hemistich to the stichos, to the
couplet or distich, to the strophe or multistich.
Examples of the various types of parallelism are numerous.^"^
Synonymous parallelism is found thus:
Where is thy name not heard? Where not thy decrees? Where are thy images not made? Where are thy temples not founded ?
Where art thou not great? Where art thou not exalted?
Anu, EUil, and Ea have exalted thee,
Among the gods have they increased thy dominion.102
Examples of antithetic parallelism can be found frequently;
the following is taken from the so-called Babylonian Job :
In a moment he is singing and playing,
In an instant he is howling like a complainer.
Now they are hungry and are like a corpse.
Again they are full and are like unto Godjos
100 Zimmern, ZA, XII, 384. He believes also that the similarity of Assyrian-Babylonian metre to the Hebrew may assist in the solution of the riddle of Hebrew verse-construction. See Gray, Forms of Hebrew Poetry, p. 140ff. Martin, p. xxii, discusses the various lengths of the hemistichs; he shows that the two hemistichs are sometimes unequal in length, the shorter being the second, the longer the first. See Zimmern, "Ueber Ehythmus im Babylonischen, " ZA, XII, 382ff; also "Babyl. Hymnen und Gebete, ' ' Der alte Orient, VII, 5 ; and Beitraege zur Kenntnis d. hahylonischen Religion (Leipzig, 1901). Delitzsch, p. 61ff., gives four laws for metrical arrangement of the hemistichs:
1. Each line falls into two half-lines.
2. The second hemistichs are subject to a stricter rhythmical law
than the first.
3. The law of the second hemistichs is that they shall have not
more than two main accents, consisting of two accented syllables, whether long or closed (a voAvel followed by two consonants).
4. The first half -verses are subject to a less strict rhythmical law:
(a) for some, the rule of the second hemistichs is also oper- ative, namely, the demand for two main accents; (b) but the first hemistich can also have three main accents.
101 Zimmern, "Babyl. Hymnen," Der alte Orient, VII, 1905; XIII, 1911. For a bibliography, see Bezold, Bahyl.-Assyr. Litteratur (Leipzig, 1886), pp. 171-186; Zimmern, Der alte Orient, XIII, 32; Koenig, StilistiJc, Bhetorik, PoetiJc (Leipzig, 1900) ; p. 311. Eogers, Cuneiform Parallels, gives excellent translations of many hymns, incantations and epics.
102 Eogers, p. 154, Hymn to Ishtar ; see also p. 159.
103 J&id., p. 164-165.
92 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Examples of synthetic parallelism intermingle with regular
synonymous parallelism :
The sewers of the city shall be thy drink,
The shadows of the walls shall be thy dwelling,
The thresholds shall be thy habitation,
The drunken and the thirsty shall smite thy cheek.i04
Oftentimes there is a kind of alternate parallelism:
In a dispute when I take part
The woman who understands piltum am I;
In a law suit when I take part
The woman who understands the law am I.ios
This is a sign of elementary strophic interparallelistic structure, which is found highly developed in other poems. Several acrostic hymns are at hand, comparable to the Psalms. ^^"^ The practice of antiphonal singing was apparently common, and gave rise to hymns wherein refrains were maintained in identical words for long periods. These repetitions resemble several of the incantation refrains common in Egyptian poetry. The pro- cessional Hymn to Marduk was sung antiphonally, the priest singing the first half, the people responding with the recurrent refrain :
The city cries out to thee "Eest, " may thy house rejoice in thee.
Babylon cries out to thee ' ' Eest, ' ' may thy house rejoice in thee.
The great Anu, father of the gods, cries out to thee * ' Eest at last. ' ' May the mighty mountain, father Bel, cry to thee '.'Rest at last. "i07
Schrader cites several examples of liturgical songs in the
Temple which he affirms were sung antiphonally; the following
is the Song of the Seven Spirits :
(Strophe) Seven are they, seven are they, In the sea's deep, seven are they In the sky's blue, seven are they. In the sea, far down, their birth.
^04 Ihid., p. 128, Ishtar's Descent to Hades. See Schrader, Die Hocllenfahrt, passim; Jeremais, Die Babyl.assyr. Vorstellung v. Leben nach dem Tode (Leipzig, 1887), p. 9.
105 Hussey, p. 13.
106 Zimmern, ZA, X, 15; see Bezold, Catalogue, p. 905 with reference to K. 8204, and p. 1549; Pinches, Texts, p. 15f.
107 The word ' ' Rest ' ' here and elsewhere in the hymn is an abbrevia- tion of the words of the old formula in the incantation texts, "May thy heart be appeased." The hymn was sung after the manner of the Hallel Psalms.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 93
(Alternate Strophe) Not male are they, not female they, Wife they take not, son they have not,
Both law and order know they not, '
To prayers and wishes hark they not.
(End Strophe) Seven are they, seven are they, The Seven Adisina they.ios
Another example of highly developed strophic structure, wherein
the parallelism is perfect, is the hymn :
(Strophe) Who is sublime in the skies?
Thou alone, thou art sublime; Who is sublime upon earth?
Thou alone, thou art sublime.
(Alternate Strophe) Thy mighty command is proclaimed in the skies,
The Gods then prostrate themselves; Thy mighty command is proclaimed upon earth,
The Spirits then kiss the ground.io^
Two major questions are involved in a discussion of Assyrian- Babylonian parallelism. The first concerns the regularity of the couplet formation. Despite imperfections and corruptions of the texts, it is certain that regular couplets are maintained for fairly long intervals. The number of unattached or floating monostichs, also, is very large ; they creep into the poems at the most unexpected places, and interrupt the regularity without any law or scheme. Though in several instances complementary or corresponding lines have disappeared because of text muti- lation, nevertheless it must be admitted that as in Hebrew, unaccountably placed lines appear in otherwise regular struc- ture.^^" Again, as in Hebrew, several lines contain a heaping-up
108 Sehrader, Hoellenfahrt, p. 110-115. The first strophes may have been sung by half -choirs, and the closing strophes by the general choir.
109 Sehrader, pp. 111-115, calls attention to the "specifically Hebrew" strophic system. He links (pp. 85-86) the highly developed strophical scheme with the advanced Babylonian civilization as Ewald had done with the Hebrew strophe in relation to Hebrew culture. The part played by magical incantations and formulas in the development of the strophe and parallelism is as significant in Babylonian-Assyrian as in Egyptian, Fin- nish, and other literatures.
110 See the isolated stichoi in Amos, below. Martin, p. xxviii, says: "These combinations, too irregular to deserve the name of strophe, do
94 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
of terms, especially of nouns, complementary to the subject in
the first stichos of a couplet :
O Shamash, he who goes his way in fear prays to thee, * (....)) the traveler, the tradesman, he who carries the weights.
I' O Shamash, the hunter with the net prays to thee,
- The hunter (?), the cattle-man, the tender of herbs.
The second problem concerns the relation of poetry to prose. As in the Bible,"^ verses are found not merely in the hymns, the epics, and other texts of obviously poetical character, but also in the historical texts of ''elevated style." An example may be found in the Shamashshumukin tablet of Assurbanapal."^ It may be that these poetical sections were quoted from other poems ; yet on the other hand, the occasional presence of what seems to be rhythm in historical narratives, points to the authen- ticity of poetical sections as native to an apparently prose work."^ Though on occasion, Babylonian parallelism may be the result of no conscious artistic process, but the natural outcome of rhythmically exalted speech,"* its presence in com- positions of patently prosaic character, or under the spell of no great poetic ©motion, is proof that it was a deliberate and recognized poetical device. It may be concluded that in Baby- lonian-Assyrian as in Hebrew, there is a mixture of poetry and prose, wherein the limits of the former are more or less deter- mined by mechanical aids; but the widespread character of synthetic parallelism, and the narrative character of several poetical epics, permit the conclusion that the interplay of poetry and prose is almost as intricate and indefinable as in Hebrew.
A word may be said on the value of parallelism for exegesis.^^^
not seem to be inspired by any rule of prosody." They seem to have had no other rule than the development, more or less long, given by the scribe to his thought.
111 See II K. 8.12, etc.
112 Zimmern, ZA, VIII, 123 ; IX, 338-339.
113 Jeremias, p. 9.
11* Schrader, p. 60, compares the stichic form of the poem on Ishtar's Journey, to the writing of the Song in Deut., chap. 32. See also West- phal, Allgemeine Theorie der musikalischen Ehythmik (Leipzig, 1880), p. 37.
115 Dhorme, Textes religieux assyro-babyloniens (Paris, 1907), p. 4, and passim; Martin, pp. 24, 48; Zimmern, Busspsalmen, pp. 12-13, 24, 42, 43, 99, 104, and passim; an emendation on p. 97 is "confirmed by the parallelism." See also ZA, XI, 335, 339.
Vol.1,] Nevmian. — Parallelism in Amos. 95
An example of the assistance which it renders in the decipher- ment of mutilated or dubious words may be found in this selection :
For food, I will eat the clay,
For drink, I will drink (the water)
That I may weep for the men who have left their wives, That I may weep for the women (torn) from their husbands' bosoms, That I may weep for the little children (snatched away before) their day.116
The relation of Babylonian to the origin of Hebrew parallel- ism will be discussed below.^^^
Arabic Parallelism
CLASSICAL (including PERSIAN AND TURKISH)
The close relationship between Arabic and Hebrew literature has often been noted.^^^ Though the Hebrews attained a high grade of civilization over 1500 years before the Arabs became productive, the cultures of the two show traces of primitive union: the poetry of the ancient desert tribes resembles the measures of the earliest Hebrew heroes and heroines. In both literatures, the original type of poetic utterance seems to have been the ode, the song of joy, sorrow, thankfulness, or prayer; and may have been a species of improvised utterance common to both these branches of the Semitic race.^^^
The forms of Hebrew and of Arabic poetry show signs of simi- larity. Arabic poetry in itself represents a long historical process; the steps by which it advanced from primeval begin- nings to the most intricate and elaborate forms reflect the evolution of poetry as a whole. Hebrew poetry, however, ceased to expand according to its own native genius after the second or third century of the common era, and must be regarded from
iisEogers, p. 123.
117 See p. 117.
118 Jones, Poeseos Asiaticae commentariorium libri sex (London, 1774), pp. 25-65; Wenrich, De poeseos Hebraicae atque Ardbicae origine (Leip- zig, 1843), passim. Ewald, De Metris Carminum Arabicorum (Brunswick, 1825), p. 96; De Eitis, I Metri Arabi (Naples, 1833), I, 82; Steiner, Ueber hebraeische Poesie (Basel, 1873), pp. 12, 25.
119 Chenery, Assemblies of Al Hariri (London, 1867), I, 45.
96' University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
the viewpoint of form as a relatively primitive class of literature. The multitude and variety of later Arabic poetic and rhetorical forms have rendered it difficult to select any one as dominantly characteristic ; while the scarcity of primitive Arabic poems, con- temporaneous with the original Hebrew compositions, has made it hard to discern the fundamental rules of prosody and poetics which govern them. Hence the presence of parallelism, the out- standing trait of Hebrew poetry,^^" has been in the Arabic alternatel}^ championed and disputed.^-^ It is therefore neces- sary to reexamine the Islamic literatures in an endeavor to determine whether parallelism is to be found therein. For this task investigation in Arabic poetry is not sufficient ; Moham- medan-Persian literature, which is based upon Arabic poetical canons, and also Ottoman poetry, which is indebted both to the Arabic and the Persian, offer fruitful evidence. It is advisable to group these three under one classification, though minor vari- ations between them exist.
Repetition in Islamic poetry must first be noted. It may be categorically affirmed that repetitions after the manner of the Egyptian, the Sumerian and the Babylonian-Assyrian poetry are absent from the Arabic; but a close approach to repetition is found in the rhetorical device called 'aks "inversion." Here two parts of a distich are so arranged that the same words which begin a sentence are reversed to conclude it ; in its various mani- festations, it sometimes takes on parallelistic character. In the Arabic, this example may be cited:
And their black hair became white, And their white countenance black.122
120 Perhaps the first investigator to note parallelism as such in the Arabic was Schleusner, Dissertatio, p. 11 ; but Schrader, due to the de- ficiencies of his Arabic scholarship, affirmed a century later in 1875 that no parallelism existed in Islamic poetry. Though he expresses wonder at its absence among those tribes most protected from foreign influence, still this agrees with his preconceived theory of the non-Semitic origin of parallelism, which he attributes to the ancient Akkadians. Mueller however, in his discussion of the strophic structure of the Koran, asserts that the main characteristics of the verses and also the multistichs and strophes are parallelism and antithesis.
121 Die Proplieten, p. 59.
122 Mehren, Die Bhetorik der Araber (Vienna, 1853), p. 104.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 97
From the Persian :
In your countenance, I beheld the beauty of which I had heard, That beauty of which I had heard, in your countenance I beheld.123
From the Ottoman:
The season of youth is the time to acquire knowledge; The time to acquire knowledge is the season of youth.124
Sometimes the words are read both backwards and forwards, in the manner of the anagram, excepting that there letters, and here whole words are transposed :
You possess money and you possess liberality;
Liberality you possess and money you possess.125
It can be seen here at once, however, that the device is not built upon repetition, but upon inversion.^^"
Another form of repetition or reiteration is found in the mukarrar, a form of paronomasia, wherein a word is repeated in the same distich as hemistich. Though parallelism is not necessarily attendant upon the mukarrar, these examples are clearly marked by it :
Whosoever seeks something and exerts himself, will find it. Whosoever knocks on a door and perseveres, will enter.127
From the Persian :
Your cheeks resemble two leaves, and each leaf is the sun; Your hair hangs in ringlets, and each ringlet is a cord.
From envy of these leaves, the leaves of the rose are expanded; From envy of those ringlets, the spikenard becomes twisted.128
123 Gladwin, On the Rhetoric, Prosody, and Rhyme of the Persians (Calcutta, 1801), passim; Eueckert-Pertsch, Grammatilc, Poetik und BhetoriJc der Perser (Gotha, 1874), passim.
124 Gibbs, History of Ottoman Poetry (London, 1900), 5 vols., passim.
125 Gladwin, p. 27. An example of the manner in which good par- allelism may occur in this formation can be seen in this quotation:
"In liberality you are Hatem, in dignity you are Caesar; In command you are Asaf ; in argument you are Jesus. ' ' Eeversed it becomes:
"You are Jesus in argument; you are Asaf in command; You are Caesar in dignity, you are Hatem in liberality. ' ' 12B Gibbs, I, 115. He mentions also the tard u'aks or epandos which consists in forming the second line or a distich from the reversed halves of the first line, as in the example quoted. Sometimes the conversion is "perfect" and sometimes "imperfect." As an example of this same usage in English poetry, Gibbs quotes Milton:
"O more exceeding love or law more just, Just law indeed, but more exceeding love. ' '
127 Mehren, p. 160. The paronomasia does not become apparent in the translations.
128 Gladwin, p. 28.
98 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
An even closer approach to parallelism is found in some of
the varieties of the tajnls motif, also a form of paronomasia.^^^
It occurs when the author employs in verse or prose, two or more
words resembling each other in their letters, but having different
meanings. Oftentimes the general effect is of parallelism,
especially where the motif occurs in a distich. The tajnls tdmm
or "perfect similarity and homogeneity," occurring when two
words of different meaning have the same sound and form,
without £tny variations of the vowel points, creates several par-
allelistic couplets, of which this is a type :
If I compare your cheek to the rose, I committed a mistake; And if I called your hair musk of Tartary, I uttered an impro- priety.130
Among the varieties of imperfect similarity', couplets of
parallelism occur, but not so frequently. The jinds al-qalh
contains an inversion and antithesis, apparent in this couplet
of Ahnaf :
In your sword victory for your friends is prepared; In your lance death for your enemies.i^i
A Turkish example of the jinds muxO'fraf or "altered similar- ity," wherein the letters of the terms are all alike except that the vowel points differ, is present here :
The fame of her beauty increaseth in the city;
The praise of her rose-cheek is the theme of every tongue.isz
Another rhetorical device which approaches but does not attain parallelism is found in the taqslni or "division," a term applied also to mathematical division in the works of Euclid. That it was taken to mean a species of parallelism can be under- stood from a comment of Tha' alibi on the style of Mutannabi that among the beautiful and original features of his works he employed the taqsim, thus dividing his sentences into parallel parts:
We were in gladness, the Greeks in fear;
The land in bustle, the sea in confusion.i33
129 Mehren, p. 154fC.
130 Gladwin, p. 6ff.
131 Mehren, p. 158.
132 Gibbs. p. 116.
133 Nicholson, Literary History of the Arabs (New York, 1907), 311; Dieterici, Mutanaibi und Seifuddaula aus der Edelperle des
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 99
But closer examination of other examples betrays the fact that
taqslm is not genuine parallelism : in a hemistich, or a stichos,
the poet recites several particulars, and afterwards in another
hemistich or stichos, introduces some others in connection with
them, and assigns each to each regularly :
I am pleased with love and wine because they are not friends; Neither love with the libidinous, nor wine with the lips of the pious man.134
In a sense, this motif produces a triplet formation, of which the
first stichos is long, and the other two are shorter; parallelism
lying only between them, and not involving the first :
. A soul and a heart I had as profit from the means of existence; A stealthy glance took the latter; Your flattery stole the former.ias
Several other rhetorical devices of the poetry of the Islamic literatures might be cited as near-parallelism, but they are delib- erate and conscious poetic devices ; they are chiselled out by a careful method, and lack the spontaneity and freedom of Hebrew parallelism. Moreover they are historically late, and none suf- fice to indicate the path to a solution of the question whether the Arabic contains genuine, sustained and regular parallelism, similar to the Hebrew. It is therefore necessary to turn back
Tsaalibi (Leipzig, 1847), p. 72. Tha' alibi introduces as confirmation of his judgment the opinion of Abu I'Kasim of Amid, who in his book Weigh- ing of the Poems relates the following tale: "Once a stylistic connoisseur heard the verses of al-Abbas ibn al-Ahnaf :
' Your union is separation ; your word hate ;
Your assent is dissent; your peace war.
You bear within you through God's grace harsh thoughts,
And all tenderness is obstinate. ' Then he said: 'By Allah, this is finer than the divisions of Euclid. But still more worthy of this praise is the verse of Abu Tayyib' (quoted in the text). Tha' alibi also makes mention of the fact that Mutanabbi arranged his consecutive similes in brief symmetrical clauses (Nicholson, p. 310; Dieterici, p. 68).
"She shone forth like a moon
And swayed like a morning bough.
And shed fragrance like ambergris. And gazed like a gazelle. ' ' Ahlwardt, Poesie und PoetiJc der Araber (Gotha, 1856), p. 74, also notes the parallelism in Mutanabbi; on taqsim, see Freytag, Barstellung der arabischen Verslcunst (Bonn, 1830), p. 537.
134 Gladwin, p. 49.
135 Eueckert-Pertsch, p. 340.
100 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
to the earliest origins of Arabic poetry in a search for germane
comparative data.
Among the oldest extant Arabic poems is found this selection :
Tell me, O Eakash and deceive me not,
Hast thou given thyself to a free man, or to a base born?
Or to one lower, for thou art fit for one lower?
Or to a slave, for thou art fit for a slave ?i36
It is at once evident that parallelism is present here. The
same can be said of this quotation :
By the light and the dark; by the earth and the heaven; Surely the trees shall perish; and the waters shall return as in the time of old.
These selections, taken from a bulk of similar material, are unmetrical, though in each of the lines the first and second parts rhyme in their last word. They are composed in the saj' form. Literally this word signifies the sound made by the cooing of a dove ; in rhetorical terminology, it designates ' ' rhymed prose ' ' ; but for a comparison with the Hebrew poetry this translation of the term is unsatisfactory, for HebreAV poetry contains no rhyme, other than the few instances where it occurs accidentally. In Arabic, too, the rhyme of the sa/ is, at least in its earliest manifestation, not all important ; it is regarded by Goldzihor as a later introduction, employed extensively for the first time in the formal public discourse or sermon, the khutha, from tin; third century of the Hiira onward.^^^ It is therefore better to translate saj' as "unmetrical poetry. "^^^ To this species, the Hebrew poetry shows startling similarities. Among the Arabs and the Hebrews, the simplest element of poetical speech is "the versicle, a short and serried sentence, vigorously express- ing a single idea, and detached from what goes before and comes after it."^^^ The poetry of both is made up by the agglutina- tion of these unmetrical versicles to one another: Hebrew con-
136 Chenery, p. 42, gives this translation.
13T Goldziher, Ahhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie (Leyden, 1896), contains a discussion of the saj', I, 57-76ff. On lack of rhyme in early khutbas, see p. 62. On the saf , see also Preudergast, The Maqamat of Badi Al-Zaman Al-Hamadhani (1915), p. 8ff.
138 Gray, p. 44 ; Goldziher, p. 59.
139 Chenery, p. 47-48.
Vol.1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. '•,,' i'^^ljOi,
fines itself to parallelism mainly, a polarity or dualfsm: beiweeii two versicles; Arabic shows this dualism, together with con- tinuity, the former appearing in the parallelistic speech of the desert orators, and most clearly in the Maqdmdt of Hariri; while the latter is more conspicuous in the semimetrieal verse, called rajaz, which will be discussed below ; both parallelism and continuity are present in compositions of a stricter prosody which the Arabs themselves call poetry."^
The most important point in the saj' , however, is not the fact that it is unmetrical, or that in ancient times it was not rhymed,^*^ but that it is the counterpart of genuine Hebrew parallelism. The rhetorical character of the earliest khutha was concerned more with the symmetry and synonymity of the stichoi than with any other poetical element."^ The psycho- logical basis for the saj' is the rhythmical and balanced form which seems to grow from exalted speech: whenever the lan- guage of the khutha becomes elevated and excited, parallelism appears; and even in the ordinary prose of the most sober narratives, the saj' appears when the writer describes anything which arouses his admiration or amazement.
A valuable piece of evidence for the thesis that parallelism in its origins is intimately bound up with magical incantations and formulas is discernible in the fact that the saj' is supposed to have been the characteristic form of utterance by the ancient Arabic soothsayers. Many legends have been handed down regarding its use for exorcisms, for oracular sayings, for prayers of protection, for prescriptions against the evil eye, for beggar- proverbs, and similar forms; its oldest usage for magical pur- poses may be found in the judgments and wise words of the old /ca/im-speeches of heathen Arabic antiquity; later its use became a religious question, and though it is said that Mohammed banned it as a reminder of the days before his coming,^*^ never-
140 In addition to the Maqamut of Hariri, parallelism of the saj' is to be found in the Maqdmat of al-Hamadhani (see above), in the Maqdmdt of the Jewish poet al-Harizi (see below) ; and in the imitation of the Maqdmdt of Hariri by Nasif al-Yazaji of Beirut (Chenery, p. 98).
141 Chenery, p. 48, and above.
142 Goldziher, p. 64.
143 On the use of the saj' by magicians and diviners, see Goldziher, p. 69ff. A comparison can be instituted between the use of the saj'
l02 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
theless 'he ' himself wrote the Koran in saj' or rhymed prose motif. Mohammed's utterances, it is true, though unmetrical, make a nearer approach to versification than the ordinary rhymed prose, because their rhyme is continuous ; Mueller is cor- rect, however, in his discovery of parallelism and antithesis in the Koran, though these are by no means the dominant styles. After Mohammed, the Islamic preachers adopted the saj' for their weekly exhortations in the mosques; and rhymed prose, with emphasis laid more and more on the rhyme, now became so widespread that it was used in the introduction to most books, throughout others (particularly histories), and almost in com- mon conversation,"* In the Thousand Nights and a Night "it adds a sparkle to description and a point to proverb, epigram and dialogue ; . . . and, generally, it defines the boundaries be- tween the classical and the popular styles. ' '"*"
In conjunction with the parallelism of the saj' arose a regular metre, the rajaz. This was employed long before the end of the Period of Ignorance, and was the favorite vehicle for the sententious utterances of chiefs and warriors, wise men and diviners."^ Fundamentally rajaz is nothing but rhyth- mically disciplined saj' .^*^ Parallelism existed before the intro- duction of rhyme, and surely before the introduction of the rajaz metre. When out of rhyme and the rajaz there is devel- oped verse or poetry proper in all its multiform ramifications and artifices, parallelism still continues; but it is buried under a mass of poetical devices. It is crowded by metre, bounded and modified by rhyme ; but none the less even in the genuine poetry
by the soothsayers, and the words mentioned with reference to the yidd^- '6mm in Isaiah 8.19. There mahgim can refer to the cooing of the turtle dove, just as megaphg^pMm refers to the chirping of the birds. This would seem to point to the usage of the saj' by the soothsayers of the Hebrews, and hence to lend evidence to the hypothesis that the saj' may also have been at some time or another a form of the Hebrew parallelism. The Arabic saj' may be related to the Hebrew shugga' "to be intoxicated with prophecy. ' '
144 Chenery, p. 52ff. Arbuthnot, Arabic Authors (London, 1890), p. 27, asserts that the irregular, half rhythmical, half rhyming sentences of the Koran were the first attempts in the direction of prose in Arabic literature.
144a Burton 's translation, Introduction to Vol. I.
145 Chenery, p. 49.
146 Goldziher, p. 76.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 103
of the Arabs, the Persians and the Turks, it continues to mani- fest itself now and then. For the character of the Islamic lan- guages lends itself with such readiness and responsiveness to parallelism that the latter could never be entirely overwhelmed.^*^ And it was probably due to the impress of its parallelistic origin that the Arabic poetry has always maintained an extreme sim- plicity and brevity of syntactic structure, demanding that the verse (i.e., line) stand by itself as a syntactic unit. It is true that the line may contain as many as thirty syllables, and that, though each line must in general consist of two metrically equal hemistichs, the caesura dividing the hemistichs may fall within a word and the line as a whole become the syntactic unit as it is normally the rhyme unit; but in the rajaz the older poets treat the single stichos (the hemistich) as the unit and rhyme all the hemistichs; and the fact that in all classical poetry the first line must be so treated — the rhyme must appear also at the first caesura — shows that originally the hemistich was the syn- tactic unit.
The long usage and development of the saj' through the mazes of Arabic poetry has resulted in its division into several branches, not all of which are valid for comparison with Hebrew parallelism. The individual stichoi are usually of the same length, but the second and sometimes the third stichos can be longer than the preceding ; the finest type of saj' is found when the individual stichoi contain only a few words, from two to ten; long sentences of twenty or more words are unwieldy and weak. This agrees substantially with the Hebrew, where terse sentences are favored.
Synonymous parallelism is found in several forms in the Arabic and kindred literatures. The saj' muwdzan is the closest approach thereto. It occurs when the end words of the stichoi
147 Steingass, Assemblies of Hariri (London, 1897), p. iv: "Arabic can do very -well without punctuation because in elementary compositions the extreme simplicity of its construction scarcely requires such external signs of subdivision, while in works of a more elaborate style the saj' offers a sufficient equivalent for them. The rhyme in its repetition or in its still more frequent recurrence not only distinctly marks out the members of a proposition, but is also in combination with the parallelism of elevated Oriental diction, a great help to the reader for supplying the necessary vocalization. ' '
104 Vniversiiy of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
agree in form, but not necessarily in rhyme; the result is close
parallelism :
He is the sun in majesty, while the kings are stars; He is the sea in generosity, while the nobles are brooks.
If all or at least a majority of the individual words of one
stichos are similar in form to the corresponding terms of the
second stichos, this figure is called mumdthala^*^ This verse
of Abu Tammam is an example :
(Maidens) beautiful as gazelles, only that the latter are tame; Slender as reeds, only that these are without sap.
The use of the root nmthal, meaning to be like, to resemble,
proves valuable in a discussion of the term mdshdl as the Hebrew
name for synonymous parallelism.^*''
In the Persian, the saj' mwwdzan shows the same identity
with the Hebrew parallelism :
The Shah art thou, the might of whose steeds serves as a guide; The Moon art thou, the victorious strength of whose swords serves as a whetstone.
Or;
The envy of my verses devours the liver of Hussan Sabit; The arm of my prose smiteth the neck of Sehbane Wayel.iso
Rueckert says of this form: "Both the tarsi' and the saj' muwdzan are the most perfect, yet at the same time most rigid form of the Hebrew parallelismus memhrorum, which also in many cases is a complete parallelism of all the individual words. "^^^ This parallelism occurs with the most highly devel- oped metres, which heighten rather than hinder the synonymity of the terms.
Slightly similar to this figure, yet showing a parallelism neither so perfect nor so constant is the saj' mutaivdzl. Here at the end of two periods of prose or at the close of two stichoi of verse, there are two words agreeing in measure, rhyme, and in the final letter, the number of words in the stichoi being also equal. Though it is not always the case, the remaining words
i48Mehren, p. 166ff; Eueckert-Pertsch, p. 104flP. See below, p. 115.
149 Eueckert-Pertsch, p. 105.
150 Gladwin, p. 10. Gladwin's transliteration of the proper names is retained.
151 Eueckert-Pertsch, p. 106.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 105
of one stichos may correspond either in form or in rhyme with
the respective words of the other:
Without support am I through the enticement of those locks full of
ringlets, Without sleep am I through the flattery of that eye full of ardour. .
Synonymous parallelism may also be found in the figure saf
murassa' , though it will be seen that in the form of the tarsi'
it occurs more often as antithetic parallelism. The saj' murassa'
occurs when all the words or the majority of those in one section
agree in form and in rhyme with the corresponding words of the
second :
He studied the parts of speech with the jewels of his words; He influences all ears with the warning-calls of his preaching.
This formation is not distinctive of rhymed prose alone, but occurs also in many forms of verse ; in this selection from Abu Tammam, all the sections have the same rhyme :
Through him is my reason enlightened; through him my hand well- filled;
Through him my brooklet became a stream; through him my tinder a torch.
This motif differs from the saj' muwdzan in that it has identity of rhyme and sound, as well as of form.
Antithetic parallelism has many varieties in the Arabic and kindred literatures. "When each stichos of the antithesis con- tains several ideas arranged in order, which stand exactly oppo- site to each other, the figure is called muqdhala; the number of these opposing concepts ranges from two to ten.^^^ For three and three, the number most common in Hebrew antithetic par- allelism, this verse serves as an example :
How beautiful are faith and riches when they are united; How ugly are unbelief and poverty in one and the same man.
Five and five are illustrated by a vqrse similar to this one from
Ibn Mu'tazz, where the individual members are heaped up in
rows :^^^
Be noble, composed, friendly, well-esteemed and peaceful; Or be faithless, arrogant, surly, despised and belligerent.
152 On antithesis, see Mehren, p. 97ff. ; on muqdbala, p.
153 Ahlwardt, p. 74-75 ; Dieterici, p. 32-35.
106 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
This type is also called tafwlf, and is employed on occasion by
Mutanabbi,
In the figure of tarsi' , which springs directly from the saf
murassa' , antithetic parallelism is also found. The tarsi' is the
complement of the saj' muwdzan, or synonymous parallelism,
and occurs in all branches of Islamic literature :
Verily the righteous are in heavenly enjoyment; But the accursed are in Gehenna.
In the Persian also, the tarsi' sometimes occurs without antithesis :
The shower of God's grace without calculation is open to all;
And the table of his kindness is prepared in all places.i54
At times the tarsi' is joined with the tajnls, becoming
tarsi' ma' tajnls, wherein antithesis occurs most often, but
where synonymity is also possible :
I shall not be distressed, if you do not distress me; I shall be wishful, if you are sportive.iss
Examples of antithetic parallelism occur often in proverbs:
Faith is the medicine of every grief; Doubt only raises up a host of cares.
Mere falsehood should be by its face recognized, But truth by parables and admonitions.ise
Synthetic parallelism can be said to exist as such in Arabic even less than in Hebrew. In Hebrew, where the dominant motif is parallelism, synthetic couplets are usually encompassed by numerous genuine synonymous .or antithetic couplets ; so in the Arabic khutha and maqdma which alone show long arrays of parallelistic couplets, and of course in strict poetry, where parallelism is the exception, not the rule, synthetic couplets are engulfed in the labyrinth of couplets which are characterized by various rhymes and metres. The multitudinous types of rhymed and metrical couplets, it is true, may have evolved out of the synthetic couplets; but the line of demarcation between
154 Eueckert-Pertsch, pp. 88-89 ; Fleischer, Kleinere Schriften, II, 206.
155 Gladwin, p. 5.
156 Nicholson, p. 301. Also :
"Man's life is his fair name and not his length of years; Man's death is his ill name, and not the day that nears. "
Vol. 1.] • Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 107
so-called synthetic parallelism and non-parallelistic couplets is so thin that it is futile to distinguish any other types than the clear synonj^mous and antithetic.
Examples of the long continuity of parallelistic couplets in the maqdma, written in the saj^ , or rhymed prose structure may be seen in this excerpt from Hariri's maqdma called the "Reversed" :i"
Man is the creature of kindness,
And the perfecting of a benefit is the deed of the liberal; And the disposition of the generous is a treasure of praise.
And the gain of thanks is a gathering of happiness; And the index of generosity is the light of cheerfulness.
And the practice of courtesy leads of need to affection; And the bond of friendship demands sincere counsel;
And truth of narrative is the ornament of the tongue; And eloquence in speech is witchcraft to hearts;
And the net of desire is the bane of souls;
And impatience of disposition is a dishonor to mortals.
And evil desire consists not with self-restraint;
And the clinging to prudence is the leading-cord of safety; '
And to seek occasions for blamings is the worst of faults; And the dwelling upon failings overthrows friendships.
The passage continues in this strain for many paragraphs, and the same sustained parallelism can be found throughout the entire work. The synonymity between the terms at times is close and at times distant, yet the parallelism is indubitable.
The following example from Burton's translation of Night 204 of the Thousand Nights and a Night shows parallelism ex- tending through several lines:
This is the writ of one whom passion swayeth, And whom longing waylayeth, And wakeful misery slayeth;
One who despaireth of living, And looketh for naught but dying;
157 Chenery, p. 202. The peculiarity of this particular composition, The Seventh Assembly, is that the words themselves when reversed produce a perfect sense.
108 University of California Publications-. [Sem. Phil.
With whose mourning heart r ../ \ ,, ^ ..
Nor comforter nor helper taketh part, One whose sleepless eyes
None suecoureth from anxieties;
Whose day is passed in fire
And his night in torturing desire.
A word must be said on the presence in Arabic of a form
identical with the Hebrew qmd, or elegy.^^* The rhythm of an
old Arabic elegy has been designated as : ^-^ — | ; it
is supposed to have developed out of numerically undisciplined
saj^ , which was employed in ancient times not only in the
orations and epics, but also in songs of mourning. It is closely
associated with the rise and development of the rajaz metre.^^'^
A couplet which shows the similarity to the Hebrew style is the
following :^^°
Why hast thou trampled him — the man? Why hast thou killed him — oh camel?
The following conclusions may then be made in regard to Arabic parallelism :
1. Parallelism exists in Arabic, Persian, and Ottoman poetry, together with varied rhj^mes and metres; the figures wherein parallelism is present do not, however, show the true historic nature of parallelism.
2. Parallelism exists inherently and genuinely in the saf , or unmetrical poetry or rhymed prose. Originally the saj' must have been unrhymed and unmetrical, distinguished only by the parallelism. In this primitive stage it was contemporaneous with early Hebrew poetry. Arabic poetry, however, followed a different line of evolution, and in time added to the saj^ rhyme, which became even more important than the parallelism. From this rhyme developed the numerous species of rhyme in the later parallelism. In addition, the rajaz metre developed and disci- plined the saj' ; from it grew the multitude of metres which characterize later Arabic poetry.
158 Koenig, Stylistik, p. 316; and Hebraeische BhythmiJc (Halle, 1914), pp. 14-15; Wetzstein, Z. f. Ethnologie, V (1873), 297ff.
159 Goldziher, p. 77ff,
160 See also below, note 167.
Vo^- !•] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 109
3. Parallelism in Arabic is synonymous in the figures saj' muwdzana, saj' murassa' and saf mutawdzi, etc. It is anti- thetic in the figures muqdbal-a and tarsi' , and others. Synthetic parallelism as such does not exist in Arabic poetry. Qlnd is also present in Arabic, and the kindred literatures.
A final question arises with reference to the saj'. Gray points out that the saj' stands intermediately between the form nathr, pro'se and nathm or shi'r, metrical poetry.^"^ The rajaz metre he takes as the transitional style between unmetrical and metrical poetry. Gray then asks : Is it possible that in Hebrew, not two, but three forms of composition should be recognized — metrical poetry, and plain prose, and an intermediate type ''difi'ering from poetry by the absence of metre, and from prose by obedience to certain laws governing the mutual relations between its clauses — a type for which we might as makeshifts employ the terms unmetrical poetry or parallelistic prose?" It is not possible here to answer this question ; it will be neces- sary to postpone even an attempt at a reply until the material in several portions of the biblical writings shall have been reexamined. ^^^
NEC-ARABIC
The Neo-Arabic poetry which is sung by the common people today affords many parallels to the ancient Hebrew. A collec- tion of Arabic songs entitled Songs of an Egyptian Peasant portrays the three major stages of early poetry, iteration, incremental repetition, and parallelism.^*'^ Iteration is not so frequent as incremental repetition, of which the following examples among many suffice :
Oh Shamme, what has become of me, Shamme, Whom thou lettest restlessly wander about, Shamme, Whom thou lettest hunger, Shamme,
161 Gray, p. 44. In Persian, the prose consists of three types: 1, poetical prose, having measure without rhyme; 2, having rhyme without any meas- use; 3, simple prose, devoid of rhyme and measure. Neither rhyme without measure, nor measure without rhyme is poetry; it is necessary that both should be combined to form verse, Gladwin, p. 1; Eueckert-Pertsch, pp. 54-55.
1R2 See below, on Amos, p. 262.
163 Schaefer, Songs of an Egyptian Peasant, collected and translated into German; English edition by F. H. Breasted (Leipzig, 1904).
110 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Whom thou lettest thirst, Shamme,
What has become of me, Shamme,
Verily I would go to Syria for the sake of Shamme.
An example of repetition and ascending thought, as in some of the Bible poems, is found in this :
The baby gazelle, my children, Goes behind its mother to the pasture. It goes to the pasture without any shoes. With little feet bare. And :
Thou Alexandrian bath!
O bath, how A\Tetchedly thou art made,
O bath, and it was made by me;
O bath, and nobody but myself.
Antithetic parallelism is evident here :
If we have done something badly, then reprove us. And if we have been thy sons, then content us.
Alternate parallelism in a quatrain is present in this :
The eye is black from Allah,
Wherefore then the eye-paint? And the cheek is red from Allah,
Wherefore then Joseph 's-beauty ?
Other illustrations are at hand in the collection ; these suffice, however, to demonstrate similarities to Hebrew parallelism.
Littman's Neo-AraMc Folk-poetry is full of suggestions for the Old Testament student to which attention has already been called by Freiherr von Gall.^'^* Littman asserts that many of these genuine folk poems from Egypt, Palestine and Syria are written in a kind of rhymed prose ; the lack of a definite measure many indicate that also in the Old Testament verses of a similar character are at least possible without a fixed metre. ^"^ Litt- man believes it possible because of the long-standing stability of oriental forms that the ancient gwa-measure is still used in Palestine.^"**
164 Littmann, Neuarabische Vollcspoesie (Berlin, 1902); Gall, "Par- allellen zum Alten Testament aus E. Littmann 's Neuarabische Volkspoesie, ' ' ZATW, 1904, p. 42ff.
165 Littman, p. 88.
166 lUd., p. 90.
Vol. 1;] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. Ill
I will wound my cheek for thy sake, O my brother . , . and let the
blood flow, And I will keep thy slave by my side three months . . . for him whom
they carried away.
I will repeat it, my brother, and say . . . and will continue to dance
for you, And if people ask of me, I will tell them . . . my dear brother has
gone away.167
It should be noted also that strophic structure, while it is never found in the strictly classical poetry, is fairly frequent in the folk-poetry. That this also may be a survival from ancient times is shown by the fact that outside of the classical forms there are found fairly old prototypes of the so-called Neo- Arabic forms. As early as the second century after Muhammad there are references to poems with short lines grouped by vary- ing rhyme into strophes. Of a later date examples of the muwashshax are found in greater variety; the departure from the restrictions of the canonical laws of metre and rhyme are considerable, and the strophic structure is clearly marked by refrains. Poems of this sort make use not only of popular speech (grammatical forms without case-endings), but some of them are written in the strictly classical language. It may be that the muwashshax is not in reality a later development out of the classical poetic structure, but an independent, parallel development out of the more primitive Semitic type, always maintained among the people but deemed unworthy of imitation by the classicists and excluded from the body of written litera- ature.i^'"
Abyssinian Parallelism
A collection of Songs of the Tigre tribes of Abyssinia also shows points of similarity to the ancient Hebrew."^ Traces of parallelism may be found in these selections :
^'i' Ibid., pp. 47, 14-17, 46, 129; see above, on Arabic qina. Other col- lections of Neo-Arabic poetry wherein resemblances to the ancient Hebrew may be found are: Dalman, Palaestinischer Diwan (Leipzig, 1901), cited by Gray, p. 145; Smith, p. 13; Sachau, "Arab. Volkslieder aus Meso- potamien, " in Abh. d. Bed. Akad., 1889.
ic7« Hartmann, Das arabische Strophengedicht (Weimar, 1897), p. 113 and passim.
lesLittmann, "Lieder der Tigre-Staemme, " Publications of Princeton
112 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil,
I will glorify thee, O Lord,
Thy deeds are marvelous! This night he created,
And he created this morning; This milk he created,
And he created this corn; This sun he created,
And he created this shadow. Or
Be but still O Hemmad,
If you w^ould appease me! When the elephant is tamed.
And with burdens of milk returns home; When the female elephant is bound,
And with the cows gives milk, When the lion becomes a shepherd.
And is at peace with cows and calves. When the panther protects,
And from a bound udder drinks, When the mountain-goat rolls straight up the mountain.
And remains hanging on the precipice, When the torrent turns round,
And pours on the highlands. When the heaven becomes a field.
And the tribes wander over it, When the field becomes heaven,
And spreads wide over us.
Noeldeke affirms that the metrical form of these poems resembles in some respects the ancient Hebrew.^^''
Though the comparison with this folk poetry of near- Palestinian and Palestinian countries extends to only a few isolated phenomena, yet these are valuable as throwing light upon the ancient Hebrew; it is true that they bear little on the subject of parallelism, for after all, no such regularity as in the biblical poetry is maintained, repetitions and prose being con- tinuously interspersed, the former particularly in large degree ; but the character of the ancient Hebrew rhythm and metre receive some elucidation from them, because they appear to have guarded the primitive forms for centuries, untouched by any alien influence.
Expeditio7i to Abyssinia, III, IV (Leyden, 1913-1915) ; selections from IV, 856, and 775-776 respectively. 169 Z^, XXXI (1916), 13.
"Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 113
Hebrew Parallelism
The earliest appearance of parallelism in Hebrew poeti-y can
scarcely be determined. Unchanged iteration after the manner
of the Egyptian and the Sumerian is not found in the Bible
except in artistically introduced refrains, where, however, they
are surrounded by regular parallelism and occur at regular
intervals. Incremental repetition is present, though as a type
of highly developed parallelism. The identity of the two lines
in this couplet produces a strong poetic effect, though the text
itself is doubtful (Is. 15.1) :
In-a-night 'tis-destroyed, Ar-Moab is-ruined; In-a-night 'tis-destroyed, Kir-Moab is-ruined.
The reason for the difficulty in tracing the origin and expansion of parallelism in Hebrew lies in the fact that even the most ancient poems already possess a regular and intricate parallel- istic structure. Though the archaic songs may have come down in the language and the form of the prophetic writers of the periods of great literary activity among the Hebrews, there is nothing to argue against the presence of parallelism even in their original form. The Song of Lamech (Gen. 4.23 ff.) and other snatches of primitive Hebrew poetry betray a fully de- veloped parallelism, together with almost all the other poetic devices of the later literature; hence it is virtually impossible to cut through to the pristine beginnings of Hebrew parallelism with a view to an analysis of its steps of historic development. A slight fund of evidence is discoverable in the passages which refer to the habit of the women of the early Hebrews in improvising verses on occasions of exultation and triumph. The origins of antiphonal singing may be found here. Tradition reports that Moses with the Israelites chanted his ode at the Red Sea in responsive fashion, the chorus taking up, modify- ing and supplementing the thoughts expressed by the leader. "Miriam, the prophetess, took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women* followed her with timbrels, and with dances, and Miriam .answered them" (Ex. 15.20).^"° Another reference is
170 For similar customs among other primitive peoples, see Gummere, p. 264ff.
114 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
found in I Sam. 18.7, where the "women who played answered one another, ' ' singing, first one group :
Saul hath slain his thousands, the other answering:
And David his ten thousands. This custom seems to have represented a long historic process, and rather explains the methods in which parallelism was employed than the rise of parallelism itself; such antiphonal singing and responsion is a practice common to many peoples, and is not accompanied of necessity by parallelism. After long usage in the Temple liturgj-, antiphonal singing passed into the Christian Church, when two divisions of the choir sang the psalms or hymns alternately by strophes: sometimes this was done by single verses or lines, so that the same section of the choir always sang the latter half of a couplet, similar in a way to the practice of composition employed by the Finnish bards.^^^ By this time, however, parallelism had attained high literary form; though originally it may have arisen from this practice of alternate singing between a leader and a chorus, it is more plausible to believe that the couplet structure of parallelism stands entirely apart from the antiphonal singing; its origins in Hebrew may be based upon the long tradition which had come down through the Sumerian and Babylonian-Assyrian literature. Two terms apparently were used to designate parallelism in the Hebrew. The word 'and, "answer" or "respond," is used with reference to antiphonal singing, though incidentally its meaning of "answer" may signify the fact that one stichos
171 On Jewish Temple music in the early Christian church, see Eeider, Review of Gesaenge d. jemenisolien Juden, A. Z. Idelsohn, JQR, n.s., VII (1917), 635ff. "It is a well-known fact that both the Ambrosian and Gregorian chants which lay at the foundations of Christian music, in spite of being based on Greek modes, are Jewish in character, and must have had their origin in Temple music (cf. Fetis, Histoire generale de la musiquc, I, 166). Not only their antiphonal character (theme and counter-theme), which closely resembles the principle of parallelism in Hebrew poetry, but also their affinity and predilection for minor modes like the Phrygian and the total eclipse of the Lydian major, point as support to this assertion. If therefore as we have reason to suppose, there is a continuity betAveen the Temple melodies and those of the Yemenite synagogue, a comparison be- tween the latter and the so-called 'cantus planus' of the Church can be instructive in establishing once for all the degree of influence of the Temple on the early Church in the field of music, ' ' p. 639.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. , 115
* ' answers ' ' to another in the couplet ; for this connotation, how- ever, no instances are at hand/^^ It is equally difficult to tell whether the word mdshdl refers to parallelism. In the Arabic, it has been seen that the saf mumdthil denotes synonymous parallelism. The corresponding Hebrew verb mdshdl originally means "to represent, to be like"; and for the ancient Hebrews, the noun mdshdl was used, usually in the Wisdom literature, of sentences constructed in parallelism, but occasionally of other types ;^" it means also a "parable," or "sentences of poetry." It does not, however, appear to designate sharply and directly the formation of parallelistic couplets, though the parable, the proverb, the riddle, or the prophetic figurative discourse were almost always cast in couplet or triplet formation. In this con- nection, it is significant to note that a study of literary style does not receive much attention until the Middle Ages, though Philo and Josephus made feeble efforts in this direction ; David Kimhi and his contemporaries are perhaps the first to give to parallelism a distinctive appellation. The fact that seemingly the ancient Hebrews had no definite term to apply to the specific process of forming couplets of parallelism, but referred rather to the type of poetic result or totality, namely the poem itself, might indicate that the use of parallelism was not a deliberate or fixed style ; but this conclusion is by no means a necessary one.
CONCLUSIONS It is now possible to present conclusions on the origin of parallelism. Parallelism has its seat in a psychological tendency of the human mind to repeat a favorite thought in different words ; this impulse operates most freely and vigorously in moments of lyrical excitement, though guided and chastened by a second psychological propensity towards orderliness and organ- ization. The manifestation of these poetic principles appears in ancient literatures, where they take first the form of reiteration, then of incremental repetition, and finally of artistic parallelism.
1T2 BroAvn, Driver and Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon [cited as BDB] (Boston, 1906), p. 777. 173 iMd., p. 605.
116 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
The earliest use of parallelism seems to be bound up with the antiphonal song of the poet and the crowd, and the formulas of soothsayers.
Parallelism being the result of a universal human instinct may have arisen independently in the numerous literatures where it is found. In Chinese literature, its rise and develop- ment are indigenous and date back three thousand years; in Finnish literature it is equally old, and is apparently entirely native, being unaffected by foreign influences. Though bound by a special metre, Finnish is much looser and freer than the Chinese parallelism, which is assisted by several external mechan- ical devices which tend to make its forms stereotyped and rigid. Both stand entirely apart from the parallelism of the ancient peoples of the near-East.
These include the Egyptian, Sumerian, Babylonian-Assyrian, Arabic, and Hebrew literatures. Each of these may have cre- ated and developed parallelism by entirely local agencies ; no alien influences may have been at work. Yet the geographical proximity of these peoples and the fairly complete chain of chronological evolution points to some contact and interplay of influence. The earliest extant parallelism obtains in Egyptian literature. Though fairly constant, it is marred by frequent repetitions; its couplet structure is vague and irregular. By some it is supposed that Hebrew parallelism took its origin from the Egyptian. On the assumption that the Egyptians were a non-Semitic people, though this of course has been disputed. Breasted asks : Did the Semites obtain' this style of verse from the Egyptians, or vice-versa T^* Philo asserts in De Vita Mosis (I, 5) that Moses was taught by the Egyptians ''the whole theory of rhythm, harmony and metre." But such evidence naturally counts for little; though Hebrew undoubtedly borrowed much from the Egyptians, the period and extent of" this influence can- not be shown. The high state of Hebrew parallelism and the low stage of Egyptian, indicate a broad historical gap between the two which, if a nexus between them can be established, must be bridged.
m Biblical World, I, 56. .oOl) .q ^.bk^li-Ti
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 117
Sumerian parallelism seems to be the next step after the Egyptian. Without entering into the debatable question of the racial patrimony of the Sumerians, two hypotheses on the appearance of parallelism in their literature are possible. Either the Egyptian literature affected the Sumerian and thus stimu- lated it to an advance in the regularity of its parallelism, for de- spite its repetitions, it shows a more obvious couplet structure; or Sumerian parallelism arose locally and of its own accord, without any interchange between Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures. Thus if it be accepted that both Egyptians and Sumerians were non-Semitic peoples, the substratum of ancient parallelism may have been in contradistinction to the usual opinion, non-Semitic.
The third link in the chain of near-Eastern parallelism may bind the Sumerian with the Babylonian-Assyrian. The fact that so many of the Assyrian hymns were copies from the Sumerian, as the bilingual texts prove, may indicate that the latter underlies the -varied Babylonian-Assyrian parallelism. Schrader champions the view that the "Akkadians" were the progenitors and earliest teachers of parallelism to the Semites, first to the Babylonians and then to the Hebrews. But little evidence is at hand to show that the Hebrews learned parallelism from the Sumerians "during their sojourn in Sinear, in Ur of the Chaldees before they wandered to the North and West, in order to settle permanently in Canaan. ' '^^^ Even if the Hebrews had been introduced into parallelism from this source, its further development must have come from contact with Babylonian par- allelism.
For the transmission of Babylonian- Assyrian forms to Hebrew literature constitutes the next link in the chain of parallelism. The similarity of Babylonian to Hebrew strophic and verse forms — the metrical, accentual, and other likenesses — points to direct interplay between the two civilizations and literatures.^^® Though the Babylonian stands clearly ahead of the Sumerian
173 Schrader, ''Semitismus, " I, 121ff.
176 Baumann, Die Metrik und d. A. T. (Tuebingen, 1905), pp. 52-53; Berger, ' ' Les origines babyloniens cle la poesie sacree des Hebreux, ' ' Annales du Musee Guimet, Biblioth. de vulgarisation, XVI (1904), 26-84.
118 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
and the Egyptian, it does not attain in regularity of couplet structure and the absence of repetitions, the beauty of the Hebrew. It may be said to stand intermediately between Sumerian-Egyptian and Hebrew. This by no means implies that the ancient Israelites took over bodily Babylonian par- allelism and other poetic forms of expression. Moreover, the earliest point at which outside parallelism entered the Hebrew cannot be determined, because the most ancient poems extant betray a fully developed parallelistic formation.
A similar problem is bound up in a consideration of Arabic parallelism. Hitherto the statements made as to the rise and gradual expansion of parallelism have been largely conjectural ; an even wider range of hypothetical reconstruction is demanded with reference to the origins of the Arabic. The earliest avail- able literature of the Arabs dates back only a hundred years or more before Mohammed. Parallelism is present in the form of the saj' , already marked by rhyme. Though Goldziher postu- lates a time when the saj' possessed neither metre nor rhyme, the questioii arises as to how far back this period extends. Despite the tenacity with which the desert Bedouin Arabs main- tained their customs, exemplijfied in part by a comparison of the Neo- Arabic poetry with the ancient Hebrew, it is too wild a leap in the dark to say that contemporaneous with the Babylonian- Assyrian parallelism, an Arabic prototype existed. " The desert tribes may have possessed at that time no literature whatsoever; this would imply that Arabic parallelism arose either indig- enously or from contact with the surrounding peoples where parallelism was employed, the Babylonians or the Hebrews. There are signs of a primitive union of Arabic with Hebrew, and in the poetry of the Bible itself there are several instances of couplets which show marked resemblance to the unrhymed saj'. But if ever a primitive junction between Hebrew and Arabic existed in unrecorded eras, Arabic poetry traced an entirely different course of evolution ; the Hebrew remained true to its ancient origins; only when it comes into clash with the Greek, Latin, and early Christian poetic forms, does the long maintained parallelism surrender; Arabic, however, adds to the
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 119
unrhymed and unmetrical saj' first a varied rhyme ; then metre, first of simple then of multifarious character; finally the parallelism of the saj' is overwhelmed, but not entirely lost, through the adoption and perfection of countless poetical mechanical devices. Thus the difiiculty of classifying Arabic in the chronology of parallelistic evolution may be readily per- ceived. It is best to ascribe to it an independent origin, and to say of the Hebrew, that it drew nourishment from the totality of parallelistic growth represented by the apparently steady ascent from Egyptian-Sumerian through Babylonian-Assyrian into the Hebrew. Arabic may be a side-stream in the current of evolution ; its role cannot be approximated. In the Hebrew, however, parallelism received the strongest impulse for high poetic expression.
A summary of conclusions on the origins of parallelism may be briefly put as follows :
1. Both Chinese and Finnish parallelism -arise independently of any outside influences.
2. The chronological line of development of near-Eastern, or Mediterranean-Mesopotamian parallelism seems to be as follows : Egyptian, Sumerian, Babylonian-Assyrian, and Hebrew. Arabic may have been contemporaneous with the Babylonian-Assyrian or with the Hebrew.
3. If a non-Semitic substratum for parallelism is postulated, it may be supposed that Egyptian and Sumerian, regarded as non-Semitic, each arose independently of the other, or through some interchange ; that Babylonian- Assyrian grew out of Sumer- ian ; that Hebrew grew out of Egyptian, Babylonian- Assyrian, and possibly the independently-originated Arabic.
4. If a Semitic substratum be postulated, it may be supposed that in primitive times, the Arabs and the Hebrews possessed a literature marked by common traits; the saj' may underlie Hebrew parallelism, though no evidence points to the fact that the unrhymed and unmetrical saj' existed so early as the ancient Hebrew; this implies a jump over nearly two thousand years. The Arabic saj' with its parallelism may be an entirely inde- pendent growth.
120 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Later Development of Parallelism
The lifetime of parallelism covers many centuries. It has been seen that the beginnings of parallelism lie far back in the origins of poetry among the Egyptians and the Sumerians. It entered into Hebrew literature through the medium either of the Egyptian or of the Babylonian- Assyrian, and may have been reinforced by the use of the saf by primitive Arabic tribes. It appears in the earliest poems of the Israelites; it continues to develop until it reaches its apogee in the days of the Major Prophets, the Psalmists, and the Moralists. Thereafter it con- tinues to flourish in Hebrew literature, though little by little its ancient spirit weakens. It enters into the Greek literature of the Jews and for a while retains its native vigor there ; but the rise of Christian civilization and the supremacy of Greek poetic forms spell its gradual retirement. Within indigenous Jewish literature the decline of the Jewish poetic genius during the talmudic period .is responsible for a concomitant breakdown of parallelism; nor does the revival of Hebrew poetry after the tenth century avail much for its renewed growth as against the alien influence of an intricate Arabic system of poetics. Only within the last century has a conscious effort been made to resurrect parallelism; and this attempt also has been abortive.
In the Apocrypha and the Apocalypses
To trace the history of parallelism after the close of the biblical Canon, it is necessary to turn to those works which lie outside the Old Testament proper. Jebb pointed out the pres- ence of parallelism in almost all of the apocryphal books.^'^ Ecclesiasticus, the Wisdom of Solomon, the Books of Wisdom, Book of Tobit, the first Book of the Maccabees, the Book of Judith are for a large part clearly in the parallelistic style of the classic Hebrew writings, though narrative prose at times forms a background for the parallelistic insets, while the couplet formation is less certain, and synonymity and close correspon- dence are less distinct. The Pseud-epigrapha, several of the
177 Jebb, Sacred Literature (London, 1820), pp. 75, 84ff.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. , 121
apocalypses such as the Twelve Patriarchs, the Book of Jubilees, the Apocalypse of Baruch and IV Esdras, also contain passages of parallelism. Gray selects from the Apocalypse of Baruch, chapter 48.1-47 as "among the most regular and sustained examples of parallelism in the whole range of Hebrew liter- ature. "^''® It seems plausible, then, that parallelism was used in formal literature among the Jews as a regular motif at least until 100 A.D., the approximate date of the Apocalypse of Esdras.
In Greek Originals by Jews
A word must be said on the use of parallelism in Greek literature contemporary with the later Hebrew. Tobit's Prayer, the Prayer of Manasses, the Song of the Three Holy Children, the latter part of Baruch were, according to the viewpoint of several investigators, written originally in Greek; yet the par- allelism remains fairly pure. It has already been noted that the character and form of the original Hebrew poetry were re- tained, with the exception of a few errors and misinterpretations, in the Septuagint.^^''
In the New Testament
Parallelism is evident also in the New Testament. Among those first to recognize it therein were Home, Wakefield, Farrer, Ammon, A. Clarke and others.^^" But Bishop Jebb was per-
178 Forms of Hebrew Poetry, p. 27.
179 Professor Max Margolis has pointed out that no translator of the Hebrew Scriptures could fail to notice the parallelistic structure of Hebrew poetry. The uncials show oftentimes by stichic writing the nature of the periodic and couplet character of the parallelism. The omission of lines, in Proverbs and Job, for example, must be studied carefully and each case judged on its own merits. The translator might operate freely with his text, and to the extent that he sacrificed the parallelism it may be said that it did not matter to him, so long, as in the case of Job, he showed himself an adept in Greek poetry (poetarum lector). But that the Alex- andrian Jews were fully cognizant of parallelism is shown by the fact that in additions presumably not based on a Hebrew original, or in the apoc- ryphal writings already mentioned, parallelism is present. The extent to which parallelism was observed in the other versions is doubtful. Neither Josephus, Origen, nor Jerome understood the fundamental principles of Hebrew poetry, but they labored under misconceptions drawn from their knowledge of Greek. An interesting chapter on the recognition of par- allelism by translators of the Bible throughout the centuries could be written, but lack of space forbids the inclusion in this study.
180 Jebb, Sacred Literature, pp. 94-95.
122 University of California PuMications. [Sem. Phil.
haps the first to devote himself to a thorough study of New Testament parallelism; he was followed by Thomas Boys, who in his Taciia Sacra and Key to the Book of Psalms attempted to show a correspondence, not merely of lines, but of whole paragraphs. John Forbes carried these investigations still fur- ther in his Symmetrical Structure of the Scripture and A^rn- lytical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans}^'^ Richard G. Moulton accepts many of the results of Forbes and selects illustrations for the various types of parallelism, rather than devote himself to a close investigation of the material.^^^ Recent translations of the New Testament have sought to make use of the conclusions of these scholars of the last century, though care must be exercised in a selection of their evidence.^^^
Among the poems which are of Hebrew origin, parallelism is clear. The Magnificat and other New Testament canticles show excellent couplet structure,^^* and the material embodied in quotations from the original Hebrew still retains the parallel- istic form : these quotations may be : (1) simple and direct quota- tions of single passages ;^*^ (2) quotations of a more complex kind when fragments are combined from different parts of the poetical Scriptures and wrought up into one connected whole ;^^'' (3) quotations mingled with original matter; here one or more passages derived from the Hebrew are so connected and blended with original writings that the compound forms one homogeneous whole, the sententious parallelism equally pervading all the component members whether original, or derived.^'*^
Parallelism is present also in original portions of the New Testament apparently untouched by any direct influence of biblical poetry. Parallel couplets abound ;^^^ triplets are fre-'
181 Edinburgh, 1854, 1868.
'^^^ Literary Study of the Bible (Boston, 1896).
183 See Torrey, "A Possible Metrical Origin of the Lord's Prayer," ZA, XXVIII, 312jff. Moffat, The Historical New Testament (Edinburgh, 1901).
184 Gray, p. 26; The Magnificat, Luke 1.46, must of course be compared with Hannah's Ode in I Sam. 2.1-10. Burney, Journal of Theological Studies, XIV, 414-424, regards Matt. 25.31-46 as a Hebrew poem.
185 Matt. 2.6, 18, 4.15, 16; Heb. 12.5, 6, etc.
186 Mark 11.17; Rom. 11.33-35; II Cor. 9.9, 10, etc.
187 Eom. 10-13-18; Matt. 21.42-44; Acts, 4.24-30, etc.
188 Luke 1.46-47, 12.48; Matt. 5.42, 7.2, 12.35, 15.11; John 5.29; James 1.9-10, 4.8, 20.13, etc.
1
Vol, 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 123
quent/*'^ though open to the same question as in the Hebrew; quatrains of varying orders also are numerous.^^^ Even though in Greek, the parallelism here loses little of its native force.
The work of Forbes on the larger combinations in New Testa- ment parallelism must be accepted with caution. He arranges the Decalogue in the Old Testament, the Sermon on the Mount and other portions of the New Testament, in symmetrical forma- tion, saying that "the exactness of arrangement in lines, para- graphs, and numbers is so definite that no line or scarcely word could be altered without destroying the beautiful symmetry of the whole." He urges that parallelism is characteristic of prose as well as poetry, and proclaims that it is no special criterion of Hebrew poetry. ^^^ Moreover, he neglects the couplet foundation of parallelism, and proceeds to find larger strophic divisions, even in the New Testament epistles, of which he takes the Epistle to the Romans as an example. This neglect of the couplet character of both Old and New Testament parallelism throws doubt upon the entire method of Forbes. His over-exact and arbitrary schematization of the Decalogue is as questionable as are Mueller 's discussions on the strophe in general ; by this method, from almost any elevated prose a sort of "parallelism" could be obtained. The uncertainty of Forbes himself that every part of St. Paul's epistle was arranged "designedly" in parallelism and his appreciation of the "indistinctness of the parallelism" are borne out by the facts. Parallelism in New Testament writings plays an important rcle, but its ancient vogue and regularity have passed. Argumentative and narrative prose prevail ; at times the symmetry is strong and constant over long periods, but the dominant note throughout is prosaic. The spirit a:^d native character of the poetry of the Psalms, the Prophets, and the Moralists have been replaced by a combination of assorted devices of a new literarv era.
I'^oMatt. 8.20, 12.33; John 3.36; II Thess. 2.8; Jude 1.11, etc.
i'.'oMatt. 3.11, 12. 12.36, 37; John 4.6; Luke 12.22, 23; I Cor. 12.26, etc.
I'Ji "Analytical Commentary on Eomans," p. 63ff.; "Symmetrical Structure," p. 3ff. Forbes bases his conclusion on the fact that the figure of "epanodos, " or "introverted parallelism," as discovered by Bishop Jebb, is used in prose; another point adduced as proof is the employment of special numbers to impart symmetry to tlie compositions. But this principle is far afield from the real nature of the parallelism. Ibid., p. 86.
124 University of Calif orriia Publications. [Sem. Phil.
In Syria c
Syriac literature affords an instance of the conscious inter- mixture of the Jewish poetic motif of parallelism with the Latin and Greek rules which demanded regularity of construction and equality in the number of metrical feet. While parallelism seems to have decayed through sheer internal decline within Hebrew poetry during the talmudic period, its contact with outside literatures beyond the confines of the Jewish group brought it into conflict and synthesis with prevailing non-Jewish devices. The Greek and Latin literature cherished by the new Christian communities of the beginning of the Common Era, gradually mingled with the stately Hebrew hymnology of tra- dition ; the Ij-rical poetry of the heathen converts soon challenged the supremacy of the parallelism which, through the Psalms, had imbedded itself in the early Christian liturgy.^®^ Little by little, the Hebrew stjde surrendered, and metrical rules, after the bent of original poets, gained control. New Grecian melo- dies and measures were introduced — the heptasyllabic, anacreon- tic, tetrasy liable, and the dodecasyllabic. Through Ephraem Sj^rus and other minor poets and hymnologists, Syriac literature received a permanent Greek stamp ; despite this, however, par- allelism especially of alternate, antithetic species, is combined with the intricate metrical structure :
The world calls thee;
Go forth to labour; The grave calls thee,
Come rest thou weary one. Glory be to Him who gives thee repose. 1^)3
Synonymous parallelism is also apparent :
Like lilies taken from the wilderness,
Children are planted in paradise; And like pearls in diadems, ,
Children are inserted in the Kingdom, And without ceasing shall hymn forth praise.is*
192 Burgess, Metrical Hymns and Homilies (1853), p. xxiii ff .
193 lUd., p. 9, " The death of youth. ' '
194 /bid., p. 4, "The death of children."
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 125
Be a guard to mine eye,
That it look not stealthily, Be a guard to the ear.
That it hear not wickedly.i^s
In Eabbinical Literature Parallelism in rabbinical literature was perhaps first observed by Jebb, in 1820,"*' who devoted much attention to the form of the aphorisms and proverbs of the Rabbis ; he failed, however, to mention the liturgy. The form of even the most ancient prayers differed from that of the Psalms and other compositions admitted into the Canon and supposed to have their origin in the times of the Sopherim, by "entirely discarding parallelism, that dwelling upon one favored sentiment in a variety of ways, as if loath to part with it " ; instead, it expressed the idea ' ' in the most clear and concise form, and by its language indicates the transformation of the Biblical into the more popular and dogmatical Talmudical Hebrew, tinted with new formed words and Aramaisms." This statement by Sekles"^ is in part true, but several of the most ancient elements of the Eighteen Bene- dictions which were written around 100 a.d., and the blessings accompanying the recitation of the shenmf , show traces of par- allelism; this is due in large measure to the fact that they preserved many of the sublime phrases of the Bible and a sug- gestion of its spirit. An example of parallelism in the liturgy may be found in the 'Alenu prayer:
It is our duty to praise the Lord of all things,
To ascribe greatness to him who formed the world in the beginning,
Since he hath not made us like the nations of the other lands, And hath not placed us like the other families of the earth,
Since he hath not assigned unto us a portion as unto them, Nor a lot as unto all their multitude. ...
Who stretched forth the heavens And laid the foundations of the earth,
The seat of whose glory is in the heavens above.
And the abode of whose might is in the loftiest heights. . . .
195 Ibid., p. 95, "A prayer to the Trinity."
196 Jebb, pp. 76, 88-90.
197 Poetry of the Talmud (New York, 1880), p. 22.
126 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
On the whole it may be concluded that parallelism is a frequent but not a dominant phenomenon of the liturgy, wherein elevated prose mingles with reminiscences of biblical poetry.^^®
The rabbinical proverb, or mdshdl, expressing sententiously a moral counsel, appears sometimes with and sometimes without parallelism. The Book of Ecclesiasticus or the Proverbs of Joshua ben Sirah (c. 180 B.C.) is the only systematical book of proverbs dating from the times of the Sopherim. The Mishna tractate Pirqe 'Abhoth, or "Ethics of the Fathers," contains examples wherein varied forms are observed; this saying attrib- uted to Rabbi Hillel is marked by a string of subjects with corresponding predicates, in almost arithmetical progression; the couplet structure has disappeared:
The more flesh, the more Avorms,
The more riches, the more care;
The more wives, the more witchcraft;
The more maid -servants, the more lewdness;
The more meu-servants, the more theft;
The more Torah, the more life ;
The more scholars, the more wisdom;
The more counsel, the more understanding;
The more righteousness, the more peace. ( 'Abhoth, 2, 8)
Sometimes, a figure comparable to the Arabic 'aks occurs, e.g., this saying of Rabbi Eleazar b. Azariah :
Where there is no Torah, there are no manners; Where there are no manners, there is no Torah.
198 Examples may be found in SekleS', passim. The following shows couplet structure, though not of exact synonymity; the parallelism is rather of a constructive variety:
"Oh, Lord our God, endow us with knowledge to know thy ways, And surround our heart with thy fear;
And forgive us that we may be among those redeemed. And remove us from all injury.
Satisfy us with the blessings of thy land,
And collect our exiles from the four corners of the earth.
Judge the erring according to thy holy will. And over the wicked stretch forth thy hand.
Eejoice the just by rebuilding thy City, And by the restoration of thy Temple;
By the sprouting forth of the horn of bliss of David thy servant. And by the restitution of the light of the son of Jesse, thy annointed.
(Berakhoth, 29.) This prayer was composed by a poet named Samuel in the third century.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 127
Where there is no wisdom, is no fear of God; Where there is no fear of God, there is no wisdom.
Where there is no knowledge, there is no understanding; Where there is no understanding, there is no knowledge.
Where there is no meal, there is no Torah;
Where there is no Torah, there is no meal. ( 'Abhoth, 3, 21)
An example of the interplay between poetry and prose, touched
by parallelism, is found in the following :
Warm thyself by the fires of the wise.
But beAvare of their glowing coals, lest thou be burnt;
For their bite is the bite of the fox, And their sting is the scorpion's sting;
And their hiss is the serpent's hiss;
And all their words are like coals of fire. ( 'Abhoth, 2, 16)
Several examples of antithetic proverbial couplets occur :
If thou art told, thy friend has died, believe it;
Thy friend has become rich, believe it not. (Gittln, 30b)
In whom this is, there is all;
In whom this is not, what is there?
Has one gotten this, what lacks he?
Has he not gotten this, what has he gotten? (Nedhdnm, 41a)
Where the book is, no sword is wanted;
Where the sword is, the book is superfluous. ('AbhodM Zdra, 18)
One of the favorite devices of the rabbinical aphorists was a quatrain in antithetic alternate parallelism:
When the number of sins on earth is increased.
The holy name also is not glorified on earth: But when the number of sins on earth is not increased.
Then the holy name of God is glorified on earth.
(Zohar, Beut., 127, 503) Whosoever maketh himself little on account of the law in this world.
He becometh great in the world to come: And whosoever maketh himself a slave on account of the study of the law in this world.
He shall be free in the world to come. (BdbM Megi'd, 84, 2)
Numerous examples of this motif are discoverable in all the tractates of the Mishna and G^mdrd.^^^ One feels, however, that
T-a^'Embhin, 17b; Shabbdth, 114; Siphrd, fol. 104, 4; Midhrash Tehilllm, to Ps., chap. 9; Ta'anlth, fol. 7, 1. See Eosenthal, Ueber den
128 University of California Puhli cations. [Sem. Phil.
the pungency of the biblical proverbs has in large measure been lost.
The talmudic period proper is succeeded by the geonic, the literature of which still shows traces of parallelism in the gnomic or proverbial writings; e.g., the "Alphabet of Ben Sira," in the Hebrew proverbs, but not in the Aramaic f'^'^ and the 'Ahhoth d^Rahhl Nathan, in which, however, the diverse forms which have arisen for the aphoristic writings almost entirely obscure it.^°^ In the didactic works of the medieval poets, also, several of the proverbs are couched in the traditional antithetic form, though by this time parallelism no longer appears as a constant motif. It is not surprising that it was preserved longest in the proverbial literature of Jewish writers, for, as has been noted, antithetic couplets or quatrains lend themselves most readily to the expression of aphorisms and acute sayings.
The scant poetry proper of the Talmud also offers some examples of parallelism. It appears, for example, to a slight degree in the elegy on the death of Hanin, in Mo'edh Qdton, 25b, though marked by some ambiguity of reference.^"^ A poem from the pen of a Palestinian sage of the fourth century, R. Isaac bar Napaha, is "composed not only in pure Hebrew, but is also written according to the parallelism used in biblical poetry, and observes an equality of syllables in its lines. ' '^°^
Zusammenhang der Mischna (Strassburg, 1909), p. 117. Here rhyme of varied orders, parallelism, and other formations in the Mishna are dis- cussed. As examples of a kind of prose parallelism, Bdbhd Bathrd 8, 1, Bekhoroth, 8, 1; 'XJq^^n, 3, 1; K'^rlthoth, 1, 3, and other instances are cited.
200 Delitzsch, Geschichte d. jued. Poesie (Leipzig, 1836), pp. 204-205.
201 Baumgartner, Poesie gnomique juive depuis le cloture du canon he'breu, jusqu'au XVie siecle (Geneva, 1886), p. 17.
202 Form,^ of Hebrew Poetry, p. 30, cites an example also from Highighd 15b, which, however, is not parallelism even of the synthetic type.
203 Sekles, pp. 99, 146. ' (It may be objected that this poem shows rather a heaping up of descriptive phrases than a genuine parallelism of clauses.) Examples of poems which show a trace of parallelism are scattered through Sekles. It is interesting to note that in connection with the statement of the Mishna, Mo'edh Qdton, 3, 8, that female professional wallers were employed at funerals, the Talmud states that these exclaimed as a general formula:
"Woe to him who went away,
Woe to those who are left behind. ' ' The parallelism of a brief and abrupt kind is evident here.
Vol. 1,] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 129
Eejoice, rejoice, O thou Ark!
Arise in all of thy splendor;
Engirt with bands of gold,
Adorned with choicest gems,
Exhalted in the sanctuary of the Temple. {' A^hhodhd Zdrd, 24b)
It is clear then that parallelism maintained itself in a minor but none the less palpable degree in Hebrew literature after the close of the biblical Canon ;^"* but the constancy and beauty of biblical parallelism disappeared with the decline of poetical pro- ductivity during the talmudic period. The number of examples of clear poetry in the Talmud is insufficient to lay down rules of metre or prosody, nor can it be determined under what for- eign influence, if any, the talmudic poets composed their works. It is possible merely to note the occasional presence of biblical forms intermixed with new elements.
In Medieval Jewish Literature Hebrew poetry enters a new stage about the tenth century; the end of the Geonic period marks the beginning of the Arabic period. Even at the time of Hai Gaon, the influence of Arabic poetic motifs of rhyme and metre become apparent. In the Musar Haskcl attributed to him occurs perhaps "the first at- tempt at rhyme, containing 189 distichs of which many are merely Biblical passages rhymed."^*"' The introduction of rhyme is ascribed also to Jannai, and it was employed by Kalir, both of whom lived in or before the ninth century a-d.^"** There- after despite vigorous opposition by Menahem ben Saruk, his disciples and a whole school during the Middle Ages, Arabic
204 Gray speaks of the Eabbis ' ' examining scripture with eyes blind to parallelism" (p. 27), and brings several instances to show that , commen- tators through the second century a.d. failed to understand the principle of parallelism. Though this conclusion may have applied to the majority of Eabbis, it by no means characterized all. In the Mishna on 'Abhodhd Zdrd, II, 5, Eabbi Joshua in a discussion on the Song of Songs, 1.2, uses the expression x"^^^(^^^> with reference to the second stichos of a couplet which explains a doubtful reading in the first. If the word is translated merely as ' ' the accompanying verse ' ' then no reference to a parallelism can be implied; if, however, as Emslie {The Mishtiah on Idolatry, London, 1911, p. 37), translates, x^bhero means the "parallel verse," then it may well be that Eabbi Joshua appreciated the value of the parallelistic prin- ciple in the interpretation of doubtful passages.
205 Baumgartner, p. 20.
206 Graetz, Geschichte, V, 158-159.
130 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
poetic usages came more and more into favor. For the adoption of the whole range of these stylistic devices, Dunash ben Labrat is most responsible, though his successors, Hasdai, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Jehuda ha-Levi, Ibn Ezra, the Kimhis and a score of others, brought them to a high stage of development.^"^
Parallelism, as has already been seen, had begun to disappear in the days of the Geonim. and only in the gnomic literature had survived to any appreciable degree. With the advent of Arabicised Hebrew poetry, parallelism is neglected even more. The influence of the biblical forms is broken down ; though Bible quotations are frequently made, these are worked into the rhyme and metre which dominate the particular poem; sometimes the parallelism of the original is maintained, but only when it fits the poetical purpose of the author.^"^ It will be later observed that modern Hebrew poets are guilty of the same practice.
It is not difficult, it is true, to uncover examples of parallel- istic couplets among the medieval poets; but these are scattered and exceptional ; the poets do not hold the motif for any length of text. The following may be cited as illustrations of occasional parallelism, though varied metre and rhyme are also present :
1. Samuel ha-Nagid in ''On the Battle Field" r^"^
If I pass in the midst of water draw me out of my. peril ;
If I walk in the heart of fire rescue me from my danger.
2. Hiyya Da'udi in Qiddushd :^^'^
The heights of the heavens to you are the throne of glory,
And the bounds of the earth thy footstool of power and glory.
These announce to you all glory.
And these proclaim : "To whom the glory ? ' '
The Lord God of Hosts. He is the King of Glory.
207 Brody, Studien zu den DicMungen Jehuda-Hal-Levi's (Berlin, 1895), p. 9ff. The extent to which Hebrew imitated Arabic poetry may be understood from the fact that the poetic terminology of the medieval Jew- ish investigators was almost entirely Hebrew equivalents for the Arabic phrases. See Hartmann, Hcbraeische Verslcunst (Berlin, 1894), p. 84; Kaempf, Die ersten Makamen aus dem Tahkemoni oder Diwan des Harizi (Berlin, 1845); on Hebrew compared to Arabic metre, see pp. 17-45; Halper, "Scansion of Mediaeval Hebrew Poetry," JQB, n.s., IV (1913), p. 153ff.
208 Albrecht and Brody, The Neo-Hebrew School of Poets of the Spanish Arabian Epoch (London, 1906), pp. 17, 51ff.
209 Ibid; p. 34.
210 Ibid., p. 131.
Vol- !•] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 131
3. Abraham ibn Ezra in G^^ 'ulld :-^^ If my enemies spoke evil to me,
Then I shall speak, stretching out my foot,
God of Abraham has He been to me. And the Fear of Jacob unto me.
4. Solomon ibn Gebirol in G^'ulld:^^^ To whomsover I sell thee,
The husband will take up thy contention; To whom is the writing of divorcement. Behold, I will contend thy opponent.
In all these illustrations, however, the parallelism is accidental, and is surrounded by non-parallelistic verses.^^^
Important, however, among the devices borrowed from Arabic literature by Jewish Neo-Hebraic poets is the saj' or rhymed prose. In this field Judah al-Harizi is the leader ; his Taxk^mdrii is written in imitation of the style of Hariri's '' Assemblies. "^^* It consists of various maqdmMt, wherein the rhymed prose has become hebraised, and the Bible language takes the place of koranic allusions. Though Harizi employs the device skilfully, the rhyme is more important with him than parallelism, which is not so frequent as in the work of the Arabic poet. Moreover the true difference between biblical and the Neo-Hebraic par- allelism herein becomes evident; the former is free, natural, spontaneous ; the latter is a second-hand, artificially adapted imitation. An indication of the type of parallelism that occurs at intervals in the Taxk^moni may be seen from this selection of lively sa/ occurring in the "Maqdma of the Unhappy Mar- riage " : '
May God make long thy days.
And keep the beauty of thy cheeks.
And thy fruit forever flourish.
Thou art sweet and beauteous to my gaze, And pleasant unto my sight.
Thou quickenest all hearts by thy beauty.
Thou drawest unto thee all souls by the freshness of thy cheeks.sis
2ii/&id., p. 155.
212 Ibid., p. 50.
213 Kaempf, Niclitandalusisohe Poesie andalusischer Dichter aus d. 11. 12. u. 13. .J ahrhunderten (Prague, 1588), contains translations and com- ments on the works of these and several other poets of the time.
214 See Kaempf, Die ersten Makamen des Harizi, passim. 2i5Albrecht and Brody, p. 179.
132 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
The Piyyutim^^^ of the Middle Ages also show only slight traces of parallelism ; metre and rhyme and other poetical figures, refrains, puns, acrostics, abound and obscure even the genuine parallelism of the numerous biblical quotations.^^^ It may be concluded then that the infrequent parallelism which appears in medieval Hebrew poetry is neither indigenous nor significant. Though the synthesis between historic Hebrew phraseology and the many-sided prosody and rhetoric of the Arabs^^^ produced many notable poems, it brought to light no parallelism which holds an important rank in its expansion and influence.^"
In Modern Hebrew Literature
An important era in the history of Hebrew parallelism begins with the modern Haskdld, or "Enlightenment," movement in Germany and Russia.^^" Moses Hayyim Luzzatto sought to emancipate Hebrew poetry from the tradition of the Middle Ages and to free it for self-expression under biblical influence. His Mighdal 'Oz and La-Y*^shdr%m T^^hilld show indications of a re- turn to biblical style, but parallelism is not constant or frequent. Mendes and Wessely followed in Luzzatto 's footsteps, the latter 's Shire Tiph'creth betraying some parallelism.^^^ The Mishle 'Asaph of Isaac Satanow^^^ are true to the character of Hebrew gnomic literature, and as in the proverbs of all peoples, parallel- ism is at hand :
216 Hymns added to the Hebrew liturgy after the seventh century a.d.
217 See Sulzbach, Die religioese u. weltliche Poesie der Juden (Trieste, 1893). Sachs, Festgehete der Israeliten (Berlin, 1860), app., p. Iff.
218 On Arabic poetry by Jews, see Noeldeke, Die Gedichte d. Juden in Arabien (1864), passim; also Bacher, Die hebraeische u. arabische Poesie der Juden Jemens (Budapest, 1910), p. 73: "Die Form der Dichtungen. "
219 Credit for priority in the discovery and designation of parallelism belongs to the medieval Jewish commentators Levi ben Gershon, Ibn Ezra, and David Kimhi. (Gray has brought the data together in Forms, pp. 17-18). Azariah de Eossi devoted a chapter of his M^'or ' Enayim, "Light of the Eyes" (Mantua, 1574), to the study of Hebrew poetry, wherein he recognizes parallelism and the true character of its poetical rules. This work underlay Lowth's famous Praelectioncs and to it he assigns due place.
220 See Slouschz, Renaissance of Hebrew Literature (Philadelphia, 1909), passim; La poesie lyrique hebraiqtie contemporaine (Paris, 1911), passim; Waldstein, Modern Hebrew Literature (New York, 1916).
221 The selection made by Casanowitz, Jewish Encyclopedia, IX, 522, is not good, for synonymous parallelism is absent.
222 Berlin, 1789 and 1792.
"Vol. 1,] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 133
On the day of thy birth thou didst weep,
And those about thee were glad; On the day of thy death thou wilt laugh,
And those about thee will sigh.
Many are the beautiful wives that are hated by their husbands; And many are the ill-featured wives that are beloved.
This return to biblical style might have presaged a readoption of parallelism as a dominant poetic principle, but its primitive character as a poetic instrument and the number and scope of poetic and rhetorical devices at the author 's command^^^ operated against its popularity. Abraham Baer Gottlober's poems in the periodical Hash-Shaxdr, ' ' The Dawn, ' ' savor of biblical influence and make use of many biblical quotations which, however, as with the medieval poets, are couched in rhyme and metre; still his works show frequent parallelism, to which he devotes much attention in an article on modern Hebrew poetics.^^* Judah Leon Gordon, one of the foremost figures of the Hebrew re- naissance, also permits parallelism to crop out at intervals :
They but sowed the wind and ploughed the rock, Drew water in a sieve and threshed empty straw;
They taught thee to run counter to life.
To isolate thyself between walls of precepts and prescriptions,
To be dead on earth and alive in heaven,
To walk about in a dream and speak in thy sleep.225
The prose of Perez Smolenskin in Hash-Shaxar is so permeated with the Bible spirit that parallelism abounds; he seems to em- ploy it entirely unconsciously, and hence it has a spontaneous and undisciplined character. But the works of the more recent poets, including Dolitzki, Frischman, Shapiro, Berditchevsky, Schneour and others have broken away more and more from biblical motifs; the trend of the poetry of the last decades of the nineteenth and the early years of the twentieth centuries
223 Abraham and Micah Lebensohn introduced Hebrew poetry to nearly all the rules of modern prosody and established the standards for" future poetics.
22i Hak-KokMbhlm (Vilna, 1865), pp. 11-50.
225 Rhine, Leon Gordon (Philadelphia, 1910).
134 University of California Puilications. [Sem. Phil.
has been anti-biblical; hence modern poetics have held sway and the weak parallelism of previous years has been further enfeebled.'^*'
Perhaps the only author to champion in writing a revival of parallelism as the characteristic Hebrew poetic form is Zeeb Yawitz. He sought to disengage Hebrew verse from modern prosody and to lead it back to the form of the Bible; his N^ghlnoth minni Qedhem, "Melodies of Antiquity, "^^^ are a paraphrase of talmudic tales in the style of the Prophets. But Yawitz understood the Hebrew language far better than he did the true nature of poetic inspiration, and his poems do not take high rank in recent Hebrew literature ; his was a voice crying in the wilderness, and his productions met with no imitators.^^*
Bialik, the greatest of modern Hebrew singers, has at moments attained the heights of biblical inspiration; his Shire haz-Za'am, "Poems of Wrath," suggest the strength of Jere- miah f^^ and his style is ' ' one step more towards the return to Biblical classicism" which has marked the protest against the anti-biblical tendencies of recent years; but even his poems do not exhibit sustained parallelism. They are simple, though not so simple as biblical compositions, for many poetical figures and forms of current usage are employed. Nor on Palestinian soil has parallelism gained a foothold : contributors to the various Palestinian magazines have resorted to it only occasionally; it does not appear in the folk melodies, which show metre and rhyme ; the songs of the children fail- to use it.^^°
It may be said that parallelism has outlived its day. It had its zenith when poetic forms were relatively undeveloped; and appears unable to regain its sway as the only dominant motif of Hebrew poetry. It seems to demand a sublime state of Ij^ric emotion ; Slouschz believes that it will not return to
226 Slouschz, Renaissance, p. 181.
227 Jerusalem, 1892; see also for a review of this Avork, Ham-Melig, XXXII (1892), 289.
228 Slouschz, Poesie lyrique, pp. 133-134.
229 The qlna measure is popular with many modern Hebrew poets, but parallelism does not necessarily accompany it in their compositions; see for example the Qindth by Perez {Poesie Lyrique, p. 155).
230 idelson, Sepher Msh-Shirim (Berlin, 1912), passim.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 135
Hebrew poetry until a poet of majestic powers has been pro- duced ;^^^ but it is not plausible to believe that the appearance even of a notable Hebrew poet will necessarily witness its resusci- tation. Inspiration equal to biblical grandeur and complexity of poetic forms are compatible. The greatest poet uses the simplest devices, but parallelism is not the only available form. The secret of the beauty of the Psalms and the prophetic utter- ances lies not in their parallelism but in their inspiration. A revival of biblical majesty in modern Hebrew poetry will come not from a restoration of parallelism, but through the rise of a unique spirit touched with the fiame of ancient prophetic lyricism and vision.
231 Slouschz, Poesie lyrique, p. 13, n. 1.
136 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
PARALLELISM IN AMOS
INTEODUCTION
The interplay of biblical prose and poetry is one of the most vexing questions to Old Testament investigators. The two literary forms interweave in almost all parts of biblical compo- sition, particularly in the prophetical books. It has been difficult to set the limits to poetry, while recent students in biblical prose have complicated the problem still more by designating the apparently prosaic narrative portions as poetry. Several in- vestigators have escaped the issue by accepting the overlapping of Hebrew verse and prose as a standard biblical practice. Moul- ton speaks of a middle region wherein poetry, distinguished by high parallelism, meets and interlocks with prose; the effect is a great stylistic gain in a combination of "the delight of freedom which is the spirit of prose with a sense of rhythm, which is the foundation of verse." George Adam Smith advocates the same principle, and quotes Professor Saintsbury to prove the beauty of ''the double appeal of poetry and rhetoric, the magical order of poetry, and the magical apparent freedom of rhetoric."
It is unsatisfactory, however, to adopt these general con- clusions without a knowledge of their full implications. Is there a twilight zone wherein poetry and prose form a melange? If so, where does poetry proper end, where does prose proper end, and what is the result of their blending? These questions can be answered in some measure only by a reexamination of the exact data present in the books of the Bible. For this purpose, the book of Amos has been chosen. It might perhaps be better to look into the didactic, the proverbial poetry, or into an epic, the Book of Job, or into the Psalms. For the literary psychology of these works is relatively simple, whereas in the prophets tcountless problems of vague and apparently insoluble character arise. But research in the book of Amos will at least have the merit of grappling with a double problem: first, the interrelation between prose and poetry in Hebrew literature as
Vol. 1,] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 137
a whole, and second, their interplay under the influence of the unique forces of prophecy.
The method of study into the prose, the poetry, and the melange of both in Amos will proceed from the known to the unknown. The eases of indubitable prose in Amos will first be stated ; the instances of clear poetry next : the third category will comprise the delicate shades of intermixture, and an attempt will be made to extract therefrom general conclusions on the process of interplay. The schematic symbols employed are adopted largely from Gray, though a similar system with some modifications was used before the latter 's work was seen.
PEOSE Sheer prose is found in the superscription, 1.1, an insertion in all probability from the post-Exilic period, of a narrative his- torical character, similar to other prose superscriptions in the prophetic books. A second piece of sheer prose is 6.9-10, which breaks with the encompassing poetry in theme, in style, and in language; the verses seem to be a later inset, and none of the proposed reconstructions (Harper, 152) succeed in securing par- allelism or poetic rhythm for the passage, also narrative, but not historical in character. It will be seen then that relatively little definite prose exists in Amos: the numerous introductory and closing prophetical phrases and refrains and the verses in the narrative portion of 7.10-17 come under different categories and need special consideration.
PARALLELISTIC POETEY Complete Parallelism Clear poetry in Amos involves the question of the degree and the character of the correspondence between the parallel couplets and triplets. It is insufficient merely to label these in terms of the broad, undiscriminating categories of synonymous and antithetic parallelism; the classifications of Gray are more helpful. Complete parallelism occurs when every single term in one stichos is parallel to a term in the other, or when at least every term or group of terms in one stichos is paralleled by a
138 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
corresponding term or group of terms in the other. The simplest form of complete parallelism is represented by:
a b .
a' b'
Examples from Amos are few ; these are really parts of larger ' periods (in these translations hyphens connect words which cor- respond in the Hebrew either to a single word, or to words and particles which plainly form one compound expression and receive one accent) :
Not-a-famine for-bread
Not-a-thirst for-water. 8.11b
It may be necessary to designate these two subperiods also as one
line or stichos:
Not-a-prophet ami
Not-a-prophet 's-son am-I. 7.14a
Examples of the one variation from this two-term scheme :
a b b' a'
also fall under the criticism of being subperiods of larger units :
And-do-not-seek Bethel,
And-Gilgal do-not-enter. 5.5a
Not everything about this period is clear, for it is part of a ques- tionable triplet; moreover it is doubtful whether the negative of command, 'al, should receive a full accent; as the example is cited, it does not.
And-I-will-wall-up its-breaches,
And-its-ruins will-I-raise-up. 9.11b
This period seems to be part of an ''envelope" construction; though complete in itself, it is encompassed by a preceding and following monostich, parallel each to each. It may be concluded then that two term periods are infrequent, except as parts of larger units.
Three term complete parallelism is represented by :
a b c a' b' c'
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 139
The four following illustrations are each part of larger settings, the first three, minus a major verb, the fourth, the central por- tion of an envelope construction :
With-shouting in-the-day-of battle,
With-a-tempest in-the-day-of the-whirlwind. 1.14b
Cleanness-of teeth in-all-your-cities,
And-lack-of bread in-all-your-places. 4.6b
For-the-sanctuary-of the-king is-it,
And-the-residence-of royalty is-it. 7.13b
As-liveth thy-God, Oh-Dan;
And-as-liveth the-way-of Beersheba. 8.14b
An example of a complete and independent couplet of three
terms is :
Not-shall-escape of-them a-fugitive, ' And-not-shall-be-delivered of-them a-refugee. 9.1d
The permutations of the three-term complete parallelism are
found in some measure in Amos ; though apparently there are no
examples of the forms
a b c a' c' b'
Of the form
a b c
b' a' c' : And-I-will-eut-off the-judge from-the-midst-of-her, And-all-her-princes I-will-slay along-with him. 2.3
The preposition 'immo corresponds here to miq-qirhdh, but the use of the prepositions here is doubtful.
The form
a b c
b' e' a' : Who-causeth-to-burst violence upon-the- strong, And-devastation upon-the-fortress brings. 5.9
The change from yabho', "comes," to ydbhl', ''brings," improves the parallelism.
Take-from-me the-noise-of thy-songs,
And-the-mclody-of thy-lyres I-will-not-hear. 5.23
140 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
The preposition me-alai, ''from me," is counted here with the verb and does not receive a word accent of its own.
Who-drink from-bowls-of wine,
And-with-the-first-of oils they-anoint-themselves. 6.6a
The synonymity of thought is less exact here than true parallel- ism demands, but the correspondence of terms is perfect.
And-laid-desolate-shall-be the-high-places-of Isaac, And-the-sanctuaries-of Israel shall-be-laid-waste. 7.9a
A disturbing element enters here through the presence of a fol- lowing single stichos, which is treated on page 181.
a b c
c' a' b' And-he-cherished forever his-anger, And-his-wrath he-kept perpetually. 1.11c
A change from way-yitroph, " and-it-tore, " to way-yittor, "and- he-cherished," is sanctioned by the parallelism. It will be seen also in a discussion of the Doom Song that this couplet may be a post-Amosian insertion.
• a b c
c' b' a' And-who-turneth to-morning deep-gloom, And-day into-night he-darkeneth. 5.8b
A single stichos precedes this couplet and brings forward the
question of a triplet which will be discussed b*elow.
He-that-builds in-the-heavens Ms-chambers,
And-his-vault upon-the-earth he-established-it. 9.6
Double Structure The double term structure exists when in the second line two or more terms occur which taken together are parallel in sense to a corresponding number of terms in the tirst line, though the separate terms of the one combination are not parallel to the separate terms of the other combination. In its extreme form parallelism of this variety consists of two entire lines completely parallel in sense, but of which no two terms taken separately are parallel to one another (Gray, p. 69). The numerical sym-
Vol, 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 141
bol. a2, b2, etc., represents either a double member, consisting of two synonyms, or a compound term consisting of two parts. In Amos there is no example of the form :
The form
a2 b
a'2 b'
a b2
a' b'2
is illustrated by this couplet taken independently out of its back- ground :
For-Gilgal shall-surely go-into-exilej
And-Bethel shall-become naught. 5.5e
a b2 b'2 a' I-laid-waste your-gardens and-your-vineyards, And-your-fig-trees and-your-olive-trees the-locust-devoured. 4.9b
The emendation of harhoth, "the multitude* of , " to hex^rahhtl,
"I-laid-waste," on the basis of Wellhausen (Harper, p. 99)
makes excellent parallelism and satisfies every demand of the
context. The double terms here signify two synonyms rather
than a compound member; moreover it must be noted that the
verb of one accent : hex^rabkti, is paralleled by a compound term
of two parts whicl^, however, receives here only one accent:
yokhal hag-gdzdm, "the-locust-devoured." The scheme may
thus be :
a b2 b'2 a'2
The lines are equal in the number of their syllables, each having twelve, not counting the sh^was; the first scheme therefore seems more plausible, though the test of counting the syllables is a dan- gerous one. For another possible example of this form see below on 2.7a.
Variations of this double structure are numerous and will be introduced under the major subdivisions of complete and incomplete parallelism that follow.
Incomplete Parallelism Incomplete parallelism exists "when only some of the terms in each of two corresponding stichoi are parallel to one another,
142 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
while the remaining terms express something which is stated once only in the two lines," Sometimes one line contains a given number of terms and another line a smaller number of terms; this rasiy be styled incomplete parallelism without compensation ; but if the two lines contain the same number of terms, though only some of the terms in the two lines are parallel, the lines may be said to constitute incomplete parallelism with compensation (Gray, p. 74).
WITHOUT COMPENSATION a b C
b' c' But-I-destroyed his-fruit from-above, And-his-roots from-b«neath. 2.9c
And-I-raised-up sorae-of-your-sons for-prophets, And-some-o:f-your-youths for-Nazirites. 2.11a
Surely-I-knoAv how-manifold are-your-transgressions,
And- mighty-are your-sins. 5.12a
And-I-will-turn your-feasts into-mourning,
And-all-your-songs into-lamentation. 8.10a
And-I-will-bring upon-all-loins sackcloth,
And-on-every-head baldness. 8.10b
And-they-shall-wander from-sea to-sea,
And-from-the-north even-to-the-rising-of-the-sun. 8.12a
This last example gives Harper trouble, for he adds to the second stichos the verb y<'sh6tHu, which according to the Massoretic division goes Avith the next period. The equal length of the two stichoi as they stand and the prevalence throughout prophetic literature of the figure in 8.12b argue against Harper's arrange- ment.
a b c a' b'
Who-lie upon-beds-of ivory,
And-streteh-themselves upon-their-eouches. 6.4a
The terms "ivory" may be paralleled by the suffix dm, "their," but this is doubtful.
And-it-devoured the-great deep
And-would-have-eaten the-land. 7.4a
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 143
The word rdbhd, "great," in the Hebrew is the third term in the first stichos; it is difficult, as with the word rahhlm, "many," below, to show this in the translation.
a b , c b' a' Because-they-have-rejeeted the-law-of Yahwe, And-his-statutes have-they-not-kept. 2.4b
I-abhor the-pride-of Jacob,
And-his-palaees do-I-hate. 6.8a
And-there-shall-drop the-mountains sweet-wine, And-all-the-hills shall-melt. 9.13b
The length of these two stichoi in the Hebrew is almost equal because the reduplicated root tithmoghaghnd, "shall melt," has two beats.
a b c
a' c'
And-he-shall-bring-down from-thee thy-strength, And-plundered-shall-be thy-palaces. 3.11b
Shall-not-darkness-be the-day-of- Yahwe, and-not-light.
Yea, deep-darkness, and-no-brightness-in-it ? 5.20
Another arrangement could be in the form of an alternate par- allelism as follows :
a b c I d
a' d'
Do-there-run upon-the-rock horses, Boes-one-plough (there) with-oxen. 6.12a
Doubt attaches to this verse. Harper (p. 153ff.) reads the second stichos "Does-one-plough the-sea with-oxen"; he breaks up the unusual plural hab-h^qdrim into hah-hdqdr yam. Though the reading and scheme given are substantiated by the Jewish Translation, this emendation seems plausible ; the scheme then becomes :
a |
b c |
a' |
c' b' |
a2 |
b |
a' |
b' |
I-hate, I-despise |
your-feasts, |
And-I-will-not-smell in-your-festivals |
5.21
144 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
This couplet has two verses metrically equal, though the first stichos, perhaps for emphasis, has two verbs. The schematiza- tion may be :
a a' b
a" b'
Compare 4.9a, and below, on reduplication.
a2 b
b' a' And-eat-there bread, And-there prophesy. 7.12b
Though this couplet is part of a larger whole and may constitute only one stichos with two parallel hemistichs, it may be treated independently. In this arrangement though the word sham, "there," interposes, "eat-bread" is taken as a compound double term. If they be separated the scheme becomes :
a b c
b' a' or
a b c
b' d
In either of these two forms, the principle of fresh terms is intro- duced, of which numerous illustrations are found in Amos (see below).
a b c a' d And-cut-off-shall-be the-horns-of the-altar, And-they-shall-fall to-the-ground. 3.14b
Perhaps a third term should be added in the second stichos, though no evidence points to the nature of the term. Another possible arrangement of this is :
a b c
a'2 For-three sins-of Damascus, Yea-for-four, I-will-not-revoke-it.
This occurs as the introductory formula in the Doom Song, 1.3a, 6a, 9, 11a, 13a; 2.1a, 4a, 6a; in each case, the name is changed. The two stichoi are metrically equal; though the first itself has no verb it is understood from the second stichos ; the use of the terms "three" and "four" is the link which binds the two stichoi into a parallel couplet.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 145
WITH COMPENSATION
Double Structure Incomplete parallelism with compensation, in its various types, is assisted by the double term structure and by the fresh term motif. Examples of the double terms compensation are as follows :
a b c b' c'2 Yahwe from-Zion roars, And-from-Jerusalem he-utters his-voice. 1.2a
Proclaim over-the-palaces iu-Ashdod,
And-over-the-palaces in-the-land-of Egypt. 3.9a
The word hashml'U, ''proclaim," is here a part of the parallel- ism, and is different from the phrases of postlude and prelude which the prophet employs before and after his main speeches,
And-he-shall-lift-up you with -hooks,
And-the-last-of-you with-fish hooks. 4.2
Doubt attaches to this verse (Harper, p. 85). It is difficult to render in the translation the fact that dughd is the third term in the second stichos ; it should in reality be read : ' ' hooks of fish ' ' ; it is also difficult to show in the translation the double character of the compound phrase.
Go-to Betliel and-transgress ;
To-Gilgal and-multiply transgression. 4.4a
Woe-to those-that-are-at-ease in-Zion, And-those-that-are-secure in-the-mountain-of Samaria. 6.1a
And-those-who-eat lambs out-of-the-flock,
And-calves from-the-midst-of the-stall. 6.4b
The preposition mit-tokh receives here a full word accent.
Hear-this, ye-that-tread the-needy, And-ye-who-would-make-cease the-poor-of the-earth. 8.4a
Again as in 3.9a a prophetic prelude phrase receives a word accent and is accounted as part of the parallelism. Moreover in the first stichos the word 'ehhyon, which has but one accent, is paralleled in the second stichos by ' anlye-'ereg, which has two accents.
146 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
a b e b'2 c' And-I-will-cut-off the-inhabitant from-Bikath-Awen, And-the-holder-of the-sceptre from-Beth-Eden. 1,5b, 8a
Bring every-morning your-sacrifices,
Every-three days your-tithes. 4.4b
The phrase li-sh^ldsheth ydmlm translated by the Jewish Trans- lation "after three days" gives difficulty (Harper, p. 92) ; the schematic arrangement, however, is unaffected.
a b c
c' b'2 Because-they-sell for-silver the-righteous, And-the-needy for-the-value-of a-pair-of-shoes. 2.6b
To-buy for-silver the-poor,
And-the-needy for-the-value-of a-pair-of-shoes. 8.6
These two almost identical verses both have in the second stichos the preposition ha-'^hhUr, which means "for the sake of" or "on account of." Though a preposition, it receives a full word accent, as did mit-tokh in 6.4b, and hence is translated "for- the-value-of" in order to show that it is a distinctive element in the thought.
And-they-shall-call the-husbandman to-mourning, And-to-wailing those-skilled in-lamentation. 5.16b
This couplet occurs in a larger setting; Harper treats it as cor- rupt and omits the second stichos entirely, thus destroying the parallelism. The error may perhaps lie in the first stichos of verse 17 (see below). Difficulty also attaches to the grammatical construction. (Harper, p. 126ff.)
But-let-well-up like-waters justice,
And-righteousness as-a-stream ever-flowing. 5.24
a b c c'2 a'
They-hate him-that-in-the-gate reproveth,
And-one-who-speaks uprightly they-abhor. 5.10
a b c
c' a'2 They-who-turn to-wormwood judgment, And-righteousness to-the-ground they-cast. 5.7
Vol. L] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 147
A slight doubt attaches to this couplet; the scheme may be: a b c c' d a'
a b c
c'2 b' Who-like-the-height-of the-cedars was-he-high, And-strong was-he like-the-oaks. - 2.9b
This couplet permits of other schematizations :
a2 b .b'2 a'
This takes in the first stichos k^-ghohhah-'^^rdzlm as one word
accent, and in the second x^Qon-hU' as one accent.
a b e c' b'
This regards x^Qon-hU' as one word accent. But it is better to give hu' in itself one accent and retain the first scheme.
For ye-have-turned to-poison justice,
And-the-fruit-of righteousness to-wormwood. 6.12b
Fresh Term Structure Incomplete parallelism with compensation by means of a fresh term or terms appears in several variations : The forms
and
have no instances in Amos.
The fresh terms may be either one, two, or three in number.
a b c a' b' d
The couplets in 3.15b, 8.8b, and 9.5b may come under this class- ification, but they will be discussed under others below.
And-there-shall-perish the-houses-of ivory, And-there-shall-cease many houses. 3.15b
As in 7.4, the translation does not show that raihlm stands after its noun, and is the third member in the stichos. While in 6.4
a |
b |
b' |
c |
a |
b |
a' |
c |
148 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil,
the word "ivory" may perhaps have the suffix "their" as a corresponding term, here it has the weak "many." The form may be also :
a |
B |
c |
a' |
b' |
c' |
a |
b |
c |
a' |
d |
c' |
l-I-will-turn |
my-hand against-Ekron, |
|
L-there-shall-] |
aerish |
the-remnant-of the-Philistines. |
1.8b
And-I-will-cause-to-set the-sun at-noon,
And-I-will-darken the-earth in-the-clear-day. 8.9
If it be argued that Id-' dreg is parallel to hash-shemesh, then the arrangement becomes :
a b c a' b' c' And-I-will-send fire into-Teman, And-it-will-devour the-palaces-of Bosra. 1.12
And-I-will-send fire into-Judah,
And-it-will-devour the-palaces-of Jerusalem. 2.5
And-I-will-send fire into-Moab,
And-it-will-devour the-palaces-of Kerioth. 2.2
These are three of the instances of the punishment formula in the Doom Song. The other instances occur under the four term variations (see below; see also a discussion on 5.6b).
a b c
d b'- c' And-I-will-make-it as-the-mourning for-an-only-son, And-the-end-thereof as-a-day-of bitterness. 8.10c
a b c
c' b' d By-the-sword shall-die Jeroboam, And-Israel shall-surely-be-exiled from-his-land. 7.11
The question of word accents here is troublesome. The phrase gdlo-yighU receives only one word accent to correspond with ydmuth; the same is true of me-' al-'adhmdtho.
a b2
a' b' c And-it-rises-up like-the-Nile all-of-it, And-sinks like-the-Nile-of Egypt. 9.5b
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 149
This couplet is identical with 8.8, except for the fact that the
latter contains in the second stichos at its head w<^-nighrcshd,
' ' and-heave ' ' ; this is clearly a gloss which for several reasons
(Harper, p. 180) can be omitted. It has already been suggested
that these couplets could come under the form :
a b c a' b' d
a b2
a' c b'
Are-they-better than-these kingdoms, Is-greater their-border than-your-border. 6.2b
The suffixes here cause difficulty, and the meaning is not entirely clear in the light of the preceding and following stichoi ; the parallelism is, however, unaffected (Harper, p. 145).
A group of couplets wherein parallelism with compensation occurs, though the text itself is in a doubtful state, is found in 2.14-16. As the strophe on the punishment which is to over- take the strongest and swiftest now stands, its schematic char- acter is :
a b c a2 b
c' a' b' a'2 b'2
a b e a2 b c d
a'2 b'
Three couplets and a single stichos make up the series; but the fact that several repetitions mar the text and the fact that the Massoretic division of verses 14 and 15 makes each contain three stichoi, while verse 16 has an extra long and repetitious line, throws doubt upon the state of the passage. It seems plausible that the author intended that the strophe should con- tain three parallel couplets, and that the text should contain as few repetitions as possible. Various reconstructions have been suggested, but none have kept in mind the need for parallelistic couplets. The following restoration is therefore suggested:
W-'abhadh mums miq-qal
W^-qal hc-raghlaw 16' yimmdlet 14a, 15b
w^X^^fi'fl ^o' y^ammeg qoxo
w'^-ghibhor 16' yaggil naphsM l4b, 14c
150 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
w^-thophes qesheth Id' ya'^modh
iv^-rokhebh Ims-sus yanus 15a, 15c, ] 6b
And-there-shall-fail refuge from-the-swift, And-the-speedy-of-foot shall-not-escape,
And-the-strong, not-shall-avail his-strength, And-the-warrior not-shall-he-deliver himself,
And-he-that-handles a-bow shall-not-stand, And-the-rider-of-a-horse shall-flee.
This arrangement is by no means free from criticism. In the first couplet, there is a repetition of the word qal which on the principle that identical repetitions mar the form, is not satis- factory, despite the fact that the phrase in reality is qal b^-ragldw, " speedy-of-f oot. " In the second couplet, the first stichos seems justifiable, but the second demands the change of the words: y^mdllet naphsho to ya^gll naphsho to avoid repetition (cf. Amos 3.12; Is. 44.20, etc.) ; or the root pdlat might be substituted for mdlat in one case. The third couplet has the virtue of bringing together the stichoi which contain a subject with a modifier, which in the schematization becomes a2 and a'2. The difficulty lies, however, with the word 'drum in verse 16. There the words w^-'ammlg libho hag-gihhorlm appear to be a dittography or variant of y^'ammeQ qdxd w^-gibhor in verse 14, hence they can be omitted. It is significant to note, however, that verse 16 is the only stichos which declares flight not in the negative, but in the affirmative. In the arrangement given above, the word 'drum is omitted, though it may be inserted in the second stichos of the third couplet, giving: "and the rider of a horse naked shall he flee." It may be possible, however, to place the word 'drum in the first stichos of this last couplet, and to interpret the word "naked" as meaning "without weapon." The form then becomes :
And-he-that-handles-a-bow naked shall-stand, And-he-that-rides-a-horse shall -not-flee.
In addition to the change remarked in the first stichos, it is seen that the Id' is transposed to the second stichos; this makes the sense that even the one best equipped to flee will be unable to do so. The schematic arrangement of these suggestions becomes :
Vol. 1.]
Newman. — Parallelism in Amos.
151
a b c'2 a'
b b'2
a2 b a'2b b'
or the last couplet is :
a2 b e a'2 b';
Whatever may be thought of these suggestions, it seems indisput- able that a sextet of stichoi, divided into three pairs, may have been in the original text. Hence the principle of couplet par- allelism has proved here a valuable aid. The long line, appar- ently prose, in verse 16 has shown itself to be illegitimate, once more vindicating the principle that a breakdown of the par- allelism and the presence of an unattached single line, whether isolated, or supposedly a part of a triplet, in Amos are in reality due to textual corruption (see below).
Four Term Variations
Four term variations are not frequent in Amos, and there is no instance of the form :
d d'
But the following scheme is present wherein the second stichos is shorter than the first :
abed
'a' c' d' And-one-shall-smite the-great house into-splinters, And-the-small house into-chips. 6.11
Again it is difficult in the translation to show that the terms
"great" and ''small" occur after and not before their nouns in
the Hebrew.
So-I-will-send a-fire into-the-house-of Hazael, And-it-will-devour the-palaces-of Benhadad. 1.4
This instance from the formula of destruction in the Doom Song presents a different scheme from 1.12 ; 2.2, 5. The formulas in 1.7, 10, 14, depending on the question whether one regard the
152 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phiu
word arm^nothehd, "its palaces," as deserving of one accent, or of two, whereb}' the suffix ehd, "its," corresponds to the name of the respective city, can take either this scheme :
abed a' c' or this:
abed a' e' d' So-I-will-send a-fire on-the-wall-of Gaza, (Tyre, Eabba) And-it-will-devour its-palaces (or, the palaces thereof).
Forms with three terms in the first stichos and four in the
second are found in numerous combinations :
a b c d a' b' c' Who-twitter to-the-sound-of the-harp, Like-David tliey-devise-for-themselves instruments-of song. 6.5
This couplet is dubious : the word k^-Ddwldh is probably a gloss
(Harper, p. 147) ; if omitted the scheme becomes:
a b c a' b' c'
Doubt also attaches to the distribution of the accents in this couplet ; the word Idhem, ' ' for themselves, ' ' being reckoned in with x^ishchhu, "they devise," the total receives but one beat.
a b c
a' b' c'2 In-all the-broad-plaees there-shall-be-lamentation, And-in-all the-streets they-shall-say: Alas,- Alas. 5.16a
This couplet occurs in a setting wherein corruption is evident. This schematization of the text regards, contrary to the cus- tomary usage, the word h^-khol in both stichoi as worthy of a full word accent. Harper (p. 126tf.) suggests that the word '<^dhdndi at the end of the prophetic phrase introducing the couplet be read 'arnln, * ' I will cause shouting ' ' :
I-will-cause shouting in-all-the-squares for-mourning, And-in-all-the-streets they-shall-say :Woe,Woe.
This gives to h^-khol-r^x^hoth and h^-khol-xUQdth only one word accent, thus conforming with the Massoretic maqqeph (see Gray, pp. 138-140). The arrangement thus becomes:
a |
b |
c |
b' |
c'2 |
|
a |
b |
e |
b' |
a' |
c' |
Vol. 1.] Neivman. — Parallelism in Amos. 153
Or
a b e b'2 c'2 When tliere-shall-overtake the-ploughman the-reaper, And-the-treader-of grapes him-who-soweth seed. 9.13a
Again the question of word tone enters to throw doubt on this
arrangement. There are here four words of major character in
the second stichos to express two compound ideas corresponding
to two simple nouns in the first stichos with only one accent
each; the scheme may thus be, though with less plausibility,
a b e b' c'
The following couplet contains several peculiarities ; the first
is the phrase isht^khd hd-^tr, "thy wife in the city,^" the second
the double subject in the second stichos, together with the
unusual idea "thy daughters shall fall by the sword." As the
couplet stands it reads :
Thy-wife in-the-city shall-be-a-harlot,
And-thy-sons and-thy-daughters by-the-sword shall-fall. 7.17a
a b c
a'2 d2 ■
Or
a .b c a'2 d c'
A reassortment of the phrases here would be necessary to
give a good parallelistic couplet; the omission of the word
u-hh^nothekhd would make the scheme :
a b c a' d2
Another doubtful couplet occurs in 8.13. As it stands it
falls into this scheme :
a b c b' d There-shall-faint the-beautiful virgins, And-the-youths from-thirst.
154 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
The Jewish Translation glides over the difficulty by translating without regard to the parallelism :
In that day shall the fair virgins,
And the young men faint for thirst.
Harper (p. 183 ff.), recognizing the flaw in the text, transposes the end period of verse 14 and makes this combination :
There-shall-faint the-beautiful virgins,
And-the-youths shall-fall and-not-rise-again.
This gives the schematization : a b c b' a' d2
A suggestion may be made that the emphasis upon the word hay-ydphoth, "the beautiful," is unnecessary, and that instead a form of the root yd'eph, *'to be weary," or "faint," should be substituted. This is borne out by Is. 40.30, where the root is used of youths, n^'drim, as a parallel to the word used by Amos, huxurlm. Moreover in Is. 44.12, the root is used in connection with hunger and thirst, both of which are mentioned immediately before this verse in Amos 8.11-12. In Judges 8.15, the par- ticipial adjective is used of weakness from lack of bread, and in II Sam. 16.2 from lack of drink. The following emendations may be suggested :
1. tith' allaphnd hab-bethuloth ha-y^' eplwth, w'^hab-baxHrim yigmd'u.
There-shall-faint the-virgins who-are-weary, And-the-youths shall-be-in-thirst.
2. tith' allaphnd hab-bethiiloth, w^-yd'ophu hab-baxunm bag-gdmd', There-shall-faint the-virgins, And-there-shall-grow-weak the-youths from-thirst.
The schematization of this couplet thus becomes, a b a' b' c
This form is unusual, but it will be noted thai; the redupli- cated root tith' allaphnd may take two beats, as in the case of tithmoghaghnd in 9.13b,
What may be either a four or a three term structure depend- ing upon the distribution of word accents is found in this couplet :
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 155
Lest-it-kindle like-fire the-house-of Joseph,
And-it-devour with-none-to-extinguish for-Bethel. 5.6b
The Septuagint, some manuscripts, and the demands of parallel- ism point toward the reading "for Israel" instead of "for Bethel." Moreover the terms are not entirely clear in sense. The schematic arrangement becomes :
a b c2 a' d c'
There are four terms here referring to fire : in the second stichos the phrase w^-'en m<^khahhe, "with-none-to-extinguish," receives one accent; it is doubtful whether it should be taken as a new term, or as a synonj'mous term to kd-'esh in the first stichos; moreover the name Beth-Yoseph receives here two word accents ; it may be better to give it only one ; another schematic arrange- ment thus becomes:
a b c
a' b' c'
Reduplication Reduplication or internal synonymity occurs often in Amos. This differs from the mere double synonymous term or double compound term species, in that in the same stichos there are two shades of the same idea; the two hemistichs are parallel each to each; the synonymity and parallelism extend also to the second stichos, so that there are cases where three terms for the same thought are employed. It will be seen also that this redupli- cation results in a tj^pe of triplet formation. (See Gray's remarks, pp. 159-166.)
a b c
b' b"2 And-there-shall-perish in-tumult Moab, With-shouting and-the-sound-of the-trumpet. 2.2b
a b c a' c' a"
And-burn of-leavened-bread a-thankoffering
And-proclaim free-Avill-offerings, make-them-known. 4.5a
Doubt attaches to the word hashml^U, though as a synonym for qir'u it is intelligible. But the repetition results in a special emphasis on the idea of proclamation or invitation, rather than
156 University of California Publications. [Sem, Phil.
oil that of the offering itself; perhaps then the text is corrupt, and a parallel term to nie-xameg, ' ' of leavened bread, ' ' should be sought to replace hashml'u, ''make them known."
a a' b
a" b' I-hate, I-despise your-feasts, And-I-will-not-smell of-your-festivals. 5.21
This has already been discussed under the form i^ M , The arrangement given here eliminates the confusion attaching to the use of the symbol a2 for a double synonymous term in the same stichos, which may thus be viewed as reduplication. Compare 8.17a.
a b a' b'
a" b''2 Diminishing-the-epliah, and-enlarging tlie-shekel, And-perverting balances-of deceit. 8.5b
This form may be regarded either as a triplet, wherein the first two hemistichoi become stichoi of two stresses each, and the third contains three stresses ; or the first stichos may continue as here to hold two hemistichoi of two stresses each, giving a couplet wherein the first stichos contains four and the second three accents. (See Gray, p. 164.) It is virtually impossible to fix a rule for the determination of all instances of this character; each must be decided on its own merits, though a guiding prin- ciple may be the strength of the pause or caesura between the two first hemistichs.
a b a' b'
a" e b" Hate evil, and-love good, And-establish in-the-gate justice. 5.15a
Here there is an internal antithetic parallelism in the first stichos, or if 5.15b be regarded as a triplet, between the first and second stichos ; the term hash-sha' ar is the only alien term in the scheme, for the three verbs and the three objects are respectively either synonymous or antithetical.
a b a' b'
a" b" a" ' 2
Vol.1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos.- 157
Not-a-prophet ami, and -not-a-prophet 's-son am-I, But-a-shepherd am-I, and-a-dresser-of sycamores. 7.14
Here the question whether the hemistichs should be counted as full stichoi, independent and composed of two stresses, though part of a larger setting, receives further complication. The first stichos has already been treated independently as a two stress distich (see above). It is therefore possible to treat this verse either as a double distich, or as a two part couplet. It is almost impossible to determine which is preferable. The usual numbe"r of stresses is three ; four are infrequent, two still more infre- quent ; hence it is a choice between considering this as a four or two stress scheme. It is to be noted that the fourth part of the quadruple form breaks the synonymity of language, but retains the necessary number of stresses. Viewed independently the second line can be :
a b
a' c or
a b
a'2
a b c •
a' a"2 d And-thy-land by-the-line shall-be-divided, And-thou on-an-unclean-land shalt-die. 7.17b
This presents an involved type of parallelism; a third stichos complicates the passage, though this couplet appears to be inde- pendent (see below). Here the word "land" in the first stichos finds in position and thought a complement in "thou" at the head of the second stichos. The parallelism does not cease here, for there is a parallelism of language and an implied antithesis of thought also between ' ' thy-land ' ' in stichos 1 and ' ' an-unclean- land" in stichos 2, the former being "clean and holy." The schematic arrangement here given serves to bring out in a measure the double parallelism, though it neglects partly the grammatical construction of ' al-'(^dhdmd pme'd, a noun with a preposition, looked upon as a double compound term, as parallel to admdth<^khd, which is the subject in the first stichos and receives only one word accent. For this of course the intricacy
158 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
of the parallelism is responsible. Compare 9.15, where difficulty with the words ' al 'adhmdth^khd is again present.
Alternate Parallelism clear parallelism Alternate parallelism occurs when the two stichoi contain more than four or as few as four terms, and break up into two independent clauses, so that the third part is parallel to the first and the fourth to the second. In many examples of Arabic saf or rhymed prose, nearly all the parallel sections fall into two independent clauses, subordinate from the view of the par- allelism which knits together the two main stichoi, but marked by rhyme which connects them at the same time that it empha- sizes their distinction; sometimes one type of rhyme is present for the first and third, and another for the second and fourth sections of the quatrain. In the Hebrew, no rhyme occurs, but the caesura between the individual parts is strongly marked (Gray, pp. 62-63).
a b c II d e ' a' b' c' II d' e'
A series of alternate parallelisms of this type occurs in Amos (3.3ff.) : verses 3, 4, 5, 6, conform to this type; verse 3, how- ever,, contains only a single line which splits into two parts ; verses 4, 5, 6 have two lines, thus giving to each Massoretic verse four sections, two main and two subordinate. Verse 7 breaks the stretch of alternate parallelism, but verse 8 resumes it, though the form is slightly changed, four instead of five terms being present:
a b II c d
a' b' II c' d'
The lack of a second stichos in verse 3 lends the impression either that the verse is in the nature of an introduction, setting the keynote for the series, or that a complementary stichos has dropped out.
The arrangement of verse 7 is difficult. For the moment it may be arranged :
xa b c
x'a' c' d2
Vol. 1.] Newma7i. — Parallelism in Amos. 159
The parallelism in the Hebrew is not so close as the scheme indicates ; the verse has" a traditional prophetic character, and must be considered under the category of near-prose. Sug- gestions have been made either to place it after verse 8, or to omit it entirely as a gloss. The first suggestion would give five consecutive verses of excellent alternate parallelism :
(3) Do-there-walk two together, Except they-be-agreed?
(4) Does-there-roar a-lion in-the-forest,
When-a-prey he-hath-not ? Does-there-give-forth-his-voice a-young-lion from-his-den,
If -he-hath-not taken-something ?
(5) Does-there-fall a-bird in-a-snare-on-the-ground,
If ca-hunter there-be- not-for-it ? Does-there-spring-up a-trap from-the-ground,
Without-capturing anything-at-all? (i.e., unless it be sprung).
(6) Shall-there-sound a-trumpet in-the-city,
And-the-people not-be-afraid? Shall-there-be evil ih-the-city,
And-the-Lord not-have-done-it?
(7) For not-doth the-Lord-God anything, Except-he-reveal his-purpose to-his-servants, the prophets.
(8) The-Lion has-roared ;
Who will-not-fear? The-Lord-God hath-spoken ;
Who can-but-prophesy?
In verse 6, it may be urged that the parallelism between
''trumpet" and "evil" is not sufficiently close, and that the
second half of the quatrain has been inserted by reason of
verse 7 ; a substitute could be found in the more synonymous
two part line :
'im tihyd teru'd bd-'lr (or baq-qiryd) we-' am Id' ydqumu (or yiyhx" dikU) Shall-there-be a-clarion-blast in-the-city, And-the-people not-rise-in-terror?
160 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
But there seems little ground thus to omit and substitute ; rather as first suggested, verse 7 seems more indefensible and mis- placed, and should either be transposed or ruled out. Compare Hosea 10.10, 11.
Another series of alternate parallelisms of a similar char- acter is found in 9.2-4. Again, however, difficulties arise, for verses 2 and 3 each have two stichoi and four subordinate parts, while verse 4 diverges from this plan. The schematic arrange- ment is as follows :
(2)
c II d e
c' II d' e' (3,4)
c2 II d e f
gc'2 II d e2 f
12 II d" e"2 f"
Noting the lacunae, the text at present reads :
(2) Though they-dig-through to-Sheol,
Thence shall-my-hand-take-them ; And-though they-climb to-heaven,
Thence will-I-bring-them-down.
(3) And-though they-hide-themselves at-the-top-of Carmel,
Thence will-I-search-them-out and-take-them, And-though they-hide from-before-my-eyes at-the-bottom-of the-sea,
a |
b |
a' |
b' |
a |
b |
a' |
b' |
a" |
h2 |
Thence will-I-command the-serpent and-it-will bite-them, '
(4) And-though they-go into-captivity before-their-enemies. Thence will-I-conimand the-sword and-it-will-slay-them.
The schematic arrangement shows that as the text stands it contains a couplet and a triplet, or two quatrains, and a half quatrain. Various suggestions have been made to explain the use of "serpent" in verse 3, one of which is to make it refer to the Leviathan. Amos, however, speaks of the serpent as a creature of the fields and of the house (5.19), not of the sea. The suggestion that a scribe may have omitted the fourth part of
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 161
verse 3, and the first part of the third quatrain in order to make the whole conform to the Leviathan legend, is far fetched, for though he might change a few words, it is doubtful whether he would omit a whole sentence. Moreover the Massoretic verse 4 has after the end of the quatrain arrangement, the sen- tence: "And-I-shall-place my-eyes upon-them for-evil and- not-f or-good. " The missing sections may find some hint for restoration here ; verse 3, part 3 mentions the fact that the sinners would escape from God 's eyes ; the arrangement becomes perhaps :
. And-though they-hide from-before-my-eyes at-the-bottom-of the- sea, I-will-place my-eyes upon-them for-evil, and-not-for-good.
This would mean that only the first part of the third quatrain is absent. However, it has been suggested that the phrase min-neghedh, ' en-ai, ''from-before-my-eyes/' be omitted in verse 3 ; the last part of verse 4 may have been inserted on the basis of this expression, which itself may have been an insertion. It is evident that the verses are in confusion, and that they have been jostled together for one reason or another; a restora- tion is difficult, the one here suggested being poor, because among other things it neglects the use of the phrase mish-shdm at the beginning of each second part and fourth part of the quatrain. The schematic character in its proper form, to be filled in with the missing po-rtions should be :
(2)
a b e II d e
a' b' c' II d' e'
(3)
a b c2 II d e f
a' b' c'2 II
(4)
II d e g h
a' b'2 c'2 II d' e g' h'
A series of a different character is found in 5.11b and 9.14b. a b c II d 8 a b c II d e Houses-of hewn-stone have-ye-built,
But-ye-shall-not-dwell in-them ; Vineyards-of delight have-ye-planted,
But-ye-shall-not-drink their-wine. 5.11b
162 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
And-they-shall-plant vineyards,
And-drink their-wine, And-.they-shall-make gardens,
'And-eat their-fruit. 9.14b
Several variations of these forms occur, among which it will be seen the qind measure may be included as well perhaps as the form
a b c
a' b'
and its several variations which have already been discussed.
a b c II |
d |
e |
c' II |
d' |
e' |
When will-pass the-new-moon |
||
That-we-may-sell grain, |
||
And-the-Sabbath |
||
That-we-may-o£fer corn. |
8.5a (Cf. 5.20)
a b c II d e a' b' c' II d'2 And-because garments taken-in -pledge they-spread-out,
Beside every-altar ; And-the-wine of-those-that-have-been-fined they-drink,
In-the-house of-their-God. 2.8
The Jewish Translation shifts the second parts of the sentences into the first and third, thus :
And they lay themselves down beside every altar
Upon clothes taken in pledge, And in the house of their God they drink
The wine of them that have been fined.
This violates in some degree the Hebrew arrangement, wherein a prepositional phrase, not in itself a complete period, makes up the subordinate parts of the sentences. This, usage in the Hebrew seems to show that as in modern poetry, a part of a quatrain need not express a full or a complete independent part of a full idea, but may be a mere prepositional phrase. It can be noted here that the preposition egel, "beside," receives a word accent. Here an approach is made to the style of Arabic rhymed prose, or parallelistic prose.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 163
NEAR-PROSE
Synonymous Saj'
This resemblance to parallel prose is maintained by 5.19,
apparently an insert between the poetic verses 18 and 20, which
deals with a description of events on the day of the Lord; the
language is prosaic, and the conjunction ha-'^sher, "just as,"
which usually interferes with the normality of the parallelism,
is present. As the verse stands it is plotted :
X a b c II d e a'2 f'2 g II d' e'
From the standpoint of rhythm, the verses have the same swing
and virtually the same length. Question has been directed
against the member u-thd' hah-hayith, "and he comes to the
house." The Greek has daTnjSrja-rj, which gives the picture of
a man leaping over the threshold into a house. Though it is
possible that the verse wishes to convey the idea that in a crevice
of a house where a man least expects it, he will be attacked,
nevertheless the picture can be of a man fleeing across a field,
placing his hand on a wall to vault it, and disturbing the natural
habitation of a serpent, which bites him (cf. Eccl. 8.8). On
the basis of strict parallelism, the word ydnus, "flee," in the
first part needs a complement in the third, in such a form as
Oettli suggests, namely u-hhdrax, ''he runs away." It may be
protested, however, that if the first terms are placed in exact
parallelism, the others should be also; possibly, then, despite
the resulting unusual triplet formation, three distichs were
originally present:
As-if there-did-flee a-man from-a-lion,
And-thcre-met-him a-bear, And-he-entered a-house
Or-he-leaned his-hand on-the-wall, And-there-bit-him a-serpent.
It seems better, however, to maintain the quatrain formation,
despite the length of the third part (cf. 3.12 below) :
As-if there-did-flee a-man from-a-lion,
And-there-met-him a-bear, Or-he-entered a-house, and leaned his-hand on-the-wall,
And-there-bit-him a-serpent.
164 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
In 3.12, the same phenomenon of an approximation to near- prose is present. The language is prosaic; the prepositional- conjunction ka-'f^sher heads the combination, while the conjunc- tion ken, .' ' thus, " or " so, " heads the third part, unlike 5.19. The thought is divided clearly into two halves, the first dealing with the escape from the lion, the second dealing with the application of the figure to the escape of the Israelites. Though the lines are excessively long, the metrical length and rhythm are vir- tually the same. Synonj^mity is maintained throughout, except that in the third part of the quatrain, the phrase mip-pi ha-'(^rl, "from the mouth of a lion," is balanced by hay-yosh^hhlm h^-Shom^ron, "those who dwell in Samaria." Oort and Bau- j^ mann regard the disturbing phrase as a later insertion and omit it; Loehr also omits it as a gloss. Instead of it, the suggestion has been made to read: mip-p^ne hd-'oyehh, "from-before the enemy," to parallel "from before a lion" (Harper, p. 81). The present scheme is:
b' b"2
It can be seen from this schematization that alternate parallelism with a type of reduplication exists here. The emendation sug- gested would eliminate the disturbance in the sense, and improve the rhythmical quality of the text. The scheme thus becomes:
d |
e |
d' |
e' |
d" |
e' |
d"' |
e' |
1 d |
e |
d' |
e' |
1 d" |
e" |
d"' |
e" ' |
from-the-mouth-of |
x'a' b' c'
As there-rescues the-shepherd from-the-mouth-of the-lion
Two-legs or a-piece-of-ear, So shall-escape the-children of Israel from-before-the euemy,
With-the-corner-of a-couch, and-with-the-leg-of a-bed.
In view of the character of the passage, it may be asked : Is this comparable to the parallelistic prose of the Arabic rhymed prose? The short, terse, three term character of the usual couplet is missing; is it that the alternate parallelism is a door to a special type of prose parallelism? It is to be noted also that the subordinate parts are not complete in themselves, after
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Arn.os. 165
the manner of 5.19, but are detached portions similar to 2.8 (of. 7.10b).
N 011- Synonymous Saf
Near-prose appears to be present again in 7.10b. This
distich is part of a narrative which seems to be in prose, but
which, it will be seen on closer examination, turns out to be
mostly parallelistic poetry with the addition of several prose
phrases.
Amos has-conspired against-thee in-the-midst-of the-hoiise-of-
Israel, Not-able is-the-land to-bear all-his-words.
a b c II d e2
f g h II 12
Rhythmically these stichoi though extra long in character seem equal. No synonymity exists between the two except in the general concept of conspiracy; no terms are correspondential with the possible exception of ' ' the-land ' ' and ' ' house-of-Israel. ' ' It seems possible that alternate parallelistic schematization may be emploj^ed for the distich, similar to the usage in 2.8 ; thus :
Amos has-consplred agalnst-thee,
In-the-mldst-of the-house-of Israel, Not-able is-the-land
To-bear all-his-words.
But this differs radically from the usual alternate and qlnd measure, and cannot be advocated with any degree of security. The distich has been regarded by Loehr and others as bald prose. Certainly neither complementary nor appositional par- allelism is present here; i.e., where a single member of one stichos is explained by a whole line in apposition to it, as in the '«s/ier and hd-'dm<^rtm clauses (see below) ; if this is to be re- garded as parallelism, then every symmetrical statement of act and result is parallelism. It seems feasible therefore to desig- nate this distich as rhythmical non-parallelism, near-prose, and similar in many respects to the Arabic unrhymed mj' .
QINA PARALLELISM
From an examination of these forms of alternate parallelism which approach closer and closer to near-prose, it is well to turn to the qlnd-strophe, which adheres to the form of alternate par-
166 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
allelism though with a different spirit and purpose. The true
qlnd is genuine poetry, and does not fall victim to the danger
of becoming near-prose, or even prose, as its prototype, alternate
parallelism, becomes at times. One of the best examples of
qlna in prophetic literature is found in Amos 5.2 and 3 (Gray,
p. 119) :
Fallen to-rise-no-more is-the-daughter-of Israel,
Stretched-out upon-the-ground with-none to-raise-her.
The-city that-goeth-forth a-thousand shall-have-left a-hundred, And-she-that-goeth-forth a-hundred, shall-have-left ten
to-the-house-of Israel.
The phrase l^-hheth Yisrafel gives difficulty; either it must be
introduced at the end of the introductory phrase beginning
verse 3, or better, it may be regarded as a repetition from the
introductory phrase beginning verse 4; or it may perhaps be
placed in verse 6 instead of l^-hheth- 'el, which is clearly an error
(see Harper, p. 112). The schematization of verses 2 and 3 is:
a b2 II c2
a'2 II b'2
a b c II d e b e' II d e'
Two qlna, couplets thus occur here which in number of terms
have each apparently this form :
3 : 2 2 : 2
It is possible, however, that in the second line of the first couplet 'al-'adhniathdh, "upon the ground," should be given two tones instead of one, in which case that line, also, would have the form 3 : 2.
SYNTHETIC COUPLETS
Up to this point, this study has devoted itself to a consider ation of couplets in clear parallelism; in all except three cases, there has been no question of the poetical character of the couplets, nor has the synonymity of the parallelism been sharply affected. It is necessary now to pass to a discussion of so-called ''synthetic couplets" wherein neither synonymity nor parallel-
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 167
ism is so close, and where the twilight zone between prose and poetry is most evident. It has been observed here that par- allelism is not an infallible test of poetry, for in the three examples of prosaic alternate parallelism, the synonymity has been close, though language and form has pointed more towards the designation of prose than poetry (Gray, p. 40).
CLEAR SYNTHETIC
The Book of Amos contains several couplets wherein the
synonymity between the terms is not maintained, but where the
second stichos contains a continuation of the thought wherein
perhaps one term corresponds to another in the first stichos;
the second stichos usually' contains a statement of a phase of
the same idea as the first, but it adds a new detail. These may
be called "clear synthetic" couplets.
For-lo, he-forms the-niountains, and-creates the-wind, And-declares unto-niau what-is-his-thought ;
He-makes dawn darkness,
And-treads npon-the-heights-of the-earth. 4.13
X a b a' b' d e f
g h i j k2
Or the second couplet may be represented thus : a b c d e2
These two couplets are part of a doxology, and are knit together by the participial construction at the head of each stichos; the central idea throughout is praise of God, but each stichos con- tains a new statement of his deeds. The first stichos contains an internal reduplication, aba' b'. But correspondence of a character similar to other parallelism is missing.
Because ye-trample on-the-weak,
And-exactions-of-grain ye-take from-him. 5.11
The central idea of this couplet is oppression of the poor, though synonymity is missing; the schematization is:
X a b
cd b'
168 University of Calif orniu Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
It must be observed that the conjunction ya' an, "because," receives a full word accent. The prepositional phrase in the second stichos mimmennu, ''from him," seems to correspond to ' ' on-the-weak. ' '
Therefore-now they-shall-go-into-exile at-the-head-of the -captives, And-shall-pass-away the-shout-of the-banqueters. 6.7
X a b2
de f
The introductory conjunction receives a word accent though it
gives to the first stichos four tones, and to the second three.
Again as in 5.11, the uniting thought of the two stichoi is the
same, but the second adds a new picture to the plan.
He-that-calls for-the-waters-of the-sea,
And-pours-them-out upon-the-face-of the-earth. 5.8c, 9.6b
a b c
dec'
Synonymity is present here in the terms "sea" and "earth," perhaps; each stichos is a syntactically complete line in itself; the number of terms in each is the same; and a rhythmical principle seems present; the couplet diverges, however, from the normal type of synonymous parallelism, in so far as the second stichos in thought is a continuation, not a repetition of the first, almost as one prose line is a continuation of another — unless, indeed, a species of "complementary" parallelism be recognized, in that each line expresses merely another phase of the thought, "God controls the waters."
8.8a
Shall-not-for-this |
tremble |
the-land, |
|
And-shall-mourn i |
all-the-inhabitants therein. |
||
a |
b |
c |
|
d |
e |
c' |
|
Or |
|||
a |
b |
c |
|
b' |
d |
c' |
|
He-that-touches |
the-earth, and-it-melts, |
||
And-there mourn all-the-inhabitants theri |
|||
a |
b |
c |
|
d |
e |
b' |
|
Or |
|||
a |
b |
c |
|
c' |
d |
b' |
9.5a
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 169
In each of these couplets, the second stichos contains the preposition ** therein," which is synonymous with "the-earth. " There is more synonymity in the first than in the second couplet ; although the latter contains in its first stichos two verbs the second of which, ''melts," may be complementary to the verb in the second stichos, the first verb, "touches," has no complement. The spirit and language and environment of these two couplets show that they are clearly poetry; the exact correspondential character of normal parallelism is how- ever absent.
Alas-for those-who-long-for the-day-of-Yahwe,
Wherefore-is-this to-you the-day-of-Yahwe. 5.18
a b c
dec'
Each stichos has an identical term yom '(^dhondi; the meaning of the couplet is doubtful and a triplet formation complicates the problem.
And-mourn-shall the-pastures-of th&-shepherds,
And-dry-up-shall the-top-of Carmel. 1.2b
a b c
a' b' c'
Or Or
a b c
a' b'2
a b c
a' c d
The metaphorical expression "the mourning of the pastures" seems to signify their failure to produce crops, a synonym therefore for the expression "the drying up" of the top of Carmel. There is here exact correspondence of terms, each containing three members; hence the first schematization is possible. But if the expression "the top of Carmel" be not regarded as synonymous to "the pastures of the shepherds," then either the second or third form is admissible.
In 8.12a and 9.4b occurs a special form wherein the second stichos is a short negative, thus :
170 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil,
They-shall-run-hither-and-thither to-seek the-word-of-Yahw5, But they shall not find it.
I-shall-place my-eyes upon-them for-evil, And-not for-good. ^
This is a frequent formation in prophetic writings ; it is difficult
to suggest its schematization, and it must be accepted as a special
structure without regard to its symbols. Cf. the usage of the
term w^-en m^kahhc in 5.6b. _
DOUBTFUL SYNTHETIC
A group of ''doubtful synthetic" couplets is present in
Amos which are so styled because no synonymity is present, yet
a rhythmical principle seems to operate, while the text itself is
unclear. Among these couplets may be reckoned the following :
Because-they-delivered-up a complete-captivity to-Edom, And-have-not-remembered the-covenant-of brothers. 1.9b
And-not have-they-known how-to-do-good,
Those-who-store-up violence and-oppression in-their-palaces. 3.10
And-through-the-breaches shall-they-go each-woman before-her, And-they-shall-be-cast into-Harmon. 4.3
Strike -the-threshold that-the-posts may-shake,
And-cut-them on-the-head all-of-them. 9.1b
In each of these instances the text is corrupt ; though the first
two are somewhat clear, the second two are dubious in sense,
in grammar, and in form. Another instance where synonymity
may be present but where the sense is doubtful is the following :
Because he-pursued with-the-sword his-brother,
And-destroyed his-compassion. 1.11b
For a full discussion of this distich see below on the Doom Song.
A corrupt text is possibly to be seen here :
Who-crush the-head-of the-poor on-the-dust-of the-earth And-the-way-of the-humble they-turn-aside. 2.7a
By the omission of "on the dust of the earth ' ' the form becomes (Harper, p. 50) :
a b2
b'2 a' or
a b c
b' c' a'
Vol, 1.] Neumian. — Parallelism in Amos. 171
Other instances of doubtful synthetic couplets are scat- tered throughout this study, and are found tabulated below.
"THAT-SAY, " OR QUOTATIONAL COUPLETS
Amos contains several couplets wherein one stichos is length- ened by the use of the apparent equivalent in Hebrew for quotation marks, namely, a form of the word "say," which is found standing usually at the head of the stichos as a participle, sometimes in the middle as an infinitive. This creates a special class of parallelism, for it will be observed that the synonymity between the stichoi is not close, since the quotation usually adds a new thought to the complex.
Hear-this-word, ye-kine-of Bashan, Who-are (dwell) in-the-mountain-of -Samaria, That-oppress the-poor, That-crusli the-needy,
That-say unto-their-lords : Bring, that we-may-drink. 4.1
xy a b
c d2
e f
e' f
g h i j
There are indications of symmetry here, though the verse ap- proaches closely to prose ; a relative '<^sher in the second stichos complicates the verse ; moreover it is doubtful whether the open- ing prophetic phrase "Hear this word" deserves to be included in the scheme as major words, receiving tonal accents. Par- allelism exists here between the terms e f and e' f '. The participial construction which Amos employs in the last three stichoi is a favorite with him (first stichos: 2.7; 5.7, 8, 9, 12, 18; 6.1, 3, 4, 5, 6; 8.14; second stichos, 3.10, 12; 5.3) ; here it knits the terms together throughout the entire verse. Another schematic arrangement for this verse whereby two couplets are produced which are rhythmically but not correspondentially symmetrical, would be :
xy a b
c d e
f g f g' h i j k
172 University of California Publications. '[Sem. Phil.
Who-re j oice in-that-which-is-not,
Who-say: By-our-own strength have-we-not-taken for-ourselves horns? 6.13
In addition to the fact that hd'-om^rltn, "that say," serves to
lengthen the stichos, ' there is no correspondence between the
terms, though the thought is in general the same in both stichoi.
The scheme runs:
a b2
c d e f
By-the-sword shall-die all-the-sinners-of my-people,
Who-say : Not-shall-touch or -befall us disaster. 9.10
Doubt on the validity of this text exists because of the length of the second stichos and the presence of two verbs therein denoting the same thought. No correspondence of terms exists, the second stichos adding to the first a characterization, from their own lips, of those who will die. The schematic arrange- ment is:
abed
f g2 h i
But-ye-made-drink the-Nazirites wine,
And-the-prophets ye-commanded (saying) :Do-not-prophesy. .2.12
a b c
b' d e f
Or
a b c
b' d (x) e
In the light of verse 11, which deals with the same thought in an inversed couplet, it is clear that parallelism is intended here. Doubt attaches, however, to the text, and Harper (p. 54) sug- gests that the words le'mor 'al-tinimhh^'u could be omitted as a gloss, thus restoring the line to a length commensurate with the first stichos. In the face of other examples where the le'mor construction is used, this seems plausible. Harper's arrange- ment becomes :
a b c b' a'
But-ye-made-drink the-Nazirites wine,
And -on-the-prophets ye-laid-prohibition.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 173
It may be concluded with reference to the " who-say " clauses : either the term receives a full word accent as in 4.1, where hd'-om^roth is used with a modifying noun la-'f^dhonehem, though this latter term may not be genuine; or the phrase "who-say" in its various forms should not be reckoned as a major word in the schematization, worthy of a full tone, but more like the quotation marks in English. The majority of cases seem to favor the second hypothesis, though each case must be judged on its own merit.
"in ordek that," or conjunctival couplets
A series of conjunctival clauses which are introduced either
by the conjunction U-ma'an or the relative ''^sher affect the
parallelism, which by the absence of correspondence is almost
eliminated. The l^^-ma' an, ''in order that," clauses contain in
the second stichos, at the head of which the conjunction usually
stands, a new thought which is the result or the purpose of the
event or act mentioned in the first.
Because they-ripped-up the-pregnant-women-of Gilead, In-order-to enlarge their-border. 1.13b
No correspondence of the terms exists here ; the text is dubious ;
there is a non-sequitur in the ideas of the couplet ; in a plotting
of the text, the conjunction l^-mxi'an receives a full word accent.
And-a-man and-his-father go unto-the-same-maid,
In-order-to profane my-holy name. 2.7b
Again the text is dubious ; the lines are longer than usual ; Harper emends to read: ''And-a-man and-his-judge deal according-to-agreement. " The length of the couplet is seen in the scheme :
a2 b c d e f2 Seek-good and-not-evil, In-order-that ye-may-live. 5.14a
The sense is clear, but the schematic arrangement is dubious. This line is followed by an apparently long prose line, wherein the word ha-'csher occurs. Either it is possible to regard this verse as a brief distich, a text for the discussion that follows; or the line may be grouped with the next long prophetic line,
174 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
making thus two long lines; or as Harper suggests, they may form a quatrain similar to alternate parallelism:
Seek-good and-not-evil,
In-order-that ye-may-live, That-so-may-be Yahwe-God-of-Hosts with-you,
As-ye-have said.
But this is doubtful, and must be accepted with reservation, although it must be noted that this quatrain is followed by another (verse 15) of similar formation. *
In-order-that they-may-possess the-remnant-of Edom, And-all-the-nations over-which is-called my-name. 9.12
Here l^-ma' an occurs at the head of the entire couplet in the first stichos; moreover the presence of '"■sher in the second stiehos complicates the form. The lines are long, and approach close to near-prose ; unless it occurred in the midst of genuine parallelism, it would be classified without hesitation as prose. The text is doubtful, and seems to be part of a post-Amosian insertion. The schematic arrangement is difficult; slight corre- spondence may be present between the words "Edom" and ' ' nations ' ' :
abed
d' e f g
It may be concluded with reference to the l^-ma'an clauses that the use of the conjunction is accompanied by a breakdown of synonj'mous parallelism; correspondence between terms is missing; the lines are usually extra long, and approximate closely near-prose. Moreover the text is usually doubtful.
RELATIVE COUPLETS
The '«s/ier-relative clauses may be divided into several cate- gories. The first usage is in couplets where the relative does not affect the regularity of the parallelism, as in 2.9 ; another usage is in a mixture of prose and" parallelism, as in 4.1, where the relative may affect the parallelism, and yet, depending upon the construction of the passage, may fall in with the parallelistic arrangement. It may be used merely as a relative in sheer prose, as in 1.1, the superscription; but its main usage is in
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 175
couplets where there are traces of parallelism disturbed how- ever by the use of the relative.
And-there-led-thera-astray their-lies,
After-which there-walked their-fathers. 2.4
The text here is dubious ; no correspondence of terms is present ;
grammar and sense are confused. This couplet makes possible
however a differentiation between essential and non-essential
relative clauses. The presence of the suffix "their" attached
to "lies" shows that the relative clause here is non-essential.
An essential modifier, i.e. one which cannot be logically omitted,
cannot be a parallel logically ; a non-essential is somewhat of the
nature of a synonym, and hence may be regarded as a parallel.
The same may be said in some measure of the hd-'om^rlm clauses
already discussed; in the same way that the second stichos was
an additional characterization, not imperative to complete the
meaning of the first stichos, but employed to fill out the couplet
structure, so the relative is used here and on occasion elsewhere.
One piece was-rained-upon,
And-the-piece whereon it-rained-not withered. 4.7
The relative occurs in the middle of the second stichos, and though it lengthens it, is not responsible for the uncertain character of the couplet, for the style is tame; this stanza of the Grief Song has a superabundance of stichoi; this distich is surrounded by another in weak parallelism, verging on bald repetition; and by a long and dubious prose line.
In 5.26, the relative is used in a conventional phrase, "which" ye made for yourselves " ; it may be part of a triplet ; the text also is doubtful ; a similar use of '(^sher has been noted in 9.12 ; again in 9.15, the words "which I have given to them" are used as a conventional phrase with reference to the ' ' land ' ' ; the words seem to be "tacked-on" as it were. On 'several occasions it is found that at the end of a chapter or of a prophetic book similar conventional combinations are attached. In 3.1, the relative is used in a conventional, introductory prophetic phrase with no parallelism, apparently no rhythmical principle; the lines are long and the verse savors of the historical traditional phrases used by the prophets at the head of their denunciations.
176 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
ka'asher or simile couplets
The ka-'^sher couplets also present varieties of usage. It has been seen that in 3.12 and 5.19, two couplets of similar struc- ture, the ku-'^sher stands at the head of the couplets and does not interfere with the parallelism; in 3.12 it is a correlative of ken, "thus," in the second stichos, and in 5.19 likewise by implication. In 5.14, it is used in a conventional prophetic near-prose line, wherein no simile and hence no parallelism are present; the word ken is used in conjunction with ka-'''^sher in this line also, but no simile is involved as in the other examples.
In 2.13, ka^'^sher occurs in the second stichos of an extremely doubtful couplet. The text is apparently corrupt; various suggestions for its emendation have been made, among them one by Harper (p. 60), but the supposed metrical principle which he employs is unjustifiable and violates even the elements of parallelism preserved in the couplet. As it stands the verse by reasons of its imperfections approaches near-prose. The brevity of the Jewish Translation does not bring out the char- acter of the Hebrew text which is long and overbalanced :
Behold, I win make it creak under you, As a cart creaketh that is full of sheaves.
The first stichos of the couplet appears to be genuine; a com- pression of the second is necessary to give a genuine couplet.
In 9.9 an almost identical structure and difficulty are pres- ent ; in fact, were the two passages combined, they would make a mutually supplementary picture, since both deal with images of threshing. As in the previous instance, the ka-'c-sher stands at the head of the second stichos, making it almost seem that the presence of this conjunction in the second half of a couplet is in danger of obscuring the parallelism and the text. In 9.9, however, unlike -the other instance, the ka-'(^sker section may be formed into two stichoi :
And-I-will-sift among-all-the-nations the-house-of Israel,
Just-as-one-shakes with-a-sieve, But-not-shall-fall one-kernel to-the-ground.
Again a disturbance in parallelism is accompanied by the pres- ence of the conjunction, and by a dubious sense.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 177
A type of construction which plays a role in disturbed
parallelism is found in Amos 4.11; it appears to be a long
continuous prose line; the Jewish Translation obscures the
inequality in the length of the two parts into which it divides
the line, by translating:
I-have-overthrown some-of-you,
As-God overthrew Sodom and-Gomorrah,
which in the Hebrew is :
hdphakhti hhdkhem
Jc^-mahpckath ''-'lolnm eth-Sedhom W-eth-' omord.
Here the word hd-khem is given a full word accent; Harper and others believe that something has fallen out of the text, and so indicate in their arrangements. This phrase concerning the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah gives difficulty through- out the prophetic books ; it either creates a species of continuous, rhythmical parallelism, near-prose in character, or it breaks down apparently good parallelism. Only rarely does it form a part of good parallelism. It is found in prose in Deut. 29.22 ; it has no corresponding stichos but is attached to the end of a couplet in Is. 13.19 ; in Jer. 49.18 it stands at the head of a verse the end of which is a good synonymous couplet; so also in Jer. 50.40. On several occasions the words "Sodom" and "Gomorrah" are used as corresponding terms in parallel couplets (cf. Zeph. 2.9; Is. 1.9; Jer. 23.14). The phrase of comparison in Amos is not used in the customary style of par- allelism, though it might be grouped with the ka-'<^sher type, i.e., with simile parallelism ; or, if the text were simply ' ' as the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah," it would be similar to the phrase "in the manner of Egypt" in verse 10 (see below, on Grief Song). But as it stands it has the sound of a conventional phrase, inserted without regard to the awkwardness of the re- sulting context: "I [God] have overthrown some of you as God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah." Indeed, in general it may be concluded that the Sodom-Gomorrah phrase is conven- tional-traditional and historical, and stands outside the couplet parallelism, though exceptions of course exist.
178 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Triplets and Monostichs
Important in a determination of the dubious eases of parallelism in Amos, is a consideration of the monostichs and tristichs; this will make possible a decision on the question whether isolated stichoi and triplet formations are intentional or accidental, or are the result of broken and marred texts.
The various single stichoi fall within several categories. The first includes those which betray remnants of parallelism and which may have been part of a parallelistic couplet, e.g. 1.3b, 6b, both of which are treated below in the Doom Song, 2.1b, and 1.5, where the first and fourth periods show that a couplet between them has been omitted and the gap filled by the substitution of a good couplet taken from 1.8 (see below).
The stichos 5.27 falls within a class of lines which occur at the end of a chapter and have no complementary stichos. It may be suggested that this near-prose line may serve as a rhythmical counterpart to the conventional prophetical phrase and epithet at the^ end of the verse, but this violates the usual principle that the introductory and closing phrases stand out- side the parallelism.
A third class of single lines may be found in the so-called
** texts" to the various sermons of Amos. 4.12c appears to
belong to this species, though it occurs with two conventional
prophetic phrases, and is followed by a doxology which appears
to be an inset in the text. In 5.4, the text or heading may
possibly be placed in parallelism with the next stichos:
Seek-me and-live, But-do -not-seek Bethel.
In support of this, the next verse, 6a, appears to have a text : "Seek the Lord and live"; but it will be seen in a discussion of the triplet in verse 5 that this arrangement is not good.
This leads to the fourth class of single lines, those which are attached to couplets, or are a part of triplets, and hence must be treated with reference to triplets. It has already been observed in the discussion on 3.3, that whereas verses 4, 5, 6, and 8 have two stichoi in alternate parallelism, verse 3 has but
Vol. 1,] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 179
one; hence it may be stated that either another stichos has dropped out, or the present stichos must be taken as the head of the series and the keynote. Compare discussion on 9.4-4, 14. An example of a text that is clear but perhaps misplaced (Harper, p. 78, places it after verse 11) is found in 3.15. Here one line occurs followed by two short and parallel lines. The scheme is :
a b c b' d e b" f e' b"' g And-I-will-smite the-house-of winter with-the-house-of summer, And-shall-perish the-houses-of ivory, And-shall-be-destroyed houses many.
This is a distinct type of strophe, and when the phenomenon is repeated in stanzaic form, complete symmetry results. It may be observed that the parallelism between the two short lines is quite exact, and the parallelism between either one of these and the longer first line is also good; the doubt arises through the presence of two stichoi parallel to the first.
In 3.11, despite the need for a slight textual change in the first line, an apparently good triplet is present, though the synonymity between the terms of the first, and those of the second and third lines is not close. In 5,8 the first stichos stands somewhat alone, and seems to need a complement, though the use of the participle, as well as a thought similarity, binds it to the couplet. In Job 9.9 and 38.31, the same terms are used and couplets are present ; this stichos may be a later inser- tion in Amos on the basis of the Job passages. It is dangerous to make good parallelism dependent only on the presence of a couplet and to be overscrupulous in ascribing it to a triplet; however, it is well as here to examine every triplet on its own merits.
Trouble arises with reference to 5.16, 17. Verse 17 has a stichos in virtually the same form and language as the first stichos in the couplet at the head of verse 16. The repetition of the word mispedh, and the fact that the dominant structure here seems to be the couplet, make it possible either that some- thing has dropped out in verse 17 which would serve as a com-
180 University of California Puhlioations. [Sem. Phil.
plement to the doubtful stichos, or that it is a later insertion. The triplet formation thus appears to be doubtful. The same question attaches to the third stichos in 5.18. Harper wishes to regard the striking second stichos to the first couplet as an interpolation, and make the first and third stichoi the genuine couplet, but Loehr and others would omit the third as an inser- tion, basing their action on the ground that it is derived from 5.20a. In favor of the present triplet arrangement it may be said that Amos uses the third stichos as a climax to the imme- diately preceding remarks; or the stichos may be divided into two parallel parts:
It-is darkness And-not light.
This is doubtful because of the extreme brevity of the periods, and the frequent use of a line in the scheme a b b'. "Whatever decision be championed with reference to the text, it is certain that the triplet cannot pass by entirely unquestioned.
Doubt is present once more in 5.22. Harper wrongly regards the second stichos of the couplet as an interpolation; it is far more plausible to regard merely u-min^x^thekhem, "and your meat-offerings," as a gloss explaining (see Brown-Driver-Briggs, p. 585) the striking phrase in 5.21, second stichos: w^-lo' 'drl^'x^ "and I will not smell in your solemn assemblies."
Doubt again follows the triplet in 6.6. The first two stichoi form an admirable synonymous couplet. Other investigators have made various suggestions as to the replacement of the third stichos, which seems to be in good prophetic language, contains three terms, but has no complement. Whatever may be its correct position, it appears certain that the triplet forma- tion here is not original. In 6.8, the first two stichoi form a good parallelistic couplet, but the stichos "and I will shut up the city and its inhabitants," seems to be an isolated stichos, the remnant of a couplet, or inserted by a later commentator because the verb is in the same person as the verbs of the couplet, and the noun corresponds to "palaces" in the second stichos of the couplet. Doubt further attaches to the validity of the stichos because immediately following it is a long prose
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 181
portion clearly out of place in the text. If another stichos be
demanded to form a couplet, perhaps 5.27 might serve. (Cf.
1.6, 10.)
Neither 7.9 nor 7.17 is free from question. Each has an
isolated stichos at the end of the verse ; moreover in 7.11 Amos
is quoted as saying:
By-the-sword shall-die Jeroboam,
And-Israel shall-surely go-into-exile from-its-land.
If the two isolated stichoi in 7.9 and 17 are brought together, this couplet ensues, as the prophecy which Amos is said here to attribute to God:
And-I-shall-rise against-the-house-of Jeroboam with-tlie-sword, And-Israel shall-surely go-into-exile from-its-land.
As the text now stands only one-half of Amos' prophecy in verse 11 is vindicated; this arrangement provides for both parts, and disposes of the isolated stichoi. This is another of many instances where supposed triplets in reality are couplets plus a stichos out of place.
In 8.6 a third line follows a good synonymous couplet with which it appears to have no grammatical or logical connection. Either this stichos may be rejected, or it may be taken up into the second stichos of the first couplet in verse 5. This latter possibility is negated, however, by the fact that nashblr is already used there; the words in verse 6 may therefore be a variant reading.
In 9.1 a possible triplet is obscured by the apparent corrup- tion of the text; the isolated stichos " and-their-residue with- the-sword will-I-slay" is in Amos' style and seems to deserve a place in the text as a survival of a good couplet.
In 5.5 a couplet with a reference to Bethel and to Gilgal is followed by a stichos containing mention of Beersheba. A couplet succeeds this group wherein Gilgal and Bethel are men- tioned, though a play upon Beersheba is conspicuous by its absence. The suggestion that the first stichos of the first couplet as stated above be taken with the ''text" in verse 4 is inde- fensible because of the combination of stichoi in the second couplet of verse 5. Either Baumann's suggestion that the
182 University of California Publications. [Sem, Phil.
Beersheba stichos be omitted must be accepted on the ground that in 4.4 only Gilgal and Bethel are mentioned, while 8.14 refers to Dan and Beersheba without the other two; or it is necessary" to add a stichos to 5b, punning upon the name of Beersheba. It is easier and more plausible to omit the trouble- some stichos as an interpolation.
In 6.1-2 similar difficulties are encountered. A good couplet heads verse 1 ; a doubtful distich follows ; in verse 2, three stichoi apparently in triplet formation are present ; then follows a final couplet in verse 2, which must be regarded as part of this strophe. Various ways of reading these verses may be sug- gested. Harper (p. 141 ff.) regards the second distich of verse 1 as a good couplet and the three stichoi of verse 2 as a good triplet, but he omits the second couplet in verse 2; his rendering of the second couplet in verse 1 is :
Who specify themselves the chief of the nations,
And make a prey for themselves of the house of Israel.
The Jewish Translation offers for this couplet the following conventional and traditional rendition which clings to the pres- ent text but solves none of its difficulties :
The notable men of the first of the nations, To whom the house of Israel come.
The schematization of the couplet together with the following
triplet becomes then :
a b c d e f
aba a' b'2 a" b"2
The following suggestions may now be offered. Either the whole of the first stichos, n^quhhe reshlth hag-goyini, should be omitted; this would place the next stichos at the head of a quatrain, changing u-hha'u into ho'u, an imperative; or the combination of consonants from n^quhhe and the next word resMth, q-h-r, suggests the possibility of the word qlr^hhU, ''draw near," to be parallel to hd'U. For the theme of the couplet and of the text down to verse 3 appears to be : Let Israel
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 183
\ approach the neighbouring countries and compare their lands, the first of the nations, with those of Israel. God's question then at the end of verse 2 in the couplet seems entirely justi- fiable; the words hag-goylm in verse 1 seem to anticipate the nations mentioned in verse 2. The schematization first suggested in this paragraph then becomes:
The second suggestion calls for the schematization
a |
b c |
a' |
d a' |
a" ' |
d'2 |
a"" d"2 |
|
esti |
on calls |
a |
b c |
a' |
d e |
a" |
f a' |
a"" f'2 |
|
a" ' |
' ' f "2 |
the couplet being :
Approach the-first-of the-nations, And-come-to-them, oh-House-of Israel.
A final suggestion is that in the second couplet of verse 1 a stichos has fallen out parallel to the first stichos, and that the second stichos should go with the triplet in verse 2, to form a quatrain, thus :
the first of the nations,
Come to-them, oh-House-of Israel, Pass-over to-Calneh and-see, And-go thence to-Hamath-Eabbah, And-go-down to-Gath-of-the-Philistines.
The schematization thus becomes :
a b c
a' d a'
a" ' d'2
a"" d"2
There are a few special triplet formations in Amos where the usual periodic character of each stichos is missing, and where each unit is a part of a larger whole.
184 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
Assemble on-the-mountain-of Samaria, And-behold the-many tumults therein, And-the-oppressions in-her-midst. 3.9b
Harper suggests that the third period be omitted as a gloss not only because it affects the "measure of the line" but is not clear grammatically and does not correspond well with "tumults." But this suggestion violates an almost infallible law that where a couplet or triplet shows good parallelism, it should not be broken up. It may be that either '(^shUqim or ni^hUnioth needs emendation. There is a curious repetition of "palaces" in 9a, however; moreover, the preposition 'al is used in two different senses; in the first couplet hash-ml'u ' al means "to summon to" or "against" (cf. Jer. 51.27) ; in the triplet, he'ds^phU 'al means "to assemble on top of." Thus the fault seems to lie in the first couplet in verse 9. The schematic arrangement is either:
or
Another dubious example is found in 5.26 : But-now-ye-lift-up the-shrine-of your-king And-the-image-of your-images, The-star-of your-God which-ye-have-made for-yourselves.
The Jewish Translation substitutes "Siccuth" for "shrine"
and "Chiun" for "image," taking the Hebrew as proper
names. The conventional '(^sher 'c^slthem lakhem, "which ye
made for yourselves," mars the text, even though various
phrases here be omitted in order to make two lines of fairly
equal length ; thus. Harper suggests :
But-now-ye-lift-up the-shrine-of your-king,
And-the-image-of your-God which-ye-have-made for-yourselves.
Whatever be the determination and exact rendition of this passage, it is evident once more that the supposed triplet cannot pass unchallenged.
In 9.7 an apparently near-prose quatrastich or tristich is present, after the interfering n^'um '^dhondi is omitted:
a |
b2 |
|
a' |
c2 |
d |
c' |
d' |
|
a |
b2 |
|
a' |
c2 |
d |
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 185
Are-not like-the-Cushites ye tome, oh-Sons-of-Israel, Did-not-Israel I-bring-up from-the-land-of Egypt, And-the-Philistines from-Caphtor, And-Edom from-Kir.
The first two lines are allied perhaps by the affinity of thought, and externally by the use of the same introductory interrogative h(^ld', "not," and the use of the term Yisrd'el in both stichoi. It may be asked whether the two end periods should not be combined into one stichos, thus giving a triplet instead of one long rhythmically parallel couplet and one semi-independent couplet in close parallelism. One notes that this long near-prose passage deals with traditional historic material. The schematic arrangement can be either
a |
b |
c |
d |
a' |
e' |
f |
g2 |
e" |
g' |
||
e" |
'g" |
||
a |
b |
c |
d |
a' |
e' |
fg2 |
|
e"g' |
e" |
' g" |
or
It may be concluded with reference to triplets, therefore, that the bona fide triplet combination in Amos is rare ; fre- quently the text of the supposed triplet is corrupt or dubious; unless the tristich shows perfection of form and sense, it is necessary to investigate carefully before it is pronounced gen- uine. Each triplet must be weighed on its own merits, and none should be accepted without analysis merely because it is known that triplets do exist elsewhere in prophetical literature.
Conventional Historical Prophetic Phrases
The prophets employ certain typical prophetic phrases which may have been part of the stock in trade of the schools and even of the independent prophets. Most of these lines are single stichoi ; they have a traditional flavor and hark back oftentimes to the historical events deeply rooted in the past of the people. Some of them are mere ejaculations, inserted apparently without rule or reason; sometimes however they serve as a climax, sometimes as emphasis for a special point.
186 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
2.11b is an ejaculation, apparently out of place in its present location between two couplets which reflect phases of the same thought; 4.5b is also an ejaculation which may serve to end a series of couplets ; it stands outside the parallelism as an isolated stichos. 5.14b and 15b are long and prosaic; they may be regarded either as isolated stichoi, may be combined to form a distich, or may be part of a stanzaic arrangement. 5.17 falls somewhat outside this category, for it has not a traditional flavor; it seems to be an isolated stichos, the remnant of a re- frain, or the end to a series of couplets; it may be taken with the preceding single stichos to form a distich, but no synonymity exists, and the combination is doubtful.
5.25 is a long prosaic verse referring to the sacrifice of offer- ings in the desert period ; it is clearly not parallelism, and seems to have little place in the text, unless it have some bearing on verse 26, which is also doubtful. Why the prophet should sud- denly insert this line is unclear; why also he should desert the parallelistic form he has maintained immediately previous over five verses, is a mystery. It serves again to show the disjointed nature of the Amos text, and to confirm the supposition that only a few scattered sections of the original utterances of Amos have been preserved and pieced together in their extant form.
9.8b affords another instance of the manner in which verses may be inserted. It is almost certain that the line "Save that I will not destroy utterly the house of Jacob, it is the oracle of Yah we " is a later interpolation ; it is in entire dissonance with the preceding material, and has the tone of a later period. The same applies to 9.14a, ''And I will bring back the captivity of my people Israel." This seems to be part of the patchwork text interpolated by a post-Exilic editor.
Several of these conventional prophetic historical phrases occur not only as single isolated stichoi, but also as couplets, or triplets. 2.10 is an example of a single line followed in verse 11 by a couplet in good parallelism, while verse 10 itself, historic in character, appears to be prosaic in style. The line divides itself into two parts; the words ''to possess the land of the Amorites" attached at the end may either be omitted,
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 187
remain as they are, or be preceded by wd-'ahhlkhem henna,
''and I brought you hither," giving the verse thereby a triplet
formation (Harper, p. 54ff.).
And-yet it-was-I who-brought-you up-from-the-land-of-Egypt,
And-led-you in-the-wilderness forty-years,
(And-brought-you hither) to-possess the-land-of the-Amorite.
This verse seems quite clearly in the twilight zone between prose
and poetry, resembling largely the rhymed prose of the Arabic.
The same phenomenon of long prosaic lines, yet with a slight
trace of parallelism in the repetition of the word 'al in each
period, is noticeable in 3.1 :
Hear this-Avord which the-Lord hath-spoken against-you, oh-
children-of -Israel, Against-the-whole-family that I-brought-out-of-the-land-of Egypt.
Here again is a reference to God's withdrawal of the Israelites
from the land of Egypt.
An approximation to the sa/ is noted again in 3.2, where
the periods are long and reference is made to historical data :
Only-you have-I-known from-all-the-families of-the-land. Therefore I-will-visit upon-you all-your-sins.
Here as in other conjunctival clauses, the second stichos con- tains the result of the fact mentioned in the first. There is a clear cut division between the two periods, though the terseness of most of Amos' poetry is missing. 3.7, which has already been discussed, seems to contain a customary prophetic state- ment, used perhaps by the prophetic guilds and schools and not containing strict parallelism.
3.14a, discussed above, contains a couplet similar to 3.2, but the correspondence in terms is slightly closer. 9.8 contains two long stichoi marked by slight parallelism and yet not entirely correspondent. This distich is in the realm of near-prose (as is also the third stichos which is clearly a later insertion; see above) :
Behold the-eyes-of the-Lord are upon-this-sinful-kingdom, And-I-will-destroy it from-off-the-face-of the-earth.
The first stichos repeats from 9.4 a part of the line : "And I will place mine eyes upon them, for evil and not for good"; the schematic character of the distich is vague; moreover 9.4 does
188 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
not appear to be a parallelistic distich, nor is its periodic char- acter apparent.
4.12 contains an apparently conventional prophetic phrase, complicated by the presence of conjunctions and doubtful in sense and position. The second stichos may be a gloss on the first; the line "Prepare to meet thy God, Oh Israel," may be a text or a climactic sentence, and may serve as an apodosis to the second stichos. 5.1 is a long prosaic introductory line, whereof the words " qlnd, Oh House of Israel" appear to make a short second line to the first long line, giving a species of qlnd construction; or this second part may be in correspondence to the phrase "this word which I take up against you." If any parallelism may be said to exist here, it is of a special and uncertain type. In 8.7 the first line is a conventional phrase of introduction, the second either a prophetic remark, compli- cated also by the presence of the conjunction 'im, "if," or an isolated stichos taken from an original couplet. No synonymity exists between the two periods; it is doubtful whether they should be reckoned together as one distich.
It may therefore be concluded with reference to the list of conventional or customary prophetic phrases in Amos, that they stand outside the regular, normal parallelism ; if they show any distich character, it is vague and dubious, and closely allied to near-prose ; in a few instances a rhythmical principle may operate, but these are too few to afford insight into any general laws.
Prelude and Postlude Prophetic Phrases
The numerous introductory and closing phrases, formulas and epithets deserve consideration with a view to the question whether they stand outside the parallelism or require word accents in the schematization of the couplets. The words way- yomer, lemor, w<^-dmcru, and others which stand at the head of the speeches do not appear to receive word accents, but stand outside the confines of the couplets themselves ; this applies also to the longer phrases: "Thus saith the Lord" used at the head of the stanzas in the Doom Song, and with variations throughout the book. In two instances, hashmi'u in 3.9 and shim^'U zoth
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 189
in 8.4, introductory words receive accents, though the first through the use of the preposition 'al belongs to another cate- gory. The closing words, n^'um, '"^dhondi, and longer phrases and epithets applicable to God, '^domii sh^mo, '<^ddnai g^hhd'oth sh^mo, and others, also appear, to stand outside the parallelism. The phrases in the prose-poetic narrative in chapter 7 will receive special treatment below. On occasion as in 8.9 and 11, though even these two cases are doubtful, the phrases seem to fall into two parts, rhythmically equal.
It may be concluded then that in the great majority of cases, these phrases play almost the same part as quotation marks in English; they stand beyond the territory of parallelistic struc- ture, i.e., they are not to be included as part of the distichs, and hence stand in a separate rhetorical category.
STEOPHIC FOEMATIONS
Amos contains several special strophic formations which demand separate treatment. These embrace the Doom Song in chapters 1 and 2, the Grief Song in 4.6-11, the first series of Visions in 7.1-6, the second series of Visions in 7.7-9 and 8.1-3, and the prose-poetic narrative in 7.10-17. The Doom Song will be the subject of special study below.
Grief Song
The Grief Song may be first considered. It may be decided that stanzas are present in the poem. There are five parts, each of which has as its opening verb a past first person singular, followed by a form of the pronoun "you" with a preposition, Each has the single line refrain: "But-ye-did-not return unto- me; it is the oracle of Yahwe." In the Doom Song it will be seen that the refrains and formulas are in couplet form, as in the prophetic songs in Is. 9.11, 16, 20 ; 10.4, 5, 25 ; Ezek., chapter 25, however, has the single line, "That ye may know that I am the Lord," without a parallelistic complement.
The number of lines in the five stanzas varies. Stanza 1 has the introductory period (not a full line), a parallelistic couplet, and the refrain : four lines ; stanza 3 has the introduc- tory period (a full line), a parallelistic couplet, and the refrain:
190 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
four lines; stanza 4 has the introductory period (a full line), then three periods (two of which are full lines, the middle one being a dubious phrase of three words) : four lines plus ; stanza 5 has a long introductory period which is an over-full line, a single complete line, and the refrain: apparently three lines in all. Stanza 2 is the most troublesome. It contains an introductory period of two lines, not in parallelism, but approx- imating prose ; a weak couplet wheretn parallelism is evident ; another couplet wherein the second stichos has a disturbing relative clause ; a long prosaic line which cannot even be split up into halves ; finally the refrain : in toto, eight periods. It is at once evident that stanza 2 differs from the others in form and character. The question now arises, as it will with ref- erence to the Doom Song and the other strophes : Is there a model stanza for the entire five parts of the Grief Song, con- sisting of the opening period, a couplet describing in detail the effect of the general threat of punishment in the introduc- tory line, finally the refrain, and the closing prophetic phrase : four major periods plus the neutral closing phrase ? This ques- tion can be answered only by an examination of the information each stanza affords:
Stanzas 1 and 3 conform to the model stanza, though as has been noted, the introductory period of the first is not an inde- pendent unit as in verse 9, but is completed in sense only by the couplet which follows. The adverb w^-gam at the head of stanzas 1 and 2 leads to the supposition that this may have been the opening word in each stanza; three, however, lack it. Though the divergence in the introductory period is slight, it is sufficient to show at once that however close the identity in form between strophes, it is not absolute.
Stanza 4 bears this statement out still further. The intro- ductory period is, like that of stanza 3, a single line ; the second period is clear in sense; but the third period, 'im sh^hhl sUsekhem, usually translated "together with the captivity of your horses, ' ' disturbs the parallelistic arrangement and is evidently an afterthought. It is regarded by many as an inter- polation ; if omitted the stanza has in its second section two
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 191
periods. But the fourth period of the existing stanza is appar- ently corrupt. It is necessary to omit the copula it before bh^'appekhem in order to give clarity. Yet even with this emen- dation the second section, though composed of two stichoi, does not show the close synonymous parallelism of similar sections in stanzas 1 and 3. The first stichos contains three members, the second four ; the omission of the word ' ' and-in-your-nostrils ' ' would give in the second three members, and would have the additional merit of a suffixal rhyme between haxurekhem and m-ax^^iekhem. Whatever be the decision on these points, merely to omit the marring third period in the present form would bring the stanza into structural consonance with the first and third.
Stanza 5 is not so easily disposed of. The introductory period has already been discussed (p. 177) ; it is sufficient to note here again that the long prosaic line may be split up into two parts, as Loehr, Baumann and others suggest ; but the shortness of the resulting stichos, hdphakhtl hdkhem, ' ' I-overthrew among- you," would entail the insertion of another phrase, perhaps the word 'drlm, ''cities,' in the form 'drekhem, "your cities." This would place the line ke-mahpekhath '<^ldMm, etc., as a second stichos, dependent upon the introductory period, and would not result in conformity to the structure of the single line intro- ductory period in stanzas 1, 3, and 4. Moreover the second section, which in the other stanzas is a couplet, is here a mono- stich; there are no indications in Amos or other prophetic passages to show that a line has dropped out or that some portion could be restored as in the Doom Song to furnish the missing complementary stichos. Thus even if the first long period be split up and the number of periods thereby become four plus the closing phrase, as the model stanza seems to demand, yet internally the stanza departs from the necessary type. And if it be suggested that the first period remain as one, merely omitting the word 'HoMm as superfluous because God himself is supposed to speak the sentence, the number of periods becomes three plus the closing phrase, an even greater divergence from the model stanza. It is probable then that the stanza has not
192 University of California Publications. [Sem.Phil.
been handed down in its original form, and that responsible in large measure for its doubtful character, is the presence of the conventional, historical, prophetic reference to Sodom and Gemorrah.
Stanza 2 possesses even greater difficulties, since it throws into still greater darkness the relation of prose to poetry in Amos. The whole stanza is tautological and defective. Loehr and others omit the entire passage, verses 7 and 8, as a later insertion. Harper is not so drastic and correctly makes the following observations : The words in the first section which follow the introductory period, namely, "while yet there re- mained three months to the harvest" may be a gloss based on a meteorological calculation. It may be said in addition that the extreme length of the Massoretic verse 7 is suspicious; for it may be asked : Does not a Massoretic verse usually contain four periods of poetry, or two couplets, and infrequently six periods or three couplets? The first couplet in verse 7 appears to be genuine, for though the second stichos is merely an inver- sion of the first, yet correspondence of terms is present. But the second couplet appears to be redundant because of the repe- tition of the numerals and the word for "rain," and also because of the looseness and tameness of the style; the relative clause in the second stichos of this distich contributes to its weakness. Hence it deserves to be omitted (Harper, p. 96). Verse 8 is a long prosaic line, resembling 8,11-12, to the strophe of which it may belong ; it may be divided into two portions, but solely on a rhythmical and not on a parallelistic basis; there is again repetition of the word "city" and in general prosaic garrulity entirely unworthy of the style of Amos. It seems justifiable to urge its omission ; the stanza would then take on a form entirely in keeping with the model stanza, containing four periods plus the prophetic phrase :
I-also-it-was-who withheld from-you the-rain,
And-I-sent-rain upon-one-city, While-upon-another-city I-sent-not-rain.
But-ye-did-not return unto-me.
It-is-the-oracle-of Yahwe. 4.7-8
Vol.1.] Newman: — Parallelism in Amos. 193
This stanza is secured by the easy task of omission, but for this there seems justification on literary, syntactical, and other grounds.
The conclusions as to the Grief Song cannot be positively affirmed, but they seem to grow out of clear data. It appears evident that there was an original type stanza, consisting of four lines : the introductory period, the parallelistic couplet, describing the details of punishment; the refrain of grief; and finally outside the major portion of the stanza, the closing prophetic phrase. The first three stanzas show a parallelism of close synonymity ; stanza 4 needs emendation before it gives a rhythmically parallelistic distich ; stanza 5 departs widely from the model form, and is perhaps the most difficult of the entire set. Stanza 2, a melnnge of prose and poetry, is soon narrowed down to the model form because of the apparent illegitimacy of the prose portions. One decision is indisputable : though a type stanza may obtain, no one of the existing stanzas conforms to it, even after emendation, in entirety; each has its own slight variations. Standard stanzas for individual poems may have been the rule with the prophets ; but none the less, great leeway was permitted in the degree of exact conformance to the type. An examination of the other strophic arrange- ments in Amos will confirm these observations.
Series of Visions Amos 7.1-6 and 7-9, and 8.1-3 contain four visions each beginning with the words : ' ' Thus hath-shown-me ' ' ; but from the internal material, it is clear that Amos 7.1-6 forms one pair of visions, and the other passages a second pair. The decision that interparallelism between the strophes exists was reached before reference was made to the work of any other investi- gators ; the fact that virtually the same conclusions were secured independently is additional proof of their validity.
FIRST PAIR
In the first pair of visions as in the Doom and Grief Songs, a type stanza is expected. The likenesses between the two strophes are found in the opening prophetic phrase and in the
194 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
refrain; the former is identical in its two occurrences, the lat- ter almost identical: s^^lax-tid', "repent-now," is paralleled by x'^dhal-na', "cease-now"; in verses 3 and 6, the second stichoi of the last line of the refrain differ only by the addition of gam, ' ' also, ' ' in the latter verse. The refrain itself shows no internal parallelism and it is doubtful whether it should be written as four lines, or as six periods. The parallelism is extensive, that is, it reaches beyond the confines of the strophe and becomes, through similarity to the same portion in the other strophe, interparallelism.
The real difficulty in this first pair of visions lies in the substance of the prophecies between the identical opening phrase and the similar refrains. In the first stanza, 7.1-2, the lines as they stand read:
And behold he was forming locusts in the beginning of the coming
up of the aftergrowth, And behold there were full groAvn locusts after the king's mowings, And it came to pass when they were making an end of devouring
the herb of the land.
Except for the repetition of the word "behold" all parallelism seems to have disappeared; three long prosaic periods are here found, whereas in the same section in the second strophe, one good couplet at least is present, though another prose line begin- ning "and-behold" precedes it. The text in the first strophe is unclear; the Septuagint is confused and formless. The several suggestions for its reconstruction do not restore parallelism. If the text remain as it is, then it must be accepted that the prophet could throw^ in prose at will, and destroy thereby the regular character of his compositions; but if it be felt that the text in its present form is irretrievably corrupt, then the conclusion seems justifiable that absence of interparallelism is generally accompanied by a badly preserved text and an unclear meaning. In the second strophe, the only flaw lies in the line : ' ' And behold was-calling to-contend by-fire the Lord Yahwe, " which precedes the good couplet. Should this line remain in its pres- ent form, or is it the remnant of a good couplet? In Is. 66.16 where virtually the same thought is expressed, parallelism of the most regular and beautiful kind is present.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 195
It may be concluded then from this poem: (1) either it con- tains a mixture of prose in long lines and short, together with parallelism and interparallelism through the presence of good couplets and almost identical refrains; (2) or the two stanzas, barring minor changes, were identical in the number and char- acter of their lines, and the present text containing lines dubious in sense and unclear in grammar has been tampered with, so that a reconstruction of the text should restore parallelism and interparallelism.
SECOND PAIR
The second series of visions in 7.7-9 and 8.1-3 contains two stanzas alike in form and substance. Between these two stanzas is a long narrative passage of seven verses, evidently inserted because it deals with the word * 'Jeroboam," mentioned in verse 9 (see below). Though these strophes both begin with the words: "Thus hath-shown-me, " the additional words Yahwe 'Hohtm are missing from the first; the second has, however, as subject Yahwe. The context of this series differs from that of the first pair of visions; perhaps they were written at different times and were compiled into their present position because of the similarity of their opening words as well as the similarity in the use of w'^-hinne, ''and behold."
The following points are to be noted : in stanza 1 of this series the period beginning w^-hinne is a line showing some parallelism, due to the repetition of the word '^^ndkh in the phrase "and-in- his-hand a-plummet, ' ' though Harper would omit this as a gloss. Stanza 2 has in this section merely the phrase "and-behold a summer-basket." The next variation between the two stanzas lies in the fact that stanza 1 has "and-said Yahwe unto-me," while stanza 2 h^s merely "and-said." But in the next pro- phetic phrase, to which it must be admitted no great importance can be attached, stanza 2 has "and-said Yahwe unto-me," while stanza 1 has "And '(^dhonai said." There is no local or internal parallelism in the stanzas until the lines descriptive of the punishment are reached, but barring these slight varia- tions, interparallelism between the stanzas is present before the regular couplets.
196 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
After a description of the facts of the vision, follows a single line playing upon the name of the object seen in the vision (cf. Jer. 1.11 ff., where there are two similar visions, the second one being extended to greater length than the first) ; this single line is accompanied by a second which contains a refrain: "I-will- not-continue again to-pass by-them" (cf. 5.17). There is no synonjonity between these two lines looked at as a local unit in each stanza, though together they may be taken to form a rhythmical distich.
Stanza 1 contains in verse 9 a couplet in perfect synonymous parallelism ; a third stichos follows, but as has already been pointed out, this appears to belong with the isolated single stichos in verse 17. Stanza 2 has here, in 8.3, for the couplet which should correspond to 7.9, a sadly distorted group of lines. Harper has wrongly shifted the group, and has in fact missed the entire strophic character of the two visions ; here his dis- cussion carries little weight. As the verse stands it reads :
And-shall-be-howlings the-songs-of the-palace, On-that clay, said Yahwe Elohim; A-multitude-of corpses; In-every place he-shall-cast-forth silence.
It is clear that the text is in confusion. A conventional pro- phetic phrase in the second period here interrupts the major portion of the text, and if retained should be shifted to the end of the stanza ; otherwise it is necessary in view of its present position and the absence of a similar phrase in the other strophe to regard it as a later insertion.
Various suggestions for the reconstruction of this passage can be made. On the supposition that this last section in stanza 1 is a quatrain, and that the single stichos in 7.17 should be transposed to 7.9, thus giving four stichoi, it will be necessary to restore here a tetrastich. This would imply that the word helllu in 8.3 would form the remnant of one stichos; shlroth hekhdl, the fragment of the third stichos; h^-khol mdqom, the remnant of the fourth; and hishUkh plus rahh hap-pegher, the second stichos (this supposition finds some support from a refer- ence to 6.10 and 5.16) ; thus:
"Vol.1.] Newman, — Parallelism in Amos. 197
(In all the ... .) they howl,
The corpses are piled in the streets, The palace songs (are hushed)
In every place, they say has!
But if it be urged that a couplet here is necessary, various
more plausible suggestions can be offered. The first is to regard
has as a part of a marginal heslru, " they-shall-f ail, " as in 5,23,
intended as a correction of helUu, but inserted as has, and as
hashllkh by another copyist ; the reading can then become :
And-there-shall-fail the-songs-of the-palace, Many-shall-be the-corpses in-every-place.
Again it may be urged that the first stichos is genuine; hishlikh has may be regarded as a gloss; while rahh hap-pegher h^-khol maqom may be taken as the second stichos ; this would give a couplet only slightly different from the one just sug- gested. Or if it is possible to take has as a noun meaning ''silence," then an emendation of hishlikh to hoshlakh, with an omission of rabh hap-pegher would give : ' ' In every place is silence cast." But to this emendation, as to the present Masso- retic text, the objection might be raised that a prediction of howling and one of silence are mutually contradictory. It may be well also to consider Harper's emendation of shlroth to shdroth, ' ' the singing women, ' ' making the couplet :
And the singing women of the palace shall wail. In every place shall there be a multitude of corpses.
Or if it be thought that has is a dittography and abbreviation of
hoshlakh, the couplet becomes :
And the singing women of the palace shall wail,
A multitude of corpses! In every place they are cast.
It is of course impossible to decide definitely upon any one of these suggestions and conjectures. It is sufficient to note that where a break in the interparallelistic arrangement of the strophes occurs, there also the text is corrupt.
It may then be concluded with reference to this series that these two strophes conform to a type stanza wherein deviations are caused by slight and minor changes of the text, and major variations by corruptions and textual errors. Where internal and extensive parallelism is weakened, there a dubious and
198 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
vague text is found. It may perhaps be decided that if the correct text of this poem were existent, a perfect poem of exactly the same number of periods in each stanza would be present, and this would lend further weight to the idea that Amos and the prophets employed completely regular stanza poems.
PEOSE-POETIC NAKKATIVE: 7.10-17
It is believed by some scholars that the more important of the early stories had their first literary expression in poetry and that their prose form represents a subsequent stage of de- velopment. This principle may apply to the later narratives found in the prophetic books. Amos 7.10-17 is a narrative account of the encounter between the Prophet and the High Priest, Amaziah. It seems to be written in prose, but is in reality a combination of prose lines and extremely regular parallelism. The conclusion that this passage represented a combination of prose and poetry was arrived at independently of any commentaries ; a glance at the work of other investigators confirmed the results reached. Harper's arrangement neglects the fundamental differentiation between the phrases of address in Amos, which it has been seen almost always stand outside the major portions of the text, and the real narrative and par- allelistic material of the piece. In addition, Harper does not observe the couplet structure, but several times splits one stichos, complete in itself, into two portions, thus violating a funda- mental rule of parallelism that onlj- in cases of alternate and qln4 parallelism, can a stichos so be broken up.
The primary evidence that this piece contains poetry is of course found in the many parallelistic couplets. It includes no less than eight clear cut couplets, wherein synonymity is marked, and one couplet of a certain rhythmical balance but without the synonymity or terseness which would stamp it as parallelism. This verse, 10, has already been discussed and has been designated as a species of rhythmical non-parallelism, approaching the Hebrew prototype of unrhymed saj' . The phrases of address in verses 10-17 stand apparently outside the parallelism, and need not be taken into account in a consider-
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 199
ation of the couplets. Verses 12-13 form something of an
accidental strophic arrangement :
Oh Seer! Go flee thee unto the land of Judah,
And eat bread there,
And there prophesy.
y
But at Bethel thou shalt no longer prophesy,
For it is the king's sanctuary.
And it is the royal residence.
In this three line strophic arrangement, the two introductory- lines are about equal in length and are rhythmically similar though there is no synonymity between them. But the shorter lines viewed locally constitute a synonymous couplet in each strophe. If it is felt that the stichoi of these couplets are too short, then they can each be combined into one fairly long stichos composed of two hemistichs. It is to be noted that these words are placed in the high priest's mouth; surely it was not customary for speakers thus in ordinary conversation to use parallelism ; possibly a later author made into parallelistic struc- ture whatever he supposed the priest to have said. In verse 11, however, he quotes Amos, and there the parallelism is so definite as to be indisputable. It may w^ell be that Amos in the heat of his denunciation spoke in parallelism; this phenomenon is present, as has been observed, in the Arabic khutha. If the priest usually spoke in parallelism in his oracles (and such seems to be the case in Finnish, Arabic, Babylonian and other literatures), here he may have done so out of force of habit. Moreover, Amos is supposed to attribute to the high priest a parallelistic couplet in verse 16. The king's words, quoted by the high priest in warning Amos, are not couched in synonymous parallelism, but seem to constitute a rhythmical distich. All these points appear to suggest that even though the words here attributed to prophet, priest, and king were not originally spoken in parallelism, a later compiler and narrator, visibly under the effect of prophetic style and method, has employed parallelism better to make the passage seem the genuine work of Amos.
Another seemingly rhythmical distich appears in verse 15. If the phrase of address, '*and-said God unto-me," is regarded
200 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
as equivalent to neutral quotation marks and hence outside the
parallelism, then the combination becomes:
And Yahwe took me from behind the sheep; ' ' Go prophesy against my people, Israel. ' '
This distich has no synonymity, and has the additional dis- advantage of combining a period of narrative and a period of discourse. Hence doubt may be rightly thrown upon this arrangement.
It has already been noted that verse 9 may be transposed to complete with verse 17 a full couplet, so that it may correspond to the words imputed to Amos by the priest in verse 11. It may be objected here that this would make verse 17 longer than the usual Massoretic verse, since it would contain the phrase of address, and three complete couplets. This, however, does not outweigh the arguments in favor of the transposition.
Thus it will be observed that the only factors which play a part in the non-poetical portions of the narrative are : ( 1 ) the near-prose rhythmical distich in verse 10; (2) the prosaic narra- tive lines in verse 10, and possibly in verse 14, though the latter may belong to the following class; (3) the customary phrases of address, such as "saying," "and Amaziah said to Amos," "and God said unto me, ' ' the unusual ' ' and now barken unto the word of Yahwe," and finally, "therefore thus saith Yahwe," together with the mocking taunt attributed to the king, "for thus saith Amos," in verse 11. These apparently stand outside of the major parallelism, though Harper's arrangement into two strophes of exactly fifteen lines each includes them in the distich and strophic scheme. The conclusion therefore is that it is imperative to examine any so-called prose portions of the prophecies with exceeding care to determine whether parallelism can be discovered. Moreover the presence of parallelism in a supposedly prosaic passage appears to be further indication that the prophets attributed parallelism not merely to the words of God, but also to the speeches of their contemporaries and opponents, who used it for no divine, but for a purely human, utterance. This may dovetail with the fact that parallelistic rhymed prose was so common with the Arabs that even the
Vol. 1..] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 201
women and children employed it in ordinary speech. Any elaborate conclusions, however, on the basis of such slight evi- dence, are dangerous.
The question whether Amos or another writer composed this still remains unanswered. The style is that of Amos ; the text is clear and apparently unimpaired. On this point it may be observed that an uncorrupted text usually' shows uncorrupted parallelism — a converse to the conclusion reached above that a marred text is usually accompanied by broken parallelism. For these various reasons, then, this passage affords fruitful data for a determination of the degree and scope of interplay between prose and poetry in Amos.
202
University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
CHAPTER III
THE DOOM SONG, AMOS 1.3-2.8 RECONSTEUCTION OF STANZAS 1, 2, 5 AND 6
(Stanza 1) Tco 'dmar '"dhondi
'al sMloskd pish^'e dammeseq w^-al 'arbd'd Id' 'oshlbheiinii
'al lax'^QO.m 'eth-hag-gil'ddh w^-dhushdm ba-x^rugoth hab-barzel
(Stanza 2) ko 'dmar 'odhondi
' al shcloshd pish<^'e 'azzd w^-' al 'arbd'd Id' '"shlbhennu
'al haghlothdm gdluth sh^lemd Ic-hasglr 'Ir H-m'^lo'dh
wc-shillaxtt 'esh be-blieth x"20,'el w^-dkhcld 'armcnoth ben-h"dhddh
wc-shdbhartt bcrl^'x dammeseq
we-shillaxt^ 'esh be-xomath ' azza we- 'akheld 'arm^nothehd
w^-hikhrattt yoshebh me- 'ashdodh
w<^-dhalH1wthbiq' ath-'dwen '"ghadde"' we-thomekh shebhet me-'ashqelon
w^-ndphelu baxHrehd be-bheth-' edhen wa-MsMbhothi yddhl 'al-'eqron
ive.gMlfi 'am- '"ram qird we-'dbhfdhu shf^'erUh x}elishUm
'dmar 'adhondi 'dmar 'cdhondi 'cloMm
(Stanza 5) Tco 'dmar '"dhondi
' al sli^ldslid pishe'e bh^ne ' ammon w^-' al 'arbd'd 16' '"sMbhennu
'al biqe'dm ' dre ghddh le-ma'an harxibh 'eth-gebhnldm
(Stanza 6) ko 'dmar 'adhondi
' al sli'^loshd pisli^'e mo'dbh w^-'al 'arbd'd Id' '^shlbhennu
' al sorepho 'ogdmoth lam-mdlekh way-yizbax 'ddhdm lash-shedh
w'^-higgatU 'esh bc-xdmapi rabbd w«- 'dkheld 'armeiioth^hd
we-hiphqadhtltv b^-yom milxamd be-sa'ar be-ydm suphd
w^-luilakh malkdm bag-gold hW w^-sdrdw yaxddw
w^-shillaxti 'esh b<^-m6'dbh w^-'dkheld 'armcnoth haq-qerlyoth
w^-hemattl b<^-shd'6n mo'dbh bi-theru'd b<^-qdl sJwphdr
w^-hishmadhtl shophet miq-qirbdh w^-khol sdrehd 'ehrugh ' immo
'dmar '^dhdndi
'dmar 'adhondi
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 203
(Stanza 1: Amos 1.3-5)
Thus saith Yahwe:
For three sins of Damascus,
Yea for four, I will not revoke it.
Because they oppressed Gilead,
And threshed with implements of iron.
So I will send fire into the house of Hazael, And it will consume the palaces of Benhadad.
And I will break the bar of Damascus,
And the gates of Bikeath-Awen I will hew down.
And her youths shall fall in Beth-Eden; And the people of Aram shall go into exile.
Saith Yahwe.
(Stanza 2: Amos 1.6-8) Thus saith Yahwe:
For three sins of Gaza,
Yea for four, I will not revoke it,
Because they have exiled a complete captivity. To deliver up the city and its contents.
So I will send fire into the wall of Gaza, And it will consume her palaces.
And I will cut off the inhabitant from Ashdod, And the sceptre-holder from Ashkelon.
And I shall turn my hand against Ekron,
And the remnant of the Philistines shall perish.
Saith Yahwe.
(Stanza 5: Amos 1.13)
Thus saith Yahwl:
For three sins of the Ammonites, Yea for four, I will not revoke it.
Because they have pierced through the cities of Gad In order to increase their borders.
204 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
So I will kindle a fire on the wall of Eabba, And it will consume her palaces.
And I will visit him with a day of war, With a whirlwind in the day of tempest.
And their king shall go into exile, He and his princes together,
(Stanza 6: Amos 2.1-3)
Stanza 6. Thus saith Yahwe:
For three sins of Moab,
Yea for four, I will not revoke it.
Because they have burned bones to Molech, And sacrificed men to a shedh.
So I will send fire upon Moab,
And it will consume the palaces of Kerioth.
And I will slay in a tumult Moab,
With shouting, with the sound of the trumpet.
And I will destroy the judge from her midst. And all her princes I will slay with him.
Saith Yahwe.
VERSE AND STANZA PARALLELISM
It is evident that chapters 1.3-2.8 are east in the form of a poetical unit. There are patent indications of symmetry be- tween the lines and between the various oracles. This fact has been noted bj^ every recent investigator of the Book of Amos, and is at once observable to the general reader.
The poem deals with judgment to be inflicted upon the principal nations bordering on Israel and Judah — Damascus, Philistia, Tyre, Edom, the Ammonites and Moab — ^with the pur- pose of showing to Israel that as all the peoples have offended God by their acts against common morality and humanity, so Israel will suffer punishment for great or greater sins. The law of righteous retribution will be the standard for meting out merited doom to the nations. This Doom Song is similar to others scattered throughout the prophetical books. Zenner,
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 205
Mueller, Elhorst, Loehr, Sievers, Condamin, Baumann, Marti, Nowack, Harper and others have made valuable suggestions with reference to the proper arrangement of the poem, but nearly all have proceeded upon dangerous assumptions regarding strophe and metre ; the principle of parallelism has been neglected to a large degree. This study is an attempt to apply the canons of parallelism in a reconstruction of the Doom Song.
An endeavor will be made on the basis of the internal and other evidence to learn whether complete symmetry can be expected in the poetic arrangement. It has already been observed in a discussion of the Grief Song and of the two pairs of visions in Amos that apparently the one factor which pre- vents close adherence to a model form is textual corruption. It will be clear from an examination of the Doom Song in Amos that the divergences must be explained on similar grounds.
The indications of verse symmetry or parallelism are numer- ous, and scarcely need further comment. The formulas of offense and punishment, and 1.5, 8, 11, 14, 15 ; 2.2, 3, 4, show the clearest parallelism, the types of which have been analyzed above. Though the degree of regularity varies, the presence of parallelism is indubitable.
The indications of stanza symmetry or interparallelism are more obscure and intricate, though none the less present. Eight times, at the head of each group, stands the couplet : ' ' E^or three sins, ' ' etc. ; this leads to its designation as the ' ' introductory couplet," marking the beginning of what may now be called stanzas. Each of the eight stanzas contains the couplet : ' ' And I will send fire," etc. Intervening between these two constant formulas, are either a long line (1.3, 6; 2.1), two stichoi (1.9, 13), or four stichoi (1.11, 2.4). These stichoi state the specific offense of each nation. After the formula of punishment there occurs in some of the stanzas additional material, relating in detail the manner of the punishment, four lines occurring -in 1.5, 8, 14-15; 2.2-3; three of the stanzas close with the punish- ment formula. It must be stated without delay that stanza 8 dealing with Israel, shows the introductory formula, but there- after such marked variations from the other stanzas that it must
206 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
be observed separately. The formula of punishment is missing, the material of the offense has been extensively expanded; its departure from the the other seven stanzas is so radical that its consideration in relation to them would complicate and hinder the discussion.
The survey of the song shows then, that there are eight portions with much the same language and also much the same sequence of thought. This sequence of thought runs as follows : God speaks (''Thus saith Yahwe"), stating
( 1 ) his refusal to forgive under any circumstances,
(2) because of the sins of the offending nation;
(3) therefore he will reap vengeance by fire,
(4) and (in four stanzas) by varying modes of punishment. Reiteration that God has spoken (in these four stanzas).
The designation "section" will be applied to each of the four major points of this sequence ; the word ' ' member " or " term ' ' will denote each major word in these sections.
VARIATIONS IN THE EIGHT STANZAS
The repetitions within the small compass of the song are quite numerous. These include not the constant formulas, but those phrases which seem out of place or which have the under- current of stylistic unfitness associated with repetitions close to one another.
1. None in the first section.
2. Second section.
1.3, 13 hag-gile'adh
1.6, 9 l^-hasglr and hasglrdm
galuth shelemd
1.5, 6, 9, 15, forms of gala
1.9, 11 'ax
1.11, 2.4 shdmar
2.1, 1.15 melelch
1.15, 2.4 halakh
3. Third section, none.
4. Fourth section.
1.5, 8, the couplet w^-hikhratti, etc.
1.5, 8; 2.3 w^-hikhratti
1.5, 6, 9, 15, forms of gala
1.14, 2.2 bi-theru'a
1.15, 2.3 sdr
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 207
The variations as between the stanzas are important. The number of lines varies.
Stanza 1, 11 lines in a series of 1, 2, 1, 2, 4, 1.
Stanza 2, 11 lines in a series of 1, 2, 1, 2, 4, 1.
Stanza 3, 7 lines in a series of 1, 2, 2, 2.
Stanza 4, 9 lines in a series of 1, 2, 4, 2.
Stanza 5, 12 lines in a series of 1, 2, 2, 2, 4, 1.
Stanza 6, 11 lines in a series of 1, 2, 1, 2, 4, 1.
Stanza 7, 9 lines in a series of 1, 2, 4, 2.
It is to be noted then: (a) the introductory prophetic phrase remains constant; (b) the introductory offense couplet remains constant; (c) the specific offense section undergoes many varia- tions; (d) the doom couplet in a number of lines remains con- stant, though slight linguistic variations occur; (e) the expan- sion of the punishment description changes, in three cases being omitted, in four having four lines each; (f) the closing pro- phetic postlude phrase in the four cases where the extended description of punishment occurs, is present; in the other three cases, those minus expansion, it is missing.
The varying sections are the pivot of the whole study. Section 2, concerning the specific offense, suffers the greatest changes. Stanzas 1, 2, and 6 have a single line ; stanzas 2 and 5 have a pair of lines; stanzas 4 and 7 have two pairs of lines. The single line in each case is extremely long, and while translatable, has an obscure sense ; the text seems corrupt ; at the same time no parallelism is present. The sections with pairs of lines are also doubtful. Stanza 3 shows in its first line a repetition from the section of stanza 2 ; the same vague- ness of sense as in the other sections occurs; parallelism in the strict sense of synonymity and correspondence is absent between the two stichoi. The sections with a double pair of lines in stanzas 4 and 7 are less difficult but not without flaws: the former has a difficult phrase in w^-shixeth rax^mdiv and stanza 7 has the almost untranslatable way-yath' um kiz^hhehem. The problems of the length of the lines, the lateness of language, and other points will be considered below.
Section 3 of the stanzas shows only slight variations. The most interesting occurs in stanza 5 where the Prophet after
208 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
using w(^-shillaxti six times, suddenly employs w^-higgattl. Per- haps according to G. A. Smith's interpretation, this is due to symmetrophobia ; the most plausible reason, however, will be pointed out below. In three cases "wall," in one "house," in three the name of a city or country (stanza 1, Damascus; in stanza 6, Moab, and in stanza 7, Judah) are used. Throughout the seven stanzas, "palaces" occurs, but with the suffix ehd in stanzas 2, 3, 5, and in the construct followed by the name of a king in stanza 1, of a city in stanzas 4 ,6, 7.
Section 4 betrays puzzling variations. Stanzas 3, 4, 7 omit entirely the section with the postlude ; stanzas 2 and 5 have apparently perfect parallelism ; stanza 6, except for the repeti- tion of w^-hikhrattl and the suffixes, has apparently good parallel- ism; stanza 1 is the most difficult of the set. It has four lines, the second and third forming a couplet which is in excellent parallelism, but which also stands at the head of section 4 in stanza 2. The first line of the fourth section in stanza 1 prophesies the destruction of the gates of Damascus ; the fourth stichos foretells exile for the population. That this fourth section has undergone corruption is undoubted.
A final variation between the stanzas occurs in stanza 2, where after a seemingly intact section of two parallelistic coup- lets, not the final phrase, "saith Yah we" but "saith my Lord, Yahwe" occurs. The reason for this will be attempted below.
These discrepancies, which will increase in number as the study advances, suffice to demonstrate the intricacy of the prob- lems and the danger of any effort at dogmatic solutions. Their greatest value is to raise certain fundamental questions, which though they busy themselves immediately with the text in hand, yet extend themselves in import to the whole mass of biblical literature, and involve the most far-reaching points of disagree- ment in modern biblical criticism. These questions, which have already been suggested in the last chapter, are :
1. Why do the variations occur between the various lines of the poem and between the various stichoi in seemingly parallel- istic couplets?
2. Why do the variations occur between the stanzas ?
Vol.1.] Newman. — Parallelism in' Amos. 209
3. Does a type couplet exist from which the variations occur without law, or does the type couplet merely serve as a sub- stratum for variations guided by certain and regular laws of parallelism ?
4. Does a type stanza exist which, despite the variations, was originally the model for the divisions of the entire Song?
In order to be able to propose answers to these questions, it is necessary that the text under discussion be minutely examined.
ANALYSIS OF THE EIGHT STANZAS Stanza 1. — Damascus
The oracle on Damascus is apparently genuine and in the main originated with Amos. The first evidence for this con- clusion is the strophic structure of the stanza. It consists of l-]-2-i-l-|-2-f-4-{-l periods. The arrangements of Harper, Mueller and Loehr neglect the sectional character of the piece, and bring lines together into triplets which in reality should be separated into independent units. The second section, of one stichos, is faulty, but an emendation gives two stichoi in good couplet formation. The fourth section, though composed of four stichoi is also faulty ; when reconstructed, however, it still retains the same number of periods, but two good couplets emerge. Hence the arrangement in the light of corrections becomes l-|-2-f-2-j-2-f-44-l; this total of 12 periods conforms with the expected and suggested model stanza.
The second proof of the authenticity of the oracle is the specific character of the offense, which references in the historical books will be found to substantiate. The third proof is the language used. Though the stichoi b, c, and d are apparently late or misplaced in section 4, the terms of the other sections apparently are genuinely Amosian in style.
In the opening or prelude prophetic phrase and in the offense formula the stanza adheres to the model. The second section on the specific offense affords difficulty:
Because they have threshed with threshing implements of iron Gilead.
210 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
This is a single stichos, without any parallelism; the line is unnaturally long, comparable therein to the second section in stanzas 2 and 6; the presence of the object 'eth-hag-GiVddh so far from the verb increases the doubt. Two stichoi in parallelism are expected. Loehr, Harper and others make the word 'eth- hag-Gil'ddh into a second stichos; but that a single detached word should act as such is impossible.
Several reconstructions may be suggested :
1. 'al lax"gO'm 'eth-hag-GW adh w^-duslidm ha-x^rugoth hai-barzel. Because they pressed by force Gilead, And threshed with implements of iron.
The event to which Amos refers is quite clearly the oppres- sion of Israel by Hazael, king of Syria (II K. 8.8ff. ; 9.14, 15; 10.32; 12.18, 19; 13.3ff.). This oppression covered a period from c. 830-790 B.C. The specific nature of the offense can be perhaps seen by a comparison with II K. 13.7. Here, after the pure prose, "For he (Hazael) left to Jehoahaz of the people none save fifty horsemen and ten chariots and ten thousand footmen, ' ' occurs a couplet in perfect parallelism :
For the king of Syria destroyed them, And made them like dust for the threshing.
The use of the phrase ke-dphdr Id-dhush points to the identity of the events referred to by Amos. In II K. 13.4, with regard to the subjection of Israel to Hazael, occurs the noun laxag; the verb, meaning "to oppress, to squeeze" makes an excellent synonym to diish and is further sanctioned by its usage in Amos 6.14.
2. 'al dushdm 'eth hag-Gil' adh le-' aphdr, wa-y^siinuhu Tcam-mog Id-dhuq.
Because they have threshed Gilead to dust, And made him as chaff for the pressing,
3. 'al dushdm 'eth hag-Gil' ddh ta-x'^i'ugoth, way-ydgar ii-megheroth hah-harzel.
Because they threshed Gilead with implements, And sawed him with iron saws.
One group of reconstructions still remains. The Septuagint leads the way; its translation for the second section of stanza 1 reads: "Because they sawed with iron saws the women
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 211
with child of the Galaadites"; and for the same section in
stanza 5 : " Because they ripped up the women with child of
the Galaadites." Either the translators did not understand
the text in 1.3, or they confused it with 1.13, or what is more
likely, the original text of the two sections stood in intimate
relationship. In stanza 5, there is something of a non-sequitur
in ideas between the first and second stichoi of the couplet in
the second section; moreover no historical evidence is at hand
to show that the AmmoViites committed the barbarity on the
people of Israel. But a fruitful passage in II K. 8.12 attributes
this very act to the Syrians under Hazael. This passage, which
contains two poetical couplets in the midst of prose narrative,
is a prediction by Elisha of the deeds of Hazael as king:
Their strongholds wilt thou set on fire.
And their young men wilt thou slay with the sword.
And thou wilt dash to pieces their children.
And rip up their women with child.
The following suggestion may then be made :
4. 'al biq'dm Jidroth hag-Gil'-adh, w'^-dusham ha-x^rugoth hah-'barzel.
Because they ripped up the pregnant women of Gilead, And threshed them with implements of iron.
This takes over bodily from stanza 5 the first stichos, and omits "Gilead" in the second stichos.
Conclusions on the second section of stanza 1 are: (1) the text does not appear to be the genuine composition of Amos; (2) a second stichos is needed to complete the couplet; (3) the probable restorations are numerous. Either the first or the fourth of the above may be preferred.
The fourth (i.e., punishment) section of stanza 1 reads as
follows :
And I will break the bar of Damascus (a)
And I will cut off the inhabitant from Bikath-Awen (b)
And the sceptre-holder from Beth-Eden (e)
And the people of Aram shall go into exile to Kir. (d)
This section does not appear to be original with Amos, but contains insertions and later additions: (1) The ideas are more numerous than in any other fourth section of the Doom Song:
212 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
destruction of buildings, presumably of palaces; slaughter of inhabitants; slaughter of ruler; exile for the nation. (2) The lack of close parallelism points to a faulty text; stichos a has no parallel as in the other stanzas ; d has no complement ; nor can they be combined to form a couplet. The central location of the parallelistic couplet b plus c violates the form of the other fourth sections. (3) The repetition of the central coup- let at the head of the fourth section in stanza 2 operates against its authenticity in stanza 1 ; it is entirely in place in stanza 2, which conforms to the model stanza in its structure in the fourth section, whereas in stanza 1 it is out of place. How then did this section come to have its present form?
In II K. 16.9 occurs the passage: "And the king of Assyria went up to Damascus and conquered it and led it into exile beyond Kir and Rezin he killed." The phrase way-yaglehd (i.e., gdlu 'am-'^rdm) Qlrd bears so striking a resemblance to the Amos phrase gdlu ' am-'f^rdm Qlrd that between the two some interrelation may exist. Two hypotheses are possible : first, that the Amos passage is prior, and that the Kings verse is a later insertion, or second, that the narrative account preceded, a later editor having brought Amos into conformity therewith.
In support of the first theory, it may be said that it seems plausible that Amos had Assyria in mind as the world power which would wreak vengeance upon Damascus, for it was the most likely to engage in the practice of deportation. The words in II K. 16.9 refer to the actual punishment which Amos pre- sumably foretells. The result of the combined attack of Pekah, King of Israel, and Rezin, King of Damascus, upon Judah (II K. 16.5tf. ; Is. 7.1), was that Ahaz applied to Tiglath Pileser for help ; he responded to the appeal and slaughtered the King of Damascus and exiled the nation. Verse 9 is apparently not in good condition; the repetition of the name melekh 'Ashshur leads to the supposition that something may have been omitted between the two parts of the sentence ; the real interest of the narrator is in a portrayal of the sin of idolatry which arose from contact of Ahaz and Assyria. Though the verse may be a condensation, the second portion is apparently intact in its own limits.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 213
The redactor of Kings may have inserted the phrase way- yaglehd Qird in order that the specific reference of Amos to the impending destruction of Damascus might be borne out by the narrative. If it be said that the fourth stichos in Amos is an addition, then the closing prophetic phrase "saith Yahwe" is left hanging in the air; moreover the stichos in question is itself a beautiful and euphonious line, worthy of the best pro- phetic style. In Amos 9.7 the combination '"-ram me-Qlr seems to sanction the juxtaposition of the two names in stanza 1.
In support of the hypothesis that the fourth stichos in Amos is a later insertion on the basis of Kings, it may be adduced that the phrase referred to in 9.7 either makes the stichos in stanza 1 illegitimate, or is itself dubious. ' ' Aram from Kir" indicates that Kir was the ancient home of the Arameans out of which God brought them, as He did Israel out of Egypt and Philistia out of Crete. Professor Max Mueller objects that "if Kir was the original home of the Arameans, the Assyrians would never have deported them back to their own country where they would have found remainders of the original stock of the nation and would by union with them become strong again. ' ' He suggests that 1.5d was inserted on the basis of 9.7.
Against the notion that the phrase way-yaglehd Qlrd was interpolated in II K. 16.9 it seems more plausible to believe that the historian would remain true to the facts, while the Prophet would be more vague and poetically indefinite, and an editor would adjust the prophecies ex post facto to the actual events. That the phrase in question is inserted so abruptly in the middle of the sentence shows that it was written in the margin, or over the other words, and that a later copyist em- bodied it in the text proper. Additional evidence for the genuineness of the line in Kings may be found in II K. 15.29, where the writer refers to the punishment of Pekah by Tiglath- Pileser: "And he exiled them to Assyria" {way-yaghUm 'AshshUrd). If it be urged that the line in Amos is authentic and that the events, as he prophesied one generation earlier, actually occurred, it may be said with justice that this accuracy is in itself suspicious.
214 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Another ground for conceiving stichoi b, e, d as later inser- tions is found in a consideration of the central couplet, b-c, which evidently seeks to express the idea of the destruction of Damascus royalty. In II K. 16.9 this thought is expressed specifically in the words : ' ' and Rezin he slew, ' ' an event which took place in the year 732 B.C. in the generation immediately following Amos. Isaiah refers in 17.1-3, dedicated to the ''bur- den of Damascus," to the fact that "sovereignty shall cease from Damascus." This prophecy appears to have been written after the formation of the Sj^ro-Ephraimitish alliance between 736 and 732 b.c. Upon the foundation of these two passages, a later redactor may have thought it necessary to include the death of Rezin in the prophecy of Amos. Finding close at hand a couplet which expressed in true Amosian language this very idea, he borrowed it bodily from the fourth section of stanza 2, its proper location, and inserted it in stanza 1, regard- less of the disruption of the parallelism, the omission of the original words of the Prophet, and the repetition. This change may have been made when the event was still fresh in the mind of the nation, perhaps after the fall of Samaria in 721, or be- fore the end of the century. It may be definitely stated then, that the central couplet is out of place, and except perhaps for the proper names, was not genuine with Amos.
The section as it now stands in need of emendation may be portrayed graphically as follows :
1. The three stichoi, b, c, and d, are later insertions; this gives as the only extant words of the prophet here: And I shall break the bar of Damascus
This makes necessary the suggestion of three new lines to fill the gap : one parallel to a ; two, e and d, parallel to each other ; or 2. Merely the couplet b-c is a later insertion : And I shall break the bar of Damascus
And the people of Aram shall go into exile.
^01" !•] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 215
This demands the substitution of two new lines, b parallel to a,
and c parallel to d; and the acceptance of the hypothesis that
stichos d is genuine with Amos, and the words in II K. 16.9 a
later insertion.
The first couplet may be reconstructed as follows :
w^-shabhartl h'^rlox Dammeseq w^-dhaletJwth Biq' ath-'diuen '« gJiaddeo' .
And I will break the bar of Damascus,
And the doors of Bikath-Awen I will hew down.
The use of shdhhar, ''break," with deleth, "door," is found in Gen. 19.9, though not in a military sense. The words deleth and h'^rlf^x ^^^ found together in Deut. 3.5; Is. 23.7 ; II Chron. 7.5 ; Ps. 107.16; Jer. 49.31; Ez. 38.11; Is. 45.2; Job 38.10; II Chron. 14.6. They occur also in couplets in perfect parallelism, e.g. Jer. 45.2, and Ps. 107.16. Other suggestions are sJwf ar, "gate," in conjunction with b^n^x? "bar," as in the parallel couplets Lam. 2.9; Ps. 147.13; Na. 3.13; x^iwia, "wall," used in com- bination with &fn«x, Deut. 3.5 ; II Chron. 8.15, 14.6. The word mihhgdr, "fortress," is referred to in II K. 8.12, wherein Elisha and Hazael converse, and may be used here on the principle of poetic justice. The parallelism between shdhhar and gddha' , "hew down," or "into pieces," is established by numerous usages ; they are used as synonyms in two perfectly parallel couplets, Is. 45.2 and Ps. 17.16; they are also used in other parallelistic couplets but without exact correspondence. Varia- tions of the couplet suggested above are possible, some of them excluding the name of Biq' ath-'dwen, others affecting the form of gddha' .
For the second couplet the following reconstructions are suggested :
1. A restoration of two lines for the second couplet can be
made on the basis of Jeremiah's prophecy on Damascus,
49.23-27.
Her youths shall fall in the streets And all her men of war shall be silent.
Since Damascus has treated Israel barbarously, it will be pun- ished in kind; in 11. K. 8.12 Hazael is destined to "slay youths
216 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
with the sword," and a reference in Amos to the same punish- ment for Damascus on the principle of poetic justice would be appropriate. This very retribution, indeed, is mentioned in Jer. 49.26 in the oracle on Damascus, which shows points of striking resemblance to AmOs; verse 27 is an almost exact dupli- cation of the punishment formula in Amos 1.4; Jeremiah uses the couplet again in 17.17, 21.14, 50.32. The possibility of a nexus between these two oracles permits the assumption that words taken out of Amos may in another text have remained, and that Jeremiah, with slight changes, incorporated them into his own prophecy on Damascus.
2. A restoration of one line and the retention of the proper name may be found in this suggestion :
Her youths shall fall in Beth-Eden,
And the people of Aram shall go into exile to Kir.
A similar grouping of the idea of death and exile is found in
Amos 7.11 and 17. Though the parallelism here is not close,
the sj'nthetic relationship of the stichoi is found often in Amos.
Another suggestion based on the idea of exile is found in one
of the many forms of which this is an example :
And Beth-Eden shall go into captivity,
And the people of Aram shall go into exile to Kir.
In conclusion it may be urged that a possible reconstruction of
the fourth section take this form :
And I will break the bar of Damascus,
And the doors of Bikath-Awen I will hew down.
Her youths shall fall in Beth-Eden,
And the people of Aram shall go into exile to Kir.
Stanza 2. — Philistia
The oracle on Philistia is apparently genuine and in the main original with Amos. The first evidence for this conclusion is the strophic structure of the stanza. It is divided into 1 -|- 2-|-l-|-2-|-4-)-l periods, after the manner of the first stanza. The two formulas are correct ; the fourth section consists of two perfect couplets and is therefore apparently cor- rect and genuine ; the closing phrase varies in this stanza from
^0^- !•] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 217
all others, for it has ''hath my Lord Yahwe said," instead of "hath-said Yahwe," as in six other cases. The most important divergence from the type stanza is in the second section :
Because they have exiled a complete captivity to deliver to Edom. The line is evidently corrupt because it is a long prose line, where two lines in a couplet are needed; its meaning is doubt- ful; it is repeated almost identically in stanza 3, section 2.
Stanza 2. ' al haghlothdm galuth shHemd leJmsgir le-'edhom. Stanza 3. ' al hasglrdm galuth shelemd le-'f'dhom.
The following probabilities exist: (a) The stichos may belong in stanza 2 and must be emended to form a couplet ; this would entail the omission of the similar stichos in stanza 3. (b) The stichos in stanza 2 is out of place, necessitating the substitution of a couplet on an appropriate theme ; this omission would sanction the retention of the similar stichos in stanza 3. (c) The stichos in stanza 2 is a later substitution based on events which followed the time of Amos and which a later redactor inserted, even as he tampered with the text of stanza 1. This decision would either affect stanza 3 in the same way, or would leave open the question of the appropriateness of the stichos there on its own merits.
In defense of the present text, the following material may be brought to bear: the event to which Amos refers may be the attack mentioned in II Chron. 21.16ff. During the reign of Jehoram (851-843 B.C.) the Arabs and the Philistines raided Judah, and ''they came up into Judah and brake into it, and carried away all the substance that was found in the king's house, and his sons also, and his wives, save Jehoahaz, the youngest of his sons" (the Book of Kings makes no mention of this raid and it is uncertain whether it ever took place). The description of the thoroughness with which the marauders made their captures leads to the supposition that this might be the "complete captivity" referred to in Amos. In stanza 1, Amos seems to have taken the offense from the days of Hazael, immediately following this event. It may perhaps be that he turns back to the reign of Jehoahaz for the historical data on which to found the offense of Philistia. In order to retain the
218 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
text in its present form, the following arrangements may be
suggested :
Because they have exiled a complete captivity To deliver up to Edom.
This follows the analogj^ of stanza 5, where "in order that" is used in the second stichos in the same way that "to" is used here in the sense of "in order that ' ' ; but this is not parallelism.
Another arrangement can be devised by taking over word for word the couplet forming the second section of stanza 3. But the only passages in support of the idea of a covenant be- tween Philistia and Israel occur in Gen, 21.27, 32 and 26.28 ; and these afford little substantiation for the change suggested.
In searching further for an explanation of the stichos under discussion, it may be noted that the second section in stanza 2 is apparently late. It is not plausible that Amos would refer to a border raid participated in not merely by Philistines, but by Arabs as well, as the basis for his fierce denunciation. More- over at the time of Amos, II Chron. 26.6-7 apparently shows that Philistia was under the domination of Judah. King Uzziah (782-737 B.C.), during whose reign Amos was active, "went forth and warred against the Philistines and brake down the wall of Gath, and the wall of Jabneh, and the wall of Ashdod, and he built cities in the country of Ashdod and among the Philistines. And God helped him against the Philistines, and against the Arabians that dwelt in Gur-baal and the Mehunim. " This text is important. It would seem that Amos must have directed his prophecy against Philistia before the success of Uzziah, for it may well be asked: "Why should the Prophet predict doom for a nation already doomed?" Moreover it was the king of Amos' own home who accomplished their subjuga- tion. To this might be answered that Amos prophesied against Philistia in the light of the attack which he knew Uzziah con- templated, and in order to find a justification for Uzziah 's war he harked back to the attacks by the Philistines and Arabs more than a century before. On the other hand it is more likely that Amos, or perhaps a later redactor, would denounce Philis- tia at a time when it tormented Israel.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 219
The hostility of Philistia becomes apparent immediately after the death of Amos. During the reign of Ahaz of Judah (735-715 B.C.) the Philistines become inimical and successful. In II Chron. 28.16-19 occurs a picture of the distress of Judah : "For again the Edomites had come and smitten Judah and carried away captives. The Philistines also had invaded the cities of the low country, and of the south of Judah. ..." Though this passage is doubtful, it mentions the activities of Edom and Philistia apparently in union; and though Edom is here referred to as the captive maker, Philistia, too, may be regarded as an invader and slave-trader. Additional evi- dence for the hypothesis that the historical background for the offense of Philistia may lie in the generation immediately follow- ing Amos (as is the case in the central couplet in stanza 1, section 4), is found in Is. 9.11, where the Prophet mentions "Syria on the East and Philistia on the West"; 11.14 showing Philistia 's hostility; 14.28-32, delivered after the death of Ahaz, and pointing to the bitterness between the two nations. This enmity may have given rise to a revision of Amos' prophecy in order to make it more specific and in line with events after its delivery.
A second suggestion is that the prophecy on Philistia was revised in the light of the text of Jeremiah. Jer. 13.19 and the oracle in Jer. 47.1-7 show several affinities with the text of Amos which will be remarked in a discussion of the fourth section below.
A third suggestion is that the prophecy was remodelled in post-exilic days. Ezek. 25.15-17 proclaims the offense of Philistia as perpetual hatred (see below, on Edom), and exultation at the downfall of Judah in 586 B.C. Though the sin of the nation differs from that mentioned in Amos, yet the similarity of lan- guage in the fourth section appears to demonstrate an influence of Amos on Ezekiel or vice versa. Zeph. 2.4—7 and Zech. 9.5-8 state no offense, though the language of the latter again points to borrowings from Amos. Joel 4.4-8 refers to the activities of the Philistines as slave-traders in company with the Tyrians; Edom is not mentioned (see below, on Tyre). But unless it is
220 University of California Puhlicqtions. [Sem. Phil.
admitted that the prophecy in Amos on Philistia is in part at least post-exilic, it is dangerous to find any influence of the Joel text on the revision of Amos, for it would place the final recast- ing of Amos around the year 350 B.C.
Possible emendations of this text are not so numerous as in stanza 1.
1. Because they have exiled a complete captivity, And delivered them into the hand of the enemy.
The phrase ''into the hand of the enemy" occurs with hisgir in Lam. 2.7, and in a figurative sense in Ps. 31.9.
2. Because they have exiled a complete captivity. And delivered the people to the sword.
This is based on Ps. 78.62, wherein a perfect couplet occurs with this idiom, though the second stichos has no points of comparison with the Amos text.
A second group of emendations is based upon an interpre- tation of the word sdghar as meaning "shut up" with reference not to individuals but to cities. Josh. 6.1 refers to Jericho as soghereth u-m^suggereth, "straitly shut up"; in Jer. 13.19 occurs the significant couplet :
The cities of the South are shut up; and there is none to open; Judah is exiled, all of it; an exile of peaceful ones (a complete exile).
This couplet is in perfect qlnd parallelism. The phrase hoghlath shHonilm is emended by many to read in conformance with the Amos text, gdlvth sh^lemd. The Septuagint offers the weightiest evidence for this change, for it has the words "complete cap- tivity" in the Greek, whereas in the Amos passage it reads for both stanzas 2 and 3 "the captivity of Solomon." . This shows that the Septuagint translators did not read the phrase on the basis of Amos, which they understood wrongly, but solely be- cause they possessed a clear text in Jeremiah. The fact that Jeremiah does not use this couplet in a prophecy on the Philis- tines may be ground for the belief that he borrowed the phrase from Amos, rather than that a later redactor copied it from Jeremiah. For the later editor would in all probability turn to Jeremiah's prophecy on Philistia for terminology and ideas on which to rebuild the Amos text; whereas the couplet in
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 221
question occurs in Jeremiah in an entirely different connection. It may be, however, that a few words in Amos suggested the Jeremianic couplet; therefore regardless of its position, it may have served as the basis for a reading of Amos. Data in favor of a reconstruction of the Amos line on the groundwork of the Jeremiah couplet may be found in the use in stichos a in Jere- miah of a form of sdghar and in stichos b, a form of hoghlath shHomlm or gdlfdh shHemd. A fact against this manipulation is that Jeremiah, as the Joshua text also, quite properly speaks of the shutting up of cities first, and then of captivity, or deliv- ery; while in Amos the order is reversed; hence if the text is made to apply to cities, it would be illogical. For purposes of suggestion, however, these formations may be written down:
3. Because they have exiled a complete captivity, To deliver them up, with none to free.
*al haghlothdm gdluth shelemd le-hasgir w^-lo ' yephaWx^*^-
This entails merely the addition of the phrase "and not open,"
or "free," which in Jeremiah refers to cities, but may here be
taken to refer to the captivity. The form Ic-hasgir may become
vxiy-yasglru, "and they delivered."
Another group of suggestions may rest upon the idea of
"complete captivity" in phrases such as kol hash-sh^hhl (Amos
4.10, 9.14; Jer. 30.16), kol hag-gold (Jer. 28.6, 29.4, 20, 31; Ezek.
6.20), but these are unsatisfactory not merely on the ground of
sense, but also because of the lateness of the phrases.
4. Because they exiled a complete captivity, And delivered up the city and its contents.
'al haghlotJidm gdluth sh^lcmd way-yasgirii 'Ir u-mH6'dli.
This is based upon Amos 6.8: "And I will deliver up the city and its contents," w<^-hisgartl 'ir u-m^^lo'dh. Doubt is thrown on the verse in its position in chapter 6 because the Septuagint has the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew w^-hikhrattl, "and I will cut off"; moreover, the verse is out of place; it has no com- plementary stichos; it is followed by verses 9-10, a prose piece in great confusion of language and thought ; transposed to chap-
222 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
ter 1 it makes a couplet in which the synonymity is quite close,
and the parallelism is good.
All these suggestions, however, have omitted the word
le-'(^dh6m, "to Edom. " It has been affirmed that this is a gloss
inserted by reason of later events, perhaps the hostility of Edom
at the time of the destruction of the Temple (see discussion of
stanza 4). Mitchell in his commentary on Zechariah (p. 237),
suggests that the phrases "to deliver them to Edom" in verse 6
and "to Edom" in verse 9 are explanatory glosses suggested
by Ezek. 35.5 ; this would lend weight to the idea that the line
was reworked after the Exile. But it may be that le-'edhom
is a corruption for a word which would place the line in good
couplet form, and give a kind of synonymity; it will be seen
below that the word "Edom" in stanza 6 must be emended to
a form 'ddhdm, "man"; either kol 'ddhdm, "every human
being," or kol hd-'f^dhdmd, "all the land," may have been the
original here ; thus the couplet becomes :
Because they have exiled a complete captivity,
To deliver up all the land (or every human being).
' al haghlotham galuth sJiHemd,
l^-hasgir kol ddhdm (or Icol hd-'odhdmd).
Whatever be the decision on the value of these suggestions, they suffice to show that the line in its present form is untenable ; the restoration of parallelistic couplet structure, though the exact phrases are beyond reach, seems entirely justifiable.
The fourth section of stanza 2 contains two couplets in parallelism, the first of which is repeated in stanza 1, as a later insertion. The slight variation in the closing postlude prophetic phrase has already been noted. Comparisons which show start- ling points of similarity can be made with various prophetic passages. Amos reads :
And I will cut off the inhabitant from Ashdod, And him that holdeth the sceptre from Ashkelon,
And I will turn my hand against Ekron:
And the remnant of the Philistines shall perish.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amvs. 223
Jer. 47.4 contains terms and phrases similar to Amos:
Because of the day that cometh to spoil all the Philistines, To cut off from Tyre and Zidon every helper that remaineth.
For the Lord will spoil the Philistines, The remnant of the isle of Caphtor.
The comparisons with Ezek. 25.16, a part of a chapter which shows resemblances to Amos in point of stanza arrangement, repetition of prophetic formulas and other motifs, are equally striking; moreover in verses 6, 8, 12, 14 of this series, Ezekiel uses the phrase "hath-said Adhonai-Yahwe. " Therefore thus saith the Lord, God:
Behold I will stretch out my hand upon the Philistines,
And I will cut off the Cherethim,
And destroy the remnant of the sea coast.
in Zeph. 2.4r-7 the most important likeness is the stichos : ' ' and
I shall destroy you to become without inhabitant"; Zech. 9.5-8,
too, shows resemblances which have often been noted (Mitchell,
ICC, 266-267), particularly at the end of verse 5 and the whole
of verse 6 :
And a king shall cease from Gaza, And Ashkelon shall not be inhabited.
And a bastard shall rule in Ashdod,
And I will cut off the pride of the Philistines.
Did the text of Amos fall under the influence of this passage through a later redactor, or did Zechariah imitate Amos? The sentence on the "bastard," according to Mitchell, refers "to the deterioration of the population of Palestine during and after the captivity, as pictured in Neh. 13.23ff., or the mixed char- acter of the people with whom the country had been colonized by its conquerors." It is fairly certain that Zechariah bor- rowed from Amos, not in slavish imitation, however, but with subtle variations which differentiated his work from that of his predecessor.
It may then be concluded with some degree of surety that while (a) the first couplet is genuinely the work of Amos, (6) the second couplet has to some extent been influenced by the
224 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
material of Ezek. 25. One probability is that the second couplet and the closing phrase are late, though this would entail the same conclusion with reference to the second couplet in the fourth sections of the other stanzas. A second and more de- fensible decision is that the closing words 'dniar 'c^dhondi Yahwe were inserted because of the similarity of the Amos couplet to the Ezekiel passages. This would- justify the entire fourth section, and would show the reason for the deviation of the clos- ing phrase to be the same as that for which the word w^-higgattl in stanza 5 deviates from w^-shillaxtl of the other sjtanzas; i.e., not " symmetrophobia, " but the whim or carelessness of a later redactor, who probably was led by the likenesses between two passages to make changes in one to conform to the other. This interplay of influence seems general in the edition of texts by later compilers, to whom the question of priority of texts seems to have been of no importance.
Stanza 3. — Tybe
The oracle on Tyre displays characteristics which mark it off distinctly from the other stanzas. As it now stands, the fourth section together with the closing prophetic phrase is missing ; and the first stichos of the second section is a repetition of the second section in stanza 2.
The oracle might be regarded as genuine on the ground of the following data: (a) The second section contains a couplet apparently in good parallelism, as the type stanza demands. To retain this couplet would, of course, entail the omission of the section in stanza 2, where an almost bald repetition of the phrases and thought is visible; to make the whole stanza con- form to type would demand the acceptance of the supposition that the fourth section has for some unaccountable reason dropped out, and hence must be supplied from data contempo- rary with or before Amos, (b) The historical situation between Tyre and Judah seems to point to the authenticity of the stanza. The brotherly covenant to which Amos refers may be the one mentioned in I K. 5.26 between Hiram and Solomon. Hiram calls Solomon "brother" also in I K. 5.1ff. 9.13, 16.31; II S.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 225
5.11 .(see also I K. 7.13 ; I Chron. 14.1 ; II Chron. 2.3, 11) . These friendly relations continued especially during the time of the royal unions with Tyrian nobility; at the time of Elisha and Elijah, resulting foreign idolatries became the subject of sharp denunciation. A gap in the historical records is responsible for the lack of information as to the time when political hostility between the two nations began. In Is. 23.1-14 occurs an oracle on Tyre, delivered apparently around 722 b.c. ; this indicates the attention which the Prophets immediately following Amos paid to Tyre; and it might be presumed that Amos also may have included them in the round of his utterances.
But the evidence against the authenticity of the oracle is more plausible, and it may be presumed that the stanza is late, (a) The strophic structure is 2 -(- 2 -j- 2; the omission of the fourth section and the postlude makes the stanza the shortest of the whole series, for in the other oracles wherein the fourth section is missing — i.e., stanza 4 on Edom, and stanza 7 on Judah — there is found in the second section an additional par- allelistic couplet, (b) As Harper points out, the oracle adds no new thought to the series. The formulas are repeated; only one city is named, namely. Tyre, neither Sidon nor the other large cities of the kingdom receiving attention. The same charge as against the Philistines is levelled against Tyre ; the only new stichos introduced is the line on the brotherly covenant, (c) "If the geographical order prevailed as elsewhere from North to South, verses 9-11 would have preceded verses 6-8" (Harper, p. 28). (d) The historical data do not aiford suf- ficient evidence in support of the authenticity of the oracle, in view of the events which followed the lifetime of Amos. The Prophet seems here to think that the violation of the brotherly covenant is a sin ; but if the alliance between Tyre and Israel was abhorrent to the Prophets, it is not likely that they would be angered if this covenant, provided it ever existed, were broken. Hence it would appear that stichos b of the second section is not original with Amos.
The long succession of prophecies against Tyre which issue from the successors of Amos indicates that a later redactor in-
226 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
serted this oracle in Amos. The denunciation by Isaiah, 23.1-14, may be retroactive in its witness to a hostility between Tyre and Judah at the time of Amos; but it is more probable that the Amos stanza was introduced at the time of Isaiah, as was the case with several words and stichoi in stanzas 1 and 2. The Isaianic prophecy is placed by Gray {ICC, p. 386) after the "long siege to which Tyre was subjected by Shalmaneser" (727- 722 B.C.) ; Isaiah mentions no offense by Tyre against Judah. It has already been suggested that some connection may exist between the oracles of Jeremiah and these of Amos ; Jeremiah mentions Tyre in 25.22 and 27.3, but dedicates to it no special Song. If it be believed that Jeremiah wrote with a text of Amos before him, it may be surmised, then, that one text was revised by a redactor after 720 B.C. around the time of Isaiah's activity; but that Jeremiah possessed a text unrevised and gen- uine with Amos. A third edition may have been made on the basis of these two texts, combining them into one (see conclu- sions below).
Or since Ezekiel, chaps. 26-28, contains a long and brilliant oracle against Tyre which originated around 570 B.C., apparently during an era when Tyre was at the height of its prosperity, the Amos oracle may have been added at this date. Joel 4.4-8, too, offers significant evidence. Joel speaks of the slavery activities of both Phoenicia and Philistia; but in the place of Edom, as in Amos, the countries of Javan (Greece) and the Sabaeans figure ; the recipients of the slaves whom the Phoenicians sell are the Greeks (see Ezek. 27.13). Bewer {ICC, p. 130ff.) states that these verses in Joel were written with ref- erence to the behavior of the Persians under Artaxerxes Ochus, around 352 b.c. ; the writer added these verses on the behavior of the Phoenicians and the Philistines because it "called for special condemnation. They were the slave-traders and mer- chants to whom the Persian soldiers had sold their captives and their booty. "
On the question, then, of the offense in Amos, the following probabilities are suggested: (a) The redactor may have inserted an ancient offense to give the prophecy an archaic flavor and
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 227
to lend the thought that it originated with Amos, (b) The redactor may have based the offense on Ezek. 27.13 (see above) ; Edom is not mentioned here, however, but Javan (as in Joel 4.4-8), and it would therefore be necessary to regard the phrase le-''^dh6m in Amos as a gloss, (c) The offense couplet may have been changed later on the basis of Joel 4.4-8, though the outline of the oracle may date from the time either of Isaiah, or Ezekiel.
A word must be said on the disposition of the second stichos of the second section : ' ' And they remembered not the covenant of brothers." In defense of its authenticity it may be urged: it is in a good couplet, though the synonymity between the lines is not close ; on the general principle that except on rare occasions it is unwise to disturb a parallelistic couplet, the temptation to throw the verse out must be checked until further examination ; furthermore the literary quality of the stichos is good; it consists of the customary three members. But against the legitimacy of the stichos many arguments may be advanced. It is improbable that Amos referred back to the days of Solomon to secure an historical reference, in view of the events in the intercourse between the two nations which had occurred since the division of the kingdom. The verse also has the word dx^m, which repeats the word axiw of stanza 4. The stichos is not needed in Edom's oracle, because already two superfluous stichoi are present there, and moreover it will be seen that the prophecy on Edom appears to be late. It cannot be placed in the second section of the Judah stanza for the same and other reasons. The second section on the Ammonites cannot contain it because two stichoi are already present ; tMere is no reference to an alliance either with Philistia, Moab, or Israel ; it would be in- appropriate in the second section of stanza 1, for the passages on the alliance between Ahab and Benhadad, I K. 20.34, and between Syria and Israel, I K. 15.19 and II Chron. 16.3, are insufficient to form substantiation for the transposition in the face of other weaknesses of parallelism and sense.
The final and most plausible suggestion for the presence of the verse is that it is a variant reading of the stichos ^al rodh^pho
228 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
ha-xerehh 'ax^w, ' ' because he pursued with the sword his brother, ' ' in stanza 4 on Edom ; its presence in the margin or above the line may have furnished the later redactor with a stichos out of which to form a distich in the second section of the prophecy which he constructed in order to secure an oracle presumably from Amos; a combination with a stichos from stanza 2 made a distich, and hence gave the oracle a flavor of genuineness. But whatever may have been the process by which it attained its present status, it seems quite certain that it did not proceed from Amos.
Hence in conclusion it may be affirmed that the prophecy on Tyre is late. It may have been introduced either after 720 B.C. or after 570 b.c. ; possibly it was interpolated at the first date and reworked after the second; moreover, after 350 B.C. it may have once more been retouched. This would tend to show that three editions. of the entire Doom Song were made.
Stanza 4. — Edom
Edom plays an important role in the Doom Song, for it is mentioned four times, once in connection with the slave trade of Philistia, once in connection with the slave trade of Tyre, once as the victim of Moab's offense in stanza 6, and again as the theme of stanza 4. It is generally agreed that this oracle is late ; it is supposed to date from exilic or post-exilic times.
The first point to show the lateness of this stanza is its strophic structure. The number of stichoi is 1 -|- 2 -|- 4 -)- 2, as in stanza 7 on Judah. The second section contains two couplets where only one i% needed for the type stanza. The fourth section with the prophetic postlude is missing, as in stanzas 3 and 7, which are also placed late. The second evi- dence for the lateness of the stanza is the nature of the offense mentioned in the second section. Tradition early described Edom as a brother to Israel. In early historic times Edom was sub- ject to Israel and for two centuries was under its domination (I K. 11.16; II K. 14.7). Edom is hostile at the time of the Exodus, and at the time of the revolt of Hadad during the reign
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 229
of Solomon, an event too remote to serve as the basis for Amos' prophecy. In the days of Joram (c. 893 B.C.) occurred another revolt of Edom (II K. 7.20-22; II Chron. 21.8-10), again too distant for Amos' purposes, for it may be surmised that the Prophet would naturally select an event closer to his own day and fresher in the minds of his readers and listeners.
In II K. 14.7 and II Chron. 25.5-13 occur the stories of the defeat of the Edomites at the hand of King Amaziah of Judah around the year 795 b.c, a little more than a generation before Amos began his prophetic activity. The defeat is thorough, for in verse 12 it is stated: "And ten thousand left alive did the children of Judah carry away captive and brought them unto the top of the rock and cast them down from the top of the rock and they all were broken to pieces." (On stanzas 2 and 3, it is instructive to note here that Edom is made the captive and not the recipient of Judaean captives.) II Chron. 26.2 also tells of the continued humiliation of the Edomites, for Uzziali, the king contemporary with Amos, took the city of Elath from them and restored it to Judah. The question may then legiti- mately be asked: Since Edom was so soundly defeated both shortly before and contemporaneously with Amos, why should the Prophet direct against them an oracle foretelling a doom which had already fallen upon them? Notice further Amos' use of the term "the remnant of Edom" in 9.12; the Blessing of Esau, Gen. 27.39ff., supposed to have originated at this period, also tells of the subjection of Edom to the sway of Israel. It is therefore necessary to search for the raison d'etre of the oracle in Amos in events which transpired after his death.
Plenteous evidence is found in generations succeeding, for the insertion of a prophecy against Edom. In II Chron. 28.17, a narration of the incursions of the Edomites at the time of Ahaz is given: "again the Edomites had come and smitten Judah and carried away captives." The use of the word "again" may lead to the thought that contemporaneous with Amos the event first occurred, giving rise to his prophecy. It seems more likely, however, that the event referred to must have occurred directly before the one mentioned. Ahaz is compelled
230 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
in 734 B.C. to apply to the King of Assyria for assistance. Edom is mentioned in Isaiah, chapter 34, in terms of vigorous denun- ciation. Hence the first suggestion is that the Edom stanza was inserted into Amos around the year 720 B.C., together with parts of stanza 1, section 4, and stanza 2, section 2, and possibly stanza 3.
The evidence points more specifically to an exilic or post- exilic reconstruction of this prophecy in Amos, Jeremiah after several references to Edom (9.25, 25.21, 27.3) devotes to it a whole oracle in 49.7-22. The passage is confused and bears resemblances to Obadiah's anti-Edom utterances; the offense of Edom is haughtiness and pride of heart (verse 16). But it is in the Book of Ezekiel that the most weight}^ hints on the origin of the oracle occur. The data point clearly to the fact that the passage in Amos refers to the attitude of Edom towards Judah at the destruction of the Temple in 586 b.c. Ezek, 25.12-14 proclaims as the offense of Edom, their self-exacted vengeance upon Judah for which they will be punished in kind. Ezek. 35 gives the identical offense, apparently, to which Amos refers : "Because thou hast had a perpetual hatred and hast shed the blood of the children of Israel by the force of the sword in the time of their calamity, in the time that their iniquity had an end" (verse 5; see also verses 12, 13, 15). The words 'ehhath ' oldm compared with Amos, stanza 4, second couplet of the second section, give a clue to the date of the Edom oracle in Amos. The utterances of Obadiah bear out the same indica- tions. For in verses 10-11 occur references to the "violence" of the Edomites and their conspiracy with the invaders at the destruction of the Temple. Joel 4.19 refers to the slaughter of Judah by Edom, even as does the first couplet in the Amos offense section; Ps. 137.7 gives additional data (cf. also Ps. 83.7). Malachi 1.2-5 apparently at a later date, refers to the historic enmity between Edom and Israel despite the fact that they were ' ' brothers. "
The necessary conclusion seems to be that the offense men- tioned in Amos occurred around 586 B.C., and that the second section was written in the light of the prophecies of Ezekiel and
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 231
Obadiah, Harper correctly says (p. 31) : "The cruelty which
furnished the basis for the ill feeling on the part of Israel came
with the exile. It was not unnatural therefore, that a later
writer, devoid of historical perspective and thinking that Edom
deserved denunciation, should frame a section which in due time
secured a place in the text of Amos."
The third evidence for the lateness of the Edom oracle in
Amos is the character of the language, especially in the second
section. As has been noted, the real foundation for the section
appears to be Ezek. 35.5, wherein two ideas, hatred and pursuit
by sword, are grouped; the writer of the Amos material has
expanded them into two couplets, whereas on the basis of the
Ezekiel passage, the form could be one couplet, omitting the
second stichos of each existing couplet in the section :
Because he pursued with the sword his brother, And forever his anger tore.
This agrees with Harper's suggestion that stichoi b in both couplets are glosses, and the second section then holds the num- ber of stichoi which the tj^pe stanza demands. On the other hand, the arrangement destroys two couplets in entirely good parallelism, whereas it is a cardinal principle that, normally, couplets in good form should not be disturbed; to escape the task of reconstruction, it may be urged that if the entire stanza is late, there is no need to make it conform to the model stanza, for it is clear that the later redactor neglected entirely the adherence to a model structure. Ezek. 35.6 on the motif of poetic justice states: "and blood shall pursue thee"; compare also Obad. 10 and Joel 4.19 for references to the bloody pursuit suggested by Amos.
The use of the term ' * brother ' ' with reference to the relation- ship between Israel and Edom occurs in Deut. 2.4; Gen. 27.40, 41; Num. 20.14; the admonition in Deut. 23.8, "Thou shalt not abhor an Edomite for he is thy brother" was evidently writ- ten before the Destruction and the hostility of Edom. Neither Isaiah, Jeremiah, Joel, nor even Ezekiel refers to Edom as Israel's "brother"; in Obad. 10.12 and Mai. 1.2-5 the term is revived, probably to emphasize the heinousness of Edom's
232 University of California Publications. I^em. Phil.
offense. Malaehi speaks of Edom as "the people against whom the Lord hath indignation forever," This may be poetic jus- tice for the attitude of perpetual hatred which Edom cherished towards God's people Israel.
The second stichos of the first couplet: ''and he destroyed his compassion ' ' is unwisely omitted by Harper ; the exact sense of the period is dubious, and depends on the interpretation of rax^mdw either as "his compassions" or "his wombs," his pregnant women. The word l^-nvashxith, "for destroying," is used in Ez. 25.15 with reference to the phrase 'ehhath '61dm applied to Philistia there, but to Edom in 85.5 ; Ezekiel uses the word at least eight times more in different forms. It is difficult to suggest a correct reading; in view of the fact that the entire oracle is placed late, no reconstructions will be advanced.
The second couplet of the section is in perfect parallelism, though a slight change is advocated, on the basis of Ps. 103.9 and Jer. 3.5, where two perfectly parallel couplets are present ; this change makes way-yitroph, "and it tore," into way-yittor, "and he cherished." This suggestion was first made by 01s- hausen and has been generally accepted. The Jeremiah couplet shows striking similarities to this Amos passage, and may be based upon it, or vice versa. If the phrase way-yitroph is retained, similarities to Job 16.9 and 18.4 must be noted. The phrase Id-' adh 'appo occurs in Micah 7.18 in a parallel couplet. The second stichos of the Amos couplet is omitted by Harper because ' ' from the point of view of the interpolation, it is a gloss, merely repeating the thought of the preceding phrase in synony- mous words." This is perhaps the very reason why the stichos should be retained, because it makes admirable parallelism. Moreover, the example of Jer. 3.5 supports the usage of the couplet, and fixes the text as substantially correct. The form 7iegax occurs in Ps. 13.2 and Jer. 15.18, though several commen- tators wish to amend it to Id-negux as in Amos 8.7. It may be concluded with reference to the couplet that its language sug- gests the later Psalms and Jeremiah, rather than Amos himself.
A fourth reason for regarding the oracle on Edom as late is that "Petra, the most important city of Edom is not men-
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 233
tioned, while the names Teman and Bozrah occur elsewhere chiefly in the late writings" (but cf. Gen. 36.33, 34) : Teman is mentioned in Obad. 9 (parallel to har ' esaw) ; in Jer. 49.7, 20 (parallel to "Edom," as in Ezek. 25.13, and Hab. 3.3) ; Bozrah occurs in Is. 34.6, 63.6 (parallel to ''Edom"), Jer. 49.13, 22 (Gen. 36.33 and I Chron. 1.44 have it in an identically worded verse). The lateness of the word "Teman," together with the lateness of "Bozrah," therefore adds other evidence to the hypothesis that the stanza on Edom is exilic or post-exilic.
Stanza 5. — The Ammonites
Stanza 5 on the Ammonites is perhaps the model stanza. Its strophic structure conforms to the type form, since it is 1 + 2-|-2-|-2-|-4-[-l- The second section contains the necessary two stichoi, though it will be seen that they are not in the most exact parallelism ; the fourth section contains two good couplets. The meaning of the entire oracle is on the whole clear, except for the possible yion sequitur between stichoi a and b of section 2; a solution of the difficulty here involved will give a stanza clear in meaning and perfect in form.
The occasion for the delivery of a prophecy against the Ammonites presents difficulties. During the reign of Jehosha- phat (c. 850 B.C.) the Moabites and the Ammonites were defeated (II K. 3.4-27, and II Chron. 20). During the reign of Uzziah, contemporaneous with Amos, the Ammonites paid tribute to Judah (II Chron. 26.8) ; during the reign of Jotham of Judah, the successor to Uzziah, and immediately^ after Amos (c. 739 B.C.), war was waged against the Ammonites and Jotham "pre- vailed against them " ; as a result they brought him heavy tribute (II Chron. 27.5). The question may be now propounded: If the Ammonites brought tribute to Uzziah and were thus subject to him, why was it necessary for Amos to deliver against them an oracle of doom? It appears, however, that they were by no means completely subjugated ; apparently they proved hostile during the entire lifetime of Amos and were not fully quieted until the reign of Jotham ; which fact points to the appropriate- ness of an oracle against them in this series original with Amos.
234 University of California Puhlications. [Sem.Phil.
The destruction which the Prophet foretells may have been imminent in the war waged by the contemporary kings.
If it be not agreed that the prophecy is genuine with Amos, the only other time it seems plausible is during the post-exilic period. Is. 11.14 contains the only reference to them in his work ; Jeremiah delivers a telling denunciation of them in chap- ter 49, with which Amos has noteworthy likenesses ; Ezekiel 21.33-37 and 25.1-7 contain references to the behavior of the Ammonites at the time of the Destruction, while Zeph. 2.8 has two couplets of interest for the origin of the Amos oracle. A decision on the date of the appearance, the redaction and the reworking of the Amos portion will be attempted after the evi- dence has been reviewed.
Section 2 of this stanza reads thus :
Because they have ripped up the pregnant women of Gilead, In order to enlarge their border.
For the literal translation and retention of this couplet, espe- cially of the first stichos, many references offer testimony. On the practice of barbarity to pregnant women, see I K. 8.12 ; Hos. 10.14, 16; II K. 15.16; Is. 13.16; Nah. 3.10; Ps. 137.9. Harper affirms : ' ' The reference is in every way so specific as to suggest a particular event. This event may have been in con- nection with the attack of Nahash, the Ammonite, upon Jabesh Gilead (I Sam. 11) or a league of the Ammonites with the Syrians under Hazael (II K. 8.12, 10.32)."
But several facts labor against the retention of the present text. Harper's suggestion does not appeal, because in none of the instances mentioned is there a hint of an alliance between Ammon and other nations against Israel. Moreover the repe- tition of the word ' ' Gilead ' ' from stanza 1 throws doubt upon the stichos; it has already been pointed out that the event referred to here should more properly be joined to the oracle on Syria, and a reconstruction of the second section of stanza 1 has pro- ceeded on this assumption. The discrepancy in thought between the first and second stichoi is marked : "What is the relation between the ripping up of pregnant women and the expansion of national borders, except perhaps that this act is symbolic of
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 235
a ruthlessness which has national domination as its aim? Sev- eral emendations may be proposed in the light of historical and philological evidence :
1. ' al gdr"shdm mtrushshdtho 'eth Gddh l^-ma'an harx^bh 'eth gehhuldm.
Because they have dispossessed from his inheritance Gad, In order to increase their borders.
The sin of the Ammonites as mentioned in Amos is that they have usurped the territory of Israel. Even in the period of the Judges, the Ammonites had laid claim to the land which the Israelites had captured from Sihon of the Amorites during the period of the Exodus. The story of Jephtha's battle on the seizure of Gilead by the Ammonites contains a long diplo- jnatic communication on the justice of Israel's legal and his- torical claim to the land. There is general agreement that verses 12-28 of chapter 11 are a later interpolation, the motive of which is to establish the title of Israel to its possessions be- tween the Arnon and the Jabbok. The Ammonites never ceased to wage war for additional territory ( Jud. 10.8 ; I Sam. 11.11, etc.).
In II Chron. 11.11 a reference to the traditional sin of Amnion occurs. This version of the victory of Jehoshaphat over Moab and Ammon (see II K. 3.4-27, wherein the Ammonites are not mentioned) includes a reference strikingly similar to the phraseology of Judges, chapter 11: ''And behold they requited us by coming to cast us out of thy possession which thou hast given us to inherit." This verse is evidently the work of a later poet (cf. Ezek. 21.35, the prophecy against Ammon, which has the line : " I will judge thee in the place where thou wast created, in the land of thy nativity," referring thus vaguely to this central thought).
Jer, 49.1-7 against the Ammonites contains the most impor- tant suggestions for the Amos passage :
Concerning the Ammonites, Thus saith Yahwe,
Hath Israel no sons? Hath he no heir?
236 University of California Publications. [Sem. Pnu,.
Why then doth their king inherit Gad, And his people dwell in his cities?
Therefore behold the days are coming, saith Yahwd
That I will cause to be heard in Eabbah of the Ammonites an
alarm of war And it shall be a desolate heap.
And her daughters with fire shall be burned,
And Israel shall be heir unto them who were his heirs, saith Yahw5.
Howl, O Heshbon, for Ai is spoiled;
Cry ye daughters of Eabbah,
Gird yourselves with sackcloth;
Lament and run to and fro by the hedges;
For their king shall go into captivity,
His priests and his princes together. . . .
This prophecy appears to be in a corrupt state of preservation. It is made up of two separate strands, interlaced and combined, one a song of exultation and lament, the other a doom song or denunciation. The song of lament was written either by Jere- miah, or a contemporaneous author; it is in great confusion. The denunciation affords significant data for comparison with the Amos oracle. The major discrepancies between the two denunciations are: (a) omission in Jeremiah of the introductory couplet formula of Amos; (b) four lines of offense in Jeremiah to two in Amos; (c) formula of punishment in Amos shifted in place and language in Jeremiah; (d) line on destruction in war shifted in place and with a different complementary stichos in Jeremiah. The similarities are: 1. In thought: (a) offense in both cases is dispossession ; punishment in both cases is war, cry, fire, and exile. 2. In language: (a) ko 'dmar '(^dhonai; (b) the word mdlkdm is used twice; (c) tiggathnd to match w^-higgattl in Amos; (d) the words t^ru' ath milxdmd to match in Amos 'bi-th^ru' a b^-yom milxdmd; (e) the last couplet in the denunciation is identical, except for the use in Jeremiah of kdh^^ndw in place of Amos' sdrdw. The question arises: Did Jeremiah borrow from Amos, or did a later redactor reconstruct Amos on the basis of Jeremiah? If the former supposition is true, then it is evident that the Prophet injected enough of his
"Vol, 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 237
own thought and phraseology into the terms of Amos to render them his own ; for there are slight differentiations which mark the prophecy as decidedly the work of Jeremiah. But if Jere- miah based his own utterance on Amos, is it not possible to gain from this fact information for a possible reconstruction of errors in Amos' oracle? The correct portions in the denunciation in Jeremiah may throw light upon the apparently incorrect por- tions in Amos.
The influence of the correct Jeremiah text on the incorrect Amos stichoi is seen most effectually in one fact : In Amos, Gilead is the victim of the Ammonites; in Jeremiah, it is Gad. In both cases the offense is dispossession. The repetition of ''Gilead" in stanza 1, and the discrepancy of thought between the two stichoi in the second section, thus lead to the belief that instead of Gilead, the name Gad originally occurred in Amos as the victim.
In defense of the correctness of the term Gilead, in Amos, it must be mentioned that Gilead in the time of Jephtha, at the time of Nahash's attack, and on numerous other occasions, was the sufferer from Ammonitish raids. It is known that the territory of the Ammonites east of the Jordan was included in the portion assigned to Gad, itself east of the Jordan (Josh. 13.24-28), while "Gilead" in its larger meaning designated the whole territory east of the Jordan except Bashan, in contrast with Canaan, west of the Jordan ; it stands specificallj' for the territory of the two and one-half tribes, Gad, Reuben and half- Manasseh. However, Gad and Gilead always stand in close relationship; sometimes Gad's territory is placed in Gilead; sometimes the two are joined (see Harper, p. 17) ; sometimes Gilead is used alone when Gad is unmistakably included; in- deed, "Gad" and "Gilead" are so closely synonymous that oftentimes the terms are exchanged; and so in Amos, Gilead may have included Gad; "Gilead" may have been a general term, with Gad specifically in the Prophet's mind. Moreover, in defense of the term "Gilead," it must be admitted that though it is a repetition, it does not mar the form of the poem in any great degree.
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On the other hand, the use of "Gad" as the victim of Ammonitish cruelty would add to the effective reconstruction of the stanza. Josh. 13.24 shows that the boundaries of Gad were all the cities of Gilead and half of the land of the Ammon- ites. In Deut. 33.20 occurs the significant sentence: harukh Kam-nmrxihh 'eth Gadh, ''Blessed is he that enlargeth Gad," using marxlhh as in the second stichos of the Amos distich: he who broadens Gad is blessed; per contra, he who broadens him- self— i.e., as in Amos, extends his boundaries at the expense of Gad — is cursed. Hence the anger of Amos may be due to the fact that the Ammonites had diminished the already small tribe of Gad. To make a coherent couplet, it may therefore be neces- sary to have the first stichos apply to Gad, so that the thought may lead up naturally to the second stichos, wherein harxlbh is used. In Jer. 49.1, the offense of the Ammonites is against Gad; this part of the oracle is genuine, as the parallelism and sense are good; and the affinity between the two oracles leads to the supposition that Jeremiah secured his stimulus for the thought from Amos ; hence again there would seem to have been in Amos a reference to Gad. The term "Gilead" may have been inserted in post-exilic times, for the evidence points to the fact that after the fall of Samaria, the Ammonites occupied the territory of Gad or Gilead (cf. the doubtful verse in Obad. 20). Therefore to restore the Amos text to the form from which Jeremiah took suggestions, it is necessary to supplant "Gilead" with "Gad." In the couplet which has been suggested as the first reconstruction, the term "inheritance" is used as in II Chron. 20.11 and Jer. 49.1 with reference to Gad. The phrase gdrash mirushshd is incorporated on the foundation of the passage in II Chron. 20.11 which refers to this act by the Ammonites.
2. 'al hiq<^'dm 'are hag-Gddh,
le-ma'an harxi>iJi 'eth gebhuldm.
Because they have pierced through the cities of Gad, In order to widen their boundaries.
This substitutes 'are "cities," for hdroth, "pregnant women." In Josh. 13.25 occurs a reference to "all the cities of Gilead."
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 239
Jer. 49.1 reads, "and his people have taken their residence in his cities," The word hdqa' , ''pierce through," with "cities" is sanctioned by II Chron. 32.1; II K. 25.4; Jer. 39.2; Ezek. 30.16, 24.10; Jer. 52.7; and by other passages in which it occurs in warlike operations: "to make a breach in the city walls" (cf. II Chron. 21.17 and Is. 8.6 with reference to Judah).
In place of hdroth the word hare, "mountains of," has been suggested by Jewish commentators, who sought to mitigate the barbarity of the passage (Harper, p. 36) ; the Ammonites were thus guilty of breaking the law of boundaries (Deut. 27.17). Kittel and Valeton suggest the reading b^gUroth, "fortified places. ' '
Another group of restorations grows out of the omission of the second stichos of the couplet as a later addition on the basis of the Ammonitish attacks against Gilead and Gad immediately after Amos or during the exilic days; this would leave authentic here the first line and invalidate several of the suggestions made in stanza 1 which transposed this line to its second section. Though there is no mention that the Ammonites were guilty of the cruelty referred to, this does not imply that it did not occur.
3. Because they have ripped up the pregnant women of Gilead, And the young children they dashed into pieces.
This is based upon the parallelistic usages in Hos. 14.1; II K. 8.12; and upon the presence of the phrase "their children shall be dashed to pieces" in several other passages that prophecy destruction: Nah. 3.10; Hos. 10.14; Ps. 137.9; Is. 13.16ff. Another suggestion is to read for the second stichos, "and the fruit of the womb they pitied not" (cf. Is. 13.18),
It is difficult to determine upon the best of these suggestions ; the evidence is so complicated that a categorical decision is out of the question ; they suffice, however, to point the way to the difficulties in the text, and the probabilities upon which recon- structions can be founded.
The third section of stanza 5 has instead of w^-shillaxti, "and I will send," w^-higQattt, "and I will kindle," The thought that the author through superstition and fear of exact
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symmetry in the formulas changed the word here, is baseless, especially since other words are changed throughout the con- stant couplets. The word w^-higQattl is very popular with Jeremiah ; the close nexus between this prophecy on the Ammon- ites by Amos and that in Jeremiah, chapter 49, points to the conclusion that in Amos' original text w^-shillaxtl may have been used, but that a later redactor inserted w^-higgatti on the basis of Jeremiah. It cannot be said that the entire Amos prophecy was written on the pattern of Jeremiah; it is more feasible to support the notion of an interplay of influence ; Amos affected Jeremiah; then through a later compiler and editor, Jeremiah's text affected Amos. This would indicate that sev- eral texts existed with different readings in the minutiae and that the final redaction was made through a synthesis of the variant readings.
The fourth section of stanza 5 has two couplets in apparently excellent parallelism. The first couplet differs from its equiv- alents in the other three type stanzas in that no direct verb stands at its head. It is not imperative that this verbal motif be employed, for the arrangement here used is found in other prophetic passages. An objection may be made to the use of ii-thcru'd, "with shouting," however, since in section 4 of stanza 6, on Moab, the same word occurs. Though the Septua- gint has the same phrase in each place, it seems necessary that one of the two usages must be omitted in order to present a text free from careless repetitions. Moreover, the context as it stands is awkward ("and it shall devour the palaces with shouting"), when compared with Amos 2.2 and particularly with Jer. 49.2.
The second stichos of this first couplet in the fourth section of stanza 5, though in excellent parallelism to the first line, presents some difficulties. Harper in order to maintain his three line strophic arrangement states (p. 35) : "The clause ... is but a weak repetition of the preceding clause and there is nothing to correspond to it in the parallel section on Moab (2.1-3), although in every other respect the parallelism is per- fect." This omission of a line in perfect couplet formation
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 241
is unwarranted, for the disruption of a parallelistic couplet can only rarely be tolerated; moreover the logical scheme of the poem in conformance to the model stanza would be broken. For this stichos, the Septuagint reads : ' ' and she shall be shaken in the days of her destruction." This presents the following probabilities: (a) either the Septuagint wrongly read the text; in defense of the text as it stands may be cited Ps. 83.16, Is. 29.6, Nah. 1.3; or (b) in the text which the Septuagint trans- lators possessed there actually was a basis for the variant reading. If the latter was the case, perhaps the variant was a marginal reading intended to replace the hi-th'^ru' a of stichos a (which has, indeed, been shown to be suspicious) ; the trans- lators, however, read it instead as a variant of h<^-sa'ar, "with a tempest," possibly because its radicals resembled those of sa'ar. This would sanction the retention of b'^-sa'ar in the second stichos and the substitution in the first for hi-th'^rii' a of a verb in the Hebrew based on the Greek aeLad'^aerai. Finally, even if hi-th^^ru'd be retained here, and the Greek verb be re- garded merely as a translation of the root sd'ar (cf. Zech. 7.14), it would still seem necessary to insert a verb at the head of the first stichos. Among the possible suggestion are : w^-rd ' (^shd, "it shall shake" (cf. Amos 9.1) ; iv<^-hirashti,"l shall shake" (cf. Ps. 60.4, Hag. 2.7) ; w^-ni' aril, "and I shall shake"; best of all can be used w^-hiphqadhtiw, "and I will visit him." Though the exact verb cannot of course be suggested, it is sufficient to point out the flaw and the possibility for correction.
The second couplet of the section is in perfect parallelism. There is doubt as to the exact meaning of malkdm; it may be ' * Milcom, ' ' the name of the Ammonitish deity, or merely ' ' their king," or both. There is also the question whether kohf^ndw, "his priests," should be substituted in Amos for hu\ on the basis of Jer. 48.7, and 49.3, an almost identical repetition of the Amos couplet. But it is not necessary or even advisable to make the substitution ; for however great the similarities between prophetic oracles, identical repetitions are few; each author touches his borrowings with his own individuality. This couplet shows affinities between the Amos and Jeremiah texts, but to
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make the two absolutely identical would violate even the little that is known of the psychology of literary borrowing.
It may then be concluded that stanza 5 is for the most part original with Amos. A first revision of his utterance may have been made immediately after the Prophet's death, perhaps after the invasion of the Assyrians and the fall of Samaria; the date may be placed around 720 B.C. A later redaction may also haye been made ; for though the historic oiEfense of the Ammonites was dispossession of Israel, another sin is credited by the Prophets to their neighbors after the time of the Destruction: Ezek. 25.1-7 and Zeph. 2.8 tell of the presumptuous boasting of the Ammon- ites at the occasion of Judah's downfall. In the latter text, the form way-yaghdllu ' al g<^bhuldm, though it seems to have a bear- ing on the Amos portion, is given a different meaning by reason of its context and the parallelism. Similarly a phrase in Joel 4.6, l^-nia'an harx^qdm me' at g^hhuldm shows striking linguistic similarities to the second stichos of the distich in the second sec- tion of stanza 5, but it has no application to the Amos passage. It may well be that another revision of the Amos oracle took place in post-exilic times; this would agree with conclusions on the redaction of the other oracles in the Doom Song.
Stanza 6. — Moab
The sixth stanza on Moab, diverges from the model stanza only in its second section. At present its strophic structure is l + 2-fl-f24-4+l. Harper's arrangement of 5 + 3 + 3 is not justifiable because it breaks up two couplet structures in the fourth section, even though it gives a couplet in the second section.
The occasion for the oracle is found in the historic enmity between Moab and Israel. This hostility existed in the earliest period of the Exodus and continued through the reign of the Judges and the victories of the kings Saul and David. After the division of the kingdom, Moab became the subject of Israel, but revolted under Ahab and thereafter proved troublesome. In II K., chap. 3, and II Chron. 20.1-30 occurs the story of the conflict of the Moabites on the one hand, with the king of Israel,
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 243
Jehoram, the king of Judah, Jehoshaphat, and the king of Edom on the other (c. 850 B.C.). In II K- 13.20 is a mention of a raid by the Moabites. Thereafter no reference to them occurs until the prophecies of Isaiah. But it may be well to take for granted that at the time of Amos, the Moabites were unconquered, and that Amos would find ample reason for a prophecy of denunci- ation against them; there is, indeed, a slight possibility that Jeroboam conquered Moab (II K. 14.25) ; if so, this campaign may have occurred before or contemporaneously with Amos' oracle.
The second section as in the case of the other stanzas gives difficulties :
Because they burned the bones of the king of Edom to lime. Here a long prose line occurs as in stanzas 1 and 2. The offender is Moab, the victim is the king of Edom, the offense apparently desecration of royal bones by burning. In defense of the authenticity of the text, Is. 33.12 may be brought to bear: ''and the peoples shall be cut up as the burnings of lime." It may be borne in mind that at the time of Amos Edom apparently was friendly with the Judaeans, and any offense against them might have roused the prophet's ire.
But more evidence against the authenticity than in favor can be brought: (a) The only mention of Edom and Moab co-jointly occurs in II K. 3.4—27, where the conflict between the allied Jewish forces and Moab is recounted; in verse 26 is the line: ''And when the king of Moab saw that the battle was too sore for him, he took with him seven hundred men that drew swords, to break through even unto the king of Edom, but they could not." The next verse continues: "Then he [the king of Moab] took his eldest son, that should have reigned in his stead, and offered him for a burnt offering upon the wall." Here it is to be observed that though the king of Edom figures, it is not he who is burned, but the son of the king of Moab. If the Amos stichos is to refer to this event, it cannot remain as it stands. It may be that the verse was doubtful and was reconstructed by a later redactor in order to make it conform with this episode; for that the event made a profound impression upon the mind
244 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil,
of Israel is seen from the words: "And there was great indig- nation upoji Israel, and they departed from him and returned to their own land." Still, it may be asked if this event, occur- ring in 850 B.C., did not occur too early to become the foundation for Amos' prophecy, (b) In II Chron 20.1-30 is a glorified record of this same campaign. Herein no specific act of bar- barity is related ; moreover the enmity of Moab and Edom is due to the will of Yahwe ; whereas Amos mentions an act committed wantonly against the dictates of common humanity. There is sufficient evidence, however, to afford the following reconstruc- tion :
a. ' al sor^pho 'ogamoth lam-molelch
way-yiziax 'adham lash-shedh.
Because they burned bones to Molech,
And sacrificed a human to a demon.
Here a parallel couplet is secured in conformance to the demands of the type stanza. The various phrases in this restoration are justified by biblical passages ; sdraph '(^cdmoth occurs in I K. 13.2 ; II K. 23.16, 20, and II Chron. 34.5, though in the sense of bones burned upon the altar in order to render it unfit for use ; it must be admitted that the phrase in connec- tion with human sacrifice to Molech does not appear.
The words melekh '^dhom are changed in this restoration. The reading 'edhom, indeed, is clearly out of place. It may have arisen out of a misunderstanding of the word melekh in conjunction with 'c-qdmoth, and the frequent occurrence of melekh '^dhom may have led to its insertion — at a time when ''Edom-phobia" afflicted the Prophets — i.e., a desire because of Edom's treatment of Judah at the time of the Destruction to show its suffering upon any and every possible occasion. The fact that Edom is the cause of Moab's punishment and hence appears in the light of Judah 's ally may have escaped the redactor. The reading 'oQCmoth 'ddhdm (cf. 'I K. 13.2, II K. 23.14, 20) is proposed by several other investigators; Zenner in Die Chorgesaenger im Buche d. Psalmen (1896), proposed it first, while Hirscht reads: 'ag^moth 'ddhdm lam-molekh lash- shedh. This suggestion, however, gives merely a prose line, and not a parallel couplet.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 245
Lam-molekh is justified by numerous passages. Moleeh was the God to whom the Israelites and the other nations sacrificed b}^ fire in the valley of Hinnom. It might be rightly protested, however, that the God of the Moabites was not Moleeh, but Chemosh; but no references of child sacrifice to the latter are extant, and it is necessary to postulate sacrifice before Moleeh by Moab in conjunction with the other peoples. References to this sin on the part of Judah appear in II K. 23.10 ; Jer. 32.35, with the words he'(^hhir hd-'esh, "to pass through fire" (cf. BDD, p. 718). A passage which may perhaps lie at the bottom of the Amos phraseology occurs in Lev. 20.2, 3, 4 ; here occurs a prohibition for the Israelites or any stranger to sacrifice children to Moleeh ; verses 3, 5, contain the phrases hdmlth, w^-hikhratti, and miq-qerehh ' ammdm, which show likenesses to expressions used in Amos with regard to Moab. The Leviticus passage refers to the sin of the individual, whereas the Prophet seems to expand the punishment of death and complete extermination to the nation.
The phrase zdhhax 'ddhdm seems to receive support from Hos. 13.2, though the phrase therein used, zohhcxe 'ddhdm, is doubtful (cf. BDB, p. 256) ; it has been translated as "men that sacrifice" and as "sacrificers of mankind." Harper (p. 396) wishes to substitute for the original Hosea lines the couplet : 'adlidm 'oghdltm yishshdqiin 'dm zdbh'^x^'^ lash-shedhim.
Here Hosea refers to the sin, not of any other nation, but of Judah, and human sacrifice is supposed not to have existed in Israel until a time much later than Hosea, namely around the reign of Ahaz. But if the Hosea text is correct and can be read "sacrificers of mankind," then it affords a basis for the restoration of the Amos stichos; Moab may have been one of the surrounding nations from which Judah learned the practice of human sacrifice (cf. Deut. 18.10, 33.17; II K. 16.3).
The combination zdhhax lash-shedh is found in Ps. 106.37, "and they sacrificed their sons and daughters to the shedhlm not-God." Hirscht suggests reading lash-sh^dh; though the two passages quoted use it in the plural, as a synonym for Moleeh,
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it is permissible to use it here in the singular (cf. BDB, p. 993). It is uncertain whether zdhhax in these two passages means sac- rifice by fire or by slaughter (cf. Ps. 106.38 and Lev. 17.7; on Deut. 32.17 see Driver on Dejiteronomy, ICC, pp. 362-363).
The sense, then, of the passage as emended is that Moab is to be punished for having indulged in sacrifice of human life by fire. If a general practice is alluded to, it must be confessed that the reconstruction loses some point; it would seem strange for Amos to predict doom for Moab because of one of its re- ligious rites, unless it bore direct relation to Israel and unless Israel was tainted by it. If the passage have a specific applica- tion, it may refer, despite the duration of time between the event and the prophecy, to Moab's act of desecration in II K. 3.27.
The fourth section of stanza 6 contains two good parallelistic couplets in agreement with the type stanza. The first couplet is almost perfect as it stands. It deals with the idea of complete national death in battle, a concept found in relation to Israel in Hos. 13.1, Ez. 18.31, 33.11, and in relation to Moab in various prophecies of its doom: Num. 21.29, Is, 16.7,* Jer. 48.42 (cf. also verses 2, 3, 8, 31, 46), and Zeph. 2.9. A slight emendation of the word ii-meth, "[Moab] shall die," to w^-heniatti, "and I shall kill [Moab] " (cf. Is. 14.30, though not used of a nation), brings the section into even closer conformance to the type stanza ; for in each there stands at the head of the fourth section a form which makes it appear as if God himself were speaking of his own act. A second suggestion is to take w^-hikhrattl from the head of the second couplet of the section to the first stichos of the first, and to transpose to its place u-meth; a third suggestion is to place w<^-hishnwdhti, "and I will destroy," at the head of the section, to eliminate w^-hikhratti and to substitute ii-meth (see below). The word h^-shd'on is justifiable despite suggestions made by several to change it; for even if the mean- ing were doubtful, the parallelism would supply the sense (cf. Hos. 10.14, Ps. 74.23; BDB, p. 981). The phrase hi-th^ru'd h'^-qol shophdr is entirely in place here, for hi-th'^ru' d in stanza 5 was omitted because of its correct usage here (cf. Jer. 4.19).
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The second couplet also is in almost perfect form, despite several minor irregularities. The word w^-hikhrattl is a repe- tition from stanza 2, sec. 4; the use of the feminine suffix in miq-qirbdh needs explanation; here sdrehd, "her princes," is used, whereas in stanza 5 sdrdw, ''his princes," occurred; more- over 'immo with the masculine suffix is present in the second stichos. It has already been suggested to read for w^-hikhraUl the word w^-hishm-adhti. In defense of the present phrase, the use of w^^-nakhrltkennd, "and let us cut her off," may be cited from Jer. 48.2. But w^-hishm^adhtl gives a slight variation which adds to the literary quality of the stichos. The root is used in conjunction with kdrath and parallel to it in Ps. 37.38 and Is. 48.19 ; mostly of persons, however, as in Amos 9.8, 2.9 ; Deut. 1.27, 2.22 (cf. BDB, 1029) ; of Moab as a whole in Jer. 48.8, 42 (mshmddh) ; with miq-qirh^^khem, "from your midst," in Josh. 7.12 (cf. also Ezek. 14.9; Lev. 17.10, 20.3, 5, 6). The words shophet and sdr are parallel in Ex. 2.14; Zeph. 3.3 (where a couplet showing several likenesses to Amos appears) ; Prov. 8.16; Hos. 7.7, 13.10. In place of miq-qirhdh it is suggested to read miq-qirho with the masculine suffix (cf. Is. 25.11) ; the feminine pronoun has been taken to refer to the land, although Wellhausen would change it to the masculine and refer it to "judge," to which also the word 'immo refers.
The second stichos of the couplet is genuinely Amosian in character. The form 'ehrogh occurs in Amos 9.1 (cf. 4.10, 9.4), these being the only two biblical passages where it occurs. The word sdrehd follows perhaps the repeated mention of "the princes of Moab" (Num. 21.28, 22.8, etc.). Isaiah 24.12 ex- presses with reference to Edom a thought almost identical with the one mentioned here of Moab : ' ' and all her princes shall be nothingness"; perhaps some relation between the two stichoi exists. The form immo occurs in Jer. 39.12, the only other instance of its use in prophetical literature. With reference to the doom of Moab, Jer. 48.7 has a couplet almost identical with Amos 1.15 on the Ammonites; Jeremiah may have been influ- enced by this couplet not only in his own prophecy on the Ammonites, but also in his oracle on Moab ; or the couplet in
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Jeremiah may have prompted a later scribe to insert a couplet in Amos suggesting it; it seems entirely in keeping with the evidence, however, to affirm the validity of the entire fourth section of the Amos oracle, and hence, for the most part, of the entire stanza, for it contains words and phrases used by him alone; its parallelism is goo'd; its strophic structure, after slight emendations, conforms in detail to the type stanza.
Stanza 7. — Judah
The stanza on Judah must be considered as late, for several reasons which Harper (p. 44) states: (a) the fact that the intro- duction of the oracle removes entirely the force of surprise which the Israelites were to feel when an attack was launched against them; (b) it is impossible to suppose that Amos would have treated Judah so cursorily; (c) the weakness of the style; (d) the term "Israel" in 2.10 includes Judah; ("e) the sin described, transgressions against the statutes of Yahwe, was too indefinite to call for a special oracle ; the offense is out of harmony with Ihe formula "for their transgressions," etc., since it cannot be men- tioned as one of three or four.
An argument of still greater force than these which Harper mentions, is the strophic structure of the stanza. It is identical with the stanza on Edom, i.e., 1 -|- 2 -|- 4 -|- 2. It is also similar to stanza 3 on Tyre, though the second section here contains not two but four stichoi. The doubt thrown on these two stanzas attaches also to the oracle on Judah. The second section contains four lines, the first two of which form an apparently good parallelistic couplet while the second contains a relative clause (see above), the sense and grammar of the passage being doubtful. If the stanza is genuine, then it is necessary to omit two lines in order to make it agree with the model stanza, and to restore an entire fourth section of four lines, or to affirm that for some unaccountable reason the latter has disappeared; if on the other hand, the stanza is not genuine, as seems to be the case, then it is merely necessary to discuss its various phenom- ena, and to devote little attention to a reconstruction. It may be that stanza 4 and stanza 7 are by the same author.
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 249
The event referred to in the second section is doubtful. The sin of Judah is apostasy, as the first couplet portrays; the sec- ond couplet may refer either to the activity of the false prophets, or to idolatry and apostasy also. Though there were several kings before Amos who had been guilty of apostasy, during the time of the Prophet the kings Amaziah and Uzziah were on the whole righteous rulers, following in the path of Yahwism; it does not appear to have been such a period of national apostasy as would occasion a denunciation by Amos, though it may be admitted that at no time was the religious life of the nation so pure that an attack by a prophet was impossible. But since no occasion of real note offers itself during the time of Amos, it is necessary to look elsewhere for material underhang the oracle. The reign of Ahaz, immediately following the death of Amos, may have furnished the occasion for the first couplet, and the reign of Manasseh for the second.
The first couplet of the second section appears to refer to the reign of Ahaz and Hoshea (c. 721 b.c). In II K. 18.7ff. appears a long statement of the sins of the king of Israel which finally brought on the destruction of the Northern Kingdom. The reference to Judah occurs only in verses 19-22, but the language and the thought, though applying specifically to Israel, may have referred also to Judah. Linguistic similarities in this passage to Amos are numerous, especially in verses 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18. The use of the sentence, "and they walked after vanity and did vainly" (verse 15), which appears also in Jer. 2.5, suggests a late origin for the passage. The linguistic identities point to the possibility that the redactor wrote the second section of the oracle in Amos with a view to linking the prophecy with the events of the two great periods of national backsliding, namely, during the days of Ahaz, and of Manasseh (686-641 B.c). It has been urged, too, that the language of the Amos passage is Deuteronomic in character. During Josiah's reign (II Chron., chap. 34) the phrases present in Amos were frequently employed and may then have received currency ; and this may lead to the impression that the passage on Judah was remodelled after the reign of Josiah (639-608 B.C.). In
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view of this fact, it may be said that the redactor of the Judah prophecy may not have intended any specific era in Judah's history, but merely compiled a list of sins from the Deuteronomic code, sujffieient to give the prophecy a semblance of originality and authority. To find affinity between the lan- guage of the passages referring to the reign of Ahaz and Manasseh and the Amos phrases, then, would be far-fetched and dangerous (cf. Is. 5.24, where almost the exact phraseology of Amos occurs ; this might point to the origin of the Amos couplet around the time of Ahaz), The following conclusions on the first couplet may, however, be offered: (a) either it refers to the period of apostasy during the reign of Ahaz; this would bring this redaction into harmony with the redaction of the other doubtful stanzas; or (b) the prophecy was edited after the reign of Josiah, and is of a general Deuteronomic character.
The second couplet is indubitably late. Harper regards it as a gloss. The Septuagint's rendition gives this type of appositional parallelism :
And their lies led them astray which they did, After which their fathers walked.
The event referred to in the passage is doubtful. In II K. 21.1-9 and II Chron. 33.8 ff. there are accounts of the apostasy of Manasseh of Judah, which show striking linguistic identities with the Amos couplet. In verse 9 of each passage occurs the phrase " and-led-astray Manasseh," way-yath' em M^nashshe and way-yetha' M^nashshe 'eth-Y^hadhd; in II K. 21.10ff. is a record of the activities of the prophets during the period of Manasseh ; they did not ' ' go astray, ' ' but acted as the mouthpiece of Yah we (cf. Is. 34.11 and 28.17).
A closer examination of the language used offers further evidence for the probable date of the passage. The w^ord td'd, ''to err," appears in Hos. 4.12 with reference to idolatry; Isaiah uses it, but merely in the sense of aimlessly wandering, or walking. It refers best to the activities of false propliets and may perhaps have been inserted in Amos by a later redactor because of his own attitude towards the professional foretellers (cf. 7.17). It is used of these false prophets in Micah 3.5;
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 251
Jeremiah, who is very bitter against them, uses it in his denun- ciation in 23.9-40; verse 13 has: "they prophesied in Baal and caused to err my people Israel" (way-yaWu); verse 32 has: "and they caused to err ray people by their falsehoods and by their lightness. ' ' This passage in the light of other similarities may be the foundation of the couplet in Amos ; Bzek., chap. 13, also furnishes data for the interpretation of the passage as applicable to the false prophets.
Upon the interpretation of the word kiz^hhehem will depend in large degree the construction of the couplet. To understand the word as "idols" is entirely unsatisfactory; in no other instance does the idea of idols "leading astray" occur; it is usually a person, not an inanimate thing, that is responsible for the error. If it is desired to make the stichos refer to idols in order to create a sort of conformity with the second sticlios, it is necessary either to insert an entire new line or to add (ier- tain words which will make the stichos specify definitely idols; for two probabilities exist : (a) either stichos 1 of this couplet must be brought into correct relationship to stichos 2 ; this would necessitate the omission of the present first stichos, or an emen- dation to include definitely the word or idea of "idols"; (b) or the first stichos must be taken to refer to false prophets, as almost all the passages demand that it should be interpreted ; this will necessitate the emendation of the second stichos to bring it into relation with the first and in order to produce a couplet in good parallelism.
Emendations on the basis of the idea of "idolatry" are numerous :
1. And the seers of lies led them astray to Baals, After which their fathers walked. way-yath'um qoscme Miazdbh lab-h^' alim '"slier halclclm '"bhothdm 'ax^fehem.
For the phrase qds<^me khdzdhh or xoze khdzdhh, "dreamers of lies," see Ezek. 13.8. Except for the ambiguity concerning the subject of the verb in the first stichos, the following suggestions might be acceptable :
2. And they led astray by their lies the people, And after other gods they walked.
252 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
The form b^-khiz^bhehem, "by their lies," is sanctioned b}- a similar usage though with different synonyms in Jer. 23.32. For the phrase "to lead astray the people," see Is. 9.14-15; Mie. 3.5 ; Ezek. 13.19 ; Jer. 23.13, 32 ; Is. 3.12. A comparison of this prophecj^ in Amos with Ezek., chap. 20, passim, and with Jer. 16.11 ff., and Jer. 9.12-16 shows the most striking similari- ties between them all, and gives further substantiation for the thought that the Amos passage is not genuine. The form of Jer. 9.12-16 is almost identical with the Amos strophic struc- ture; the identity of the language also points to an interplay of influence. Any of these passages may serve as a basis for the reconstruction of the doubtful Amos verses.
Emendations based especially upon the idea of false prophets can find their foundation in the various denunciations : Jer. 14.14ff., 29.8-10, 23.9-40 ; Ezek. 13.1ff., .14.9-11 ; Mic. 3.5ff., and elsewhere. This of course implies that the Amos passage is late ; the emendations are suggested merely to clarify the idea set down by the later redactor :
3. And the prophets by their lying led them astray. Those who walk after their own spirit. way-yatWUm h^-Tcliazz^'bliam lian-n^hhl'lm '"shcr hdl'^khu 'axar ruxam.
The idea of false prophets as those who walk after their own spirit and devices is found in Mic. 2.11, in Jer. 23.17, 18, 26, etc. ; the exact phrase here used in the second stichos is present in Ezek. 13.2. Variations on this emendation are numerous, depending on the substitution of various possible formations in the first stichos.
The following conclusions on the Judah oracle may then be made: (1) The prophecy may have been inserted in part during the reign of Ahaz or slightly after; this would link it with the redaction of the other stanzas. (2) A second and later redaction may have been made after the reign of Manasseh, with a view of reference to the apostasies of his time ; this edition may have appeared during the reign of Josiah, after the activities of Jere- miah. (3) Or the prophecy may have been inserted for the first time after the Exile in 586 B.C. to explain the cause of Judah 's overthrow; this might imply a redaction on the basis
Vol, 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 253
of the preceding prophets and particularly of Ezekiel. (4) Or it may be that though the oracle was composed in some form at an earlier time, it obtained admission into the text after the Exile ; it seems almost certain that an edition was made in post- exilic times.
Stanza 8. — Israel
The stanza on Israel, apparently the climax to which Amos has been leading, begins in conformance with the other stanzas ; the prophetic prelude and the introductory formula occur as elsewhere in the Song; the opening word of what should be the second section is ' al with an infinitive plus the plural suf&x; a couplet in good parallelism seems to indicate that the stanza will conform to the type. But then the break comes ; parallel- ism is maintained, but the prophecy continues in the strain of denunciation for several couplets; the offense of social injustice is elaborated; the punishment formula couplet is entirely miss- ing, as well as the fourth section and postlude. Thus its strophic structure is seen to depart entirely from the type stanza.
Several questions arise. Did Amos deliver the prophecies on the nations at one and the same time, beginning with the foreign nations of Syria, Philistia, the Ammonites, and Moab, and finally proclaim the sins of Israel? If so, was the stanza on Israel originally composed in agreement with the model stanza? Or did the Prophet merely use the introductory pre- lude and formula to link this prophecy on Israel with the others, and then launch into a spirited attack wherein his prophetic mood would have free play, unbound by the demands of exact regularity ?
On the other hand it may be asked: Did Amos deliver the prophecies separately, each at a different time and on a different occasion ? This would imply that at some future date he edited the entire series, having used the stanza structure in each, but remodelling them in the form of one continuous piece. Or did Amos deliver merely the prophecies on the surrounding nations at one time, while the oracle on Israel came at a later date? This supposition seems plausible. The stanzas. on the neighbor-
254 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
ing peoples may constitute one poetic unit, while the oracle on Israel is either in itself intact, or the compilation of several pronouncements. Amos himself in his own edition may have inserted the introductory phrase and formula in order to add psychological weight to the denunciation, and to make it appear one of a series of which it is the climax. Or, as seems more credible, a later editor, reviewing the entire text, and making the additions on Tyre, Edom and Judah, may have sought to join Israel to the Doom Song, and hence placed at the head of a group of prophetic utterances the identifying prelude and formula. This tendency to include all the nations in the list of doomed peoples may have been stimulated and encouraged by the practice of the later Prophets, who denounced the surround- ing nations and at the same time their own; a later redactor seeing the texts of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah in the form of one continuous work, may have turned back to Amos and noting the presence of a list of doom songs, brought them by modifications and additions into line with the plan of these later prophets. This would further support the hypothesis that the most important redaction of the Amos text, or at least, of a part of it, occurred after the edition of the works of Ezekiel, or prob- ably even later.
Hence the apparent discrepancy of the oracle on Israel need not disturb the belief in a type stanza. For the utterance falls entirely outside the discussion concerning a model formation because of its own intrinsic peculiariaties. The existence of a type stanza still remains a strong hypothesis.
DATE OF THE PEOPHECY
The internal evidences of the date of the Doom Song are of course not entirely trustworthy; as they stand, however, the following data have been gathered :
Stanza 1. Stichoi b, c, and possibly d of section 4 appear to be later insertions after 721 b.c.
Stanza 2. The second section of this stanza points to the fact that the text was retouched either (1) after 721 b.c. ; (2) after the appearance of the prophecies of Jeremiah (c. 600 b.c.) ;
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 255
(3) after the appearance of the prophecies of Ezekiel in post- exilic days; there is a slight possibility of another redaction around 350 b.c. The fourth section shows evidence of redaction in the light of the Ezekiel passages in post-exilic days, with a possibility of another redaction around 350 b.c.
Stanza 3. This stanza may have been introduced and re- edited (1) after 721 B.C.; (2) after 570 B.C., on the basis of material in Ezekiel. Another redaction took place perhaps around 350 b.c.
Stanza 4. This prophecy may have been introduced by Amos and reedited (1) after 721 b.c; (2) after the prophecies of Jeremiah (c. 600 b.c.) ; (3) most probably in post-exilic times after 586 B.C. There is a probability of another redaction around 350 b.c. (time of Nehemiah).
Stanza 5. The stanza may have been retouched (1) after 721 B.C. (second section) ; (2) after the prophecies of Jeremiah (c. 600 2.3.). Another redaction is probable after the Exile.
Stanza 6. This prophecy is genuine and may have been retouched after 600 b.c.
Stanza 7. This oracle may have been inserted into Amos and reedited (1) after 721 B.C.; (2) after the time of Manasseh and the prophecies of Jeremiah (c. 600 B.C.) ; (3) after the writ- ings of Ezekiel, in post-exilic days (i.e., after 570 B.C.).
A summary of this evidence gained in each instance from independent investigation of each unit is as follows :
1. Parts of stanzas 1, 2, 5, 6 are genuine; these include the formulas and other material mentioned above. This was in all probability the work of Amos, perhaps around 755 B.C.
2. The first redaction of the prophecy was made after the fall of Samaria, around the period between 721 and 700 B.C. ; revisions and insertions were made.
3. Another redaction took place, perhaps during the days of Manasseh, or later after the prophecies of Jeremiah (c. 600 B.C.).
4. Another redaction appears to have been made after the Destruction, under the influence of Ezekiel's works (c. 570 B.C.).
5. There is a slight probability of another minor revision around 350 b.c.
256 University of California PuMications, [Sem. Phil,
It is thus evident that many hands went into the formation of the text which has come down to the present day. Houtsma is surely mistaken in ascribing the entire prophecy to post- exilic times; the degree to which his surmise seems to be correct can be seen from the tables here given.
CONCLUSIONS ON THE DOOM SONG
In the light of the evidence deduced from an examination of the Amos Doom Song, the following tentative conclusions may be proposed:
1. There is a type stanza consisting ofl-(-2-f-2-f24-4 + l periods. There are four main sections, the first on the general offense which remains constant ; the second on the specific offense which varies with each nation; the third on the general punish- ment which remains constant ; the fourth, consisting of two couplets, on the specific punishment which varies with each nation. There are a short prophetic prelude and postlude which remain constant.
2. Four stanzas of the Song conform to this type, namely: stanza 1 on Syria; stanza 2 on Philistia; stanza 5 on the Am- monites; stanza 6 on Moab, The variations within these four type stanzas are of a minor character and are due either to cor- ruptions of the text through the passage of time and frequent redactions or to the insertion and addition of stichoi and phrases by later editors M'ho sought to bring the text of the prophecies up to date ; there are several slight variations of phrase due to the interplay and infiuence of other texts in the prophetical and historical books; there are minor variations due either to the whim or carelessness of the original or later author and redactor,
3. Three stanzas do not conform to the type, namely: stanza 3 on Tyre; stanza 4 on Edom; stanza 7 on Judah, These are the major variations of the Song and may be explained as later insertions and additions, either to bring the prophecy of Amos up to date^ to complete the series of oracles in the light of the works of the later Prophets, or to give vent to the hostility against nations which during the time of the redaction or slightly
"Vol. 1.] Newman. ^Parallelism in Amos. 257
before had mistreated Israel and Judah. Since these portions are not original with Amos, they do not affect the conclusion that the genuine oracles of Amos were in the form of the model stanza.
4. The couplet structure prevails throughout the entire re- constructed poem in complete regularity. It has been found that where the couplet formation is broken, vagueness of idea, corruption of text, and general confusion are present. The reformation of the stichoi on the basis of parallelism elim- inates the difficulties ; though the couplet formation is demanded, synonymity of exact order between the stichoi has not always been possible ; however, an arrangement merely on the basis of rhythmical symmetry or of a distant synthetic character has been avoided. The reconstructed couplets show regular and fairly close parallelism of terms, as well as of ideas.
It may now be asked in the light of the results attained from a discussion of the Grief Song, the two pairs of Visions, and the Doom Song : If a regular type stanza, comparable in many re- spects to the normality of stanza present in modern poems, is present, to what degree is the same motif used in the other prophetical books? The methods applied to Amos fit also the study of the portions of seemingly strophic regularity in Isaiah 5.26-29, 9.7-10.4 (see Gray, ICC, p. 177ff.) ; Ezekiel 25.1-17 and parts of Jeremiah. There it will be found that the same phenomena are to large extent present, though the poem in Amos, chaps. 1-2, is unique for its persistent interparallelism.
258 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
■ Classification and Tables
Two major problems will find attempted answers in the fol- lowing tables based on an investigation of the book of Amos. These are: (1) the boundaries of prose and poetry and their interplay; (2) the character, value and place of monostichs in prophetic literature. The classifications here given are by no means entirely accurate, for several instances seem to demand listing under more than one category; it has been necessary, however, to select the dominant trait of the stichoi and to classify these accordingly.
The unit for these tables has been the "period," which sig- nifies a clearly marked division in the thought, regardless of rhythmical, metrical or any similar considerations. Although the period thus is the basis of this classification, yet in the second part of the table, the grouping of the stichoi into couplets has been kept in mind. Excluding the introductory and clos- ing prophetic phrases, such as "thus saith the Lord," "it is the oracle of Yahwe, " etc., which appear to stand outside the major portion of the text,^^^ the following is the number of periods in each chapter:
Chapter 1 „ 47
Chapter 2 49
Chapter 3 43
Chapter 4 41
■ . Chapter 5 71
Chapter ,6 37
Chapter 7 48
Chapter 8 42
Chapter 9 58
Total 436
232 The prelude and postlude prophetic phrases : ' ' Thus saith the Lord, ' ' "and Yahwe spoke," and numerous others occur in the form of single lines mainly, and occasionally in the form of a distich. There are about fifty- five periods of prelude phrases, and twenty-four periods of postlude. Of the former about eighteen are in the form of distichs between which no synonymity of course is present, but which may be guided by some rhyth- mical principle. This is very doubtful, however, and it is best to conclude of both single stichoi and distichs that they have little or no value in the schematic arrangement of the text; they are neutral in point of content and tone-accent.
Vol. 1.]
Newman. — Parallelism in Amos.
259
The terms which are employed in the tables need explana- tion. ''Genuine" parallelism includes those stichoi in parallel couplets which are parallel as they stand, though sometimes a slight textual change is necessary. Usually the style of these stichoi is synonymous or antithetic parallelism; the number of terms is dominantly three, though in the examples of alternate parallelism (in the table each stichos of alternate parallelism counts as two periods), more than three terms are present. The term "synthetic" parallelism is used to designate the parallel stichoi which are not in close synonymous parallelism, but which are rhythmically symmetrical and in a complementary or appo- sitional relationship. Such synthetic couplets are called here "clear" when close thought approximation is present and the text is unmarred though correspondence of terms may be lack- ing; "doubtful" designates those stichoi wherein parallelism seems to be concealed while merely rhythmical equality appears and the existing text is obscure in sense and grammar. Under
Table 1. — Parallelistic Poetry
Chapter 1 36
Chapter 2 34
Chapter 3 29
Chapter 4 16
Chapter 5 42
Chapter 6 24
Chapter 7 20
Chapter 8 24
Chapter 9. 30
Clear
SYNTHETIC
Doubtful 4 2 4 6 4 2 4 10 6
'Asher
L''-ma'an 2 2
Ha-'6m''rim
255 14 42 2 6 4
Grand total 323
Normal parallelism (genuine and clear syn- thetic 269
Irregular parallelism 54
Table 2. — Sheer Prose
Superscription 1.1
Narrative 6.9-10
260 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
the heading "synthetic" are included also the "in order that," the "that-say" and the relative clauses discussed above. It must be noted, then, that the term "synthetic" includes stichoi vs^hich only by the slightest degree may be included under parallelism; which, in fact, were they not surrounded by par- allelistic couplets, would not be considered parallel any more than similar distichs are in modern poetry. Though these couplets are clearly poetry by reason of their elevation of lan- guage, their imagery and when measured by other canons, yet they stand in the twilight zone between parallelistic and non- parallelistic poetry, and incline more to the latter than to the former division.
Table 3. — Twilight Zone Between Prose and Poetry
This table includes those stichoi which are in the middle ground between prose and poetry. The category "mixture" designates the verse wherein prose and parallelistic formations are combined ; there are two cases where ka- 'fisher is used, and the style becomes doubtful; there are several "traditional" expressions which may have been conventional with the prophetic schools ; finally there is the Hebrew prototype for the saf of the Arabic ; here there are two classes, the first, which is non-synony- mous, and the second, which is startlingly synonymous; rhyme, of course, is missing. All these lines are extra long and have not the terseness and three-term structure of the usual poetic parallelism.
&a,i'
Non- Traditional Ka-'"sher Mixture synonymous Synonymous
Chapter 2 2 2
Chapter 6 6
Chapter 4
Chapter 5 2
Chapter 7
Chapter 9 4 3
14 5 4 2 10
^"oL. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 261
Table 4. — Monostichs
Another table is necessary in a consideration of the twilight zone between prose and poetry in order to show the character and value of the various isolated stichoi which are present in Amos. A group comes more properly within the domain of poetry proper, i.e., the stichoi which appear to be ''survivals" of original couplets; the stichoi which are remnants of couplets but which are now in "triplets" differ slightly from the former category in that the cases there included will be found to be separate sections of the Doom Song. Single stichoi make up "refrains" in poems where interparallelism is present, and cer- tain "introductory" stichoi in interparallelistic stanzas likewise are minus complementary stichoi. Near-prose material includes the "prophetic," and the "traditional" and "narrative" stichoi.
Survivals Triplets Refrains Introductory
Chapter 1 4
Chapter 2 1 1
Chapter 3 2
Chapter 4 .... 5 3
Chapter 5 6
Chapter 6 2
Chapter 7 2 8
Chapter 8 3
Chapter 9 4
5 20 13 3
NEAR-PROSE
Prophetic Traditional Narrative
Chapter 1
Chapter 2 1 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4 2 .... 1
Chapter 5 5 11
Chapter 6 1 .... 2
Chapter 7 .... 12
Chapter 8 3 .... 2
Chapter 9 2 .... 1
14 3 19
262 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions with respect to the two problems referred to above can thus be drawn:
Sheer prose in Amos is very rare, the only two pieces which maintain it over any stretch being the superscription and a doubtful narrative portion.
Genuine parallelistic stichoi predominate, being found to the extent of nearly five-sixths of the instances. Between these two poles there are many grades of poetry verging into prose by ascending degrees. The so-called synthetic couplets con- tain clear stichoi in a rhythmical, symmetrical, but non-corre- spondent relationship. Doubtful synthetic couplets embrace those in a rhythmical arrangement wherein the text is doubtful, and at times the degree of unity of thought between the two stichoi is weak. Several special forms, relative, conjunctival, and quotational, fall within this category ; they are undoubtedly poetical but have lost their parallelism.
The twilight zone between prose and poetry contains various shades of parallelism and non-parallelism. Traditional conven- tional phrases are grouped in rhythmical couplets wherein synonymity is lacking; simile couplets are employed, headed in one stichos by the conjunction "just as," wherein a prosaic style is noticeable; a mixture of prose and parallelistic poetry is found in rare instances. Finally close to prose, is a saf form
which pitViPr f\ooMra witTinnt, synnTiy|^^itv but with a Certain
rhytEfflrgal balance: or, as in the Arabic, is mat-ked by synonym-
ity and fairly close correspondence of terms. All these lines are long; some are a form and an outgrowth of alternate par- allelism. These are fruitful examples for an investigation into the rhythmical principles back of Hebrew poetry and prose. It would seem also from the synonymous and correspondent charactermf the saj^ iIIustrationi~iIi4t parallelism marks not merely the terse bona fide poetry, but also the near-pj^ose of HBb¥e35Lu_„In_addition it may be that herein is to be found the thir3~t^e of Hebrew prosody which Gray seeks, but does not find, in his analysis (see Forms, p. 46 ; also above, p. 109).
Vol. 1.] Newman. — Parallelism in Amos. 263
On the problem of the relation of couplets to triplets and monostiehs, the following conclusions seem justifiable :
The couplet is the dominant structure of Hebrew poetry. Amos has at least 127 couplets of genuine parallelism, seven of clear synthetic, twenty-one doubtful, and six irregular; there are, however, only about twenty possible triplets, nearly every one of which is marred and caused by a dubious text. If the triplet is admissible, then its frequency and originality must be hesitatingly accepted; careful investigation is necessary for each case.
The disposition of isolated monostiehs supports this conclu- sion. Twenty-five stichoi in Amos appear to be either survivals of corrupted couplets, or interpolations attached to good coup- lets. In the field of poetry, introductory^ stichojja^ftd stanzas of a strophi^jgoSfii and lack a complementary stichos. because, perhapsT^of their interparallelism with the corresponding stichoi of the other stanzas. The same is true of refrains which though a single line are interparallelistic with reference to the same stichos in the other stanzas. These fall therefore in a sense within the realm of parallelistic poetry.
A group of single stichoi, however, seems to fall outside of the poetry proper; these are the narrative stichoi which some- times are interparallelistic with corresponding stichoi of other stanzas, but usually are purely prosaic or near-prosaic in char- acter; sometimes it is possible to combine two such stichoi into a rhythmical distich, though this is unusual. Several traditional stichoi accompany the traditional distichs referred to above; these are not entirely prosaic, but lie within the intermediate territory between prose and poetry. The same applies to a series of prophetic ejaculations and phrases which occur at intervals, irregular and unconstant, throughout the text.
The reasons for the departure from regular couplet struc- ture are difficult to understand. That the Prophet was not content merely to maintain strict poetic symmetry throughout his work is evident, if the present text is to be trusted. It has been frequently observed in the discussion that a break in the parallelism is usually accompanied by a break in the text and
264 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
vice versa. Yet this does not account for the several cases where the Prophet deliberately departs from the balanced couplet formations. Traditional prophetic formulas, historical conventional references, ejaculations and other devices sometimes account for a breakdown of the parallelism, though all the cases cannot thus be explained. The method and the psychology of prophetical utterance is as yet little understood. Perhaps if the original text were in existence, exact parallelism would be discovered ; it is safer, however, to assume on the basis of the data available that the Prophet folloAved generally the poetical canons of parallelism, but that he permitted himself sometimes under the influence of other poetical or rhetorical laws, but sometimes apparently unbound and unguided except by his inner impulses, to roam into the realm of near-prose, of prose, and of unparallelistic poetry and parallelistic prose. It is imperative that we should examine prophetical literature on the basis of the hypothesis that behind every divergence from regularity of style a rhetorical law has operated; thus it will be possible to combine and classify the data; in the end, how- ever, a residue of examples will probably remain which cannot be fully understood; therein in Hebrew, as in all other lit- eratures, the mystery will rest; for one of the secrets of the strength of Hebrew prophecy may be in the fact that not all its phenomena can be pigeonholed.
INDEX OF VEESES IN AMOS
Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 5 Chapter 8
VERSE PAGE VERSE PAGE (Continued) verse page
1 137 1 187 verse page 1-3 ...195-198
2a 145 2 187 b 176,186 4 145
b 169 3 159,178 15a 156 5a 162
3-15 202ff. 4-6 159 b 186 b 156
3a 144 7 159,187 16 152,179 6a 146
b 178,209 8 159 17a 179 b 181
4 151 9a 145 b 186 7 188
5a 178,211 b 184 18a 169,171 8a 168
b 146,211 10 170,171 b 180 b 149
c 211 11a 179 19 163,176 9 148,189
6a 144 b 143,179 20 143 10a 142
b 178,217 12 164,171,176 21 143,156 b 142
7 151 13* : 188 22 180 c 148
8a 146,222 14a 187 23 139 11a 189
b 148,222 b 144 24 146 b 138
9a 144 15a 179 25 186 12a 142
b 170 b 147,179 26 175,184,186 b 169
10 151 27 181 13 153
11a 144 Chapter 4 14a 171, 182
b 170,231 1 171 Chapter 6 b 139,154
c 140,232 2a* 188 la 145,171,182
12 148 b 145 b 182
13a 144 3 170 2a 182
b 173,234 4a 145 b 149
14a 151,239 b 146 3 171 Chapter 9
b 139,240 5a 155 4a 142 la* i88
15 241 b 186 b 145 b 170
6-11 ..189-193 5 152,171 c 181
6b 139 6a 140,171 ^ 139
Chapter 2 7c 175 b 180 2-4 160
1-8 201ff. 9b 141 7 168 4a 187
la 144 11a 177 8a 143 b 169
b 178, 243 12 178, 188 b 180 ' 5a 168
2a 148 13 167 9-10 137 b 148
b 155,246 11 151 6a 140
3 139.247 Chapter 5 12a 143 b . 168
4a 144 1 188 b 147 7 " 134
b 143 2 166 13 172 ga 187
c 175, 250 3 166 b -186
5 148 4a 178 Chapter 7 9 175
6a 144 5a 138 1-6 ....193-195 10 172
b 146 b 181 4a 142 11 138
7a 170,171 c 141 7-9 ....195-198 12 174
b 173 6a 178 9a 140 13a 153
8 162 b 155,170 b 181 b 143
9a* 186 7 146,171 10-17 137, 14a 188
b 147 8a 171,179 198-200 b 162
c 142 b 140 10b 165 15 175
10 186 c 168 11 148,181
11a 142 9 139,171 12b 144
b 186 10 146 13b 139
12 172 11a 167 14a 138
13 176 b 161 b 157
14-16 149 12a 142 17a 153
13* 186 b 157
14a 173 c 181
* Verses marked with an asterisk belong by classification on the pages
cited, though not specifically mentioned there.
[265]
PART II.
PARALLELISM IN ISAIAH, Chapters l-lO
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS SEMITIC PHILOLOGY
Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 267-444 August 6, 1918
PARALLELISM IN ISAIAH, CHAPS. 1-10
BY
WILLIAM POPPEE
CHAPTER AND
VERSE INDEX OF TEANSLATIONS page
1.2-21 Israel Rebellious 268
1.21-26 The City of Faithfulness 270
1.27-31 The Groves of Idolatry 271
2.2-6a The Arbiter of the Nations 271
2.6b-21 The Lord Alone Exalted 272
3.1-15 The Rulers of Israel 274
3.16-4.1 The Vanity of the Daughters of Zion 275
4.2-6 The Cleansing Storm 276
5.1-7 The Vineyard _ 277
5.8-10 Wo to the Godless! 278
5.11, 12a, 14 278
5.18, 19 278
5.21, 12ed, 13 279
5.20ab, 23, 24a-d 279
5.24e-25 Still is His Hand Outstretched 286
5.28-30 The Coming of the Assyrian 288
6.1-13 The Call of Isaiah 279
7.1-9 The Plot of Israel and Aram 281
7.10-16 Immanuel - 282
7.17-19 The Egyptian Fly and the Assyrian Bee 285
7.20 The Assyrian Sword 285
7.21, 22 The Land of Milk and Curds 285
7.23, 24 The Land of Thistles and Thorns 285
8.1-4 The Law and the Testimony 282
8.5-8 The Assyrian Flood 283
8.9-10 Immanuel 282
8.11-20 The Law and the Testimony 282
8.21-22 _ The Assyrian Flood 283
8.23 _ 410
9.1-6 The Birth of the Prince 292
9.7-20* Still is His Hand Outstretched 286
10.1-4 Still is His Hand Outstretched 287
10.5-15 The Assyrian Rod 290
10.16-19t Destruction is Decreed 284
10.20, 21 The Assyrian Rod 290
10.22, 23 Destruction is Decreed 284
10.24-27 The Assyrian Rod 291
10.28-32 The Coming of the Assyrian 289
10.33-34 Destruction 284
* The verses are translated in the following order: 12, 15, 16cd, 13, 16ab, 16ef, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 18ab, 17, 18c, 19c, 19ab, 20.
t The verses are translated in the following order: 16, 18bc, 17, 18a, 19.
268 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil,
TRANSLATION OF THE RECONSTRUCTED TEXT ISEAEL EEBELLIOUS
Hear, Oh ye Heavens, Chapter 1
Give ear, Oh thou earth,
For it is the Lord that speaks: (2abc)
Sons have I reared,
Daughters have I brought up —
But against me they rebel. (2de)
An ox knoweth its owner, An ass its master's crib —
Israel doth not know,
My people doth not take heed. (3abcd)
Ah ! nation of sin !
Race laden with wrong!
Seed that breedeth evil!
Children bent on crime ! (4abcd)
They have forsaken the Lord,
They have contemned the Holy of Israel,
They are estranged from Him,
They have turned back. (4abxe)
Why would ye be smitten more,
And to your anguish add ? (5a)
All the flesh is sore. All the heart is faint. From head to sole of foot no spot is sound — (5bc, 6a)
Bruise, And stripe. And bleeding wound, (6b)
Unclosed, Unbound, Unsoftened with ointment: (6c)
Your country lies waste, Your cities are burnt with fire. Your land is eaten by strangers before your eyes; (7abci)
And Zion's daughter is left like a booth in a vineyard. Like a hut in a cucumber-field. Like the tower of a watchman. (8abc2)
1 For verse 7d see p. 298. 2 For verse 9 see 299.
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10.
269
Chapter 1
II
Hear ye the word of the Lord, ye Princes — of Sodom ! Give ear to the law of our God, ye people — of Gomorrah!
(lOab) What is it to me that ye come to see my face ? "Who asked this of you, that ye tread my courts ?
(11a, 12a, 12b) I delight not in your many sacrifices, I am sated with your offerings of rams. With the fat of fatlings. With the blood of bulls, With lambs and with goats; (llbc)
Bring no more oblations, Incense to me is abomination;
(13ab)
I cannot suffer Sabbath and New Moon, The calling of convocation and assembly; Your festivals and sacred seasons my soul doth loathe,
They are to me a burden,
I am weary of bearing them; (13c-14)
Yea, when ye spread your palms,
I will hide mine eyes from you And though ye multiply prayer,
I will not hear —
Your hands are full of blood ! Your lips are defiled with lies !
Wash you ! Cleanse you !
Cease to do wrong ! Learn to do right !
Seek after justice ! Put away violence !
Champion the orphan ! Plead for the widow !
(15ab) (15cx) (16ab3) (16d, 17a) (17bc) (17de)
Come now, let us reason together, saith the Lord; If your sins are now like scarlet.
Like snow shall they be white. If they are red as crimson.
They shall be like wool : If ye are willing and will hearken.
3 For verse 16c see p. 304.
270
University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
The earth 's good shall ye eat ; If ye refuse and are rebellious,
Of the sword shall ye be eaten : For the mouth of the Lord hath spoken.
Chapter 1
(18-20)
THE CITY OF FAITHFULNESS
How hath become like a harlot the City of Faithfulness, She full of justice, In whom lodged righteousness! (2labc)
Thy silver is turned to dross,
Thy wine with water is mixed: (22ab)
Thy rulers are ruleless,
A band of robbers,
A murderers' crew: (23ab, 2ld)
Each one loveth bribes.
And seeketh after boons : (23cd)
The orphan they right not, And widow's cause comes not> before them. (23ef)
Therefore saith the Lord,
The Lord of Hosts,
The Mighty of Israel : ('24a)
Ah ! I shall avenge me of mine enemies.
And take vengeance of mine adversaries; (24be)
And I shall turn my hand upon thee,
In the furnace smelt the dross of thee,
And take away all the alloy of thee ; (25)
And I shall establish thy judges as of old.
And thy counsellors as of ancient time : (26ab)
Then shalt thou once more be called Fortress of Righteousness, City of Faithfulness. (26cd)
Vol, 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 271
Chapter 1
THE GEOVES OF IDOLATRY
Through justice shall Zion be saved,
Through righteousness, her people ; (27ab)
And sinners shall cease. And transgressors abstain. And deserters of the Lord be no more. (28ab)
For ashamed shall ye be of the oaks ye have loved.
Ye shall blush for the gardens ye chose, (29ab)
When they shall be like oaks with withering leaves, Like gardens whose waters have failed, (30ab)
And the sturdy oak shall be turned into flax,
And its branches into flames,
At once together shall they burn,
And none shall quench. (3lab)
Chapter 2 THE ARBITER OF THE NATIONS
And it shall he at the end of time that The mount of the Lord shall be fixed as the first of the mountains. And be exalted above the hills; (2ab)
Thereto all the nations shall stream,
And many peoples shall flow, saying: (2ab)
' ' Come let us climb to the mount of the Lord, To the house of Jacob's God, (3bc)
"That he may teach us of his ways. That we may follow in his paths; (3de)
"For from Zion instruction goeth forth, From Jerusalem the word of the Lord; i^^S)
"Between the nations shall he judge, Among many peoples arbitrate; (4ab>
"And they shall beat their swords to plough-shares. And their spears to pruning-hooks ; (4cd)
"Nation shall not raise the sword to nation, Neither shall they learn again to war" — (4ef)
Come, then, 0 house of Jacob, let us walk in the light of the Lord, For thou, 0 house of Jacob, hast forsaken thy God. (5, 6a)
272 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapter 2 THE LOED ALONE IS EXALTED
I
Crawl 'mid the cliffs ! Burrow in the dust !
From before the fear of the Lord,
And the awe of his majesty.
As He rises the earth to affright. (lOabcdx)
Let mortals crouch, Let man bend low — Be the Lord alone exalted, on that day. (9abx)
For man has filled the land with the luxury of Philistia, He is glutted with the ornaments of strangers ; (6bc)
And his land is filled with silver and gold.
To the count of his treasures there is no end; (7ab)
And his land is filled with horses,
To the count of his chariots there is no end; (7cd)
And his land is filled with images.
To the count of his idols there is no end; (8ax)
He worships his own handiwork,
The work that his fingers have wrought. (8bc)
II
Hide in the caves of the cliffs And in the caverns of the ground!
From before the fear of the Lord,
And the awe of his majesty.
As he rises the earth to affright. (19abcde)
And man's pride shall be humbled. And mortal haughtiness brought low, And the Lord alone exalted, on that day. (H)
For the Lord of Hosts hath a day for all exalted and high, And all that is lofty and proud; (I2ab)
And all Lebanon's cedars,
And all Bashan's oaks; (13ab)
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 273
Chapter 2
And all the mountains high,
And all the lofty hills ; (I4ab)
And all the towers tall,
And all the towering walls ;_ (15ab)
And all the Tarshish ships,
And all the majestic barks. (16ax)
III
Crawl in the rifts of the rocks. And in the clefts of the cliffs.
From before the fear of the Lord,
And the awe of his majesty.
As he rises the earth to affright. (21)
And man's pride shall be humbled, And mortals' haughtiness brought low, And the Lord alone exalted, on that day. (I7abc)
And ON THAT DAY shall man fling forth his idols of silver
(20ab)
(20c)
(16b, 18?)
(20de4)
And his idols of gold,
The work of his hands, What he wrought to adore.
The talismans treasured, The amulets dear.
The scarabs of beetles, The carvings of bats.
4 For verse 22 _ see p. 328.
274 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapte?w 3 THE EULERS OF ISRAEL
For lo ! the Lord, the Lord of Hosts, will remove [from Jerusalem the staff And from Judah, ^the stave, (l)
Strong man and warrior,
Prophet and judge.
Counselor and elder,
Notable and prince.
Necromancer and diviner,
Man wise in magic and expert in charms; (2, 3)
And youths will he set as their rulers,
By childishness shall they be swayed; (*)
And the people shall press man upon man,
And each upon his neighbor. And they shall rush, the young upon the old.
The humble upon the honored ; Yea, they shall seize each man his brother,
Even the son his sire : (5-6a)
"Come be thou ruler over us — This ruin be under thy hand. " (6bc)
And on that day he shall answer, saying:
' ' I cannot be restorer :
In m}^ house no bread. Nor any clothes — Make me not the nation's ruler." (7)
Yea, Jerusalem is ruined,
And Judah is fallen: ^ (8ab)
For their tongues have been perverse toward the Lord, And their eyes against his glory have rebelled; The insolence of their faces is witness against them, Their sin like Sodom have they told. Like Gomorrah, they have not hid — (8e-9b)
Wo to their souls ! for to themselves haye they dealt ill, And the fruit of their deeds they shall eat. (9c, lObs)
My people — its leaders are childish. And women over them rule —
5 For verses 10a, 11, see p. 337.
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Chapter 3
My people! thy guides are misguiding,
The course of thy paths they confound. (12)
For trial the Lord doth stand,
He rises to' judge his people: __ The Lord enters into judgment.
With his people's elders and princes: (I3a-l4b)
"And ye — ye have stripped the vineyard. In your homes is the plunder of grapes — What mean ye by crushing my people, By grinding the face of the poor?" (14c-15)
Oracle of my Lord, the Lord of Hosts.
THE VANITY OF THE DAUGHTEKS OF ZION
And the Lord hath said: (16a)
Because that the daughters of Zion are vain. Bending of neck, And ogling of eye, While they walk with ti-ipping gait.
And they sway upon their feet, (I6cdef)
The Lord will strip the heads of Zion's daughters. The Lord their buttocks will lay bare ; (l^)
And on that day the Lord will remove the glory of their [sunlets and their moonlets Their pendants and their chains. Their veils and their turbans. Their armlets and their bands, Their finger-rings and their nose-rings. Their amulets and their charms, Their purses and their mirrors. Their tunics and their robes, Their mantles and their cloaks. Their hoods and their veils ; (18-23)
And there shall be in place of balsam, dust,
In place of girdle, a rope.
In place of braids, baldness. In place of garments of joy, a girding of sack —
Tears, in place of beauty. (2'*)
276 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapter 3
Thy men shall fall by the sword,
And thy strength, in war — (25)
Yea, her gates shall mourn. And her doorways lament, * And desolate shall she sit on the ground. (26)
Chapter 4
A7id seven women shall seize on that d-ay one ma/n and say,
"Our bread will we eat, Our own clothes will we wear — But let us be called by thy name, Put an end to our shame. " (4.1)
THE CLEANSING STORM
And on that day The flowers of the field shall be splendid in beauty. And the trees of the land be glorious in majesty
For the saved in Israel,
For those destined to life in Judah ; (2abc, 3d)
And the remnant in Zion
And they that are left in Jerusalem
Shall ''Holy" be called,
"God's People" be named. (3abcx)
"When the Lord shall have washed away the filth of Zion, And from Jerusalem shall have rinsed away the blood.
With a storm flood of rain.
And a burning wind : (4)
The Lord will create over all of Zion's mountain And over all her sacred site,
A cloud of smoke by day,
And the light of a flaming fire by night ; (5a-d)
Yea, his glory shall cover all of her. And a canopy o'er her shall there be.
As a shadow from the heat.
And as a covert from the storm. (5e-6)
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Chapter 3 THE VINEYAED
Let me sing now of my beloved,
Of my vineyard, a song of love : (la, b)
A vineyard had I as beloved,
Fertile, on a hill. (led)
And I dug it,
And I cleared it.
In it planted choicest vines;
In its midst I built a tower.
And in it hewed a vat: (2a-e)
Then I hoped it would yield me grapes,
But it yielded— galls. (2fg)
And now, Jerusalem's dwellers.
And Judah's men, Judge, I pray, between me
And between my vineyard: (3)
What for my vineyard could I have done
That I left undone? Why did I hope it would yield me grapes
And it yielded galls? * (4)
Well, tlien, lot me answer to you —
What to my vineyard I'll do: (5ab)
Destroy its hedge
That it be ruined, Break its wall
That it be crushed ; (5cd)
And I shall make it a thicket —
It shall be unpruned. And thistles and thorns shall spring up —
It shall be unhoed ; And the clouds shall I charge,
Lest they rain there any rain. (6)
But the vineyard of the Lord
Is Israel's house And the people of Judah
Are his cherished vine, (7ab)
And he hoped for equity.
But behold, iniquity ! And for righteousness.
But behold, frightf ulness ! (7cd)
278 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phii,.
Chapter 5 WO TO THE GODLESS
I
Wo ! those who add house unto house, Who field unto field do join,
That there be no place for neighbors,
And they dwell alone in the land: (8)
Verily, their many houses shall lie ruined, Without dwellers, the goodly and great ;
For an acre of vineyard shall yield but one gallon, And a peck of grain, but a quart. (9> 1^)
II
Wo ! those who rise early, pursuing strong drink,** Who tarry in twilight, spurred on by wine;
Whose revels are noisy with viol and harp.
Who feast to the din of the timbrel and flute : C^h ISa^)
Therefore, doth Hell with greediness gape. And unending wide her mouth doth ope,
And down shall go their splendor and noise,
And there their din be swallowed up. (148)
III
Wo! those who drag sin with ropes of wrong. And guilt, with cords of evil;
Who say : ' ' Let hasten, let hurry, His work, let us see ! Bring on. Bring in, the plan of Israel's Holy, let us know!" (18,19)
Therefore,
6 Verse 22 is a variant :
Wo to the valiant — in bouts of bibbing. To the valorous — in mixing drink.
7 For 12bc, 13, see after 21.
8 For 15, 16, 17, see the notes.
Vol. 1,] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 279
Chapter 5
IV
Wo ! those in their own sight wise,
In their own eyes, understanding, (21)
While the work of the Lord they do not regard,
And the deeds of his hand they do not see; (I2cd)
Therefore, my people shall perish in want of knowledge, In lack of understanding shall they be undone: (13ax)
Her nobles shall famish with hunger.
Her throngs shall be parched with thirst. (I3bc)
V
Wo! those who call bad good and good call bad. Who turn light into darkness and darkness into light,
Who for a bribe justify sinners,
And of justice defraud the just: (20ab, 23)
Therefore, as when stubble feeds tongues of fire. As when chaff falls before flames.
Their roots shall rust into mold.
Their flowers unfold as dust. (24a-d9)
Chapter 6
THE CALL OF ISAIAH
In the year that king Uzziah died, I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted up, and his train filled the temple. Above it stood the seraphim : each one had six wings ; with twain he covered his face, and with twain he covered his feet, and with twain he did fly. And one cried unto another, and said :
''Hold, holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts; The whole earth is full of his glory." (1-4)
And the posts of the door moved at the voice of him that cried, and the house was filled with smoke. Then said I :
''Woe is me, for that I am undone;
For that I am a man of unclean lips And amid a people of unclean lips do I dwell ; For mine eyes have seen the King, the Lord of Hosts."
(4, 5)
9 For verses 24e-25, see p. 285; for verses 26-29, see p. 288.
280 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapter 6
Then flew one of the seraphim unto me, having a live coal in his hand, which he had taken with the tongs from off the altar. And he laid it upon my mouth, and said,
"Lo, this hath touched thy lips, And thine iniquity is taken away. And thy sin is purged. " (6, 7)
Then I heard the voice of the Lord, saying :
"Whom shall I send, And who will go for us ? "
Then said I : " Here am I : send me. ' ' And he said : " Go and tell this people :
'Hear ye, but understand not, See 3'e, but perceive not.
Fatten this people's heart, Deafen its ears, Blind its eyes.
Lest it see with its eyes. And hear with its ears. And understand with its heart.
And turn.
And be healed.' " (8-10)
Then said I, "How long, my Lord?" and he answered:
"Till cities be left without dwellers, And houses without man;
Till the Lord make wide the waste in the land. Make broad the desolation in the midst of the earth ;
And there be therein but a tithe. And there be still but a remnant,
Like an oak left in a clearing.
Like a terebinth standing in seed-land." (11-13)
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Chapter 7 THE PLOT OF ISEAEL AND AEAM
And it came to pass in the days of Ahaz, the son of Jotham, the son of Uzziah, king of Judah, that Rezin the king of Syria, and Pekah the son of Remaliah, king of Israel, went up to Jeru- salem to war against it, but could not prevail against it. And it was told the house of David, saying : ' ' Syria is confederate with Ephraim"; and his heart was moved, and the heart of his people, as the trees of the wood are moved with the wind. Then said the Lord unto Isaiah, "Go forth now to meet Ahaz, thou and Shear- jashub thy son, at the end of the conduit of the upper pool, in the highway of the fuller 's field ; and say unto him :
(1-3)
"Be at ease, And be at rest ;
Fear not.
Nor be thy heart weak.
Because of these stumps of fire-brands.
That smoke by the wrath of Ephraim and Aram;
(4b-f)
Because Aram has plotted against thee.
And Ephraim evil has devised, and said: (5)
'Let us go up in Judah, And let us her terrify: Let us rend her to ourselves. And let us place a king in her midst': (6)
Thus saith my Lord, the Lord: 'It shall not come. It shall not be; (7)
For the head of Aram is Damascus, And the head of Damascus is Rezin ; And the head of Ephraim is Samaria, And the head of Samaria is Ramaliah 's son :
(8abio-9ab)
If your faith be not sure.
Then shall ye not endure.' " (9ccl)
10 For 8c see p. 399.
282 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapter 7 IMMANUEL
Moreover, the Lord spoke again unto Ahaz, saying : ' ' Ask thee a sign of the Lord thy God; ask it either in the depth, or in the height above. ' ' But Ahaz said : " I will not ask, neither will I tempt the Lord. ' ' And he said : ' ' Hear ye now, 0 house of David : Is it a small thing for you to weary men, but will ye weary my God also? Therefore my Master himself shall give you a sign : Behold, the young woman is with child and will bear a son, and will call his name ' God-with-us. ' For before the child shall know to refuse the evil and choose the good, the land shall be deserted whose two kings thou abhorrest. "
(7.10-14,11 1612)
Chapter 8 God is with us !
Hear O ye peoples altogether, Hearken all ye lands afar !
Gird yourselves — for retreat ! Arm yourselves — for defeat !
Plan ye a plan — it will be thwarted! Plot ye a plot — it shall be unfulfilled ! —
For God is with us! (8.9-10)
THE LAW AND THE TESTIMONY
And the Lord said to me. Take thee a great roll, and write in it with a man's pen: ''To Speedy-Spoil-Hasten-Booty. " And I took unto me faithful witnesses to testify, Uriah the priest, and Zechariah the son of Jeberechiah. And I went into the prophetess; and she conceived and bare a son. Then the Lord said to me: Call his name "Speedy-Spoil-Hasten-Booty": for before the child shall be able to say ' ' father ' ' and ' ' mother, ' ' the
spoil of Samaria shall be taken away before the king of Assyria.
(8.1-413)
For the Lord spake thus to me, with a strong hand deterring me from walking in the way of this people, saying :
Say ye not ''Holy" of all that this people say "Holy," Fear not their fear. And dread not their dread:
The Lord of Hosts, of Him say ye ' ' Holy, ' ' He be your fear. And he be your dread —
11, 12 For 7.15 see p. 400; for 7.17 see p. 285. "For 8.5-8 see p. 283; for 8.9-10 see above.
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 283
Chapter 8 But they shall be as a stumbling-block, And as a stumbling-stone, And as a rock of offence
To the House of Israel, And as a gin, And as a snare.
To the dwellers in Jerusalem,
And through them many shall stumble, And shall fall. And shall be broken. And shall be snared. And shall be caught. (11-15)
Bind up the testimony for my followers, Seal up the law among my disciples ;
(16)
And when men say to you : " Go to the necromancers and wizards, Those that mutter and chirp — To the dead in behalf of the living — "
"Should not a people go to its god — To the testimony and the law" — is not this what ye should answer? (19-20)
Behold I and the children whom the Lord hath given me are for signs and for wonders in Israel from the Lord of Hosts, which dwelleth in Mount Zion; and I will wait upon the Lord, that hideth his face from the house of Jacob, and I will look for him. (18,17)
THE ASSYEIAN FLOOD And the Lord spoke still again to me and said : (5)
Because that this people rejected the waters of Shiloh,
That flow softly and faint, [River,
Therefore my Lord shall bring upon them the waters of The
That are mighty and great ; . (6, 7a)
And it shall overflow all its bed, And overflood all its banks.
And it shall rush upon Judah with flushing sweep, And throat-hiffh reach. And spread to his farthest ends. And fill the breadth of his land. (7bc, 8)
284 University of California Publications. [Sem.Phil,
Chapter 8
And he shall wander on,
By hunger bestead,
Wearied with anguish,
Into darkness thrust ; (21ab, 22cd)
And he shall turn on high, where there is no dawn. And he shall look to the earth, and lo ! gloom and distress ;
(21f, 20c, 22ab)
And then, in pain, shall he wax wroth, And shall curse his king and, yea — his God !
(21cd)13a
Chapter 10 DESTRUCTION IS DECREED
Therefore the Lord, the Lord of Boosts, will send into his fatness
[leanness. And in place of his glory, shame, (l^)
Body and soul, he shall pine, And as a sick man, sink away, (l8bc)
Lo ! the Lord, the Lord of Hosts, will lop the boughs with a hook. And the high of stature shall be felled, And the lofty be brought low;
And he will hack the thickets of the forest with an axe, And the mighty Lebanon shall fall. And the sturdy Bashan be cut down; (33, 34abx)
And the Light of Israel shall become a fire,
And his Holy One a flame, (l7ab)
And it shall consume the trees of his forests and fields. And devour his thistles and thorns in a single day, (I7c, 18a)
And the rest shall be but few,
And be counted by a child ; (I9i4)
For though thy people, 0 Israel, be as the sand of the sea. But a remnant thereof shall remain :
Destruction is decreed,
A scouring scourge. (22)
Yea, destruction and what has heen decreed, my Lord, the Lord of Hosts, will work in the midst of all the earth. (23)
130 For 8.23 see p. 410. i* For 10.21, 22 see p. 291.
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 285
Chaptee 7 THE EGYPTIAN FLY AND THE ASSYEIAN BEE
The Lord shall bring upon thee and upon thy people, and upon thy father's house days that have not come since the day that Ephraim separated from Judah. (7.17)
And it shall come to pass on that day: The Lord will hiss to the tiy at the end of the rivers of Egypt, And to the bee in Assyria 's land,
And they shall all come and light in the canons of the steeps And the crannies of the cliffs,
In each thorny-copse.
And in each grassy cove. (18,19)
THE ASSYEIAN SWOED
On that day My Lord will shave with a razor of hire And with a blade that is strange
The hair of the head and the feet —
Yea, the beard will it sweep off. (20i5)
THE LAND OF THISTLES AND THOENS
And it shall come to pass on that day: Each place where grow a thousand vines for ten thousand dimes^"
Shall be thick with thistles and thorns ; All the fields and the hills that are hoed with the hoe,
Shall be thick with thistles and thorns;
There the ox will tramp and the flocks will tread, There will men go with arrow and bow.
For all shall be thistles and thorns. (23-24)
15 Verse 21 :
The Land of Milk and Curds And it shall come to pass on that day: Each man shall nourish a calf of the herds, And a sheep of the flocks, And from the rich yield of milk, All left in the land shall eat curds.
1" Hebrew: 'eleph gephen be-'eleph Jceseph.
286 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapters 5, 9 STILL IS HIS HAND OUTSTRETCHED
I
For they rejected the law of the Lord of Hosts,
And the word of the Holy of Israel spurned, (5.24ef)
Therefore, the Lord's wrath against his people was hot, He stretched forth his hand against them and smote.
And the mountains flowed with the blood of the slain, And their corpses like rubbish lay in the streets —
With all this his wrath turned not.
Still was his hand outstretched. (25)
II
But the people turned not to their smiter.
The Lord of Hosts they did not seek ; (9-12)
Their leaders were ever misleading
And they that they guided, misled, (15)
For all of them were wicked, profane,
Each mouth did godlessly speak — (l6ccl)
Therefore, the Lord from Israel cut head and tail.
Branch and rush in a single day, (13)
In their youths he took no delight.
To their orphans he showed no love.
And their widows he did not spare — (16ab)
With all this his wrath turned not.
Still was his hand outstretched. (I6ef)
III
A crash sent the Lord throughout Jacob,
And ruin upon Israel; (7)
But the people, all of them, mocked,
And said in pride, with insolent hearts : (8).
"Bricks have fallen, we will build with stone. Sycamores are cut down — cedars we'll replace": (9)
» So the Lord exalted against them their foes.
Their enemies did he spur on : (10)
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Aram in front, Philistia from behind, And Israel by mouthfuls they ate —
With all this his wrath turned not, Still was his hand outstretched.
IV
Chapters 9, 10 (llabc)
(llde)
By the rage of the Lord was the world inflamed.
And the people were as the food of wrath, (l8ab)
For wickedness burnt as a fire,
That consumes the thistles and thorns, (I7ab)
While the forest thickets blaze.
And the valleys roll up in smoke; (l7cd)
(Therefore) no man pitied his brother,
Each ate the flesh of his friend, (I8c, I9e)
Cut on the right, and was hungry.
Devoured on the left, nor was full : (19ab)
Menasseh, Ephraim, Ephraim, Menasseh, Together they two against Judah — (20abe)
With all this his wrath turned not.
Still was his hand outstretched. (20de)
Wo to decreers of wicked decrees And to scribes who in evil inscribe,
To wrest from justice the poor,
To rob of judgment my people's oppressed,
To make of widows a prey. While the orphan they despoil —
And what will ye do on the day of charge, When disaster comes from afar?
Where will ye flee for aid,
To whom entrust the weight of your wealth,
Lest amid the captives ye bow, And amid the slain ye fall?
With all this his wrath turns not. Still is his hand outstretched.
(10.1-41T)
17 For 10.5-11 see p. 290; for 10.12-15 see p. 291.
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Chapter 5
THE COMING OF THE ASSYEIAN
I
And he will raise a flag to a far-off folk, And hiss them here from the end of the earth,
And see ! with haste, With speed they come:
None of them tires, None of them trips.
Nor does he slumber, Nor does he sleep;
Nor does he loose the cloth of his loins. Nor does he snap the lace of his shoe;
And his arrows are sharp, All his bows are bent.
The hoofs of his horses seem like flint, \ His chariot-wheels like the whirling wind.
He roars like a lion.
He growls like its whelp,
He seizes, he carries away his prey —
And none can save. (5,26-29i8)
18 5.30 is a variant of 8.21 :
And on that day will he growl o'er him like the growling sea, Then will he look to the earth,
But lo! distress, And for the light —
In the clouds is night.
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Chapter 10
II
(From the North) he comes, He has ascended to Ai:
He has crossed by Migron,
In Michmas his baggage he stores:
He has passed over The Pass, At Geba Lodge he has lodged.
Ha-rama is horrified, Gibeath Saul has fled:
Madmena is moved.
The people of Gebim refuge seek:
Shrill thy call, 0 Bath Gallim! Raise thy voice, 0 Beth-Azmaveth !
Listen, Layisha! Answer, Anathoth ! —
Still today on Nob he will stand And his hand will wave^
0 Mount of Zion's daughter,
0 Jerusalem 's HILL ! (l0.28-32i9)
19 For 10.33, 34 see p. 284.
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Chapter 10 THE ASSYEIAN EOD
I
Wo Assyria, rod of my wrath
And staff in the hand of mine ire, (5)
Against an impious people did I send him, Against the folk of my anger, give him command:
To bear away prey,
To seize upon spoil; (6a-d20)
But he not thus was minded. His heart not thus devised —
Destruction was in his heart.
The annihilation of nations not a few ; (7)
For he said: "Are not my captives together all kings? Is not like Carcemish Calno?
"Is not like Arpad Hamath? Is not like Damascus Samaria? (8-9)
"As my hand to these kings and their idols hath reached,
Shall it from Jerusalem and her icons fall short? (lOax)
' ' Nay, as even to Samaria and her images have I done.
So also to Jerusalem and her gods shall I do." (H)
II
But when my Lord shall have ended his work on Zion's mount, And his task on Jerusalem,
He will punish the haughty pride of the heart of Assyria's king, And the boastful arrogance of his eyes; (12)
Because he said: ' ' By the strength of mine own hand have I acted, And by mine own wisdom have I wrought; (13ab)
"The boundaries of the peoples have I moved, And I have despoiled their stores; (l3cd)
"I have brought down the glory of their habitants, To be trampled like the mire of the streets, (I3e, 6e)
20 6e after verse 13,
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Chapter 10
"My hand hath reached for the nations' strength as for a nest — As men gather eggs have I gathered the power of the earth —
"And none flapped his wing
Or parted his beak to peep" — (1*)
Shall the axe boast against him that with it hews? Shall the saw vaunt against him that it doth wield? —
As though a staff should wield him that raised it !
As though the rod should lift him — that is not wood! (152i)
III
Therefore thus saith my Lord, the Lord of Hosts:
O my people, do not fear,
0 dwellers in Zion, be not dismayed
Of Assyria who smites thee with a rod. And who raises against thee his staff;
For yet a little and my wrath shall pass,
And my anger against thee shall all be spent :
Then against him shall the Lord of Hosts rouse his staff,
As at the smiting of Midian,
At Oreb's Rock, And against him shall he raise his rod.
In the way of Egypt,
At the Sea ; (24-26)
And it shall come to pa^s on that day:
His burden shall be removed from off thy shoulder. And his yoke from off thy neck. • (2722)
Arid it shall come to pass on that day: No longer shall Israel's Remnant And the House of Jacob's Saved Lean upon their smiter ;
But they shall lean upon their Holy One, the Lord.
(20, 21)
21 For verses 16-20 see p. 284.
22 For verses 28-32 see p. 289.
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Chapter 9 THE BIETH OF THE PEINCE
The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light, Upon those who dwelt in a land of gloom a radiance has shown :
, Thou hast multiplied their gladness, And magnified their joy —
They rejoice before thee as with joy of the harvest.
As men are glad when they share the spoil. (Ij 2)
For the yoke of their necks
And their shoulders' load,
The smiter's staff
And the oppressor's rod
Hast thou broken as on Midian's day,
Hast thou shattered as on Egypt's road. (3abxcx)
Yea, every boot that in ruthlessness tramped, And every garment that in blood was rolled.
Hath been given for burning.
For the food of flames. (4)
For a boy hath been born to us, A son hath been given to us.
And his name is Wonder-Counsellor, Mighty-Hero, Father of Knowledge, Prince of Peace, (5)
For the increase of right. And peace without end.
On David's throne, And over his domain.
To establish it, ' And to sustain,
In justice, And in right.
From now And for ay —
The zeal of the Lord of Hosts will accomplish this. (6)
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NOTES ON THE PARALLELISM OF ISAIAH,
CHAPS. 1-10
Chapter 1
2. (a) Hear, O heavens; (b) and give ear, O earth; (c) for the Lord hath spoken.
This introductory strophe consists of three parallel lines, in which, however, the parallelism between the first and second lines is closer than that between the third and the other two ; for the parallelism between the first two lines is produced by synonyms, ' ' hear ' ' and * * give ear, ' ' and complements, ' ' heaven ' ' and ' ' earth ' ' ; whereas the third line contains no synonym for any of these terms, but only complements, namely, "the Lord," complementary to "heaven" and "earth," and "hath spoken," complementary to "hear" and "give ear." This is a fairly common type of strophe in Isaiah (cf. 2.10, 11) ; sometimes the variation in the third line is further emphasized by a difference in length, in the number of rhythmic beats. Such a difference in the degree of closeness of parallelism produces a slight sense of asymmetry, which is frequently satisfied by a following strophe of similar formation, the two strophes together forming a symmetrical whole (strophic parallelism).
The emphatic position of the word "Lord" in the Hebrew of this strophe should be noted: "when it is the Lord who speaks, even the heavens listen ' ' ; the theme of obedience is thus subtly implied.
2. (d) I have nourished and brought up children (or "sons"), (e) and they have rebelled against me.
Parallelism is produced by the opposites "nourish" ("cher- ish ' ' ) and ' ' rebel " ( " forsake " ) , and by the relatives ' ' children ' ' and "God [me]." The first of these two parallel lines, however, contains two exact synonyms, "nourished" and "brought up," which suggests that it may originally have formed two lines. A comparison with Is. 23.4, where the same pair of synonyms, "nourish" and "bring up," occurs, followed by a masculine
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and feminine object respectively, makes plausible the insertion of the word "daughters," hdnoth, here as the object of the sec- ond verb, romamtl. Isaiah's frequent inclusion of women in his denunciations makes it certain that he included them here also, at least in his thoughts. Moreover, there would thus be removed one of the always suspicious cases of the so-called ' ' weak waw," w^-rdniamtl (contrast w^^'dnu w^-'dhhHu 3.26) ; and the strophe would now be identical in form with the preceding strophe (containing two lines closely synonymous, followed by a third in comparatively more distant parallelism), to which, indeed, it stands in antithetic thought parallelism as an anti- strophe : the heavens listen to God, though Israel refuses to listen. The emphatic position of "sons" in the Hebrew of this verse should again be noted; the emphasized idea of Israel as children and God as father, forces the mind to select, or at least emphasize, in giddaltl and romamtl the meaning "bring up," "nourish," rather than "magnify," "exalt"; and simi- larly to emphasize in pasha' the meaning "disobey," "rebel," rather than the more general "transgress"; though, of course, the other ideas may still be present as undertones.
3. (a) The ox knoweth his owner, (b) and the ass his master's crib, (c) (but) Israel doth not know, (d) my people doth not con- sider.
The change from the three line to the four line strophe marks
a slight change in the figure, though the transition is a subtle
one. The t6rm ' ' owner, ' ' qone, is very close, in figurative usage,
to "father"; in Deut. 32.6 the two terms "father" and "owner"
(A. V. "that has bought thee") occur together. But in the
second member of the parallelism here the word "crib" (or
"manger") adds to the idea of disobedience the suggestion of
ingratitude and also of stupidity, in Israel's failure to recognize
the source of material blessings. The last two stichoi of the
strophe, while closely parallel to the two immediately preceding,
are also parallel in thought to all that has gone before. "Doth
not know" and "doth not consider" are without expressed
object ; the immediate parallelism supplies the object in thought :
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Chapter 1 "Israel does not know and recognize me"; but also, without object: ''Israel is without knowledge and understanding," in all the implications of those terms. The whole prophecy to this point, then, is in a way summed up in these two lines. The section consists of ten lines; and it will be seen that about ten lines are frequently given in Isaiah to the development of a theme — a statement which does not imply, of course, that the prophet counted the lines.
4. (a) Ah, sinful nation, (b) a people laden with iniquity, (c) a seed of evil-doers, (d) children that are corrupters.
A strophe of four perfectly synonymous lines ; the compound phrase "laden with iniquity" takes the place of a simple adjec- tive or participle, possibly merely because the root of the noun 'dwon (Arabic ghawd) was not used in other formation at this early period; if this be true, it would seem to show that Isaiah kept this root clearly distinct from the 'dwd (Arabic 'awd) used in 21.3, 24.1, 19.14; note that the roots ghawd and x^fO'' are exact synonyms : lit. ' ' miss the way ' ' Isaiah seems, . even more than other writers, conscious of Semitic root distinctions.
4. (e) They have forsaken the Lord, (f) they have provoked the Holy One of Israel unto anger, (g) they are gone (lit. become estranged) backward.
As the text stands there is here a reversion to the three stichoi
type of strophe: three parallel lines (in Hebrew "provoked
unto anger" is one word), the third, however, showing a slight
difference in grammatical structure. There is close thought
parallelism between this strophe and the preceding; the one
declares the sin, the other defines it in specific terms. In such
cases one expects a parallelism in form between the strophe and
the antistrophe, and this expectation is worthy of consideration
in the present instance because of the abnormal phrase "become
estranged backward.' In Ezek. 14.5 occurs simply: "they are
all estranged from me" {ndzoru me-'dlai) ; and in Is. 42.17, 50.5;
Jer. 38.22, the phrase "turned [away] back,'^ wasof/Ziw 'dxdr;
it is quite possible, then, that the words "from Him" "they have
turned," me-'dlaw, ndsoghu, have fallen out, and that the
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strophe should be restored to one of four lines like that pre- ceding, and without anj^ linguistic gaucherie.
5. (a) Why should ye be stricken any more? (b) Ye will revolt more and more (lit. "add revolt").
Even if these two lines are read as parallels in form, with "why" (or "where") repeated in thought before the second, they are not logically parallel; and if "why" is not supplied, the second clause would seem to be subordinate to the first, a circumstantial clause in form. Psychologically there seems to be no reason here for the avoidance of parallelism. There is no climax and no sudden injection of a new idea in the word "revolt" — indeed, that idea has been repeatedly expressed in the four lines just preceding ; in the first line of this new stanza, the address turns from the heavens and earth to the people themselves, and the thought turns to punishment ; and, with the exception of the line in question, which blurs the artistic unity of the structure, the theme of punishment is developed in par- allelism through verse 9. Moreover, the natural expectation of parallelism is strengthened by the fact that "any more," 'odh, and "more and more," toslfu, are, indeed, parallel terms. It is barely possible, of course, that like other words denoting an attitude toward God, sard, "revolt," by a species of metonymy, denotes at the same time the reciprocal attitude of God toward the revolter, i.e., desertion of man by God, hence punishment and disaster (cf. 'dwon: both "iniquity" and ' ' punishment " ; so also x^'t' / Q^dhdqd, ' ' righteousness ' ' and ' ' sal- vation"; hdrekh, "kneel to" (lit. "adore") and "cause to prosper"; kdhhod, God's "glory," and man's "reverence"; see also the note on hddhdr, 2.11). But it is far more likely that in the course of either written or oral tradition, when the orig- inal stylistic beauty of the prophecy came to be neglected, sdrd replaced some word denoting specifically "pain," "anguish," e.g., the approximate homonym gdrd (cf. Jer. 49.24, where gdrd denotes physical anguish; and with the restored phrase "add anguish," i.e., "increase your anguish," cf. Is. 29.19: "the meek shall add joy": "increase their joy").
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Chapter 1 5-6. (5c) The whole head is sick, (d) and the whole heart faint. (6a) From the sole of the foot even unto the head (there is) no soundness in it.
It is difficult to say whether this is to be considered a three or a four stichoi strophe. "From sole of foot to head" means "the whole body," and stands in thought parallel to "the whole" of the preceding lines; also parallel might be "no sound- ness in it " ; but it is also possible to read all of the words in 6a together as a single long stichos ; there would result a strophe of two short and one long stichoi, the last not in as close verbal parallelism to the first and second as they are to each other (cf. verse 2 of this chapter). The repetition of the word "head," rosh, in two lines of close propinquity, calls for criti- cism ; such a repetition, unless the word is used in exactly the same syntactic construction, hence for the purpose of special emphasis, is stylistically as inelegant in Hebrew as in any other language. "All the head is sick, from the head to the foot no soundness, mHhom, in it," is awkward; evidently, moreover, the antecedent of " it " is meant to be " body. " It is quite probable, then, that the first rosh has displaced an original hdsdr, "flesh" or ' ' body ' ' : the whole bodj^ inside and out, is diseased. In support of this emendation Ps. 38.4 may be cited: "there is no soundness [A. V. 'sound spot'] in my body." The word m^thom occurs only in these two passages ; its formation is some- what irregular, and it was quite possibly coined by Isaiah him- self, in which case the phrase in the Psalms would seem to be a quotation from Isaiah, and to preserve the original form of the expression.
6. (b) Wounds, and bruises, and putrifying sores; (c) they have not been closed, neither bound up, neither mollified with oint- ment.
If the preceding is a three line strophe, then this section also might be divided to make two three line strophes, each consist- ing of two single synonyms parallel in form (masculine), plus a third synonym (feminine) modified by an additional word. In thought, also, these two strophes are parallel to the preced- ing : the body is sick ; it is all one wound ; it is not treated.
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7. (a) Your country (is) desolate, (b) your cities (are) burned with fire: (c) your land, strangers devour it in your presence, (d) and (it is) desolate, as overthrown by strangers.
This strophe is identical in meaning with the last, with the substitution of literal for figurative terms; it is an antistrophe in thought. Stylistically, the last phrase ("and it is desolate," etc., lit. "and desolation") is offensive: it contains a repetition of two words already used in the strophe, "desolate" and ' ' strangers " ; or of one term, if for ' ' strangers ' ' be substituted the reading ' ' Sodom, ' ' as suggested by some critics : ' ' and deso- late like the overthrowing of Siodom" — which, in its turn, is objectionable from another standpoint (see below). Prob- abl3^ the words "desolate" and "strangers" have come from some marginal note on these words, while "overthrown," k^- mahpekhath, similarly is due to the reference to Sodom below; these words were then taken up by a copyist and combined into the awkward appendage to the strophe. Without it the verse consists of two normal lines plus a third longer line, the third, perhaps, excessively long; possiblj^ P-neghd<^khem, "in your presence," also has come from the margin, in reality a gloss d^ghan^khem, "your corn," explaining "your land."
8. (a) And the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vine- yard, (b) as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers, (c) as a besieged (lit. "guarded") city.
Again, apparently, a three stichoi strophe, this time with the longer line first ; in form it is inversely parallel to the preceding strophe. The thought parallelism, however, is obscured in 8c ; for the phrase ' ' like a guarded city, ' ' k^-' ir n^gurd, is not parallel to "cottage" (lit. "booth"), and "lodge." "Guarded city," if it occurred elsewhere, would certainly be interpreted "city pre- served from danger" or possibly "garrisoned," like the Arabic madlna maxrUsa or maxfutha; or "city formerly guarded" (cf. 1.21, "the [once] faithful city"; 27.10, "the [once] forti- fied city is desolate"). To read (or understand), instead, "blockaded city" still leaves the picture blurred; the assump- tion must be that Isaiah left the picture of absolute loneliness expressed in the first two lines as clear as it is left in 30.17:
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Chapter 1 ''till ye be left as a mast {tor en; A. V, 'beacon') upon the top of a mountain, and as an ensign on a hill." Perhaps the simplest correction would be to omit the last "as," k^, and read: "as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers (is) the once guarded city"; the strophe would then consist of two lines of equal length. But it seems more probable that the form of the strophe as handed down is correct, even if some more violent change in the text is necessary to restore its consistency. The word n^Qurd suggests the Arabic ndthilra (cf. Aramaic ndtord), applied to the light scaffold on which the watchman stands in the orchards around Damascus; perhaps in 'ir, "city," there is a corruption of some such word as 'ore^i (with the n repeated from the next word) ; in the Jerusalem Talmud to Bdbd Bathrd ix.l6d occurs 'irdnyd (root ' aran or 'urf) : " Holzgeriiste worauf die Wachter der Felder zur Umschau standen" (Levy, Neuheh. Worterhuch). Finally, there is the possibility that 'ir n^qurd is a corruption for 'ir h<^Qurd, and this an associative lapsus linguae for mighdal nog^rim, ' ' tower of the watchers, ' ' from the apparently common phrase "from the tower of the watch- man to the fortified city" (II Kings 17;9, 18.8) ; the probability of such a substitution of terms of exactly opposite connotation will be discussed in other places also; e.g., 2.12 ("low" for "high").
9. (a) Except the Lord had left unto us a very small remnant (lit. a remnant like a little), we should have been as Sodom, (b) (and) we should have been like unto Gomorrah.
Though there is parallelism between the two apodoses of this sentence, the protasis has no parallel ; and while there are many examples in Isaiah of a long line with parallels only for the latter portion, this phenomenon is exceedingly rare where such a distinct entity as a protasis is concerned (for a somewhat sim- ilar case see 4.2) ; moreover, the long line here is excessively long. The verse is suspicious because the Prophet here appar- ently includes hilnself among the people ("had left unto us, we should have been"), whereas elsewhere throughout this prophecy, and, indeed, practically always he identifies himself
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entirely with the divine voice (such an exception as the term "our God," in verse 10, is without significance, while that in 2.5 will be explained later). The words sound like an "aside," injected at a later time ; for they blur the evident intent to pic- ture a process of destruction still threatening absolute extinction unless reformation is immediate; cf. 2.22. Leaving aside the objection to the first person, the verse might be restored to parallelism and consistency of theme by omitting the protasis, and reading simply: "almost are we become as Sodom, do we resemble Gomorrah." But there is still the strong objection to person, and to the further fact that it weakens the force of the following lines ; the whole strophe is probably a gloss.
10. (a) Hear the words of the Lord ye rulers of Sodom; (b) give ear unto the law of our God, ye people of Gomorrah.
These two lines are an example of perfect parallelism; and yet, while submissive to the self-imposed restraint of form, the Prophet-poet in a characteristic manner, which gains in dramatic force just because of that formal restraint, by the twist of a single phrase turns his prophecy into a direct and scathing denunciation of his audience. The address "Hear the word of the Lord, ye princes" contains no suggestion of the bitter sar- casm 'to come at the end of the line ; indeed, if verses lOff. belong with verses 2 to 9 as one prophecy, the first words of verse 10 intentionally recall the parallel address ("Hear, 0 heaven!") in verse 2, and allow the listening princes the expectation that they, too, are to be called upon to hear of Israel's troubles and faults; a recital to which they are ready to listen sympathet- ically, since according to the fashion of human nature, they have not realized their own share in guilt. With the end of the line ("Sodom") the appeal becomes suddenly a condemnation. Again, in the next line, the ordinary course of parallelism would probably have led the hearer to expect parallel to "princes of Sodom" such a phrase as "leaders of Gomorrah" (see e.g.. Judges 5.3: "Hear, 0 ye kings; give ear, 0 ye princes") ; but, instead, the people themselves are swept into the denunciation. Such a sudden sarcastic turn to a phrase is found also in 5.22
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Chaptee 1 ("Ah! those who are mighty — in drinking wine!" See further- more the note to 3.6).
11-15. (lla) To what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me? saith the Lord; (b) I am full of the burnt offerings of rams, (c) and the fat of fed beasts; (d) and I delight not in the blood of bullocks, (e) or of lambs, or of he goats. (12) When ye come to appear before me, who hath required this at your hand to tread my courts? (13a) Bring no more vain oblations: (b) incense is an abomination unto me, (c) the .new moons and sabbaths, the calling of assemblies, I cannot away with; (d) (it is) iniquity, even the solemn meeting. (14a) Your new moons and your appointed feasts my soul hateth; (b) they are a trouble unto me; (c) I am weary to bear (them). (15a) And when ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine eyes from you; (b) yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear: (c) your hands are full of blood.
In this series of verses the general intent of parallelism seems evident; each phase has at least one parallel (except "saith the Lord," which, not forming part of the prophecy, may always be regarded as parenthetical). As the text stands at present, however, the parallelistic order does not always stand out as clearly as it has in previous strophes ; nor is the theme developed in quite the logical manner one is led to expect in Isaiah. Surely the clear visualization of a scene of formal service such as is here described would result in placing at the beginning of the pic- ture those elements which stand logically first : the parallel phrases "appear before me" and "tread my courts." It is not difficult to suppc^e that by accident verse 12 was omitted from its proper place after the words "To what purpose is it unto me" (translate then: "that" [kl, instead of "when"] ye come" etc.), was written in the margin, and was then inserted by a copyist in the wrong place. The transposition produces at the same time structural parallelism at the opening, in the form of a double question (incidentally, "at your hand" [miy- yedh^khem] in verse 12 is probably a slip for "from you," mik-kem). Furthermore, by placing, "I delight not in" (lid) as the predicate of "the multitude of your sacrifices" another parallelism is restored: "I am full of" and "I delight not in" (or "desire not"), with parallel generic objects "sacrifices,"
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z^hhdxim, and "burnt-offerings," 'oloth; in apposition with which follows a series of specific terms. It should further be noticed that with these slight transpositions there results also a natural progression in the description of the divine attitude toward service : from a rhetorical questioning of its utility through an expression of satiety, displeasure, weariness, and loathing, to the climax in verse 15, absolute rejection.
In verse 13, the words "vain," shdw, and "iniquity," dwen, are striking; they soften the idea, expressed up to this point, that God rejects formal hand and lip service — they have the appearance of an afterthought ; for surely the logical place for such modifying terms would have been at the beginning or at the end; it could not have been Isaiah's intention to condemn all other service, whether ' ' vain ' ' or not, and condemn only such oblation as is "vain," Moreover, the word "iniquity," dwen, is awkwardly inserted into the middle of what would otherwise be a perfectly natural phrase, "the calling of assemblies and [R. V. "even"] the solemn meeting," q^ro' niiqrd' wa-^'Qdrd. Evidently the interrupting words have come from the margin; 16' ukhal was written there because accidentally omitted from its proper place; while dwen (like the corresponding s/iaw above), was the addition of a reader who wished to soften the absolute condemnation of service. If, nevertheless, 'dwen and shdw are to be retained, they must at least be placed in parallelism.
Surely, too, in verse 14 "your new moons," xodhshekhem, is a careless slip : the new moon has just been mentioned in verse 13 ; intended was evidently ' * your festivals, ' ' x^QQ^^^^'^f the absence of any reference to which would be noticeable (cf. Amos 5.22) in a list as detailed as is this one. The abundance of detail in verses 1-14 is worthy of note, as it offers evidence in support of the authenticity of detailed lists elsewhere in Isaiah; extreme detail has a stylistic and dramatic value at times, no less than extreme terseness ; here it is admirably adapted to the theme.
In verse 15, while the first two lines are in synonymous par- allelism, there is no similar parallel to the third sentence: "your hands are full of blood." On purely rhetorical grounds the
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Chapter 1 climax here might indeed justify a casting off of formal re- straint, and gain in force hj abruptness; but at the same time the line does stand in a more distant parallelism, that of effect and cause, with the first line of the strophe ("when ye spread forth your palms [A. V. "hands"] I will hide mine eyes"), the intent at parallelism being made clear by the synonymous terms "palms" and 'hands"; contrasted with this specific rela- tionship the absence of a fourth line complementary to the second ("Yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear") becomes illogical. In previous cases of three line parallelism, with the third line differing from the first two, the third stood ' in no closer parallelism to one than to the other of them; but here, as the text stands, proximity alone would, to the careful reader, make "uncleanness of hands" seem the specific reason for the rejection of service of the lips. In Is. 59.1-3, where this theme is echoed (such apparent references to the earlier Isaiah are fairly frequent in the later), occurs the passage: "Neither is His ear heavy, that it cannot hear; your sins have hid his face from you that He will not hear; for your hands are defiled with blood and your fingers with iniquity ; j^our lips have spoken lies, your tongue hath uttered perverseness ' ' ; which suggests that probably a line has fallen out in Is. 1.5: "your lips are defiled with lies" (cf. in 6.5 "man of unclean lips . . . in the midst of a people of unclean lips") ; here specifically with ref- erence to false testimony and unjust judgment (cf. Is. 32.7), the theme developed in verse 17, (For another parallel to "blood" cf. 4.4.)
This section, verses 10-15 as now arranged, contains just twenty lines (see the translation).
16-17. (16a) Wash you, (b) make you clean; (e) put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes; (d) cease to do evil; (17a) learn to do well; (b) seek judgment, (c) release the, oppressed; (d) judge the fatherless; (e) plead for the widow.
The syntactic parallelism is evident because of the nine im- peratives; but closer logical parallelism groups the following pairs: "wash" and "cleanse"; "cease to do evil," "learn to
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do well " ; " judge the fatherless, " " plead for the widow. ' ' The first couplet ("wash you," "make you clean") is a figurative general introduction to the whole series of specific, literal terms that follows, and at the same time forms a parallelistic connec- tion with the end (verse 15) of the last strophe as restored (your hands are bloody, your lips defiled : wash you, i.e. your hands : cleanse you, i.e. your lips). Noticeable is the excessive length of the line "Put awaj^ the evil of your doings from before mine eyes ' ' ; the line is suspicious also because of the repetition of the root (though not the exact form) "evil"; "put away the evil of your deeds" and "cease to do evil" are too nearly identical to justify the repetition even in a passage as detailed as this; for surely the addition of the words "from before mine eyes" to the first of these phrases cannot be meant to be emphatic (i.e., do your evil deeds elsewhere) ; "put away," kdslru, by itself means "make an end of" (cf. verses 25 and 3.18; Jer. 4.4). The similar phrase "before you" has been noticed in verse 7 ; see again in 13.16 ; also Amos 9.3 ; it is a phrase which might readily slip off the tongue (or the pen) of a reader or an editor. Symmetry is secured by omitting this line of glosses ; read hdslru for 'ashsh^rit (lit. (a) "lead" or (&) "call happy") ; and correct the aira^ Xeyo/xevov x^'^^^Q to x^^ios ("violence," "injustice") in 17c.
18-20. (18a) Come now, and let us reason together, saith the Lord: (b) Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow; (c) though they be red like crimson, they shall be as wool. (19) If ye be willing and obedient, ye shall eat of the good of the land; (20a) But if ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured with the sword; (b) for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it.
A double pair of parallels, each of the four stichoi in the form of a hypothetical sentence, stand between two single lines (18a, 20b), which to a certain extent, also form a parallel; i.e., an example of the ' ' envelope ' ' construction ; at the same time the last stichos, "For the mouth of the Lord hath spoken," is parallel to a phrase in the first strophe of the whole prophecy (verse 2).
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Chapter 1 Of the four intervening sentences, the second pair (''if ye be willing, etc.") contain a clear statement of the logical, just results of Israel's conduct; and the first pair, cast in exactly the same form, must be interpreted also as expressing a logical and just conclusion : if a man sins, he must repent and make reparation, and the deeper the sin, the greater the need of re- pentance ; ' ' if your sins are as scarlet, then shall they become (shall you make them) white as snow; then if they are white as snow (if you are wholly obedient), you shall prosper; but if you are rebellious (if your sins do not become white as wool and snow), your punishment shall continue even unto absolute destruction." Such must be the emphasis in these verses if there is any significance to the parallelism in formal and syn- tactic construction.
21. (a) How is the faithful city become an harlot! (b) (it was) full of judgment, (c) righteousness lodged in it; (d) but now murderers.
The prophecy extending from verse 21 through verse 26 shows almost perfect parallelism. Though the rhyme also is noticeable, it is possibly accidental (see also 2.6) ; indeed, it is sometimes impossible in parallelism to avoid that degree of rhyme which extends only to verbal and nominal sj-llabic suffixes; and this fact may explain the origin of rhyme in the Arabic saj' .
In verse 21 the terms "faithful city," ''the one full of judg- ment" (or "justice"), "in which abode righteousness^' are not only thought parallels, but also, to a greater extent than the English reveals, 'syntactic parallels. The construction of noun governing a following abstract genitive so frequently takes the place of noun and (in Semitics following) adjective that the two constructions become almost identical to the linguistic con- sciousness ; and bpth in later Hebrew and in later Arabic the tendencj^ is to give to the adjective the construction proper to the abstract noun. The relative clause, also, is so closely iden- tical with the adjective (or participle) appositive that in strict
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Semitic syntax it must submit to thq same law of definiteness as the adjective; and on the other hand, as the adjective itself may always be used as an independent substantive (e.g., in verse 24 "the mighty of Israel"), so the relative clause may take the place of a substantive (see e.g., 2.8, 20, and the note to 2.22) ; here the clause "righteousness lodged in it" may be a relative clause, with relative pronoun omitted (cf. 10.24) • it is prac- tically the equivalent of "in which righteousness used to lodge," "the former righteous one"; and its appositional parallelistic nature is made certain by 26c, the refrain, where "city of righteousness" is substituted for it. Moreover, inasmuch as ydlln, "lodge," is frequently used of abstract qualities which "continue," th'e clause is not entirely inconsistent with the per- sonification of the city introduced at the beginning of the strophe ; although at the same time it is ' ' righteousness ' ' which in this stichos is personified as the inhabitant of Zion. In any case, all three lines are figurative ; the next strophe is also figurative (though the figure changes) ; and figurative terms continue to verse 22. Thus the one line (21d), "and now murderers," stands alone in its literalness, at the same time that it is grammatically awkward. In defence of the line in its present position it might be urged that its very awkwardness and concreteness give it a special climactic emphasis ; but, as a matter of fact, that would be emphasis misplaced; for, as the poem develops, greed, not murder, is seen to be its real sub- ject, and the following strophe, since it contains no similarly emphatic term, would then be a decided anticlimax. The phrase is probably misplaced.
Whether a three or four line strophe, it contains a long first line, with parallels only for the latter half, a not uncommon type (see verse 8, and 2.12, 2.20, 3.1, 3.18, 7.19; cf. also 10.12) ; the slight feeling of asymmetry holds the entire poem here in sus- pense until the concluding strophe, which is of similar forma- tion (though consisting of only two lines) and also of almost identical phraseology, a variety of the envelope figure applied to a whole poem instead of merely to a strophe or stanza.
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Chapter 1 22-23. (22a) Thy silver is become dross; (b) thy wine mixed with water: (23a) thy princes (are) rebellious, (b) and companions of thieves: (c) every one loveth gifts, (d) and foUoweth after re- wards; (e) they judge not the fatherless, (f) neither doth the cause of the widow come unto them.
Verse 23 explains concretely the previous figures; and from this standpoint the reference to ''murderers" in verse 21 belongs here. "And now murderers," w^- attd m^raQQ^x^m, is perhaps a corruption of an original phrase "assembly of mur- derers," wa-O'dhath m^ragg^x^m, parallel to "companions of thieves," or better "company of thieves" {xebher for xc^&^^'e; cf . Hosea 6.9 : " the company of priests murder in the way ' ' ; for '<^dhath, cf. Ps. 22.17, "assembly of the wicked"; also, "pack," "swarm"). The term "murderer" here is perhaps hj^perbole ; though the injustice as described might indeed result in the death of those defrauded. The transferrence to verse 23 makes another three line (anti) strophe, each line of which cor- responds to one in the first strophe : faithfulness and rebellion ; justice and robbery ; righteousness and murder ; between the two, however, stands a couplet, verse 22.
24. (a) Therefore saith the Lord, (b) the Lord of hosts, (c) the mighty (One) of Israel, (d) Ah, I will ease me of mine adver- saries, (e) and avenge me of mine enemies.
If the introductory words (24a-c) stand within the strophic arrangement, it is easy to divide them so as to make either another two line strophe (one long line and a shorter line par- allel to its latter half), or a three line symmetrical strophe.
25-26. (25a) And I will turn my hand upon thee, (b) and purely purge away thy dross, (c) and take away all thy tin: (26a) And I will restore thy judges as at the first, (b) and thy counsellors as at the beginning: (c) afterward thou shalt again be called The city of righteousness, (d) The faithful city.
The parallelism is again evident in these three strophes; though the second and third members of verse 25 are more closely parallel to each other than they are to the first. In matters of detail: the doubtful word "purely" {kah-hor; lit.
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either "like purity" or "as with lye") is parallel to "all"; possibly the Septuagint «? Kadapov represents an original lah- hor: "into purity" (cf. "burn into lime" in Amos 2.1), i.e., "entirely." If, however, the emendation hak-kUr, "in a fur- nace, ' ' is accepted, then neither this word nor " all " is emphatic ; both are inserted for the sake of length : for ' ' smelt in the fur- nace ' ' means no more than ' ' smelt ' ' alone. The repetition of 'dshlhhd (verse 25, "I will turn"; verse 26, "I will restore"), in two different senses so closelj'- together, is inelegant; the Septuagint, which does not intentionally avoid using the same word twice in the translation of Isaiah — indeed, sometimes uses repetition where the Hebrew uses synonyms — has eTrd^o) in verse 25 {^ dshlbhd, Amos 1.8), and eTncrr'qcrw in verse 26, i.e., 'dqlmd: "I will establish." The latter is exactly the term used in Judges 2.16 {way-ydqcni ''^dhonai shoph^tim), of the insti- tution of the Judges. Perhaps, however, the first 'dsMbhd was originally 'dnlphd, as in Is. 11.15 : at any rate, it is easy to believe that in one case or the other the text was illegible, and Hebrew and Septuagint each supplied a word from the context. It is also possible, since verse 25 seems to be an antistrophe to verse 22, a couplet, that verse 25a ("And I will turn my hand upon thee") is out of place; indeed, since it is a proper introduction to a new act, if the "enemies" are not outside enemies who are first to be punished, but are the "robbers" and "murderers," the ' ' dross ' ' and ' ' alloy ' ' within, this transition verse is logically superfluous.
Concerning the closing strophe, see under verse 21.
27. (a) Zion shall be redeemed with judgment (b) and her con- verts with righteousness.
"Converts," shdbhehd, is parallel to "Zion": perhaps the
closer parallel yosMbhehd ("her inhabitants"; cf. "inhabitants
of Zion" in 12.6, "inhabitant of Jerusalem," 5.3) was the
original reading; it is Zion and her at present unrepentant,
inhabitants that need redemption.
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Chapter 1
28. (a) And the destruction (lit. "breaking") of the trans- gressors and of the sinners (shall be) together, (b) and they that forsake the Lord will be consumed.
Corruption of the text is as evident here as is the intention of parallelism; but whether the strophe was originally one of two or of three lines is doubtful. The last member of the strophe (''and they that' forsake," etc.) is apparently in good order; but the verb yikhlu might better be translated "shall be no more" (cf. "cease," as in 16.4, "the spoiler ceaseth," and "be cut off" in 11.13) ; i.e., Zion shall be redeemed because her peo- ple shall cease to be forsakers of God. This interpretation is demanded if verse 29 belongs after verse 28 ; they surely cannot "be ashamed" when "they have been destroyed," nor should they be destroyed because they have become ashamed, i.e., have repented. The parallel verb demanded at the beginning of verse 28, then, is not shdhh^ru, "break," but rather shdhh^- thu, "cease" (cf. Is. 14.4: "the oppressor has ceased"); and yaxdaw ("together," due perhaps to the yaxddw in verse 31) was perhaps originally yaxd^lu ("cease to be," parallel to shdhhath in 24.8, e.g. ; cf. Judges 5.6, 7). If, on the other hand, a two line verse was intended, it is difficult to see why the superfluous yaxdaw was added to a line sufficiently long without it. The three line strophe, if restored, is again one in which the third synonym, "deserters of God," differs slightly in form and in degree of synonymity from the first and second.
29. (a) For they shall be ashamed of the oaks which ye have desired, (b) and ye shall be confounded for the gardens that ye have chosen.
The correction "j-e" for "they" (shall be ashamed) in stichos a is demanded by the parallelism in b ; Septuagint, how- ever, reads third person throughout. If the second person is correct, the validity of the interpretation advanced for the previous verse is strengthened : those who are to be redeemed are the very sinners to whom the Prophet is addressing himself here. "To be ashamed of," of course, is "to be disappointed in," and "come to a realization of the uselessness of."
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30. (a) For ye shall be as an oak whose leaf fadeth, (b) and as a garden that hath no water.
Two facts of style are noticeable here : the repetition of kl, ' ' for, ' ' at the beginning of verses 29 and 30 ; and the repetition of ''oaks" and "gardens." If verse 30 belongs here and is in the proper form, the second M, which is then parallel to the first, might be translated "yea": "for ye shall be ashamed; yea, ye shall be as oaks." But the repetition of "oaks" here, in a figurative usage and in no way parallel to the same term used literally in the previous strophe — as though it were an after- thought due to the first reference — seems too casual to be due to Isaiah. It were better to think its position here due to a reader, or, if the verse is really Isaiah 's, to the compiler of these prophecies. If, however, the verse was placed here by Isaiah himself, then, despite the M (which as in 3.8 then would become subordinate to the previous kl), it would be better to suppose an error in the person of the verb, and again read, with the Septuagint, "for they (shall be as an oak," etc.), the subject being "oaks" and the preposition "as" (/c^) being, perhaps, the so-called ' ' kaf veritatis " or " kaf of the predicate ' ' ; though the comparison might in reality be due to the fact that implied in the terms "oaks" and "gardens" in verse 29 is the idea of idolatrous worship : the intent of the comparison would then be to liken these sacred trees and groves to ordinary trees and groves, and still further to those trees and groves which wither and like which they, too, will prove useless and will be deserted.
31. (a) And the strong shall be as tow, (b) and the maker of it as a spark, (c) and they shall both burn together, (d) and none shall quench.
The main difficulty in this verse as it stands, lies in the
absence of any clear reason for the comparison between "maker
of it" and "spark." In what sense can a man be likened to a
spark ? At the bases of Isaiah 's figures of speech there is always
some easily recognizable natural phenomenon. The objection
is not satisfied even if "strong" be interpreted as "strong
(man)" and if instead of "maker of it," poo-lo, there be read
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Chapter 1 ''his work," po'Ho — ^unless, indeed, the "strong man" is the smith, and ''his work" is the object he is forging at the anvil. Strophic parallelism, and the logical development of the thought, would lead the reader to expect here a further reference to the sacred trees, and the manner of their destruction; and, indeed, the word "strong," x^Q^'*h in its only other occurrence (Amos 2.9) is used in the figure "strong as the oaks"; it means really "sturdy," or rather "rugged," and quite possibly means here not "the strong man" but "the strong tree" (cf. 10.33, where "the high" and "the lofty" mean "the high and lofty trees"). Perhaps, then, for po'o^lo should be sought a term parallel to ' ' tree " ; ' ('ndpho (with I for n, and transposition) , " its branches, ' ' is possible. The word for "spark" used here (mgug) is a aira^ Xejofievov, from a root meaning apparently "to shine"; the specific meaning is derived from the context, and might as well be ".flash," "conflagration," "flames," as "spark" (the language possesses other words for "spark" as well as for "flame"). "With the resultant picture of the tree with burn- ing branches (here, of course, the single tree is the representative of all the trees, and the branches are the entire foliage of the garden) compare that of the burning bush, which, however, being a really sacred tree, was not consumed ; cf . also Jer. 11.16 : ' ' The Lord called thy name a green olive tree, ... he hath kindled fire upon it, and the branches of it are broken (but read, per- haps, "consumed" hd'^^rU for rd'a) ; and in Arabic shajara mutaqddixa : "trees with soft, weak branches, which, when the wind blows, blaze forth with fire" (Lane, s. v. Qadaxa) ; and the proverb : ' ' Bend me the branches and I shall kindle fire for thee." If there is needed a more specific reference to the garden, 'cndphdh, "her (i.e., the garden's [fem.]) branches, foliage" might be read. To read, as has been suggested by some, "his work shall be as thorns" {na' quq, instead of ni^Qug) without changing po'Ho or po'Ho, still leaves the latter without any apparent natural place in the picture of the forest or grass fire, a picture which seems to have appealed strongly to Isaiah.
At the end of this poem occurs the short line "and none shall quench" {w^-en m^khahhe), parallel to "they shall burn to-
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gether"; such a short line is a very effective rhetorical device in its proper place (e.g., as here, at the end of a poem), either because of its comparative brevity, or because each word is to be emphasized and held, so as to make the time value of the line equal to that of the other lines (cf, ''and none shall save" in 5.29 and elsewhere).
Chapter 2
2. (a) And it shall come to pass in the last days, (b) (that) the mountain of the Lord's house shall be established in the top of the mountains, (c) and shall be exalted above the hills.
The phrase "and it shall come to pass in the last days," w^-hdyd h^-'ax^rith hay-ydmlm, stands clearly without parallel, just as does usually the similar phrase "and it shall be on that day" (4.2; 7.18, 20, 21; 10.20; 11.11) ; it might be compared to a prelude, an opening strain at the beginning of a musical com- position, and independent of it ; or it is a sort of title : ' ' Prophecy concerning the Last Day." Similarily such a phrase as "Thus saith the Lord" may be the equivalent of a title.
The first strophe of the prophecy consists of a long (2b) and a shorter line (2c), as is frequently the case; here, however, the first line is unusually long, and the word "house" is super- fluous ; despite the fact that it occurs in the other version of this poem (Micah 4.5), it probably is a variant of "mountain" and has wrongly been incorporated in the text. The Septuagint, indeed, makes it a parallel to "mountain"; "the mountain of the Lord shall be manifest (ifKJ^avk), and the house of God (be) on the top of the mountains"; while in Micah the Septuagint reads: "The mountain of the Lord" (i.e., without "house"), though it has a second predicate, again yielding a parallel: "the mountain of the Lord shall be manifest, established on the tops of the mountains." In verse 3, where the two words occur again, the parallelism is clear. The evidence would seem to show, then, that there was a variant (marginal?) version of 2ab, namely: "the house of the Lord shall be established on the top of the mountains, and his mountain be exalted above the hills ' ' ; the present text represents a conflation.
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Chapter 2 Worthy of note is it that the Micah version of the Hebrew places the predicate adjective ndkhon, ''established," in the more natural position, after the verb, instead of in the emphatic position which it has in Isaiah. Whichever position is original, there is here incontrovertible evidence that 'in the course of the Hebrew oral or written tradition of these verses, transposition has taken place. The shorter of the two lines in Isaiah is ex- ceedingly short by comparison ; it is probable that the extra pro- noun hu' of Micah is original.
2c-3a. (2c) And all nations shall flow into it. (3a) And many people shall go and say.
Since ^^^o,'"w^-hd¥khu, in Hebrew is applied to the move- ment of waters (e.g.. Is. 8.6: ''the waters of Shiloh that go softly"), the parallelism between the two stichoi need not be doubted. The word iv'^-dm^ril, "they shall say," is perhaps to be omitted ; notice Is. 3.6, where there is no word to introduce the direct discourse ; at any rate it is parenthetical, of so little emphasis that it does not affect the question of parallelism.
"Many," rahhlm, in the second stichos is an ineffective par- allel to "all" in the first. The word occurs again in 4b, but without a parallel in 4a. In the corresponding Micah passage another transposition has taken place : ' ' many ' ' occurs in the first stichos of the strophe, but has in the second stichos two parallels: "mighty," '(^gUmlm (which is a parallel to rahhlm also in Is. 53.12), and "afar off," 'adh rdxdq; one of the three terms there is redundant ; and the redundancy in Micah and deficiency in Isaiah are again ample evidence of variation in tradition, of marginal notations, of conflations and of omissions. The variants in Micah show, perhaps, that the meaning attached to rahhlm here was "mighty," not "many": so also in Is. 5.9 and Amos 3.15 probably, the translation "many houses" for hdttlm rahhlm is not exact; either "mighty houses" (like the Arabic ddr rahha) or "multiple houses" — in either case denoting palaces — avoids the anticlimax of the adjective. So here, either "mighty nations" or "mighty mass of nations" is the intention, if rahhlm is the correct reading and in its proper place.
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3-4. (3b) Come ye and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, (c) to the house of the God of Jacob: (d) and he will teach us of his ways, (e) and we will walk in his paths: (f) for out of Zion shall go forth the law, (g) and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem. (4a) And he shall judge among the nations, (b) and shall re- buke many peoplg; (c) and they shall beat their swords into plow- shares, (d) and their spears into pruning-hooks : (e) nation shall not lift up sword against nation, (f) neither shall they learn war any more.
On "many" in 4b, see above.
The perfect regularity in the parallelism of these six coup- lets, as well as of the preceding (barring the introductory line) is noticeable ; likewise the absence of any three line strophe. It should be noticed that Micah has an additional verse : ' ' But they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree; and none shall make them afraid, for the mouth of the Lord of Hosts hath spoken it." This verse is possibly an addition to the poem from another source ; unlike the rest of the poem it refers specifically to the lot of the individuals (suffixes therefore are in singular instead of plural) ; and the nature of the parallelism is different also ; to give the sentence ' ' and none shall make (them) afraid" its natural position as the emphatic final short sentence of the poem, it becomes necessary to include ''and under his fig tree" in the preceding line, yielding one which is then excessively long by comparison with the rest of the poem, and which contains within itself two parallel words. It should be noted, however, that such a couplet, matching the irregularly balanced first couplet of the prophecy, might not be unexpected in Isaiah ; nor would the concluding phrase ' ' for the mouth of the Lord of Hosts hath spoken it," balancing the introductory ' ' And it shall come to pass in the last days, ' ' be unusual.
5-6a. (5) O house of Jacob, come ye and let us walk in the light of the Lord. (6a) Therefore thou hast forsaken thy people, the house of Jacob.
That these lines stand outside the previous poem is no less
evident than that they nevertheless refer to it. Verbally, they
are linked to it by the terms ''come and let us walk" and
"House of Jacob," echoing verse 3b (hence also the first person
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Chapter 2 plural ; there is no significance, then, in the fact that the Prophet [Isaiah?] here identifies himself with the people). Verses 5 and 6a both contain the phrase ' ' House of Jacob " ; it is evi- dently emphatic, then, marking the contrast between "the nations" of the preceding lines and Israel. Turning to Micah, we find there also an appendage to the poem : ' * For all the nations walk each in the name of its god, and we will walk in the name of the Lord our God forever"; i.e., with a curiously illogical twist : ' ' Since all other nations are loyal to their god (not, as we should expect: Since even all the nations that now follow other gods will eventually turn to our God), we must be loyal to ours." This appendage is similar to that in Isaiah in its general intent : a comparison between ' ' the nations ' ' and Israel, and for Israel (by implication disloyal) a lesson drawn from the contrast. Both contain the phrase "we shall walk"; Micah 's "in the name of our God" is Isaiah's "in the light of the Lord." The vocative "House of Jacob" is absent from Micah; but the emphasis prodviced by the repetition of that phrase in Isaiah has its virtual parallel in Micah 's emphatic pronoun "we," '<^naxnu.
In Isaiah the line "for (not, as in A. V. "therefore") thou hast forsaken thy people, the House of Jacob," while more emphatic than Micah, contains, like Micah, a 7ion sequitur. Its intention must have been to express the present disloyalty of Israel ; it is therefore quite probable that ' ' thy people ' ' is again an associative lapsus for "thy God" (less likely a defective reading of "the God of thy people"). This hardly seems more improbable than that the Prophet, who has just addressed the House of Jacob in the second person, is now addressing God in the second person, without indicating the change by the intro- duction of a new vocative; or is guilty of such an illogical sentence as : " Come, House of Jacob, let us be faithful to God, because he has (text: thou hast) forsaken the House of Jacob." On the use of natashtd compare Jer. 15.6: "thou hast forsaken (natashtd) me, saith the Lord; thou art gone backward" (cf. Is. 1.4). The copyist's or editor's change may have been due here to the attempt to establish a connection between 6a and 6b,
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6b-c. (b) Because they be replenished from the East, and (are) soothsayers like the Philistines, (c) and they please themselves in the children of strangers.
The structure and the tone of the following poem (6b-21) when compared with the preceding make almost certain a sep- aration between the two. The general subject, however, the idolatry of Israel, is sufficient explanation for the editorial jux- taposition. If 6a and 6b belonged together they would furnish another example of two immediately adjoining verses beginning with hi, "for" — parallel, if 6a is changed as suggested above: "for thou hast deserted thy God; yea (M) they (ye) be replen- ished from the East" — but the second subordinate to the first, if the Massoretic text is retained unchanged: "for thou hast deserted Israel, for they," etc.; the English again conceals the repetition of kl by varying the translation.
The wording of 6b is almost unintelligible ; the English glosses over some of the difficulties, which are due, quite possibly, to the fact that the beginning (and end) of the document from which it was edited (skin, parchment, or potsherd?) was in bad physical condition, with some of the defective portions restored on the margins. On this assumption a proper introduction to the prophecy would be found by transposing so as to precede 6b the superfluous lines now incorporated in verses 9-11 (q. v.) ; for the poem seems originally to have contained three stanzas, with introductory (or introductory and closing) refrains of almost identical phraseology; the phrases of these refrains are actually found scattered through the poem.
The first couplet (6bc) of the poem proper consists of a long followed by a shorter line ; as does also the opening of each of the other stanzas (verses 12 and 20). The reading mdl^'U, "they be replenished," literally "full," in the difficult first line seems supported, as far as the root is concerned, by the parallelism : each of the three succeeding strophes of the stanza begins with the same root, but the plural number of its subject, though apparently supported by yasplqu, "they please themselves," is made suspicious by the singular suffix throughout almost the whole of the remainder of the poem; the plural u in yasplqu
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Chapter 2 is so easily explicable as dittography from the u with which the next word begins, as a divisional mark between the verses, or as an editorial correction (for still another suggestion see below), as to be negligible for evidence. Indeed, the subject of the poem throughout is 'ddhdm, "man," treated as a singular collective (see clearly the parallel long line in verse 20, and the refrain "man boweth down"; the English translates as plural through- out) ; and this same subject logically ought to appear in the text as the subject of "fill" in the first stanza also; while the object ought to be hd-'dreg or 'argo, "the land," or "his land," the word repeated in the following parallel lines. The Septua- gint has either inserted or preserved this object in its transla- tion; and 'ddhdm is probably to be seen in the Hebrew miq- qedhem, "from the East" (on the possibility of confusion be- tween q and ' see Is. 5.8, where the Septuagint apparently read m^ 'Umd, * * anything, ' ' for mdqom, ' ' place ' ' ; Ez. 22.25, 'c-sher, "whose," for qesher, "conspiracy"). In the word "and sooth- sayers" the a, "and," may represent the suffixed pronoun of 'argo, "his land" (the Septuagint has "their land") ; with a repetition of ' from mdl'^'ti and of u (for r), and with the m from miq-qedem corrected to f (a not impossible confusion in the older alphabet), we might find the rest of that word, on the supposition that 'ddhdm was omitted and then written over 'argo, while a later copy resulted in the present confused text. But the word ' on^nlm, "soothsayers," also is suspicious. The rest of the first stanza develops two charges against Israel : proud luxury and attendant idolatry; the second stanza deals with pride, as exemplified in things ' ' tall ' ' ; while the third returns specifically to the subject "idols of gold and silver"; but ' ' soothsaying ' ' is not mentioned again either in the parallel lines of stanza 1 or in stanzas 2 or 3. The comparison "like the Philistines," moreover, is not especially appropriate in a charge of soothsaying; it is appropriate, however, in the condemnation of luxury developed in the rest of the poem. For both Phoenicia and Philistia, as coastal countries, had their trade connections westward, Philistia particularly with Egj^pt ; Philistine cities
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were centers for the importation of Egyptian jewelry and lux- uries. Perhaps, then, for ' on^nlm we might read '(^dhdmm, usually "dainties," but occurring with the desired more general meaning in II Sam. 1.24 ("clothed you in scarlet and other delights"; though this passage is suspected). If '('■dhdnlm is to be read here, parallelism would suggest also for the difficult U-hhcyaldhe, "in the children," of the next line u-bha^^dhi, "in the ornaments," which occurs with '^dhdnlm in the Samuel passage just cited. Inasmuch as yasplqii, "they please them- selves," is parallel to "fill," of the two possible meanings for its root, "be sufficient" (or "plenty"), and "slap" (or "clap") (here, on the basis of the Arabic, in bargaining, trading), the former ought logically to suggest itself to the mind. The mere fact that sdphaq in this sense is found only in two other, probably later, passages of the Old Testament (hence supposedly due to Aramaism), is not sufficient reason for denying to Isaiah, with his rich vocabularj^ acquaintance with the word. If an abso- lutely unknown word stood there, or, in fact, only a blank space, parallelism would supply, as has the Septuagint, the idea of "fill." Moreover, saphaq in Arabic (with the heavier s, though as in Hebrew, the two sibilants are confused in this word), also means "to fill" (the wine-cup: probably the development of the idea is : " clap, " " clap closed, ' ' then " fill " ) ; it should be noted, moreover, that in the sense * ' clap, ' ' sdphaq in Hebrew has a disagreeable connotation : that of remorse, sorrow, mockery ; in neither sense is the causative conjugation used, as here. Read possibly yispoq, ' ' he has a sufficiency of, ' ' or siphqo, ' ' is his suf- ficiency," or, retaining the causative, yasplqehd, "he fills it" (i.e., his land) ; the couplet would then read:
Jcl mille' 'ddhdm 'argo 'odhdmm Icap-P'^lishtim uiha-'odM noJchrim yaspiqehd.
7-8. (7a) Their land also is full of silver and gold, (b) neither (is there any) end of their treasures; (c) their land is also full of horses, (d) neither (is there any) end of their chariots; (8a) Their land also is full of idols; (b) they worship the work of their own hands, (e) that which their own fingers have made.
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Chapter 2 The perfect regularity of the four clauses constituting verse 7, with the first closely parallel to the third, and the second par- allel to the fourth — all the clauses being also in (less intimate) parallelism — and the presence of a clause in verse 8 (a) closely parallel to the first and third of verse 7, most certainly lead the mind to expect also a member bet-v^Teen 8a and 8b, parallel to the second and fourth in verse 7 ; and the disappointment due to its absence is heightened by the fact that perfect par- allelism is found again between the last two stichoi of the stanza, 8b and 8c. That a stichos "neither (is there any) end to their images" (or "their altars") has fallen out seems far easier of* belief than that Isaiah, without any conceivable reason, deliberately built up a structure perfect in its symmetry except- ing for this one point. The intent at parallelism is made all the more evident by the last clause, "that which their own fingers have made," which is absolutely superfluous except as furnish- ing a desired parallel — and, perhaps, rhyme, since the rhyme othdw is noticeable (cf. 1.21). If in the missing line there stood the form ' acgfibhothdw (lit. "his injuries," "pains," used because of the rhj'^ming feminine ending instead of, and as a play in true Isaianic fashion on '(^Qabhdw: "his idols"), there might be found here the source of Ps. 16.4: yirhU ' acg^hhothdm, "their sorrows shall be multiplied [that] hasten [after] another [god]," in which the intention is evidently : "their idols multiply or "they multiply their idols," "they hasten," etc. The word rtiagg^hhothdw , "his pillars," if preferred, would contain the same rhyme. It is true that if the last clause (8c) be omitted, as a gloss on 8b, the latter might be regarded as the parallel to 8a ; but 8b contains nothing that would be made more intelligible by such a gloss as 8c ; as stated above, the latter is clearly a par- allel. In 31.7 there seems to be an echo of this passage, and there a similar relative sentence appears in parallelism, and so in verse 20 of this chapter (see the note on Is. 1.21). Finally, the fact that the second stanza, the one which seems the best preserved, contains just ten lines as will the first stanza if the proposed line be added, is an important consideration from the standpoint of the present studies.
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9-11. (9a) And the mean man boAveth down, (b) and the great man humbleth himself: (c) therefore forgive them not. (10a) Enter into the rock, (b) and hide thee in the dust, (c) for fear of the Lord, (d) and for the glory of his majesty. (Ha) The lofty looks of man shall be humbled, (b) and the haughtiness of men shall be bowed down; (c) and the Lord alone be exalted in that day.
Verse 9ab is a variation of llab, the thought and the im- portant verbs being identical ; the same theme and words occur again in verse 17 ; while the phrase ' ' therefore forgive them not ' ' is replaced in lie by ''and the Lord alone be exalted in that day," which appears also in verse 17. Verse 10, with slight verbal variations also occurs twice again (verses 19, 21). That either verse 9 or verse 11, in such close proximity, is out of place here, is evident to any believer in the possibility of text corruption. There is some doubt, however, whether one is mis- placed, or whether it is superfluous ; on the supposition that the poem contains three stanzas, the former hypothesis seems most likely.
There is difficulty still in verse 9 in the phrase "therefore forgive them not." Literally it means "and do not raise for them," and might form the third (negatively expressed) par- allel to the couplet "The mean man boweth down and the great man humbleth himself," and correspond to the similar third parallel ("And the Lord alone be exalted in that day") in the other recurrences of this refrain. But then at least we should expect the wording ' ' and there shall be no raising up for them, ' ' w^-'en s^'eth Idhem; for this sudden change in the attitude of Isaiah, in addressing God and praying against pardon, is almost incomprehensible. The phrase is probably, in origin, the mar- ginal comment of some reader (see verse 22), or the reconstruc- tion by a copyist of an illegible reading such as suggested above ; however, there is no danger of doing violence to the spirit of Isaiah if the stichos "and the Lord alone be exalted in that day" be substituted for it.
In verse 10 ho', "enter into," but lit. "go in," is rhetorically weak, when viewed either alone' ("go in [to] the rocks") or, more particularly, with the parallel hittamen, "hide"; in 7.19,
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Chapter 2 where bo' is used in a somewhat similar phrase, it is given more definiteness by its immediate connection with another verb, to which it is little more than an auxiliary. Even in prose the more emphatic word hcxdhhe', "hide," would be used in such a con- nection, and especially in the variations of the refrain (verses 19 and 21: "go into the caves") where the parallel line has no verb at all to give greater force to " go. " For a prose example, compare Shabbath 60a: hdyR nexbd'm ham-m^' drd, "they hid themselves in the cave"; more significant is Rev. 6.15, which, quoting Isaiah approximately, chooses "hide," not "enter"; but if bo' does represent a mutilated Mxdhhe', in verse 10, it is necessary to suppose editorial revision in the two other occur- rences of the root, in the repetition of the refrain. On the other hand, if ho' is original, it may have been chosen because of its extreme brevity (and of its assonance with hag-gur), and the force of the phrase would be best reproduced by omitting the verb, and translating simply as an exclamation : ' ' Into the rocks ! ' '
The parallelism between paxadh, "fear," and hddhdr, "glory," in verses 11, 19, 21 is worthy of notice also; the latter word possibly replaced in the course of tradition or of edition a better parallel, x^^'^'^^^j "terror"; otherwise hddhdr means here not glory, but rather the result of God 's glory : man 's rev- erence and awe (see the note on sard, 1.5). The parallelism between the simple preposition in me-h^^dhar and the compound mip-p<^ne would give to the latter its ordinary meaning after verbs of fleeing ("from [before]," with the added idea of cause), and prevent the more literal translation "from the face of" (i.e., "from the terrible countenance of," as the passage is sometimes translated). The phrase "lofty looks" (lit. "eyes of loftiness") in verse 11 apparently represents a conflation of varying forms in which this refrain was handed down ; the word "eyes" here makes the line long, has no parallel in the other half of the couplet, is not found in verse 9 or in verse 17, and is followed by a singular instead of the necessary plural predi- cate. Another version of the refrain is found (possibly out of
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place), in 5.15; there "eyes" occurs in correct grammatical con- struction, but 'ddhdm, "man," is omitted, so that the line is of proper length : w^-ene g^bhohlm tishpdlnd.
Two strophes of the three which compose the refrain are in characteristic form again: each with two stichoi in close par- allelism, and a third stichos in more distant parallelism to either and to both (cf. 1.2) ; the double occurrence of the form makes for perfect symmetry, which is further reenforced by the recur- rence of the refrain as a whole.
12-16. (12a) For the day of the Lord of Hosts (shall be) upon every (one that is) proud and lofty, (b) and upon every (one that is) lifted up, and he shall be brought low; (13a) And upon all the cedars of Lebanon, (that are) high and lifted up, (b) and upon all the oaks of Bashan, (14a) And upon all the high mountains, (b) and upon all the hills (that are) lifted up, (15a) And upon every high tower, (b) and upon every fenced wall, (16a) And upon all the ships of Tarshish, (b) and upon all pleasant pictures.
On the structure of the stanza, ten lines, the first one long, see 6b above. The absolute regularity in the recurrence of the phrase "upon all" (ten times), is conclusive evidence that Isaiah did not avoid symmetry; the literal repetition is effective just because the words are used in perfect parallelism, each time with identically the same meaning and in the same syntactic construction ; it must be distinguished from that sort of repe- tition that was discussed above in connection with 1.6 and 7.
The parallelism of the stanza as a whole, however, is broken in 12b by the antonymistic phrase (word) "and he shall be brought low," we-skdfel, or, disregarding Massoretic vowels, "and (upon every one that is) low," we-shdfdl; the Septua- gint read (or corrected) the whole stichos thus: "and upon everyone that is proud and haughty," nisgdhh w^-nissd'. The slip in the Massoretic text, another example of substituting for a word the antonym (cf. above), was probably due to the pres- ence of the offending word in verse 11. Another probable error is the insertion in verse 13 of the phrase "high and lifted up," hd-rdniim w'^han-nissd' Im, which repeats the adjectives distributed betw^een the two halves of verse 14, but places them together, so
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Chapter 2 as to modify one word "cedars" by two adjectives, leaving the parallel ''oaks" without any. The adjectives are redundant from the stand-point of line length ; and also from that of thought ; because in this verse modifying adjectives have already been replaced by modifying proper nouns: "cedars of Lebanon" and "oaks of Bashan. " Evidently a varying tradition of this verse read "cedars high and oaks lifted up"; the variant was indicated simply by writing the words "high and lifted up" in the margin ; and was then inserted int6 the middle of the phrase by a later copyist (see on 1.14), who, perhaps, placed the two adjectives together because cedars are usually characterized as "high" while oaks are rather "broad" and "sturdy." But the oak might also well be a symbol of height. In verse 15, it is true, "wall" also is characterized as strong ("fenced," i.e., "fortified") ; but again the fact that Isaiah in his introduction to his list specifically speaks of all things ' ' high and tall ' ' ; that down to this point all objects come within that category, as do "ships of Tarshish" in the next verse; but more particularly that in this verse the immediate parallel is ' ' high towers, ' ' makes it far more likely that the familiar phrase "fortified wall" (cf. Deut. 28.52; Jer. 15.20) has by error replaced an original "high wall," x^yn^ nisgahhd, a phrase found in Is. 30.13 and contain- ing a synonym for "high" that has not yet appeared among the many used in this passage.
More troublesome is the concluding line of the stanza, "and all pleasant pictures," kol- s^klyoth ha- xewi<^, parallel to "all the ships of Tarshish," and in which s^klyoth, "pictures," is a aira^ Xe'^ofxevop. If the phrase were in itself one which justi- fied the breaking of the series of "high" (at least "big" and "sturdj^") parallels — e.g., if it were particularly emphatic, or expressed clearly a summary ("objects" instead of "pictures") — there might be reason for believing it correct here ; but the summary has been indicated at the beginning; and "pleasant" ("desirable") is by no means a term which might in a summary be applied to the objects here enumerated. The Septuagint reads : * ' every aspect ( Oeav ) of ships of beauty ' ' ; the insertion
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of "ships" may have been due to a very unusual attempt to establish the missing parallelism, or to the fact that a word for "ships" really stood in the margin. The Targum Jonathan paraphrases the whole couplet thus: "upon those who live in the islands of the sea and who dwell in beautiful palaces," hlrdnydthd shapplrdn; Jewish commentators translate : ' ' palaces paved with precious stones" (because of Lev. 26.1, where occurs the phrase "image of stone," lit. "stone of picture" [masklth, from the same root as s^Myoth] ) — all of which indicates only the difficulty in accepting the illogical line as it stands. Failing better explanation, recourse might again be had to the theory of misplaced lines. With the meaning "precious images" accepted on the basis of those passages in which masklth occurs (e.g., Prov. 25.11, "silver carved images"; more particularly, referring to idolatrous worship, Num. 33.52 ; Lev. 26.1 ; Ezek. 8.12) and those in which x^nidd and other words from the same root are found (e.g., Hos. 13.15: kHi x^mda) the line belongs naturally in the defective and mutilated third stanza. At the same time it is necessary to assume another line in its place here, one referring also to ships, parallel to "ships of Tarshish." "Tarshish, " like "Lebanon" and "Bashan" above, takes the place of a common adjective, as it does in all the cases in which the phrase "ships of Tarshish" is used: "able to go to Tarshish, to foreign shores," a "large foreigner." Unfortunately, no exactly parallel phrase is to be found in Isaiah ; but in 33.21 occurs gi 'addir, ' ' majestic ship, ' ' as the opposite of ' ' row-boat. ' ' ^i itself is apparently a foreign (Egyptian) word, hence its connotation might again be ' ' foreign ship * ' ; and if this phrase be an acceptable emendation here, compare in verse 6 of this chapter the parallelism between the proper name "Philistines" and the common noun ' ' strangers. ' '
17. (a) And the loftiness of man shall be bowed down, (b) and the haughtiness of man be made low (c) and the Lord alone be exalted on that day.
See the note on verses 9-11 above. Possibly the rest of the
refrain should be repeated at the end of stanza 2, from the end
of stanza 1 (verse 10).
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Chapter 2 18-19. (18) And the idols he shall utterly abolish. (19a) And they shall go into the caves of the rocks (b) and into the caves of the earth.
On verse 18 see below, the note to verse 20 ; on 19, see verses 9-11 above.
20. (a) On that day a man shall cast his idols of silver, (b) and his idols of gold, (c) vsrhich they made each one for himself to wor- ship, (d) to the moles and to the bats.
The long first line here, with a paj"allel (20b) only to the object, has the appearance of being the first line of a stanza parallel to the other two stanzas. The phrases "his idols of silver" and "his idols of gold," and "which they made (each one) for himself to worship" echo the phrases of the first stanza (verses 6-8) ; the parallelism (as against subordination) of the relative clause here is fixed by 2.8, where grammatically it can- not be subordinate; possibly for 'dsu, "they made," the singular should be read, or the subject "hands ""be inserted as in verse 8. Such an echoing of words, recalling here, along with the picture of man's contempt for his treasures, the previous picture of his worship of them, would be an effective piece of Isaianic sarcasm — particularly if the picture here were as complete in its detailed enumeration as is stanza 1 (cf. also 3.18ff.). What the missing phrases might have been can only be conjectured; verse 16b, it was suggested above, was probably one of them : s^klyoth ha-xcmda, "precious images." Still another, in a corrupt form, perhaps, appears now as verse 18 : " his idols he shall utterly abolish. ' ' The word translated ' ' abolish, ' ' yax^loph, is suspicious ; it occurs frequently in this conjugation, but as an intransitive, and only with such subjects as wind, fiood, days, rain, heavens (and once, God) — always, then, in reference to what does not have definite form and where the root meaning "change" or "pass on" can still be felt; the causative (active) conjugation of the verb preserves this root idea even more clearly ("to change the form of condition," or "renew a former state"). On the supposition that the stichos, written in the margin, was very illegible and was "edited" to make a complete proposition because of the mistake in the place of insertion, we might read
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for yax^loph a parallel to Jia-xenidd, e.g., ha-xepheg ("desire," supposing a change of g to /, and its transposition ; and the sign of the imperfect instead of the article). In kdlil, "entirely" (here the only occurrence of the word as an adverb) there might be found kf^le: the phrase k'^ll xemdd is found in Nah. 2.10; Hos. 13.15 : "vessels of desire" (A. V. "pleasant vessels") ; Jer. 22.28 : kHl en xepheg ho, "vessels wherein is no pleasure "; particularly I Sam. 6.8 and 15, kHe haz-zahahh, "jewels of gold," referring to the "images" of mice in verse 4. With hd-'Hellm kHe ha- xepheg in apposition to verse 20, the thought would run : ' ' they shall cast away their idols of silver, and their idols of gold — the gods they have made with their fingers — their precious thing- gods." Hd-'Hellm, however, might be a mere gloss, or might represent another synonym hap- pesillm, "idols," or "images."
The phrase "to the moles and the bats" in the Massoretic text and the English is made the indirect object of ' ' cast, ' ' from which it is removed by quite a lengthy clause, however. The scene pictured by this connection is hardly a logical one. It seems most likely that the Prophet pictured the idolators casting away their idols when the terror comes upon them, and fleeing from them — not carrying them along with them to the caves and the "holes in the ground," as would seem to be necessary if they cast them to the moles and the bats; for surely he did not mean to imply that moles and bats were found about the homes of the wealthy. At best, if the connection is correct, the trans- lation should be "cast them away for the moles and the bats," which, supposedly, are to take possession of the palaces and estates after these have fallen into ruins. Targum, Peshitta and Septuagint connect differently : ' ' the idols which they make, in order to bow down to vanities (A. V. 'moles') and bats"; i.e., the idols themselves are the "vanities and bats." Still another interpretation would be possible : ' ' they shall cast aside their golden idols, in order to bow down to moles and bats": i.e., to bend before them as they crawl into the caves — which would be another example of Isaiah's grim humor.
None of these interpretations, however, fulfils the require-
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Chapter 2 merits of the type of parallelism used in the other stanzas. The verb ''cast away" does not necessarily have an indirect object; cf. Ezek. 20.7 : "Then said I unto them, Cast ye away {haskllkhU) every man the abominations of his eyes, and defile not yourself with the idols of Egypt"; and it is perhaps significant that Is. 31.7, which seems to quote our present verse, paraphrases simply: "On that day every man shall despise {yini'as: A. V. ' ' cast away " ) his idols of silver and gold which your own hands have made unto you (for) a sin." Perhaps, then, the prepo- sition "to," l^, in laxpor peroth w^la- Halle flm is at fault: notice the five prepositions in succession "to (for) himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats, to go" of which only two are parallel. If for the preposition in the case of the two nouns there stood originally the article ha, these words might be addi- tional parallels, and refer to carved amulets in animal form. So at a later epoch Ezekiel in his vision (Ezek. 8.10) pictures the elders of Israel offering incense to "creeping things and beasts, abominations [sheqeg]" (among which is included the bat in Lev. 7.21), and all the idols of the house of Israel, "every man in the chambers of his imagery" {nvasMtho, the word to which reference was made above in connection with s^kiyoth) ; in Isaiah, the reference would be to the ornament talismans brought from Egypt by way of Philistia. It may even be possible that X^parpdroth, which the Massorites did not recognize, since they divided it into two words, and which is a ajra^ Xeyofievov found nowhere in the Semitic languages (though its root, "to dig," supports the Vulgate "mole") is the Egyptian khepra or kheper- per, ' ' beetle ' ' and ' ' scarab ' ' ; and some of the scarabs with out- stretched wings might easily have been mistaken for figures of bats. The detailed enumeration still lacks two lines even if this hypothesis is correct, or one, if the quadriliteral 'HallepMm and the reduplicated form x^PCi'fP^'''oth might be considered as sep- arate stichoi (so also, possibly romamtl in 2.2 if hdnoth be not inserted, and 'f^qalqalloth in Judges 5.6). It is hardly possible to find traces of the remaining missing lines below, in the super- fluous verse 22.
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21. (a) To go into the clefts of the rocks, (b) and into the tops of the ragged rocks, (c) for fear of the Lord, (d) and for the glory of his majesty, (e) when he arises to shake terribly the earth.
See above on verse 10. In "to go," Id-hho, the preposition might be temporal (cf. Is. 7.15, l^-dha'to, "when he knoweth") : "when he enters," "as he enters." It is more probable, how- ever, that the whole verse belongs at the beginning of the stanza, in the imperative or infinitive absolute, as in verse 9.
22. (a) Cease ye from man, whose breath is in his nostrils, for wherein is he to be accounted of?
This verse is quite distinct in tone from the rest of the chapter, though verbal connection is established by hd-'ddhdm, ' ' man ' ' ; but ' ' man ' ' who is rebuked throughout the three stanzas is presumably Israel as a whole, including those to whom the prophecy is delivered or addressed, while here the audience is addressed as though standing apart from "man" who is re- buked ; 'the absence of any vocative also is noticeable.
The term ' ' cease from ' ' is obscure. It would normally mean "cease paying attention to," "do not trouble" or, less fre- quently, "desert" (Ezek. 2.7: "refuse to hear"). With the first meaning the verse would sound rather like the remark of a reader, wearied with the contemplation of man's perversity; and in such an interpretation might be compared with the interjected remark in verse 9, "do not forgive them." If the meaning is ' ' desert, ' ' the implication would supposedly be : do not trust (any longer) in man (but turn to God). In either case there is felt the absence of a parallel verb defining "cease from" more clearly.
The second member of the verse : ' ' whose breath is in his nostrils," is in the English given an emphasis which it has not in the Hebrew, which is : "in whose nostril is breath " or "a breath, ' ' This relative clause is again of interest from the stand- point of parallelism : if it is of the same nature as the relative clause in verse 20, i.e., parallel, the sense is: "Cease from man, the creature who is characterized by having a breath in his nostrils"; but if it is subordinate, the sense is: "Cease from
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Chapter 2 that man in whose nostrils is breath," i.e., from man who is alive, or while he has life (cf. Job 27.3, "as long as my breath is in me, and the spirit of God is in my nostrils: i.e., "as long as I live"). It is the former that is intended here, of course, but in either case the emphasis is upon man as a* living being ; cf. Gen. 7.22: "all in whose nostrils was the breath of life" — every living thing. To give the words any point at all here, it is necessary to place upon them an emphasis and implication which they do not clearly express; either: "whose breath is in his nostril" (and easily passes away), or "who has in his nostrils o^ily a breath"; or, "whose breath was placed in his nostril hy God, who can therefore take it away." Perhaps if the last line also were considered a parallel: "who is of little account," the idea of the transitoriness of man's life might be emphasized. But if it was Isaiah who was trjnng to express this thought, surely he would have chosen words as clear as those in Job 34.14 : "if he (God) gather unto himself his spirit and his breath, all flesh dies"; or in Ps. 104.29: "Thou takest away their breath, they die." Furthermore, even granting the implication of the words, man's mortalit}^, the whole verse is still illogical here. Instead of "Trust not in man, who is mortal," the context de- mands: "Cease from man, who is idolatrous and vain." If Isaianic (against which the style argues) the verse was placed here by the compiler possibly because he thought it formed a transition to the next chapter, where, however, the subject again is not man's mortal nature, but his transgression and punish- ment. The Septuagint omits the verse.
Chapter 3
1-3. (la) For behold, the Lord, the Lord of Hosts, doth take away from Jerusalem and from Judah the stay and the staff, (b) the whole stay of bread, (c) and the whole stay of water. (2a) The mighty man and the man of war, (b) the judge and the prophet (c) and the prudent and the ancient. (3a) The captain of fifty and the honorable man, (b) and the counsellor and the cunning artificer, (c) and the eloquent orator.
In form and development of theme this stanza is, on the
whole, like the middle stanza of the last prophecy: a long first
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stichos (la), with the following short stichoi parallel to its last syntactic member ; a first couplet or strophe stating the theme in general terms, while the remainder elaborates it is in a specific, exhaustive enumeration. But in some respects as the text stands, the general form is obscured. In the first place, the opening line is over-long; though "Jerusalem" and "Judah," * ' stay ' ' and ' ' staff ' ' are clearly two pairs of parallel terms (cf. verse 8) they are not distributed in parallel stichoi; but with proper distribution ten stichoi result. Secondly, the coup- let "whole stay of bread and whole stay of water," repeating one of the words used in the preceding line, adds qualifying genitives ("bread and water") clearly contradicting the quali- fying appositives in the following stichoi, whose implication is that "staff and stay" are the supports of the government, not the supports of human life. At the same time it must be noticed that in the second portion of this chapter there is a combination of the two themes of want and anarchy (cf. also 4.1). It is quite possible, then, that these two lines have replaced another couplet which was more appropriate to the theme of "government," while they themselves belong to another stanza which, in a series of phrases repeating the framework of ' ' every stay of bread and every stay of water" (cf. the framework of 2.12ff.), developed the prediction of famine, thirst, dearth of clothing, and similar misfortunes.
Thirdly, the detailed enumeration of the members of the official class is not in all respects logically arranged at present; the English, in translating qosem (lit. "diviner") as "prudent," conceals the disorder. By transposing the terms yo' eg, "coun- sellor," now in 3b, and qosem, "diviner," now in 2c, logical order is reestablished in the beginning and end of the enumera- tion ; for the Jast pair of terms also apparently refers to species of diviners, instead of to "the cunning artificer and the eloquent orator ' ' as the versions translate. Another difficulty in the text lies in the fact that ' ' captain of fifty, ' ' sar x"^in^ishsMm, as a mili- tary term stands between two terms referring to civil life: zdqen u-n^sW phdnlm, "the ancient," and "the honorable" (cf.
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Chapter 3 Is. 9.14, a possible gloss, but nevertheless showing the natural order of these terms). "Captain of fifty" is, of course, a com- mon term; but the suspicion aroused by its unusual position here justifies the question why a military title denoting this subordinate rank was singled out, rather than one of more gen- eral application or at least referring to higher rank {sar gdhd', sar x(^yih sar 'elef, sar me' a, etc.) ; it is as though one should group together in a general denunciation ' ' soldiers, judges, sena- tors, magnates and subcaptains. " Possibly, then, x^^^^^^him was a misreading of some form of the root ndxash, e.g., m^naxesh, or yodhefi' ndxdsh or n^^x^shlm, "skilled in divination," in- tended to be inserted together with qosem alongside* of x^^^aw X^rdshlm (read singular?) and n^hhon laxosh. This assumption would leave sar, ' ' noble, " " ruler, " or " chief, ' ' in its usual gen- eral signification, and in a natural position (cf. verse 14: "the elders and princes of his people"). Moreover, there would then be ten stichoi again (including Ibc or two others in place thereof).
4. (a) And I will give children [to be] their princes (b) and babes shall rule over them.
For the English "babes," and the Septuagint "mockers" (possibly reading the root Idfagh; so also in 66.4), the Masso- retic text has ta'<^lullm, which might come from any one of four different roots with identical consonants and denoting respec- tively "act severely," "insert," "glean," and (a denominative verb) "play the child." To the hearer, then, the word did not necessarily by itself convey clearly and singly any one of these ideas;. it is absolutely certain, however, that here because of the parallelism it must at least have included the last named (by paronomasia, if "wantonness" is the primary intention); and this is further evidenced by 3.12, where m^'olel is clearly a denominative from "child"; evidently the intention in the two passages is identical. Ta'Hullm is in form an infinitve or abstract; it is here parallel to a concrete; it occurs again only in 66.4, as an antithesis to another abstract shikkUglm; but both are there used in place of concretes: "their soul delighteth in
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their abominations [used regularly for ''idols"] ; I also will choose their wantonness" (A. V. "delusions"; i.e., that which or those who will delude them, or deal cruelly with them) ; it is not impossible, indeed, that despite its form the word may have had a concrete signification : compare the development of talmldh, ''teaching," then "disciple."
5-6. (5a) And the people shall be oppressed, every one by another, (b) and every one by his neighbor; (c) the child shall behave him- self proudly against the ancient, (d) and the base against the honor- able; (6a) when a man shall take hold of his brother (b) (of) the house of his father.
Intended in this set of parallels is a detailed explanation of
the anarchy predicted in verse 4; the parallelism is clear as
between the various parts of verse 5 (a to b, c to d, and ab to
cd; but in form, a more closely to c, and b to d) ; stichos 6a,
despite the fact that it begins with kl, "for" (A. V. "when"),
is also parallel to 5a and 5c; the ki, then, should be translated
as a climactic "yea." The stichos beth 'abhlm (6b) is difficult,
even if translated ' ' in the house of his father ' ' ; for in breaking
the parallelism it becomes especially emphatic, but emphasizes
an unimportant detail, with an emphasis which is all the greater
because of the contrasting phrase "in my house" in 7c. The
suggestion offered by parallelism is that 6b should represent a
climax: indeed "father" is the climax of one set of terms: man,
neighbor, ancient, honorable, brother; beth, "house," then, is
probably an error for ben, "son," the climax of the contrasting
series: "yea, a son (shall seize) his own father."
6-7. (6c) Thou hast clothing, (d) be thou our ruler, (e) and (let) this ruin (be) under thy hand. (7a) In that day he shall swear, saying (b) I will not be an healer; (c) for in my house (is) neither bread nor clothing: (d) make me not a ruler of this people.
The absence of any word introducing the direct discourse
in 6c, contrasted with the long introductory line (7a) to the
discourse beginning in 7b is noticeable; particularly the phrase
"in that day," which elsewhere is always properly emphatic,
is here emphasis misplaced, in the middle of a scene instead of
at the beginning or end ; it adds nothing to the picture-prophecy
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Chapter 3 that "on the very day" of being asked the man shall answer. If retained, the line, as in other eases, is an "aside."
The phrase ' ' thou hast clothing ' ' also is without any parallel. But the reference to clothing here anticipates and so spoils the suddenness of the climax in 7c; and, on the whole, the picture of two brothers unaware of the condition of each other's affairs — one affirming, the other denying, that he has clothing — is rather absurd. Moreover, the reply in 7a is one to a remark concerning rather food than clothing as the more important fac- tor. By the omission of 6c ("thou hast clothing") and by the reference of the conversation to each of the pairs mentioned in the previous verses, not alone to the two brothers, the picture becomes clear and the emphasis properly placed; the stanza is then seen to contain two characteristically Isaianic turns. Up to this point he has pictured a condition of anarchy as it would normally be ; and the mind of the hearer naturally assumes that the attempt of every man is to wrest the power to himself. But then comes the turn to the thought : each man seeks not to gain power, but to thrust it upon another. The second unexpected factor lies in the reason for the refusal of the kingship : the lack of a piece of bread (the garment is comparatively an unim- portant matter, and reference to it might be omitted without weakening the sense : it is included only for the sake of par- allelism. )
The irony in the situation thus revealed is made clearer by the grim humor of the pun in the word "ruin," makhsheld (lit. "stumbling block") for "rule," memshald; the meaning is fixed by the parallel "be thou our ruler." The play is carried fur- ther bj^ the use of the word xo&/ies^: from the root "to bind," it means both to dress wounds (here those of the injured state) and to rule (cf. Job 34.17: "shall even he that hateth right govern?" yax^hhosh; this meaning is derived probably from that of "harnessing," "restraining") ; aga-in the primary thought is made clear by the parallelism between x^i>^^sh and q^gin ("ruler"). The offending clause sinild l^khd, "thou hast [lit. "to thee is"] clothing," possibly had its origin in a marginal
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mamlakhd, "rule," a true gloss on nmkhsheld, or in a conflation of that marginal word with an original l^'khd ("come": i.e., "come, ruler shalt thou be over us") ; notice that l^^khd is written with the final h.
8-9. (8a) For Jerusalem is ruined (b) and Judah is fallen, (8c) because their tongue and their doings are against the Lord (d) to provoke the eyes of his glory. (9a) The show of their countenance doth witness against them, (b) and they declare their sin as Sodom, (c) they hide (it) not.
Possibly the first kl, "for," should be omitted; notice the same word introducing the next sentence (8c : A, V. "because") ; 8a, b does not express the cause of the fact of ruin, but of the author's use of the term makhsheld in the previous stanza; i.e., it is explanatory; if retained, the first kl might be translated "yea," or "indeed."
From the standpoint of parallelism the strophe 8c-9 is not always clear. On the whole, it emphasizes not the sin which has led to ruin but the brazenness, the lack of shame, with which the sin was committed. This is the note struck by the opening word ' ' their tongue ' ' ; and it is repeated in the third line by "their faces"; in the fourth, by "they proclaim, they do not conceal." The second stichos, "to provoke the eyes of his glory," though it is not clear, is not out of harmony with the main theme, ' ' impudence of the tongue ' ' ; the only word, then, that clearl}'- adds a variant idea is "their deeds" in the first stichos ( 8c ) . Criticism, then, should be directed toward this word.
As a matter of fact a double subject in one sentence, when not paralleled by a similar construction, is always suspicious; this is true even if the double subject consists of synonyms ; but when one of them expresses an added idea it becomes by contrast lame. Moreover, the construction is extremely awkward; liter- ally: "their tongue and -their deeds (are) toward the Lord." It is perhaps more than a coincidence that the Septuagint evidently did not read the word ma^aMehem "their deeds," though it is in itself a common word ; nor is its substitution,
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Chapter 3 /uera avo/jLia<;, clear enough to lead to the conclusion that it changed purposely to make better sense. Perhaps, then, its text really contained a form of the root 'dwal, and ni<^' awwHd, ' ' act wrongfully, ' ' should be read ; this denominative participle occurs in Is. 26.10 ; and the root is fairly frequent in connection with "tongue" and "speech" (Job 5.16, 6.30, 13.7, 27.4; Mai. 2.6; Ps. 107.42; Is. 59.3: I'^shon'^khem ' awla thehghe: "your tongue hath muttered perverseness " ; and for the use of the preposition 'el, compare Is. 32.6: ¥-dhabher 'el '(^dhonai to' a, "to utter error against the Lord"). Ma' alHehem was possibly due to the same word in verse 10, or to marginal notes referring to both passages; for another suggestion regarding the suffix hem, see below.
In 8c the phrase "to provoke the eyes of his glory" is more difficult than the English reveals ; literallj^ it is : "to rebel against the eyes of his glory." The expression is unique; the nearest approach to it is found in Ps. 106.33 : ' ' they rebelled against (defied) his spirit" (cf. Is. 63.10) ; but the spirit (ril«x) »f God, like the ' ' glory of God, " in a way stands for God himself, which the "eyes" do not. Parallelism suggests that "eyes" belongs in a series of subjects: "tongues," "eyes," "faces"; i.e., it is men's eyes that rebel against his (God's) glory; compare Is. 5.15: "the eyes of the lofty [i.e., proud] shall be humbled." The change requires merely the addition of the suffix hem, "their," to "eyes"; it is this very suffix which is superfluous ima' aPUhem) in the line above, if our surmise there is correct; the word "eyes" is written defectively in the Massoretic text (without its medial y), and the Septuagint also points to illegi- bility, reading "their glory has been brought low," possibly 'and or na'nd (with final h) kh^^hhodhdm instead of ' ene kh'^hhodho; this again contains the letters h and m. The slight additional change of lamroth to mamroth (i.e., participle instead of infinitive: so the Septuagint reads cnreiOovvTe'^, "disobedient") restores a perfectly normal, intelligible, parallel line : w^-mamroth ' enehem k^^hhodho (or, if the error arose from the fact that ' enehem was misplaced and then written in: w^^-' enehem mam- roth k^hhodho).
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In stichoi 8c and 8d the parallelism is clearly established by the verbs ''witness" (but literally "answer," "speak": 'anHha) and "declare"; and though the subject of "witness," namely ' ' show, ' ' hakkarath, is not entirelj^ clear, the underlying thought in both stichoi is undoubtedly "their guilt is plain to all." Since then the verb hikker has sometimes the meaning "recog- nize," "acknowledge," the phrase may well mean: "the acknowledgment (i.e., acknowledging look) on their faces," which, in turn, is equivalent to "the impudent look on their faces." It is a linguistic coincidence that hakkarath might, on the other hand, be derived from hdkar, which in Arabic denotes both "to be sleepy" and "to be astounded" — hence possibly in origin "to have a fixed look," and here "an impudent look"; in Job 19.3, where the same root appears, a translation "ye are shameless," or "shamelessly, brazenly, persistent, toward me" would be possible.
The extreme brevity of 9c, "they hide not," a stichos par- allel to 9b, may be due to the fact that it is the last line of the stanza. However, it is possible that, parallel to "like Sodom," "like Gomorrah" should be inserted; indeed, the absence of reference to Gomorrah would be striking and apparently sig- nificant ; compare Is. 1.9, 10, 13.19 ; Amos 4.11, Jer. 23.14, 49.18, 50.40; Deut. 29.22, 32.32, as against only Lam. 4.6, and Ezek. chapter 16, in the last of which the particular nature of the reference precludes the addition of Gomorrah.
9-llc. (9d) Woe unto their soul! (e) for they have reAvarded evil unto themselves. (10a) Say ye (to) the righteous that (it shall be) well (with him) ; (b) for they shall eat the fruit of their doings. (11a) Woe unto the wicked! (b) (it shall be) ill (with him): (c) for the reward of his hands shall be given him.
While in some details the text here is obscure, the parallelism
is fairly evident. It is clearest in the following stichoi : 9e, "for
they have rewarded evil unto themselves ' ' ; 10b, ' ' for they shall
eat the fruit of their doings"; and lie, "for the reward of his
hands shall be given him." Of the remaining three main
clauses two, 9d, "Woe unto their soul" and 11a, "Woe unto
the wicked," are also clearly parallel, while the middle one in
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Chapter 3 the series, 10a, "say ye (to) the righteous that (it shall be well) with him," though in thought antithetically parallel, is in form not clearly parallel ; on the other hand, one member of this clause "that (or 'for') well" seems to be parallel to the one word in the stanza not yet accounted for, "ill," in lib; which would then require, however, the insertion of the word "that" (or "for") before it.
But the clause 10a: "Say ye the righteous that [or 'for'] well" is a stylistic, if not grammatical, impossibility; and it is just here, also, that the text underlying the Septuagint varies again : ' ' saying, let us bind the just for he is burdensome to us. ' ' This, perhaps, represents a conflation of marginal glosses, in which le'mor, "saying" (lit. "to say" or "in sajdng"), is a variant of ne'^^sar, "let us bind" (written with the sibilant sin instead of samekh), and both arising out of an original 'ashrc, "happy!" This would then restore the middle clause in the series to form parallelism : ' ' happy the righteous, for, ' ' etc.
However, there is also a minor grammatical variation in parts of these verses, in that 9d, 9e, and 10b are in the third plural, while the remaining clauses are in the singular ; the clauses in the plural are consistent with the preceding stanza in this respect, and, moreover, refer directly to the particular sinners treated there ; the clauses in the singular are in the nature of general reflections, contrasting the lot of the wicked and the righteous : they are probably marginal additions sug- gested by such texts as Ps, 128.2: "Happy shalt thou be and (it shall be) well with thee"; or if by Isaiah, they have been wrongfully placed here. "Woe to their souls, for they have laid up evil for themselves, yea, the fruit of their deeds shall they eat" is a complete and consistent two line strophe, a fitting close to the section verses 1-9.
12. (a) (As for) my people, children (are) their oppressors, (b) and women shall rule over them, (c) O my people they which lead thee cause thee to err, (d) and destroy the way of thy paths.
The first couplet (12a, b) repeats, in general, verse 4, but
the wording in 12a is not entirely clear; literally: "my people,
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its oppressors [plural] plays the child [singular]." Aside from the grammar, there are here expressed two thoughts : the rulers are oppressors, and they are childish (or perhaps "are wanton") ; it is possible, however, that nogh^sdw, "oppressors," has the more general meaning here "rulers," as it has in Zech. 10.4, and as the parallelism with "rule," mdshHu, in verse 12 might suggest. The natural force of parallelism to nogh^shdw in the meaning "oppressors" has led Targum, and possibly the Septuagint, to read in place of ndshlm, ' ' women, ' ' in- 12b, noshlm, ' ' creditors ' ' ; both versions, also, understand m^' oMlm to mean "gleaners" (see, on the root, verse 4b), fitting in admirably with their understanding of noshlm: "thy creditors, or those that collect the taxes from thee, glean thee, strip thee clean"; and notice that in verse 14 the figure of the vineyard reappears. Another suggestion is offered hj Amos 2.8, where one of the sins of Israel is again described as "drinking the wine of the condemned [lit. "mulcted": ' ('■7iushlm] in the house of their God." The Septuagint in this Amos passage translates 'C'tiUshim by (TUKO(f)avTL(av, usually representing the Hebrew 'dsKaq ("ex- tort" or "oppress") — a word occurring frequently in refer- ence to the despoilers of the poor although it is not found at all in the earlier Isaiah. Now, in the present Isaiah passage the Septuagint has irpaKrope^, ' ' exactors, " " tax-collectors, " or " pun- ishers ' ' in the first stichos and aTrairovvre^ in the second ; but the latter is the usual translation (see 9.3, 14.4; also in other books) of nogh^slm, and there may be represented here a transposition of the two words, so that 7rpdKTop€<i is rather the translation of its reading for ndshlm: possibly of ndshlm (so Aquila and Theo- dotion to Ps. 109.11; against this they have in Is. 60.17 irpaKTcop for Hebrew noghes and Septuagint eVio-zcoTro?), or, since in 24.2 noshe is more exactly 6(f)ei\(ov, probably of another word, ' dri^shlm ("mulcters," " punishers " ) , the root found in Amos. At all events attention should be paid to the parallelism between m^'dlHlm and ndshlm; since here "children" (if this be the cor- rect interpretation of the root of the former word) is avoided and a denominative substituted, "play the child," it is probable that
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Chapter 3 ndshlm, "women," if correct, is to be taken figuratively instead of literally; i.e., "effeminates," "weaklings," as in Jer. 50.37, 51.30: "the mighty men of Babylon have become women"; a formal denominative from ndshlm, parallel to m^' olHlm, was almost impossible because of the peculiar nature of the word.
The change from third person in 12a, b to second in 12c, d indicates one of two facts : either that the two couplets do not belong together here, one being then a stray couplet inserted on the margin because of its similarity to the other ; or that the second is a more impassioned form of the first, and parallel to it in theme ; this would confirm the figurative, not literal, signifi- cation of ndshlm in verse 12b. The root of m^'ashsh^rekhd, "they that lead thee," if not a variant of ydshar, "be straight," at least suggests it ; cf. Prov. 9.15 : ham-m^yashsh^rlm 'orxdthdm, ' ' those making straight their paths " ; so that the contrast be- tween m^ashsh'^rekhd and math'lm ("cause thee to err"; root "deviate") is exceedingly nice. At the same time the word 'ashur, "footsteps," is suggested in m^ashsh^rekhd, establishing a closer parallelism wath "way," "path" in the following stichos (12b).
The use of hilW u, "destroy" (lit. "swallow"), parallel to math'lm, "pervert," is striking; one expects 'iqq^shu (Is. 59.8; Mic. 3.9), him (Ps. 125.5; Prov. 17.23), or 'iwwu (Is. 24.1; cf. he^wU, Jer. 3.21). The same parallelism, however, occurs in 9.15; and with other forms of the root hdla' , in 28.7, where in addition to nihhWu and td'u occur shdghu, "swerve," "reel," and pdqu, "reel," "totter" (cf. Ps. 107.27: "they reel to and fro, and stagger like a drunken man, and their wisdom is swal- lowed up," tithhalla') ; and in 19.3 '(^halle<^' is parallel to w^- nahh^qd, translated "fail," but in its turn parallel both to 'iwwd, "twist," or "distort," and hdlaq, "lay waste," in 24.1. In some of these passages it is almost impossible to find anything of the idea "to swallow" in bdla' . It is true the metaphor "swallow up the road" occurs in Arabic, of a horse that runs swiftly; but in the present passage such a striking figure would seem to be possible only if the other half of the parallelism
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offered another aspect of the same figure or else an equally strik- ing one. The passages cited referring to drunkenness might suggest here the figure: They that should lead thee straight cause thee to reel (like drunken men) and they swallow your paths (like wine) ; in 28.7, with a characteristically Isianic twist: ''they stagger with strong drink, they are gulped by [instead of 'they gulp'] wine." But in 19.3 the phrase "I shall swallow up their counsel" is put in the mouth of God; and in Ps. 55.10 occurs: "Swallow, Lord, their tongue" — a violent anthropo- orphism which in neither case is confirmed by parallelism. It might be possible to urge that the word bdla' , in the figurative sense "destroy," was so common that it might have been used without suggesting the literal meaning at all; but this is not a satisfactory explanation in the case of Isaiah, especially in view of its frequent parallelism to ' ' pervert, " " twist. ' ' It would be tempting, then, to find a second root hdla' in Hebrew, corre- sponding to the Arabic balagha, but with the opposite meaning, "miss the goal," instead of "reach the goal"; there are, of course, manj^ such Semitic words of two contrary meanings. Failing this, we are forced to accept bala' as a sort of parono- masia on bal-al, ' ' confound, " " confuse, " or of popular etymology based on a false extension and application of the primitive biliteralism of Semitic roots.
13-14b. (13a) The Lord standeth up to plead, (b) and standeth to judge his people; (14a) The Lord will enter into judgment (b) with the ancients of his people and the princes thereof.
The parallelistic repetition of "my [his] people" in 12a, 12c, and 14b shows that the Hebrew "peoples," 'ammlm, in 13b is an error for 'ammo, "his people," read by the Septuagint and English.
There is a peculiar order of words in 13a, b : while the predi- cate participles nissabh and ' omedh, "stand," and the infinitives la-ribh, "to plead," and Id-dhln, "to judge" are in parallel positions respectively, in 13a the subject, "the Lord," is in parallel position to the object, 'a/mmlm, "people," in 13b. Quite possibly the unnatural order in 13a should be changed : in either
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Chapter 3 case the omission of the object in this verse is noticeable ; it is supplied first in 13b — an example of restrictive climactic par- allelism, which is rare in Isaiah; another step in the climax is seen in 14a, where the object is further restricted by modifiers f the Lord will judge ; he will judge his people ; the Lord will judge the people's rulers and princes.
This third line of the stanza is comparatively very long, though perhaps not longer than 1.6a, for example; nevertheless, the absence of other tristichs in this prophecy might lead to suspicion as to this one. Distich formation is barely possible:
The Lord rises to plead and stands to judge his people;
The Lord enters into judgment with his people's elders and princes.
Here the double predicate in one stichos might find its balance
in the double object ("elders and princes") of the second. As a
quatrastich the passage would offer three parallel lines and then
a fourth line consisting apparently merely of a prepositional
phrase ; this would be the first example in Isaiah of such a
stichos, containing a proposition neither complete in itself, nor
yet parallel to another incomplete proposition like itself as it
would be if the text read (cf. 4.4) :
The Lord stands to plead And rises for judgment,
With the ancients of his people,
With the princes of Judah.
This may, indeed, have been the original form of the prophecy. As the text stands, finally, since the fourth line does contain a term parallel to (identical with) one in the second ("people"), it is possible that owing to the climactic structure, the mind sup- plies before its fourth stichos a repetition of the verb, thus :
The Lord standeth up to plead
And standeth to judge his people, The Lord will enter into judgment
[And plead] with the ancients and princes of his people.
14-15. (14c) For ye [lit. "and ye — ye"] have eaten up the vineyard; (d) the spoil of the poor (is) in your houses. (15a) What mean ye (that) ye beat my people to pieces, (b) and grind the fac^s of the poor? (c) saith the Lord God of Hosts.
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The abrupt passage to the direct discourse is again noticeable, but not unusual (cf. 3.6). The emphatic we-'attem, "and as for you," is, however, almost unique at the introduction of a discourse, for it usually marks a contrast or an especial emphasis upon the subject ; so even in Ps. 2.6 where it again occurs at the beginning of a speech the contrast and emphasis are clear as between the first person plural in the speech of the kings of earth and the first singular in the speech of God. Moreover the reference to the vineyard in Is. 14c is abrupt; one expects at least "my vineyard" (contrast chapter 5 with its careful elaboration of the figure of the vineyard) ; the definite article is very noticeable; indeed, it is this probably that led the ver- sions to find a previous reference to a vineyard (see above, the note to verse 12). On the other hand 15a begins with a phrase which is characteristically the introduction to an indignant direct discourse: "What mean ye," etc. (lit., "what to you"; cf. 1.11, also 22.1, 16). Possibly, then, the two couplets should be transposed; the pronoun w^-'attem would then be either merely parallel to the suffix in Idkhem, or would be explicative : "in that ye have eaten" (lit. "ye having eaten the vineyard") ; or the contrast becomes : ' ' my people are in poverty, while you, the leaders, have their spoil in your houses." Following (and parallel to) "my people" and "the poor," the figurative mean- ing of "vineyard," and its definiteness, would become clear.
But in 14c g^zel-ath he-'dnl, "spoil of the poor," is suspicious because of the repetition of "the poor" in 15b ; read hd- c-nahhlm, "grapes," parallel to "vinej-ard" (cf. Mic. 2.2, where g^zeld is used in reference to fields). And as a parallel to "plunder," Mer, "eaten up," probably for Isaiah had still what seems to have been its primitive meaning, "glean," with the connotation "strip" ; so, too, in the parable of the vineyard in 5.5, this trans- lation is more fitting than "destroy" or "burn" (cf. hdgar in this sense. Judges 9.27). In 15a t^dhakk<^'u, lit. "pulverize," is an excellent parallel to titxdnU, "grind in the mill"; compare Knm. 11.8, where dukh, another derivative from the biliteral dakh, is parallel to tdxan. Notice, then, the complementary par-
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Chapter 3 allelism of metaphors between 14c, d and 15a, b (grapes and corn).
16. (a) Moreover, the Lord saith, because the daughters of Zion are haughty, (b) and walk with stretched forth necks (c) and wan- ton eyes, (d) walking and mincing as they go, (f) and making a tinkling with their feet.
There is some difficulty in identifying the form of this stanza. 16b, literally "stretching [or turning] their necks and ogling their eyes, ' ' in itself contains two parallel terms ; but separating into two stichoi would make lines of irregular length because of ' ' and they walk, ' ' wat-Ulahhnd. Curiously, wat-telakhnd occurs again in the very next stichos (translated "as they go"), not parallel, but in a subordinate clause ; in addition to this stylistic fault, it is syntactically suspicious, for in the idiomatic construc- tion represented by hdlokh ivHdphoph telakhM (lit. "a going and tripping they go") the position of the finite verb is normally before the infinitives (except in Jer. 50.4, where, however, there is at least no repetition of the verb). In the Isaiah passage the Septuagint again differs just where parallelism points out a weakness ; it reads in stichos d T17 iropela tmv ttoSmv: ' ' with motion of the feet"; and that this is not an intentional variation to avoid repetition is shown by the fact that the Septuagint has again roi? irovcrlv, "with their feet," in stichos f (cf. the repe- tition of fiaxalpa in 3.25). Possibly, then, the text was not clearly in order; if the second telakhnd (stichos d) be omitted, hdlokh w^-tdphoph would be a circumstantial accusative infinitive phrase dependent upon the first telakhnd, and parallel to the circumstantial participles in b and c and to the circumstantial imperfect in 16b (cf. the probably similar parallelism in 8.8) ; or if the first telakhim be omitted, the" participial phrases n'^tuwdth ' gdron and m^saqq^roth 'eM«i/im,' "stretched forth of neck and wanton of eyes, ' ' modify the main clause in stichos a just exactly as m'^'uph guqd and '(Upheld m'^nuddax modify the main clause in 8.22.
The Septuagint further inserts a stichos: afxa avpovcrai tov<; XiT0iva<i: "together with a dragging of their garments in trains"
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— a line so strikingl}' apt that it seems necessary to regard it as based on an original reading ; perhaps U-mitp^x^thehem tisxdbhnd (a-vpov/xev is sdxobh in II Sam. 17.13).
In 16f occurs t^akkasna; the translation "making a tink- ling" depends upon the noun '^khdslm (sing. ' ekhes) in verse 18, translated ' ' anklets. ' ' The root occurs again in Hebrew only in Prov. 7.22, where 'ekhes, however, if correct, certainly does not mean "anklet"; indeed, this translation is very dubious (see below) ; it rests upon secondary Arabic connotations of a root meaning ' ' to reverse " : "to put a halter on a camel ' ' — but in such a manner that the idea of turning or twisting (either the rope or the camel's head) is included ; hence 'ikds is the rope with which such tying is done, and perhaps sometimes simply "a hobble." But the jump from this meaning in Arabic to that of a " metal anklet worn by a woman ' ' in Hebrew, and still fur- ther to a denominative verb denoting "to make a ringing sound with such anklets," especially since the word occurs nowhere else, is a far one. The Targum margh^zdn, "provoking to anger," read perhaps a root kd'as for 'dkas; the Septuagint Trai^ovaai^ " sporting, " also challenges the translation, and is evi- dently nearer to the intention of Isaiah. In Job 21.11 irpoairai- ^ovaiv is the translation of rdqadh, ' ' run with leaps and bounds ' ' ; but it might also represent the Arabic rakada, "move the feet," which would be in Hebrew rdkag, if found, or possibly rdkas (the matter of sibilant shift especially in rare words is not clear yet) ; and the fact that 'akasa and rakasa in Arabic are synonyms, if not variants of one and the same Semitic root, suggests further possibilities in the present Hebreiv of Isaiah. At any rate, the Arabic rakada means not only "to dance," but also "to kick the skirts of the garment' and the anklets with the feet," hi-rijlaiha ; and it is the motion made in a peculiar manner of walking that Mohammad evidently p'rohibited when he said (Sura 24.31) : "let them not strike with their feet, so that these ornaments of theirs that be hidden be made known." It is true that here again, in this Sura, commentators generally introduce the word "anklets" after "strike" and then cite it as a support of the
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Chapter 3 translation '' anklets" in Isaiah; but while in both places such a reference may be included, it does not lie in the words used : the Arabic daraba, "strike," here means ''strike out," "wave," and can be said of the arms as well as the feet or legs; and the "ornaments" (again supposed to be "anklets") are properly interpreted by Savary when he translates: "Let them not move about their feet so as to allow those charms to be seen which ought to be veiled" (i.e., their physical charms; compare Ezek. 16.7 [though the Massoretic text has been questioned] : "thou art come to excellent ornaments ['o^dhl 'c^dhdyim] : (thy) breasts are fashioned, and thine hair is grown." Further parallels to the present stanza are furnished by the Arabic ; thus, Burton (translation of the Thoitsand Nights and a Night, IV, 16) writes that the Bedui "compares the gait of a Avoman who walks well with the slightly swinging walk of a thoroughbred mare, bending her graceful neck and looking from side to side at objects as she passes. ' ' In Night 243, a man impersonating a woman is directed to walk so as to advance one shoulder before the other, and sway the hips (qaddim as-samdl wa-'akhkhir al-yamln wa-hazz al- 'arddif) ; in Night 134: bend the body from side to side in step- ping {tamdyul fl l-khatawdt) ; Night 198 (Breslau edition) : "trail the skirts and sway to and fro." Especially significant is the phrase (see Lane s.v. 'akasa) : ta'akkasa fi'l-mishyati, "move like a viper [lit. twist oneself] in his gait," with exactly the root found in the Isaiah passage, where perhaps "twist with the feet ' ' may stand for ' ' with the hips ' ' ; compare the more general (euphemistic) use of "feet," as in Is. 7.20 (see further on 'O'kdslm below).
17. (a) Therefore the Lord will smite with a scab the crown (of the head) of the daughters of Zion (b) and the Lord will dis- cover their secret parts.
Sippax, "smite with a scab," is supposedly a denominative
from sappaxath (with the heavier sibilant), "scab"; as such
it is not found again in the Old Testament. The Septuagint
varies : its TaTrcLvcoaei, "humble," might represent either shdfel or
shax; and its ap^ovaa^ might represent a marginal variant rdshe,
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' ' heads, ' ' for qodhqodh, ' ' crown. ' ' Sippax is, indeed, suspicious because of the parallel stichos, in which, however, there is the difficult pothhen, translated ''their secret parts," but not found elsewhere; the Septuagint has (rxniia, "form" or ''appearance," which, while it might be merely an avoidance of the difficulty, might readily represent a reading shlth (in Prov. 7.10 this word is translated €lho<; , ' ' appearance, " " form " ) ; hence possibly the original reading was shcthhen, which occurs in Is. 20.4: "so shall the king of Assyria lead away the Egyptian prisoners and the Ethiopians captives, young and old, naked and barefoot, even with their buttocks uncovered," x^^uphe sheth, an expression of grief and shame at the same time (see Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidenthums, p. 177, note 3, for a reference to the uncovered buttocks in mourning). At any rate y<^'dre, "dis- cover," in this stichos suggests a parallel in the preceding: the very word found in Is. 20.4, x^isaph, with a mere transposition of the consonants of sippax; ^^ I^- ^7.2 again occurs "uncover thy locks (veil), make bare the leg, uncover the thigh" (lit. "train" : xaspi shohhel) ; here then w^-xasaph qodhqodh, "will lay bare, uncover, the crown." The verb sdphax of the Hebrew, on the other hand, is used by Isaiah in 5.7 in quite a different sense: "shed, pour out"; and in 14.1 (with the heavier sibilant and hence apparently even closer to "scab") in the meaning "join," "attach," where the parallel (Idwd) leaves no doubt as to which particular sdphax is meant ; while in 5.7 the word is chosen for its paronomasia. It is fairly clear, then, that Isaiah would not have used the ambiguous sdphax here without a parallel to make it clear. And if the line from the Septuagint regarding the trailing cloak be restored, the revised reading "lay bare the but- tocks" offers just that prophecy of poetic justice which the Semitic feeling demands: instead of the cloaks trailing behind there shall be nakedness of buttocks; on the thought compare, besides Is. 47.2, Jer, 13.22: "thy skirts (train) are discovered." It is possible that this couplet is only the fragment of a larger stanza introduced by Idkhen, "therefore," the omission of which word (it is supplied in the English) is unusual; for the formula
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Chapter 3 ya'an kl, "because that," occurs again in Is. 3.16, 7.5, 8.6, always with some correlative in the apodosis. An easy change, however, of we-sippax into the imperfect y^sappe^^x would yield a normal construction; and possibly the couplet is to be joined directly to verse 24.
18-23. (18) In that day the Lord will take away the bravery of (their) tinkling ornaments (about their feet), (their) cauls, and their round tires like the moons, (19) and the chains, and the brace- lets, and the muflSers, (20) The bonnets, and the ornaments of the legs, and the head-bands and the tablets and the ear-rings, (21) The rings and nose-jewels, (22) The changeable suits of apparel, and the mantles, and the wimples, and the crisping pins, (23) The glasses, and the fine linen, and the hoods, and the veils.
There is no reason for regarding this list of terms as non- Isaianic ; the very wealth of detail makes its own appeal and effect (cf. 2.12, for instance), although it is possible that this stanza is misplaced (see the note at the end of the last stanza) and formed part of chapter 2, or a similar poem, referring to the proud luxury of women as that does to the pride of men ; the introductory words "and on that day the Lord will take away" would then be a similar line to 2.12 or 2.20 ("and on that day man shall cast away," etc.). Whether this be so or not, there can be no doubt that there is some disorder in the list of objects enumerated. As the text stands there are twenty-one objects instead of twenty, making if coupled in pairs the frequent ten line or five couplet stanza. Some of the apparent confusion may be due merely to misunderstanding of certain terms in the list ; among them are several not found elsewhere ; and the specific meaning of terms for clothing is subject to change in the course of time. The objects enumerated in the list have been divided into two (or three) groups: articles worn on the head and those worn on the rest of the body (or ornaments for the head; those for the rest of the body; garments) ; this is a natural order; in 16, and again 17, first head and then feet are mentioned. But in any case 'ckdslm, as usually translated, Eng- lish, "tinkling ornaments about the feet," disturbs the order, and there seems to be no reason why just the anklets should be thus emphasized as a sign of pride or of immodesty.
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It has been supposed that 'ckdslm was placed at the head of the list just because t^'akkasnd, "tinkle," was the last mentioned act in verse 16 ; but see on that word the note above. The Tar- gum translates "sandals," m^sdnayd; but whether this was merely a guess ; or represents a different reading again : 7i^' dllm (cf. Is. 5.27, 11.15) ; or is based on ' ahas and 'aqas, "twist," or "plait" (sandals were sometimes made of woven-work; and m(^sd'iid means also "basket"), it is difficult to say. Later Jew- ish commentators attempt an etymological justification by de- scribing them as sandals made of the skin of the viper, 'ekes, a word which Rashi cites also in connection with t<^' akkasiid : "they stamp with their feet and give signals to young men in the mar- ket place, to arouse in them evil desire like the poison of the asp, 'ekes," which later Hebrew word, however, seems to be only the Greek €%t<?. At any rate neither etymology nor tradition justi- fies "anklets." The Septuagint evidence is not certain; its fourth term, /xt^j/jV/coi;?, is the Hebrew third, mh(^rdnlm (cf. Judges 8.21, 26) ; its third, Koaufx^ovi, is the Hebrew second, sh^hhmm (cf. Ex. 28.14, 25, 39, with g for s in the root) ; therefore the Greek second, ifjLTrXoKiov, might be the Hebrew first, '(^kdshn: the Greek means ' ' braid, fashion of wearing a woman 's hair, ' ' which is the exact meaning of the Arabic 'iqdg (here again there is a not unparalleled confusion of 'okas, akag, 'aqag, 'aqash, etc., cf. Hebrew f«xa^, saxaq, and Arabic daxika, "laugh," where gut- turals and emphatics again are the cause). The Greek first term l/jLjaria/xov would then be an insertion, or else might represent a doublet of '<ikdslm in the form m^kasslm ("garments" in Is. 23.18). In other words, the text was not certain; and it seems quite probable that the troublesome '(^kdslm was itself originally merely a dittography or variant of the following sh^^hMsim (notice that the older commentators associated it with shahag, ' ' weave " or " plait " ) , or had its origin in a marginal reference to the t^' akkasiid above. Without it there are just twenty terms, the first pair of which becomes hash- sh^hMslm w^has-sah^^rdnim, "ornaments in the form of suns and moons" (so several modern commentators) ; if '(^kdslm be retained, it should be translated,
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 349
Chapter 3 with Jewish commentators, ''braids/' or ''plaited ornaments of the hair," forming a pair with sh^hhislm, in the sense 'hair-net or hair ornament. ' '
The fourth term in the Hebrew, n<^Ufd, corresponds to the fifth in the Greek, KaOeyLa (the root ndtaf means "drop," "pour" in Arabic; and so Kadirjfii "let fall," also "pour"); but for the fifth and sixth of the Hebrew {sheroth w^hd-r<^' dloth : "chains" and possibly "veils," though the latter, from rd'al to "quiver," shake, "might mean "bangles"; according to Maimonides, " little bells"), the Septuagint apparently has the one phrase Koajxov rov 7rpo(Tco7rov avrSiv. "ornaments of their face"; possibly, however, this represents only r^'dloth, while sheroth is either dittography in the Hebrew and to be omitted (if 'ckdswi above is retained) or is the extra term which the Septuagint has between the pres- ent twelfth and thirteenth of the Hebrew. The Hebrew and Greek seventh thus correspond : p^ 'erhn, which later means ' ' tur- bans," but which apparently was taken by the Septuagint in a more general significance, "ornament," closer to the root, and translated rrjv avvOeaiv rov Koa-fiov tt)? 86^rj<i, "a combination of glorious ornaments" (so in 61.3 p^'er is Bo^av) ; and the eighth ge'ddhoth is ^XiSwrn? (cf. Num. 31.50; II Sam. 1.10), "armlets"; the ninth qishshiirim, from the root "to bind" may well be the corresponding yjreXkia, which in Gen. 24.22 and Ezek. 16.11 trans- lates Q^mtdhim, "bracelets," also from a root "to bind" (though in Jer. 2.32 qishshiirim is arrjOoSeafiiSa, "bound" specifically on the breast). The correspondence between Hebrew and Greek is again certain in the thirteenth: nizme hd-'dph and ivoiTta^ "ear- rings"; but the twelfth Greek, TrepiSe^ia, seems to be either an insertion or a transposition, since the Hebrew twelfth tahhd'oth is clearly the Greek eleventh 8aKTv\iov<;, "finger rings" or "seal rings." The Hebrew tenth, hdtte han-nephesh, and eleventh, l^X^shim., then, represent either the Greek tenth alone, i/jLirXoKiov or the tenth and twelfth, irepLBe^ia. Unfortunately both Hebrew terms are not found elsewhere ; hdtte han-nephesh literally is "houses" or "receptacles" of the soul, and l^x^shim is "whis- perings"; hence translated by Jewish commentators sometimes
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''ornaments worn over the heart [soul] and the ears" re- speetivelj"; by modern commentators "smelling bottles" and "charms." It is curious that neither Septuagint nor Targum shows any exact equivalent for the element bdtte, "houses," or "receptacles"; and that the Targum here has qodhdshlm, "rings," its translation of '(^ghilim in Num. 31.50, where the Septuagint has irepiSe^ia, the inserted or misplaced term men- tioned above. This certainly points to a variant text. So, too, the Targum x^^^^^^ for l^x^shim would seem to point to an interpretation based upon a transposition of x and I and a variant t for sh; while the Greek i/jLirXoKiov (used also above to translate 'c^kdsim and in Ex. 39.15 for '(^hhoth, "interwoven ropes or chains") might also represent a root x^^t> *'mix" ; for in verse 3 where laxosh occurs again the Septuagint, like Jewish commen- tators on verse 20, connects it properly with the ear, aKpoarrjv. The omission of hdtte from the Septuagint is all the more strik- ing because just below in verse 26 it translates pHhdxehd by 6i]Kai Tov Koa-fiov vfiMv, in which drjKai might be bdtte, as in Ex. 25.27. If, nevertheless, bdtte nephesh and l^x^shlm are correct, and the latter refers to ' * whispering ' ' charms, possibly nephesh represents the Arabic nafatha, "blow" (or is a corruption of the Hebrew ndphax in that sense), since blowing is also a medium of magic.
Beginning with verse 22 there is a series of names of gar- ments, with the exception of x^rifm and gilyonlm: "purses'* II Kings 5.23 and the Arabic) and "tablets" (Is. 8.1) or "mir- rors"; possibly the Targum maxkcyd, however, may be based on a reading ;i^«ra.^m, which occurs in the singular in Is. 8.1 together with the singular of gilyonlm: "stylus and tablet"; but the Septuagint either had a variant text or wilfully insisted on logical order, for its series of terms for garments is uninter- rupted; and so it would be possible to translate gilyonlm, as some modern translators do, by "transparent garments" (the root means "to reveal"; Sept. ^la^avrj) or "fine garments," Arabic jalwa; while x^'^^t^ might be the x"'^^^ which occurs in the Targumic Aramaic in the meaning "precious garment."
It is not impossible that the Hebrew g^nlphoth, "turbans,"
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Chapter 3 (A. V. "hoods"), is an error for Q^^'lfoth, "wrappers," from the root "to fold" or "double"; in Job. 29.14 the Septuagint trans- lates gdnlph by SnrXoiSi, showing the same error ; and in the Jer. Targum r^dhidhd (which occurs here in Isaiah with g^nlfoth), is a synonym of ga'lph; also g^ndphd is in the Targum "skirt." The Septuagint has at least one extra term in this group of gar- ments ; none of its words, however, seems to be c^mphd, although this occurs again in Is. 62.3 and is translated SiaS'^fxa.
On the whole, then, the evidence points to uncertainty in tradition; and the probabilities of error in a list like this are so great that variations from symmetrical grouping should far more likely be ascribed to copyists or editors than to the author.
24. (a) And it shall come to pass that instead of sweet smell there shall be a stink; (b) and instead of a girdle a rent; (c) instead of well-set hair, baldness; (d) instead of a stomacher, a girding of sack-cloth; (e) (and) burning instead of beauty.
In this five line strophe the parallelism is maintained throughout, though in form the last line varies slightly, as is often the case with odd line strophes: the order of words is changed, and the line is short. The versions read the fifth line differently and join it to the next verse.
The condition prophesied in the strophe is apparently one of mourning: this is clear from the reference to baldness and sack-cloth; to "rent" also, but the translation is faulty; while * ' stink ' ' in the first stichos and ' ' burning ' ' in the last are doubt- ful. But the word translated "stink" is maq; the root means "to decay": used of flesh, then, "to fester," but of plants, "to mould" or "turn to dust." The latter is doubtlessly its mean- ing in 5.24: "their root shall be as rottenness," mdq, made plainer by the parallel "their blossom shall be as dust," 'dhhdq; so in Is. 34.4 the underlying figure in naniaqqu is not the "fes- tering" of the hosts of Heaven but their "decay" into mould or dust, and the figure is continued: "the host shall fall down as the leaf falleth from the vine"; notice that in the preceding verse (34.3) "stench" is the proper figure because human bodies are spoken of. "Dust" is the meaning required in the present
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stichos, since hosem, "sweet smell," literally "balsam," "spice,"
is a vegetable product; the Septuagint translates KopvLopr6<i
(which, it uses for 'abhdq in 29.5) ; and so Is. 61.3, apparently
based on this prophecy and reversing it, reads "beauty instead
of dust," p^'er taxath 'epher; and from an allied root comes mUq^
"dust" in Arabic. The thought, then, is: instead of using the
normal product of the tree, its spice, they shall have only its
mould or dust; this figure is all the more natural in that the
"balsam" product was used in the form not only of ointment
but also of spice, as incense.
Niqpd, "a rent," found in no other passage, comes from one
of two roots meaning respectively "to strike off" and "to go
round." The Targum and Jewish comm^entators choose the
former and interpret ' * wounds, " " bruises ' ' ; the Septuagint the
latter, and translates "a rope"; the former is more apt with
"scab" and "fester"; the latter with the figure of grief and
captivity, and, of course, with its own immediate complement
"girdle."
In 24c, ma'^se misqshe, "well-set hair," literally "work of .♦ . . .
miqshe," is again difficult; miqshe, as a masculine noun, is
ana^ Xeyo/xevov ; as a feminine it occurs apparently with the mean- ing ' ' hammered metal work, ' ' hence the Septuagint here ' ' golden ornament"; but the Targum "curling," "crimping of the locks," 'aqqdphtith pdthd, is more apt. Ma'<^se seems super- fluous, then, since it always denotes "an object"; quite possibly it came from the margin ; if it was intended to refer to this line at all (but see below) it probably indicated a reading ma'<^qdshd or ma<^qdsd {'dqash or 'dqas, "to twist": hence "braid") in- stead of ma^^se miqshe. Even today in the Arabic world to leave the hair unbraided is a particular sign of mourning.
The word translated "stomacher," pHhlgMl, is an aira^ Xeyofievov of such unusual form that if correct it may be a foreign word. However, since it is coupled with the compound phrase nvax^ghoreth saq, "girding of sack-cloth," pHhlgMl may be the remnant of a similar phrase; in Is. 61.3, again, occurs ma'^te th^hilld taxath ru^^x kehd : ' ' garment of praise for the spirit of
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Chapteb 3 heaviness"; here possibly we should read then md ^tepheth gll: "cloak of joy" (with ma<^ again from the superfluous ma<^se just above).
Finally the word M, "burning," in the last stiehos is also unique, although it is explicable as from the root kdivd, "to burn," and it might be possible to understand "branding" in a figurative sense, as referring to the lacerations which were also signs of mourning (cf. Jer. 16.6; forbidden Lev. 21.5) ; but this is inapt and unlikely, as is shown by the failure of the versions to perceive it ; Targum takes kl as the ordinary conjunction "for," despite the unusual resultant construction; the Septua- gint had possibly a disordered text ; Targum, perhaps, also, since apparently it read yopM twice. Yophi, "beauty," is a generic term ; it means perhaps as much ' ' prinking, " " beautifying, ' ' as natural beauty, in the sense of Jer. 4.30, tithyappl; in kl, there- fore, there should be some general term. In Is. 61.3 "spirit of weakness" (kchd: see above) may represent another reading of ki, while the Septuagint o uto? aov is perhaps hdtiayikh, which may have been a conflation of two variants h^^khl and n'^khl, "weeping" and "smiting," of which the former would be most appropriate here ; weeping is mentioned with baldness and sack- cloth in Is. 22.12, 15.3; and Job 16.16 (also with "dust" here), where the Septuagint and Targum in translating instead of "my face is reddened with weeping," "my face is foul with weeping" show that disfigurement due to tears is a natural thought; and in the Thousand Nights and a Night (788) the effects of much grief and weeping are described in the phrase taghayyarat mahdsinuhii: "his beauties (the beauties of the various parts of his body) were changed." B^^khi should be considered here even without the support of the Septuagint 6 uto?, which is quite possibly only a free translation of mfithayikh in the next verse.
25. (a) Thy men shall fall by the sword, (b) and thy mighty
(lit. might) in the war.
The parallelism between the concrete noun "men" and the
abstract "might" is to be noticed; especially since the singular
feminine is left without a verb expressed, and must be made in
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thought subject of the third plural "shall fall"; otherwise the couplet is normal. But that it does not form part of the previous poem is evident. Not only is the enallage striking, but it implies a previous personification of Zion as a woman (see particularly the next strophe), instead of a literal reference to the women of Zion. Again there is the significant coincidence that just where internal evidence arouses suspicion the versions also seem to have had an obscure text, the obscurity coming at the point of the editorial or copyist junction of two prophecies, or addition of a fragment of one to the end of another complete in itself. In addition to the differences already noted, the Septuagint repeats the whole phrase "shall fall by the sword" in place of the Hebrew "in war"; but it also attaches to this verse the first word of verse 26, w^-'dnu, "shall mourn," but in the form w^^-'dnu { Ta7r€iv(o6i](Tovrai : "shall be humbled"; cf. Is, 58.10) ; if this actuall}' was based on an original td'o-ne, "thy power shall be humbled," cf. Ps. 102.23 : "he weakeneth my strength," 'innd qoxl. The Septuagint also adds in the first stichos bv ajairafi ; and it has been noted that the Targum also has an additional word (a repetition of some form of yophl) : aside from this the Targum offers a better parallelism than the Hebrew: possibly gibhorayikh and m^the x^^^fe/i, or m^the gh^bhurdthekh and 'anshe xe^eA;/i, were the original terms; if the missing x^^^kh, "thy strength," stood in the margin, it is just possible that the Septuagint rov Koafiov vfxcov of the next verse represents it in the form x^lyekh, "thy ornaments.^'
At all events, the annexing of verse 25 to 24 shows that the prophecy of the latter was understood to refer to mourning for the dead, and not to disease or other bodily suffering (e.g., not to "scab" and "branding"),
26. (a) And her gates shall lament and monrn; (b) and (she, being) desolate (lit. "purged," or perhaps "emptied"), shall sit upon the ground.
The test of parallelism shows in this strophe the following
facts: another enallage (third person, instead of the second as
in verse 25, which itself contains a change from verse 24) ; the
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Chapter 3 introduction of the word "gates," not only without a parallel in stichos b, but obscuring the personification (Zion as a woman) apparently intended in verse 24 and certainly present again in stichos 26b ; the presence of two synonyms for ' ' mourn ' ' in 26a, paralleled perhaps by a participle and a finite verb in b, but the parallelism as well as the metaphor obscured. That these are real difficulties is shown by the versions : the Septuagint changes the third person to the second, has a different (though even less appropriate) term in place of "gates," and translates, for "purged" or "emptied," "left alone" (the English has "deso- late") ; the Targum attempts to adjust the personification by translating "the gates of her city"; the English, by setting off the pronoun "she" in an emphatic and contrasting position to ' ' gates, ' ' allows a double metaphor which to some degree glosses over the Hebrew difficulty. That the English here expresses what should be expected in Hebrew becomes clear from a com- parison with Jer. 14.2: "Judah mourneth, and the gates thereof languisli ; they are black unto the ground ; and the cry of Jeru- salem is gone up " : i.e., change in the syntactic form of the last predicate requires a new and expressed subject. Here then we should expect : ' ' Zion shall lament, and her gates shall mourn, and Jerusalem shall sit disconsolate upon the ground " : cf . Is. 19.8, where the same verbs as in 26a occur (distributed) in a three line strophe : ' ' the fishers also shall mourn, and they that angle shall lament, and \\\Qy that spread the net shall languish. ' ' But there is here another possibility: aside from syntax, "gates" in the first stichos is a thought parallel to "ground" in the second; so Targum makes "ground" the subject of the sentence; moreover, pethax i^ rather "doorway," "door" of a house than "gates" of a city (Is. 13.2 is too obscure to be offered in support of Isaiah's usage of pethax) 5 t)ut whether door or gate, the couplet may have been: "and she (Zion) shall mourn and lament at her doorwaj^ and sit disconsolate upon the ground" (or the second person is to be read throughout). Of course, "the gates shall lament" means the same thing; the objection is to the involved metaphor and slipshod syntax.
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Chaapteb 3 Niqqdthd, English "desolate," is a fairly common word from a very common root; it means ''purged," ''freed from punish- ment," "exempted from obligation," "restored to innocency." Perhaps primitively the root meant "be empty"; and Isaiah may well be credited with a consciousness of this primitive mean- ing, but it is impossible that he used it with entire disregard of what its connotation must have been to his audience, especially since there is no parallel term to make clear the unusual inten- tion. There might, perhaps, be found here another grim double or triple meaning: Zion "purified" through punishment and grief; "emptied" of her men; "divested" of her ornaments. But the reference to innocence is as out of place as it is inevitable in the present reading. Some word is required parallel to ' ' mourn ' ' and applicable to Zion both as a city and as a woman ; perhaps nixdttd, literally "shattered" and figuratively "con- founded," "dismayed," "abashed"; said of nations under divine judgment, of the ground, of people; cf. Is. 20.5, where this verb is used with boshu, "be ashamed," which in turn in 19.9 is in the series: "moi confounded," "be broken."
Chapter 4
1. (a) And in that day seven women shall take hold of one man, saying, (b) We will eat our own bread, (c) and wear our own apparel; (d) only let us be called by thy name, (e) take away our reproach.
This verse belongs in thought with chapter 3 rather than with what follows here; its theme is still the dearth of men. But in method of presentation it differs from the last verse of the pre- ceding, in which Jerusalem is personified, and attaches to the still earlier picture of the fate of the individual women (3.16). From another viewpoint, however, it resembles more clearly 3.6 ; there the rulership goes begging ; here wifehood goes beg- ging; and even the phraseology ("seizing hold," "garments," "food") is echoed. But the full development of the picture there, with its introduction leading to the climax, and its answer
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Chapter 4 on the part of the man to whom the rule is offered, has no coun- terpart here; and the conclusion is accordingly suggested that 4.1 is a mere fragment, owing its inclusion here to its reference to women. The insertion of the words "on that day" (here not as in the English and as is usual, at the head of the sentence, but at the end) also points to a separation from what immedi- ately^ precedes ; though it may be editorial, since it is not found in the Septuagint.
More significant is the fact that stichos a, introducing the following quatrain, is not in parallelistic formation. There is no indication, it is true, of what form a possible original par- allelism may have had; the sentence is complete in itself. It may well be that the parallelism was strophic rather than stichic ; that another strophe, with a similar single stichos as introduc- tion, balanced this one. But the mere fact that the sense is complete, is in itself no proof that there was not originally stichos parallelism. Notice in chapter 3.6 that the sentence "For each one shall take hold of his brother" makes complete sense ; and that if the parallels in verses 4-5, as well as 6b, had by accident been lost, there would have resulted a stanza as complete as is our present one ; only the inferences of the dom- inating parallelism elsewhere would have suggested their loss.
In stichoi d and e the parallelism between "name" and "reproach" is close because of the connotations of these terms; the former sometimes means "honor," "fame," especially that due to having sons (e.g., II Sam. 18.8), and is therefore the opposite of the latter, "disgrace," "shame," "dishonor"; prac- tically then here: "Give us honor, remove our honorlessness " (that of widowhood and childlessness; cf., e.g., Is. 54.5: "thou shalt not remember the reproach of thy widowhood; for thy Maker is thine husband"; Gen. 30.23: "And she [Rachel] con- ceived, and bare a son; and said, God hath taken away my reproach").
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2. (a) In that day shall the branch (lit. "sprout," "growth") of the Lord be beautiful and glorious, (b) and the fruit of the earth (shall be) excellent and comely, (c) for them (that are) escaped of Israel.
The strophic formation in the prophecy contained in verses 2-6 is unusual. In this first stanza (verse 2) the stichoi a and b are in normal parallelism; but the third stichos, li-phHetath Yisrd'el: "for the escaped of Israel," is a dependent phrase, standing outside the parallelism, and modifying either or both of the stichoi a and b. Moreover, it would seem that it is a necessary part of those sentences, that a and b are not logically complete without it ; this fact is obscured by the English, which in translating U-g^hhi fiV-hJidhhodh (lit. "for a beauty and a glory") "beautiful and glorious" interprets the preposition as in 1.5: "to" or "for sickness," i.e., "sick." Such a translation here, "beautiful," is very seductive; but the idiomatic phrase "be for a glorj^, " or "beauty," in Hebrew seems always to be followed by another dative (indirect object) in the sense: "be a distinguishing mark for someone or something," "that which distinguishes him in beauty or honor from all others" (cf. Ex. 28.2, 40; Ezek. 20.6, 15; Jer. 13.11). The underlying verse form in this first stanza would then be the so-called qind strophe : a sentence divided into two unequal parts by the caesura, which parts are not of necessity parallel or syntactically independent; i.e., omitting for the moment 2b : " In that day shall the branch of the Lord be for beauty and glory — for the escaped of Israel. ' ' But the first portion of the line in the present instance is doubled by means of parallelism ; such parallelism, within the syntactic structure, might be called "suspensive parallelism"; cf. 5.24. To a certain extent the same scheme predominates through this whole prophecy; with this difference, that the modifying phrase also is doubled by parallelism. The middle stanza (verse 4) shows this formation best : the washing of the filth and blood of Zion is expressed in a couplet ; then the instrument or means of washing is described in another shorter, dependent couplet ; the parallelism in this stanza is then perfect, and the question is accordingly raised whether there is not missing from verse 2
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Chapter 4 a parallel to "the escaped of Israel" — a question which perhaps receives its answer in the superfluous stichos of the next strophe (verse 3).
The parallelism in 2a and b between ''branch of the Lord" and ' ' fruit of the earth ' ' is striking ; one would expect, perhaps, for "the Lord" either "the field," has-sddhe or "the ground," ha-'o-dhdmd (Gen. 19.25; Ezek. 16.7). But evidently the parallel hd-'dreg means here not "the earth, "but "the land," i.e., Pales- tine (as is clearly shown by the words Zion and Jerusalem), God's own land. There may still inhere in the phrase something of the Semitic phrase "field, etc., of Baal," with Yahwe substi- tuted for Baal; even though there be no necessity of insisting on the implication "naturally watered" fields and plants as con- trasted with those watered by irrigation. At any rate Ps. 104.16 provides a similar interesting parallelism : ' ' the trees of the Lord are full (of sap), the cedars of Lebanon which he hath planted." On the thought of the fertility of the Messianic period compare Is. 55.12, 13: "all the trees of the field shall clap their hands; instead of the thorn shall come up the fir tree; and instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle tree; and it shall be to the Lord for a name," etc. (cf. "to the remnant of Israel for a glory"). The parallelism would seem to preclude here any reference in geniax, "sprout," to a personal Messiah; contrast Jer. 23.5, where such a reference does exist, but both parallelism and elaboration are properly felt necessary to make it clear; of course, in a still later period such phrases might have in them- selves had a fixed, conventional Messianic implication.
3. (a) And it shall come to pass (that he) that is left in Zion (b) and (he that) romaineth in Jerusalem (c) shall be called holy, (d) (even) every one that is written among the living in Jerusalem.
It can hardly be doubted that the strophic structure de- scribed above is intended in this verse; "shall be called holy" is the predicate to the double subject contained in stichoi a and b. But stichos d, "every one that is written among the living in Jerusalem," placed after the predicate, is parallel in thought to stichoi a and b, though not even the English insertion
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of '^even" before it saves it from awkwardness in its present position; it is not good prose, still less good poetry; it has the sound of a carelessly appended afterthought, and its repetition of ' ' Jerusalem ' ' seems to place a special emphasis on that word, in contrast to the other parallel "Zion" in stichos a — an em- phasis that is evidently not intended. The style is so awkward, indeed, that Septuagint and Targum both failed to see the true syntactic relationship; T&,rgum (also Jewish commentators) reads each stichos as a separate proposition :. i.e., those that are left (shall dwell in Zion) ; those that remain shall inhabit Jerusalem ; they shall be called holy ; and those that are written for life shall dwell in Jerusalem.
One of two opinions may be held in regard to stichos d: either that tests of style must not be applied in textual criticism of Hebrew, or that stichos d is misplaced. If the latter alterna- tive be adopted, it should be noted that the phrase is a parallel equally good, to stichos c in the previous stanza, "them that are escaped of Israel ' ' ; perhaps ' ' Jerusalem, ' ' moreover, is a slip for "Judah," parallel to "Israel" (see above). It becomes just as evident, then, that stichos d in verse 3 has taken the place of a real parallel to stichos c: "shall be called holy," e.g., sheni '(^dhonai yiqqare 'dldw: "shall be called by the name of the Lord," as in Deut. 28.10, a passage in close connection, as in this one, with a description of the fertility of Israel's prom- ised land ; on the proposed parallelism compare Is. 61.6 : ' ' But ye shall be named the priests of the Lord ; ministers of the Lord shall be called to you"; 62.12: "and they shall call them people of holiness, the redeemed of the Lord."
4. (a) When the Lord shall have washed away the filth of the daughters of Zion, (b) and shall have purged (lit. "rinsed") the blood of Jerusalem from the midst thereof, (c) by the spirit of judgment, (d) and by the spirit of burning.
On the form of the stanza, see the comment on verse 2, above.
The personification of Jerusalem is stichos b indicates an error
in the text of a, where "daughters of," h^^noth, should either be
omitted or be read hath, "daughter of" Zion; i.e., Zion herself ;
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Chapter 4 this alone fits the sequel, moreover; the error is one due to asso- ciation with 3.7.
An interesting question of style and parallelism is involved in the metaphor used here. The phrase for "wash away the filth" used here is not a trite, conventional one ; and the figure is enliv- ened in its freshness and vividness by the parallel in b, "rinse," yddhi<^X^ which occurs again only in Ezek. 40.38; II Chron. 4.6 (both literally), and Jer. 51.34 (figuratively, but possibly an error there; so A. V. "cast out"). Somewhat curious, then, is the means of washing : "the spirit of judgment [rw«x nvishpdt], and the spirit of destruction." BU'^x niishpdt occurs in 28.6: "The Lord of hosts shall be . . . for a spirit of judgment [i.e., justice] to him that sitteth in judgment" — an idea neither appropriate to the general context here nor supported by the immediate parallelism with "spirit of destruction." In verse 5 the cloud and lightning are definitely mentioned, and then the divine presence is represented as a refuge (for those who escape) from the flooding storm-rains ; perhaps, too, it is the storm itself which is to result in the richness of growth predicted in verse 2. Evidently rU<^Xj then, in verse 4 is an element in the theophanic storm. Rashi interprets : "he rides upon the wind to judge them"; but 30.28 offers a better explanation of the imagery, if our text is correct: "his breath, rM«x> is like an overflowing stream." It seems quite probable, however, that the first rw«x (stichos c) is an error due to the second (stichos d) ; and that a noun fitting better with the verb "rinse" stood here originally and formed a transition to the parallel "wind of destruction," or better, "of burning," whose heat is perhaps referred to in verse 6 (cf. also possibly 11.15, ha' yam, ruxd: "with the heat [? the versions have "might"] of his spirit" or "wind"). Parallel to ruf^x ^^ this sense occurs in another picture of the storm, zercm, ' ' tempest, ' ' 32.2 ; and the qualifying word in place of mishpdt, parallel to hd'er, might be shoteph. On the whole picture compare Is. 28.2 : ' ' Behold the Lord hath a mighty and strong one, as a tempest of hail and a destroying storm, as a flood of mighty water overflowing"; 28.17, 18: "hail shall sweep
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Chaptek 4
away the refuge of lies, shall overflow the hiding place ; . . . when the overflowing scourge shall pass through." Compare also the parallelism in Ezek. 13.13, for instance: "I will rend it with a stormy wind [rM«x s^^'droth] and there shall be an overflowing shower [geshem shotef] in mine anger." If the present prophecy is Isaianic, it would be peculiar, then, if just at the point where the words "wash" and "rinse" would lead one to find a refer- ence to the destroying flood, such a reference should be lacking !
5. (a) And the Lord will create upon every dwelling place of Mount Zion, (b) and upon her assemblies, (c) a cloud and smoke by day, (d) and the shining of a flaming fire by night.
Again there can be no mistaking the nature of the stanza formation: a couplet of parallel stichoi, followed by another couplet, not syntactically complete in itself. In the first couplet, however, the first stichos is overlong, the second very short ; as a matter of fact, in the phrase kol m^khon har Qlyon, "the whole site [A. V. "every dwelling place"] of Mount Zion," m^khdn is redundant: "upon the whole of Mount Zion" is perfectly normal, while in stichos b niiqrd'ehd, "her assemblies," as can be seen from 1.14, Ex. 12.16 ; Lev. 23.4, etc. ; Num. 28.18, is a noun of action, or a time noun, before which one might naturally expect such a word as m^khon, "site of," or "place of." That the Septuagint felt the need of greater length is shown by the insertion of "all" again; but for miqrd'ehd it read TrepLKVKXco; if this is mighrdshehd, * * all her surrounding territories, ' ' it per- haps points to an original mdqdushehd or miqddshdh, "her sanc- tuary"; the latter appears in the Targum translation of the first stichos, while for niiqrd'ehd it reads: 'Hhar heth sh^kinto, pos- sibly "place of his sanctuary" (Heb. m^^qom miqddshd). This may or may not represent an uncertainty in the text ; at the least it indicates an unconscious attempt at glossing over the stylistic defects pointed out. For a phrase m^khon niiqrd'ehd, "site of her assemblings," compare m^khon shihhtd, "place of his dwell- ing" in Ps. 33.14.
Another possibility is that in the almost unintelligible clause appended to this stanza, kl 'al kol kddhod xuppd: "for upon all
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Chapter 4 the glory shall be a defence" (lit. a "canopy," or "chamber"), the phrase 'al kol kdbhod represents part of a variant to stichos b, which is to be read: "and upon all her assemblies (or sanctuary) is his glory"; the word "glory" in a theophanic connection is most apt to refer to Yahwe — is, in fact, a syn(fnym ; and it is quite likely that in the present prophecy, as in other theophanies, it is God himself who appears as, or in, the cloud ; compare Is. 60.2 : ' ' The Lord shall arise upon thee, and his glory be seen upon thee," U-kh^bhodho 'dlayikh yerd'e; this would necessitate reading in stichos a for U-hhdrd' some word like w^-nir'd ("and shall appear," instead of "and shall create"; the Septuagint read ii-hhd', "and shall come"; hdrd', indeed, is striking ; though used in the latter part of Isaiah, its objects are such that it may well be translated "shape" or ".fashion," or ' ' to fashion, create anew, transform " ) , and to treat stichoi c and d as vague appositions: God will appear (as) a cloud; or read "in a cloud."
In stichos c the order of words in the Hebrew is " a cloud by day and smoke"; so that "and smoke" is joined by the versions to the next clause (d), which would make c very short; but both Septuagint and Targum insert the equivalent of the Hebrew word meqdl, "shadowing," with "cloud." This denotes, per- haps, merely that a feeling for balance led to its insertion in the versions, as parallel to "flaming," which modifies "fire," in the next stichos. Quite possibly, however, it was due to a mar- ginal variant of w'^-'dshdn, '.'and smoke," e.g., ye'shan or 'dshen ("smoking"), belonging after "cloud": "a smoking cloud by day, and a flaming fire by night. ' '
5-6. (5e) For upon all the glory (shall be: Heb. no verb, i.e., "is") a defence. (6a) And there shall be a tabernacle (b) for a shadow in the day-time from the heat (c) and for a (place of) refuge and for a covert from storm and from rain.
Though the beginning of this stanza is most awkwardly
worded, the end seems to show the same construction as the
previous part of the prophecy: a couplet (or here a triplet) in
parallelism, but the stichoi not syntactically independent.
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Chapter 4
For the beginning of the stanza parallelism seems indicated in the words ''canopy" (5e) and "tabernacle" (6a). The former word occurs again only in Ps. 19.6 ; Josh. 2.16, appar- ently meaning "chamber"; the root occurs, however, in a signiflfcant passage, Deut. 33.12: x^pheph 'dldw: "(the Lord) shall cover him ' ' ; such a verb is indeed read by the Septuagint [cTKeiraa-driaeTai) ; i.e., ydxoph or (from the cognate root) yexpe. But while the meaning of this couplet is clear, in its present form it is much mutilated. If the phrase "for upon all glory" is not to be disposed of as above suggested, we might read: M 'al kullah k^hhodho ydxdph, w^-sukka tihye (add gh^'utho'i) :
Yea, all of her his glory shall cover,
And a tabernacle shall (there, it; or insert "his majesty" or "over her") be.
For this thought, compare Is. 60.2, cited above; Ps. 57.6: "thy glory is over all the earth"; Ex. 24.16: "and the glory (kh^hhodh) of the Lord abode upon Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it"; for "tabernacle," sukka, as the equivalent of the cloud in which God appears: II Sam. 22.12, "He was seen upon the wings of the wind; he made darkness pavilions (sukkoth) round about him, dark waters and thick clouds." And for the thought of God's glory, i.e., God himself, as the refuge from the storm, compare Is. 25.4: "For thou hast been a strength to the poor, a strength to the needy in his distress; a refuge from the storm, a shadow from the heat. ' '
The simple parallelism at the end of this last passage {maxse miz-zerem gel me-xdrehh) suggests that our closing couplet 6b, c probably also was originally as simple ; i.e., exactly like the cor- responding member of the other stanzas. The word yomdm, "in the day-time," is omitted by the Septuagint; it may be either simple dittography from verse 5 ; or it may with u¥-mistor, ' ' and for a covert, ' ' represent the distorted missing portions of the first couplet of this stanza. Mist or in itself, though super- fluous, is not objectionable; but mdtdr, "rain," after zerem, "flood," is remarkably weak and anticlimactic ; mdtdr occurs often in the Old Testament, but always as a symbol of blessing
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Chapter 4 and refreshment, never of destruction; Prov. 28.3, which might be the apparent exception, in reality shows the normal use of the word ; the king, who is expected to be the champion of the poor (cf. 72.1), but who instead oppresses them, is likened to a rain (because the rain is expected to bring blessings) which pros- trates, soxeph, the grain and brings no food ; i.e., mdtdr receives its special meaning there entirely from its essential modifier soxeph. Read then here :
For a shadow from the heat, And for a refuge from the storm.
Finallj", there is the possibility that the prophecy ended orig- inally with the word lay'^ld, ''night," in verse 5; and that the remainder represents annotations based on the passages quoted in the course of this discussion.
Chapter 5
1. (a) Now will I sing to my beloved (b) a song of my beloved touching his vineyard, (c) My beloved hath a vineyard (d) in a very fruitful hill.
The prevailing type of line found in verses 1-7 is one char- acterized bj' a distinct caesura; in some cases one portion of the line is longer than the other; in most cases the second portion of the line is also in some degree of parallelism with the first portion, and in a few, in. complete parallelism.
Even in the first line the first portion, "Now will I sing to my beloved," may be considered as syntactically complete in itself; compare Ps. 13.6: "I will sing unto the Lord, because he hath dealt bountifully with me " ; or 96.2 : ' ' Sing unto the Lord, bless his name"; and so the verb "sing" is often used without any object. Accordingly, the portion of the line aft^r the caesura, "a song of my beloved touching his vineyard," might be considered as a parallel to the first part, a cognate accusa- tive, "song," being used instead of an appositional finite verb "I will sing"; and the whole line might thus be considered a parallelistic couplet of the incremental type (cf. the Song of
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Deborah, Judges 5.3 : "I to the Lord, I will sing ; I will chant
to the Lord God of Israel").
In the second line (c, d) "my beloved hath a vineyard" might again be a syntactically complete proposition; but the portion d, as the text stands, can in no way be considered par- allel to any word in c; nor has the line as a whole any parallel.
This verse, however, is not without its difficulties for trans- lators and commentators. In stichos b, "a song of my beloved touching his vineyard" means "the song sung by my beloved touching [or perhaps 'to'] his vineyard"; for if "my beloved" were an objective genitive the text would of necessity be shlrath dodhl we-kharnio: "the song of my beloved and his .vineyard"; or the same thought might possibly be expressed thus : shlra. l^-dhodhl w^-kharmo: "a song concerning my friend and his vineyard." A subjective genitive does not suit the context; stichos a means either "I will sing to my beloved" or "I will sing concerning my beloved" (or it means both at the same time, as it seems to mean generally in the frequent phrase "sing l^- Yahwe: "sing to and of the Lord") ; and one does not sing to a beloved the beloved's own song; nor, indeed, is the song that follows the beloved's song, but a song concerning the beloved's vineyard.
A very simple change {dodhaw for dodhl) yields this sen- tence: "I will sing now to (and 'of') my beloved, the song of his love for his vineyard"; this, however, introduces a distinc- tion between the references in "love" and "beloved," making one refer to the singer's beloved, the other to the beloved's love for his vineyard. As a matter of fact, it is the word ' ' beloved ' ' that is most difficult to explain in this passage ; its casual use by the Prophet in the sense of "my friend" would be strange, and the strangeness would be much increased by the fact that it seems to occur here in an allegory and to refer to Yahwe. Such a use of the term, if possible at all, would certainly require that in the identification (verse 7) of the characters in the parable it also should be explained. But the concealment of the fact that Yahwe is the owner of the vineyard is not at all an im-
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Chapter 5 portant element in the parable; it is dropped without comment in verse 3, despite the fact that "beloved" is used three times in the introduction — a repetition that must be taken as indica- tive of added emphasis upon the word.
And, indeed, the idea of love is the important one in the par- able ; but it is not that of the singer 's love for the Lord, or vice versa; it is the Lord's love for his vineyard. The word "be- loved," y^dhldhl, expresses just that idea wherever it occurs in the Psalms and elsewhere in passages referring to the Lord; thus Deut. 33.2, "Benjamin is God's beloved; the Lord shall cover him all the day"; in Jer. 12.7ff. Israel is the "dearly beloved of my [God's] soul, my heritage, my vineyard." If in the present passage stichos la stood by itself the natural inter- pretation would then be : "I will sing now of my beloved ' ' and the sequel would show clearly that, as is usual, the Prophet is identifying himself with the voice of God, and that "the be- loved" is his, i.e., God's, vineyard, on which he has lavished his loving care (the enallage to the third person in verse 2, "he fenced it, ' ' is then the usual enallage : the Prophet alternates between the two without marking the change ; the Septuagint, however, keeps the first person consistently throughout). If y'^dhldhl has its usual meaning the failure to explain it in verse 7 would not be remarkable ; nevertheless, it really is indirectly explained there as referring to vineyard, though for yddhldh is substituted a synonymous term, sha' shu'dw, which, since the identity of the ' ' beloved ' ' as the ' ' vineyard ' ' has already become evident, is chosen because it can better be applied both to a vine- yard and to a person; so sha' shU'lm, "pleasant," is used in Jer. 31.20 in combination with yeledh: "Benjamin was to me a pleasant child," where the parallelism hen ydqir shows its mean- ing to be "precious," "dear," "beloved," "fondled" (cf. ydqartd in Is. 43.4) ; cf. Is. 66.12: "ye shall be born upon her sides, and be dandled {t^sha' shaf u) upon her knees."
To make the first line consistent, then, it is necessary only to read the consonantal text as preserved (or changed) by the Septuagint ; reading, however, a different vowel from that which
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it supplied: dodhai for its dodhl: "Now will I sing of my beloved, a song of my love for my vineyard. ' ' This at the same time is what parallelism demands.
The second stichos (lit. **a vineyard was to my beloved," kercm hdyd Udhldhi) would then have to be read: "a vineyard was to me (as) beloved," kerem hdyd ll ¥-yddhldh; cf. Gen. 28.21, w^-hdyd Yahwe ll lelohim, "and Yahwe will be to me for God." The construction is used particularly of personal rela- tionships (father and sons, husband and wife, etc.), a fact which is in keeping with the personification suggested by the use of "beloved" in this first verse. It should be noted that the Sep- tuagint omits the pronoun of "beloved," reading perhaps as proposed, l^yddhldh for Udhldhi.
B^-kherem hen shdmen, "in a very fruitful hill," is literally "in a horn, son of fat" (or "oil"). The use of "son" in such phrases is fairly frequent; normally, however, it is applied to that which is the result of, is produced by, that comes forth from, or goes into, something else ; i.e., where the original mean- ing of the term is preserved in a sort of personification. Thus ' ' sparks ' ' are the ' ' sons of the flame " ; " arrows ' ' are ' ' sons of the quiver"; particularly in Is. 21.10: Babylon is likened to corn that is threshed, and this is called "son of my threshing- floor"; on the other hand, the hill itself would be "father" of fertility (see the note on 6,13). It is curious that in the present verse, where Israel is likened to a vineyard, and the vineyard is personified, the metaphorical use of son should appear applied not to Israel or the vineyard, but to the "hill," which has no figurative meaning here.
The word qeren itself occurs some seventy-five times in the Old Testament; only here does it denote anything but "horn." The translation "hill" is based on the Arabic, where qarn de- notes sometimes the spur of a hill; also the higher part of a desert, or a corner; wddls also have proper names compounded with Qarn. Indeed, the choice of qeren here, instead of any usual word for hill, and as emphasizing the "horn" or "spur" of a hill, is curious ; vineyards are planted on hills, it is true ;
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Chapter 5 but on the slopes preferably of rolling hills, not on isolated peaks. The entire phrase is evidently very poetical, and not literal; it would be so even without the word hen, "son"; qeren shemen means ''horn, flask of oil" (I Sam. 16.1) and its appli- cation to a hill would suggest a metaphor; but particularly would it be apt in personification: qeren hap-pukh, "horn of antimony," is a proper name. Perhaps, then, the preposition &^, "in," should be omitted, and the phrase, qeren hen shemen, should refer directly to, and be in apposition with, "the vine- yard." The change restores parallelism at the same time,
2. (a) And he fenced it, (b) and gathered out the stones thereof, (c) and planted it with choicest vines; (d) and built a tower in the midst thereof, (e) and also made a wine press therein; (f) and he looked that it should bring forth grapes, (g) and it brought forth wild grapes.
The Septuagint, as noted above, reads the first person throughout this verse. Of the sentences that compose this strophe, f and g together possibly form a line of the same type as that noted before as the dominant type of this prophecy {qlnd) ; they might also be read as an ordinary parallelistic distich, like d and e. In regard to a, b (each in Hebrew a single word) and c (two words), there is some doubt; they might be read as three stichoi (cf. 1.6), as two (ab, c) or as one with caesura (ab c) ; only d and e, then, cannot be made to conform to the qlnd type.
The word hoshlm (root "to stink") occurs in Job 31.40; it may be merely a general term "worthless (ones)," and perhaps denotes the same as 'inn^hhe rosh, literally, "poison grapes," translated "grapes of gall" (cf. Deut. 29.17: "a root bearing gall") ; as a matter of fact, galls are found on grapevines; and even if they were not, the oak gall is common enough in Syria to have given rise to the figure.
The suddenness and brevity of the climax "they produced galls," after the long description of the care lavished on the vineyard, is worthy of note in a discussion of the style of Isaiah.
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3-4. (3a) And now, O inhabitant of Jerusalem, and men of Judah, (b) judge, I pray you, betwixt me and (betwixt) my vine- yard. (4a) What could have been done more to my vineyard that I have not done it (lit. and I have not done it) ; (b) wherefore when I looked (lit. did I look) that it should bring forth grapes, brought it forth (lit. and it brought forth) wild grapes?
Here the dominant type of strophe becomes clear again : the caesura is marked; there is a degree of subordinate parallelism between the two portions of each line, caused, except in the first, by the repetition of some word: "betwixt" in 3b, "done," 'dsa, in 4a, "bring forth," Hebrew 'dsa again, in 4b. There is par- allelism, also, in form and thought between 4a and 4b as entities : "Why did I do everything good for it, while it did (produced) only ill (galls) for me?"
5. (a) And now, go to; I will tell you (lit. and now, let me tell you) Avhat I will do to my vineyard.
Read by itself, this line might be simple prose. But read with attention to the rest of the poem in which it stands, it makes a somewhat different impression. Indeed, one must not disre- gard the immediately preceding line, to which it is an answer. And while the question in 4b has a distinct rhetorical purpose, it is not merely a rhetorical question. It cannot be supposed that the curiosity of the Prophet 's audience at this point was not aroused by the question why a carefully nurtured vineyard pro- duced galls; nor can it be supposed, when he utters the words "now I will tell you," that the audience is not expecting the answer to that particular question; and the form of the rest of this prophecy shows conclusively that there was a caesura, a pause, after these words. Indeed, "let me tell you" (without expressed object) is a complete proposition in itself; cf. Jer. 11,18, "and the Lord hath told me," hodM'anl; but particularly Jer. 16.21, where the same rhetorical effect as in the present passage is produced in the same way, excepting that the effect becomes clearer by the repetition of the predicate after the caesura: "Therefore, behold, I will this once cause them to know — I will cause them to know mine hand and my might." And in Isaiah the caesura is used with added effect; for he
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Chapter 5 wrenches the conclusion of the sentence away from the expected, and with dramatic suddenness again rushes from calm reasoning to a prophecy of punishment. To a certain extent there is in- volved here a species of paronomasia. "I will inform you" becomes because of the additional clause, "I'll show you!" in the colloquial use of that phrase as a threat ; cf . the passage from Jeremiah quoted above; and so in Arabic 'arrifuhu, "I will let him know," "I will show him" (scil., "something he will re- member"), "I will teach him a lesson." If, however, the verse is regarded as one long line, parallelism is, perhaps, established by means of the infinitives in 5b-6 (q.v.), which are in appo- sition with the clause ' ' what I shall do to my vineyard " ; or if parallelism was not intended at all, the line is a simple prose line, a mere "formula of announcement."
5-6. (5b) I "vvill take away the hedge thereof, (e) and it shall be eaten up; (d) and break down the Avail thereof, (e) and it shall be trodden down, (6a) And I will lay it waste: (b) it shall not be pruned, (c) nor (shall it be) digged: (d) but there shall come up briers and thorns: (e) I will also command the clouds (f) that they rain no rain upon it.
The extreme, almost savage, terseness of the Hebrew infini- tives in 5b and d ("take away," hdser; "break down," pdrog) is not revealed by the English finite verbs.
The ten clauses of this passage can again be read as a series of (five) lines, each with a distinct caesura; the unevenness in length of the two parts, however, is absent; on the other hand, with the exception of one line (6ef ) each might clearly be read as two, all to a certain extent parallel, but with closer parallelism between the alternate lines.
The arrangement is not entirely clear as the text stands. 6a and 6b evidently belong closely together; 16' yizzdmer probably is a circumstantial clause modifying iva-'^sMthehu hhdthd: "and I will lay it waste, it not being pruned." This would suggest then that the corresponding 16' ye'ddher, "it shall not be hoed," belongs after, not before, 6d, thus : ' ' there shall come up briers and thorns, it not being hoed. ' ' Otherwise, 6a-d might form an "envelope" paiallelistic quatrastich :
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And I shall make it a waste,
It shall not be pruned,
And it shall not be hoed, And thorn and thistles shall come up.
At any rate there is a clear relationship of cause and effect between the growth of thorns and thistles and the absence of hoeing ; as there is between removal of the hedge and being eaten (but see the note on 6.13), between breaking of the walls and being trodden. This leads to a closer examination of the word hatha, "waste," in its relation to absence of pruning. Bdthd is a a7ra| Xeyofievov, assigned to the root hdthath, "cut off" or "sever," although as vocalized by the Massora, this derivation is not certain; the form should be hattd, used by Isaiah in 7.19 with the meaning "precipice." Septuagint and Targum trans- late with words containing the idea "to desert" — evidencing perhaps nothing more than a desire to establish a closer connec- tion of ideas, as suggested above ("neglected" as a synonym of "unpruned"). The conclusion seems inevitable, since the lan- guage has many words for "waste," "destruction," etc., that Isaiah used this special work here because of some special appro- priateness. If the root is "cut off," the purpose may have been the play on the ideas : "it shall be cut — but not with (the cutting of) pruning." But it is far more likely that there is an error in the text or in our interpretation ; with a prefixed ^ayin {'hhdthdf) the word might mean "thicket," "entanglement"; or if possibly the Arabic root katha'a, kathatha (which would ordinarily be in Hebrew kasha, kdshash, but is not found) might be read, a still more appropriate word would result; it denotes "become thick and tangled"; it is applied not only to plants, but also to the beards of men; and it is at least curious to note that in Lev. 25.5 vines that are left unpruned in the Sabbatical year are called ndzlr, "Nazirite," i.e., "with unshorn hair."
In 6e, f "I will also command the clouds, that they rain no rain upon it," there seems to be no reason for questioning the caesura after "clouds." The verb "command" with the prepo- sition 'al, "upon," "against," almost invariablj^^ means "pro-
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Chapter 5 hibit": the phrase means then "I will enjoin, restrain the clouds " ; so that the rest of the sentence is merely a nearer definition; the usual construction, indeed, would be: "I will lay command upon the clouds, saying, 'rain not upon it.' " In the difficult passage. Job 36.32, wa-y^gaw 'dlehd h^^nvafgl'^' , Saadia interprets the first two words, "and he commanded upon it," as a complete proposition, and so the English translates, "com- mandeth it not to shine, ' ' inserting the last three words. But if the sentence in Isaiah is regarded as one long stichos, it is still parallel to the rest of verse 6.
7. (a) For the vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel, (b) and the men of Judah his pleasant plant; (c) and he looked for judgment but behold oppression; (d) for righteousness, and behold a cry.
Stichoi a and b are a distich in ordinary complementary parallelism ; nevertheless, there is a species of caesura within each stichos, and there was quite probably in delivery of the prophecy an actual, dramatic pause : ' ' for the vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is — the house of Israel ! ' ' Indeed, whenever in a proposition subject and predicate are exactly synonymous and coextensive, there results a form of inner parallelism.
In stichoi c and d the caesura is logical, and again these two lines might be divided into four. In either case li-qfidhdqd, ' ' for righteousness, ' ' is interesting ; though it is a single word, it forms an independent syntactic member; and in time, in the number of rhythmic "thought beats," it is the equivalent of the phrase ' ' he looked for justice. ' '
The paronomasia is striking, and especially in the case of Q^dhdqd and q^^'dqd, "righteousness" and "cry," the meaning is perfectly evident ; ' ' the cry ' ' is the cry of fright and suffering, and by metonymy the word becomes almost a synonym of "sin" ; so in Gen. 18.21 in reference to Sodom, it is parallel to "sin," xattd'd, and contrasted with the gaddlq, "righteous," of 18.24; in Ps. 9.13, "seeker of blood" (i.e., "murderer") occurs as a. complement of ' ' the cry of the oppressed. ' ' But the word mispdx, A. V. "oppression," in contrast to mishpdt, "judgment"
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or ''justice," is not entirely clear. If the thought intended was "shedding" (i.e., of blood) it is curious that Isaiah should have had recourse to a rare root sdpJmx (moreover, with sin not samekh), instead of the root shdphakh common in Hebrew with just the connotation " shedding-blood " and, moreover, affording an even closer homonym to mishpdt: i.e., mishpdkh. If Proverbs 13.23 were clearer, it might be cited as suggesting a possible emendation mispd, ' ' snatching ' ' : there is that which is destroyed, literally "snatched," "swept away," for want of justice, h^-lo' mishpdt; and in the passage just cited, Gen. 18.23, occurs again : "wilt thou snatch away {tespe) the righteous with the wicked," in which Abraham apparently asks the Lord if He himself in- tends to commit toward the righteous just that specific act for committing which the wicked are about to be punished.
8-10. (8a) Woe unto them that join house to house, (b) (that) lay field to field, (c) till (there be) no place, (d) that they (Heb. ye) may be placed alone in the earth,
(9a) In mine ears (said) the Lord of Hosts, (b) of a truth many houses shall be desolate, (9c) even great and fair without inhabitant. (10a) Yea, ten acres of vineyard shall yield one bath, (b) and the seed of an homer shall yield an ephah.
Beginning with verse 8 there is a return to ordinary par- allelism; with a few transpositions the prophecy through verse 23 consists of a series of double quatrains, of the tj^pe preserved in the first series, 8-10 : the first quatrain denounces a certain class of sinners, the second predicts their punishment (i.e., is antistrophic). In each quatrain normally, while the four lines are parallel, there is a closer degree of parallelism within each couplet composing it.
In the first quatrain, the third line, 'adh 'ephes mdqom, "till there is no place, ' ' seems possibly too short, especially when con- trasted with the fourth. Is it again a mere coincidence that just where this disparity is felt, the Septuagint shows an equal- izing transposition? It translates: "in order that they may 'remove something of their neighbor's"; i.e., 'adh '^soph m^'um q^rdhhdm. Here '^soph, "removal," is the Massoretic 'ephes, "there is no"; m^'umd, "something," is the Massoretic mdqom
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Chapter 5 (''place"; on the misreading of ' for q, see the note on miq- qedhem, 2.6) ; but q^rdhhdm is the Massoretic qerehh, ''midst of, ' ' from the next line ; quite possibly, then, this word was at first omitted by mistake, was written on the margin, and then edited by a copyist into the wrong place. For the use of mdqdm, "place," i.e., "vineyard," "field," "estate," compare Is. 7.23: "in every place {mdqdm; i.e., "estate" or "vineyard") where there were a thousand vines ' ' ; and on the general idea expressed here compare the words of Ahab to Naboth in I Kings 21.2: "Give me thy vineyard, because it is near (qdrohh), along- side of mine house." Line 8d seems to bear in itself other evi- dences of corruption. The use of the second person (the Eng- lish translates as third) in this one line, while the rest of the stanza and of the whole prophecy is cast in the third, which is the usual construction after hoi, " ah ! " or " alas ! ' ' may not be disregarded. Moreover the use of the hoph'al form hushabhtem, "ye be caused to dwell," is most illogical; there is certainly no idea of causation intended. The Septuagint translator felt this, and read (or interpreted) the initial h as the particle of inter- rogation : ' ' will ye dwell. ' ' Parallelism with the preceding line suggests the infinitive w^-shihhtdm, "and (until) their dwell- ing," and Ic-hhadddm, which was changed to ic-hhadd^khem to agree with the misread verb.
In 9a the phrase "In mine ears (said) the Lord of Hosts" stands outside the parallelism, as has been noticed in the case of similar phrases introducing the direct discourse. The sentence itself, without a verb, is suspicious; the consonantal text might as well be translated: "In the ears of the Lord of Hosts" (cf. Num. 11.18, 14.28; I Sam. 8.21) ; or even as an oath, "by the ears of the Lord ! ' ' Possibly its mutilated form is due to the fact again that it was an editorial marginal insertion to explain the following construction 'im Id', literally "if many houses shall not be desolate ! " Or the whole construction, including 'ini Id', is the editorial reconstruction of a defective passage; Septuagint has for 'im Id' iav yap yevoovrai. That even with the Massoretic 'im Id' retained the introductory phrase is still syn-
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tactically unnecessary is shown for instance by Job 1.11. But that 'im Id' was itself probably inserted into a defective text, and that some simple word Idkhen, ''therefore/' was original, is shown by verses 13, 14, 24; the more solemn and emphatic 'im Id' and 'im occur, it is true, in 14.24 and 22.14; but both of these passages contain an especially solemn prophecy ("as I have sworn, so shall it be ! " ; " not shall your sin be atoned for you until ye die!"), which is not the case here.
On the probable meaning of hdttlm rahhlm, "many houses," see 2.3, ' ' many nations. ' '
In the line "ten acres (lit. "spans," gimde; perhaps "what a span of oxen can plough in a day") of vineyard shall produce one bath" (forty litres or eight gallons), it would be inter- esting to know why the Septuagint omitted (or misread) the common word kerem, "vineyard." Perhaps merely because it was felt that a term of measurement referring literally to ploughing was not a logical one to apply to vineyards. Isaiah is, as a matter of fact, very careful in his use of terms; and in 7.23 where again there is a quantitative reference to vineyards, be uses just the terms which would be expected and which are used today in the East : the number of vines of a certain value e^ch. In Arabic there is a term which exactly corresponds to Qinide, i.e., fadddn; but I doubt whether even the colloquial Arabic applies it in measurement of anything but seed-land. The Septuagint, translating ipySivTai, perhaps substituted, if it did not actually find in the Hebrew, for kerem some form of the root from which comes 'ikkdrlm, ' ' ploughman " ; in Jer. 51.23 the two terms occur together : 'ikkdr w^-qimdo, ' ' the husbandman and his yoke of oxen. ' ' The line under discussion is as a matter of fact overloaded ; and it is possible that either ' ' ten " or " vine- yard" is superfluous. If '(^gereth gfimadhlm, "ten acres," is original, the consonants k, r from kerem may represent the marginal variant kor, for a kor is a term of measurement exactly identical with a x^mer (mentioned in the next line) as the bath is identical with the 'ephd. On the other hand "ten" may be marginal, as an attempt to explain the proportion between kor
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Chapter 5 and hath, xomer and 'ephd, the latter of each pair of terms being just ten times the former. At all events the passage is interest- ing, if it may be assumed that the normal proportionate yield of the vineyard and the field were about the same as today. Ten acres of vineyard on the average yield five thousand gallons, Professor Bioletti informs me, instead of which Isaiah predicts eight gallons, i.e., one instead of six hundred and twenty-five. If ''ten" be omitted the prediction becomes one instead of sixty, which would still denote absolute ruin. Supposing a ten-fold yield of wheat (German colonists in Sharon enjoy an eight-fold yield), the proportion of prophesied to normal yield would be one to one hundred. In Gen. 26.12, it is true, Isaac is said to have enjoyed a hundred-fold yield apparently (so in Matthew 13.8, hundred-fold, sixty-fold, and thirty-fold yields are men- tioned) ; if such yields were usual, the proportion of prophesied to normal yield of grain might be one to one thousand, but pos- sibly "one hundred fold" represents not the returns of a single harvest, but of a year — or else is oriental hyperbole.
11-14. (lla) Woe unto them that rise up early in the morning that they may follow strong drink; (b) that continue until night (till) wine inflame them. (12a) And the harp and the viol, the tabret and pipe, (b) and wine (are in) their feasts;
(12c) but they regard not the wDrk of the Lord, (d) neither con- sider the operation of his hands. (13a) Therefore my people are gone into captivity (b) because they have no knowledge; (c) and their honorable men (are) famished (c) and their multitude dried up with thirst.
(14a) Therefore hell hath enlarged herself, (b) and opened her mouth without measure; (c) and their glory and their multitude (d) and their pomp, and he that rejoiceth, shall descend into it (Heb. : and shall descend their glory and their multitude and their pomp, and one rejoicing, in her).
In this exceedingly long passage it is noticeable that verses 13 and 14 each begin with "therefore," introducing two difi'er- ent threats of punishment : hell and captivity, for the one crime of intoxication. Either of these "therefore" passages is as good a conclusion for one of the several "woe" passages which, as at present arranged, occur later in this chapter without any ' ' there-
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fore" passage. Another fact is noticeable: verse 22 is in thought a doublet of verse 11, referring again to drunkards. The illogical arrangement is self evident; and the transposition of the passage 12c-13 leaves a stanza, clear and logical, of the same formation exactly as that found in verses 8-10: strophe and antistrophe.
As the passage stands, moreover, the feeling for style is out- raged by the fact that the word hdmon occurs twice (verses 13 and 14) in two quite distinct meanings: once denoting ''the multitude" or "people" (contrasted with kdhhod, "honorable men"; cf. Is. 16.14), and once denoting "noise," A. V. again * ' multitude. ' ' It was perhaps just this word which led the com- piler to put these passages together (see on yinhom, below).
Parallelism in 11a and b between yirdophU, "follow," and yadhliqem, "till wine inflame them," involves at the same time a play on the latter word, which, at least in the simple (qal) conjugation, means also "follow," "pursue" (Ps. 10.2; Lam. 4.19; Gen. 31.36; I Sam. 17.53): in the morning they pursue wine ; in the evening wine pursues them. Moreover there is here again the characteristic twist of thought : ' ' Ah ! those who are industrious in pursuit of — wine!"
In 12a and b, as the text stands, there is displayed an ex- tremely awkward style : four names of musical instruments are joined with the word wine to form the subject of "their ban- quet," though "wine" has just occurred in the preceding line, in parallelism to its synonym "strong drink," Certainly the second "wine" is out of place; and it is probable, in view of verse 14, that this series of words should be read and emended in some such way as follows :
w<^-1iaya Iciniwr wa-nehhel himomim toph w^-xcilil she 'on mishtdm,
"the harp and the viol are their tumult; the tabret and pipe are the noise of their banquet." For the inserted word sh^'on, see below, on 'dlez hah.
In 14c the reading hf^dhardh, etc., with feminine singular suffix instead of masculine plural (which the English assumes,
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Chapter 5 reading "their glory" for ''her glory") is due to the influence of the feminine suffix in the preceding line ("her mouth") — another clear evidence of copyist's carelessness. W^-dlez hah, literally "and one who rejoices, in her," a participle added to a series of abstracts each with its suffix, is stylistically impossible, and the separation of the final prepositional phrase, "in her," from its verb "go down" in this manner is also not likely Isaianic. Nor is the proper usage "go down in" Sh^'ol, but "go down to" (ace.) or "into" {'el) Sh^^'ol; nor is 'dlez the usual form of the participial adjective of the root ' dUz; it occurs only once, as against ' alUz seven times, five of them in Isaiah. Pos- sibly then ^dlez hah together represent an original abstract with suffix like the preceding nouns, e.g., 'Hlzuthdh (cf. ' Higuthdm, Hab. 3.14), or ' alzdthdh. Or probably 'dlez is a misreading for a verb parallel to ydr'^dhu, "go down"; the Septuagint has 01 \otfiol avT'^'i, i.e., 'anshe hHiya'al (cf. I Sam. 25.25, e.g.), in which 'anshe represents a double reading of shd'dn in this verse, or a marginal reading of it intended for insertion in verse 12 (see above) ; while hHlya'al may represent an original yihhdl^'u, "shall be swallowed up" (with hdh, "in her") ; cf. the par- allelism in Prov. 1.13, "Let us swallow them up {nihhld'em) alive, as the grave; and whole, as those that go down into the pit" (yor^dhe hhor) ; and cf. possibly Is. 28.7, where the nipWal of this verb is used (but in a different figure) of drunkards.
The passage 12b-13c extracted from the middle of this double quatrain may well belong after verse 21; if a line parallel to "my people shall perish for lack of knowledge" be supplied, e.g., "and are undone for lack of understanding," the restored series of verses 21, 12b-13c needs nothing further to furnish another perfectly consistent and complete double quatrain. Notice that verse 12c, ' ' the work of the Lord they do not regard, ' ' and 13b, "because they have no knowledge," present an excel- lent contrast to "those who are wise in their own eyes" in verse 21, For the proposed additional line cf. Hosea 4.6 : nidhmu 'amml mih-h^ll had-da' ath, "my people are undone for want of knowledge ' ' ; while in Is. 27.11 occurs the phrase ki Id 'am hlndth
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ha', " for it is a people of no understanding ' ' ; and the sanie parallelism, hln and yddha' , is found in Is. 1.3, 6.10. The sug- gestion is also in order that gala, "go into captivity," is an error for Mid, "perish," i.e., of the hunger and thirst described in 13bc. The particular aptness in associating hunger with lack of knowledge is ^ue to the figurative expression "hunger for knowledge";- so Amos says (8.11, 13) : "I will send famine in the land — not a famine for bread, nor a thirst for water; but of hearing the words of the Lord ; in that daj' shall the fair virgins and young men faint for thirst." Still, that hunger and thirst would be a fitting punishment for feasting and drunkenness, is evident ; and it is possible that one of these ' ' therefore ' ' sections is the missing sequel, not of verse 21, but of verse 22, another passage referring to drunkenness ; i.e., that there were originally two quite separate prophecies, or versions of one prophecy, on this subject.
15-16. (15a) And the (mean) man shall be brought down, (b) and the (mighty) man shall be humbled, (c) and the eyes of the lofty shall be humbled; (16a) But the Lord of Hosts shall be ex- alted in judgment, (b) and God, that is holy, shall be sanctified by righteousness.
That verses 15 and 16 are out of place is shown by the fact that they are a variant of the refrain found three times in chap- ter 2 (q.v.), and that they confuse the strophic structure sug- gested by verse 8-10; this confirms the theory that this chapter is in some disorder. As far as style is concerned, the loose repetition of "shall be humbled" in 15b and c suggests that these two lines are in themselves variants of one.
17. (a) Then shall the lambs feed after their manner (b) and the waste places of the fat ones shall strangers eat.
While in form these two stichoi are parallel, and "feed" and "eat" are parallel verbs, the precise meaning of the other words is not entirely clear; nor, even if this couplet belongs with the preceding, is there sufficient logical connection to serve as a guide. Syntactically, as the text stands, ' ' strangers, ' ' gdrlm, is
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Chapter 5 parallel to "lambs," k'^'bhdshlm ; linguistically, however, "fat ones, ' ' me-xlm is the parallel to ' ' lambs " ; it is only the exigency of the passage that has led translators to refer it to human beings with the meaning ' ' those who were once rich ' ' ; the word occurs, with inserted yodh, in Ps. 66.15 ("burnt offerings of fat- lings," ' oloth meylm) ; it is a synonym of m^re'im, used by Isaiah in 1.11 ("the fat of fatlings") and again in 11.6, a passage of similar import to 5.17 perhaps, but in which m'^rl' is not above suspicion. The defect in parallelism and clarity of thought is again coincident with variations in the Septuagint, whose underlying Hebrew text, however, cannot be exactly determined.
The word translated "according to their manner," i.e., M- dh^^hhdrdm is vocalized in the Massoretic text k<^-dhohhrdm, "as (in) their pasture" (cf. Micah 2.12: "as a flock in the midst of ' its pasture ' ' — only other occurrence of the word dohher, "pasture/' but made clear in Micah by the parallel, whether that parallel be retained as it stands, hocrd, or be read as from a root rdbhag, "sheep-fold"). Either vocalization demands that there be supplied in thought a phrase parallel to ' ' waste places, ' ' such as ' ' in the wilderness, " "in the desert " : " they shall feed in the wilderness after their manner," or "as though in their folds, ' ' a reference to the Messianic age ; but more probably k''-dhohhrdm itself is to be read simply ham-midhhdr, "in the wilderness"; in the second stichos gdrlm, "strangers," must be read then, after the Septuagint, either kdrlm, "lambs," or g<^dMyun, "kids"; and mexim, "fatlings," is simply a gloss, or variant reading, of kdrlm. It is also possible that a transpo- sition of words has taken place, inasmuch as kdrlm means also ' ' meadows " ; so that me-^m kdrim yokhelu could mean ' ' and fatlings shall feed in meadows" — in which case dohher may be retained in stichos a. One other slight change in stichos b sug- gests itself : for xorhhdth, ' ' ruins, ' ' read rax^-bhoth or merx^hhoth, "broad places"; cf. Is. 30.23: "in that day shall thy cattle feed in large pastures, kar nirxdhh; and Hos. 4.16: "The Lord will feed them as a lamb in a large place," k^-khebesh bam-merxdbh.
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The couplet then reads : ' ' and lambs shall feed as in their own meadows [or simply: "in meadows": hi-dh^hhdrlm] , and the fatlings graze in broad (places of) the pastures," and has no connection with the rest of the chapter in thought or structure.
18-19. (18a) Woe unto them that draw iniquity with cords of vanity, (b) and sin as it were with a cart-rope. (19a) That say, Let him make speed (and) hasten his work, that we may see (it) : (b) and let the counsel of the Holy One of Israel draw nigh and come, that we may know (it). .
There seems to be no doubt that verse 19 is an explanation of verse 18, just as the second couplet of verse 8 was an expan- sion of the first, and as verse 12 of verse 11. Verse 19 refers to those who impiously and defiantly challenge the Lord to hasten the threatened "day"; cf. Amos 5.18 : "woe unto you that desire the day of the Lord." Verse 18, then, means probably: woe to those who do not seek by repentance to avert punishment, but who actually draw it to themselves by their 'vanity," i.e., "impiety." The words chosen by the Prophet permit this interpretation; 'dwon, "iniquity," in 18a, and x'^ttO''d, "sin," in 18b, both de- note also the "result of iniquity and sin," i.e., "punishment." It is a question, then, whether for '<^ghdld, "cart," there should not be read simply the exact parallel to shdw, "vanity"; i.e., 'awld, "with ropes of unrighteousness," instead of "ropes of a cart." "Cart-ropes," as heavy ropes, or as unbreakable ropes, would not emphasize the idea of speed, or of drawing to oneself ; the picture would be that of men dragging their sins behind them, perhaps then of making their own lives burdensome.
In 19a "his work," ma'^^sehU, stands in parallelism to "the counsel," or rather here "the plan" (cf. 8.10), of the "Holy of Israel," whereas, of course, normality would place a noun in the first line and the pronoun referring back to it in the second. But ma'^^seJiU is evidently merely a scribal error for ma'^^se Yahwe; cf. 1.4: "thej^ have deserted Yahwe, they have spurned the Holy of Israel ' ' ; and see again verse 24 of this chapter.
The "therefore" stanza, describing the specific punishment for this class of sinners, has been lost.
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Chapter 5
20. (a) Woe unto them that call evil good and good evil, (b) that put darkness for light, and light for darkness; (c) that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter!
This stanza is again evidently defective ; there is missing not
only the "therefore" quatrain, but also the fourth line of the
first quatrain. Possibly the third line (e), however, is merely
a variant of the second (b), so that a couplet and not merely
one stichos is missing; in that case verse 23 should probably be
read here, for it is a poor complement to verse 22, dealing with
drunkenness, but an excellent one to verse 20 : " woe to those
who call bad good and good bad; who justify (i.e., call righteous)
the wicked, but deny the righteous a just decision" (see below).
21. (a) Woe unto (them that are) wise in their own eyes, (b) and prudent in their own sight.
What would be the natural complement of this couplet is
found at present in 12c (q.v.).
22. (a) Woe unto them that are mighty to drink wine, (b) and men of strength to mingle strong drink.
This couplet is in thought a variant of verse 11 (q.v.), though
the figure is slightly different. The same sarcasm, however, is
evident; here it is: "woe to the valiant in drinking"; there it
was: "woe to the industrious in drinking."
23-24. (a) Which justify the wicked for a reward, (b) and take away the righteousness of the righteous from him. (24a) Therefore as the fire devoureth the stubble (b) and the flame consumeth the chaff, (c) (so) their root shall be as rottenness, (d) and their blossom shall go up as dust.
Verse 23, it has been explained, is the natural sequel to verse 20 (q.v.). In verse 24 the Hebrew is extremely awkward; the Massoretic text wa-x^shash lehabhd yirpe is literally : ' ' and chaff of flame sinks down," interpreted "chaff destined for, or be- longing to, flame," hence "flaming chaff." Parallelism sug- gests the simple change of one consonant in yirpe so as to read sor^phd, "burning" : "therefore as the consuming of stubble (by) tongue of fire, and of chaff (by) burning flame." This, besides, is a more accurate figure ; chaff that burns does not sink down—
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it is consumed to the roots, as is suggested by the next line. The Septuagint seems to have had the same radical text as the Massoretic; but, making yirpe a modifier of "flame" (reading feminine, tirpe), it translates ^\o709 ai^et/ieV?^? ; since the latter word means not only literally "relaxed," but also "unre- strained," the thought "violent flame" becomes possible in the Greek. The Septuagint, moreover, offers some evidence that the trouble is due to a text confused by crowded or marginal writ- ing; it had placed the x"5^«^^> "chaff," of stichos b in place of kam-nmq, "like rottenness," in stichos c, and apparently placed kam-mdq in stichos b as a verb (avyKavdrjaerai: possibly yidhloq; cf. verse 11). Notice that the first couplet does not contain a syntactically complete proposition ; this is an example of suspensive parallelism.
Akin to the series of stanzas in chapter 5 is 10.1 (q.v.) : "woe to those who decree unrighteous decrees ' ' ; instead of a four line strophe, however, it offers one of six lines.
24. (e) Because they have cast away the law of the Lord of Hosts, (f) and despised the word of the Holy One of Israel.
This apparently does not belong immediately with the pre- ceding, because effect and cause have already been specified there. "Because," then, if this section is complete, anticipates the next 'al-Mn, "therefore" (in verse 25 ; q.v.) ; but more prob- ably some introductory verses are missing here (see the note to verse 25).
25. (a) Therefore is the anger of the Lord kindled against his people (b) and he hath stretched forth his hand against them and smitten them: (c) and the hills did tremble, (d) and their carcasses (were) torn in the midst of the streets, (e) For all this his anger is not turned away, (f) but his hand (is) stretched out still.
The fact that "therefore" here is ' al-ken, not Idkhen as throughout the chapter, though it must not be pressed, is per- haps supporting evidence for considering this part of a different prophecy. More important is it that verse 25 forms an admir- able introduction to the series of verses in chapter 9, beginning with verse 12 (or 13), where the refrain "and still is his hand
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Chaptee 5 outstretched," the same clause that occurs here in stichos f, requires before it just such a passage as verse 25 : ** therefore he hath stretched forth his hand. ' ' On the other hand it has been noted that the passage beginning 10.1-2, "woe unto those who decree unrighteous decrees," seems really to belong with the series of "woe" stanzas in chapter 5.
The one weakness in verse 25 lies in stichoi c and d. These can hardly be called parallels; and moreover in d "and their car- casses" absolutelj' disregards stichos c ("the hills did tremble") and refers back to "people" in a and b. Stichos c, moreover, is very short ; either a pair of stichoi, then, have fallen out, one after and parallel to c, the other before and parallel to d; or else from c there has fallen out a phrase which would make it properly parallel to d and contain an antecedent for "their" in the latter. In the first alternative. Is. 24.20 would supply a basis for a parallel to "and the hills did tremble," namelj^ "and the earth removed out of her place"; while 34.3 and 15.3 would offer a parallel to "their carcasses were torn in the midst of the streets ' ' ; namely, ' ' and the slain were cast in all the squares, ' ' wa-x'^ldlim hushl<^khu h<^khol r^^x^^^^^^- ^^^^ as a matter of fact, the reference to the trembling of the hills seems out of place, re- garded as reference to an earthquake, and the second alternative seems to recommend itself. Read "and the hills did shake with the weight of the slain," or, better still, with yinndz^lu for yirg^zu, "the hills did flow with the blood of the slain," the figure found in Is. 34.3 : ' ' and the mountains shall be melted with their blood"; cf. also Ezek. 35.8, "and I shall fill his moun- tains with his slain men." Other suggestions are: way-yirhu ha-x^ldllm h^-khol ' drlm, "and the slain were many in all the cities" (66.16), or "in their midst," l)<^-qirhdm. Possibly the missing word is to be found in the superfluous qerebh, "the midst," in the next stichos; b^-hUgoth, "in the streets," is even better than "in the midst of the streets," though "in all the streets" might be just as good; qerebh occurs 227 times in the Old Testament; it invariably (except here) refers to the interior of a single object, or that which is surrounded by a number of
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objects grouped around it. The accidental omission of the word X^lallm, "slain," might have been due to its external similarity to he-hdrlm, "mountains."
26-29. (26a) And he will lift up an ensign to the nations afar, (b) and will hiss unto them from the end of the earth: (c) and, behold, they [lit. he] shall come with speed swiftly. (27a) None shall be weary nor stumble among them [lit, there is none wearying, and there is none stumbling in him] ; (b) none shall slumber nor sleep [lit. he does not slumber and he does not sleep] ; (c) neither shall the girdle of their [his] loins be loosed, (d) nor the latchet of their [his] shoes be broken: (28a) whose arrows (are) sharp, (b) and all their [his] bows bent, (c) their [his] horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, (d) and their [his] wheels like a whirlwind: (29a) Their roaring (shall be) like a lion [lit., a roaring to him like the lion], (b) they shall roar [lit. either "and he shall roar" or sim- ply, "he shall roar"] like young lions, (c) yea they shall roar [and he shall growl] and lay hold of the prey, (d) and shall carry (it) away safe, (e) and none shall deliver.
Whether this highly dramatic and formally almost perfect prophetic poem belongs with what immediately precedes or not, is uncertain. If it does, it emphasizes still more strongly that the two words in verse 25 referring to earthquake are to be emended.
As divided above the prophecy contains sixteen lines ; but 27a and b might each be divided into two stichoi (four in all), giving eighteen. Except possibly at two points, the parallelism is absolutely patent ; the distichs group themselves ; a closer affinity between some of the distichs makes possible also a stanza divi- sion. The first possible exception is 26c : ' ' and, behold, he shall come with speed swiftly," which has no exact synonymous par- allel. Nevertheless, it does form a complementary parallel to either or both of the first two stichoi : God signals to them [him], he calls to them, they answer him ; i.e., there may be here a three line introductory stanza exactly like the opening of chapter 1. On the other hand the line also is parallel to the following stichos, 27a : Swiftly they come : none wearies or stumbles. This would make of the second stanza (beginning, then, with 26c) one of an odd number of stichoi. And finally there is the possibility of regarding 26c as a distich in itself, for it contains two synonyms :
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Chapter 5 ' ' speedily ' ' and ' ' swiftly ' ' ; and despite Joel 4.4, where the same two adverbs are joined closely together to modify one verb again, Isaiah may have intended a strong caesura : ' ' and behold ! speedily — swiftly they come " ; or else the double adverb with single verb here may be a scribal error due just to the fact that such was the common prose usage ; Isaiah 's mdher shdldl xdsh haz in 8.1, 3 : "Swift [is] booty, speedy [is] prey," showing parallelism even in a proper name, may indicate .that origin- ally there stood here hinne m^hera ya'He or ydqum, qal ydhho: " lo ! swiftly he rises ; quickly he comes " ; or simply w^-hinne y^tnaher, qdl ydhho': "lo, he hastens; swiftly he comes." That, despite the simplicity of the text, the copyist has managed to err is shown by goylm, "nations," in verse 26a, a plural for the intended singular. It should be noted that goy, "nation," with- out the plural ending, might be a collective, and hence be treated as a grammatical plural in syntax; and still the author has de- liberately treated it as a singular in the same sentence ("he will hiss to him," Id) and fifteen times in the whole passage. It would be charitable to the copyist to suppose that he found the letters ym on the margin, intended as a correction of a maher, found in the text, to y^maher, as proposed above; and that he mistook those letters as a correction of goy, found in the text, to goylm. At all events, it must be repeated that the line 26c as it stands cannot be definitely claimed as a non-parallelistic stichos.
The other possibly doubtful point occurs in the final stanza, 29a-e, which yields a pentastich as I have divided it. There is no reason why Isaiah should not have used a closing pentastich — particularly if the opening stanza be regarded as having an uneven number of stichoi. As a matter of fact, however, the wording offers internal evidence of disorder. The repetition in 29a and b of the root shd'agh, "roar," with parallel phrases "like the lion," kal-ldhhV and "like the young lions" (or "like [its] whelps"), kak-k<^phlrlm, is offensive; even the Massoretic tradition in regard to the exact form of the root {w^-shd'agh or yish'agh) shows possibly some disorder here, though this point
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cannot be pressed by itself; but again just here the Septuagint, which up to this point represents exactly the Hebrew text, shows a variant reading. Notice, now, that in the Hebrew there stands by itself a synonymous verb, yinhom, inserted after "he shall roar like young lions"; the English addition of "yea" before it is an attempt to gloss over the inelegance of the Hebrew. At- tempts to show that there is intended a real progress of ideas in passing from yish'agh, "he roars," to ^'yinhom, "he growls" or "moans" (see BDB, s.v. nuham, referring to W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, p. 243) are not entirely satisfactory; that the roar "marks the moment of his spring, the sudden moan- ing that follows shows that the prey is secured" is contradicted by the Hebrew text itself, which has this order of words : roar, growl, then seize. Curiously enough, the Septuagint has made the transposition demanded by W. R. Smith 's interpretation : /cat e7rt\7;-»/reTot Kal ^o^crei ft)? Orjpiov: "he seizes and growls like the wild beast," in which the last word may represent hat-toreph, literally, "like the seizing one," instead of the Hebrew tereph ("prey," without the preposition "like"). But the Septuagint also avoids the double occurrence of shd'agh, "roar"; and that this is not due to the translator's feeling for style is shown by the fact that he does repeat the other word yinhom ("moan": fiorjaet. in verses 29 and 30) . For the second occurrence of sha'agh it reads irapearriKav , i.e., either w^-ndgash (or yiggash), "he draws near"; or w^-hisslgh (or yassigh), he will "reach," "overtake" (with sin for samekh), which would indeed be an appropriate word in the context; cf. Mic. 6.14: w^-thassegh w^-lo' taphllt, "take hold (or reach) but not deliver" (the last is the same word translated "carry away safe" in the present Isaiah passage: yaphllt). Either the Septuagint has the better text, or else its variations show at least some disorder in the tradition. The combined evidence points to the following: yish'agh was written bj^ mistake; yinhom was written over it or in the margin, and meant to replace it ; the copyist instead added it after kak-k^phlrlm, while the Septuagint added it after yoxez, supposing that the mark or line indicating erasure of yish'agh referred only to one of its consonants, the middle 'alef.
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Chapter 5 The last and concluding line of the poem iv^- 'en moQQll, ' ' and none can save," is intentionally and dramatically short; cf. the note on 1.31. With 5.20-29 read, perhaps, 10.28-32.
30. (a) And in that day they [he] shall roar against them [him] like the roaring of the sea; (b) and if one look into the land, behold darkness (and) sorrow, (c) and the light is darkened in the heavens thereof.
Verse 30a, if original here, is a parallel to 29a ; but probably it was placed by the compiler after the picture completed in verse 29 because it contains again the verb yinhom, ' ' roar. ' ' The latter part of the verse is very similar to 8.22 ; indeed, following 5.30 and extending into or through 8.20 is a series of interrelated prophecies which probably at one time formed a separate collec- tion ; if this collection be set aside for the moment, 5.30 and 8.22 come into close phj^sical proximity ; and one may well be a mere variant of the other. Though both are defective, the combined result gives a picture quite other than that completed in 5.29 : it is not that of a victim in the jaws of a lion, but of a wanderer looking in vain for light and guidance. That the difference in picture begins even in stichos a is evidenced by the change in rhythm, and especially by the phrase "on that day." But whether stichos a belongs with b and c, or is merely a fugitive line, is not certain. Yinhom, "he shall roar," can be used figur- atively of men, who "groan" in distress, or "roar" in wrath (Prov. 5.11; Ezek. 24.23; cf. Prov. 19.12, 20.2; Ps. 38.9); and though yinhom is not of frequent occurrence, the synonym shd'agh is used also of Yahwe (so in Amos 1.2; Joel 3.16; Jer. 25.30), perhaps as a more forcible alternative for ga'ar ("re- buke"; in modern Arabic ja'ara, for the classical ja'ara, means "bellow," "groan"), which occurs in 17.13, a passage which again is similar in thought to the present one and like it contains the simile of the roaring sea. Here then yinhoyn might refer either to the rebuke of God administered to the wandering sin- ner, or to the groan of the wanderer himself.
The syntax in stichoi b, c is most obscure ; literally ' ' he will look for the land and behold darkness (of?) distress and light is
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darkened in her clouds" (ha-'f^rlphehd: a awa^ Xeyofievov; Eng. '*in the heavens thereof"). The suspicious repetition of the root xdshakh is avoided by the Septuagint, which omits it in stichos c, together with 'or, "light"; 8.22, however, shows that its occur- rence in stichos b here is superfluous. Possibly for ha-' c^rlphehd simply '<^rdphel should be read (cf. Deut. 4.11) : "deep dark- ness, ' ' without preposition or suffix : so the Septuagint : o-/coto9 (TK\r]pov ; though it attaches the preposition to gdrd apparently : iv Ty arropia (cf. 8.22, where airopCa is gdrd) ; at any rate the Septuagint shows clearly the crowding and confusion of the words as evidenced by the Massoretic text itself. The original form of the verse may then have been :
He looks for [or to] the land, and lo! distress! For light — and (behold) darkness and cloud [or 'and darkened are the clouds'].
The style and parallelism resemble, then, those of 5.7 : " He hoped for justice and lo I bloodshed ; for righteousness, and lo ! a cry ' ' ; even the paronomasia, striking there, has its counter- part here, though the play is more subtle: on hd-'dreg, "the land," and, with the same consonants in reverse order, gdrd, "distress"; Id-' or, "for the light," and with quasi-assonance, '^rdphel, "clouds."
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 describes the Prophet's call, and down to verse 8 it is mostly pure prose narration. "Where, however, direct dis- course is introduced, parallelism may possibly have been in- tended; also, even in verse 7, where Isaiah merely repeats his own thoughts.
Woe is me, for I am undone;
For I am a man of unclean lips,
And amid a people of unclean lips I dwell;
For mine eyes have seen the king. Lord of Hosts —
a form of "envelope" parallelism may be discerned. But the formal parallelism here may be due merely to force of habit ; the
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Chapter 6
thought parallelism is not perfect. Again in verse 7, the words
of the Seraph, put in the form of direct discourse,
Thine iniquity is taken away, And thy sin purged
form a parallelistic distich ; the preceding stichos, however, ' ' Lo, this hath touched thy lips, ' ' stands alone ; and although it might be omitted as an absolutely superfluous line, since it follows the words, ''he laid it upon my mouth," the parallelism itself may be again mere force of habit. Similarly, in verse 8, where in the words of God,
Whom shall I send, And who will go for us?
stichos b is a parallelistic repetition of stichos a.
However that may be, the moment that the words of God in the form of a prophecy proper — an oracle for the people — begin, parallelism becomes perfect and the diction poetic: verse 9 is a perfect distich; verse 10 consists of two perfect parallelistic tri-. stichs with additional inverted intra-parallelism, line answering to line in a manner more exact even than the English reveals, since ''shut their eyes" is in Hebrew hdsha' , "cause to be smeared," of the same linguistic formation as the parallel hashmen and hakhhedh, "cause to be fat" and "cause to be heavy."
The first possible difficulty occurs in the last phrase of
verse 10: "and convert and be healed," wd-shabh w<^rdphd' lo;
but there is absolutely no reason why these words here should
not be read as a distich :
And [lest] it return. And be healed;
for each verb is a complete proposition, and the parallelism is
complementary as is shown clearly in 19.22 :
They shall return [w'^-shdbhu] to the Lord,
And he shall be entreated and heal them [rephd'am];
with which compare Hosea 6.1 :
Come let us return to the Lord; For he hath smitten and will heal us.
No prejudgment as to the necessary length of a line — that a sin-
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Chapter 6
gle word, even if it is a complete proposition, may not form a thought and line entity — should outweigh the patent evidence of parallelism. And if nevertheless these words be considered one stichos, they still could not be considered as clearly not in parallelism to the rest of the strophe since ' ' lest they be healed ' ' is clearly synonymous with ''lest they (the blinded of eyes) see."
Verse 11 begins with the words of the Prophet to God, in the query, ''How long?" No parallelism is to be expected there. But the answering prophecy of God begins in verse 11 with a tristich, of which the first two stichoi are in perfect parallelism, while the third, less exact, is suspicious ; it continues in a distich (verse 12) of almost perfect parallelism; but ends, in verse 13, in a series of phrases in which, while some of the elements of parallelism can still be seen, the form is blurred, while at the same time: (a) the thought not only lacks clarity but is seem- ingly illogical; (b) the syntax is correspondingly involved; (c) the choice of words is remarkable, involving not only the weak repetition of one word but the use of it in an almost unintelli- gibly perverted meaning; (d) the Septuagint shows important variants, while in the rest of the chapter it shows none. The following suggestions are offered.
Verse 11. Shd'u, "be wasted" in stichos a, and tishd'e, "be wasted" (Eng. "be desolate") in stichos c, show inelegant repe- tition, while 'adh 'c^sher 'im, literally "until that when," in stichos a is a rare and overloaded phrase in place of the simple 'adh (with the imperfect in Is. 22.14, 26.20, 32.15, etc.; with 'im in Is. 30.17) ; the redundant '(^sher, then, points to a real variant reading: 'adh yishshd'f^ru or 'adh 'im nish'^^ru in stichos a, or to tishd'cr in c; the whole of stichos c, however, w<^hd-'<^dhdmd tishd'e sh^mumd, "and the land be wasted a desolation," is more probably due to marginal variants, as will be explained below.
Verse 12. For w^-rixaq 'eth hd-'ddhdm, "and the Lord have removed men far a,wa.y," read w<^-rixaq sho'ath ha-'<^dhdmd, "and the Lord extend far the desolation of the land." This gives to rixaq its natural meaning when not followed by the preposition min ("from"; cf. 26.15, "thou hast far extended
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Chapter 6 [rixaqtd] the boundaries of the land"), and makes it parallel to the verb in the parallel stichos. It was probably a correct but misunderstood gloss sho'ath ("desolation," intended to cor- rect 'eth, sign of accusative) which was responsible for the incorrect shd'u in 11a, and for the tishd'e in lie; while sh^mdmd in lie was another gloss on the same word 'eth; sho'ath, found also in 10.3, 47.11, would be strictly parallel to ha-'<^zuhhd in 12b. Hd-'<^dhdmd, "the ground," the remaining word in lie, is again a true gloss to hd-'ddhdm in 12a; by restoring it, par- allelism with ha-' dreg, "the earth" is made perfect, and the repetition of 'ddhdm, used just previously (verse 11), avoided. It is possible, though not necessary, to read for rahhd "be great," rdx^ihd or hirxibh, "be" or "make broad"; hd-c^zubhd would then be not "the forsaking" but the "forsaken portion of" as in 17.9. Reconstruction:
w^'-rixttQ. Tahwe sho'ath hd-'cdhdma we-rixahh hd-'ozubhd b^^qerebh hd-'dreg.
Verse 13. It is not clear, as the verse stands, whether the Prophet is predicting absolute destruction or the saving of a remnant ; the words ' ' But 3^et in it be a tenth, and it shall re- turn, and shall be eaten" point to absolute destruction, as do perhaps the words in verse 10, "lest it return and be healed"; and while the concluding phrase in verse 13, "so the holy seed (shall be) the substance thereof," literally, "seed of holiness (is) its pillar," seems to point to the contrary, just the words "holiness its pillar" are missing from the Septuagint, and abso- lutely offend all sense of rhythm, style, and syntax. Maggeheth, A. V. "substance," which occurs inelegantly twice in the sen- tence, to give it a semblance of fitness is by critics translated generally in this passage "stump," "stock," "shoot," notwith- standing the fact that it occurs over forty times in the Old Testament, invariably with the meaning "stone pillar," while the language has various common words to denote "stump," or "stock," "shoot" of a tree.
On the other hand the evidence is strong that Isaiah did intend to predict the saving of a remnant — that the absolute
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destruction refers to the destruction of the existing Israelitish state ("this people"), not of the race. This is borne out by the Prophet's question "how long, my Lord?" — a strange question if the Prophet meant the preceding words to refer to absolute annihilation; and by the answer in 13a; "until there be a great forsaking" (or as emended, "until the destruction be far and wide") "and until there still be (but) a tenth in the land": we-' odh hah '^shirlyd. In 13b the phrase "and it shall return," w^-shdbhd, might still point toward the saving of a remnant; but with the phrase "and it shall be eaten," w^-hdyd l^-hhd' er, there is a sudden change. If the prophecy ended here, that change, by its very abruptness and unexpectedness would be highly effective, and in keeping with Isaiah's manner. But despite the confusion in the appended simile ("like an oak, ' ' etc. ) , it does not seem possible to treat all of it as a gloss ; and the words that are a gloss, "holy" and "substance," have caught apparently the real intention. The difficulty, then, lies in the word l^-bhd'er, "for destruction" — for to predict the saving of a tenth and then the destruction of the tenth could mean nothing but absolute destruction.
The word "for destruction," then, is, I believe, one of those careless copyist's slips, or misreadings, that have been noticed before; it is in part due to 5.5, where it occurs in its proper place, supported by parallelism; here it is not in parallelism, and not in place. For V^-bhd' er read li-sK^'dr, "for a remnant" ; both fitness and parallelism are restored: "until there be (but) a tenth, and it be again (or still) for a remnant." Moreover, this supplies just the line that is missing from the cycle of prophecies — the origin here at the outset of the Prophet's career, of his several references to the phrase sh^'dr ydshubh, applied even as a proper name to his son. Sh^^'dr for the Prophet means not only "a small remnant," but implies also the development of that remnant into a new growth; in 14.22 it accordingly appears in a series of terms, "name, remnant, son, posterity" (Eng. "nephew"). And that ydshubh does not mean literally "return," but connotes "be in turn," "still be" (cf. 'odh, both
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Chapter 6 "again" and ''still") becomes clear from 10.22, which can mean onl}' : ' ' though thy people, 0 Israel, are like the sand of the sea, a remnant (and only a remnant) shall still be therein [notice the preposition] : destruction is decreed" — not "a remnant shall return: captivity is decreed." There is perhaps in this use of ydshubh some reference to yeshehh, "remain" (as in its use with sh^huth, "captivity," there is a play on the root of that word) ; ydshuhh being used because it means also "repent"; the full thought then is: "a remnant shall repent and (therefore) be- come again a nation."
If this change be possible the way is clear for a reconstruction of the remainder of verse 13. The picture back of the simile of the oak and terebinth as a symbol of the remnant is suggested by a characteristic feature in some parts of the land. Thus on the road from Damascus to Brak and the Leja (Hauran), on a hill- side in the midst of an otherwise treeless but only partly culti- vated plain, grows a single oak that because of its isolation is a landmark and gives to the hill the name Tell Abu Shajara: "Hill, Father of the Tree." If now for the impossible maggehheth the participle muggehheth, "caused to be standing." i.e., "left standing," be read, the verj' significant passage Judges 9.6 is recalled: 'elon muggahh, "the oak left standing (Eng. "plain of the pillar") by Shechem"; this, if the text is correct, also refers to a single oak left when the valley was cleared to make way for the orchards of olives and fields of grain. B<^-shallekheth (Eng., "when they cast"), would mean then either "at the time of felling" or "in the place of felling," "in a clearing." For '<^sher, "which," read, with dittography of the n from the preceding 'dllon, nish'dr, "remaining," par- allel to muggehheth and referring indirectly to sh'^'dr, restored above. Bam zera' ("in them," "seed": such is the Hebrew order of the words) should be read together ham-mizra' , "seed- land," occurring again in Is. 19.7, and common in Arabic, m^azra'a, in that sense; here parallel to "clearing." The final two words should be omitted. Lifting the stichos w'^kha-'alldn '"'sher (i.e., nish'ar) h^'-shallekheth from its disturbing position.
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and placing it parallel to instead of in the heart of the other
stichos, there results :
Kd-'eld muggebheth bam-miera' wekhd-'allon nish'dr b^-shallelcheth. Like a terebinth left standing in a sown-land, Like an oak remaining in a clearing.
Compare then also 10.19, where Isaiah again uses sh^'dr: "and the remainder of the trees of the forest shall be few in number. ' ' Notice that the restoration of the couplet above, aside from the omission of the last two words, involves nothing but transposition, and a disregard in places of the (late) Massoretic vowels.
Chapter 7
2. See on verse 4.
3. The reference to the scene of the prophecy as at "the Upper Pool" (probably the Pool of Siloam) possibly was in- tended for chapter 8 ; these two prophecies are absolutely par- allel, and refer probably to the course of the same event ; the reference to "the waters of Shiloh" in 8.5 receives a peculiar appropriateness if brought into connection with this reference to the pool in chapter 7; and the reference to the Prophet's son Shear-Jashub here in 7.3 has some point if connected with 8.2, where Isaiah's wife and unborn son are mentioned.
4. ' * From these two tails " : " two ' ' is possibly an error ; read "from these tails," referring not to the two kings themselves, but their agents in a plot to overthrow the dynasty. The his- torical introduction in verse 1, if it implies that the two kings themselves were at the time of the prophecy actually besieging Jerusalem, must be disregarded (see also on verse 14) ; it is at variance with verse 2, according to which it was told merely "that Syria is confederate with Ephraim," literally, "has alighted upon Ephraim" — a remarkable verse if the Syrian and Israelitish kings were actually near the gates, as would be also verse 15, promising relief from the supposed siege only after several years. In verses 5 and 6, too, the prophecy is directed
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Chapter 7 against Syria and Ephraim "because they said 'let us go up' — not because ' ' they have come up " ; see also on verse 8. ' ' Tails, ' ' then, has here a double meaning : the conspirators, or threaten- ing emissaries (see 8.12) are only "tails" (the "heads" are men- tioned in verse 8) ; only, smoking stumps, smoking because of the heat of the real fire — the anger of the two kings or the two countries: "of Rezin with (lit. "and") Syria and the son of Remaliah"; but either insert "and Ephraim" {'Eph as a re- duplication from 'aph ["anger], rayim from Rcgin), or omit "with Syria." Restoring the parallelism by transposition of hd-('shenlm:
Miz-zanhlioth lid-'udMm ha-'elle
ha-'oshenin hn-x^n 'aph B^gin u-bhen-B'^malyahu : From these ends of fire brands, Smoking through the wrath of Eezin and the son of Eemaliah.
5. Insert x^s^aft/i, "devised," before rd^d, "evil," and par- allel to yd'aq, "taken counsel"; the latter with ' al, "against," requires no cognate accusative to give it the desired meaning; cf. 19.17: "because of the counsel of the Lord which he hath counselled {yd'aq) against it." For x^s/iafe/i rd' a 'al cf. Jer. 48.2: "they have devised evil against it [xdsh^^'bhu rd' d 'dlehd] : come let us cut it off from being a nation. ' ' Restore :
Ya'an M yd' ag 'aUJchd 'Aram way-yaxshohli rd' d 'Eplirayim.
6. Ncqlgennd, "let us vex her," is literally "fill her with loathing," and might be then "fill with disaffection" (the Sep- tuagint av\XaX't]<xavTe^ avroi^ ' ' talk with them, ' ' may again have intended a reference to plotting) ; it is true that the same root below seems to mean "fear" (hence, here, "let us fill her with fear") ; but this is hardly appropriate in the context of verse 6. Easy changes give the roots qdQag: "cut up" (parallel then to the next verb, "make a breach therein") ; qig or ydqag, "awaken," "stir up"; guq, "bring into straits"; or finally, ncqlgentid may be merelj^ a variant of the next word nahhqi'emia; if omitted, the same collocation of words remains as in II Chron. 21.17: way-ya'f^lu hhlhudhd way-yihhqd' Uhd, "they came up into Judah and broke into it."
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''And set a king in the midst of it, (even) the son of Tabeal": the casual nature of the final phrase is hardly con- cealed by the English insertion of "even." The indefinite cognate accusative (lit. "let us make king a king") should properly denote that the name of the ting is unknown or to be concealed, the emphasis being placed on the appointing power; here practically then ' ' let us exercise the king-of -kingship ' ' ; this interpretation, too, would explain the unique use of the phrase "in the very midst of her," The proper name may have been appended: (a) as a later gloss (like other proper names in this series of prophecies) ; or (b) to produce appositional parallel- ism: "we will place a king in her midst, [will place] the son of Tabeal"; or (c) to call particular attention, b^^ the very un- usualness of construction, to the personality of the chosen king ; in the last case, the effect in the present instance is that of sar- casm : the son of Tabeal is, indeed, otherwise unknown to history, and the name as here vocalized seems to mean " Son-of -good-for- nothing," instead of "Son of God-is-good, " as the consonants would normally be vocalized to indicate. But the words are put in the mouth of the Syrian and Israelitish kings, and the sarcasm, as well as the emphasis, would be misplaced; in any case, they are probably a later addition.
8. "For the head of Syria is Damascus, and the head of Damascus is Rezin." This cryptic utterance is generally in- terpreted as though it read: "For Damascus is the head of Sj^ria," i.e., of Syria alone, and will not be head of Judah; but this is not the natural implication of the words. The sentence recalls in form a very well-known type of proverb : * ' Everything has a head, and the head of a; is i/"; e.g., in Arabic, "the head (principal part, essence) of religion is the fear of God"; "the head of kindness is promptness"; in Hebrew (Ps. 119.160), "the head (essence) of God's word is truth." Such an interpretation is possible here also if the interpretation suggested above for verse 4, with its emphasis on the word ' ' tails, ' ' be accepted : the "heads" of the conspiracy against Judah are at Damascus and Samaria; the "heads" of the capitals are the kings: scil., when
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Chapter 7 God brings about their defeat (at the hands of Assyria?) the conspiracy and plot fall to the ground. See also on 8.9-16, with the emphasis on plans and, possibly, conspiracy.
"And within threescore and five years shall Ephraim be broken, that it be not a people. ' ' Placed so as to explain the ref- erence to Aram — not to Ephraim — and interrupting a perfect parallelism, but itself without a parallel, this line offers perhaps the most convincing evidence of two facts : the presence of mar- ginal notes, and their subsequent insertion and misplacement by copyists.
10. Parallelism in the section 10-17 is not clear ; nor, indeed, is there here the ordinary kind of oracle, the simple word of God; but it is prophecy by means of "signs" and symbolic names; and despite the fact that verse 10 begins "and God spoke again to Ahaz, " it is evident that it is the Prophet who is speaking, and speaking not in the usual entire identification of himself with the voice of God. In diction, also, the prevailing tone is that of prose and not ecstatic poetry; the contrast is vivid between this section and verse 18, for instance; and probably, then, in this sort of omen and symbol prophecy no parallelism was intended; though the habit of speaking in par- allelism may have unconsciously led to such a phrase as is found in verse 11 : "Make it deep as Sheol, or make it high as Heaven" ; so also verse 12 : "I will not ask, and I will not try the Lord, ' ' with which compare 8.16: "Bind the testimony, seal the law among my disciples"; in both, the second line contains a word or phrase ("the Lord," "among my disciples") which belongs in thought also in the first line. See also 8.1-5.
14. "Behold a virgin shall conceive"; literally "behold, the j^oung woman." The inadequacy of the introductory setting in verse 3 becomes unmistakable when viewed in the light of this passage. Evidently in place of the Prophet's son Shear-jashub, who plays no part in this scene, there should have been intro- duced in anticipation of this particular prophecy "the young woman" whose presence is presupposed in verse 14. As the text stands the conclusion is inevitable that the "young woman"
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stood in some relationship to Isaiah ; possibly she was the wife of the Prophet's son, Shear-jashub ; in that case there would be some point to verse 3 ; possibly she. was the Prophet 's wife, called ' ' the prophetess ' ' in 8.3 ; this would mean either that the two prophecies refer to one and the same event, the two names being variant traditions of one and the same; or that they refer to two events distant from one another by a considerable lapse of time, reference being then to the birth of two sons of the Prophet.
There is a curious lack of appropriateness in what is appar- ently intended to be the explanation of the name ' ' Immanuel ' ' : ' ' The land shall be deserted whose kings thou f earest " ; it con- tains no direct reference to that name. Contrast with this 8.3 : ' ' Call his name ' Swif t-is-booty, Quick-is-spoil, ' because the riches of Damascus and the spoil of Samaria shall be taken away " ; or 9.6, where at lea^ the word shdlom, "peace," appears in the explanation of the name contained in verse 5. If the name "Immanuel" is indeed correct in 7.14, it is at least necessary to read after 7.16 the poem on Immanuel now standing in 8.9ff., and ending "ki 'immdnu-'el," "for God is with us," which is exactly such a phrase as should be expected somewhere after verses 14-16 ; the poem is out of place where it stands, moreover ; and on the other hand 7.17, which does follow here, is also de- cidedly out of place ; notice, too, that the theme of the poem in 8.9 is the frustration of a "plan," ' egd, the same root that occurs in 7.5 ("because Aram and Ephraim planned against thee"). The prophecy 8.11ff. also seems to belong in this chap- ter; i.e., either both chapters refer to the same event, or there is considerable misplacement of verses.
15. "Butter and honey shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the good" is nothing but a conflation of two marginal passages, both of which are found also elsewhere in the text : one is in verse 16, immediately following ; the other in verse 22 ("butter and honey shall every one eat"). Omitting this intrusion, with the resultant (verse 14) "She will call his name 'Immanuel,' (verse 16) for before the boy knows," etc., compare 8.3, "call his name ' Quick-is-Booty, ' (verse 4) for before the boys knows," etc.
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Chapter 7
16. See above, on verse 15.
17. The verse is misplaced ; it belongs with 8.4. 'Eth melekh 'Ashshur, "the king of Assyria" is again a gloss; here it ab- surdly stands in apposition with the word "days."
18-24. A series of parallelistie strophes, probably detached, and which if they belong in this series at all, should be read with chapter 8. Notice the parallelistie alliteration in verse 19 : nax"'le, n'^qtqe, na'^cuqtm, n-ah<^ldlim, the last a ava^ Xeyofievov chosen for its further morphometrical correspondence with the third.
20. B^-'ehhre nahdr, literally "by the regions beyond the river," is an awkwardly worded parallel to "by a razor of hire" ; and of it the following phrase, "by the king of Assyria," is a redundant variant ; probably the latter is a gloss, while the former should be read h^-xerehh nekhdr, "with a foreign knife" ; cf. Ezek. 5.1: "take a sharp knife [xerehh], take thee a barber's razor [ta'ar] "; for xerehh cf. also Josh. 5.2, 3. The type of sus- pensive parallelism used here is very similar to that found in chapter 4 (q.v.), but is peculiar in that the fourth stichos, in- stead of being an incomplete member like the third, is a complete proposition, and while parallel to the third is also parallel to the first three stichoi as a whole ; exactly the same structure is found in 10.20. Read :
Bay -y cm hd-hu' y^ghallax '"dJwnai b^tha' ar has-scJchtrd w-b/i^X^''^^'* ncTclidr
'eth-hd-rosh w<^-sa'ar hd-ragJilayim
w<^-gham 'eth Jiaz-zdqan tispe (or yispe).
21. "Two sheep": shHe con (the latter word means "flock," as hdqdr means "herd") ; the analogy of "a heifer of the herd," English "a young cow," suggests that for sh^te there be read se, "a' sheep (or goat) from the flock" (cf. Ezek. 45.15, Deut. 14.4).
22. "For butter and honey shall (he) eat" (M x^^i'a il-dh(^hhash yokhel) : this clause was edited into verse 15 also; it would seem, then, that it must have stood in the margin between two columns in which verses 15 and 21 stood approximately
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opposite each other, so that the copyist, doubtful where it be- longed, inserted it in both places; it really belongs in neither; it disturbs the parallelism as well as obscures the thought; its reference to "honey" is out of place in immediate connection with the series ''cows," "goats," "milk" and "butter." The theme in general is the same as that of 4.2; there the extra- ordinary fertility of the soil, here the extraordinary yield of animal products in the Messianic age, is the immediate subject. Compare Deut. 32.14: "butter of kine and milk of sheep," X^lehh gon, in a picture of extraordinary plenty ; there ' ' honey ' ' and " oil " are the theme of a separate distich ; and it may well be that the reference to honey is merely misplaced in verse 22, and is the remainder of another (marginal) distich the rest of which is lost. Restoration:
And on that day : Each one shall nourish a heifer from the herd and a goat from the
flock, And because of the richness of the yield of milk, all left in the land
shall eat cream.
The insertion of this irrelevant distich here may be due to the mention of sheep and oxen in the next section.
23, 24. The inelegant repetition of the phrase "thistles and thorns," in various constructions and positions, is sufficient evi- dence of the disorder of the passage ; evidently, if one or two repetitions of the phrase were not due merely to carelessness, the words should be in the nature of a refrain. Transpose the sec- tion beginning ha-xiggim ("with arrows," in verse 24) and ending w^ith tihye ("shall be," in same verse) to the end of the poem; omit Id' thdhho' shdmmd yir'ath as a doublet in part of ydhhd' shdmmd (now in 24; the section stood in the margin; hence the doublet as well as the misplacement) ; and a slight change of w^-hdyd to yihye in verse 25 will yield the following:
We-hdya hay-yom ha-hu, yihye Icol mdqdm '"sher yihye slidm 'eleph gephen b^-'eleph Tcaseph lash-shdmir w^lash-shayith tihye;
w^-Tchol hd-'dreg w^-Tchol he-hdnm 'osher ham-ma' dher ye' ddherun shdmlr wa-shayith yihyu;
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Chapter 7 we-hdyd le-mishlax shor ul<^-inirmas se, ha-xiSQiin ilbliaq-qesheth yabho' shammd, Tel shdmir wa-sJiayith yihye.
Notice the unusual style of this section; it contains a number of double phrases, not distributed in parallelism, both in the re- frain, ' ' thorns and thistles, ' ' and also in each line : " a thousand vines at a thousand shekels " ; "all the land and all the moun- tains " ; " sending of oxen and treading of sheep " ; " with arrows and with bows." The doubling recurs consistently and is itself therefore parallelistic.
Chapter 8
1-4. The "great tablet," the witnesses, and the birth of Isaiah's son. No parallelism need be sought here (see on 6.1) ; though verse 1 contains words of God, they are not an oracle for the people, but merely a direction for the Prophet. The verses are, moreover, but loosely connected, and refer probably to three separate symbolic acts: (1) the writing of a scroll or tablet to be publicly displayed so that, as in a similar case Habakkuk (2.2) expresses it, "he may run that readeth it"; (2) the writ- ing of a sealed document, for which the taking of the witnesses mentioned in verse 2 would have some point; (3) the birth of the Prophet's son. The inference as to the sealed document is supported by verse 16, in which the terms t^^'udhd, "attestation," or "testimony," and x^i^om, "seal up," recall the symbolic legal act performed by Jeremiah (32.10, 11), where the terms "seal" and ' ' take witnesses ' ' occur again, and where the sentence ' ' and I took the evidence of the purchase, both that which was sealed {hc-xathum) . . . and that which was open (hag-gdlUi) ," seems to show, as suggested in Isaiah, two separate documents {gilldyon, tc^udhd), one open, the other sealed and to be opened at the fulfilment of the prophecy for which the Prophet waits (8.17) : w(^-hiqqlthl l^'-Yahwe, recalling in the Habakkuk passage men- tioned above haqqe Id, "though it tarry, wait for it."
6. "And rejoice in Rezin and Ramaliah's son," u-m<^sds 'eth R^cin il-hhen R^malydhu. Syntax and style show that this phrase
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can not be original; 'eth R^'gin U-hhen R^malyuhu, like 'eth melekh 'Ashskur tv^-'eih kol k'^bhodho, "even the king of Assyria and all his glory," are appositional glosses, and to be rejected; this leaves u-mesos, literally ' ' and rejoicing, " to be coupled with l^-'at, "softly," and formal parallelism with verse 7 is thus established. Mdsos is perhaps governed by the preposition in l^-'at (cf. P-phetha' , "suddenly" in 29.5; le-sMlom, "peace- fully," Gen. 44.17) ; or it is an adverbial accusative (Gesenius I. 118, 5c). There is probably a reference in the term so used to an underlying root-meaning other than "joy"; words denoting "agile," "light" are derived from the Arabic shush and shus; and it is a striking coincidence that nnishdimsh (var. mu^hdwis) denotes water "not to be seen, or hardly to be seen, by reason of its remoteness from the surface of the ground" (Lane; this signification, however, is derived by Arabic lexicographers from the root-meaning "look with the corner of the eye") — an ex- cellent description of the waters of Shiloh. The root mdsas (with samekh) also would yield an appropriate term, "faintly," though this root, literally ' ' to melt, ' ' is normally used only of the heart ; if m^sos is an infinitive from this root, as it is in 10.18, cf. for the construction Is. 60.14: hdUkhu sh'^x^^X' "come bend- ing. "
8, "And the stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth of thy land, 0 Immanuel": the absurdity of directing this re- mark to the unborn or infant Immanuel is self-evident; little better is the interpretation which leaves "thy" indefinite, and translates 'immdnu-'el in its present position as an exclamation, ' ' God is with us " : with or without a preceding k%, ' ' for, ' ' re- placing the suffix kd, ' ' thy, ' ' it belongs with what follows, verses 9 and 10, which in turn belong after 7.14 (q.v.).
The metaphor in k<^ndphdw, ' ' wings of the flood, ' ' need not in itself be questioned ; cf . " wings ' ' of the wind, ' ' wings " of a garment (i.e., skirts), "wings" of the land or earth (its regions or extremities) ; there is by implication perhaps a reference to the "wings" of the invading army which is "the flood." But the line is over-long, and the syntax not above suspicion.
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Chapter 8 W^-hdyd niHo' roxahh 'arco alone would mean "and it (the flood) shall fill the breadth of his land," and would leave ' ' stretching out of his wings, ' ' mutt 6th k^ndphdw, as the remnant of another line, or perhaps as a complete line in itself; for muttdth can be either a verbal noun parallel to mHo (thus : "and [the flood shall be] a spreading out to its [Judah's] ends," i.e., "shall spread to its farthest ends"), or a passive participle, predicate to k^ndphdw, though here standing before it (thus : "its [the flood's] wings are outstretched") ; for the type of resulting strophe, with circumstantial clauses, see below, verse 22 (where the reconstructed text will be found) ; also 3.16; and for the syntactic variations in parallel clauses, 1.21,
Probably there should follow here verse 21 (q.v.).
9. Rd^u, "associate yourselves" (but also "be broken"; or "be evil," or, reading rii'u, "shout") and wd-xdttu, "and ye shall be broken in pieces," in stichos a are evidently due to a marginal reading, ^^ wd-xdttu: rd'ii," intended for the wd-xdttu of stichos b or c, and indicating that in one of those places rd'ii was to be read instead of it. But a copyist mistook the reference and referred it to stichos a, writing rd' u in place of an original shim' u, "hear," and wd-xdttu in place of an original yaxdaw ("altogether"; cf. 10.8), readings which are demanded by the parallelism. For the second hith'dzz^ru, "gird you," read pos- sibly the synonj-m : hithxaggcrd; the root xot'^o!^» "gird," is used both of the sword and of sackcloth ; notice, then, the Isaianic play on words, as well as the sudden turn again : ' ' arm your- selves— but for defeat, not for victory. ' ' Read then : ' Immanu-'cl
Shim' u ' ammim yaxdaw w^-ha'ozinu Tcol merx^qe 'dreg
hith'azz<'ru wd-x(ittu liitxagg'^ru wd-ro' il
'iigii ' egd w^-tJiuphar dabb'^ru dhdbhdr w^lo' ydqum
kl 'immdnu 'el.
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11. "For the Lord spoke thus to me with a strong hand and instructed me that I should not walk in the way of this people, saying." The sentence is evidently corrupt, because: (a) "the Lord spoke thus," ho 'dnvar Yahwe is invariably followed imme- diately by the direct discourse; (b) "to speak with a strong hand" is linguistically too unusual and illogical to have been used by Isaiah ; even Ezekiel must say : ' ' the hand of the Lord was strong upon me"; (c) the verb "instruct" (ydsar; lit. "discipline," "chasten," "admonish") is nowhere else used to characterize the prophetic inspiration : God does not ' ' admon- ish" his prophets; (d) the following direct discourse (verse 12) is in the second person plural; it is evidently addressed to some group who stand apart from "this people" — to "the House of David" perhaps — and to whom probably a direct reference was made in the original of the corrupt passage; the form was: "thus said the Lord to me, 'admonish the house of David from going in the way of this people, saying. ' " Or barely possible : "The Lord spoke thus to me, with a strong hand deterring me [y^slrenl] from going on the way of this people." As the sen- tence is prose, parallelism is not present to point the way to restoration.
12. Qesher ("conspiracy"; but possibly "alliance"), if cor- rect, refers probably to the attitude of that party in Judah which was influenced by the activity of the Syrian emissaries and by fear of the threatened invasion if it refused to yield (see above, on 7.4). Read possibly qddhosh, "holy," however, in view of the contrasting taqdishU, "make," "call holy," or ' ' sanctify, ' ' in verse 13 ; or for the latter some denominative from qesher: "with him [God] shall ye make an alliance." If neither, the rhetorical effect is still present, in the physical re- semblance of the roots qdsher and qddhash, and is further heightened by moqcsh, "snare," in verse 14; the same parono- masia and the same thought are seen in Prov. 20.25: mdqesh 'ddhdm ydla' qodhesh, "a snare is it for a man to carelessly say ' holiness. ' " If qddhosh or qodhesh be substituted in the present passage, its exact signification is to be determined by reference
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Chapter 8 to such an idiom as ''sanctifying" or "consecrating" war (Joel 4.9; Mic. 3.5; Jer. 6.4, 22.7, 51.27, 28; in Is. 13.3 mequdddshai is "my consecrated warriors").
W^-lo' tha'rigo, "nor be afraid": insert as object w^^-eth ma'^^r^o, "that which, or those who, cause them to be afraid," parallel to mora' 6, "their fear."
14. W<^-hdyd l^^-miqdmh, Ul^-'ehhen negheph, etc.: "and he shall be for a sanctuary and [Eng. "but"] for a stone of stumbling and for a rock of offence " : the subject of the verb is evidently not " He " ( God ) , but " it " ( " the saying ' conspiracy, ' 'holy' "), or "they" (read we-hdyu or w^^hemmd) ; and miqddsh is evidently an error for some word denoting "stumbling-block" ; not only logic demands this, but also parallelism; the three verbs "stumble," "fall," and "be broken" point to three cor- responding nouns, as the two verbs "be snared" and "be taken", are parallel to the two nouns "gin" and "snare." Lagarde's proposed miqqdsh (from ndqash, "strike," hence "stumbling- block"; cf. BDB, s.v. miqddsh) is then, very likely correct; it is logical, restores the parallelism, and preserves paronomasia just at the point it is required ; cf . Prov. 20.25 cited above ; cf . also Ex. 34.12; Josh. 23.13 (covenant with the Canaanites is a "snare"); and for the type of sentence, Is. 30.2, 3: "(Woe those) that . . . strengthen themselves in the strength of Pharaoh ; for the strength of Pharaoh shall be to you a shame."
"For the two houses of Israel": "two," sh^^ne, is probably an error due to a conflation of heth, "house of," and h^ne, "children of," or shokhcne, "inhabitants of"; the latter would be the natural parallel to ydsh<^hhe in the next stichos. The Septuagint reads "for the houses of."
15. Rabllm, "many": perhaps dittography from preceding letters; cf. 28.13.
16. From here through verse 20, simple prose may have been intended ; the words are the Prophet 's own words, not Yahwe 's. In verse 16, "Bind up the testimony, seal the law, among my disciples," the last phrase has no parallel (cf. 7.12) ; but the Septuagint at the end of verse 15 has an added phrase {avOpcoiroi)
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er) aa-(f)aXeia: possibly la-lhetax (cf. Gen. 34.25, Lev. 26.5) and originally P-l}}i6t<^x(^i: "for those who trust in me"; if this phrase really belongs after "bind up the testimony," read also le-limmiidliai, "for my disciples."
17. Parallelism in this verse would be restored hy transpos- ing from the end of 18, where it is decidedly inconsequential, the phrase "that dwelleth in Mount Zion," parallel and in contrast to ' ' that hideth his face from the house of Jacob. ' ' Perhaps the misplacement is farther reaching, and verse 18 should stand be- fore verse 17 ; at present verse 17 follows verse 16 without any introductory word to mark the transition ; while verse 18 has the introductory word hinne, "behold," where it is not needed.
19, 20. "In behalf of the living to the dead": by reading this phrase after the words "that peep and that mutter," as parallelism suggests, fairly good order is restored to the passage ; "shall not a people turn to its god" belongs in the answer to be made by the true believers, parallel to "to the oracle and .the testimony"; it is probably a proverb, or based on one, like that quoted also by Micah (4.5) : "every people walks in the name of its god." The two interrogatives halo', 'im Id' are parallels (cf. 10.8), with the force of particles of "requiring with urgency": "surely you [toni^rU for yom^ru; or 'surely they,' i.e., my disciples] shall say"; the whole passage thus becomes clear : ' ' Behold I and my children are prophetic signs ; and I shall now wait for the fufilment of those signs; the 'testimony' is sealed among my disciples ; then when any appeal to their oracles to win you to their views, your answer shall be : 'a people turns unto its God ' — ' to the law ! to the testimony ! ' " There is a sarcastic contrast implied, then : they say ' ' turn to the dead in behalf of the living"; but you answer: "turn to (the living) God" (cf. Is. 37.17).
"Because (there is) no light in them," literally, "to which there is no dawn," 'en Id shaxar: if this is a prose passage, not balanced, and this phrase belongs here, shaxar is possibly rather "enchantment," "magic": they shall answer with the simple phrase "go to the testimony, ' ' which needs no accompaniment of
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Chapter 8 incantation, as does the summoning of the dead. Or shaxar is from the root "to seek" (parallel to ddra-sh here, as in Ps. 78.34), and the clause is a defective remnant. But if the refer- ence to the dawn is correct, the phrase belongs at the end of verse 21.
21. This fits admirably on to verse 8 (q.v.) ; portion of another version or line is found in 5.30 (q.v.) ; viewed together, the picture presented is one of the most striking in Isaiah : the Assyrian rivers rushing neck-deep and roaring like the ocean itself against the struggling, fleeing Judah, who looks in vain for solid earth and for light, and is weakened by hunger and anguish until he curses his god — and is engulfed; for death can be the onl}^ outcome of such a curse. But the picture as it stands is obscured.
"When they [lit. 'he'] shall be hungry": for this weak repe- tition of "hunger," yir'ahh, read a psychologically more fitting word, such as yikh'ahh, "be in anguish," as expressing a state that would lead to the curse; cf. Job 2.5: "yea, all that a man hath will he give for his life ; but . . . touch his bone and flesh, and he will curse thee to thy face"; or 2.13, 3.1: "for they saw that his grief {k^'ebh, "anguish"; cf. Is. 17.11) was very great. After this opened Job his mouth, and cursed his day. ' ' Or read perhaps yiz'aph or yikh'as: "when he will be angry and vexed."
"Curse their [lit. his] king and their [his] God" (cf. I Kings 21.10; Lev. 24.15) ; the Hebrew "by his king and god" is prob- ably an attempt to soften the original wording; notice that the Septuagint for the same purpose reads "the ordinances of your fathers" in place of "their God." But this must be the climax and the end of the picture ; transfer it to the end of verse 22.
"And look upward": the doublet in 5.30 (q.v.) adds "there is darkness (cf. Is. 59.9, "we hope for the light, and lo, there is darkness") ; the missing line, however, is perhaps found at the end of verse 20 ("where there is no dawn") ; or, as a rem- nant, in "darkness" in the next verse (further evidence of confusion in the text).
22. "Dimness of anguish [m^'uph Quqd] and driven into
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darkness [iva- Upheld m^nudddx]^^ : The second phase, literally "darkness driven," though syntactically unusual, is still prob- ably correct ; cf . in 16.2 the even more remarkable qen m^shullux, "nest-driven" for "driven from the nest." But read for m^'uph the form found in 23, mu'aph, and derive from yd'aph, "be weary"; cf. Dan. 9.21, mu'dph hl'dph, "wearied with weari- ness." "Wearied with anguish," "in darkness driven" are parallels to "hardly bestead and hungry" in verse 21, and probably belong immediately after. The text to this point might be then :
8.8 we-xdlaph Mhudhd shdtoph we-' dbJwr adh gawwdr yaggi"' u-lchendphdw muttoth W^-hdyd melo' roxabh 'argo [5.30 we-yinhom ' dldw k''nah<^math ydm.]
8.21a W-' dbhar bah niqslie w^-rd'ebh 8.22c mu'aph guqd
wa-'opheld mcnudddx 8.21c u-phana le-md'ld we-hinne x°slieTc}id we-' el 'ereg yabblt we-hinne gdrd
8.21b we-hdyd Tci yikh'abh we-hithqaggaph we-qillel malko welohdw.
23. (Eng. 9.1) : "Nevertheless the dimness shall not be such as was in her vexation," kl Id mU'dph la-'<^sher mugdq Idh. This (and the remainder of the verse) forms a gloss to 9.2 (Eng. 3), which in the consonantal text reads: "Thou hast made great a nation, not hast thou increased joy," and was evidently under- stood by the glossator: "thou hast made great a nation whose joy thou hadst not increased"; to it then are added two glosses, or a gloss in two parts; one uses the phraseology of the lines immediately preceding: "Not is (now) darkness [or weariness] to her [i.e., the land] that was [formerly] oppressed"; the other interprets 9.2 with greater geographical precision: "At the first he dishonored [Eng. "lightly afflicted," heqal] the land of Zebulon and the land of Naphtali, and afterward he honored [Eng. did more grievously afflict, hikhhidh] the way of the sea, beyond Jordan, Galilee of the nations"; here 16' highdaltd,
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Chapter 8 literally 'Hhou didst not increase," is glossed by heqal, while hirhlthd, "thou hast multiplied," is glossed by hikhMdh. The geographical setting is due, perhaps, to a gloss on the words hag-goy, Id', "the nation, not," namely, gil, or gild, "rejoicing"; the words gll. Id', and hag-goy being misread gHU hag-goylm, "Galilee of the nations."
Chapter 9
2.* 'Or ndghah 'Hehem, "upon them hath the light shined": since 'or is the subject of the previous stichos, read 'or here as the verb and ndghah, ' ' radiance, ' ' as the subject ; cf . Amos 5.20 ; Is. 60.3 ; this not only prevents a weak repetition, but restores the natural order of predicate and subject.
3. Lo' highdaltd, "not increased the joy": see 8.23 (9.1).
4. The unusual phrases 'ol suddHo, "yoke of his burden," and matte shikhmo, "staff of his shoulder," are possibly due to confusion; 'ol and sohhel are natural parallels; read, then, '61 shikhmo, "yoke of his shoulder" (see note on verse 6), and sohhel qawwdro, "burden of his neck" (cf. 10.27: "his burden from thy shoulder, his yoke from thy neck") ; and then matte ham-makkehu, "staff of his smiter" (cf. Is. 14.29, shehhet makkeha), parallel to shehhet han-noghes ho, "the rod of his oppressor." On the type of strophe in this verse and the next, with parallelism introduced before the syntactic structure is complete (in the Hebrew the predicate "thou hast broken" stands after the three subjects, not before), see 4.3. Add par- allel to "the day of Midian," k^-yom or h^-dherekh miqrayim, "after the manner of Egypt," as in 10.26.
5. For h^-ra'ash, "with confused noise," read hi-r^mos, hi- rephds, or h<^-mirmds, "with trampling" (cf. Is. 16.4, "the trampler has ceased from the earth"), or some other synonym of xamds, "violence," as a fitting parallel to "bloodshed"; the Septuagint apparently read h<^-mirmd "with deceit." For the
* Figures refer to verses as numbered in the English Bible ; verses in the Hebrew text are numbered one less; e.g., English 2 = Hebrew 1. In the translation on pp. 28S, 287, 292, however, the Hebrew numbering is given.
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probable correction m^gho'dld, ''stained" (cf. Is. 63.3), instead of mcgholdld, "rolled," cf. the very curious Septuagint rendering of one of the phrases in 14.19 : lixdriov ev aifiuTL Trecfivpfievov; while in the present passage it read the root gdnml, "requite," for gdlal, "roll." For w^^-haij^thd, "but this shall be," read simply kdycthd, "has been," a past as in the preceding and following strophes; a misunderstanding of the type of strophe has led to the insertion of w^, "and" or "but." The reference to the end of bloodshed may be to domestic as well as foreign oppression.
This birth-ode might easily have been composed originally with reference to the birth of Solomon, or have been a poetic reconstruction of such a passage as I Chron. 22.9, whose phrase- ology it recalls : ' ' But the word of the Lord came to me saying : Thou hast shed blood abundantly and hast made great wars ; thou shalt not build an house unto my name, because thou hast shed much blood upon the earth in my sight. Behold, a son shall be born to thee, who shall be a man of rest ; . . . and I will give peace and quietness unto Israel in his days; he shall build an house for my name ; he shall be my son and I will be his father ; and I will establish the throne of his kingdom over Israel for ever."
6. "Unto us a son is given": this stichos, following "for unto us a child [yeledh, "boy"] is given," serves no other pur- pose than that of parallelism.
Wat-t^hi ham-misrd 'al shikhmo, "and the government lias been [Eng. shall be] upon his shoulder." The absence of par allelism, the repetition of the strange word ham-misrd, found only here and in verse 7, and the interruption of the natural order of ideas, i.e., the announcement of the birth and then the name, are sufficient indications of corruption. Probably the whole sentence is made up of a gloss on ham-misrd in verse 7, and one on verse 4 (q.v.), '61 shikhmo, "the yoke of his shoul- der," the whole being combined on the basis of 22.22: "and T shall place the kej^ of the house of David upon his shoulder." It is absolutely beyond the limits of probability that the aira^
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Chaptkr 9 Xeyofxevov ham-misrd is merely a synonym for the word ' ' rule, ' ' for which the language possesses several instantly recognizable words. If the clause is kept, some other meaning must be sought for ham-misrd, denoting a concrete symbol of office, as in 22.22 ; and a parallel verse [cf. again 22.21, "and the rule will I give in his hand"], making the strange word clear, must be assumed to have been lost; but if the passage is simple prose, ham- m,emshdld should be substituted for ham-misrd.
'El gihhor, "the mighty god" : in the explanation of the name in verse 7 this appellation is left unnoticed ; this is sufficient evidence that the startlingly unique application of the name "god" to the child was not intended; the Septuagint omits the word 'el entirely. Parallelism with the term "wonder of a counsellor" requires that 'el gihhor be interpreted in accordance with 'ele gihhorim in Ezek. 32.21 ; i.e., "mighty one of a hero," or even ' ' strength of a hero " ; 'el is almost a synonym of x^V^^ ^^ the latter case; and as pele' yd' eg stands for maphW ' egd (cf. 28.29) so 'el gihhor would recall gihhor x^^yil- Moreover, had the term "god" been intended, the order of terms would certainly have been "counsellor, father, prince, god," and not "coun- sellor, god, father, prince.
'^hhi 'adh, "the everlasting father": read either '«&M dhe'd, "father of knowledge," or 'dha y6dhe<^' , knowing father"; cf. the attributes of the king in 11.2 : wisdom, understanding, coun- sel, strength, knowledge; cf. also the proper name Ahidah. On the heaping up of parallelistic terms, cf. the note to 1.21.
L<^-marhe ham-misrd, "for the increase of government": see above, on 6; read probably mlshor, "equity"; cf. Is. 11.4: "he shall judge with righteousness, and reprove with equity"; coupled with "peace," as here, in Mai. 2.6.
Qin'ath, etc. ("the zeal of the Lord of Hosts will perform this") : a monostich, standing outside the oracle proper; cf. 1.20, 10.23.
8. "With this verse begins a series of sections each ending with the refrain "For all this his anger is not turned away, and his hand is outstretched still" (verses 12, 17, 21, and chapter 10,
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verse 4). The same refrain occurs also in 5.25, at the end of a number of stichoi whose subject matter, moreover, would form an admirable introduction to the series of passages in chapter 9 ; there is then some justification for using the term "stanza" for each of these sections, and for assuming a dislocation of the one in chapter 5; indeed, quite possibly some of the stanzas in chapter 9 also are transposed; the words "but [A. V. for] the people turned [A. V. turneth] not unto him that smiteth them" in 9.13 would follow most naturally after stanza 1 (5.25) ; and the transposition of the stanza 9.13-17 would at the same time leave in juxtaposition the two stanzas which have most in com- mon, 9.8-12 and 18-21; for immediately before the refrain in 9.12 occurs what might be considered a three line strophe, with characteristic variation in the third stichos :
The Syrians before.
And the Philistines behind;
And they devoured [A. V. will devour] Israel with open mouth ;
and similarly in 21 :
Manasseh, Ephraim;
And Ephraim, Manasseh;
And they together against Judah.
These two stichoi, notice, are also the only two which con- tain proper names, and which can clearly be read as tristichs; although 9.17 contains the three parallels "their young men," the "fatherless," and "widows," which might possibly indicate an original tristich in this stanza also :
The Lord shall not take joy in their young men. Nor shall he have mercy on the fatherless, Nor shall he pity their widows.
This tristich would again stand before the refrain if the natural transposition of the following distich, "for every one is an hypocrite," etc., to an earlier position in its stanza (see below) be accepted. But the other stanzas show no trace of this tristich variation ; possibly the tristichs, then, are to be read as distichs ; on the other hand, the variation may be due to a difference in time of the composition or in the authorship of the respective stanzas.
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Chapter 9 Some of the stanzas in chapter 9 contain in addition to the refrain five strophes, others six, all of which, excepting those mentioned above, are distichs and, with one or two defects, in normal parallelism. In each stanza there are contained refer- ences to the people's sin and to God's punishment therefor, though in one instance particularly the two themes are not kept distinct. Details are as follows :
Stanza 1. (5.24e-25) : 3 strophes, of which 1 in the "sin" section, introduced by kl, " because," and 2 in the punishment section, introduced by 'at ken, "there- fore." Stanza 2. (9.13-17) : 6 strophes, of which 3, at present not grouped together, refer to sin (1, 4, 6), the last introduced by M; and 3 to punishment (2, 3, 5), of which the last is introduced by 'al ken. Stanza 3. (9.8-12) : 5 strophes, of which the second ("and the people all of them shall know," etc.) is uncertain in its parallelism, but by a slight omission, becomes a normal distich ; of the five, 3 refer to sin, 2 to punish- ment (the last possibly a tristich; see above). Stanza 4. (9.18-21) : 6 strophes, the division between sin and punishment being doubtful. The first strophe refers to sin, and is introduced by kl; the second con- tinues the simile of the first ; the third, though likewise containing a picture of the fire presented by the first two, begins with a prepositional phrase ("by the word of the Lord"), which would normally introduce a new thought ; this might, then, be considered the beginning of the "punishment" section, but in that case this section, as the stanza stands, contains 4 strophes, leav- ing only 2 for the sin section (see below). Stanza 5. (10.1-4) : 6 strophes, 3 referring to sin, 3 to punishment. There is some doubt whether the stanzas are to be interpreted as narrative, or as prophetic; the last (10.1-4) certainly refers to the future ; the remainder seem to refer to the past ; for while
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it is true that some of the verbs are imperfects, and would normally, if in independent clauses, refer to the future, most of them can be explained as circumstantial imperfects, deriving their time limitation from the main verbs. Possibly the refer- ences to the attacks of the Philistines and Arameans (read ''Edomites"? Cf. 11.14, also II Chron. 28.17, 18) upon Israel, and of Manasseh upon Ephraim and of both upon Judah are to be considered as general and t^^pical rather than definite and particular: Philistines and Arameans typifying foreign foes; Manasseh, Ephraim, and Judah intertribal combatants; other- wise the conflict between Manasseh and Ephraim may be the division between the sons of Joseph as reflected in Gen. 17.14, while that between Manasseh and Ephraim together as against Judah is the division between North and South mentioned spe- cifically in 7.17 f'days such as have not come since Ephraim separated from Judah"); and with this should be compared the hope expressed for the future in 11.13, 14: "the envy of Ephraim shall depart and the adversaries of Judah be cut off; Ephraim shall not envy Judah and Judah shall not vex Ephraim ; but they shall fly upon the shoulder of the Philistines on the West, and shall spoil them of the East, together they shall lay their hand upon Edom (notice, not Aram!) and Moab," etc.
In the following suggestions it is assumed that there was originally a series of stanzas with some measure of uniformity:
(5.24e-25.) See 5.24d; probably two distichs have fallen out before the one beginning "for they have rejected." Possibly the poem began with some phrase such as hoi 'am sorer U-niore: "Ah! nation rebellious and stubborn," etc. (cf. 1.4 for the sequence of ideas) ; this would account for the inclusion in chapter 5, a series of stanzas beginning with "hoi" ; see also stanza 5 (10.1), below.
9.8. "The Lord sent a word into Jacob, and it hath lighted [Heb. shall light] upon Israel" is a very illogical introduction to what follows. The Septuagint reads for "word," dabhdr, ddvuTov, "death," which might be simply dehher, "pest"; but read probably shehher, "a crash," "destruction"; cf., e.g., Jer.
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Chapter 9 4.6 : " for I will bring evil from the North, and a great destruc- tion," shehher gddhdl; also Amos 6.6: shehher Yoseph; for the word in Isaiah, cf. 30.13; for the construction, 10.16, "the Lord shall send [y^^shallax] leanness." Parallel to it read for ndphal, ncphol, ' ' a falling, ' ' or mappdld, ' ' ruin, ' ' or nefeg, ' ' shattering ' ' ; cf. 30.30.
9. W^-yddh^'u, "and shall know," also, is illogical in view of what follows; moreover lemor, "saying" (Eng. "that say"), presupposes an antecedent verb implying use of the voice; read way-ydlo'U (cf. Job 6.3; Prov. 20.25), "they talked wildly," or way-ydliqu (cf. Is. 28.14), "scoffed," or wmj-yil' '^ghU, "mocked." "Ephraim and the dweller in Samaria," is probably merely a gloss on "the people all of them," preceding; it is superfluous, since the previous verse indicates clearly who ' ' the people ' ' are ; and "people" is used throughout the prophecy without any similar modifier. Its omission restores a normal distich here. However, if on the basis of Ps. 17.10, a phrase like wu-y^dhabher plw be introduced before h^-gha'"wd, the following results:
And the people all of them mocked, Ephraim and the dwellers in Samaria ; Their mouths spoke proudly. In stoutness of heart they said.
But this, while it would make a six strophe stanza, would place four of the strophes instead of three in the "sin" section.
11. Wa-y^saggehh: Here the sin section begins without the conjunction 'al ken, "therefore" (though the English so trans- lates) : possibly a distich beginning thus, and containing the superfluous line from above, as well as the name "Rezin" found at present misplaced in verse 10, really has fallen out ; this would again make six instead of five strophes. Notice that the word iva-ycsaggehh, literally "made high (the adversaries," etc.), offers just the appropriate hint of poetic justice to be expected ; Israel sought to set high what God threw down; therefore God set on high those who will humble Israel. Y^^sakhsekh ("urge on": Eng. "join together") is either a circumstantial imperfect or should be read as a perfect sikhsekh, as parallelism with ' ' he exalted" demands.
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13. See above on the transposition of this whole stanza ; more- over, the strophes within this stanza should also probably be transposed (notice that the Massoretic text makes a break be- tween 13 and 14), with the following order: verses 13, 16, 17cd {ki kullo x^'f^^P^f "for all of them, etc."), 14, 17ef ; probably also 'al ken, "therefore," from verse 17 to the beginning of verse 14, since in its present place it forces the imperfects in verse 17 to be understood as futures ("shall have no joy," etc.), while without 'al ken they may be circumstantials (cf. the im- perfects in verses 19 and 20, depending upon the perfect in verse 14). The resultant logical order of ideas is then : The people turned not to God, but their leaders were false and the people were misled — all of them were iniquitous ; therefore God cut off leaders and followers, pitying neither young nor old, orphan nor widow.
15. " The ancient and honorable, ' ' etc. : this was possibly a gloss on the preceding, though it is also possible that in the form "the ancient and honourable, the prophet and teacher of lies" is represents in whole or part an original couplet ; the decision will depend upon the conclusion as to the number of strophes originally in the typical stanza. If a gloss, written in the mar- gin, it might account for the displacement of the verse it glosses.
16. "For the leaders of this people": a comparison with verses 9, 13, 19, where "the people," not "this people," is used, gives evidence again of the editorial hand; but read (if the transposition suggested above is acceptable) simply ni^'ashsh^rdw, "their leaders."
17. On "therefore" see the note on verse 14. Supply pos- sibly a separate verb Id' ydxon for the object "his orphans," making this strophe a tristich (see above, 8).
18. Possibly this stanza contains verses which, while Isaianic, were not originally a part of this prophecj^ but were edited into it to replace a portion that was missing. The use of the abstract noun risk' a, "wickedness," is itself strange in Isaiah; if cor- rect, the sequel shows that it must here be a synonym of qin'di ' ' envy, " " hatred. ' ' But while one expects in the next lines de-j tails concerning the nature of the sin, as a matter of fact therd
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Chapter 9 is no point in the description of sin "consuming thistles and thorns." This metaphor is intelligible and usual in reference to God's wrath; cf. 10.16, 17, of which this passage is almost a duplicate; and it is sin itself which is consumed by the fire. Bish'd, then, possibly either is a misreading, or is editorial, due tt) the necessity of giving the passage a semblance of appropriate- ness, and was changed from some original word modifying "fire" (so its position indicates), e.g., ho'f^rd, "a consuming fire"; while the real subject was ' ehhrd, in verse 19; this sup- ports the probability that verse 19 belongs before verse 18, as is indicated also by the fact that verse 19 by its wording seems to be the beginning of a new thought.
Way-yith'ahh^^khil, "and they mounted up," not found else- where in Hebrew or other Semitic languages, is possibly due to the preceding sihh^^khe;' the Septuagint read the two roots 'dkhal and sdhhahh. Oe'uth ("lifting up"; usually "majesty," "pride") is also very suspicious; the Septuagint read g^hhd' oth, "hills"; read perhaps "the valleys [g^^'dydth] are surrounded," or "roll up" (yithsdhhchhu) , or "are clouded" {yith'abh^qu, lit. "dusted"; cf. Na. 1.3), " (with) smoke"; cf. I Kings 18.45: "and the heavens are blackened (with) clouds."
19. Ne'tam, "darkened": this aira^ Xeyo/xevov, doubly sus- picious because masculine whereas feminine is expected, is per- haps to be compared with 'o-yam in 11.15; it is the meaning attaching to the latter root in Arabic that would justify in the present passage an unusual word for ' ' burned, " " scorched ' ' ; since ghaim in Arabic denotes "internal heat," "rage," the thought might be here : " by the wrath of the Lord the world is enkindled into blazing hatred" (cf. 7.4: "that smoke by the wrath of Resin") ; this would be the qin'ath 'Ephrayim, "jeal- ous anger [Eng. envy] of Ephraim," of 11.13. Read, perhaps, then, for ne'tam, na'omath (i.e., nd'omd) 'dreg. Ma'khdleth 'esh, ' ' fuel of the fire, ' ' occurring again in verse 5, is in good par- allelism as far as the distich is concerned, but difficult in view of what follows. If the stanza as a whole is to be regarded as original, read perhaps k^-'esh 'dkheleth, "as a consuming fire"; or k^-ma'akholeth 'dph, "as the fuel of wrath," "consumed with
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wrath, ' ' which would permit the transition to the idea of mutual
destruction.
Ish 'el 'axlw Id yaxmolU: possibly the distich, verses 19c and 20c, ' ' no man shall spare his brother, they shall eat every man the flesh of his neighbor" (read so with BDB ; the Massoretic text has "of his own arm," ish h^sar z^ro' o yokhelU) is a gloss or variant, placed here to effect some semblance of transition from the picture of fire in verse 19 to that of the ravenous beast, bird, or perhaps sword, in verse 20. That the couplet was written in the margin is evidenced by the fact that the two stichoi are at present unnaturally separated; the repetition of the verb "ate" (20b and c) also is suspicious; notice too the plural verbs (yaxtnolU and yokhelU) in the Hebrew; if the coup- let is original, the imperfects are circumstantial, and the singular should be read ; the metaphor ' ' eating flesh ' ' is used to denote bitter enmity in Ps. 27.2 ; Job 19.22 ; hence it is a close parallel to "spare not."
20. Way-yighzor, "and he shall snatch"; Heb. "and he cut" (but read possibly way-yighzol) : if the figure intended is not that of the beast or bird of prey (cf. 11.14: "and they shall fly upon the shoulders of the Philistines"), but merely that of extreme human anger, it may have a literal basis; notice, e.g., II Sam. 12.31: "and brought forth the people and put them under axes" (lit. cutting instruments, niaghzeroth). For 20c, see preceding note.
21. "Together they against Judah": the parallel passage 9.12, as well as the change of construction (accusative to prepo- sition) suggests the loss of a verb; the Septuagint iroX.LopK'qaovcn represents" x^wii, "encamped against," for hemmd, "they," but it might also be gdrii, "besieged," with which cf. again 11.13: "Judah shall not vex [ydgor] Ephraim."
Possibly all that is in place in this stanza, besides the refrain,
is the following:
And they tore on the right, still hungry, And they ate on the left, unsated,
Manasseh, Ephraim,
And Ephraim, Manasseh, And together [they pounced] upon Judah.
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Chapter 10
1. The preceding stanzas were directed against ''the people" ; this one against a particular class that oppresses the people, who hence are called commiseratingly in verse 2 "my people" (cf. the tone of 3.15) ; this passage has a closer affinity with chapter 5 than with chapter 9. Note in verse 2 the pity expressed for widows and orphans, who in 9.16 [17] are not to be pitied. It is perhaps the very words "orphans and widows" which led to the juxtaposition of these stanzas ; while sh^ldlam, ' ' their booty ' ' and yahhozzu, "that they may rob," together with hoi, "woe!" " ah ! " account for the juxtaposition of the following section, lO.Sff., beginning "Ah Assyria" and containing in verse 6 shdldl and Id-hhoz haz. The refrain "still is his hand outstretched" is not a natural conclusion for the section 10.1^.
3. ^Al ml tdnusu l^-' ezrd, 'dnu tha' az^^hhu k<^hh6dh^khem, "to whom [Heb. upon whom] will ye flee for help, where [Heb. whither] will ye leave your glory": transpose the two inter- rogatives ; cf . the construction in 20.6, where ' ' whither ye shall flee for help" occurs even after a noun antecedent; while ' dzabh takes properly the preposition ' al in the meaning ' ' entrust to " ; cf. Ps. 10.14. Rchhodh^khem is "the glory of your wealth," i.e., the spoil and booty mentioned in verse 2; there is also a reference to the root-meaning "heavy" — hence the next couplet:
4. Biltl khdra' taxath 'asslr, w^-thaxath h<^riigMm yippolu, "without me [Heb. without] they shall bow down [Heb. he bowed down] under the prisoners, and they shall fall under the slain": read le-hhiltl kh^ro"'' , "so as not to bow." Taxath is here "among," or must be corrected to h^-thokh (cf. Ezek. 32.20), taxO'th being then a slip of the copyist who had expected the phrase "bow down under the weight of the burden" (see verse 3), or "under the feet of the enemy" (cf. II Sam. 22.40). The Septuagint reads correctly ' ' ye shall fall ' ' instead of ' ' they shall fall," another careless copyist's mistake. The imperfect, as fre- quently, continues the infinitive construction.
5. U -matte hit' hh^yddhdm za'ml: literally "and a staff he in their hand my anger"; for this copyist's awkward jumble of
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words parallelism suggests simply u-niatte za'ml, ''and staff of my anger"; other simple emendations yield: "a staff is he in the day" {h'^-yom for h^'-yddhdm) or, "against the people" {h^-am; but see the next verse), "of my wrath," or "a staff is he in the hand of my wrath ' ' ; less likely is u-nvattehu ydrlm l)('-za'm%, "who raises his staff by my anger," although in verse 24 {u-mattehu yissd' 'dlekhd) it is Assyria that raises the staff,
6. " I will send him against a hypocritical nation ' ' : the im- perfect here is rather: "I was sending him," "I would send him," i.e., "I thought to send him."
"To tread him down like the mire of the streets" : if this line is in place it makes with 6cd a tristich of the type described in 1.2; the Septuagint "to trample cities and to make them into dust" yields another normal distich. But the figure of speech here indicates destruction, and weakens the apparent intention of the author, and the contrast with what follows; it is just de- struction that the Assyrian was not sent to effect ; he was merely to take spoil (there is an evident reference here to 8.3, 4). The line was probably misplaced and edited here ; it may belong at the end of verse 7, or better still, at the end of verse 13 (q.v.).
8. "For he saith, are not my princes altogether kings?" This is vague, and is not a logical introduction to what follows; ' ' altogether ' ' in the sense of " all " is not correct in this phrase ; and the Septuagint shows a disordered text. Read for sdrwi, ' ' my princes, ' ' either 'asslr, ' ' captives, ' ' 'assirai, ' ' my captives, ' ' or 'uss<^rn, "captured," "bound," i.e., with repetition of the 'dleph from h"ld\ and confusion of the sibilants; cf. Is. 22.3: 'uss^^ru yaxddw: "all thy rulers are fled together, they are bound by the archers ; all that are found in thee are bound together. ' '
10. "As my hand hath found the kingdoms of the idols [Heb. idol] and whose graven images (did excel them) of Jerusalem and of Samaria" (text simply: "and their images from Jerusa- lem and Samaria"). The text is evidently in disorder; read for M-'elU, "the idol," hd-elle, "these" (cf. 36.20); insert before "from Jerusalem" a predicate: "so it shallnot fall short of," lo' tiqqar (cf. Is. 50.2: "is my hand shortened that it cannot
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Chapter 10 redeem"; also 37.27, and particularly 59.1) ; or 16' thirpe, ''it shall not be too feeble for" (II Sam. 4.1). And for ''from Samaria," which has come from the next verse, read "and from her images" {Umim-niass^khothehd ; cf. 30.22, 48.5) or umi^- gal^mehd.
11. "Shall I not": h^^-lo' is as usual emphatic, "surely I shall," and here climactic: '*as I did to all these kingdoms, I shall not be unable to do to Jerusalem — yea, as I was able to do even to Samaria, so also shall I do to Jerusalem."
12. Insert a phrase parallel to "his whole work," e.g., po'lo as in 5.12, so as to throw the two exact synonyms "Mount Zion" and ' ' Jerusalem ' ' into parallelism ; cf . the form of the next verse. "Fruit [p^rf] of the stout heart" might mean thoughts, as ' ' fruit of the lips ' ' is words ; but p^rl is here parallel to tiph'ereth, "glory"; the Septuagint omits, so that the word was possibly indistinct: g''1)M would be a fitting parallel (see 13.19) ; if the text is correct the parallelism is mere root-paronomasia, pd'ar and para.
13. "And by my wisdom for I am prudent," kl n^hhUnothi: the Septuagint, "in the wisdom of my understanding" shows a text without M; read perhaps "in my wisdom and understand- ing " ; or more probably kl represents part of a variant reading of the root n^hhundihl; parallelism with 'dsithl, "I have done it, ' ' suggests hckhmotM, ' ' I have accomplished ' ' ; this same par- allelism occurs in Jer. 33.2.
"And I have [read wd for Heb. iv^] put down like a valiant man [kahbh or ka'abhir] the inhabitants": the Septuagint "I will shake the inhabited cities" shows perhaps that the text was not certain. Read for kahhlr, k^^hhodh: "the glory of their inhabitants," i.e., the nobles; on the phrase "bring down the strength" or "the glory," and "come down from glory," cf. Amos 3.11 (parallel to "spoil the palaces"; cf. the present con- text; Jer. 48.18: r^^dhl mik-kdhhodh yosh^^hhi hhag-gdme'). For yosh^bhim read yosh^hhehem; cf . 37.27. This whole prophecy is in distichs; perhaps, then, the Septuagint reading is not a variant of this verse, but represents another stichos; its refer-
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ence to ''cities" is peculiar, for it reads "cities" also in the superfluous stichos now found in verse 6 ("to tread down like the mire of the streets"), which, in the form wa-'^slmem mirmas, etc., "and I trod them down like the mire of the streets" would be in place here ; for the sequence of ideas cf . Is. 63.6 : " I will tread down the people in mine anger, . . . and I will bring down their strength to the earth." •
14. "Eggs that are left," heglm '(^zUhhoth: read probably for '"-zubhoth, 't'zuz, "the strength of the world," or 'izzuze, "the strong," parallel to x^^ ("strength," i.e., "riches of the nations": cf. this parallelism in 43.17), or some other collective, plural, or abstract object of "gather."
15. "Or as if the staff should lift up (itself as if it were) no wood": the A. V. has apparently felt that the language used here has unusual implications; the Septuagint also has a dif- ficulty either in reading or in understanding the text. As a matter of fact the normal implication of the statement "a staff cannot raise up not- wood" would be that a staff is an instru- ment for raising up that which is wood. But the intended impli- cation in this passage is determined not so much by the words themselves as by the parallelism. "Him that heweth," "him that shaketh, " "him that lifteth" are all metaphors here for ' ' God ' ' ; hence ' ' not- wood ' ' here has the implied meaning ' ' God ' ' (cf. Is. 31.8, where "not-man" is again "God"), who is speci- fically described as "not-wood," in contrast not only to a staff, but also, by implication, to the Assyrian's idols; in Is. 37.19, a passage which undoubtedly is based on the present one, this thought is explicitly developed, and the contrast made directly between the Assyrian gods and Yah we; "for they were not- gods, but the work of men's hands, wood and stones." The present passage offers another example of Isaiah's fondness for leading the mind by parallelism to expect a certain phrase and then substituting the unexpected, which the implications of par- allelism then make clear; this is especially effective in a climax.
16. The section 16-23 is misplaced; reference is never made to forests in Assyria, even in a metaphor ; this passage refers to
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Chapter 10 the destruction of Israel or Judah (cf. 37.24) ; it belongs prob- ably with chapters 7 and 8; certainly the emphasis on sh^'dr in verses 19, 20, 21, 22 would give point to the mention of Shear- jashub in 7.3. The rest of this chapter, too, is in considerable disorder.
"Therefore shall the Lord, the Lord of Hosts, send among his fat ones leanness, and under his glory he shall kindle a burn- ing like the burning of a fire ' ' : for ' ' fat ones ' ' read ' ' fatness, ' ' mishnmnno, the proper parallel to habhod, "glory," literally, "heaviness"; cf. 17.4b, "the fatness of his flesh shall wax lean." The latter part of the verse, yeqadh y^qodh klqodh 'esh, "shall be kindled a kindling like the kindling of fire" contains a simile without any real term of comparison ; the phrase is probably misplaced; the Septuagint has the phrase "burning flame" still a third time: after verse 18 (q.v.), and was evidently in doubt as to where the variant really belonged (see below) . Parallelism demands after taxath k^hhodho ("under," but also "instead of , " " his glory ' ' ) the word qdlon, ' ' shame ' ' ; literally, ' ' instead of his heaviness, lightness"; for qdlon opposed to kdbhodh see 22.18; also niqle and nikhhddh in 3.5; and cf. 17.4: "on that day the glory of Jacob shall be made thin" (yiddal, but read perhaps yeqal). Transpose here also 18bc (see ad loc.) :
Lakhen y^shallax hd-'ddhon h^-mishmannd rdzon w^-thaxath hehhddJw qdlon w^-hdyd M-m^sos noses min-nefesh w^-'adh bdsdr y^Tchalle (or yikhle).
17, 18. In the phrase kiqodh 'esh (see above) there is per- haps a play on q^dhosho in this verse, which probably the gloss indicated should be read :
we-hdyd 'or Yisrd'el If-lehdbhd u-qf'dJioshd yeqadh Jciqodh 'esh:
' ' And the Light of Israel shall be for a flame, and his Holy One burn as when a fire is kindled." Further confusion in the text is seen in the collocation of U-hhacrd w^-dkh^^ld, instead of their distribution in parallel positions. Probably, too, for k^hhodh ya'ro, "glory of his forest," read eg ya'ro, "the trees of his forest": k^hhodh is due to dittography from verse 16; the cor-
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rect reading 'eg ya'ro stands now in verse 19, into which it was
written from the margin ; read :
u-bha'ora eg ya'ro w^-kharmillo w'^-dhheld shltho u-shemiro h^-yom 'exddh:
"and it shall burn the trees of his forests and garden-land, and devour his thorns and thistles in a single day."
Min-nefesh w^-' adh hdsdr y^khalle, literally, "from soul unto body it shall consume," certainly belongs in the figure of the consumptive man, and not in that of a burning forest (see above, to verse 16) ; for the phrase cf. Job 33.21; Prov. 5.11; Ps. 73.26; read for y^khalle, yikhle : "he shall waste away ' ' ; note that as the text stands the subject of y<^khalle, "consume," is "it," i.e., the "flame" of verse 17, which is a feminine noun, while y^khalle is masculine.
W^-hdyd ki-m^sos noses ("and they shall be as when a standard bearer fainteth"; Septuagint, "and he that flees shall be as one fleeing from burning flame ' ' ; for the last phrase, see on verse 16, above) : for m^sos in the literal sense "wasting away of the body," cf. temes in Ps. 58.9 ("as a snail which melteth") ; names in I Sam. 15.9 (if the text is correct, "consumptive" for the A. V. "refuse") ; masmdsd in the Talmud (the "rotting away" of any organ of the body). If noses is correct, it must mean something more forcible than merely "a sick man" (see BDB), which would be x^le or nax^le; perhaps "a dying man" (in Arabic naslsa is "the last breath of life").
19. For the transposition of 'eg ya'ro, "trees of his forest," see verse 18; this leaves here U-sh^'dr niispdr yihyu; which, with repetition of the m from mispdr (i.e., u-sh^'drdm) is exactly the reading of the Septuagint : ' ' and the remainder of them shall be a number" (i.e., "numerable"). There follows here natu- rally verse 22 (q.v.).
20. The peculiar form of suspensive parallelism used here is very similar to that found in 7.18 (q.v.). But he-'^meth at the end of the fourth line is shown both by parallelism and linguistic usage to be superfluous. Hishshd'en, 'lean upon," "recline upon," is used invariably with a consciousness of its literal
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Chapter 10 meaning, and does not take an abstract complement, as may its (abstract) parallel hdtax, "trust"; the natural ending for this stichos would be simply Yahwe q^dhosho (cf. 10.16), contrasting with mdkkehu. Curiously, the parallel to '<^nieth, g'^dhdqd (cf. Is. 48.1), is found similarly misplaced at the end of verse 22 (q.v.) ; possibly both are marginal, and belong to a missing verse — further evidence of confusion in this section. Verse 20, it should be noticed, refers to a time after the destruction by Assyria shall have been effected; the emphasis in its reference to the remnant is upon Israel's salvation (i.e., "still a rem- nant") ; and since Israel's "Holy One" stands in contrast with Israel's "smiter," the emphasis is upon God as Israel's savior. 21. This verse seems to have several mutually contradictory implications. Its brevity would seem to stamp it as a single stichos ; in thought it is a parallel to the last stichos of verse 20 ; the absence of connecting conjunction would show it to be the beginning of a new thought, to be connected with what follows (verse 22), whose implication, however, it contradicts, for there the emphasis is upon the prophecy of a remnant as a threat of punishment {"only a remnant"), as in verse 19. But in addition to this confusion in emphasis a greater suspicion attaches to verse 21 in its present form because of the phrase 'el gihhor, "Mighty God." El is used as a proper name of God in the earlier parts of Isaiah only in the psalm-chapter 12 Cm 5.16 it has the article; in 14.13 it means simply "heaven"; in 8.8 and 10 it is due to the personal name Immanu-el) ; and gibhor, while it occurs elsewhere of God, is used always as a descriptive adjec- tive in a series of others or in parallelism, never as here making a compound proper name of God ; whereas it does occur in the near-by passage 9.5 as the symbolic name of the (Messianic?) prince. Notice too that sh^'dr ydshuhh is the symbolic name of one of Isaiah's sons, that it occurs again in the next verse, and that the remaining phrase in this sentence, sh^'dr yd'^qohh is omitted by the Septuagint (possibly it was a variant of pHetath heth Ya'cqohh in verse 20). The conclusion drawn from the style and parallelism is that this verse is made up of marginal
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annotations; it is barely possible that in some other form it was part of the supposed missing distich to which '^meth and Q^dhdqd also belong (see verse 20).
22. For the transposition of 22, 23, see on verse 19 ; for sh<^dr ydshuhh see 6.13, and above, verse 16. That "righteousness" at the end of 22 is misplaced is shown by verse 23 : " for the Lord God of Hosts shall make a consumption [kdld] even determined [w^-nex^rdgd] , in the midst of all the earth," which is evidently merely a fuller prose repetition of the preceding "the consump- tion [killdyon] decreed [x^^wf] shall overflow" but which leaves the disturbing term "with righteousness" unexplained. At the same time, some word has evidently fallen out parallel to killdyon and as the subject of shoteph (which is really a par- allel to x^"""^^) '■> fortunatelj' verse 26, below, and 28.15-18 supply it ; read probably :
Tcilldyon x^^Wf shot shoteph.
Shot is literally "a whip"; but in 28.15, where the figurative use of the term is elaborated it would seem to mean "scourging flood," since shoteph, used with it, is frequent in Isaiah in the figure of the overflowing flood of God's punishment; 'dhhar, used with shdtaph in 8.8, is used of shot in 28.15 ; and in 28.19 "treading," mirmds, and "taking," yiqqax, show further that shot has not its original meaning "whip." It is hardly prob- able that mere paronomasia led to Isaiah's choice of the word; possibly there is a reference to some other meaning of the root (curiously Muhammad also uses the figure "pour out [sahl)] a saut of punishment ' ' ; saut is also a pool of water left by a tor- rent). At any rate, in 28.18 the rulers are rebuked for scorn- ing the Prophet's admonition, and the words shot shoteph are put mockingly in their mouths apparently as a quotation of his own previously spoken words : as though they said ' ' your shot shoteph when it comes will not touch us " ; whereupon the Prophet (28.17) repeats the phrase in answer, elaborates it in detail, and then at the end of that prophecy (28.22) repeats also the identical words he had used at the end of the previous prophecy (10.23; with this concluding prose line, cf. 9.6).
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24. The following verses (through 26) naturally follow im- mediately upon verse 16. Verse 24 is apparently a long prose sentence ; only ' ' my people " is in parallelism possibly with ' ' the inhabitant of Zion." There is evidence of disorder, however; the phrase at the end of 24, "after the manner of Egypt," is out of place; it is a repetition from the end of 26, where it occurs also, and properly. Before it (in verse 24) the Septua- gint inserts tov Ihdv, i.e., llroth, possibly a mere repetition of the consonants in 'al tlrd', "fear not," or possibly, together with "the way of Egypt," a marginal reading; if the original text read 'al texath (Josh. 8.1) or 'al tiphxadh, with 'al tlrd' in the margin intended as a proper insertion, the Massoretic text may have substituted it instead of, properly, adding it :
'al ttrCi' ' amml '
w<^-'al tf'xath yoshebh Qiyyon
me- 'Ashshur hash-shebhet yakJcekkd
u-mattehu yissd' ' dlelchd.
On the stanza construction cf. 7.4: "fear not, neither be faint- hearted, from these two," etc. Here hash-shehhet yakkekkd is probably a relative clause (cf. the note to 1.21).
25. Read za'ml, "my indignation," for za'am; and for ' al tahhllthdm, "upon their destruction," 'al tehhel yittom: " (and my anger) against the world [cf. 13.11] will be finished" (cf. the parallelism in 16.4) ; or ' dUkhd (kullo) yittom: "against thee will all be finished. ' '
26. For shot, "scourge," read shibhto, "his staff," parallel to mattehu, "his rod"; the exact repetition of the terms shehhet and matte from verse 24 is stylistically satisfactory and em- phatic, but the repetition of one and variation of the other obscures the emphasis : ' ' Fear not from Assyria, who smites thee with rod and staff; for soon the rod and staff will be turned against him. ' ' The Septuagint omits shot here ; probably, then, it stood in the margin, and was. intended for an insertion in verse 22 (q.v.), where it is in place.
The second half of this verse is literally: "and his staff upon the sea and he will raise it in the manner of Egypt"; Septuagint: "and his wrath by the way of the sea, to the
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way toward Egypt." The confusion is self-evident; parallel- ism suggests simply: u-nmttehu 'dldw yinndse' (or yissd') h^- dherekh migrdyim, ''and his staff against him shall be raised (or shall he raise) in the manner of Egypt"; 'at hay-yom may be from ' Hehem, ' ' upon them, ' ' an error for ' dldw, ' ' upon him ' ' ; but if the phrase "at the Rock of Orebh" in the preceding stichos is correct, then "at the sea," balancing it, belongs at the end of this second stichos.
27c. W^-xubhal '61 mip-p^ne shdmen ("and the yoke shall be destroyed because of the anointing [lit. the oil J") : w^^-xubhal means "be corrupted," "waste away" (cf. Job 17.1, where it is parallel to "be extinguished"; Micah 2.10, to "be sick"), and is inappropriate with "yoke," 'ol; the repetition of '61 from the preceding stichos is intolerable; "because of the anointing" is absurd; and the whole clause is probably made up of mar- ginal variants to the preceding couplet, or, in part belongs with the next section, which has no connection with verse 27 and itself is probably defective in its beginning; evidently the orig- inal document was in bad condition here. Xubhal, vocalized xebhel, "rope," might be a variant of '61 in stichos b, or of sdhhel, "burden," in a; shdmen, "oil," a corruption of shikhmekhd, "thy shoulder," which, indeed, the Septuagint reads, while it offers further evidence of corruption in reading in stichos b "fear from thee" instead of "his yoke from thy neck." The omission of this corrupt stichos leaves a couplet similar to 14.25, "his yoke shall depart from off them, and his burden depart from off their shoulders."
28-31. This picture of the approach of the Assyrian belongs in spirit with 5.26-20 ; and the reconstruction of an introductorj^ stichos, together with the division of verse 30a into two stichoi (as suggested below), would yield 18 stichoi, the same number as in 5.26-30. The general parallelism is evident ; down to verse 31 each stichos contains a proper name and a verb ; a third term, object of the verb, is found possibly in three stichoi. In sub- ject matter the first five stichoi give the route traveled by the Assyrian to his night encampment; the following seven (begin-
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 431
Chapter 10 ning "Ramali is afraid") picture the alarm of places either along, or near, the route of march on the coming day ; the climax (in verse 32) is not clear in form or purpose. There is a strong presumption that originally the couplet formation, which at present is indicated by a closer affinity between some of the verbs used, was consistent throughout ; the text is not without internal evidence of corruptions.
Another factor to be taken into account is assonance; within the following stichoi there is a repetition of at least one letter in each case : ' dhhar h^-mighron; 'abh^ru ma'hhdrd; mdlon Idnii; xar<^dhd hd-rdmd; gah^ll qolekh hath-gallim; haqshihhl layishd ; '(^myyd 'cnuthoth; nddh^dhd madhmend; h^nohh . . . y^nopheph. Possibly the selection of the place names for mention was gov- erned in part by this principle.
28. hd' 'dl ' Ayyath, ''he is come to Aiath," means rather "he has gone against Aiath"; assonance is missing: this first stichos is possibly, then, defective; perhaps ' al, "against," rep- resents another verb, 'did, while hd' belongs in a missing preced- ing stichos.
'Ahhar h<^-mighron, "he is passed to Migron": 'dhhar here and immediately afterwards in verse 29 is crude ; possibly orig- inally another verb, with a moYe exact alliteration, stood here.
L^-mikhmas yaphqldh keldw, literally "to Michmas he will entrust his baggage": the preposition should be &^ ("in"; the verb, then, "store up") ; the imperfect verb, while all others down to verse 32 are perfects, is unjustified; alliteration is absent; the line is long; it does not stand in clear parallelism; and the question may be asked, why the author makes the army spend the night just one hour's march beyond its impedimenta, instead of in the same place with them — especially since the gain of one hour in the next day's start could not be of much impor- tance ; for the entire distance from Michmas to Jerusalem is only three or four hours' march. Possibly the answer is that there is a play on the name Michmas, if the root kdmas, actually (cf. Deut. 32.34), or by approximation to kdnas, denotes "gather," "store up." From the standpoint of parallelism, this stichos in
432 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapter 10
form and thought might be joined with "they have taken up
their lodgings in Geba"; but another stichos intervenes.
29. ' ' They are gone over the passage ' ' ; the omission of the proper name of the Pass is striking; perhaps the next word, Geba, is to be joined to this stichos; the pass between Michmas and Geba might as well be called Geba Pass as Michmas Pass (I Sam. 18.23).
Gebha' mdlon Idnii is literally either "Geba (is) a lodging for us" or "Geba (is) a lodging (which ; cognate ace.) they have lodged"; either is suspicious. If Geba, as suggested, belongs with "Pass," mdlon represents a corrupt proper name; e.g. (with dittography from Gehha'), hf-^dlmon Idnu (cf. Josh. 21.18) ; the Septuagint substitutes here a repetition of the first stichos of verse 28.
30. QahHl qolekh is literally ' ' neigh thy voice ' ' ; doubly curious because the absolutely superfluous qolekh makes the line too long, and because gahHl is elsewhere used only of joy, praise, desire, not fear. The Septuagint omits both words. Since, moreover, there is an odd number of stichoi in this section, it is probable that, together with n'^sl', "raise," the proper verb to govern qolekh, some place name has fallen out after cah^^ll, per- haps Azmaweth (north of Auath'oth), not mentioned until later times, it is true; but Gebim (verse 31) also is an otherwise unknown place. Corresponding to a couplet containing these two verbs "shriek," "raise thy voice," is the couplet formed by the remainder of this verse: "Listen, Laisha; answer [read '"ni for'«?w?/t/a] Anatoth."
31. Possibly the couplet "Madmenah is removed [i.e., fled], the inhabitants of Gebim have sought safety [A. V. gather them selves together to flee] " belongs at the end of 29 ; gehhini means pits or cisterns; and there may be a play on the thought of the pit as a place of hiding (cf. I Sam. 13.6, where the Philistines are described as hiding in pits when Saul advanced to Michmas).
32. "As yet shall Che) remain at Nob that day," 'odh hay- yom h^-ndhh la-'(hn6dh: odh is perhaps an error; the peri- phrastic infinitive la-'^mddh, if correct, denotes either necessity,
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 433
Chapter 10 "he must stay," or imminence, "is about to stay"; only the latter is logical here; and ' odh, denoting continuance, is then confusing: if correct, it must have the unusual meaning "still to-day," i.e., even today {h^- egem hay-yom haz-ze; or w^- odh hay-yom gddhol) ; but it may be only dittography from the preceding word, which the Septuagint repeats instead of it ; hay-yom, "today," is sufficient. It should be noted, however, that the sentence contains no subject, which is all the more remarkable in that the implied subject is not that of the imme- diately preceding stichoi, but one last referred to in 29b ; ' odh stands just where a subject might be expected. La- (^modh, if correct, is not here "tarry," but simply "take his stand"; Nohh was evidently a hill overlooking Jerusalem (possibly because of y^nophcph, nohh suggests noph, "height"; cf. Ps. 48.3), on which he "is to take his stand" to give his signal to his armies for the attack. Y^nopheph (read possibly w^-nopheph) occurs only here, and replaces the usual form yaniph (cf. 11.15, 13.2, 19.16, etc.) simpl}' for the sake of the assonance.
"The mountain of the daughter of Zion, the hill of Jeru- salem " : as accusatives of place after the verb ' ' wave ' ' the construction is remarkable ; the verb is followed always by a preposition, or else is used absolutely (cf. 13.2) ; har hath Qlyon and gihh'ath Y^rushdlayim are evidently parallels: possibly, then, they are mere vocatives.
33-34 constitute a stanza, at present of five stichoi, all par- allel, but with a closer affinity between the first ("the Lord shall lop the bough with terror") and fourth ("and he shall cut down the thickets of the forests with iron") ; between the second ("and the high ones of stature shall be hewn down") and third ("and the haughty shall be humbled") ; and perhaps between these and the fifth ("and Lebanon shall fall by a mighty one") ; pos- sibly then a sixth stichos should be supplied to balance the fifth : e.g., wchah-h^rosh han-nisd' yikkdreth: "and the lofty fir shall be cut down" (cf. 14.8, 37.24). This parallelism points also to the emendation oi h^^-ma'^rdgd, "with terror," which is very inapt, to h<'-nm O'Qddh or ma'^gadhd, a synonym of h^-harzel
434 University of California Ptihlications. [Sem. Phil.
Chapter 10
("with iron," i.e., "axe"); cf, Jer. 10.3, "one cutteth a tree out of the f orest . . . with the axe (ham-nm' ^gddh ; Is. 44.12: barzel ma'f^Qddh) ; in Arabic the equivalent mi' dad is exactly "an instrument with which trees are lopped" (Lane, s.v.). For ha-'addir, "by a mighty one," read ha-'addir ("the mighty"; cf. Ezek. 17.23, 'erez 'addlr, "a goodly cedar") ; or simply 'addlr, transposed before "Lebanon"; in Is. 60.13 k^bhodh L^hhdnon, literally, * ' the glory of Lebanon, ' ' means * ' cedar. ' '
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 435
SUMMAEY
Amount of Parallelism in the Oracles of Isaiah 1-10
Total number of "periods" |
Clear |
parallelism |
With traces of parallelisn |
Non-parallelistic |
||||
Formu- la las |
At end of stanzas |
■» |
||||||
Chapter |
No. |
Percentage of whole |
Others |
|||||
1. |
95 |
83 |
87% |
8 |
2(3) |
!(?■) |
1 |
|
2. |
71 |
63 |
88% |
5 |
|
|
3 |
|
3. |
• 81 |
67 |
83% |
10 |
3 |
|
1 |
|
4. |
U4 |
18 |
75% |
4 |
|
2 |
||
5. |
101 |
87 |
86% |
12 |
1 |
|
2 |
|
6.9b-10 |
, llc-131 |
17 |
11 |
64% |
6 |
|
||
7.4b-9, |
I8-251 |
40 |
22 |
55% |
16 |
1 |
1 |
|
8.6-10, |
12-15, |
|||||||
21-23^ |
45 |
30 |
66% |
15 |
.... |
|||
9. |
74 |
71 |
98% |
2 |
1 |
I |
||
10. |
99 |
78 |
78% |
17 |
1 |
3 |
||
Totals |
647 |
530 |
82% - |
95' |
7 |
3 |
14 |
^ 6.1— 9a, 11a, are narrative and autobiographical; 7.1-3, 10—17; and 8.1—5. 11, 16-20 are partly narrative, partly personal, and partly deal with names and "signs." Though containing a considerable amount of parallelism, they have not been included in this table.
- A list of the verses in which parallelism is not clear, as well as those in which it does not exist, follows. => = 14%.
List of Passages in Isaiah 1-10^ not in Clear Parallelism
End Chapter With traces of parallelism Formulas of stanza
1. [2c?]; 5b; 9a; 12a, b, e; [2c?]; 24 20b
13c, d; 15c; [24?]
2. 5; 6a; 9c; 18; [20d?]
3. la, b; 3c; 6a; 8c, d; 9c; 7a; 15c; 16a
10a; 11a; 14b; 18a
4. 2c; 3d; 5e; 6a
5. la, b, c, d; 12; 14e; 25c, d; 9a
26c; 30a, b, c, d
6. 9h; 13a, b, c, d, e
7. 4c; 5a, b; 21; 22; 23-25 7a
8. 6c; 7c; [8d?]; [10c?]; 21-
23
9. 3d; 8c
[10c] 6k
24a
10. 8; 10; 18a; 21; 22a, b; 22c, d; 24b, c; 25; 27c ^ See note to previous table for passages not included.
23
Others 18a (introd. words
of exhortation) [20d]; 22a, b, c
(not in Septua-
gint) 6c (contains words
repeated in 7c) la; 3e 5a: 6fi
8c (interrupts per- fect parallelism)
4d ; 5c (repeats words from 6a and 3b)
24f (repeated in verse 27)
436 Univefsity of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
In the preceding tables under "clear parallelism" are in- cluded those stichoi which are generally called "synonymous." But it must be noted that in parallelism this term is applied to series of words other than those cited in the dictionaries as synonyms or antonyms; there are not many stichoi, as a mat- ter of fact, in which the corresponding words are exact synonyms, as they are, for instance, in 2,17, where gahhuth and rum each means literally "height," 'ddhdm and 'o-ndshlm mean respec- tively ' ' mankind ' ' and ' ' men, ' ' and shax and shdphel, ' ' prostrate oneself" and "be low" or "prostrate." More often the terms are synonyms only by synecdoche or some other variety of metonomy, as in 1.29, where "oaks" is used as a synonym of "gardens" or "groves." Perhaps, then, a broader term than "synonyms" should be used, such as "complements," denoting terms which as they are used by the author are seen to belong to some one logical category. Such complements Isaiah is fond of heaping up ; e.g., in 1.11-14, terms referring to ritual service (offerings and sacrifices of various kinds, oblations, incense, fes- tivals and feasts) ; 2.7-8, to riches (silver, gold, horses, chariots) ; 3.18-23, to dress (21 items) ; 2.13, to height as a symbol of pride (mountains, hills, cedars, oaks, towers, walls, ships) ; 3.2, to pub- lic life (mighty men, warriors, judges, prophets, necromancers) ; 3.5, 6, to mutual human relationship (man, neighbor, youth, aged, lowly, honorable, brother, father) ; l.W, to landscape (valleys, caves, bushes, meadows) ; 1.6, to treatment of wounds (pressed, bound, softened) ; 1.7, to destruction (wasted, burnt, eaten) ; 1.11 to aversion (satiated, displeased, abominate, not tolerate, hate, find burdensome, wearied) ; 5.2, to viticulture (clear and fence land, plant, build watch-towers, hew vats) ; and to many other vague synthetic ideas implied in the use of such regularly associated complements as heaven and earth ; sea and land ; light and dark- ness ; hear and speak ; command and obey. Sometimes, however, the complementary nature of the terms is not due to regular association but rather to the special, often metaphorical, use in the stichoi in question: e.g., "flint" and "whirlwind" to connote hardness and swiftness as the attributes respectively of horses' hoofs and chariot wheels advancing for an invasion. In all these
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 437
cases it is quite evident that the lists of terms used by the Prophet might be either enlarged or diminished without effecting his main purpose ; compare 1,26 with 3.2, two passages referring to officials ; the fact that the former mentions only judges and counsellors whereas the latter mentions many other classes does not imply that the Prophet is predicting the existence of a state in which there shall be only those two classes of officials; but as in all such cases, each stichos mentioning one species of the genus implies the whole genus. And so the term ' ' complementary ' ' can be applied to thought units or periods as a whole, to two or more lines each of which expresses an equal part of some one complex idea. It will be seen, then, that lyric, prophetic, or didactic poetry must not be viewed as would be an historical or geological treatise; in the light of parallelism a list such as that in 3.18 is poetical and effective ; as archaeology it might be interesting, but it is tedious and defective.
And here the rule should be enunciated that in a parallelistic setting, i.e., when surrounded by other couplets or strophes in evident parallelism, any two lines must also be read as parallel- ism if this is in any way possible; just as in the scansion of poetry a doubtful line must be scanned if possible in the light of the dominant metre. For example 5.25 :
Therefore is the anger of the Lord kindled against his people.
And he hath stretched forth his hand against them and smitten them.
If this were simple narrative, it might be said that the fact detailed in the second line was subsequent to that described in the first. But Isaiah is not here concerned mainly with writing history or making a psychological analysis ; the second line is not only a logical complement of the first, but by implication one is a repetition of the other: from the standpoint of prophetic philosophj^ God 's anger implies of necessity punishment ; or at least punishment implies his anger. So the couplet in Amos 5.8, discussed by Mr. Newman under synthetic parallelism, I should unhesitatingly classify as clear parallelism :
He that calls for the waters of the sea,
And pours them out upon the face of the earth.
438 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
This, again, is not intended primarily as a scientific description of the formation of rain ; each line means simply : God controls by his word the phenomena of nature.
At the same time objection must be taken to the indiscrim- inate use of the term "synthetic parallelism" in reference to any two lines in couplet formation. Following the Isaiah passage last quoted is this couplet (5.25c, d) :
And the hills did tremble
And their carcases were torn in the midst of the streets.
In a general way, it is true, each of these lines means that when God is angry, the whole world (nature and man) feels the effects, but the two stichoi first quoted speak specifically of God's anger against men ; the last stichos still is limited to the same narrower objective. Moreover, it is difficult to group the subjects ''hills" and "carcasses," and the predicates "tremble" and "torn," re- spectively under any one category. On the other hand, "hills" and "streets" are or may be parallels; and, in the light of the evident awkwardness of style (with the pronoun in the fourth line referring back to the second in absolute disregard of the third), and of the comparative shortness of the third line, I have classified the couplet as one with "traces of parallelism."
Another possible area of doubt is presented by incomplete propositions or clauses as elements in parallelism. Cases in which the incompleteness is merely rhetorical need not be con- sidered here ; i.e., those in which an incomplete phrase or clause is in apposition with some part of a complete sentence, and hence assumes from it the missing syntactic elements, as 1.8, where "as a lodge in the cucumber-garden" is parallel to "the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in the vineyard"; or 1.6, where the series of detached nouns "wounds, and bruises, and purifying sores" is in apposition with "all the head is sick" and with the following series of verbs, "not pressed, not bound, not softened with ointment," or msiy be considered in itself as a series of three parallel terms; or again 9.20, 21, where "Manasseh, Ephraim, and Ephraim, Manasseh, and together they against ['al] Judah" are parallel clauses deriving their syntactic construction from the previous sentences, "each shall
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 439
eat the flesh of his own arm," or "of his neighbor," and "he shall eat on [' at] the right hand."
A second variety of incomplete parallelism is seen when to a couplet syntactically complete is added another parallelistic couplet expressing a non-essential qualifier, e.g., 2.10: "Enter into the rock, and hide thee in the dust, ' ' to which is added, ' ' for fear of the Lord, and for the glory of his majesty"; here again the parallelism is clear; but in verses 20 and 21 a' third prepo- sitional phrase is added: "when he rises to shake terribly the earth ' ' ( Heb. " at his rising to terrify the earth " ) . Here ' ' fear ' ' and ' ' terrify ' ' are associated terms, though used in varying syn- tactic construction; and it is quite evident that "for fear of the Lord ' ' might be omitted, without altering the sense in any way : ' ' Hide thee in the dust when the Lord rises to terrify the earth ' ' implies the fear. However, I have reckoned the additional phrase as one showing merely traces of parallelism, in order that I might not be charged with exaggerating the number of cases of clear parallelism. It should be remarked, moreover, that even if there were no stichic parallelism here, there would still be strophic parallelism, since the whole refrain is repeated in the same form.
A greater variation from the simple type of parallelism arises in what I have called ' ' suspensive ' ' parallelism, seen in quatrains in which neither set of parallel stichoi is syntactically complete without the other: e.g., 4.5; 9.5 (Eng.). Still, these seem to me undoubtedly parallelistic in principle. But it is possible that in the use of this form there lies the beginning of non-parallel- istic formations in Hebrew poetry, for it accustoms the mind to the use of incomplete stichoi as units of poetic structure. An intermediate step between the suspensive parallelism and non- parallelism is perhaps to be seen in a couple of examples in which, while the first part of a proposition is repeated in a par- allelistic couplet, only a single stichos is added to complete the meaning ; e.g., 4.3 :
He who is left in Zion And he that remaineth in Jerusalem Shall holy be called.
440 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil.
Or 9.4 (53ng.), with tristich instead of couplet:
The yoke of his burden, And the staff of his shoulder, The rod of his oppressor.
Hast thou broken in the day of Midian.
It would be possible to regard these two instances as being the
reverse of the species of appositional parallelism exemplified in
1.26cd and 1.8 (quoted above) respectively, i.e., with a long
second line, the first being in anticipatory apposition with part
thereof :
He who is left in Zion
And he that remaineth in Jerusalem shall holy be called;
The staff of his shoulder.
The rod of his oppressor hast thou broken as in the day of Midian.
But in these two instances I beliisve that the text is faulty; at any rate I have classified the odd stichoi as doubtful.
In all of the cases of the use of incomplete clauses or phrases discussed thus far (excepting the last phrase in 2.19), syntactic parallelism was present. But there are also cases in which apparently clauses of different syntactic construction may be parallel :
Relative clauses. — In these the relative is the double relative ("he who," or "that which"), and the clause is not restrictive or essential, but is an appositional modifier. In 5.28, "whose arrows are sharp and all whose bows are bent," are two such clauses in parallelism with each other; nevertheless they estab- lish the use of the relative in parallelism. But in 2.8, 2.20, are relative clauses in apposition to nouns (see there, and the dis- cussion on '1.21) ; and in 9.2 ka-''^sher (lit. "like what," i.e., "as") before a finite verb, "they rejoice," is parallel to the simple preposition k^, ' ' like, ' ' before a noun, ' ' the joy. ' ' Other relatives appear in 2.22, 5.5, 8.20, 8.23 [9.1], all in doubtful passages.
Circumstantial clauses. — These contain verbs in the imper- fect, the English generally translating as independent sentences. Examples are: 8.8, "Reaching (imperf.) even to the neck," par- allel to "it shall overflow and go over"; 9.18, "devouring the
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 441
briers and thorns," parallel to "burnetii as a fire"; 9.19, "each eating the flesh of his own arm," parallel to "he ate upon the left"; 5.6, "not being pruned" parallel to "I shall make it a waste" (see also the note on 1.5). In 3.16 the circumstantial imperfect, "walking and mincing as they go" is in parallelism with the participle, "ogling with their eyes," and both are in parallelism to "they are haughty." Sometimes the circumstan- tial imperfect is difficult to distinguish from the relative clause with relative omitted (see again on 1.21) ; thus 10.24: "smiting thee with the rod " or " who smites thee with the rod, ' ' referring to ' ' the Assyrian ' ' ; here, however, there are two such imperfect clauses, so that parallelism does not depend upon this interpre- tation.
The use of all of these clauses in parallelism still rests upon the principle of apposition ; but there is another series of de- pendent clauses of various kinds, introduced by subordinating conjunctions, and which nevertheless may be in parallelism to their own main clauses ; though this involves apparently consid- erable departure from the simple type of synonymous parallelism and may be a subject for divergence of opinion. It is again to be insisted upon, that where such clauses occur in the midst of parallelism, the investigator must seek for reasons to include them as such, and not allow his own definitions and prejudg- ments to deny their parallelism.
Conditimial clauses. — It is evident of course, that not every protasis and apodosis can be regarded as parallelistic ; but the moment that ihey contain synonj'ms or complements, the possi- bility that the author intended them as such is present ; e.g., 1.18 :
If your sins are red as scarlet, They shall be white as snow.
It must be remembered, moreover, that in Hebrew syntax dependent and independent constructions interchange freely, that protasis and apodosis even in prose may be expressed as parallel clauses; e.g.. Num. 14.15, "if thou shalt kill all this people, the nations will say" is literally: "And thou shalt kill all this people and the nations will say." Compare also with this the parallelistic construction in Is. 5.7: "What was there
442 University of California Publications. [Sem. Phil,-
still to do to my vineyard, and did I not do, ' ' which is the equiva- lent of "if [or when] there was anything to do to my vineyard, did I not do it?" or, as the English actually translates, "what was there that I did not do?" A closer examination of Is. 1.18 shows as a matter of fact that the condition is merely a rhetorical one; the thought is: "Your sins are now as scarlet; they shall [or must] be white as snow." Another example is contained in 7.9 :
If ye are not firm (he'^imnu)
Ye shall not be confirmed (te'dmcnu).
Here, perhaps, a real condition is involved; nevertheless the
intention of parallelism seems certain because of the repetition
of the root 'dman; and the same intention would seem to be
evidenced by the unusual insertion of kl before the apodosis,
as a formal parallel to 'im in the protasis. Again in 10.22 the
conditional sentence is merely rhetorical; the thought really is
this: Thy people are now as the sand of the sea; they shall be
but a remnant. In the table this sentence has been counted as
showing traces of parallelism.
Temporal clauses.— An example is found in 10.12, "When
the Lord," etc., which meaiis:
The Lord will perform his work on Mount Zion (i.e., punish it), And (then) he will punish the pride of Assyria.
How small the difference is between the two types of construc- tion is exemplified by 5.4, where the Hebrew is literally:
Why did I hope it would bribg forth grapes. And did it bring forth wild grapes?
while the English translates : ' ' Why, when I looked that it should bring forth grapes, brought it forth wild grapes ? ' ' With this compare in verse 7 : " He looked for judgment, but behold, op- pression," which is the equivalent of "when he looked for judgment, he beheld oppression."
Fitial clauses. — Final clauses introduced by l^-ma'an occur in 5.19 ; but there are two of them, parallel to each other. Final infinitives introduced by l^^ occur similarly as a pair in 9.6 [7] : "to order it, and to establish it" ; a single such infinitive is found in 2.20 {l^-hishtax^woth) , but the passage is not clear; imperfects
Vol. 1.] Popper. — Parallelism in Isaiah, Chapters 1-10. 443
with w<^ are found in 2.3d, but again in parallelism to each other.
Perhaps 7.13 also contains a final clause :
Is it too little for you to weary men, That ye Avould weary also my God?
with which compare the coordinate clauses in Num. 9.10:
Is it too little a thing to eat up the good pasture.
And will ye tread down the rest of the pasture with your feet?
Causal clauses. — Introduced by kl, causal clauses occur fre- quently, but generally in pairs, so that the parallelism can not be doubted ; in 8.6 and 7, however, occurs a parallelism of cause and effect:
Because this people refuseth the waters of Shiloh,
Therefore the Lord will bring upon them the waters of The Eiver;
here the parallelism suggested by the repetition of the word "waters" is strengthened by the correlatives "because" and "therefore."
Comparative clauses. — The parallelism between the two mem- bers of a comparison is self-evident ; every simile is in its essence a form of parallelism, particularly where the correspondence between the objects is complete in all respects. The Hebrew shows this by its use of correlative prepositions, e.g., "like the priest (is) like the people"; or of correlative conjunctions, e.g., 10.11 :
As I have done to Samaria and her idols So shall I do to Jerusalem and her idols.
Finally, there is the possibility that certain clauses of nearer definition, added to verbs which are complete in sense when used without such clauses, are intended as parallels to those verbs; the examples are confined to chapter 5, verses 1, 5, 6 (q.v.) ; these have not been reckoned as parallels, however, in the tables.
On the whole it may be said that the presumption is very strong of an original intention of regularity in structure through- out the oracular portion of these ten chapters. More than eighty per cent of the subject matter is in parallelism as it stands. An additional fourteen per cent shows clear traces of parallelism; in most of these cases there is evidence of textual corruption irrespective of the question of parallelism, and the defects are
444 University of California Puhlications. [Sem. Phil.
removed when parallelism is restored; in the remainder of this fourteen per cent there is the possibility of regarding the text as parallelistic in its present form, dependent upon the acceptance of the parallelism of subordinate clauses as explained above. Of the residual six per cent some sentences are introductory and final clauses of announcement, and phrases of a conventional type standing at the end of oracles, in which the absence of par- allelism does not effect the question of the contents of the oracle itself; in the case of other isolated stichoi, within the oracle, their glossatory nature is shown by the presence of words re- peated weakly from near-by couplets, or by the evidently intru- sive nature of the subject matter. The number of cases in which regularity of structure does not exist but in which the sense is nevertheless clear is very small, indeed; the possibility of a stichos having fallen out in the course of centuries of tradition is so great that this may well be assumed to have taken place.
It should again be noted that the above tables and remarks do not apply to those passages which are narrative or auto- biographical ; nor should their implications be extended to any section of prophetic literature in which non-parallelism and parallelism are intermingled in considerably larger proportions than in Isaiah 1-10. But the analogy of other literatures that mingle prose and verse is not in point here; to find a proper analogy to account for the psychology of our text in its present form one should have to offer examples of poetry marred by a few isolated and unaccountable splashes of prose ; or of poems of perhaps one hundred lines, eighty-five of which are in perfect metre, while the remainder are hopelessly unmetrical, with no assignable reason for their lack of symmetry. No explanation of difficult passages in the oracular portions of Isaiah 1-10 should be accepted unless it is based upon parallelism ; or, at least, no emendation of the text should be accepted which does not restore parallelism.
RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT
IQmi^ 202 Main Library 642-3403
LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE
ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS
1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405
6-month loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation Desk
Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date
lNlERufiyfe,£|JI,$MPiD_BE!^W
MAR 1 5 1
577-
UNIV. OF CAU
-.. BERK.
BEC. CIB.APR 27 T!
BECC.8.SEP25T>
JAN10W7
11ECC1RJ«'^^'83
FORM NO. DD 6, 40m, 6'76
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY