X I

I

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND

MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

THE

PARASITIC DISEASES

OF

POULTRY.

BY
FRED. V. THEOBALD, M.A., F.E.S.,

FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE ASSOCIATION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS, U.S.A. '.

ZOOLOGIST TO THE S.E. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, WYE ; AUTHOR OF

' AN ACCOUNT OF BRITISH FLIES ' AND ' INSECT LIFE.'

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR.

LONDON:
QTJBNEY & JACKSON, 1 PATEKNOSTER EOW

(SUCCESSORS TO J. VAN VOORST.)
MDCCCXCVI.

PL AM MAM.

P HINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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CONTENTS.

Pace

Preface vii

Introduction. Parasites and Parasitism ix

PART I.
Animal Parasites.

I. Protozoan Parasites 2

A. Diphtheritic Roup 2

B. Epithelioma Contagiosum . 0

C. Further Parasitic Forms 11

II. Insect Parasites (Phthiriases) 12

A. Fleas (Pulicidae) 13

B. Lice (Mallophaga)* 18

0. Other Insect Guests 34

* In a work on New Mallophaga published this year, by V. L.
Kellogg, the Mallophaga are treated as a distinct order of Insects ;
and this order is subdivided into two sub-orders, (i.) Ischnocera and
(ii.) Amblycera — the characters being taken from the antennre and
the labial palps.

This work is issued by the Leland Standford Junior University.
Paulo Alto, California.

A 2

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iv CONTENTS.

Page

III. Mite. Parasites (Acariases) 38

A. Psoric Acariases 89

Scaly Leg 40

Depluming Scabies (Feather-eating) 45

B. Non-Psoric Acariases 49

The Hen-Mite (Dermanyssus) and other species 49

IV. Worm Parasites 60

A. Cestoda= Tapeworms (Taeniosis) 62

B. Trematoda= Flukes , 69

C. Nematoda= Thread-worms (Gapes, &c.) .... 71

PART II.
Vegetable Parasites.

V. Permatomycoses (Favus, &c.) 89

VI. Mycosis of Air-passages 94

VII. Thrush in Poultry 98

Appendix I. — List of Animal and Vegetable Parasites

upon Gallus domesticus 99

Appendix II. — Bibliography 106

Index 113

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1. Protozoa from Diphtheritic growths.

2. Hen-Flea (PuLex avium).

3. Larva and Pupa of Hen-Flea.

4. Goniodes dissimilis.

5. Goniocotes holoaaster.

6. Lipeurus variabilis.

7 . Menopon pallida m .

8. Goniodes Eynsfordii.

9. Ovum of Mallophaga (Goniodes) .

10. Small Fowl-Fly ( Or nithobia pallida).

11. Fowl-Fly (Ornithomyia avicularia).

12. Fowl-Bug (Acanthta columbaria) .

13. < Scalv Leg ' of Fowl.

14. Scaly-Leg Mite [Sarcoptes mutatis).

15. Depluming Scabies (S. Icevis, var. gallwce).

vi ILL USTRATIOXS.

Fig. 16. Red Hen-Mite (Dermanyssus avium).

17. Lung-Mite (Cytodites nvdus).

18. Skin-Mite (Symplectoptes cysticola).

19. Typical Cestode Worm (Tamia).

20. Embryo Cestode and egg.

21. Bladder-worm (Cysticercus type).

'2'2. Gape-worm or Forked Worm (Synyamus

tracheal is).
'2?). Favus Fungus [Achorion Schonleinii).

PEEFACE.

The fact that Poultry-breeding is increasing to such
an extent in England, and the numerous enquiries
the Author receives regarding the many parasitic
diseases to which Poultry are subject, has influenced
him in issuing this small Manual relating to the para-
sitic infestation of Fowls and the various methods
of coping with such diseases. The worst parasitic
diseases in Fowls are due to animal parasites, such,
for instance, as the ' Gapes' and Diphtheritic Roup;
a few minor complaints are, however, due to
Vegetable Parasites — minute fungi. In many cases
the knowledge of the life-history of these enemies
helps us to be able to battle with them more success-
fully. One of the objects of this Manual is to place
before Poultry-keepers all the changes through which
these pests go, with reference particularly to those
points in their life-history that are of some economic
importance. My best thanks are due to the many

viii PREFACE.

Poultry-keepers who have sent me diseased birds to
investigate and experiment with. For these and all
other Poultry-breeders and Fanciers this book is
written, with the hope that the too persistent
loss from parasitic infestation may be considerably
lessened.

Wye Court, Wye, Kent.
October 1896.

INTRODUCTION.

Paeasites and Parasitism.

That many, if not most, animals have upon and
within them other and smaller animals and fungi —
parasites or ' guests,' as they are generally called —
is now a well-established fact. Regarding these
' guests,' always unbidden, and their effects upon
their * hosts,' there is considerable universal ignor-
ance that Science is doing much to obliterate. The
scientist, also, is sometimes in the dark concerning
these parasitic forms ; but rapid strides have been
made in Parasitology during recent years. Many
complicated life-histories of parasitic forms have now
been unravelled, yet a vast field of research and
careful experiment is still open. At one time
parasites were thought to be part and parcel of
the host upon which they lived. This absurd notion
has long since been dispelled ; yet it is still most
difficult to make those who are not of a scientific

x INTRODUCTION.

or enquiring turn of mind believe in many of the
complicated life-histories of the unbidden guests that
attack our farm-animals and ourselves. There are
many who look upon the marvellous and complicated
changes of some of the parasitic worms as mere
' fairy tales ; ' but doubtless the hand of time will
obliterate this bigotry.

In Poultry the parasites have not such a com-
plicated metamorphosis as we see in many that
attack other farm-stock, unless it be amongst some
of the innumerable Tapeworms that are found in
the intestines of the Common Fowl ; for most
Cestode worms have two distinct hosts during their
development — one in which the curious i cystic '
or ' bladder-worm ' stage is found ; another in
which the adult sexual Tapeworm takes up its
intestinal abode.

There are both Vegetable and Animal Parasites
upon warm-blooded animals, although the former
are few compared with the vast army of animal
1 guests/ The vegetable enemies are of extremely
low form — minute fungi, which nevertheless often
cause very obnoxious parasitic infection, notably
the human ' Ringworm,' which is not due to a worm
at all, but to a microscopic fungus, the Trichophyton,
which also affects animals and from which we can
take the disease.

IX TROD UCTION. aa

Amongst Poultry we have at least one serious < vege-
table* malady— the so-called ' Favus,' disfiguring the
comb, wattles, and head generally of the bird. The
minute ' spores ' or seeds of these vegetable parasites
are carried about in the air, so that they have a chance
in the ' struggle for life ' of increasing their race by
other means than direct contagion.

It must be remembered, however, that these para-
sitic diseases are highly infectious. Many of the
parasitic fungi have most interesting and almost
marvellous life-histories ; but as this class of disease
is seldom manifest in the Fowl, they will only be
brief! v referred to in this small Manual. If vegetable
parasites are wonderful, we must expect to find similar
extraordinary cases of this degraded form of life in
animals. In the animal world nearly every group of
invertebrates has its degenerate members, some so far
debased by their methods of living as to become almost
unrecognizable in regard to their true relationship.
With parasitism we find concomitant the loss of
many structural elements owing to disuse : for
instance, some of the small Crustacea that live
entirely in fish, and which have no need of legs
or even organs of sense, so needful in the struggle
for life, have entirely lost these organs and append-
ages. On the other hand, there are many Entozoa
that still retain their typical form. The more

*ii INTRODUCTION.

important groups of animals amongst which para-
sitism is found are : — the Protozoa, or the ' single-
celled ' animals ; the Vermes, or the ( worms ' ;
the Arthropoda, or jointed-limbed animals (Insects,
Mites, &c.).

Some members of all these three divisions are
found in or on Poultry. The simplest, the Protozoan
guests, are at present but little understood. Their
small size renders their study extremely difficult ;
hence the life-histories of many are still incom-
plete. Nevertheless we now know that they are
responsible for that pestilential malady, malaria —
minute parasitic amoeboid forms in the blood being
answerable for its deadly effects. As in man, so
in animals and birds — Protozoa undoubtedly cause
the liver-rot in rabbits (Coccidiosis), and the majority
of cases of Diphtheritic Roup in poultry examined
by the author have been caused by similar lowly
forms.

The three chief groups of parasitic worms are
known as the Flukes or Trematoda, the Tapeworms
or Cestoda, and the Round-worms or the Nematoda.
Poultry unfortunately suffer from all three of these.
The Flukes and Tapeworms, although much more
abundant in species (as will be seen in the list of
Poultry Parasites), are not nearly so injurious to
Gal/us domesticus as the Nematode worms, for one

INTRODUCTION. xiii

of these produces the dreaded ' Gapes,' and another
is often too abundant in the intestines.

Amongst the Arthropoda the chief culprits are the
Mites (Acarina) and the Lice (Mallophaga). The latter
are true degraded insects — insects devoid of wings
but, unfortunately for the Fowl, still possessed of a
very powerful biting-mouth. The Mites, on the other
hand, are often provided with a sucking- and piercing-
mouth, which they plunge into their unfortunate
victim and so feast off its blood. These latter can
be told from true insects by the presence of four pairs
of legs ; the Lice, on the other hand, will be seen to
possess six legs only — true insects.

Parasitism may be either internal or external,
permanent or partial. Internal parasites live in all
parts of the vertebrate frame : many, such as the
Tapeworms, live in the alimentary canal ; others, as
the Gape-worm, in the air-passages ; even the eye and
kidney may be invaded by some unwonted visitant.
The Protozoa and Vermes are the chief internal
guests, although a few Mites penetrate some distance
into the skin and air-passages of birds. The ex-
ternal parasites are mainly Insects and Mites, living
upon the skin and amongst the epidermal pro-
ductions, hair and feathers. Sometimes these pests
live permanently on their host : the Lice of poultry,
for instance, seldom leave the birds unless the latter

xiv INTRODUCTION.

die. Partial parasites are those that only go to their
host to feed — as soon as they have taken sufficient
nourishment leaving their ( object of robbery ' to
sleep off the result of their meal in some quiet and
-ccluded spot. The Poultry Flea and the prejudicial
Red Hen-Mite have this irritating way of living.

One point economically of no little importance in
parasites is that they may require two k hosts ' in
which to develop, and occasionally one of those hosts
happens to be man. Taenia solium, the dreaded
human Tapeworm, is one of these ; it comes from the
diseased pork known as ' measly pork,' the flesh
of a pig that has eaten the cast-out proglottides or
segments (full of eggs) of the human Tapeworm, the
effffs from which are changed into the peculiar
and repulsive ' bladder-worms ' or cysts in the pig's
muscle, which on being eaten by man again become
Tapeworms. Similarly, Trichinosis is taken by
human beings by eating the flesh of pigs suffering
from this disease.

Such facts as these make us chary of what we eat.
All the more satisfactory is it, then, for us to know
that, out of all the innumerable Poultry Parasites,
none (so far as we know) are hurtful to us.

Not only do parasites sometimes destroy their host,
but they stunt the growth if they commence their
attack on young subjects. It is extraordinary how a

IXTRODUCTIOX. xy

few neck and body lice will stunt the growth of
chicks and turkey-poults ; yet few poultry-breeders
try to check this often serious loss.

The further one investigates these parasitic infesta-
tions, the more one is impressed with the absolute
necessity of cleanliness and freedom. The diseases
described in this book have always been observed to be
far more disastrous in dirty and neglected poultry-runs
and houses, where the host is kept in unhealthy and
unnatural surroundings, and thus rendered a more
fitting habitation for its various ' guests/ whilst the
parasites themselves are placed in most favourable
conditions.

There is yet much as to which we are in the dark
concerning Poultry Parasites and their treatment ; and
it is to be hoped that poultry-keepers themselves will
be on the alert to note and record new facts they may
observe in this department, thereby helping perhaps
hundreds of others who are liable to have their birds
afflicted with the various parasitic diseases here
recorded.

THE

PARASITI C DISEASES

OF

POULTRY.

♦♦♦♦»-

PART I.

ANIMAL PARASITES.
The Animal Parasites of Poultry will be treated

Ml

of uuder the following heads : —

(1) Protozoan Parasites.

(2) Insect Parasites (Lice, Fleas, &c).

(3) Mite Parasites (Acarina).

(•I) Worm Parasites (Cestodes, Trematodes, and
Nematodes) .

B

2 PROTOZOAN PARASITES.

I. PROTOZOAN PARASITES.

A. Diphtheritic Roup.

Amongst the least understood parasitic diseases of
Poultry, Diphtheritic Roup stands paramount. That
it is due to certain minute and lowly animal forms
there is much evidence to show, but nevertheless we
know comparatively little regarding the Pathology
and Etiology of this often disastrous epidemic in the
Poultrv World. Like very many things that have
not been studied scientifically. Diphtheritic Roup has
been commingled with other complaints of a perfectly
different facies. Even ' science 3 is at variance upon
this subject, for the nature of this complaint is a
subject of very diverse opinions. It is possible, and
I feel sure this is the case, that there are three kinds
of affections grouped under the name Diphtheria.
Two of these are certainly due to minute Protozoan
parasites ; the third, which I have not so far been
able to observe, may be due, as stated, to some minute
microbe. Colin and Roux have demonstrated this
latter point, and they show that the microbe of
Chicken Diphtheria is not the same as produces the
similar named disease in man.

Appearance and Symptoms of the Disease.

The disease manifests itself as white and creamy
patches in the mouth, pharynx, and even in the
crop. The upper surfaces of the growths are slimy

DIPHTHERITIC ROUP. 3

and the mouth also becomes filled with viscid slime,
and in advanced cases passes out a foetid odour. The
growths spread downwards, enter the oesophagus and
trachea, and so cause the death of the individual.
The mouth and nose also become blocked by these
purulent masses. This disease, which is highly con-
tagious, as a rule coming in an epidemic form, can
at once be told by the dejected look of the patient,
the frequent glairy mucus exuding from the mouth
and nostrils (similar to the exudation in ordinary
Roup), and finally by the appearance of the internal
excrescences.

Two Forms of Growth.

I have noticed two distinct forms of growth in
the bird's mouth, which I also found contained dif-
ferent microscopic organisms. The most virulent,
yet most easy to treat, form of growth are the large
creamy loose foliate patches, which are often spongy
and elongate ; these grow rapidly and soon fill up
the mouth, and may often be seen exuding from it.
The second kind of growth is firmly attached, it
occurs in small dots and spindle-shaped patches upon
the underside of the tongue and sides of the beak ;
these latter are firmly embedded in the skin and
increase much less rapidly.

Discovery of Parasites in the Growths.

Rivolta and Delprato were the first, I believe, to
discover the parasites in these purulent masses, and

b2

4 PROTOZOA N PARASITES.

they classed these parasites with the Coccidia, a
group of Protozoa, included in the division Sporozoa,
that are parasitic in various parts of animals and birds.

In the smaller white spots, evidently those above
referred to, the same investigators found numbers of
Flagellata ; these ' Infusoria/ or tailed Protozoa,
have been named Jlonocercomonas gallincehy Rivolta.

Pfeiffer has also made observations reoardmo- these
flagellate forms, but he regards them as Tricomas,
minute flagellate forms with two whip-like flagella.
My own investigations clearly support the discoveries
of the above scientists, but the part played by the
Tricomas seen by Pfeiffer I could not in any way
follow. Fowls would easily take the disease from
the Coccidia when injected into a scratch in the
mucous membrane of the pharynx, but in no case
could I *' plant ' the disease by means of the flagellate
forms.

The Forms of Parasites.

Ivivolta states that these Coccidia develop in the
epithelial cells. In this stage the Protozoan is in a
thin shell, which contains a number of spores, lemon-
shaped in form, and known as ' pseudo-navicellse.'
These spores in due course turn into true amoeboid
forms, the so-called embryos of Coccidia ; and, accord-
ing to the above authority, these amcebuloe can
migrate between the epithelial cells. On reaching
the topmost layer of epithelium they take up their
abode in the youngest cells, where they become

DIPHTHERITIC ROUP. 5

shining, globular bodies, forming small granular
excrescences. Fresh spores are here continually
being developed, and thus spreading the growth. In
these growths I have nearly always been able to dis-
cover numbers of psendo-navicellae (fig. 1, b), which
are undoubtedly the spores of one of the Sporozoa. and
which I found likewise gave rise to amoebuipe such as
Rivolta described (fig. l,a). On inoculating five Fowl-
Fig. 1.

Pseudo-navieellae and Amcebulae.

with these germs, the usual diphtheritic symptoms
made their appearance in about ten days. These spore-
eases, full of psendo-navicellae and scattered spores,
were generally found in the deepest parts of the
growths together with numbers of amcebuhe. In
several birds I examined, however, which were in
an advanced cachectic condition, and which had these
diphtheritic masses of immense size and comparatively
loose, one might almost describe them as ' ripe,' no
traces whatever could be found in the purulent ma*s
of granular matter. Probably the disease had worked
itself out.

6 PROTOZOAN PARASITES.

In several cases both Rivolta and Pfeiffer have
observed flagellata in these growths. The form
observed by Rivolta in pullets and young Pigeons
has one flagellum as long as the cell at the obtuse
end of the body, the other or acute end of the body
being provided with three flagella united at the base ;
these round or discoidal bodies, pale in colour,
he named Monocercomonas gallium. The affection
caused by the millions of these minute organisms is,
he says, distinguished from diphtheria by the exudate
being only slightly attached to the mucous membrane.
I found these loose growths contained spores of
Coccidia and only flagellulaa in the uppermost layers
occasionally. Many of the flagellulae apparently had
only one flagellum, and I believe were nothing more
than a flagellate form of Coccidia. There were also
numbers of Tricomas in two instances in the slime
on the top of the exudations.

Pfeiffer states that these Tricomas lose their
mobility in the tissues, and assume an amoeboid
condition, the encysted form and even that of round

cells.

The above authority looks upon the presence of
bacilli in this form of diphtheria as secondary, and
that they only appear when these parasites have
broken up the epithelium ; and this my observations
entirely endorse.

Cornet and Babes found that the flagellata die
after being multiplied in culture-broth for a few days,
and they believe* that these flagellata only play a

DIPRTHERiri C ROUP. 7

secondary part. Loffler has, I believe, described
bacilli in this avian affection, and states that they are
always present in the false membranes of diphtheria.
Nevertheless direct inoculations of some of these
simple protozoan forms has given the subject the
disease ; and as even the opponents of this theory
always acknowledge their presence, we must conclude
that they are sometimes, if not in every case, the
cause of this often serious malady in poultry. The
subject requires much further investigation and
experiment.

One thing we know for certain ; and that is, that
the disease is most contagious, and often spreads
rapidly through a poultry-run. Unless treated in
time it generally ends fatally.

Prevention and Treatment.

One of the most important steps to take in regard
to this disease is to ensure the complete isolation of
the affected bird, as the disease is highly contagious.
As a rule it appears in an epizootic form amongst
poultry. This can often be prevented, however, by
the immediate isolation of the patients and the appli-
cation of salicylic acid to the fowls' drinking-water,
which should be very limited, and watering the
ground of the poultry-yard or pen with a 2 p. c.
solution of sulphuric acid. About one pint of 10 p. c.
salicylic acid (dissolved in alcohol) to an equal
quantity of water should be given the fowls for
drinking for some days, as the acid destroys any

PROTOZOAN PARASITES.

of the wandering germs that may possibly take up
their abode in the fowl's mouth.

Those that are suffering from this complaint should
be at once attended to. The mouth should, as far as
possible, be freed from all the growths. One form
can easily be removed with two needles from the
mucous membrane. The membrane under the
growth will be found to be white and unhealthy,
many of the parasites may remain on this, thus
touching it with a strong solution (10 p. c.) of
boracic or, better still, salicvlic acid should invariably
be practised. The wdiole mouth should also be well
cleaned out, the birds given only a limited quantity
of water, with the salicylic acid as mentioned on
page 7. I have found most obstinate and advanced
rases give way under this acid. In the case of
those firmly embedded growths under the tongue
and upon the sides of the mouth, more difficulty
will be experienced in treatment. The way I have
followed, generally with success, is to paint the
white spots with iodine, or by the employment of
lunar caustic burn them away, at the same time
dressing the spots and mouth with either boracic or
salicylic acid as before.

In its early stages the disease can be easily cured,
but if once allowed to get into either the oesophagus
or trachea the case of course is hopeless. So long as
the mouth only is invaded, the disease is amenable to
the above method of treatment.

EPITHELIOMA CONTAGIOSUM. 9

For numerous cases of this disease for experi-
mental purposes I have to thank Mr. Cobb, the late
manager of the Manor Poultry Farm.

B. Epithelioma Contagiosa:.

A similar complaint to the preceding is found attack-
ing the comb and wattles of birds. This cutaneous
affection is known under a variety of names — more
generally, however, as Epithelioma Contagiosum and
Cutaneous Psorospermosis.

Appearance of Disease.

The disease, which is generally limited to the head,
manifests itself as vellowish-brown nodules varying
in size from a minute speck to a small bean. In
form the nodules are generally roundish, and become
at first depressed in the centre. On pressing them a
purulent yellow exudate appears. I have only seen
this disease on the head, but it has also been recorded
on the neck, rump, chest, and abdomen. It affects
Pigeons to a greater extent than Poultry.

Prohahle Cause of Disease.

After a time the nodules form crusts of a brownish
colour, and under these in the lowest parts I have
found numbers of Coccidia, which seemed to be
similar to those in diphtheritic growths.

Rivolta regards these parasites as a distinct form
which he named Amoeba croapogena. So far as is

10 PROTOZOAN PARASITES.

known at present, this disease is a true Uoccidiosis of
the skin. At the commencement these Sporozoa are
small, round, nucleated protoplasmic masses. These
masses by degrees increase in size, and then become
surrounded by a thin shell. These encysted bodies
appear to burst the epithelial cell into which they
have entered. Then each encysted mass becomes
broken up into spores internally. Each spore again
subdivides into two or more bodies known as falciform
spores, which when liberated become amoeboid forms ;
these then invade other cells, generally taking up
their position in the Malpighian stratum of the skin.
In this latter position they commence again a similar
life-history, and so the disease is spread.

Fowls inoculated with this germ develop the disease
in about eight to ten days. In Poultry the growth. s
are seldom found except on the comb, wattles, and
near the mouth.

Effects of the Disease.

The disease may or may not prove fatal if left
alone. The fowls become gradually emaciated and
the feathers erect when severely attacked. Often this
and diphtheritic roup appear together, and then, unless
stringent measures are taken, death is sure to ensue.

Prevention and Remedies.

The disease is contagious, and thus any affected
bird should be at once removed and isolated. The
best method of treatment is to paint the growths

PR 0 TOZOA N PARA SITES. 1 1

with oil of turpentine. Cauterization is also adopted
with success. Before treatment the head should be
bathed in warm water and sofc soap, and any of the
crusts should be carefully removed, care being taken
to prevent bleeding. The runs in which the birds
have been living should be cleansed with some of the
numerous disinfectants.

C. Further Protozoan Parasites.

Other Protozoan parasites found in the Fowl are
as follows : —

Trichomonas Eberthi : this flagellate is found in the
glands of Lieberkiihn of the fowl's intestine, but not
sufficiently to cause any serious disease.

Coccidium tenellum ( = Ricolto?) is also found in
the intestines in some numbers.

Gregarlna actum intestinalis. — This was observed
bv Rivolta in the submucous connective-tissue of the
intestines, in thQ form of oval, globular cysts, filled
with pseudo-navicellae (spores). This protozoan
appears sometimes sufficiently abundant to produce
severe epizootics, causing violent diarrhoea and
otten death. This possibly is the same as the

Eimeria dubia, described by Railliet in 1892.

A Sarcocystis has also been found in the muscles.
For others see Appendix.

12 INSECT PARASITES.

II. INSECT PARASITES.

The chief insect enemies of the GallinaceaB are
found amongst the orders Diptera and Neuroptera —
the former being armed with a sharp piercing-mouth,
the latter with biting-mouths. The Diptera are
those insects which are typically characterized by
possessing one pair of wings only, the second pair
being reduced to minute club-shaped processes called
halteres, balancers, or poisers. All the Diptera pass
through a complete metamorphosis — that is, they have
an active larval or maggot state, which on reaching
maturity gives place to a quiescent period, known
as the pupal state, the insects then taking no food
whatever ; in this condition the larva is transformed
into the perfect insect or imago. There are some
few Diptera, however, that are devoid of wings,
notably the Fleas [PuUciclce) and some of the Ticks
{Pupipara). The former are the chief true dipterous
enemies of the Fowl. A few others referred to are
not of any great import.

The second group of insect pests are the Bird-Lice
or Mallophaga. These Lice, of which there are eight
species found on the Fowl in our country, are armed
with a biting- and not a sucking- and piercing-mouth,
such as we see in the true Ticks (Pupipara) and Acarina
or Mites. Their true systematic position is not clearly
defined ; in all probability they are closely related to
the Neuroptera. In this order they are placed by
Dr. Sharp in his admirable account of the Insecta

FLEAS.

13

in the ' Cambridge Natural History.' They likewise
are apterous insects, and undergo an incomplete meta-
morphosis— that is, there is no distinction between
the larval, pupal, and imago states, except in size and
colour ; they are active during the whole of their
existence, and live upon the epidermal productions of
the skin and feathers.

A. Fleas {Pulicidce) .

A single species of Flea known as Pulex gallincB
or avium (fig. 2) lives upon the Fowl. This same
species seems to be common to most birds, for I have
found it in various nests, as recorded in my i Account
of British Diptera/

This pulex, like all its relations, is provided with a
sharp piercing-mouth, which they plunge into the

Fig. 2.

I u •

Hen-Flea {Pulex avium).

flesh. Their food consists of biood drawn from the
host. Fortunately for the host, they are not per-
manently parasitic, but partial ' guests/ only going

14 INSECT PARASITES.

to their host to feed. The irritation caused by the
insertion of their proboscis is, as we know sometimes
to our cost, very severe. Just as with us so with
poultry, and when numbers are present, as they too
often are, they not only prevent rest, which is as
necessary for a fowl as a human being, but they in
voung birds often cause such severe pruritus that
they stunt the growth, like lice. In the case of
sitting hens they also are most harmful, helping on
the irritation of the lice, which are so often their
fellow lodgers.

The general abode of the Hen-Flea is in dirty
nests, where they spend the day, only or generally
attacking the birds at night. Anyone can soon
catch these vagrants for examination by putting
one's hand into a dirty fowl nest, when the little
blackish creatures soon hop on to it.

Life-history of the Hen-Flea.

The female flea is somewhat larger than the male ;
deep black above, testaceous below, the curious comb-
like structure of the back of the first segment of the
thorax (prothorax) having twenty-six or more teeth
in it, thus distinguishing it from the fourteen species
of other English fleas.

The female lays her eggs (nits) in the nests chiefly,
but sometimes they are to be found in dung on the
floor. Not unfrequently the ova are deposited in
crevices in the perches, boards, and in fact wherever
there is dirt. It is said that some fleas will live in

FLEAS.

15

their maggot state amongst the productions of the
skin of their host — amongst scurf and humours that
may be present.

These minute white ' nits ' in a week or ten days
give rise to the larval fleas. On the bursting of the
egg-shell there appear at first very minute pearly
white maggots, which even in their very early life
have the head somewhat darker than the rest of the
bodv. Upon the head will be observed, with a
microscope, a curious kind of horn. This horn is for
the purpose of rupturing the egg-shell, so that the
maggots can more readily escape. When full-grown
these flea larvae (fig. 3j reach one-sixth to one-fourth

Fig. 3.

%^'' *>4.fxp> V^Y^'.T ^

Larva and Pupa of Hen-Flea.

of an inch in length. They remain pearly white
durino- their whole existence, which mav extend to
even three weeks. Their length of life, however,
seems to depend a great deal upon the temperature,
for in warm weather or warm places the larvaa may
become full-grown in ten davs, or at least two weeks.

16 INSECT PARASITES.

On reaching their so-culled * full-fed ' state they get
into some crevice or amongst dust and dung, and
there spin themselves a pale silken cocoon, often
covered in dirt.

In this cocoon the maggot changes into the pupal
or nymph state (fig. 3), the period of quiescence,
when the larva is k transformed ' into the distinct
adult. This pupa is at first quite pale in colour,
but by degrees its covering hardens and becomes
brownish ; the wings, feelers, legs, and eyes of the
future adult flea are now to be seen marked out
upon the pupal skin, closely folded and soldered
together. From ten to twentv-one days is the
length of time passed in this condition. At the close
of pupal life the shell, as it were, of the pupa, splits,
and from it there crawls the future active degenerate
little dipteron, destined to form a cause of great
annoyance to our poultry.

The Hen-Flea breeds all the year round, but is
more productive in warm weather. It is very widely
distributed in Great Britain as elsewhere.

Like most members of this extremely active family,
it will not live upon any but its own particular l host/
That ' Hen-Fleas ' will settle upon us when we enter
dirtv hen-roosts of course is well known, but they
will not live, even if transferred to our houses.
Regarding their so-called bite, possibly some thin-
skinned people may suffer from them, but, as a
rule, they have little effect upon human beings.

Regarding the food of the larva there is much

FLEAS. 17

discussion. In the case of the Human Flea {Pulex
irritans) it is said that the female, or ' mother' flea,
after taking a sumptuous feast of blood from her host,
repairs to the larvae and disgorges part of her meal
for the benefit of her offsprings. We know that
Earwigs look after and tend their young, and it
may be that this is also the case amongst that nimble
but obnoxious group of parasites the Fleas.

That the larvae of the Hen-Flea feed upon the
scaly productions of the quills of the feathers seems
also possible. The exact food, however, is still
unsatisfactorily settled ; possibly they feed upon a
variety of substances.

One of the most important things for us to
remember in regard to not only the Hen-Flea, but to
all fleas, is that they love dirt, bad air, and any
unhealthy conditions. Wherever we find dark,
dirty, and badly ventilated hen-roosts, there shall we
find also innumerable creeping things.

Prevention and Destruction of Fleas*

By doing away with the above conditions, we shall
to a large extent do away with this pest.

The frequent use of limewash, especially if a small
quantity of paraffin or kerosene oil be added, will not
only block up those crevices in which the young
pulices pass part of their lives, but it will destroy
the larvae, and at least drive out the adults. It is a
good plan to put a small quantity of size in the wash,
which should be as liquid as possible, so as to make

C

18 INSECT PARASITES.

it adhere more firmly to the walls. The sprinkling
of finely powdered lime upon the floors of the houses
and into the corners ^ill tend much to help their
eradication, whilst the perches should also receive
their share of attention. As pointed out later on,
both these and the nests should be movable, relays
of them being kept, so that they can be completely
purified at intervals. It is extremely difficult, of
course, in old sheds and houses where poultry are
often kept, to keep off these insects. To remedy
this however, it is quite possible, and most advisable,
to dress the nests with some powder that will ward
off these invaders and yet not affect the eggs. There
is nothing I find better for this purpose than to use
4 wood-wool ' or wood shavings, instead of the much
employed straw. There is something nauseating to
the fleas about 'wood-wool' which tends to keep
them away from the nests, and I have found that the
flavour of the eggs is in no ways impaired. Failing
the use of wood-wool, the well-known Keating's
Insect Pow^der dusted about the nests once a v^eek
will keep off all marauders. Similar successful
results in keeping off noxious insects from sitting-
birds have been obtained by the simple method of
puttino- a small quantity of sawdust soaked in
naphthalin in each nest.

B. Lice (Mallophagci).

The Lice which prey upon Birds are quite distinct
from those affecting animals and man. They are

LICE. 19

scientifically known as Mallophaga, and are true
insects. Their exact place in classification is not
conclusively settled. They show in many respects
close relationship to the order Neuroptera, the group
of insects that includes the Dragon-flies, Lace-
wing-flieSj and others. They are quite distinct
from the Human Lice or JPediadidce, and equally
distinct from most of the Mammalian Lice (Hcema-
topince) . The true Bird-Lice have a mouth formed
for biting and chewing their food ; the Human and
Mammalian Lice have the mouth formed into a
piercing-organ, by which they suck out the blood of
their host. The Mallophaga, sometimes known as
the Ricinidce, subsist upon the productions of the
skin. They also devour the fragments of feathers,
and even (sometimes to a most alarming extent) feed
upon the barbs of the feathers, especially attacking
the saddle-hackle — the feathers of the latter showing
curious jagged and notched edges in lice infestation.

Closely related, however, to the Bird-Lice are
some Mammalian Lice, or Ticks, known as Tricho-
dectes. These so-called Ticks are quite distinct from
the general run of Mammalian forms and are very
abundant. They are provided, like the Bird-Lice,
with a biting-mouth, but they can at once be dis-
tinguished from the latter by the structure of those
remarkable sensory organs common to all insects,
namely the antennae or ' feelers/

On examining one of the commoner Bird-Lice,
these antennas will be found to be composed of either

C2

L'O INSECT PARASITES.

four or five joints. Compare the Mammalian Lice
with the biting-mouth, and yon will only find three
joints constituting the antenna?. The reason I am
pointing out this structural character is because, owing
to the similarity between these two groups, they
are often confounded with one another, and you find
such statements in Poultry Journals as that poultry
lice can be transmitted to animals and vice versa. A
few minutes' examination with a microscope wrould
soon dispel the idea that the lice, for instance, on
horses are similar to those on fowls. So particular
are Bird-Lice, that it is quite the exception to find
one species upon two distinct kinds of birds. Fowl-
lice will not even attack the duck, nor duck-lice the
fowl. Nearly every bird has its own particular
Mallophagan parasite or parasites. They may pos-
sibly pass to some strange host for a short time, but
they will not live and breed. Moreover, we shall see
later on that particular species attack restricted areas
on the same host, and are seldom found in other
positions.

Damage caused by Lice.

The damage caused by Lice is often very con-
siderable, and in many cases it is entirely overlooked,
or even if the cause is known little attention is paid
to the matter, and wonder is still expressed if the
poultry do not flourish. The serious loss occasioned
by lice cannot be too fully considered by poultry-
breeders and fanciers.

By constantly biting at the skin violent irritation

lice: 21

is set up. The rest of the fowls is disturbed, and a
general weak and cachectic condition will be sure to
prevail if the parasites are present in force and no
steps are taken for their destruction.

Brood-hens are frequently much inconvenienced
by lice, many failures in hatching being due to their
constant irritation.

It is, however, chiefly in chicks that the mischief
is caused. The lice, as it were, sap the life-blood
out of the young growing birds. The result is that
by this constant biting, causing violent pruritus
and inflammation in the affected parts, the growth
of the birds is checked, and stunted birds are the
consequence.

Some experiments in this direction showed that
chicks suffering from lice, at the end of the year,
weighed one pound less than those which had been
kept free from these pests, both having exactly the
same diet.

It must be remembered that the sharp biting and
violent irritation causes considerable pain to the
bird, when these parasites are present in abundance.

We often find that lice are present in super-
abundance in fowls suffering from Diphtheritic Roup
and Gapes. As a rule the lice are the precursor of
these two maladies, especially the former. By their
deleterious effects the constitution of the host becomes
impaired, and thus, just as with human beings,
rendered more liable to contract any such infectious
complaint as Diphtheritic Roup is well known to be.

The different species seem partial to particular

22 IX SECT PARASITES.

parts of the host ; their favourite positions are the
neck, rump, under the wings, and between the
wing-feathers. Certain species seem to be restricted
to given areas ; others wander about upon the host
to some extent.

The presence of these lice in chicken is ascribed to
a variety of causes. Food, if too uniform, is stated
to be answerable for their presence. Insufficient
nourishment again is said to help them to flourish in
chicken-runs. Neither, I find, have any real bearing
on this parasitic affection. On the other hand, dark,
damp, badly ventilated, and above all dirty runs and
houses are sure to encourage them, and make the
fowls acceptable to their presence.

The irritation, pruritus, and cachectic conditions
produced by these gallinaceous c guests ' is usually
spoken of as JPhthiriasis.

Varieties of Foivls affected.

It is sometimes stated that breed affects their
presence. This, however, is contrary to all informa-
tion sent me and to my own experience.

Certainly the more delicate varieties of fowls suffer
to a greater extent than the hardier breeds. Cochin
Chinas, for example, are very prone, both as chicks
and adults, to Phthiriases. White Brahmas are
again much affected by lice.

Plymouth Pocks alone seem to be indifferent to
these unbidden, guests. So far I have not noticed
any lice on Bantams ; but I have no doubt they affect

LICE.

23

them like all other Gallinacese. (They are recorded
by Neumann as attacking Bantams.)

Species of Lice found on the Fowl.

There are eight distinct species of Mallophaga
found on the Fowl in England. Seven of these have
been known for a considerable time. The eighth
species, which is quite new, was forwarded to me by
Mr. Till, of Eynsford, Kent. Two of these belong to
the genus Goniodes, two to the genus Goniocotes,
two to the genus Lipeurus, and two to the genus
Menopon.

The seven previously described species are cha-
racterized by the following points : —

(1) Goniodes dissimilis (fig. -4) .—Dull white to pale

Fig. 4.

Goniodes dissimilis.
brown in colour, with dark chestnut-brown markings ;

L>4 INSECT PARASITES.

end of abdomen slightly bifurcate. Head wider than
long ; in the female the first joint of the antennas
is most developed, there is also a long hair on the
inner side. On the posterior border of the meta-
thorax are five bristles ; in the abdomen there are
two median bristles and three at the sides of the
anterior segments, four at the posterior ; each seg-
ment has also a curved marginal dark mark. Length
in 2 , 2*5 mm. ; in rf , 2 mm.*

This is an abundant species on most varieties of
fowls, and is especially located under the wings and
on the rump. According to Denny |; whose work
appeared some time ago, this species is rare. It
seems to be more abundant in the South than the

North of England.

Fig. 5.

Goniocotes hologaster.

(2) Goniocotes hologaster (fig. 5). — This species is

* A millimetre (mm.)=^sth of an inch.

t Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae, 1842.

LICE. 25

much smaller than the former and of commoner
occurrence. Dirty yellow in colour, somewhat
chestnut-brown toward the thorax. The head is as
wide as long. Two large bristles on each side of the
lower anodes and a few short ones in front. The
abdominal segments being marked with dark brown,
quadrangular lateral bands. A single hair on each
side of the segments, except the last two, in which
there are more. Length in $, 1*3 mm. ; in <$ ,
*8 mm.

G. hologaster is very partial to the rump and back.

(3) Goniocotes gigas. — This is a large species, not
very abundant. It can be told by its large round
abdomen. Yellow in colour. The abdomen has
pale brown patches, coloured with dark brown at the
border. Length in $ , 4 mm. ; in 6 , 3 mm.

I have not observed this species on the fowl
myself, and am not aware if it locates itself in any
particular part.

(4) Lipeurus variabilis (fig. 6). — The members of
this genus have long narrow bodies. — Narrow
elongated abdomen ; pale yellowish, with dark brown
bands and fawn-coloured spots, there is a dark brown
middle spot beneath the thorax. Head quite rounded
in front, with a dark border and a number of marginal
hairs. End of the abdomen bilobed, with a genital
lance-shaped spot ; last six abdominal segments with
from one to three hairs on each side. Length in £ j
2'2 mm. ; in 6 , 1*9 mm.

26 INSECT PARASITES.

This is a very abundant and widely distributed
species in most breeds of fowl. It lives amongst the

Fig. 6.

Upturns variabilis.

barbs of the primary and secondary wing-feathers,
amongst which they remain stationary, but can move
with great rapidity if they choose.

(5) Lipeurus heterographus. — Very similar to the
former in colour, but smaller in size, and the head is
parabolic, not rounded as in variabilis. The abdomen
is also more oval ; in the female there are six bristles
springing from tubercles on each segment ; there are
also median brown spots on each segment, bordered
with large hairs. Length in $ , 2 mm. ; in J ,
1*8 mm.

This species is not nearly so abundant as the
preceding. It lives in exactly the same manner.

LICE. 27

(6) Menopon pallidum (fig. 7). — Dull yellow in
colour, with darker side markings ; in each segment
of the abdomen are two pairs of lateral pale dots.
The head is angular in front, with four bristles and
some hairs on the lower angles, a few hairs also on
each side. The abdomen is oval in the male, slightly
longer in the female, with a series of bristles on each
segment.

This louse is extremely active and smooth to the
touch. This is the species found running over the
hands whilst plucking fowls. It is extremely
abundant and lives in all parts of the body, constantly
changing its position. On many occasions I have
found these lice in the nests, and possibly this and
the next species are spread in this way from bird to
bird, as well as during copulation.

I)
Menopon pallidum.

(7) Menopon biseriatum. — This is like the preceding

28

1XSECT PARASITES.

in colour, only it has a rounded head and two series of
bristles on the segments. It is larger than pallidum,
and the male is larger than the female. Length in $ ,
~2'X to 2*5 mm. ; in c? , 2'S mm.

Found on the turkey, pigeon, and pheasant, as well
as upon fowls.

(8) Goniodes Eynsfordii, n. sp. (fig. 8). — Tick-
like in appearance. Ground-colour of female pale
yellowish white or grey, the lateral bands dark shining
chestnut-brown. A double pair of horizontal lateral
stripes on each segment, chestnut-brown in colour,

Fig. 8.

Goniodes Eynsfordii.

much darker towards their outer edges, and forming
a ready feature of distinction for the species. Four
long bristles on front of head and two large pairs of
posterior ones. The 5-jointed antennce slightly hairy

LICE. 29

at tip. Metathorax with four lateral bristles. Four
anterior abdominal segments with a single lateral
bristle, fifth and sixth with two lateral bristles, seventh
with four. Anal segments bilobate, with four long and
two short bristles. Each segment has four central
and three pairs of lateral bristles, except the last,
which has two large central ones. Legs thick, a
single bristle on the tip of each tibia.

The male is narrower than the female, bright
yellowish brown, borders of the segments very dark
brown, Five pairs of fine bristles on the head and
one large one on each side of the posterior angle.
Each abdominal segment with a pair on each side.
Abdomen dark in centre. Legs not so thick as in
the female ; three hairs on femora of second and
third pairs. Length in $, 2'6 to 2*7 mm. ; in J,
2*8 to 2'9 mm.

This species does not seem to leave the head and
neck. It is especially abundant in chicks in the
above-named positions. Specimens were first sent
me by Mr. Till, of Eynsford, who finds they are
most prejudicial to the health of the birds. They are
found with their heads buried in amongst the feathers
and their bodies in the air, just like a Tick. A full
account of this species will be found in the Journal
of the S.E. Agric. College, No. 5.

Life-history of Chicken-Lice.

Apparently Chicken-Lice breed all the year round,
but more abundantly in the spring of the year than

30 INSECT PARASITES.

at other times, lleproduction is fairly rapid under
favourable conditions.

The eggs laid by the female have, I believe, only
once been described ; they are beautifully sculptured
objects, oval in form, and, most that I have examined,
truncated at the top. These 'nits' in G. Eynsfordii
are covered with small hexagonal sculpturings (fig. 9) .
The ova are laid amongst the feathers of the birds,
especially amongst the l down ' feathers ; they are
attached to the feathers by numerous fine threads
around their base, as seen in the figure. In from
six to ten days these hatch into small pale lice, which

Fig. 9.

Ovum of Goniodes.

at once commence to irritate the birds. There is
little difference between the young and adult lice ;
they gradually become darker in colour. Some kept
by the author moulted as many as twelve times, but
this surely must be exceptional. There is no pupal
stage in these insects ; they undergo what we call an
incomplete metamorphosis, remaining active all their
life, no passive stage or pupa intervening as we saw

LICE. 31

in the ' Hen -Flea.' There is little doubt but that
reproduction takes place chiefly upon the host,
although the writer has found on many occasions
Menopons in copula in the nests. The two Goniocotes
have only been observed in copula on the birds.
Although the two Menopons are found often plenti-
fully in the nests, they nevertheless spend most of

«/ J ml 1

their time upon the fowls. Mallophaga apparently
live for a considerable time, for the author has kept
M. pallidum alive for nine months on fresh feathers,
they seemingly eating the quill-epidermis.

Jfode of Distribution.

There are three ways in which Lice are spread from
fowl to fowl. Firstly during copulation ; an infested
cock will soon distribute the lice to all the hens.
Secondly, there is no doubt that anyhow some of the
eight species leave the birds and may be found in the
nests occasionally, and thus crawl upon the hens
sitting subsequently upon the same nest. Thirdly,
as Dr. Sharp says : — " Possibly Mallophaga may be
transferred from one bird to another by means of the
parasitic two-winged flies that infest birds.'"' This
very probably does take place, but we must not
overlook the fact that the parasitic two-winged flies
spoken of, namely the Orrdthobia pallida and the
Ornithomyia avicularia (figs. 10 and 11), are not so
very common on fowls. They have never been re-
corded to me as injurious to any serious extent, but

32 INSECT PARASITES.

it is well known that they do occasionally enter the
ear and nose of the fowl, duck, and gosling.

Dr. Sharp has observed this method of transference
himself. In 1890 he exhibited, at the Entomological
Society of London, a specimen of the 0. avicularia,
taken at Dartford, to which there were firmly
adhering several specimens of a Mallophagous
insect.

Prevention and Remedies.

Just as in the prevention of Fleas, so in Lice, clean-
liness is one of the most powerful agents we can
employ. Floors, ceilings, nests, and perches should
be well whitewashed in the early spring, paraffin
beino- added as mentioned before, with soft soap to
make it adhere more firmly to any small lice that
may have wandered off the birds. This wash should
be sufficiently liquid so as to run into every crevice.
A second cleaning should also be given again in the

autumn.

There is nothing that keeps birds free from lice so
well as Dust-Baths ; these are natural remedies for
the lice, and fowls should never be kept without
them. In every run or house there should be placed
a o-ood-sized square box containing some powder in
which the bird can dust itself. The writer has, after
numerous experiments, found that ordinary road dust,
in which a few handfuls of sulphur and lime are mixed,
is as successful as anything. Sand mixed with a
small quantity of creosote will also keep the birds

LICE. 33

free from these noxious insects. The writer is also
told that finely-powdered gypsum mixed with a
small quantity of paraffin or carholic is most success-
fully employed, quickly clearing off any lingering
pests that the birds cannot reach.

Regarding the head and neck infestation of chicks,
there is nothing like dressing them, once or twice
early in the season, with W lute-Precipitate . The yery
smallest quantity rubbed upon the skin wTith a gloved
hand will suffice to destroy all the lice, that would
eventually stunt the chick's growth. It is well to
give the caution that this is a strong irritant poison
and needs great care in its use, especially upon
very young chicks.

In the case of brood-hens it can be safely and most
beneficially used : a small quantity of the ointment
should be well rubbed into the feathers (at their base)
around the anus, under the wings, and other places
where lice congregate. It is surprising how many
failures in hatching can be saved by this simple pre-
caution, and by dusting the nesting-boxes with some
of the numerous insecticides mentioned.

Amongst other methods experimented with, upon
old birds suffering from ' lousiness/ the following may
be worth recording : — Two hens badly infested with
Menopons and Lipeuri were dipped in a bath of
boiled elder flowers, twigs, and leaves, to the con-
coction being added a small quantity of soft soap.
In both cases the lice were all destroyed and the

*J

plumage not damaged.

l>

84 INSECT PARASITES.

Fumigating the bird's is sometimes resorted to, hut
it is trouhlesome and not always successful. An
engine named Lagrange's Exterminator has been
used for some time with more or less success. This
is simply a wooden box, in which the fowl is placed
in such a position that its head is out in the air and
its legs firmly tied down. The box being made air-
tight, and the extruded head being tied around with
a piece of thick cloth close to the opening in the box,
no vapour inside can escape. In this box a small
piece of brimstone can be burnt, the vapour soon
killing all the body lice.

C. Other Insect Parasites.

There are two Diptera or true Flies found some-
times infesting the Fowl and other poultry. These
pests are related, although distantly, to the Fleas, very
closely to the Sheep-Tick, which, as I have pointed
out, is also one of the true two-winged insects, only,
like the Flea, it is minus its wings.

Diptera on Fowls.

These bird parasites are known as OrnitJiobia
pallida, Mg., and Ornithomyia avicularia, L. (figs. 10
and 11). Both belong to the family Ilippoboscida;,
in which all the species pass their egg and larval
state in the body of the mother, instead of leading a
free larval life. These strange insects are born in
fact as pupae, or anyhow adult larvae ready to pupate.
Only a single egg is produced by each female, and

INSECT PARASITES. 3">

the young, either larva or pupa, when expelled from
the parent's body is nearly equal to it in size.

0. pallida (fig. 10) has a small, oval, tough body,
sliffhtly hairy and bristly, tawny in colour, paler

Fis-. 10.

Ornithobia pallida.

beneath. Eyes large, oblong, and brown. Mouth
(which is formed for suction) is not long ; it consists
of a pair of hairy hard valves, which enclose a slender
stiff tube, the sucking-tube, which is formed by the
union of two setiform pieces. There are very short
antenna?, and stout wings, grey in colour with dark
brown veins. The legs are robust and wide apart ;
claws long, curved, and black. About J of an inch
long.

0. avicularia (fig. 11) is greenish in colour, more
or less varied with tawny. The thorax has a reddish-
brown dorsal stripe. Wings ample, rather long,
grey with black veins. Legs stout and bristly.
Sliohtlv larger than the former and more hairy.

Both these Diptera crawl about upon the fowls and
fly from one to another. They generally infest the
nostrils and ears, crawling into them and setting up

d2

36

INSECT PARASITES.

Fig. 11.

Or n ith omy ia a vicu la i 'ia .

violent irritation. These flies can easily be cleared
from the cavities by sponging the openings with
asafcetida (4 ozs. to a quart of water).

Fowl- Bug.

Not uncommon in very dirty poultry-houses is
the Poultry-Bug or Dove-Bug, Acanthia columbaria,
Jenyns (fig. 12). This is a large brownish bug,

Fig. 12.

Fowl-Bag (Acanthia columbaria).

about J of an inch in length. It is closely allied to
that nauseous creature the ' bed-bug,' and like the
latter it is provided with a sharp and piercing pro-
boscis. Its food is the blood of the Pigeon and
Fowl — the latter being bothered by them chiefly at

INSECT PARASITES. 37

night, when thev cause severe irritation and much
loss of blood. Railliet records that hens hatching-
are so tormented bv these insects that they finally
abandon their eggs, on which are then seen small
specks of the Bugs' excrements (Bull, de la Soc.
de Med. Veter. pratique, 1890, p. 99) . I have only
once seen this insect attack in England.

A new Fowl Pest.

Lastly a species of Collembola, one of those lowly
insects that Sir John Lubbock tells us are like the
primitive insects, and which perhaps represent some
ancestral form from which all other insects have
sprung, is said to affect fowls.

A single case of this pest has alone been brought
to mv notice. The insect was not sent, but a poor
photographic plate taken of it was. From this it
appears to be an Tsotoma. This apteron was said to
be a great torment to hens, and was usually found in
old and foul nests.

The Chigoe of the Fowl.

Two other Fleas are found on fowls abroad : one,
Sarcopsylla gallinaeea of Westwood, a flea related to
the dreaded ' Jigger ' 0f S. America, is found on
fowls in Ceylon, especially at Colombo. Another,
the Alakurt [Vermipsylla alakurt of Schimkievitsh),
which is a remarkable flea found in the autumn in
certain valleys and on particular mountains in
Turkestan, also lives on the fowl in common with
man and most other animal-.

38 MITE PARASITES.

III. MITE PARASITES.

At least eighteen species of Mites are found para-
sitic on the Fowl. Four only of these can be said to
be truly injurious, although the remaining fourteen
now and then are sufficiently abundant to be pre-
judicial to the host's health. Mites are distinct from
Insects, They are included in the group J carina,
and are more closely related to the Spiders than to
the Insects.

These Acarina are characterized by a number of
distinctive features, chief amongst which is the usual
presence of four pairs of legs. They are generally
small and thick, and have the head, thorax, and
abdomen all united into one piece. The six, five,
or even three-jointed legs terminate in hairs, claws,
and in some in a curious sac-like vesicle, useful
for the minute creature to hold on by to its host, for
nearly all mites are parasitic.

The permanent parasitic mites with which we are
interested in this article breathe not through stigmata,
but their respiration is cutaneous ; their skin alone is
the respiratory apparatus. Other mites have true
stigmata. The sexes are separate in all the mites.
The males are always few in number and much
smaller than the females ; they also often lead quite
a different life to the females. Mites undergo a
kind of incomplete metamorphosis. The eggs or
nits laid by the female hatch into little six-legged

ACARIASES. 39

larvae. These hexapod larva? undergo a change of
skin several times ; at last they reach the four-legged
stage, the nymph or pupa. Another moult brings
about the development of the genital organs, the
acarus then becoming the imago. This imago again
moults, and if a female, becomes the true egg-pro-
ducino- or ovioerous female.

Amongst the great variety of Mites we find many
ways of living ; the majority are parasitic, some
permanent, some partial parasites. Many are ex-
ternal guests ; others, however, are internal. Their
food consists of either epidermal products and natural
excretions of the skin, or blood, whilst many exist
under the skin, forming sometimes serious cutaneous
affections, such as ' Scaly Leg ' in Fowls and
• Scab ' in Cattle.

The diseases produced by these various Mites are
known under the name of Acariases.

There are two distinct modes of attack in Fowls as
well as in other animals : firstly, those that suck the
blood onlv of the host ; secondly, those that multiply
rapidly, and excavate passages under the skin, giving
rise to deep-seated cutaneous affections. These
latter are known as Scabies or Psoric diseases.

There are, then, Psoric and non-Psoric Acariases.

We will treat of the former first.

A. Psoric Acariases.

The Psoric diseases in birds are produced by a
group of Mites known as the SarcoptitUe. These are

40 MITE PARASITES.

the smallest of all the Acarina, varying from *1 to
1 mm.; their appearance is best indicated by the
figures. They have no eyes, and breathe through thei r
skin. The only two Sarcoptidce found on domestic
birds, anyhow on the Fowl, are both answerable for
very serious complaints. These two Mites are known
as Sarcoptes mutans (fig. 14) and S. Icevis (fig. 15).
The former of these two Mites produces the well-
known disease of ' Scabby Leg ' or * Scaly Leg'; the
latter is anyhow answerable for the so-called ' Feather-
eating ' in Fowls, the 6 Depluming Scabies/ or ' Body
Scabies ' of Fowls and Pigeons.

Scaly Leg of Fowls.

This unsightly disease, due to the minute Sarcopt
Mite (S. mutans), is very prevalent. Like most
psoric diseases, it is not always amenable to rapid
treatment ; patience, however, even in advanced cases,
will usually be rewarded by recovery.

Some authorities state that the disease may appear
on the head as well as upon the legs. Reynal and
Lanquetin (who are partly answerable for this state-
ment), Megnin, and others who have paid much
attention to this affection only refer to the leg
attack. Some hundred cases have been examined
by the author, and all of these were upon the
legs, no signs appearing in any other part of the
body ; moreover, every attempt to implant the Acari
on the head failed.

SCALY LEG OF FOWLS.

41

Symptoms.

One of the chief symptoms is that the scales of the
legs and feet become raised up and separated from
one another. A white powdery substance forms
beneath them, which, mixing with the serum, pro-
duces a white chalky exudate which hardens between
the scales ; gradually this forms greyish crusts over
the feet and leo-s. and if not checked in its somewhat
slow progress the disease will often end fatally
(fig. 13).

Fig. 13.

1 Scaly Leg ' of Fowl.

On examining" one of these roujdi crusts it will be
found to be of a spongy texture internally, and as
the spongy cavities pass towards the interior they
become larger : in these recesses are lodged the ovi-

42

MITE PARASITES.

gerous female mites and also we shall find larvae,
female imagines, and a few males.

As the disease increases, the birds have a difficulty
in standing, then lameness follows, and not unusually
one or more of the toes fall off. As a rule it takes
from (3 to 12 months to run its course. Gradually
the fowl becomes affected in health, and either dies
from this disease or, as is more usual, other complaints
accompany it in its later stages, such as favus, diph-
theria, and tuberculosis of the lungs and liver, and
so speedily destroy the victim already weakened by
the subcutaneous parasites.

The Mites.

It appears that these mites do not occur in the
eo-o-state beneath the scales. The author has been

'Oft

Fig-. 14.

' Scaly Leg ' Mite (Sarcoptes mutant).
Male and ovigerous female.

unable to find any trace of eggs at all upon the legs
of numerous fowls examined.

SCALY LEG OF FOWLS. 43

The female ovigerous mite (fig. 14) is a minute
round white body, with very short legs, -40 mm. to
'45 mm. in length ; the male is still smaller, being-
only "20 mm. long.

The male, larva, and nymph have on all their legs
suckers, common to all Sarcoptes. The females have
no suckers and are more globular than the other three
forms. They are ovoviviparous.

Disease Contagious.

The ' scaly-leg ' disease produced by these mites
is spread by contagion, through the contact of un-
healthy and healthy fowls. It cannot, however, be
highly contagious, for it is not unusual to see a bird
suffering severely from this Acariasis amongst a lot of
perfectly healthy birds. However, it is very likely
to spread in time to other birds by the young mites,
which move about amongst the scales and even on
the outside of the leg.

©■

Influence of Breed.

It has been noticed that the exotic breeds of fowls

suffer most severely. Reynal and Lanquetin have

noticed its more frequent occurrence in Cochin-Chinas

and the varieties than in the Dorking. Leghorns

© ©

and AVyandottes I have seen with this complaint.
Dorkings seem less susceptible to this malady than
any other breed.

44 MITE PARASITES.

Other Birds affected,

Passeres and Climbers are also predisposed to
S. mutans. The Sparrow particularly is subject to
tins parasite, and may possibly help to spread thi>
mite from one run to another.

Prevention and Treatment.

The prevention of this malady is most important.
Any diseased bird should be at once isolated, and the
run and house in which it has been living disinfected.
This may be carried out by a thorough white-washing
of the walls and nests, cleaning perches, and the
purifying of the floor by drenching with boiling-
water and carbolic acid.

Treatment of the patient consists of careful removal
of the crusts. Before so doing, the leg should be
soaked in warm water, care being taken not to cause
bleeding. When as many of the crusts are removed
as possible, the limb should be smeared over with
creosote (1 part) and lard (20 parts). Balsam of
Peru applied once a day for about a week also has
good results ; whilst some breeders recommend equal
parts of flowers of sulphur and vaseline well rubbed
into the leg. Very similar in effect is carbolic-acid
ointment, formed by mixing one part of crystallized
carbolic acid to every ten of lard.

Just as in ' epithelioma contagiosum,' oil of tur-
pentine has been found a most effectual remedy,
but its action is sometimes too irritating and must

DEPLUMING SCABIES. Ab

be allayed with sweet-oil well rubbed into the leg
some little time after.

In every case the diseased part should be well
cleaned with hot water and soft soap some few days
after treatment.

If taken in time recovery is very rapid, but if
allowed to work well into the leg this Scabies is not
readily remedied.

Depluming Scabies (Feather-eating).

The annoying and so-called ' vicious ' habit of some
birds of plucking out their own and other birds'
feathers is usually attributed to pure mischief on the
part of the birds : such, however, is not always the case.
Railliet discovered some years ago (1886) scabies
of the fowl's bodv in a poultry-yard in Normandy.
Since then many fresh areas have been found affected
with this Acariasis. It has not, I fancy, been paid
much attention to in England, and the general idea
still is that the feather-pulling or, as it is called,
eating is due to some vicious habit, whereas it is really
due in most cases to a minute Sarcopt mite, known
as Sarcoptes Icevis (fig. 15). Idleness, thirst, &c, and
other absurd theories have been put forward to
account for this habit, without any examination of
the bird,

Alost of the cases examined by the author have
been in pigeons, but those fowls reported suffered in
a similar way and from a similar cause. According
to Railliet, however, the mite on the pigeon is slightly

46 MITE PARASITES.

different from that on the fowl, the former being
known as variety columbce, the latter as variety
gallium. The pigeon variety, I find, will not attack
the fowl when put upon it, and vice versa.

Symptoms of Disease.

The early signs of Depluming Scabies are first of
all a quantity of epidermic scurf and the falling-
otf of the feathers in certain areas, the feathers
as it were breaking sharply off close to the roots.
The disease usually commences at the rump, from
there spreading to all parts of the body. The head
and neck often become severely affected. I have
at present under treatment one of my Dorking
cocks, in which the feathers on one side of the head
and neck had completely gone, all in about ten days.

Often prior to any external sign of the presence of
these mites, the birds have been noticed plucking the
feathers. On pulling out a feather from this area,
the base of the quill is found to be full of a white
powdery epidermal product, and amongst this the
Sarcoptes Icevis live. Here they set up irritation, to
alleviate which the fowl pulls out one of the feathers
near the area of infection. This is the so-called
1 auto- or self-feather eating,' and is due entirely to
this mite. The birds undoubtedly render each other
service in this matter by plucking one another's plu-
mage, to rid the companion of the irritation. Such
an observation has been personally made once upon
my" own fowls, and such undoubtedly is generally

DEPLUMING SCABIES.

47

the case. This was especially noticed in the cock
bird.

It is well known that animals will destroy one
another's parasites, as anyone can verify who has
been to the Monkey House at the ' Zoo ' : this habit
is undoubtedly found in fowls in connection with
this depluming Sarcopt mite.

Fowls do, nevertheless, pull out one another's
feathers from pure vice.

Life-history of the Mite.

The form on the Fowl is most abundant in sorino-
and in summer. The mite (fig. 15) is much smaller

Fig. 15.

E

Sarcoptes Icevis var. gallinte.
I. Ovigerous feiuaie. II. Legs of male.

than mutans, and the male has much longer bristles
on the legs, so also has the ovigerous female.

48 MITE PARASITES.

These minute forms of life live at the base of the
feathers amongst the white powder referred to, as
many as ten to twelve being found at each feather.
Larvae are also found in a similar position, together
with the males and young females ; they are also
found around the base of feathers on the skin.

Spread of the Disease.

From the above position they readily become spread
from bird to bird by the cock in copulation. The
region of the croup is that always first affected.
This Acariasis spreads with great rapidity, a single
cock soon infecting the whole run.

e>

Effect upon the Birds.

The presence of these mites not only affects the
plumage and causes the habit of feather-plucking,
but it also, in the case of hens, checks egg-laying.
In cocks, in which the malady is usually most severe,
cachectic conditions may follow, often ending in
emaciation and even death of the patient.

Prevention and Treatment.

As it has been pointed out that the disease is most
contaoious, isolation of the affected bird is the first
point to receive attention. This is especially the case
if the disease appears in a cock.

The mites being only slightly protected, readily

NOX-PSOMC ACARIASES. 49

yield to treatment. The writer has found much
success attended by the use of oil of cloves rubbed
well into the invaded area. Creosote and vaseline as
given for l scaly leg ' is also a useful remedy, and is
better for use than the benzine and sweet oil that
has also been tried ; this latter causes too much
irritation to the skin.

B. NoN-PsORIC ACARIASES.

The majority of the non-psoric Acari found on the
Fowl are comparatively harmless. One species only
is really a serious nuisance to the poultry-keeper,
namely the Dermanyssus of the Fowl, or the Hen-
Mite. There are, as we shall see, others that are of
interest, such as the Harvest Bug, which attacks our
poultry as well as ourselves. Some Sarcoptes live
between the barbules of the feathers, but are quite
harmless ; another group live in the air-passages and
even hollow bones of birds (Cytodites), and have been
known in several cases to cause enteritis and peritonitis
when present in large numbers, and a few others
living in connective tissue, of less importance, will be
briefly recorded.

The Hex-Mite or Dermanyssus.

Under the name of Dermanyssus gallince, Redi has
described a small mite that is most obnoxious to
poultry, a small Gamasid mite that may be found

E

50

MITE PARASITES.

in nearly every hen-house, unless very clean. Some
considerable time ago De Geer described a Derma-
nyssus under the name of JJ. avium (fig. 16), which

Fig. 16.

Hen-Mite (Dermanyssus avium) and Ovum
(greatly magnified).

I fancy to be synonymous with <jallince. This fowl-
mite, which is provided /with a sharp, piercing, and
sucking proboscis, lives in poultry-yards and in
pigeon-houses.

THE HEX-MITE. 5L

Life-history.

This mite is a fair size, being "70 mm. in the esrff-
producing female and *60 mm. in the male ; the
posterior end of the body is largest ; flattened, and
the abdomen edged with bristles, the stoutish legs
also being covered with the same. In colour this
mite varies from pale yellowish to dark red. The
alimentary canal can sometimes clearly be seen,
especially if the mite has just been feeding, when it
will be observed to be full of blood.

Both sexes are armed with the formidable piercing-
mouth, the female being, as in all Arthropod or
1 jointed-limbed animals,' the most bloodthirsty. They
are very prolific and can remain for months without
any food. The ova hatch rapidly into little white
six-legged larvae, which grow by repeatedly moulting
their skins. These young forms are quite white,
almost silvery in colour, gradually they become
darker in hue.

The exuviae or cast-skins form a kind of white
powder on the perches and in the nests, &c.

Nocturnal Habits.

Like many of these partial parasites, the Hen-
Mite is strictly nocturnal in habit; fortius reason
they are often unobserved. During the daytime
the Dermanyssus hides away in crevices in the walls,
ceilings, nests, and perches ; as soon as it becomes
dark, they leave their retreats and pass to the

e2

52 MITE PARASITES.

roosting birds, where they at once commence their
bloodthirsty habits. They have an intense dislike
to light and air ; damp, dark, and badly ventilated
roosts are where they flourish best. Straw-nests are
perfect harbours of refuge for this Acarus ; colonies
of them may be found, including the eggs, exuviae,
young mites, and adults. Many of the adults may
be found coupled together.

Transmission to Man and other Animals.

The chief breeding-time seems to be in spring and
early summer, when the rate of reproduction is
tremendous. Dermanyssus gallincti not only attacks
birds, but also man and numerous other animals.
This attack, however, is only pro tern.

Regarding man, there are numerous cases of in-
festation, chiefly amongst those who are about poultry-
yards and upon persons engaged in plucking birds.
The mite does not breed on human beings, not finding
sufficiently favourable conditions. It, for the time
being, however, causes severe irritation. This can
easily be alleviated with any soothing application.

The horse is most liable to this mite of all animals.
So long ago as 1846 the transference of this mite to
the horse was known. Nearly all cases where this
malady has appeared in horses have been where fowls
have been kept in the stables.

The mites only attack horses at night, as in fowls
and pigeons. The first appearance of their presence
is a number of small erupted vesicles, which may be

THE HEN-MITE.

53

isolated or all united together. Later these patches,
about 10-20 mm. in diameter, become bare. After
a few days they may increase and unite, forming-
large depilated areas. If left alone and any poultry
taken from or stopped going to the stable, the disease
will die out in a few days. On the other hand, if
poultry are allowed to live and sleep with the horses,
it will gradually spread and may seriously affect the
horse by the irritation the mites produce.

It is most important, then, for this reason that fowls
should not be kept in stables, or in fact with any
other animals.

Cows, dogs, goats, rabbits, and cats are also liable
to be pestered with this Acarus.

Attach on Nasal Cavities of Fowl, fyc.

Three or four cases of this Dermanvssus entering
the nasal cavities and the auditory meatus have come
to my notice. The mites entering these cavities in
considerable numbers, set up violent irritation and
consequent inflammation. Ziirn, Weber, and Lax
have also recorded this somewhat unusual attack.

Symptoms of Mite Presence.

If birds are seen not to be thriving, examination
should be made at night to see if mites are upon
them. The presence of the mites sucking the blood
of the host, causes the latter to become emaciated in
condition. Marasmus may follow, and death the final
result. There are seldom any signs of their attack
seen on the bird's skin ; sometimes I have noticed that

54 MITE PARASITES.

small red papules exist where many Lave been irri-
tating. A white, silvery powder will also be noticed
upon the perches and in various other places (the

exuviae of the mites), if the mites are present in great
numbers.

They have also been found in the ear of a cow —

the cow-shed only being separated from the hen-roost

by a plank partition (Schumacher).

Prevention and Treatment.

In the exceptional cases just referred to, both in
fowls and animals, there is no solution so successful
as the following: — Olive oil (100 grammes), ether
(30 grammes), naphthol (10 grammes). This mix-
ture of Nocard's I have always found most potent in
all parasitic auricular affections.

Eeoardino- the ordinarv attack of this mite on
Poultry, cleanliness again is one of the most im-
portant preventative measures. The constant use of
lime-wash, and the cleaning every now and then of
the perches and nests with boiling water and some
disinfectant, will help to keep dowm this too abundant
nocturnal visitor. The use of paraffin or creosote
for the perches in any wash used has been found
most decisive in its effects. .

On two occasions Schneider's suggestion of fumi-
gating the roosts with bisulphide of carbon, put in
small phials in corners where they cannot be upset
and then blocking up all cutlets, has been tried.
Although no mites attacked the birds afterwards for
some days, they appeared again shortly, the ova not

THE HEX-MITE. 55

being affected : two or three distinct fumigations
would be necessary to clear them out. Although
successful in every respect, this method can scarcely
be recommended. Not only will this destroy the
mites but fleas also.

" Moss-peat litter frequently harbours them by
millions, and often unsuspected, on account of their
similarity to the colour of the peat " (Till).

Treatment is practically impossible in the ordinary
attack, as the mites only appear at night. Paying
attention to the houses in the ways mentioned during
the daytime will, however, keep off this often un-
suspected noxious parasite.

Fig. 17.

Cytodites nudus.

Pulmonary Mites.

The next most important mite affecting Poultry
is known as Cytodites nudus (fig. 17), which inhabits

56 MITE PARASITES.

the air-sacs, reaching the finest divisions of the
bronchi and even the cavities in the pneumatic
bones ; more rarely they are found in the lung-tissue.
This mite, which is of considerable size, readily seen
with the naked eye, is particularly found in Fowls
and Pheasants.

This Acarus is white and globular in form, the legs
being composed of five pieces. The male is '-45 mm.
long. The female '56 mm. long, and may produce
either ova or larvae.

Their Effect upon the Fowl.

The mites, as a rule, have little effect upon their
host ; it is only when they appear in large numbers
that they produce any malady. Sometimes they crowd
in the bronchi and cause obstruction, and eventually
death by asphyxia. Zundel and other observers
accuse them of causing enteritis and peritonitis.

A single instance of this mite affecting the liver
has come to my notice. The fowl died, and in the
liver were found numerous yellow, round nodules
which contained numbers of this Cytodites. Holzen-
dorff has also observed them in the kidney, liver, and
lungs, in similar yellow nodules.

In such "an attack all we can do, should it take an
epizootic form, is to disinfect the houses and destroy
by burning all parts of the diseased birds. Such
attacks, however, are very few and far between.

Symplectoptes Mites.
Analogous to the above is a more elon gated Acarus
known as Symplectoptes cysticola, about *22 mm. long

SYMPLECTOPTES MITES. 57

in male and slightly larger in the female (fig. 18).
These minute mites are special to the Gallinaeeae.

Fig-. 13.

Symplectoptes cyst icola .

They live in the connective tissue of fowls &c, but
they apparently never affect the health of the host.
They may give rise to the formation of tubercles,
produced by the irritation they set up.

Heller, of Kiel, has found 70 per cent, of the fowls
affected by this tubercle, which appears in the peri-
toneum of the abdomen and viscera generally. Thev

O ml «/

are particularly prevalent in old and diseased birds.

Feather Mites.

Another group of Acari known as Analgesince, or

SarcoptidcB plumicoles, inhabit the feathers of birds :

each bird nearly has its own distinct species of this

minute group of mites ; some birds have more than

58 MITE PARASITES.

one species living upon them, and even more than
one genus. The abode of these minute mites is
between the barbules of the feathers. They are also
found in the quills of the feathers. The chief
authority on these l plumicoles ' is Trouessart, who
has shown that on the feathers drying the mites
migrate io the roots, especially during 'moulting'
time and in winter.

The following species are recorded from the
Fowl : — Pterolichus obtusus, Robin : Dermoglyplius
minor, Norner, and D. elongatus, Megnin ; Megninia
cubitalis and M. asternalis of Megnin.

All these, although seemingly abundant, are quite
inoffensive.

Cutaneous Mites.

Another division of mites closely allied to the
former, the Epidermoptince of Rivolta, live in num-
bers upon the skin of fowls, often causing cutaneous
troubles allied to Scabies. Two species seem to be
known, Epidermoptes bifurcatus and E. bilobatus.

These two colourless Acari live on the skin at the
base of the down of fowls, and when they increase to
excess they produce intense pruritus.

The skin, where the Epidermoptes are present,
becomes covered with pale }^ellow scaly-like masses
and with dirty yellowish crusts (Friedberger).

In most cases they are nevertheless inoffensive.
I have not been able to detect these cutaneous mites
so far in England.

MITES. 59

Presence of the Harvest Bug in Fowls.

Of more importance is the Harvest Bug (Leptus
autumnaUs}, which affects Poultry in a similar way
to human beings. This larval form of Trombidium
holosericeum attacks late-hatched chicks, and accord-
ing to Bailliet is somewhat common, both on fowls
and chickens.

The parasites fix themselves to the skin close
to the feather bases, and produce such intense irrita-
tion that they give rise to epileptiform affections
which speedily end in death — sometimes, according to
Railliet and other authorities, causing great mortality.

Whether this attack occurs in England I am not
aware. In any case it cannot be advisable to put,
as is now often recommended, poultry on the barley
stubbles where this pest, as we often know to our
cost, abounds.

Should they be present, it is said that flowers of sul-
phur dusted amongst the feathers leads to good results.

Other Mites recorded upon the Fowl.

The following have also been recorded on Poultry: —

Mauritius Argas {Argas mauritianns,Guer.) , a great
torment and source of loss to poultry in the Island
of Mauritius.

Picobia btpectinatus, Heller, in quills of poultry
and pigeons' feathers at Kiel.

Leiognathus bursa, Berlese, and Tydeus molestus,
Moniez, are also mentioned in Hassall's ' Check-list
of the Animal Parasites of Chicken ' (U.S.A. Dept.
of Agric).

GO WORM PARASITES.

IV. WORM PARASITES.

No less than thirty-six distinct species of Worms
live as parasites in the various varieties of Fowls.
The Worms form one of the greatest parasitic groups
of animals. Some of these parasites are distinctly
injurious to their ' host,' whilst many others seem to
cause no inconvenience unless they are superabundant,
then symptoms of their presence may make them-
selves obvious. Some of the vermiceous pests of the
Fowl appear epizootically, but the majority only
occur in isolated individuals. Worms are answerable
for at least one well-known disease in our domestic
birds, especially the fowl and the pheasant. The
latter more especially when artificially reared con-
tinuously on the same ground. This malady is
' Gapes,' and is perhaps as serious a parasitic disease
as any from which poultry suffer.

The Worms (Vermes) are one of the lower inver-
tebrate groups of animals that are characterized by
their bilateral symmetry _, the absence of articulated
limbs, the presence of curious paired excretory vessels,
and the general segmented form of the body.

There is such a vast number of diverse forms
that it is almost impossible to give all their varied
characters. They may develop direct from the egg, or
they may go through a complicated metamorphosis.
Worms are found in every conceivable locality.

WORM PARASITES. 61

Some are marine, some freshwater, others live in
decaying matter, many are terrestrial. Those, how-
ever, with which we have to deal are parasitic in
their habits. There are three great sections of
Vermes : —

(i.) The ringed or segmented Worms = the Anne-
lida, such as the Earthworm and Leech, which are
seldom parasites, those that have this habit beino-
external parasites such as the Horse-leech. No
Annelids are found to prey upon Poultry, so they
can at once be dismissed.

(ii.) The Platyhelminths or c Flat Worms,' most
of which are parasitic in habits. These are all
hermaphrodites — that is, they have male and female
oro-ans in the same individual.

(iii.) The Nemathehmnths or "' Round Worms/ or
Thread-worms, again mostly parasitic. But round
in shape, and tapering to a point at each extremity.

These two latter groups are generally known as
Entozoa, on account of their parasitism being internal.
All the Entozoa have but feeble respiratorv powers,
respiration being carried on through the skin. They
are found in all manner of organs and in all kinds of
animals, man being subject to a great number,
although serious consequences in our country from
their presence are very exceptional.

The Flat Worms are again divided into three
groups, two only of which are of importance to us
here.

G2 WORM PARASITES.

These are the Cestodes or Tapeworms (fig. 19), and
the Trematodes or Flukes. The former being ribbon-
like, the latter leaf-like in form.

Tapeworms are nearly always segmented ; the
adult form lives in the intestines, the earlier stages
in various organs of the body — two distinct hosts for
these stages being necessary.

The Flukes are always unsegmented.

Of the Nemathelminths only one group is parasitic
upon Poultry, namely, the Nematodes or Thread-
worms, which are elongated and thread-like in form
and attenuated at each extremity.

The diseases and pathological peculiarities invoked
by the presence of certain of these groups will be
discussed in the following article. A complete list
of all that have been recorded within Gallus domes-
ticus will be found in the Appendix.

A. Cestoda or Tapeworms.

Cestode worms are often most troublesome in
animals, and occasionally they become pathologically
important in domestic birds. Twelve species have
been recorded as guests of the Fowl. By virtue of
their numbers they often produce what is known as
Tceniosis, wdiich may end fatally.

Most of the Cestode worms have a very compli-
cated life-history. They nearly all require two hosts
in which to develop during their cycle of life. The
Tapeworms are a group of the flat worms, or, as they

CESTODA OR TAPEWORMS.

68

• »

are scientifically called, Platyhelminths. They are
ribbon-like in appearance, and vary from minute
bodies barely one-sixth of an inch to many feet in
length.

The typical tapeworm (fig. 19) is composed of a

Fig. 19.

Typical Cestode Worm.

head or scolex, and a number of oblong segments
called proglottides. The scolex or head is armed
with suckers and hooks, and may be prolonged in
front into a kind of rostrum. Behind the scolex
comes a restricted area, the *' neck,' the region which
is destined to produce, by a process of budding, the
innumerable proglottides or segments. Each of these
segments is, to all intents and purposes, an individual
animal. The segments grow larger towards the end

64 WORM PARASITES.

of the worm ; they become, as it were, ripe. Each
proglottis has male and female organs of its own
and can fertilize itself. The last mature segments
are full of ova (fig. 20). Although each segment is

Fig. 20.

a
l

Ovum and embryo of a Tapeworm.

apparently sexually distinct, yet nevertheless all the
proglottides are united by a system of water or ex-
cretory tubes, and are supplied possibly by the same
nerves.

The Tapeworm has no mouth and no alimentary
canal. Its food is gained by absorption through
the skin, a kind of osmosis.

The Tapeworm is the sexually mature form of
Cestode, and always lives as a parasite in some part
of the intestines, to the mucous membrane of which
it anchors itself on by the hooks and suckers above
referred to. The ripe proglottides full of eggs are
passed out in the faeces, and in many cases get into
water. This completes the first stage of Tapeworm
existence.

The second stage is passed in quite a different
'host/ and in various organs, generally causing

CESTODA OR TAPEWORMS.

Go

serious disturbances. This second period of Cestode-
life is known as the ' Cvstic ' or ' Bladder-worm '
stage. The cyst is uroduced in the following way :
the ova released from the ripe proglottides are
disseminated over the grass and into water. The
' cystic ' host eats these ova with its food, and the
embryo Gestode (fig. 20) is released by the action of
the gastric juice, which dissolves the egg-shell This
embryo is a minute body provided with six little hook-
lets. It bores its way through the walls of the intes-
tine into the blood-system and is carried along by
the blood; eventually it reaches its destination, which
may be either the liver, brain, peritoneum, kidnev,
lungs, and other internal organs. Once on its

igs, and other internal organs.

Fig. 21.

Bla elder- worm. Cysticercus type.

' feeding-ground/ the embryo becomes converted
into a small bladder-like body, which may grow to a
considerable size — the cyst or hydatid (fig. 21). The
bladder is full of liquid, and in it, according to the
group of tapeworms, will be found from one to many
small opaque points. These latter are scolices — heads
of future tapeworms. This cystic form may remain for

F

66 WORM PARASITES.

some considerable time. Should some carnivorous
animal eat these cysts, supposing it to be a fitting
< host/ the walls of the cyst are broken down, and
the scolex or scolices set free. When once free from
the cyst, they anchor themselves on to the intestinal
mucous membrane, and by budding from the neck
produce the ribbon-like sexual tapeworm from which

we started.

Thus we have two distinct types of life in the cycle
of a tapeworm's existence — one the sexual tapeworm,
living in the intestines of animals only, and, secondly,
the cyst that produces one or more tapeworm heads
by budding, that is asexually, and living in the
various organs and connective tissue of another

host.

By the knowledge of the life-history of these Platy-
helminths we are enabled to check their increase.
Take, for example, the well-known disease of 'measles'
in pork, the cystic stage of Tcenia solium, the Human
tapeworm ; and, again, the cyst Camurus cerebralis,
causing 4 Staggers ' or ' Sturdy ' in Sheep, and its
tapeworm form Tcenia camurus that lives in the
Dog. By not eating ' measly pork' and by not
alio win o- dogs or other canines to get the brain with
the cyst of C. cerebralis, we can stop the presence of
the obnoxious human pest, and stop the furtherance
of the ' Gid ' in our flocks. Unfortunately the com-
plete life-histories of many Cestodes are unknown,
and this, we are sorry to record, is especially the
case in those that attack our Poultry. Twelve species

CESTODA OR TAPEWORMS. 67

seem to be known in the Fowl ; their identity, how-
ever, is a matter of great difficulty, and much con-
fusion regarding the species has consequently arisen.
Of these twelve only two, and some doubt exists
here, are cysts ; all the remainder are sexual tape-
worms, which produce in their numbers the disease
known as ' Tamiosis.'

Various Species infesting the Fowl.

Regarding the best-known Cestodes in Fowls, we
will take for description three whose life-histories
are known : —

(1) Davainea proglottina, Blanchard. — This worm
is sometimes very abundant in the Fowl's intestines,
generally in the duodenum. About 8 mm. long. It
never consists of more than four segments. The
scolex or head is only *10 mm. long. The segments
break off and live a free life in the intestine for
some time, growing to about 1*8 mm. long. They
can expand and contract, and are very lively. The
ova are large compared to most i tapeworms.'

The life-history of proglottina has been traced out
by Grassi and Rovelli. It seems the ova are taken
up by various species of Slugs (Limax), and there in
the different organs they become transformed into
cysts of the Cysticercus type (fig. 21).

The slugs are, as we know, eaten by fowls with
avidity. The cysts are thus released, and develop
into D. proglottina, with its four segments, in about
eight days.

f2

C8 WORM PARASITES.

(2) Drepanidotcenia infundibuliformis, Railliet, is
a much larger species, sometimes reaching 240 mm.
in length. Hundreds of these worms are often
present in Fowls' intestines, the Cysticercus-stage
being passed in the Earthworm.

(3) I). tetragona, Blanchard, which also is found in
numbers with its head buried in the intestinal villi, is
supposed to have the snail-genus Helix as its inter-
mediate host.

The other life-histories are not known, and the
details of the species are not worth enumerating
here.

Symptoms of Tamiosis.

Young fowls that harbour tapeworms lose their
appetite, become emaciated, and gradually become
listless. Diarrhoea often sets in. The most im-
portant symptom, however, is the presence of the
segments (proglottides) in the dung.

Treatment.

Should Taeniosis, as now and then happens, become
epizootic amongst the birds, steps should be taken to
let the run be free from fowls for some time ; the
ground being purified with sulphuric acid, as men-
tioned in the article on Diphtheria.

Each infested bird should be caged, so that its
droppings can be watched to see if the scolices of the
worms come out. Ail infested droppings should be
carefully burnt.

TREMA TODES OR FL UKES. C\ |

One of the best tonicities is the extract of male
fern, about twenty drops of the liquid extract to a
large spoonful of sweet-oil. Nearly as good is pome-
granate-root bark ground to powder, a teaspoonful
with the food for every fifty birds. During this
curative treatment the birds should have little food
and water. What food is given should be of a soft
nature. It is best to starve the birds for at least five
or six hours previous to dosing them.

The complete list of Cestodes will be found in the
tabulated list of Poultry Parasites at the end of this
work.

One must take i cum grano salts ' most of the
statements found in books on Poultry re these parasites.
For instance, in one I find it stated that the fowl
tapeworm "appears to be identical with the tapeworm
found in cats (T. crassicollis) , and it is therefore
highly probable that it is derived from the same
source — that is, the fluke I of the liver of the

mouse " Such statements are more than

misleading, but so utterly absurd and incorrect as
to be almost amusing.

B. Trematodes. Flukes.

The Trematode worms or Flukes found in the
Fowl are six in number. One is found in the ese

CO

(Distoma overturn), the others in the oesophagus and
intestines.

The Fluke found in the oesophagus of the Fowl is

70 WORM PARASITES.

known as Cephalogonimus pellucid us, a transparent
reddish fluke about 9 mm. long. These were found
by Yon Linstow and Railliet. In the intestines
Neumann enumerates seven species, namely, JSoto-
cotyle triserialisj Distoma oxycephalum, Rud., D. clila-
tatum, Miram, D. lineare, Zeder, D. ovatum, D. ar-
matum, Molin, and Mesogonimus commatatas, Sons.
These, however, are not all distinct: dilatatum is un-
doubtedly the same as oxyceplialum: armatum is also
probably the same.

None of these Trematode worms are of any patho-
logical importance, although, as is well known, they
often cause serious maladies in other animals. All
the Flukes that have two hosts undergo a compli-
cated metamorphosis, the early stages always taking
place in some water-mollusc. Those found in Gallus
domesticus have not had their life-histories worked
out.

Parasites in the Egg.

Occasionally parasitic worms are found in the
oviduct of Fowls, and, as we shall see later, a few
vegetable parasites also make their appearance.
These l guests ' found in the oviduct are quite acci-
dental, and not unusually they manage to enter the
ovum. They are purely of interest only and are of
no pathological importance.

A Fluke [Distoma ovaium), a Nematode (Heterakis
inflexa), and fragments of Tapeworms (Cestoda)
have been recorded in Fowls* eggs.

NEMATODE WORMS. 71

The ova of a Fluke have also been found in the
albumen of an egg by Bonnet (Jahrb. d. k. central.
Thierarznei-Schule in* Munchen, 1881) . This Fluke
is also found in the bursa of Fabricius.

C. Nematode Worms.

The round worms or Nematodes, the Thread-
worms of popular language, are by far the most
injurious worms to the Fowl ; for in this family we find
present the much dreaded Red Forked Worm or the
Gape-worm (fig. 22), often so pestilential amongst
Poultry and Pheasants. Others, the 'White Worms''
of the intestines, also produce epizootic maladies in
chicks.

No less than eighteen species are recorded as
parasitic in the Fowl. Most of these live in the
intestines ; some, however, in the proventriculus,
gizzard, oesophagus, and the eye; and the Gape-worm
in the respiratory passages.

Characters of Nematodes.

The Nematodes are round worms and, unlike the
Cestodes, are provided with a mouth, alimentary
canal, and anus. They are usually elongated, slender,
and thread-like in form.

The sexes are separate, the female generally being
larger than the male. The latter also has, as a rule,
a curved anal extremity and two curved spicula

72 WORM PARASITES.

attached. Nearly all Nematode worms lay eggs; a
few, however, such as the Trichina spiralis of pigs, pro-
duce living young. The free development is a meta-
morphosis which is often complicated by the necessity
of two hosts, or, anyhow, two different parts of the
same host. The larvas live generally in parenchy-
matous organs ; they may be free or in the form of
a cyst enveloped in a capsule. The adults nearly
always live in the alimentary canal. An intermediate
host is, however, not always essential ; for instance,
I have clearly shown in Gapes that the ova of the
Gape-worm given to Fowls produces Gapes at once.
As a rule, in these simplest cases, the embryos in the
egg-membrane are transported passively in the food
or water into the host. This is what I have tried
clearly to point out is the case in Syngamus trachealis
(fig. 22). Again, in small Nematodes (Spiropterw) ,
some of which are found in Poultry, two quite distinct
hosts are necessary : for instance, the mouse Spiro-
ptera (S. obtusa) is found in the encysted stage in
the Meal-worm ; whilst as another type we may take
the Trichina sp>iralis of the pig and man, which is
sexually mature in the intestines, and passes its larval
state encysted in the muscle of the same individual.
Many remarkable cases of these complicated life-
histories could be given, but space forbids ; one other
instance must suffice, namely, the group of Eel-
worms, or Anguilhdidce, which are parasites not in
animals but plants. Thus it will be seen that the
life-histories of Nematodes are very varied.

THE GAPE-WORM. 73

The food of these parasitic worms is chiefly the
organic juices of the body. Some, the so-called
Hsematozoa, live on the blood ; the majority, how-
ever, on alimentary fluids.

Tenacity of Life.

One point is of great importance regarding these
round worms, and this is that in the egg (and en-
cysted stage] thev can remain for a great length of
time undeveloped, awaiting favourable opportunities
for the propagation of the species.

Number of Species infesting Fowls,
At least eighteen species have been recorded
from the Fowl in various parts of the world. Of
these, seven only seem to have been met with in
England and thirteen in Europe. The only im-
portant genera, pathologically, are Syngamus and
Heterakis, the former being parasites of the respira-
tory system, the latter of the alimentary system:
others producing morbid effects will be briefly referred
to in this article. Gapes being by far the most im-
portant vermiceous infestation, we will deal fully with
that first.

The Gape-worm.
= Red Womi or Forked Worm.

[Syngamus trachealis, Siebold.)

The peculiar symptoms of this parasitic disease
render its detection an easy matter. It is often an

74 WORM PARASITES.

extremely fatal malady, and yet great ignorance still
exists regarding it and the life-history of the worm
that is accountable for it.

This Nematode worm producing Gapes has been
described under the following names, as well as that
given in the heading, viz., Sclerostoma syngamus,
Diesing, and Syngamus bifurcatus. This worm
(fig. 22), that lives in the air-passages of the galli-
naceous birds, produces tracheo-bronchitic symptoms.
The genus Syngamus, to which the Gape-worm be-
longs, has also members living in the air-passages of
mammals.

Fig. 22.

The Gape-worm.

The Gape-worm is often very abundant also in
Pheasantries and causes great havoc. It is known
to gamekeepers as the Red or Forked Worm.

The disease was first, I believe, reported by
Dr. Wiesenthal in the ' Medical and Physical Journal*
for 1799 (May), who observed it at Baltimore, U.S.A.,
both in Fowls and in Turkeys. The first English
record I can find is by Montagu, in the ' Transac-
tions of the Wernerian Natural History Society '

THE GAPE- WORM. 75

for 1806. It is here noticed as appearing in an
epizootic form in Fowls. Young birds are most
generally attacked, but I have many notes of its
occurrence in old ones. Many instances of the latter
seem to be in Dorkings.

Dr. Wiesenthal, in the journal quoted above, states
that the disease takes place in the greatest degree
amongst the young turkeys and chicks bred upon
old-established farms. " Chicks and poults," he says,
u in a few days after they are hatched are found
frequently to open their mouths wide, &c, and to
become affected." This statement has been corro-
borated time after time since it was made. In 1895
the writer conducted experiments with Fowls on con-
taminated soil, and found both young and old birds
quickly obtain the disease from the ova on the
ground. This is a point we may well remember
from a practical point of view. Chickens, if for this
reason only, should have frequent change of environ-
ment. Although many who keep poultry overlook
this point, it is one paid great attention to by good
gamekeepers, who know full well that constantly
breeding pheasants on the same ground leads' to
disease, and especially to 'Gapes.'

Life-history of the Worm,

On opening the trachea and bronchi of a bird
showing symptoms of Gapes, from three to as many
as twenty small red worms will be found. Their

76 WORM PARASITES.

forked shape will at once be noticed ; some single
straight individuals will most likely also be seen.
The forked worms are the copulating males and
females, the smaller one, forming the fork, being the
male. In most instances the worms are surrounded
by a frothy saliva, from which they can readily be freed.
The adult worm is red in colour, cylindrical in
form. The head is broad and truncated. The mouth
is a large, circular, cup-like depression supported by
a circular capsule ; at the base of this capsule are six
horny pointed processes around the opening of the
oesophagus. The male is from 2 to 6 mm. long,
the female varies from 10 to 20. In the male the
caudal pouch is truncated and supported by twelve
ribs ; this pouch is attached around the vulva of the
female. The male is attached so closely that it cannot
be separated from the female without tearing. The
female's body is much swollen at various places when
full of eggs.

The eggs are very minute bodies, only 2 5 o^1 °f an
inch in length, ellipsoidal in shape, and have a distinct
operculum. The eggs are not laid, the vulva of the
female being closed by the male. In some large
females embryos are found, but in the majority I
have seen only undeveloped eggs in the uterus. Both
ova and embryos escape by the rupturing of the
female's body. This takes place, as a rule, after the
worm has been expectorated by the fowl, and some two
or three davs after the worm's death. Both ova and
embryos take up their abode in damp ground and in

THE GAPE- WORM. 77

pool edges, in and around the drinking-vessels of the
fowls being also a favourite locality.

The eggs hatch in from seven to forty days, ac-
cording as to whether the surroundings are favour-
able or not.

These ova and embryos get taken up by the fowls
either off the ground or in the water. They then
develop direct into the worm in the tracheal reo-ion
of the fowl. The small embryo-worm grows rapidlv,
and soon becomes mature and the female united per-
manently to the male. They are often spread by one
bird devouring the worms coughed up by another.
Distribution from one area to another is carried on by
such wild birds as the Starling and Magpie, which are
both very largely infested with Syngamus trachealis.
Other hosts are the Sparrow, Partridge, Green Wood-
pecker, Martin, Linnet, Hooded Crow, and the Eook.

Ehlers was the first to show that the ova develop
direct into the worm, no intermediate host beino-
necessary as hinted at by that great authority
Dr. Cobbold. Ehlers fed birds on Syngannis-oxa,
and in ten days he found coupled worms in them,
and seventeen females were present full of eggs.
Megnin again, in 1872, gave a parrot Gapes by feed-
ing it with ova from a pheasant. Numbers of times
I have convinced myself of the truth of these state-
ments by feeding quite healthy pullets with the
worms and ova, and thus producing the disease in
individuals quite free from it previously.

It was never a case of the identical worms given the

78 WORM PARASITES.

fowls causing the disease ; the parent worms were
ruptured either in being picked up, or soon after,
the embryos thus set free at once entering the
tracheal tube.

How this entrance takes place is not known :
whether by the self-conscious movements of the
embryo or by chance yet remains to be proved.

"Walker has observed the embryos of this parasite
in Earthworms, and thus he says the fowls get
the disease. There is no reason to doubt that this
does often happen ; the embryos and eggs may,
and probably would, be taken in with the soil the
Earthworms devour. But this is no proof that the
Earthworm is an intermediate host of the Syngamus.

Amount of Loss in Fowls, Sfc.

Crisp says that half a million pullets are destroyed
annually in England. Wiesenthal estimated the loss
of Galling in the invaded areas he examined at
four-fifths. If not so great as this now in England,
the loss is still serious in some districts.

Theories regarding the Development of the

Gape-worm.

Regarding the development of Syngamus trachealis
there seem to be three theories, each entailing an
intermediate host. The necessity of this intermediary
is now practically disproved. The three hosts sug-

THE GAPE- WORM. 79

gested have been : — (1) The Bird-Lice (Mallo-
pliaga), (2) various Mollusca, and (3) Earthworms.

(1) The supposed connection hetween Lice and
Gapes. — This theory, for we must call it such, is
based upon three points, namely: — (1) Dr. Cob-
bold's suggestion (p. 77). (2) The observations of a
Mr. Halsted, who noticed that if he cleaned off
certain insects (what they were we are not told!)
which were observed attached to the head of some of
his chickens, that those broods never had Gapes, but
those upon which the insects remained suffered from
the disease. These i certain insects ' were probably
lice ; he therefore at once assumed that there was
a connection between Gapes and the insects he
observed. But Mr. Halsted says of this insect that
"it is not a louse." The figure in Mr. Wright's
excellent book on Poultry is, however, one of the
Mallophaga, but what species it is not possible to
tell. (3) Thirdly, inferences have been drawn from
other parasitic worms, such as the Taenia found in
the do^\ ^vhich is derived from the cvstic stage
found in the dog's louse {Tricliodectes latits). Un-
doubtedly, we often find lice when Gape-worms
are present, because, unfortunately, very many
fowls suffer from this insect infestation recorded in
one of the previous articles. On the other hand,
I have numerous records of Fowls in isolated runs
which were quite free from lice and yet suffering
from Gapes. Again, we must remember that the
Nematode worms are not Cestode worms. Many of

80 WORM PARASITES.

the former develop direct, whilst the latter (except
Boihriocephalus) can only develop by means of a
second host. Lastly, we know that no intermediate
host is necessary, as it has been shown that deve-
lopment can take place by direct transmission of

ova.

(2) CobholcVs supposed intermediate Host an Insect
or Mollusc. — Cobbold, after alluding to the permanent
unition of the two sexes, says : — " Clearly the eggs
can only escape by an eventual breaking-up of the
body of the parent ; ..... by whatever mode the
young escape the shell, it is clear that they are
already sufficiently developed to undertake an active
mi oration. A change of hosts is probably necessary,
but in the first instance they either enter the sub-
stance of fungi or other vegetable matters, or they
bury themselves in the soil a short distance from the
surface." Later Dr. Cobbold, in a communication
to the Linnean Society, suggests that the inter-
mediate habitation might be the larvae of certain
insects or land-mollusca.

That they may enter the soil we know ; but unfor-
tunately no evidence has been brought forward of
sufficient importance in favour of either larval insects
or mollusca being the connecting-links in their life-
history.

(3) Thirdly, Br. Walker s Theory must be referred
to. It is that the eggs falling upon the ground, and
also the embryonic Si/ngami, enter the Earthworm,
and there they live and undergo certain changes

THE GAPE-WORM. 81

during development. On the earthworm being
eaten by the fowl, the embryonic Gape-worms are
released in the digestive organs, and then find their
way back to the air-passages, take up their per-
manent abode there, and reach maturity.

Unfortunately for this theory, we find that Gapes
appears in young chicks long before they could have
eaten earthworms. Again, Gapes appears in fowls
on land where earthworms do not exist. The Green
Woodpecker, the Martin, and Swift suffer from this
parasitic disease, yet they do not eat earthworms.

It is quite possible, nevertheless, that fowls may
take in embryos from eating, as they ravenously do,
the earthworms. These useful annelids would doubt-
less take in the ova in the soil that passes in such
quantities through their bodies. This is quite dif-
ferent to assuming that the earthworm is an inter-
mediate host : it is simply a chance occurrence.

There is very little doubt but that Gapes is spread
by direct infection derived from the ova and embryos
brought up in the expectorations of the fowls.
These are taken from the soil and from polluted
drinking-water — wild birds playing an important
part in the distribution of this pest. I have trans-
mitted this disease direct from one bird to another
with ease ; whilst water polluted with the ova taken
from mature worms gave the complaint to seven
out of nine fowls drinking it.

G

CO

WORM PARASITES.

Symptoms of the Disease.

The symptoms of Gapes are very pronounced.
One of the chief features is the l yawning' or
' gaping/ with widely opened beak and constant
straining forwards of the neck. In many birds,,
especially young ones, a wTheezing cough is notice-
able. When many worms are present, a frothy
saliva is often noticed in the mouth. The birds
become dull, and have a diminished appetite. The
feathers become erect, weakness increases, and death
may result unless remedies are adopted.

Treatment and. Prevention of Gapes.

One of the first steps to take is to isolate any
affected bird, so that others cannot eat the coughed-
up Syngami, as is too often done.

The runs and houses after an outbreak should
always be disinfected. This is best performed by
watering the ground with a one-per-cent. solution of
sulphuric acid.

By the addition of 3 drams of salicylate of soda to
every quart of drinking-water, the ova and embryos
are destroyed. In cases where the disease is very
prevalent, this may well be employed.

The frequent removal of the birds from place
to place, dry, clean, and light houses and runs, will
greatly tend to lessen the chances of this parasite.

As the ova of many, if not all, parasitic worms can
remain some time without undergoing development

THE GAPE-WORM. 83

unless eaten by their host, steps must be taken to
free the land from them if infected birds have been
present. Gas- lime is as good a purifier as any for
use on a large scale. It destroys all such germs, just
as sulphuric acid does, but is cheaper if it be used on
a large scale. Of course this necessitates a longer
absence of the birds from the invaded ground, as the
gas-lime takes some little time to work out.

Another point to remember in regard to the
prevention of Gapes, is to destroy by fire the heads
and necks of all birds that have died and suffered
from this disease. By so doing, the worms and their
complement of ova are effectually disposed of.

In regard to remedies, the first point to call for
attention is the removal of the worms from the
throat. These pests have been removed mechanically
for years. The usual plan is to pull off all the bar-
bules of a feather except those at the tip. Then dip
the feather in some substance obnoxious to the worms,
and put it down the fowl's throat into the trachea
and twist it round several times. On withdrawing
the feather, some of the worms will be found attached
to it. One part of oil of turpentine to two of olive-
oil has been found most successful. Oil of rue and
olive-oil in same proportions as above have been
employed with similar results. I have found oil
of cloves most useful, and less irritating than oil
of turpentine and paraffin, so often recommended.
An old plan of freeing the trachea of worms was by
inserting a looped horsehair into the fowl's trachea.

g2

84 WORM PARASITES.

This is most painful to the birds, and not at all
successful.

Garlic is said to get rid of the worms by means of
its powerful odour. This can be used either chopped
up in the food or given in pills. I have never tried
this remedy, but both Montagu and Megnin have
found it very successful.

Rue infused in the birds' drinking-water is another
old remedy, by no means to be despised. I have
known several cases of Grapes successfully overcome
by the use of this herb.

Tobacco-smoke has been employed with advantage.
The way to use it is to put the bird in a closed box,
and fill the box with tobacco-smoke until the bird
falls over, when it should be immediately taken out
and put in the fresh air.

Tracheal injections have been tried in recent years.
This method of curing Gapes is one of the most suc-
cessful, but it requires care and attention. I have
found a few drops of 8 p. c. solution of salicylate
of soda, injected into the trachea with a fine pipette,
invariably successful. I obtained similar results with
Eaealy ptus-o\\.

A mixture of one ounce of powdered chalk and
half an ounce of finely-ground camphor, sprayed into
a closed box so that the birds must inhale it, is by far
the safest and most successful remedy I have tried,
although not so certain in its results as by tracheal
injections. It has, however, many advantages over
the former, as so much care is not needed. This

THE WHITE WORMS. 85

camphor and chalk has a similar effect to that excellent
compound sold under the name of i Camlin Powder/
which has met with general approval.

This disease is one, fortunately, that lends itself to
treatment ; but it is well to take all steps to prevent
its spreading and appearance, which we are capable
of doing without any very serious expense.

The White Worms (Heterakis) of the
Alimentary Canal.

Amongst the numerous worms mentioned as occur-
ring in the alimentary canal of the Fowl, these are
by far the most important. There has often appeared
a kind of epizootic attack of so-called White Worms
in the Fowls' intestines. These White Worms have
more than once come under my notice. They belong
to the Nematode genus Heterakis, Four species of
this family will be found recorded in the Appendix
as living in the Fowl. Two only are ever very
abundant, namely, H. inflexa and H. papillosa. They
are dirty yellow to white in colour. //. inflexa is
only 8 cm. long in the male, and from 7 to 12 cm. in
the female. H. papillosa is very similar.

As far back as 1789 we find records of the damage
caused by these worms in domestic birds. Blavette
and Rossignol made observations on this subject in
1840. They found that the death of fowls they
examined was due to the accumulation of these White
Worms in the intestines. As many as thirty were
found in each fowl that died. In the post-mortem

86 WORM PARASITES.

examination of fowls I have found these worms
chiefly located in the duodenum. A common habit
seems to be for the worms to roll themselves together
into a ball. I have counted as many as fifteen tightly
knotted together. The worms form a plug, causing
obstruction and thus death.

They develop direct from the eggs, which are eaten
by the fowls.

As a rule, these worms are very slow working evil
results, but if allowed free play in their host they may
often cause sickness and even death.

Symptoms of White Intestinal Worms.

As a rule, infested birds become ravenous, yet at
the same time they seem to lose condition. The
feathers become erect and lose their sheen. The comb
becomes pale in colour, the birds yawn, and when the
parasite is present in large numbers diarrhoea sets in.
The worms may be seen in the droppings, and unless
the patients are kept isolated they are eaten at once
by the other fowls in the run.

Prevention and Treatment.

Isolation of infested subjects is just as essential as
in ' Gapes.' When penned separately, the bird
should be given soft food only. For some time
before being dosed, no food should be given at all.

Santonin is the best vermifuge for Heterakis
worms. It is best employed in the form of a pill —
three grains of santonin to each pill ; this can be

THE EYE- WORM. 87

mixed in meal or dough. These pills should be
(riven every other day for about a week. About an
hour or so after each pill, a teaspoouful of sweet oil
should be administered. Disinfection of the ground
where the birds had been should be carried out
as described before, as the Heterakis eggs may
remain in the runs for some time— in fact, until they
are eaten by other fowls.

The Eye-worm.

Even the sensory organs of poultry are not exempt
from vermiceous parasites. In China we are told
by Dr. Cobbold that there is a minute Filarian worm
(Filaria Mansoni) that lives in the eyes of fowls. This
is of no unusual occurrence. Similar instances have
been recorded in horses. But of course these are only
accidental cases of parasitism.

In conclusion may be mentioned a case of a serious
choleraic affection in Cochin-China Fowls, quoted by
Zurn. In these fowls, in which violent diarrhoea
set in, causing debility and speedy death, there were
observed in the walls of the intestines quantities of a
minute Nematode worm known as Anguillula stereo-
rails, which were undoubtedly the cause of the

complaint.

A fuller account of parasitic worms will be found
in an article by the writer in the Journal of the
S.E. Agricultural College (No. 4).

88 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

PART II.

VEGETABLE PARASITES.

The vegetable parasites of birds, so far as our present
knowledge goes, are few in number. These vegetable
parasites are minute microscopical fungi, about which
we know comparatively little. Three distinct families
of parasites are known attacking poultry, namely : —
(1) the Dermatophytes, which are cutaneous parasites,
such as Ringworm and the poultry-disease known as
Favus : (2) the Perisporiacece, or ' Moulds/ which
affect the air -passages and cause a disease known
as ' Mycosis ' : (3) the SaccJiaromycetes, which attack
the mouth, pharynx, and other parts of the alimentary
canal ; these are the cause of the ' Thrush ' in human
beings, calves, and poultry.

In England there does not seem to be much loss
by these minute vegetable enemies. "When outbreaks
do occur, they are generally attributed to other
causes, owing to the incomplete knowledge of the
parasitic ailments of the birds. It must be remem-
bered that our knowledge is not very complete in
this subject ; but sufficient is known to be able
to identify the diseases caused by these vegetable
germs.

The diseases of the skin produced by the vegetable
parasites are known under the generic name of

FAVUS. 89

Dermatomy coses. Most of these vegetable parasites

are related to the Moulds. Of these there are at

least three found in animals and birds : one the

unsightly ' Ringworm/ produced by the fungus

Trichophyton tonsurans — a disease common to man

and animals alike, and transmitted from one to the

other; another, common to birds, the so-called

1 Favus,' due to Achorion Schonleinii (fig. 23) — this

Favus is also found in the human being, especially in

young subjects ; the third produces brown eruptions

in the superficial layer of the epidermis in man, and

is known as Microsporon furfur \

These are all contagious and unsightly complaints
in man, but never fatal. In Fowls, however, the
' Favus ' is often a serious malady.

V. Dermat03iycoses (Favus, etc.).

These skin fungi are characterized by their circular
manner of growth. They are allied to the < Moulds '
that we see on many decaying substances. It is
doubtful, however, whether there is any connection
between them. In fact, we have almost sufficient
evidence to enable us to state that there is no con-
nection, and that the Favus parasite gives rise only
to Favus, and the Ringworm to Ringworm.

Each one of the Dermatophytes is made up of two
elements — one a system of tubes, forming the so-called
mycelium, the vegetative part of the fungus, the stem
and leaf, as it were, of the plant ; and, secondly,

90 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

the spores, seeds or reproductive parts of the fungus.
These spores may be quite free or grouped together
in masses. The spores are practically buds at the end
of the Dermatophyte filament.

These minute vegetable forms live only in and
upon epidermal products and the epidermis itself.
They invade the cells of the outer skin, and even the
hairs and feathers, destrovino; the two latter and
causing the former to separate and decompose. In
this way they produce intense itching, soreness, and
redness.

They are spread no doubt by contagion, and seem
to flourish best in young individuals. They are also
known as 'Tinese,' and may be easily cultivated
artificially.

Favus.

Favus takes its name from the curious honey-
comb-like structure of the deeper layers of the
1 crusts ' it produces on the skin. These curious
cup-shaped yellow masses of crusts are produced by
the fungus Achorion Schonleimi (fig. 23) of Remak,
It is a parasite common to man, the cat, dog, rabbit,
and fowl. In the former three it causes the hair to
fall, in the latter the feathers. Not only is it found
in hairy and feathery parts, but it, for instance,
aftects the roots of the nails in man, giving rise to the
disease called Onychomycosis favosa.

FAVTTS. 91

Favus of Folds.

The Favus, or ' Tinea favosa,' of Fowls differs but
slightly from that of other animals, and is clearly due
to the above-named fungus, as can be plainly demon-
strated by microscopical examination.

In fowls the Favus first manifests itself on the
comb, wattles, and neck. Often I have noticed one
side of the head being affected only. The first signs
of the attack are small pale yellowish spots, cup-like,
but sometimes irregular in form. These gradually
grow and unite, eventually forming a confluent
covering of a greyish-yellow substance, showing
concentric markings. By degrees, usually in about
four to five weeks, the feathers of the head, and
possibly neck, become affected. The feathers are
stiff, brittle, and eventually fall off, leaving sometimes
their base still implanted in the scutula of the ' Favus.'
The discoid masses of Favus have slight depressions
in their centre from which the feathers have fallen.
The depositions apparently form around the bases of
the feathers. Birds so affected are said to give off a
rather offensive mouldy odour ; this, personally, I
have failed to detect.

Efect of the Disease.
The general result of Favus is debility and wasting,
if no steps are taken to destroy it. Very often death
of the patient results. I have nevertheless known
cases of spontaneous recovery without any remedies
being applied.

92 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

Regarding the breeds affected bv Favus, Ziirn states
that if all birds are affected, the larger breeds and
those of Cochin-China descent are most liable to it.
Bantams are also noticed bv Neumann. Recently I
have had Dorkings severely attacked. A Dorking
cock with favic scutula on one side of the head was
allowed to run with some hens (Dorking) ; only
one, however, caught the infection, and this was an
old hen in moult, none of the other birds, which were
all young and healthy, were affected.

Poultry Favus transmitted to Man.

It is important to note that poultry Favus can be
transmitted to man. This especially happens if there
is a slightly abraded surface. Care, therefore, should
be taken in handling diseased fowls, as it is any-
thing but a nice human complaint, and not so readily
amenable to treatment as in poultry.

Minute Appearance of the Fungus.

The fungus can easily be studied under the micro-
scope by shaking the dusty matter that will be
observed under one of the detached crusts taken
from the fowl. This dust should be moistened with
water and a small drop of acetic acid, when it will be
seen that the favic cups are formed of thread-like
mycelia and spores, together with epithelial scales
detached from the skin of the ' host.' There will
also be seen tubes containing spores, and between
these and the mycelia minute granules in a viscid

FAT US.

<r.)

substance. The mvcelia are closelv interwoven with
one another (fig. 23).

Fig 23.

UT

A ch o) ' ion Sch on le inn .

The mycelium is composed of simple cylindrical
tubes (i) ; sometimes, however, they are dichotomously

branched. These are full of protoplasm, and vary
in breadth from 1 to 8 fi. Other filaments are par-
titioned and contain spores (ii) ; these are known as
* conidiophores ' or spore-receptacles.

Thirdly, the spores (iii) are rounded or oval bodies
generally in groups of three, four, or eio-ht.

Both mycelium and spores may be seen as well in
the feathers at their base.

Treatment.
This complaint readily yields to treatment in
Poultry, especially if attacked whilst it is only on the

94 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

comb and wattles. Bathino- the favic area should be
done before any fungicide is employed, and if any
crusts can be removed, they of course should. The
diseased area then may be dressed with an ointment
made of one part of red oxide of mercury to eight
parts of lard well rubbed into the skin.

Benzine, sulphur, and soft soap also forms a good
destroyer of this fungus — a few drops of the benzine
and just a sprinkling of flowers of sulphur mixed up
in an ordinary pill-box of soft soap or lard. With
either of these the bird should be anointed every
day. As a rule, in about a week all signs of the
favic cups have disappeared. Isolation of any diseased
bird should at once be carried out, and great care
should be taken in dressing the patient not to transmit
the affection.

VI. Mycosis of Air-passages.

As far back as 1815 Fungi were noticed in the
air-passages of various birds by Meyer and Emert.
These vegetable parasites seem common in many wild
birds and in all our domesticated ones. Rosseau was
the first, in 1841, to note this malady in Poultry.

Cause of Mycosis.

The mycosis of the air-passages, and even the air-
sacs, is caused by ' Moulds/ Mucedince, belonging
to the genus Aspergillus, fungi that are endowed
with great vegetative qualities.

MYCOSIS OF AIR-PASSAGES. 95

The Aspergilli are formed of thin colourless fila-
ments forming a matted layer or thallus, and a
looser mass above, the so-called aerial mycelium.
The lower filaments will be seen to be unequally
divided by septa and to ramify about. From the
aerial mycelium there appear upright branches ending
in bunches of spores — the conidia. Other curious
masses are noticed which contain eight larger spores,
called ascospores, and which are set free by the
rupturing of their case.

Symptoms.

The usual symptoms of Mycosis are heavy breath-
ing, accompanied with curious guttural sounds, loss
of appetite, feathers loose and erect, drooping wings,
and general depressed condition. In a few weeks
the malady causes emaciation, the bird becomes
thoroughly cachectic, and dies.

Sometimes the 'mould' blocks up the bronchi
entirely, and death becomes sudden by asphyxiation.

On examining a bird that has succumbed to this
disease, one finds a number of dirty yellowish-green
tubercles in the trachea, bronchi, lungs, and air-
sacs, from 6 to 20 mm. in thickness, sometimes even
larger. On their surface are found the mycelia and
conidia of the mould. The tubercles formed in the
lungs very much resemble those of phthisis.

It may be that the spores which originate this
disease only take root, as it were, in already unhealthy

96 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

birds. Nevertheless it is unusual to find any other
signs of disease in fowls suffering from Mvcosis.

Mode of Infection.

The spores set free from other Aspergilli enter
with the air the respiratory passages. Finding heat
and moisture two conditions most favourable to
fungoid development, they rapidly germinate on the
moist warm mucous membrane. As the mycelium
advances, inflammation is set up.

Forms of Aspergilli.

Four species of ' Moulds ' seem to be parasitic
namely, A. glaucus, Link, A. ?iiger, Yan Tieg.
A.fumigatus, Fresenius, and A. candidus, Link.

Effect of Temperature.

The temperature of the body has much to do with
the development of these mould-spores. A. glaucus,
for instance, will not germinate at the animal tem-
perature, and thus cannot do any harm except
mechanically, the spores alone being able to obstruct
the small air-passages, if in large numbers. A. niger
will only grow at 95° F., and thus cannot flourish in
Birds *. A. fumigatus, which seems to require a
temperature of 98° to 104° F. to develop, has been
shown by Schiitz to be by far the most dangerous
parasite of the fowl.

* The average temperature of a bird is 103° to 104° F.

MYCOSIS OF AIR-PASSAGES. 97

By inoculating healthy pigeons with the spores of
fumigatus, by injecting them into the axillary vein,
Dieulafoy and Widal have shown that tuberculosis
of the liver and lungs takes place, ending fatally in
a few days. The tubercles very much resemble
those of true tuberculosis due to the bacillus. When
this Mycosis appears, it is usually in an epizootic
form.

Prevention and Treatment.

Cleanliness of the fowl-houses is most essential,
everything, such as straw, litter, &c, that may be
about should be burnt, and the houses cleaned down
with boiling water and corrosive sublimate, a pint of
10 p. c. solution to every gallon of boiling water.
Treatment is usually futile ; good, however, is said
to be done by putting the birds in a closed chamber
with tar-vapour, formed by putting a large spoonful
of vegetable tar in a pint of water and then stirring
with a red-hot iron. Only two birds affected with
apparent Mycosis have come under my notice : burn-
ing sulphur in a similar way was tried, but the birds
eventually succumbed, the liver being invaded as well
as the trachea with mould.

This malady does not seem to be much known in
England, but when cases do appear they are usually
fatal.

98 VEGETABLE PARASITES.

VII. Thrush in Poultry.

Two known cases of ' Thrush ' in Poultry are the
only records wre have ; these were observed by E berth
and Martin, and are recorded respectively in ' Vir-
chow's Archiv/ iii. p. 528, and in l Jahresber. d.
Thierarznei-Schule in Mtinchen,' 1882-3, p. 125.

Many cases of so-called 'Thrush' in fowls have
been mistaken instances, the true cause of the white
creamy growths being the Sporozoa, &c, described
in the article on Diphtheria (p. 4). True 'Thrush'
is due to a fungus known as Saccliaromyces albicans.
These two instances recorded were found on exami-
nation to be due to the same fungus that is found in
the ' Thrush ' of children and calves. There were
found in the fowl examined by Eberth several white
deposits adhering to the mucous membrane of the oeso-
phagus, similar in external appearance to those found
in children. These two cases are interesting, but
of little practical importance, as Thrush appears not
only to be rare but not to attack healthy birds.

These are the only three groups of vegetable
parasites known to me as affecting Fowls.

Bacilli.
Bacilli, although sometimes regarded as belonging
to the vegetable kingdom, have such unique charac-
ters, both pathologically and physiologically, that
they are best separated as a distinct group of disease-
producing forms of life. Hence Fowl Cholera &c.
are not dealt with in this Manual.

APPENDIX,

i.

LIST OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE
PARASITES UPON GALLUS DOMESTIC US.

I. ANIMAL KINGDOM.

PROTOZOA. (Unicellular Animals.)

1. Isospora avium, Raffliet Intestines.

= P&orospermiwm avium, Rivolta.

J Mouth, Pharynx,

2. Monocercomonas gallina, Rivolta .... ^ an(j Trachea'.

\ Glands of Lieher-

3. Trichomonas Eberthi, Kent *j ]-unni

4. Coccidium perforans, Rivolta Intestines.

= C. Rivoltcc, Ilarz.

C. tenellum, Railliet & Lucet.

\ Connective tissue

5. Eimeria dubia, Railliet j 0f intestine.

= Gregarina avium intestinalis, Rivolta.

6. Sarcoci/stis,sy.? (Coll.B. A. 1), Hassall. Muscles.

CESTODA. (Tapbwobms.)

7. DrepanidotcBnia infundibulifonnis,Goeze. Intestines.

= Tarda infundd>ulif<>rmis, Goeze.

8. Dicranotcenia cuneata, Linstow Intestine.

= D. sphenoides, Railliet.
Tcenia cuneata, Linstow.

9 Tcenia exilU, Dujardin Intestine.

H 2

100 APPENDIX I.

10. Dawinea proglottina, Blanchard .... Intestine

= Tarda proglottina, Davaine.

11. D. tetragona-j Molin Intestine.

= Tarda bothrioplitis, Piana.

12. D. echinobothrida, Blanchard Intestine.

= T. echinobothrida, Megnin.

13. 1). cesticillus, Molin , Intestine.

= T. infundibidiformis, Dujardin.

14. Fimbriaria malleus, Frb'lich Intestine.

= T. malleus, Goeze.
T. fasciolus, Pallas.
F. mitra, Frolich.

15. Cotugnia digonopora, Diamare Intestine.

= T, digonopora, Pasquale.

16. Buthriocephalus longicornis, Molin.

= I)othriotcenia longicornis, Railliet.
= Dibothrium longicolle, Molin.

17. Cysticerci sp. ?, Railliet Peritoneal cavity

18. Fragments of Tcenia, Ziirn Ovum.

19. Piestocystis var labile, Diesing Peritoneum.

TREMATODES. (Flukes.)

20. Cephcdogonimus pellucidus, Railliet. . . . (Esophagus.

= Distomum pellucidum, Linstow.

t)1 ri . o. • i i Bursa of Fabricius

21. L. ovatum, otossich { j r\

' | and Ova.

=zFasciola ovata, Rudolphi.
Distoma ovatum, Rudolphi.
I), bursicola, Creplin.

22. Crossodera linearis, Cobbold Large Intestine.

= D. lineare, Zeder.
F. linearis, Rudolphi.
D. linearis, Cobbold.

ANIMAL PARASITES. 101

23. Echinostomum echinatum, Zeder Caeca & Rectum.

= D. armatum, Molin.

24. E. oxycephalum, Rudolpki ?

25. E. dilatatum, Miram Caeca & Rectum.

= Z>. dilatatum.
?=E. echinatum, Zeder?

26. Mesogonimns commutatus, Sonsino .... Caeca.

= D. dimorphum, Wagner.
D. commutata, Diesing.

27. Notocotyle verrucosum, Monticelli .... Caeca.

= Fasciola verrucosa, Frolieh.
Monostomum attenuatum, Rudolplii.
M. lineare, Rudolplii.

Notocotyle triserialis, Diesing.

NEMATODA= Thread-worms.

ASCARIDJE.

28. Heterakis compressa, Schneider Intestine.

26. H. brasiliensis, Magalhaes Intestine.

30. H. compar, Stossick Intestine.

=Ascaris compar, Schrank.
A. lagopodes, Frolieh.
Fusaria compar, Zeder.

31. H. different, Sonsino Intestine.

32. H. papillosa, Railliet.

=Ascaris papillosa, Block.
H. vesicularis, Dujardin.

33. H. inflexa, Rudolplii Intestine.

= H. perspicellum, Sckneider.
Ascaris gallopavonis, Gmelin.
A. gibbosa, Rudolplii.
A. funiculus, Deslongckamps.
Fusaria strumosa, Zeder.

102 APPENDIX I.

FlLAUIDJE.

34. Dispharagus nasutus, Dujardin Gizzard.

= Filar ia nasuta, Schneider.
Spiroptera nasuta, lludolphi.

35. I). hamulosa, Stossich Gizzard.

= Cheilospirura hamulosa, Diesing.
Spiroptera hamulosa, Diesing.

3G. D. spiralis, Molin (Esophagus.

= F. papillosa ?

37. D. laticeps, Dujardin (Esophagus.

= F. laticeps, Schneider.
S. laticeps, lludolphi.

38. Filaria Mansoni, Cobbold Eye.

Stkongylid^:.

39. Synyamus trachealis, Von Siebold .... J T£achea and

" \ Bronchi.

=Strongylus trachealis, Creplin.
Sclerostoma synyamus, Diesing.
Synga mus prim itiv us, Mol in.
Fasciola trachea, Montagu.

40. Psiloptera truncata, Schneider Gizzard.

Trichocephalid^e.

41. Trichosoma lonyicolle, lludolphi Intestine.

42. T. annulatum, Molin },

43. T. collare, Linstow „

44. T. retusum, liailliet „

A XGUILLULIDJE.

45. Anyuillula stercoralis, Bavay Intestine.

ACAHINA. (Mites.)

40. Are/as mauritianus, Guerin External.

47. Dermanyssas gallince, Redi External.

= D. avium, De Geer.

ANIMAL PARASITES. 10:5

48. Cytodites nudus, Vizioli Air-tubes.

— Cytoleichas sarcoptoides, Megnin.
Sarcoptes Gerlachi, Rivolta.

49. Dermoylyphus minor, Xomer External.

=Analgcs minor, Norner.

50. D. elongatus, Megnin External.

= Antilles elongatus, Norner.

51. Epidermoptes bifurcatus, Rivolta .... External.

52. E. bilobatus, Railliet & Lucet „

=Symbiotes avium, Caparini.

53. Leptus autumnalis, Latreille External.

54. Laminosioptes cysticola, Vizioli „

= Symplectoptes cysticola, Vizioli.
L. galliuarum, Megnin.

55. Lophopies patavinus, Megnin External.

5<i. Megnin ia cub Halt's, Megnin „

57. M. aster nalis, Megnin „

58. Pterolichus obtusus, Robin .,

59. Sarcoptes Icevis, var. gallinm, Railliet. . Skin.

60. S. mutans, Robin ;>

= Knemidokopfes viviparus, Fiirstenberg.

61. Syringophilus bipectinatus, A. Heller . . External.

= Picobia bipectinatus, 0. Heller.
02. Tydeus molestus. Moniez External.

IXSECTA. (Lice and Fleas, etc.)

Mallophaga.

63. Goniocotes gigas, Taschenberg Rump & Wings.

= G. hologaster, Denny.
G. abdominalis, Piaget.

64. G. hologaster, Xitzsch Rump & Wings.

Var. maculata, Tasch.

65. Goniodes dissimilis, Xitzsch General.

66. G. Eynsfordii, n. sp Head & Neck.

67. G. Burnetii, Packard

104 . APPEXDIXI. J^^^t^f.K

oa r. • 7-r XT-* i. I Primary & second-
oft. Lipeurus variabilis, iMtzscn -j f * fi

60. Z. heterographw, Xitzsch „

70. Menopon biseriatum, Piaget General.

71. M. trigonocephalum, Railliet ,,

72. M. pallidum, Nitzsch

DlPTERA.

7-'3. Pule.v avium, Tasch General.

= P. gallince, Bouche.

74. Sarcopsylla gallinacea, Westwood .... ,,

75. Vermipsylla alakurt, Schimk „

76. Ornithobia pallida, Mg Partial parasite.

77. Ornithomyia avicularia, L „

Hemiptera.

78. Acanthia columbaria, Jenyns Partial parasite.

COLLEMBOLA.

79. Isotoma, sp Nests & Skin.

II. VEGETABLE PARASITES.

1. Achorion Schonleinii Skin.

2. Aspergillus glaucus, Link Air-passages.

=JSurotium herbariorum, Link.
E. aspergillus glaucus, De Baiy.

3. A. candidus, Link Air-passages.

4. A. fumigatus, Fresenius „

5. A. nigrescens, Link „

= A. niger, Van Tieg.

6. Oidium albicans, Robin Throat.

= Saccliaromyces albicans, Reiss.
Syringospora Robini, Quinquaud.

VEGETABLE PARASITES. 105

7. Penicillium glaucum Albumen of egg.

8. Mucor stolonifer . . . t v

9. Botrytis, sp. ? »

10. Dact.ylhim, sp. ? v

11. Hatophora, sp. ? >j

12. SporotricJu'um, sp. ? »

13. LeptomituSj sp. ? »

14. Macrosporium, sp. ? »

15. Stysanus, sp. ? w

10(5 APPENDIX II.

II.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Diphtheritic Roup and Psorospermosis.

J. L'Ornitoj atria. Pisa, 1881. Rivolta & Delprato.

2. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Patkogenen Gregarinen.

Zeitschr. f. Hygiene, v. Heft 3. 1889. Pfeiffer.

3. Les Bacteries. II. Paris, 1890. Corn il & Babes.

4. Bull, de la Soc. Centr. de Med. Veterinaire, 1889.

Megnin & Cadiot.

5. Virchow's Archiv, 1873. Bollinger.

6. Epithelioma coutagiosum des Gefiiigels. Gesellscli. d.

Aerzte in AVien, 1883. Csokor.

7. Die Protozoen als Krankheitserreger. 1890. Pfeiffer.

8. Notes on Poultry Parasites. I. Diph. Roup and Epi.

coutagiosum. Jour. S.E. Agricultural College, 1895.
Theobald.

Fleas (Pulicidje) and other Flies.

9. Die Flbhe. Halle, 1880. 0. Taschenberg.

10. Art. " Puces." Nouv. Diet. Prat, de Med., deChirurg. et

d'Hyg. Veterinaires, xviii., 1890. Railliet.

11. Les Puces des Oiseaux. Bulletin de la Soc. Centrale de

Med. Veterinaire, 1888. Megnin.

12. Sur la Puce des Poules. Recueil de Med. Vet., 1888.

A. Lucet.

13. An Account of British Flies. Vol. I. 1892. {Pulicidce.)

Theobald.

14. Syst. Besch. d. bek. europaischen zweifliigeligen In-

sekten. Vol. VI. {Hippoboscidce.) 1830. Meigen.

15. Insecta Britannica. Diptera, Vol. II. 1851. Walker.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 107

Mallophaga.

16. Monographia Anoplurorum Britannise. 1842. Denny.

17. Insecta Epizoa. Leipzig, 1874. Giebel & Nitzsch.

18. Jahresberichte naturw. Ver. Halle, 1851. Jabrg. iv.

pp. 113-135. Giebel.

19. Zeitsch. f. d. gesammt. Naturw., lift, v., xi. (249),

xvii., xviii., xxiii., xxvii., xxviii., xxix., xxxvii.
Giebel.

20. Neue Federlinge. Zeitsch. f. d. ges. Nat. xlvii. pp. 247 &

528. Giebel.

21. New Forms. Annals & Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xvii.

1876. Giebel.

22. Classification and Structure of Bird Lice. Abstract by

G. Macloskie, Am. Nat. xx., and Journal of Micr. &
Nat. Science, p. 159, pi. xx. Grosse.

23. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xlii. 1885, pp. 532 and 537. Grosse.

24. Les Parasites et les Maladies Parasitaires. Paris, 1880.

Megxix.

25. Arch. f. Naturg. xxxv. 1, 1869, p. 154, x., xi. (Ova).

Melnikow.

26. Notes on Mallophaga and Pediculidse. Can. Ent. xvi.

p. 197. II. Osborn.

27. Les Pediculines ; Essai rnonographique. Paris, 2 vols.

E. PlAGET.

28. Tijdschr. Ent. xxxi. & xxxiii. E. Piaget.

29. Neue Mallophagen. Zeitsch. f. d. ges. Naturw. 1869;

xxxiv. p. 387. F. Rudow.

30. Proceedings Ent. Soc. London, 1890, p. xxx. Sharp.

31. Journal of Agricultural Science, 2 vols. 1. pp. 46, 62, 68.

SlMONDS.

32. Bull. d'Insectologie Agricole, 1878, p. 56. Schneider.

33. Science Gossip, 1871, pp. 131-185, 234-278.

34. Die Mallophagen. O. Taschexberg.

35. Insect Parasites of Poultry. Jour. SE. Agri. Coll., pt. 2,

1895. Theobald.

108 APPENDIX II.

36. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xii. p. 180. Uhler.

37. Ueber das Ilerz von Menopon pallidum. Sitzungsb.

k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1855, t. xvii. p. 173. Dr. D.
Wedi.

Hemiptera.

38. Sur une Punaise qui attaque les Poules. Bull, de

la Soc. de Med. et Vet. Pratique, 1890, p. 99.
Railliet.

A CARINA.

39. L'Ornitoj atria. Pisa, 1881. Rivolta & Delpkato.

40. Die Kraukbeiten des Ilausgefliigels. Weimar, 1882.

ZtJRN.

41. Economic Entomology (Aptera). Murray.

42. Hist. Natur. des Insectes. Apteres, III. p. 225. 1844.

Gervais.

43. Tbe Veterinarian, 1851, pp. 222, 251, 254. Woodger,

Henderson.

44. Traite de la Psore, 1862, p. 595. Delafond.

45. Art. "Parasites." Nouv. Diet, de Med., de Chir. et d'Hyg.

Veterinaires, xv. 1888, p. 454. Railliet.

46. Oesterr. Vierteljahrsscbr. f. Veterinark. lvii. 1882, p. 87.

Csokor.

47. Les Sarcoptides Plumicoles. Jour, de Micrographie,

1884-85. Megnin.

48. Sur les Acariens qui vivent dans le tuyau des plumes

des Oiseaux. Comptes-rendus de l'Acad. d. Sciences,
xcix. 1884, p. 1130. Trouessart.

49. Sur une Acariasedes Poules. Revue Veterinaires, 1887,

p. 121. G. Neumann.

50. Di una nuova forma di Rogna nei Polli. Bull. Veteri-

naire, 1880, p. 65. Caparini.

51. Acariases Multiples sur des Poules. Bull, de la Soc.

Centr. d^ Med. Veterinaire, 1891, p. 133. Ratlliet
& Lucet.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 109

52. Les Acariens Parasites du tissu cellulaire et des reservoirs

aeriens cbez les Oiseaux. Journ. de Anat. et de
Physiol. 1879, p. 123. Megxix.

53. Elements de Zoologie Medic, et Agricole. 1885. Rail-

LIET.

54. Etude Zoologique du Sarcopte lisse (Sar copies Icevis).

Bull, de la Soc. Zool. de France, xii., 1887. Railliet.

55. Comptes-rendus de l'Acad. des Sciences, p. 793, 1889.

(Sarcoptes mutans.) Pobix & Laxquetix.

56. Sur la siege de la Gale Sarcoptique des Poules. Pey.

Vet. 1885, p. 489. Neumann.

57. Nouvelle aftec. psorique des Gallinaces. Bull, de la

Soc. Cent, de Med. Vet. 1887, pp. 45 & 193. Pailliet.

58. Poultry Parasites, Notes on. Journal S.E. Aim. Coll.,

pt. 2, 1896. Theobald.

Vermes.

59. Einige neue Distoinen. Arch. f. Xaturgeschichte, xxxix.

1873, p. 95. Vox Lixstow.

60. Compte-rendu de la Soc. de Biologie, 1863, p. 218. {Dis-

paragits.) Legros.

61. Ernbryologische Forschungen an Cestoden. Cent. f.

Bakter. u. Parasitenkunde, v. 1889, p. 370. Grassi &

P0^'ELLI.

62. Recueil de Med. Vet. Pratique, xvii. 1840, p. 332. Bla-

VETTE.

63. Entente Vermineuse des Poules. Pec. de Med. Vet.

1888, p. 312. Lucet.

64. Les Parasites et les Maladies Parasitaires. Paris, 1880.

Megxix.

65. Medical and Physical Journal, ii. p. 204, 1799. Wies-

EXTHAE.

66. Entozoa. London, 1864. Cobbold.

67. Compte-rendu de la Soc. de Biologie, 1880, p. 394.

Chatex.

110 APPENDIX II.

68. Journ. do MeU Vet. Militaire, vii. p. 272. 18G8. Liard.
(19. Vorliiufige Mittheilungen iiber d. Entwick. von S. tra-

chealis. Sitzber. pliys.-med. Soc. Erlangen, p. 43.

1872. Ehlbbs.

70. Epizooties Vermineuse chez les Jeunes Faisans. Rec.

de Med. Vet. 1878, pp. 825, 927. Megnin.

71. Second Ann. Hep. of Bureau of Animal Industry (U.S.A.).

1885. Salmon.

72. Jahresber. d. Westf. Prov.-Ver. f. Wissenseh. u. Kiinstl.

Minister, 1880, p. 11. Renne.

73. S. bronchialis. Deutsche Zeitsclir. f. tliier. Med. u.

vergl. Pathologie, x. 1884, p. 205. Muhlig.

74. Compte-rendu de la Soc. de Biologie, (5) v. 1873, p. 295,

(6) i. 1874, p. 197. Hayem.

75. Parasitic Poultry Worms — Gapes &c. Journ. S.E. Agri.

Coll., pt. 4, 1896. Theobald.

76. Sur deux Cas d'inclusion de Parasites Nematoides dans

les (Eufs de Poule. Journ. de Micro. 1887, pp. 407,
512. Cabuccio.

Vegetable Pabasites.

77. Virchow's Archiv, iii. p. 528 (Thrush). Eberth.

78. Die Krankheiten des Hausgefliig-els. Weimar, 1882,

p. 130. ZtiRX.

79. 'Magazin' of Gurtl & Hertwig (25tli year). Berlin,

1858, p. 236 (Favus). Gerlach.

80. Die pflanzlichen Parasiten (2nd edit.). Weimar, 1889.

Zurn.

81. Revue Vet. 1885, p. 280. G. Neumann.

82. Compte-rendu de la Soc. de Biologie, 1886, pp. 173, 216.

G. Neumann.

83. Hist. Nat. des Vegetaux Parasites, p. 447. Paris, 1853.

Robin.

84. Notes sur rilistologie des Dermatophytes. Archiv de

Physiologie, xii. p. 470. 1883. F. Balzeb.

BIBL10GEA PITY. 1 1 1

85. Arch. Gen. de Med. 1881, ii. p. 391. F. Balzee.
8(3. On the Parasitic Affections of the Skin. New edit.
London, 1868. Anderson.

87. L'Ornitoj atria, p. 247. Kivolta & Delprato.

88. Compte-rendu de la Soc. de Biologie, (5) v. 1873, p. 295

(Mi/coses). Hayem.

89. II Medico Veterinario, 1884, p. 10o. Perroncito.

INDEX.

-~o+-

A.

Acanthia columbaria, 36.
Acariases, 39.
Acarina, xiii, 12, 38, 102.
Achorion Schonleinii, 89.
Amceba croupogena, 9.
Analgesincs, 57.
Anguillula stercoralis, 87.
Anguillulidcs, 72, 102.
Animal Parasites, 1.
Annelida, 61.
Argas mauritianus, 59.
Aspergillus, 94.

,, candidus, 96.

„ fumigatus, 96.

„ glaucus, 96.

,, niger, 96.

B.

Bacilli, 98.
Bibliography, 106.
Bird Lice, 18.
Bladder-worm, xiv, 65.

114 INDEX.

C.

Camurus cerebralis, 06.
Cephalogonimus pellucid us, 70.
Cestoda, xii, 62, 70, 99.
Chicken Lice, life-history of, 29.

„ „ eggs of, 30.

Chigoe of Fowl, 87.
Coccidia, 4, 9.
Coccidiosis, xii, 10.
Coccidium tenellum, 11.
Collembola, 37, 104.
Cutaneous Mites, 58.
Cutaneous Psorospermosis, 9.

,, „ prevention and treatment of, 10.

Cysts, xiv, 65.
Cytodites, 49, 55.

,, nudus, 5o.

D.

Darainea proylottina, 67.
Depluming Scabies, 40, 45.
Dermunyssus, 49.

„ gallinee, 49.

Dermatoinycoses, 89.
Dermatof)hytes, 88, 89.
Dermoylyphus elovyatus, 58.

„ minor, 58.

Diphtheritic Roup, xii, 2.

,, ,, prevention of, 7.

Diptera, 12, 104.

„ on Fowls, 34.
Distoma armatum, 70.

INDEX. Ho

Distoma dilatation, 70.

„ iineare, 70.

,, ovatum, 69, 70.

,, oxycephalum, 70.
Drepanidotcenia iafundibulifurmis, QS.

,, tetragona, 68.

Dust Baths, 32.

E.

Egg Parasites, 70.
Eimeria dubia, 11, 99.
Entozoa, 61.
Epidermoptes bifurcatus, 58.

,, bilobatus, 58.

Epidermoptince, 58.
Epithelioma contagiosum, 9.
Eje-worin, 87.

F.

Favus, 88, 90.

„ treatment of, 94.
' Feather-eating,' 45.
Feather Elites, 57.
Filaria Mansoni, 87, 102.
Filar idee, 102.
Flagellata, 4.
Flat Worms, 61.
Fleas, 13.

Flukes, 62, 69, 71, 100.
Forked Worm, 73.
Fowl Bug, 36.

116 INDEX.

G.

Gapes, 72.

,, symptoms of, 82.
„ treatment and prevention of 82.
„ theories regarding development of, 78.
Gape-worm, 71, 73.

„ life-history of, 75.

Goniocotes, 23, 31.
„ gigas, 25.

„ holoyaster, 24.

Goniodes, 23.

„ dissimilis, 23.

,, Eynsfordii, 28.
Greyarina avium intestinalis, 11, 90.

H.

Hcematopince , 19.
Hsematozoa, 73.
Harvest Bug, 59.
Hemiptera, 104.
Hen-Flea, 14.
Hen-Mite, 49.

transmission to man, 52.

attack on nasal cavities, 53.

prevention and treatment, 54.
Heterakis, 73, 85.

„ injlexa, 70, 85.

Hippoboscidce, 34.
Hydatid, 65.

I.

Insect Parasites, 12.
Isotoma, 37.

INDEX. H7

Lagrange's Exterminator, '34.
Leiognathus bursa, 59.
Leptus autumnalis, 59.
Lice, xiii, 12, 18, 100.

„ of birds, 18.

„ damage caused by, 20.

,, human, 19.

,, mammalian, 19.

„ prevention and remedies, 32.
Lipeurus, 23, 33.

,, heterographus, 26.
,, variabilis, 25.

M.,

Mallophaga, xiii, 12, 18, 103.
Megninia asternalis, 58.

„ cubitalis, 58.
Menopon, 23, 31, 33.

„ biseriatum, 27.

,, pallidum, 27, 31.
Mesogonimus ton mutt at us, 70.
Microsporon furfur, 89.
Mite Parasites, 38, 102.
Monocercomonas g alii nee, 4, G.
Moulds, 88.
Mucedinte, 95.
Mycosis, 88, 94.

„ treatment of, 97.

N.

Nemathelminthes, 61.
Nematodes, 62, 71, 101.

118 INDEX.

Neuroptera, 12, 19.
Ncm-Psoric Acariases, 39, 49.
Notocotyle triserialis, 70.

0.

Onychomycosis favosa, 90.
Ornithobia pallida, 31, 34, 104.
Ornithomyia avicularia, 31, 34, 104.

Parasites and Parasitism, ix.
Parasites of the egg, 70.
Pediculidce, 19.
PerisporiacetB, 88.
Phthiriasis, 22.
Picobia bipectinatus, 59.
Platyhelminthes, 61.
Protozoa, xii, 99
Protozoan Parasites, 2.
Psoric Acariases, 39.
Ptei'olichus obtusus, 58.
Pirfex avium, 13.
Pidicidce, 12.
Pulmonary Mites, 55.
Pupipara, 12.

R.

Pted Forked Worm, 71
Picinidce, 19.
Ring-worm, 88.
Round Worms, bl.

INDEX. U9

S.

Saccharomyces albicans, 98.
Saccharomycetes, 88.
Sarcocystis, 11, 99.
Sarcopsylla gallinacea, 37.
Sarcoptes Icevis, 40, 45.

w mutans, 40.
Sarcoptidcs, 39, 49.
Sarcoptida? phunicoles, 57.

Scabies, 39.

„ prevention and treatment of, 44.
< Scaly Leg ' in Fowls, 39.
Sderostoma svngamus, 74.
Spiropterce, 72.
Spiroptera obtusa, 72.
Sporozoa, 4.
Strongylidcs, 102.
Symplectoptes cysticola, 56.
Syngamus, 72.

' „ bifurcatus, 72, 74, 102.

T.

Tcenia ccenurus, CS.

„ solium, xiv, 66.
Tseniosis, 62, 67.

symptoms of, 68.
„ treatment of, 68.
Tapeworms, xiv, 62, 70, 99.
Thread-worms, 61.
Thrush, 98.
Ticks, 12.
Tinea favosa, 91.
Tobacco smoke, 84.

120 INDEX.

Tracheal injections, 84.
Trematodes, 62, 69, 100.
Trichocephalidce, 102.
Trichodectes, 1
Trichomonas JEberthi, 1 1 , 99.
Trichophyton tonsurans, 89.
Tricomas, 6.

Tromhidium holosericeayn, 59.
Tydevs molestus, 59.

V.

Vegetable Parasites, 88, 104.
Vermes, 60.

Vermiceous Parasites, 60.
Yermipsylla Alakurt, 37.

W.

White-precipitate, 33.
White Worms, 71, 85.

,, ,, symptoms of, 86.

Worms, xii, 60.

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