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ΤΗΕ LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.

EDITED BY

1 T. E. PAGE, ΣΗ., LITT.D.
f E. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. T W. H. D. ROUSE, tirt.p.
L. A. POST, 1 Η.. E. H. WARMINGTON, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC.

ARISTOTLE

PARTS OF ANIMALS
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

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ARISTOTLE

PARTS OF ANIMALS

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
A. L. PECK, M.A., Pu.D.

FELLOW OF CHRIST’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
AND UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN CLASSICS

AND A FOREWORD BY
F.H. A. MARSHALL, C.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S.

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
E. S. FORSTER, M.A.

PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD

LONDON
WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
MCMLXI

Firsl printed 1937
Revised and reprinted 1945, 1955
Revised and reprinted. 1961

Printed in Great Britain

CONTENTS

PARTS OF ANIMALS

Foreworp. 59, . - 3 é è
INTRODUCTION . X ; : Ξ A
Τεχτ AND TRANSLATION . 3

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

INTRODUCTION . : A 5 : e
Τεχτ AND TRANSLATION, A a :
INpex To Parts oF ANIMALS ; :

INpeEx To MovEMENT AND PROGRESSION OF
ANIMALS. : :

PAGE

436
440

543

552

*

From quotations which I had seen, I had a high notion
of Aristotle's merits, but I had not the most remote notion
what a wonderful man he was. Linnaeus and Cuvier have
been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they
were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle.
Charles Darwin to
William Ogle, on
the publication of
his translation of
The Parts of Ani-
mals, 1882.

PARTS OF ANIMALS

Το
ΔΙ. P: and Li Αι

FOREWORD

ARISTOTLE refers to the De partibus animalium as an
inquiry into the causes that in each case have deter-
mined the composition of animals. He does not,
however, employ the category of causation in the
manner normally adopted by men of science, since
in this book causes are always considered in relation
cel Rol CIL NU E UT d
had a far larger share in the origin and development
of = structures than that allotted to necessity.

n the Historia animaltum the parts themselves are
described, for although this work is to some extent
physiological, its main object was to deal with the
anatomy of the organism. The Dé partibus animaliwn,
on the other hand, is almost exclusively: p
patel Ea end ασ οποιος the
parts. But Aristotle’s position was that of a teleo-

logist μία" :
have taken that view of life which Bergson calls the

doctrine pf intemal finality (that is to say, that each
individual, or at any rate each species, is made for
itself, that all its parts conspire for the greatest good
of the whole, and are intelligently organized in view
of that end but without regard for other_organisms
or kinds of organisms). Since every organ or part

of the body was héld to have its peculiar function,
the existence of vestigial or rudimentary organs was

A2 8

FOREWORD

unrecognized. This was the doctrine of internal
finality which was generally accepted until Darwin
elaborated his theory of Natural Selection. The
wider doctrine of external finality, according to
which living beings are ordered in regard to one
another, never gained acceptance among scientific
philosophers, and the only indication that Aristotle
ever adopted it is furnished by a passage in which
he suggests that the mouth in Selachians is placed
on the under surface so as to allow their prey to
escape while the fish are turning on their backs
before taking their food ; but even this he qualified
by the suggestion that the arrangement served a
useful end for the fishes in question by preventing
them from indulging in the harmful habit of gluttony.

The De partibus animalium opens with an) intro-
duction devoted to general considerations. This is
followed by a discussion of the three degrees of
composition, the first degree being composition of
physical substances, the second degree, of homo-
geneous parts or tissues, and the third, of hetero-
geneous parts or organs. The tissues referred to are
blood, fat, marrow, brain, flesh, and bone. After
describing these, the organs are dealt with, and a
consideration of their respective functions, first in
sanguineous animals (1.6. in Vertebrates), and secondly
in bloodless animals (z.e. Invertebrates), occupies the
remainder of the book. The account given of the
physiology of the blood is especially interesting, and
it is noteworthy that Aristotle understood something
of the nature of the process of absorption whereby
the food becomes converted into nutriment which is
carried by the blood to all parts of the body. He
supposed, however, that the matter derived from the

4

FOREWORD

gut passed first to the heart in the form of vapour
or serum, and that it was there converted into true
blood by a process of concoction. Aristotle knew
nothing of the real nature of respiration, and he
regarded the lungs as serving to temper the bodily
heat by means of the inspired air. He was also
entirely ignorant of the fact that the blood passes
back to the heart and lungs after supplying the
tissues and organs with nourishment. On the other
hand, he fully appreciated the existence of excretory
organs, the function of which was to remove from the
body such substances as could not be utilized. In
this category are included fluids such as bile, urine,
and sweat. In the section on the gall-bladder, as
in so many other passages in his works on natural
history, it is truly remarkable how correct Aristotle
is in his statements. He points out that the gall-
bladder is not found either in the horse and ass or
in the deer and roe, but is generally present in the
sheep and goat. In the light of the knowledge that
he possessed, therefore, Aristotle could scarcely have
adopted a theory about this organ which has found
expression in certain modern writings. According
to this theory the gall-bladder is present in the sheep
and ox because, these being ruminating animals,
bile is only required at certain particular times when
food passes into the intestine, whereas in the horse,
which does not chew the cud, but yet is constantly
eating, food is continually passing into the intestine
and consequently a perpetual flow of bile is desirable.
Since the gall-bladder is present in the non-ruminating
pig but absent in the ruminating deer and roe, it
is obvious that this theory cannot be consistently

applied.
5

FOREWORD

It is interesting to speculate about the school of
research workers who must have contributed in
providing material for this and the other works on
natural science ascribed to Aristotle—who they were,
the circumstances under which they lived, and what
manner of facilities were available for their investiga-
tions—for it would seem certain that no man single-
handed could possibly have acquired such a vast body
of knowledge, hardly any of which could have been
derived from earlier observers. Yet the work in its
completed whole seems to show the mark of one
master hand, and its uniform character and the clear
line of teleological reasoning that runs through it
have been well brought out in Dr. Peck's translation.
But putting aside its philosophical implications, the
book consists of an attempt at a scientific record of
al the apparently known facts relating to animal
function. These are considered comparatively and
as far as possible are brought into relation with one
another. And thus, as the earliest text-book on
animal physiology in the world's history, this treatise
will ever make its appeal, not only to the classical
philosopher, but to all who are interested in the origin
and growth of biological science.

Ε. ΗΠ. A. M.

INTRODUCTION

Title.

Zoological
works.

INTRODUCTION

Tur traditional title of this treatise is not a very
informative one. The subject of the work is, how-
ever, stated quite clearly by Aristotle at the begin-
ning of the second Book in these words: “ I have
already described with considerable detail in my
Researches upon Animals what and how many are the
parts of which animals are composed. We must now
leave on one side what was said there, as our present
task is to consider what are the causes through which
each animal is as I there described it ” (646 a 7 foll.).
The title ought therefore to be “ Of the Causes of the
Parts of Animals," and this is the title actually applied
to it by Aristotle himself (at De gen. an. 782 a 21).
Even so, the word “ parts " is misleading: it in-
cludes not only what we call parts, such as limbs and
organs, but also constituents such as blood and
marrow.’ Perhaps, therefore, no harm is done by
leaving the accepted (and convenient) Latin title
untranslated.

The De partibus, as well as the other treatises
contained in this volume, forms a portion of Aris-
totle's zoological works. The foundation of these is
the Historia animalium, or Researches about Animals,
in nine books (the tenth is generally held to be

a For the meaning of Cause see note below, p. 24.
ὃ See note on “ part " below, p. 28.

PARTS OF ANIMALS

spurious), in which observations are recorded, and
consequent upon this are the treatises in which
Aristotle puts forward theories founded upon these
observations.

An animal is, according to Aristotle, a “ concrete
entity " made up of “ matter " and “ form." Hence,
in the De partibus Aristotle treats of the causes on
account of which the bodies—the “ matter "—of
animals are shaped and constructed as they are, in
general; in the De incessu he deals specially with
the parts that subserve locomotion. In the De anima
he proceeds to consider Soul—the “form” of an
animal. In the remaining treatises, of which De
motu, included in this volume, is one, he deals with
what he calls the functions “ common to body and
Soul," among which he includes sensation, memory,
appetite, pleasure, pain, waking, sleeping, respira-
tion, and so forth (see De sensu 436 a). The complete
scheme is set out below :

I. Record of observations.
Historia animalium. 10 (9) books.

II. Theory based upon observations.

treating of the way in
which the“ matter”
of animals is ar-
ranged to subserve
their various pur-
poses.

De partibus
animalium 4 books
(a)
De incessu
animalium 1 book |

treating of the "form"
(b) De anima 3 books of animals — the
Soul.

9

Date of
composi-
tion.

ARISTOTLE

treating of the func-

Parva naturalia --- : b.
tions common to

De motu ani- body and Soul," and

(c) < malium 1 book in particular of
some special de-

De generatione partments of ani-

animalium 5 books mal behaviour.

The section (b) is necessary to the completeness of
the scheme, but as it has given rise to a whole depart-
ment of study,it is usually treated apart from the rest.
Thus the main bulk of the zoological and biological
works may be taken to consist of the three great
treatises, Historia animalium, De partibus animalium,
and De generatione animalium. It was these which,
through translations made from the Arabic, were
restored to the West by those who revived scientific
studies at the beginning of the thirteenth century.

The late D'Arcy W. Thompson, in the prefatory
note to his translation of H.A.,* wrote: “ I think it
can be shown that Aristotle's natural history studies
were carried on, or mainly carried on, in his middle
age, between his two periods of residence at Athens,"
i.e. in the Troad, in Lesbos and in Macedonia, between
the years 347 and 335: and this view has recently
received convincing support from Mr. H. D. P. Lee,"
who bases his argument upon an examination of the
place-names in H.A. This is opposed to the view
which has been current for some years past," that
the zoological works belong to a late period in Aris-
totle's life, and has important consequences for the
reconstruction of Aristotle's philosophical develop-

9 The Works of Aristotle translated, vol. iv., Oxford, 1910,
> Q.Q. xlii. (1948), 61 ff.
* See W. D. Ross, Aristotle, and W. W. Jaeger, Aristotle.

10

PARTS OF ANIMALS

ment, which cannot be dealt with here. It may,
however, be remarked that, as Thompson said, it
would follow that we might legitimately proceed to
interpret Aristotle's more strictly philosophical work
in the light of his work in natural history. But apart
from these considerations, the great importance of
the zoological works is that they represent the first
attempt in Europe to observe and describe in a
scientific way the individual living object.
Throughout the De partibus Aristotle endeavours to
provide a Final Cause to explain the facts which
he records—some purpose which they are supposed
to answer; and Causes of this sort are by far the
most common in his treatise. His outlook is there-
fore justly described as “ teleological”; but it is
important not to read too much into this description.
Aristotle is never tired of telling us that Nature makes
nothing and does nothing “ without a purpose ";
but if we ask what that purpose is we may find that
the answer is not quite what we had expected.
Plato's notion of the “ form " tended to divert his
attention from individuals through a hierarchy of
successive “‘ forms "; but for Aristotle ' form " is
not independent of matter: form must be embodied

in some matter, that is, in individuals. "Thus we find.

all through that Aristotle cannot long keep his eyes
from the individual wherein the form is actually
embodied, because it, after all, is the End, the
crowning achievement of the efforts of the four
Causes. This outlook controls the arrangement of
Aristotle's treatise. Since all processes of production
are determined by the nature of the product which
is to result from them, it is the fully developed product
which we must first make it our business to observe,

* The four Causes are dealt with in a separate note, p. 24.
11

Teleology.

ARISTOTLE

and when we have discovered what are its actual
characteristics we may then go on to work out its
Causes and to examine the processes by which it was
produced.

Synopsis. I give a brief synopsis and a contents-summary
and of the De partibus :

Summary.

BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF DE PARTIBUS
Introduction: Methods.

Composition of Substances : Three modes:
(1) The primary substances.
(2) The “ uniform ”’ parts.
(3) The “ non-uniform " parts.
Consideration of (1) Hot, cold, solid, fluid.
(2) Uniform parts : (a) fluid, (5) solid.
(3) Non-uniform parts, as follows :—
External parts of animals.
Internal parts of blooded animals.
Internal parts of bloodless animals.
External parts of bloodless animals.
External parts of blooded animals (resumed).
(a) Vivipara. (b) Ovipara.

SUMMARY
Boox I.
639a 15 ch. 1 Introduction. On the Method of Natural
Science.

Two questions propounded :

(1) Are we to begin with the ultimate
species and describe its characteristics,
or with those that are common to
many species ?

12

639 b 8

640 b 17

640 b 30

PARTS OF ANIMALS

(2) (Put in three ways) :

(a) Are we to take first the phenomena,
and then proceed to their Causes ?

(b) Which is the primary Cause, the
Final or the Efficient (Motive) ?
(Answered immediately: The
Final ; with a reference also to the
influence of Necessity.)

(c) Are we to discuss first the pro-
cesses by which the animal is
formed, or the characteristics of
it in its completed state ?

Answer to question (2).

We must begin with the phenomena,
then go on to the Causes, and the forma-
tive processes—or, in other words, the
Final Cause concerns us first and foremost.
This differs from the practice of the early
philosophers, who concerned themselves
with the Material Cause, though some-
times also with the Efficient (Motive)
C&ke. We must begin at the End, not
at the beginning.

Thus we must consider not merely the
primary substances, but the “ uniform "
parts, which are made out of them, and
also the “ non-uniform” parts. In doing
this, we shall be paying attention to the `
Formal Cause, which is more important
than the Material Cause: the animal as
a finished whole is more significant than
the substances out of which it was made.

But mere form or shape is not enough :
“shaped matter” is not an animal.
“ Form " in its full and true sense involves
"Soul": “Soul” somehow is the
animal’s Efficient and Final Cause. Act-
ually, it is not Soul in its entirety, but

18

641 b 10

642 al

ARISTOTLE

some “ portion " of Soul which fulfils this
office.

Thus the universe and the living objects
in it are the products of something
analogous to human art: they are con-
trolled by a Final Cause.

But Necessity also has its place in the
universe—

not (1) “ absolute 7 necessity

nor (2) “ coercive ” necessity

but (3) “ conditional " necessity.
These two Causes, the Final Cause and
Necessity, set the stage for our piece.

642b5 ch. 2
644a 11 ch. 4

644 a 23

644 b 21 ch. 5
645 b1

Boox II.
646a8 ch. 1

14

Criticisms of dichotomy as a method of
classification of animals.

The correct method of classification is by
groups, such as Birds and Fishes.

Answer to question (1).

We must deal with groups, not species (e.g.
Bird, not Crane), andyhere a species does
not belong to a largerfroup, we must deal
with species, not individuals (e.g. Man,
not Socrates).

An Exhortation to the study of animals.

Final summary of the Method, combining

answers to both the original questions :

(1) First we discuss the attributes common
to a group ;

(2) Then we give the explanation of them.

Purpose and outline of the Treatise : Our
subject is the causes of the parts of
animals.

646 a 13

647 a3

647 a 25

647 b 10 ch. 2

648 a 20

649 b 9

651 a 20 ch. 5
651 b 20 ch. 6
652 a 24 ch. 7
653 b 19 ch. 8

PARTS OF ANIMALS

Three modes of composition :

(1) Out of the “ elements” or dynameis
(hot, cold, fluid, solid).

(2) The uniform parts (bone, flesh, ete.).

(3) ey non-uniform parts (face, hand,
etc.).

The relation of them to each other, and

the way in which the Causes control this

relation.

Parts may be divided into :

(a) Instrumental parts (non-uniform).

(b) Media of sensation (uniform).

The faculty of sensation has its seat in the

heart, which is thus uniform ; but it is

also non-uniform, as it has to do with
motion.

The uniform parts, generally. "Variations

occur in each of them, as is illustrated by

the example of Blood.

Resumption of the Three modes of com-

position :

(1) The primary substances : meaning of
“hot,” “ cold," “ solid,” *' fluid," with
special reference to Blood. This merges
into a discussion of

(2) The Uniform parts.

Blood. Fibres. Intelligence and sensi-
tivity, and “ temperament " generally.
Serum.

Lard and Suet (forms of Blood).
Marrow (a form of Blood).

The Brain.

Flesh—the “ part” par excellence—
and its counterpart.

Bones, and their counterparts, and
parts similar to Bone.

ch. 10 (3) The Non-uniform parts of animals.

(This occupies the rest of the work.)
15

655 b 28

656 a 14
6572312 ch. 11
657 a 25 ch. 13

658 b 27 ch. 16
659 b 20

660 a 14 ch. 17

Boox III.

661 a 34 ch. 1
661 b 27

662 a 16

662 a 34

662 b 23 ch. 2
664 a 13 ch. 3
664 a 36

664 b 20

665 a 27 ch. 4

665 b 5
667 b 15 ch. 5

668 b 33 ch. 6
669 b 13 ch. 7

670 b 82 ch. 8
671 a 26 ch. 9
672b8 ch.10
673b4 ch.11
673 b 12 ch. 12

674a 9 ch. 14
675 b 29
676a7 ch. 15
Boox IV.
676 a 23 ch. 1

16

ARISTOTLE

General statement of the three organs
indispensable to animals.
Head : Brain. Sense-organs.
Ears.
Eyes, ete. (ch. 14: Eyelashes
and digression on Hair).
Nostrils (esp. the Elephant’s).
Lips.
Tongue.

Teeth.
(Note on “the more and less. ”)
Mouth.
Beak.
Horns.
Neck : Oesophagus.
Larynx and windpipe.
Epiglottis.

Internal Parts of Blooded Animals:

Viscera :

Heart. | 4

Blood-vessels (Great Blood-vessel and

Aorta, and generally).

Lung.

(Why viscera are double, and other

remarks.) Liver and Spleen.

Bladder.

Kidneys.

Diaphragm.

Membranes.

Variations in the Viscera (Liver and
Spleen).

Stomach and Intestines.

Jejunum.

Rennet.

General. Internal parts of Ovipara.

PARTS OF ANIMALS

676 b 16 ch. 2 Gall-bladder and Bile.

671 b 15 ch. 3 Omentum.

677 b 37 ch. 4 Mesentery.

678a 27 ch. 5 Internal Parts of Bloodless Animals
(Insects, Testacea, Crustacea, Cephalo-
pods). With special reference to the
Sepia’s "ink," and the Sea-urchin’s
OVA.

681 a 10 Creatures intermediate between animals
and plants.

682 a 30 External Parts of Bloodless Animals:

682 a 35 ch. 6 Of Insects.

683 b4 ch. 7 Of Testacea.

683 b 25 ch. 8 Of Crustacea.

684.b 7. ch.9 Of Cephalopods.

685 b 30 ch. 10 External Parts of Blooded Animals:

(a) Vivipara, (b) Ovipara.
(a) Vivipara:

686 a 6 Head and Neck.

686 a 24 Hands and Feet and relative propor-
tion of limbs. Beginning from Man,
whose position is upright, there is a
gradation of declivity in the animals,
continuing to the plants, which are
upside-down. )

687 a 2 Nature’s habit in assignment of organs,
The structure of the human hand, etc.

688 a 12 Breast.

689 a 4 Excretory organs.

689 b 2 Rear parts.

690 a 5 Hoofs, hucklebones, etc.

690 b 12 (b) Ovipara:

690 b 18 (i) Serpents and Quadrupeds.

692 b 4 (ii) Birds.

695 b 2 (iii) Fishes.

17

Method of
elassi-

fication.

ARISTOTLE

697 a 15 (c) Intermediate Creatures?
Cetacea.
Seals and Bats.
Ostrich.
697 b 27 Conclusion.
A glance at the summary will show clearly the

order of subjects which Aristotle lays down in the
first book to be followed in a treatise such as the
one in which he is engaged.

First, (A) to describe the parts of animals as they
are observed to be ; and
then, (B) to give an account of their causes, and
their formative processes.^
Under (A) the order of preference is to be: first,
the parts (1) common to all animals; (2)
where necessary, those common to a
group of animals only ; and lastly, (3) in
exceptional instances, those peculiar to a
single species.
Also, it will be seen how Aristotle works out this
scheme in the three books which follow. Before
considering that, however, we should notice that
Aristotle has a great deal to say about the correct
classification of animals—or rather, against the in-
correct classification of them. Chiefly, he inveighs
against the method of dichotomy ; and his chief
objection to it is a simple and effective one—that it
does not work. It forces us to assign to each species
one distinguishing mark, and one only (642 b 21—
643 a 24). And it cuts off kindred species from each
other on the strength of some quite subordinate
α De partibus is concerned chiefly with the causes and less
with the processes.

18

PARTS OF ANIMALS

characteristic (649 b 10 foll). The right method,
says Aristotle, is to follow popular usage and divide
the animals up into well-defined groups such as
Birds and Fishes.* And this leads him to distinguish
two stages of difference :

(a) Cases in which the parts differ “ by excess or
defect "—as in different species of the same
genus or group.

(b) Cases in which the resemblance is merely one
of analogy—as in different genera.

Examples of (a) : differences of colour and shape ;
many or few; large or small;
smooth or rough; e.g. soft and
firm flesh, long and short bill,
many or few feathers.

(b) bone and fish-spine; nail and
hoof ; hand and claw ; scale and
feather.

(Reff. for the above, De part. an. 644 a 11-b 15; Hist.
an. 486 a 15-b 21. See also Gen. An. (Loeb), Introd.)

The doctrine of differences of “ excess and defect,"

or, as Aristotle also calls them, of “the more and
less," may usefully be compared with that which

“ The more
and less."

underlies the modern theory of Transformations, and .

the comparison of related forms. Indeed, Professor
D'Arcy Thompson asserts that “it is precisely . . .
this Aristotelian ‘excess and defect’ in the case
of form which our co-ordinate method is especially
adapted to analyse, and to reveal and demonstrate
as the main cause of what (again in the Aristotelian
sense) we term ' specific ' differences " (Growth and
* And of course, into Blooded and Bloodless, though there
are, as Aristotle points out, no popular names for these

groups.
19

ARISTOTLE

Form, p. 726). 'The co-ordinates to which he refers
are those of the Cartesian method, on which is based
the theory of Transformations. By means of them
it is possible to exhibit, say, the cannon-bones of the
ox, the sheep, and the giraffe as strictly proportionate
and successive deformations of one and the same form.
These deformations can be either simple elongations,
as in the instance just cited, or they may occur
according to an oblique or a radial system of co-
ordinates, ete.” In this way, differences of “‘ excess
and defect” are reduced to the terminology of
mathematics; and it is especially interesting to
notice this, as the phrase “ excess and defect " itself
had, in the Greek of Aristotle's time, a mathematical
connexion. With it may be compared the well-
known Platonic phrase, “ the great and small" But
this is not the place to enlarge upon such topics.^
Classifica- Το return to Aristotle's classification. We find
E that he implements his preliminary outline in the
following way :

I. First, he treats of the parts which are found in
many different groups of animals, and also those
which are to be considered counterparts of each
other in different groups. This corresponds to
Α (1) above.

II. As he. proceeds with this, he comes to the
Viscera, which occur only in blooded animals.*
This provides a convenient point for embarking
upon his second main division—corresponding

? For details see D'Arcy Thompson, op. cit. ch. xvii.

> The reader is referred to A. E. Taylor, “ Forms and
Numbers," in Mind, xxxv. 419 foll. ; xxxvi. 12 foll. ; D'Arcy
Thompson, ** Excess and Defect," in Mind, xxxviii. 43 foll.

* By “ viscera " Ar. means the blood-like ones only.

20

PARTS OF ANIMALS

to A (2) above—the parts common to a group
of animals, and we have first :
The Internal Parts of Blooded Animals.
IIT. This is followed by—
The Internal Parts of Bloodless Animals. Then,

IV. The External Parts of Bloodless Animals. Then,
V. The External Parts of Blooded Animals,

which includes—
(a) Vivipara.
(b) Ovipara.
(i) Serpents and Quadrupeds.
(ii) Birds.
(iii) Fishes.
(c) Intermediate Creatures.
References to exceptional instances, as to Man,
corresponding to the division A (3) above, are of
course to be found throughout the work.

Aristotle thus works out the main lines of his
classification. And in each instance, where possible,
he endeavours to assign the Cause, to namc the
purpose, which is responsible for the parts as he
describes them. ‘This corresponds to (B) above.

And here Aristotle is forced to admit an apparent
addition to his scheme of Causes. ‘The purpose, the
good End, the final Cause, cannot always get a free
hand. ‘There is another Cause, Necessity. Aristotle
takes great care to explain what is the nature of this
Necessity (642 a 2 foll.). It is what he calls Necessity
“ ex hypothesi," or “ conditional " Necessity, the sort
of Necessity which is implied by any final Cause
being what it is. If a piece of wood is to be split
by an axe, the axe must ex hypothesi be hard and
sharp, and that necessitates the use of bronze or

21

Necessity.

ARISTOTLE

iron in the making of it. The same sort of Necessity
applies in the works of Nature, for the living body
itself is an instrument. It is thus the final Cause
which necessitates the various stages of the process
of formation and the use of such and such material.
Another kind of Necessity, however, makes its
appearance in Natural objects, and that is “ simple "
Necessity. The mere presence of certain things in
a living organism entails of necessity the presence of
others (see 645 b 32, 677 a 17, b 22). Some results
follow inevitably from the very nature of the material
used. This “simple” Necessity can therefore be
regarded as a reassertion of themselves by the
motive and material Causes^ as against the final
Cause. Sometimes, however, even in circumstances
where “‘ simple "' Necessity operates, Nature is able to
use the resulting products to subserve a final Cause
(663 b 22, 32, 677 a 15: see also the note on Residues,
p.32). Cf. Gen. An. (Loeb), Introd. §§ 6-9.
Scheme of The following table will show at a glance the
animals: cheme of Animals as treated of by Aristotle in the

De partibus :

A. BLOODED ANIMALS B. BLOODLESS ANIMALS
Man Insects
Viviparous quadrupeds Testacea
Oviparous r Eu Crustacea

d rie Ὁ,

bians)
Birds
Fishes

a See De gen. an. 118 b 1.
22

PARTS OF ANIMALS

Intermediate Intermediate
between the above classes
between land and water between animals and
animals plants
Cetacea Ascidians 2
Seals Sponges
between quadrupeds and Holothuria
UE Acalephae
Bats
Ostrich

Note on the Four Classes of Bloodless Animals.—
These, in order of increasing softness, as noted
above, are the following (I give the Greek term, its
literal translation, and the term which I have used
to translate it in this volume) :

τὰ ἔντομα insected animals Insects

τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα — shell-skinned animals Testacea

τὰ µαλακόστρακα soft-shelled animals Crustacea
τὰ μαλάκια softies Cephalopods

In using “ Testacea " to translate τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα
("the animals with earthenware skins”), I use
it in the old-fashioned sense, so as to include a
number of shelled invertebrates, comprising Gastero-
pods, Lamellibranchs, and some Echinoderms. It
does not refer to the Testacea of modern zoologists,
by whom the term is applied to the Foraminifera
which are shelled Protozoa. The word “ Ostraco-
derms " (a transliteration of Aristotle’s word) is now
given by zoologists to a group of primitive fossil

fishes.

23

Technical
terms.

ARISTOTLE

TERMINOLOGY

The following notes on some of the more difficult
and important of the technical terms used by Aristotle
in the De partibus will, I hope, help to explain my
translation and also to give some indication of the
background of Aristotle's thought. (A fuller account
will be found in De Gen. An., Loeb edn.)

Αἰτία, “ cause."

I retain the traditional translation '' cause,”
although perhaps in some contexts “reason ” may
be a closer rendering, but a variation in the English
term might well produce more confusion than clarity.
To know, says Aristotle, is to know by means of
Causes (see Anal. post. 94 a 20). A thing is explained
when you know its Causes. And a Cause is that
which is responsible, in any of four senses, for a
thing's existence.. The four Causes, of which two
are mentioned very near the beginning of the first
book (639 b 11), are :

(1) The Final Cause, the End or Object towards
which a formative process advances, and for the
sake of which it advances—the logos, the rational
purpose.

(2) The Motive (or Efficient) Cause, the agent which
is responsible for having set the process in motion ;
it is that by mhich the thing is made.

(3) The Formal Cause, or Form, which is responsible
for the character of the course which the process
follows (this also is described as the logos, ex-
pressing what the thing is).

(4) The Material Cause, or Matter, out of which the
thing is made.

24

PARTS OF ANIMALS

It will be seen that the first three Causes tend
naturally to coalesce under the aegis of the Formal
Cause, in opposition to the fourth, the Material
Cause, a contrast which is clearly put by Adam of
St. Victor in one of his hymns :

effectiva vel formalis
causa Deus, et finalis,
sed numquam materia.

Hence, of course, comes the regular contrast of
“ form " and “ matter," in which, oddly enough, in
modern usage the two terms have almost exchanged
meanings. ' Mere form," “ empty form," in con-
trast with “the real matter," are phrases which
indicate a point of view very different from that of
Aristotle. An equally drastic reversal of meaning
has overtaken the term “ substance,’ as contro-
versies on '' transubstantiation," and the existence
-of the word “ unsubstantial " prove. .' Cause " has
certainly been more fortunate ; but its meaning has
been narrowed down, so that “ cause " now usually
suggests the “ efficient " cause only. At the same
time, we allow ourselves a wider variety of “efficient”
causes than Aristotle, and are more ready to admit
actions and events or even series of actions and events.
We have, in fact, applied Aristotle's precise termin- -
ology to the wider uses of everyday non-technical
purposes. For Aristotle, the doctrine of the Four
Causes provides an exhaustive and precise classifica-
tion of the things which can be responsible for another
thing's existence, and by the naming of them the
thing can be completely accounted for.
As an illustration the following will serve.
Suppose the object to be explained is an oak. The
25,

ARISTOTLE

chronological order of the Causes is different from
their logical one.

(i. The Motive Cause: the parent oak which
produced the acorn.

(ii.) The Material Cause: the acorn and its nour-
ishment.

(ii. The Formal Cause. The acorn as it grew
into a tree followed a process of development
which had the definite character proper to
oaks.

(iv.) The Final Cause: the end towards which
the process advanced, the perfected oak-tree.

Aóyos.

There are several places in the De partibus where,
rather than represent Aóyos by an inadequate or
misleading word, I have transliterated it by logos.
This serves the very useful purpose of reminding the
reader that here is a term of very varied meanings,
a term which brings into mind a number of correlated
conceptions, of which one or another may be upper-
most in a particular case. It is an assistance if we
bear in mind that underlying the verb Aéyew, as it
is most frequently used, is the conception of rational
utterance or expression, and the same is to be found
with Aóyos, the noun derived from the same root.
Λόγος can signify, simply, something spoken or uttered ;
or, with more prominence given to the rationality of
the utterance, it can signify a rational explanation,
expressive of a thing’s nature, of the plan of it ; and
from this come the further meanings of principle, or
lan, and also of definition, or formula, as expressing

26

PARTS OF ANIMALS

the structure or character of the object defined.
(Note here the application of the term logos to the
Final and Formal Causes, recorded in the foregoing
note. Another common meaning is seen especially
in the use of the dative λόγῳ (cf. the verb λογίζομαι
and its noun)—by reasoning, in thought, as opposed to
fact or action. (See 640 a 32, Art is the λόγος τοῦ
ἔργου ὁ ἄνευ τῆς ὕλης; at 646 b 2 we read of the
λόγος of a process of formation such as building, and
the λόγος of the house which is built; at 678 a 35
of the Aóyos which defines the essence of something,
and at 695 b 19 of “ the λόγος of the essence." At
639 b 15 the “ Cause for the sake of which "—the
Final Cause—is described as being a λόγος.)

Γένεσις, “ formation," or “ process of formation.”
Γίγνεσθαι, '' to be formed," “ to go through a process
of formation."

These are the translations which I normally use,
as more appropriate in a biological treatise than
“ coming into being," and the like.

The process of formation is of course closely con-
nected in Aristotle's thought with the doctrine of the
Four Causes.

Γένεσις is a process which, at any rate in biology,
results in the production of an actual object, a living
creature.

Γένεσις is also contrasted with οὐσία and φύσιςᾶ: the
order of things, we are told, in the process of formation
is the reverse of the order in reality. For example,
the bricks and mortar exist for the sake of the house

a Care should be taken not to regard φύσις as meaning
“the process of φύεσθαι.”

B 27.

ARISTOTLE

which is to be built out of them, but they and not it
come first in the order of time and fact. Aristotle
sums this up by saying that what comes last in the
process comes first in “ nature " (646 a 25).

Μόριον, “ part."

The term which occurs in the title of the treatise
and is traditionally rendered *' part " includes more
than is normally included in the English “ part of
the body." For instance, this would not normally
be applied to blood, but the term μόριον is applied
by Aristotle to all the constituent substances of the
body as well as to the limbs and organs. For him,
blood is one of the ζῴων μόρια (648 a2; see also
664a 0, 600 8). A striking instance of the use of
μόριον in this sense is the phrase τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ μόρια,
which are the subject of the next following note.

Τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ μόρια; “ the uniform parts.”
Τὰ ἀνομοιομερῆ μόρια» “ the non-uniform parts.”

Aristotle’s application of the term µόριον to both
these classes emphasizes the inclusiveness of its
meaning. As examples of the “ uniform " parts he
mentions (647 b 10) blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow,
semen, bile, milk, flesh—these are soft and fluid 4
ones; also bone, fish-spine, sinew, blood-vessel—
these are hard and solid ones. Of “ non-uniform ”
parts he gives as examples (640 b 20) face, hand, foot.

The relation of the “ uniform " parts to the “ non-
uniform "' he describes as follows (647 b 22 foll.) :

^ For the meaning of “ fluid” and “solid ” see below,
p. 32.

28

PARTS OF ANIMALS

(a) some of the uniform are the material out of
which the non-uniform are made (7e. each
instrumental part is made out of bones, sinews,
flesh, etc.) ;

(b) some act as the nutriment of (a) ;

(c) some are the residue of (b)—faeces, urine.

It is not possible to equate the two classes with the
later division into tissues and organs, since blood,
for instance, though “ uniform," is not a tissue ; the
term “organs,” however, corresponds closely with
Aristotle’s own description — rà ὀργανικὰ µέρη
(647 b 23), “ instrumental parts."

The practical difference between the two classes
is that each of the uniform parts has its own definite
character as a substance (in the modern sense), while
each of the non-uniform parts has its own definite
character as a conformation or organ. The heart is
the only part which belongs to both classes (647 a 25
foll.): it consists of one uniform part only, namely,
flesh ; but it also has essentially a definite configura-
tion, and thus it is a non-uniform part.

Three stages or “ degrees of composition," so far
as biology is concerned, are enumerated by Aristotle
(at 646 a 13 foll). What Aristotle seems to mean, |
though he has not expressed himself quite clearly,
is that there are three stages involved in the com-
position of compound bodies, namely,

(1) the δυνάμεις (see following note) ;
(2) the uniform parts ;
(3) the non-uniform parts ;

and finally, of course, out of the non-uniform parts

(4) the animal itself is composed.

29

ARISTOTLE

We have thus :

(1) the simplest sorts of matter ;

(2) the simplest organic substances compounded
out of the foregoing (having no definite size,
shape, or structure) ; '

(3) the instrumental parts of the body constructed
out of the foregoing (having definite size, shape,
and structure) ; and

(4) the organism as a whole, assembled out of the
foregoing.

Note.—For a description of the way in which the
term τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ has caused confusion in the accounts
of Anaxagoras's theories see Class. Qu., 1931, xxv. 34
following.

Δύναμις.

This is one of the most difficult terms to render in
English.

The specialized meaning of δυνάμει, ''potenti-
ally," as opposed to ἐνεργείᾳ, “ actually," is so well
known that there is no need to enlarge upon it here.
Nor need I discuss the mathematical meaning of
δύναμις. Other meanings need some comment.

(1) Δύναμις was the old technical term for what
were later to be called στοιχεῖα (elements). It
appears in the writings of the Hippocratic corpus
and in Plato's Timaeus. The best example of its
use in De partibus is at the beginning of Book II.
(646 α 15). The list of δυνάμεις included the sub-
stances known as τὸ ὑγρόν, τὸ ξηρόν, τὸ θερμόν, τὸ
ψυχρόν, τὸ πικρόν, τὸ γλυκύ, τὸ δριμύ, etc., ete. Only
the first four of these were regarded by Aristotle as
30

PARTS OF ANIMALS

the material of compound bodies: all the “ other
differences," he says, are consequent upon these.

The original meaning underlying this usage of the
term seems to have been ' strong substance of a
particular character." This would be very appro-
priate to τὸ δριμύ, τὸ πικρόν, etc. (see Περὶ ἀρχαίης
ἰητρικῆς). There is no notion here of the substance
having power in the sense of power to affect an
external body in a particular way. (This meaning
developed later.) If any effect did result, it would
be described simply as the presence of the strong
substance, and the remedy for it was to “ concoct "
the strong substance or otherwise to bring it into
a harmless condition by “ blending " it with other
substances.

(2) As each of the substances known as δυνάμεις
has its own peculiar character, sharply marked off
from the others, the meaning of “ peculiar and dis-
tinctive character " was naturally associated with the
term. This seems to be its meaning in 655 b 12:
ἐξ ἀνάγκης δὲ ταῦτα πάντα γεώδη καὶ στερεὰν έχει τὴν
φύσιν: ὅπλου γὰρ αὕτη δύναμις. Indeed, in this mean-
ing, δύναμις seems to be a slightly more emphatic
version of φύσις, with which it is often used in con-
junction (in Hippocrates, for instance), or in a parallel .
way as in the passage just cited. Compare also
651 b 21, where the marrow is asserted to be αἵματός
τις φύσις, not, as some suppose, τῆς γονῆς σπερματικὴ
δύναμις. Other instances of this use of δύναμις will
be found in De partibus.

(3) From this usage it is not far to the idiomatic,
pleonastic usage, e.g. :

678 a 18 ἡ τῶν ἐντέρων δύναμις almost = τὰ ἔντερα.

689 b 15 ἡ τῶν πτερῶν δύναμις.

31

ARISTOTLE
657a4 ἡ τῶν μυκτήρων δύναμις διφυής.

This is paralleled by a similar usage of dicts

663 a 34 ἡ τῶν κεράτων φύσις.
676 b 11 ἡ τῶν ἐντέρων φύσις.

(Other references for δύναμις: 640 a 24, 646 a 14,
b 17, 650 a 5, 651 b 21, 652 b 8, 12, 653 a 2, 655 b 12,
658 b 34. See further Gen. An., Loeb edn., Introd.
88 23 ff.).

Td ὑγρὸν καὶ τὸ ξηρόν, “ fluid substance and solid
substance,” ** the fluid and the solid.”

These are two of the δυνάμεις.

Following Ogle, I use these renderings as being
more in conformity with the definitions given by
Aristotle than “ the moist and the dry," which have
often been used. Actually neither pair of English
words quite expresses the Greek. Aristotle’s de-
finition of them (at De gen. et corr. 990 b 30) is this :

“ὑγρόν is that which is not limited by any limit of
its own but can be readily limited, ξηρόν is that
which is readily limited by a limit of its own but can
with difficulty be limited ’’—+z.e. of course by a limit
imposed from without.

He discusses the various senses in which these
terms are used at 649 b 9 following.

Περίττωμα, “ residue.”

This term I have translated throughout “ residue,”
32

PARTS OF ANIMALS

as being more literal and at the same time less mis-

leading than “ excrement.” “‘ Surplus " would have
been even better if the word had been a little more
manageable.

“ Residue ” is so called because it is that which is
left over when the living organism, by acting upon
the nutriment which it has taken, has provided itself
with a sufficient supply for its upkeep. Some of the
surplus will be useless material contained in the food
from the outset, or else has been produced during
the process of reducing the food into a condition
suitable for its purposes in the body. The useless
residues include the excrements. In order to appreci-
ate the status of the useful residues the outlines of
the processes through which the food passes must be
kept clearly in mind. Briefly, then, the food is
masticated in the mouth, then passed on to the
stomach and then the heart, where it is concocted ?
by means of heat—in other words, it is turned into
blood, which is the “ ultimate nourishment " ; and
this, when distributed into the blood-vessels, supplies
the body with nutrition. Generally, however, more
blood is produced than is necessary for the actual
upkeep of the body, and this surplus undergoes a
further stage of concoction, and is used by Nature
in various ways. Marrow isa residue ; so are semen,
catamenia, milk. Sometimes, when nutrition is
specially abundant, the surplus blood is concocted
into fat (lard and suet). And some of the blood,
reaching the extremities of the vessels in which it
travels, makes its way out in the form of nails, claws,
or hair. The Aristotelian doctrine of residues came
down to Shakespeare, as is shown by the passage

α See page 34.
99

ARISTOTLE

in Hamlet (111. iv.) where the Queen says to Hamlet:

Your bedded haire, like life in excrements,
Start up, and stand an end.

This theory, as applied to hair, is expounded by
Aristotle at 658 b 14 following, and modern biochemists
have reason for believing that some pigmentation in
animals, such as the black melanin of mammalian
hair, or the yellow xanthopterine of the butterfly's
wing, is physiologically a form of excretion.

35 66

** Concoct,” “ concoction.”

These terms, which have already appeared in
these notes, are used to translate πέσσειν, πέψις. The
Greek words are the same as those employed to
denote the process of ripening or maturing of fruit,
corn, and the like by means of heat—also that of
baking and cooking.

Terms sometimes associated with these are µεταβολή
and μεταβάλλειν. For example, at 650 a 5 we read
that πέψις and µεταβολή take place διὰ τῆς τοῦ θερμοῦ
δυνάμεως; and at 651 b 26, as the creatures grow
and get “matured,” the parts μεταβάλλει their
colour, and so do the viscera.

Ψυχή, Soul.”

The English word “ Soul," as will be seen, over-
emphasizes, when compared with ψυχή, certain
aspects of the Greek term, but it is by far the most
convenient rendering, and I have used it in pre-
ference to “ life " or “ vital principle."

It will be useful to have an outline of Aristotle's
general doctrine about Soul.

The different “ parts " or “ faculties ” of Soul can

34

PARTS OF ANIMALS

be arranged in a series in a definite order, so that the
possession of any one of them implies the possession
of all those which precede it in the list :

(1) nutritive Soul in all plants

(2) sentient Soul in all animals
(3) appetitive Soul \. :

(4) locomotive Soul lok someianimals
(5) rational Soul in man only

At 641 α 99 Aristotle speaks of “ parts” of the
Soul, and though he often uses this phrase, the
description he prefers is “ faculties.” In the passage
"which follows (641 a 33 foll. all except appetitive
Soul are mentioned. Sentient Soul is mentioned
again at 650 b 24, 667 b 23, 672 b 16.

Aristotle raises the question whether it is the
business of Natural science to deal with Soul in its
entirety, and concludes that it is not necessary, since
man is the only animal in which rational Soul is
found. Thus it is only some part or parts of Soul,
and not Soul in its entirety, which constitute animal
nature.

In the passage 641 a 14 following, Aristotle takes
for granted his doctrine about Soul, which is as
follows (De anima, Book II.). Animate bodies, bodies
“with Soul in them” (έμψυχα), are “ concrete sub-
stances " made up of matter and form. In this
partnership, of course, the body is the matter and the
Soul is the form. Thus Soul may be described as the
“form” or “realization” (ἐντελέχεια, “ actuality ”’)
of the animal (cf. De part., loc. cit.).

This statement, however, is elsewhere made more
precise. It is possible to distinguish two “ realiza-
tions " of an animal; for an animal “ has Soul in it”

B2 δα,

ARISTOTLE

even when it is asleep, but its full activity is not
evident until it is awake and about its business. We
must call Soul, then, the “ first realization " of the
animal, its waking life its “second realization."
This distinction does not concern us in the De partibus.
But an expansion of the definition is not irrelevant.
Aristotle states that the Soul is the first realization
of a body furnished with organs. The priority of
Soul over body is emphasized in the passage just
referred to (640 b 23—641 a 32), and in another in-
teresting passage (687 a 8 foll.) Aristotle maintains
that man has hands because he is the most intelli-
gent animal, and not, as some have said, the most
intelligent animal because he has hands.

With this is connected the question whether the
Soul is independent of the body; though it is not
raised in De partibus. As we have seen already, a
(Gov is a single concrete entity made up of Soul and
body, i.e. a certain form implanted in certain matter.
The matter can exist, for it did exist, apart from the
form ; and as the form that is implanted in all the
individuals of a species is one and the same form,
clearly it can exist apart from any one individual's
matter—though of course its existence is not in-
dependent of all the individuals’ matter. Further-
more, the form—the Soul—requires matter of a
particular kind: not any sort of matter will do.
From these considerations two conclusions seem to
follow: (1) that transmigration is impossible: a
human Soul cannot function in a hyena's body, any
more than the carpenter's art can be executed by
means of musical instruments; (2) the Soul cannot
function without a body at all; cannot, we may say,
exist (414 a 19).

36

PARTS OF ANIMALS

So far, so good. But Aristotle is not satisfied.
He feels the Soul is more than that. He finds a
loophole. There may be some “‘ part " of Soul (the
rational part) which is not the “ realization " of any
body. The Soul, besides being the form, the formal
Cause, of the body, is also its final Cause, and not
only that, but the motive Cause too of all the changes
originated in the body (De anima 415 b 7-28), for, as
we saw (p. 25), the three non-material Causes tend
to coalesce into one. This independent “ part " of
Soul “ comes into the body from without" (see De
gen. an. 736 b 25 foll.) and continues to exist after
the death of the body (see De anima 413 a 6, b 24 foll.,
430 a 99, etc.). All this, however, raises problems
not touched upon in De partibus; indeed Aristotle
himself offers no solution of them.

ap , ^ 3 / ` /
υχή, κρᾶσις, ἀπόκρισις, σύντηξις.

I have indicated above, in the note on δύναμις,
some of the older (Hippocratic) medical terminology
of which traces are to be found in the De partibus.
There is no room for an adequate discussion of such
terms and theories, and the following bare references
must suffice.

In the Hippocratic treatise Περὶ διαίτης the theory
is put forward that the human organism, body and
Soul alike, is composed of fire and water (which
really consist of “ the hot,” “ the solid," “ the cold,"
and “ the fluid *’)—the function of fire being to cause
motion, of water to provide nourishment. In ch. 35
we have a list of the different varieties of Blend
(κρῆσις, σύγκρησις) of fire and water which may be

3η

ARISTOTLE

found in the Soul in different individuals, and upon

the Blend its health and sensitivity ^ depend.

With these statements may be compared the
following passages in De partibus :

652 b 8 Some, says Aristotle, maintain that the
Soul zs fire; but it is better to say
that it subsists in some such material.
“ The hot " is indeed the most ser-
viceable material for the functions
which the Soul has to perform, and
these include nourishing and causing
motion.

647 b 30 foll. Here is a reference to the different
varieties of blood, and Aristotle tells
us which sort of blood is αἰσθητικώτερον
and which animals are on that account
φρονιμώτερα (cf. 650 b 24 and 686 b 28).
The phrase αἵματος κρᾶσις is actually
used at 686 a 9. (Cf. also 650 b 29, the
κρᾶσις in the heart ; 652 b 35, the parts
in the head are colder than the σύμ-
perpos κρᾶσις; 669 a 11, the κρᾶσις
of the body ; 673 b 26, its εὐκρασία.)

The term σύντηξις, which occurs frequently in the
Περὶ διαίτης, is found only once in the De partibus
at 677 a 14—bile is said to be a residue or σύντηξις.
Properly speaking, σύντηξις is the term applicable to
the '' colliquescence " or decay of the parts of the body
themselves. (Cf. σύντηγμα at De gen. an. 124 b 26
foll. ; also σύντηξις, 456 b 34; cf. also Platt's note
at the end of his translation of De gen. an.,on 724 b 27.)
The effect of the colliquescence is to produce an

a The adjective used is φρόνιμος.
38

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS

unhealthy ἀπόκρισις (abscession)—a very common
term in Περὶ διαίτης (see chh. 58 foll. throughout).
It occurs twice in De partibus. In both places it is
used of a περίττωμα. At 690a 9 the surplus earthy
matter ἀπόκρισιν λαμβάνει, and forms a continuous
nail or hoof. At 681b35 Aristotle speaks of the
place where the σπερματική or the περιττωματικὴ
ἀπόκρισις is effected; and here ἀπόκρισις seems to
mean simply “ act of excretion." The meaning of
the term seems both here and in Hippocrates to be
specially associated with περιττώματα, either useful
ones, or useless and even harmful ones. A great
deal of Περὶ διαίτης is taken up with suggestions for
getting rid of harmful ἀποκρίσεις.

The meaning of ἀπόκρισις is therefore wider than
“ excretion " or “ secretion," as used in their present
usual sense, though these are included among its
meanings.

Τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον, "the more and less," see
above, p. 19, and Gen. An. (Loeb), Introd. §§ 70 ff.

TRANSLATIONS OF ARISTOTLE’S ZOOLOGY

The history of the translation of Aristotle’s works
begins with the Nestorian Christians of Asia Minor,
who were familiar with the Greek language as their
service-books were written in it, and before the
coming of the Arabs they had translated some of the
works of Aristotle and Galen into Syriac. Before

39

Transla-
tions of
Aristotle’s
zoological
works.

ARISTOTLE

435, Ibas, who in that year was made Bishop of
Edessa, had translated into Syriac the commentaries
of Theodore on the works of Aristotle. Jacob, one
of Ibas's successors at Edessa (d. 708), translated the
Categories into Syriac, but a much earlier version had
been made by Sergios of Resh ‘Aina (d. 536), who
had studied Greek at Alexandria. In 765 the Nes-
torian physician Georgios was summoned to Bagdad
by the Caliph, and translated numerous Greek words
into Arabic for him. By the beginning of the ninth
century, translation was in full swing at Bagdad,
under the Caliphate of al-Mamun (813-833), son of
Harun-al-Rashid. The first leader of this school
of translators was the physician Ibn al-Batriq, who
translated the Historia animalium, the De partibus
animalium, and the De generatione animalium into
Arabic.

But it was through southern Italy, Sicily and Spain
that the transmission of Aristotle's works from the
Arabic into Latin was effected. Messina had been
recovered from the Saracens by 1060, and the whole
of Sicily was freed by 1091. Under the Norman
kings, Greeks, Saracens and Latins lived together
in one community, and the court was the meeting-
ground for eminent persons of all nations and
languages. The reconquest of Spain had begun in
the eighth century, so that here also an opportunity
offered for making the works of Greek science
available in Latin. Archbishop Raymond of Toledo
(1126-1151) and Bishop Michael of Tarazona (1119-
1151) were the patrons of the translators, who made
Toledo the centre of their activity. One of these
was Michael Scot.

There is in existence an Arabic translation of

40

PARTS OF ANIMALS

the zoological works, of which there is a ws. in
the British Museum." It is probable that this is the
translation made by Ibn al-Batriq, and that this
Arabic version is the original from which Michael
Scot made his Latin translation at Toledo. Michael
was, among his other accomplishments, astrologer to
Frederick II., King of Sicily, at his court at Palermo,
and before 1217 he had reached Toledo and was at
work there on his translations from the Arabic. His
De animalibus (a translation of the zoological works in
nineteen books) is one of his earliest works, and two
Mss. of it^ contain a note which gives a later limit
of 1990 for the work. Other evidence ^ establishes
that it was certainly finished before 1217, and it may
even be placed in the first decade of the century.
It is probable that Michael had as collaborator one
Andrew, canon of Palencia, formerly a Jew. One
of the earliest to make use of Michael's transla-
tions was Robert Grosseteste,’ Bishop of Lincoln
(d. 1253), one of the leading Aristotelian scholars
of the time, who quotes from Michael's version of

a B.M.Add. 7511 (13th-14th century). This is the ms.
referred to by Steinschneider, Die arabischen Übersetzungen
p. 64. as B.M. 437. I have seen this ws.

è Judging from the passages which Dr. R. Levy kindly
read for me in the Arabic ms., the Latin version is a close
translation from it. Also, the contents-preface which is found
prefixed to Michael Scot's translation corresponds exactly
with the preface which precedes the Arabic version in this
Ms. (see the B.M. catalogue, Catalogus codicum manuscrip-
torum orientalium, p. 215).

* One of them is ws. Caius 109, in the library of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. It is of the thirteenth
century.

4 See S. D. Wingate, The Medieval Latin Versions, p. 75.

ο Born at Stradbroke, Suffolk. A Franciscan.

4l

ARISTOTLE

De generatione.^ 'The De animalibus also formed the
basis of a commentary in twenty-six books by
Albertus Magnus." This was probably written soon
after the middle of the thirteenth century. Except
for the portions which appear in Albertus's com-
mentary, and the earlier part of the first chapter,°
Michael's version has never been printed in extenso.
Michael died in or before 1935, and is reputed to
have been buried, as he was born, in the lowlands of
Scotland.

About the same time, at the request of a pupil of
Albertus, St. Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274), who re-
quired more accurate versions for his commentaries
on the works of Aristotle, new translations, direct
from the Greek, were being undertaken by William
of Moerbeke.? William was born about 1215. He
became a Dominican, was confessor to Popes Clement
IV. and Gregory X., and was Archbishop of Corinth.
He acted as Greek secretary at the Council of Lyons
in 1274. He died in 1286. The earliest dated trans-
lation made by him is one of the De partibus animalium.
The date 1260 occurs in a ws. of it at Florence (Fae-
sulani 168), which also contains Hist. an., De progressu
an.,and De gen. an. This translation was made at
Thebes.

Among later Latin translators of the zoological

α According to Roger Bacon, Michael appeared at Oxford
in 1230, bringing with him the works of Aristotle in natural
history and mathematics.

» Ed. princeps, Rome, 1478; latest ed., H. Stadler,
1916-1921.

ο 639 a 1—640 a 20, printed by G. Furlani in Rivista
degli Studi Orientali, ix. (1922), pp. 246-249.

4 A small town south of Ghent on the borders of Flanders
and Brabant.

42

PARTS OF ANIMALS

works the names of two Greeks must be mentioned.
George of Trebizond (Trapezuntius), who was born
in Crete in 1395, visited Italy between 1430 and
1438, and was secretary to the humanist Pope
Nicholas V., an ardent Aristotelian. George’s work,
however, was hurried and not over-exact, and he,
together with his predecessors, was superseded by
his contemporary Theodore of Gaza, who was born
in Thessalonica about 1400, and was professor of
Greek at Ferrara in 1447. In 1450 Theodore was
invited by the Pope to go to Rome to make Latin
versions of Aristotle and other Greek authors. His
translation of the zoological works," dedicated to the
Pope, Sixtus IV., soon became the standard version,
and it is printed in the Berlin edition of Aristotle.

Translations of the De gen. were made by Augus-
tinus Niphus, of the University of Padua (1473-1546),
and of the De gen. and De incessu by Peter Alcyonius
(Venice, 1487-1527). The De gen. was also translated
by Andronicus Callixtus of Byzantium (d. 1478).
With the later Latin versions we need not here
concern ourselves, but something must be said of
the scientific workers who were inspired by Aristotle,
and of the translations into modern languages.

The Renaissance biologists show unmistakably the
difference in quality which there is between Aristotle's
physies and his biology. Hieronimo Fabrizio of
Acquapendente (1537-1619) knew and admired
Aristotle's work on embryology, and what is more,
himself carried out further important observations
on the same subject. His brilliant successor, William
Harvey (1578-1657), was a student of Aristotle, and

* [n eighteen books, excluding the spurious tenth book of
the Historia animalium.

43

Aristotle’s
successors,

ARISTOTLE

much of his inspiration came from that source.
William Harvey was the first to make any substantial
advance in embryology since Aristotle himself. But
this is more appropriate to the De generatione than
to the De partibus. In other departments of study,
however, during the seventeenth century, the
authority of Aristotle and the scholastie doctrine
with which he was identified were being combated
in the name of freedom, and thus it came about that
the zoological works also, which had been brought
to light by the dark ages, were allowed to pass back
into oblivion by the age of enlightenment. They were
not rediscovered until the end of the eighteenth
century by Cuvier (1769-1832) and Saint-Hilaire
(1805-1895) in the nineteenth.

Mopern EDITIONS

1. The Berlin edition of Aristotle, by Immanuel Bekker.
Vol. i. (pp. 639-697) includes P.A. Berlin, 1831.

la. The Oxford edition (a reprint of the preceding). Vol. v.
includes P.A. Oxford, 1837.

2. One-volume edition of Aristotle's works, by C. H. Weise
(pre-Bekker text). Leipzig, 1843.

3. The Leipzig edition. Vol. v. contains P.A., edited and
translated into German by A. von Frantzius. Leip-
zig, 1853.

4. The Didot edition. Vol. iii. includes P.A. Edited by
Bussemaker. Paris, 1854.

5. The Teubner edition. Edited by Bernhardt Langkavel.
Leipzig, 1968.

6. The Budé edition. Edited by Pierre Louis. With a
French translation and notes. Paris, 1956.

TRANSLATIONS WITHOUT TEXT

7. Thomas Taylor. English translation of Aristotle in ten
44

PARTS OF ANIMALS

volumes. Vol. vi. includes P.A. (pp. 3-163). London,
1810.

8. F. N. Titze. German translation of Book I. In his
Aristoteles über die wissenschaftliche Behandlungsart
der Naturkunde. Prague, 1819.

9. Anton Karsch. German translation. Stuttgart, 1855
(second ed., Berlin, 1911).

10. William Ogle. English translation, with notes. Lon-
don, 1882.

11. J. Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire. French translation, with
notes. Paris, 1885.

11. William Ogle. English translation, with notes (a re-
vision of No. 10). Oxford 1911.

12. Francisco Gallach Palés. Aristóteles: Obras com-
pletas. Vol. X contains De partibus and De incessu
animalium. Spanish translation, without notes. Vol.
Ixii. of Nueva Biblioteca Filosófica. Madrid, 1932.

Langkavel reproduces almost verbatim the Berlin
text, together with Bekker's apparatus, to which a
great deal of other matter has been added, including
some of Bekker's ws. notes in his copy of Erasmus's
edition, and some corrected reports of the readings
of the ws. E, which Langkavel himself inspected.
Also, there are some emendations proposed by
Bonitz.

Any English translator must stand very much .
indebted to the work of William Ogle, whose trans-
lation, originally published in 1882, was revised by
its author and republished in the Oxford series of
translations of Aristotle in 1911. It is not possible
to overrate the care and exactness with which this
piece of work was executed. I should like here to
acknowledge my own indebtedness to it, and I have
had its accuracy as a model before me. With re-
gard to style, it will be seen that I have aimed at pro-
ducing something rather different from Ogle's version.

45

ARISTOTLE

Tue TEXT

The mss. The manuscript authorities cited by Bekker for the
De partibus will be found on p. 50.

The dates of some of the mss. as given by different
scholars vary considerably : for details I refer the
reader to the various catalogues, and also to L. Ditt-
meyer’s edition of Hist. an. (Leipzig, 1907) and W. W.
Jaeger’s edition of De an. motu, etc. (Leipzig, 1913).

Restoration I have relied upon the apparatus of Bekker and
of the text. T angkavel for the readings of the Greek mss., except
for those of Z, the oldest parts of which I have collated
from photostats ^; and at several places I have in-
spected the ws. itself. In some places (e.g. 663 b 17,
685 a 2, 16) I found the reading had been defectively
reported. It is clear that a more reliable collation of
the chief mss. of De partibus is clearly needed. From
a different source I have attempted to restore intelligi-
bility to several corrupt passages with the aid of the
Arabic version and the Latin version of Michael
Scot, which represent an earlier stage of the Aristo-
telian text than our Greek mss. Among the passages
dealt with in this way are the passage at 654 b 14
following, which has been dislocated by glosses and
phrases imported from elsewhere, and the remark-
able passage about the structure of the Cephalopods
at 684 b 99 following, where considerable havoc has
been done to the text by references to a diagram
which were inserted at some period between the
date of the ws. from which the Arabic version was
made and that of the archetype of all our present
Greek mss. I have been able to restore this passage,
though not always the actual Greek words, by refer-
ence to the Arabic version and Michael Scot's Latin

a See additional note on p. 434.
46

PARTS OF ANIMALS

translation made from it. Dr. Reuben Levy has
most kindly read this passage for me in the 13th-14th
century Arabic ws. in the British Museum, Add. 7511.

For these two passages, and for a good many other
suspected places, I have consulted all the known wss.
of Michael Scot's version which are to be found in
this country. They are (excluding mss. which contain
merely abridgements or extracts) :

Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College 109
2 University Library li. 3. 16
2 S T Dd. 4. 30
Oxford, Merton College 278
„ Balliol College 252
London, British Museum Royal 12. C. XV
» » 334 44, ]arl. 40405

All these are of the thirteenth or fourteenth
century.

I have inspected at test places the following three
mss. of William of Moerbeke's version :

Oxford, Merton College 270
22 39 33 271
» Balliol College 250

William's translation was made from a Ms. or Mss.
which had already been infected by the corruptions
found in the Greek mss. which exist to-day.

I should like here to express my thanks to the
Librarians who so kindly made arrangements for me
to inspect the mss. under their care.

Where I have accepted the reading of the Berlin
edition, I have not given any record of the ws. vari-
ants. These are to be found in the apparatus criticus
of that edition and of Langkavel's edition.

a So far as I know, this ms. has not been mentioned in any
of the published lists of mss. of Michael Scot's De animalibus.

4T

Scope of
apparatus
criticus.

Punctua-
tion.

Short biblio-
graphy.

ARISTOTLE

I have endeavoured, except in the passage
691 b 28 to 695 a 22 in the fourth Book, to record
all places where I have departed from the text of
the Berlin edition, and I have given the source of
the reading which I have adopted. Where Bekker
himself introduced a reading different from that of
the mss., this is attributed to him by name.

I have not recorded all of the many passages in
which I have corrected the punctuation. The text
has been reparagraphed throughout.

REFERENCE

The following list includes authorities for state-
ments made in the Introduction, and books which
the student of the Aristotelian zoological works and
their history will find useful :

C. H. Haskins, Studies in the History of Medieval Science,
ed. 2, Cambridge, Mass., 1927.

W. Jaeger, Aristotle (English. tr. by R. Robinson), Oxford,
1934.

L. Leclerc, Histoire de la médecine arabe, Paris, 1876.

T. E. Lones, Aristotle's Researches in Natural Science,
London, 1912.

W. D. Ross, Aristotle, London, 1930.

J. E. Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship, Cam-
bridge, 1908-1921.

C. Singer, Studies in the History and Method of Science,
Oxford, 1921.

C. Singer, Greek Biology and Greek Medicine, Oxford, 1922.

M. Steinschneider, Die arabischen Übersetzungen aus dem
Griechischen (Beiheft XII. zum Centralblatt für
Bibliothekswesen), Leipzig, 1893.

M. Steinschneider, Die europüischen Übersetzungen aus dem
Arabischen, in Sitzungsberichte d. kais. Akad. der Wiss.,
exlix., Vienna, 1905.

D'Arcy W. Thompson, Growth and Form, Cambridge,
1917 (new ed., 1942).

48

PARTS OF ANIMALS

D’Arcy W. Thompson, Essay on “ Natural Science " in
The Legacy of Greece, Oxford, 1924.

S. D. Wingate, The Medieval Latin Versions of the Aristo-
telian Scientific Corpus, London, 1931.

F. Wüstenfeld, Die Übersetzungen arabischer Werke in das
Lateinische, in Abhandlungen der k. Gesell. d. Wiss.
zu Göttingen, xxii., 1877.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a great pleasure to acknowledge here the help
which I have received from many friends at Cambridge,
not only by way of reading typescript and proof and
by discussion, but also by the interest which they
have shown in the work and by their continuous
encouragement. The following have read the trans-
lation either in whole or in part : Prof. F. M. Corn-
ford, Professor of Ancient Philosophy ; Dr. F. H. A.
Marshall, Reader in Agricultural Physiology (who has
also kindly written the Foreword to this volume),
and Dr. Joseph Needham, Reader in Biochemistry.
I am under a particular obligation to my colleague
Mr. H. Rackham, who has read the whole translation
both in typescript and in proof. I am indebted
to Dr. Sydney Smith and a number of other friends `
for their kindness in discussing various points and
for reading certain passages. Dr. Reuben Levy,
Professor of Persian, has kindly read for me some
passages in the Arabic translation of the zoological
works. To all of these gentlemen, without whose
aid the work could not have been carried through,
I record my sincerest thanks.

The present (third) edition has again been revised.

Al

July 11th 1952

49

SIGLA

Parisinus regius 1853 (see p. 434)

Vaticanus graecus 261

Oxoniensis Coll. Corp. Chr. W.A. 2. 7 (see p. 434)

Vaticanus 260

Vaticanus graecus 1339

Laurentianus Mediceus 81. 1

Marcianus 200

Parisinus 1859

Parisinus 1921
Michael Scot’s Latin version, from my
own transcription.

vulg. The usual reading, as in the Berlin

edition.
Langkavel Emendations proposed by Langkavel in
his edition.

MBE DU πό CRIS nc cel

Ogle Emendations proposed by William Ogle
in footnotes to his translation.
Platt Emendations proposed by Arthur Platt,

either (a) in “ Notes on Aristotle," in
Journal of Philology, 1913, xxxii. 292
following, or (b) recorded by Ogle in
footnotes to his translation.
Suggestions in private communications
Mee δή is ES from bp Cornford and Mr.
ackham

Rackham.
Th(urot) Ch. Thurot, in Rev. Anch. 1867.9
Peck Emendations proposed by myself.

α Of over 100 textual points, many being of minor import-
ance, raised by Th., about a third had been dealt with in my
first edition (before Th.'s work came to my notice), some of
them more fully, by other scholars or myself. Some of Th.’s
other suggestions have been adopted in this edition.

50

The maister Cooke was called Concoction.
Spenser, Faerie Queen

ΑΡΙΣΤΟΤΕΛΟΥΣ

ΠΕΡΙ ZOION MOPION
A

. - / ` / € ,
639a Περὶ πᾶσαν θεωρίαν τε καὶ μέθοδον, ὁμοίως
ταπεινοτέραν τε καὶ τιμιωτέραν, δύο φαίνονται
τρόποι τῆς ἕξεως εἶναι, ὧν τὴν μὲν ἐπιστήμην
τοῦ πράγματος καλῶς ἔχει προσαγορεύειν, τὴν δ᾽
5 οἷον παιδείαν τινά. πεπαιδευμένου γάρ ἐστι κατὰ
τρόπον τὸ δύνασθαι κρῖναι εὐστόχως τί καλῶς ἢ μὴ
^ > / e / ^ M /
καλῶς ἀποδίδωσιν ὁ λέγων. τοιοῦτον γὰρ δή τινα
A ` e P 97» 5 = M A
καὶ τὸν ὅλως πεπαιδευμένον οἰόμες᾽ εἶναι, καὶ TO
πεπαιδεῦσθαι τὸ δύνασθαι ποιεῖν τὸ εἰρημένον.
^ , ^
πλὴν τοῦτον μὲν περὶ πάντων ὡς εἰπεῖν κριτικὀν
/ Pn, v PASA > 1 » ` `
10 Tiva νομίζομεν εἶναι ἕνα τὸν ἀριθμὸν ὄντα, τὸν δὲ
y, .
περί τινος φύσεως ἀφωρισμένης' εἴη γὰρ ἄν τις
^ ,
ἕτερος τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον τῷ εἰρημένῳ διακείμενος
περὶ μόριον,’ ὥστε δῆλον ὅτι καὶ τῆς περὶ φύσιν
ε P " P / . ε y e 7 / P `
ἱστορίας δεῖ τινὰς ὑπάρχειν ὅρους τοιούτους πρὸς
^ 5 / > / A / ^ ὃ
οὓς ἀναφέρων ἀποδέξεται τὸν τρόπον τῶν δεικνυ-
52

ARISTOTLE
PARTS: OF, ANIMALS

BOOK I

THERE are, as it seems, two ways in which a
person may be competent in respect of any study or
investigation, whether it be a noble one or a humble :
he may have either what can rightly be called a
scientific knowledge of the subject; or he may have
what is roughly described as an educated person’s
competence, and therefore be able to judge correctly
which parts of an exposition are satisfactory and
which are not. That, in fact, is the sort of person
we take the “‘ man of general education " to be ; his
“ education ” consists in the ability to do this. In
this case, however, we expect to find in the one
individual the ability to judge of almost all subjects,
whereas in the other case the ability is confined to
some special science ; for of course it is possible to
possess this ability for a limited field only. Hence
it is clear that in the investigation of Nature, or
Natural science, as in every other, there must first
of all be certain defined rules by which the ac-
ceptability of the method of exposition may be
tested, apart from whether the statements made

09.

ARISTOTLE

639 a , M ^ ^ » 2 / » e
15 μένων, χωρὶς τοῦ πῶς ἔχει τἀληθές, εἴτε οὕτως

εἴτε ἄλλως. λέγω Ò’ οἷον πότερον δεῖ λαμβάνοντας
μίαν ἑκάστην οὐσίαν περὶ ταύτης διορίζειν καθ᾽
ε / T M > / / ^ , ^
αὑτήν, οἷον περὶ ἀνθρώπου φύσεως ἢ λέοντος ἢ
` ^ / 3 9

βοὸς ἢ καί τινος ἄλλου Kal” ἕκαστον προχειριζο-
μένους, ἢ τὰ κοινῇ συμβεβηκότα πᾶσι κατά τι
\ e / : M M e c t EM,
κοινὸν vmoÜeuévovsz;-0AÀà γὰρ ὑπάρχει ταὐτὰ
90 πολλοῖς γένεσιν ἑτέροις οὖσιν ἀλλήλων, οἷον ὕπνος,
3 ή » / / M M ,
ἀναπνοή, αὔξησις, φθίσις, θάνατος, καὶ πρὸς τού-
€i ^ ^ ^ A
τοις ὅσα τοιαῦτα τῶν λειπομένων παθῶν τε καὶ

ὃ θέ 4 18 A \ \ 18 / / , Aé
ιαθέσεων' ἄδηλον γὰρ καὶ ἀδιόριστόν ἐστι λέγειν
νῦν περὶ τούτων: φανερὸν δ᾽ ὅτι καὶ κατὰ μέρος
M , M AA ^ 3 A λλ / , ,
μὲν λέγοντες περὶ πολλῶν ἐροῦμεν πολλάκις ταὐτά"
25 καὶ γὰρ ἵπποις καὶ κυσὶ καὶ ἀνθρώποις ὑπάρχει
τῶν εἰρημένων ἕκαστον, ὥστε ἐὰν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον τὰ
συμβεβηκότα᾽ λέγῃ τις, πολλάκις ἀναγκασθήσεται
περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν λέγειν, ὅσα ταὐτὰ μὲν ὑπάρχει τοῖς

s / ^ γα , . . / »
εἴδει διαφέρουσι τῶν ζῴων, αὐτὰ δὲ μηδεμίαν ἔχει
/, er 9 5 > \ T / .
30 διαφοράν. ἕτερα Ò ἴσως ἐστὶν οἷς συμβαίνει τὴν
639b μὲν κατηγορίαν ἔχειν τὴν αὐτὴν διαφέρειν δὲ τῇ
κατ᾽ εἶδος διαφορᾷ, οἷον ἡ τῶν ζῴων πορεία" οὐ
. / / ^ » y, M ^ A
yàp φαίνεται μία τῷ elder: διαφέρει γὰρ πτῆσις καὶ

νεῦσις καὶ βάδισις καὶ έρψις.

Διὸ δεῖ μὴ διαλεληθέναι πῶς ἐπισκεπτέον, λέγω
δ δὲ πότερον κοινῇ κατὰ γένος πρῶτον, εἶθ᾽ ὕστερον

1 τὰ συμβεβηκότα Ogle: τῶν συμβεβηκότων vulg.
54

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

represent the truth or do not. I mean, for instance,
should we take each single species severally by turn
(such as Man, or Lion, or Ox, or whatever it may
be), and define what we have to say about it, in and
by itself ; or should we first establish as our basis the
attributes that are common to all of them because
of some common character which they possess ?—there
being many attributes which are identical though
they occur in many groups which differ among them-
selves, e.g. sleep, respiration, growth, decay, death,
together with those other remaining affections and
conditions which are of a similar kind. I raise this,
for at present discussion of these matters is an obscure
business, lacking any definite scheme. However,
thus much is plain, that even if we discuss them
species by species, we shall be giving the same de-
scriptions many times over for many different animals,
since every one of the attributes I mentioned occurs
in horses and dogs and human beings alike. Thus,
if our description proceeds by taking the attributes
for every species, we shall be obliged to describe the
same ones many times over, namely, those which
although they occur in different species of animals are
themselves identical and present no difference what-
ever. Very likely, too, there are other attributes,
which, though they come under the same general
head, exhibit specific differences ;—for example, the
locomotion of animals: of which there are plainly
more species than one—e.g. flight, swimming, walk-
ing, creeping.

Therefore we must make up our minds about
the method of our investigation and decide whether
we will consider first what the whole group has in

55 '

ARISTOTLE

639 b M ^ 207 / ^ Dir 4 0.
περὶ τῶν ἰδίων θεωρητέον, ἢ καθ᾽’ ἕκαστον εὐθύς.

- ^ , / M > ^ , , \ ^
vOv yàp οὐ διώρισται περὶ αὐτοῦ, οὐδέ γε τὸ νῦν
A , / e
ῥηθησόμενον, οἷον πότερον καθάπερ οἱ μαθηματικοὶ
’ -
τὰ περὶ τὴν ἀστρολογίαν δεικνύουσιν, οὕτω δεῖ καὶ
' / ^ ^
τὸν φυσικὸν τὰ φαινόμενα πρῶτον τὰ περὶ τὰ ζῷα
. e »
10 θεωρήσαντα καὶ τὰ µέρη τὰ περὶ ἕκαστον, ἔπειθ᾽
ς ’ ` ^ / M ^ 24 P RA D
οὕτω λέγειν τὸ διὰ τί καὶ τὰς αἰτίας, 7) ἄλλως πως.
, \ ^ /
πρὸς δὲ τούτοις, ἐπεὶ πλείους ὁρῶμεν αἰτίας περὶ
M y M / n / 5 ο σ \
τὴν γένεσιν τὴν φυσικήν, otov τήν θ᾽ οὗ ἕνεκα καὶ
> \ ^ /
τὴν ὅθεν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως, διοριστέον καὶ
περὶ τούτων, ποία πρώτη καὶ δευτέρα πέφυκεν.
/ M / e^ λέ e / /
15 φαίνεται δὲ πρώτη ἣν λέγομεν ἕνεκά τινος" λόγος
a > \ > € , ε / » E
γὰρ οὗτος, ἀρχὴ δ᾽ ὁ λόγος ὁμοίως ev τε τοῖς
\ , ^ ’ ’
κατὰ τέχνην καὶ ἐν τοῖς φύσει συνεστηκόσιν. ἢ
^ \ ^ 74
γὰρ τῇ διανοίᾳ ἢ τῇ αἰσθήσει ὁρισάμενος ὁ μὲν
2 \ M ε / ε > > / M 3 102
ἰατρὸς τὴν ὑγίειαν ὁ Ò οἰκοδόμος τὴν οἰκίαν,
/ ` Lee a ii ^
ἀποδιδόασι τοὺς λόγους καὶ τὰς αἰτίας οὗ ποιοῦσιν
ε / \ / / e ^ 2
ἑκάστου, καὶ διότι ποιητέον οὕτως. μᾶλλον ὃ
T^ \ > ^ ^
90 ἐστὶ τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα καὶ τὸ καλὸν ἐν τοῖς τῆς φύσεως
» A , ^ ^ / ` > 3 > /
ἔργοις ἢ ἐν τοῖς τῆς τέχνης. τὸ δ᾽ ἐξ ἀνάγκης
^ ^ M / /
οὐ πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει τοῖς Kata φύσιν ὁμοίως, εἰς

a This point is resumed and decided below, 644 a 23 ff.,
645 b 2 ff.
^ * Causes." See Introduction, pp. 24 ff.

¢ * Formation." See Introduction, pp. 27 f.

4 i.e. the *' final " cause.

e i.e. the “‘ motive or “ efficient " cause.

f See Introduction, pp. 26 f. 9 Cf. 645 a 24.

56

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. ι.

common, and afterwards the specific peculiarities ;
or begin straightway with the particular species.?
Hitherto this has not been definitely settled. And
there is a further point which has not yet been
decided: should the student of Nature follow the
same sort of procedure as the mathematician follows
in his astronomical expositions — that is to say,
should he consider first of all the phenomena which
occur in animals, and the parts of each of them, and
having done that go on to state the reasons and the
causes; or should he follow some other procedure ?
Furthermore, we see that there are more causes?
than one concerned in the formation^ of natural
things: there is the Cause for the sake of which the
thing is formed,? and the Cause to which the begin-
ning of the motion is due.^ Therefore another point
for us to decide is which of these two Causes stands
first and which comes second. Clearly the first is
that which we call the “ Final " Cause—that for the
sake of which the thing is formed—since that is
the logos? of the thing—its rational ground, and
the logos is always the beginning for products of
Nature as well as for those of Art. The physician
or the builder sets before himself something quite
definite —the one, health, apprehensible by the
mind, the other, a house, apprehensible by the
senses; and once he has got this, each of them
can tell you the causes and the rational grounds
for everything he does, and why it must be done
as he doesit. Yet the Final Cause (purpose) and the
Good (Beautiful) ? is more fully present in the works
of Nature than in the works of Art. And moreover
the factor of Necessity is not present in all the
works of Nature in a similar sense. Almost all

oT

ARISTOTLE

639 b
A ^
ο πειρωνται πάντες σχεδὸν τοὺς λόγους ἀνάγειν,

3 / ^ ^
οὐ διελόμενοι ποσαχῶς λέγεται τὸ ἀναγκαῖον.
ε / \ ` \ e ^ ^ > , ` , ,
ὑπάρχει δὲ τὸ μὲν ἁπλῶς τοῖς ἀιδίοις, τὸ Ò ἐξ
\ ^ ^

2; ὑποθέσεως καὶ τοῖς ἐν γενέσει πᾶσιν ὥσπερ ἐν
τοῖς τεχναστοῖς, οἷον οἰκίᾳ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁτῳοῦν
τῶν τοιούτων. ἀνάγκη δὲ τοιάνδε τὴν ὕλην ὑπ-

/ 8 9 ὁ R y / M /
ἄρξαι εἰ ἔσται οἰκία ἢ ἄλλο τι τέλος: καὶ γενέσθαι
\ ^ ^ ^ `
τε καὶ κινηθῆναι δεῖ τόδε πρῶτον, εἶτα τόδε, καὶ
- M M ^ ^ M
τοῦτον δὴ τὸν τρόπον ἐφεξῆς μέχρι τοῦ τέλους καὶ
30 οὗ ἕνεκα γίνεται ἕκαστον καὶ ἔστιν. ὡσαύτως δὲ
` , ^ ^
640a καὶ ἐν τοῖς φύσει γινομένοις. ἀλλ᾽ Ò τρόπος τῆς
> / M ^ > / 2i T? ^
ἀποδείξεως καὶ τῆς ἀνάγκης ἕτερος ἐπί τε τῆς

^ A ^ ^ ^

φυσικῆς καὶ τῶν θεωρητικῶν ἐπιστημῶν. (εἴρηται
Ò ἐν ἑτέροις περὶ τούτων.) ἡ γὰρ ἀρχὴ τοῖς μὲν τὸ
» ^ M ` 5 / , . \ / > , M €
ὄν, τοῖς δὲ τὸ ἐσόμενον' ἐπεὶ γὰρ τοιόνδ᾽ ἐστὶν ἡ

ε / Λ €T. > / /Q5 ^ ^ /
5 ὑγίεια ἢ ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἀνάγκη τόδ᾽ εἶναι ἢ γενέσθαι,
> > * , \ 109 » \ b! / , ^ 3
ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐπεὶ τόδ᾽ ἐστὶν ἢ γέγονεν, ἐκεῖνο ἐξ

a “ Absolute," i.e. simple or unconditional necessity,
belongs to the “‘ eternal things," such as the heavenly bodies
or the eternal truths of mathematics. For further details
see De gen. et corr. 337 b 14 ff.

ὁ At Met. 1025 b ff. Aristotle makes a threefold classifica-
tion of the sciences into (a) theoretical (contemplative),
(b) practical, (c) productive. ‘The result of (a) is knowledge
only, of (0) knowledge and action, of (c) knowledge, action,
and some article or product. The three “ theoretical ”
sciences are theology (1.6. metaphysics), mathematics, and
physics (natural science). In the present passage, however,
Aristotle contrasts natural science with the “ theoretical "
sciences. ‘This is because he is considering Nature as a
craftsman whose craft or science belongs to the third class—
the '' productive" sciences. Our study of Nature's science

58

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

philosophers endeavour to carry back their explana-
tions to Necessity ; but they omit to distinguish the
various meanings of Necessity. There is “ absolute "
Necessity,” which belongs to the eternal things ; and
there is “ conditional " Necessity, which has to do
with everything that is formed by the processes of
Nature, as well as with the products of Art, such as
houses and so forth. If a house, or any other End,
is to be realized, it is necessary that such and such
material shall be available ; one thing must first be
formed, and set in motion, and then another thing ;
and so on continually in the same manner up to the
End, which is the Final Cause, for the sake of which
every one of those things is formed and for which it
exists. The things which are formed in Nature are
in like case. Howbeit, the method of reasoning
in Natural science and also the mode of Necessity
itself is not the same as in the Theoretical sciences.
(I have spoken of this matter in another treatise.)
They differ in the following way.^ In the Theoretical
sciences, we begin with what already zs; but in
Natural science with what zs going to be: thus, we say,
Because that which is going to be—health, perhaps, or
man—has a certain character, therefore of necessity
some particular thing, P, must be, or must be formed ;
not, Because P is now, or has been formed, therefore
the other thing (health, or man) of necessity is now
may be a *' theoretical " science, but Nature's science itself
is ** productive."

e The reasoning process in a “ theoretical" science, e.g.
mathematics, begins, say, with A, and then deduces from it
the consequences B, C, D. In a *' productive " science,
e.g. building, it begins with the house which is to be built,
D, and works backwards through the preliminary stages

which must be realized in order to produce the house,
C,B, A. Cf. below, 640 a 16 ff.
ο 50

640 a

10

15

ARISTOTLE

De > M A, oM 3093) y , 3
ανάγκης ἐστὶν ἢ ἔσται. οὐδ᾽ ἔστιν εἰς ἀίδιον ovv-
^ ^ ^ > /
αρτῆσαι τῆς τοιαύτης ἀποδείξεως τὴν ἀνάγκην,

er > > ^ > A 932 , / e ,Ώ» > /
WOT εἰπεῖν, ἐπεὶ τόδ᾽ ἐστίν, ὅτι τόδ᾽ ἐστίν. δι-
, /
ώρισται δὲ καὶ περὶ τούτων ἐν ἑτέροις, καὶ ποίοις
ε / M ^ ; 9 ak
ὑπάρχει καὶ ποῖα ἀντιστρέφει καὶ διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν.
Δεῖ δὲ μὴ λεληθέναι καὶ πότερον. προσήκει λέγειν,
ὥσπερ οἱ πρότερον ἐποιοῦντο τὴν θεωρίαν, πῶς
ἕκαστον γίνεσθαι πέφυκε μᾶλλον ἢ πῶς ἔστιν.
, / ^ »
οὐ γάρ τι μικρὸν διαφέρει τοῦτο ἐκείνου. ἔοικε
2 , ^ /
δ᾽ ἐντεῦθεν ἀρκτέον εἶναι (καθάπερ καὶ πρότερον
» 7 a λ
εἴπομεν, ὅτι πρῶτον τὰ φαινόμενα ληπτέον περὶ
e
ἕκαστον γένος, εἶθ᾽ οὕτω τὰς αἰτίας τούτων
/ ^ /
λεκτέον) καὶ περὶ γενέσεως: μᾶλλον γὰρ τάδε
/ 3 / >
συμβαίνει καὶ περὶ τὴν οἰκοδόμησιν ἐπεὶ τοιόνδ
3 M A Ss ^ > / ΝΛ 7 2 8 M € y rp e
ἐστὶ τὸ εἶδος τῆς οἰκίας, ἢ τοιόνδ᾽ ἐστὶν ἡ οἰκία ὅτι
/ ^ I
γίνεται οὕτως. ἡ yàp γένεσις ἕνεκα τῆς οὐσίας
^ /
ἐστίν, ἀλλ᾽ οὐχ ἡ οὐσία ἕνεκα τῆς γενέσεως. διόπερ

o Ἠμπεδοκλῆς οὐκ ὀρθῶς εἴρηκε λέγων ὑπάρχειν

πολλὰ τοῖς ζῴοις διὰ τὸ συμβῆναι οὕτως ἐν τῇ
γενέσει, οἷον καὶ τὴν ῥάχιν τοιαύτην ἔχειν ὅτι
στραφέντος καταχθῆναι συνέβη, ἀγνοῶν πρῶτον μὲν
ὅτι δεῖ τὸ σπέρμα τὸ συνιστὰν' ὑπάρχειν τοιαύτην

1 συνιστὰν Platt: συστὰν vulg.

a Though of course this Necessity has its place in natural
science (see 642 a 31 ff.). It is, however, not the only sort
of Necessity in Natural science, and not the paramount one.

ὃ See De gen. et corr. 331 b 25 ff. An example of a non-
convertible proposition is: Foundations are necessary for a
house to be built. You cannot say, “ If foundations are laid
a house must of necessity be built," because it is not “ ab-
solutely " and always necessary that a house should be built.

* Cf. Plato, Philebus 54 a-c.

60

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

or wil be in the future.^ Nor, in a process of
reasoning of this kind, is it possible to trace
back the links of Necessity to eternity, so as to say,
Because A is, therefore Z is. I have, however, dis-
cussed these matters in another work,? and I there
stated where either kind of Necessity applies, which
propositions involving Necessity are convertible, and
the reasons why.

We must also decide whether we are to discuss
the processes by which each animal comes to be
formed—which is what the earlier philosophers
studied —or rather the animal as it actually is.
Obviously there is a considerable difference between
the two methods. 1 said earlier that we ought first
to take the phenomena that are observed in each
group, and then go on to state their causes. This
applies just as much to the subject of the process of
formation: here too we ought surely to begin with
things as they are actually observed to be when
completed. Even in building the fact is that the
particular stages of the process come about because
the Form of the house is such and such, rather than
that the house is such and such because the process
of its formation follows a particular course: the
process is for the sake of the actual thing, the thing
is not for the sake of the process.^ So Empedocles
was wrong when he said that many of the character-
istics which animals have are due to some accident
in the process of their formation, as when he
accounts for the vertebrae of the backbone by say-
ing “ the fetus gets twisted and so the backbone
is broken into pieces ": he was unaware (a) that
the seed which gives rise to the animal must to

4 Emped. frag. 97 (Diels, Fragmente?, 31 B 97).
61,

ARISTOTLE

640 a
ἔχον δύναμιν, εἶθ᾽ ὅτι τὸ ποιῆσαν πρότερον ὑπῆρχεν

25 οὐ µόνον τῷ λόγῳ ἀλλὰ καὶ τῷ χρόνῳ" γεννᾷ γὰρ ὁ
ἄνθρωπος ἄνθρωπον, ὥστε διὰ τὸ ἐκεῖνον τοιόνδ᾽
εἶναι ἡ γένεσις τοιάδε συμβαίνει τῳδί. [ὁμοίως
δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν αὐτομάτως δοκούντων γίνεσθαι
καθάπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν τεχναστῶν: ἔνια γὰρ' καὶ ἀπὸ
ταὐτομάτου γίνεται ταὐτὰ τοῖς ἀπὸ τέχνης, οἷον

30 ὑγίεια. ὧν' μὲν οὖν προὐπάρχει τὸ ποιητικὸν
[ὅμοιον],᾽ οἷον 9 ἀνδριαντοποιητική, οὐ [γὰρ] yi-
νεται αὐτόματον. ἡ δὲ τέχνη λόγος τοῦ ἔργου ὁ
ἄνευ τῆς. ὕλης ἐστιν. καὶ τοῖς ἀπὸ τύχης ὁμοίως:
ὡς γὰρ ἡ τέχνη ἔχει, οὕτω γίνεται. ]’ διὸ μάλιστα
μὲν λεκτέον ὡς ἐπειδὴ τοῦτ᾽ ἦν τὸ ἀνθρώπῳ εἶναι,

85 διὰ τοῦτο ταῦτ᾽ ἔχει: οὐ γὰρ ἐνδέχεται εἶναι ἄνευ
τῶν μορίων τούτων. εἰ δὲ μή, ὃ τι ἐγγύτατα
τούτου, καὶ ἢ ὅτι ὅλως ἀδύνατον ἄλλως; ἢ καλῶς

640 b γε οὕτως. ταῦτα δ᾽ ἕπεται: ἐπεὶ Ò ἔστι τοιοῦτον,
τὴν γένεσιν ὡδὶ καὶ τοιαύτην συμβαίνειν ἀναγ-
καῖον' διὸ γίνεται πρῶτον τῶν μορίων τόδε, εἶτα
τόδε. καὶ τοῦτον δὴ τὸν τρόπον ὁμοίως ἐπὶ πάν-

-.των τῶν φύσει συνισταμένων.

5 Οἱ μὲν οὖν ἀρχαῖοι καὶ πρῶτοι φιλοσοφήσαντες

ἔνια γὰρ om. 21.

ὧν Z: τῶν vulg.

om. Zt,

* 4 Z: om. vulg.

5 om. Z.

$ ὁμοίως (l. 27) . . . γίνεται, ex Met. 1032-1034 exorta,

olim ut vid. in marg. 640 b 4 adscripta ; inepta seclusi.
7 ὅτι ὅλως 21: ὅλως ὅτι à. à. vulg.

ore bM

* i.e. the same character as the animal which it is to pro-
duce. For dynamis see Introduction, pp. 30 ff.
ὃ No doubt a marginal note appended to 640 b 4.

62

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

begin with have the appropriate specific character ^ ;
and (b) that the producing agent was pre-existent :
it was chronologically earlier as well as logically
earlier : in other words, men are begotten by men,
and therefore the process of the child's formation is
what it is because its parent was a man. [Similarly
too with those that appear to be formed spontane-
ously, just as with those produced by the arts; for
some that are formed spontaneously are identical
with those produced by art, e.g. health. As for those
things whose producing agent is pre-existent, e.g. the
art of statuary, no spontaneous formation occurs. Art
is the logos of the article without the matter. And
similarly with the products of chance: they are
formed by the same process that art would employ.] ^
So the best way of putting the matter would be to
say that because the essence of man is what it is,
therefore a man has such and such parts, since there
cannot be a man without them. If we may not say
this, then the nearest to it must do, viz. that there
cannot be a man at all otherwise than with them, or,
that it is well that a man should have them. And
upon this these considerations follow : Because manis
such and such, therefore the process of his formation
must of necessity be such and such and take place
in such a manner; which is why first this part is
formed, then that. And thus similarly with all the
things that are constructed by Nature.

Now those who were the first to study Nature in

69.

640 b

10

15

20

25

ARISTOTLE

περὶ φύσεως περὶ τῆς ὑλικῆς ἀρχῆς καὶ τῆς τοι-
\
abrns. αἰτίας ἐσκόπουν, τίς καὶ ποία τις, καὶ πῶς
ἐκ ταύτης γίνεται τὸ ὅλον, καὶ τίνος κινοῦντος, οἷον
νείκους 7 φιλίας ἡ νοῦ ἢ τοῦ αὐτομάτου, τῆς δ᾽
ὑποκειμένης ὕλης. τοιάνδε τινὰ φύσιν ἐχούσης ἐξ
ἀνάγκης, οἷον τοῦ μὲν πυρὸς. θερμήν, τῆς δὲ γῆς
ψυχράν, καὶ τοῦ μὲν κούφην, τῆς δὲ βαρεῖαν. οὕτως
γὰρ καὶ τὸν κόσμον γεννῶσιν. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ
τὴν τῶν ζῴων καὶ τῶν φυτῶν γένεσιν; λέγουσιν,
otov! ἐν τῷ σώματι ῥέοντος μὲν τοῦ ὕδατος κοιλίαν
γενέσθαι καὶ πᾶσαν ὑποδοχὴν τῆς τε τροφῆς καὶ τοῦ
περιττώματος, τοῦ δὲ πνεύματος -διαπορευθέντος
τοὺς μυκτῆρας ἀναρραγῆναι. ὁ δ᾽ ἀὴρ καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ
ὕλη τῶν σωμάτων ἐστίν' ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων γὰρ
σωμάτων συνιστᾶσι τὴν φύσιν πάντες. εἰ δ᾽ ἔστιν
ὁ ἄνθρωπος καὶ τὰ CHa φύσει καὶ τὰ μόρια αὐτῶν,
λεκτέον ἂν περὶ σαρκὸς εἴη καὶ ὀστοῦ καὶ αἵματος
καὶ τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν ἁπάντων, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν
ἀνομοιομερῶν, οἷον προσώπου, χειρός, ποδός, ᾗ
τε τοιοῦτον ἕκαστόν ἐστιν αὐτῶν καὶ κατὰ ποίαν
δύναμιν. οὐ γὰρ ἱκανὸν τὸ ἐκ τίνων ἐστίν, οἷον
πυρὸς ἢ γῆς, ὥσπερ κἂν εἰ περὶ κλίνης ἐλέγομεν 9]
τινος ἄλλου τῶν τοιούτων, ἐπειρώμεθα μᾶλλον ἂν
διορίζειν τὸ εἶδος αὐτῆς ἡ τὴν ὕλην, οἷον τὸν χαλκὸν

1 ὅτι post οἷον vulg.: del. Ogle.

* As Empedocles and Anaxagoras, whose attempts to
discover the ‘“‘ material” and the “ efficient ” causes are
mentioned a few lines below. See also Met. 983 b 6 ff.

o “ Material " cause: see Introduction, pp. 24 ff.

ο “ Residue 7: lit. “‘ surplus" ; see Introduction, pp. 32 ff,

ου Hippocrates, Περὶ διαίτης, i. 9.

e * Parts" : see Introduction, pp. 28 ff.

64

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

the early days ^ spent their time in trying to discover
what the material principle or the material Cause ®
was, and what it was like ; they tried to find out
how the Universe is formed out of it; what set
the process going (Strife, it might be, or Friendship,
Mind, or Spontaneity); assuming throughout that
the underlying material had, by necessity, some
definite nature : e.g. that the nature of Fire was hot,
and light ; of Earth, cold, and heavy. At any rate,
that is how they actually explain the formation of
the world-order. In a like manner they describe the
formation of animals and plants, saying (e.g.) that the
stomach and every kind of receptacle for food and for
residue ° is formed by the water flowing in the body,
and the nostril openings are forcibly made by the
passage of the breath.? Air and water, of course,
according to them, are the material of which the body
is made: they all say that Nature is composed of
substances of this sort. Yet if man and the animals
and their parts’ are products of Nature, then account
must be taken of flesh, bone, blood, in fact of all the
“uniform parts," f and indeed of the “ non-uniform
parts " too, viz. face, hand, foot; and it must be
explained how it comes to pass that each of these is
characterized as it is, and by what force this is effected.
It is not enough to state simply the substances out of
which they are made, as “ Out of fire," or “ Out of
earth." If we were describing a bed or any other
like article, we should endeavour to describe the form
of it rather than the matter (bronze, or wood)—or, at

f “Uniform " and “non-uniform " : see Introduction, pp.
28 ff. The distinction between “uniform” and “‘ non-uniform ”
parts is, historically, the predecessor of the distinction be-
tween “ tissues " and “ organs."

65:

ARISTOTLE

640 b Ν A ’ > \ / / ^ / , .
ἢ τὸ ξύλον, εἰ δὲ μή, τήν γε τοῦ συνόλου" κλίνη γὰρ

/ 9% A -^ , P. σ “a A ^
τόδε ἐν τῷδε ἢ τόδε τοιόνδε, ὥστε κἂν περὶ τοῦ
» ^ . 4 .
σχήματος εἴη λεκτέον, καὶ ποῖον τὴν ἰδέαν: ἢ γὰρ
A M . , / ^ € ^
κατὰ τὴν μορφὴν φύσις κυριωτέρα τῆς ὑλικῆς
φύσεως.
, \ > ^ 4 A ^ , e /
so Ei μὲν οὖν τῷ σχήματι καὶ τῷ χρώματι ἕκαστόν
^ . ^ ’ ^
ἐστι τῶν τε ζώων καὶ τῶν μορίων, ὀρθῶς ἂν
’ P / A [74 ε -
Δημόκριτος λέγοι' φαίνεται γὰρ οὕτως ὑπολαβεῖν.
φησὶ γοῦν παντὶ δῆλον εἶναι οἷόν τι τὴν μορφήν
, ε » e + , ^ ^ ,
ἐστιν ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ὡς ὄντος αὐτοῦ τῷ τε σχήματι
καὶ τῷ χρώματι γνωρίμου. καίτοι καὶ o τεθνεὼς
» M , A ^ ’ / 5 2 e
35 ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν τοῦ σχήματος μορφήν, ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως
᾽ 5 z » > > ’ ^ ^
οὐκ ἔστιν ἄνθρωπος. ἔτι δ᾽ ἀδύνατον εἶναι χεῖρα
ε ^ , T ^ - ’ .
ὁπωσοῦν διακειμένην, οἷον χαλκῆν ἢ ξυλίνην, πλὴν
641 a ὁμωνύμως, ὥσπερ τὸν γεγραμμένον ἰατρόν. οὐ γὰρ
^ ^ “
δυνήσεται ποιεῖν τὸ ἑαυτῆς ἔργον, ὥσπερ οὐδ᾽ αὐλοὶ
^ 2
λίθινοι τὸ ἑαυτῶν ἔργον, οὐδ᾽ 6 γεγραμμένος ἰατρός.
ὁμοίως δὲ τούτοις οὐδὲ τῶν τοῦ τεθνηκότος μο-
/ PESE » = / > / ’ 5 P
5 ρίων οὐδὲν ἔτι τῶν τοιούτων ἐστί, λέγω δ᾽ οἷον
, , , / Ss € ^ » A `
ὀφθαλμός, χείρ. λίαν οὖν ἁπλῶς εἴρηται, καὶ τὸν
αὐτὸν τρόπον ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ τέκτων λέγοι περὶ χειρὸς
€ ε
ξυλίνης. οὕτως γὰρ καὶ οἱ φυσιολόγοι τὰς γενέσεις
καὶ τὰς αἰτίας τοῦ σχήματος λέγουσιν. ὑπὸ τίνων
^ 3 / / 5 2 » ε .
γὰρ ἐδημιουργήθησαν δυνάμεων; ἀλλ᾽ ἴσως ὁ μὲν

/ m / ^ / NS. ον | WT
10 τεκτων ερευ πέλεκυν 7) τρυπανον, O ὃ αερα και γην,

a See Diels, Fragmente?, 68 B 165.
> i.e. the early writers on ** Nature.”

66

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

any rate, the matter, if described, would be described
as belonging to the concrete whole. For example,
“a bed” is a certain form in certain matter, or,
alternatively, certain matter that has a certain form ;
so we should have to include its shape and the manner
of its form in our description of it—because the
“ formal ”’ nature is of more fundamental importance
than the “ material " nature.

If, then, each animal and each of its parts is what it
is in virtue of its shape and its colour, what Demo-
critus says will be correct, since that was apparently
his view, if one understands him aright when he says
that it is evident to everyone what “man” is like as
touching his shape, for it is by his shape and his
colour that a man may be told.^ Now a corpse has
the same shape and fashion as a living body ; and
yet it is not a man. Again, a hand constituted in
any and every manner, e.g., a bronze or wooden
one, is not a hand except in name; and the same
applies to a physician depicted on canvas, or a flute
carved in stone. None of these can perform the
functions appropriate to the things that bear those
names. Likewise, the eye or the hand (or any other
part) of a corpse is not really an eye or a hand.
Democritus's statement, therefore, needs to be quali-
fied, or a carpenter might as well claim that a hand
made of wood really was a hand. The physiologers,?
however, when they describe the formation and the
causes of the shape of animal bodies, talk in this
selfsame vein. Suppose we ask the carver “ By what
agency was this hand fashioned? " Perhaps his
answer will be “ By my axe” or “ By my auger,”
just as if we ask the physiologer '' By what agency
was this body fashioned ? " he will say “ By air " and

c2 67.

ARISTOTLE
641a
M / € / 3 ^ ε M » 3 ^
πλὴν βέλτιον ὁ τέκτων" οὐ γὰρ ἱκανὸν ἔσται αὐτῷ
τὸ τοσοῦτον εἰπεῖν, ὅτι ἐμπεσόντος τοῦ ὀργάνου
` M ^ , / ` M 3 / d » \ /
τὸ μὲν κοῖλον ἐγένετο τὸ δὲ ἐπίπεδον, ἀλλὰ διότι
,
τὴν πληγὴν ἐποιήσατο τοιαύτην, καὶ τίνος ἕνεκα,
- `
ἐρεῖ τὴν αἰτίαν, ὅπως τοιόνδε ἢ τοιόνδε ποτὲ τὴν
μορφὴν γένηται.
^ / e > > ~ / M e
15 Δῆλον τοίνυν ὅτι οὐκ ὀρθῶς λέγουσι, καὶ ὅτι
λεκτέον ὡς τοιοῦτον τὸ ζῷον, καὶ περὶ ἐκείνου καὶ
τί καὶ ποῖόν τι καὶ τῶν μορίων ἑκάστου, ὥσπερ
καὶ περὶ τοῦ εἴδους τῆς κλίνης.
, M ^ fama) S. am ^ , ^ A z
Εἰ δὴ τοῦτό ἐστι ψυχὴ ἢ ψυχῆς µέρος ἢ μὴ ἄνευ
- 2 / ^ , / ^/ , IQA
ψυχῆς (ἀπελθούσης γοῦν οὐκέτι ζῷόν ἐστιν, οὐδὲ
20 τῶν μορίων οὐδὲν τὸ αὐτὸ λείπεται, πλὴν τῷ
, / / \ / ^
σχήματι μόνον, καθάπερ τὰ μυθευόμενα λιθοῦσθαι),
εἰ δὴ ταῦτα οὕτως, τοῦ φυσικοῦ περὶ ψυχῆς ἂν εἴη
λέγειν καὶ εἰδέναι, καὶ εἰ μὴ πάσης, κατ᾽ αὐτὸ
^ > S ^ A ^ M y. e 2
τοῦτο καθ᾽ ô τοιοῦτο τὸ ζῷον, καὶ τί ἐστιν ἡ ψυχή,
ἢ αὐτὸ τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, καὶ περὶ τῶν συμβεβη-
25 κότων κατὰ τὴν τοιαύτην αὐτῆς οὐσίαν, ἄλλως τε
καὶ τῆς φύσεως διχῶς λεγομένης καὶ οὔσης, τῆς
` ε e ^ > e 9 DF S e M
μὲν ὡς ὕλης, τῆς Ò ὡς οὐσίας: καὶ ἔστιν αὕτη καὶ
ὡς ἡ κινοῦσα καὶ ὡς τὸ τέλος" τοιοῦτον δὲ τοῦ ζῴου

1 ἑκάστου Peck: ἕκαστον vulg.

a Or, “ reason’; see Introduction, p. 24.
ὃ See above, 640 b 26.
ο ** Sou] " : see Introduction, pp. 34 ff.
4 Or. motive, ^

68

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

“ΡΥ earth." But of the two the craftsman will give
a better answer, because he will not feel it is sufficient
to say merely that a cavity was created here, or a
level surface there, by a blow from his tool. He will
state the cause? on account of which, and the purpose
for the sake of which, he made the strokes he did ;
and that will be, in order that the wood might finally
be formed into this or that shape.

It must now be evident that the statements of the
physiologers are unsatisfactory. We have to state
how the animal is characterized, :.e., what is the
essence and character of the animal itself, as well as
describing each of its parts ; just as with the bed we
have to state its Form.’

Now it may be that the Form of any living creature
is Soul,° or some part of Soul, or something that in-
volves Soul. At any rate, when its Soul is gone, it
is no longer a living creature, and none of its parts
remains the same, except only in shape, just like the
animals in the story that were turned into stone.
If, then, this is really so, it is the business of the
student of Natural science to inform himself con-
cerning Soul, and to treat of it in his exposition ;
not, perhaps, in its entirety, but of that special part
of it which causes the living creature to be such as it
is. He must say what Soul, or that special part of
Soul, is; and when he has said what its essence is,
he must treat of the attributes which are attached
to an essence of that character. This is especially
necessary, because the term “nature” is used—
rightly—in two senses: (a) meaning “ matter," and
(b) meaning ' essence" (the latter including both
the “ Efficient " ^ Cause and the ‘ End”). It is, of
course, in this latter sense that the entire Soul or

60.

641a

30

85

641 b

σι

ARISTOTLE

» ^ ς 4. A / Φέτα LÀ A
nro. πᾶσα ἡ ψυχὴ ἢ μέρος τι αὐτῆς. ὥστε καὶ
e Ἂ ’ » ^ M » ~
οὕτως ἂν λεκτέον εἴη τῷ περὶ φύσεως θεωρητικῷ
- ^ y ^ e ^ e
περὶ ψυχῆς μᾶλλον ἢ περὶ τῆς ὕλης, ὅσῳ μᾶλλον ἡ
e > > , ή 3 ` -^ > / M A
ὕλη Ov ἐκείνην φύσις ἐστὶν ἢ ἀνάπαλιν: καὶ γὰρ
/ \ , ` / , , e ’ A /
κλίνη καὶ τρίπους τὸ ξύλον ἐστίν, ὅτι δυνάµει ταῦτά
,
ἐστιν.
᾿Απορήσειε δ᾽ ἄν τις εἰς τὸ νῦν λεχθὲν ἐπιβλέψας,
/ M / ^ ^ ^ , M `
πότερον περὶ πάσης ψυχῆς τῆς φυσικῆς ἐστὶ τὸ
, ^ ^ / 1 , M ` / )8 ,
εἰπεῖν ἢ περί τινος. εἰ γὰρ περὶ πάσης, οὐδεμία
/ . . M , / /
λείπεται παρὰ τὴν φυσικὴν ἐπιστήμην φιλοσοφία.
e ^ ^ ^ e ` , e
ὁ γὰρ νοῦς τῶν νοητῶν, ὥστε περὶ πάντων ἡ
A ^ ^ ^ M ^ M
φυσικὴ γνῶσις av et]: τῆς γὰρ αὐτῆς περὶ νοῦ καὶ
^ ^ ^ » M » A e
τοῦ νοητοῦ θεωρῆσαι, εἴπερ πρὸς ἄλληλα, kat 7)
3 ^ , ^ A » ’ 0 p
αὐτὴ θεωρία τῶν πρὸς ἄλληλα πάντων, καθάπερ
` A > , ` ^ > ~ -^ 3 »
καὶ περὶ αἰσθήσεως καὶ τῶν αἰσθητῶν. ἢ οὐκ ἔστι
^ e A / > / 2014 ` / e
πᾶσα ἡ ψυχὴ κινήσεως ἀρχή, οὐδὲ τὰ μόρια ἅπαντα,
- - 2
ἀλλ᾽ αὐξήσεως μὲν ὅπερ καὶ ἐν τοῖς φυτοῖς, ἆλ-
- ε M
λοιώσεως δὲ τὸ αἰσθητικόν, φορᾶς δ᾽ ἕτερόν τι καὶ
᾽ ` , e / ^ e ^ ` 3 e /
οὐ τὸ νοητικόν' ὑπάρχει γὰρ ἡ Popa καὶ ἐν ἑτέροις
^ ^ ,
τῶν ζῴων, διάνοια δ᾽ οὐδενί. δῆλον οὖν ὡς οὐ

1 τινος (μορίου) Rackham.

a ie. qualitative change, which is the “ motion " proper

to this part of the Soul.
70

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, I. 1.

some part of it is the “ nature " of a living creature.
Hence on this score especially it should be the duty
of the student of Natural science to deal with Soul
in preference to matter, inasmuch as it is the Soul
that enables the matter to “ be the nature " of an
animal (that is, potentially, in the same way as a piece
of wood '' is" a bed or a stool) rather than the matter
which enables the Soul to do so.

In view of what we have just said, one may well ask
whether it is the business of Natural science to treat
of Soul in its entirety or of some part of it only;
since if it must treat of Soul in its entirety (1.6.
including intellect) there will be no room left
for any other study beside Natural science—it will
include even the objects that the intellect appre-
hends. For consider: wherever there is a pair
of interrelated things, such as sensation and the
objects of sensation, it is the business of one
science, and one only, to study them both. Now
intellect and the objects of the intellect are
such a pair; hence, the same science will study
both of them, which means that there will be
nothing whatever left outside the purview of
Natural science. All the same, it may be that
it is neither Soul in its entirety that is the
source of motion, nor yet all its parts taken
together; it may be that one part of Soul, (a), viz.
that which plants have, is the source of growth;
another part, (b), the "sensory " part, is the source
of change*; and yet another part, (c), the source
of locomotion. 'That even this last cannot be the
intellectual part is proved, because animals other
than man have the power of locomotion, although
none of them has intellect. I take it, then, as evident

TI.

ARISTOTLE

641 b M , ^ / 2531 ^ ^ A
περὶ πάσης ψυχῆς λεκτέον: οὐδὲ γὰρ πᾶσα ψυχὴ

, > , / 9: 7 ^ ^ . /
10 φύσις, ἀλλά τι μόριον αὐτῆς ἓν ἢ καὶ πλείω.
^ / ,
Ἔτι δὲ τῶν ἐξ ἀφαιρέσεως οὐδενὸς οἷόν τ᾽ εἶναι
A \ ’ > \ e / e ,
τὴν φυσικὴν θεωρητικήν, ἐπειδὴ ἡ φύσις ἑνεκά Tov
ποιεῖ πάντα" φαίνεται γάρ, ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς τεχνα-
- - - ,
στοῖς ἐστὶν ἡ τέχνη, οὕτως ἐν αὐτοῖς τοῖς πράγ-
» > A A eZ , ^ »
μασιν ἄλλη τις ἀρχὴ καὶ αἰτία τοιαύτη, ἣν ἔχομεν
/ ` ` \ A ` , ^ ,
15 καθάπερ τὸ θερμὸν καὶ TO ψυχρὸν ἐκ τοῦ παντός.
ὃ A ^ 3 \ A 3 ` ^ € X
ιὸ μᾶλλον εἰκὸς τὸν οὐρανὸν γεγενῆσθαι ὑπὸ
, ,
τοιαύτης αἰτίας, εἰ γέγονε, καὶ εἶναι διὰ τοιαύτην
DEES ^ ^ M ^ \ / ` ^
αἰτίαν μᾶλλον ἢ τὰ ζῷα τὰ θνητά: τὸ γοῦν τεταγ-
’ ` A ε / A ^ , ,
μένον καὶ τὸ ὡρισμένον πολὺ μᾶλλον φαίνεται ἐν
^ > ’ Λ 1 νε ^ A 9 X 3 F. .
20 τοῖς οὐρανίοις ἢ περὶ ἡμᾶς, τὸ δ᾽ ἄλλοτ᾽ ἄλλως καὶ
ε » M M M ^ € M ^ \
ὡς ἔτυχε περὶ τὰ θνητὰ μᾶλλον. ot δὲ τῶν μὲν
/ “ Z M 5 M / \
ζῴων ἕκαστον φύσει φασὶν εἶναι καὶ γενέσθαι, τὸν
^ / ^
δ᾽ οὐρανὸν ἀπὸ τύχης καὶ τοῦ αὐτομάτου τοιοῦτον
- 3 a > \ ’ M , / 909€ ^
συστῆναι, ἐν ᾧ ἀπὸ τύχης καὶ ἀταξίας οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν
/ ^ M / / οἱ v
φαίνεται. πανταχοῦ δὲ λέγομεν τόδε τοῦδ᾽ ἕνεκα,
e A / / M Anse / /
οὗ ὅπου ἂν φαίνηται τέλος τι πρὸς ὃ ἡ κίνησις περαίνει
. , / e 7 \ “ »
μηδενὸς ἐμποδίζοντος. ὥστε εἶναι φανερὸν ὅτι ἔστι
- e^ ` M ^ ’ , A \
τι τοιοῦτον, ὃ δὴ καὶ καλοῦμεν φύσιν" οὐ γὰρ δὴ
σ » , ε / / / > \
6 τι ἔτυχεν ἐξ ἑκάστου γίνεται σπέρµατος, ἀλλὰ
/ , ^ νο 1 / A A 3 ^
τόδε ἐκ τοῦδε, οὐδὲ σπέρμα τὸ τυχὸν ἐκ τοῦ TU-

α With this passage cf. Plato, Philebus 99-80.
δ Cf. Samuel Butler, Life and Habit, p. 134, “ A hen is
only an egg's way of making another egg."

το

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.

that we need not concern ourselves with Soul in its
entirety ; because it is not Soul in its entirety that is
an animal's “ nature," but some part or parts of it.
Further, no abstraction can be studied by Natural
science, because whatever Nature makes she makes
to serve some purpose ; for it is evident that, even
as art is present in the objects produced by art, so in
things themselves there is some principle or cause of
a like sort, which came to us from the universe around
us, just as our material constituents (the hot, the
cold, etc.) did.^ Wherefore there is better reason for
holding that the Heaven was brought into being by
some such cause—if we may assume that it came
into being at all—and that through that cause it
continues to be, than for holding the same about the
mortal things it contains—the animals; at any rate,
there is much clearer evidence of definite ordering
in the heavenly bodies than there is in us ; for what
is mortal bears the marks of change and chance.
Nevertheless, there are those who affirm that, while
every living creature has been brought into being
by Nature and remains in being thereby, the heaven
in all its glory was constructed by mere chance
and came to be spontaneously, although there is no
evidence of chance or disorder in it. And whenever
there is evidently an End towards which a motion
goes forward unless something stands in its way, then
we always assert that the motion has the End for its
purpose. From this it is evident that something of
the kind really exists—that, in fact, which we call
“ Nature," because in fact we do not find any chance
creature being formed from a particular seed, but A
comes from a, and B from b; nor does any chance
seed come from any chance individual? Therefore

78:

641 b

30

35

642 a

σι

10

ARISTOTLE

χόντος σώματος. ἀρχὴ ἄρα καὶ ποιητικὸν τοῦ ἐξ
αὐτοῦ τὸ (ἐξ οὗ TO» σπέρμα. φύσει γὰρ ταῦτα"
φύεται γοῦν ἐκ τούτου. ἀλλὰ μὴν ἔτι τούτου
πρότερον τὸ οὗ τὸ σπέρμα: γένεσις μὲν γὰρ τὸ
σπέρμα, οὐσία δὲ τὸ τέλος. ἀμφοῖν δ᾽ ἔτι πρό-
τερον, ἀφ᾽ οὗ ἐστὶ τὸ σπέρμα. ἔστι γὰρ τὸ
σπέρμα διχῶς, ἐξ οὗ τε καὶ οὗ: καὶ γὰρ ἀφ᾽ οὗ
ἀπῆλθε, τούτου σπέρμα, οἷον ἵππου, καὶ τούτου
ὃ ἔσται ἐξ αὐτοῦ, οἷον ὀρέως, τρόπον δ᾽ οὐ τὸν
αὐτόν, ἀλλ᾽ ἑκατέρου τὸν εἰρημένον. ἔτι δὲ δυνάμει
τὸ σπέρμα: δύναμις δ᾽ ὡς ἔχει πρὸς ἐντελέχειαν
ἴσμεν.

Εἰσὶν ἄρα δύ᾽ αἰτίαι αὗται, τό θ᾽ οὗ ἕνεκα καὶ
τὸ ἐξ ἀνάγκης" πολλὰ γὰρ γίνεται, ὅτι ἀνάγκη.
ἴσως δ᾽ ἄν τις ἀπορήσειε ποίαν λέγουσιν ἀνάγκην
οἱ Aéyovres. ἐξ ἀνάγκης" τῶν μὲν γὰρ δύο τρόπων
οὐδέτερον οἷόν θ᾽ ὑπάρχειν τῶν διωρισμένων € ἐν τοῖς
κατὰ φιλοσοφίαν. ἔστι. 9. ev γε τοῖς ἔχουσι γένεσιν
ἡ τρίτη" λέγομεν γὰρ τὴν τροφὴν ἀναγκαῖόν τι. κατ᾽
οὐδέτερον τούτων τῶν τρόπων, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι οὐχ οἷόν τ᾽
ἄνευ ταύτης εἶναι. τοῦτο δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὥσπερ ἐξ ὑπο-
θέσεως" ὥσπερ γὰρ ἐπεὶ δεῖ σχίζειν τῷ πελέκει,
ἀνάγκη σκληρὸν εἶναι, εἰ δὲ σκληρόν, χαλκοῦν ἢ ἢ

1 «ἐξ οὗ τὸ» supplewi, Σ secutus.

α There is a reference here, which is not apparent in the
English version, to the etymological connexion between φύσις
(nature) and φύεσθαι (to grow). Cf. Met. 1014 b 16 ff.

è Viz. actuality is prior to potentiality.

¢ These treatises are referred to again in the Politics
(1282 b 19) and in the Hudemian Ethics (1217 b 23). The
two modes of necessity seem to be (1) " absolute ” necessity
(mentioned here), and (2) “ coercive " necessity (see Met,

74

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, I. τ.

the individual from which the seed comes is the
source and the efficient agent of that which comes
out of the seed. The reason is, that these things
are so arranged by Nature ; at any rate, the offspring
groms^ out of the seed. Nevertheless, logically
prior to the seed stands that of which it is the seed,
because the End is an actual thing, and the seed is
but a formative process. But further, prior to both
of them stands the creature out of which the seed
comes. (Note that a seed is the seed “of” some-
thing in two senses—two quite distinct senses: it
is the seed “of” that out of which it came—e.g. a
horse—as well as “of” that which will arise out of
itself—e.g. a mule). Again, the seed is something
by potentiality, and we know what is the relation of
potentiality to actuality.^

We have, then, these two causes before us, to wit,
the “ Final" cause, and also Necessity, for many
things come into being owing to Necessity. Per-
haps one might ask which “ Necessity " is meant
when it is specified as a cause, since here it can be
neither of the two modes which are defined in
the treatises written in the philosophical manner.¢
There is, however, a third mode of Necessity : it
is seen in the things that pass through a process of
formation; as when we say that nourishment is
necessary, we mean “necessary”’ in neither of
the former two modes, but we mean that without
nourishment no animal can be. This is, practically,
"conditional" Necessity. Take an illustration: A
hatchet, in order to split wood, must, of necessity, be
hard ; if so, then it must, of necessity, be made of

1015 a 20 ff.). The third he has referred to already at
639 b 25. viz. “ conditional " necessity. See pp. 21 f.

Yo

642 a

16

20

25

ARISTOTLE

^ e ` , \ . ^ y+ σ ,
σιδηροῦν, οὕτω καὶ ἐπεὶ τὸ σῶμα ὄργανον (ἕνεκά
e ^ /
τινος γὰρ ἕκαστον τῶν μορίων, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὸ
σ > / L4 M 7 A , , >
ὅλον), ἀνάγκη ἄρα τοιονδὶ εἶναι καὶ ἐκ τοιωνδί, εἰ
ἐκεῖνο ἔσται.
e M > / / ^ 32/f ` A
Οτι μὲν οὖν δύο τρόποι τῆς αἰτίας, καὶ δεῖ
^ , /
λέγοντας τυγχάνειν μάλιστα μὲν ἀμφοῖν, εἰ δὲ μή,
- - - - το / ε
πειρᾶσθαί γε ποιεῖν τοῦτο, δῆλον,᾽ καὶ ὅτι πάντες οἱ
^ 3 ^ A ,
τοῦτο μὴ λέγοντες οὐδὲν ὡς εἰπεῖν περὶ φύσεως
is > \ M ε / ^ ^ e
λέγουσιν: ἀρχὴ yap ἡ φύσις μᾶλλον τῆς ὕλης.
2 - - A ο ^ ,
(ἐνιαχοῦ δέ που αὐτῇ καὶ ᾿Εμπεδοκλῆς περιπίπτει,
^ ^ M / ^
ἀγόμενος ὑπ᾽ αὐτῆς τῆς ἀληθείας, καὶ τὴν οὐσίαν καὶ
. £ 2 / / A / 57 ©
τὴν φύσιν ἀναγκάζεται φάναι τὸν λόγον εἶναι, οἷον
ὀστοῦν ἀποδιδοὺς τί ἐστιν' οὔτε γὰρ ἕν τι τῶν
/ / , \ » y A / » ,
στοιχείων λέγει αὐτὸ οὔτε δύο ἢ τρία οὔτε πάντα,
> \ / ^ / 9 ^ ^ / a
ἀλλὰ λόγον τῆς μίξεως αὐτῶν. δῆλον τοίνυν ὅτι
M € . \ > \ y. 3 / ` A y+
καὶ ἡ σὰρξ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ἐστί, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων
^ / ^ ^
τῶν τοιούτων μορίων ἕκαστον. αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ μὴ
, ^ \ ` ^
ἐλθεῖν τοὺς προγενεστέρους ἐπὶ τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον,
ὅτι τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι καὶ τὸ ὁρίσασθαι τὴν οὐσίαν οὐκ
LN > > e M / ^ e 3
ἦν, ἀλλ᾽ ἥψατο μὲν Δημόκριτος πρῶτος, ὡς οὐκ
> / de ^ o A 0 / LAA’ > o /
ἀναγκαίου δὲ τῇ φυσικῇ θεωρίᾳ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκφερόμενος
^ ^ , ^
ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ τοῦ πράγματος: ἐπὶ Σωκράτους δὲ τοῦτο
` , ^0 \ de ^ . M / »
μὲν ηὐξήθη, τὸ δὲ ζητεῖν τὰ περὶ φύσεως ἔληξε,
1 οἷς Ogle: εἰ δὲ μή, δῆλόν γε πειρᾶσθαι ποιεῖν vulg.
9 See Diels, Fragmente®, 31 a 78.
> * Element": this term is normally used to denote the
four substances, earth, water, air, fire.

* This is probably a reference to Democritus's opposition
to the theories of Protagoras, who held that ** what appears

76

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, I. 1.

bronze or of iron. Now the body, like the hatchet,
is an instrument; as well the whole body as each
of its parts has a purpose, for the sake of which it
is; the body must therefore, of necessity, be such
and such, and made of such and such materials,
if that purpose is to be realized.

It is, therefore, evident that of Causation there are
two modes ; and that in our treatise both of them
must be described, or at least an attempt must be
made to describe them ; and that those who fail
herein tell us practically nothing of any value about
“ Nature," for a thing's " nature " is much more a
first principle (or “ Cause ") than it is matter. (In-
deed, in some places even Empedocles, being led
and guided by Truth herself, stumbles upon this,
and is forced to assert that it is the logos which is a
thing’s essence or nature.” For instance, when he is
explaining what Bone is, he says not that it is any one
of the Elements,” or any two, or three, or even all of
them, but that it is “ the logos of the mixture " of
the Elements. And it is clear that he would explain
in the same way what Flesh and each of such parts is.
Now the reason why earlier thinkers did not arrive
at this method of procedure was that in their time
there was no notion of ''essence " and no way of >-
defining “ being.” The first to touch upon it was
Democritus ; and he did so, not because he thought
it necessary for the study of Nature, but because he
was carried away by the subject in hand and could
not avoid it.^ In Socrates' time an advance was
made so far as the method was concerned ; but at
that time philosophers gave up the study of Nature

to be to you, is for you." Protagoras had emphasized the
validity of sense-data ; Democritus denied it.

TT

642 a

30

e
στι

642 b

σι

ARISTOTLE

M ^
πρὸς δὲ τὴν χρήσιμον ἀρετὴν καὶ τὴν πολιτικὴν
39152 ε - 1
ἀπέκλιναν οἱ φιλοσοφοῦντες.)

Z > e 8 e » A TARS bi
Δεικτέον δ᾽ οὕτως, οἷον ὅτι ἔστι μὲν ἡ ἀναπνοὴ
M / ^ M , ^ / , > ,
τουδὶ χάριν, τοῦτο δὲ γίνεται διὰ τάδε ἐξ ἀνάγκης.
ἡ Ò ἀνάγκη ὁτὲ μὲν σηµαίνει ὅτι εἰ ἐκεῖνο ἔσται
τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα, ταῦτα ἀνάγκη ἐστὶν (οὕτως)! ἔχειν,
Qe ire, » e » M , `
ὁτὲ δ᾽ ὅτι ἔστιν οὕτως ἔχοντα καὶ πεφυκότα: τὸ
- /
θερμὸν γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον ἐξιέναι καὶ πάλιν εἰσιέναι
> ~ ^ ^ >
ἀντικροῦον, τὸν Ò ἀέρα εἰσρεῖν' τοῦτο δ᾽ ἤδη
ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστιν, τοῦ ἐντὸς δὲ θερμοῦ ἀντικόπτοντος
, ^ Z ^ / »/ e » 2 \ e
ἐν τῇ ψύξει τοῦ θύραθεν ἀέρος ἡ εἴσοδος᾽ καὶ ἡ
y ^ - ^
ἔξοδος. ὁ μὲν οὖν τρόπος οὗτος ὁ τῆς μεθόδου,
D a ^ , ^
καὶ περὶ ὧν δεῖ λαβεῖν τὰς αἰτίας, ταῦτα καὶ
τοιαῦτά ἐστιν.
>
II. Λαμβάνουσι © ἔνιοι τὸ Kal? ἕκαστον, à
/ \ / > / / ^ 2.3 R
αιρούμενοι τὸ γένος εἰς δύο διαφοράς. τοῦτο δ᾽ ἐστὶ
^ M 3 Εν ^ 1. 3 / rie i ^ 2
τῇ μὲν οὐ ῥάδιον, τῇ δὲ ἀδύνατον. ἐνίων γὰρ ἔσται

1 οὕτως supplevi.
2 ἡ εἴσοδος om. pr. E.

a * Goodness," or ''virtue," is one of the chief topics
discussed by Socrates in the Platonic dialogues. Cf.
Aristotle, Met. 987 b 1, ‘‘ Socrates busied himself about moral
matters, but did not concern himself at all with Nature as
a whole.”

δ I have not attempted, except by one insertion, to straigh-
ten out the text of this confused account, which looks
like a displaced note intended for the paragraph above
(ending “ realized," p. 77). If it is to remain in the text, it
would follow at that place (after 642 a 13) least awkwardly.
For a more lucid account of the process of Respiration see
De resp. 480 a 16-b 5.

* This is usually held to include Plato, on the ground that

78

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. r.-11.

and turned to the practical subject of “ goodness," 4
and to political science.)

δ Here is an example of the method of exposition.
We point out that although Respiration takes place
for such and such a purpose, any one stage of the
process follows upon the others by necessity. Neces-
sity means sometimes (a) that if this or that is to
be the final Cause and purpose, then such and such
things must be so; but sometimes it means (b) that
things are as they are owing to their very nature, as
the following shows: It is necessary that the hot
substance should go out and come in again as it
offers resistance, and that the air should flow in—
that is obviously necessary. And the hot substance
within, as the cooling is produced, offers resistance,
and this brings about the entrance of the air from
without and also its exit. This example shows how
the method works and also illustrates the sort of
things whose causes we have to discover.

II. Now some writers ^ endeavour to arrive at the
ultimate and particular species by the process of
dividing the group (genus) into two d:fferentiae.4
This is a method which is in some respects difficult
and in other respects impossible. For example :

the method of dichotomy is used in the Sophist and Politicus.
But the method can hardly be said to be seriously applied
to the classification of animals in the Politicus, and in the
Sophist it is introduced partly in a humorous way, partly
to lead up to the explanation of τὸ μὴ òv (not-being). Either
Aristotle has mistaken the purpose of the method (as he
has at An. Pr. 46 a 31 ff.) or (much more probably) he is
referring to some other writer’s detailed application of it.
See e.g. Stenzel in Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. Speusippus.

ἆ Each stage of the division gives two differentiae, which
are treated as ‘‘ genera " for the next stage of the division,
and so on.

79

ARISTOTLE

642 b
διαφορὰ μία μόνη, τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα περίεργα, otov ὑπό-

/ / 1 e ` , /
πουν, δίπουν, σχιζόπουν'' αὕτη γὰρ μόνη κυρία.
, \ / , \ / 5 ^ , »
10 εἰ δὲ μή, ταὐτὸν πολλάκις ἀναγκαῖον λέγειν. ἔτι
δὲ προσήκει μὴ διασπᾶν ἕκαστον γένος, οἷον τοὺς
ὄρνιθας τοὺς μὲν ἐν τῇδε τοὺς δ᾽ ἐν ἄλλῃ διαιρέσει,
ε , ^
καθάπερ ἔχουσιν αἱ γεγραμμέναι διαιρέσεις" ἐκεῖ
A M ` M ^ 5 1δ / δ
γὰρ τοὺς μὲν μετὰ τῶν ἐνύδρων συμβαίνει δι-
^ . 9. » / ’ M Ss ^
ηρῆσθαι, τοὺς Ò ἐν ἄλλῳ γένει. (ταύτῃ μὲν οὖν τῇ
15 e / » » ^ e / δ᾽ > 05 a LAA
ὁμοιότητι ὄρνις ὄνομα κεῖται, ἑτέρᾳ δ᾽ ἰχθύς: ἄλλαι
+ τ
δ᾽ εἰσὶν ἀνώνυμοι, οἷον τὸ ἔναιμον καὶ τὸ ἄναιμον:
ap € /- M / 3 ^ e^ » ) »
ἐφ᾽ ἑκατέρῳ γὰρ τούτων οὐ κεῖται ἓν ὄνομα.) εἴπερ
^ M ^ € ^ / ε , ,
οὖν μηδὲν τῶν ὁμογενῶν διασπαστέον, ἡ εἰς δύο
διαίρεσις μάταιος ἂν et: οὕτω γὰρ διαιροῦντας
^ ^ ^ /
ἀναγκαῖον χωρίζειν καὶ διασπᾶν' τῶν πολυπόδων
/ , \ \ > ^ ^ ^ o , ^
γάρ ἐστι τὰ μὲν ἐν τοῖς πεζοῖς τὰ ἐν τοῖς
50 ἐνύδροις.
^ ^ `
II. "Ere στερήσει μὲν ἀναγκαῖον διαιρεῖν καὶ

διαιροῦσιν οἱ διχοτομοῦντες. οὐκ ἔστι δὲ διαφορὰ

1 ἄπουν post σχιζόπουν vulg., del. Ogle; fortasse [ἄπτερον]
scribendum (cf. An. Post. 92 a 1, Met. 1037 b 34).

* Other groups will get broken up under several lines of
division, as Aristotle goes on to say, and he repeats this at
643 b 14, where he adds that “ contrary " groups will get
lumped together under a single line (and * contrariety is
maximum ‘ difference, " see Met. 1055 a 5 ff., cf. 1018 a 30).

" Aristotle holds that one is not enough ; see 643 b 9 ff.
and 29 ff.

80

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. 1.-111.

(a) Some ? groups will get only one differentia," the
rest of the terms being superfluous extras,^ as in the
example : footed, two-footed, cloven-footed ᾱ-- since
this last one is the only independently valid differentia.
Otherwise the same thing must of necessity be
repeated many times over.

(b) Again, it is a mistake to break up a group, as
for instance the group Birds, by putting some birds
in one division and some in another, as has been done
in the divisions made by certain writers: in these
some birds are put in with the water-creatures, and
others in another class. (These two groups, each
possessing its own set of characteristics, happen to
have regular names—Birds, Fishes—but there are
other groups which have not, e.g. the “ blooded "'
and “‘ bloodless " groups: there is no one regular
name for either of these.) If, then, it is a mistake
to break up any group of kindred creatures, the
method of division into two will be pointless, because
those who so divide are compelled to separate them
and break them up, some of the many-footed animals
being among the land-animals and others among the
water-animals.

III. (c) Again, this method of twofold division
makes it necessary to introduce privative terms, and
those who adopt it actually do this. But a privation, as

ο i.e. all terms except the final one can be dispensed with,
because none of them constitutes an independent (κυρία)
differentia ; one line of division yields one valid differentia
and no more (cf. 644 a 2-10).

4 Cf. 644 a 5 and Met. 1038 a 32.

e In this case, '' -footed " (cf. Met. 1038 a 19 ff.) But
Aristotle does not explain how δίπουν is “* superfluous.”

81.

642 b

30

35

643 a

ARISTOTLE

, T^ / > / A » ^ ^
στερήσεως 7) στέρησις: ἀδύνατον γὰρ εἴδη εἶναι τοῦ
μὴ ὄντος, οἷον τῆς ἀποδίας ἢ τοῦ ἁπτέρου ὥσπερ

Z \ ^ ^ . ^ ,
πτερώσεως καὶ ποδῶν: δεῖ δὲ τῆς καθόλου δια-

^ » τ , ^ M » A fj ^ »
φορᾶς εἴδη εἶναι" εἰ γὰρ μὴ ἔσται, διὰ τί ἂν εἴη
τῶν καθόλου καὶ οὐ τῶν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον; τῶν δὲ
δ ^ e \ sÀ 2 XA M » »
ιαφορῶν at μὲν καθόλου εἰσὶ καὶ ἔχουσιν εἴδη,
οἷον πτερότης' τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄσχιστον τὸ Ò ἐσχι-
σμένον ἐστὶ πτερόν. καὶ ποδότης ὡσαύτως ἡ μὲν
πολυσχιδής, ἡ δὲ δισχιδής, οἷον τὰ δίχαλα, ἡ Ò
ἀσχιδὴς καὶ ἀδιαίρετος, οἷον τὰ μώνυχα. χαλεπὸν
\ m ^ ` , Z ^ D
μὲν οὖν διαλαβεῖν καὶ εἰς τοιαύτας διαφορὰς ὧν
y ^ ^
ἔστιν εἴδη, ὥσθ᾽ ὁτιοῦν ζῷον ἐν ταύταις ὑπάρχειν
^
καὶ μὴ ἐν πλείοσι ταὐτόν (otov πτερωτὸν καὶ
ἄπτερον: ἔστι γὰρ ἄμφω ταὐτόν, otov μύρμηξ καὶ
λαμπυρὶς καὶ ἕτερά τινα), πάντων δὲ χαλεπώτατον
^ ^
ἢ ἀδύνατον εἰς τὰς ἀντικειμένας. ἀναγκαῖον γὰρ
τῶν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον ὑπάρχειν τινὶ τῶν διαφορῶν
e M
ἑκάστην, ὥστε καὶ τὴν ἀντικειμένην. εἰ δὲ μὴ
, / ^ » / € / 5 ’
ἐνδέχεται τοῖς εἴδει διαφέρουσιν ὑπάρχειν εἶδός τι
^ >? / z \ e > > 9 ch ^ e
τῆς οὐσίας ἄτομον καὶ ἕν, ἀλλ᾽ ἀεὶ διαφορὰν ἕξει
9 D » > 0 » e OL ^ AAA λ
(οἷον ὄρνις ἀνθρώπου---ἡ διποδία γὰρ ἄλλη καὶ
/ E >» 1 9 / ^ σολ
διάφορος: κἂν εἰ ἔναιμα, τὸ αἷμα διάφορον, ἢ οὐδὲν
^ T , »n e
τῆς οὐσίας τὸ αἷμα θετέον)--εἰ δ᾽ οὕτως ἐστίν, ἡ
1 τὰς ἀντικειμένας Peck: τὰ ἀντικείμενα Titze: τὰ ἄναιμα

vulg.: τὰ ἐναντία Ogle: τὰ ἄτομα Prantl.
2 |]. 3-6 interpunctionem correxi.

a I have not attempted to keep a consistent translation for
πτερόν, as Aristotle applies this term to “feathers” and to
“ wings ” (of insects).

82

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. m1.

privation, can admit no differentiation ; there cannot
be species of what is not there at all, e.g. of “ foot-
less " or “ featherless," 4 as there can be of “ footed 7
and “feathered "; and a generic differentia must
contain species, else it is specific not generic. How-
ever, some of the differentiae are truly generic and
contain species, for instance “feathered” (some
feathers are barbed, some unbarbed); and likewise
“ footed ” (some feet are “ many-cloven," some
“ twy-cloven," as in the animals with bifid hoofs,
and some ''uncloven " or “ undivided,” as in the
animals with solid hoofs). Now it is difficult enough
to arrange the various animals under such lines of
differentiation as these, which after all do contain
species, in such a way that every animal is included in
them, but not the same animal in more than one of
them (e.g. when an animal is both winged and wing-
less, as ants, glow-worms, and some other creatures
are); but it is excessively difficult and in fact im-
possible to arrange them under the opposite lines of
differentiation. Every differentia must, of course, be-
long to some species ; and this statement will apply
to the negative differentiae as well as to the positive.
Now it is impossible for any essential characteristic
to belong to animals that are specifically different and
at the same time to be itself one and indivisible ^: it
will always admit of differentiation. (For example,
Man and Bird are both two-footed, but this essential
characteristic is not the same in both : it is differenti-
ated.^ And if they are both “ blooded,” the blood
must be different, or else it cannot be reckoned as
part of their essence.) If that is so, then, the one

> As the privative characteristic would have to be.
* See below, 693 b 2 ff.

83.

643 a

10

15

20

ARISTOTLE

> ^
µία διαφορὰ δυσὶν ὑπάρξει" εἰ δὲ τοῦτο, δῆλον
ὅτι ἀδύνατον στέρησιν εἶναι διαφοράν.
» δ᾽ ε ὃ να a 3 , ,
Εσονται δ᾽ αἱ διαφοραὶ ἴσαι τοῖς ἀτόμοις ζῴοις,
εἴπερ ἄτομά τε ταῦτα καὶ αἱ διαφοραὶ ἄτομοι,
M δὲ , > > ð , / € ’ 3 `
κοινὴ δὲ μή ἐστιν. (εἰ δ᾽ ἐνδέχεται ὑπάρχεινὶ καὶ
^ A
κοινήν, ἄτομον δέ, δῆλον ὅτι κατά γε τὴν κοινὴν ἐν
^ ^ ^ ^ ,
τῷ αὐτῷ ἐστιν ἕτερα ὄντα τῷ εἴδει ζῷα. Wor
> ^ > » € M 3 ει e
ἀναγκαῖον, εἰ ἴδιοι αἱ διαφοραὶ εἰς ἃς ἅπαντα
, / ^ /
ἐμπίπτει τὰ ἄτομα, μηδεμίαν αὐτῶν εἶναι κοινήν:
, M ).- » , \ 3 ^ ^
εἰ δὲ μή, ἕτερα ὄντα εἰς τὴν αὐτὴν βαδιεῖται.) δεῖ
2 > €
δ᾽ οὔτε τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ ἄτομον εἰς ἑτέραν καὶ ἑτέραν
^ M
ἰέναι διαφορὰν τῶν διῃρημένων, οὔτ᾽ εἰς τὴν αὐτὴν
d “
ἕτερα, καὶ ἅπαντα εἰς ταύτας. φανερὸν τοίνυν ὅτι
, » ^ LM ΜΝ » e ^ € >
οὐκ ἔστι λαβεῖν τὰ ἄτομα εἴδη ὡς διαιροῦνται οἱ εἰς
/ ^ M ^ A \ » € ^ /
δύο διαιροῦντες τὰ ζῷα ἢ καὶ ἄλλο ὁτιοῦν γένος.
- , /
καὶ γὰρ κατ᾽ ἐκείνους ἀναγκαῖον ἴσας τὰς ἐσχάτας
εἶναι διαφορὰς τοῖς ζώοις πᾶσι τοῖς ἀτόμοις τῷ
» » A AQs / ES `
εἴδει. ὄντος γὰρ τοῦδέ τινος γένους, οὗ διαφοραὶ
- ` \ ` ν \\3 / / >
πρῶται τὰ (λευκὰ καὶ τὰ μὴ» λευκά, τούτων
ἑκατέρου ἄλλαι, καὶ οὕτως εἰς τὸ πρόσω ἕως τῶν
ἀτόμων, αἱ τελευταῖαι τέτταρες ἔσονται ἢ ἄλλο τι

1 ]l. 3-6 interpunctionem correxi.
2 μὴ ὑπάρχειν vulg.: corr. Titze.
3 supplevit Cornford.

^ Because it cannot fulfil the condition of admitting
differentiation. At whatever stage of the division it comes
(unless at the very end), the privative term will cover at least
two species, and therefore at the next stage the dichotomists
will have to divide it—illegitimately, as Aristotle maintains.

84.

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. τι.

differentia wil belong to two species. And if so,
it is clear that a privative cannot be a valid
differentia.“

(d) Now assuming that each species is indivisible : if
each differentia also is indivisible, and none is common
to more species than one, then the number of differ-
entiae will be equal to the number of species. (Suppos-
ing it were possible to have a differentia which though
indivisible was common ; clearly, in that case, animals
which differed in species would be in the same division
in virtue of that common differentia. Therefore, if the
differentiae under which the indivisible and ultimate
species fall are to be proper and private to each
one, it is necessary that no differentia be common;
otherwise, species which are actually different will
come under one and the selfsame differentia.) And
we may not place one and the same indivisible
species under two or three of the lines of differentia-
tion given by the divisions ; nor may we include
different species under one and the same line of
differentiation. Yet each species must be placed
under the lines of differentiation available. It is
evident from this that it is impossible to arrive at the
indivisible species either of animals or of any other
group by the method of twofold division as these
people practise it, for even on their showing the
number of ultimate differentiae must of necessity be
equal to the total number of indivisible species of
animals. Thus, suppose we have some particular
group of creatures whose prime differentiae are
" pale" and “not pale"; by that method these
two wil each give two other differentiae, and so
forth, until in the end the indivisible differentiae are
reached : these last ones will be either four in

85

ARISTOTLE

643a
^ ^ 5 , ^
πλῆθος τῶν ἀφ᾽ ἑνὸς διπλασιαζομένων" τοσαῦτα δὲ
καὶ τὰ εἴδη.
^ e
(Ἔστι δ᾽ ἡ διαφορὰ ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ τὸ εἶδος. οὔτε
5yap à ὕλης οὐδὲν ζώου μόριον, οὔτε μόνη ἡ
ο γὰρ ἄνευ ὕλης ῥου μόριον, μόνη ἡ
e , . / » ^ » ^ , `
ὕλη: οὐ γὰρ πάντως ἔχον σῶμα ἔσται ζῶον, οὐδὲ
^ / , ’ e , »
τῶν µορίων οὐδέν, ὥσπερ πολλάκις εἴρηται.)
Ἔτι διαιρεῖν χρὴ τοῖς ἐν τῇ οὐσίᾳ καὶ μὴ τοῖς
/ 5 ε / ^ » . ,
συμβεβηκόσι Kal’ αὑτό, οἷον εἴ τις τὰ σχήματα
. ^ »
διαιροίη, ὅτι τὰ μὲν δυσὶν ὀρθαῖς ἴσας ἔχει τὰς
50 γωνίας, τὰ δὲ πλείοσιν: συμβεβηκὸς γάρ τι τῷ
3 ^ “ 3, «
τριγώνῳ τὸ δυσὶν ὀρθαῖς ἴσας ἔχειν τὰς γωνίας.
Ἔτι τοῖς ἀντικειμένοις διαιρεῖν (δεῖ), διάφορα
. 5 / 5 ’ ΩΙ / A
γὰρ ἀλλήλοις τἀντικείμενα, otov λευκότης καὶ pe-
λανία καὶ εὐθύτης καὶ καμπυλότης. ἐὰν οὖν θάτερα
διάφορα ᾖ, τῷ ἀντικειμένῳ διαιρετέον, καὶ μὴ τὸ
55 μὲν νεύσει τὸ δὲ χρώματι. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις, τά γ᾽
z ^ ^ » ^ / A ^
ἔμψυχα τοῖς κοινοῖς ἔργοις τοῦ σώματος καὶ τῆς
^ T Ai ^ € / ^ ^ `
643b ψυχῆς, otov καὶ ἐν ταῖς ῥηθείσαις νῦν πορευτικὰ καὶ
7 / y
πτηνά--ἔστι γάρ τινα γένη οἷς ἄμφω ὑπάρχει καὶ
3 / ^
ἔστι πτηνὰ καὶ ἅπτερα, καθάπερ τὸ τῶν μυρμήκων

1 sic Y : τὸ εἶδος ἐν τῇ ὕλη vulg.
2 (δεῖ) supplevi.

α His point is that it is nonsensical to suppose that this
numerical correspondence is bound to occur.

> As at 641 a 18 ff.

ο See Met. 1025 a 30.

4 These are enumerated in De sensu, 436 a 7 ff., and Aris-
totle seems here to be thinking of them as grouped together
under the several faculties—nutritive, appetitive, sensory,

86

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, I. in.

number, or some higher value of 2”; and there will
be an identical number of species.^

(The species is the differentia in the Matter. There
is no animal part which exists without matter ; nor
on the other hand is there any which is matter only,
for body in any and every condition cannot make an
animal or any part of an animal, as I have often
pointed out.)

(e) Again, the division ought to be made according
to points that belong to the Essence of a thing and
not according to its essential (inseparable) attributes.
For instance, in making divisions of geometrical
figures, it would be wrong to divide them into those
whose angles are together equal to two right angles
and those whose angles are together greater than two
right angles ; because it is only an attribute of the
triangle that its angles are together equal to two
right angles.^

(f) Again, division should be by ''opposites,"
opposites being mutually “ different," e.g. pale and
dark, straight and curved. Therefore, provided the
two terms are truly “ different,” division should be
by means of opposites, and should not characterize
one side by ability to swim and the other side by
some colour. And besides this, division of living
creatures, at any rate, by the functions which are
common functions of body and soul,? such as we
actually find done in the divisions mentioned above,
where animals are divided into “ walkers” and
“ fliers "—for there are some groups, such as that of
the Ants, which have both attributes, being both

locomotive, and thought (see De an. 414 a 28 ff.). His point
is that the correct way to divide and classify animals is rather
by bodily characteristics, which is what he himself does.

87

643 b

on

10

15

ARISTOTLE

/

e / , ὃ A\2 ὃ ^
γένος καὶ τῷ ἀγρίῳ. Kal’ ἡμέρω (οὐ et)” διαιρεῖ-
σθαι: ὡσαύτως γὰρ ἂν δόξειε ταὐτὰ εἴδη διαιρεῖν"
πάντα γάρ, ὡς εἰπεῖν, ὅσα . ἥμερα καὶ ἄγρια τυγ-
χάνει ὄντα, οἷον ἄνθρωποι, ἵπποι, βόες, κύνες ἐ ἐν τῇ
᾿Ινδικῇ, ὕες, αἶγες, πρόβατα: ὧν ἕκαστον, εἰ μὲν

^ a »
ὁμώνυμον, οὐ διῄρηται χωρίς, εἰ δὲ ταῦτα ἓν εἴδει,
οὐχ οἷόν τ᾽ εἶναι διαφορὰν τὸ ἄγριον καὶ τὸ ἥμερον.
"Όλως δ᾽ ὁποιᾳοῦν διαφορᾷ" μιᾷ διαιροῦντι τοῦτο
/ > ^ 5 A ^ ^
συμβαίνειν ἀναγκαῖον. ἀλλὰ δεῖ πειρᾶσθαι λαμ-
/ M / M ^ e e / > € `
βάνειν κατὰ γένη τὰ ζῷα, ὡς ὑφήγηνθ᾽ οἱ πολλοὶ
3
διορίσαντες ὄρνιθος γένος καὶ ἰχθύος. τούτων ὃ
- - M
ἕκαστον πολλαῖς ὥρισται «διαφοραῖς, οὐ κατὰ τὴν
διχοτομίαν. οὕτω μὲν γὰρ ἥτοι τὸ παράπαν. οὐκ
ἔστι λαβεῖν (τὸ αὐτὸ γὰρ εἰς πλείους ἐμπίπτει
διαιρέσεις καὶ τὰ ἐναντία εἰς τὴν αὐτήν), 5 μία
μόνον διαφορὰ ἔσται, καὶ αὕτη ήτοι ἁπλῆ η ἐκ
συμπλοκῆς τὸ ο εἶδος. ἐὰν δὲ μὴ
^ / / 4 3 ^ iA
διαφορᾶς λαμβάνῃ τις διαφοράν," ἀναγκαῖον, ὥσπερ
^ M M
συνδέσμῳ τὸν λόγον ἕνα ποιοῦντας, οὕτω καὶ τὴν
^ ^ > ΩΙ ,
διαίρεσιν συνεχῆ ποιεῖν. λέγω δ᾽ οἷον συμβαίνει
- A ,
τοῖς διαιρουμένοις τὸ μὲν ἄπτερον τὸ δὲ πτερωτόν,
- 2 A A
πτερωτοῦ δὲ τὸ μὲν ἥμερον τὸ Ò ἄγριον, ἢ τὸ μὲν
1 καὶ ΕΥ : καὶ τῷ vulg.
? supplevi.
3 ὁποιανοῦν διαφορὰν alii: ὁποιαοῦν Y: διαφορὰ vel διαφορᾶ
ESY.
4 διαφορᾶ A. ES: διαφορὰν A. τῆς διαφορᾶς P: διαφορᾶς A.
διαφορὰν Y 5 τις Peck: τὴν vulg.

a Cf. Plato, Politicus, 264 a 1.

ὃ On this see Platt, C.Q., 1909, iii. 241.

^ For διαφορά in the sense of ''bifurcation" cf. Met.
1048 b 4, where he speaks of the two “ parts " of a διαφορά.

4 i.e. with the preceding terms. See below, 644 a 5.

88

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. m1.

“winged " and “ wingless "—and by “ wild" and
“tame,” ^ is not permissible, for this similarly would
appear to divide up species that are the same, since
practically all the tame animals are also found as
wild ones : e.g. Man, the horse, the ox, the dog (in
India ὃ), swine, the goat, the sheep ; and if, in each
of these groups, the wild and the tame bear the same
name, as they do, there is no division between them,
while if each group is specifically a unit, then it
follows that “ wild " and “ tame " cannot make a
valid differentiation.

And generally, the same thing inevitably happens
whatever one single line of differentiation is taken for
the division. The proper course is to endeavour to
take the animals according to their groups, fol-
lowing the lead of the bulk of mankind, who have
marked off the group of Birds and the group of Fishes.
Each of these groups is marked off by many differentiae,
not by means of dichotomy. By dichotomy (a) either
these groups cannot be arrived at at all (because the
same group falls under several divisions and contrary
groups under the same division) or else there will be
one differentia only, and this either singly or in
combination ^ will constitute the ultimate species.*
But (0) if they do not take the differentia of the differ-
entia, they are forced to follow the example of
those people who try to give unity to their prose by a
free use of conjunctions: there is as little con-
tinuity about their division. Here is an example
to show what happens. Suppose they make the
division into “ wingless " and “ winged,” and then
divide “ winged ” into “ tame " and “ wild " or into

* And this will never completely represent any actual
group or species. See below, 644 a 6 ff.

89:

643 b

25

80

85

644 a

ARISTOTLE

λευκὸν τὸ δὲ μέλαν: οὐ γὰρ διαφορὰ τοῦ πτερωτοῦ
\ er 2 M \ / 2 > € / 3 \
TO ἥμερον οὐδὲ τὸ λευκόν, ἀλλ᾽ ἑτέρας ἀρχὴ δια-
φορᾶς: ἐκεῖ δὲ κατὰ συμβεβηκός. διὸ πολλαῖς τὸ
ἓν εὐθέως διαιρετέον, ὥσπερ λέγομεν. καὶ γὰρ
οὕτως μὲν αἱ στερήσεις ποιήσουσι διαφοράν, ἐν δὲ
τῇ διχοτομίᾳ οὐ ποιήσουσιν.
τι Ò οὐκ ἐνδέχεται τῶν Kal? ἕκαστον εἰδῶν
λαμβάνειν οὐδὲν διαιροῦσι δίχα τὸ γένος, ὥσπερ
τινὲς ὠήθησαν, καὶ ἐκ τῶνδε φανερόν.
2 7 \ / € / . ^
Αδύνατον γὰρ μίαν ὑπάρχειν διαφορὰν τῶν
> Θ ^ oZ 2 € ^ / 1
καθ ἕκαστον διαιρετῶν, ἐάν & ἁπλᾶ λαμβάνῃ τις)
ἐάν τε συμπεπλεγμένα: [λέγω δὲ ἁπλᾶ μέν, ἐὰν μὴ
ἔχη διαφοράν, οἷον τὴν σχιζοποδίαν, συμπεπλεγ-
μένα δέ, ἐὰν ἔχῃ; οἷον τὸ πολυσχιδὲς πρὸς τὸ
σχιζόπουν: τοῦτο γὰρ ἡ συνέχεια βούλεται. τῶν
ἀπὸ τοῦ γένους κατὰ τὴν διαίρεσιν διαφορῶν ὡς év
τι τὸ πᾶν ὄν, ἀλλὰ παρὰ τὴν λέξιν συμβαίνει δοκεῖν
τὴν τελευταίαν μόνην εἶναι διαφοράν [οἷον τὸ πολυ-
σχιδὲς ἢ τὸ δίπουν, τὸ Ò ὑπόπουν καὶ πολύπουν
περίεργα]." ὅτι δ᾽ ἀδύνατον πλείους εἶναι τοιαύτας,
δῆλον: ἀεὶ γὰρ βαδίζων € ἐπὶ τὴν ἐσχάτην διαφορὰν
ἀφικνεῖται. [ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐπὶ τὴν τελευταίαν καὶ τὸ
εἶδος}: αὕτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν 7] τὸ σχιζόπουν μόνον, ἢ
πᾶσα η σύμπλεξις, ἐὰν διαιρῆται ἄνθρωπος, οἷον
εἴ τις συνθείη ὑπόπουν, δίπουν, σχιζόπουν. εἰ δ᾽
ἦν ὁ ἄνθρωπος σχιζόπουν μόνον, οὕτως ἐγίγνετ᾽ ἂν
e ΕΝ 7 / / ^ 3747 M , »
αὕτη (Q» µία διαφορά. νῦν δ᾽ ἐπειδὴ οὐκ ἔστιν,

1 τις Y : om. vulg. ? πρὸς τῷ Platt.
3 seclusi. codices varia, ut videtur; sic Bekker.
4 olov . . . περίεργα seclusi.

5 GAN’ . . . εἶδος seclusi.

5 ἄνθρωπον vulg. 7^0». Ogle.

90

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. m1.

“pale” and “dark” : neither “ tame ” nor “ pale"
is a differentiation of '' winged,” but the beginning
of another line of differentiation, and can come in
here only by accident. "Therefore, as I say, in dividing
we must distinguish the one original group forthwith
by numerous differentiae ; and then too the privative
terms will make valid differentiae, which they will
never do in the system of dichotomy.

Here are further considerations to show that it is
impossible to come at any of the particular species by
the method of dividing the group into two, as some
people have imagined.

Obviously it is impossible that one single differentia
is adequate for each of the particular species covered
by the division, whether you adopt as your differentia
the isolated term or the combination of terms ^ (for
this is intended by the continuity of the series of
differentiae throughout the division from the original
group, to indicate that the whole is a unity ; but, in
consequence of the form of the expression, the last
one comes to be considered as the sole differentia).
And it is evident that there cannot be more than one
such differentia; for the division proceeds steadily until
it reaches the ultimate differentia, and—supposing the
division is aiming at ' Man "—this is either " cloven-
footed " alone, or else the whole combination, e.g.
if one combined “' footed,” “ two-footed," “ cloven-
footed.” ^ If Man were merely a cloven-footed
animal, then this would be the one differentia, arrived
at by the right method. But as he is not merely

a i.e. the last term of any series, or all its terms together,

as he goes on to say. Cf. 643 b 15 f.
> This definition appears also in Met. 1037-1038.

D 91,

ARISTOTLE

644a > / . M € \ / / > `

ἀνάγκη πολλὰς εἶναι μὴ ὑπὸ μίαν διαίρεσιν. ἀλλὰ

μὴν πλείους γε τοῦ αὐτοῦ οὐκ ἔστιν ὑπὸ μίαν

10 διχοτομίαν εἶναι, ἀλλὰ μίαν κατὰ μίαν τελευτᾶν.

ὥστε ἀδύνατον ὁτιοῦν λαβεῖν τῶν καθ᾽’ ἕκαστον
ζώων δίχα διαιρουμένους.

IV. ᾿Απορήσειε © ἄν τις διὰ τί οὐκ ἄνωθεν évi
ὀνόματι ἐμπεριλαβόντες ἅμα ἓν γένος ἄμφω προσ-
ηγόρευσαν οἱ ἄνθρωποι, ὃ περιέχει τά τε ἔνυδρα

15 καὶ τὰ πτηνὰ τῶν ζῴων" ἔστι yap ἔνια πάθη
κοινὰ καὶ τούτοις [καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ζῴοις ἅπασιν].
ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως ὀρθῶς διώρισται τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον.
ὅσα μὲν γὰρ διαφέρει τῶν γενῶν καθ᾽ ὑπεροχὴν καὶ
τῷ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον," ταῦτα ὑπέζευκται ἑ ἐνὶ γένει,
ὅσα δ᾽ ἔχει τὸ ἀνάλογον, χωρίς" λέγω Ò οἷον «ὄρνις

90 ὄρνιθος διαφέρει τῷ μᾶλλον ἢ καθ᾽’ ὑπεροχήν (τὸ
μὲν γὰρ μακρόπτερον τὸ δὲ βραχύπτερον), ἰχθύες
δ᾽ -ὄρνιθος τῷ ἀνάλογον (ὃ γὰρ ἐκείνῳ πτερόν, θα-
τέρῳ λεπίς). τοῦτο δὲ ποιεῖν ἐπὶ πᾶσιν οὐ ῥάδιον'
τὰ γὰρ πολλὰ ζῷα ἀνάλογον ταὐτὸ πέπονθεν.

Ἐπεὶ δ᾽ οὐσίαι μέν εἰσι τὰ ἔσχατα εἴδη, κατὰ

25 δὲ ταῦτα τὰ" τὸ εἶδος ἀδιάφορα (οἷον Σωκράτης,
Κορίσκος), ἀναγκαῖον ἢ τὰ καθόλου ὑπάρχοντα

* seclusi Ogle docente.

δις Rackham: TÓ μᾶλλον καὶ τὸ (τὸ om. Y) ἧττον vulg.
3 κατὰ δὲ ταῦτα τὰ Peck: ταῦτα δὲ κατὰ vulg.

5 This paragraph has been corrupted by confusing inter-
polations, which I have bracketed in the Greek text and
omitted in the translation. With this passage cf. Met.
1037 b 27—1038 a 30.

^ On this point see D’Arcy W. Thompson, Growth and
Form, esp. ch. 17, and the same author's paper Zxcess
and Defect; or The Little More and the Little Less, in
Mind, xxxvii. (N.S.) 149, pp. 43-55. See also infra,
661 b 28 ff., 692 b 8 ff. ; and Introduction, p. 39.

92

PARIS OF ANIMALES, T. arr.—rv.

that, it is necessary that there should be many
differentiae, not under one line of division. And yet
there cannot be more than one differentia for the same
thing under one line of dichotomy : one line must end
in one differentia. So it is impossible for those who
follow the method of twofold division to arrive at any
of the particular animals.?

IV. Some may find it puzzling that general usage
has not combined the water-animals and the feathered
animals into one higher group, and adopted one name
to cover both, seeing that in fact these two groups
have certain features in common. The answer is that
in spite of this the present grouping is the right one ;
because while groups that differ only “ by excess ”
(that is, "by the more and less") are placed
together in one group, those which differ so much
that their characteristics can merely be called ana-
logous are placed in separate groups. As an illus-
tration : (a) one bird differs from another bird “ by
the more," or "by excess": one bird's feathers
are long, another's are short; whereas (b) the
difference between a Bird and a Fish is greater,
and their correspondence is only by analogy: a fish
has no feathers at all, but scales, which correspond
to them. It is not easy to do this in all cases, for .
the corresponding analogous parts of most groups of
animals are identical.

Now since the ultimate species are “ real things," ^ Method.
while within them are individuals which do not differ
in species (as e.g. Socrates and Coriscus),? we shall
have to choose (as I have pointed out)* between

ο Lit. '* substances.”
4 i.e. within the species “ man,”
* Above, at 639 a, b, etc.

03

50

85

644 b

ARISTOTLE

/ , ^ - , , A ’ ’
πρότερον εἰπεῖν ἢ πολλάκις ταὐτὸν λέγειν, καθάπερ
y . ^ , / M ^ ’
εἴρηται. (τὰ δὲ καθόλου κοινά" τὰ γὰρ πλείοσιν
ε / , , 5 , D. » M
ὑπάρχοντα καθόλου λέγομεν.) ἀπορίαν δ᾽ ἔχει περὶ
/ ^ D
πότερα δεῖ πραγματεύεσθαι. ἢ μὲν γὰρ οὐσία τὸ
τῷ εἴδει ἄτομον, κράτιστον, εἴ τις δύναιτο, περὶ τῶν
καθ᾽ ἕκαστον καὶ ἀτόμων τῷ εἴδει θεωρεῖν χωρίς,
ὥσπερ περὶ ἀνθρώπου, οὕτω Kal’ περὶ ὄρνιθος, (καὶ
. ^
μὴ περὶ ὁτουοῦν ὄρνιθος) (ἔχει γὰρ εἴδη τὸ γένος
^ > M \ ~ > / 9 T A ` -^
τοῦτο), ἀλλὰ περὶ τῶν ἀτόμων οἷον ἢ στρουθὸς ἢ
γέρανος ἢ τι τοιοῦτον. ἢ δὲ συμβήσεται λέγειν
/ ^ ^ ^
πολλάκις περὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ πάθους διὰ τὸ κοινῇ
πλείοσιν ὑπάρχειν, ταύτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὑπάτοπον καὶ
/
μακρὸν τὸ περὶ ἑκάστου λέγειν χωρίς. ἴσως μὲν
οὖν ὀρθῶς ἔχει τὰ μὲν κατὰ γένη κοινῇ λέγειν,
ὅσα λέγεται καλῶς ὡρισμένων τῶν ἀνθρώπων, καὶ
ἔχει τε μίαν φύσιν κοινὴν καὶ εἴδη ἐν αὑτοῖς" μὴ
. ^ » M , / . » »
πολὺ διεστῶτα, ὄρνις καὶ ἰχθύς, καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο
ἐστὶν ἀνώνυμον μέν, τῷ γένει δ᾽ ὁμοῖα" περιέχει
. , ε ^b » er \ . ^ >
τὰ ἐν avT@ εἴδη: ὅσα δὲ μὴ τοιαῦτα, καθ
ἕκαστον, οἷον περὶ ἀνθρώπου καὶ εἴ τι τοιοῦτον
ἕτερόν ἐστιν.
Σχεδὸν δὲ τοῖς σχήμασι τῶν μορίων καὶ τοῦ
e
σώματος ὅλου, ἐὰν ὁμοιότητα ἔχωσιν, ὥρισται τὰ
^ \
γένη, otov τὸ τῶν ὀρνίθων γένος πρὸς αὑτὸ" πέ-

1 καὶ] μὴ Bonitz.
2 hunc. locum correxi, Σ secutus; ἔχει γὰρ εἴδη τὸ γένος
~ : > . . € ^ wv ~ > , T À l

τοῦτο" ἀλλὰ περὶ ὁτουοῦν ὄρνιθος τῶν ἀτόμων, οἷον κτλ. vulg.
3 αὐτοῖς vulg.: correxi. 4 ὁμοίως vulg.: correxi.
5 αὐτῷ vulg.: correxi.
6 αὑτὸ Platt, fortasse Z! : αὐτὸ Y : αὐτὰ 23, vulg.

94

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. rv.

describing first of all the general attributes of many
species, and repeating the same thing many times
over. (By "general" attributes I intend the
“common " ones. That which belongs to many we
call “ general." One may well hesitate whether of
the two courses to follow. For, in so far as it is the
specifically indivisible which is the “ real thing," it
would be best, if one could do it, to study separ-
ately the particular and specifically indivisible sorts,
in the same way as one studies “ Man," to do this
with “ Bird " too, that is, to study not just “ Bird”
in the mass, but—since “ Bird” is a group which
contains species—the indivisible species of it, e.g.
Ostrich, Crane, and so on. Yet, on the other hand,
this course is somewhat unreasonable and long-
winded, because it makes us describe the same attri-
butes time and again, as they happen to be common
attributes of many species. So perhaps after all the
right procedure is this: (a) So far as concerns the
attributes of those groups which have been correctly
marked off by popular usage—groups which possess
one common nature apiece and contain in themselves
species not far removed from one another, I mean
Birds and Fishes and any other such group which
though it may lack a popular name yet contains
species generically similar—to describe the common
attributes of each group all together; and (b) with
regard to those animals which are not covered by
this, to describe the attributes of each of these by
itself—e.g. those of Man, and of any other such species
there may be.

Now it is practically by resemblance of the shapes
of their parts, or of their whole body, that the groups
are marked off from each other: as e.g. the groups

95

ARISTOTLE

644 b
10 πονθε καὶ τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων καὶ τὰ μαλάκιά, τε καὶ

τὰ ὄστρεια. τὰ γὰρ μόρια διαφέρουσι τούτων οὐ
τῇ ἀνάλογον ὁμοιότητι, οἷον ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ καὶ ἰχθύι
πέπονθεν ὀστοῦν πρὸς ἄκανθαν, ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον τοῖς
σωματικοῖς πάθεσιν, οἷον μεγέθει μικρότητι, μαλα-
16 κότητι σκληρότητι, λειότητι τραχύτητι καὶ τοῖς
τοιούτοις, ὅλως δὲ τῷ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον.

Πῶς μὲν οὖν ἀποδέχεσθαι δεῖ τὴν. περὶ φύσεως
μέθοδον, καὶ τίνα τρόπον γίνοιτ᾽ ἂν 7) θεωρία περὶ
αὐτῶν ὁδῷ καὶ ῥᾷστα, ἔτι δὲ περὶ διαιρέσεως, τίνα
τρόπον ἐνδέχεται μετιοῦσι λαμβάνειν χρησίμως, καὶ

90 διότι τὸ διχοτομεῖν τῇ μὲν ἀδύνατον τῇ δὲ κενόν,
εἴρηται. διωρισμένων δὲ τούτων περὶ τῶν ἐφεξῆς
λέγωμεν, ἀρχὴν τήνδε ποιησάμενοι.

V. Τῶν οὐσιῶν ὅσαι φύσει συνεστᾶσι, τὰς μὲν
ἐλέγομεν)' ἀγενήτους καὶ ἀφθάρτους εἶναι τὸν
ἅπαντα αἰῶνα, τὰς δὲ µετέχειν γενέσεως καὶ

25 φθορᾶς. συμβέβηκε δὲ περὶ μὲν ἐκείνας τιμίας
οὔσας καὶ θείας ἐλάττους ἡμῖν ὑπάρχειν θεωρίας
(καὶ γὰρ ἐξ ὧν ἄν τις σκέψαιτο περὶ αὐτῶν, καὶ
περὶ ὧν εἰδέναι ποθοῦμεν, παντελῶς ἐστὶν ὀλίγα τὰ
φανερὰ κατὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν), περὶ δὲ τῶν φθαρτῶν
φυτῶν τε καὶ ζῴων εὐποροῦμεν μᾶλλον πρὸς τὴν

80 γνῶσιν διὰ τὸ σύντροφον: πολλὰ γὰρ περὶ ἕκαστον
γένος λάβοι τις äv τῶν ὑπαρχόντων βουλόμενος
διαπονεῖν ἱκανῶς. ἔχει δ᾽ ἑκάτερα χάριν. τῶν μὲν
γὰρ εἰ καὶ κατὰ μικρὸν ἐφαπτόμεθα, ὅμως διὰ τὴν

1 ἐλέγομεν) Peck.

a Lit., ''softies." The group includes, roughly, the
cephalopod mollusca.
δ Lit., “ oysters ” (bivalves).

96

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. w.-v.

Birds, Fishes, Cephalopods,” Testacea.^ Within each
of these groups, the parts do not differ so far that they
correspond only by analogy (as a man's bone and a
fish's spine) ; that is, they differ not structurally, but
only in respect of bodily qualities, e.g. by being
larger or smaller, softer or harder, smoother or
rougher, and so forth, or, to put it generally, they
differ “ by the more and less."

We have now shown :

(1) how to test a method of Natural science ;

(2) what is the most systematic and easiest way of
studying Natural science ;

(3) what is the most useful mode of Division for
gur present purpose ;

(4) why dichotomy is in one respect impossible and in
another futile.

Now that we have made this beginning, and clearly

distinguished these points, we may proceed.

V. Of the works of Nature there are, we hold, two A protreptie
kinds: those which are brought into being and perish, $? {he sthdy
and those which are free from these processes through-
out all ages. The latter are of the highest worth and
are divine, but our opportunities for the study of
them are somewhat scanty, since there is but little
evidence available to our senses to enable us to con-
sider them and all the things that we long to know
about. Wehave bettermeans of information, however,
concerning the things that perish, that is to say, plants
and animals, because we live among them ; and any-
one who will but take enough trouble can learn
much concerning every one of their kinds. Yet
each of the two groups has its attractiveness. For
although our grasp of the eternal things is but
slight, nevertheless the joy which it brings is, by

9T.

ARISTOTLE
644 b
τιμιότητα τοῦ γνωρίζειν ἥδιον ἢ τὰ παρ᾽ ἡμῖν
e . .

ἅπαντα, ὥσπερ καὶ τῶν ἐρωμένων τὸ τυχὸν καὶ
s5 μικρὸν μόριον κατιδεῖν ἥδιόν ἐστιν 7 πολλὰ € ἕτερα
645a Καὶ μεγάλα δι᾽ ἀκριβείας ἰδεῖν- τὰ δὲ διὰ τὸ μᾶλλον
καὶ πλείω γνωρίζειν αὐτῶν λαμβάνει τὴν τῆς ἐπι-
στήμης ὑπεροχήν, ἔτι δὲ διὰ τὸ πλησιαίτερα ἡμῶν
εἶναι καὶ τῆς φύσεως οἰκειότερα ἀντικαταλλάτ-
τεταί τι πρὸς τὴν περὶ τὰ θεῖα φιλοσοφίαν. ἐπεὶ

δ δὲ περὶ ἐκείνων διήλθομεν λέγοντες τὸ .φαινόμενον
ἡμῖν, λοιπὸν περὶ τῆς ζωικῆς φύσεως εἰπεῖν, μηδὲν
παραλιπόντας εἰς δύναμιν μήτε ἀτιμότερον μήτε
τιμιώτερον. καὶ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς μὴ κεχαρισμένοις
αὐτῶν πρὸς τὴν αἴσθησιν κατὰ τὴν θεωρίαν ὅμως"
η δημιουργήσασα φύσις ἀμηχάνους ἡδονὰς παρέχει
10 τοῖς δυναμένοις τὰς αἰτίας γνωρίζειν kal φύσει
φιλοσόφοις. καὶ γὰρ. ἂν ᾿ εἴη παράλογον καὶ ἄτοπον,
εἶ τὰς μὲν εἰκόνας αὐτῶν θεωροῦντες χαίρομεν ὅτι
τὴν δημιουργήσασαν τέχνην συνθεωροῦμεν, οἷον τὴν
γραφικὴν 7 τὴν πλαστικήν, αὐτῶν δὲ τῶν φύσει
συνεστώτων μὴ μᾶλλον ἀγαπῶμεν τὴν θεωρίαν,
15 δυνάμενοί γε τὰς αἰτίας καθορᾶν. διὸ δεῖ μὴ
δυσχεραίνειν παιδικῶς τὴν περὶ. τῶν ἀτιμοτέρων
ζῴων ἐπίσκεψιν: ἐν πᾶσι γὰρ τοῖς φυσικοῖς ἔνεστί

1 ὅμως Bekker: ὁμοίως codd.

α This passage, 645 a 6-15, is quoted by R. Boyle (Of the
Usefulnesse of Naturall Philosophy, 1663) both in Gaza’s
Latin version and in an English translation, and he intro-
duces it thus: “ And, methinks, Aristotle discourses very
Philosophically in that place, where passing from the con-
sideration of the sublimist productions of Nature, to justifie
his diligence in recording the more homely Circumstances of
the History of Animals, he thus discourses.” He also quotes

98

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. v.

reason of their excellence and worth, greater than
that of knowing all things that are here below ; just
as the joy of a fleeting and partial glimpse of those
whom we love is greater than that of an accurate
view of other things, no matter how numerous or how
great they are. But inasmuch as it is possible for us
to obtain more and better information about things
here on the earth, our knowledge of them has the
advantage over the other; and moreover, because
they are nearer to us and more akin to our Nature,
they are able to make up some of their leeway as
against the philosophy which contemplates the things
that are divine. Of “ things divine " we have al-
ready treated and have set down our views concerning
them ; so it now remains to speak of animals and
their Nature. 45ο far as in us lies, we will not leave
out any one of them, be it never so mean ; for though
there are animals which have no attractiveness for
the senses, yet for the eye of science, for the student
who is naturally of a philosophic spirit and can dis-
cern the causes of things, Nature which fashioned
them provides joys which cannot be measured. If we
study mere likenesses of these things and take pleasure
in so doing, because then we are contemplating the
painter's or the carver's Art which fashioned them, and
yet fail to delight much more in studying the works
of Nature themselves, though we have the ability to
discern the actual causes—that would be a strange
absurdity indeed. Wherefore we must not betake
ourselves to the consideration of the meaner animals
with a bad grace, as though we were children ; since
in all natural things there is somewhat of the mar-

the following passage, a 15-23, describing it as '* that Judicious
reasoning of Aristotle.”
D2 99 .

645a

20

t2
e

80

85

ARISTOTLE

τι θαυμαστόν: καὶ καθάπερ “Ηράκλειτος λέγεται
πρὸς τοὺς ξένους εἰπεῖν τοὺς βουλομένους ἐντυχεῖν
αὐτῷ, οἳ ἐπειδὴ προσιόντες εἶδον αὐτὸν θερόμενον
πρὸς τῷ ἰπνῷ ἔστησαν (ἐκέλευε γὰρ αὐτοὺς εἰσιέναι
θαρροῦντας: εἶναι γὰρ καὶ ἐνταῦθα θεούς), οὕτω καὶ
πρὸς τὴν ζήτησιν περὶ ἑκάστου τῶν ζῴων προσιέναι
δεῖ μὴ δυσωπούμενον, ὡς ἐν ἅπασιν ὄντος τινὸς
φυσικοῦ καὶ καλοῦ.

Τὸ γὰρ μὴ τυχόντως ἀλλ᾽ ἕνεκά τινος ἐν τοῖς τῆς

ύσεως ἔργοις ἐστὶ καὶ μάλιστα: οὗ Ò ἕνεκα
συνέστηκεν ἢ γέγονε τέλους, τὴν τοῦ καλοῦ χώραν
εἴληφεν. εἰ δέ τις τὴν περὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων
θεωρίαν ἄτιμον εἶναι νενόμικε, τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον
οἴεσθαι χρὴ καὶ περὶ αὑτοῦ" οὐκ ἔστι γὰρ ἄνευ
πολλῆς δυσχερείας ἰδεῖν ἐξ ὧν συνέστηκε τὸ τῶν
ἀνθρώπων γένος, οἷον αἷμα, σάρκες, ὀστᾶ, φλέβες
καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα μόρια. ὁμοίως τε δεῖ νομίζειν τὸν
περὶ οὐτινοσοῦν τῶν μορίων ἢ τῶν σκευῶν δια-
λεγόμενον μὴ περὶ τῆς ὕλης ποιεῖσθαι τὴν μνήμην,
μηδὲ ταύτης χάριν, ἀλλὰ τῆς ὅλης μορφῆς, οἷον καὶ
περὶ οἰκίας, ἀλλὰ μὴ πλίνθων καὶ πηλοῦ καὶ ξύλων:
καὶ τὸν περὶ φύσεως περὶ τῆς συνθέσεως καὶ τῆς
ὅλης οὐσίας, ἀλλὰ μὴ περὶ τούτων ἃ μὴ συμβαίνει
χωριζόμενά ποτε τῆς οὐσίας αὐτῶν.

a Or, with reference to another use of οὐσία, “ which gives
them their being." Independent approaches to the position
that components are non-significant in isolation had been
made, e.g. by Anaxagoras, as a physical philosopher (see
my article in C.Q. xxv. 27 ff., 112 ff.), who held that “ the
things (1.6. the constituent elements) in this world are not
separate one from another" (frag. 8, Diels, Fragmente’,

100

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. v.

vellous. There is a story which tells how some
visitors once wished to meet Heracleitus, and when
they entered and saw him in the kitchen, warming
himself at the stove, they hesitated ; but Heracleitus
said, " Come in; don't be afraid; there are gods
even here." In like manner, we ought not to hesi-
tate nor to be abashed, but boldly to enter upon our
researches concerning animals of every sort and kind,
knowing that in not one of them is Nature or Beauty
lacking.

I add “ Beauty," because in the works of Nature
purpose and not accident is predominant; and the
purpose or end for the sake of which those works have
been constructed or formed has its place among what
is beautiful. If, however, there is anyone who holds
that the study of the animals is an unworthy pursuit,
he ought to go further and hold the same opinion
about the study of himself, for it is not possible
without considerable disgust to look upon the blood,
flesh, bones, blood-vessels, and suchlike parts of
which the human body is constructed. In the same
way, when the discussion turns upon any one of the
parts or structures, we must not suppose that the
lecturer is speaking of the material of them in itself
and for its own sake ; he is speaking of the whole
conformation. Just as in discussing a house, it is the
whole figure and form of the house which concerns us,
not merely the bricks and mortar and timber ; so in
Natural science, it is the composite thing, the thing
as a whole, which primarily concerns us, not the
materials of it, which are not found apart from the
thing itself whose materials they are."

5988); also from the logical point of view, as seen in
Plato, T'heaetetus, 201 x ff.

101

ARISTOTLE

645 b ᾿Αναγκαῖον δὲ πρῶτον τὰ συμβεβηκότα διελεῖν
περὶ ἕκαστον γένος, ὅσα καθ᾽ αὑτὰ πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει
τοῖς ζῴοις, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα τὰς αἰτίας αὐτῶν πειρᾶ-

^ [ΩΙ σ
σθαι διελεῖν. εἴρηται μὲν οὖν καὶ πρότερον ὅτι
M ^ ^ ς / ^ / . A
πολλὰ κοινὰ πολλοῖς ὑπάρχει τῶν ζῴων, τὰ μὲν
ε ^ T / / / t M / ^
ἁπλῶς (otov πόδες, πτερά, λεπίδες, καὶ πάθη δὴ
` , \ / Z ^ > > / , 5
τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον τούτοις), τὰ δ᾽ ἀνάλογον (λέγω ὃ
ἀνάλογον, ὅτι τοῖς μὲν ὑπάρχει πλεύμων, τοῖς δὲ
πλεύμων μὲν ov, Ô δὲ τοῖς ἔχουσι πλεύμονα, ἐκεί-
νοις ἕτερον ἀντὶ τούτου" καὶ τοῖς μὲν αἷμα, τοῖς δὲ
1070 ἀνάλογον τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχον δύναμιν ἤνπερ τοῖς

/

ἐναίμοις τὸ αἷμα)’ τὸ δὲ λέγειν χωρὶς περὶ ἑκάστων
τῶν καθ᾽ ἕκαστα, καὶ ἔμπροσθεν εἴπομεν ὅτι
/ / > \ / > ^ /
πολλάκις συμβήσεται ταὐτὰ λέγειν, ἐπειδὰν λέ-
γωμεν περὶ πάντων τῶν ὑπαρχόντων" ὑπάρχει δὲ

πολλοῖς ταὐτά. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ταύτῃ διωρίσθω.
15 ᾿Επεὶ δὲ τὸ μὲν ὄργανον πᾶν. ἕνεκά του, τῶν δὲ
τοῦ σώματος μορίων ἕκαστον ἕνεκά του, τὸ Ò οὗ
ἕνεκα πρᾶξίς τις, φανερὸν ὅτι καὶ τὸ σύνολον σῶμα
συνέστηκε πράξεώς τινος ἕνεκα πολυμεροῦς. μαι
ò

γὰρ ἡ πρίσις. τοῦ πρίονος χάριν γέγονεν, ἀλλ᾽
πρίων τῆς πρίσεως' χρῆσις. γάρ τις ἡ πρίσις ἐστίν.
ὥστε καὶ τὸ σῶμά πως τῆς ψυχῆς e ἕνεκεν, καὶ τὰ

90 μόρια τῶν ἔργων πρὸς ἃ πέφυκεν € ἕκαστον.

εκτέον ἄρα πρῶτον τὰς πράξεις τάς τε κοινὰς"

1 πολυμεροῦς P: πλήρους vulg.: fortasse πολυμόρφου, cf.
646 b 15.

2 πάντων post κοινὰς vulg.; delevi.

* Almost always used in the singular by Aristotle.

> By '' blood ” Aristotle means red blood only. ** Blooded ”
and “‘ bloodless " animals do not quite coincide with verte-
brates and invertebrates; for there are some invertebrates
which have red blood, e.g. molluscs (Planorbis), insect

102

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, I. v.

First of all, our business must be to describe the
attributes found in each group; I mean those
"essential" attributes which belong to all the
animals, and after that to endeavour to describe the
causes of them. It will be remembered that I have
said already that there are many attributes which
are common to many animals, either identically the
same (e.g. organs like feet, feathers, and scales, and
affections similarly), or else common by analogy
only (i.e. some animals have a lung,” others have no
lung but something else to correspond instead of
it; again, some animals have blood, while others have
its counterpart," which in them has the same value
as blood in the former) And I have pointed out
above that to treat separately of all the particular
species would mean continual repetition of the
same things, if we are going to deal with all their
attributes, as the same attributes are common to
many animals. Such, then, are my views on this
matter.

Now, as each of the parts of the body, like every
other instrument, is for the sake of some purpose,
viz. some action, it is evident that the body as a
whole must exist for the sake of some complex
action. Just as the saw is there for the sake of
sawing and not sawing for the sake of the saw,
because sawing is the using of the instrument, so in
some way the body exists for the sake of the soul,
and the parts of the body for the sake of those
functions to which they are naturally adapted.

So first of all we must describe the actions (a)
larvae (Chironomus), worms (Arenicola). In other in-
vertebrates the blood may be blue (Crustacea) or green

(Sabellid worms), or there may be no respiratory pigment
at all (most insects).
103

Final
summary
of the
Method.

645 b

25

30

35

646 a

ARISTOTLE

M . . / ` ^ , , δὲ
καὶ τὰς κατὰ γένος καὶ τὰς κατ᾽ εἶδος. λέγω δὲ
^ ^ A
κοινὰς μὲν at πᾶσιν ὑπάρχουσι τοῖς ζῴοις, κατὰ

/ δὲ e 5 LAA λ ^ ὃ . ε ^
γένος δὲ ὅσων παρ᾽ ἄλληλα τὰς διαφορὰς ὁρῶμεν
καθ᾽ ὑπεροχὴν οὔσας, οἷον ὄρνιθα λέγω κατὰ γένος,
ἄνθρωπον δὲ κατ᾽ εἶδος, καὶ πᾶν ὃ κατὰ τὸν

\
καθόλου λόγον μηδεμίαν ἔχει διαφοράν. τὰ μὲν
γὰρ ἔχουσι τὸ κοινὸν κατ᾽ ἀναλογίαν, τὰ δὲ κατὰ
γένος, τὰ δὲ κατ᾽ εἶδος.

e

Όσαι μὲν οὖν πράξεις ἄλλων ἕ ἕνεκα, δῆλον ὅτι
καὶ ὧν αἱ πράξεις. τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον διεστᾶσιν
ὅνπερ αἱ πράξεις. ὁμοίως δὲ κἂν εἴ τινες πρότεραι
καὶ τέλος ἑτέρων πράξεων τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι, τὸν
αὐτὸν ἕξει. τρόπον καὶ τῶν μορίων. ἕκαστον ὧν αἱ
πράξεις αἱ τοιαῦται" καὶ τρίτον, ἃ τινῶν ὄντων
ἀναγκαῖον ὑπάρχειν. (λέγω δὲ πάθη καὶ πράξεις
γένεσιν, αὔξησιν, ὀχείαν, ἐγρήγορσιν, ὕπνον, πο-
ρείαν, καὶ ὁπόσ᾽ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα τοῖς ζῴοις ὑπάρχει"

, δὲ λέ €^ > 0 À \ τῇ A 4 A
μόρια δὲ λέγω piva, ὀφθαλμὸν καὶ TO σύνολον
πρόσωπον, ὧν ἕκαστον καλεῖται μέλος. ὁμοίως
δὲ καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων.)

Καὶ περὶ μὲν τοῦ τρόπου τῆς μεθόδου τοσαῦθ’
ἡμῖν εἰρήσθω: τὰς δ᾽ αἰτίας πειραθῶμεν εἰπεῖν περί
τε τῶν κοινῶν καὶ τῶν ἰδίων, ἀρξάμενοι, καθάπερ

, ^ ^
διωρίσαμεν, πρῶτον ἀπὸ τῶν πρώτων.

1 ἃ τινῶν Peck, cf. 677 a 18: ὧν vulg.: ἃ τούτων Ogle.

a See above, note on 644 a 17.
* Examples will occur during the course of the treatise.

104

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. v.

which are common, and those which belong (6) to a
group, or (c) to a species. By “ common” I mean
those that are present in all animals; by “those
which belong to a group " I mean those of animals
whose differences we see to be differences ''of
excess "^ in relation to one another: an example of
this is the group Birds. Man is an example of a
species ; so is every class which admits no differ-
entiation of its general definition. These three sorts
of common attributes are, respectively, (1) analogous,
(2) generic, (3) specific.

Now it is evident that when one action is for the
sake of another action, then the instruments which
perform the two actions differ exactly as the two
actions differ : and if one action is “ prior " to another
and is the “ end ” of that other action, then the part
of the body to which it belongs will be “ prior " to
the part to which the other action belongs. There
is also a third possibility, viz. that the action and its
organ are there simply because the presence of others
necessarily involves them. (By affections and actions
I mean Generation, Growth, Copulation, Waking,
Sleep, Locomotion, and the other similar ones that
are found in animals. Examples of parts are: Nose,
Eye, Face; each of these is named a “limb” or
"member." And the same holds for the rest too.)

Let this suffice concerning the method of our
inquiry, and let us now endeavour to describe the
causes of all these things, particular as well as
common ; and, according to the principles laid down,
we will begin with the first ones first.

105

Β

646 a Ἔ / \ = / \ /
κ τίνων μὲν οὖν μορίων καὶ πόσων συν-
- ^ e / ^
έστηκεν ἕκαστον τῶν ζῴων, ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις ταῖς
ρα / τ / » a M UN,
10 περι αυτων δεδήλωται σαφέστερον" du ἃς Ò αἰτίας
ἕκαστον τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον, ἐπισκεπτέον νῦν,
- - /
χωρίσαντας καθ᾽ αὑτὰ τῶν ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις εἰρη-
μένων.
^ 5 , ^ ^ / lA M +
Τριῶν Ò οὐσῶν τῶν συνθέσεων πρώτην μὲν ἄν
\ 3 ^
τις θείη τὴν ἐκ τῶν καλουμένων ὑπό τινων OTOL-
^ ^ »
χείων, otov γῆς, ἀέρος, ὕδατος, πυρός. ἔτι δὲ
15 βέλτιον ἴσως ἐκ τῶν δυνάµεων λέγειν, καὶ τούτων
€ ^ ,
οὐκ ἐξ ἁπασῶν, ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ ἐν ἑτέροις εἴρηται καὶ
\ `
πρότερον’ ὑγρὸν γὰρ καὶ ξηρὸν καὶ θερμὸν καὶ
^ , ε
ψυχρὸν ὕλη τῶν συνθέτων σωμάτων ἐστίν, αἱ δ᾽
» \ / > ^ τ /
ἄλλαι διαφοραὶ ταύταις ἀκολουθοῦσιν, οἷον βάρος
\
καὶ κουφότης Kal πυκνότης καὶ µανότης Kal τρα-
S" ^ / ^
20 χύτης καὶ λειότης καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα πάθη τῶν
σωμάτων. δευτέρα δὲ σύστασις ἐκ τῶν πρώτων ἡ
^ ^ / , ^ , /
τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν φύσις ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστίν, οἷον
^ ^ ^ /
ὀστοῦ καὶ σαρκὸς καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν τοιούτων.

a For the threefold series cf. De gen. an. 114 a 9 ff. This
first “ composition " seems to be intended to cover non-
organic compounds.

> “ Dynamis " here is clearly the pre-Aristotelian technical
term. See Introduction, p.30. ° See De gen. et corr. chh. 2,8.

4 In some contexts, ' fluid" and * solid " seem more

106

BOOK II

I nave already described with considerable detail Purpose and
e of

in my Researches upon Animals what and how many the treatise.
are the parts of which the various animals are
composed. We must now leave on one side what
was said there, as our present task is to consider
what are the causes through which each animal is as
I there described it.

Three sorts of composition can be distinguished.
(1) First of all^ we may put composition out of the
Elements (as some call them), viz. Earth, Air, Water,
Fire; or perhaps it is better to say dynameis Ὁ instead
of ο "τες. of the dynameis, that is, not all,
as I have stated previously elsewhere.^ It is just
these four, the fluid substance, the solid,? the hot, and
the cold, which are the matter of composite bodies ;
and the other differences and qualities—such as
heaviness lightness, firmness looseness, roughness
smoothness, etc.—which composite bodies present
are subsequent upon these. (2) The second sort of
composition is the composition of the ''uniform "'*
substances found in animals (such as bone, flesh,
etc.) These also are composed out of the primary
appropriate ; in others, “ moist " and “ dry " (the traditional
renderings). Aristotle defines them at De gen. and corr.
899 b 30. See also below, 649 b 9. I have normally trans-
lated them “ fluid ” and “ solid ” throughout.

e ** Uniform,” “‘ non-uniform " ; see Introduction, p. 28.

107

ARISTOTLE

646 a / ` \ / 3. 05 \ e ^ >
τριτη δὲ και τελευταία κατ ἀριθμὸν 7) των QV-

ομοιομερῶν, otov προσώπου καὶ χειρὸς καὶ τῶν
τοιούτων μορίων.
2 M 5 , / 9 2% ^ , » . A
25 ᾿Επεὶ Ò ἐναντίως ἐπὶ τῆς γενέσεως ἔχει καὶ τῆς
οὐσίας- τὰ γὰρ ὕστερα τῇ γενέσει πρότερα τὴν
φύσιν ἐστί, καὶ πρῶτον τὸ τῇ γενέσει τελευταῖον
, \ AR, / “ / , M / > .
(οὐ γὰρ οἰκία πλίνθων ἕνεκέν ἐστι καὶ λίθων, ἀλλὰ
- ^ / ^5
ταῦτα τῆς οἰκίας: ὁμοίως δὲ τοῦτ᾽ ἔχει καὶ περὶ τὴν
z e , P M \ “ ^ » `
ἄλλην ὕλην: οὐ μόνον δὲ φανερὸν ὅτι τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν
80 τρόπον ἐκ τῆς ἐπαγωγῆς, ἀλλὰ καὶ κατὰ τὸν λόγον:
^ . / -
πᾶν γὰρ τὸ γινόμενον ἔκ τινος καὶ εἴς τι ποιεῖται
M 2 5 ^ 32 ΟΠ > / > \ ^
τὴν γένεσιν, καὶ ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς em ἀρχήν, ἀπὸ τῆς
πρώτης κινούσης καὶ ἐχούσης ἤδη τινὰ φύσιν ἐπί
M -^ ^ » / » A
τινα μορφὴν ἢ τοιοῦτον ἄλλο τέλος' ἄνθρωπος yap
ἄνθρωπον καὶ φυτὸν γεννᾷ φυτὸν ἐκ τῆς περὶ
85 ἕκαστον ὑποκειμένης ὕλης)--τῷ μὲν οὖν χρόνῳ
^ A
646 b προτέραν τὴν ὕλην ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι καὶ τὴν γένεσιν,
- / M M > / \ \ e / ,
τῷ λόγῳ δὲ τὴν οὐσίαν καὶ τὴν ἑκάστου μορφήν.
^ 3 Α / ` / ^ / € `
δῆλον δ᾽ ἂν λέγῃ τις τὸν λόγον τῆς γενέσεως’ ὁ μὲν
- - /
γὰρ τῆς οἰκοδομήσεως λόγος ἔχει τὸν τῆς οἰκίας,
^ ^ > /
ὁ δὲ τῆς οἰκίας οὐκ ἔχει τὸν τῆς οἰκοδομήσεως.

σι

ε / M ^ / M ANE. ^ »
ὁμοίως δὲ τοῦτο συµβέβηκε καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων.
^ > ^ 7
ὥστε τὴν μὲν τῶν στοιχείων ὕλην ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι
^ ^ 7 "d \ > / ^
τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν ένεκεν ὕστερα γὰρ ἐκείνων ταῦτα

a Or, '* efficient."
ὃ Or, “in thought," ** in conception.”
* Almost represented here by “ definition.”

108

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. 1.

substances. (3) The third and last is the composition
of the “ non-uniform " parts of the body, such as
face, hand, and the like.

Now the order of things in the process of formation
is the reverse of their real and essential order; I
mean that the later a thing comes in the formative
process the earlier it comes in the order of Nature,
and that which comes at the end of the process is at
the beginning in the order of Nature. Just so bricks
and stone come chronologically before the house,
although the house is the purpose which they sub-
serve, and not vice versa. And the same applies to
materials of every kind. Thus the truth of my state-
ment can be shown by induction; but it can also
be demonstrated logically, as follows. Everything
which is in process of formation is in passage from
one thing towards another thing, 1.6. from one Cause
towards another Cause ; in other words, it proceeds
from a primary motive? Cause which to begin with
possesses a definite nature, towards a Form or an-
other such End. For example, a man begets a man
and a plant begets a plant. These new indi-
viduals are made out of the substrate matter appro-
priate in each case. Thus, matter and the process
of formation must come first in time, but logically ®
the real essence and the Form of the thing comes
first. This is clear if we state the logos’ of such a
process. For example, the logos of the process of
building includes the /ogos of a house, but that of a
house does not include that of the process of building.
And this holds good in all such cases. Hence we
see that the matter, viz. the Elements, must exist
for the sake of the uniform substances, because
these come later in the process of formation than

109

ARISTOTLE

646 b ^ , Z \ ^ , ^ ^ ^
TT) Aa re τουτων δὲ τα Pr wav ss ταυτα T

ἤδη τὸ τέλος ἔχει καὶ τὸ πέρας, ἐπὶ τοῦ τρίτου
λαβόντα τὴν σύστασιν ἀριθμοῦ, καθάπερ € ἐπὶ πολλῶν

10 συμβαίνει τελειοῦσθαι τὰς γενέσεις.

Eg ἀμφοτέρων μὲν οὖν τὰ ζῷα συνέστηκε τῶν
μορίων τούτων, ἀλλὰ τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ τῶν ἀνομοιο-

ερῶν ἕνεκέν ἐστιν' ἐκείνων γὰρ ἔργα καὶ πράξεις
εἰσίν, οἷον ὀφθαλμοῦ καὶ μυκτῆρος καὶ τοῦ προσ-
ώπου παντὸς καὶ δακτύλου καὶ χειρὸς καὶ παντὸς

15 τοῦ βραχίονος. πολυμόρφων δὲ τῶν πράξεων καὶ
τῶν κινήσεων ὑπαρχουσῶν τοῖς ζῴοις ὅλοις τε καὶ
τοῖς μορίοις τοῖς τοιούτοις, ἀναγκαῖον ἐξ ὧν σύγ-
κεινται τὰς δυνάμεις ἀνομοίας ἔχειν' πρὸς μὲν γάρ
τινα μαλακότης χρήσιμος πρὸς δέ τινα σκληρότης,
καὶ τὰ μὲν τάσιν ἔχειν δεῖ τὰ δὲ κάμψιν.

2 Ta μὲν οὖν ὁμοιομερῆ κατὰ μέρος διείληφε τὰς
δυνάμεις τὰς τοιαύτας (τὸ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν ἐστι
μαλακὸν τὸ δὲ σκληρόν, καὶ τὸ μὲν ὑγρὸν τὸ δὲ
ξηρόν, καὶ τὸ μὲν' γλίσχρον τὸ δὲ κραῦρον),
δ᾽ ἀνομοιομερῆ κατὰ πολλὰς καὶ συγκειμένας
ἀλλήλαις: ἑτέρα γὰρ πρὸς τὸ πιέσαι τῇ χειρὶ χρή-

25 σιµος δύναμις καὶ πρὸς τὸ λαβεῖν. διόπερ ἐξ
ὀστῶν καὶ νεύρων καὶ σαρκὸς καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν
τοιούτων συνεστήκασι τὰ ὀργανικὰ τῶν μορίων,
ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐκεῖνα ἐκ τούτων.

Ὡς μὲν οὖν ἕνεκά τινος διὰ ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν
ἔχει περὶ τούτων τὸν εἰρημένον τρόπον, ἐπεὶ δὲ
ζητεῖται καὶ πῶς ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν οὕτω, φανερὸν ὅτι

80 προὐπῆρχεν οὕτω πρὸς ἄλληλα ἔχοντα ἐξ ἀνάγκης

1 τὸ μὲν PZ: om. vulg.
110

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. 1.

the Elements; just so the non-uniform parts come
later than the uniform. The non-uniform parts,
indeed, whose manner of composition is that of the
third sort, have reached the goal and End of the
whole process ; and we often find that processes of
formation reach their completion at this point.

Now animals are composed out of both of these two
sorts of parts, uniform and non-uniform ; the former,
however, are for the sake of the latter, as it is to the
latter that actions and operations belong (e.g. eye,
nose, the face as a whole, finger, hand, the arm as a
whole). Andinasmuch as the actions and movements
both of an animal as a whole and of its parts are mani-
fold, the substances out of which these are composed
must of necessity possess divers dynameis. Softness is
is useful for some purposes, hardness for others;
some parts must be able to stretch, some to bend.

In the uniform parts, then, such dynameis are
found apportioned out separately : one of the parts,
for instance, will be soft, another hard, while one is
fluid, another solid ; one viscous, another brittle.
In the non-uniform parts, on the other hand, these
dynameis are found in combination, not singly. For
example, the hand needs one dynamis for the action
of compressing and another for that of grasping.
Hence it is that the instrumental parts of the body
are composed of bones, sinews, flesh, and the rest of
them, and not the other way round.

The Cause which I have just stated as controlling
the relation between them is, of course, a Final
Cause ; but when we go on to inquire in what sense
it is necessary that they should be related as they are,
it becomes clear that they must of necessity have
been thus related to each other from the beginning.

Lit."

646 b

85
647a

5

10

ARISTOTLE

^ ^ ^ ,
τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀνομοιομερῆ ἐκ τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν èv-
NES 597. τ
δέχεται συνεστάναι, καὶ ἐκ πλειόνων καὶ ἑνός, οἷον
» ^ / ’ ` ^ /
ἔνια τῶν σπλάγχνων' πολύμορφα γὰρ τοῖς σχή-
- , ^
μασιν, ἐξ ὁμοιομεροῦς ὄντα σώματος ὡς εἰπεῖν
ε - ` 5 € ^ , / > / 1
ἁπλῶς. τὰ Ò ὁμοιομερῆ ἐκ τούτων ἀδύνατον: τὸ
. ε \ / > A » > ^
γὰρ ὁμοιομερὲς πόλλ᾽ ἂν εἴη ἀνομοιομερῆ.
Δ ` \ ον ’ . Ῥ ΕΝ . M € λᾶ M
ιὰ μὲν οὖν ταύτας τὰς αἰτίας τὰ μὲν ἁπλᾶ καὶ
€ ^ ` A A
ὁμοιομερῆ, τὰ δὲ σύνθετα καὶ ἀνομοιομερῆ τῶν
/ ^
μορίων ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστίν.
"O δὲ ^ \ > ~ ^ ^ δ᾽
ντων δὲ τῶν μὲν ὀργανικῶν μερῶν τῶν
, ^ ^ , ^
αἰσθητηρίων ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις, τῶν μὲν ὀργανικῶν
e 5 /
ἕκαστον ἀνομοιομερές ἐστιν, ὥσπερ εἶπον πρότερον,
ε > » , / ^ , ^ e /

ἡ © αἴσθησις ἐγγίνεται πᾶσιν ἐν τοῖς ὁμοιομερέσιν
. ^ ^ ε 7
διὰ τὸ τῶν αἰσθήσεων ὁποιανοῦν ἑνός τινος εἶναι
/ ` Mi , / ε / ` 7
γένους, καὶ τὸ αἰσθητήριον ἑκάστου δεκτικὸν εἶναι
^ , ^ / M ` / A e \ ~
τῶν αἰσθητῶν. πάσχει δὲ τὸ δυνάµει dv ὑπὸ τοῦ
, / » e 5 » ` 95538 ^ / `
ἐνεργείᾳ ὄντος, ὥστ᾽ ἔστι τὸ αὐτὸ τῷ γένει, καὶ
9.4: 8 ^ e A ^ er M ^ ^ ^
(ey! ἐκεῖνο ἕν, καὶ τοῦτο ἕν, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο χεῖρα

y ^ , `
μὲν ἢ πρόσωπον ἢ τῶν τοιούτων τι μορίων οὐδεὶς
, ^ , ^ / ` \ ^
ἐγχειρεῖ λέγειν τῶν φυσιολόγων τὸ μὲν εἶναι γῆν,

` ο, ` \ ^ ^ 5 , ’ e
τὸ δ᾽ ὕδωρ, τὸ δὲ Tip: τῶν δ᾽ αἰσθητηρίων ἕκαστον

1 (ei) Ogle.

‘

? The translation ‘‘ sense-organ " must not be taken to
imply that the part through which the sense functions is an

112

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. 1.

It is possible for the non-uniform parts to be con-
structed out of the uniform substances, either out of
many of them, or out of one only. (Examples of the
latter are furnished by certain of the viscera, which,
although they are of manifold shapes and forms,
yet for all practical purposes may be said to consist
of one only of the uniform substances.) But it is
impossible for the uniform substances to be con-
structed out of the non-uniform parts: for then
we should have an uniform substance consisting of
several non-uniform parts, which is absurd.

These, then, are the Causes owing to which some of
the parts of animals are simple and uniform ; while
others are composite and non-uniform.

Now the parts can also be divided up into (a)
instrumental parts and (b) sense-organs.^ And we
may say that each of the instrumental parts of the
body, as I have stated earlier, is always non-uniform,
while sensation in all cases takes place in parts that
are uniform. ‘The reasons why this is so are the
following : The function of each of the senses is
concerned with a single kind of sensible objects ; and
the sense-organ in each case must be such as can
apprehend those objects. Now when one thing
affects another, the thing which is affected must be
potentially what the other is actually ; so both are the
same in kind, and therefore if the affecting thing is
single, the affected one is single too. Hence we
find that while with regard to the parts of the
body such as hand, or face, none of the physiologers
attempts to say that one of them is earth, and
another water, and another fire ; yet they do conjoin

,

" organ " in the stricter meaning of the word. *' Organs "
are normally “ non-uniform,” sense-organs are '' uniform.”

113

647a

ARISTOTLE

` ^ , ` `
πρὸς ἕκαστον ἐπιζευγνύουσι τῶν στοιχείων, τὸ μὲν
> ~
ἀέρα φάσκοντες εἶναι, τὸ δὲ πῦρ.
» \ ^ 3 / > ^ € ^ /
Οὔσης δὲ τῆς αἰσθήσεως ἐν τοῖς ἁπλοῖς μέρεσιν

3 ’ / / M € M > e ^
15 εὐλόγως µάλιστα συμβαίνει τὴν ἀφὴν ἐν ὁμοιομερεῖ

20

26

90

\ e > € ^ ^ , / , /
μὲν ἥκιστα Ò- ἁπλῷ τῶν αἰσθητηρίων ἐγγίνεσθαι:
/ ^ ^ M
μάλιστα yàp αὕτη δοκεῖ πλειόνων εἶναι γενῶν, καὶ
πολλὰς ἔχειν ἐναντιώσεις τὸ ὑπὸ ταύτην αἰσθητόν,
` ^
θερμὸν ψυχρόν, ξηρὸν ὑγρὸν καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον:
A Z
καὶ τὸ τούτων αἰσθητήριον, ἡ σὰρξ καὶ τὸ ταύτῃ
> / ^ /
ἀνάλογον, σωματωδέστατόν ἐστι τῶν αἰσθητηρίων.
, M 5 > Z 7 ^ » > / \
ἐπεὶ Ò ἀδύνατον εἶναι ζῷον ἄνευ αἰσθήσεως, καὶ
M ^ ^ ^ »
διὰ τοῦτο ἂν εἴη ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν τοῖς ζῴοις ἔνια
/ ^ 2 Z
μόρια ὁμοιομερῆ" ἡ μὲν γὰρ αἴσθησις ἐν τούτοις,
ε - ^ £
αἱ δὲ πράξεις διὰ τῶν ἀνομοιομερῶν ὑπάρχουσιν
αὐτοῖς.
^ > > ^ / M ^ d
Τῆς δ᾽ αἰσθητικῆς δυνάμεως καὶ τῆς κινούσης
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ , ^
TO ζῷον καὶ τῆς θρεπτικῆς ἐν ταὐτῷ μορίῳ τοῦ
, /
σώματος οὔσης, καθάπερ ἐν ἑτέροις εἴρηται πρό-
^ ^ \
τερον, ἀναγκαῖον τὸ ἔχον πρῶτον μόριον τὰς
τοιαύτας ἀρχάς, ἢ μέν ἐστι δεκτικὸν πάντων τῶν
, ^ ^ € ^ 7 / y) M `
αἰσθητῶν, τῶν ἁπλῶν εἶναι μορίων, Ñ δὲ κινητικὸν
/ ^ > ^
καὶ πρακτικόν, τῶν ἀνομοιομερῶν. διόπερ ἐν μὲν
- - > /
τοῖς ἀναίμοις ζῴοις τὸ ἀνάλογον, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐναίμοις
- ^ >
ἡ καρδία τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν' διαιρεῖται μὲν γὰρ εἰς
ὁμοιομερῆ καθάπερ τῶν ἄλλων σπλάγχνων ἕκαστον,
^ M /
διὰ δὲ τὴν τοῦ σχήματος μορφὴν ἀνομοιομερές

ἐστιν. ταύτῃ δ᾽ ἠκολούθηκε καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν

α See De somno, 455 b 34 ff.
114

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. 1.

each of the sense-organs with one of the elementary
substances, and they assert that this sense-organ is
air, this one fire.

Sensation thus takes place in the simple parts of
the body. The organ in which touch takes place is,
however, as we should expect, the least simple of all
the sense-organs, though of course like the others it
is uniform. ‘This is evidently because the sense of
touch deals with more kinds of sense-objects than
one: and these objects may have several sorts of
oppositions in them, e.g. hot and cold, solid and fluid,
and the like. So the sense-organ which deals with
these—viz. the flesh, or its counterpart—is the most
corporeal of all the sense-organs. Another reason
we might adduce why animals must of necessity
possess some uniform parts at any rate, is that there
cannot be such a thing as an animal with no power
of sensation, and the seat of sensation is the uniform
parts. (The non-uniform parts supply the means for
the various activities, not for sensation.)

Further, since the faculties of sensation and of
motion and of nutrition are situated in one and the
same part of the body, as I stated in an earlier work,"
that part, which is the primary seat of these principles,
must of necessity be included not only among the
simple parts but also among the non-uniform parts—
the former in virtue of receiving all that is perceived
through the senses, the latter because it has to do
with motion and action. In blooded animals this
part is the heart, in bloodless animals the counterpart
of the heart, for the heart, like every one of the other
viscera, can be divided up into uniform pieces ; but
on the other hand it is non-uniform owing to its
shape and formation. Every one of the other so-

115’

ARISTOTLE

647 a
35 καλουμένων σπλάγχνων ἕκαστον" ἐκ τῆς αὐτῆς

647 b γὰρ ὕλης συνεστᾶσιν' αἱματικὴ γὰρ ἡ φύσις πάντων
, ^ \ ` \ / » 3-3 / ^
αὐτῶν διὰ τὸ τὴν θέσιν ἔχειν ἐπὶ πόροις φλεβικοῖς
` ή / 7 εν e , ,
καὶ διαλήψεσιν. καθάπερ οὖν ῥέοντος ὕδατος ἰλύς,
Ss / ^ X ^ ^ e 2 ^
τἆλλα σπλάγχνα τῆς διὰ τῶν φλεβῶν ῥύσεως τοῦ
αἵματος otov προχεύματά ἐστιν' ἡ δὲ καρδία, διὰ
. ^ ^ 9 \ ^ . » 3 € ^ A
ὅ τὸ τῶν φλεβῶν ἀρχὴ εἶναι καὶ ἔχειν ἐν αὑτῇ τὴν
δύναμιν τὴν δημιουργοῦσαν τὸ αἷμα πρώτην, εὔ-
- Z
λογον ἐξ otas ἄρχεται᾽ τροφῆς ἐκ τοιαύτης ovv-
εστάναι καὶ αὐτήν.
Δ / M 7 € . ` M . ,
ιότι μὲν οὖν αἱματικὰ τὴν μορφὴν τὰ σπλάγχνα
^ ^ ^ >
ἐστὶν εἴρηται, καὶ διότι τῇ μὲν ὁμοιομερῆ τῇ ὃ
ἀνομοιομερῆ.
- -RTG A / , ^ , 3 M
ιο. II. Τῶν 9' ὁμοιομερῶν μορίων ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστὶ
τὰ μὲν μαλακὰ καὶ ὑγρά, τὰ δὲ σκληρὰ καὶ στερεά,
ε \ \ KAJ e a“ e A Ss > ^ / T
ὑγρὰ μὲν ἢ ὅλως ἢ ἕως av ἢ ἐν τῇ φύσει, οἷον
- / /
αἷμα, ἰχώρ, πιμελή, στέαρ, μυελός, γονή, χολή,
γάλα ἐν τοῖς ἔχουσι, σάρξ, καὶ τὰ τούτοις ἀνάλογον:
15 οὐ γὰρ ἅπαντα τὰ ζῷα τούτων τῶν μορίων τέ-
τευχεν, ἀλλ᾽ ἔνια τῶν ἀνάλογον τούτων τισίν. τὰ
δὲ ξηρὰ καὶ στερεὰ τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν ἐστίν, οἷον
ὀστοῦν, ἄκανθα, νεῦρον, φλέψ. καὶ γὰρ τῶν ὁμοιο-
- ,
μερῶν ἡ διαίρεσις ἔχει διαφοράν: ἔστι γὰρ ὡς ἐνίων
\ , € / A 2 T \ / »
τὸ μέρος ὁμώνυμον τῷ ὅλῳ, οἷον φλεβὸς φλέψ,, ἔστι
20 δ᾽ ὡς ody ὁμώνυμον, ἀλλὰ προσώπου πρόσωπον
οὐδαμῶς.
1 otas corr. in loco plurium litterarum Y : οἵ ας Z (ας Z? in

rasura). ἄρχεται (vel ἀρχή ἐστι) Peck, cf. 666 a 7, b 1, eto. :
δέχεται vulg.

116

PARTS OF ANIMALS, ΙΙ. r=.

called viscera follows suit. They are all composed
of the same material, as they all have a sanguineous
character, and this is because they are situated
upon the channels of the blood-vessels and on the
points of ramification. All these viscera (excluding
the heart) may be compared to the mud which
a running stream deposits; they are as it were
deposits left by the current of blood in the blood-
vessels. As for the heart itself, since it is the starting-
point of the blood-vessels and contains the substance
(dynamis) by which the blood is first fashioned,
it is only to be expected that it will itself be com-
posed out of that form of nutriment which it
originates.

We have now stated why the viscera are san-
guineous in formation, and why in one aspect they are
uniform and in another non-uniform.

II. Of the uniform parts in animals, some are The uniform
soft and fluid, some hard and firm. Some are P"
permanently fluid, some are fluid only so long as they
are in the living organism—e.g. blood, serum, lard,
suet, marrow, semen, bile, milk (in the lactiferous
species), flesh. (As these parts are of course not to
be found in all animals, add to this list their counter-
parts.) Other of the uniform parts are solid and
firm : examples are bone, fish-spine, sinew, blood-
vessel. This division of the uniform parts admits a
further distinction : There are some of them of which
a portion has, in one sense, the same name as the
whole (e.g. a portion of a blood-vessel has the name
blood-vessel) and in another sense has not the
same name. (In no sense is this the case with a
non-uniform part; for instance, a portion of a face
cannot be called face at ali.)

αγ.’

ARISTOTLE

647 b

Πρῶτον μὲν οὖν καὶ τοῖς ὑγροῖς μορίοις καὶ τοῖς
ξηροῖς πολλοὶ τρόποι τῆς αἰτίας εἰσίν. τὰ μὲν γὰρ
ὡς ὕλη τῶν μερῶν τῶν ἀνομοιομερῶν ἐστι (ἐκ
τούτων γὰρ συνέστηκεν ἕκαστον τῶν ὀργανικῶν
μερῶν, ἐξ ὀστῶν καὶ νεύρων καὶ σαρκῶν καὶ ἄλλων

25 τοιούτων «συμβαλλομένων. τὰ μὲν εἰς τὴν οὐσίαν τὰ
δ᾽ εἰς τὴν -ἐργασίαν), τὰ δὲ τροφὴ τούτοις τῶν
ὑγρῶν ἐστί (πάντα γὰρ εξ ὑγροῦ λαμβάνει τὴν
αὔξησυν), τὰ δὲ περιττώματα συμβέβηκεν εἶναι
τούτων, οἷον τήν τε τῆς ξηρᾶς τροφῆς ὑπόστασιν
καὶ τὴν τῆς ὑγρᾶς τοῖς ἔχουσι κύστιν.

Αὐτῶν δὲ τούτων αἱ διαφοραὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα τοῦ

80 βελτίονος ἕνεκέν εἶσιν, οἷον τῶν τε ἄλλων καὶ
αἵματος πρὸς αἷμα: τὸ μὲν γὰρ λεπτότερον τὸ δὲ
παχύτερον καὶ τὸ μὲν καθαρώτερόν ἐστι τὸ δὲ
θολερώτερον, ἔτι δὲ τὸ μὲν ψυχρότερον τὸ δὲ θερ-
µότερον, év τε τοῖς μορίοις τοῦ ἑνὸς ζῴου (τὸ γὰρ

35 ἐν τοῖς ἄνω μέρεσι πρὸς τὰ κάτω μόρια διαφέρει
ταύταις ταῖς διαφοραῖς) καὶ ἑτέρῳ πρὸς ἕτερον.

648α καὶ ὅλως τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα τῶν ζῴων ἐστί, τὰ δ᾽ ἀντὶ
τοῦ αἵματος ἔχει ἕτερόν τι μόριον τοιοῦτον.

"Ἔστι © ἰσχύος μὲν ποιητικώτερον τὸ παχύτερον
αἷμα καὶ θερμότερον, αἰσθητικώτερον δὲ καὶ νοερώ-
τερον τὸ λεπτότερον καὶ ψυχρότερον. τὴν αὐτὴν δ᾽

5 ἔχει διαφορὰν καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον ὑπάρχον' πρὸς τὸ

1 τὸ . . . ὑπάρχον P: τῶν . . . ὑπαρχόντων vulg.

Or, *' reason."

See Introduction, pp. 32 ff.

See Introduction, pp. 28 ff.

With this passage compare Hippocrates, Περὶ διαίτης,
i. 35. See also below, 650 b 24 ff., and Introduction, pp.
31-39.

118

ο C'A

a

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. rr.

Now first of all there are many sorts of Cause? to
which the existence of these uniform parts, both the
fluid and the solid ones, is to be ascribed. Some of
them act as the material for the non-uniform parts
(e.g. each of the instrumental parts is composed of
these uniform parts—bones, sinews, fleshes, and the
like, which contribute either to its essence, or else
towards the discharge of its proper function). An-
other group of the uniform parts—fluid ones—act as
nutriment for the ones just mentioned, since every-
thing that grows gets the material for its growth
from what is fluid ; and yet a third group are residues?
produced from the second group: examples, the
excrement deposited from the solid nutriment and
(in those animals which have a bladder) from the fluid
nutriment.

Further, variations are found among different
specimens of these uniform parts, and this is to sub-
serve a good purpose. Blood is an excellent illustra-
tion. Blood can be thin or thick, clear or muddy,
cold or warm ; and it can be different in different
parts of the same animal: instances are known of
animals in which the blood in the upper parts differs
from that in the lower parts in respect of the char-
acteristics just enumerated. And of course the
blood of one animal differs from that of another.
And there is the general division between the
animals that have blood and those which instead of it
have a part^ which is similar to it though not actually
blood.

The thicker and warmer the blood is, the more it
makes for strength ; if it tends to be thin and cold,
it is conducive to sensation and intelligence. The
same difference holds good with the counterpart of

119

648a

10

15

20

25

ARISTOTLE

M ^ ^
αἷμα: διὸ καὶ μέλιτται καὶ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα ζῷα hpo-
^ , , , ^ M ^
νιμώτερα τὴν φύσιν ἐστὶν ἐναίμων πολλῶν, καὶ τῶν
ἐναίμων τὰ ψυχρὸν ἔχοντα καὶ λεπτὸν αἷμα φρονι-
μώτερα τῶν ἐναντίων ἐστίν. ἄριστα δὲ τὰ θερμὸν
M
ἔχοντα καὶ λεπτὸν kai kaÜapóv: ἅμα γὰρ πρός T
^ M ` / , ^
ἀνδρείαν τὰ τοιαῦτα καὶ πρὸς φρόνησιν ἔχει καλῶς.
,
διὸ καὶ τὰ ἄνω μόρια πρὸς τὰ κάτω ταύτην ἔχει
M / M \ \ ~ => . » .
τὴν διαφοράν, καὶ πρὸς τὸ θῆλυ αὖ τὸ ἄρρεν, καὶ
^ ^ ^
τὰ δεξιὰ πρὸς τὰ ἀριστερὰ τοῦ σώματος.
ο / δὲ ` \ ^ LAA M ^ Z
μοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων καὶ τῶν τοιούτων
µορίων καὶ τῶν ἀνομοιομερῶν ὑποληπτέον ἔχειν
, ^
τὴν διαφοράν, τὰ μὲν πρὸς τὰ ἔργα καὶ τὴν οὐσίαν
^ ^ ^
ἑκάστῳ τῶν ζώων, τὰ δὲ πρὸς τὸ βέλτιον 7) χεῖρον,
^ 3/5 nf » ` > / ` / ,
otov ἐχόντων ὀφθαλμοὺς ἀμφοτέρων τὰ μέν ἐστι
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σκληρόφθαλμα τὰ δ᾽ ὑγρόφθαλμα, καὶ τὰ μὲν οὐκ
» / ^ 9^ Ay ` M M » >
ἔχει βλέφαρα τὰ Ò ἔχει, πρὸς τὸ τὴν ὄψιν ἀκρι-
βεστέραν εἶναι.
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Οτι δ᾽ ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν ἢ αἷμα ἢ τὸ τούτῳ τὴν
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οὕτω καὶ περὶ τούτου θεωρητέον τὰς αἰτίας. πολλῶν
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γὰρ ἡ φύσις ἀνάγεται πρὸς ταύτας τὰς ἀρχάς, καὶ
M ^ ^ M M ^ ^
πολλοὶ διαμφισβητοῦσι ποῖα θερμὰ καὶ ποῖα ψυχρὰ
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τῶν ζώων ἢ τῶν μορίων. ἔνιοι γὰρ τὰ ἔνυδρα τῶν
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πεζῶν θερμότερά φασιν εἶναι, λέγοντες ὡς ἐπανισοῖ
τὴν ψυχρότητα τοῦ τόπου ἡ τῆς φύσεως αὐτῶν
a This sentiment, which at first sight appears to go against
the Aristotelian teleology, is supported by actual instances,

e.g. the horns of the backward-grazing oxen (659 a 19) and
of the deer (663 a 11) and the talons of certain birds (694 a 20).

120

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. τι.

blood in other creatures: and thus we can explain
why bees and other similar creatures are of a more
intelligent nature than many animals that have
blood in them ; and among the latter class, why
some (viz. those whose blood is cold and thin) are
more intelligent than others. Best of all are those
animals whose blood is hot and also thin and clear ;
they stand well both for courage and for intelligence.
Consequently, too, the upper parts of the body have
this pre-eminence over the lower parts ; the male over
the female ; and the right side of the body over the
left.

What applies to the blood applies as well to the
other uniform parts and also to the non-uniform
parts ; similar variations occur. And it must be
supposed that these variations either have some re-
ference to the activities of the creatures and to their
essential nature, or else bring them some advantage
or disadvantage." For example, the eyes of some
creatures are hard in substance, of others, fluid ;
some have eyelids, others have not. In both cases
the difference is for the sake of greater accuracy of
vision.

Before we can go on to consider the reasons why all
animals must of necessity have blood in them or some-
thing which possesses the same nature, and also what
the nature of blood itself is, we must first come to
some decision about hot and cold. The nature of many
things is to be referred back to these two principles,
and there is much dispute about which animals and
which parts of animals are hot and which are cold.
Some assert that water-animals are hotter than land-
animals, and they allege that the creatures' natural
heat makes up for the coldness of their habitat.

$21.’

ARISTOTLE

648 - 0 , M A ο ^ , / M ` /
ερµότης, καὶ τὰ ἄναιμα τῶν ἐναίμων καὶ τὰ θήλεα

^ > / T ^ ^
τῶν ἀρρένων, otov Παρμενίδης τὰς γυναῖκας τῶν
S0 anne d / qM, Ay / e
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διὰ τὴν θερμότητα καὶ πολυαιμούσαις γινομένων
^ , > ^ M > , » >
τῶν γυναικείων, ᾿Εμπεδοκλῆς δὲ τοὐναντίον" ἔτι ὃ
- J
αἷμα καὶ χολὴν ot μὲν θερμὸν ὁποτερονοῦν εἶναι
, ^ € \ / > 23 oe ,
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\ \ M ` \ > / / M
TO θερμὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρὸν ἀμφισβήτησιν, τί χρὴ
` ^ » ς ^ ^ ^ € ctm ,
35 περὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὑπολαβεῖν; ταῦτα γὰρ ἡμῖν èv-
αργέστατα τῶν περὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν.
Ἔοικε δὲ διὰ τὸ πολλαχῶς λέγεσθαι τὸ θερµό-
^ / e . -
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/ > / / \ ^ M /, ^
λέγειν τἀναντία λέγων. διὸ δεῖ μὴ λανθάνειν πῶς
δεῖ τῶν φύσει συνεστώτων τὰ μὲν θερμὰ λέγειν τὰ
M . M \ \ \ ^ > € Ῥ , ay το ,
δὲ ψυχρὰ καὶ τὰ μὲν ξηρὰ τὰ δ᾽ ὑγρά, ἐπεὶ ὅτι y
αἴτια ταῦτα σχεδὸν καὶ θανάτου καὶ ζωῆς ἔοικεν
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τραχύτητες καὶ λειότητες οὐδὲ βαρύτητες καὶ κου-
/ 3093 » ^ / 3 \ e > ^
φότητες οὐδ᾽ ἄλλο τῶν τοιούτων οὐδὲν ὡς εἰπεῖν.
M ^5 > , / y . ,
καὶ τοῦτ᾽ εὐλόγως συμβέβηκεν: καθάπερ γὰρ ἐν
ἑτέροις εἴρηται πρότερον, ἀρχαὶ τῶν φυσικῶν
10 στοιχείων αὗταί εἰσι, θερμὸν καὶ ψυχρὸν καὶ
ξηρὸν καὶ ὑγρόν.
/ τ ε - / M . bl
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^ ^ \ ^ VIN ^ / ΝΛ
ναχῶς; δεῖ δὴ λαβεῖν τί ἔργον τοῦ θερμοτέρου, ἢ
α See above, 646 a 15, and note.
122

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IT. τ.

Further, it is asserted that bloodless animals are
hotter than those that have blood ; and that females
are hotter than males. Parmenides and others, for
instance, assert that women are hotter than men on
the ground of the menstrual flow, which they say is
due to their heat and the abundance of their blood.
Empedocles, however, maintains the opposite
opinion. Again, some say that blood is hot and bile
cold, others that bile is hot and blood cold. And if
there is so much dispute about the hot and the cold,
which after all are the most distinct of the things
which affect our senses, what line are we to take
about the rest of them ?

Now it looks as if the difficulty is due to the term The primary
“ hotter " being used in more senses than one, as there (a) hoe”
seems to be something in what each of these writers and “cold.”
says, though their statements are contradictory.
Hence we must permit no ambiguity in our application
of the descriptions ' hot” and “ cold," “ solid " and
“ fluid " to the substances that are found produced by
nature. Itis surely sufficiently established that these
four principles (and not to any appreciable extent
roughness, smoothness, heaviness, lightness, or any
such things) are practically the causes controlling life
and death, not to mention sleep and waking, prime
and age, disease and health. And this, after all, is
but reasonable, because (as I have said previously in
another work) these four—hot, cold, solid, fluid—are
the principles of the physical Elements.”

Let us consider, then, whether the term “ hot 7
has one sense or several. To decide this point, we
must find out what is the particular effect which a
body has in virtue of being hotter than another, or,
if there are several such effects, how many there are.

E 195

ARISTOTLE
648 b , > / e M ^ / / ^
πόσα, εἰ πλείω. ἕνα μὲν δὴ τρόπον λέγεται μᾶλλον
1 > ^
θερμὸν ὑφ᾽ οὗ μᾶλλον θερμαίνεται τὸ ἁπτόμενον,
LAA de M ᾷλλ 0 > ~ 2 -
15 ἄλλως δὲ τὸ μᾶλλον αἴσθησιν ἐμποιοῦν ἐν τῷ
/ ^
θιγγάνειν, καὶ τοῦτ᾽, ἐὰν μετὰ λύπης. ἔστι δ᾽ ὅτε
ὃ ^ ο Φ 5 55 y» ^ € e 3-14
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ὃν 9 ^ A
τοῦ ἀλγεῖν αἰσθανομένοις. ἔτι τὸ τηκτικώτερον τοῦ
τηκτοῦ καὶ τοῦ καυστοῦ καυστικώτερον. ἔτι ἐὰν
> ` M / \ 2. 9 \ 3 / ` / ^
ἢ τὸ μὲν πλέον τὸ δ᾽ ἔλαττον τὸ αὐτό, τὸ πλέον τοῦ
> / ^ `
90 ἐλάττονος θερμότερον. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις δυοῖν τὸ
. / / LA M / /
µη ταχέως ψυχόμενον ἀλλὰ βραδέως θερμότερον,
M A ^ ^
καὶ τὸ θᾶττον θερμαινόμενον τοῦ θερμαινομένου
βραδέως θερμότερον εἶναι τὴν φύσιν φαμέν, ὡς τὸ
\ > e
μὲν ἐναντίον ὅτι πόρρω, τὸ δ᾽ ὅμοιον ὅτι ἐγγύς.
/ I ^ ^
λέγεται μὲν οὖν εἰ μὴ πλεοναχῶς, ἀλλὰ τοσαυταχῶς
e
25 ἕτερον ἑτέρου θερμότερον: τούτους δὲ τοὺς τρόπους
ἀδύνατον ὑπάρχειν τῷ αὐτῷ πάντας: θερμαίνει μὲν
γὰρ μᾶλλον τὸ ξέον ὕδωρ τῆς φλογός, καίει δὲ καὶ
τήκει τὸ καυστὸν καὶ τηκτὸν 7 φλόξ, τὸ δ᾽ ὕδωρ
οὐδέν. ἔτι θερμότερον μὲν τὸ ζέον ὕδωρ ἢ πῦρ
Y / , \ \ ^ ` ^ M `
ὀλίγον, ψύχεται δὲ καὶ θᾶττον καὶ μᾶλλον τὸ θερμὸν
ὕδωρ μικροῦ πυρός: οὐ γὰρ γίνεται ψυχρὸν πῦρ,
ὕδωρ δὲ γίνεται πᾶν. ἔτι θερμότερον μὲν κατὰ τὴν
ε M \ / e , \ ^ M "A
ἁφὴν τὸ ζέον ὕδωρ, ψύχεται δὲ θᾶττον καὶ πήγνυται
τοῦ ἐλαίου. ἔτι τὸ αἷμα κατὰ μὲν τὴν ἀφὴν θερμό-
τερον ὕδατος καὶ ἐλαίου, πήγνυται δὲ θᾶττον. ἔτι
λίθοι καὶ σίδηρος καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα θερμαίνεται μὲν
85 βραδύτερον ὕδατος, καίει δὲ θερμανθέντα μᾶλλον.
πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τῶν λεγομένων θερμῶν τὰ μὲν

8

e

a Alluding, perhaps, to the expansion due to heat.
124

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. rr.

A is said to be “ hotter " than B (1) if that which
comes into contact with it is heated more by it than
by B. (2) If it produces a more violent sensation
when touched, and especially if the sensation is
accompanied by pain. (The latter is not always a
true indication, since sometimes the pain is due to the
condition of the percipient.) (3) If it is a better
melting or burning agent. (4) If it is of the same
composition as B, but greater in bulk," it is said to be
"hotter" than B, and in addition (5) if it cools
more slowly than B, or warms up more quickly: in
both these cases we call the thing '' hotter " in its
nature—as we call one thing “ contrary " to another
when it is far removed from it, and “like " it when
it is near it. But although the senses in which
one thing is said to be “hotter” than another
are certainly as many as this, if not more, yet
no one thing can be ''hotter" in all of these
ways at once. For instance, boiling water can im-
part heat more effectively than flame; but flame
is able to cause burning and melting, whereas
water is not. Again, boiling water is hotter than
a small fire, but the hot water will cool off more
quickly and more thoroughly than the small fire,
since fire does not become cold, but all water
does. Again, boiling water is hotter to the touch
than oil, yet it cools and solidifies more quickly. And
again, blood is warmer to the touch than either water
or oil, yet it congeals more quickly. Again, stone
and iron and such substances get hot more slowly
than water, but once they are hot they burn other
things more than water can. In addition to all this
there is another distinction to be made among the
things that are called “ hot " : in some of them the

125

649a

σι

10

T
or

20

ARISTOTLE

> , » \ / . 2 , ,
ἀλλοτρίαν ἔχει τὴν θερμότητα τὰ Ò οἰκείαν, δια-
φέρει δὲ τὸ θερμὸν εἶναι οὕτως ἢ ἐκείνως πλεῖστον,
, \ \ ^ M \ 7 ` > ^
ἐγγὺς yàp τοῦ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς εἶναι θερμὸν ἀλλὰ
μὴ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ θάτερον αὐτῶν: ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις λέγοι,
εἰ συμβεβηκὸς εἴη τῷ πυρέττοντι εἶναι μουσικῷ,
τὸν μουσικὸν εἶναι θερμότερον η τὸν μεθ ὑγιείας
θερμόν. ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἐστὶ τὸ μὲν καθ᾽ αὑτὸ θερμὸν τὸ
δὲ κατὰ συμβεβηκός, ψύχεται μὲν βραδύτερον τὸ
2 ε / / \ ^ / \ »
καθ᾽’ αὑτό, θερμαίνει δὲ μᾶλλον πολλάκις τὴν at-
σθησιν τὸ κατὰ συμβεβηκός: καὶ πάλιν καίει μὲν
ἀλλ \ ϱ) E M 0 / - ᾳ e λὸ ^
μᾶλλον τὸ Kal? αὑτὸ θερμόν, otov ἡ φλὸξ τοῦ
e ^ / / M ^ ^ € M \
ὕδατος τοῦ ζέοντος, θερμαίνει δὲ κατὰ τὴν ἁφὴν τὸ

^ e
ζέον μᾶλλον, τὸ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς θερμόν. ὥστε
φανερὸν ὅτι τὸ κρῖναι δυοῖν πότερον θερμότερον οὐχ
ἁπλοῦν" ὡδὶ μὲν yàp ` τόδε ἔσται θερμότερον, ὡδὶ δὲ
θάτερον. ἔνια δὲ τῶν τοιούτων οὐδ᾽ ἔστιν ἁπλῶς
εἰπεῖν ὅτι θερμὸν 7) μὴ θερμόν" ὃ μὲν γάρ ποτε
τυγχάνει ὂν τὸ ὑποκείμενον οὐ θερμόν, συνδυαξό-
μενον δὲ θερμόν, οἷον εἴ τις θεῖτο ὄνομα ὕδατι ἢ
σιδήρῳ θερμῷ" τοῦτον γὰρ τὸν τρόπον τὸ αἷμα
ερμόν ἐστιν. καὶ ποιεῖ δὲ φανερὸν ἐν τοῖς τοιού-
τοις ὅτι τὸ ψυχρὸν φύσις τις ἀλλ᾽ οὐ στέρησίς ἐστιν,
ἐν ὅσοις τὸ ὑποκείμενον κατὰ πάθος 'θερμόν ἐστιν.
τάχα δὲ καὶ 7) τοῦ πυρὸς φύσις, εἰ ἔτυχε, τοιαύτη
τις ἐστίν" ἴσως γὰρ τὸ ὑποκείμενόν ἐστιν ἢ καπνὸς
ἢ ἄνθραξ, ὧν τὸ μὲν ἀεὶ θερμόν (ἀναθυμίασις γὰρ ὁ
/ € > » > \ / »

καπνός), ὁ δ᾽ ἄνθραξ ἀποσβεσθεὶς ψυχρός. ἔλαιον
δὲ καὶ πεύκη γένοιτ᾽ ἂν ψυχρά. ἔχει δὲ θερμότητα
a That is, '' blood ” is really *' hot τν. and the “a” is no
more hot of its own nature than the “ water " in “ hot water."

Cf. 649 b 21 ff., and Torstrik, Rh. Mus. xii. 161 ff.

> Perhaps a reference to the resin which is in firwood or is
obtained from it.

126

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. π.

heat is their own; in others it has been derived from
without. And there is a very great difference be-
tween these two ways of being hot, because one of
them comes near to being hot “ by accident " and
not hot “ of itself"; as is obvious, supposing anyone
were to assert, if a fever-patient were “ by accident 7
a man of culture, that the man of culture is hotter
than a man whose heat is due to his perfect health.
Thus some things are hot “of themselves" and
some hot “ by accident," and though the former cool
more slowly, the latter are in many cases hotter in
their effect upon the senses. Again, the former have
a greater power of burning : e.g. a flame burns you
more than boiling water, yet the boiling water,
which is hot only “ by accident," causes a stronger
sensation of heat if you touch it. From this it is
plain that it is no simple matter to decide which of
two things is the hotter. The first will be hotter in
one way, and the second in another. In some cases
of this sort it is actually impossible to say simply that
a thing is hot or is not hot. I mean cases in which
the substratum in its permanent nature is not hot,
but when coupled (with heat) is hot; as if we were
to give a special name to hot water or hot iron : that
is the mode in which blood is hot." These cases, in
which the substratum is hot merely through some
external influence, make it clear that cold is not just a
privation but a real thing in itself. Perhaps even fire
may be an instance of this kind. It may be that its
substratum is smoke or charcoal: and, though smoke
is always hot because it is an exhalation, charcoal
when it goes out is cold. In the same way oil
and firwood ὃ become cold. Further, practically all

127

ARISTOTLE

E ` ` , / δ / Φ / `
29 KAL TA TU ωθέντα παντα. σχεοον, OLOV κονία, και
2

τέφρα, καὶ τὰ ὑποστήματα τῶν ζῴων, καὶ τῶν
περιττωμάτων ἡ χολή, τῷ ἐμπεπυρεῦσθαι καὶ
, ^ / , , ^ È L4 ^
ἐγκαταλελεῖφθαί τι ἐν αὐτοῖς θερμόν. ἄλλον δὲ
τρόπον θερμὰ᾽ πεύκη καὶ τὰ πίονα, τῷ ταχὺ pera-
άλλειν εἰς ἐνέργειαν πυρός.
- \ ` \ ` / \ d e
30 Δοκεῖ δὲ τὸ θερμὸν καὶ πηγνύναι καὶ τήκειν. ὅσα
μὲν οὖν ὕδατος μόνον, ταῦτα πήγνυσι τὸ ψυχρόν,
ὅσα δὲ γῆς, τὸ mÜp: καὶ τῶν θερμῶν πήγνυται ὑπὸ
ψυχροῦ ταχὺ μὲν ὅσα γῆς μᾶλλον καὶ ἀλύτως,
- > e e 2 ^ M \ , ,
λυτῶς Ò ὅσα ὕδατος. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων ἐν
ἑτέροις διώρισται σαφέστερον, ποῖα τὰ πηκτά, καὶ
πήγνυται διὰ τίνας αἰτίας.
3 Τὸ δὲ τί θερμὸν καὶ ποῖον θερμότερον ἐπειδὴ
649b λέγεται πλεοναχῶς, οὐ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ὑπάρξει
^ 2 \ / “ 2 e ` \ /
πᾶσιν, ἀλλὰ προσδιοριστέον ὅτι καθ᾽ αὑτὸ μὲν τόδε,
» M
κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς δὲ πολλάκις θάτερον," ἔτι δὲ
υνάμει μὲν τοδί, τοδὶ δὲ κατ’ ἐ ἐνέργειαν, καὶ τόνδε
μὲν τὸν τρόπον τοδί, τῷ μᾶλλον τὴν ἁφὴν θερ-
δμαίνειν, τοδὶ δὲ τῷ φλόγα ποιεῖν καὶ πυροῦν.
λεγομένου δὲ τοῦ θερμοῦ πολλαχῶς, ἀκολουθήσει
δῆλον ὅτι καὶ τὸ ψυχρὸν κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν λόγον.
Καὶ περὶ μὲν θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ καὶ τῆς
ὑπεροχῆς αὐτῶν διωρίσθω τὸν τρόπον. τοῦτον.
III. ᾿Εχόμενον δὲ καὶ περὶ ξηροῦ καὶ ὑγροῦ διελ-
10 θεῖν ἀκολούθως τοῖς εἰρημένοις. λέγεται δὲ ταῦτα

1 θερμὰ Peck: θερμὸν vulg.
2 πολλάκις θάτερον] num τἆλλο θερμότερον 2

9 See Meteor. 382 Ὁ 31 ff., 388 b 10 ff.

^ Probably the text should be altered to read : '* B hotter
by accident."

5 See note on 646 a 16, and Introd. p. 32.

128

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. 1-111.

things that have passed through a process of com-
bustion have heat in them, such as cinder, ash, the
excrement of animals, and bile (an instance of a
residue). These have passed through fire and some
heat is left behind in them. Firwood and fatty
substances are hot in another way : they can quickly
change into the actuality of fire.

We must recognize that “ the hot " can cause both
congealing and melting. Things that consist of
water only are solidified by the cold, those that con-
sist of earth, by fire. Again, hot things are solidified
by cold: those that consist chiefly of earth solidify
quickly, and the product cannot be dissolved again ;
those that consist chiefly of water can be dissolved
after solidification. I have dealt more particularly
with these matters in another work, where I have
stated what things can be solidified, and the causes
that are responsible for it.

So, in view of the fact that there are numerous
senses in which a thing is said to be “hot” or “hotter,”
the same meaning will not apply to all instances, but
we must specify further, and say that 4 is hotter
“of itself," B perhaps “ by accident "^; and again
that C is hotter potentially, D actually ; and we
must also say in what way the thing's heat manifests
itself: e.g. E causes a greater sensation of heat when
touched; F causes flame and sets things on fire.
And of course, if “ the Ποῖ 7 is used in all these
senses, there will be an equal variety of senses
attaching to “ the cold.”

This will suffice for our examination of the terms
“ποῖ᾽ and “ cold,” “ hotter " and “ colder."

III. It follows on naturally after this to discuss (b) “solid”
“the solid" and “the fluid"^ on similar lines, *"4 ^uid.

129

ARISTOTLE

649 b ^ T ^ M / ^ > > /
πλεοναχῶς, otov τὰ μὲν δυνάμει τὰ δ᾽ ἐνεργείᾳ.

, \ M ^ ` ` € \ /
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διωρισμένων φανερὸν ὅτι τὸ αἷμα ὡδὶ μέν ἐστι
θερμόν [οἷον 7Ü ἦν αὐτῷ τὸ αἵματι εἶναι ;]’ καθάπερ
yàp? εἰ ὀνόματί τιν σημαίνοιμεν τὸ ζέον ὕδωρ,
οὕτω λέγεται" τὸ Ò ὑποκείμενον καὶ Ô ποτε OV
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ov ἀνθρώπου TO λευκόν" ἡ 0€ κατα πάθος,
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Ὁ / δὲ \ \ ^ \ e ^ ὃ \ \
μοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ ξηροῦ καὶ ὑγροῦ. διὸ καὶ
* 1 ξηρὰ Peck: ξηρὸν vulg. j
2 οἷόν τι Bekker. haec, signo interrog. adscr., seclusi.
3 γὰρ Z: om. vulg.

* ὀνόματί τινι PSUZ? : ὀνόματί τι EY: ὀνόματι vulg.
5 11. 22-29 interpunctionem correxi.

α i.e. they assume the shape of the receptacle into which
they are put.

130

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. τῃ.

These terms are used in several senses. E.g.
"solid" and "fluid" may mean either potentially
solid and fluid or actually solid and fluid. Ice
and other congealed fluids are said to be solid
actually and by accident, though in themselves and
potentially they are fluid. On the other hand, earth
and ash and the like, when they have been mixed
with a fluid, are fluid actually and by accident, but
potentially and in themselves they are solid. When
these mixtures have been resolved again into their
components, we have on the one hand the watery
constituents, which are anaplestic," and fluid actually
as well as potentially, and on the other hand the
earthy components which are all solid: and these
are the cases where the term “ solid " is applicable
most properly and absolutely. In the same way,
only those things which are actually as well as poten-
tially fluid, or hot, or cold, are such in the proper
and absolute sense of the terms. Bearing this dis-
tinction in mind, we see it is plain that in one way
blood is hot [e.g. what is the essential definition of
blood 2], for the term “ blood " is used just as the
term for “ boiling water" would be, if we had a
special name to denote that; but in another way,
i.e. in respect of its permanent substratum, blood is
not hot. 'This means that in one respect blood is
essentially hot, and in another respect is not. Heat
will be included in the logos of blood, just as fair-
ness is included in the logos of a fair man, and in
this way blood is essentially hot; but in so far as
it is hot owing to external influence, blood is not
essentially hot.

A similar argument would hold with regard to the
solid and the fluid. And that is why some of these

E 2 131'

ARISTOTLE

649 b , ^ , ^ / ^ \ ^ Nu ,
ἐν τῇ φύσει τῶν τοιούτων τὰ μὲν θερμὰ καὶ ὑγρά,
80 χωριζόμενα δὲ πήγνυται καὶ ψυχρὰ φαίνεται, οἷον
τὸ αἷμα, τὰ δὲ θερμὰ καὶ πάχος ἔχοντα καθάπερ ἡ
χολή, χωριζόμενα δ᾽ ἐκ τῆς φύσεως τῶν ἐχόντων
τοὐναντίον πάσχει: ψύχεται γὰρ καὶ ὑγραίνεται: τὸ
μὲν γὰρ αἷμα ξηραίνεται μᾶλλον, ὑγραίνεται δ᾽ ἡ
ξανθὴ χολή. τὸ δὲ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον μετέχειν τῶν
85 ἀντικειμένων ὡς ὑπάρχον: δεῖ τιθέναι τούτοις.
650a ᾖ1ῶς μὲν οὖν θερμὸν καὶ πῶς ὑγρόν, καὶ πῶς
τῶν ἐναντίων ἡ φύσις τοῦ αἵματος κεκοινώνηκεν,
εἴρηται σχεδόν.
᾿Επεὶ δ᾽ ἀνάγκη πᾶν τὸ αὐξανόμενον λαμβάνειν
τροφήν, ἡ δὲ τροφὴ πᾶσιν ἐξ ὗ ὑγροῦ καὶ ξηροῦ, καὶ
δ τούτων ἡ πέψις γίνεται καὶ ἡ μεταβολὴ διὰ τῆς τοῦ
θερμοῦ δυνάμεως, καὶ τὰ ζῷα πάντα καὶ τὰ φυτά,
κἂν εἰ μὴ δι᾽ .ἄλλην αἰτίαν, ἀλλὰ διὰ ταύτην ἀναγ-
καῖον ἔχειν ἀρχὴν θερμοῦ φυσικήν. [καὶ ταύτην
ὥσπερ] αἱ (δ᾽ 7 ἐργασίαι τῆς τροφῆς πλειόνων εἰσὶ
μορίων: ἡ μὲν γὰρ πρώτη φανερὰ τοῖς ζῴοις
10 λειτουργία διὰ τοῦ στόματος οὖσα καὶ τῶν ἐν
τούτῳ μορίων, ὅσων ἡ τροφὴ δεῖται διαιρέσεως.
ἀλλ᾽ αὕτη μὲν οὐδεμιᾶς αἰτία πέψεως, ἀλλ᾽ eù-
πεψίας μᾶλλον: ἡ yap els μικρὰ διαίρεσις τῆς
τροφῆς ῥ ῥάω ποιεῖ τῷ θερμῷ τὴν ἐργασίαν: ἡ δὲ τῆς
ἄνω καὶ τῆς κάτω κοιλίας ἤδη μετὰ θερμότητος

- ὑπάρχον Peck: ὑπάρχοντα vulg.
? kai ταύτην ὥσπερ Seclusi, za supplevi: καὶ ταύτην
«πλείοσι μορίοις ἐνυπάρχουσαν) Camus.

α See above, note on 644 a 17.

> See Introduction, p. 34.

e Lit. “ the dynamis of the hot substance," perhaps here
something more than a mere periphrasis for '' the hot sub-

132

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. rrr.

substances while in the living organism are hot and
fluid, but when separated from it congeal and are
observed to be cold, as blood does; others, like
yellow bile, are hot and of a thick consistency while
in the organism, but when separated from it undergo
a change in the opposite direction and become cool
and fluid. Blood becomes more solid, yellow bile
becomes fluid. And we must assume that “‘ more
and less "^? participation in opposite characteristics
is a property of these substances.

We have now pretty well explained in what way
blood is hot, in what way it is fluid, and in what
way it participates in opposite characteristics.

Everything that grows must of necessity take food.
This food is always supplied by fluid and solid matter,
and the concoction ὃ and transformation of these is
effected by the agency of heat.^ Hence, apart from
other reasons, this would be a sufficient one for
holding that of necessity all animals and plants
must have in them a natural source of heat ; though
there are several parts which exert action upon the
food. In the case of those animals whose food needs
to be broken up, the first duty clearly belongs to
the mouth and the parts in the mouth. But this
operation does nothing whatever towards causing
concoction: it merely enables the concoction to
turn out successfully ; because when the food has
been broken up into small pieces the action of the
heat upon it is rendered easier. The natural heat
comes into play in the upper and in the lower gut,
stance," as emphasizing its proper and specific natural

character, which makes it a particularly good agent for
effecting concoction. See Introduction, pp. 30-32.

133 '

ARISTOTLE

650 a
^ ^ M e
15 φυσικῆς ποιεῖται τὴν πέψιν. ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ τὸ

στόµα τῆς ἀκατεργάστου τροφῆς πόρος ἐστί, καὶ
τὸ συνεχὲς αὐτῷ μόριον ὃ καλοῦσιν οἰσοφάγον,
ὅσα τῶν ζῴων ἔχει τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, ἕως εἰς
ἣν κοιλίαν, οὕτω καὶ ἄλλους δεῖ πόρους εἶναι, δι
ὧν ἅπαν λήψεται τὸ σῶμα τὴν τροφήν, ὥσπερ
20 ἐκ φάτνης, ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας καὶ τῆς τῶν ἐντέρων
φύσεως. τὰ μὲν. γὰρ. φυτὰ λαμβάνει τὴν τροφὴν
κατειργασμένην ἐκ τῆς γῆς ταῖς ῥίζαις (διὸ καὶ
περίττωμα οὐ γίνεται τοῖς φυτοῖς: τῇ γὰρ γῇ καὶ
τῇ ἐν αὐτῇ θερμότητι χρῆται ὥσπερ κοιλία), τὰ δὲ
ζῷα πάντα μὲν σχεδόν, τὰ δὲ «πορευτικὰ φανερῶς,
25 οἷον γῆν ἐν αὑτοῖς ἔχει τὸ τῆς κοιλίας κύτος, ἐξ
ἧς, ὥσπερ ἐκεῖνα ταῖς ῥίζαις, ταῦτα δεῖ τινὶ τὴν
poti Gn Penn ἕως τὸ τῆς ἐχομένης πέψεως
λάβῃ τέλος. ἡ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ στόματος ἐργασία παρα-
δίδωσι τῇ κοιλίᾳ, παρὰ δὲ ταύτης ἕτερον ἀναγκαῖον
λαμβάνειν, ὅπερ συμβέβηκεν: αἱ γὰρ. φλέβες κατα-
30 τείνονται διὰ τοῦ μεσεντερίου παράπαν, κάτωθεν
ἀρξάμεναι μέχρι τῆς κοιλίας. δεῖ δὲ ταῦτα «θεωρεῖν
ἔκ τε τῶν ἀνατομῶν καὶ τῆς φυσικῆς ἱ ἱστορίας.
᾿Επεὶ δὲ πάσης τροφῆς ἐ ἐστί τι δεκτικὸν καὶ τῶν
γινομένων περιττωμάτων, αἱ δὲ φλέβες οἷον ἀγγεῖον
αἵματός εἰσι, φανερὸν ὅτι τὸ αἷμα ἡ τελευταία
55 τροφὴ τοῖς fiot τοῖς ἐναίμοις ἐστί, τοῖς δ᾽ ἀναίμοις

1 ἄλλους δεῖ πόρους Peck: ἄλλας ἀρχὰς δεῖ πλείους vulg.

a Cf. Shakespeare, Coriolanus τ. i. 133-152.

δ The membrane to which the intestines are attached.

¢ Dissections (or Anatomy) is a treatise which has not
survived.

134

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. τι.

which effect the concoction of the food by its aid.
And, just as the mouth (and in some animals the
so-called oesophagus too which is continuous with
it) is the passage for the as yet untreated food, and
conveys it to the stomach ; so there must be other
passages through which as from a manger the body
as a whole may receive its food from the stomach and
from the system of the intestines.^ Plants get their
food from the earth by their roots; and since it
is already treated and prepared no residue is pro-
duced by plants—they use the earth and the heat
in it instead of a stomach, whereas practically all
animals, and unmistakably those that move about
from place to place, have a stomach, or bag,—as it
were an earth inside them—and in order to get the
food out of this, so that finally after the successive
stages of concoction it may reach its completion, they
must have some instrument corresponding to the
roots of a plant. The mouth, then, having done its
duty by the food, passes it on to the stomach, and
there must of necessity be another part to receive it
in its turn from the stomach. This duty is under-
taken by the blood-vessels, which begin at the bottom
of the mesentery,” and extend throughout the length
of it right up to the stomach. These matters should
be studied in the Dissections* and my treatise on
Natural History.4

We see then that there is a receptacle for the food
at each of its stages, and also for the residues that
are produced ; and as the blood-vessels are a sort of
container for the blood, it is plain that the blood (or
its counterpart) is the final form of that food in living

4 The Natural History, otherwise History of Animals or
Researches upon Animals. See 495 b 19 ff., 514 b 10 ff.

135

650a

650 b

5

10

15

ARISTOTLE

` > / \ \ ^ M / /
τὸ ἀνάλογον. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο μὴ λαμβάνουσί τε
τροφὴν ὑπολείπει τοῦτο καὶ λαμβάνουσιν αὐξάνεται,
καὶ χρηστῆς μὲν οὔσης ὑγιεινόν, φαύλης δὲ φαῦλον.
ὅτι μὲν οὖν τὸ αἷμα τροφῆς ἕνεκεν ὑπάρχει τοῖς
ἐναίμοις, φανερὸν ἐκ τούτων καὶ τῶν τοιούτων. καὶ
γὰρ διὰ τοῦτο θιγγανόμενον αἴσθησιν οὐ ποιεῖ
e 309 y ^ / 3 / 309
(ὥσπερ οὐδ᾽ ἄλλο τῶν περιττωμάτων οὐδέν, οὐδ᾽ ἡ
τροφὴ) ) καθάπερ σάρξ' = αὕτη γὰρ θιγγανομένη mms
αἴσθησιν. οὐ γὰρ συνεχές ἐστι τὸ αἷμα ταύτῃ οὐδὲ
συμπεφυκός, ἀλλ᾽ οἷον ἐν ἀγγείῳ τυγχάνει κείμενον
v ^ / ` ^ / e^ A ’
ἔν τε τῇ καρδίᾳ καὶ ταῖς φλεψίν. ὃν δὲ τρόπον
λαμβάνει ἐξ αὐτοῦ τὰ μόρια τὴν αὔξησιν, ἔτι δὲ
περὶ τροφῆς ὅλως, ἐν τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως καὶ ἐν
ἑτέροις οἰκειότερόν ἐστι διελθεῖν. νῦν δ᾽ ἐπὶ
τοσοῦτον εἰρήσθω (τοσοῦτον γὰρ χρήσιμον), ὅτι τὸ
αἷμα τροφῆς ἕνεκα καὶ τροφῆς τῶν μορίων ἐστίν.
IV. Tas δὲ καλουμένας t ἵνας τὸ μὲν ἔχει αἷμα
τὸ δ᾽ οὐκ ἔχει, οἷον τὸ τῶν ἐλάφων καὶ προκῶν.
διόπερ οὐ πήγνυται τὸ τοιοῦτον αἷμα' τοῦ γὰρ
e ` \ e ^ ^ /9 9 ` ν ,
αἵματος τὸ μὲν ὑδατῶδες μᾶλλόν ἐστι, διὸ καὶ οὐ
πήγνυται, τὸ δὲ γεῶδες πήγνυται συνεξατμίζοντος
τοῦ ὑγροῦ: αἱ δ᾽ ἶνες γῆς elow.
Συμβαίνει δ᾽ ἔνιά γε καὶ γλαφυρωτέραν ἔχειν
τὴν διάνοιαν τῶν τοιούτων, οὐ διὰ τὴν ψυχρότητα
- e > M \ M ’ - .
τοῦ αἵματος, ἀλλὰ διὰ τὴν λεπτότητα μᾶλλον καὶ
1 ]]. 4 f., interpunctionem correxit Cornford.
3 μᾶλλον Z: μᾶλλον ψυχρόν vulg.

a Τη the Second Book. Also in De gen. et corr.

> With the sentiments of the following passage and its
terminology (‘‘ more intelligent," ‘ soul,” “ blend," εἰς.)
compare the very interesting passage in Hippocrates, Περὶ
διαίτης, i. 35. Cf. 648 a 3.

136

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. rmr.—rv.

creatures. This explains why the blood diminishes
in quantity when no food is taken and increases
when it is; and why, when the food is good, the
blood is healthy, when bad, poor. These and
similar considerations make it clear that the purpose
of the blood in living creatures is to provide them
with nourishment ; and also why it is that when the
blood is touched it yields no sensation, as flesh does
when it is touched. Indeed, none of the residues
yields any sensation either, nor does the nourishment.
This difference of behaviour is because the blood is
not continuous with the flesh nor conjoined to it
organically : it just stands in the heart and in the
blood-vessels like water in a jar. A description of
the way in which the parts of the body derive their
growth from the blood, and the discussion of nourish-
ment in general, comes more appropriately in the
treatise on Generation^ and elsewhere. For the
present it is enough to have said that the purpose
of the blood is to provide nourishment, that is to
say, nourishment for the parts of the body. So
much and no more is pertinent to our present
inquiry.

IV. The blood of some animals contains what are
called fibres; the blood of others (e.g. the deer and
the gazelle) does not. Blood which lacks fibres does
not congeal, for the following reason. Part of the
blood is of a more watery nature, and therefore
does not congeal; while the other part, which is
earthy, congeals as the fluid part evaporates off.
The fibres are this earthy part.

Now some of the animals whose blood is watery
have a specially subtle intelligence. This is due not
to the coldness of their blood, but to its greater thin-

137

The uniform
parts:
Blood.

650 b

25

80

85

651 a

ARISTOTLE

ὃ M . 0 \ ^ : \ M JÒ )8 , v
ιὰ τὸ καθαρὸν εἶναι" τὸ γὰρ γεῶδες οὐδέτερον ἔχει
τούτων. εὐκινητοτέραν γὰρ ἔχουσι τὴν αἴσθησιν τὰ
λεπτοτέραν ἔχοντα τὴν ὑγρότητα καὶ καθαρωτέραν.
διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο καὶ τῶν ἀναίμων ἔνια συνετωτέραν ἔχει
τὴν ψυχὴν ἐνίων ἐναίμων, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον,
οἷον ἡ μέλιττα καὶ τὸ γένος τὸ τῶν μυρμήκων κἂν
» e ας 13 IR , / A ^ ,
εἴ τι ἕτερον τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν. δειλότερα δὲ τὰ λίαν
ὃ 08 e \ / ’ ὃ /
ὑδατώδη. ὁ γὰρ φόβος καταψύχει' προωδοποίηται
^ ^ / » / . , ^ ,
οὖν τῷ πάθει τὰ τοιαύτην ἔχοντα τὴν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ
^ ej ^ ^ >
κρᾶσιν' τὸ γὰρ ὕδωρ τῷ ψυχρῷ πηκτόν ἐστιν. διὸ
καὶ τἆλλα τὰ ἄναιμα δειλότερα τῶν ἐναίμων ἐστὶν
ὡς ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν, καὶ ἀκινητίζει τε φοβούμενα καὶ
προΐεται περιττώματα καὶ μεταβάλλει ἔνια τὰς
/ , ^ \ δὲ λλὰ » λἰ È `
χρόας αὐτῶν. τὰ δὲ πολλὰς ἔχοντα λίαν tvas καὶ
, ὃ / \ / > M ` 8 00 A
παχείας γεωδέστερα τὴν φύσιν ἐστὶ καὶ θυμώδη τὸ
= ,
ἦθος καὶ ἐκστατικὰ διὰ τὸν θυμόν. θερμότητος
γὰρ ποιητικὸν ὁ θυμός, τὰ δὲ στερεὰ θερμανθέντα
- ^ ^ ε
μᾶλλον θερμαίνει τῶν ὑγρῶν: αἱ δ᾽ ἶνες στερεὸν καὶ
^ 8 , 3 ^
γεῶδες, ὥστε γίνονται otov πυρίαι ἐν τῷ αἵματι
^ ^ ^ e ^ M
καὶ ζέσιν ποιοῦσιν ἐν τοῖς θυμοῖς. διὸ οἱ ταῦροι καὶ
^
οἱ κάπροι θυμώδεις καὶ ἐκστατικοί' τὸ γὰρ αἷμα
M ^ z
τούτων ἰνωδέστατον, καὶ TÓ γε τοῦ ταύρου τάχιστα
/ ^
πήγνυται πάντων. ἐξαιρουμένων δὲ τούτων τῶν
ἰνῶν οὐ πήγνυται τὸ αἷμα: καθάπερ γὰρ ἐκ πηλοῦ
εἴ τις ἐξέλοι τὸ γεῶδες οὐ πήγνυται τὸ ὕδωρ, οὕτω
καὶ τὸ αἷμα: αἱ γὰρ ἶνες γῆς. μὴ ἐξαιρουμένων

a At 648 a 2 ff.
> For the connexion between fear and cold cf. 667 a 16,
692 a 22 ff., and Rhetoric, 1389 b 30.

138

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. rv.

ness and clarity, neither of which characteristics
belongs to the earthy substance; and an animal
which has the thinner and clearer sort of fluid in it
has also a more mobile faculty of sensation. This
is why, as I said before," some of the bloodless
creatures have a more intelligent Soul than some
of the blooded ones; e.g. the bee and the ants
and such insects. ‘Those, however, that have ex-
cessively watery blood are somewhat timorous.
This is because water is congealed by cold; and
coldness also accompanies fear; therefore in those
creatures whose heart contains a predominantly
watery blend, the way is already prepared for
a timorous disposition. This, too, is why, gener-
ally speaking, the bloodless creatures are more
timorous than the blooded ones and why they
stand motionless when they are frightened and
discharge their residues and (in some cases) change
their colour. On the other side, there are the
animals that have specially plentiful and thick
fibres in their blood; these are of an earthier
nature, and are of a passionate temperament and
liable to outbursts of passion. Passion produces heat ;
and solids, when they have been heated, give off .
more heat than fluids. So the fibres, which are solid
and earthy, become as it were embers inside the
blood and cause it to boil up when the fits of passion
come on. That is why bulls and boars are so liable
to these fits of passion. Their blood is very fibrous ;
indeed, that of the bull 15 the quickest of all to congeal.
But just as when the earthy matter is taken out
of mud, the water which remains does not congeal;
so when the fibres, which consist of earth, are taken
out of the blood, it no longer congeals. If they are

139

ARISTOTLE
651 a
` / τ ε . - ε ` / ^ .
δὲ πήγνυται, οἷον ὑγρὰ γῆ ὑπὸ ψύχους' τοῦ γὰρ
θερμοῦ ὑπὸ τοῦ ψυχροῦ ἐκθλιβομένου συνεξατμίζει
` »
10 τὸ ὑγρόν, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, kai πήγνυται
3 e M ow 3 3 -:Ε ` ^ , >
οὐχ ὑπὸ θερμοῦ ἀλλ᾽ ὑπὸ ψυχροῦ ξηραινόμενον. ἐν
^ M
δὲ τοῖς σώμασιν ὑγρόν ἐστι διὰ τὴν θερμότητα τὴν
ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις.
- > 2 \ 23. 4 € ^ τ , `
Πολλῶν δ᾽ ἐστὶν αἰτία ἡ τοῦ αἵματος φύσις καὶ
κατὰ τὸ ἦθος τοῖς ζῴοις καὶ κατὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν,
εὐλόγως: ὕλη γάρ ἐστι παντὸς τοῦ σώματος" ἡ γὰρ
M ei A > T e 3 / » ^
15 τροφὴ ὕλη, τὸ δ᾽ αἷμα ἡ ἐσχάτη τροφή. πολλὴν
οὖν ποιεῖ διαφορὰν θερμὸν ὂν καὶ ψυχρὸν καὶ λεπτὸν
. \ A ` \ / > ` 3 , M
καὶ παχὺ καὶ θολερὸν καὶ καθαρόν. ἰχὼρ δ᾽ ἐστὶ
` € ^ ^ er \ ` / / ^
τὸ ὑδατῶδες τοῦ αἵματος διὰ τὸ μήπω πεπέφθαι ἢ
/ e € ^ , 5 / > / 6 2
διεφθάρθαι, ὥστε ὁ μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἰχώρ, ὁ ὃ
αἵματος χάριν ἐστίν.

2 V. Πιμελὴ δὲ καὶ στέαρ διαφέρουσι μὲν ἀλλήλων
κατὰ τὴν τοῦ αἵματος διαφοράν. ἔστι γὰρ ἑκά-
τερον αὐτῶν αἷμα πεπεμμένον δι εὐτροφίαν, καὶ τὸ
μὴ καταναλισκόμενον εἰς τὸ σαρκῶδες μόριον τῶν

/ » M M 3 / ^ M `
ζῴων, εὔπεπτον δὲ καὶ εὐτραφές. δηλοῖ δὲ τὸ

25 λιπαρὸν αὐτῶν' τῶν γὰρ ὑγρῶν τὸ λιπαρὸν κοινὸν
ἀέρος καὶ πυρός ἐστιν. διὰ τοῦτο οὐδὲν ἔχει τῶν
ἀναίμων οὔτε πιμελὴν οὔτε στέαρ, ὅτι οὐδ᾽ αἷμα.
τῶν δ᾽ ἐναίμων τὰ μὲν σωματῶδες ἔχοντα τὸ αἷμα
στέαρ ἔχει μᾶλλον. τὸ γὰρ στέαρ γεῶδές ἐστι, διὸ

a As it were, the '' raw ” material.
ὃ I have used the terms “ lard " and “ suet " rather than
" soft fat" and “ hard fat" because they represent more

closely the distinction made by Aristotle. The difference
between them is now known to be less fundamental, and is

140

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. τν.-ν.

not taken out, it does congeal, as moist earth does
under the influence of cold : the cold expels the heat
and makes the fluid evaporate, as has been said
before; so it is due to the solidifying effect of
the cold, and not of the hot, that what remains
becomes congealed. And while it is in the body the
blood is fluid on account of the heat which is there.
There are many points both in regard to the tem-
perament of animals and their power of sensation
which are controlled by the character of the blood.
This is what we should expect: for the blood is the
material ^ of which the whole body consists—material
in the case of living creatures being nourishment, and
blood is the final form which the nourishment assumes.
For this reason a great deal depends upon whether
the blood be hot, cold, thin, thick, muddy, or clear.
Serum is the watery part of blood ; and it is watery
either because it has not yet undergone concoction or
because it has been already corrupted ; consequently
some of the serum is the result of a necessary process,
and some is there for the purpose of producing blood.
V. The difference between lard and suet? is parallel
to a difference in the blood. They both consist of

Lard and
Suet,

blood that has been concocted as the result of plentiful .

nourishment ; that is, the surplus blood that is not
used up to nourish the fleshy parts of the animal, but
is well concocted and well nourished. (This point
is proved by their greasiness, for grease in fluids is
a combination of Air and Fire.) This explains
why there is no lard or suet in any of the bloodless
animals. And among the others, those whose blood
is denser tend to contain suet rather than lard. Suet

due to varying proportions of unsaturated triglycerides and
the lengths of the carbon chains.

141

ARISTOTLE

651a ,
/ ^ . DA
πήγνυται καθάπερ καὶ τὸ αἷμα τὸ ἰνῶδες καὶ αὐτὸ

\ € M ^
καὶ οἱ ζωμοὶ οἱ τοιοῦτοι: ὀλίγον γὰρ ἔχει ὕδατος,
\ . ^

8070 δὲ πολὺ γῆς. διὸ τὰ μὴ ἀμφώδοντα ἀλλὰ

κερατώδη στέαρ ἔχει. φανερὰ δ᾽ ἡ φύσις αὐτῶν

^ , ^ ^

τοῦ τοιούτου στοιχείου πλήρης οὖσα τῷ κερατώδης

5 59 \

εἶναι Kal ἀστραγάλους ἔχειν' ἅπαντα γὰρ Enpa καὶ
M \ `

γεηρὰ τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν. τὰ δ᾽ ἀμφώδοντα καὶ

> / \ ^ /

55 ἀκέρατα καὶ πολυσχιδῆ πιμελὴν ἔχει ἀντὶ στέατος,
^ , / δὲ P / ὃ . A
7) οὐ πήγνυται οὐδὲ θρύπτεται ξηραινομένη διὰ τὸ

\ > ^
µη εἶναι γεώδη τὴν φύσιν αὐτῆς.
/ > ^ ^ ^
Μέτρια μὲν οὖν ταῦτα ὄντα ἐν τοῖς µορίοις τῶν
, 3 ^ /

651 b ζῴων ὠφελεῖ (πρὸς μὲν γὰρ αἴσθησιν οὐκ ἐμποδίζει,
` δ᾽ € , M 2 » / €
προς Ò ὑγίειαν καὶ δύναμιν ἔχει βοήθειαν), ὑπερ-

/ ^
βάλλοντα δὲ τῷ πλήθει φθείρει καὶ βλάπτει. εἰ
^ ^ ^ /
yàp πᾶν γένοιτο τὸ σῶμα πιμελὴ καὶ στέαρ, ἀπό-
> ^
λοιτ᾽ dv. ζῷον μὲν γάρ ἐστι κατὰ τὸ αἰσθητικὸν
, € M . . ` > / , / \
δ μόριον, ἡ δὲ σὰρξ καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον αἰσθητικόν" τὸ
5
δ᾽ αἷμα, ὥσπερ εἴρηται καὶ πρότερον, οὐκ ἔχει
» 8 8 ` Σολ \ OA / τν `
αἴσθησιν, διὸ οὐδὲ πιμελὴ οὐδὲ στέαρ' αἷμα yap
πεπεμμένον ἐστίν. WOT εἰ πᾶν γένοιτο τὸ σῶμα
- , A » , , » ὃ ` M
τοιοῦτον, οὐκ ἂν ἔχοι οὐδεμίαν αἴσθησιν. διὸ καὶ
γηράσκει ταχέως τὰ λίαν πίονα: ὀλίγαιμα γὰρ ἅτε εἰς

10 τὴν πιότητα ἀναλισκομένου τοῦ αἵματος, τὰ δ᾽ ὀλίγ-
αιμα ἤδη προωδοποίηται πρὸς τὴν φθοράν: ἡ γὰρ

0 A 5A / > / \ \ AL 1 0
φθορὰ ὀλιγαιμία τις ἐστί, καὶ τὸ ὀλίγαιμον' παθη-
τικὸν καὶ ὑπὸ ψυχροῦ τοῦ τυχόντος καὶ ὑπὸ θερμοῦ.

1 sic Th. : animal pauci sanguinis X: ὀλίγον vulg.
142

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. v.

is of an earthy character; it contains but little
water against a large proportion of earth; so it
congeals just as fibrous blood and broths do. So
too the animals which have horns but have teeth
in one jaw only contain suet. And it is clear that
their natural constitution is full of this element
(earth) from the fact that they have horns and huckle-
bones, for they are all of them solid and earthy in
constitution. On the other hand, the animals which
have incisor teeth in both jaws and have toes (not
uncloven hoofs), but no horns, contain lard instead
of suet. Lard neither congeals nor splits up into
small pieces when it dries, owing to the fact that
it is not earthy.

Lard and suet when present in the parts of animals
in moderate quantities are beneficial: they do not
hinder the action of the senses, and they contribute
towards the health and strength of the body. But
when the amount of them is excessive they are
destructive and injurious. This is shown by the
consideration that if the whole body were to become
lard and suet, it would perish. The sine qua non of a
living creature is its sensory part, which is flesh or its
counterpart ; and since, as I have said before, blood
is not sensitive, neither lard nor suet, which are just `
concocted blood, is sensitive. Therefore, if the whole
body were to become either of these, it would have
no sensation whatever. For this reason, too, unduly
fat animals age quickly : their blood gets used up to
produce fat, so there is very little of it left; and
anything that has but little blood is well on the road
to decay. In fact, decay is just a form of blood-
deficiency ; and an animal deficient in blood is
easily susceptible to the effects of accidental cold and

143

ARISTOTLE

651 b M > / \ \ / / , ^ ^ 3 M
καὶ ἀγονώτερα δὴ τὰ πίονά ἐστι διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν
αἰτίαν: ὃ γὰρ ἔδει ἐκ τοῦ αἵματος εἰς τὴν γονὴν

15 ἰέναι καὶ τὸ σπέρμα, τοῦτ᾽ εἰς τὴν πιμελὴν dva-
λίσκεται καὶ τὸ στέαρ' πεττόμενον γὰρ τὸ αἷμα
γίνεται ταῦτα, ὥστε ἢ ὅλως οὐ γίνεται περίττωμα
αὐτοῖς οὐδὲν ἢ ὀλίγον.

Καὶ περὶ μὲν αἵματος καὶ ἰχῶρος καὶ πιμελῆς
καὶ στέατος, τί τέ ἐστιν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν καὶ διὰ
τίνας αἰτίας, εἴρηται.

2 VI. Ἔστι δὲ καὶ ὁ μυελὸς αἵματός τις φύσις, καὶ
οὐχ ὥσπερ οἴονταί τινες, τῆς γονῆς σπερματικὴ
δύναμις. δηλοῖ δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς νέοις. πάμπαν" ἅτε γὰρ
ἐξ αἵματος συνεστώτων τῶν μορίων καὶ τῆς τροφῆς
οὔσης τοῖς ἐμβρύοις αἵματος, καὶ ἐν τοῖς ὀστοῖς ὁ

25 μυελὸς αἱματώδης ἐ ἐστίν" αὐξανομένων δὲ καὶ πετ-
τομένων, καθάπερ καὶ τὰ μόρια μεταβάλλει καὶ τὰ
σπλάγχνα τὰς χρόας (ὑπερβολῇ γὰρ αἱματῶδες καὶ
τῶν σπλάγχνων ἕκαστόν ἐστιν ἔτι νέων ὄντων),
οὕτω καὶ ὁ μυελός.

Καὶ τῶν μὲν πιμελωδῶν λιπαρὸς καὶ πιμελῇ
ὅμοιος, ὅσοις δὲ μὴ πιμελῇ porov! ἀλλὰ στέαρ

80 γίνεται. τὸ αἷμα πεττόμενον, τούτοις δὲ στεατώδης.
διὸ τοῖς μὲν κερατοφόροις καὶ μὴ ἀμφώδουσι
στεατώδης, τοῖς Ò ἀμφώδουσι καὶ πολυσχιδέσι
πιμελώδης. oro, δὲ τοιοῦτος ὁ ῥαχίτης ἐστὶ
μυελὸς. διὰ τὸ δεῖν αὐτὸν εἶναι συνεχῆ καὶ διέχειν
διὰ πάσης τῆς ῥάχεως διῃρημένης κατὰ τοὺς

85 σφονδύλους" λιπαρὸς δ᾽ ὢν ἢ στεατώδης οὐκ ἂν
ὁμοίως ἦν ΠΕ ἀλλ᾽ ἢ θραυστὸς ἢ ὑγρός.)

1 ὅμοιον 71: ὅμοιος alii.
a e.g. secretion of semen. See above, on 647 b 27.
> Plato, Timaeus, 13 c.
144

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ν.-νι.

heat. The same cause is responsible for the com-
parative sterility of fat animals: that part of the
blood which ought to go to form semen and seed gets
used up in forming lard and suet, which are formed
by the concoction of blood. Hence in fat animals
there is either no residue ^ at all, or else very little.

I have now spoken of blood, serum, lard and suet,
describing the nature and the Causes of each of them.

VI. Marrow, again, is really a form of blood, and not,
as some? think, the same as the seminal substance^
of the seed. This is proved by the case of very young
animals. In the embryo, the parts are composed out
of blood and its nourishment is blood ; so it is not
surprising that the marrow in the bones has a blood-
like appearance. As they grow and become mature,’
the marrow changes its colour just like the other parts*
of the body and the viscera, which while the creature
is young all have a blood-like appearance owing to the
large quantity of blood in them.

Animals which contain lard have greasy marrow,
like lard ; those whose concocted blood produces not
a substance like lard but suet have suety marrow.
Hence, in the horned animals which have teeth in
one jaw only the marrow is suety, and in the animals

Marrow.

that have teeth in both jaws and are polydactylous it `

is like lard. (The spinal marrow cannot possibly be
of this nature because it has to be continuous and
to pass without a break right through the whole
spine which is divided into separate vertebrae ; and if
it were fatty or suety it could not hold together as
well as it does, but it would be either brittle or fluid.)

° Dynamis. See Introduction, pp. 30 ff. and note on 646 a 14.
4 [jt. * are concocted."
* A good instance of Aristotle’s usage of the term “ part."

145

ARISTOTLE

651 b 3 , » ^ / ε 24 , ^
via δ᾽ οὐκ ἔχει τῶν ζῴων ὡς ἀξίως εἰπεῖν

/ “ ^ > "AE 2 \ ` / ^
μυελόν, ὅσων τὰ ὀστᾶ ἰσχυρὰ καὶ πυκνά, οἷον τὰ
^ / Z M ^ , ^ \ ` /
652a τοῦ λέοντος" τούτου γὰρ τὰ ὀστᾶ, διὰ τὸ πάμπαν
ή » ^ , » e / , M
ἄσημον ἔχειν, δοκεῖ οὐκ ἔχειν ὅλως μυελόν. ἐπεὶ
δὲ τὴν μὲν τῶν ὀστῶν ἀνάγκη φύσιν ὑπάρχειν τοῖς
/ Ν A > / ^ , ^ T ^ 3,2 4
ζῴοις ἢ τὸ ἀνάλογον τοῖς ὀστοῖς, otov τοῖς ἐνύδροις
\ » > ^ » OP € / M /
5 τὴν ἄκανθαν, ἀναγκαῖον ἐνίοις ὑπάρχειν καὶ μυελόν,
> / - A , ^ / `
ἐμπεριλαμβανομένης τῆς τροφῆς ἐξ ἧς γίνεται τὰ
3 ^ e 5 € M ^ T » /
ὀστᾶ. ὅτι δ᾽ ἡ τροφὴ πᾶσιν αἷμα, εἴρηται πρό-
> / M \ / ε . .
τερον. εὐλόγως δὲ καὶ στεατώδεις οἱ μυελοὶ καὶ
/ > / . ` M > / M /
πιμελώδεις εἰσίν' διὰ γὰρ τὴν ἀλέαν τὴν γινομένην
^ ^ ^ 7
ὑπὸ τοῦ περιέχεσθαι τοῖς ὀστοῖς πέττεται τὸ αἷμα,
e M 5 € ` / a / M /
107) δὲ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ πέψις αἵματος στέαρ καὶ πιμελή
> ^ ^ M
ἐστιν. καὶ ἐν τοῖς δὴ τὰ ὀστᾶ πυκνὰ ἔχουσι καὶ
> ` )λό > ^ M 3 » ^ o
ἰσχυρὰ εὐλόγως ἐν τοῖς μὲν οὐκ ἔνεστι, τοῖς
SAL 1 » 5 . M > ^ > / €
ὀλίγος ἔνεστιν' εἰς γὰρ τὰ ὀστᾶ ἀναλίσκεται ἡ
»
τροφή.
> A ^ > e
Εν δὲ τοῖς μὴ ἔχουσιν ὀστᾶ ἀλλ᾽ ἄκανθαν ὁ
ε / / , M / 3.4 / ^ /
ῥαχίτης μόνος ἐστὶ μυελός: ὀλίγαιμά τε γὰρ φύσει
ε / + ^ / » / e A L3 4
15 ὑπάρχει ὄντα, καὶ κοίλη ἄκανθα μόνον ἢ τῆς pa-
.
yews ἐστιν. διὸ ἐν ταύτῃ ἐγγίνεται' μόνη τε γὰρ
» / . / ^ / ^ ^
ἔχει χώραν, καὶ µόνη δεῖται συνδέσµου διὰ τὰς
ὃ λ / . M € , 00 ? e
ιαλήψεις. διὸ καὶ ὁ ἐνταῦθα μυελός, ὥσπερ
» > / / 2 . \ > . ’
εἴρηται, ἀλλοιότερός ἐστιν: διὰ τὸ ἀντὶ περόνης

1 ὀλίγοις per errorem Bekker.
146

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. v1.

Some animals have no marrow worth mentioning 1
these are they whose bones are strong and close-
textured : for instance, the Lion, whose bones con-
tain so insignificant an amount of marrow that they
look as if they contained none at all. Now in view of
the fact that the bodies of animals must have in them
either bones or the counterpart of bones (e.g. the
spines in water-animals), it follows of necessity that
some of them must contain marrow as well, due to the
enclosing of the nourishment out of which the bones
are formed. Now we have stated already that the
nourishment of all the parts of the body is blood.
And it is quite reasonable that the various sorts of
marrow should be suety and lardy ; because the
blood undergoes concoction owing to the heat pro-
duced by its being surrounded by bone, and the
product of blood when it undergoes concoction by
itself is suet and lard. And also, of the animals that
have strong, close-textured bones, some have no
marrow, others have but little, and this is reasonable
too, because the nourishment gets used up to supply
the substance of the bones themselves.

In those animals that have no bones but spine
instead, the backbone contains the only marrow they
possess. It is the nature of these creatures to have
but a small amount of blood, and their only hollow
spine is that of the backbone. ‘Therefore the marrow
is formed in it—indeed, it is the only bone where
there is room for the marrow, and the only one
which requires something to connect it together,
owing to its being divided up into segments.
This also explains why the marrow here is (as
I have already said) somewhat different from the
marrow elsewhere. It has to serve as a fastening,

147'

652a

20

30

35

652 b

en

ARISTOTLE

yàp γίνεσθαι γλίσχρος, καὶ νευρώδης ἐστὶν ir
ἔχη τάσιν.

Διὰ τί μὲν οὖν μυελὸν ἔχει. τὰ ζῶα τὰ ἔχοντα
μυελόν, εἴρηται’ καὶ τί ἐστιν ὁ μυελός, ἐκ τούτων
φανερόν, ὅτι τῆς αἱματικῆς τροφῆς τῆς εἰς ὀστᾶ

M » / 2
καὶ ἄκανθαν μεριζομένης ἐστὶ τὸ ἐμπεριλαμβανό-
μενον περίττωμα πεφθέν.

M >

ΥΠ. Περὶ δ᾽ ἐγκεφάλου σχεδόν ἐστιν ἐχόμενον

, ^ ^ M a εν / ^ `
εἰπεῖν' πολλοῖς γὰρ καὶ ὁ ἐγκέφαλος δοκεῖ μυελὸς
s \ > \ ^ ^ ^ .
εἶναι καὶ ἀρχὴ τοῦ μυελοῦ διὰ τὸ συνεχῆ τὸν
ε / ^ ^ ^ /
ῥαχίτην αὐτῷ ὁρᾶν μυελόν. ἔστι δὲ πᾶν τοὐναντίον

- M ^
αὐτῷ τὴν φύσιν ὡς εἰπεῖν: ὁ μὲν γὰρ ἐγκέφαλος
/ ^ ^ M A
ψυχρότατον τῶν ἐν τῷ σώματι μορίων, ὁ δὲ μυελὸς
0 \ . / b ὃ λ - δ᾽ ε λ / 3 ^ `
ερμὸς τὴν φύσιν: δηλοῖ δ᾽ ἡ λιπαρότης αὐτοῦ Kat

A ^ ^ , /
TO πῖον. διὸ καὶ συνεχὴς ὁ ῥαχίτης. τῷ -ἐγκεφάλῳ
ἐστίν" ἀεὶ γὰρ ἡ φύσις μηχανᾶται πρὸς τὴν ἑκάστου
ὑπερβολὴν βοήθειαν τὴν τοῦ ἐναντίου παρεδρίαν, ἵ ἵνα
ἀνισάζῃ τὴν θατέρου ὑπερβολὴν θάτερον. ὅτι μὲν

> e λὸ 0 / adn L > δῆλ > AAO e δὲ
οὖν ὁ μυελὸς θερμός" ἐστι, δῆλον ἐκ πολλῶν. ἡ δὲ

^ M ^ M
τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου ψυχρότης φανερὰ μὲν καὶ κατὰ τὴν

^ ^ ^ , ^

θίξιν, ἔτι δ᾽ ἀναιμότατον τῶν ὑγρῶν τῶν ἐν τῷ

^ >

σώματι πάντων (οὐδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν γὰρ αἵματος ἔχει ἐν

^ /

αὑτῷ) καὶ αὐχμηρότατον. ἔστι δ᾽ οὔτε περίττωμα

- - M

οὔτε τῶν συνεχῶν μορίων, ἀλλὰ ἴδιος ἡ φύσις, καὶ
> d

εὐλόγως τοιαύτη. OTL μὲν οὖν οὐκ ἔχει συνέχειαν

οὐδεμίαν πρὸς τὰ αἰσθητικὰ µόρια, δῆλον μὲν καὶ

διὰ τῆς ὄψεως, ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον τῷ μηδεμίαν ποιεῖν

» / e 201 \ © 25. `
αἴσθησιν θιγγανόμενος, ὥσπερ οὐδὲ τὸ αἷμα οὐδὲ τὸ
περίττωμα τῶν ζῴων.

1 θερμός PZ: θερμόν vulg.
148

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. VI- NII.

and so it is sticky ; and it is sinewy too so that it
can stretch.

We have now explained why marrow is present in
certain animals. We have also made clear what
‘marrowis. The surplus of the blood-like nourishment
which is distributed to the bones and spine gets
enclosed within them, and after it has undergone
concoction then it is marrow.

VII. The brain is the next subject on our list. It Brain,
comes appropriately after the marrow, as many think
that the brain is really marrow ^ and is the source of
the marrow, because, as observation shows, the spinal
marrow is continuous with the brain. As a matter
of fact, however, the two are quite opposite in nature.
The brain is the coldest of all the parts in the body,
whereas the marrow is hot, as is shown by the fact
that itis greasy and fat. And that is the real reason
why the spinal marrow is continuous with the brain.
Nature is always contriving to set next to anything
that is excessive a reinforcement of the opposite sub-
stance, so that the one may level out the excess of
the other. Now there are many indications that the
marrow is hot; and the coldness of the brain is
shown not only by its being cold to the touch, but
also by its being the driest of all the fluid parts of the
body and the one that has the least blood in it—in
fact, it has none at all. It is, however, not a residue,
nor is it to be classed among the parts that are con-
tinuous. It is peculiar in its nature, and this after all
is but reasonable. Inspection shows that the brain
has no continuity with the sensory parts, but this is
shown still more unmistakably by the fact that like
the blood and the residue of animals it produces no
sensation when it is touched.

e Cf. Plato, Timaeus 75 c, D.
149

652 b

1

1

2

2

8

0

5

0

C

e

ARISTOTLE

Ὑπάρχει δὲ τοῖς ζῴοις. πρὸς. τὴν τῆς φύσεως
ὅλης σωτηρίαν. οἱ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ ζῴου τὴν ψυχὴν
τιθέασι πῦρ ἢ τοιαύτην τινὰ δύναμιν, φορτικῶς
τιθέντες" βέλτιον δ᾽ ἴσως φάναι. ἐν τοιούτῳ τινὶ
σώματι συνεστάναι. τούτου Ò αἴτιον ὅτι τοῖς τῆς
ψυχῆς ἔργοις ὑπηρετικώτατον τῶν σωμάτων τὸ
θερμόν. ἐστιν" τὸ τρέφειν γὰρ καὶ κινεῖν ψυχῆς
ἔργον ἐστί, ταῦτα, δὲ διὰ ταύτης μάλιστα γίνεται
τῆς δυνάμεως. ὅμοιον οὖν τὸ τὴν ψυχὴν εἶναι
φάναι πῦρ καὶ τὸ πρίονα ἢ τρύπανον τὸν τέκτονα
ἢ τὴν τεκτονικήν, ὅτι τὸ ἔργον περαίνεται ἐγγὺς
ἀλλήλων οὖσιν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν θερμότητος τὰ ζῷα
μετέχειν ἀναγκαῖον, δῆλον. ἐκ τούτων" ἐπεὶ Ἶ
ἅπαντα δεῖται τῆς ἐναντίας ῥοπῆς, ἵνα τυγχάνη τοῦ
μετρίου καὶ τοῦ μέσου (τὴν γὰρ οὐσίαν ἔχει τοῦτο
καὶ τὸν λόγον, τῶν Ò ἄκρων ἑκάτερον οὐκ ἔχει
χωρίς), διὰ ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν πρὸς τὸν τῆς καρδίας
τόπον καὶ τὴν ἐν αὐτῇ θερμότητα μεμηχάνηται τὸν
ἐγκέφαλον ἡ 7 Φύσις, καὶ τούτου χάριν ὑπάρχει τοῦτο
τὸ μόριον τοῖς ζῴοις, τὴν φύσιν ἔχον κοινὴν ὕδατος
καὶ γῆς, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο τὰ (μὲνγ᾽ ἔναιμα. ἔχει πάντα
ἐγκέφαλον, τῶν ὃ᾽ ἀλλ ων οὐδὲν ὡς εἰπεῖν, πλὴν ὅ ὅτι
κατὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον, οἷον ὁ πολύπους: ὀλιγόθερμα γὰρ
πάντα διὰ τὴν ἀναιμίαν.

ʻO μὲν οὖν ἐγκέφαλος εὔκρατον. ποιεῖ τὴν ἐν τῇ
καρδίᾳ θερμότητα καὶ ζέσιν: ἵνα δὲ καὶ τοῦτο τὸ
μόριον τυγχάνῃ μετρίας θερμότητος, ἀφ᾽ ἑκατέρας
τῆς φλεβός, τῆς τε μεγάλης καὶ τῆς καλουμένης
ἀορτῆς, τελευτῶσιν αἱ φλέβες εἰς τὴν μήνιγγα τὴν

1 (μὲν) Rackham.

a e.g. Democritus ; see Aristotle, De anima, 403 b 31.

> Or, “ proportion.”
150

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vu.

The brain is present in order to preserve the animal
organism as a whole. Some ^ maintain that the Soul
of an animal is Fire or some such substance. This is
a crude way of putting it; and might be improved
upon by saying that the Soul subsists in some body
of a fiery nature. The reason for this is that the
hot substance is the most serviceable of all for the
activities of the Soul, since one of the activities of
the Soul is to nourish ; another is to cause motion ;
and these are most readily effected by means of
this substance (viz. the hot) So to say that the
Soul is fire is like saying that the craftsman, or his
craft, is the saw or the auger which he uses, on
the ground that the activity is performed while the
two are near together. From what we have said this
at any rateisclear: animals must of necessity have in
themacertain amount of heat. Now,everything needs
something to counterbalance it, so that it may achieve
moderation and the mean ; for it is the mean, and
not either of the extremes apart, which has re-
ality and rationality.^ For this cause nature has
contrived the brain to counterbalance the region of
the heart and the heat in it ; and that is why animals
have a brain, the composition of which is a combina-
tion of Water and Earth. Hence, although all
blooded animals have a brain, practically none of
the others has (unless it be just a counterpart, as
in the case of the Octopus), for since they lack blood
they have but little heat.

The brain, then, makes the heat and the boiling in
the heart well blent and tempered ; yet in order that
the brain may still have a moderate heat, blood-
vessels run from the great Blood-vessel and what is
known as the Aorta, till they reach the membrane

151’

ARISTOTLE

2

“αν περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον. πρὸς δὲ τὸ τῇ θερμότητι μὴ
βλάπτειν, ἀντὶ μὲν μεγάλων (καὶ); ὀλίγων πυκναὶ
καὶ λεπταὶ φλέβες περιέχουσιν αὐτόν, ἀντὶ δὲ θολε-
poo” καὶ παχέος αἵματος λεπτὸν καὶ καθαρόν. διὸ
καὶ τὰ ῥεύματα τοῖς σώμασιν ἐκ τῆς κεφαλῆς € ἐστι
35 τὴν ἀρχήν, ὅσοις ἂν ᾖ τὰ περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον
Ψυχρότερα τῆς συμμέτρου κράσεως" ἀναθυμιω-
653 a μένης yàp διὰ τῶν φλεβῶν. ἄνω τῆς τροφῆς τὸ
περίττωμα ψυχόμενον διὰ τὴν τοῦ τόπου τούτου
δύναμιν ῥεύματα ποιεῖ φλέγματος καὶ ἰχῶρος.
δεῖ δὲ λαβεῖν, ὡς μεγάλῳ παρεικάζοντα μικρόν,
ὁμοίως συμβαίνειν ὥσπερ τὴν τῶν ὑετῶν γένεσι"
ἀναθυμιωμένης γὰρ ἐκ τῆς γῆς τῆς ἀτμίδος καὶ
φερομένης. ὑπὸ τοῦ θερμοῦ πρὸς τὸν ἄνω τόπον,
ὅταν ἐν τῷ ὑπὲρ τῆς γῆς γένηται ἀέρι ὄντι ψυχρῷ,
συνίσταται πάλιν εἰς ὕδωρ διὰ τὴν ψύξιν καὶ ῥεῖ
κάτω πρὸς τὴν γῆν. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων ἐν ταῖς
τῶν νόσων ἀρχαῖς ἁρμόττει λέγειν, ἐφ᾽ ὅσον τῆς φυ-

10 σικῆς φιλοσοφίας ἐστὶν εἰπεῖν περὶ αὐτῶν.

Ποιεῖ δὲ καὶ τὸν ὕπνον τοῖς ζῴοις τοῦτο τὸ
μόριον τοῖς ἔχουσιν ἐγκέφαλον, τοῖς δὲ μὴ ἔχουσι
τὸ ἀνάλογον: καταψῦχον γὰρ τὴν ἀπὸ τῆς τροφῆς
τοῦ αἵματος ἐπίρρυσιν (ἢ καὶ διά τινας ὁμοίας
αἰτίας ἄλλας), βαρύνει τε τὸν τόπον (διὸ. τὴν κεφαλὴν

15 καρηβαροῦσιν οἱ ὑπνώσσοντες) καὶ κάτω ποιεῖ τὸ
θερμὸν ὑποφεύγειν μετὰ τοῦ αἵματος. διὸ πλεῖον
ἀθροιζόμενον ἐπὶ τὸν κάτω τόπον ἀπεργάζεται τὸν
ὕπνον, καὶ τὸ δύνασθαι ἑστάναι ὀρθὰ ἀφαιρεῖται
ὅσα τῶν ζῴων ὀρθὰ τὴν φύσιν ἐστί, τῶν Ò ἄλλων

ex

1 (καὶ) Rackham.
2 θολεροῦ coni. Buss. (turbidi X): πολλοῦ vulg.

152

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ντι.

which surrounds the brain. And in order to prevent
injury being done through heat, the blood-vessels
surrounding it are not few and large but small and
multitudinous ; and the blood is not muddy and
thick but thin and clear. This also explains why
fluxes begin in the head; they occur when the
parts around the brain are colder than the rightly-
proportioned blend.^ What happens is that, as the
nourishment exhales upwards through the blood-
vessels, the residue from it becomes cooled owing
to the specific nature of the brain, and produces
fluxes of phlegm and serum. And we should be justi-
fied in maintaining that this process resembles, on
a small scale, the one which produces rain-showers.
Damp vapour exhales up from the earth and is carried
into the upper regions by the heat; and when it
reaches the cold air up aloft, it condenses back again
into water owing to the cold, and pours down to-
wards the earth. However, so far as Natural Philo-
sophy is concerned with these matters, the proper
place to speak of them 15 in the Origins of Diseases.

Furthermore, it is the brain (or, if there is no brain,
its counterpart) which produces sleep in animals.
It cools the onflow of blood which comes from the
food (or else is due to other causes of the same sort),
and weighs down the part where it is (that is why
when a person is sleepy his head is weighed down),
and causes the hot substance to escape below to-
gether with the blood. Hence, the blood accumu-
lates unduly in the lower region of the body and
produces sleep; at the same time it takes away
from those animals whose nature is to stand upright
the power to do so, and the others it prevents from

4 See p. 38. > No such treatise exists.
153.

653a

20

25

653 b

ARISTOTLE

τὴν ὀρθότητα τῆς κεφαλῆς: περὶ ὧν εἴρηται καθ'
αὑτὰ ἔν τε τοῖς περὶ αἰσθήσεως καὶ περὶ ὕπνου
διωρισμένοις.

Οτι δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὁ ἐγκέφαλος κοινὸς ὕδατος καὶ
γῆς, δηλοῖ τὸ συμβαῖνον περὶ αὐτόν" ἑψόμενος γὰρ
γίνεται ξηρὸς καὶ σκληρός, καὶ λείπεται τὸ γεῶδες
ἐξατμισθέντος τοῦ ὕδατος ὑπὸ τῆς θερμότητος,
ὥσπερ τὰ τῶν χεδρόπων ἑψήματα καὶ τῶν ἄλλων
καρπῶν, διὰ τὸ γῆς εἶναι τὸ πλεῖστον μέρος, ἐξ-
ιόντος τοῦ μιχθέντος ὑγροῦ: καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα γίνεται
σκληρὰ καὶ γεηρὰ πάμπαν.

"Ἔχει δὲ τῶν ζῴων ἐγκέφαλον πλεῖστον ἄνθρωπος
ὡς κατὰ μέγεθος, καὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων οἱ ἄρρενες τῶν
θηλειῶν: καὶ γὰρ τὸν περὶ τὴν καρδίαν καὶ τὸν
πλεύμονα τόπον θερμότατον καὶ ἐναιμότατον. διὸ
καὶ μόνον ἐστὶ τῶν ζῴων ὀρθόν: ἡ γὰρ τοῦ θερμοῦ
φύσις ἐνισχύουσα ποιεῖ τὴν αὔξησιν ἀπὸ τοῦ μέσου
κατὰ τὴν αὑτῆς φοράν. πρὸς οὖν πολλὴν θερμότητα
ἀντίκειται πλείων Ú ὑγρότης καὶ ψυχρότης, καὶ διὰ τὸ
πλῆθος ὀψιαίτατα πήγνυται τὸ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν
ὀστοῦν, ὃ καλοῦσι βρέγμα τινές, διὰ τὸ πολὺν
χρόνον τὸ θερμὸν ἀπατμίζειν' τῶν δ᾽ ἄλλων οὐδενὶ
τοῦτο συμβαίνει τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων. καὶ ῥαφὰς δὲ
πλείστας ἔχει περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν, καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν
πλείους τῶν θηλειῶν, διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν, ὅπως ὁ
τόπος εὔπνους ἦν καὶ μᾶλλον ὁ πλείων ἐγκέφαλος:
ὑγραινόμενος γὰρ ἢ ξηραινόμενος μᾶλλον οὐ ποιήσει
τὸ αὑτοῦ ἔργον, ἀλλ᾽ ἢ οὐ ψύξει ἢ πήξει, ὥστε

9 See De somno, 455 b 28 ff., especially 456 b 17 ff.
> The cranial bone, which covers the anterior fontanelle.

154

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vu.

holding their heads upright. These matters have
been spoken of separately in the treatises on Sensation
and on Sleep."

I said the brain is compounded of Water and
Earth. This is shown by what happens when it is
boiled. Then it becomes solid and hard: the earthy
substance is left behind after the Water has evapor-
ated owing to the heat. It is just what happens
when pulse and other forms of fruit are boiled ; they
also get hard and earthy altogether, because the
greater part of them is earth, and the fluid mixed
with it departs when they are boiled.

Of all the animals, man has the largest brain for
his size ; and men have a larger brain than women.
In both cases the largeness is due to there being a
great deal of heat and blood in the region around the
heart and the lung. This too explains why man is
the only animal that stands upright. As the hot sub-
stance prevails in the body it induces growth, begin-
ning from the centre along its own line of travel.
It is against great heat, then, that a large supply of
fluid and cold is provided. This bulk of moisture
is also the reason why the bone that surrounds the
brain (called by some the bregma)? is the last of all
to solidify ; the hot substance takes a long time to
evaporate it off. This phenomenon does not occur
in any other of the blooded animals. Again, man
has more sutures in the skull than any other animal,
and males have more than females. The size of the
brain is the reason for this also; it is to secure
ventilation, and the larger the brain, the more
ventilation it requires. If the brain becomes unduly
fluid or unduly solid, it will not perform its proper
function, but will either fail to cool the blood or else

F 155

ARISTOTLE

653 b
/ ` } - , A A
5 νόσους καὶ παρανοίας ποιεῖν καὶ θανάτους" TO γὰρ

, ^ , \ M ε » 4 ’ ,
ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ θερμὸν καὶ ἡ ἀρχὴ συμπαθέστατόν
, ^ ^ /
ἐστι καὶ ταχεῖαν ποιεῖται τὴν αἴσθησιν μεταβάλ-
, ^ . , /
λοντός τι καὶ πάσχοντος τοῦ περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον
αἵματος.
\ \ 7^ ^ ’ - , e A
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν συμφύτων τοῖς ζώοις ὑγρῶν
\ ^
10 σχεδὸν εἴρηται περὶ πάντων: τῶν δ᾽ ὑστερογενῶν
/ ^ ^ , ^
τά τε περιττώματα τῆς τροφῆς ἐστί, τό τε τῆς
, ^ ,
κύστεως ὑπόστημα καὶ τὸ τῆς κοιλίας, καὶ παρὰ
ταῦτα γονὴ καὶ γάλα τοῖς πεφυκόσιν ἔχειν ἕκαστα
5 ^ ^ M
τούτων. τὰ μὲν οὖν τῆς τροφῆς περιττώματα περὶ
` ^ ^ , A / > / »
τὴν τῆς τροφῆς σκέψιν καὶ θεωρίαν οἰκείους ἔχει
^ , , ^ , € / M ^
15 τοὺς λόγους, τίσι τε τῶν ζῴων ὑπάρχει καὶ διὰ
’
τίνας αἰτίας, τὰ δὲ περὶ σπέρματος καὶ γάλακτος ἐν
τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως: τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχὴ γενέσεως
αὐτῶν ἐστι, τὸ δὲ χάριν γενέσεως.
VIII. Περὶ δὲ τῶν ἄλλων μορίων τῶν ὁμοιο-
^ ^ , ^
20 μερῶν σκεπτέον, καὶ πρῶτον περὶ σαρκὸς ἐν τοῖς
» / , M ^ » 4 ἃ / A
ἔχουσι σάρκας, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις τὸ ἀνάλογον: τοῦτο
. 2 M ` ^ > € A ^ / , /
yàp ἀρχὴ καὶ σῶμα καθ᾽ αὑτὸ τῶν ζῴων ἐστίν.
^ \ \ \ ` / \ . - ε
δῆλον δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὸν λόγον: τὸ γὰρ ζῷον ὁρι-
ζόμεθα τῷ ἔχειν αἴσθησιν, πρῶτον δὲ τὴν πρώτην:
e ga M € / Z 5 , / \ ~
αὕτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἁφή, ταύτης δ᾽ αἰσθητήριον τὸ τοιοῦ-

M ^ e /
25 τον μόριόν ἐστιν, ἥτοι τὸ πρῶτον, ὥσπερ ἡ κόρη

α At De gen. an. 722 a, 776 a 15 ff.
156

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ντ.- ντι,

will make it set fast, thus producing various forms of
disease, madness, and death. Indeed, the heat that
is in the heart, being the source, is extremely re-
sponsive to any influence upon it; and if the blood
which surrounds the brain undergoes any change or
any other affection, then this heat at once becomes
sensitive of it.

We may now claim to have considered all the fluids
which are present in animal bodies from their very
earliest stages. There are others which are first
produced only at some later stage, and among these
we must reckon the residues of the nourishment—
that is to say, the deposits from the bladder and
from the gut; and also semen, and milk; these
make their appearance according to the species and
sex of the animal concerned. Discussion of the resi-
dues of the nourishment will come in appropriately
during our general consideration and examination
of nourishment ; we shall then show in what animals
they occur, and why they do so. Semen, which
gives rise to generation, and milk, which exists on
account of generation, we shall deal with in the
treatise on Generation."

VIII. We must now go on to consider the rest of Flesh and
the uniform parts. Let us take first of all Flesh (and, 9935.
where Flesh is absent, its counterpart), for this is to
animals both a principle and a body in itself. Its
primacy can also be logically shown, as follows. We
define an animal as something that has the power of
sensation, and chiefly the primary sensation, which
is touch ; and the organ through which this sensation
is effected is the flesh (or its counterpart) And
flesh is either its primary organ (comparable to the
pupil in the case of sight), or else it is the organ and

157

ARISTOTLE

b

hi τῆς ὄψεως, ἢ τὸ δι οὗ συνειλημμένον, ὥσπερ ἂν et
τις προσλάβοι τῇ κόρῃ τὸ διαφανὲς πᾶν. ἐπὶ μὲν

οὖν τῶν ἄλλων αἰσθήσεων ἀδύνατόν τε καὶ οὐδὲν
προὔργου τοῦτ᾽ ἦν ποιῆσαι τῇ φύσει, τὸ δ᾽ ἁπτικὸν

ἐξ ἀνάγκης: μόνον γὰρ ἢ μάλιστα τοῦτ᾽ ἐστὶ σωμα-

80 τῶδες τῶν αἰσθητηρίων. κατὰ δὲ τὴν αἴσθησιν
φανερὸν πάντα τἆλλα τούτου χάριν ὄντα, λέγω ὃ
οἷον ὀστᾶ καὶ δέρμα καὶ νεῦρα καὶ φλέβες, ἔτι δὲ
τρίχες καὶ τὸ τῶν ὀνύχων γένος, καὶ εἴ τι τοιοῦτον
ἕτερόν ἐστιν. ἡ μὲν γὰρ τῶν ὀστῶν φύσις σωτη-
ρίας ἕνεκεν μεμηχάνηται ἐτοῦ)' μαλακοῦ, σκληρὰ

85 τὴν φύσιν οὖσα, ἐν τοῖς ἔχουσιν ὀστᾶ: ἐν δὲ τοῖς
μὴ ἔχουσι, τὸ ο... οἷον ἐν τοῖς ἰχθύσι τοῖς

μὲν ἄκανθα τοῖς δὲ χόνδρος.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἔχει τῶν ζώων ἐντὸς τὴν τοιαύτην

654a βοήθειαν, ἔνια δὲ τῶν ἀναίμων ἐκτός, ὥσπερ τῶν TE
μαλακοστράκων ἕκαστον, otov καρκίνοι καὶ τὸ τῶν
καράβων γένος, καὶ τὸ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων ὡὧσ-
αύτως, οἷον τὰ καλούμενα ὄστρεα: πᾶσι γὰρ τούτοις

τὸ μὲν σαρκῶδες ἐντός, τὸ δὲ συνέχον. καὶ φυλάττον

δ ἐκτὸς τὸ γεῶδές ἐστιν: πρὸς γὰρ τῇ φυλακῇ τῆς
συνεχείας, τῷ ἔχειν ὀλίγον αὐτῶν τὴν φύσιν θερμὸν
ἀναίμων ὄντων, οἷον υπνιγεύς τις περικείμενον τὸ
ὄστρακον φυλάττει τὸ ἐμπεπυρευμένον θερμόν. ἡ
δὲ χελώνη καὶ τὸ τῶν ἑμύδων γένος ὁμοίως ἔχειν

1 (τοῦ) Ogle.
α Apparently because the objects with which it deals are

ος

more ‘‘ corporeal" than those of the other senses—it has
to be in bodily contact with them.

^ As apart from a priori reasoning.

e Sometimes, as here, " counterpart `’ ' could be represented
by the modern term “ analogue."

d Lit., “the soft-shelled creatures.”

158

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vut.

the medium of the sensation combined in one (com-
parable to the pupil plus the whole of the transparent
medium in the case of sight). Now not only was it
pointless, it was impossible for Nature to make such
a combination in the case of the other senses ; with
touch, however, it was due to mecessity, since its
sense-organ is the only one which is corporeal—
or at least it is definitely the most corporeal one.?
It is also clear from our actual experience in sensation?
that all the other parts exist for the sake of the organ
of touch (the flesh). In these I include the bones, the
skin, the sinews, the blood-vessels ; also the hair, nails
of every sort and kind, and the like. The bones,
for instance, which are hard in substance, have been
devised for the preservation of the soft parts. The
same is true of the counterpart ^ of the bones in other
creatures : two examples in species of fish are spine
and cartilage.

Now with some animals this hard supporting
substance is situated inside the body, with others
(some of the bloodless ones) it is outside. It is out-
side in the case of all the Crustacea ? (e.g. the Crabs
and the group of Crayfish), and the group of Testacea*
too, e.g. those that are known as Oysters. All these
have their fleshy part inside, and the earthy part
which holds it together and protects it is out-
side—outside, because it performs an additional
function as well: since these creatures are bloodless,
they possess but little heat, and the shell acts like
a couvre-feu ; it encloses the faintly burning heat
and protects it. Another quite different group of
creatures, the Turtles and the group of freshwater

e Lit., “the shell-skinned creatures." ‘‘ Testacea " is the
nearest modern term. See Introduction, p. 23.

159'

654a

10

15

20

ε5
qn

ARISTOTLE

^ , e Ἂ / , ^ ,
δοκεῖ τούτοις, ἕτερον Ov γένος τούτων. τὰ ὃ
ἔντομα τῶν ζώων καὶ τὰ μαλάκια τούτοις τ᾽
ἐναντίως καὶ αὑτοῖς ἀντικειμένως συνέστηκεν: οὐδὲν
γὰρ ὀστῶδες ἔχειν ἔοικεν οὐδὲ γεηρὸν ἀποκεκρι-

’ L4 \ » , ^ > 3 η . /

μένον, ὅ τι καὶ ἄξιον εἰπεῖν, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν μαλάκια

` e Z * LA \ \ ` ^
σχεδὸν ὅλα σαρκώδη kai µαλακά, πρὸς δὲ τὸ μὴ
εὔφθαρτον εἶναι τὸ σῶμα αὐτῶν, καθάπερ τὰ
σαρκώδη, μεταξὺ σαρκὸς καὶ νεύρου τὴν φύσιν ἔχει.
μαλακὸν μὲν γὰρ ὥσπερ σάρξ ἐστιν, ἔχει δὲ τάσιν
ὥσπερ νεῦρον: τὴν δὲ σχίσιν ἔχει τῆς σαρκὸς οὐ

, 3 / > ` . / ,
kar εὐθυωρίαν ἀλλὰ κατὰ κύκλους διαιρετήν'

e \ 3571 V. , ^ » 9 M] M
οὕτως γὰρ | ἂν]' ἔχον χρησιμώτατον ἂν εἴη πρὸς τὴν
ἰσχύν. ὑπάρχει δ᾽ ἐν αὐτοῖς καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον ταῖς
τῶν ἰχθύων ἀκάνθαις, οἷον ἐν μὲν ταῖς σηπίαις τὸ

’ / , M ^ / ` " d
καλούμενον σηπίον, ἐν δὲ ταῖς τευθίσι τὸ καλού-
μενον ξίφος. τὸ" Ò αὖ τῶν πολυπόδων (γένοςγ'
τοιοῦτον οὐδὲν ἔχει διὰ τὸ μικρὸν ἔχειν τὸ κύτος

A / λ / 0 / δ᾽ > / ὃ A
τὴν καλουμένην κεφαλήν, θάτερα δ᾽ εὐμήκη. διὸ

- `
πρὸς τὴν ὀρθότητα αὐτῶν καὶ τὴν ἀκαμψίαν ὑπ-
^ ^ 3 Ῥ -
έγραψε ταῦτα ἡ φύσις, ὥσπερ τῶν ἐναίμων τοῖς
^ - » » Z
μὲν ὁστοῦν τοῖς Ò ἄκανθαν. τὰ Ò ἔντομα τούτοις
^ 7
T ἐναντίως ἔχει καὶ τοῖς ἐναίμοις, καθάπερ εἴπομεν:

, M ^ 2 / » / . \
οὐδὲν yàp ἀφωρισμένον ἔχει σκληρόν, τὸ δὲ pada-

/ > > 5A A ^ λ / λ / δὲ
κόν, ἀλλ᾽ ὅλον τὸ σῶμα σκληρόν, σκληρότητα δὲ

^ A >
τοιαύτην, ὀστοῦ μὲν σαρκωδεστέραν, σαρκὸς ὃ
1 [ἂν] seclusi. 2 χρησιμώτατα εἴη SU.

3 τὸ Platt: τὰ vulg. 4 (γένος) Platt.

160

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vui.

Tortoises, are apparently in like case. On the other
hand, the Insects and the Cephalopods are differ-
ently constructed from these, as well as being
different from each other. Not only, as it appears,
have they no bony part, but they have practically
no earthy part at all distinct from the rest of the
body. The Cephalopods are almost wholly soft
and fleshy, yet in order to prevent their bodies
from being easily destructible as fleshy struc-
tures are, the substance of which they are formed
is intermediate between flesh and sinew, having the
softness of flesh and the elasticity of sinew. When
it is split up, it breaks as flesh does, that is, not
longitudinally but into circular portions. The reason
for this seems to be that such a structure secures
the greatest strength. There is found also in these
creatures the counterpart of the spinous bones of
fishes ; examples are: the “ pounce " (os sepiae) of
the cuttlefish, and the “pen” (gladius) of the
calamaries. Nothing of this sort, however, appears
in the Octopuses: this is because in them what is
called the “ head " forms but a small sac, whereas
in the cuttlefish and calamaries the “ head ” is of
considerable length. So we see that, in order to
secure that they should be straight and inflexible,
nature prescribed for them this hard support, just
as she gave to the blooded creatures bones or spines.
Quite a different contrivance obtains in the Insects—
different both from the Cephalopods and from the
blooded creatures, as has already been stated. In
the Insects we do not find the clear-cut distinction
of hard parts and soft ; here, the whole body is hard,
yet its hardness is such that it is more fleshlike than

161:

654a
80

85

654 b

10

15

ARISTOTLE

, A A A ^
ὀστωδεστέραν καὶ γεωδεστέραν, πρὸς τὸ μὴ eù-
διαίρετον εἶναι τὸ σῶμα αὐτῶν.

IX. "Eye δ᾽ ὁμοίως ἢ τε τῶν ὀστῶν καὶ ἡ
τῶν φλεβῶν φύσις. ἑκατέρα γὰρ αὐτῶν ἀφ᾽ ἑνὸς
ἠργμένη συνεχής ἐστι, καὶ οὔτ᾽ ὀστοῦν ἐστιν αὐτὸ

5 e \ , 8 2 5 -^ / € ^ ΝΛ
καθ᾽ αὑτὸ οὐδέν, ἀλλ᾽ ἢ μόριον ὡς συνεχοῦς ἢ
€ , M / e ^ e ,
ἁπτόμενον καὶ προσδεδεμένον, ἵνα χρῆται ἡ φύσις

M € cA \ ^ M € M ` /
καὶ ὡς €vi καὶ συνεχεῖ καὶ ὡς Svat καὶ διηρηµένοις

M
πρὸς τὴν κάμψιν. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ dre’ οὐδεμία
> \ 2 € / , > \ ^ / ^
αὐτὴ καθ᾽ αὑτήν ἐστιν, ἀλλὰ πᾶσαι μόριον μιᾶς
εἰσιν. ὀστοῦν τε γὰρ εἴ τι κεχωρισμένον ἦν, τό τ᾽
- /, e ^ > ~
ἔργον οὐκ ἂν ἐποίει οὗ χάριν ἡ τῶν ὀστῶν ἐστι

/ 2 . Ἂ / m » M, , /

φύσις (οὔτε γὰρ ἂν κάμψεως ἦν αἴτιον οὔτ᾽ ὀρθό-
3 ^ ^ 4 A 3 . - »
τητος οὐδεμιᾶς μὴ συνεχὲς Ov ἀλλὰ διαλεῖπον), ἔτι
> » A e » / vn / 3f 3X ^
T ἔβλαπτεν ἂν ὥσπερ ἄκανθά τις ἢ βέλος ἐνὸν ταῖς
/ » M [ΩΙ / ` .
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\ A \ > Z 3 A » ` > € ^
συνεχὴς πρὸς τὴν ἀρχήν, οὐκ àv ἔσωζε τὸ ἐν αὑτῇ

Φ ε ` ο ASL ISLET / / /

atua: ἡ yàp ἀπ᾽ ἐκείνης θερμότης κωλύει πήγνυ-
’ M ` / A ,

σθαι, φαίνεται δὲ καὶ σηπόμενον τὸ χωριζόμενον.

- - / ^ 3 119 ^
ἀρχὴ δὲ τῶν μὲν φλεβῶν ἡ καρδία, τῶν δ᾽ ὀστῶν ἡ
/ eJ ^ » > ^ ^ 319 T
καλουμένη ῥάχις τοῖς ἔχουσιν ὀστᾶ πᾶσιν, ad Ñs
M e ^ ” 3 ^ , / e ^ `
συνεχὴς ἡ τῶν ἄλλων ὀστῶν ἐστι φύσις' ἡ γὰρ τὸ

^ ^ / e
μῆκος καὶ τὴν ὀρθότητα συνέχουσα τῶν ζῴων ἡ
e? , / , \ > > / , ^ ,
ῥάχις ἐστίν. ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἀνάγκη κινουμένου τοῦ ζῴου
109

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. νιτ.-1χ.

bone is and more bony and earthy than flesh. The
purpose of this is to ensure that the body shall not
easily break up.

IX. The system of the bones is similar to that of Bones,
the blood-vessels : each is a connected system begin-
ning from one point. There is no such thing as a
bone by itself in isolation ; every bone is either
actually part of the connected scheme, or else is
attached to it and so is in contact with it. This
enables Nature to use any couple of bones either
as a single connected piece, or, when flexion is
required, as two distinct pieces. In like manner,
there is no such thing as a blood-vessel by itself in
isolation: they are all of them parts of one blood-
vessel. An isolated bone could never discharge the
function for which all bones exist; for, being dis-
continuous and disconnected from the rest, it could
never serve as the means either for bending or for
straightening a limb ; but worse than that, it would
be a source of harm, like a thorn or an arrow sticking
in the flesh. Similarly, if we imagine a blood-vessel
isolated and not connected with the source of them
all, it could never keep the blood within it in a proper
condition, since it is the heat which comes from that
source which prevents the blood from congealing, as
is shown by the putrefaction of blood when separ-
ated from it. ‘This source of the blood-vessels
is of course the heart, and the corresponding source
of the bones in all bony species is what is called the
backbone. ‘The system of the bones is a connected
whole, starting from the backbone, since the back-
bone connects together the length of the animal's
body and holds it straight. Now although this back-
bone is a unity because it is connected together, it

F2 163

654 b

20

25

80

655a

ARISTOTLE

κάμπτεσθαι τὸ σῶμα, µία μὲν διὰ τὴν συνέχειάν
ἐστι, πολυμερὴς δὲ τῇ διαιρέσει τῶν σπονδύλων.
ἐκ δὲ ταύτης τοῖς ἔχουσι κῶλα συνεχῆ [πρὸς αὐτὴν]
τὰ τούτων ὀστᾶ [τῶν ἁρμονιῶν] ἐστιν: τὰ] μὲν [ἔχει
τὰ κῶλα κάμψιν συνδεδεμένα τοῖς" νεύροις, καὶ] τῶν
ἐσχάτων συναρμοττόντων, τοῦ μὲν ὄντος κοίλου
τοῦ δὲ περιφεροῦς, ἢ καὶ ἀμφοτέρων κοίλων, ἐν
μέσῳ. δὲ περιειληφότων,, οἷον γόμφον, ἀστράγαλον,
ἵνα γίνηται. κάμψις καὶ ἔκτασις (ἄλλως γὰρ, 7) ὅλως
ἀδύνατον, 7 7 οὐ καλῶς d ἂν ἐποίουν τὴν τοιαύτην κί-
vow): ἔνια δ᾽ αὐτῶν ὁμοίαν ἔχοντα τὴν ἀρχὴν τὴν
θατέρου τῇ τελευτῇ θατέρου [συνδέδεται νεύροις |:
καὶ χονδρώδη de μόρια μεταξὺ τῶν κάµψεών
ἐστιν, οἷον στοιβή, πρὸς τὸ ἄλληλα μὴ τρίβειν.
Περὶ δὲ τὰ ὀστᾶ αἱ σάρκες περιπεφύκασι,
προσειλημμέναι λεπτοῖς καὶ ἰνώδεσι. δεσμοῖς" ὧν
ἕνεκεν τὸ τῶν ὀστῶν ἐστι γένος. ὥσπερ γὰρ οἱ
πλάττοντες ἐκ πηλοῦ ζῶον ἢ τινος ἄλλης ὑγρᾶς
συστάσεως ὑφιστᾶσι τῶν στερεῶν τι σωμάτων, εἶθ᾽
οὕτω περιπλάττουσι, τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ἡ φύσις
δεδημιούργηκεν ἐκ τῶν σαρκῶν τὸ ζῷον. τοῖς
μὲν οὖν άλλοις ὕπεστιν ὀστᾶ τοῖς σαρκώδεσι μο-
ρίοις, τοῖς μὲν κινουμένοις διὰ κάμψιν τούτου
χάριν, τοῖς δ᾽ ἀκινήτοις φυλακῆς ἕνεκεν, οἷον αἱ
συγκλείουσαι πλευραὶ τὸ στῆθος σωτηρίας χάριν

1 τὰ Peck: τὰς Z: ᾗ vulg.: ὀστᾶ τῶν μορίων otw τὰς μὲν
(ᾗ μὲν vulg. ) ἔχει τὰ κῶλα καὶ κάμψιν L.

τοῖς SU: τε vulg.: γε EY.

5 ]]. 16-25: hunc locum correxi, partim Σ εἰ Albertum
secutus. vid. p. 46. fortasse εἰ ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἀνάγκη . . . σπον-
δύλων (11. 14-16) secludenda.

4 εἰσιν vulg.

164

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xx.

is also a thing of many parts because of its division
into vertebrae, since the body must be able to bend
while the animal is in motion. And the bones of the
various limbs (in those animals which have them)
are connected with this backbone, from which they
originate. Some of them have extremities which fit
on to each other: either (a) one is hollow and the
other rounded, or (b) both are hollow and hold a
huckle-bone between them (as it might be a bolt),
to admit of bending and extension, since these
movements would be quite impossible or at any rate
unsatisfactory without such an arrangement. (c)
There are some joints in which the adjacent ends of
the two bones are similar in shape ; [these are bound
together by sinews,] and there are pieces of cartilage
inserted in between them, like a pad, to prevent
them from rubbing against each other.*

Now the whole system of the bones exists to sub-
serve the fleshy parts of the body, which have their
place around the bones and are attached to them by
thin fibrous threads. Modellers who set out to mould
an animal out of clay or some other plastic substance
begin first of all with a hard and solid core and mould
their figure round it. Nature's method has been the
same in fashioning animals out of flesh. With one
exception, all the fleshy parts have a core of bone :
for the parts that move and bend, this is present as
a means for enabling the limb to bend; for those
that do not move, it serves as a protection: an
example of this are the ribs, enclosing the chest,
which are a means of protection for the viscera in

α The text of this paragraph has been confused by a
number of interpolations, most of which I have omitted in
translating.

165

655a

5

10

15

20

ARISTOTLE

τῶν περὶ τὴν καρδίαν σπλάγχνων" τὰ δὲ περὶ τὴν
κοιλίαν ἀνόστεα πᾶσιν, ὅπως μὴ κωλύῃ τὴν av-
οίδησιν τὴν ἀπὸ τῆς τροφῆς γινομένην τοῖς ζῴοις
ἐξ ἀνάγκης καὶ τοῖς θήλεσι τὴν ἐν αὐτοῖς τῶν ἐμ-
βρύων αὔξησιν.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν ζῳοτόκα τῶν ζῴων καὶ ἐν αὑτοῖς καὶ
ἐκτὸς παραπλησίαν ἔχει τὴν τῶν ὀστῶν δύναμιν καὶ
ἰσχυράν. πολὺ γὰρ μείζω πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν
μὴ ζῳοτόκων ὡς κατὰ λόγον εἰπεῖν τῶν σωμάτων:
ἐνιαχοῦ γὰρ πολλὰ γίνεται μεγάλα τῶν ζῳοτόκων,
οἷον ἐν Λιβύῃ καὶ τοῖς τόποις τοῖς θερμοῖς καὶ τοῖς
ξηροῖς. τοῖς δὲ μεγάλοις ἰσχυροτέρων δεῖ τῶν
ὑπερεισμάτων καὶ μειζόνων καὶ σκληροτέρων, καὶ
τούτων αὐτῶν τοῖς βιαστικωτέροις. διὸ τὰ τῶν
ἀρρένων προ ἢ τὰ τῶν θηλειῶν, καὶ τὰ τῶν
σαρκοφάγων (ἡ τροφὴ γὰρ. διὰ μάχης τούτοις),
ὥσπερ τὰ τοῦ λέοντος: οὕτω γὰρ ἔχει ταῦτα
σκληρὰν τὴν φύσιν ὥστ᾽ ἐξάπτεσθαι τυπτομένων
καθάπερ ἐκ λίθων πῦρ. ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ δελφὶς οὐκ
ἀκάνθας ἀλλ᾽ ὀστᾶ: ζῳοτόκος γάρ ἐστιν.

Τοῖς δ᾽ ἐναίμοις μὲν μὴ ζῳοτόκοις δὲ παρ-
αλλάττει κατὰ μικρὸν ἡ φύσις, οἷον τοῖς ὄρνισιν
ὀστᾶ μέν, ἀσθενέστερα δέ. τῶν δ᾽ ἰχθύων τοῖς μὲν
ᾠοτόκοις ἄκανθα, καὶ τοῖς ὄφεσιν ἀκανθώδης ἐστὶν
ἡ τῶν ὀστῶν φύσις, πλὴν τοῖς λίαν μεγάλοις" τού-
τοις δέ, δι᾽ ἅπερ καὶ τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις, πρὸς τὴν
ἰσχὺν ἰσχυροτέρων δεῖ τῶν στερεωμάτων. τὰ δὲ
καλούμενα σελάχη χονδράκανθα τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν.
ὑγροτέραν τε γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον αὐτῶν εἶναι τὴν κί-

α Cartilaginous fishes, including the sharks.
166

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. rx.

the region of the heart. The exception is the parts
near the belly, which in all animals are boneless.
The purpose of this is that the swelling which takes
place of necessity after the receipt of nourishment
may not be hampered, and (in females) to prevent
any interference with the growth of the fetus.

The nature of the bones is similar in all viviparous
animals (that is, internally viviparous as well as
externally) ; and as the Vivipara are much larger
proportionately in bodily size than other animals,
their bones are strong. In some places many of these
animals grow to a great size, as for example in Libya
and other hot dry countries. These large animals
need stronger and bigger and harder supports,
especially those of them that are particularly violent
in their habits. Hence, the bones of males are harder
than the bones of females, and those of carnivorous
animals than those of herbivorous, because the car-
nivorous have to fight for their food. An example
is the Lion: it has such hard bones that when they
are struck fire is kindled as it is from stones. Note
that the Dolphin, being viviparous, has bones like the
other viviparous creatures, and not fish-spines.

In the creatures which though blooded are not
viviparous Nature has made a series of graduated -
changes: for example, birds have bones, but they
are weaker than the bones of the Vivipara. The
oviparous fishes have fish-spine, not bone; and the
serpents have bone whose nature is that of fish-spine ;
except the very large species, and they have bones,
because (just like the Vivipara) if their bodies are
to be strong the solid framework of them must be
stronger. The creatures called Selachia “ have spines
made of cartilage. This is because their movement

167

ARISTOTLE
655a
e ^ ` M ^ > / \ ^
25 νησιν, ὥστε δεῖ καὶ τὴν τῶν ἐρεισμάτων μὴ κραῦ-
^ ,
ρον εἶναι ἀλλὰ μαλακωτέραν, καὶ τὸ γεῶδες εἰς
` ὃ / ^ > Ar € 4 + e ὃ . ^ 9: 1$
TO δέρμα πᾶν ἀνήλωκεν ἡ φύσις: ἅμα δὲ τὴν αὐτὴν
M - ^ e
ὑπεροχὴν εἰς πολλοὺς τόπους ἀδυνατεῖ διανέμειν ἡ
/ ^ ^
φύσις. ἔνεστι δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις πολλὰ τῶν
, ^
ὀστῶν χονδρώδη, ἐν ὅσοις συμφέρει μαλακὸν εἶναι
\ ~ M
80 καὶ μυξῶδες᾽ τὸ στερεὸν διὰ τὴν σάρκα τὴν περι-
> .
κειμένην, οἷον συμβέβηκε περί τε τὰ ὦτα καὶ
` ^ ^ ,
τοὺς μυκτῆρας: θραύεται yàp τὰ κραῦρα ταχέως
3 ^
ἐν τοῖς ἀπέχουσιν. ἡ δὲ φύσις ἡ αὐτὴ χόνδρου
` ma 93 ^ ^ Δ, ; 85
καὶ ὀστοῦ ἐστι, διαφέρει δὲ τῷ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον"
A
διὸ καὶ οὐδέτερον αὐξάνεται ἀποκοπέν.
εἶν ν a 9 - LE nsa /
85 Οἱ μὲν οὖν ἐν τοῖς πεζοῖς ἀμύελοι χόνδροι κεχω-
^ , eo
ρισµένω μυελῷῶ' τὸ γὰρ χωριζόμενον εἰς ἅπαν
\ ^ A ^
μεμιγμένον μαλακὴν ποιεῖ καὶ μυξώδη" τὴν τοῦ
/ ^ e?
χόνδρου σύστασιν. ἐν δὲ τοῖς σελάχεσιν ἡ ῥάχις
> > > ^
655b χονδρώδης μέν ἐστιν, ἔχει δὲ μυελόν: ἀντ᾽ ὀστοῦ
γὰρ αὐτοῖς ὑπάρχει τοῦτο τὸ μόριον.
’ - , ^ M
Σύνεγγυς δὲ κατὰ τὴν ἀφήν ἐστι τοῖς ὀστοῖς καὶ
A ^ € M A
τὰ τοιάδε τῶν µορίων, οἷον ὄνυχές τε καὶ ὁπλαὶ καὶ
^ [ή
χηλαὶ καὶ κέρατα καὶ ῥύγχη τὰ τῶν ὀρνίθων. πάντα
δὲ ^ / » / M ^ 3 M . ,
5 δὲ ταῦτα βοηθείας ἔχουσι χάριν [τὰ Oa]: τὰ γὰρ ἐξ
^ ^ ,
αὐτῶν συνεστηκότα ὅλα καὶ συνώνυμα τοῖς μορίοις,
`
οἷον ὁπλή τε ὅλη καὶ κέρας ὅλον, μεμηχάνηται πρὸς
M ^ `
τὴν σωτηρίαν ἑκάστοις. ἐν τούτω δὲ τῷ γένει καὶ

1 ζυμῶδες 7. ® ζυμώδη EPSZ.
3 [τὰ £àa]secludit Rackham.

a Cf. the “ law of organic equivalents.”
" See note on 644 a 17.

168

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. 1x.

has to be somewhat supple, and accordingly the
supporting framework of their bodies must be some-
what pliable, not brittle. In addition, Nature cannot
allot the same plentiful supply of any one substance
to many different parts of the body ;^ and in the case
of the Selachia she has used up all the available earthy
substance in constructing their skin. In the Vivipara
too there are many instances of cartilaginous bones :
they are found where it is an advantage that the
solid framework should be pliable and glutinous for
the benefit of the flesh that surrounds them. This
applies to the ears and the nostrils. Such projecting
parts quickly get broken if they are brittle. Car-
tilage and bone are the same in kind and differ
only by "the more and less "^; so neither of them
continues to grow when it has been cut out of the
living organism.

The cartilages of land-animals contain no marrow—
that is, no marrow existing as a separate thing.
What in ordinary bones is separable is here mixed
in with the body of the cartilage and gives it its
pliable and glutinous character. In the Selachia,
however, although the backbone is cartilaginous it
contains marrow, because it stands to these creatures
in place of a bone.

The following substances or “ parts " resemble
bones very closely as regards their feel: the various
sorts of nail; hoof and talon; horn, and beak.
All these substances are present for the sake of self-
defence. This is shown by the fact that the complete
structures which are made out of them and bear the
same names—e.g. the complete hoof, or horn—have
beencontrived in each case by Nature for the creature's
self-preservation. We must reckon the teeth in this

169

655 b

10

20

ARISTOTLE

ἡ τῶν ὀδόντων ἐστὶ φύσις, τοῖς μὲν ὑπάρχουσα
πρὸς ἓν ἔργον τὴν τῆς τροφῆς ἐργασίαν, τοῖς δὲ
πρός τε τοῦτο καὶ πρὸς ἀλκήν, οἷον τοῖς καρχαρ-
όδουσι καὶ χαυλιόδουσι πᾶσιν. ἐξ ἀνάγκης δὲ
πάντα ταῦτα γεώδη καὶ στερεὰν ἔχει τὴν φύσιν:
ὅπλου γὰρ αὕτη δύναμις. διὸ καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα
μᾶλλον ἐν τοῖς τετράποσιν ὑπάρχει ζῴοις τῶν
ζῳοτόκων, διὰ τὸ γεωδεστέραν ἔχειν πάντα τὴν
σύστασιν ἢ τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων γένος. ἀλλὰ καὶ
περὶ τούτων καὶ τῶν ἐχομένων, οἷον δέρματος καὶ
κύστεως" καὶ ὑμένος καὶ τριχῶν καὶ πτερῶν καὶ
τῶν ἀνάλογον τούτοις καὶ εἴ τι τοιοῦτόν ἐστι μέρος,
ὕστερον ἅμα τοῖς ἀνομοιομερέσι θεωρητέον τὴν
αἰτίαν αὐτῶν, καὶ τίνος ἕνεκεν ὑπάρχει τοῖς ζῴοις
ἕκαστον": ἐκ τῶν ἔργων γὰρ γνωρίζειν, ὥσπερ
κἀκεῖνα, καὶ ταῦτα ἀναγκαῖον ἂν εἴη. ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι
συνώνυμα τοῖς ὅλοις τὰ μέρη, τὴν τάξιν ἀπέλαβεν
ἐν τοῖς ὁμοιομερέσι νῦν. εἰσὶ δ᾽ ἀρχαὶ πάντων
τούτων τό τε ὀστοῦν καὶ ἡ σάρξ. ἔτι δὲ περὶ
γονῆς καὶ γάλακτος ἀπελίπομεν ἐν τῇ περὶ τῶν
ὑγρῶν καὶ ὁμοιομερῶν θεωρίᾳ" τοῖς γὰρ περὶ
γενέσεως λόγοις ἁρμόττουσαν ἔχει τὴν σκέψιν: τὸ
μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν ἀρχὴ τὸ δὲ τροφὴ τῶν γινομένων
ἐστίν.

X. Νῦν δὲ λέγωμεν οἷον ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς πάλιν, ἀρξά-
μενοι πρῶτον ἀπὸ τῶν πρώτων. πᾶσι γὰρ τοῖς

1 σκύτεος Buss. (σκύτεως EY).

170

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. 1x.-x.

class too. In some creatures teeth are present to
discharge one function only—viz. mastication ; in
others they are a means of force as well (e.g.
sawlike teeth and tusks). All these parts are
of necessity earthy and solid in character; that
is the proper sort of substance for a weapon.
So there is a tendency for all parts of this sort to
appear in the four-footed Vivipara more extensively
than in man, because the former all have more earthy
matter in their constitution. We shall, however, con-
sider these substances, and the other kindred ones
such as skin, bladder, membrane, hair, feather, and
the counterparts of them, and all such parts, when
we come to deal with the non-uniform parts. Then
also we shall consider the Causes of them and for
what purpose each of them is present in animal bodies;
since it is true to say, of both sets of things, that our
knowledge of them must be derived from a study of
the functions which they discharge. The reason why
we have just been taking them with the uniform
substances and out of their proper order is that in
them the name of the complete structure is the same
as that of a portion of it, and also because the sources
and principles of them all are bone and flesh. We
also left out all mention of semen and milk when we
were considering the fluid uniform substances. As
semen is the source of the things that are generated
and milk is the food that feeds them, the proper place
to discuss these is in the treatise dealing with
Generation.

X. We may now make what is practically a fresh The non.
beginning. We will begin first of all with the things uniform
qo parts,
that come first in importance.
Iv

655 b
80

85

656a

e

10

ARISTOTLE

" A^ EP IET / NE. , P Rp
ζῴοις τοῖς τελείοις: δύο τὰ ἀναγκαιότατα μόριά
^ ^ ,
ἐστιν, Ñ τε δέχονται τὴν τροφὴν καὶ ἢ τὸ περίττωμα

2 ^ 2 » M 7 » , / 0 , δέ
ἀφιᾶσιν": οὔτε γὰρ εἶναι οὔτε αὐξάνεσθαι ἐνδέχεται
ἄνευ τροφῆς. (τὰ μὲν οὖν φυτά---καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα ζῆν
φαμεν--τοῦ μὲν ἀχρήστου περιττώματος οὐκ ἔχει
τόπον: ἐκ τῆς γῆς γὰρ λαμβάνει πεπεμμένην τὴν
τροφήν, ἀντὶ δὲ τούτου προΐεται τὰ σπέρματα καὶ
τοὺς καρπούς.) τρίτον δὲ μέρος ἐν πᾶσίν ἐστι τὸ
τούτων μέσον, ἐν ᾧ ἡ ἀρχή ἐστιν ἡ τῆς ζωῆς. ἡ
ἐν οὖν τῶν φυτῶν φύσις οὖσα μόνιμος οὐ πολυ-
μ
/ , ^ > ^ ` \ Aa WA
ειδής ἐστι τῶν ἀνομοιομερῶν' πρὸς γὰρ ὀλίγας
^ A
πράξεις ὀλίγων ὀργάνων ἡ χρῆσις' διὸ θεωρητέον
καθ᾽ αὑτὰ περὶ τῆς ἰδέας αὐτῶν. τὰ δὲ πρὸς τῷ
ζῆν αἴσθησιν ἔχοντα πολυμορφοτέραν ἔχει τὴν
ἰδέαν, καὶ τούτων ἕτερα πρὸ ἑτέρων μᾶλλον, καὶ
M ^ ^
πολυχουστέραν ὅσων μὴ μόνον τοῦ ζῆν ἀλλὰ καὶ
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τοῦ εὖ ζῆν ἡ φύσις μετείληφεν. τοιοῦτο δ᾽ ἐστὶ τὸ
τῶν ἀνθρώπων γένος" ἢ γὰρ μόνον μετέχει τοῦ
θείου τῶν ἡμῖν γνωρίμων ζῴων, ἢ μάλιστα πάντων.
ὥστε διά τε τοῦτο, καὶ διὰ τὸ γνώριμον εἶναι
/ > 3 A A ^ » ’ P
μάλιστ᾽ αὐτοῦ τὴν τῶν ἔξωθεν μορίων μορφήν,
περὶ τούτου λεκτέον πρῶτον. εὐθὺς γὰρ καὶ τὰ
φύσει μόρια κατὰ φύσιν ἔχει τούτῳ μόνῳ, καὶ τὸ
8
1 τοῖς τελείοις Peck: τοῖς ye τ. Ogle: καὶ τελειουμένοις καὶ

τελείοις Platt: καὶ τελείοις vulg.
2 ἀφιᾶσιν SUY : ἀφήσουσιν alii.

a These three parts of the “ perfect" animals are again
referred to at De juv. et sen. 468a 13 ff. At De gen. an.

172

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.

An animal can neither exist nor grow without food.
Therefore in all living creatures of perfect formation 4
there are two parts most necessary above all: one by
which food is taken in and the other by which residues
are eliminated. (Plants—which also we include
under the head of living things—have, it is true, no
place for the useless residue, but this is because their
food, which they get out of the earth, is already con-
cocted before it enters them, and instead of this
residue they yield their fruit and seeds.) And in all
creatures there is a third part intermediate between
these indispensable two, and this is the seat of the
source and principle of life. Plants, again, are so made
as to remain in one place, and thus they do not exhibit
a great variety of non-uniform substances; they have
few actions to perform, and therefore but few organs
are needed to perform them. For this reason we must
consider plants and their formations separately. But
with creatures that not only live but also have the
power of sensation, the formations are more varied,
and there is more diversity in some than in others, the
greatest variety being found in those creatures which
in addition to living have the capability of living the
good life, as man has. Man is the only one of the
animals known to us who has something of the divine
in him, or if there are others, he has most. ‘This is
one reason why we ought to speak about man first,
and another is that the shape of his external parts is
better knownthan that of otheranimals. Anotherand
obvious reason is that in man and in man alone do the
natural parts appear in their natural situation : the

733b 1 and 737 b 16, 26, the “ perfect " animals are the
viviparous ones. For the “most highly finished " animals
see 666 a 28.

173°

656 a

ARISTOTLE

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15 περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον εἰρημένων ἀναγκαῖον ovp-

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2
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οὐ προσίεσθαι τὰ µόρια τὰ σαρκώδη λίαν. τούτων

20 δ᾽ οὐδέτερόν ἐστιν ἀληθές, ἀλλὰ πολύσαρκος μὲν

2

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τοῖς ζῴοις εἰσί, τοῦτο δ᾽ ὁρῶντες ἰδιαίτερον ὂν
τῶν ἄλλων μορίων, ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ πρὸς ἄλληλα
συνδυάζουσιν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἀρχὴ τῶν αἰσθήσεών
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τῇ κεφαλῇ διὰ τὴν τῶν αἰσθητηρίων φύσιν εἰσί, καὶ

a See the identical phrase in De resp. 477 a 22.
> Cf. Plato, Timaeus 75 a-c.

174

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.

upper part of man is placed towards the upper part
'of the universe.^ In other words, man is the only
animal that stands upright.

In man, the head is lacking in flesh, and this follows or tne
of necessity from what we have said about the brain. Head : the
Some ὃ say (erroneously) that if the head abounded Sense-
with flesh mankind’s lifespan would be longer than “5”
it is, and they explain the absence of flesh as on pur-
pose to facilitate sensation, their view being that the
brain is the organ of sensation, and that sensation
cannot penetrate parts that are too fleshy. Neither
of these assertions is true. The truth is that if
the part surrounding the brain were fleshy, the
effect of the brain would be the very reverse
of that for which it is intended: it would be
unable to cool the rest of the body because it would
be too hot itself. And, of course, the brain is not
responsible for any of the sensations at all; it has no
more power of sensation than any of the residues.
People adopt these erroneous views because they are
unable to discover the reason why some of the senses
are placed in the head ; but they see that the head
is a somewhat unusual part, compared with the rest,
so they put two and two together and argue that
the brain is the seat of sensation. The correct view,
that the seat and source of sensation is the region
of the heart, has already been set forth in the treatise
Of Sensation,’ where also I show why it is that two of
the senses, touch and taste, are evidently connected
to the heart ; of the remaining three, smell is placed
between the other two, hearing and sight, and these
are practically always located in the head: this is
owing to the nature of the organs through which

* De sensu, 438 b 25 ff.
175-

| ARISTOTLE
656 a
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αἰσθητήριον ð οὐδὲν ἔχουσι φανερὸν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ
τούτων τῶν αἰσθητῶν.' ἡ δ᾽ ὄψις πᾶσι τοῖς ἔχουσιν
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καὶ ψυχρός, ἢ © ὕδωρ τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν' τοῦτο γὰρ
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τῶν διαφανῶν εὐφυλακτότατόν ἐστιν. ἔτι δὲ τὰς
ἀκριβεστέρας τῶν αἰσθήσεων διὰ τῶν καθαρώτερον
ἐχόντων τὸ αἷμα μορίων ἀναγκαῖον ἀκριβεστέρας
5 γίνεσθαι: ἐκκόπτει γὰρ ἡ τῆς ἐν τῷ αἵματι θερ-
.
μότητος κίνησις τὴν αἰσθητικὴν ἐνέργειαν: διὰ
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τήριά ἐστιν.
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1 (ἐπεὶ... αἰσθητῶν) Cook Wilson, qui et (οὐ) post
λεγόμενον, l. 35.

176

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.

they operate. Sight is always located there. The
case of hearing and smell in fishes and the like
shows that the opinion I maintain is patently correct.
These creatures hear and smell, although they have
no obvious and visible organs for these senses in the
head. As for sight, it is reasonable enough that
when present it should always be located near the
brain, for the brain is fluid and cold, and the sense-
organ of sight is identical in its nature with water,
which of all transparent substances is the easiest to
keep confined. Again, those senses which are in-
tended for more precise work than the others must
necessarily receive greater precision by being situ-
ated in parts where the blood is specially pure, since
the movement of the heat in the blood ousts the
activity appropriate to sensation. These are the
reasons why the organs of these senses are placed in
the head.

Now the back of the head is free from fleshiness as
well as the front. This is because the head is the
part which all animals that possess one have to hold
as upright as possible. Nothing that carries a burden
can raise itself upright, and the head would be
burdened if it were well covered with flesh. And
this is another reason to show that the lack of flesh
on the head is not for the purpose of enabling the
brain to function in sensation. There is no brain in
the back of the head, although the back has no more
flesh on it than the front.

Some animals have their organ of hearing as well
as of sight located in the region of the head. This is
well explained on our view, which is that the organ
of hearing is of air. The space in the head called the
vacuum is full of air.

177

656 b

20

25

80

ARISTOTLE

Ex μὲν οὖν τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν ot πόροι φέρουσιν εἰς
τὰς περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον φλέβας: πάλιν δ᾽ ἐκ τῶν
ὥτων ὡσαύτως πόρος εἰς τοὔπισθεν συνάπτει.

2 Εστι © οὔτ᾽ ἄναιμον οὐδὲν αἰσθητικὸν οὔτε τὸ
αἷμα, ἀλλὰ τῶν ἐκ τούτου τι. διόπερ οὐδὲν ἐν
τοῖς ἐναίμοις ἄναιμον αἰσθητικόν, οὐδ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ
aia’: οὐδὲν γὰρ. τῶν ζῴων μόριον. |?

Ἔχει δ᾽ ἐν τῷ ἔμπροσθεν τὸν ἐγκέφαλον πάντα
τὰ ἔχοντα. τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, διὰ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν
εἶναι ἐφ᾽ ὃ αἰσθάνεται, τὴν δ᾽ αἴσθησιν ἀπὸ τῆς
καρδίας, ταύτην δ᾽ εἶναι ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν, καὶ
τὸ αἰσθάνεσθαι διὰ τῶν ἐναίμων γίνεσθαι μορίων,
φλεβῶν δ᾽ εἶναι κενὸν τὸ ὄπισθεν κύτος. τέτακται
δὲ τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον τὰ αἰσθητήρια τῇ φύσει
καλῶς, τὰ μὲν τῆς ἀκοῆς ἐπὶ μέσης τῆς περιφερείας
(ἀκούει γὰρ οὐ μόνον κατ᾽ εὐθυωρίαν ἀλλὰ πάν-
τοθεν), ἡ © ὄψεις εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν (ὁρᾷ γὰρ κατ᾽
εὐθυωρίαν, ἡ 7 δὲ κίνησις εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν, προορᾶν
δὲ δεῖ ἐφ᾽ ὃ ἡ κίνησις). ἡ δὲ τῆς ὀσφρήσεως
μεταξὺ. τῶν ὀμμάτων εὐλόγως. διπλοῦν μὲν γάρ
ἐστιν ἕκαστον τῶν αἰσθητηρίων διὰ τὸ διπλοῦν
εἶναι τὸ σῶμα, τὸ μὲν δεξιὸν τὸ δ᾽ ἀριστερόν. ἐπὶ
μὲν οὖν τῆς ἀφῆς τοῦτ᾽ ἄδηλον: τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον
ὅτι οὐκ ἔστι τὸ πρῶτον αἰσθητήριον ἡ η σὰρξ καὶ τὸ
τοιοῦτον. μόριον, ἀλλ᾽ ἐντός. ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς γλώττης
ἧττον μέν, μᾶλλον δ᾽ ἢ ἐπὶ τῆς ἁφῆς: ἔστι γὰρ οἷον

1 οὐδ᾽ αὐτὸ τὸ αἷμα om. E.

id ll. 19-22 seclusi (20-22 Ogle): partim ex 666 a 16 trans-

? This passage seems to be a note on a remark which comes
a few lines below, and should probably be omitted from the
text. Part of it is taken from 666 a 16.

178

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.

Passages (or channels) run from the eyes to the
blood-vessels that are round the brain. And, again,
a passage runs from the ears and connects to the
back of the brain.

[No bloodless part is capable of sensation, nor
indeed is the blood itself. It is the parts which are
made out of blood that have this faculty. Hence,
in the blooded animals, no bloodless part is capable
of sensation, nor indeed is the blood itself, for it is
no part of animals.] ^

The brain, whenever there is one, is in the forepart
ofthe head. This is (a) because all acts of sensation
take place in a forward direction ; (0) because the
heart, from which sensation has its origin, is in the
forepart of the body ; and (ο) because the process
of sensation depends upon parts that have blood
in them, whereas the sac at the back of the head
contains no blood-vessels at all. In fact, Nature
has located the sense-organs in a very satisfactory
manner. The ears are half-way round the circum-
ference of the head, because they are to hear sounds
from all directions alike and not only from straight
before them. ‘The eyes face front: this is because
sight is along one straight line, and we must be able
to see along the line in which we are moving, which
is directly forward. The nostrils are between the
eyes, and this is quite reasonable. Each of the
sense-organs is double, because the body itself is
double: it has a right side and a left side. It must
be admitted that this duality is not at all clear in the
case of touch: this is because the primary sense-
organ of touch is not the flesh or a corresponding part,
butsomething internal. With the tongue the duality
is not very clear, but more so than with touch.

179°

657a

o

10

--:
a

20

ARISTOTLE

ε , A e € » e M ^ A
ἀφή τις καὶ αὕτη ἡ αἴσθησις. ὅμως δὲ δῆλον καὶ
ἐπὶ ταύτης: φαίνεται γὰρ ἐσχισμένη. ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν
»” , , , , ` € L4
ἄλλων αἰσθητηρίων φανερωτέρως ἐστὶν ἡ αἴσθησις

, > ’ . / ` »” 4 € ^
διµερής' ὦτά τε γὰρ δύο καὶ ὄμματα καὶ ἡ τῶν

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μυκτήρων δύναμις διφυής ἐστιν. ἄλλον οὖν ἂν
τρόπον κειμένη καὶ διεσπασμένη, καθάπερ ἡ τῆς
ἀκοῆς, οὐκ ἂν ἐποίει τὸ αὑτῆς ἔργον, οὐδὲ τὸ
μόριον ἐν © ἐστίν" διὰ γὰρ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς ἡ αἴσθησις
τοῖς ἔχουσι μυκτῆρας, τοῦτο δὲ τὸ μόριον κατὰ

- 9
μέσον καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθέν ἐστιν. διόπερ εἰς
µέσον τῶν τριῶν αἰσθητηρίων συνήγαγεν ἡ φύσις
τοὺς μυκτῆρας, οἷον ἐπὶ στάθμην θεῖσα μίαν ἐπὶ τὴν
τῆς ἀναπνοῆς κίνησιν.
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Καλῶς δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἔχει ταῦτα τὰ αἰσθη-

’ / A . 3 / , € ,
τήρια ζῴοις πρὸς τὴν ἰδίαν φύσιν ἑκάστῳ. XI.
τὰ μὲν γὰρ τετράποδα ἀπηρτημένα ἔχει TA WTA καὶ
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ἄνωθεν τῶν ὀμμάτων, ὡς δόξειεν ἄν, οὐκ ἔχει δέ,
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[7 ^ ^
κύπτειν. οὕτω δὲ τὸ πλεῖστον κινουμένων χρήσιμα
μετεωρότερά τ᾽ ὄντα καὶ κινούμενα: δέχεται γὰρ
στρεφόμενα πάντοθεν τοὺς φόφους μᾶλλον.

XII. Οἱ δ᾽ ὄρνιθες τοὺς πόρους μόνον ἔχουσι διὰ
τὴν τοῦ δέρματος σκληρότητα καὶ τὸ ἔχειν μὴ
τρίχας ἀλλὰ πτερωτὰ εἶναι: οὐκ οὖν ἔχει τοιαύτην
e 3 T A » ^ ^ € , M A ^
ὕλην ἐξ ἧς ἂν ἔπλασε τὰ ὦτα. ὁμοίως δὲ kai τῶν

α Aristotle seems to refer here to the forked tongues of
certain animals. See 660 b 7 ff.

180

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.-xu.

(Taste, in fact, is itself, as it were, a sort of touch.)
The duality is plain, however, even with this sense,
for it is seen to be divided.^ With the other senses,
the organ is more evidently parted into two: there
are two ears and two eyes, and two passages for the
nostrils in the nose. ‘The sense of smell, if it had
been otherwise placed—separated into two, that is,
like the sense of hearing—would not have been
able to perform its proper function; nor would
that part of the body in which it is situated, since
in animals which have nostrils, the sensation of
smell is effected by means of inspiration, and this
part is at the front and in the middle. This is
why Nature has brought the nostrils together in a
straight line and made them the central of the three
sense-organs in the head, located where the motion
of in-breathing takes place.

In the other animals as well as in man these sense-
organs are very satisfactorily arranged as required
by the peculiar nature of each animal. ΧΙ. For
instance, the quadrupeds have ears that stand out free
from the head, and they are higher than the eyes—
or appear to be, although this is not really so: it is
an illusion due to the fact that these animals are not
upright but stand on all fours. And as they are
usually in this posture when in motion, it is useful for
them to have their ears well up in the air, and also
movable: this enables them to be turned round and
pick up sounds better from all directions.

XII. Birds have the auditory passages only,
owing to the hardness of their skin, and because
they have feathers instead of hair, which means that
they have not got the right material for forming
ears. The same argument applies to those oviparous

Ears.

181"

ARISTOTLE

657 a
τετραπόδων. τὰ ᾠοτόκα καὶ φολιδωτά: ὁ γὰρ αὐτὸς

ἁρμόσει καὶ ἐπ᾽ ἐκείνων λόγος. ἔχει δὲ καὶ 7
φώκη τῶν ζῳοτόκων οὐκ ὦτα ἀλλὰ πόρους ἀκοῆς,
διὰ τὸ πεπηρωμένον εἶναι τετράπουν.
` € M » M oor ` .
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ζῳοτόκα καὶ τὰ ᾠοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων φυλακὴν
ἔχουσι τῆς ὄψεως, τὰ μὲν ζῳοτόκα βλέφαρα δύο,
οἷς καὶ σκαρδαμύττουσι, τῶν Ò ὀρνίθων ἄλλοι τε
καὶ οἱ βαρεῖς καὶ τὰ ᾠοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων τῇ
/ / / / > d
so κάτω βλεφαρίδι μύουσιν: σκαρδαμύττουσι ὃ᾽ οἱ
ὄρνιθες ἐκ τῶν κανθῶν ὑμένι. τοῦ μὲν οὖν φυλακὴν
ἔχειν αἴτιον τὸ ὑγρὰ τὰ ὄμματα εἶναι ἵνα ὀξὺ
βλέπωσι [τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον ὑπὸ τῆς φύσεως]"
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σκληρόδερμα γὰρ ὄντα ἀβλαβέστερα μὲν ἂν ἦν
ὑπὸ τῶν ἔξωθεν προσπιπτόντων, οὐκ ὀξυωπὰ δέ.
τούτου μὲν οὖν" ἕνεκα λεπτὸν τὸ δέρμα τὸ περὶ
35 τὴν κόρην ἐστί, τῆς δὲ σωτηρίας χάριν τὰ βλέφαρα"
καὶ διὰ τοῦτο σκαρδαμύττει τε πάντα καὶ μάλιστ᾽
ἄνθρωπος, πάντα μὲν ὅπως τὰ προσπίπτοντα τοῖς
657 b βλεφάροις κωλύωσι (καὶ τοῦτο οὐκ ἐκ προαιρέσεως,
2 2 ε , , , / > € »
ἀλλ᾽ ἡ φύσις ἐποίησε), πλειστάκις Ò ὁ ἄνθρωπος
διὰ τὸ λεπτοδερμότατος εἶναι.
‘H δὲ βλεφαρίς ἐστι δέρματι περιειλημμένη: διὸ
M , / » M C Ci ,
καὶ οὐ συμφύεται οὔτε βλεφαρὶς οὔτ᾽ ἀκροποσθία,
ὅτι ἄνευ σαρκὸς δέρµατά ἐστιν.
5 Τῶν δ᾽ ὀρνίθων ὅσοι τῇ κάτω βλεφαρίδι μύουσι,
καὶ τὰ ᾠοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων, διὰ τὴν σκληρό-

1 om. 21. 3 τούτου μὲν οὖν] τοῦ μὲν οὖν εὖ EPZ.

a Or, “ imperfectly developed." Cf. Bk. III. ch. viii.
182

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xrr.-xrr.

quadrupeds which have horny scales. One vivi-
parous animal, the Seal, has no ears but only auditory
passages ; but this is because, though a quadruped,
it is deformed.^

XIII. Man, the Birds, and the Quadrupeds (both
viviparous and oviparous) have a protective covering
for their eyes. The viviparous quadrupeds have
two eyelids to each eye (which also enable them
to blink) ; some of the birds, especially the heavily
built ones, and the oviparous quadrupeds, when
they close their eyes, do so with the lower eyelid ;
birds, however, can blink, with the aid of a mem-
brane that comes out of the corner of the eye. The
reason for the existence of these protective cover-
ings is that the eye is fluid in order to ensure
keenness of vision. If the eye had been con-
structed with a hard skin it would of course have
been less liable to injury by impact from without,
but its vision would have been duller. For this
cause the skin round the pupil is left thin and fine,
and the safety of the eye is ensured by the addition
of the eyelids. The movement of the eyelids known
as blinking is a natural and instinctive one, not
dependent on the will, and its object is to prevent
things from getting into the eyes. All animals
that have eyelids do it, but human beings blink
most of all, because they have the thinnest and
finest skin. y

Now the eyelid is encased with skin; and that is
why, like the tip of the foreskin, it will not unite
again once it has been cut, because both of them
are skin and contain no flesh.

We said just now that some birds and the ovi-
parous quadrupeds close the eye with the lower

Ei

183 -

yes.

657 b

ARISTOTLE

τητα τοῦ δέρµατος τοῦ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν οὕτω
μύουσιν. οἱ μὲν yàp βαρεῖς τῶν πτερωτῶν διὰ τὸ
μὴ πτητικοὶ εἶναι τὴν τῶν πτερῶν αὔξησιν εἰς τὴν
τοῦ δέρματος παχύτητα τετραμμένην ἔχουσιν. διὸ

` τ . ^ / / /
10 καὶ οὗτοι μὲν τῷ κάτω βλεφάρῳ μύουσι, mept-

` M M ^ ^ > ^ . \ /
στεραὶ δὲ καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα ἀμφοῖν. τὰ δὲ τετράποδα
^ , / ’ , ^ M ,
τῶν ᾠοτόκων φολιδωτά ἐστιν' ταῦτα δὲ σκληρό-
τερα πάντα τριχός, ὥστε καὶ τὰ δέρµατα τοῦ
δέρµατος. τὸ μὲν οὖν περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν σκληρόν

> , ^ / 5 » / , ^
ἐστιν αὐτοῖς, διόπερ οὐκ ἔχει βλέφαρον ἐκεῖθεν,

15 τὸ δὲ κάτωθεν σαρκῶδες, ὥστ᾽ ἔχειν τὸ βλέφαρον

20

λεπτότητα καὶ τάσιν.
, 5 € ^ ” , .
Σκαρδαμύττουσι © οἱ βαρεῖς ὄρνιθες τούτῳ μὲν
» ^ 5 € / . . - ^ \ ,
οὔ, τῷ Ò ὑμένι, διὰ τὸ βραδεῖαν εἶναι τὴν τούτου
κίνησιν, δεῖν δὲ ταχεῖαν γίνεσθαι, ὁ δ᾽ ὑμὴν τοιοῦ-
τον. ἐκ δὲ τοῦ κανθοῦ τοῦ παρὰ τοὺς μυκτῆρας
^ ^ M
σκαρδαμύττουσιν, ὅτι βέλτιον ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς μιᾶς τὴν
φύσιν εἶναι αὐτῶν, οὗτοι δ᾽ ἔχουσιν ἀρχὴν τὴν πρὸς
- M ^
τὸν μυκτῆρα πρόσφυσιν" καὶ τὸ πρόσθιον ἀρχὴ ToO
πλαγίου μᾶλλον.
. . / M , / 3 ,
Τὰ δὲ τετράποδα kai ᾠοτόκα οὐ σκαρδαμύττει
ὁμοίως, ὅτι οὐδ᾽ ὑγρὰν αὐτοῖς ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν καὶ
5 ^ M » , / ^ ^ > »
ἀκριβῆ τὴν ὄψιν ἐπιγείοις οὖσιν: τοῖς δ᾽ ὄρνισιν

25 ἀναγκαῖον, πόρρωθεν γὰρ ἡ χρῆσις τῆς ὄψεως. διὸ

\ ^ / M > / » \ , ^

καὶ τὰ γαμφώνυχα μὲν ὀξυωπά (ἄνωθεν γὰρ αὐτοῖς
, ^ ^ . ^

ἡ θεωρία τῆς τροφῆς, διὸ καὶ ἀναπέτονται ταῦτα

/ ^ , , , e λ > > / `

μάλιστα τῶν ὀρνέων εἰς ὕψος), τὰ δ᾽ ἐπίγεια καὶ
/ M ^

μὴ πτητικά, οἷον ἀλεκτρυόνες καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα,

184

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xm.

eyelid only. This is due to the hardness of the
skin which surrounds the head. (a) The heavily
built birds are not great fliers, and so the material
which would have supplied growth for the wings has
been diverted, resulting in thickness of the skin.
These creatures, then, use only the bottom eyelid to
cover the eye; whereas pigeons and such use both
eyelids. (b) With regard to the oviparous quad-
rupeds: As the horny scales with which they are
covered are in every case harder than hair, so their
skin also is harder than ordinary skin. And as the
skin on their heads is hard, they can have no upper
eyelid; but lower down the skin has some flesh with
it, and so they have a lower eyelid that is thin and
extensible.

Now the heavily built birds blink not with this
lower eyelid, because its motion is slow, but with
the membrane above mentioned, whose motion is
swift, as is requisite. This blinking or nictitating
begins at the corner of the eye nearest the nostrils,
because it is better that the membranes should have
one place of origin rather than two, and in these birds
this is where the eye and nostril are conjoined ; also,
the front is more a place of origin than the side.

The oviparous quadrupeds do not blink in this
way, because, unlike birds, which have to use their
eyes over great distances, they go upon the ground,
and therefore there is no need for them to have
fluid eyes or great accuracy of sight. The crook-
taloned birds are sharp-sighted, for they view their
prey from above, and that also explains why they
fly to a greater height than other birds. The
birds that remain on the ground, however, and do
not fly much (e.g. barn-door fowls and the like) are

185 ΄

657 b

%30

658 a

10

ARISTOTLE

, > / 3 ` M 3 . ’ A
οὐκ ὀξυωπά: οὐδὲν γὰρ αὐτὰ κατεπείγει πρὸς
τὸν βίον.

ε > , , ` . y ` . κ
Οἱ & ἰχθύες καὶ τὰ ἔντομα καὶ τὰ σκληρόδερμα
, \ » . E74 ’ >
διαφέροντα μὲν ἔχουσι τὰ ὄμματα, βλέφαρον ὃ

, \ , A » 4 \ ^ / e
οὐδὲν αὐτῶν ἔχει. τὰ μὲν γὰρ σκληρόδερμα ὅλως

k » e . ^ / ^ ^ M 1
οὐκ ἔχει' ἡ δὲ τοῦ βλεφάρου χρῆσις ταχεῖαν τὴν
δερματικὴν ἔχει ἐργασίαν: ἀλλ᾽ ἀντὶ ταύτης τῆς
φυλακῆς πάντα σκληρόφθαλμά ἐστιν, οἷον βλέποντα

. ^ / / , A 5 5
διὰ τοῦ βλεφάρου προσπεφυκότος. ἐπεὶ δ᾽ avay-

- A \ , » / /
καῖον διὰ τὴν σκληρότητα ἀμβλύτερον βλέπειν,
κινουμένους ἐποίησεν ἡ φύσις τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς τοῖς
ἐντόμοις, καὶ μᾶλλον ἔτι τοῖς σκληροδέρμοις, ὥσπερ
ἔνια τῶν τετραπόδων τὰ ὦτα, ὅπως ὀξύτερον βλέπῃ
στρέφοντα πρὸς τὸ φῶς καὶ δεχόμενα τὴν αὐγήν.

ε 5 , / ε / , 3 5 / M
οἱ Ò ἰχθύες ὑγρόφθαλμοι μέν εἰσιν" ἀναγκαία γὰρ

^ ~ >
τοῖς πολλὴν ποιουμένοις κίνησιν ἡ τῆς ὄψεως ἐκ
πολλοῦ χρῆσις. τοῖς μὲν οὖν πεζοῖς ὁ ἀὴρ εὐ-

’ 3 / 2 , ` \ e . \ A > \
δίοπτος: ἐκείνοις δ᾽ ἐπεὶ TO ὕδωρ πρὸς μὲν τὸ ὀξὺ

3 4
βλέπειν ἐναντίον, οὐκ ἔχει δὲ πολλὰ τὰ προσκρούσ-
^5
para πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν ὥσπερ ð ἀήρ, διὰ μὲν τοῦτ

, » / , \ \ » , ^ »
οὐκ ἔχει βλέφαρον (οὐδὲν γὰρ ἡ φύσις ποιεῖ μάτην),

^ € /
πρὸς δὲ τὴν παχύτητα τοῦ ὕδατος ὑγρόφθαλμοί
εἰσιν.

XIV. Βλεφαρίδας δ᾽ ἐπὶ τῶν βλεφάρων ἔχουσιν
e , » » A . ^ A
ὅσα τρίχας ἔχουσιν, ὄρνιθες δὲ καὶ τῶν φολιδωτῶν
οὐδέν: οὐ γὰρ ἔχουσι τρίχας. περὶ γὰρ τοῦ στρου-
θοῦ τοῦ Λιβυκοῦ τὴν αἰτίαν ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν" τοῦτο

1 τὴν Ogle: καὶ vulg.: τὴν ante ἐργασίαν vulg., om. SU.
186

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IT. ΧΠΙ.-ΧΙΥ.

not sharp-sighted, since there is no urgent necessity
for it in their kind of life.

Many differences in the eye itself are found among
the Fishes, the Insects and the hard-skinned Crus-
tacea, though not one of them has eyelids. In the
hard-skinned Crustacea there cannot be an eyelid at
all, for the action of an eyelid depends upon swift
working of the skin. To compensate for the lack
of this protection, all these creatures have hard
eyes: it is as though the eyelid were all of a piece
with the eyeball, and the creature looked through
the lid as well. But since the vision is bound to be
dimmed by this hardness of the eye, Nature has
given the Insects (and even more noticeably the
Crustacea) movable eyes, just as she has given some
quadrupeds movable ears; this is to enable them
to turn towards the light and catch its rays and so
to quicken their vision. Fish have fluid eyes for the
following reason. They move about a good deal and
have to use their sight over long distances. Now
when land-animals do this, they are looking through
air, which is highly transparent ; but fish move about
in water, which is inimical to sharpness of vision ; so
to counteract its opacity their eyes are fluid in
composition. At the same time, water contains far
fewer objects to strike against the eyes than the air
does; hence fish need no eyelids, and because
Nature never makes anything without a purpose,
they have none.

XIV. Those animals that have hair on their body Eyelashes
have eyelashes on their eyelids: the others (birds *^? H=-
and the creatures with horny scales) have none.
There is one exception to this rule: the Libyan
ostrich, which has eyelashes. The cause of this

G 187

ARISTOTLE
658a : pet
15 yàp ἔχει βλεφαρίδας τὸ ζῶον. καὶ τῶν ἐχόντων
τρίχας ἐπ᾿ ἀμφότερα. οἱ ἄνθρωποι μόνον ἔχουσιν.
τὰ γὰρ τετράποδα τῶν ζῴων ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις οὐκ
» , 3 > , ux , ^ € >
ἔχει τρίχας, ἀλλ᾽ ἐν τοῖς πρανέσι μᾶλλον: οἱ ὃ
ἄνθρωποι τοὐναντίον ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις μᾶλλον 7 €v
τοῖς πρανέσιν. σκέπης γὰρ χάριν αἱ τρίχες ὑπ-
ἄρχουσι τοῖς ἔχουσιν: τοῖς μὲν οὖν τετράποσι τὰ
90 πρανῆ δεῖται μᾶλλον τῆς σκέπης, τὰ δὲ πρόσθια
, , > . / A ` / ^
τιμιώτερα μέν, ἀλλὰ λεάζει διὰ τὴν κάμψιν" τοῖς
2 > / 3 \ , » . . 3 , A
δ᾽ ἀνθρώποις ἐπεὶ ἐξ ἴσου διὰ τὴν ὀρθότητα τὰ
πρόσθια τοῖς ὀπισθίοις, τοῖς τιμιωτέροις ὑπέγραψεν
ἡ φύσις τὴν βοήθειαν" ἀεὶ γὰρ ἐκ τῶν ἐνδεχο-
μένων αἰτία τοῦ βελτίονός ἐστιν. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο
^ / 3 \ » / » A
2 τῶν τετραπόδων οὐθὲν οὔτε βλεφαρίδα ἔχει τὴν
/ > > € ` ^ A / 9:
κάτωθεν, ἀλλ᾽ ὑπὸ τοῦτο τὸ βλέφαρον ἐνίοις παρα-
^ M9
φύονται μαναὶ τρίχες, οὔτ᾽ ἐν ταῖς μασχάλαις οὔτ
> A ^ eu e ^ 5 / 3 > 5 .
ἐπὶ τῆς ἥβης, ὥσπερ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις: ἀλλ᾽ ἀντὶ
© ^ /
τούτων τὰ μὲν καθ᾽ ὅλον τὸ σῶμα πρανὲς' δεδά-
- ^ ^ A A
συνται ταῖς θριξίν, οἷον τὸ τῶν κυνῶν γένος, τὰ δὲ
80 λοφιὰν ἔχει, καθάπερ ἵπποι καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν
, . δὲ / e € y+ λέ » δ᾽
ζῴων, τὰ δὲ χαίτην, ὥσπερ 6 ἄρρην λέων. ἔτι
E ^ 3
ὅσα κέρκους ἔχει μῆκος ἐχούσας, καὶ ταύτας ἐπι-
κεκόσμηκεν ἡ φύσις θριξί, τοῖς μὲν μικρὸν ἔχουσι
- - - .
τὸν στόλον μακραῖς, ὥσπερ τοῖς ἵπποις, τοῖς δὲ
85 μακρὸν βραχείαις, καὶ κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἄλλου σώματος
φύσιν: πανταχοῦ γὰρ ἀποδίδωσι λαβοῦσα ἑτέρωθεν
ej ^ . ,
πρὸς ἄλλο μόριον. ὅσοις δὲ τὸ σῶμα δασὺ λίαν
658 b πεποίηκε, τούτοις ἐνδεῶς ἔχει τὰ περὶ τὴν κέρκον,
otov ἐπὶ τῶν ἄρκτων συμβέβηκεν.

1 πρανὲς delet Platt.
188

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. χιν.

will be explained later.^ Man is the only animal
which has eyelashes on both lids. Why is this?
The quadrupeds tend to have more hair on their
backs than on the underside of the body ; but in
man the reverse is true. The purpose of hair is to
give protection; and as the quadrupeds go on all
fours, they need more protection on their backs ; so
they have no hair on their front, although the front
is the nobler of the two sides. Man goes upright,
and so there is nothing to choose as regards his need
of protection between front and back. Therefore
Nature has prescribed the protection for the nobler
side, the front—an example of how, out of given
conditions, she is always the cause of that which is
the better. This, then, is why none of the quad-
rupeds has lower eyelashes (though some have a
few scattered hairs growing on the lower eyelid),
or hair in the axillae or on the pubes, as man has.
Instead of this, some of them have thick hair all
over the back part of? their body (e.g. dogs), some
of them have a mane (e.g. horses and such), others
a flowing mane, like the male lion. Again, if an
animal has a tail of any length, Nature decks that
with hair too ; long hair for tails with a short stem
(e.g. horses), short hair for tails with a long stem.
This, however, is not independent of the general
condition of the whole animal, for Nature gives
something to one part of the body only after she
has taken it from another part. So when she has
made an animal’s body extremely hairy, we find
that there is not much hair about the tail. An
example of this is the Bears.

5 See 697 b 13 ff.
δ Platt deletes “' the back part of.”

189 -

ARISTOTLE
658 b M M M y / , ^ , ,
Τὴν δὲ κεφαλὴν ἄνθρωπός ἐστι τῶν ζῴων δασύ-
τατον, ἐξ ἀνάγκης μὲν διὰ τὴν ὑγρότητα τοῦ
, / ` ^ A € A e ^ € τη ^
ἐγκεφάλου καὶ διὰ τὰς ῥαφάς (ὅπου γὰρ ὑγρὸν καὶ
δ θερμὸν πλεῖστον, ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἀναγκαῖον πλείστην εἶναι
^ » e M , e /
τὴν ἔκφυσιν), ἕνεκεν δὲ βοηθείας, ὅπως σκεπάζωσι
φυλάττουσαι τὰς ὑπερβολὰς τοῦ τε ψύχους καὶ τῆς
ἀλέας. πλεῖστος δ᾽ ὧν καὶ ὑγρότατος 6 τῶν
, / , , / ` ^ ^
ἀνθρώπων ἐγκέφαλος πλείστης καὶ τῆς φυλακῆς
δεῖται: τὸ yap ὑγρότατον καὶ ζεῖ καὶ ψύχεται
10 μάλιστα, TO δ᾽ ἐναντίως ἔχον ἀπαθέστερόν ἐστιν.
᾿Αλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων παρεκβῆναι συμβέβηκεν
ἐχομένοις τῆς περὶ τὰς βλεφαρίδας αἰτίας, διὰ τὴν
συγγένειαν αὐτῶν, ὥστε περὶ τῶν λοιπῶν ἐν τοῖς
Mos; dr ἀποδοτέον τὴν μνείαν.
: Αἱ ὃ ᾿ ὀφρύες καὶ αἱ Ρλεφαρίδες ἀμφότεραι
15 Abens χάριν εἰσίν, αἱ μὲν ὀφρύες τῶν κατα-
αινόντων ὑγρῶν, ὅπως ἀποστέγωσιν οἷον ἀπογεί-
σωμα τῶν ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς ú ὑγρῶν, αἱ δὲ βλεφαρίδες
τῶν πρὸς τὰ ὄμματα. προσπιπτόντων ἕνεκεν, οἷον
τὰ χαρακώματα ποιοῦσί τινες πρὸ τῶν ἑργμάτων."
3. A > e M > / 911 / , ^ \ A
εἰσὶ δ᾽ at μὲν ὀφρύες ἐπὶ συνθέσει ὀστῶν, διὸ καὶ
δασύνονται πολλοῖς ἀπογηράσκουσιν οὕτως ὥστε
^ ^ e \ / 3 > ,
δεῖσθαι κουρᾶς: αἱ δὲ βλεφαρίδες ἐπὶ πέρατι
φλεβίων, ᾗ γὰρ τὸ δέρµα περαίνει, καὶ τὰ φλέβια

2

e

1 ἑργμάτων scripsi: ἐργμάτων Bekker: ἐρυμάτων editores.

a This is one of the passages fastened upon by Bacon in
his tirade against the importation of final causes into physics,
Adv. of Learning (publ. 1605), ii. pp. 29, 30: “ This I finde
done not onely by Plato, who euer ancreth vppon that shoare,
but by Aristotle, Galen, and others, who do vsually likewise
fall vppon these flatts of discoursing causes ; For to say that
the haires of the Eye-liddes are for a quic-sette and fence about

190

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xiv.-xv.

Man has the hairiest head of all the animals. This
is (a) due to necessity, because the brain is fluid, and
the skull has many sutures ; and a large outgrowth
necessarily occurs where there is a large amount of
fluid and hot substance. But also (b) it is on purpose
to give protection ; that is, the hair affords shelter
both from excessive cold and from excessive heat.
The human brain is the biggest and the most fluid
of all brains ; therefore it needs the greatest amount
of protection. A very fluid thing is very liable both
to violent heating and violent cooling, while sub-
stances of an opposite nature are less liable to such
affections.

This, however, is a digression. We were led into it
because the subject was connected with our investi-
gation of the cause of eyelashes. Anything further
that there is to be said about it will be said in its
proper place.

XV. Both eyebrows and eyelashes exist to afford
protection to the eyes : the eyebrows, like the eaves
of a house, are to protect the eyes from the fluids
that run down from the head ; the eyelashes are like
the palisades which are sometimes put up in front of
an enclosure ; their purpose is to keep out things that
try to get in.^ However, the eyebrows are placed
where two bones join (which is why they often get so
thick in old age that they have to be cut); and the eye-
lashes are placed at the ends of small blood-vessels,
which have to stop where the skin itself comes to

the Sight . . . and the like, is well inquired & collected in
ΜΕΤΑΡΗΙΒΙΟΚΕ, but in Puisicke they are impertinent.” But
there is no incompatibility, p. 33, '' For the cause rendred
that the haires about the Eye-liddes are for the safeguard of the
sight, doth not impugne the cause rendred, that Pilositie is
incident to Orifices of Moisture." See also Xen. Mem. i. 4. 6.

191.

ARISTOTLE

658 b , » ^ , e > > ^ ^ A
πέρας ἔχει τοῦ μήκους: ὥστ᾽ ἀναγκαῖον διὰ τὴν
ἀπιοῦσαν ἰκμάδα σωματικὴν. οὖσαν, ἂν μή τι τῆς
φύσεως ἔργον ἐμποδίσῃ πρὸς ἄλλην χρῆσιν, καὶ

25 διὰ τὴν τοιαύτην αἰτίαν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἐν τοῖς τόποις
τούτοις γίνεσθαι τρίχας.

XVI. Τοῖς μὲν οὖν ἄλλοις ζῴοις τοῖς τετράποσι
καὶ ζῳοτόκοις οὐ πόρρω τρόπον τινὰ διέστηκεν
ἀλλήλων τὸ τῆς ὀσφρήσεως αἰσθητήριον, ἀλλ᾽ ὅσα

80 μὲν ἔχει προμήκεις εἰς στενὸν ἀπηγμένας τὰς
σιαγόνας, ἐν τῷ καλουμένῳ ῥύγχει καὶ τὸ τῶν
μυκτήρων ἐνυπάρχει μόριον κατὰ τὸν ἐνδεχόμενον
τρόπον, τοῖς δ᾽ ἄλλοις μᾶλλον διηρθρωμένον ἐστὶ
πρὸς τὰς σιαγόνας. ὁ 8 ἐλέφας ἰδιαίτατον ἔχει
τοῦτο τὸ μόριον τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων: τό τε γὰρ

85 μέγεθος καὶ τὴν δύναμιν ἔχει περιττήν. μυκτὴρ
γάρ ἐστιν ᾧ τὴν τροφὴν προσάγεται, καθάπερ χειρὶ

659 a χρώμενος, πρὸς τὸ στόμα, τήν τε ξηρὰν καὶ τὴν
ὑγράν, καὶ τὰ δένδρα περιελίττων ἀνασπᾷ, καὶ
χρῆται καθάπερ ἃ ἂν εἰ yepi. τὴν γὰρ φύσιν tie
ἅμα. τὸ ζῷόν ἐ ἐστι καὶ πεζόν, ὥστ᾽ ἐπεὶ τὴν τρο
ἐξ ὑγροῦ συνέβαινεν ἔχειν, ἀναπνεῖν δ᾽ id

5 πεζὸν Ov καὶ ἔναιμον, καὶ μὴ ταχεῖαν ποιεῖσθαι τὴν
μεταβολὴν ἐκ τοῦ ὑγροῦ. πρὸς τὸ ξηρόν, καθάπερ
ἔνια τῶν ζῳοτόκων καὶ ἐναίμων καὶ ἀναπνεόντων,
τὸ γὰρ μέγεθος ὂν ὑπερβάλλον, ἀναγκαῖον ὁμοίως
ἦν χρῆσθαι τῷ ὑγρῷ ὥσπερ καὶ τῇ γῇ. οἷον οὖν
τοῖς κολυμβηταῖς ἔ ἔνιοι πρὸς τὴν ἀναπνοὴν ὄργανα

10 πορίζονται, ἵ ἵνα πολὺν χρόνον ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ μέ-
νοντες ἕλκωσιν ἔξωθεν τοῦ ὑγροῦ διὰ τοῦ ὀργάνου
τὸν ἀέρα, τοιοῦτον ἡ φύσις τὸ τοῦ μυκτῆρος μέ-
γεθος ἐποίησε τοῖς ἐλέφασιν. διόπερ ἀναπνέουσιν

* Or “ strength."
192

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. χν.-Χνι.

an end. Thus, owing to the fact that the moisture
which comes off is corporeal in composition, hair must
be formed at these places even on account of a neces-
sary cause such as this, unless some function of Nature
impedes by diverting the moisture to another use.
XVI. The general run of viviparous quadrupeds
differ very little among themselves as regards the
organ of smell. The following variations occur, how-
ever. ‘Those animals whose jaws project forward and
become gradually narrower, forming what is called
a snout, have the organ of smell in their snout—this
being the only possibility ; in the others, the jaws
and nostrils are more definitely separated. The
elephant's nose is unique owing to its enormous size
and its extraordinary character.^ By means of his
nose, as if it were a hand, the elephant conveys
his food, both solid and fluid, to his mouth; by
means of it he tears up trees, by winding it round
them. In fact, he uses it for all purposes as if it
were a hand. This is because the elephant has a
double character: he is a land-animal, but he also
lives in swamps. He has to get his food from the
water; yet he has to breathe, because he is a land-
animal and has blood ; owing to his enormous size,
however, he cannot transfer himself quickly from the
water on to the land, as do quite a number of blooded
viviparous animals that breathe ; hence he has to be
equally at home on land and in the water. Some
divers, when they go down into the sea, provide
themselves with a breathing-machine, by means of
which they can inhale the air from above the surface
while they remain for a long time in the water.
Nature has provided the elephant with something of
this sort by giving him a long nose. If ever the

193

Nostrils,

659a

15

20 B

25

30

85

659 b

ARISTOTLE

ἄραντες ἄνω διὰ τοῦ ὕδατος τὸν μυκτῆρα, ἄν ποτε
ποιῶνται δι ὑγροῦ τὴν πορείαν" καθάπερ γὰρ
εἴπομεν, μυκτήρ ἐστιν ἡ προβοσκὶς τοῖς ἐλέφασιν.
ἐπεὶ Ò ἀδύνατον ἦν εἶναι τὸν μυκτῆρα τοιοῦτον μὴ
μαλακὸν ὄντα μηδὲ κάμπτεσθαι δυνάμενον (ἐνεπό-
διζε γὰρ ἂν τῷ μήκει πρὸς τὸ λαβεῖν τὴν θύραθεν
τροφήν, καθάπερ φασὶ τὰ κέρατα τοῖς ὀπισθονόμοις
ουσίν: καὶ γὰρ ἐκείνους νέμεσθαί φασιν ὑπο-
χωροῦντας παλιμπυγηδόν)---ὑπάρξαντος οὖν Torov-
του τοῦ μυκτῆρος, ἡ φύσις παρακαταχρῆται, καθ-
άπερ εἴωθεν, ἐπὶ πλείονα τοῖς αὐτοῖς μορίοις, ἀντὶ
τῆς τῶν προσθίων ποδῶν χρείας. τούτους γὰρ τὰ
πολυδάκτυλα τῶν τετραπόδων ἀντὶ χειρῶν ἔχουσιν,
ἀλλ᾽ οὐ μόνον ἕνεχ᾽ ὑποστάσεως τοῦ βάρους: οἱ δ᾽
ἐλέφαντες τῶν πολυδακτύλων εἰσί, καὶ οὔτε διχά-
λους ἔχουσιν οὔτε μώνυχας τοὺς πόδας: ἐπεὶ δὲ τὸ
μέγεθος πολὺ καὶ τὸ βάρος τὸ τοῦ σώματος, διὰ
τοῦτο μόνον ἐρείσματός εἰσι χάριν, καὶ διὰ τὴν
βραδυτῆτα καὶ τὴν ἀφυΐαν τῆς κάμψεως οὐ xph-
σιμοι' πρὸς ἄλλο οὐθέν.

Διὰ μὲν οὖν τὴν ἀναπνοὴν ἔχει μυκτῆρα, καθάπερ
καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἕκαστον τῶν ἐχόντων πλεύμονα
ζῴων, διὰ δὲ τὴν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ διατριβὴν καὶ τὴν
βραδυτῆτα τῆς ἐκεῖθεν μεταβολῆς δυνάμενον ἑλίτ-
τεσθαι καὶ μακρόν: ἀφῃρημένης. δὲ τῆς τῶν ποδῶν
χρήσεως, καὶ ἡ φύσις, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, καταχρῆται
καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἀπὸ τῶν ποδῶν γινομένην ἂν βοήθειαν
τούτῳ τῷ μορίῳ.

Οἱ ὃ᾽ ὄρνιθες καὶ οἱ ὄφεις καὶ ὅσα ἄλλ᾽ ἔναιμα

1 χρήσιμοι Rackham : χρήσιμον vulg.
194

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xvr.

elephant has to make his way through deep water,
he will put his trunk up to the surface and breathe
through it. This is possible, because, as I have said
already, the trunk is really a nostril. Now it would
have been impossible for the nostril to be put to all
these uses if it had not been soft and able to bend ;
for then by its very length it would have prevented
the animal from getting its food, just as they say the
horns of the ' backward-grazing " oxen do, forcing
them to walk backwards as they feed.^ So the trunk
is soft and pliable ; and in consequence Nature, as
usual, takes advantage of this to make it discharge
an extra function beside its original one : it has to
serve instead of forefeet. Now in polydactylous
quadrupeds the forefeet are there to serve as hands,
not merely in order to support the weight of the
animal; but elephants (which must be included under
this class of animals, because they have neither a
solid hoof nor a cloven one) are so large and so heavy
that their forefeet can serve only as supports; and
indeed they are no good for anything else because
they move so slowly and are quite unsuited for
bending.

So the elephant's nostril is there, in the first place,
to enable him to breathe (as in all animals that have
a lung) ; and also it is lengthened and able to coil
itself round things because the elephant spends
much of his time in the water and cannot quickly
emerge upon land. And as his forefeet are not
available for the normal function, Nature, as we
said, presses the trunk into service to supply what
should have been forthcoming from the feet.

The Birds and Serpents and the quadrupeds which

a See above, on 648 a 16. This is from Herodotus, iv. 183.
G2 195.

659 b

10

15

20

25

ARISTOTLE

καὶ ᾠοτόκα) τῶν τετραπόδων, τοὺς μὲν πόρους
ἔχουσι τῶν μυκτήρων πρὸ τοῦ στόματος, ὥστε ὃ
εἰπεῖν μυκτῆρας, εἰ μὴ διὰ τὸ ἔργον, οὐκ ἔχουσι
φανερῶς διηρθρωμένους᾽ ἀλλ᾽ ἢ γ᾽ ὄρνις ὥστε

μηθὲν ἃ ἂν εὐπεῖν ἔχει ῥῖνας. τοῦτο δὲ συμβέβηκεν,
ὅτι ἀντὶ σιαγόνων ἔχει τὸ καλούμενον p ῥύγχος. αἰτία
δὲ τούτων ἡ φύσις ἡ τῶν ὀρνίθων συνεστηκυῖα
τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον. δίπουν γάρ ἐστι καὶ πτερυ-
γωτόν, ὥστ᾽ ἀνάγκη μικρὸν τὸ βάρος ἔχειν τὸ τοῦ
αὐχένος καὶ τὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸ στῆθος
στενόν" ὅπως μὲν οὖν ᾖ χρήσιμον πρός τε τὴν
ἀλκὴν καὶ διὰ τὴν τροφήν, ὀστῶδες ἔχουσι τὸ
ῥύγχος, στενὸν δὲ διὰ τὴν μικρότητα. τῆς κεφαλῆς.
ἐν δὲ τῷ ῥύγχει τοὺς πόρους ἔχουσι τῆς ὀσφρήσεως,
μυκτῆρας δ᾽ ἔχειν ἀδύνατον.

Hepi δὲ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων τῶν μὴ ἀναπνεόντων
εἴρηται πρότερον δι ἣν αἰτίαν οὐκ ἔχουσι μυ-
κτῆρας, ἀλλὰ τὰ μεν διὰ τῶν βραγχίων, τὰ δὲ διὰ
τοῦ αὐλοῦ, τὰ δ᾽ ἔντομα διὰ τοῦ ὑποζώματος
αἰσθάνονται τῶν ὀσμῶν, καὶ πάντα τῷ συμφύτῳ
πνεύματι τοῦ σώματος ᾧπερ" (καὺ)' κινεῖται: τοῦτο
δ᾽ ὑπάρχει φύσει πᾶσι καὶ οὐ θύραθεν ἐπείσακτόν
ἐστιν.

Ὑπὸ δὲ τοὺς μυκτῆρας ἡ τῶν χειλῶν ἐστι φύσις
τοῖς ἔχουσι τῶν ἐναίμων ὀδόντας. τοῖς γὰρ ὄρνισι,
καθάπερ εἴπομεν, διὰ τὴν τροφὴν καὶ τὴν ἀλκὴν τὸ
ῥύγχος ὀστῶδές ἐστιν’ συνῆκται γὰρ εἰς êv ἀντ᾽
ὀδόντων καὶ χειλῶν, ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις ἀφελὼν
ἀνθρώπου τὰ χείλη καὶ συμφύσας τοὺς ἄνωθεν

1 ᾠοτόκα 7, vulg. : ζῳοτόκα EPSUY.
3 ἔχει 5: ἔχειν vulg.
196

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. χνι.

like them are blooded and oviparous, have their
nostril-passages in front of the mouth : but they have
nothing which except for its function can be called
nostrils—nothing distinctly articulated. A bird, at
any rate, one might say has no nose at all The
reason for this is that its beak really replaces jaws.
And this is because of the natural structure of birds.
Α bird is a winged biped ; hence its head and its neck
must be light in weight, and its breast must be
narrow ; and it has a beak, which (a) is made out of
bony material, so that it will serve as a weapon as
well as for the uptake of food, and (b) is narrow, owing
to the small size of the head. It has the passages for
smell in this beak, but it is impossible for it to have
nostrils there.

We have spoken already about the animals that do
not breathe, and shown why they have no nostrils :
some of them smell by means of the gills, some
through a blow-hole ; while the insects smell through
the middle part of the body. All of them smell, as
all of them move, by means of the connate pneuma ἃ
of their bodies, which-is not introduced from without,
but is present in all of them by nature.

In all blooded animals that have teeth, the lips have Lips,
their place below the nostrils. (As stated already,
birds have a bony beak for getting food and for de-
fence ; and this is as it were teeth and lips run into
one. The nature of the beak can be illustrated thus.
Supposing, in a human being, that the lips were
removed, and all the upper teeth were welded to-

a Cf. De somno et vig. 455 b 34 ff. For a full account of
Σύμφυτον Πνεῦμα see G.A. (Loeb edn.), pp. 576 ff

3 ὦπερ SUZ? : ὥσπερ vulg. 4 «καὶ» Peck.
197 -

ARISTOTLE
659 b
3 / ` . . , / ^
ὀδόντας χωρὶς καὶ τοὺς κάτωθεν προαγάγοι μῆκος
, ^
ποιήσας ἀμφοτέρωθεν eis στενόν" εἴη γὰρ ἂν τοῦτο
fe) ε/ 3 0 DO ^ ^ τ LAA 7
ἤδη ῥύγχος ὀρνιθῶδες. τοῖς μὲν οὖν ἄλλοις ζῴοις
πρὸς σωτηρίαν τῶν ὀδόντων ἡ τῶν χειλῶν φύσις
ἐστὶ καὶ πρὸς φυλακήν, διόπερ ὡς ἐκείνων μετ-
80 έχουσι τοῦ ἀκριβῶς καὶ καλῶς ἢ τοὐναντίον, οὕτω
^ ^ A € >
καὶ τοῦ διηρθρῶσθαι τοῦτο τὸ μόριον ἔχουσιν' ot ὃ
’
ἄνθρωποι μαλακὰ καὶ σαρκώδη καὶ δυνάμενα χωρί-
^ , e ^ , , e .
ζεσθαι, φυλακῆς θ᾽ ἕνεκα τῶν ὀδόντων ὥσπερ καὶ
τ “Ὁ \ x » ` \ ^ \ ` `
τὰ ἄλλα, καὶ μᾶλλον ἔτι διὰ τὸ εὖ: πρὸς γὰρ τὸ
^ ^ ^ A
χρῆσθαι τῷ λόγῳ καὶ ταῦτα. ὥσπερ yap τὴν
^ ^ 3 ε ,
35 γλῶτταν οὐχ ὁμοίαν τοῖς ἄλλοις ἐποίησεν ἡ φύσις,
,
πρὸς ἐργασίας δύο καταχρησαμένη, καθάπερ
6604 εἴπομεν ποιεῖν αὐτὴν ἐπὶ πολλῶν, τὴν μὲν γλῶτταν
"^ ^ ~ ,
τῶν T€ χυμῶν ἕνεκεν καὶ τοῦ λόγου, τὰ δὲ χείλη
4 ^ ^ ^ ε
τούτου θ᾽ ἕνεκεν καὶ τῆς τῶν ὀδόντων φυλακῆς. ὃ
^ ^ ^ /
μὲν γὰρ λόγος ὁ διὰ τῆς φωνῆς ἐκ τῶν γραμμάτων
^ M
σύγκειται, τῆς δὲ γλώττης μὴ τοιαύτης οὔσης μηδὲ
5 τῶν χειλῶν ὑγρῶν οὐκ ἂν ἦν φθέγγεσθαι τὰ πλεῖστα
^ ^ A M
τῶν γραμμάτων" τὰ μὲν γὰρ τῆς γλώττης εἰσὶ
λ , . δὲ λ ` A λῶ ’ δὲ
προσβολαί, τὰ δὲ συμβολαὶ τῶν χειλῶν. ποίας δὲ
ταῦτα καὶ πόσας καὶ τίνας ἔχει διαφοράς, δεῖ
πυνθάνεσθαι παρὰ τῶν μετρικῶν.
^À / 3 T , . 2 ^ R ^
νάγκη δ᾽ ἦν εὐθὺς ἀκολουθῆσαι τούτων τῶν
^ .
10 μορίων ἑκάτερον πρὸς τὴν εἰρημένην χρῆσιν εὐεργὰ
καὶ τοιαύτην ἔχοντα τὴν φύσιν: διὸ σάρκινα. pa-
λακωτάτη δ᾽ ἡ σὰρξ ἡ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ὑπῆρχεν.
τοῦτο δὲ διὰ τὸ αἰσθητικώτατον εἶναι τῶν ζῴων
. -- ^
τὴν διὰ τῆς ἀφῆς αἴσθησιν.
198

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xvi.

gether, and similarly all the bottom teeth, and then
each set were extended in a forward direction, and
made to taper: this would result in a beak such as
birds have.) In all animals except man the lips are
intended to preserve and to protect the teeth ; hence
we find that the distinctness of formation in the lips
is directly proportionate to the nicety and exactitude
of formation in the teeth. In man the lips are soft
and fleshy and can be separated. ‘Their purpose is
(as in other animals) to protect the teeth; but—
still more important—they subserve a good pur-
pose, inasmuch as they are among the parts that
make speech possible. This double function of the
human lips, to facilitate speech as well as to protect
the teeth, may be compared with that of the human
tongue, which is unlike that of any other animal, and
is used by Nature for two functions (a device of hers
which we have often noted), (α) to perceive the
various tastes, and (4) to be the means of speech.
Now vocal speech consists of combinations of the
various letters or sounds, some of which are produced
by an impact of the tongue, others by closing the lips ;
and if the lips were not supple, or if the tongue were
other than it is, the greater part of these could not
possibly be pronounced. For further particulars
about the various differences between these sounds
you must consult the authorities on Metre.

It was necessary, however, from the start that each of
these two parts should be adapted and well-fitted for
their function as stated above ; therefore their nature
" had to be suitable thereto, and that is why they are
made offlesh. Human flesh is the softest kind of flesh
there is; and this is because man's sense of touch is
much more delicate than that of any other creature.

199

ARISTOTLE

XVII. Ὑπὸ δὲ τὸν οὐρανὸν ἐν τῷ στόματι ἡ
15 γλῶττα τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστί, τοῖς μὲν πεζοῖς σχεδὸν
ὁμοίως πᾶσι, τοῖς δ᾽ ἄλλοις ἀνομοίως καὶ αὐτοῖς
πρὸς αὑτὰ καὶ πρὸς τὰ πεζὰ τῶν ζῴων. ὁ μὲν οὖν
ἄνθρωπος ἀπολελυμένην τε μάλιστα τὴν γλῶτταν
καὶ πλατεῖαν καὶ μαλακωτάτην ἔχει,᾽ ὅπως πρὸς
ἀμφοτέρας ᾖ τὰς ἐργασίας χρήσιμος, πρός τε τὴν
20 τῶν χυμῶν αἴσθησιν (ὁ γὰρ ἄνθρωπος εὐαισθητό-
τατος τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων, kai ἡ μαλακὴ γλῶττα
(αἰσθητικωτάτη)'' ἁπτικωτάτη γάρ, ἡ δὲ γεῦσις ἁφή
τίς ἐστιν), καὶ πρὸς τὴν τῶν γραμμάτων διάρθρωσιν
καὶ πρὸς τὸν λόγον. ἡ μαλακὴ καὶ πλατεῖα χρή-
opos: συστέλλειν γὰρ καὶ προβάλλειν παντοδαπῇ
25 τοιαύτη οὖσα καὶ ἀπολελυμένη μάλιστ᾽ ἂν δύναιτο.
δηλοῖ δ᾽ ὅσοις μὴ λίαν ἀπολέλυται" ψελλίζονται
γὰρ καὶ τραυλίζουσι, τοῦτο δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἔνδεια τῶν
γραμμάτων.

ν τε τῷ πλατεῖαν εἶναι καὶ τὸ στενήν ἐστιν'
ἐν γὰρ τῶ μεγάλῳ καὶ τὸ μικρόν, ἐν δὲ τῷ μικρῷ
τὸ μέγα οὐκ ἔστιν. διὸ καὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων οἱ μάλιστα

80 φθεγγόμενοι γράμματα πλατυγλωττότεροι τῶν ἄλ-
ων εἰσίν. τὰ δ᾽ ἔναιμα καὶ ζῳοτόκα τῶν τετρα-
πόδων βραχεῖαν τῆς φωνῆς ἔχει διάρθρωσιν"
σκληράν τε γὰρ καὶ οὐκ ἀπολελυμένην ἔχουσι
καὶ παχεῖαν τὴν γλῶτταν. τῶν δ᾽ ὀρνίθων ἔνιοι
πολύφωνοι, καὶ πλατυτέραν οἱ γαμψώνυχοι ἔχουσιν.

65 πολύφωνοι δ᾽ οἱ μικρότεροι. καὶ χρῶνται τῇ
γλώττῃ καὶ πρὸς ἑρμηνείαν ἀλλήλοις πάντες μέν,
660b ἕτεροι δὲ τῶν ἑτέρων μᾶλλον, ὥστ᾽ ἐπ᾽ ἐνίων καὶ

1 καὶ μαλ. έχει post τε vulg. ; transposui.
* αἰσθητικωτάτη supplevi.

200

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xyi.

XVII. Under the vaulted roof of the mouth is Tongue.
placed the tongue, and it is practically the same in
allland-animals; but there are variations in the other
groups, whose tongues are as a whole different from
those of land-animals and also different among them-
selves. The human tongue is the freest, the broadest,
and the softest of all: this is to enable it to fulfil
both its functions. On the one hand, it has to per-
ceive all the various tastes, for man has the most
delicate senses of all the animals, and a soft tongue
is the most sensitive, because it is the most re-
sponsive to touch, and taste is a sort of touch. It
has, also, to articulate the various sounds and to
produce speech, and for this a tongue which is soft
and broad is admirably suited, because it can roll
back and dart forward in all directions ; and herein
too its freedom and looseness assists it. This is
shown by the case of those whose tongues are slightly
tied: their speech is indistinct and lisping, which
is due to the fact that they cannot produce all the
sounds.

A tongue which is broad can also become narrow,
on the principle that the great includes the small,
but not vzce versa. That is why the clearest
talkers, even among birds, are those which have
the broadest tongues. On the other hand, the
blooded viviparous quadrupeds have a limited vocal
articulation ; it is because their tongues are hard
and thick and not sufficiently loose. Some birds—
the smaller sorts—have a large variety of notes.
The crook-taloned birds have fairly broad tongues.
All birds use their tongues as a means of communica-
tion with other birds, and some to a very consider-
able extent, so much so that it is probable that in

201

ARISTOTLE

660 b
μάθησιν εἶναι δοκεῖν παρ᾽ ἀλλήλων: εἴρηται δὲ περὶ

αὐτῶν ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις ταῖς περὶ τῶν ζῴων.

Τῶν δὲ πεζῶν καὶ ᾠοτόκων, καὶ ἐναίμων πρὸς

μὲν τὴν τῆς φωνῆς ἐργασίαν ἄχρηστον. τὰ πολλὰ

δ τὴν γλῶτταν ἔ ἔχει καὶ προσδεδεµένην καὶ σκληράν,
πρὸς δὲ τὴν τῶν χυμῶν γεῦσιν οἵ T ὄφεις καὶ οἱ
σαῦροι μακρὰν καὶ δικρόαν ἔχουσιν, οἱ μὲν ὄφεις
οὕτω μακρὰν ὥστ᾽ ἐκτείνεσθαι ἐκ μικροῦ ἐπὶ πολύ,
δικρόαν δὲ καὶ τὸ ἄκρον λεπτὸν καὶ τριχῶδες διὰ
τὴν λιχνείαν τῆς. φύσεως: διπλῆν γὰρ τὴν ἡδονὴν

10 κτᾶται τῶν χυμῶν, ὥσπερ διπλῆν ἔχοντα τὴν τῆς
γεύσεως αἴσθησιν.

"Exec δὲ καὶ τὰ μὴ ἔναιμα τῶν ζῴων τὸ αἰσθη-
τικὸν τῶν χυμῶν μόριον καὶ τὰ ἔναιμα πάντα" καὶ
γὰρ ὅσα μὴ δοκεῖ τοῖς πολλοῖς ἔχειν, οἷον ἔνιοι τῶν
ἰχθύων, καὶ οὗτοι τρόπον τινὰ γλίσχρον ἔχουσι, καὶ

15 σχεδὸν παραπλησίως τοῖς ποταμίοις κροκοδείλοις.
οὐ φαίνονται δ᾽ οἱ πλεῖστοι αὐτῶν ἔχειν διά το;
αἰτίαν εὔλογον: ἀκανθώδης τε γάρ ἐστιν ὁ τόπος
τοῦ στόματος πᾶσι τοῖς τοιούτοις, καὶ διὰ τὸ
μικρὸν χρόνον εἶναι τὴν αἴσθησιν τοῖς ἐνύδροις τῶν
χυμῶν, ὥσπερ καὶ ἡ χρῆσις αὐτῆς βραχεῖα, οὕτω

90 βραχεῖαν ἔ ἔχουσιν αὐτῆς καὶ τὴν ιάρθρωσιν. ταχεῖα
δ᾽ ἡ δίοδος εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν διὰ τὸ μὴ οἷόν T εἶναι
διατρίβειν ἐκχυμίζοντας" παρεμπίπτοι γὰρ ἂν τὸ
ὕδωρ. wor ἐὰν μή τις τὸ στόμα ἐπικλίνῃ, μὴ
φαίνεσθαι ἀφεστηκὸς τοῦτο τὸ μόριον. ἀκανθώδης
δ᾽ ἐστὶν οὗτος ὁ τόπος" σύγκειται γὰρ ἐκ τῆς

25 συμψαύσεως τῶν βραγχίων, ὧν ἡ φύσις ἀκανθώδης
ἐστίν.

a See Hist. An. 504 b 1, 536 a 20 ff., 597 b 26, 608 a 17.
202

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xvir.

some cases information is actually conveyed from one
bird to another. I have spoken of these in the
Researches upon Animals."

The tongue is useless for the purpose of speech in
most of the oviparous and blooded land-animals be-
cause it is fastened down and is hard ; but it is very
useful for the purpose of taste, e.g. in the serpents and
lizards, which have long, forked tongues. Serpents'
tongues are very long, but can be rolled into a small
compass and then extended to a great distance ; they
are also forked, and the tips of them are fine and hairy,
owing to their having such inordinate appetites ; by
this means the serpents get a double pleasure out
of what they taste, owing to their possessing as it
were a double organ for this sense.

Even some of the bloodless animals have an organ
for perceiving tastes ; and of course all the blooded
animals have one, including those which most people
would say had not, e.g., certain of the fishes, which
have a paltry sort of tongue, very like what the river-
crocodiles have. Most of these creatures look as if
they had no tongue, and there is good reason for this.
(1) All animals of this sort have spinous mouths ;
(2) the time which water-animals have for perceiv-
ing tastes is short; hence, since the use of this
sense is short, so is the articulation of its organ.
The reason why their food passes very quickly into
the stomach is because they cannot spend much time
sucking out its juices, otherwise the water would get
in as well. So unless you pull the mouth well open,
you will not be able to see that the tongue is a sepa-
rate projection. The inside of the mouth is spinous,
because it is formed by the juxtaposition of the gills
which are of a spinous nature.

203-

ARISTOTLE
650 b
Τοῖς δὲ κροκοδείλοις συμβάλλεταί τι πρὸς τὴν
τοῦ μορίου. τούτου ἀναπηρίαν καὶ τὸ τὴν σιαγόνα
τὴν κάτω ἀκίνητον ἔχειν. ἔστι μὲν γὰρ ἡ γλῶττα
τῇ κάτω συμφυής, οἱ o ἔχουσιν ὥσπερ ἀνάπαλιν
τὴν ἄνω κάτω" τοῖς γὰρ ἄλλοις ἡ ἄνω ἀκίνητος.

30 πρὸς μὲν οὖν τῇ ἄνω οὐκ ἔχουσι τὴν γλῶτταν, ὅτι
ἐναντίως ἂν ἔχοι πρὸς τὴν τῆς τροφῆς εἴσοδον, πρὸς
δὲ τῇ κάτω, OTL ὥσπερ µετακειµένη ἡ ἄνω ἐστίν.
ἔτι δὲ καὶ συμβέβηκεν αὐτῷ πεζῷ ὄντι ζῆν ἰχθύων
βίον, ὥστε καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἀναγκαῖον ἀδιάρθρωτον
αὐτὸν ἔχειν τοῦτο τὸ μόριον.

85 Tov © οὐρανὸν σαρκώδη πολλοὶ καὶ τῶν ἰχθύων
ἔχουσι, καὶ τῶν ποταμίων ἔνιοι σφόδρα σαρκώδη
καὶ μαλακόν, οἷον οἱ καλούμενοι κυπρῖνοι, ὥστε

6614 δοκεῖν τοῖς μὴ σκοποῦσιν ἀκριβῶς γλῶτταν ἔχειν
ταύτην. οἱ Ò ἰχθύες διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν
ἔχουσι μὲν οὐ σαφῆ δ᾽ ἔχουσι τὴν διάρθρωσιν τῆς
γλώττης. ἐπεὶ δὲ [τῆς τροφῆς χάριν] καὶ τῶν

5 χυμῶν αἴσθησις ἔνεστι μὲν τῷ γλωττοειδεῖ μορίῳ,
οὐ παντὶ’ δ᾽ ὁμοίως ἀλλὰ τῷ ἄκρῳ μάλιστα, διὰ
τοῦτο τοῖς ἰχθύσι τοῦτ᾽ ἀφώρισται μόνον.

᾿Ἐπιθυμίαν δ᾽ ἔχει τροφῆς τὰ ζῷα πάντα ὡς
ἔχοντα αἴσθησιν τῆς ἡδονῆς τῆς γινομένης ἐκ τῆς
τροφῆς: ἡ γὰρ ἐπιθυμία τοῦ ἡδέος ἐ ἐστίν. ἀλλὰ τὸ
μόριον οὐχ -ὅμοιον τοῦτο πᾶσιν, ᾧ τὴν αἴσθησιν

10 ποιοῦνται τῆς τροφῆς, ἀλλὰ τοῖς μὲν ἀπολελυμένον
τοῖς δὲ προσπεφυκός, ὅσοις μηδὲν ἔργον ὑπάρχει

1 [τῆς τροφῆς χάριν] praecedentium interpretationem seclusi,
cetera correxi : τῆς ἐν τοῖς χυμοῖς ἐστὶν ’ ἡ αἴσθησις (εἰς αἴσθησιν
7) τὸ μὲν (μὲν τὸ EYZ) γλωττοειδὲς ἔχει (έχει om. Z) μόριον
vulg. 2 παντὶ Z: πάντῃ vulg.

204

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. χνι.

Among the factors which contribute to the de-
formity of the crocodile's tongue is the immobility
of its lower jaw, to which the tongue is naturally
joined. We must remember, however, that the
crocodile's jaws are topsy-turvy ; the bottom one is
on top and the top one below; this is clearly so,
because in other animals the top jaw is the immovable
one. The tongue is not fixed to the upper jaw (as
one might expect it to be) because it would get in
the way of the food as it entered the mouth, but to
the lower one, which is really the upper one in the
wrong place. Furthermore, although the crocodile
is a land-animal, his manner of life is that of a fish,
and this is another reason why he must have a tongue
that is not distinctly articulated.

Many fish, however, have a fleshy roof to their
mouths. In some of the fresh-water fish—e.g.
those known as Cyprinoi—it is very fleshy and soft,
so that casual observers think it is a tongue. In
fish, however, for the reason already given, the
tongue, though articulated, is not distinctly so; yet,
inasmuch as the power also of perceiving tastes
resides in the tongue-like organ, though not in the
whole of it equally but chiefly in the tip, therefore on
this account in fish the tip only is separate from the
jaw.

Now all animals are able to perceive the pleasant
taste which is derived from food, and so they have a
desire for food, because desire aims at getting that
which is pleasant. The part, however, by which this
perception or sensation of the food takes place, is
not identical in all of them, for some have a tongue
which moves freely and loosely, others (which have no
vocal functions) have a tongue that is fastened down.

205

ARISTOTLE
661 a ^ M M M . `
φωνῆς, καὶ τοῖς μὲν σκληρὸν τοῖς δὲ μαλακὸν
ἢ σαρκῶδες. διὸ καὶ τοῖς μαλακοστράκοις, οἷον
καράβοις καὶ τοῖς τοιούτοις, ἐντὸς ὑπάρχει τι τοῦ
15 στόματος τοιοῦτον, καὶ τοῖς μαλακίοις, οἷον σηπίαις
καὶ πολύποσιν. τῶν Ò ἐντόμων ζῴων ἔνια μὲν
ἐντὸς ἔχει τὸ τοιοῦτον μόριον, οἷον τὸ τῶν μυρ-
\ ^ >
μήκων γένος, ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων
/ M > 2 / τ / ` \ ^
πολλά: τὰ Ò ἐκτός, οἷον κέντρον, σομφὸν δὲ τὴν
- e
φύσιν καὶ κοῖλον, ὥσθ᾽ ἅμα τούτῳ καὶ γεύεσθαι καὶ
^ ^ ^ / ^
20 τὴν τροφὴν ἀνασπᾶν. δῆλον δὲ τοῦτο ἐπί τε μυιῶν
καὶ μελιττῶν καὶ πάντων τῶν τοιούτων, ἔτι δ᾽
ἐπ᾽ ἐνίων τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων' ταῖς γὰρ πορφύραις
τοσαύτην ἔχει δύναμιν τοῦτο τὸ μόριον ὥστε καὶ
^ ^ ” ^
τῶν κογχυλίων διατρυπῶσι τὸ ὄστρακον, otov τῶν
/ T / > / : 5 σ >
στρόμβων οἷς δελεάζουσιν αὐτάς. ἔτι Ò οἵ τ
ε ε -
οἶστροι καὶ οἱ μύωπες οἱ μὲν τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων
ε M M ^ ^ » / / ^
25 οἱ δὲ καὶ τὰ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων δέρματα διαιροῦσῳ.
ἐν μὲν οὖν τούτοις τοῖς ζῴοις ἡ γλῶττα τοιαύτη
» ^
τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν, ὥσπερ ἀντιστρόφως ἔχουσα τῷ
^ ^ ^ , /
μυκτῆρι τῷ τῶν ἐλεφάντων: καὶ γὰρ ἐκείνοις πρὸς
\ / ^
βοήθειαν ὁ μυκτήρ, καὶ τούτοις ἡ γλῶττα ἀντὶ
/ , / act; \ ^ » / e A
κέντρου ἐστίν. ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ἡ γλῶττα
/
30 πάντων ἐστὶν οἵανπερ εἴπομεν.

? Under this name Aristotle probably includes several
species of Purpura and Murex. ‘Tyrian purple (6, 6’ dibrom-

206

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. zvm.

Some again have a hard tongue ; others a soft or
fleshy one. So we find that even the Crustacea—e.g.
the Crayfish and such—have a tongue-like object
inside the mouth, and so have the Cephalopods—e.g.
the Sepias and the Octopuses. Of the Insects, some
have this organ inside the mouth (e.g. the Ants),
and so have many of the Testacea. Others have it
outside, as though it were a sting, in which case it is
spongy and hollow, and so they can use it both for
tasting and for drawing up their food. Clear ex-
amples of this are flies and bees and all such creatures,
and also some of the Testacea. In the Purpurae,? for
instance, this “ tongue ” has such strength that they
can actually bore through the shells of shellfish with
it, including those of the spiral snails which are used
as baits for them. Also, there are among the gad-
flies and cattle-flies creatures that can pierce through
the skin of the human body, and some can actually
puncture animal hides as well. Tongues of this sort,
we may say, are on a par with the elephant's nose ;
in their tongue these creatures have a useful sting
just as the elephant has a handy implement in his
trunk.

In all other animals the tongue conforms to the
description we have given.
indigo) is obtained from Murex brandaris. For the boring
powers of these creatures’ tongues see the reference for

Purpura lapillus given by Ogle (Forbes and Hanley, Brit.
Mollusca, iii. 385).

207

r

661 8 3 , δὲ ^ 3 , e ^ 3 ,
Εχόμενον δὲ τῶν εἰρημένων ἡ τῶν ὀδόντων

, M , ^ / \ A , \
85 ἐστὶ φύσις τοῖς ζῴοις, καὶ TO στόμα τὸ περι-
M ,
εχόµενον ὑπὸ τούτων καὶ συνεστηκὸς ἐκ τούτων.
^ . > » € ^ , / , \
66ib Tots μὲν οὖν ἄλλοις ἡ τῶν ὀδόντων φύσις κοινὴ
. - - , /
μὲν ἐπὶ τὴν τῆς τροφῆς ἐργασίαν ὑπάρχει, χωρὶς
^ ^ /
δὲ κατὰ γένη τοῖς μὲν ἀλκῆς χάριν, καὶ ταύτης δι-
/ ^
ηρημένης, ἐπί τε τὸ ποιεῖν καὶ τὸ μὴ πάσχειν"
^ ` A A
τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀμφοῖν ἕνεκεν ἔχει, καὶ τοῦ μὴ παθεῖν
^ ^ ΩΙ ’ -
δ καὶ τοῦ ποιεῖν, οἷον ὅσα σαρκοφάγα τῶν ἀγρίων
M / > / ^ M / , σ
τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν, τὰ δὲ βοηθείας χάριν, ὥσπερ
πολλὰ τῶν ἀγρίων καὶ τῶν ἡμέρων.
ε > y 0 / \ ^ ^ ^
O δ᾽ ἄνθρωπος πρός τε τὴν κοινὴν χρῆσιν καλῶς
ἔχει πεφυκότας: τοὺς μὲν προσθίους ὀξεῖς, ἵνα
διαιρῶσι, τοὺς δὲ γομφίους πλατεῖς, ἵνα λεαίνωσιν"
814 5 € , € / / M
10 ὁρίζουσι ὃ᾽ ἑκατέρους οἱ κυνόδοντες, μέσοι τὴν
φύσιν ἀμφοτέρων ὄντες’ τό τε γὰρ μέσον ἀμφοτέρων
μετέχει τῶν ἄκρων, ol τε κυνόδοντες τῇ μὲν
> ^ ^ \ ^ , € / M M 9:
ὀξεῖς τῇ δὲ πλατεῖς εἶσιν: ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ
^ LÀ / e M / » * ^
τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων, ὅσα μὴ πάντας ἔχουσιν ὀξεῖς
/
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\ \ / \ A ` .
τους πρὸς τὴν διάλεκτον: πολλὰ γὰρ πρὸς τὴν
908

BOOK III

Της subject which follows naturally after our previous Teeth.
remarks is that of the Teeth. We shall also speak
about the Mouth, for this is bounded by the teeth

and is really formed by them.

In the lower animals teeth have one common
function, namely, mastication ; but they have addi-
tional functions in different groups of animals. In
some they are present to serve as weapons, offensive
and defensive, for there are animals which have
them both for offence and defence (e.g. the wild
carnivora); others (including many animals both
wild and domesticated) have them for purposes of
assistance.

Human teeth too are admirably adapted for the
common purpose that all teeth subserve : the front
ones are sharp, to bite up the food; the molars
are broad and flat, to grind it small; and on the
border between the two are the dog-teeth whose
nature is intermediate between the two : and just as
a mean shares the nature of both its extremes, so
the dog-teeth are broad in one part and sharp in
another. Thus the provision is similar to that of
the other animals, except those whose teeth are
all sharp; but in man even these sharp teeth, in
respect of character and number, are adapted
chiefly for the purposes of speech, since the

209

691 b
15

20

25

30

85

ARISTOTLE

γένεσιν τῶν γραμμάτων οἱ πρόσθιοι τῶν ὀδόντων
συμβάλλονται.
» \ ^ ’ σ » ^ /
Ενια δὲ τῶν ζώων, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, τροφῆς χάριν
» , e \ A A / / ` .
ἔχει μόνον. ὅσα δὲ καὶ πρὸς βοήθειάν τε καὶ πρὸς
2 / \ M / » , ^ ^
ἀλκήν, τὰ μὲν χαυλιόδοντας ἔχει, καθάπερ bs, τὰ
> > ^ ` 2 , er /
δ᾽ ὀξεῖς καὶ ἐπαλλάττοντας, ὅθεν καρχαρόδοντα
καλεῖται. ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ὀδοῦσιν ἡ ἰσχὺς αὐτῶν,
~ \ / > Ἂ . M , ’ ε /
τοῦτο δὲ γίνοιτ᾽ ἂν διὰ τὴν ὀξύτητα, οἱ χρήσιμοι
` ^ > . 3 ` , / eo M
πρὸς τὴν ἀλκὴν ἐναλλὰξ ἐμπίπτουσιν, ὅπως μὴ
ἀμβλύνωνται τριβόμενοι πρὸς ἀλλήλους. οὐδὲν δὲ
τῶν ζῴων ἐστὶν ἅμα καρχαρόδουν καὶ χαυλιόδουν,
διὰ τὸ μηδὲν μάτην ποιεῖν τὴν φύσιν μηδὲ περί-
» δὲ ^ M ὃ ^ λ ^ € ^0
εργον' ἔστι δὲ τῶν μὲν διὰ πληγῆς ἡ βοήθεια,
- \ ^ / / e / ^ ca
τῶν δὲ διὰ δήγματος. διόπερ at θήλειαι τῶν ὑῶν
δάκνουσιν' οὐ γὰρ ἔχουσι χαυλιόδοντας.
/ M / ^ a ` >is ,
(Καθόλου δὲ χρεών τι λαβεῖν, ὃ καὶ ἐπὶ τούτων
καὶ ἐπὶ πολλῶν τῶν ὕστερον λεχθησομένων ἔσται
χρήσιμον. τῶν τε γὰρ πρὸς ἀλκήν τε καὶ βοήθειαν
ὀργανικῶν μορίων ἕκαστα ἀποδίδωσιν ἡ φύσις τοῖς
δυναμένοις χρῆσθαι μόνοις ἢ μᾶλλον, μάλιστα δὲ
τῷ μάλιστα, οἷον κέντρον, πλῆκτρον, κέρατα,
^ ,
χαυλιόδοντας kai εἴ τι τοιοῦτον ἕτερον. ἐπεὶ δὲ τὸ
ἄρρεν ἰσχυρότερον καὶ θυμικώτερον, τὰ μὲν μόνα
τὰ δὲ μᾶλλον ἔχει τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν μορίων. ὅσα
μὲν γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον καὶ τοῖς θήλεσιν ἔχειν, οἷον τὰ
πρὸς τὴν τροφήν, ἔχουσι μὲν ἧττον δ᾽ ἔχουσιν, ὅσα
δὲ πρὸς μηδὲν τῶν ἀναγκαίων, οὐκ ἔχουσιν. καὶ
a See note on 644 a 17.
210

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. r.

front teeth contribute a great deal to the formation
of the sounds.

As we have said, the teeth of some of the animals
have one function only, to break up the food. Of
those animals whose teeth serve also as a defence
and as weapons, some (like the Swine) have tusks,
some have sharp interlocking teeth, and are called
“ saw-toothed " as a result. The strength of these
latter animals lies in their teeth, and sharpness is
the means of securing this ; so the teeth which are
serviceable as weapons are arranged to fit in side by
side when the jaws are closed to prevent them from
rubbing against each other and becoming blunt. No
animal has saw-teeth as well as tusks ; for Nature
never does anything without purpose or makes any-
thing superfluously. These teeth are used in self-
defence by biting ; tusks by striking. This explains
why sows bite: they have no tusks.

(At this point we should make a generalization,
which will help us both in our study of the foregoing
cases and of many that are to follow. Nature allots
defensive and offensive organs only to those creatures
which can make use of them, or allots them “in a
greater degree," ^ and “in the greatest degree ” to
the animal which can use them to the greatest ex-
tent. This applies to stings, spurs, horns, tusks, and
the rest. Example: Males are stronger than females
and more spirited ; hence sometimes the male of a
species has one of these parts and the female has
none, sometimes the male has it “in a greater degree.”
Parts which are necessary for the female as well as
for the male, as for instance those needed for feed-
ing, are of course present though “ in a less degree ” ;
but those which serve no necessary end are not

211°

“The more
and the
less.’

ARISTOTLE

662a διὰ τοῦτο τῶν ἐλάφων οἱ μὲν ἄρρενες ἔχουσι

1

2

ον

eo

r

e

κέρατα, αἱ δὲ θήλειαι οὐκ ἔχουσιν. διαφέρει δὲ
. ^ ^ ^ ^ ,
καὶ τὰ κέρατα τῶν θηλειῶν βοῶν καὶ τῶν ταύρων:
ε , A ^ . ^
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς προβάτοις. καὶ πλῆκτρα
^ > , , € . ^ ^
τῶν ἀρρένων ἐχόντων αἱ πολλαὶ τῶν θηλειῶν οὐκ
^ 9 μυ ^
ἔχουσιν. ὡς Ò αὕτως ἔχει τοῦτο καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν
ἄλλων τῶν τοιούτων.)
€ , , ’ ’ Si CN , ^
Oi © ἰχθύες πάντες εἰσὶ καρχαρόδοντες, πλὴν
^ ^ > w
τοῦ ἑνὸς τοῦ καλουμένου akdpov: πολλοὶ δ᾽ ἔχουσι
\ , ^ A > ^ ^
καὶ ἐν ταῖς γλώτταις ὀδόντας καὶ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς.
/ 3 ^ ᾽ ^
τούτου ð αἴτιον ὅτι ἀναγκαῖον ἐν ὑγροῖς οὖσι
^ ^ A ~
παρεισδέχεσθαι τὸ ὑγρὸν ἅμα TH τροφῇ, καὶ τοῦτο
d
ταχέως ἐκπέμπειν. οὐ γὰρ ἐνδέχεται λεαίνοντας
,
διατρίβειν" εἰσρέοι γὰρ ἂν τὸ ὑγρὸν εἰς τὰς κοιλίας.
. ^ δω ^ A ’
διὰ τοῦτο πάντες εἰσὶν ὀξεῖς πρὸς τὴν διαίρεσιν
, AT 4 A ^ σ 5 ` A
μόνον, καὶ πολλοὶ καὶ πολλαχῇ, ἵνα ἀντὶ τοῦ
, , M / i ^ / A
λεαίνειν εἰς πολλὰ κερματίζωσι τῷ πλήθει. γαμψοὶ
\ A . . 5 X A e ᾽ - .
δὲ διὰ τὸ τὴν ἀλκὴν σχεδὸν ἅπασαν αὐτοῖς διὰ
τούτων εἶναι.
"E δὲ \ . ^ ’ , A ^
χει δὲ καὶ τὴν τοῦ στόματος φύσιν τὰ CHa
/ ^ ^ > A
τούτων τε τῶν ἔργων ἕνεκα καὶ ἔτι τῆς ἀναπνοῆς,
e ^ ^ /
ὅσα ἀναπνεῖ τῶν ζῴων καὶ καταψύχεται θύραθεν.
ε σ ^
ἡ yàp φύσις αὐτὴ καθ᾽ αὑτήν, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, τοῖς
- ^ ’
κοινοῖς πάντων μορίοις εἰς πολλὰ τῶν ἰδίων κατα-
^ Ἓ ^ M
χρῆται, otov καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ στόματος ἡ μὲν τροφὴ
/ / € > > . ^ » . ε ’
πάντων κοινόν, ἡ 9. ἀλκὴ τινῶν ἴδιον καὶ ὁ λόγος
- , € .
ἑτέρων, ἔτι δὲ τὸ ἀναπνεῖν οὐ πάντων κοινόν. ἡ δὲ

1 οἷς P: διαίρεσιν. πάλιν καὶ vulg.

9 Probably the parrot-fish. Cf. 675 a 3.

212

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. r.

present. ‘Thus, stags have horns, does have not.
Thus, too, cows' horns are different from bulls' horns,
and ewes’ from rams’. In many species the males
have spurs while the females have not. And so with
the other such parts.)

All fishes are saw-toothed except one species,
the Searus.^ Many of them have teeth on their
tongues and in the roof of the mouth. This is
because as they live in the water they cannot help
letting some of it in as they take in their food, and
they have to get it out again as quickly as possible.
If they failed to do so, and spent time grinding the
food small, the water would run down into their gut.
So all their teeth are sharp and intended only for cut-
ting up the food. Further, they are numerous and
placed all over the mouth; so by reason of their
multitude they can reduce the food into tiny pieces,
and this takes the place of the grinding process.
They are also curved ; this is because practically the
whole of a fish's offensive force is concentrated in
its teeth.

The mouth, too, is present in animals on purpose
to fulfil these same offices, but it has also a further
purpose, at any rate in those animals which breathe
and are cooled from without—namely, to effect re-
spiration. As we said earlier, Nature will often quite
spontaneously take some part that is common to all
animals and press it into service for some specialized
purpose. Thus, the mouth is common to all animals,
and its normal and universal function has to do with
food : but sometimes it has an extra function, peculiar
to some species only : in some it is a weapon, in others
a means of speech ; or more generally, though not
universally, it serves for respiration. Nature has

218

Mouth.

ARISTOTLE

652a
φύσις ἅπαντα συνήγαγεν εἰς ἕν, ποιοῦσα διαφορὰν

αὐτοῦ τοῦ μορίου πρὸς τὰς τῆς ἐργασίας διαφοράς.
^ . / , / ^ M /

25 διὸ τὰ μέν ἐστι συστομώτερα, τὰ δὲ μεγαλόστομα.
ὅσα μὲν γὰρ τροφῆς καὶ ἀναπνοῆς καὶ λόγου χάριν,
συστομώτερα, τῶν δὲ βοηθείας χάριν τὰ μὲν
καρχαρόδοντα πάντα ἀνερρωγότα: οὔσης γὰρ
αὐτοῖς τῆς ἀλκῆς ἐν τοῖς δήγμασι χρήσιμον τὸ
μεγάλην εἶναι τὴν ἀνάπτυξιν τοῦ στόματος: πλείοσι

30 γὰρ καὶ κατὰ μεῖζον δήξεται, ὅσονπερ ἂν ἐπὶ τὸ
πλέον ἀνερρώγῃ τὸ στόμα. ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ τῶν
ἰχθύων οἱ δηκτικοὶ καὶ σαρκοφάγοι τοιοῦτον στόμα,
οἱ δὲ μὴ σαρκοφάγοι μύουρον" τοιοῦτον γὰρ αὐτοῖς
χρήσιμον, ἐκεῖνο δὲ ἄχρηστον.

- ουν / > A ’ ey /
Tots δ᾽ ὄρνισίν ἐστι τὸ καλούμενον ῥύγχος στόμα”
85 τοῦτο γὰρ ἀντὶ χειλῶν καὶ ὀδόντων ἔχουσιν. δια-
/ M ^ ` ^ / M \ /
682 b φέρει δὲ τοῦτο κατὰ τὰς χρήσεις καὶ τὰς βοηθείας.
τὰ μὲν yàp γαμφώνυχα καλούμενα διὰ τὸ σαρκο-
φαγεῖν καὶ μηδενὶ τρέφεσθαι καρπῷ γαμψὸν ἔχει τὸ
ῥύγχος ἅπαντα: χρήσιμον γὰρ πρὸς τὸ κρατεῖν καὶ
- .
βιαστικώτερον τοιοῦτο πεφυκός. ἡ δ᾽ ἀλκὴ ἐν
- 3 M
5 τούτῳ τε καὶ τοῖς ὄνυξι' διὸ καὶ τοὺς ὄνυχας
’ » ^ > xy € / `
γαμψοτέρους ἔχουσιν. τῶν È ἄλλων ἑκάστῳ πρὸς
τὸν βίον χρήσιμόν ἐστι τὸ ῥύγχος, οἷον τοῖς μὲν
δρυοκόποις ἰσχυρὸν καὶ σκληρόν, καὶ κόραξι καὶ
- ^ ` \ ^
κορακώδεσι, τοῖς δὲ μικροῖς γλαφυρὸν πρὸς τὰς
\ ^ ^ \ M / ^
συλλογὰς τῶν καρπῶν καὶ τὰς λήψεις τῶν w-
/ e \ / \ e 5 e ^

10 δαρίων. ὅσα δὲ ποηφάγα καὶ ὅσα παρ᾽ ἕλη ζῇ,

914

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. 1.

brought all these functions together under one part,
whose formation she varies in the different species to
suit its various duties. That is why the animals
which use their mouths for feeding, respiration and
speaking have rather narrow mouths, while those
that use them for self-defence have wide and gaping
mouths. All the saw-toothed creatures have these
wide mouths, for their method of attack is biting, and
therefore they find it an advantage to have a mouth
that will open wide ; and the wider it opens the
greater the space the bite will enclose, and the
greater the number of teeth brought into action.
Biting and carnivorous fishes have mouths of this
sort; in the non-carnivorous ones it is on a tapering
snout, and this suits their habits, whereas a gaping
mouth would be useless.

In birds, the mouth appears in the form of a beak, Beak.
which serves them instead of lips and teeth. Various
sorts of beak are found, to suit the various uses in-
cluding defensive purposes to which it is put. All
of-the birds known as crook-taloned have a curved
beak, because they feed on flesh and take no vegetable
food : a beak of this form is useful to them in master-
ing their prey, as being more adapted for the exertion
of force. Their beak, then, is one weapon of offence,
and their claws are another; that is why their claws
are exceptionally curved. Every bird has a beak
which is serviceable for its particular mode of life.
The woodpeckers, for instance, have a strong, hard
beak ; so have crows, and other birds closely related
to them ; small birds, on the other hand, have
a finely constructed beak, for picking up seeds and
catching minute animals. Birds that feed on herb-
age and that live by marshes (e.g. swimmers and

215

ARISTOTLE

662 b
καθάπερ τὰ πλωτὰ καὶ στεγανόποδα, τὰ μὲν ἄλλον

τρόπον χρήσιμον ἔχει τὸ ῥύγχος, τὰ δὲ πλατύρυγχα
αὐτῶν ἐστιν" τοιούτῳ γὰρ ὄντι ῥᾳδίως δύναται
ὀρύσσειν, ὥσπερ καὶ τῶν τετραπόδων τὸ τῆς ὑός"
καὶ γὰρ αὕτη ῥιζοφάγος. ἔτι δ᾽ ἔχουσι καὶ τὰ

16 ῥιζοφάγα. τῶν ὀρνέων καὶ τῶν ὁμοιοβίων ἔνια τὰ
ἄκρα τοῦ ῥύγχους κεχαραγμένα' ποηφάγοις γὰρ
τούτοις οὖσι ποιεῖ ῥᾳδίως.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἄλλων μορίων τῶν ἐν τῇ
κεφαλῇ σχεδὸν εἴρηται, τῶν δ᾽ ἀνθρώπων καλεῖται
τὸ μεταξὺ τῆς κεφαλῆς καὶ τοῦ αὐχένος πρόσωπον,

20 ἀπὸ τῆς πράξεως αὐτῆς ὀνομασθέν, ὡς ἔοικεν: διὰ
γὰρ τὸ μόνον ὀρθὸν. εἶναι τῶν ζῴων μόνον πρόσ-
ωθεν ὄπωπε καὶ τὴν φωνὴν εἰς τὸ πρόσω δια-
πέμπει.

Tk; Περὶ δὲ κεράτων Aekréov: καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα
πέφυκε τοῖς ἔχουσιν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ. ἔχει δ᾽ οὐδὲν

25 μὴ ζῳοτόκον. καθ᾽ ὁμοιότητα δὲ καὶ μεταφορὰν
λέγεται καὶ ἑτέρων τινῶν κέρατα" ἀλλ᾽ οὐδενὶ
αὐτῶν τὸ ἔργον τοῦ κέρατος ὑπάρχει. βοηθείας
γὰρ καὶ ἀλκῆς χάριν ἔχουσι τὰ ζῳοτόκα, ὃ τῶν
ἄλλων τῶν λεγομένων ἔχειν κέρας οὐδενὶ συμ-
βέβηκεν' οὐδὲν γὰρ χρῆται τοῖς κέρασιν οὔτ᾽

80 ἀμυνόμενον οὔτε πρὸς τὸ κρατεῖν, ἅπερ ἰσχύος
ἐστὶν ἔργα. ὅσα μὲν οὖν πολυσχιδῆ τῶν ζῴων,
οὐδὲν ἔχει κέρας. τούτου Ò αἴτιον ὅτι τὸ μὲν
κέρας βοηθείας αἴτιόν ἐστι, τοῖς δὲ πολυσχιδέσιν
ὑπάρχουσιν ἕτεραι βοήθειαι: δέδωκε γὰρ ἡ φύσις
τοῖς μὲν ὄνυχας τοῖς δ᾽ ὀδόντας μαχητικούς, τοῖς

α Under this heading all the Mammalia known to Aristotle
216

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. τ.-τι.

web-footed birds) have a beak adapted for their
mode of life, a special instance of which is the broad
beak, which enables them to dig for roots easily, just
as the broad snout of the pig enables it to dig—an
example of a root-eating quadruped. These root-
eating birds and other birds of similar habits some-
times have sharp points at the end of the beak. This
enables them to deal easily with the herbaceous food
which they take.

We have now, I think, spoken of practically all
the parts that have their place in the head; but
in man, the portion of the body between the head
and the neck is called the Prosdépon (Face), a name
derived, no doubt, from the function it performs.
Man, the only animal that stands upright, is the
only one that looks straight before him (prosothen
opope) or sends forth his voice straight before him
(prosó, opa).

II. We still have to speak of Horns: these also,
when present, grow out of the head. Horns are
found only in the Vivipara; though some other
creatures have what are called horns, owing to their
resemblance to real horns. None of these so-called
horns, however, performs the function proper to horns.
The reason why the Vivipara have horns is for the
sake of self-defence and attack, and this is not true
of any of these other creatures, since none of them
uses its “ horns " for such feats of strength either
defensively or offensively. The polydactylous ani-
mals,? moreover, have no horns, because they possess
other means of defence. Nature has given them claws
or teeth to fight with, or some other part capable of

are included, except ruminants, solid-hoofed animals, and
Cetacea.

217.

Horns.

ARISTOTLE

662 b
35 δ᾽ ἆλλο τι μόριον. ἱκανὸν ἀμύνειν. τῶν δὲ διχάλων

663a τὰ μὲν πολλὰ κέρατα ἔχει πρὸς ἀλκήν, καὶ τῶν
μωνύχων ἔνια, τὰ δὲ καὶ πρὸς βοήθειαν, ὅσοις μὴ
/ e / » > \ \ / T
δέδωκεν ἡ φύσις ἄλλην ἀλκὴν πρὸς σωτηρίαν, otov
ταχυτῆτα σώματος, καθάπερ τοῖς ἵπποις βεβοήθη-
κεν, ἢ μέγεθος, ὥσπερ ταῖς καμήλοις καὶ γὰρ
δ μεγέθους ὑπερβολὴ τὴν ἀπὸ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων
φθορὰν ἱκανὴ κωλύειν, ὅπερ συμβέβηκε ταῖς καμή-
» M ^ ^ 2 / \ M
λοις, ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον τοῖς ἐλέφασιν. τὰ δὲ χαυλι-
/ e \ \ ^ €^ / / » 2
όδοντα, ὥσπερ kai τὸ τῶν ὑῶν γένος, δίχαλον Cov).
Ὅσοις Ò ἄχρηστος πέφυκεν ἡ τῶν κεράτων
> Z , / € / / €
ἐξοχή, τούτοις προστέθεικεν ἑτέραν βοήθειαν ἡ
10 φύσις, οἷον ταῖς μὲν ἐλάφοις τάχος (τὸ γὰρ pé-
> ^ M \ λ δὲ AAA λ ^
γεθος αὐτῶν καὶ τὸ πολυσχιδὲς μᾶλλον βλάπτει 7)
> ^ M / M \ / \ »
ὠφελεῖ), καὶ βουβάλοις δὲ καὶ δορκάσι (πρὸς ἔνια
μὲν γὰρ ἀνθιστάμενα τοῖς κέρασιν ἀμύνονται, τὰ δὲ
θηριώδη καὶ μάχιμα ἀποφεύγουσι), τοῖς δὲ βονάσοις
(καὶ γὰρ τούτοις γαμψὰ τὰ κέρατα πέφυκε πρὸς
15 ἄλληλα) τὴν τοῦ περιττώματος ἄφεσιν: τούτῳ γὰρ
ἀμύνεται φοβηθέντα: καὶ ταύτῃ δὲ τῇ προέσει δια-
/, e er 8:75 ` / /
σώζεται ἕτερα. ἅμα δ᾽ ἱκανὰς καὶ πλείους βοηθείας
οὐ δέδωκεν ἡ φύσις τοῖς αὐτοῖς.
wv \ M ^ ^ / /
Εστι δὲ τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν κερατοφόρων δίχαλα,
λέγεται δὲ καὶ μώνυχον, ὃν καλοῦσιν ᾿Ινδικὸν ὄνον.
2 Τὰ μὲν οὖν πλεῖστα, καθάπερ καὶ τὸ σῶμα
διήρηται τῶν ζῴων οἷς ποιεῖται τὴν κίνησιν, δεξιὸν
καὶ ἀριστερόν, καὶ κέρατα δύο πέφυκεν ἔχειν διὰ
1 δὲ post ὅσοις vulg. : del. Platt, Thurot.
2 (ὄν) Ogle.

a Cf. above, on 648 a 16.
> The European bison.
¢ This is probably the Indian Rhinoceros. This account

218

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IIT. 1.

rendering adequate defence. Most of the cloven-
hoofed animals, and some of the solid-hoofed, have
horns, as weapons of offence; some have horns for
self-defence, as those animals which have not been
given means of safety and self-defence of a different
order—the speed, for instance, which Nature has
given to horses, or the enormous size which camels
have (and elephants even more), which is sufficient
to prevent them from being destroyed by other :
animals. Some, however, have tusks, for instance
swine, although they are cloven-hoofed.

In some animals the horns are a useless appendage,”
and to these Nature has given an additional means
of defence. Deer have been given speed (because
the size of their horns and the numerous branches
are more of a nuisance to them than a help). So
have the antelopes and the gazelles, which, although
they withstand some attackers and defend them-
selves with their horns, run away from really fierce
fighters. The Bonasus,? whose horns curve inwards
to meet each other, protects itself when frightened
by the discharge of its excrement. There are other
animals that protect themselves in the same way.
Nature, however, has not given more than one
adequate means of protection to any one animal.

Most of the horned animals are cloven-hoofed,
though there is said to be one that is solid-hoofed,
the Indian Ass, as it is called.

The great majority of horned animals have two
horns, just as, in respect of the parts by which
its movement is effected, the body is divided
into two—the right and the left. And the

of it comes from the Jndica of Ktesias of Knidos, quoted in
Photius's Bibliotheca, lxxii. pp. 48 b 19 (Bekker) foll.

H 219

ARISTOTLE

665 a M 3 \ τος 1 » δὲ ` / T e
την αὐτὴν αἴτίαν' εστι OE καὶ µονοκέρατα, οἷον o

> » M 4. 3 \ , Ld » >
τ᾽ ὄρυξ καὶ ὁ ᾿]νδικὸς καλούμενος ὄνος. ἔστι ὃ
. » ec λ € δ᾽ : , » δὲ
μὲν ὄρυξ δίχαλον, ὁ δ᾽ ὄνος μώνυχον. ἔχει δὲ τα
25 μονοκέρατα τὸ κέρας ἐν τῷ μέσῳ τῆς κεφαλῆς:
e ^ € ’ - - ’ , A »
οὕτω γὰρ ἑκάτερον τῶν μερῶν μάλιστ᾽ ἂν ἔχοι
’ e \ \ / € / ` >
κέρας ἕν' τὸ γὰρ µέσον ὁμοίως κοινὸν ἀμφοτέρων
τῶν ἐσχάτων. εὐλόγως Ò ἂν δόξειε μονόκερων
> \ / ^ / ^ € M ^
εἶναι τὸ μώνυχον τοῦ διχάλου μᾶλλον: ὁπλὴ γὰρ
` Ar \ 3 \ » / 4, e θ᾽ er
καὶ χηλὴ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχει κέρατι φύσιν, ὥσθ᾽ ἅμα
M ^ ^ ^ ^ \
80 καὶ τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἡ σχίσις γίνεται τῶν ὁπλῶν καὶ
^ >
τῶν κεράτων. ἔτι δ᾽ ἡ σχίσις καὶ τὸ δίχαλον κατ
ελλ ^ / / , e > )λό -
ἔλλειψιν τῆς φύσεώς ἐστιν, ὥστ᾽ εὐλόγως τοῖς
^ ^ ^ ^
μωνύχοις ἐν ταῖς ὁπλαῖς δοῦσα τὴν ὑπεροχὴν
ε / ”/ > ^ M / , /
ἡ φύσις ἄνωθεν ἀφεῖλε καὶ μονόκερων ἐποίησεν.
> ~ ^ ^ ^ ^
Ορθῶς δὲ kai τὸ ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς ποιῆσαι τὴν
A /, Z 5 . . / € , ,
85 τῶν κεράτων φύσιν, ἀλλὰ μὴ καθάπερ ὁ Αἰσώπου
^ ^ e JN ^
Μῶμος διαµέμφεται τὸν ταῦρον ὅτι οὐκ ἐπὶ τοῖς
, ^5
663b ὤμοις ἔχει τὰ κέρατα, ὅθεν τὰς πληγὰς ἐποιεῖτ
ἂν ἰσχυροτάτας, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τοῦ ἀσθενεστάτου µέρους
^ ^ ^ ^25
τῆς κεφαλῆς. οὐ yàp ὀξὺ βλέπων ὁ Μῶμος ταῦτ
, ^
ἐπετίμησεν. ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ εἰ ἑτέρωθί που τοῦ
, / 3 Z / A ^ »
σώματος κέρατα ἐπεφύκει, βάρος ἂν παρεῖχεν ἄλ-
λως οὐδὲν ὄντα χρήσιμα κἂν ἐμπόδια τῶν ἔργων
πολλοῖς ἦν, οὕτω καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ὤμων πεφυκότα. οὐ
- ε
γὰρ μόνον χρὴ σκοπεῖν πόθεν ἰσχυρότεραι αἱ πλη-
yal, ἀλλὰ καὶ πόθεν πορρώτεραι" ὥστ᾽ ἐπεὶ χεῖρας
A ᾽ » 3 .7 δὲ ^ ^ io / , δὲ
μὲν οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν ποδῶν ἀδύνατον, ἐν δὲ

^ On

Cn

1 αὐτὴν αἰτίαν Peck: αἰτίαν ταύτην vulg.

9 See Babrius, Myth. Aesop. lix. 8-10.

220

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rr.

reason in both cases is the same. There are, how-
ever, some animals that have one horn only, e.g.
the Oryx (whose hoof is cloven) and the “ Indian
Ass" (whose hoof is solid). These creatures have
their horn in the middle of the head: this is the
nearest approximation to letting each side have its
own horn, because the middle is common equally to
both extremes. Now it is quite reasonable that the
one horn should go with the solid hoof rather than
with the cloven hoof, because hoof is identical in
nature with horn, and we should expect to find
divided hoofs and divided horns together in the same
animal. Again, division of the hoof is really due to
deficiency of material, so it is reasonable that .as
Nature has used more material in the hoofs of the
solid-hoofed animals, she has taken something away
from the upper parts and made one horn only.
Again, Nature acted aright in placing the horns
on the head. Momus in Aesop's fable% is quite
wrong when he finds fault with the bull for having
his horns on the head, which is the weakest part of
all, instead of on the shoulders, which, he says,
would have enabled them to deliver the strongest
possible blow. Such a criticism shows Momus's
lack of perspicacity. If the horns had been placed
on the shoulders, as indeed on any other part of the
body, they would have been a dead weight, and
would have been no assistance but rather a hindrance
to many of the animal's activities. And besides,
strength of stroke is not the only point to be con-
sidered: width of range is equally important.
Where could the horns have been placed to secure
this? It would have been impossible to have them
on the feet; knees with horns on them would have

221

663 b

10

15

20

25

ARISTOTLE

^ , » ^ / , / y 3
τοῖς γόνασιν ὄντα τὴν κάμψιν ἐκώλυεν ἄν, avay-
- e ^ ^ ^
καῖον ὥσπερ νῦν ἔχουσιν, ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς ἔχειν.
ἅμα δὲ καὶ πρὸς τὰς ἄλλας κινήσεις τοῦ σώματος
ἀνεμπόδιστα πέφυκεν οὕτω μάλιστα.
y \ . ’ 2539 ^ ^ , ,
Εστι δὲ τὰ κέρατα δι ὅλου στερεὰ τοῖς ἐλάφοις
’ A 5 / / e M , /
μόνοις, καὶ ἀποβάλλει μόνον, ἕνεκεν μὲν ὠφελείας
/ 2 2 / \ ^ A / ^ >
κουφιζόµενον, ἐξ ἀνάγκης δὲ διὰ τὸ βάρος. τῶν ὃ
^ 5
ἄλλων τὰ κέρατα μέχρι τινὸς κοῖλα, τὰ Ò ἄκρα
^25 7 /
στερεὰ διὰ τὸ πρὸς τὰς πληγὰς τοῦτ᾽ εἶναι xph-
σιμον. ὅπως δὲ μηδὲ τὸ κοῖλον ἀσθενὲς ἢ δ'
- /
πέφυκεν ἐκ τοῦ δέρµατος, ἐν τούτῳ" ἐνήρμοσται
(τὸ) στερεὸν ἐκ τῶν ὀστῶν: οὕτω γὰρ καὶ τὰ
2 , M
κέρατα ἔχοντα πρὸς ἀλκήν τε χρησιμώτατ᾽ ἐστὶ
καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἄλλον βίον ἀνοχλότατα.
/ > ^ ,
Tivos μὲν οὖν ἕνεκεν ἡ τῶν κεράτων φύσις,
εἴρηται, καὶ διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν ἔχουσι τοιαῦτα
τὰ Ò οὐκ ἔχουσιν:
- \ ^ > / , , Z ^
Πῶς δὲ τῆς ἀναγκαίας φύσεως ἐχούσης τοῖς
ὑπάρχουσιν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἡ κατὰ τὸν λόγον φύσις
ἕνεκά του κατακέχρηται, λέγωμεν.
μη ^ ^ Mi ^ ^
Πρῶτον μὲν οὖν τὸ σωματῶδες kai γεῶδες πλεῖον
^ ^ ,
ὑπάρχει τοῖς μείζοσι τῶν ζῴων, κερατοφόρον δὲ
/ , ^
μικρὸν πάμπαν οὐδὲν ἴσμεν: ἐλάχιστον γάρ ἐστι τῶν
γνωριζομένων δορκάς. δεῖ δὲ τὴν φύσιν θεωρεῖν
εἰς τὰ πολλὰ βλέποντα: 7 yàp ἐν τῷ παντὶ ἢ ὡς ἐπὶ
τὸ πολὺ τὸ κατὰ φύσιν ἐστίν. τὸ Ò ὀστῶδες ἐν
1 ὃ Peck, cf. Hist. An. 500a 8: οὐ vulg., om. ΕΡΥ: οὗ
suprascr. Z (v. p. 46). ? τούτῳ Peck: τούτῳ 9' vulg.

3 (r0) Peck: cf. Hist. An. 500 a 9.
* ἐστὶ Platt: εἶναι vulg. : εἴη ἂν Thurot.

α For the contrast between “necessary nature" and
222

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rm.

been unable to bend ; and the bull has no hands ; so
they had to be where they are—on the head. And
being there, they offer the least possible hindrance
to the movements of the body in general.

Deer alone have horns that are solid throughout ;
and deer alone shed their horns: this is done (a) on
purpose to get the advantage of the extra lightness,
(b) of necessity, owing to the weight of the horns.
In other animals the horns are hollow up to a certain
distance, but the tips are solid because solid tips are
an advantage when striking. And to prevent undue
weakness even in the hollow part, which grows out
from the skin, the solid piece which is fitted into it
comes up from the bones. In this way the horns
are rendered most serviceable for offensive pur-
poses and least hampering during the rest of the
time.

This completes our statement of the purpose for
which horns exist and the reason why some animals
have them and some have not.

We must now describe the character of that
“ necessary nature," owing to which certain things
are present of necessity, things which have been
used by “ rational nature " to subserve a “ purpose." 4

To begin with, then: the larger the animal, the
greater the quantity of corporeal or earthy matter
there is in it. We know no really small horned
animal—the smallest known one is the gazelle. (To
study Nature we have to consider the majority of
cases, for it is either in what is universal or what
happens in the majority of cases that Nature's
ways are to be found. Now all the bone in animals’

* rational nature" see above 640 b 8-29, 641 a 25 ff., 642 a
1 ff., and cf. G. A. (Loeb edn.), Introd. 8 14.

223

ARISTOTLE

663 b ^ Z ^ / ^ e / A 4
80 TOLS σωμασι των ζώων γεῶδες υπαρχει" διὸ και

- , ^ , e TTA ` ` /
πλεῖστον ἐν τοῖς μεγίστοις ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ βλέ-
ψαντας εἰπεῖν. τὴν γοῦν τοιούτου σώματος περιτ-
τωματικὴν ὑπερβολὴν ἐν τοῖς μείζοσι τῶν ζῴων
ὑπάρχουσαν ἐπὶ βοήθειαν καὶ τὸ συμφέρον κατα-
χρῆται ἡ φύσις, καὶ τὴν ῥέουσαν ἐξ ἀνάγκης εἰς τὸν

55 ἄνω τόπον τοῖς μὲν εἰς ὀδόντας καὶ χαυλιόδοντας
ἀπένειμε, τοῖς δ᾽ εἰς κέρατα. διὸ τῶν κερατο-
/ 3 / , » + . , s ^
φόρων οὐδέν ἐστιν ἄμφωδον: ἄνω γὰρ οὐκ ἔχει τοὺς
/ > / 3 ^ . , A € ,
664 a προσθίους ὀδόντας: ἀφελοῦσα yàp ἐντεῦθεν ἡ φύσις
τοῖς κέρασι προσέθηκε, καὶ ἡ διδομένη τροφὴ εἰς
τοὺς ὀδόντας τούτους εἰς τὴν τῶν κεράτων αὔξησιν
2 / ^ \ ^ / 3 / /
ἀναλίσκεται. τοῦ δὲ τὰς θηλείας ἐλάφους κέρατα
μὲν μὴ ἔχειν, περὶ δὲ τοὺς ὀδόντας ὁμοίως τοῖς
M M ^
ἄρρεσιν, αἴτιον τὸ τὴν αὐτὴν εἶναι φύσιν ἀμφοῖν
/ > / M . / ^
καὶ κερατοφόρον, ἀφήρηται δὲ τὰ κέρατα ταῖς
/ 9 -
θηλείαις διὰ τὸ χρήσιμα μὲν μὴ εἶναι μηδὲ τοῖς
EA / δ᾽ κα ὃ M M , Z
ἄρρεσιν, βλάπτεσθαι δ᾽ ἧσσον διὰ τὴν ἰσχύν.

σι

Τῶν δ᾽ ἄλλων ζῴων ὅσοις μὴ εἰς κέρατα ἀπο-
κρίνεται τὸ τοιοῦτον μόριον τοῦ σώματος, ἐνίοις
10 μὲν τῶν ὀδόντων αὐτῶν ἐπηύξησε τὸ μέγεθος κοινῇ
πάντων, ἐνίοις δὲ χαυλιόδοντας ὥσπερ κέρατα ἐκ
τῶν γνάθων ἐποίησεν.
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ μορίων ταύτῃ
διωρίσθω.
III. Ὑπὸ δὲ τὴν κεφαλὴν ὁ αὐχὴν πεφυκώς ἐστι
τοῖς ἔχουσιν αὐχένα τῶν ζῴων. οὐ γὰρ πάντα
15 τοῦτο τὸ μόριον ἔχει, ἀλλὰ μόνα τὰ ἔχοντα ὧν

a i.e. constituent substance. See on 648 a 9,
224

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rmm.

bodies consists of earthy matter; so if we consider
the majority of cases, we can say that there is most
earthy matterin the biggest animals.) At any rate,
in the larger animals there is present a surplus of
this corporeal or earthy matter, produced as a
residue, and this Nature makes use of and turns to
advantage to provide them with means of defence.
That portion of it which by necessity courses upwards
she allots to form teeth and tusks in some animals,
and to form horns in others. And we can see from
this why no horned animal has incisor teeth in both
jaws, but only in the bottom jaw. Nature has
taken away from the teeth to add to the horns;
so that the nourishment which would normally be
supplied to the upper teeth is here used to grow the
horns. Why is it, then, that female deer, although
they have no horns, are no better off for teeth than
the male deer? The answer is: Both of them are,
by nature, horned animals; but the females have
lost their horns because they would be not only
useless but dangerous. The horns are indeed of no
more use to the males, but they are less dangerous
because the males are stronger.

Thus in some animals this “ part "^ of the body
is secreted for the formation of horns; in others,
however, it causes a general increase in the size of
the teeth, and in others again it produces tusks,
which are like horns springing out of the jaws
instead of the head.

We have now dealt with the “ parts " that apper-
tain to the head.

III. The place of the neck, when there is one, is of tne
below the head. I say “ when there is one," because ael eel
only those animals have this part which also have τον

223

ARISTOTLE
664 a
χάριν ὁ αὐχὴν πέφυκεν" ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶν 6 τε φάρυγξ
καὶ ὁ καλούμενος οἰσοφάγος.

‘O μὲν οὖν φάρυγξ τοῦ πνεύματος ἕνεκεν πέφυκεν"
διὰ τούτου γὰρ εἰσάγεται τὸ πνεῦμα τὰ ζῷα καὶ
ἐκπέμπει ἀναπνέοντα καὶ ἐκπνέοντα. διὸ τὰ μὴ

90 ἔχοντα πλεύμονα οὐκ ἔχουσιν οὐδ᾽ αὐχένα, οἷον
τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος. ὁ 8 οἰσοφάγος ἐστὶ δι᾽ οὗ
7 τροφὴ πορεύεται εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν: ὥσθ᾽ ὅσα μὴ
ἔχει αὐχένα, οὐδ᾽ οἰσοφάγον ἐπιδήλως. ἔχουσιν.
οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον δ᾽ ἔχειν τὸν οἰσοφάγον τῆς τροφῆς
ἕνεκεν" οὐθὲν γὰρ παρασκευάζει πρὸς αὐτήν. ἔτι

95 δὲ μετὰ τὴν τοῦ στόματος θέσιν ἐνδέχεται κεῖσθαι
τὴν κοιλίαν εὐθέως, τὸν δὲ πλεύμονα οὐκ ἐνδέχεται.
δεῖ γὰρ εἶναί τινα κοινὸν οἷον αὐλῶνα, δι οὗ µε-
ριεῖται τὸ πνεῦμα κατὰ τὰς ἀρτηρίας εἰς τὰς
σύριγγας, διμερῆ ὄντα"" καὶ κάλλιστ᾽ ἂν οὕτως
ἀποτελοῖ τὴν ἀναπνοὴν καὶ ἐκπνοήν. τοῦ δ᾽ ὀρ-

80 γάνου τοῦ περὶ τὴν ἀναπνοὴν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἔχοντος
μῆκος, ἀναγκαῖον τὸν οἰσοφάγον εἶναι μεταξὺ τοῦ
στόματος καὶ τῆς κοιλίας. ἔστι δ᾽ ὁ μὲν οἰσοφάγος
σαρκώδης, ἔχων νευρώδη τάσιν, νευρώδης μέν,
ὅπως ἔχῃ διάτασιν εἰσιούσης τῆς τροφῆς, σαρκώδης

85 δέ, ὅπως μαλακὸς Ñ καὶ ἐνδιδῷ καὶ μὴ βλάπτηται
τραχυνόμενος ὑπὸ τῶν κατιόντων.

'H δὲ καλουμένη φάρυγξ καὶ ἀρτηρία συνέστηκεν

664 b ἐκ χονδρώδους σώματος: οὐ γὰρ μόνον ἀναπνοῆς
ἕνεκέν ἐστιν ἀλλὰ καὶ φωνῆς, δεῖ δὲ τὸ ψοφήσευν
μέλλον λεῖον εἶναι καὶ στερεότητα ἔχειν. κεῖται δ᾽
ἔμπροσθεν ἡ ἀρτηρία. τοῦ οἰσοφάγου, καίπερ ἐμ-
ποδίζουσα αὐτὸν περὶ τὴν ὑποδοχὴν τῆς τροφῆς"

δ ἐὰν γάρ τι παρεισρυῇ ξηρὸν ἢ ὑγρὸν εἰς τὴν ἁρτη-

1 διμερῇ ὄντα Peck: διμερὴς dv vulg. : διμεροῦς ὄντος Th.
226

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. m.

those parts that the neck subserves—viz. the larynx
and the oesophagus, as it is called.

The larynx is present for the sake of the breath :
when animals breathe in and out, the breath passes
through the larynx. Thus creatures which have no
lung (e.g. fish) have no neck either. The oesophagus
is the passage by which the food makes its way to
the stomach ; so those that have no neck have no
distinct oesophagus. So far as food is concerned,
however, an oesophagus is not necessary, since it
exerts no action upon the food ; and there is really
no reason why the stomach should not be placed
immediately next the mouth. The lung, however,
could not be so placed, because some sort of tube
must be present, common to both lungs, and divided
into two, by which the breath is divided along the
bronchial tubes into the air-tubes : this is the best
method for securing good breathing, both in and out.
This respiratory organ, then, of necessity, is of some
length; and this necessitates the presence of an
oesophagus, to connect the mouth to the stomach.
Now the oesophagus is fleshy, and it can also be
extended like a sinew. It is sinewy so that it can
stretch as the food enters in ; and it is fleshy so that
it may be soft and yielding and not be damaged by
the food grating on it as it goes down.

What are called the larynx and windpipe are Larynx and
constructed of cartilaginous substance, since the pur- "Pipe.
pose they serve includes speech as well as respira-
tion; and an instrument that is to produce sound
must be smooth and firm. The windpipe is situated in
front of the oesophagus, although it causes it some
hindrance when food is being admitted—as when a
piece of food, no matter whether solid or fluid, gets

H 2 Q2T -

ARISTOTLE

664 b , ` ` / ` ^ .
ρίαν, πνιγμοὺς καὶ πόνους καὶ βῆχας χαλεπὰς

, ^ e^ ^ ` / » ^ ,
ἐμποιεῖ. ὃ δὴ καὶ θαυμάσειεν ἄν τις τῶν λεγόντων
ὡς ταύτῃ τὸ ποτὸν δέχεται τὸ ζῷον' συμβαίνει γὰρ
φανερῶς τὰ λεχθέντα πᾶσιν οἷς ἂν παραρρυῇ τι τῆς
^ ^ M ^ , A / ε
10 τροφῆς. πολλαχῇ δὲ γελοῖον φαίνεται τὸ λέγειν ὡς
ταύτῃ τὸ ποτὸν εἰσδέχεται τὰ ζῷα. πόρος γὰρ
. -
οὐδείς ἐστιν εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν ἀπὸ τοῦ πλεύμονος,
, ^ ^
ὥσπερ ἐκ τοῦ στόματος ὁρῶμεν τὸν οἰσοφάγον.
» >13 ^ , , ` , > » /
ἔτι Ò ἐν τοῖς ἐμέτοις καὶ ναυτίαις οὐκ ἄδηλον πόθεν
` € A / / ^ \ a ο
τὸ ὑγρὸν φαίνεται πορευόμενον. δῆλον δὲ καὶ ὅτι

15 οὐκ εὐθέως εἰς τὴν κύστιν συλλέγεται τὸ ὑγρόν,
> > > \ / / A ^ ^ /
ἀλλ᾽ εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν πρότερον: τὰ γὰρ τῆς κοιλίας
περιττώματα φαίνεται χρωματίζειν ἡ ἰλὺς τοῦ µέ-

» / M ^ , `
λανος οἴνου' συμβέβηκε δὲ τοῦτο πολλάκις φανερὸν
καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν τραυμάτων. ἀλλὰ γὰρ
» » \ . ΩΝ 4 - / /
ἴσως εὔηθες τὸ τοὺς εὐήθεις τῶν λόγων λίαν
ἐξετάζειν.

ε > 3 / ^ ^ / »

2 Ἡ & ἀρτηρία τῷ διακεῖσθαι, καθάπερ εἴπομεν,
2 - ’ ε A ~ ^ , ^ > 23 7
ἐν τῷ πρόσθεν ὑπὸ τῆς τροφῆς ἐνοχλεῖται' ἀλλ᾽ ἡ
φύσις πρὸς τοῦτο μεμηχάνηται τὴν ἐπιγλωττίδα.
ταύτην δ᾽ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἅπαντα τὰ ζῳοτοκοῦντα,
5 9) 1p / » \ A / / .
ἀλλ᾽ ὅσα πλεύμονα ἔχει καὶ τὸ δέρμα τριχωτόν, καὶ

M \ \ \ / , >

25 μὴ φολιδωτὰ μηδὲ πτερωτὰ πέφυκεν. τούτοις ὃ

ἀντὶ τῆς ἐπιγλωττίδος συνάγεται καὶ διοίγεται ὁ
’ e / 3 / , / M
φάρυγξ ὅνπερ τρόπον ἐκείνοις: ἐπιβάλλει τε καὶ
- ^ ,
ἀναπτύσσεται, τοῦ (pev)! πνεύματος τῇ εἰσόδῳ τε
` PA > / ^ M ^ ,
καὶ ἐξόδῳ ἀναπτυσσόμενος, τῆς δὲ τροφῆς εἰσ-

1 ζῳοτοκοῦντα] ζῷα τὰ ἔναιμα Ogle.
2 (μὲν) supplevi et interpunctionem hic correxi.

228

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IIT. 11.

into the windpipe by mistake, and causes a great deal
of choking and distress and violent coughing. This
sort of thing occurs and can be observed whenever a
piece of food goes the wrong way ; yet they must be
mysteries to those who hold that animals take in their
drink by way of the windpipe.^ And there are many
counts on which we can show that this is a ridiculous
opinion to hold. (a) There is no passage leading from
the lung into the stomach, such as the oesophagus,
which, as we can see, leads thither from the mouth.
And again, (b) there is no doubt where the fluid dis-
charge comes from in cases of vomiting and sea-sick-
ness. (c) It is plain, too, that the fluid matter which
we take does not collect immediately in the bladder,
but goes first into the stomach. This is shown by
the fact that the dregs of dark wine affect the co-
lour of the residual discharge from the stomach; and
this colouring has often been observed in cases where
the stomach has been wounded. Still, perhaps it is
silly to be too minute in discussing these silly theories.
The windpipe, as we have said, is situated in front, Epiglottis.
and therefore is interfered with by the food. To deal
with this difficulty, Nature has contrived the epi-
glottis. Not all Vivipara è have this, but only those
which have a lung, and a hairy skin, and are not
covered with horny scales or feathers. Those that
are so covered have, to serve instead of the epiglottis;
a larynx which closes and opens, just as the epiglottis
does in the others ; it comes down and lifts up again :
it lifts up during the entrance and exit of the breath,
and subsides while food is being taken, to prevent

a See e.g. Plato, Timaeus 10 c 7, and Taylor ad loc.
ὃ Ogle changes the text here to read “ blooded animals,"
which brings the statement nearer the truth.

229.

664 b

ARISTOTLE

ιούσης ἐπιπτυσσόμενος, ἵνα μηθὲν παραρρυῇ πρὸς!

30 τὴν ἀρτηρίαν. ἐὰν δέ τι πλημμεληθῇ παρὰ τὴν

35

665 a

r

10

15

τοιαύτην κίνησιν καὶ προσφερομένης τῆς τροφῆς
ἀναπνεύσῃ τις, βῆχας καὶ πνιγμοὺς ποιεῖ, καθάπερ
εἴρηται. οὕτω δὲ καλῶς μεμηχάνηται καὶ ἡ ταύτης
καὶ ἡ τῆς γλώττης κίνησις, ὥστε τῆς τροφῆς ἐν μὲν
τῷ στόματι λεαινομένης, παρ᾽ αὐτὴν δὲ διιούσης,
τὴν μὲν ὀλιγάκις ὑπὸ τοὺς ὀδόντας πίπτειν, εἰς δὲ
τὴν ἀρτηρίαν σπάνιόν τι παραρρεῖν.
ùk ἔχει δὲ τὰ λεχθέντα ζῷα τὴν ἐπιγλωττίδα
διὰ τὸ ξηρὰς εἶναι τὰς σάρκας αὐτῶν καὶ τὸ δέρμα
σκληρόν, ὥστ᾽ οὐκ ἂν εὐκίνητον ἦν τὸ τοιοῦτον
μόριον αὐτοῖς ἐκ τοιαύτης σαρκὸς καὶ ἐκ τοιούτου
δέρματος συνεστηκός, ἀλλ᾽ αὐτῆς τῆς ἀρτηρίας
τῶν ἐσχάτων θᾶσσον ἐγίνετ᾽ ἂν ἡ συναγωγὴ τῆς ἐκ
τῆς οἰκείας σαρκὸς ἐπιγλωττίδος, ἣν ἔχουσι τὰ
/
τριχωτά.

Av’ ἣν μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν ἔχει τῶν ζώων τὰ δ᾽
οὐκ ἔχει, ταῦτ᾽ εἰρήσθω, καὶ διότι τῆς ἀρτηρίας τὴν
φαυλότητα τῆς θέσεως ἰάτρευκεν ἡ φύσις, µηχανη-
σαμένη τὴν καλουμένην ἐπιγλωττίδα. κεῖται δ᾽
ἔμπροσθεν ἡ η φάρυγξ τοῦ οἰσοφάγου ἐξ ἆ ἀνάγκης. 7
μὲν γὰρ καρδία ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ἐν μέσῳ
κεῖται, ἐν ᾗ τὴν ἀρχήν φαμεν τῆς ζωῆς καὶ πάσης
κινήσεώς τε καὶ αἰσθήσεως (ἐπὶ τὸ καλούμενον γὰρ
ἔμπροσθεν ἡ αἴσθησις καὶ ἡ κίνησις: αὐτῷ γὰρ τῷ
λόγῳ τούτῳ διώρισται τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ὄπισθεν),
ὁ δὲ πλεύμων κεῖται οὗ ἡ καρδία καὶ περὶ ταύτην,
7 δ᾽ ἀναπνοὴ διά τε τοῦτον" καὶ διὰ τὴν ἀρχὴν τὴν
ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ ἐ ἐνυπάρχουσαν. ἡ δ᾽ ἀναπνοὴ γίνεται
τοῖς ζῴοις διὰ τῆς ἀρτηρίας: ὥστ᾽ ἐπεὶ τὴν καρδίαν

1 πρὸς ΡΖ: παρὰ vulg.
230

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. τη.

anything coming in by mistake into the windpipe. If
there is any error in this movement, or if you breathe
in while you are taking food, coughing and choking
results, as I have said. But the movement of the
epiglottis and of the tongue has been so neatly
contrived that while the food is being masticated in
the mouth and is passing over the epiglottis, the
tongue seldom gets in the way of the teeth, and
hardly ever does any food slip into the windpipe.

I mentioned some animals that have no epiglottis.
This is because their flesh is dry and their skin hard ;
and thus if they had one, it would not move easily,
because it would have to be made out of constituents
of this sort. Itis quicker to contract the edges of the
windpipe itself than it would be to close an epiglottis,
if, as in the hairy creatures, it were made out of the
same sort of flesh as the rest of their bodies.

This will suffice to show why some animals have an
epiglottis and some not ; how Nature has contrived
it so as to remedy the unsatisfactory position of
the windpipe in front of the oesophagus. Still, the
windpipe is bound by necessity to be in this position
for the following reason. The heart is situated in the
middle of the body and in the fore part of it ; and in
the heart, we hold, is the principle of life and of all
movement and sensation. Both of these activities
take place in the direction we call forwards : that is
the very principle which constitutes the distinction
between before and behind. ‘The lung is situated in
the region of the heart, and surrounding it. Now
breathing takes place for the sake of the lung and
the principle which is situated in the heart: and the
breath passes through the windpipe. So, since the

2 τοῦτον SUY : τοῦτο vulg.

231.

ARISTOTLE

, ^ » ^ ^ `
ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν πρώτην ἀναγκαῖον κεῖσθαι, καὶ
90 τὸν φάρυγγα καὶ τὴν ἀρτηρίαν πρότερον ἀναγκαῖον
- ^ . `
κεῖσθαι τοῦ οἰσοφάγου: τὰ μὲν γὰρ πρὸς τὸν
> > M
πλεύμονα τείνει kai τὴν καρδίαν, ὁ δ᾽ εἰς τὴν
, e 5 4 ` / M ,
κοιλίαν. ὅλως Ò ἀεὶ τὸ βέλτιον καὶ τιμιώτερον,
- - .
ὅπου μηδὲν μεῖζον ἕτερον ἐμποδίζει, τοῦ μὲν
- - - ,
ἄνω καὶ κάτω ἐν τοῖς μᾶλλόν ἐστιν ἄνω, Tod ὃ
» ^ ^
ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ὄπισθεν ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν, τοῦ
δεξιοῦ δὲ καὶ ἀριστεροῦ ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς. |
M M
Kai περὶ μὲν αὐχένος τε καὶ οἰσοφάγου καὶ
5 , +
ἀρτηρίας εἴρηται, ἑπόμενον δ᾽ ἐστὶ περὶ σπλάγχνων
εἰπεῖν.
^ ^ / M ^
IV. Ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἴδια τῶν ἐναίμων, καὶ τοῖς
M er > e / ^ > > € L4 ^ 5
80 μὲν ἅπανθ᾽ ὑπάρχει, τοῖς δ᾽ οὐχ ὑπάρχει. τῶν ὃ
> / > M ” ‘A / >
ἀναίμων οὐδὲν ἔχει σπλάγχνον. Δημόκριτος ὃ
» , ^ ^ M », μὲ » ? 7
ἔοικεν οὐ καλῶς διαλαβεῖν περὶ αὐτῶν, εἴπερ ᾠήθη
. ^
διὰ μικρότητα τῶν ἀναίμων ζῴων ἄδηλα εἶναι
- - / M
ταῦτα. συνισταμένων γὰρ εὐθέως τῶν ἐναίμων καὶ
πάμπαν ὄντων μικρῶν ἔνδηλα γίνεται καρδία τε καὶ
- LA ^ /
85 ἧπαρ' φαίνεται γὰρ ἐν μὲν τοῖς ᾠοῖς ἐνίοτε τριταίοις
^ ,
665 b οὖσι στιγμῆς ἔχοντα μέγεθος, πάμμικρα δὲ καὶ ἐν
- , , ^ > ^
τοῖς ἐκβολίμοις τῶν ἐμβρύων. ἔτι δ᾽ ὥσπερ τῶν ἐκ-
M , ^ ^ ^ ^ 5 € ,
τὸς μορίων οὐ πᾶσι τῶν αὐτῶν χρῆσις, ἀλλ᾽ ἑκά-
, `
στοις ἰδίᾳ πεπόρισται πρός τε τοὺς βίους καὶ τὰς
΄ τ . . 2 \ KA / v
δ κινήσεις, οὕτω καὶ τὰ ἐντὸς ἄλλα πέφυκεν ἄλλοις.
- ^ `
Ta δὲ σπλάγχνα τῶν αἱματικῶν ἐστὶν ἴδια, διὸ
M / ^ € ^
kai συνέστηκεν αὐτῶν ἕκαστον ἐξ αἱματικῆς ὕλης.
^ > 2 - - /
δῆλον δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς νεογνοῖς τούτων" αἱματωδέστερα
γὰρ καὶ µέγιστα κατὰ λόγον διὰ τὸ εἶναι τὸ εἶδος

2

e

* Limited by Aristotle to blood-like viscera only.
239

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ττ. τν.

heart must of necessity be situated in the front place
of all, both the larynx and the windpipe, which lead
to the lung and the heart, must of necessity be
situated in front of the oesophagus which leads merely
to the stomach. Speaking generally, unless some
greater object interferes, that which is better and
more honourable tends to be above rather than below,
in front rather than at the back, and on the right side
rather than on the left.

We have now spoken of the neck, the oeso-
phagus, and the windpipe, and our next topic is the
viscera.

IV. Only blooded animals have viscera." Some, but rrernau
not all, have a complete set of them. As no blood- de:
less αι], have them, Democritus must have been ΑΝΙΜΑΙΑ.
wrong in his ideas on this point, if he really supposed
that the viscera in bloodless creatures are invisible
owing to the smallness of the creatures themselves.
Against this we can put the fact that the heart and
the liver are visible in blooded animals as soon as they
are formed at all, that is, when they are quite small:
in eggs they are visible, just about the size of a point,
sometimes as early as the third day, and very small
ones are visible in aborted embryos. Further, just
as each animal is equipped with those external parts
which are necessary to it for its manner of life and its
motion, and no two animals require exactly the same
ones, so it is with the internal parts : they vary in the
various animals.

Viscera, then, are peculiar to the blooded animals, Heart.
and that is why each one of the viscera is formed of
blood-like material. This is clearly to be seen in the
new-born offspring of blooded animals ; in them the
viscera are more blood-like, and at their largest in

233.

ARISTOTLE

665 b
τῆς ὕλης καὶ τὸ πλῆθος ἐμφανέστατον κατὰ τὴν

/
10 πρώτην σύστασιν. καρδία μὲν οὖν ἅπασιν ὑπάρχει
- ,
τοῖς ἐναίμοις: δι ἣν δ᾽ αἰτίαν, εἴρηται καὶ πρότερον.
^ ^ ε >
αἷμα μὲν γὰρ ἔχειν τοῖς ἐναίμοις δῆλον ὡς avay-
^ ^ 3 ^ ^ >
καῖον, ὑγροῦ δ᾽ ὄντος τοῦ αἵματος ἀναγκαῖον dy-
γεῖον ὑπάρχειν, ἐφ᾽ ὃ δὴ καὶ φαίνεται μεμηχανῆσθαι
^ / e / > \ \ , > ^
τὰς φλέβας ἡ φύσις: ἀρχὴν δὲ τούτων ἀναγκαῖον
WT. / e \ , 5 / / Hi ^
15 εἶναι μίαν (ὅπου γὰρ ἐνδέχεται, μίαν βέλτιον ἢ
πολλάς), ἡ δὲ καρδία τῶν φλεβῶν ἀρχή: φαίνονται
γὰρ ἐκ ταύτης οὖσαι! καὶ οὐ διὰ ταύτης, καὶ ἡ
/ δον / ε ε - » »
φύσις αὐτῆς φλεβώδης ὡς ὁμογενοῦς οὔσης. ἔχει
δὲ καὶ ἡ θέσις αὐτῆς ἀρχικὴν χώραν: περὶ μέσον
/ ^ νε 3 ^ ” ΝΛ / y -^
γάρ, μᾶλλον Ò ἐν τῷ ἄνω ἢ κάτω καὶ ἔμπροσθεν ἢ
90 ὄπισθεν: ἐν τοῖς γὰρ τιμιωτέροις τὸ τιμιώτερον
/ € / e / , ^ ,
καθίδρυκεν ἡ φύσις, οὗ μή τι κωλύει μεῖζον. ἐμ-
φανέστατον δὲ τὸ λεχθέν ἐστιν ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώ-
, \ M , ^ » e / >
πων, βούλεται δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις ὁμολόγως ἐν
µέσω κεῖσθαι τοῦ ἀναγκαίου σώματος, τούτου δὲ
πέρας ᾗ τὰ περιττώματα ἀποκρίνεται' τὰ δὲ κῶλα
/ ”/ y M , » ^ \
25 πέφυκεν ἄλλοις ἄλλως, καὶ οὐκ ἔστι τῶν πρὸς
τὸ ζῆν ἀναγκαίων, διὸ καὶ ἀφαιρουμένων ζῶσιν:
^ > € , M / /
δῆλον Ò ὡς οὐδὲ προστιθέμενα φθείρει.
ε > , ^ ^ / M 2 ^ ^
Oi δ᾽ ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ λέγοντες τὴν ἀρχὴν τῶν
- ^ ^ ^
φλεβῶν οὐκ ὀρθῶς ὑπέλαβον. πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ
πολλὰς ἀρχὰς καὶ διεσπασμένας" ποιοῦσιν, εἶτ᾽ ἐν

1 ἰοῦσαι L. 2? διεσπαρµένας ESUYZ.

* The first observer after Aristotle to realize the disparity
in the relative sizes of the parts with time was Leonardo da
Vinci (a.D. 1452-1518).

234

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, III. ιν.

proportion : this is because the nature of the material
and its bulk are especially obvious at the first stage
of a creature's formation. The heart is present in
all blooded animals, and the reason for this has been
already stated: It is obviously necessary for all
blooded creatures to have blood, and as blood is a
fluid, there must of necessity be a vessel to hold
it, and it is evidently for this purpose that Nature
has contrived the blood-vessels. And these blood-
vessels must have a source—one source (one is
always better than many where it is possible), and
this source is the heart. This is certain, because the
blood-vessels come out of the heart and do not pass
through it ; and again, the heart is homogeneous and
in character identical with the blood-vessels. Further-
more, the place in which it is set is the place of
primacy and governance. It is in a central position,
and rather in the upper part of the body than the
lower, and in front rather than at the back ; Nature
always gives the more honourable place to the more
honourable part, unless something more important
prevents it. What I have just said is seen most
clearly in the case of man, yet in other animals the
heart tends in a similar way to be in the centre of
the “ necessary body," i.e. the portion of it which :
is terminated by the vent where the residues are
discharged. The limbs vary in the various animals,
and cannot be reckoned among the parts that are
“ necessary " for life, which is why animals can lose
them and still remain alive ; and obviously they could
have limbs added to them without being killed.
Those who suppose that the source of the blood-
vessels is in the head are wrong, because: (1) this
involves holding that there are many sources,

235

665 b
30

85
666 a

σι

10

15

ARISTOTLE

, ^ λ ^ δὲ ὃ / » e δὲ M M
τόπῳ ψυχρῷ. δηλοῖ δὲ δύσριγος cv, ὁ δὲ περὶ τὴν
P , , e 3 ΤΝ ^ ^ ^
καρδίαν τοὐναντίον. ὥσπερ Ò ἐλέχθη, διὰ μὲν τῶν
ἄλλων σπλάγχνων διέχουσιν αἱ φλέβες, διὰ δὲ τῆς
καρδίας οὐ διατείνει φλέψ ὅθεν καὶ δῆλον. ὅτι
/ M > \ ~ λ ^ , \ € δύ `
μόριον καὶ ἀρχὴ τῶν φλεβῶν ἐστὶν ἡ καρδία. καὶ
τοῦτ᾽ εὐλόγως: μέσον γὰρ τὸ τῆς καρδίας ἐστὶ
σῶμα πυκνὸν καὶ κοῖλον πεφυκός, ἔτι δὲ πλῆρες
σ e ^ ^ , ^ , LA ^
αἵματος ὡς τῶν φλεβῶν ἐντεῦθεν ἠργμένων, κοῖλον
μὲν πρὸς τὴν ὑποδοχὴν τοῦ αἵματος, πυκνὸν δὲ
πρὸς τὸ φυλάσσειν τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς θερμότητος. ἐν
ταύτῃ γὰρ μόνῃ τῶν σπλάγχνων καὶ τοῦ σώματος
- » νὶ A > εἰ 5? PON /
αἷμα ἄνευ φλεβῶν ἐστι, τῶν ἄλλων μορίων
σ 3 ^ M » 1 T ` ^55 2
ἕκαστον ἐν ταῖς φλεψὶν ἔχει τὸ αἷμα. καὶ τοῦτ᾽ εὖ-
^ /
λόγως: ἐκ τῆς καρδίας γὰρ ἐποχετεύεται [καὶ] εἰς
τὰς φλέβας, eis δὲ τὴν καρδίαν οὐκ ἄλλοθεν' αὕτη
\ \ ^
γάρ ἐστιν ἀρχὴ καὶ πηγὴ τοῦ αἵματος ἢ ὑποδοχὴ
, , ^ 5 ^ . / ^
πρώτη. ἐκ τῶν ἀνατομῶν δὲ κατάδηλα μᾶλλον
ταῦτα, καὶ ἐκ τῶν γενέσεων' εὐθέως γάρ ἐστιν
ἔναιμος πρώτη γινομένη τῶν μορίων ἁπάντων. ἔτι
δ᾽ αἱ κινήσεις τῶν ἡδέων καὶ τῶν λυπηρῶν καὶ
e / 3 / , ^ 2 / /
ὅλως πάσης αἰσθήσεως ἐντεῦθεν ἀρχόμεναι φαί-
νονται καὶ πρὸς ταύτην περαίνουσαι. οὕτω δ᾽ ἔχει
καὶ κατὰ τὸν λόγον, ἀρχὴν γὰρ εἶναι δεῖ μίαν, ὅπου
ἐνδέχεται’ εὐφυέστατος δὲ τῶν τόπων ὁ μέσος, EV
γὰρ τὸ μέσον καὶ ἐπὶ πᾶν ἐφικτὸν ὁμοίως ἢ παρα-
/ » > , M » ^ > / 3 M
πλησίως. ἔτι Ò ἐπεὶ οὔτε τῶν ἀναίμων οὐθὲν
1 καὶ om. Z.

a Or “traverse.” The connotation of this term seems to vary.
256

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. τν.

scattered about; and (2) it involves placing them
in a cold region (its intolerance of cold proves this).
The region round the heart, on the other hand, is
warm. And (3) as has been said already, the blood-
vessels run all through ^ the other viscera, whereas
none passes through the heart ; which clearly shows
that the heart forms part of the blood-vessels and
is their source. Which is reasonable enough; since
the centre of the heart is a body of dense and hollow
Structure, and this is full of blood ; it is hollow to
form a receptacle for the blood ; dense to guard the
source of heat ; and the store of blood is obviously
there because that is the starting-point of the blood-
vessels. In none other of the viscera and in no other
part of the body is there blood and yet no blood-
vessels ; in each of the other parts the blood is con-
tained in blood-vessels. And this too is reasonable,
as the blood is conveyed and conducted away from
the heart into the blood-vessels, whereas none is
thus conveyed into the heart from elsewhere, for the
heart is itself the source and spring of the blood, or
the first receptacle of it. All this, however, is more
clearly brought out in Dissections and Formative
Processes, where it is shown that the heart is the
first of all the parts to be formed and has blood in it .
straightway. Further, all motions of sensation, in-
cluding those produced by what is pleasant and pain-
ful, undoubtedly begin in the heart and have their
final ending there. This is in accord with reason ;
since, wherever possible, there must be one source
only ; and the best situation for that is the centre,
because there is only one centre, and the centre is
equally (or nearly equally) accessible from every
direction. Again, as every bloodless part, and the

237

666 a

20

25

30

666 b

ARISTOTLE

> ` ” ee = ε ` a ”
αἰσθητικὸν οὔτε τὸ αἷμα, δῆλον ὡς τὸ πρῶτον ἔχον
- 5 ,
ὡς ἐν ἀγγείῳ O' ἔχον ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι τὴν ἀρχήν.
3 ’ . . ` , e » ,
Οὐ μόνον δὲ κατὰ τὸν λόγον οὕτως ἔχειν φαίνεται,
3 A A M . » , . ^ ᾽ ,
ἀλλὰ καὶ κατὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν. ἐν γὰρ τοῖς ἐμβρύοις
^ ,
εὐθέως ἡ καρδία φαίνεται κινουμένη τῶν μορίων
- ^ ^ ᾽ ’
καθάπερ εἰ ζῶον, ὡς ἀρχὴ τῆς φύσεως τοῖς ἐναίμοις
^ ^ ^
οὖσα. μαρτύριον δὲ τῶν εἰρημένων καὶ τὸ πᾶσι
τοῖς ἐναίμοις ὑπάρχειν αὐτήν" ἀναγκαῖον γὰρ αὐτοῖς
^ A A
ἔχειν τὴν ἀρχὴν τοῦ αἵματος. ὑπάρχει δὲ καὶ TO
T ^ ^ , , > b] κ) . A 5 ,
ἧπαρ πᾶσι τοῖς ἐναίμοις' ἀλλ᾽ οὐθεὶς ἂν ἀξιώσειεν
αὐτὸ ἀρχὴν εἶναι οὔτε τοῦ ὅλου σώματος οὔτε τοῦ
^ ^ ^ ,
αἵματος" κεῖται γὰρ οὐδαμῶς πρὸς ἀρχοειδῆ θέσιν,
y > e > g 3 ^ 4 > >
ἔχει δ᾽ ὥσπερ ἀντίζυγον ἐν τοῖς μάλιστ᾽ ἀπηκριβω-
μένοις τὸν σπλῆνα. ἔτι Ò ὑποδοχὴν αἵματος οὐκ
» 3 € ^ "d ε , 5 3 e .
ἔχει ἐν ἑαυτῷ καθάπερ ἡ καρδία, ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ τὰ
> ^ ,
λοιπὰ ἐν φλεβί. ` ἔτι δὲ τείνει δι αὐτοῦ φλέψ, δι᾽
> , 3 3 , ^ ^ ^ ^ > ~
ἐκείνης δ᾽ οὐδεμία: πασῶν γὰρ τῶν φλεβῶν ἐκ τῆς
καρδίας αἱ ἀρχαί. ἐπεὶ οὖν ἀνάγκη μὲν θάτερον
τούτων ἀρχὴν εἶναι, μή ἐστι δὲ τὸ ἧπαρ, ἀνάγκη
τὴν καρδίαν εἶναι καὶ τοῦ αἵματος ἀρχήν. τὸ μὲν
γὰρ ζῷον αἰσθήσει ὥρισται, αἰσθητικὸν δὲ πρῶτον
A ^ ^
τὸ πρῶτον ἔναιμον, τοιοῦτον δ᾽ ἡ καρδία’: καὶ γὰρ
> 4 ^ ^
ἀρχὴ τοῦ αἵματος kai ἔναιμον πρῶτον.
x > 3 - . » , . M ,
Εστι δ᾽ αὐτῆς τὸ ἄκρον ὀξὺ καὶ στερεώτερον,
1 δι᾽ Th.: ἐξ vulg.; mox ἐκείνου EUYZ.

a Cor primum vivens ultimum moriens: cf. De gen. an.

141b 15 ff., and Ebstein ἃς al., Mitt. z. Gesch. der Medizin u.
Naturw., 1920, 19, 102, 219, 305. > See 655 b 29, n.

238

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rv.

blood itself as well, is without sensation, it is clear
that the part where the blood is present first, and
which holds it as in a receptacle, must of necessity be
the source.

This reasoning is supported by the evidence of
the senses. In embryos, as soon as they are formed,
the heart can be seen moving before any of the
other parts, just like a living creature; which
shows that it is the source of their nature in all
blooded animals. Another piece of evidence to
support this is that all blooded creatures have a
heart: why? because they are bound to have a
source for their blood. All blooded creatures, it is
true, have a liver too; but no one would care to
maintain that the liver is the source either of the
blood or of the whole body, because it is nowhere near
the place of primacy and governance, and, also, in
the most highly finished ? animals it has something
to counterbalance it, as it were, viz. the spleen.
Again, the liver has no receptacle for blood in itself
as the heart has : like the rest of the viscera, it keeps
its blood in a blood-vessel. Again, a blood-vessel
runs all through it, whereas no blood-vessel runs
through the heart : all blood-vessels have their source
from the heart and begin there. Since, therefore, of -
necessity the source must be one of these two, the
heart or the liver, and as it is not the liver, it must of
necessity be the heart which is the source of the blood
just as it is of the rest. An animal is defined by the
fact that it possesses sensation : and the part of the
body to have sensation first is the part that has blood
in it first —in other words, the heart, which is the
source of the blood and the first part to have it.

The apex of the heart is sharp and more solid than

239

ARISTOTLE
666 b
^ \ ` ^ , E - , ^ /
κεῖται δὲ πρὸς τῷ στήθει καὶ ὅλως ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν
τοῦ σώματος πρὸς τὸ μὴ καταψύχεσθαι αὐτό" πᾶσι
5 γὰρ ἀσαρκότερον τὸ στῆθος, τὰ δὲ πρανῆ σαρκω-
δέστερα, διὸ πολλὴν ἔχει σκέπην τὸ θερμὸν κατὰ
M ^ » λες / ^ \ ” ,
τὸν νῶτον. ἔστι Ò ἡ καρδία τοῖς μὲν ἄλλοις ζῴοις
κατὰ μέσον τοῦ στηθικοῦ τόπου, τοῖς δ᾽.ἀνθρώποις
.
μικρὸν εἰς τὰ εὐώνυμα. παρεκκλίνουσα πρὸς τὸ
ἀνισοῦν τὴν κατάψυξιν τῶν ἀριστερῶν: μάλιστα γὰρ
10 τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ἄνθρωπος ἔχει κατεψυγμένα τὰ
ἀριστερά. ὅτι δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἰχθύσιν ὁμοίως ἡ
καρδία κεῖται, πρότερον εἴρηται, καὶ διότι φαίνεται
> / » \ \ \ \ \ > / »
ἀνομοίως. ἔχει δὲ πρὸς τὴν κεφαλὴν τὸ ὀξύ: ἔστι
,
δ᾽ αὕτη τὸ πρόσθεν, ἐπὶ ταύτην γὰρ ἡ κίνησις.
"E δὲ M / An0 € δί ` ^5
Ἴχει δὲ καὶ νεύρων πλῆθος ἡ καρδία, καὶ τοῦτ
15 εὐλόγως" ἀπὸ ταύτης γὰρ αἱ κινήσεις, περαίνονται
δὲ διὰ τοῦ ἕλκειν καὶ ἀνιέναι: δεῖ οὖν τοιαύτης
ὑπηρεσίας καὶ ἰσχύος. ἡ δὲ καρδία, καθάπερ
εἴπομεν καὶ πρότερον, οἷον ζῷόν τι πέφυκεν ἐν
τοῖς ἔχουσιν.
N 5 > E / e ` e ^ /
Εστι Ò ἀνόστεος πάντων ὅσα καὶ ἡμεῖς τεθεά-
μεθα, πλὴν τῶν ἵππων καὶ γένους τινὸς βοῶν:
20 τούτοις δὲ διὰ τὸ μέγεθος οἷον ἐρείσματος χάριν
ὀστοῦν ὕπεστι, καθάπερ καὶ τοῖς ὅλοις σώμασιν.
Κοιλίας 8 ἔχουσιν αἱ μὲν τῶν μεγάλων ζῴων
- ε . - > , Z / ` ^ ,
τρεῖς, αἱ δὲ τῶν ἐλασσόνων δύο, μίαν δὲ πᾶσαι: δι
ἣν δ᾽ αἰτίαν, εἴρηται. δεῖ γὰρ εἶναι τόπον τινὰ τῆς

9 At De respir. 418b 3. And see the next note.

> Instead of towards the breast. The meaning of this
passage is made clear by Hist. An. 507 a2 ff. Inallanimals,
says Aristotle, the ** apex ' ” of the heart points forwards, and
in most animals *' forwards " is towards the breast. Fishes

240

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rv.

the rest, and it lies towards the breast, and altogether
in the fore part of the body so as to prevent it from
getting cooled : for in all animals the breast has com-
paratively little flesh on it, while the back is well
supplied and so gives the heat of the body ample
protection on that side. In animals other than man
the heart is in the centre of the region of the breast ;
in man it inclines slightly to the left side so as to
counteract the cooling there, for in man the left side
is much colder than in other creatures. I have
said already that the placing of the heart is the
same in fishes as in other animals, though it appears
to be different, together with the reasons"^ for the
apparent difference. In fishes its apex is turned to-
wards the head? ; but in them the head is “ forwards,"
because the head is in the line of direction in which
they move.

The heart has in it an abundance of sinews, which
is reasonable enough, as the motions of the body have
their origin there ; and as these are performed by
contraction and relaxation, the heart needs the sinews
to serve it and to give it strength. We have said
already that the heart is like a living creature inside
the body that contains it.

In all cases that we have examined the heart is .
boneless, except in horses and a certain kind of ox.
In these, owing to its great size, the heart has a bone
for a support, just as the whole body is supported
by bones.

In the large animals, the heart has three cavities, in
the smaller ones, two only ; and in no species has it less
than one. The reason for this has been given: there

appear to be an exception to this rule, but only because in
them “' forwards " is towards the head.

241

666 b

25

30

35
667 a

5

ARISTOTLE

, M € M ^ , σ σ
καρδίας καὶ ὑποδοχὴν τοῦ πρώτου αἵματος. (ὅτι
- - /
δὲ πρῶτον ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ γίνεται TO αἷμα, πολλάκις
,
εἰρήκαμεν.) διὰ δὲ τὸ τὰς ἀρχηγοὺς φλέβας δύο
/
εἶναι, τήν τε μεγάλην καλουμένην καὶ τὴν ἀορτήν,
€ z o"? » 5 ^ ^ λ ^ M ὃ
ἑκατέρας οὔσης ἀρχῆς τῶν φλεβῶν, καὶ δια-
- τ ^ /
φορὰς ἐχουσῶν, περὶ ὧν ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν, βέλτιον
^ ^ > AN »
καὶ τὰς ἀρχὰς αὐτῶν κεχωρίσθαι" τοῦτο Ò ἂν εἴη
^ ^ ,
διφυοῦς ὄντος τοῦ αἵματος καὶ κεχωρισμένου.
, 2 T > / 4> ap À € ’ 2
διόπερ ἐν οἷς ἐνδέχεται, δύ᾽ εἰσὶν ὑποδοχαί. év-
- \
δέχεται δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις" τούτων γὰρ ἔχουσι καὶ
ε δύ , 0 » δὲ ZA ^ E A
αἱ καρδίαι μέγεθος. ἔτι δὲ βέλτιον τρεῖς εἶναι τὰς
M
κοιλίας, ὅπως T) µία ἀρχὴ κοινή" τὸ δὲ μέσον καὶ
περιττὸν ἀρχή: ὥστε μεγέθους δεῖ μείζονος αὐταῖς
ἀεί, διόπερ αἱ μέγισται τρεῖς ἔχουσι μόναι.
- ,
Τούτων δὲ πλεῖστον μὲν αἷμα καὶ θερμότατον
» ε / A ^ ^ , A
ἔχουσιν αἱ δεξιαί (διὸ καὶ τῶν μερῶν θερμότερα τὰ
/ , / M M / ΕΤ ,
δεξιά), ἐλάχιστον δὲ καὶ ψυχρότερον at ἀριστεραί,
/ > ε / ^ / ` /
μέσον Ò αἱ μέσαι τῷ πλήθει καὶ θερμότητι, καθα-
, ^ M ^
ρώτατον dé: δεῖ γὰρ τὴν ἀρχὴν ὅτι μάλιστ᾽ ἠρεμεῖν,
τοιαύτη δ᾽ ἂν εἴη καθαροῦ τοῦ αἵματος ὄντος, τῷ
/ M A / /
πλήθει δὲ καὶ θερμότητι μέσου.
"E δὲ \ ὃ / / ε ’
χουσι δὲ καὶ διάρθρωσίν τινα αἱ καρδίαι παρα-
/ ^ e ^ , 3 αὶ M ^ e
πλησίαν ταῖς ῥαφαῖς. οὐκ εἰσὶ δὲ συναφεῖς ὥς
, / / > \ / »
τινος ἐκ πλειόνων συνθέτου, ἀλλὰ καθάπερ εἴπομεν,
/ ^ 9111 M ^ ^ > ^
διαρθρώσει μᾶλλον. εἰσὶ δὲ τῶν μὲν αἰσθητικῶν

10 ἀρθρωδέστεραι, τῶν δὲ νωθροτέρων ἀναρθρότεραι,

1 διὰ δὲ ESUYZ: διὰ vulg.
? δ᾽ Peck: γὰρ vulg., om. Ogle.
242

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rv.

must be some place in the heart which will be a
receptacle for the blood when first formed. (As we
have stated several times, blood is first formed in
the heart. Now there are two chief blood-vessels,
the so-called Great Blood-vessel, and the Aorta ; each
of these is the source of other blood-vessels ; and
the two differ from each other (this will be discussed
later); hence it is better for them to have separate
sources. This result can be obtained by having two
separate supplies of blood, and thus we find two
receptacles wherever this is possible, as in the larger
animals which of course have large hearts. But it is
better still to have three cavities, and then there is
an odd one in the middle which can be a common
source for the other two ; since, however, this requires
the heart to be particularly large, only the very
largest hearts have three cavities.

Of these cavities it is the right-hand one which
contains the most blood and the hottest (that is why
the right side of the body is hotter than the left) ;
the left-hand cavity contains least blood, and it is
colder. The blood in the middle cavity is inter-
mediate both in amount and heat, although it is the
purest of them all; this is because the source must
remain as calm as possible, and this is secured when
the blood is pure, and intermediate in its amount and
heat.

The heart has also a sort of articulation, which
resembles the sutures of the skull. By this I do not
mean to say that the heart is a composite thing,
consisting of several parts joined together, but an
articulated whole, as I said. This articulation is more
distinct in animals whose sensation is keen, and less
distinct in the duller ones, such as swine. ‘There are

243

667 a

15

20

το
σι

80

ARISTOTLE

^ ^ ^ ,
καθάπερ at τῶν ὑῶν. αἱ δὲ διαφοραὶ τῆς καρδίας
/
κατὰ μέγεθός τε καὶ μικρότητα καὶ σκληρότητά τε
.
καὶ μαλακότητα τείνουσί πῃ καὶ πρὸς τὰ ἤθη’ τὰ
`
μὲν γὰρ ἀναίσθητα σκληρὰν ἔχει τὴν καρδίαν καὶ
^
πυκνήν, τὰ δ᾽ αἰσθητικὰ μαλακωτέραν, καὶ τὰ μὲν
, » ^ / / 4 > > /
μεγάλας ἔχοντα τὰς καρδίας δειλά, τὰ δ᾽ ἐλάσσους
- /
καὶ µέσας θαρραλεώτερα (τὸ γὰρ συμβαῖνον πάθος
^ ^ es A \
ὑπὸ τοῦ φοβεῖσθαι προὐπάρχει τούτοις διὰ τὸ μὴ
5 y » \ ` ^ ’ ` > A
ἀνάλογον ἔχειν τὸ θερμὸν τῇ καρδίᾳ, μικρὸν δ᾽ Ov
ἐν μεγάλοις ἀμαυροῦσθαι, καὶ τὸ αἷμα ψυχρότερον
5 / \ . ’ » /
εἶναι. μεγάλας δὲ τὰς καρδίας ἔχουσι λαγώς,
»” ^ e » / 1 ^ .
ἔλαφος, μῦς, ὕαινα, ὄνος, πάρδαλις, γαλῆ, καὶ
τἆλλα σχεδὸν πάνθ᾽ ὅσα φανερῶς δειλὰ ἢ διὰ
φόβον κακοῦργα.

Παραπλησίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν φλεβῶν καὶ ἐπὶ
τῶν κοιλιῶν ἔχει: ψυχραὶ γὰρ αἱ μεγάλαι φλέβες
καὶ κοιλίαι. ὥσπερ γὰρ ἐν μικρῷ καὶ ἐν μεγάλῳ
οἰκήματι τὸ ἴσον πῦρ ἧσσον ἐν τοῖς μείζοσι θερ-
μαίνει, οὕτω Kav τούτοις τὸ θερμόν: ἀγγεῖα γὰρ

.
καὶ ἡ φλέψ, καὶ ἡ κοιλία. ἔτι δ᾽ αἱ ἀλλότριαι κινή-
σεις ἕκαστον τῶν θερμῶν καταψύχουσιν, ἐν δὲ ταῖς
εὐρυχωρεστέραις τὸ πνεῦμα πλεῖον καὶ ἐνισχύει
μᾶλλον: διὸ τῶν μεγαλοκοιλίων οὐδὲν οὐδὲ τῶν

P -/ , . / > A /
μεγαλοφλέβων πῖόν ἐστι κατὰ σάρκα, ἀλλὰ πάντα
-^ . ^ ^ , > , `
ἢ τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν τοιούτων ἀδηλόφλεβα καὶ µικρο-
κοίλια φαίνεται.

, \ ^ / ι ο ^ , ^

Móvov δὲ τῶν σπλάγχνων καὶ ὅλως τῶν ἐν τῷ

! πάρδαλις] δορκαλίς Platt.
244

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rv.

other differences in the heart ; some hearts are large,
some small, some are hard, some soft; and these
tend by some means to influence the creature's
temperament. Illustrations of this are: animals
whose powers of sensation are small have hearts that
are hard and dense, those whose sensation is keen
have softer ones ; and those with large hearts are
cowardly, those with small or moderate-sized ones,
courageous (this is because in the former class the
affection which is normally produced by fear is
present to begin with," as their eas is not proportion-
ate to the size of their heart, but is small and there-
fore hardly noticeable in the enormous space that it
occupies ; so that their blood is comparatively cold).
The following creatures have large hearts: the hare,
the deer, the mouse, the hyena, the ass, the leopard,
the marten, and practically all other animals whose
cowardice is either outright or else betrayed by their
mischievous behaviour.

Similar conditions obtain in the blood-vessels and
the cavities of the heart : if they are large, they are
cold. The effect of the same-sized fire is less in a
large room than in a small one ; and the same applies
to the heat in these receptacles, the blood-vessels and
the cavities. Further, extraneous motions have a
cooling effect upon hot things ; and the more roomy
a receptacle is, the greater the amount of air (or
pneuma) in it and the stronger its effect. Thus we
find that no animal which has large cavities or large
blood-vessels has fat flesh, and conversely, that all (or
most) fat animals have indistinguishable blood-vessels
and small cavities.

The heart is the only one of the viscera—indeed

4 Cf. 650b 27. See also 692 a 20.
245

ARISTOTLE
667 a
, , € / ` / σολ
σώματι μορίων ἡ καρδία χαλεπὸν πάθος οὐδὲν
ε / M ^5 > / / ^ ^
ὑποφέρει, καὶ τοῦτ᾽ εὐλόγως: φθειρομένης γὰρ τῆς
> ^ ᾽ ” 3 D / , A 2 ^
35 ἀρχῆς οὐκ ἔστιν ἐξ οὗ γένοιτ᾽ ἂν βοήθεια τοῖς
3 > , , / ^ M ^
667b ἄλλοις ἐκ ταύτης ἠρτημένοις. σημεῖον δὲ τοῦ
^ , 8 / 0 10 ^ 8 / MAE M
μηθὲν ἐπιδέχεσθαι πάθος τὴν καρδίαν τὸ ἐν μηδενὶ
^ € > ~
τῶν θυομένων ἱερείων ὦφθαι τοιοῦτον πάθος περὶ
Br 4 σ 33 /7À ^ » / σ
αὐτὴν ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων σπλάγχνων. οἵ τε
γὰρ νεφροὶ πολλάκις φαίνονται λίθων μεστοὶ καὶ
/ . / M A T e , `
δφυµάτων καὶ δοθιήνων καὶ τὸ ἧπαρ, ὡσαύτως δὲ
καὶ ὁ πλεύμων, μάλιστα Ò ὁ σπλήν. πολλὰ δὲ καὶ
e / / ` ᾽ . /
ἕτερα παθήματα συμβαίνοντα περὶ αὐτὰ φαίνεται,
ἥκιστα δὲ τοῦ μὲν πλεύμονος περὶ τὴν ἀρτηρίαν,
^ > e M \ / ^ / /
τοῦ Ò ἥπατος περὶ τὴν σύναψιν τῇ μεγάλῃ φλεβί,
10 καὶ τοῦτ᾽ εὐλόγως’ ταύτῃ γὰρ μάλιστα κοινωνοῦσι
^ / e δὲ \ / M ^ /
τῇ καρδίᾳ. ὅσα δὲ διὰ νόσον καὶ τοιαῦτα πάθη
φαίνεται τελευτῶντα τῶν ζῴων, τούτοις ἀνατεμνο-
/ / ` M / , /
μένοις φαίνεται περὶ τὴν καρδίαν νοσώδη πάθη.
Καὶ περὶ μὲν τῆς καρδίας, ποία τις, καὶ τίνος
> ^
ἕνεκεν kai διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν ὑπάρχει τοῖς ἔχουσιν,
τοσαῦτ᾽ εἰρήσθω.
5 V. 'Ἑπόμενον © ἂν εἴη περὶ τῶν φλεβῶν εἰπεῖν,
τῆς τε μεγάλης καὶ τῆς ἀορτῆς" αὗται γὰρ ἐκ τῆς
/ ^ , A T € A `
καρδίας πρῶται δέχονται τὸ αἷμα, at δὲ λοιπαὶ
/ > / Dis o ^ > ^ LÀ
τούτων ἀποφυάδες εἰσίν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν τοῦ αἵματος
χάριν εἶσί, πρότερον εἴρηται: τό τε γὰρ ὑγρὸν ἅπαν
> / ^ M ` A / > ^ 1 >
20 ἀγγείου δεῖται, καὶ τὸ φλεβῶν γένος ἀγγεῖον, τὸ ὃ
246

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. 1ν.-ν.

the only part in the whole body—which cannot
withstand any serious affection. This is readily
understood : the other parts depend upon the heart,
and when this source itself is ailing, there is no place
whence they can obtain succour. A proof that the
heart cannot put up with any affection is this : Never
has the heart in a sacrificial victim been observed
to be affected in the way that the other viscera
sometimes are. Very often the kidneys are found
to be full of stones, growths, and small abscesses ;
so is the liver, and the lung, and especially the
spleen. Many other affections are observed in
these organs; but in the lung they occur least
often in that portion which is nearest the windpipe,
and in the liver in that portion which is nearest its
junction with the Great Blood-vessel. This is readily
understood: those are the places where they are
most closely in communication with the heart.
Those animals, however, which die as the result
of disease, and affections such as I have mentioned,
when cut open are seen to have diseased affections
of the heart.

We have now spoken of the heart : we have said
what its nature is, what purpose it serves, and why it
is p ; and that will suffice.

. I suppose that the next subject for us to discuss
is the Blood-vessels, that is, the Great Blood-vessel
and the Aorta. It is these into which the blood
goes first after it leaves the heart, and the other
blood-vessels are merely branches from these. We
have already said that these blood-vessels are present
for the sake of the blood: fluid substances always
need a receptacle, and the blood-vessels generally
are the receptacles which hold the blood. "We may

247,

Blood-
vessels.

667 b

25

30

85
668 a

ARISTOTLE

αἷμα ἐν ταύταις' διότι δὲ δύο καὶ ἀπὸ μιᾶς ἀρχῆς
καθ᾽’ ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα διατείνουσι, λέγωμεν.

Ῥοῦ μὲν οὖν εἰς μίαν ἀρχὴν συντελεῖν καὶ ἀπὸ
μιᾶς αἴτιον τὸ μίαν ἔχειν πάντα τὴν αἰσθητικὴν
ψυχὴν ἐνεργείᾳ, ὥστε καὶ τὸ μόριον ἓν τὸ ταύτην
ἔχον πρώτως (ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἐναίμοις κατὰ δύναμιν
καὶ κατ᾽ ἐνέργειαν, τῶν δ᾽ ἀναίμων ἐνίοις κατ᾽
ἐνέργειαν μόνον), διὸ καὶ τὴν τοῦ θερμοῦ ἀρχὴν
ἀναγκαῖον ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ τόπῳ εἶναι: αὕτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν
αἰτία καὶ τῷ αἵματι τῆς ὑγρότητος καὶ τῆς θερ-
μότητος. διὰ μὲν οὖν τὸ ἐν evi εἶναι μορίῳ τὴν
αἰσθητικὴν ἀρχὴν καὶ τὴν τῆς θερμότητος καὶ ἡ
τοῦ αἵματος ἀπὸ μιᾶς ἐστὶν ἀρχῆς, διὰ δὲ τὴν τοῦ
αἵματος ἑνότητα καὶ ἡ τῶν φλεβῶν ἀπὸ μιᾶς.

Δύο & εἰσὶ διὰ τὸ τὰ σώματα εἶναι διμερή τῶν
ἐναίμων καὶ πορευτικῶν' ἐν πᾶσι γὰρ τούτοις
διώρισται τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν καὶ τὸ
δεξιὸν καὶ τὸ ἀριστερὸν καὶ τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω.
ὅσῳ δὲ τιμιώτερον καὶ ἡγεμονικώτερον τὸ ἔμ-
προσθεν τοῦ ὄπισθεν, τοσούτῳ καὶ ἡ μεγάλη φλέψ
τῆς adoptis’ ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν, ἡ δ᾽ ἐν
τοῖς ὄπισθεν κεῖται, καὶ τὴν μὲν ἅπαντ᾽ ἔχει τὰ
ἔναιμα φανερῶς, τὴν Ò ἔνια μὲν ἀμυδρῶς ἔνια δ᾽
ἀφανῶς.

Tot δ᾽ εἰς τὸ πᾶν διαδεδόσθαι τὸ σῶμα τὰς
φλέβας αἴτιον τὸ παντὸς εἶναι τοῦ σώματος ὕλην
τὸ αἷμα, τοῖς δ᾽ ἀναίμοις τὸ ἀνάλογον, ταῦτα δ᾽ ἐν

4 And potentially many ; cf. 682 a 4 ff.
248

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. v.

now go on to explain why there are two of these blood-
vessels, why they begin from a single source, and why
they extend all over the body.

The reason why finally they both coincide in one
source and also begin from one source is this. The
sensory Soul is, in all animals, one actually ; there-
fore the part which primarily contains this Soul is
also one (one potentially as well as actually in the
blooded animals, but in some of the bloodless animals
it is only actually one 3), and for this reason the source
of heat also must of necessity be in the selfsame
place. But this concerns the blood, for this source
is the cause of the blood's heat and fluidity. Thus
we see that because the source of sensation and the
source of heat are in one and the same part, the blood
must originate from one source too; and because
there is this one origin of the blood, the blood-vessels
also must originate from one source.

The blood-vessels are, however, two in number, be-
cause the bodies of the blooded creatures that move
about are bilateral: we can distinguish in all of
them front and back, right and left, upper and lower.
And just as the fore part is more honourable and
more suited to rule than the back part, so is the Great
Blood-vessel pre-eminent over the Aorta. The Great
Blood-vessel lies in front, while the Aorta is at the
back. All blooded creatures have a Great Blood-
vessel, plainly visible ; but in some of them the Aorta
is indistinct and in others it cannot be detected.

The reason why the blood-vessels are distributed
all over the body is that blood (and in bloodless
creatures, its counterpart) is the material out of
which the whole body is constructed, and blood-
vessels (and their counterparts) are the channels in

249.

ARISTOTLE
668 a
n ` A TOA E. ^ ` v
φλεβὶ καὶ τῷ ἀνάλογον κεῖσθαι. πῶς μὲν οὖν
τρέφεται τὰ ζῷα καὶ ἐκ τίνος καὶ τίνα τρόπον
ἀναλαμβάνουσιν ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας ἐν τοῖς περὶ γενέ-
σεως λόγοις μᾶλλον ἁρμόζει σκοπεῖν καὶ λέγειν.
10 [Συνισταμένων δὲ τῶν μορίων ἐκ τοῦ αἵματος,
/ » , / € ^ ^ ευ
καθάπερ εἴπομεν, εὐλόγως ἡ τῶν φλεβῶν ῥύσις
διὰ παντὸς τοῦ σώματος πέφυκεν: δεῖ γὰρ καὶ τὸ
αἷμα διὰ παντὸς καὶ παρὰ πᾶν εἶναι, εἴπερ τῶν μο-
ρίων ἕκαστον ἐκ τούτου συνέστηκεν.]᾽
y 5 e » ^ / ες /
Εοικε Ò ὥσπερ ἔν τε τοῖς κήποις αἱ ὑδραγωγίαι
15 κατασκευάζονται ἀπὸ μιᾶς ἀρχῆς καὶ πηγῆς εἰς
πολλοὺς ὀχετοὺς καὶ ἄλλους ἀεὶ πρὸς τὸ πά
s ὀχετοὺς καὶ ἄλλους ἀεὶ πρὸς τὸ πάντῃ
μεταδιδόναι, καὶ ἐν ταῖς οἰκοδομίαις παρὰ πᾶσαν
τὴν τῶν θεμελίων ὑπογραφὴν λίθοι παραβέβληνται,
διὰ τὸ τὰ μὲν κηπευόμενα φύεσθαι ἐκ τοῦ ὕδατος,
\ \ / 2 - ’ > ^ `
τοὺς δὲ θεμελίους ἐκ τῶν λίθων οἰκοδομεῖσθαι, τὸν
2 αὐτὸν τρόπον καὶ ἡ φύσις τὸ αἷμα διὰ παντὸς
ὠχέτευκε τοῦ σώματος, ἐπειδὴ παντὸς ὕλη πέφυκε
τοῦτο. γίνεται δὲ κατάδηλον ἐν τοῖς μάλιστα κατα-
’ , \ \ » / ^ ^
λελεπτυσμένοις: οὐθὲν γὰρ ἄλλο φαίνεται παρὰ τὰς
φλέβας, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀμπελίνων τε καὶ συκίνων
/ \ ον, ] 3 A ` M ’
25 φύλλων καὶ ὅσ᾽ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα: καὶ γὰρ τούτων
5 / 9 / / / " >
αὐαινομένων" φλέβες λείπονται μόνον. τούτων ὃ
αἴτιον ὅτι τὸ αἷμα καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον τούτῳ δυνάμει
σῶμα καὶ σὰρξ ἢ τὸ ἀνάλογόν ἐστιν' καθάπερ οὖν

1 ]]. 10-13, quae praecedentia l]. 4-7 repetunt, secludenda.
? αὐαινομένων attice Bekker.

a This seems to be an unnecessary repetition of the last
sentence but one.

250

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. v.

which this material is carried. As regards the
manner in which animals are nourished, the source
of the nourishment, and the processes by which
they take it up from the stomach, it is more appro-
priate to consider these subjects and to discuss them
in the treatise on Generation.

[But since the parts of the body are composed
out of blood, as has been said, it is easy to see why
the course of the blood-vessels passes throughout
the whole body. The blood must be everywhere
in the body and everywhere at hand if every one of
the parts is constructed out of it.] 4

The system of blood-vessels in the body may be
compared to those water-courses which are con-
structed in gardens: they start from one source,
or spring, and branch off into numerous channels,
and then into still more, and so on progressively, so
as to carry a supply to every part of the garden.
And again, when a house is being built, supplies of
stones are placed all alongside the lines of the
foundations. These things are done because (a)
water is the material out of which the plants in the
garden grow, and (b) stones are the material out of
which the foundations are built. In the same way,
Nature has provided for the irrigation of the whole
body with blood, because blood is the material out
of which it is all made. This becomes evident in
cases of severe emaciation, when nothing is to be
seen but the blood-vessels : just as the leaves of vines
and fig-trees and similar plants, when they wither,
leave behind nothing but the veins. The explana-
tion of this is that the blood (or its counterpart) is,
potentially, the body (that is, flesh—or its counter-
part) Thus, just as in the irrigation system the

I 25l

668a ,

80

35
668 b

10

ARISTOTLE

^ , , ^
ἐν ταῖς ὀχετείαις αἱ μέγισται τῶν τάφρων δια-
€ ^
μένουσιν, at δ᾽ ἐλάχισται πρῶται καὶ ταχέως ὑπὸ
^ A > / tA δ᾽ > À ,
τῆς ἰλύος ἀφανίζονται, πάλιν ἐκλειπούσης
φανεραὶ γίνονται, τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον καὶ τῶν φλεβῶν
ε
αἱ μὲν μέγισται διαμένουσιν, αἱ Ò ἐλάχισται yi-
νονται σάρκες ἐνεργείᾳ, δυνάμει δ᾽ εἰσὶν οὐδὲν
ἧσσον φλέβες. διὸ καὶ σωζομένων τῶν σαρκῶν
> ^ ^
καθ᾽ ὁτιοῦν αἷμα ῥεῖ διαιρουμένων: καίτοι ἄνευ μὲν
φλεβὸς οὐκ ἔστιν αἷμα, φλέβιον' δ᾽ οὐδὲν δῆλον,
σ ^ ^ A ^
ὥσπερ οὐδ᾽ ἐν τοῖς ὀχετοῖς αἱ τάφροι πρὶν ἢ τὴν
ἰλὺν ἐξαιρεθῆναι.
€
Ἔκ. μειζόνων 9' εἰς ἐλάσσους αἱ φλέβες ἀεὶ
προέρχονται ἕως τοῦ γενέσθαι τοὺς πόρους ἐλάσ-
σους τῆς τοῦ αἵματος παχύτητος: δι ὧν τῷ μὲν
αἵματι δίοδος οὐκ ἔστι, τῷ δὲ περιττώματι τῆς
- ^ ^ M ^
ὑγρᾶς ἰκμάδος, ὃν καλοῦμεν ἱδρῶτα, καὶ τοῦτο
διαθερμανθέντος τοῦ σώματος καὶ τῶν φλεβίων
» € ^ ,
ἀναστομωθέντων. ἤδη δέ τισιν ἱδρῶσαι συνέβη
ε / ^ M
αἱματώδει περιττώματι διὰ καχεξίαν, τοῦ μὲν
^ ^ , σ
σώματος ῥυάδος καὶ μανοῦ γενομένου, τοῦ δ᾽ at-
ματος ἐξυγρανθέντος δι᾽ ἀπεψίαν, ἀδυνατούσης τῆς
, ^ , , / - Pos: /
ἐν τοῖς φλεβίοις θερμότητος πέσσειν δι ὀλιγότητα.
€i ^ ^ `
(εἴρηται γὰρ ὅτι πᾶν τὸ κοινὸν γῆς καὶ ὕδατος
^ . `
παχύνεται πεσσόμενον, ἡ δὲ τροφὴ καὶ τὸ αἷμα
` 3 > ^ 10 T δὲ / e 0 /
μικτὸν ἐξ ἀμφοῖν.) ἀδυνατεῖ δὲ πέσσειν ἢ θερμότης
3 / M M e ^ > / > ^ M `
où µόνον διὰ τὴν αὑτῆς ὀλιγότητα ἀλλὰ καὶ διὰ
^ \ € M ^ > / ^
πλῆθος καὶ ὑπερβολὴν τῆς εἰσφερομένης τροφῆς'
1 φλεβίον Bekker.
α Could Aristotle have seen a case of haematoporphyria 2
252

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. v.

biggest channels persist whereas the smallest ones
quickly get obliterated by the mud, though when
the mud abates they reappear; so in the body the
largest blood-vessels persist, while the smallest ones
become flesh in actuality, though potentially they
are blood-vessels as much as ever before. Accordingly
we find that, as long as the flesh is in a sound con-
dition, wherever it is cut, blood will flow ; and
although no blood-vessels are visible, they must be
there (because we cannot have blood without blood-
vessels)—just as the irrigating channels are there
right enough, but are not visible until they are
cleared of mud.

The blood-vessels get progressively smaller as they
go on until their channel is too small for the blood
to pass through. But, although the blood cannot
get through them, the residue of the fluid moisture,
which we call sweat, can do so, and this happens when
the body is thoroughly heated and the blood-vessels
open wider at their mouths. In some cases, the sweat
consists of a blood-like residue 4: this is due to a bad
general condition, in which the body has become loose
and flabby, and the blood watery owing to insufficient
concoction, which in its turn is due to the weakness
and scantiness of the heat in the small blood-vessels.
(We have already said that all compounds of earth
and water are thickened by concoction, and this cate-
gory includes food and blood.) The heat may, as
I say, be in itself too scanty to be able to cause
concoction, or it may be that it is scanty in comparison
with the amount of food that enters the body, if

See A. E. Garrod, Inborn Errors of Metabolism, Oxford, 1923,
pp. 136 ff. Also H. Günther, Deutsches Archiv f. klin.
Medizin, 1920, 124, pp. 257 ff.

258 -

ARISTOTLE
668 b , . \ , 5X / € , e M
γίνεται δὲ πρὸς ταύτην ὀλίγη. ἡ 9 ὑπερβολὴ

15 δισσή- καὶ γὰρ τῷ ποσῷ καὶ τῷ ποιῷ: οὐ γὰρ πᾶν
ὁμοίως εὔπεπτον. (ῥεῖ δὲ μάλιστα τὸ αἷμα κατὰ
τοὺς εὐρυχωρεστάτους τῶν πόρων" διόπερ ἐκ τῶν
μυκτήρων καὶ τῶν οὔλων καὶ τῆς ἕδρας, ἐνίοτε δὲ
καὶ ἐκ τοῦ στόματος αἱμορροῖδες ἄπονοι γίνονται,
καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ ἐκ τῆς ἀρτηρίας μετὰ βίας.)

2 Διεστῶσαι δ᾽ ἄνωθεν ἢ τε μεγάλη φλὲψ, καὶ ἡ
ἀορτή, κάτω δ᾽ ἐναλλάσσουσαι συνέχουσι τὸ σῶμα.
προϊοῦσαι γὰρ σχίζονται κατὰ τὴν διφυΐαν τῶν
κώλων, καὶ ἡ μὲν ἐκ τοῦ ἔμπροσθεν εἰς τοὔπισθεν
προέρχεται, ἡ © ἐκ τοῦ ὄπισθεν εἰς τοὔμπροσθεν,

2; καὶ συμβάλλουσιν εἰς ἕν' ὥσπερ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς πλεκο-
μένοις ἐγγίνεται τὸ συνεχὲς μᾶλλον, οὕτω καὶ διὰ
τῆς τῶν φλεβῶν ἐναλλάξεως συνδεῖται τῶν σωμά-
των τὰ πρόσθια τοῖς ὄπισθεν. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἀπὸ
τῆς καρδίας ἐν τοῖς ἄνω τόποις συμβαίνει. τὸ δὲ
μετ᾽ ἀκριβείας ὡς ἔχουσιν αἱ φλέβες πρὸς ἀλλήλας,

80 ἔκ τε τῶν ἀνατομῶν δεῖ θεωρεῖν καὶ ἐκ τῆς ζωικῆς
ἱστορίας.

Καὶ περὶ μὲν φλεβῶν καὶ καρδίας εἰρήσθω,
περὶ δὲ τῶν ἄλλων σπλάγχνων σκεπτέον κατὰ τὴν
αὐτὴν μέθοδον.

VI. Πλεύμονα μὲν οὖν ἔχει διὰ τὸ πεζὸν εἶναί τι
γένος τῶν ζῴων. ἀναγκαῖον μὲν γὰρ γίνεσθαι τῷ

35 θερμῷ κατάψυξιν, ταύτης δὲ δεῖται θύραθεν τὰ

669α ἔναιμα τῶν ζῴων" θερμότερα γάρ. τὰ δὲ μὴ ἔναιμα

α 'The posterior vena cava.
> Hist. An., especially 511 b 11—515 a 26.

254

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ν.-νι.

this is excessive ; and this excess may be due either
to the quantity of it or (since some substances are
less patient of concoction than others) to its quality.
(Haemorrhage occurs most where the passages are
widest, as from the nostrils, the gums and the
fundament, and occasionally from the mouth. At
these places it is not painful; when, however, it
occurs from the windpipe, it is violent.)

The Great Blood-vessel? and the Aorta, which in
the upper part are some distance from each other,
lower down change sides, and thus hold the body
compact. That is to say, when they reach the place
where the legs diverge, they divide into two, and
the Great Blood-vessel goes over to the back from
the front, and the Aorta to the front from the back ;
and thus they unite the body together, for this
changing over of the blood-vessels binds together
the front and the back of the body just as the cross-
ing of the strands in plaiting or twining makes the
material hold together more stoutly. A similar
thing occurs in the upper part of the body, where
the blood-vessels that lead from the heart are inter-
changed. For an exact description of the relative
disposition of the blood-vessels, the treatises on
Anatomy and the Researches upon Animals? should be
consulted.

We have now finished our discussion of the heart
and the blood-vessels, and we must go on to consider
the remaining viscera on the same lines.

VI. First the Lung. The reason why any group of
animals possesses a lung is because they are land-
creatures. It is necessary to have some means for
cooling the heat of the body ; and blooded animals
are so hot that this cooling must come from outside

255

Lung.

669 a

10

15

20

ARISTOTLE

καὶ τῷ συμφύτῳ πνεύματι δύναται καταψύχειν.
ἀνάγκη δὲ καταψύχειν ἔξωθεν 7] ὕδατι ἢ ἀέρι.
διόπερ τῶν μὲν ἰχθύων οὐδεὶς € ἔχει πλεύμονα, ἀλλ'
ἀντὶ τούτου βράγχια, καθάπερ εἴρηται ἐν τοῖς περὶ
ἀναπνοῆς" ὕδατι γὰρ ποιεῖται τὴν κατάψυξιν". τὰ
δ᾽ ἀναπνέοντα τῷ ἀέρι, διόπερ πάντα τὰ dva-
πνέοντα ἔχει πλεύμονα. ἀναπνεῖ δὲ τὰ μὲν πεζὰ
πάντα, ἔνια δὲ καὶ τῶν ἐνύδρων, οἷον φάλαινα καὶ
δελφὶς καὶ τὰ ἀναφυσῶντα κήτη πάντα: πολλὰ γὰρ
τῶν ζῴων ἐπαμφοτερίζει τὴν φύσιν, καὶ τῶν τε
πεζῶν καὶ τὸν ἀέρα δεχομένων διὰ τὴν τοῦ σώματος
κρᾶσιν ἐν ὑγρῷ. διατελεῖ τὸν πλεῖστον χρόνον, καὶ
τῶν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ μετέχει τοσοῦτον ἔνια τῆς πεζῆς
φύσεως ὥστ᾽ ἐν τῷ πνεύματι αὐτῶν εἶναι τὸ τέλος
τοῦ ζῆν.
Too δ᾽ ἀναπνεῖν ὁ πλεύμων ὅ ὄργανόν ἐστι, τὴν μὲν
ἀρχὴν τῆς κινήσεως ἔχων ἀπὸ τῆς καρδίας, ποιῶν
εὐρυχωρίαν τῇ εἰσόδῳ τοῦ πνεύματος διὰ τὴν
αὑτοῦ σομφότητα. καὶ τὸ μέγεθος: αἰρομένου μὲν
γὰρ εἰσρεῖ τὸ πνεῦμα, συνιόντος δ᾽ ἐξέρχεται. πάλιν.
τὸ δὲ πρὸς τὴν ἆλσιν εἶναι τὸν πλεύμονα τῆς καρ-
δίας οὐκ εἴρηται καλῶς: ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ τε γὰρ συμ-
βαίνει μόνον ὡς εἰπεῖν τὸ τῆς πηδήσεως διὰ τὸ
μόνον ἐν ἐλπίδι γίνεσθαι καὶ προσδοκίᾳ τοῦ μέλ-
λοντος, ἀπέχει τ᾽ ἐν τοῖς πλείστοις πολὺν τόπον καὶ
κεῖται τὴν θέσιν ἀνωτέρω τοῦ πλεύμονος, ὥστε
μηδὲν συμβάλλεσθαι τὸν πλεύμονα πρὸς τὴν ἄλσιν
τῆς καρδίας.
Διαφέρει δ᾽ ὁ πλεύμων πολὺ τοῖς ζῴοις. τὰ μὲν
9 See above, on 659 b 17. > 47626.

* See above, on 650 b 19 ff.
4 This view is expressed by Timaeus in Plato's Timaeus, 10c.

256

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. τι.

them, though the bloodless ones can do their own
cooling by means of the connate pneuma.t Now
external cooling must be effected either by water or
by air. This explains why none of the fishes has
a lung. They are water-cooled, and instead of a
lung they have gills (see the treatise on Respiration).°
Animals that breathe, on the other hand, are air-
cooled, and so they all have alung. All land-animals
breathe ; so do some of the water-animals (e.g. the
whale, the dolphin, and all the spouting cetacea).
This is not surprising, for many animals are inter-
mediate between the two: some that are land-
animals and breathe spend most of their time in the
water owing to the blend ^ in their bodies; and
some of the water-animals partake of the nature of
land-animals to such an extent that the limiting
condition of life for them lies in their breath.

Now the organ of breathing is the lung. It has
its source of motion in the heart, and it affords a
wide space for the breath to come into because it is
large and spongy: when the lung rises up, the
breath rushes in, and when it contracts the breath
goes out again. The theory? that the lung is pro-
vided as a cushion for the throbbings of the heart is
not correct. This leaping of the heart is practically
not found except in man, and that is because man is
the only animal that has hope and expectation of
the future. Besides, in most animals the heart is
a long way off from the lung and lies well above
it, and so the lung cannot be of any assistance in
absorbing the throbbings of the heart.?

There are many differences in the lung. Some

ο. quadrupeds the lung is above the heart, but not in
man, owing to the difference of posture.
ZIT

ARISTOTLE

669 a ^ y » M , ^ > > , M
25'yàp ἔναιμον ἔχει kai μέγαν, τὰ δ᾽ ἐλάττω καὶ
σομφόν, τὰ μὲν ζῳοτόκα διὰ τὴν θερμότητα τῆς
, i]
φύσεως μείζω καὶ πολύαιμον, τὰ δ᾽ ὠοτόκα ξηρὸν
M , , \ / , 3 ^
καὶ μικρόν, δυνάμενον δὲ μεγάλα διίστασθαι ἐν τῷ
3 ^ σ ^ , ` > / δὲ
ἐμφυσᾶσθαι, ὥσπερ τὰ τετράποδα μὲν ᾠοτόκα δὲ
- - ^ € ^ `
30 τῶν πεζῶν, οἷον ot τε σαῦροι καὶ αἱ χελῶναι καὶ
^ ^ €
πᾶν τὸ τοιοῦτον γένος, ἔτι δὲ πρὸς τούτοις ἡ τῶν
^ 4
πτηνῶν φύσις καὶ καλουμένων ὀρνίθων. πάντων
2 -
γὰρ τούτων σομφὸς ὁ πλεύμων καὶ ὅμοιος ἀφρῷ'
^ ,
καὶ yàp ὁ ἀφρὸς ἐκ πολλοῦ μικρὸς γίνεται συγχεό-
μενος, καὶ ὁ τούτων πλεύμων μικρὸς καὶ ὑμενώδης.
M M » M > / ~ , ^
85 διὸ καὶ ἄδιψα καὶ ὀλιγόποτα ταῦτα πάντα, καὶ
, ^ ^ eo
δύναται πολὺν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ ἀνέχεσθαι χρόνον: ate
- /
γὰρ ὀλίγον ἔχοντα θερμὸν ἱκανῶς ἐπὶ πολὺν χρόνον
/ ^ ^ ^ / /
669b καταψύχεται ὑπ᾽ αὐτῆς τῆς τοῦ πλεύμονος κινή-
σεως, ὄντος ἀερώδους καὶ Kevo.”
’ M \ \ y , , / ~
(Συμβέβηκε δὲ καὶ τὰ μεγέθη τούτων ἐλάττω τῶν
, ε , / 3 A M . \ ,
ζῴων ὡς ἐπίπαν εἰπεῖν: τὸ γὰρ θερμὸν αὐξητικόν,
ε δὲ λ / 0 / ^ » 5 > ^
ἡ δὲ πολυαιμία θερμότητος σημεῖον. ἔτι δ᾽ ὀρθοῖ
δτὰ σώματα μᾶλλον, διόπερ ἄνθρωπος μὲν τῶν
” , / . \ / ^ A
ἄλλων ὀρθότατον, τὰ δὲ ζωοτόκα τῶν ἄλλων τετρα-
/ / ^ ^
πόδων: οὐδὲν γὰρ ὁμοίως τρωγλοδυτεῖ τῶν wo-
τόκων, οὔτ᾽ ἄπουν οὔτε πεζεῦον.)
"OÀ M = e À , , \ > ^ /
ως μὲν οὖν ὃ πλεύμων ἐστὶν ἀναπνοῆς χάριν,
y ` ` ^
ἄναιμος δὲ καὶ τοιοῦτος γένους τινὸς ἕνεκεν ζῴων"
> - 9 , ^
10 ἀλλ᾽ ἀνώνυμον τὸ κοινὸν ἐπ᾽ αὐτῶν, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ

1 ὄντος . . « κενοῦ Thurot: οὔσης . « . κενῆς vulg.

a Of. 653 a 30 ff,

258

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. νι.

animals have a large lung, which contains blood ;
others a small one and spongy. In the Vivipara it is
large and has much blood in it because these creatures
have a hot nature : in the Ovipara it is dry and small,
but it can expand to a great size when inflated :
examples of these are: among land-animals, the
oviparous quadrupeds like the lizards, tortoises, and
all such creatures, and in addition to these the
tribe of winged things, the birds. All these have a
spongy lung, which, like froth, runs together and
contracts from a large volume into a small one. So
it counts as small; and also it is membranous. Asa
result, all these creatures are not much subject to
thirst, and drink but little ; and also they can bear to
remain a long time under the water: this is because
their heat is scanty and can therefore be sufficiently
cooled over a long period by the mere motion of the
lung, which is void and air-like.

(Consequently, one may add, in general these
creatures are smaller in size than the majority of
animals, as growth is promoted by heat, and a plenti-
ful supply of blood is a sign that heat is present.
Furthermore, heat tends to make the body upright,?
which explains why man is the most upright among
the animals and the Vivipara the most upright among
the quadrupeds. And there are no viviparous
creatures, either with or without feet, so fond of
creeping into holes as the Ovipara are.)

The lung, then, is present for the sake of the
breathing : this is its function always. Sometimes,
to serve the purpose of a particular group, it is blood-
less, and such as has been described above. There
is no common name which is applied to all animals
that have lungs. But there ought to be: because

τὰ 259

ARISTOTLE
669 b
er 3 / 277» / M] σ `
ὃ ὄρνις ὠνόμασται ἐπί τινος γένους. διὸ ὥσπερ τὸ
- ,
ὄρνιθι εἶναι ἔκ τινός ἐστι, καὶ ἐκείνων ἐν τῇ οὐσίᾳ
/
ὑπάρχει τὸ πλεύμονα ἔχειν.
VII. Δοκεῖ δὲ τῶν σπλάγχνων τὰ μὲν εἶναι
A 0 / ὃ , ` λ , ^ 8 \
μονοφυῆ, καθάπερ καρ ία καὶ πλεύμων, τὰ δὲ
15 διφυῆ, καθάπερ νεφροί, τὰ δ᾽ ἀπορεῖται ποτέρως
ἔχει. φανείη γὰρ ἂν ἐπαμφοτερίζειν τούτοις τὸ
ἧπαρ καὶ ὁ σπλήν: καὶ γὰρ ὡς μονοφυὲς ἑκάτερον,
^
καὶ ὡς ἀνθ᾽ ἑνὸς δύο παραπλησίαν ἔχοντα τὴν
, » ` / ^ ` 5 » ε ^
φύσιν. ἔστι δὲ πάντα διφυᾶ. τὸ Ò αἴτιον ἢ τοῦ
Ων / QC t
σώματος διάστασις διφυὴς μὲν οὖσα, πρὸς μίαν δὲ
^ . 2
20 συντελοῦσα ἀρχήν' τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄνω καὶ κάτω, τὸ ὃ
» Sate \ \ . ` > /
ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ὄπισθεν, τὸ δὲ δεξιὸν καὶ ἀριστερόν
ἐστιν. διόπερ. καὶ ὁ SOL gpa βούλεται διμερὴς
εἶναι πᾶσι καὶ τῶν αἰσθητηρίων. ἕκαστον. κατὰ
τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ λόγον ἡ καρδία ταῖς κοιλίαις. ὁ δὲ
» ^ -
πλεύμων ἔν γε' τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις τοσοῦτον διέστηκεν
σ ^ 73) » 3 \ , ε .
25 ὥστε δοκεῖν δύ᾽ ἔχειν αὐτὰ πλεύμονας. οἱ δὲ
νεφροὶ καὶ παντὶ δῆλοι: κατὰ δὲ τὸ ἧπαρ καὶ τὸν
σπλῆνα δικαίως ἄν τις ἀπορήσειεν. τούτου δ᾽
αἴτιον ὅτι ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἔχουσι σπλῆνα
/ A T / 7 T € , , . -
δόξειεν ἂν οἷον νόθον εἶναι ἧπαρ ὁ σπλήν, ἐν δὲ τοῖς
μὴ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἔχουσιν, ἀλλὰ πάμμικρον ὥσπερ
, ^

30 σημείου χάριν, ἐναργῶς διμερὲς τὸ ἧπάρ ἐστιν, καὶ
. bi ^ 2 > . / \ ο ὁ > >
τὸ μὲν (μεῖζονγ᾽ eis τὰ δεξιά, τὸ δ᾽ ἔλαττον εἰς TA-
. , M / » > . » ^ `
ριστερὰ βούλεται τὴν θέσιν ἔχειν. où μὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ
ἐν τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις ἧττον μὲν ἢ ἐπὶ τούτων φανερόν,

πα 4 ο 3. ο » 3 / , /
ἐνίοις δὲ [κἀκεῖ ὥσπερ ἔν τισι] ζῳοτόκοις ἐπιδήλως
διέστηκεν, οἷον κατά τινας τόπους οἱ δασύποδες δύο

1 ye Peck: 7e vulg. 2 μεῖζον conieceram ; maior pars X.
3 seclusi: ὥσπερ ἔν τισι om. EY: κἀκείνων coni. Th.

260

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. νι.-νῃ.

the possession of a lung is one of their essential
characteristics, just as there are certain char-
acteristics which are included in the essence of
a “ bird," the name which is applied to another such
class.

VII. Some of the viscera appear to be single Why the
(e.g. the heart and the lung); others double P drum
(e.g. the kidneys); and some it is difficult to place
under either heading. The liver and the spleen ap-
parently are intermediate ; they can be considered
either as each being a single organ, or else as two
organs taking the place of one and having a similar
character. In fact, however, all of them are double.

And the reason for this is that the structure of the
body is double, though its halves are combined under
one source. We have upper and lower halves, front
and back halves, right and left halves. Thus even the
brain as well as each of the sense-organs tends in all
animals to be double; so does the heart—it has
cavities. In the Ovipara the lung is so much divided
that they appear to have two lungs. The kidneys
are obviously double; but there is fair room for
hesitation about the liver and spleen. This is be- Liver and
cause in those animals which of necessity have a ον
spleen, the spleen looks rather like a bastard liver,
while in those which have a spleen though not of
necessity—t.e. a very small one, as it were by way
of a token—the liver is patently double, and the
larger part of it tends to lie towards the right, the
smaller towards the left. Still, there are cases even
among the Ovipara where this division is less distinct
than in those just described, while in some Vivipara
the division is unmistakable—e.g. in some districts
261

669 b
35

670a

10

15

ARISTOTLE

^ e 291 / ^ , , e d
δοκοῦσιν ἥπατ᾽ ἔχειν, καθάπερ τῶν ἰχθύων ἕτεροί
τέ τινες καὶ οἱ σελαχώδεις.

. \ ` ^ / » . , ^ ^

Διὰ δὲ τὸ τὴν θέσιν ἔχειν τὸ ἧπαρ ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς

^ ε - A / Z σ , 3
μᾶλλον ἡ τοῦ σπληνὸς γέγονε φύσις, ὥστ᾽ ἀναγ-
καῖον μέν πως, μὴ λίαν Ò εἶναι πᾶσι τοῖς ζῴοις.

Τοῦ μὲν οὖν διφυῆ τὴν φύσιν εἶναι τῶν σπλάγ-

» e » \ 4> = M `

χνων αἴτιον, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, τὸ δύ᾽ εἶναι τὸ δεξιὸν
καὶ τὸ ἀριστερόν: ἑκάτερον γὰρ ζητεῖ τὸ ὅμοιον,
e ` , . z ’ ` 7
ὥσπερ καὶ αὐτὰ βούλεται παραπλησίαν καὶ διδύμην
» ^
ἔχειν τὴν φύσιν, καὶ καθάπερ' ἐκεῖνα δίδυμα μέν,
συνήρτηται δ᾽ εἰς ἕν, καὶ τῶν σπλάγχνων ὁμοίως
ἕκαστον.

» ` / \ / gen: /

Εστι δὲ σπλάγχνα τὰ κάτω τοῦ ὑποζώματος
κοινῇ μὲν πάντα τῶν φλεβῶν χάριν, ὅπως οὖσαι

/ / ^ e / M \
µετέωροι µένωσι τῷ τούτων συνδέσμῳ πρὸς τὸ
σῶμα. καθάπερ ἄγκυραι γὰρ βέβληνται, πρὸς τὸ
σῶμα διὰ τῶν ἀποτεταμένων μορίων" ἀπὸ μὲν τῆς
μεγάλης φλεβὸς πρὸς τὸ ἧπαρ καὶ τὸν σπλῆνα,
τούτων γὰρ τῶν σπλάγχνων ἡ φύσις οἷον ἧλοι πρὸς

`
τὸ σῶμα mpoohapBavovow αὐτήν, εἰς μὲν τὰ
πλάγια τοῦ σώματος τό O ἧπαρ καὶ ὁ σπλὴν τὴν
φλέβα τὴν μεγάλην (ἀπὸ ταύτης γὰρ εἰς αὐτὰ μόνον
διατείνουσι φλέβες), εἰς δὲ τὰ ὄπισθεν οἱ νεφροί.
πρὸς δ᾽ ἐκείνους οὐ μόνον ἀπὸ τῆς μεγάλης
` > . ` 5 1 ^ > ^ / \ >
φλεβὸς ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς ἀορτῆς τείνει φΦλὲψ εἰς
ἑκάτερον.
^ M , ^ 2 ^ ,
Tatra δὴ συμβαίνει διὰ τούτων τῇ συστάσει

^ / . ` ^ T . ε . -
20 τῶν ζῴων: καὶ τὸ μὲν ἧπαρ καὶ ὁ σπλὴν βοηθεῖ

πρὸς τὴν πέψιν τῆς τροφῆς (ἔναιμα γὰρ ὄντα θερ-
1 καὶ καθάπερ PZ: καὶ om. vulg.

262

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vu.

hares appear to have a couple of livers ; so do certain
fishes, especially the cartilaginous ones.

The spleen owes its existence to the liver being
placed somewhat over to the right-hand side of the
body: this makes the spleen a necessity in a way,
though not an urgent one, for all animals.

Thus, the reason why the viscera are double in
their formation is, as we have said, that the body
is two-sided, having right and left. Each of the two
aims at similarity, just as the sides themselves strive
to have a similar nature, and to be as like as twins ;
and just as the sides, though dual, are conjoined
together into a unity, so also it is with the several
viscera.

The viscera which are below the diaphragm are
all of them present for the sake of the blood-vessels,
in order that the latter may have freedom of carriage
and at the same time be attached to the body by
means of the viscera, which act as a bond. Indeed,
there are, as it were, anchor-lines thrown out to
the body through the extended parts : e.g. from the
Great Blood-vessel to the liver and to the spleen, for
these viscera act, as it were, like rivets and fasten it
to the body ; that is to say, the liver and the spleen
fasten the Great Blood-vessel to the sides of the body .
(since blood-vessels pass to them from it alone), while
the kidneys fasten it to the rear parts. And to the
kidneys—to each of them—there is a blood-vessel
passing not only from the Great Blood-vessel but
also from the Aorta.

These advantages, then, accrue to the animal organ-
ism from the lower viscera. Liver and spleen also
assist in the concoction of the food, since they both

α Sharks, etc.
263

670a

25

30

670 b

or

10

ARISTOTLE

A Μ 4 , e \ M ` 1 ,
μὴν ἔχει τὴν φύσιν), οἱ δὲ νεφροὶ πρὸς τὸ περίτ-

τωµα τὸ εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἀποκρινόμενον.

Καρδία μὲν οὖν καὶ ἧπαρ πᾶσιν ἀναγκαῖα τοῖς
ζῴοις, ἡ μὲν διὰ τὴν τῆς θερμότητος ἀρχήν (δεῖ γὰρ
εἶναί τινα οἷον ἑστίαν, ἐν ᾗ κείσεται τῆς φύσεως τὸ
ζωπυροῦν, καὶ τοῦτο εὐφύλακτον, ὥσπερ ἀκρόπολις
οὖσα τοῦ σώματος), τὸ δ᾽ ἧπαρ τῆς πέψεως χάριν.
πάντα δὲ δεῖται τὰ ἔναιμα δυοῖν τούτοιν, διόπερ
ἔχει πάντα τὰ ἔναιμα δύο τὰ σπλάγχνα ταῦτα': ὅσα
δ᾽ ἀναπνεῖ, καὶ πλεύμονα τρίτον.

Ὁ δὲ σπλὴν κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς ἐξ ἀνάγκης ὑπ-
άρχει τοῖς ἔχουσιν, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ περιττώματα,
τό τ᾽ ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ καὶ τὸ περὶ τὴν κύστιν. διόπερ
ἔν τισιν ἐκλείπει κατὰ τὸ μέγεθος, ὥσπερ τῶν τε
πτερωτῶν ἐνίοις, ὅσα θερμὴν ἔχει τὴν κοιλίαν, οἷον
περιστερά, ἱέραξ, ἰκτῖνος, καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ᾠοτόκων
δὲ καὶ τετραπόδων ὁμοίως (μικρὸν γὰρ πάμπαν
ἔχουσιν), καὶ πολλοῖς τῶν λεπιδωτῶν' ἅπερ καὶ
κύστιν οὐκ ἔχει διὰ τὸ τρέπεσθαι τὸ περίττωμα διὰ
μανῶν τῶν σαρκῶν εἰς πτερὰ καὶ λεπίδας. ὁ γὰρ
σπλὴν ἀντισπᾷ ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας τὰς ἰκμάδας τὰς
περιττευούσας, καὶ δύναται συμπέττειν αἱματώδης
ὤν. ἂν δὲ τὸ περίττωμα πλεῖον ἢ ἢ ὀλιγόθερμος ὁ
σπλήν, νοσακερὰ γίνεται πλήρης" (οὖσα) τροφῆς"
καὶ διὰ τὴν ἐνταῦθα παλίρροιαν τῆς ὑγρότητος πολ-
λοῖς αἱ κοιλίαι σκληραὶ γίνονται σπληνιῶσιν, ὥσ-
περ τοῖς λίαν οὐρητικοῖς, διὰ τὸ ἀντιπερισπᾶσθαι

1 ταῦτα P: ταῦτα μόνον vulg.
* πλήρης EYZ: πλήρη vulg.
(οὖσα) Peck.

264

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vr.

have blood in them and so are hot. The kidneys
assist in connexion with the residue which is excreted
into the bladder.

Now the heart and the liver are mecessary to all
animals. The heart is necessary because there must
be a source of heat: there must be, as it were, a
hearth, where that which kindles the whole organism
shall reside ; and this part must be well guarded,
being as it were the citadel of the body. The liver is
necessary for the sake of effecting concoction. All
blooded creatures must have these two viscera, and
that is why these two are always present in them.
A third, the lung, is present in those animals that
breathe.

But the spleen, where present, is present of necessity
in the sense of being an incidental concomitant, as
are the residues in the stomach and in the bladder.
So in some animals the spleen is deficient in size,
as in certain birds which have a hot stomach, e.g.
the pigeon, the hawk, and the kite ; the same applies
to the oviparous quadrupeds (all of these have an
extremely small spleen) and to many of the scaly
creatures. These animals just mentioned also lack
a bladder, because their flesh is porous enough to

Spleen.

enable the residues formed to pass through it and .

produce feathers and scales. For the spleen draws
off the residual humours from the stomach and in
virtue of its blood-like nature can assist in the con-
coction of them. If, however, the residue is too
bulky or the spleen has too little heat, the stomach
gets full of nourishment and becomes diseased.
And in many cases, when the spleen is ailing,
the stomach becomes hardened owing to the
fluid which runs back into it. This happens with

265

670 b

15

20

25

80

ARISTOTLE

τὰς ὑγρότητας. οἷς δὲ ὀλίγη περίττωσις γίνεται,
καθάπερ τοῖς ὀρνέοις καὶ τοῖς ἰχθύσι, τὰ μὲν οὐ
μέγαν ἔχει, τὰ δὲ σημείου χάριν. καὶ ἐν τοῖς
τετράποσι δὲ τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις μικρὸς καὶ στιφρὸς καὶ
νεφρώδης ὁ σπλήν ἐστι διὰ τὸ τὸν πλεύμονα σομφὸν
εἶναι καὶ ὀλιγοποτεῖν καὶ τὸ περιγινόμενον περίτ-
Twa τρέπεσθαι εἰς τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὰς φολίδας,
e > . . - s

ὥσπερ εἰς τὰ πτερὰ τοῖς ὄρνισιν.

Ἔν δὲ τοῖς κύστιν ἔχουσι καὶ τὸν πλεύμονα
ἔναιμον ὑγρός ἐστι διά τε τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν καὶ
διὰ τὸ τὴν φύσιν τὴν τῶν ἀριστερῶν ὅλως ὑγρο-
Tépav. εἶναι καὶ Ψυχροτέραν. διῄρηται γὰρ τῶν
ἐναντίων ἕκαστον πρὸς τὴν συγγενῆ συστοιχίαν,
οἷον δεξιὸν ἐναντίον ἀριστερῷ καὶ θερμὸν ἐναντίον
ψυχρῷ: καὶ σύστοιχα γὰρ ἀλλήλοις εἰσὶ τὸν εἰρη-
μένον τρόπον.

Οἱ δὲ νεφροὶ τοῖς ἔχουσιν οὐκ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀλλὰ
τοῦ εὖ καὶ καλῶς ἕνεκεν ὑπάρχουσιν" τῆς γὰρ
περιττώσεως χάριν τῆς εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἀθροιζομένης
εἰσὶ κατὰ τὴν ἰδίαν φύσιν, ἐν ὅσοις πλεῖον ὑπό-
στηµα γίνεται τὸ τοιοῦτον, ὅπως βέλτιον ἀποδιδῷ
ἡ κύστις τὸ αὑτῆς ἔργον.

᾿Επεὶ δὲ τῆς αὐτῆς ἕνεκα χρείας τούς τε νεφροὺς
συμβέβηκεν ἔχειν τὰ ζῷα καὶ τὴν κύστιν, λεκτέον
περὶ κύστεως νῦν, ὑπερβάντας τὸν ἐφεξῆς τῶν
μορίων ἀριθμόν: περὶ γὰρ φρενῶν οὐδέν πω δι-

ες

? The reference to the ‘‘ columns” or “ double list" is
not clear. ‘There was a Pythagorean συστοιχία: this and
other συστοιχίαι are mentioned in Ross’s note on his trans-
lation of Met. 986 a 23.

> i.e. left and cold are both in the same column ; right and
hot are both in the other column.

266

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vir.

those who make water excessively : the fluids are
drawn back again into the stomach. But in animals
where the amount of residue produced is small, as in
birds and fishes, the spleen is either small or present
simply by way of a token. In the oviparous quadru-
peds, too, the spleen is small and compact, and
like a kidney, because the lung is spongy and the
animals drink little, and also because the residue
which is produced is applied for the benefit of the
body itself and of the scaly plates which cover it,
just as in birds it is applied for the benefit of the
feathers.

In those animals, however, which possess a bladder,
and whose lung contains blood, the spleen is watery.
The reason already given partly explains this. An-
other is that the left side of the body is generally
more watery and colder than the right. As we know,
the opposites are divided up into two columns," so
that each is classed with those that are akin to it, e.g.
right is in the opposite column to left, and hot to
cold; and thus some of them stand together in the
same column, as I have just indicated.

Kidneys are present in some animals, but not
of necessity ; they are present to serve a good pur-
pose; that is to say, their particular nature enables
them to cope with the residue which collects in the
bladder, in those cases where this deposit is somewhat
abundant, and to help the bladder to perform its
function better.

Since the bladder is present in animals to serve
precisely the same purpose as the kidneys, we must
now say something about it. This will involve a
departure from the serial order in which the parts
actually come, for we have said nothing so far about

267.

ARISTOTLE
670 b
/ ^ / ^ M ` , ,
ώρισται, τοῦτο δέ τι τῶν περὶ τὰ σπλάγχνα μορίων
ἐστίν.
^ >
VIII. Κύστιν δ᾽ οὐ πάντ᾽ ἔχει τὰ ζῷα, ἀλλ᾽
2 ε , / > / ^ y
ἔοικεν ἡ φύσις βουλομένῃ ἀποδιδόναι τοῖς ἔχουσι
>
671a τὸν πλεύμονα ἔναιμον μόνον, τούτοις δ᾽ εὐλόγως.
διὰ γὰρ τὴν ὑπεροχὴν τῆς φύσεως, ἣν ἔχουσιν ἐν
p a > 95 \ /
τῷ μορίῳ τούτῳ, διφητικά τε ταῦτ᾽ ἐστὶ μάλιστα
- Z M ^ ^ > , ^ ^
τῶν ζῴων, καὶ δεῖται τροφῆς οὐ μόνον τῆς ξηρᾶς
2 M ` ^ € ^ , e ) 9 > / .
ἀλλὰ καὶ τῆς ὑγρᾶς πλείονος, ὥστ᾽ ἐξ ἀνάγκης καὶ
(6 περίττωμα γίνεσθαι πλεῖον καὶ μὴ τοσοῦτον μόνον
- ` ,
ὅσον ὑπὸ τῆς κοιλίας πέττεσθαι καὶ ἐκκρίνεσθαι
^ > / /
μετὰ τοῦ ταύτης περιττώματος. ἀνάγκη τοίνυν
εἶναί τι δεκτικὸν καὶ τούτου τοῦ περιττώματος.
- e
διόπερ ὅσα πλεύμονα ἔχει τοιοῦτον, ἅπαντ᾽ ἔχει
’ e \ M ^ , κ O / y 13
κύστιν: ὅσα δὲ μὴ τοιοῦτον, ἀλλ᾽ ἢ ὀλιγόποτά ἐστι
. A / » / A σ ` € A
10 διὰ τὸ πλεύμονα ἔχειν σομϕόν, ἢ ὅλως TO ὑγρὸν
προσφέρεται οὐ ποτοῦ χάριν ἀλλὰ τροφῆς, οἷον τὰ
ἔντομα καὶ οἱ ἰχθύες, ἔτι δὲ πτερωτά ἐστιν ἢ
S m / ^ > » , , ^
λεπιδωτὰ ἢ φολιδωτά, ταῦτα δι ὀλιγότητά τε τῆς
τοῦ ὑγροῦ προσφορᾶς καὶ διὰ τὸ τρέπεσθαι εἰς
ταῦτα τὸ περιγινόμενον τοῦ περιττώματος οὐδὲν
15 ἔχει τούτων κύστιν, πλὴν αἱ χελῶναι τῶν φολιδω-
τῶν, καὶ ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἡ φύσις κεκολόβωται μόνον: αἴτιον
δ᾽ ὅτι αἱ μὲν θαλάττιαι σαρκώδη καὶ ἔναιμον ἔχουσι
- ε -
τὸν πλεύμονα καὶ ὅμοιον τῷ βοείῳ, at δὲ χερσαῖαι
/ A ^ / » δὲ ὃ . ` 3 ^
μείζω ἢ κατὰ λόγον. ἔτι δὲ διὰ τὸ ὀστρακῶδες
o) καὶ πυκνὸν εἶναι τὸ περιέχον οὐ διαπνέοντος τοῦ
ὑγροῦ διὰ μανῶν τῶν σαρκῶν, οἷον τοῖς ὄρνισι καὶ
- ”/ \ ^ LÀ ^ ^ € /
τοῖς ὄφεσι καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις τοῖς φολιδωτοῖς, ὑπό-
268

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. νι.- νι.

the diaphragm, though this is one of the parts that
are near the viscera.

VIII. The bladder is not present in all animals : Bladder.
Nature seems to have intended only those animals
which have blood in their lung to have a bladder.
And this is quite reasonable, when we remember that
such animals have an excess of the natural substance
which constitutes the lung, and are therefore more
subject to thirst than any others; {.6. they need a
larger amount of fluid food as well as of the ordinary
solid food, and the necessary result of this is that a
larger amount of residue also is produced, too large
in fact for all of it to be concocted by the stomach
and excreted with its own proper residue ; hence it
is necessary to have some part that will receive this
additional residue. This shows us why all animals
which have blood in their lung possess a bladder
too. As for those whose lung is spongy and which
therefore drink little, or which take fluids not as
something to drink but as food (e.g. insects and
fishes), or which are covered with feathers or scales
or scaly plates, not one of these has a bladder, owing
to the small amount of fluid which they take and
owing to the fact that the surplus residue goes
to form-feathers or scales or scaly plates, as the
particular case may be. Exceptions to this are the
Tortoises : though scaly-plated they have a bladder.
In them the natural formation has simply been
stunted. The cause of this is that in the sea-varieties
the lung is fleshy and contains blood, and is similar to
the lung of the ox ; while in the land-varieties it is
disproportionately large. And whereas in birds and
snakes and the other scaly-plated creatures the
moisture exhales through the porous flesh, in these it

260

671a

25

80

35
671 b

ARISTOTLE

στασις γίνεται τοσαύτη ὥστε δεῖσθαι τὴν φύσιν
αὐτῶν ἔχειν τι μόριον δεκτικὸν καὶ ἀγγειῶδες.
κύστιν μὲν οὖν ταῦτα μόνον τῶν τοιούτων EXEL διὰ
ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν, ἢ μὲν θαλαττία μεγάλην, αἱ δὲ
χερσαῖαι μικρὰν πάμπαν.

IX. 'Ὁμοίως Ò ἔχει καὶ περὶ νεφρῶν. οὐδὲ γὰρ
νεφροὺς οὔτε τῶν πτερωτῶν καὶ λεπιδωτῶν οὐδὲν
ἔχει οὔτε τῶν φολιδωτῶν, πλὴν αἱ θαλάττιαι
χελῶναι καὶ αἱ χερσαῖαι: ἀλλ᾽ ὡς τῆς εἰς τοὺς
νεφροὺς τεταγμένης σαρκὸς οὐκ ἐχούσης χώραν
ἀλλὰ διεσπαρμένης εἰς πολλά, πλατέα νεφροειδῆ ἐν
ἐνίοις τῶν ὀρνίθων ἐστίν. ἡ δ᾽ ἑμὺς οὔτε κύστιν
οὔτε νεφροὺς ἔχει: διὰ τὴν μαλακότητα γὰρ τοῦ
χελωνίου εὐδιάπνουν γίνεται τὸ ὑγρόν. ἡ μὲν οὖν
ἐμὺς διὰ ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν οὐκ ἔχει τῶν μορίων
οὐδέτερον: τοῖς δ᾽ ἄλλοις ζῴοις τοῖς ἔχουσιν ἐν-
arov, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, τὸν πλεύμονα πᾶσι συμ-
βέβηκεν ἔχειν νεφρούς. καταχρῆται γὰρ ἡ φύσις
ἅμα τῶν τε φλεβῶν χάριν καὶ πρὸς τὴν τοῦ
ὑγροῦ περιττώματος ἔκκρισιν: φέρει γὰρ εἰς
αὐτοὺς πόρος ἐκ τῆς μεγάλης φλεβός.

Ἔχουσι ὃ᾽ οἱ νεφροὶ πάντες κοῖλον, 7 πλεῖον ἢ 3]
ἔλαττον, πλὴν οἱ τῆς φώκης' οὗτοι δ᾽ ὅμοιοι τοῖς
βοείοις ὄντες στερεώτατοι πάντων εἰσίν. ὅμοιοι δὲ
καὶ οἱ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου τοῖς βοείοις: εἰσὶ γὰρ ὥσπερ
συγκείμενοι ἐκ πολλῶν νεφρῶν μικρῶν καὶ οὐχ
ὁμαλεῖς, ὥσπερ οἱ τῶν προβάτων καὶ τῶν ἄλλων
τῶν τετραπόδων. διὸ καὶ τὸ ἀρρώστημα τοῖς

a Greek, * hemys." This description, which does not fit
270

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. virr.-1x.

cannot do so, because the integument which surrounds
them is dense, like a shell; and so the excretion is
produced in such quantities that the Tortoises need
some part which shall act as a vessel to receive it.
That, then, is why they are the only animals of the
kind which have a bladder. In the sea-tortoise it is
large, in the land-tortoise quite small.

IX. Much the same may be said of the kidneys as
of the bladder. Kidneys are not present in any of
the animals that have feathers or scales or scaly plates,
except the two sorts of tortoises just mentioned. In
some birds, however, there are flat kidney-shaped
objects, as if the flesh that was allotted to form the
kidneys had found no room for its proper function
and had been scattered to form several organs. The
Emys% has neither bladder nor kidneys: this is be-
cause it has a soft shell which allows the moisture to
transpire freely through it. But, as I said before, all
the other animals whose lung contains blood have
kidneys, since Nature makes use of them for two pur-
poses : (1) to subserve the blood-vessels ; and (2) to
excrete the fluid residue. (A channelleads into them
from the Great Blood-vessel.)

There is always a hollow (lumen), varying in size,
in the kidneys, except in the seal, whose kidneys are
more solid than any others and in shape resemble
those of the ox. Human kidneys too resemble those
of the ox : they are, as it were, made up out of a
number of small kidneys,’ and have not an even
surface like those of the sheep and other quadrupeds.
Thus, when once an ailment attacks the human
any animal now known as Emys, seems to be that of some
freshwater tortoise.

> This is not true of the normal adult, but it is true of
the foetus.

271

Kidneys,

671 b

ARISTOTLE

> Z / 3 ^ , A σ
10 ἀνθρώποις δυσαπάλλακτον αὐτῶν ἐστιν, ἂν ἅπαξ

15

νοσήσωσιν' συμβαίνει γὰρ ὥσπερ πολλοὺς νεφροὺς
νοσούντων χαλεπωτέραν εἶναι τὴν ἴασιν ἢ τῶν ἕνα
νοσούντων.

ʻO δ᾽ ἀπὸ τῆς φλεβὸς τείνων πόρος οὐκ εἰς τὸ
κοῖλον τῶν νεφρῶν κατατελευτᾷ, ἀλλ᾽ εἰς τὸ σῶμα
καταναλίσκεται τῶν νεφρῶν" διόπερ ἐν τοῖς κοίλοις
αὐτῶν οὐκ ἐγγίνεται αἷμα, οὐδὲ πήγνυται τελευ-
τώντων. ἐκ δὲ τοῦ κοίλου τῶν νεφρῶν φέρουσι
πόροι ἄναιμοι εἰς τὴν κύστιν δύο νεανικοί, ἐξ
ἑκατέρου εἷς, καὶ ἄλλοι ἐκ τῆς ἀορτῆς ἰσχυροὶ καὶ
συνεχεῖς. ταῦτα δ᾽ ἔχει τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον ὅπως
ἐκ μὲν τῆς φλεβὸς τὸ περίττωμα τῆς ὑγρότητος

20 βαδίζῃ εἰς τοὺς νεφρούς, ἐκ δὲ τῶν νεφρῶν ἡ

25

γινομένη ὑπόστασις διηθουμένων τῶν ὑγρῶν διὰ
- - - / ©
τοῦ σώματος τῶν νεφρῶν εἰς τὸ μέσον συρρέῃ, οὗ
- - - M
TO κοῖλον ot πλεῖστοι ἔχουσιν αὐτῶν (διὸ καὶ δυσ-
^ ^ , ^
ωδέστατον τοῦτο τῶν σπλάγχνων ἐστίν): ἐκ δὲ τοῦ
^ , M ,
µέσου διὰ τούτων τῶν πόρων εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἤδη
^ /
μᾶλλον ὡς περίττωμα ἀποκρίνεται. καθώρμισται
’ , ^ ^ / e
Ò ἡ κύστις ἐκ τῶν νεφρῶν: τείνουσι γάρ, ὥσπερ
» `
εἴρηται, πόροι ἰσχυροὶ πρὸς αὐτήν.
e M > M ^ ΄ ^ $3... a. δ M
Οἱ μὲν οὖν νεφροὶ διὰ ταύτας τὰς αἰτίας εἰσί, καὶ
τὰς δυνάμεις ἔχουσι τὰς εἰρημένας.
> ^ M ^ » ^ e ` > /
Εν πᾶσι δὲ τοῖς ἔχουσι νεφροὺς ὃ δεξιὸς ἀνωτέρω
^ ^ A
τοῦ ἀριστεροῦ ἐστιν' διὰ γὰρ τὸ τὴν κίνησιν εἶναι

3 ^ ^ A59 / A ^25 M
30 ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν καὶ ἰσχυροτέραν διὰ ταῦτ᾽ εἶναι τὴν

a The ureters.
272

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, III. rx.

kidneys, the trouble is not easily removed, because
itis as though the patient had many kidneys diseased
and not one only ; and so the cure is more difficult to
effect.

The channel which runs from the Great Blood-
vessel to the kidneys does not debouch into the
hollow part of the kidneys, but the whole of what
it supplies is spent upon the body of the kidneys;
thus no blood goes into the hollows, and at death
none congeals there. From the hollow part of the
kidneys two sturdy channels? lead into the bladder,
one from each; these contain no blood. Other
channels come from the Aorta to the kidneys;
these are strong, continuous ones. This arrange-
ment is on purpose to enable the residue from the
moisture to pass out of the blood-vessel into the
kidneys, and so that when the fluid percolates
through the body of the kidneys the excretion that
results may collect into the middle of the kidneys,
where the hollow is in most cases. (This explains,
incidentally, why the kidney is the most ill-scented
of all the viscera. From the middle of the kidney
the fluid is passed off through the aforesaid channels
into the bladder; by which time it has practically
taken on the character of excremental residue. The
bladder is actually moored to the kidneys: as has
been stated, there are strong channels extending
from them to it.

We have now given the causes for which the
kidneys exist, as well as their character and functions.

The right kidney is always higher up than the left.
The reason for this is that as motion always begins on
the right-hand side, the parts that are on that side are
stronger than those on the other; and owing to this

273

671 b

35

ARISTOTLE

M ^ ^ ^

vow τὴν τῶν δεξιῶν, δεῖ προοδοποιήσασθαι διὰ

A , ^ ^
τὴν κίνησιν πρὸς τὸ ἄνω ταῦτα τὰ μόρια μᾶλλον,
, M M . 3 ^ M A » ^ M
ἐπεὶ καὶ τὴν ὀφρὺν τὴν δεξιὰν αἴρουσι μᾶλλον καὶ
, E ^ ^ ^
ἐπικεκαμμένην ἔχουσι τῆς ἀριστερᾶς μᾶλλον. καὶ
διὰ τὸ ἀνεσπάσθαι ἀνώτερον τὸν δεξιὸν νεφρὸν τὸ

(T e ^ ^ αν ον ^ , ^
ἧπαρ ἅπτεται τοῦ δεξιοῦ νεφροῦ ἐν πᾶσιν' ἐν τοῖς

672a

10

15

δεξιοῖς γὰρ TO ἧπαρ.

Ἔχουσι © οἱ νεφροὶ μάλιστα τῶν σπλάγχνων
πιμελήν, ἐξ ἀνάγκης μὲν διὰ τὸ διηθεῖσθαι τὸ
περίττωμα διὰ τῶν νεφρῶν" τὸ γὰρ λειπόμενον
αἷμα καθαρὸν ὂν εὔπεπτόν ἐστι, τέλος δ᾽ εὐπεψίας
αἱματικῆς πιμελὴ καὶ στέαρ ἐστίν. (ὥσπερ γὰρ ἐν
τοῖς πεπυρωμένοις ξηροῖς, οἷον τῇ τέφρα, ἐγκατα-
λείπεταί τι πῦρ, οὕτω καὶ ἐν τοῖς πεπεμμένοις
ὑγροῖς: ἐγκαταλείπεται γάρ τι τῆς εἰργασμένης
θερμότητος μόριον. διόπερ τὸ λιπαρὸν κοῦφόν ἐστι
καὶ ἐπιπολάζει ἐν τοῖς ὑγροῖς.) ἐν αὐτοῖς μὲν οὖν
οὐ γίνεται τοῖς νεφροῖς διὰ τὸ πυκνὸν εἶναι τὸ
σπλάγχνον, ἔξω δὲ περιίσταται πιμελὴ μὲν ἐν τοῖς
πιμελώδεσι, στέαρ δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς στεατώδεσιν' ἡ δὲ
διαφορὰ τούτων εἴρηται πρότερον ἐν ἑτέροις.

"EE ἀνάγκης μὲν οὖν πιμελώδεις γίνονται διὰ
ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν ἐκ τῶν συμβαινόντων ἐξ ἀνάγκης
τοῖς ἔχουσι νεφρούς, ἕνεκα δὲ σωτηρίας καὶ τοῦ
θερμὴν εἶναι τὴν φύσιν τὴν τῶν νεφρῶν. ἔσχατοί
τε γὰρ ὄντες ἀλέας δέονται πλείονος" τὸ μὲν γὰρ
νῶτον σαρκῶδές ἐστιν, ὅπως ἢ προβολὴ τοῖς περὶ

1 ταῦτα Peck: πάντα vulg.
"t 9bie indi aa 518 605 atise adt apia Πακ άμα

9 See Book II. ch. v.
274

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ix.

motion they are bound to make their way upwards
before the ones on the left. Thus people raise the
right eyebrow more than the left, and it is more
arched. A result of this drawing up of the right
kidney is that in all animals the liver, which is on the
right side of the body, is in contact with it.

The kidneys contain more fat than any other of the
viscera. ‘This is partly a necessary consequence upon
the percolation of the residue through the kidneys :
in other words, the blood which gets left behind there
is easy of concoction because it is pure, and when
blood undergoes complete concoction the final pro-
ducts are lard and suet. (A parallel is to be found in
the case of solid substances which have undergone
combustion: e.g. a certain amount of fire gets left
behind in ash. So, in fluid substances which have
undergone concoction: some portion of the heat
which has been generated remains behind. ‘That is
why oily substances are light and come to the top of
fluids.) This fat is not formed actually in the kidneys
themselves, because they are so dense: it collects
outside them. In some it has the form of lard, in
others the form of suet, according to the character of
the animal. (The difference between the two has
been explained already in another connexion.) ?

This formation of lard, then, about the kidneys is
the necessary consequence upon the conditions which
necessarily obtain in animals that possess kidneys.
But there is another reason for its formation, and that
is, on purpose to safeguard the kidneys themselves
and to preserve their natural heat. The kidneys are
the outermost of all the viscera, and therefore they
need more warmth. Whereas the back is liberally
supplied with flesh, which enables it to act as a

275

Fat in
kidneys.

ARISTOTLE

672 a
M /
τὴν καρδίαν σπλάγχνοις, ἡ δ᾽ ὀσφὺς ἄσαρκος
(ἄσαρκοι γὰρ αἱ καμπαὶ πάντων): ἀντὶ σαρκὸς οὖν
207) πιμελὴ πρόβλημα γίνεται τοῖς .νεφροῖς. ἔτι δὲ
διακρίνουσι καὶ πέττουσι τὴν ὑγρότητα μᾶλλον
πίονες ὄντες" τὸ γὰρ λιπαρὸν θερμόν, πέττει δ᾽ ἡ
θερμότης.
Διὰ ταύτας μὲν οὖν τὰς αἰτίας οἱ νεφροὶ πιμελώ-
, / > ^ \ ^ / € ` > ,
δεις εἰσίν, ἐν πᾶσι δὲ τοῖς ζῴοις 0 δεξιὸς ἀπιμελώ-
τερός ἐστιν. αἴτιον δὲ τὸ τὴν φύσιν ξηρὰν εἶναι
25 τὴν τῶν δεξιῶν καὶ κινητικωτέραν' ἡ δὲ κίνησις
ἐναντία" τήκει γὰρ τὸ πῖον μᾶλλον.
- M ον + / , A
Tots μὲν οὖν ἄλλοις ζῴοις συμφέρει τε τοὺς
M » , M / » e
νεφροὺς ἔχειν πίονας, kat πολλάκις ἔχουσιν ὅλους
περίπλεως' τὸ δὲ πρόβατον ὅταν τοῦτο πάθῃ
ἀποθνήσκει. ἀλλ᾽ ἂν καὶ πάνυ πίονες ὦσιν, ὅμως
5 / ΝΛ M 5 > / > \ . A
20 ἐλλείπει τι, àv μὴ kar ἀμφοτέρους, ἀλλὰ κατὰ τὸν
δεξιόν. αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ μόνον ἢ μάλιστα τοῦτο
συμβαίνειν ἐπὶ τῶν προβάτων, ὅτι τοῖς μὲν πιµε-
λώδεσιν ὑγρὸν τὸ πῖον, ὥστ᾽ οὐχ ὁμοίως ἐγκατα-
κλειόμενα τὰ πνεύματα ποιεῖ τὸν πόνον. τοῦ δὲ
- ^ ^ »
σφακελισμοῦ τοῦτ᾽ αἴτιόν ἐστιν: διὸ καὶ τῶν dv-
35 θρώπων τοῖς πονοῦσι τοὺς νεφρούς, καίπερ τοῦ mal-
νεσθαι συμφέροντος, ὅμως ἂν λίαν γίνωνται πίονες,
- 2 »
ὀδύναι θανατηφόροι. συμβαίνουσι». τῶν δ᾽ ἄλλων
672b τοῖς στεατώδεσιν ἧττον πυκνὸν τὸ στέαρ 5 τοῖς
προβάτοις. καὶ τῷ πλήθει πολὺ τὰ πρόβατα ὑπερ-
βάλλει: γίνεται γὰρ περίνεφρα τάχιστα τῶν ζῴων
τὰ πρόβατα πάντων. ἐγκατακλειομένης οὖν τῆς
ὑγρότητος καὶ τῶν πνευμάτων διὰ τὸν σφακελισμὸν

1 ἀλλ᾽ ἂν . . . δεξιόν post εἰσίν l. 23 transponit Thurot.
276

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rx.

protection for the viscera about the heart, the loin,
in common with all parts that bend, is not so supplied ;
and this fat we have been speaking of serves as a
safeguard to the kidneys in place of flesh. Further,
the kidneys are better able to secrete and to concoct
the fluid if they are fat, because fat is hot and heat
causes concoction.

These are the reasons why the kidneys are fat. In
all animals, however, the right kidney has less fat
than the left. This is because the right-hand side
is dry and solid and more adapted for motion than
the left ; and motion is an enemy to fat, because it
tends to melt it.

Now it is an advantage to all animals to have fat
kidneys, and often they are completely filled with fat.
The sheep is an exception : if this happens to a sheep
it dies. But even if the kidneys are as fat as can be,
there is always some portion which is clear of fat, if
not in both kidneys, at any rate inthe right one. The
reason why this happens solely (or more especially)
to sheep is as follows. Some animals have their fat
in the form of lard, which is fluid, and thus the wind
cannot so easily get shut up within and cause trouble.
When this happens, however, it causes rot. Thus, too,
in the case of human beings who suffer from their `
kidneys, although it is an advantage for them to be
fat, yet if they become unduly fat, pains result which
prove fatal. As for the animals whose fat is in the
form of suet, none has such dense suet as the sheep
has ; and moreover, in the sheep the amount of it is
much greater ; the fact that they get fat about the
kidneys much more quickly than any other animal
shows this. So when the moisture and the wind get
shut up within, rot is produced, which rapidly kills

277

ARISTOTLE
672b , P i : : "E^ a eo
5 ἀναιροῦνται ταχέως: διὰ yàp τῆς ἀορτῆς καὶ τῆς
φλεβὸς εὐθὺς ἀπαντᾷ τὸ πάθος πρὸς τὴν καρδίαν"
οἱ δὲ πόροι συνεχεῖς ἀπὸ τούτων τῶν φλεβῶν εἶσι
πρὸς τοὺς νεφρούς.
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῆς καρδίας καὶ πλεύμονος εἴρηται,
καὶ περὶ ἥπατος καὶ σπληνὸς καὶ νεφρῶν. Χ. τυγ-
10 χάνει δὲ ταῦτα κεχωρισμένα ἀλλήλων τῷ διαζώ-
ματι. τοῦτο δὲ τὸ διάζωμα καλοῦσί τινες φρένας"
ὃ διορίζει τόν τε πλεύμονα καὶ τὴν καρδίαν. καλεῖται
δὲ τοῦτο τὸ διάζωμα ἐν τοῖς ἐναίμοις, ὥσπερ καὶ
εἴρηται, φρένες. ἔχει δὲ πάντα τὰ ἔναιμα αὐτό,
καθάπερ καρδίαν καὶ ἧπαρ. τούτου Ò αἴτιον ὅτι
15 τοῦ διορισμοῦ χάριν ἐστὶ τοῦ τε περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν
τόπου καὶ τοῦ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν, ὅπως ἡ τῆς
αἰσθητικῆς ψυχῆς ἀρχὴ ἀπαθὴς ἢ καὶ μὴ ταχὺ
καταλαμβάνηται διὰ τὴν ἀπὸ τῆς τροφῆς γινομένην
ἀναθυμίασιν καὶ τὸ πλῆθος τῆς ἐπεισάκτου θερ-
μότητος. ἐπὶ γὰρ τοῦτο διέλαβεν ἡ φύσις, οἷον
20 παροικοδόµηµα ποιήσασα καὶ φραγμὸν τὰς φρένας,
καὶ διεῖλε τό τε τιμιώτερον καὶ τὸ ἀτιμότερον ἐν
ὅσοις ἐνδέχεται διελεῖν τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω: τὸ μὲν
γὰρ ἄνω ἐστὶν οὗ ἕνεκεν καὶ βέλτιον, τὸ δὲ κάτω
τὸ τούτου ἕνεκεν καὶ ἀναγκαῖον, τὸ τῆς τροφῆς
δεκτικόν.
Ἔστι δὲ τὸ διάζωμα πρὸς μὲν τὰς πλευρὰς
95 σαρκωδέστερον καὶ ἰσχυρότερον, κατὰ μέσον δ᾽
ὑμενωδέστερον' οὕτω γὰρ πρὸς τὴν ἰσχὺν καὶ τὴν
τάσιν χρησιμώτερον. διότι δὲ πρὸς τὴν θερμότητα
τὴν κάτωθεν οἷον παραφυάδες εἰσί, σημεῖον ἐκ τῶν
278

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. rx.-x.

the sheep off. The disease makes its way directly to
the heart through the Aorta and the Great Blood-
vessel, since there are continuous passages leading
from these to the kidneys.

We have now spoken of the heart and the lung ;
and also of the liver, the spleen and the kidneys.
X. These two sets of viscera are separated from
each other by the diazoma, which some call the
phrenes (diaphragm). This divides off the heart and
thelung. In blooded animals it is called pArenes, as
I have said. All blooded creatures have one, just as
they all have heart and liver. The reason for this
is that the diaphragm serves to divide the part
round the stomach from the part round the heart,
to ensure that the source of the sensory Soul may be
unaffected, and not be quickly overwhelmed by the
exhalation that comes up from the food when it is
eaten and by the amount of heat introduced into the
system. For this purpose, then, Nature made the
division, and constructed the phrenes to be, as it were,
a partition-wall and a fence; and thus, in those
creatures where it is possible to divide the upper
from the lower, she divided off the nobler parts
from the less noble ones ; for it is the upper which

Diaphragm.

is “ better," that for the sake of which the lower ex--

ists, while the lower is “ necessary," existing for the
sake of the upper, by acting as a receptacle for the
food.

Towards the ribs the diaphragm is fleshier and
stronger, while in the middle it is more like a mem-
brane: this makes it more serviceable as regards
strength and extensibility. Απ indication to show
why there are, as it were, “ suckers,” to keep off the
heat which comes up from below, is provided by

270

ARISTOTLE
672 b
, σ ^ M ` , e ,
συμβαινόντων" ὅταν γὰρ διὰ τὴν γειτνίασιν ἑλκύ-
σωσιν ὑγρότητα θερμὴν καὶ περιττωματικήν, εὐθὺς
80 ἐπιδήλως ταράττει τὴν διάνοιαν καὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν,
διὸ καὶ καλοῦνται φρένες ὡς μετέχουσαί τι τοῦ
φρονεῖν. αἱ δὲ μετέχουσι μὲν οὐδέν, ἐγγὺς δ᾽
οὖσαι τῶν μετεχόντων ἐπίδηλον ποιοῦσι τὴν µετα-
βολὴν τῆς διανοίας. διὸ καὶ λεπταὶ κατὰ μέσον
εἰσίν, οὐ μόνον ἐξ ἀνάγκης, ὅτι σαρκώδεις οὔσας τὰ
85 πρὸς τὰς πλευρὰς ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι σαρκωδεστέρας,
> 4 Nb AMO > » / , / ,
ἀλλ᾽ ἵν᾽ ὅτι ὀλιγίστης μετέχωσιν ἰκμάδος: σαρκώ-
` ^ > . s \ ^ A

673a δεις γὰρ ἂν οὖσαι καὶ εἶχον καὶ εἷλκον μᾶλλον

, / λλ / e ὃ M 0 / Li
ἰκμάδα πολλήν. ὅτι δὲ θερμαινόμεναι ταχέως
ἐπίδηλον ποιοῦσι τὴν αἴσθησιν, σημαίνει καὶ τὸ
περὶ τοὺς γέλωτας συμβαῖνον: γαργαλιζόμενοί τε
γὰρ ταχὺ γελῶσι, διὰ τὸ τὴν κίνησιν ἀφικνεῖσθαι
δ ταχὺ πρὸς τὸν τόπον τοῦτον, θερμαινόμενον' δ᾽
ἠρέμα ποιεῖν ὅμως ἐπίδηλον καὶ κινεῖν τὴν διά-
νοιαν παρὰ τὴν προαίρεσιν. τοῦ δὲ γαργαλίζεσθαι
μόνον ἄνθρωπον αἴτιον 1] τε λεπτότης τοῦ δέρματος
καὶ τὸ μόνον γελᾶν τῶν ζῴων ἄνθρωπον. ὁ δὲ
γαργαλισμὸς γέλως ἐστὶ διὰ κινήσεως τοιαύτης

10 τοῦ μορίου τοῦ περὶ τὴν μασχάλην.

Συμβαύνειν δέ φασι καὶ περὶ τὰς ἐν τοῖς πολέμοις
πληγὰς εἰς τὸν τόπον τὸν περὶ τὰς φρένας γέλωτα
διὰ τὴν ἐκ τῆς πληγῆς γινομένην θερμότητα. τοῦτο

1 θερμαινόμενον Peck: θερμαίνουσι vulg.: -ουσα SZ: -ουσαν
PY; 2 κνήσεως Langkavel.

a The Risus Sardonicus: see Allbutt and Rolleston, A
System of Medicine? (1910), viii. 642.

280

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x.

what actually happens: whenever, owing to their
proximity, they draw up the hot residual fluid, this
at once causes a recognizable disturbance of the
intelligence and of sensation. And that is why they
are called phrenes : as if they took a part in the act
of thinking (phronein). This of course they do not
do; but their proximity to those organs which do
so take part makes the change of condition in the
intelligence recognizable. That, too, is why the
phrenes are thin in the middle; this is not due
entirely to necessity (though as they are fleshy to
begin with, the parts of them nearest the ribs must
of necessity be more fleshy still); there is another
reason, which is, to enable them to have as little
moisture in them as possible, since if they had been
wholly of flesh they would have tended to draw
to themselves and to retain a large quantity of
moisture. Another indication that it is when heated
that they quickly make the sensation recognizable is
afforded by what happens when we laugh. When
people are tickled, they quickly burst into laughter,
and this is because the motion quickly penetrates to
this part, and even though it is only gently warmed,
still it produces a movement (independently of the
will) in the intelligence which is recognizable. The :
fact that human beings only are susceptible to
tickling is due (1) to the fineness of their skin and
(2) to their being the only creaturesthatlaugh. Tick-
ling means, simply, laughter produced in the way I
have described by a movement applied to the part
around the armpit.

It is said that when in war men are struck in the
part around the diaphragm, they laugh on ac-
count of the heat which arises owing to the blow.

281

673a

~
οι

20

50

ARISTOTLE

\ ^ , , ? , > ^ , ^
γὰρ μᾶλλόν ἐστιν ἀξιοπίστων ἀκοῦσαι λεγόντων ἢ
τὸ περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν, ὡς ἀποκοπεῖσα φθέγγεται
τῶν ἀνθρώπων. λέγουσι γάρ τινες ἐπαγόμενοι καὶ
τὸν Ὅμηρον, ὡς διὰ τοῦτο ποιήσαντος

- /
φθεγγομένη δ᾽ ἄρα τοῦ γε κάρη κονίῃσιν
> /
ἐμίχθη,
ἀλλ᾽ οὐ φθεγγομένου. περὶ δὲ ᾿Αρκαδίαν! οὕτω
τὸ τοιοῦτον διεπίστευσαν ὥστε καὶ κρίσιν ἐπουή-
σαντο περί τινος τῶν ἐγχωρίων. τοῦ γὰρ ἱερέως
=, = / ` 5 / e die Α΄ /
τοῦ ὁπλοσμίου Διὸς ἀποθανόντος, ὑφ᾽ ὅτου δὲ ἀδή-
λου ὄντος, ἔφασάν τινες ἀκοῦσαι τῆς κεφαλῆς
ἀποκεκομμένης λεγούσης πολλάκις
δν 9 > ` + ^ > /
ἐπ᾽ ἀνδρὸς ἄνδρα Ἠερκιδᾶς ἀπέκτεινεν"
διὸ καὶ ζητήσαντες ᾧ ὄνομα ἦν ἐν τῷ τόπῳ
- » > /, \ /
Κερκιδᾶς, ἔκριναν. ἀδύνατον δὲ φθέγγεσθαι κεχω-
^ ^ ^ ,
ρισμένης τῆς ἀρτηρίας καὶ ἄνευ τῆς ἐκ τοῦ πλεύ-
^ >
µονος κινήσεως. παρά τε τοῖς βαρβάροις, παρ
οἷς ἀποτέμνουσι ταχέως τὰς κεφαλάς, οὐδέν πω
A / » > 9r « | ^ » d
τοιοῦτον συμβέβηκεν. ἔτι δ᾽ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων
^ αν] >
διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν οὐ γίνεται; [τὸ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ γέλω-
τος πληγεισῶν τῶν φρενῶν εἰκότως, οὐδὲν γὰρ γελᾷ
τῶν ἄλλων" προϊέναι δέ ποι τὸ σῶμα τῆς κεφαλῆς
> /
ἀφηρημένης οὐδὲν ἄλογον, ἐπεὶ τά γ᾽ ἄναιμα καὶ
1 ἀρκαδίαν Z, probat J. Schaefer de Jove apud Cares culto,

pP. 370 sq.: Καρίαν vulg.: kap .. av E: καρ B,
2 δὲ ἀδήλου ὄντος Peck: δὲ δὴ ἀδήλως vulg.: codd. varia.

α Iliad, x. 457 and Od. xxii. 329. In both places the
text of Homer has φθεγγομένου y As he spake’. . .").

> The Berlin text here reads '* Caria," but the Oxford ms.
Z reads “ Arcadia." A cult of Zeus hoplosmios is attested
only for Methydrion, a town in Arcadia, and the name
Kerkidas is found in Arcadia, not in Caria. (See A. B.

282

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x.

This may be so; and those who assert it are more
credible than those who tell the tale of how a man's
head speaks after it is cut off. Sometimes they cite
Homer in support, who (so they say) was referring to
this when he wrote

As it spake, his head was mingled with the dust
(not
As he spake, his head was mingled with the dust.) *

In Arcadia? this kind of thing was at one time so
firmly believed that one of the inhabitants was
actually brought into court on the strength of it.
The priest of Zeus hoplosmios had been killed, but
no one knew who had done it. Certain persons,
however, affirmed that they had heard the man's
head, after it had been cut off, repeating the follow-
ing line several times

*Twas Kerkidas did slaughter man on man.

So they set to work and found someone in the
district who bore this name and brought him to trial.
Of course, speech is impossible once the windpipe
has been severed and no motion is forthcoming from
the lung. And among the barbarians, where they
cut heads off with expedition, nothing of this sort
has taken place so far. Besides, why does it not
occur with the other animals? [For (a) the story
about the laughter when the diaphragm has been
struck is plausible, for none of the others laughs ;
and (b) that the body should go forward some distance
after the head has been cut off, is not at all absurd,
since bloodless animals at any rate actually go on

Cook, Zeus, ii. 290, who gives the evidence, and J. Schaefer,
De Jove apud Cares culto, 1912, pp. 370 f.)

K 283

ARISTOTLE
673a . / / M M 9:
ζῆ πολὺν χρόνον: δεδήλωται δὲ περὶ τῆς αἰτίας
αὐτῶν ἐν ἑτέροις. |"
Té A > e , 3 e A À /
(vos μὲν οὖν ἕνεκέν ἐστιν ἕκαστον τῶν σπλάγ-
914 ^ , A
χνων, εἴρηται: γέγονε Ò ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἐπὶ τοῖς ἐντὸς
, ^ ^ *, L4 . *, / >
πέρασι τῶν φλεβῶν, ἐξιέναι τε γὰρ ἰκμάδα avay-
A T ,
673b καῖον, καὶ ταύτην αἱματικήν, ἐξ ἧς συνισταμένης
` ^ ^ /
καὶ πηγνυμένης γίνεσθαι τὸ σῶμα τῶν σπλάγχνων"
- .
διόπερ αἱματικά, καὶ αὑτοῖς μὲν ὁμοίαν ἔχουσι τὴν
^ / , ^ > : » d
τοῦ σώματος φύσιν, τοῖς δ᾽ ἄλλοις ἀνομοίαν.
> /
ΧΙ. Πάντα δὲ τὰ σπλάγχνα ἐν ὑμένι ἐστίν'
^ . - A ` > ^ 5 `
δ προβολῆς τε γὰρ δεῖ πρὸς τὸ ἀπαθῆ εἶναι, καὶ
, 3 ^ ε 5 € ^ . y ^ :
ταύτης ἐλαφρᾶς, ὁ δ᾽ ὑμὴν τὴν φύσιν τοιοῦτος
σ
πυκνὸς μὲν γὰρ ὥστ᾽ ἀποστέγειν, ἄσαρκος δὲ ὥστε
\ EÀ >, δ 3 {ὃ λ A δ᾽ e ^
μὴ ἕλκειν μηδ᾽ ἔχειν ἰκμάδα, λεπτὸς δ᾽ ὅπως κοῦ-
Φος 7 καὶ μηδὲν ποιῇ βάρος. μέγιστοι δὲ καὶ
, ^ M *
ἰσχυρότατοι τῶν ὑμένων εἰσὶν οἵ τε περὶ τὴν
’ \ A A , / , , ^
10 καρδίαν καὶ περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον, εὐλόγως" ταῦτα
^ ^ / ^ € ^ . .
γὰρ δεῖται πλείστης φυλακῆς: ἡ μὲν γὰρ φυλακὴ
περὶ τὰ κύρια, ταῦτα δὲ κύρια μάλιστα τῆς ζωῆς.
XII. Ἔχουσι δ᾽ ἔνια μὲν τῶν ζῴων πάντα τὸν
ἀριθμὸν αὐτῶν, ἔνια δ᾽ οὐ πάντα: ποῖα δὲ ταῦτα καὶ
διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν, εἴρηται πρότερον. καὶ τῶν ἐχόντων
15 δὲ ταῦτα διαφέρουσιν: οὐ γὰρ ὁμοίας οὔτε τὰς
καρδίας ἔχουσι πάντα τὰ ἔχοντα καρδίαν, οὔτε τῶν
y ε , ^ 3 / / \ T ^ `
ἄλλων ὡς εἰπεῖν οὐδέν. τό τε γὰρ ἧπαρ τοῖς μὲν
πολυσχιδές ἐστι τοῖς δὲ μονοφυέστερον, πρῶτον

1 codd. edd. varia ; corrupta et inepta seclusi.

284

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. χ.-Χπ.

living for a long time. The reason for these pheno-
mena has been explained elsewhere.]

We have now said what is the purpose for which
each of the viscera is present ; but also they have
been formed of necessity at the inner ends of the blood-
vessels, because moisture, 1.6. moisture of a blood-
like nature, must of necessity make its way out there,
and, as it sets and solidifies, form the substance of
the viscera. That, too, is why they are blood-like in
character, and why the substance of all of them is
similar, though different from that of the other

arts.

XI. All the viscera are enclosed in membranes.
Some covering is needed to ensure their safety, and
it must be a light one. ‘These conditions are fulfilled
by a membrane, which is close-textured, thus making
a good protection; does not consist of flesh, and
therefore does not draw in moisture or retain it; is
thin, therefore light, and causes no burden. The
biggest and strongest membranes are those round
the heart and the brain, which is natural enough, as
it is always the controlling power which has to be
protected ; therefore the heart and the brain, which
have the supreme controlling power over the life of
the body, need the most protection.

XII. Some animals possess a full complement of
viscera, some do not. We have already stated what
animals have less than the full number, and the
reason. But also, the same viscera are different in
the various animals that have them. For instance,
the heart is not identical in all the animals which have
a heart; nor is any other of the viscera. The liver
illustrates this : in some it is split into several parts,
in some almost undivided. This variation of form is

285

Membranes,

Variations
in the
viscera,

673 b

20

to
cC

30

674a

ARISTOTLE

αὐτῶν τῶν ἐναίμων καὶ ζῳοτόκων: ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον
καὶ πρὸς ταῦτα καὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα διαφέρει τά τε τῶν
ἰχθύων καὶ (τῶν)! τετραπόδων καὶ ᾠοτόκων. τὸ δὲ
τῶν ὀρνίθων μάλιστα προσεμφερὲς τῷ τῶν ζῳο-
τόκων ἐστὶν ἥπατι: καθαρὸν γὰρ. καὶ ἔναιμον τὸ
χρῶμα αὐτῶν ἐστι καθάπερ κἀκείνων. αἴτιον δὲ
τὸ τὰ σώματα τούτων εὐπνούστατα εἶναι καὶ μὴ
πολλὴν ἔχειν φαύλην περίττωσιν. διόπερ ἔνια καὶ
οὐκ ἔχει χολὴν τῶν ζῳοτόκων: τὸ γὰρ ἧπαρ συμ-
βάλλεται πολὺ .μέρος πρὸς εὐκρασίαν τοῦ σώματος
καὶ ὑγίειαν: ἐν μὲν yàp τῷ αἵματι μάλιστα τὸ
τούτων τέλος, τὸ δ᾽ ἧπαρ αἱματικώτατον μετὰ τὴν
καρδίαν τῶν σπλάγχνων. τὰ δὲ τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ
ᾠοτόκων καὶ τῶν ἰχθύων ἔνωχρα τῶν πλείστων,
ἐνίων δὲ καὶ φαῦλα παντελῶς, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ σώ-
ματα φαύλης τετύχηκε κράσεως, οἷον φρύνης καὶ
χελώνης καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν τοιούτων.

Σπλῆνα δ᾽ ἔχει τὰ μὲν κερατοφόρα καὶ δίχαλα
στρογγύλον, καθάπερ αἲξ καὶ πρόβατον καὶ τῶν
ἄλλων ἕκαστον, εἰ μή τι διὰ μέγεθος εὐαυξέστερον
ἔχει κατὰ μῆκος, οἷον ὁ τοῦ Boos πέπονθεν" τὰ δὲ
πολυσχιδῆ πάντα μακρόν, οἷον bs καὶ ἄνθρωπος καὶ
κύων, τὰ δὲ μώνυχα μεταξὺ τούτων καὶ μικτόν: τῇ
μὲν γὰρ πλατὺν ἔχει τῇ δὲ στενόν, οἷον ἵππος καὶ
ὀρεὺς καὶ ὄνος.

XIII. Οὐ μόνον δὲ διαφέρει τὰ σπλάγχνα τῆς
σαρκὸς τῷ ὄγκῳ τοῦ σώματος, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῷ τὴν"
μὲν ἔξω τὰ δ᾽ ἔσω τὴν θέσιν ἔχειν. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι

1 «τῶν» Peck. ? τὴν ESUYZ: τὰ vulg.

a See above, on 650 b 24. Cf. 677 a 19 ff.
286

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x11.-x1n.

found first of all even among the viviparous blooded
animals ; but it is more noticeable among the fishes
and oviparous quadrupeds, whose livers differ not
only from those of the Vivipara, but also from each
other’s. In birds, the liver very closely resembles
that of the Vivipara: in both, its colour is pure and
blood-like. The reason for which is, that their bodies
give a very free passage to the breath, which means
that they retain very little foul residue; hence, indeed,
some of the Vivipara have no gall-bladder, and this is
largely due to the very considerable assistance given
by the liver in maintaining a good blend" and healthi-
ness in the body. ‘This is because the purpose which
these viscera serve lies chiefly in the blood, and after
the heart the liver contains more blood than any
other of the viscera. In most of the oviparous
quadrupeds and the fishes the liver is yellowish, and
in some of them it is altogether bad-looking, on a
par with the bad blend of the rest of their bodies.
This happens in the toad, the tortoise, and the like.

As for the spleen: In horned animals that have
cloven hoofs it is rounded : e.g. in the goat, the sheep,
and similar animals; unless greatness of size has
made it grow out at some point lengthways, as in the
case of the ox. In all the polydactylous animals the `
spleen is long, as in the pig, in man, and in the dog.
In animals with solid hoofs the spleen is intermediate
between the two and has the characteristics of both :
in one place it is broad, in another narrow, as exempli-
fied in the horse, the mule, and the ass.

XIII. Now the viscera differ from the flesh not only
in the bulkiness of their mass, but also in their
situation, for the flesh is on the outside of the body,
while they are inside. The reason for this is that

237

674a

ARISTOTLE

τὴν φύσιν ἔχει κοινωνοῦσαν ταῖς Φλεψί, καὶ τὰ μὲν
τῶν φλερῶν χάριν, τὰ Ó' οὐκ ἄνευ φλεβῶν ἐ ἐστιν.
XIV. ‘Trò δὲ τὸ ὑπόζωμα κεῖται ἡ κοιλία τοῖς

10 ζῴοις, τοῖς μὲν ἔχουσιν οἰσοφάγον 7 τελευτᾷ τοῦτο

τὸ «μόριον, τοῖς δὲ μὴ ἔχουσιν εὐθὺς πρὸς τῷ
στόματι" τῆς δὲ κοιλίας ἐχόμενον τὸ καλούμενον
ἔντερον.
Jt €t > Dry » ^ ` , ^ ,
Av ἣν δ᾽ αἰτίαν ἔχει ταῦτα τὰ μόρια τῶν ζῴων
ἕκαστον, φανερὸν πᾶσιν. καὶ γὰρ δέξασθαι τὴν
εἰσελθοῦσαν τροφὴν καὶ τὴν ἐξικμασμένην ἀναγ-

7
15 καῖον ἐκπέμψαι, καὶ μη τὸν αὐτὸν τόπον κα τῆς

20

26

T ἀπέπτου καὶ τοῦ περιττώματος, εἶναί τέ τινα
δεῖ τόπον ἐν ᾧ μεταβάλλει. τὸ μὲν γὰρ τὴν εἶσ-
ελθοῦσαν ἕξει μόριον, τὸ δὲ τὸ περίττωμα τὸ ἄχρη-
στον: ὥσπερ δὲ χρόνος ἕτερος ἑκατέρου τούτων,
ἀναγκαῖον διειλῆφθαι καὶ τοῖς τόποις. ἀλλὰ περὶ
μὲν τούτων ἐν τοῖς περὶ τὴν γένεσιν καὶ τὴν τροφὴν
οἰκειότερός ἐστιν ὁ διορισμός: περὶ δὲ τῆς διαφορᾶς
τῆς κοιλίας καὶ τῶν συντελῶν μορίων νῦν ἐπι-
σκεπτέον.

Οὔτε γὰρ τοῖς µεγέθεσιν οὔτε τοῖς εἴδεσιν ὁμοίας
ἔχουσιν ἀλλήλοις τὰ ζῷα: ἀλλ᾽ ὅσα μέν ἐστιν αὐτῶν
ἀμφώδοντα τῶν ἐναίμων καὶ τῶν ζῳοτόκων, μίαν
ἔχει κοιλίαν, οἷον ἄνθρωπος καὶ κύων καὶ λέων καὶ
τἆλλα ὅσα. πολυδάκτυλα, καὶ ὅσα μώνυχα, οἷον
ἵππος, ὀρεύς, ὄνος, καὶ ὅσα δίχαλα μὲν ἀμφώδοντα
δέ, οἷον bs, πλὴν eU τι διὰ μέγεθος τοῦ σώματος

; ὑσπλὴξ ἢ ἢ εἴ ESUY (ἢ om. E): ὑσπλὴξ πλὴν εἴ Ἐν et corr.
U: : ὕσπ ληγέ in ras. et supra kai χοῖρος Z?, tum πλὴν εἴ 21: ὃς,
εἰ μή Bekker: ds, πλὴν εἰ μή Buss.

a See De gen. an. Bk. II. chh. 6 and 7.
288

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x11.—x1v.

their nature shares that of the blood-vessels : some
of them exist for the sake of the blood-vessels,
others do not exist apart from the blood-vessels.

XIV. Below the diaphragm is the Stomach, which
is placed where the oesophagus ends (if there is an
oesophagus ; if not, immediately next to the mouth).
Next after the stomach and continuous with it is what
is called the Gut.

It must be obvious to everyone why all animals
have these parts. It is a necessity for them to have
some receptacle for the food they take in, and to
expel it again when its moisture has been extracted
from it; and there must be two different places for
these two things—the unconcocted food and the
residue ; there must also be another place in which
the change from one to the other is effected. Two
receptacles, then, one for the incoming food, one for
the residue which is no more use—as there is a
separate time for these so there must be a separate
place. However, it will be more appropriate to go
into these matters in our treatise on Generation and
Nutrition.^ At the present we must consider the
variations that are to be found in the stomach and its
subsidiary parts.

The stomach differs both in size and appearance in
different animals. Those of the blooded Vivipara
which have front teeth in both jaws have one
stomach ; e.g. man, the dog, the lion, and the other
polydactyls; so also those that have solid hoofs,
e.g. the horse, the mule, the ass ; and those which
although they are cloven-hoofed have front teeth
in both jaws, e.g. the pig. These rules apply unless
the size of the frame and the character of the food

289

Stomach
and
Intestines,

674a

30

674 b

b

10

15

ARISTOTLE

. ^ ^
καὶ τὴν τῆς τροφῆς δύναμιν, οὖσαν οὐκ εὔπεπτον
ἀλλ᾽ ἀκανθώδη καὶ ξυλικήν, ἔχει πλείους, οἷον
κάμηλος, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ κερατοφόρα: τὰ γὰρ
, , » > / \ A \ M
κερατοφόρα οὐκ éarw ἀμφώδοντα. διὰ τοῦτο δὲ καὶ
€ , 3 ^ > , > , > ’
ἡ κάμηλος οὐ τῶν ἀμφωδόντων ἐστίν, ἀκέρατος
οὖσα, διὰ τὸ ἀναγκαιότερον εἶναι αὐτῇ τὴν κοιλίαν
» ’ ^ ^ , > , σ >
ἔχειν τοιαύτην ἢ τοὺς προσθίους ὀδόντας. ὥστ
> ` / € / » ^ A 3 / ` ^
ἐπεὶ ταύτην ὁμοίαν ἔχει τοῖς μὴ ἀμφώδουσι, καὶ τὰ
A ^ , , ε ’ » , ^ € , A ”
περὶ τοὺς ὀδόντας ὁμοίως ἔχει αὐτῇ, ὡς οὐδὲν ὄντας
’ e M . > . ε . » /
προέργου. ἅμα δὲ καὶ ἐπεὶ ἡ τροφὴ ἀκανθώδης,
τὴν δὲ γλῶτταν ἀνάγκη σαρκώδη εἶναι, πρὸς
, ^ , ^ y ^ 3 ^
σκληρότητα τοῦ οὐρανοῦ κατακέχρηται τῷ ἐκ τῶν
, / / e / \ / > e
ὀδόντων γεώδει ἡ φύσις. καὶ μηρυκάζει δ᾽ ἡ
/ e . / ^ A ^ ’
κάμηλος ὥσπερ τὰ κερατοφόρα, διὰ τὸ τὰς κοιλίας
ὁμοίας ἔχειν τοῖς κερατοφόροις. τούτων δ᾽ ἕκαστον
’ » / ο 2 ^ y
πλείους ἔχει κοιλίας, otov πρόβατον, βοῦς, até,
» M 7 . ^ ^ , a
ἔλαφος, καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν ζῴων, ὅπως
3 . ^ 3 ’ , ’ A . A e
ἐπειδὴ τῆς ἐργασίας ἐλλείπει περὶ τὴν τροφὴν ἡ
λειτουργία ἡ τοῦ στόματος διὰ τὴν ἔνδειαν τῶν
56 e ul d XX eM of re sl δέ 1
ὀδόντων, ἡ τῶν κοιλιῶν ἑτέρα πρὸς ἑτέρας δέχηται
ε
τὴν τροφήν, ἡ μὲν ἀκατέργαστον, ἡ δὲ κατειργα-
/ ^ € M , € \ / . .
σμένην μᾶλλον, ἡ δὲ πάμπαν, ἡ δὲ λείαν. διὸ τὰ
τοιαῦτα τῶν ζῴων πλείους ἔχει τόπους καὶ μόρια.
- . ^ / . , `
καλοῦνται δὲ ταῦτα κοιλία καὶ κεκρύφαλος καὶ
ἐχῖνος καὶ ἤνυστρον. ὃν δ᾽ ἔχει τρόπον ταῦτα πρὸς

1 δέχηται Peck: δεχομένη vulg.
900

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. τιν.

modify them : for instance, if the food is thorny and
woody and therefore not easy to concoct, in which
case the animal has several stomachs, e.g. the camel ;
so also have the horned animals, as they have not front
teeth in both jaws. Thus also the camel has not the
two rows of front teeth either, although it has no
horns; this is because it is more necessary for the
camel to have several stomachs than to have all these
front teeth. ο, as it resembles the animals which
lack the upper front teeth in that it has several
stomachs, therefore the arrangement of its teeth
is that which normally accompanies the multiple
stomachs : in other words, it lacks these front teeth,
as they would be no use to it. And also, as its food
is thorny, and as the tongue has of necessity to be
of a fleshy character, Nature has made use of the
earthy matter saved from the missing teeth to make
the roof of the mouth hard. Again, the camel
ruminates as the horned animals do, because it has
stomachs that resemble theirs. Every one of the
horned animals (such as the sheep, the ox, the goat,
the deer, and the like) has several stomachs ; and the
purpose of them is this: Since the mouth is deficient
in teeth, the service which it performs upon the food
is deficient; and so one stomach after another
receives the food, which is quite untreated when it -
enters the first stomach, more treated in the next,
completely treated in the next, and a smooth pulp
in the next. And that is why these animals have
several such places or parts, the names of which are
(1) the paunch (rumen), (2) the net or honeycomb-bag
(reticulum), (3) the manyplies (omasum), (4) the reed ^
(abomasum). For the relation of these to each other

a Or, true stomach.
K 2 201

ARISTOTLE
674 b

ἄλληλα τῇ θέσει καὶ τοῖς εἴδεσιν, ἔκ τε τῆς ἱστορίας
τῆς περὶ τὰ ζῷα δεῖ θεωρεῖν καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἀνατομῶν.
Διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν δ᾽ αἰτίαν καὶ τὸ τῶν ὀρνίθων
γένος ἔχει διαφορὰν περὶ τὸ τῆς τροφῆς δεκτικὸν
90 μόριον. ἐπεὶ γὰρ οὐδὲ ταῦτα ὅλως τὴν τοῦ στό-
ματος ἀποδίδωσι λειτουργίαν (ἀνόδοντα γάρ) καὶ
οὔθ᾽ à διαιρήσει οὔθ᾽ ᾧ λεανεῖ τὴν τροφὴν € έχουσι,
διὰ τοῦτο τὰ μὲν πρὸ τῆς κοιλίας ἔχουσι τὸν
καλούμενον πρόλοβον à ἀντὶ τῆς τοῦ στόματος ἐργα-
σίας, οἱ δὲ τὸν οἰσοφάγον πλατύν, ἢ πρὸ τῆς κοιλίας
25 αὐτοῦ µέρος τι ὀγκῶδες ἐ ἐν ᾧ 'προθησαυρίζουσι τὴν
ἀκατέργαστον τροφήν, ἢ τῆς κοιλίας αὐτῆς τι
ἐπανεστηκός, οἱ Ò αὐτὴν τὴν κοιλίαν i ἰσχυρὰν καὶ
σαρκώδη πρὸς τὸ δύνασθαι πολὺν χρόνον θησαυρί-
ζειν καὶ πέττειν ἀλείαντον οὖσαν τὴν τροφήν" τῇ
δυνάμει γὰρ καὶ τῇ θερμότητι τῆς κοιλίας ἡ Φύσις
so ἀναλαμβάνει τὴν τοῦ στόματος ἔνδειαν. εἰσὶ δέ
τινες ot τούτων οὐδὲν ἔχουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὸν πρόλοβον'
μακρόν, ὅσα μακροσκελῆ καὶ ἔλεια, διὰ τὴν τῆς
τροφῆς ὑγρότητα. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι ἡ ἡ τροφὴ πᾶσι
τούτοις εὐλέαντος, ὥστε συμβαίνειν διὰ ταῦτα τῶν
τοιούτων τὰς κοιλίας εἶναι ὑγρὰς [διὰ τὴν ἀπεψίαν

καὶ τὴν τροφήν]."
675a To δὲ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος ἔχει μὲν ὀδόντας, τού-
τους δὲ καρχαρόδοντας σχεδὸν ὡς εἰπεῖν πάντες":
ὀλίγον γάρ τί ἐστι γένος τὸ μὴ τοιοῦτον, οἷον ὁ
καλούμενος σκάρος, ὃς δὴ καὶ δοκεῖ μηρυκάζειν

1 πρόλοβον] στόμαχον Ogle, collato Hist. An. 509 a 9.

7 secludenda.
3 πάντες Ogle: πάντας vulg.

α At 507 a 36 ff. > The gizzard.
ο Ogle reads '' oesophagus.”

292

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xrv.

as regards position and appearance, the Researches
upon Animals ^ and the treatises on Anatomy should be
consulted.

The same reason as has just been described accounts
for the difference which presents itself in birds in the
part which receives the food. Birds, like the other
animals, do not get the full service from the mouth in
dealing with the food—since they have no teeth at
all, and they have nothing with which to bite up or
grind down the food ; and so some of them have,
before the stomach, what is called the crop, to per-
form the work instead of the mouth. Others have
a broad oesophagus; or their oesophagus has a
bulge in it, just before it reaches the stomach, in
which they keep a preliminary store of untreated
food ; or some part of the stomach itself sticks out.
Others have a strong and fleshy stomach? which
is thus able to store the food up for a long period
and to concoct it although it has not been ground
down; thus Nature makes up for the deficiency of
the mouth by means not only of the heat of the
stomach but also by its special character. Other
birds have none of these devices, but a long crop,^
because their food is moist: these are the long-legged
marsh birds. The reason for this is that the food
which all of these take is easily ground down, and
the result is that the stomachs of birds of this sort
are moist [owing to the unconcocted and moist state
of the food].

The tribe of fishes have teeth : practically all have
saw-teeth. There is one small group to which this
does not apply, e.g. the Scarus,? as it is called, and
it seems reasonable to suppose that this is why

4 The parrot-fish ; see above, 662 a T.
203

675a

ARISTOTLE

AG ^ ^ / M ^ ^ \ > ,
ο εὐλόγως διὰ ταῦτα μόνος: καὶ γὰρ τὰ μὴ ἀμφώ-

10

16

20

26

ὃ / \ / > ^ M / 1
ovra κερατοφόρα δὲ μηρυκάζει. ὀξεῖς δὲ πάντας
» “ - \ A ΄ \
ἔχουσιν, ὥστε διελεῖν μὲν δύνανται, φαύλως δὲ δι-

K ^ / ` , er / /
ελεῖν- ἐνδιατρίβειν γὰρ οὐχ οἷόν τε χρονίζοντας: διό-

3 \ ^ » , / 309 , ,
περ οὐδὲ πλατεῖς ἔχουσιν ὀδόντας, οὐδ ἐνδέχε-
ται λεαίνειν᾽ μάτην ἂν οὖν εἶχον. ἔτι δὲ στόμαχον
οὗ μὲν ὅλως οὐκ ἔχουσιν, οἱ δὲ βραχύν. ἀλλὰ πρὸς
τὴν βοήθειαν τῆς πέψεως οἱ μὲν ὀρνιθώδεις € ἔχουσι
τὰς κοιλίας καὶ σαρκώδεις, οἷον κεστρεύς, οἱ δὲ

A M M , 5 / / τ»
πολλοὶ παρὰ τὴν κοιλίαν ἀποφυάδας πυκνάς, ἵν
ἐν ταύταις ὥσπερ ἐν προλακκίοις θησαυρίζοντες
συσσήπωσι καὶ πέττωσι τὴν τροφήν. ἔχουσι ὃ

^ €
ἐναντίως οἱ ἰχθύες τοῖς ὄρνισι τὰς ἀποφυάδας: οἱ
μὲν γὰρ ἰχθύες ἄνω πρὸς τῇ κοιλίᾳ, τῶν δ᾽ ὀρνίθων
οἱ ἔχοντες ἀποφυάδας κάτω πρὸς τῷ τέλει τοῦ
ἐντέρου. ἔχουσι δ᾽ ἀποφυάδας ἔνια καὶ τῶν wo-
τόκων ἐντερικὰς κάτω διὰ Tv αὐτὴν αἰτίαν.

Τὸ δὲ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος ἅπαν, διὰ τὸ ἐνδεεστέρως
ἔχειν τὰ περὶ τὴν τῆς ια ἐργασίαν, ἀλλ᾽
ἄπεπτα διαχωρεῖν, λαίμαργον πρὸς τὴν τροφήν
ἐστι, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων δὲ πάντων ὅσα εὐθυέντερα"
ταχείας γὰρ γινομένης τῆς διαχωρήσεως, καὶ διὰ
ταῦτα βραχείας οὔσης τῆς ἀπολαύσεως, ταχεῖαν
ἀναγκαῖον γίνεσθαι πάλιν καὶ τὴν ἐπιθυμίαν.

Ta © ἀμφώδοντα ὅτι μὲν μικρὰν ἔχει κοιλίαν
»
εἴρηται πρὀτερον' εἰς διαφορὰς δὲ πίπτουσι δύο
πᾶσαι σχεδόν: τὰ μὲν yàp τῇ τῆς κυνὸς ὁμοίαν

| πάντας S: πάντες vulg.

a Probably some kind of mullet.
> “ Caecal appendages ” (Ogle), or “ alimentary sacs."
* The vermiform appendix.

294

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xiv.

it alone ruminates, for horned animals which have no
teeth in the upper jaw also ruminate. All teeth in fish
are sharp; this enables them to bite up their food,
though somewhat unsatisfactorily ; this is because
they cannot spend long over mastication ; hence
they neither have flat teeth nor may they grind
the food down ; therefore it would be idle to have
the teeth. Furthermore, some fishes have no gullet
at all, others have a short one ; but, in order to as-
sist the process of concoction, some of them, like the
Kestreus,? have fleshy stomachs, similar to those of
birds; the majority, however, have a large number
of appendages ὃ by the side of the stomach, in which
to store up the food as it might be in additional cellars
and there putrefy it up and concoct it. The ap-
pendages of fishes are, however, quite different from
those of birds. In fishes they are fairly high up
beside the stomach, whereas when present in birds
they are down below at the end of the gut. Some
of the Vivipara also have appendages ° of this latter
kind, and their purpose is the same.

The whole race of fishes is gluttonous for food,
because their equipment for reducing it is defective,
as a result of which most of it passes through un-.
concocted. Of all, those which have a straight intes-
tine are especially gluttonous, since the food passes
through quickly, which means that their enjoyment
of it is brief, and therefore in its turn the desire for
food must come on again very quickly.

I have already said that in animals with front
teeth in both jaws the stomach is small. These
stomachs fall into two main classes. Some have a
stomach resembling that of the dog, some that of

- 295

ARISTOTLE
675a
ἔχουσι κοιλίαν, τὰ δὲ τῇ τῆς ὑός" ἔστι δ᾽ ἡ μὲν τῆς

ὑὸς μείζων καί τινας ἔχουσα μετρίας πλάκας πρὸς
τὸ χρονιωτέραν γίνεσθαι τὴν πέψιν, ἡ 7 δὲ τῆς κυνὸς
30 μικρὰ τὸ μέγεθος καὶ οὐ πολὺ τοῦ ἐντέρου ὑπερ-
βάλλουσα καὶ λεία τὰ ἐντός. μετὰ γὰρ τὴν κοιλίαν
ἡ τῶν ἐντέρων ἔγκειται φύσις πᾶσι τοῖς ζῴοις. ἔχει
δὲ διαφορὰς πολλάς, καθάπερ 7 κοιλία, καὶ τοῦτο
τὸ μόριον. τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ἁπλοῦν ἐστι, καὶ ὅμοιον
ἀναλυόμενον, τοῖς δ᾽ ἀνόμοιον: ἐνίοις μὲν γὰρ εὐρύ-
85 τερον τὸ πρὸς τῇ κοιλίᾳ, τὸ δὲ πρὸς τῷ τέλει
στενότερον) (διόπερ αἱ κύνες μετὰ πόνου προΐενται
675 b τὴν τοιαύτην περίττωσυ), τοῖς δὲ πλείοσιν ἄνωθεν
στενότερον,᾽ πρὸς τῷ τέλει δ᾽ εὐρύτερον.

Μείζω δὲ καὶ ἀναδιπλώσεις ἔχοντα πολλὰς τὰ
τῶν κερατοφόρων ἐστί, καὶ οἱ ὄγκοι τῆς κοιλίας
τούτοις μείζους καὶ τῶν ἐντέρων διὰ τὸ μέγεθος:

πάντα γὰρ ὡς εἰπεῖν μεγάλα τὰ κερατοφόρα διὰ
τὴν κατεργασίαν τὴν τῆς τροφῆς. πᾶσι δὲ τοῖς μὴ
εὐθυεντέροις προϊὸν εὐρύτερον γίνεται τὸ μόριον
τοῦτο, καὶ τὸ καλούμενον κόλον ἔχουσι, καὶ τοῦ
ἐντέρου τυφλόν τι καὶ ὀγκῶδες, εἶτ᾽ ἐκ τούτου
πάλιν στενότερον" καὶ εἱλιγμένον. τὸ δὲ μετὰ
10 τοῦτο εὐθὺ πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον διατείνει τοῦ περιτ-
τώματος, καὶ τοῖς μὲν τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, ὁ καλού-
μενος ἀρχός, κνισώδης. ἐστί, τοῖς δ᾽ ἀπίμελος.
πάντα δὲ ταῦτα μεμηχάνηται τῇ φύσει πρὸς τὰς
ἁρμοττούσας ἐργασίας περὶ τὴν τροφὴν καὶ τοῦ
/ `
γινομένου περιττώματος. προϊόντι γὰρ καὶ κατα-
βαίνοντι τῷ περιττώματι εὐρυχωρία γίνεται, καὶ
is πρὸς τὸ μεταβάλλειν ας τοῖς εὐχιλοτέροις

1 στενώτερον bis vulg. 2 προϊὸν Peck: προϊοῦσιν vulg.
3 στενότερον SU: στενώτερον vulg.

206

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. χιν.

the pig. The pig's stomach is larger than the dog's,
and it has some folds of medium size, so as to prolong
the time of concoction. The dog's is small in size—
not much bigger indeed than the gut, and its inner
surface is smooth. The gut has its place next after
the stomach in all animals. Like the stomach, this
part too presents many various forms. In some
animals it is simple and similar throughout its
length, when uncoiled; in others it is not similar
throughout. Thus, in some it is wider near the
stomach, and narrower towards the end (that is why
dogs find difficulty in discharging their excrement) ;
in the majority, however, it is narrower at the top,
and wider at the end.

In the horned animals, the intestines are longer and
have many convolutions ; and their bulk (as well as
the bulk of the stomach) is greater, owing to the size
of the animal : horned animals being, on the whole,
large in size because of the ample treatment which
their food receives. Except in those animals where
it is straight the intestine gets wider as it proceeds,
and they have what is called the colon and the
blind and swollen part of the gut? ; and then after
that point it gets narrower again and convoluted.
After this, it goes on in a straight line to the place
where the residue is discharged ; and in some this
part (which is called the anus) is supplied with fat, in
others it is devoid of fat. All these parts have been
devised by Nature to suit their appropriate functions
in treating the food and in dealing with the residue
produced. As the residue proceeds on its way and goes
downwards, it finds a wider space where it remains
in order to undergo transformation; this is what

a The caecal dilatation.

297

ARISTOTLE
675 b
TÓV ζῴων καὶ πλείονος δεομένοις τροφῆς, διὰ τὸ
>
μέγεθος ἢ τὴν. θερμότητα τῶν τόπων. εἶτ᾽ ἐν-
τεῦθεν πάλιν, ὥσπερ ἀπὸ τῆς ἄνω κοιλίας δέχεται
στενότερον' ἔντερον, οὕτως ἐκ τοῦ κώλου καὶ τῆς
εὐρυχωρίας ἐν τῇ κάτω κοιλίᾳ πάλιν εἰς στενό-
20 τερον᾽ ἔρχεται καὶ εἰς τὴν ἕλικα τὸ περίττωμα
ἐξικμασμένον πάμπαν, ὅπως ταμιεύηται ἡ φύσις
καὶ μὴ ἀθρόος ἡ ἡ ἔξοδος τοῦ περιττώματος.
“Ὅσα μὲν οὖν εἶναι δεῖ τῶν ζῴων σωφρονέστερα
πρὸς τὴν τῆς τροφῆς ποίησιν εὐρυχωρίας μὲν οὐκ
ἔχει μεγάλας κατὰ τὴν κάτω κοιλίαν, ἕλικας δ᾽
» , M > 3 , fs ye e M \
95 ἔχει πλείους καὶ οὐκ εὐθυέντερά ἐστιν. ἡ μὲν γὰρ
> / ^ / , , € > 3 ,
εὐρυχωρία ποιεῖ πλήθους ἐπιθυμίαν, ἡ δ᾽ εὐθύτης
ταχυτῆτα ἐπιθυμίας: διόπερ ὅσα τῶν ζῴων ἢ ἁπλᾶς
ἔχει ἢ εὐρυχώρους τὰς ὑποδοχάς, τὰ μὲν εἰς πλῆθος
γαστρίµαργα τὰ Ò εἰς τάχος ἐστίν.
2 M 9 29 ^ X M , ^ A ,
Επεὶ δ᾽ ἐν τῇ ἄνω μὲν κοιλίᾳ κατὰ τὴν πρώτην
80 εἴσοδον τῆς τροφῆς νεαρὰν ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι τὴν
τροφήν, κάτω δὲ προϊοῦσαν κοπρώδη καὶ ἐξ-
ικµασµένην, ἀναγκαῖον εἶναί τι καὶ τὸ μεταξύ,
9 - / \ »5» / »» 3
ἐν ὦ μεταβάλλει καὶ οὔτ᾽ ἔτι πρόσφατος οὔτ᾽ ἤδη
κόπρος. διὰ τοῦτο πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα ζῷα τὴν
καλουμένην ἔχει νῆστιν καὶ ἐν τῷ μετὰ τὴν κοιλίαν
85 ἐντέρῳ τῷ λεπτῷ" τοῦτο γὰρ μεταξὺ τῆς τ᾽ ἄνω, ἐν
ᾗ τὸ ἄπεπτον, καὶ τῆς κάτω, ἐν ᾗ τὸ ἄχρηστον ἤδη
, ’ 279 ^ , / »:9 ^
περίττωμα. γίνεται Ò ἐν πᾶσι μέν, δήλη Ò ἐν τοῖς
1 στενώτερον bis Langkavel.

a i.e. the '' stomach."
> i.e. the “ large intestine.”

298

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. χιν.

happens in the animals which need and take more
food owing either to their size or to the heat of these
parts of the body. After this, just as it goes into a
narrower part of the intestine after it leaves the upper
gut," so also it goes into a narrower channel after
the colon or wide part of the lower gut," and into
the spiral coil ; into these the residue passes when
its juices have been completely exhausted. In this
way Nature is enabled to keep the material in store,
and the residue is prevented from passing out all at
the same moment.

In those animals, however, which have to be more
controlled in their feeding, there are no great wide
spaces in the lower gut, but their intestine is not
straight, as it contains many convolutions. Spacious-
ness in the gut causes a desire for bulk of food, and
straightness in the intestine makes the desire come
on again quickly. Hence, animals of this sort are
gluttonous : those with simple receptacles eat at very
short intervals of time, those with spacious ones eat
very large quantities.

Since the food in the upper gut, when it has just Jejunum.
entered, must of necessity be fresh, and when it
has proceeded further downwards must have lost its
juices and be practically dung, the organ which lies `
between the two must of necessity be something
definite, in which the change is effected, where food
is no longer fresh and not yet dung. Therefore all
animals of this sort have what is called the jejunum,
which forms part of the small intestine, which is next
to the stomach. That is to say, it has its place
between the upper gut, where the unconcocted
food is, and the lower gut, where the now useless
residue is. All these animals have the jejunum, but

9

299

ARISTOTLE

676 a μείζοσι καὶ νηστεύσασιν ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐδηδοκόσιν" τότε
γὰρ δὴ' otov* μεταίχμιον γίνεται τῶν τόπων ἀμφο-
τέρων, ἐδηδοκότων δὲ μικρὸς ὁ καιρὸς τῆς µετα-
βολῆς. τοῖς μὲν οὖν θήλεσι᾽ γίνεται ὅπου ἂν τύχη

5 τοῦ ἄνω ἐντέρου ἡ νῆστις: οἱ δ᾽ ἄρρενες" ἔχουσι πρὸ
τοῦ τυφλοῦ καὶ τῆς κάτω κοιλίας.

XV. "Ἔχουσι δὲ τὴν καλουμένην πυετίαν τὰ μὲν
πολυκοίλια πάντα, τῶν δὲ μονοκοιλίων δασύπους.
ἔχει δὲ τὰ ἔχοντα τῶν πολυκοιλίων τὴν πυετίαν οὔτ᾽
ἐν τῇ μεγάλῃ κοιλίᾳ οὔτ᾽ ἐν τῷ κεκρυφάλῳ οὔτ᾽ ἐν

10 τῷ τελευταίῳ τῷ ἠνύστρῳ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐν τῷ μεταξὺ τοῦ
τελευταίου καὶ [δύο] τῶν πρώτων, ἐν τῷ καλου-
μένῳ ἐχίνῳ. ἔχει δὲ ταῦτα πάντα πυετίαν διὰ τὴν
παχύτητα τοῦ γάλακτος: τὰ δὲ μονοκοίλια οὐκ
ἔχει, λεπτὸν γὰρ τὸ γάλα τῶν μονοκοιλίων. διὸ
τῶν μὲν κερατοφόρων πήγνυται, τῶν δ᾽ ἀκεράτων

1,00 πήγνυται τὸ γάλα. τῷ δὲ δασύποδι γίνεται
πυετία διὰ τὸ νέμεσθαι ὀπώδη πόαν" ὁ γὰρ τοιοῦ-
τος χυμὸς συνίστησιν ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ τὸ γάλα. τοῖς
ἐμβρύοις. διότι δὲ τῶν πολυκοιλίων ἐν τῷ ἐχίνῳ
γίνεται ἡ πυετία, εἴρηται ἐν τοῖς προβλήμασιν.

1 δὴ Z: ἤδη vulg.
5 οἷον PZ, om. vulg.
3 θήλεσι] τελείοις 7: πλείοσι Platt.

4 ἄρρενες] κύνες Platt.
5 [δύο] secludendum.

? This seems to mean that when the animal is fasting the
two receptacles do not bulge, and so the jejunum is visible;
and though after the animal has fed you might expect to see
the jejunum, because it should be full of food which is being

300

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, III. χιν.-Χγ.

it is apparent only in the larger ones, and in them
only when they are fasting, not when they have
recently been eating, for when they are fasting, there
is an interspace between the two receptacles, whereas
when they have been eating, the time taken by the
change is short.” In females the jejunum can have its
place in any part of the upper intestine ; in males
it is placed immediately before the caecum and the
lower gut.

XV. What goes by the name of Rennet is present
in all animals which have a multiple stomach ; the
hare is the only animal with a single stomach which
has it. In the former class the rennet is not in the
paunch? nor in the reticulum, nor in the abomasum (the
last of the stomachs) ; but in the stomach between
the last one and the first ones, 1.6. the so-called
omasum (manyplies)." All these animals have rennet
because their milk is so thick ; similarly, the single-
bellied animals have no rennet, because their milk
is thin. This also explains why the milk of horned
animals coagulates, while that of the hornless does
not. As for the hare, it has rennet because it feeds
on herbs with fig-like juice; and this juice can
coagulate the milk in the stomach of sucklings. I
have stated in the Problems? why, in the animals
that have many stomachs, the rennet is formed in
the manyplies.

transmuted inside it (see above, 675 b 32), it is not visible,
because the change is effected so rapidly.

> Lit. “ the great stomach.”

* See above, 674 b 14 ff.

ἆ No such reference can be found.

901

Rennet.

676a

A

\ > ` \ / » . . . ,
Tov αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον ἔχει τὰ περὶ τὰ σπλάγχνα
^ ,
καὶ τὴν κοιλίαν καὶ τῶν εἰρημένων µορίων ἕκαστον
τοῖς τετραπόσι μὲν ᾠοτόκοις δὲ τῶν ζῴων καὶ τοῖς

25 2 t AT ` ` ε - ”
αποσιν, OLOV τοις ὄφεσιν. και γαρ η των ὄφεων

30

85

676 b

φύσις ἐστὶ συγγενὴς τούτοις’ ὁμοία γάρ ἐστι σαύρῳ
μακρῷ" καὶ ἄποδι. τούτοις δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἰχθύσι
πάντα παραπλήσια, πλὴν τὰ μὲν ἔχει πλεύμονα διὰ
τὸ πεζεύειν, οἱ δ᾽ οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ἀλλὰ βράγχια ἀντὶ
τοῦ πλεύμονος. κύστιν ð οὐθ᾽ οἱ ἰχθύες ἔ ἔχουσιν
οὔτε τούτων οὐδὲν πλὴν χελώνης: τρέπεται γὰρ εἰς
τὰς φολίδας τὸ ὑγρὸν ὀλιγοπότων ὄντων διὰ τὴν
ἀναιμότητα τοῦ πλεύμονος, καθάπερ τοῖς ὄρνισιν
εἰς τὰ πτερά. καὶ ἐπιλευκαίνει δὲ τὸ περίττωμα
πᾶσι καὶ τούτοις, ὥσπερ καὶ τοῖς ὄρνισιν, διότι ἐν
τοῖς ἔχουσι κύστιν ἐξελθόντος τοῦ περιττώματος
ὑφίσταται ἁλμυρὶς γεώδης ἐν τοῖς ἀγγείοις" τὸ γὰρ
γλυκὺ καὶ πότιμον ἀναλίσκεται διὰ κουφότητα εἰς
τὰς σάρκας.

Τῶν δ᾽ ὄφεων οἱ ἔχεις πρὸς τοὺς ἄλλους ἔχουσι
τὴν αὐτὴν διαφορὰν ἣν καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἰχθύσι τὰ
σελάχη πρὸς τοὺς ἄλλους" ζωοτοκοῦσι γὰρ ἔξω καὶ
τὰ -σελάχη καὶ οἱ ἔχεις, ἐν αὑτοῖς ᾠοτοκήσαντα
πρῶτον. μονοκοίλια δὲ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτά ἐστι,

1 μακρῷ Y: μακρῷ ἢ vulg. διότι Ogle: διόπερ vulg.
302

BOOK IV

Wuar has been said already on the subject of the
viscera, the stomach, and each of the other parts
mentioned, applies to the footless creatures (such as
the Serpents) as wellas to the oviparous quadrupeds.
Indeed, the Serpents are akin to these: for a serpent
is like a long and footless lizard. A third class in
which all these parts are similar is the Fishes: the
only difference is that the first two classes are land-
creatures and therefore have a lung, whereas fishes
have no lung but gills instead. Fishes have no
bladder, nor has any of these creatures (except the
tortoise) ; the reason is that they drink little (because
their lung is bloodless), and the moisture in them
is diverted to the horny scales, just as in birds it is
diverted to the feathers. And in all these creatures,
as in birds, the residue ^ is white on the surface,
since in those animals that have a bladder, when the
residue has been voided an earthy salt deposit
settles in the vessels, the sweet and non-briny por-
tion, owing to its lightness, being used up upon the
flesh.

The Vipers have the same peculiarity among the
Serpents as the Selachia have among the Fishes.
Both of them are externally viviparous, though
they first produce their ova internally. All these

α See Introduction, pp. 32 ff.
303

676 b
5

10

15

20

ARISTOTLE

καθάπερ τἆλλα τὰ ἀμφώδοντα: καὶ σπλάγχνα δὲ
πάμπαν μικρὰ ἔχει, ὥσπερ τἆλλα τὰ μὴ ἔχοντα
κύστιν. οἱ δ᾽ ὄφεις διὰ τὴν τοῦ σώματος μορφήν,
οὖσαν μακρὰν καὶ στενήν, καὶ τὰ σχήματα τῶν
σπλάγχνων ἔχουσι διὰ ταῦτα μακρὰ καὶ τοῖς τῶν
ἄλλων ζῴων ἀνόμοια, διὰ τὸ καθάπερ ἐν τύπῳ τὰ
σχήματ᾽ αὐτῶν πλασθῆναι διὰ τὸν τόπον.

᾿Επίπλοον δὲ καὶ μεσεντέριον καὶ τὰ περὶ τὴν
τῶν ἐντέρων φύσιν, ἔτι δὲ τὸ διάζωμα καὶ τὴν
καρδίαν πάντ᾽ ἔχει τὰ ἔναιμα τῶν ζῴων, πλεύμονα
δὲ καὶ ἀρτηρίαν πάντα πλὴν τῶν ἰχθύων. καὶ τὴν
θέσιν δὲ τῆς ἀρτηρίας καὶ τοῦ οἰσοφάγου πάντα
τὰ ἔχοντα ὁμοίως ἔχει διὰ τὰς εἰρημένας αἰτίας
πέρα,

I. "Exe δὲ καὶ χολὴν τὰ πολλὰ τῶν ἐναίμων
es τὰ μὲν ἐπὶ τῷ ἥπατι, τὰ δ᾽ ἀπηρτημένην ἐπὶ
τοῖς ἐντέροις, ὡς οὖσαν οὐχ ἧττον ἐκ τῆς κάτω
κοιλίας τὴν φύσιν αὐτῆς. δῆλον δὲ μάλιστ᾽ ἐπὶ τῶν
ἰχθύων: οὗτοι γὰρ ἔχουσί τε πάντες, καὶ οἱ πολλοὶ
πρὸς Tots’ ἐντέροις, ἔνιοι δὲ παρ᾽ ὅλον τὸ ἔντερον
παρυφασμένην, otov ἡ ἄμια: καὶ τῶν ὄφεων οἱ
πλεῖστοι τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. διόπερ οἱ λέγοντες τὴν
φύσιν τῆς χολῆς αἰσθήσεώς τινος εἶναι χάριν οὐ
καλῶς λέγουσιν: φασὶ γὰρ εἶναι διὰ τοῦτο, ὅπως
τῆς ψυχῆς τὸ περὶ τὸ ἧπαρ μόριον δάκνουσα μὲν
συνιστῇ, λυομένη δ᾽ ἵλεων ποιῇ" τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὅλως

1 τοῖς PYZ et corr, U : om. vulg.

α See 665 a 10 ff. > See 650 α 14.
* This seems to refer to the views expressed in Plato,
Timaeus, 71 D.

304

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. τ.-τι.

creatures have one stomach only, as do the other
animals that have front teeth in both jaws. And
their viscera are quite small, as are those of the
other creatures which have no bladder. However,
on account of the shape of the serpents' bodies,
which is long and narrow, the shape of their viscera
too is consequently long, thus differing from those
of other animals. This is because the shape of them
is fashioned, as though in a mould, on account of the
space available for them.

All blooded animals have an omentum, a mesen-
tery, and the whole intestinal equipment; also a dia-
phragm and a heart; and all but the fishes have a
lung and a windpipe too. The relative positions of
the windpipe and the oesophagus are the same in all
of them. The reasons for this have been given
already.?

II. The majority of the blooded animals have a
gall-bladder in addition. In some it is placed up
against the liver; in others it is separate from the
liver and placed against the intestines, indicating
that equally in these its derivation is from the lower
gut." This is clearest in the fishes, all of which have
one, and in most of them it is placed against the
intestines, though in some it runs along the whole
length of the intestine, like a woven border, as in
the Amia ; a similar arrangement is found in most of
the serpents. Hence, those who assert that the gall-
bladder is present for the sake of some act of sensation
are wrong. They say its purpose is as follows :—
on the one hand (a) to irritate that part of the Soul
which is around the liver, and so to congeal it ^; and
on the other hand (5b) by running free to make that
part cheerful. This cannot be true ; because some

305

Gall-bladder
and bile.

ARISTOTLE
676 b :
T e \ > . .ν M
οὐκ ἔχει χολήν, otov ἵππος kai ὀρεὺς καὶ ὄνος καὶ
” ` / > » > 309 e /
ἔλαφος καὶ πρόξ' οὐκ ἔχει δ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἡ κάμηλος
ἀποκεκριμένην, ἀλλὰ φλέβια χολώδη. μᾶλλον: οὐκ
ἔχει δ᾽ οὐδ᾽ 7 φώκη, xov, οὐδὲ τῶν θαλαττίων
80 δελφίς. ἐν δὲ τοῖς γένεσι τοῖς αὐτοῖς τὰ μὲν ἔχειν
φαίνεται τὰ Ò οὐκ ἔχειν, otov ἐν τῷ τῶν μυῶν"
τούτων δ᾽ ἐστὶ καὶ ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἔνιοι μὲν γὰρ
φαίνονται ἔχοντες χολὴν. ἐπὶ τοῦ ἥπατος, ἔνιοι δ᾽
οὐκ ἔχοντες" διὸ καὶ γίνεται ἀμφισβήτησις περὶ
ὅλου τοῦ γένους: οἱ γὰρ ἐντυχόντες ὁποτερωσοῦν
85 ἔχουσι περὶ πάντων ὑπολαμβάνουσιν ὡς ἁπάντων
, ^
ἐχόντων. συμβαίνει δὲ τοιοῦτον καὶ περὶ τὰ πρό-
- ,
Bara καὶ τὰς αἶγας' τὰ μὲν γὰρ πλεῖστα τούτων
677 a ἔχει χολήν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐνιαχοῦ μὲν τοσαύτην ὥστε δοκεῖν
^ , ^
τέρας εἶναι τὴν ὑπερβολήν, otov ἐν Νάξῳ, ἐνιαχοῦ
> > ” τ > / ^ > / /
Ò οὐκ ἔχουσιν, οἷον ἐν Χαλκίδι τῆς Εὐβοίας κατά
- ^ »
τινα τόπον τῆς χώρας αὐτῶν. ἔτι δέ, ὥσπερ εἴρη-
ὅται, ἡ τῶν ἰχθύων ἀπήρτηται πολὺ τοῦ ἥπατος.
, > ~ > 371: ε Ai? / €
οὐκ ὀρθῶς Ò ἐοίκασιν ot περὶ ᾿Αναξαγόραν ὗπο-
λαμβάνειν ὡς αἰτίαν οὖσαν τῶν ὀξέων νοσημάτων:
Z
ὑπερβάλλουσαν γὰρ ἀπορραίνειν πρός τε τὸν πλεύ-
µονα καὶ τὰς φλέβας καὶ τὰ πλευρά. σχεδὸν γὰρ
οἷς ταῦτα συμβαίνει τὰ πάθη τῶν νόσων, οὐκ
10 ἔχουσι χολήν, ἔν τε ταῖς ἀνατομαῖς ἂν ἐγίνετο τοῦτο
φανερόν: ἔτι δὲ τὸ πλῆθος τό τ᾽ ἐν τοῖς ἀρρωστή-
μασιν ὑπάρχον καὶ τὸ ἀπορραινόμενον ἀσύμβλητον.
2 2 » € / / . ε M A »
ἀλλ᾽’ ἔοικεν ἡ χολή, καθάπερ καὶ ἡ κατὰ τὸ ἄλλο

* This is true of quite a number of species, and as Aristotle
says, the gall-bladder is specially variable in mice. In man,
its absence is rare; and Aristotle's statement may well be
derived from his observation of aborted embryos, in which
the gall-bladder develops somewhat late.

306

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. τ.

animals have no gall-bladder at all, such as the horse,
the mule, the ass, the deer, and the roe ; and the
camel has no distinct gall-bladder, but what would
better be described as consisting of small biliary
vessels. ‘There is no gall-bladder in the seal, nor
(among sea-animals) in the dolphin. Sometimes in
the same group there are some animals which look as
if they have one, and some as if they have none":
This is true of the Mice; and also of the human
species, as in some individuals the gall-bladder is
placed against the liver and is obvious ; while in some
it is missing. The result of this has been a dispute
concerning the group as a whole. Whatever an
observer has found to be the condition of the indi-
viduals he happens to have seen, that he holds is true
of every individual throughout the group. ‘The same
has occurred with regard to sheep and goats, most of
which have a gall-bladder ; but, whereas in some
individuals it is so large that its excessive size is
portentous (e.g. in Naxos), in others it is entirely
absent (e.g. in a particular district of Chalcis, Euboea).
A further point, already mentioned, is that in fishes
the gall-bladder is separated from the liver by a good
distance. Moreover, it is safe to say that Anaxa-
goras’s school is wrong in holding that the gall-bladder '
is the cause of acute diseases : they say that when it
gets too full it spurts its liquid out into the lung and
blood-vessels and sides. This must be wrong, because
nearly everyone who suffers from these affections
actually has no gall-bladder, and this would be proved
if they were dissected. Besides, there is no com-
parison between the amount of bile which is present
in these ailments and that which is emitted from the
gall-bladder. No; itseems probable that, just as the

307

677a

1

20

2

30

e»
en

5

5

ARISTOTLE

^ , ’ ’ ’ , A ,
σῶμα γινομένη περίττωμά τί ἐστιν ἢ σύντηξις,
> ^
οὕτω καὶ ἡ ἐπὶ τῷ ἥπατι χολὴ περίττωμα εἶναι καὶ
, er ’ eo . ε > ^ , .
οὐχ ἕνεκά τινος, ὥσπερ καὶ ἡ ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ καὶ
- ε ^ .
ἐν τοῖς ἐντέροις ὑπόστασις. καταχρῆται μὲν οὖν
, ^
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^ ^ ^ / /
χολὴν τὸ ὑπὸ τῇ χολῇ τοῦ ἥπατος γλυκύτατον
ἐστιν. τῶν δὲ συνισταμένων ἐξ ἧττον καθαροῦ
’
αἵματος τούτου: ἐστὶν ἡ χολὴ τὸ γινόμενον περίτ-
/ ^ ^
τωµα: ἐναντίον τε yàp τῇ τροφῇ τὸ περίττωμα
βούλεται εἶναι καὶ τῷ γλυκεῖ τὸ πικρόν, καὶ τὸ
αἷμα γλυκὺ τὸ ὑγιαῖνον. φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι οὔ τινος
e 5 5 5 / ’ 3 ε / A A
ἕνεκα, ἀλλ᾽ ἀποκάθαρμά ἐστιν ἡ χολή. διὸ καὶ
^ 5 e
χαριέστατα λέγουσι τῶν ἀρχαίων οἱ φάσκοντες
^ ^ ^
αἴτιον εἶναι τοῦ πλείω ζῆν χρόνον τὸ μὴ ἔχειν
, , > . X / . . 3 A
χολήν, βλέψαντες ἐπὶ τὰ μώνυχα καὶ τὰς ἐλάφους:
^ ^ »
ταῦτα γὰρ ἄχολά τε καὶ ζῇ πολὺν χρόνον. ἔτι δὲ
καὶ τὰ μὴ ἑωραμένα ὑπ᾽ ἐκείνων ὅτι οὐκ ἔχει
Pv τ 5 x \ . / λ ` A
χολήν, otov δελφὶς καὶ κάμηλος, καὶ ταῦτα τυγ-
M ^
χάνει μακρόβια ὄντα. εὔλογον γὰρ τὴν τοῦ ἥπατος

1 τούτου Peck: τοῦτ᾽ vulg.

308

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. τι.

bile elsewhere in the body is a residue or colliques-
cence, so this bile around the liver is a residue
and serves no purpose—like the sediment pro-
duced in the stomach and the intestines. I agree
that occasionally Nature turns even residues to
use and advantage, but that is no reason for trying
to discover a purpose in all of them. The truth is
that some constituents are present for a definite
purpose, and then many others are present of
necessity in consequence of these.

We may say, then, that in animals whose liver is
healthy in its composition, and in which the blood
that supplies the liver is sweet, there is either no
gall-bladder at all by the liver, or else the bile is in
tiny vessels, or else in some these are present and in
some not. This is why the livers of gall-bladderless
animals are, generally, of a good colour and sweet ;
and in those that have a gall-bladder the part of the
liver immediately below itis very sweet. Butin those
animals which are formed out of blood which is less
pure, the bile is the residue of this ; since “ residue ”’
means that which is the opposite of “ food," and
“bitter " the opposite of “ sweet "; and healthy blood
is sweet. So it is evident that bile exists for no de-
finite purpose, but is merely an offscouring. So that
was an extremely neat remark which we find made
by some of the old authors, when they say that if you
have no gall in you your life will be longer. This
was a reference to animals with uncloven hoofs and
to deer, which have no gall-bladder, and are long-
lived. And also, certain other animals are long-lived,
such as the dolphin and camel, which, though un-
observed by them, have no gall-bladder. After all,
the liver is vital and indispensable for all blooded

. 909

677 a

677 b

5

10

15

ARISTOTLE

φύσιν, ἐπίκαιρον οὖσαν καὶ ἀναγκαίαν πᾶσι τοῖς
2 ^
ἐναίμοις ζῴοις, αἰτίαν εἶναι, ποιάν τιν᾽ οὖσαν, τοῦ
ζῆν ἐλάττω ἢ πλείω χρόνον. καὶ τὸ τούτου μὲν τοῦ
σπλάγχνου εἶναι περίττωμα τοιοῦτον, τῶν δ᾽ ἄλλων
μηδενός, κατὰ λόγον ἐστίν. τῇ μὲν γὰρ καρδίᾳ
τοιοῦτον οὐδένα πλησιάζειν οἷόν τε χυμόν (οὐδὲν
` / / / Ἂ > “y 301
γὰρ δέχεται βίαιον πάθος), τῶν δ᾽ ἄλλων οὐδὲν
- - 2^ VN
σπλάγχνων ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστι τοῖς ζῴοις, τὸ δ᾽ ἧπαρ
μόνον: διόπερ καὶ τοῦτο συμβαίνει περὶ αὐτὸ μόνον.
ἄτοπόν τε τὸ μὴ πανταχοῦ νομίζειν, ὅπου ἄν τις ἴδῃ
φλέγμα ἢ τὸ ὑπόστημα τῆς κοιλίας, περίττωμα
7 ε , \ ~ e A / \ ^
εἶναι, ὁμοίως δὲ δῆλον ὅτι καὶ χολήν, καὶ μὴ
διαφέρεσθαι τοῖς τόποις.
` \ \ ^ M 2 ης ^ . y
Καὶ περὶ μὲν χολῆς, διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν ἔχει
^ > > » ^ , » ^ \
τὰ δ᾽ οὐκ ἔχει τῶν ζῴων, εἴρηται, III. περὶ δὲ
μεσεντερίου καὶ ἐπιπλόου λοιπὸν εἰπεῖν: ταῦτα γὰρ
ἐν τῷ τόπῳ τούτῳ καὶ μετὰ τῶν μορίων ἐστὶ
, t e t
τούτων.
"E δὲ ` M > / x e M ^ M ,
στι δὲ τὸ μὲν ἐπίπλοον ὑμὴν τοῖς μὲν στέαρ
ἔχουσι στεατώδης, τοῖς δὲ πιμελὴν πιμελώδης:
ποῖα δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἑκάτερα τούτων, εἴρηται πρότερον.
ἤρτηται᾽ δὲ τὸ ἐπίπλοον ὁμοίως τοῖς τε µονοκοιλίοις
καὶ τοῖς πολυκοιλίοις ἀπὸ μέσης τῆς κοιλίας κατὰ

^ e / T e / , / \ /
τὴν ὑπογεγραμμένην οἷον ῥαφήν' ἐπέχει δὲ τό τε
M

90 λοιπὸν τῆς κοιλίας καὶ τὸ τῶν ἐντέρων πλῆθος

- - ^ \ ^
ὁμοίως τοῖς ἐναίμοις, ἔν τε τοῖς πεζοῖς καὶ τοῖς
ἐνύδροις ζῴοις.

ε \ T / , > / / ,
H μὲν οὖν γένεσις ἐξ ἀνάγκης συμβαίνει τοιαύτη
^ ^ ^ ,
τοῦ μορίου τούτου" ξηροῦ γὰρ καὶ ὑγροῦ μίγματος
θερμαινομένου τὸ ἔσχατον ἀεὶ δερματῶδες γίνεται

1 ἦρκται SUYZ.
910

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. τ.-τῃ.

animals, and so it is quite reasonable to hold that the
condition of it controls the length of its owner's life.
And it is equally reasonable to hold that the liver
produces a residue such as the bile although none of
the other viscera does so. Take the heart : no such
humour as bile could possibly come near the heart,
because the heart cannot withstand any violent
affection. Of the other viscera none is indispensable
to an animal, except the liver only, and that is why
this phenomenon occurs in connexion with the liver
exclusively. And it would be absurd to say that
phlegm and the sediment produced by the stomach
are residues when found in some places but not in
others ; and clearly the same applies to bile: its
locality makes no difference.

We have now spoken of the gall-bladder, and we
have shown why some animals have it and why some
have not. III. It remains to speak of the Mesentery
and of the Omentum. These are in the same region
and close to the parts we have just described.

The Omentum is a membrane, formed of suet Omentum.
or lard according to the animal in which it is. (We
have already stated which animals contain suet and
which lard.)^ "Whether the animal has one stomach
or many, the Omentum is always fastened to the
middle of the stomach, on the line marked on it like a
seam ; and it covers the rest of the stomach and most
of the intestines. This is so in all blooded creatures,
land- and water-animals alike.

As for the necessary " formation of this part, it
occurs as follows. When a mixture containing solid
substance and fluid is warmed up, the surface of
it always becomes skin-like and membranous ; and

5 At 651 a 26 ff. ὃ See Introd. p. 22.
311

677 b

80

86

678a

r

ARISTOTLE

^ ^ /
καὶ ὑμενῶδες, ὁ δὲ τόπος οὗτος τοιαύτης πλήρης
^ ^ ^
ἐστὶ τροφῆς. ἔτι δὲ διὰ πυκνότητα τοῦ ὑμένος τὸ
διηθούμενον τῆς αἱματώδους τροφῆς ἀναγκαῖον
- M ^ ^
λιπαρὸν εἶναι (τοῦτο γὰρ λεπτότατον) καὶ διὰ τὴν
/ A
θερμότητα τὴν περὶ τὸν τόπον συμπεττόμενον ἀντὶ
/
σαρκώδους καὶ αἱματώδους συστάσεως στέαρ γί-
^ 5
νεσθαι καὶ πιμελήν. ἡ μὲν οὖν γένεσις τοῦ ἐπι-
πλόου συμβαίνει κατὰ τὸν λόγον τοῦτον, κατα-
^ ^ , ^
χρῆται δ᾽ ἡ φύσις αὐτῷ πρὸς τὴν εὐπεψίαν τῆς
- e ^ ^ ^ ^
τροφῆς, ὅπως ῥᾷον πέττῃ καὶ θᾶττον τὰ ζῷα τὴν
. -
τροφήν" τὸ μὲν γὰρ θερμὸν πεπτικόν, τὸ δὲ πῖον
- - `
θερμόν, τὸ δ᾽ ἐπίπλοον πῖον. καὶ διὰ τοῦτ᾽ ἀπὸ
μέσης ἤρτηται' τῆς κοιλίας, ὅτι τὸ ἐπέκεινα" µέρος
A
συμπέττει τὸ παρακείμενον ἧπαρ. καὶ περὶ μὲν
τοῦ ἐπιπλόου εἴρηται.
/
IV. To δὲ καλούμενον µεσεντέριον ἔστι μὲν ὑμήν,
διατείνει δὲ συνεχὲς ἀπὸ τῆς τῶν ἐντέρων παρα-
/ > \ / \ / ΚΝ ΤΡ /
τάσεως εἰς τὴν φλέβα τὴν μεγάλην καὶ τὴν ἀορτήν,
πλῆρες Ov φλεβῶν πολλῶν καὶ πυκνῶν, ai τείνουσιν
2 \ ^ , / » M / / M ^
ἀπὸ τῶν ἐντέρων εἴς τε τὴν μεγάλην φλέβα καὶ τὴν
ἀορτήν. τὴν μὲν οὖν γένεσιν ἐξ ἀνάγκης οὖσαν
ε / e / ^ » / 8 ὃ ^ , >
εὑρήσομεν ὁμοίως τοῖς ἄλλοις μορίοις": διὰ τίνα ὃ
A >
αἰτίαν ὑπάρχει τοῖς ἐναίμοις, φανερόν ἐστιν ἐπι-
^ A A `
σκοποῦσιν. ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον τὰ ζῷα τροφὴν
λ / / \ / , , ,
αμβάνειν θύραθεν, καὶ πάλιν ἐκ ταύτης γίνεσθαι
M , / / > T » ’ > A
τὴν ἐσχάτην τροφήν, ἐξ ἧς ἤδη διαδίδοται εἰς τὰ
^ ^ ^ ,
µόρια (τοῦτο δὲ τοῖς μὲν ἀναίμοις ἀνώνυμον, τοῖς ὃ
1 ἦρκται EPSUYZ.

ἐπέκεινα Peck: én’ ἐκεῖνο vulg.
3 ἑτοιούτοις» μορίοις Ogle: [μορίοις] ὑμέσι Platt.

2

312

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. mnr.-1v.

the place where the Omentum is is full of nutriment
of this very sort. Furthermore, owing to the thick-
ness of the membrane, that portion of the blood-like
nutriment which percolates through it must of neces-
sity be fatty, because that is the finest in texture;
and then owing to the heat in that part it will be
concocted and so become suet or lard instead of some
fleshy or blood-like substance. This, then, is the way
in which the formation of the Omentum occurs.
Nature, however, turns the Omentum to advantage in
the concoction of the food, so as to enable the animal
to concoct its food more easily and more quickly ;
for the Omentum is fat ; fat things are hot, and hot
things aid concoction. For this reason, too, the
Omentum is fastened to the middle of the stomach ;
since as regards that part of the stomach which is
beyond, the liver which is close by it assists it in
concoction. So much for the Omentum.

IV. What is called the Mesentery is also a mem-
brane; and it extends continuously from the line of
extension of the intestines as far as the Great Blood-
vessel and the Aorta. It is full of blood-vessels,
which are many in number and closely packed
together; and they extend from the intestines as
far as the Great Blood-vessel and the Aorta. We
shall find, as with the other parts, that the develop-
ment and formation of the Mesentery is the result
of necessity. As for its purpose in the blooded animals,
that is clear enough to those who consider. Animals
must of necessity take in nutriment from without ;
and, again, out of this the “ultimate nutriment "
has to be made ; and from this store the supply is
distributed directly to the parts of the body. (In
blooded animals this is called blood ; there is no

813

Mesentery.

ARISTOTLE

678 a
10 ἐναίμοις αἷμα καλεῖται), δεῖ τι εἶναι δι οὗ εἰς τὰς

φλέβας ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας οἷον διὰ ῥιζῶν πορεύσεται ἡ
τροφή. τὰ μὲν οὖν φυτὰ τὰς ῥίζας ἔχει εἰς τὴν γῆν
(ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ λαμβάνει τὴν τροφήν), τοῖς δὲ ζῴοις ἡ ἢ
κοιλία καὶ ἡ τῶν ἐντέρων E γῆ ἐστιν, ἐξ ἧς
δεῖ λαμβάνειν τὴν τροφήν: διόπερ ἡ τοῦ µεσεν-
16 τερίου φύσις ἐστίν, οἷον ῥίζας ἔχουσα τὰς δι᾽ αὑτῆς'
φλέβας. οὗ μὲν οὖν ἕνεκα τὸ μεσεντέριόν ἐστιν,
εἴρηται: τίνα: δὲ τρόπον λαμβάνει τὴν τροφήν, καὶ
πῶς εἰσέρχεται διὰ τῶν φλεβῶν ἀπὸ τῆς ἐσχάτης"
τροφῆς εἰς τὰ μόρια πάντα" τὸ διαδιδόμενον εἰς τὰς
φλέβας, ἐν τοῖς περὶ τὴν γένεσιν τῶν ζῴων λεχθή-
20 σεται καὶ τὴν τροφήν.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἔναιμα τῶν ζῴων πῶς ἔχει μέχρι τῶν
διωρισμένων μορίων, καὶ διὰ τίνας αἰτίας, εἴρηται:
περὶ δὲ τῶν εἰς τὴν γένεσιν συντελούντων, οἷς δοκεῖ
διαφέρειν τὸ θῆλυ τοῦ ἄρρενος, ἐχόμενον μέν ἐστι

25 καὶ λοιπὸν τῶν εἰρημένων: ἀλλ᾽ ἐπειδὴ περὶ γενέ-
σεως λεκτέον, ἁρμόττον ἐστὶ καὶ περὶ τούτων ἐν τῇ
περὶ ἐκείνων θεωρίᾳ διελθεῖν.

V. Τὰ δὲ καλούμενα μαλάκια καὶ μαλακόστρακα

. » ` A / , ^ ^ M
πολλὴν ἔχει πρὸς ταῦτα διαφοράν: εὐθὺς γὰρ τὴν
^ © 2 2
τῶν σπλάγχνων ἅπασαν οὐκ ἔχει φύσιν. ὁμοίως ὃ

Σο 1 ^ z > / , / » M , /
80 οὐδὲ τῶν ἄλλων ἀναίμων οὐδέν. ἔστι δὲ δύο γένη
λοιπὰ τῶν ἀναίμων, τά T ὀστρακόδερμα καὶ τὸ τῶν
ἐντόμων γένος. ἐξ οὗ γὰρ συνέστηκεν 7) τῶν
σπλάγχνων φύσις, οὐδὲν τούτων ἔχει αἷμα, διὰ τὸ

! αὑτῆς Peck: αὐτῆς vulg.
* ἐσχάτης Peck: εἰσιούσης vulg.
5 πάντα Ogle: ταῦτα vulg.: om. Z.

314

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. rv.-v.

special name for it in the others. Now there must
be some passage or passages (as it might be roots)
through which this nutriment shall pass from the
stomach to the blood-vessels. The roots of plants
are of course in the ground, because that is the
source from which plants get their nutriment. For
an animal, the stomach and the intestines correspond
to the ground, the place from which the nutriment
has to be derived. And the Mesentery exists to
contain these vessels, corresponding to roots ; they
pass through the inside of it. This completes my
account of its Final Cause. As for the means by
which the nutriment is taken up, and the way in
which that portion of the ultimate nutriment which
is distributed into the blood-vessels reaches all the
parts of the body through them, these points will
be dealt with in the treatises on the Generation of
Animals and on Nutrition.

I have now described the blooded animals as far
as concerns the parts that have been dealt with, and
also the causes that are responsible. It remains,
and would follow after this, to speak of the organs
of generation, by which male and female are dis-
tinguished. But as we shall have to deal with
generation itself, it is more appropriate to speak of
these organs in our consideration of that subject.

V. The animals called Cephalopods and Crustacea ΙΝΤΕΗΝΑΙ,
are very different from the blooded ones. First of all, conten
they have no visceral structure at all. This is true 4*'x4t*
of all the bloodless creatures, in which are included
beside Cephalopods and Crustacea two other groups,
the Testacea and the Insects. This is because none

of them has blood, which is the material out of which
L 315

ARISTOTLE

678 a A 3 , , ^ ^ / ^ / 3 ^ 1
τῆς οὐσίας αὐτῶν εἶναί τι τοιοῦτον πάθος [αὐτῆς ]'"

ὅτι γάρ ἐστι τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα τὰ δ᾽ ἄναιμα, ἐν τῷ
85 λόγῳ ἐνυπάρξει τῷ ὁρίζοντι τὴν οὐσίαν αὐτῶν. ἔτι
ὧν ἕνεκεν ἔχουσι τὰ σπλάγχνα τὰ ἔναιμα τῶν
ζῴων, οὐδὲν ὑπάρξει τοῖς τοιούτοις: οὔτε γὰρ
678b φλέβας ἔχουσιν οὔτε κύστιν οὔτ᾽ ἀναπνέουσιν, ἀλλὰ
μόνον ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν αὐτοῖς τὸ ἀνάλογον τῇ καρ-
δίᾳ' τὸ γὰρ αἰσθητικὸν. ψυχῆς καὶ τὸ τῆς ζωῆς αἴ-
τιον Levy ἀρχῇ τινι τῶν μορίων καὶ τοῦ σώματος
ὑπάρχει πᾶσι τοῖς ζῴοις. τὰ δὲ πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν
s μόρια ἔχει καὶ ταῦτα ἐξ ἀνάγκης πάντα: οἱ δὲ
τρόποι διαφέρουσι διὰ τοὺς τόπους ἐν οἷς λαμ-
βάνουσι τὴν τροφήν.
χουσι δὲ τὰ μὲν μαλάκια περὶ τὸ καλούμενον
στόμα δύο ὀδόντας, καὶ ἐν τῷ στόματι ἀντὶ γλώτ-
της σαρκῶδές τι, ὦ κρίνουσι τὴν ἐν τοῖς ἐδεστοῖς
ἡδονήν. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα τούτοις
10 τοὺς πρώτους ὀδόντας ἔχει καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον τῇ
γλώττῃ σαρκῶδες. ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὰ «ὀστρακόδερμα
πάντα τὸ τοιοῦτον ἔχει μόριον. διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν
τοῖς ἐναίμοις, πρὸς τὴν τῆς τροφῆς αἴσθησιν.
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὰ ἔντομα τὰ μὲν τὴν ἐξιοῦσαν € ἐπι-
βοσκίδα τοῦ στόματος, οἷον τό τε τῶν μελιττῶν
15 γένος καὶ τὸ τῶν μυιῶν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται καὶ πρό-
τερον: ὅσα δὲ μή ἐστιν ἐμπροσθόκεντρα, ἐν τῷ
στόματι ἔχει τὸ τοιοῦτον μόριον, οἷον τὸ τῶν
μυρμήκων γένος καὶ εἴ τι τοιοῦτον ἕτερον. ὀδόντας
ἑ τὰ μὲν ἔχει τούτων, ἀλλοιοτέρους δέ, καθάπερ

1 αὐτῆς seclusi. 1 ἐν supplevit Th.

α See Introduction, pp. 26 ff.
> These teeth are the two halves of what might be com-
pared to a beak.

316

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

viscera are made ; and the reason for this is that a
condition of this sort is part of their being: the fact
that some animals are blooded and some bloodless
will be found to be included in the /ogos?^ which
defines their being. Further, we shall see that none
of those purposes for whose sake blooded animals
have viscera operate in these other creatures: they
have no blood-vessels and no bladder, they do not
breathe : the only organ they must necessarily have
is the counterpart of the heart, since the sensitive
part of the Soul and the original cause of life is always
situated in some place which rules the body and its
parts. Also, they all have of necessity the parts
adapted for dealing with food and nutrition; but the
manner of these varies according to the places where
they take their food.

The Cephalopods have two teeth around what is
called their mouth ^; and inside the mouth, instead of
a tongue, they have a fleshy object, by means of
which they discriminate the savour of things to eat.
Likewise, the Crustacea have these front teeth and
the fleshy counterpart of the tongue. The Testacea
all have this latter part, too, for the same reason that
blooded animals have a tongue, viz. to perceive the
taste of the food they eat. Similarly, too, the Insects .
have, some of them, a proboscis which comes out
from the mouth, as with the Bees and Flies (this has
been mentioned earlier”); and the ones which have no
sharp protrusion in front have a part such as this
inside the mouth, as Ants, and the like. Some of
these creatures have teeth, though somewhat differ-
ent from ordinary teeth (as the Flies,? and Bees);

^ At 661 4 21; cf. Hist. 4n2 598 Ὁ 283
ἆ Or “ Ants " (translating Meyer's emendation).

317

678 b

20

25

30

35

679 a

e

ARISTOTLE

^ ^ ^ ^ ,
τό τε τῶν μυιῶν' καὶ τὸ τῶν μελιττῶν γένος, τὰ ὃ
” ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
οὐκ ἔχει, ὅσα ὑγρᾷ χρῆται τῇ τροφῇ" πολλὰ γὰρ
- ^ » , ^ 3
τῶν ἐντόμων οὐ τροφῆς ἔχει χάριν τοὺς ὀδόντας
5 > > ^
ἀλλ᾽ ἀλκῆς.
^ 3173 / ^ , σ , / `
Τῶν δ᾽ ὀστρακοδέρμων τὰ μέν, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη καὶ
- \
ἐν τοῖς κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς λόγοις, τὴν καλουμένην ἔχει
^ , / € M / ` 3 / /
γλῶτταν ἰσχυράν, οἱ δὲ κόχλοι καὶ ὀδόντας δύο,
/ ^ ^
καθάπερ τὰ μαλακόστρακα. μετὰ δὲ τὸ στόμα τοῖς
μαλακίοις ἐστὶ στόμαχος μακρός, τούτου δ᾽ ἐχό-
μενος πρόλοβος οἷός περ τοῖς ὄρνισιν, εἶτα συνεχὴς
κοιλία, καὶ ταύτης ἐχόμενον ἔντερον ἁπλοῦν μέχρι
τῆς ἐξόδου. ταῖς μὲν οὖν σηπίαις καὶ τοῖς πολύ-
ποσιν ὅμοια καὶ τοῖς σχήμασι καὶ τῇ ἀφῇ τὰ περὶ
τὴν κοιλίαν: ταῖς δὲ καλουμέναις τευθίσι δύο μὲν
ε / € À 00 ΙΑ e ὃ , τ .
ὁμοίως αἱ κοιλιώδεις εἰσὶν ὑποδοχαί, ἧττον δὲ
ε ε -
προλοβώδης ἡ ἑτέρα, καὶ τοῖς σχήμασιν ἐκείνων
διαφέρουσι διὰ τὸ καὶ τὸ σῶμα πᾶν ἐκ µαλακω-
/
τέρας συνεστάναι σαρκός.
Tatra δ᾽ ἔχει τὰ μόρια τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον διὰ
e €
τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ ὄρνιθες: οὐδὲ γὰρ
, , \ > / / \ 2 /
τούτων οὐδὲν ἐνδέχεται λεαίνειν τὴν τροφήν, διόπερ
ὁ πρόλοβός ἐστι πρὸ τῆς κοιλίας.
Πρὸς βοήθειαν δὲ καὶ σωτηρίαν ἔχει ταῦτα τὸν
καλούμενον θολὸν ἐν χιτῶνι ὑμενώδει προσπεφυ-
7 T ^
KOTL, τὴν ἔξοδον ἔχοντι καὶ τὸ πέρας ἧπερ ἀφιᾶσι
τὸ περίττωμα τῆς κοιλίας κατὰ τὸν καλούμενον
αὐλόν: οὗτος Ò ἐστὶν ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις. ἔχει μὲν οὖν
πάντα τὰ μαλάκια τοῦτο τὸ μόριον ἴδιον, μάλιστα
δ᾽ ἡ σηπία καὶ πλεῖστον: ὅταν γὰρ φοβηθῶσι καὶ
1 μυιῶν] μυιῶν ζῶον EY : μυρμήκων Meyer.
2 προσπεφυκότι Ogle: προσπεφυκότα vugl.

918

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

others have no teeth at all: these are the creatures
whose food is fluid. Indeed, in many of the insects
the purpose of the teeth is not mastication of food at
all, but for use as weapons.

Of the Testacea, as we stated in the opening treat-
ise," some have a very strong tongue (so-called) ; and
the Sea-snails actually have two teeth as well, like the
Crustacea. In the Cephalopods there is a long gullet
next after the mouth, and contiguous to that is a
crop like a bird's. Continuous with this is the
stomach, then immediately the intestine, which is
simple and reaches to the vent. In the Sepias and
Octopuses these parts round the stomach are similar
both in shape and in consistency. The creatures called
Calamaries, like the others, have the two gastric
receptacles,” but the first of them is less like a crop ;
and they differ in shape from the organs of the
previous classes, and that is because their bodies are
composed of softer flesh throughout.

These creatures have these parts arranged in this
way for the same reason that birds have them: they,
like birds, are unable to grind down their food; hence
the crop is placed before the stomach.

The Cephalopods, for the sake of self-defence and
self-preservation, have what is called their Ink. This `
is contained in a membranous bag which is attached
to the body, and comes to an end in an outlet where
the residue from the stomach is discharged by the so-
called funnel. This is on the under side of the body.
All the Cephalopods have this peculiar part, but it is
most remarkable in the Sepia, as well as the largest
in size. When the Sepia is frightened and in terror,

a At Hist. An. 528 b 30 ff.
> Viz. the crop and the stomach.

319

ARISTOTLE
679 a , ^ / ` ^ , A
δείσωσιν, otov φράγμα πρὸ τοῦ σώματος ποιοῦνται
^ ^ , €
τὴν τοῦ ὑγροῦ μελανίαν καὶ θόλωσιν. at μὲν οὖν
/ \ / » » ` `
τευθίδες καὶ πολύποδες ἔχουσιν ἄνωθεν τὸν θολὸν
a Ἀ ^ , ^ e M / \ ^ ,
ἐπὶ τῇ μύτιδι μᾶλλον, ἡ δὲ σηπία πρὸς τῇ κοιλίᾳ
10 κάτω: πλείω γὰρ ἔχει διὰ τὸ χρῆσθαι μᾶλλον.
τοῦτο δ᾽ αὐτῇ συμβαίνει διὰ τὸ πρόσγειον μὲν εἶναι
τὸν βίον αὐτῆς, μὴ ἔχειν Ò ἄλλην βοήθειαν, ὥσπερ
ὁ πολύπους τὰς πλεκτάνας ἔχει χρησίμους καὶ τὴν
A
τοῦ χρώματος μεταβολήν, ἢ συμβαίνει αὐτῶ,
σ \ € ^ ^ / \ / € ς M
ὥσπερ καὶ ἡ τοῦ θολοῦ πρόεσις, διὰ δειλίαν. ἡ δὲ
15 τευθὶς πελάγιόν ἐστι τούτων μόνον. πλείω μὲν οὖν
» € / \ ~ \ / / \ \
ἔχει ἡ σηπία παρὰ τοῦτο τὸν θολόν, κάτωθεν δὲ διὰ
τὸ πλείω’ ῥάδιον γὰρ προΐεσθαι καὶ πόρρωθεν ἀπὸ
^ , d / / e / 1 / ^
τοῦ πλείονος. γίνεται δέ [ὁ θολός], καθάπερ τοῖς
3 ^
ὄρνισιν ὑπόστημα τὸ λευκὸν ἐπὶ τοῦ περιττώματος
^ er \ / ε \ A \ \ ^55
γεῶδες, οὕτω καὶ τούτοις 6 θολὸς διὰ τὸ μηδὲ ταῦτ
20 ἔχειν κύστιν' ἀποκρίνεται γὰρ TO γεωδέστατον eis
αὐτόν, καὶ τῇ σηπίᾳ πλεῖστον διὰ τὸ πλεῖστον ἔχειν
^ ^ / ^ ^
γεῶδες. σημεῖον δὲ τὸ σήπιον τοιοῦτον Ov: τοῦτο
q e \ λ / > ” € ὃ \ (ὃ
γὰρ ὁ μὲν πολύπους οὐκ ἔχει, αἱ δὲ τευθίδες χον-
^ M , 21 > $i ^ M ᾽
δρῶδες καὶ λεπτόν. (δι᾽ ἣν δ᾽ αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν οὐκ
ἔχει τὰ δ᾽ ἔχει, καὶ ποῖόν τι τούτων ἔχει ἑκάτερον,
εἴρηται.)
2 , 3? αν M M ^ /
25 xdi ὃ ὄντων καὶ διὰ τοῦτο κατεψυγμένων
ὁ φοβητικῶν, ὥσπερ ἐνίοις ὅταν δείσωσιν ἡ
κοιλία ταράττεται, τοῖς δ᾽ ἐκ τῆς κύστεως pet
/
περίττωσις, καὶ τούτοις τοῦτο συμβαίνει μὲν ἐξ
1 [ὁ θολός] seclusi: ὁ om. P.
2 εἴρηται πρότερον P.
? The mytis, which is the same as the mecon, is an excretory

organ, and corresponds to the liver. See below, 679 b 11.
^ Cf. above, 676 a 32.

320

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

it produces this blackness and muddiness in the
water, as it were a shield held in front of the body.
Now the Calamaries and Octopuses have this ink-bag
in the upper region of the body, quite near the mytis®;
whereas in the Sepia it is lower down, against the
stomach, since it has a larger supply because it uses
it more. This circumstance is due (1) to its living
near the land and (2) to its having no otber means of
defence—nothing like the Octopus, for instance, which
has its twining feet, which are useful for this purpose ;
it can also change its colour, and it does so (just as
the Sepia emits its ink) when put in fear. Of all
these, only the Calamary lives well out at sea and gets
protection thereby. Hence, compared with it, the
Sepia has a larger supply of ink ; and because this is
larger, it is lower in the body, as it is easy for it to be
emitted even to a considerable distance when the
supply is great. The ink is earthy in its nature, like
the white deposit on the excrement of birds, and it is
produced by these creatures for the same reason—
they, like birds, have no urinary bladder? ; so the
earthiest matter is excreted into this ink, especially
in the Sepia, for the Sepia contains an exceptionally
large amount of earthy matter. An indication of
this is its bone, which is earthy. The Octopuses do `
not have this bone, and in the Calamary it is cartila-
ginous and slight. (We have said why some of these
animals have this part and w hy some have not, and
what in each case its character is.)

These animals, as they have no blood, are cold and
liable to take fright. While in some other animals
fear causes a disturbance of the stomach, and in some
the discharge of residue from the bladder, in these
creatures its effect is to make them discharge their

321

679 a

ARISTOTLE

3 , > , A / e > /
ἀνάγκης ἀφιέναι διὰ δειλίαν, ὥσπερ ἐκ κύστεως
τοῖς ἐπουροῦσιν, 7 δὲ φύσις ἅμα τῷ τοιούτῳ περιτ-

50 τώματι καταχρῆται πρὸς βοήθειαν καὶ σωτηρίαν

8

or

679 b

1

©

αὐτῶν.

» δὲ M . λ / /

Εχουσι δὲ καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα, τά τε kapa-

^ €
βοειδῆ καὶ οἱ καρκίνοι, δύο μὲν ὀδόντας τοὺς
πρώτους, καὶ μεταξὺ τὴν σάρκα τὴν γλωσσοειδῆ,
ὥσπερ εἴρηται καὶ πρότερον, εὐθὺς δ᾽ ἐχόμενον τοῦ
στόματος στόμαχον μικρὸν κατὰ μέγεθος τῶν
σωμάτων [τὰ μείζω πρὸς τὰ ἐλάττω]: τούτου δὲ
κοιλίαν ἐχομένην, ἐφ᾽ ἧς ot τε κάραβοι καὶ ἔνιοι
τῶν καρκίνων ὀδόντας ἔχουσιν ἑτέρους διὰ τὸ τοὺς
- ε - ^

ἄνω μὴ διαιρεῖν ἱκανῶς, ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς κοιλίας ἔντερον
ἁπλοῦν Kat εὐθὺ μέχρι πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον τοῦ
περιττώματος.

» ὃ ` M ^ > ὃ / e ^

Έχει δὲ καὶ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων ἕκαστον ταῦτα

\ , \ M / ^ . >
τὰ μόρια, τὰ μὲν διηρθρωμένα μᾶλλον τὰ δ᾽ ἧττον:

^ / /
ἐν δὲ τοῖς μείζοσι διαδηλότερά ἐστιν ἕκαστα τού-
των. οἱ μὲν οὖν κὀχλοι καὶ ὀδόντας ἔχουσι σκλη-
^ e
ροὺς καὶ ὀξεῖς, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, καὶ τὸ
μεταξὺ σαρκῶδες ὁμοίως τοῖς μαλακίοις καὶ pada-
κοστράκοις, καὶ τὴν προβοσκίδα, καθάπερ εἴρηται,
μεταξὺ κέντρου καὶ γλώττης, τοῦ δὲ στόματος
> / . > / M , , ,
ἐχόμενον otov ὀρνιθώδη τινὰ πρόλοβον, τούτου ὃ
,
ἐχόμενον στόμαχον" τούτου δ᾽ ἔχεται ἡ κοιλία, ἐν ᾗ
ἡ καλουμένη μήκων, ἀφ᾽ ἧς συνεχές ἐστιν ἔντερον
- - »

ἁπλῆν τὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχον ἀπὸ τῆς μήκωνος: ἔστι γὰρ
ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς ὀστρακηροῖς περίττωμα τοῦτο τὸ

/ ^ 2 00 » δ᾽ ε / ^
μάλιστα δοκοῦν εἶναι ἐδώδιμον. ἔχει δ᾽ ὁμοίως τῷ

1 seclusit Rackham.

322

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

ink ; and though this is an effect due to necessity,
like the discharge of urine in the others, yet Nature
makes good use of this residue at the same time
for the animal's defence and preservation.

The Crustacea as well, that is, both the Crabs and
the Caraboids, have the two front teeth, and between
the teeth they have the tongue-like flesh, as has
already been stated ^; and immediately next to the
mouth they have a gullet which is quite small com-
pared with the animal's size ; and immediately after
that the stomach ; and on this the Carabi and some
of the Crabs have another set of teeth, since the
upper ones do not masticate the food sufficiently.
From the stomach a simply formed intestine runs
straight to the vent where residues are discharged.

These parts are present in every one of the Testacea
as well, more distinct in some, less in others. They
are more clearly marked in the larger animals.
Take the Sea-snails. These have (1) as stated al-
ready, the teeth, which are hard and sharp, (2) the
fleshy object in between them, similarly to the
Crustacea and Cephalopods; (3) the proboscis, as
already mentioned,’ something between a sting and
a tongue ; (4) immediately after the mouth is a sort
of bird's crop, and (5) after that the gullet ; (6) con- :
tinuous with that is the stomach, and (7) in the
stomach is what is known as the mecon^; and (8) at-
taching to this is an intestine: this intestine begins
directly from the mecon. This residue (the mecon)
appears to be the most tasty piece in all the Testacea.
The other creatures that have spiral shells (e.g. the

5 At 678 b 10.
δ AL 661-a-15 4t.
¢ The hepatopancreas or liver ; see above, 679 a 9.

L2 , 323

679 b
15

20

25

80

ARISTOTLE

, A > A , T ,
κόχλῳ καὶ τἆλλα τὰ στρομβώδη, οἷον πορφύραι
. ’
καὶ κήρυκες.
Ἔστι δὲ γένη καὶ εἴδη πολλὰ τῶν ὀστρακο-
’ . . ^ ’ , ’ eo ^
δέρµων' τὰ μὲν γὰρ στρομβώδη ἐστίν, ὥσπερ τὰ
^ , ’ . \ . ^
νῦν εἰρημένα, τὰ δὲ δίθυρα, τὰ δὲ μονόθυρα. τρόπον
y, » .
δέ τινα καὶ τὰ στρομβώδη διθύροις ἔοικεν' ἔχει γὰρ
\ ^ ^ A \ / M
ἐπιπτύγματ᾽ ἐπὶ τῷ φανερῷ τῆς σαρκὸς πάντα τὰ
^ ^ T σ / M
τοιαῦτα ἐκ γενετῆς, otov ai τε πορφύραι καὶ
- ^ ` ^
κήρυκες καὶ οἱ νηρεῖται καὶ πᾶν τὸ τοιοῦτον γένος,
πρὸς βοήθειαν: 7) yàp μὴ προβέβληται τὸ ὄστρακον
pos pon) 7) yap pr πρ 7) ρ >
evs / / 0 € . ^ 0 / 0
ῥάδιον ταύτῃ βλάπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν θύραθεν προσ-
πιπτόντων. τὰ μὲν οὖν μονόθυρα διὰ τὸ προσ-
πεφυκέναι σώζεται τῷ πρανὲς ἔχειν τὸ ὄστρακον,
. ’ 5 ’ P / . ,
καὶ γίνεται ἀλλοτρίῳ φράγματι τρόπον τινὰ δί-
D € v / . A /
θυρον, otov αἱ καλούμεναι λεπάδες' τὰ δὲ δίθυρα,
\ ^ /
οἷον κτένες καὶ μύες, τῷ συνάγειν, τὰ δὲ στρομβώδη
, ^ , / e / / k
τούτῳ τῷ ἐπικαλύμματι, ὥσπερ δίθυρα γινόμενα ἐκ
LA ε 2 , ^ / , > .
μονοθύρων. ὁ δ᾽ ἐχῖνος μάλιστα πάντων ἀλεωρὰν
.
ἔχει: κύκλῳ γὰρ τὸ ὄστρακον συνηρεφὲς καὶ Ke-
- 5 / “ » » ~
χαρακωμένον ταῖς ἀκάνθαις. ἴδιον Ò ἔχει τῶν
^ / 7 ,
ὀστρακοδέρμων τοῦτο, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον.
Τῶν δὲ μαλακοστράκων καὶ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων
^ /
συνέστηκεν ἡ φύσις τοῖς μαλακίοις ἀντικειμένως"
τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ἔξω τὸ σαρκῶδες, τοῖς δ᾽ ἐντός, ἐκτὸς
δὲ τὸ γεῶδες. ὁ δ᾽ ἐχῖνος οὐδὲν ἔχει σαρκῶδες.
Πάντα μὲν οὖν ἔχει, καθάπερ εἴρηται, καὶ τἆλλα
τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα στόμα τε καὶ TO γλωττοειδὲς καὶ

α The operculum.

324

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

Purpuras and the Whelks) are similar to the Sea-
snails in structure.

There are very many genera and species of Tes-
tacea. Some have spiral shells, like the ones just
mentioned ; some are bivalves, some univalves. In
a way, the spiral shells resemble the bivalves, as they
have, all of them, from birth, a covering ^ over the
exposed part of their flesh, e.g. the Purpuras, the
Whelks, the Nerites, and the whole tribe of them.
This covering serves as a protection ; for in any place
where the animal has no shell to protect it, it could
quite easily be injured by the impact of external
objects. The univalves’ means of preservation is this:
they cling to some object, and have their shell on the
upper side; so they become in a way bivalves in
virtue of the borrowed protection afforded by the
object to which they cling. Example, the Limpets.
The bivalves proper (e.g. Scallops and Mussels) get
their protection by closing themselves up ; the spiral-
shelled creatures by the covering I mentioned, which,
as it were, turns them from univalves into bivalves.
The Sea-urchin has a better defence system than any
of them : he has a good thick shell all round him,
fortified with a palisade of spines. As I stated pre-
viously, the Sea-urchin is the only one of the Testacea .
which possesses this peculiarity.

The natural structure of the Crustacea and of the
Testacea is the reverse of that of the Cephalopods.
The latter have their fleshy part outside, the former
have the earthy part outside and the fleshy inside.
The Sea-urchin, however, has no fleshy part at all.

All these parts, as described—mouth, tongue-like
object, stomach, vent for the residue—are present
in the rest of the Testacea too, but they differ in

325

680 a

b

10

15

20

ARISTOTLE

\ ~ , . ^ P a M , y
δὲ τῇ θέσει καὶ τοῖς μεγέθεσιν. ὃν δὲ τρόπον ἔχει
^ ^ ~ A
τούτων ἕκαστον, EK τε τῶν ἱστοριῶν τῶν περὶ τὰ
^ ^ ~ .
ζῷα θεωρείσθω καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἀνατομῶν" τὰ μὲν γὰρ
τῷ λόγῳ τὰ δὲ πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν αὐτῶν σαφηνίζειν δεῖ
D λόγᾳ ρὸς τὴ η
ἄλλον.
> ’ 3 » ^ >, , σ , ? A
Ιδίως Ò ἔχουσι τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων ot τ᾽ ἐχῖνοι
^ , €
καὶ τὸ τῶν καλουμένων τηθύων γένος. ἔχουσι δ᾽ οἱ
ἐχῖνοι ὀδόντας μὲν πέντε καὶ μεταξὺ τὸ σαρκῶδες,
^ , ’ A
ὅπερ ἐπὶ πάντων ἐστὶ τῶν εἰρημένων, ἐχόμενον δὲ
>
τούτου στόμαχον, ἀπὸ δὲ τούτου τὴν κοιλίαν εἰς
πολλὰ διῃρημένην, ὡσπερανεὶ πολλὰς τοῦ ζῴου
κοιλίας ἔχοντος. κεχωρισμέναι μὲν γάρ εἰσι καὶ
πλήρεις περιττώματος, ἐξ ἑνὸς δ᾽ ἠρτηνται τοῦ
^ A ^
στομάχου καὶ τελευτῶσι πρὸς μίαν ἔξοδον τὴν τοῦ
’ ^ A
περιττώματος. παρὰ δὲ τὴν κοιλίαν σαρκῶδες μὲν
οὐδὲν ἔχουσιν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, τὰ δὲ καλούμενα wa
πλείω τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἐν ὑμένι χωρὶς έκαστον, καὶ
κύκλῳ ἀπὸ τοῦ στόματος μέλαν ἄττα διεσπαρμένα
χύδην, ἀνώνυμα. ὄντων δὲ πλειόνων γενῶν (οὐ γὰρ
^ »
ἓν εἶδος τῶν ἐχίνων πάντων ἐστί) πάντες μὲν ἔχουσι
ταῦτα τὰ μόρια, ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐδώδιμα πάντες τὰ
^ >
καλούμενα wa, καὶ μικρὰ πάμπαν ἔξω τῶν ἐπι-
, er \ ~ M \ ç
πολαζόντων. ὅλως δὲ τοῦτο καὶ περὶ τἆλλα συμ-
βέβηκε τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα" καὶ γὰρ αἱ σάρκες οὐχ
ε
ὁμοίως ἐδώδιμοι πάντων, καὶ τὸ περίττωμα, ἡ
καλουμένη μήκων, ἐνίων μὲν ἐδώδιμος ἐνίων Ò οὐκ
/ » \ ^ / , ^ € ’
ἐδώδιμος. ἔστι δὲ τοῖς στρομβώδεσιν ἐν τῇ ἑλίκῃ

9 Hist. An. 598 b 10 ff.

» This seems to imply that diagrams or illustrations accom-
panied the treatises.

* These form what is compared to a lantern at Hist. An.
531 a 5, hence the name, “ lantern of Aristotle."

326

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

their position and size. For the details of these, con-
sult the Researches upon Animals? and the Dissections.
Some points are better explained by inspection? than
in words.

The Sea-urchin and the genus of Ascidians are
peculiar among the Testacea. The Sea-urchin has
five teeth, and between them it has the fleshy sub-
stance (the same as in all the above-mentioned
creatures) ; after that, the gullet, after that, the
stomach, which is divided into several compartments,
so that the animal seems to have several stomachs.
But although they are separated from each other and
are full of residue, they all spring from the gullet and
they all terminate in the residual vent. Apart from
the stomach, these creatures contain no fleshy sub-
stance, as I have said. They have, however, what
are called ova? ; there are several of them and each
is in a separate membrane ; and scattered at random
round the body, beginning from the mouth, are
certain black objects, which have no name. There
are several kinds of Sea-urchin, and in all of them
these parts are present. Not all, however, have
edible/ ova, and, except in the common ? varieties,
they are quite small. There is a similar distinction
among the other Testacea: the flesh is not equally `
edible in all of them, and in some of them the residue
(the so-called mecon) is edible, in others not. In the
spiral shells, the mecon is in the spiral, in univalves

4 These are really ovaries (or testes) : gonads.

* These may be the ambulacral vesicles, but the identifica-
tion is not certain.

f See the story of the Spartan in Athenaeus iii. 41.

? The word translated '' common " may mean *' living near
the surface."

327

680 a

25

30

3

σι

680 b

ARISTOTLE

^ ^ , ^ ^
τοῦτο, τοῖς δὲ μονοθύροις ἐν τῷ πυθμένι, οἷον ταῖς
΄ - . Z \ ^ ^ ^ > 7A
λεπάσι, τοῖς δὲ διθύροις πρὸς τῇ ovvadhh: τὸ δ᾽ ᾠὸν
, , ^ ^ , M ^ 3 4A / e
καλούμενον ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐπὶ θάτερα ἡ
ἔξοδος τοῦ περιττώματος τοῖς διθύροις. καλεῖται
δ᾽ ᾠὸν οὐκ ὀρθῶς ὑπὸ τῶν καλούντων" τοῦτο γάρ
ἐστιν οἷον τοῖς ἐναίμοις, ὅταν εὐθηνῶσιν, ἡ πιότης.
διὸ καὶ γίνεται κατὰ τούτους τοὺς καιροὺς τοῦ
- - - »
ἐνιαυτοῦ ἐν ols εὐθηνοῦσιν, ἔν τε τῷ ἔαρι καὶ
^ M ^
μετοπώρῳ: ἐν γὰρ TO ψύχει καὶ ταῖς ἀλέαις πο-
νοῦσι πάντα τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα, καὶ dépew οὐ
^ ` ^
δύνανται τὰς ὑπερβολάς. σημεῖον δὲ τὸ συμβαῖνον
3 ^ \
ἐπὶ τῶν ἐχίνων: εὐθύς τε γὰρ γινόμενοι ἔχουσι καὶ
ἐν ταῖς πανσελήνοις μᾶλλον, οὐ διὰ τὸ νέμεσθαι
/ \ » ^ > . A A >
καθάπερ τινὲς οἴονται μᾶλλον, ἀλλὰ διὰ τὸ ἀλεεινο-
τέρας εἶναι τὰς νύκτας διὰ τὸ φῶς τῆς σελήνης.
δύσριγα γὰρ ὄντα διὰ τὸ ἄναιμα εἶναι δέονται ἀλέας.
A ^ ^ ^ ^
διὸ καὶ ἐν τῷ θέρει μᾶλλον πανταχοῦ εὐθηνοῦσιν,
€ ^ ^
πλὴν ot ἐν τῷ Πυρραίῳ εὐρίπῳ: ἐκεῖνοι δ᾽ οὐχ
ἧττον τοῦ χειμῶνος" αἴτιον δὲ τὸ νομῆς εὐπορεῖν
^ ^ , /
τότε μᾶλλον, ἀπολειπόντων τῶν ἰχθύων τοὺς τό-
πους κατὰ ταύτην τὴν ὥραν.
ΠΕ o ος , » ^ 5 0 ^ .
χουσι Ò οἱ ἐχῖνοι πάντες ἴσα τε τῷ ἀριθμῷ τὰ
/ M
ᾠὰ καὶ περιττά" πέντε γὰρ ἔχουσιν, τοσούτους δὲ
f . ` > / \ . / » ες A
καὶ τοὺς ὀδόντας καὶ τὰς κοιλίας. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι τὸ
5 9. X `
ᾠόν ἐστι, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, οὐκ ᾠὸν ἀλλὰ
^ ^ , /
τοῦ ζῴου εὐτροφία. γίνεται δὲ τοῦτο ἐπὶ θάτερα

a This is true of the sea-urchins in the Red Sea, though not
of the Mediterranean ones. The former have a cycle corre-
sponding exactly to that of the moon. The five roes, ovaries, or
testes are large and swollen during the week preceding each
of the summer full moons, and the spawning of the eggs
takes place during the few days before and after full moon.
For a most interesting discussion of this and kindred matters

398

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

(like limpets) it is in the tip ; in bivalves it is near
the hinge. In the bivalves the so-called ovum is on
the right-hand side, and the residual vent on the left.
‘“ Ovum " is a misnomer ; actually it corresponds to
fat in blooded creatures when they are in good con-
dition ; and that is why it appears only in spring and
autumn, which are the seasons when they are in good
condition. In great cold and great heat all the
Testacea are hard put to it ; they cannot endure in-
ordinate temperatures. The behaviour of the Sea-
urchins is a good illustration of this : they have ova
in them as soon as they are born, and at the time of
full moon these increase in size ^; and this is not, as
some think, because the creatures eat more then, but
because the nights are warmer owing to the moon-
light. These creatures have need of the heat because
they are bloodless and therefore adversely affected
by cold. That is why they are in better condition
during the summer, and this is true of them in all
localities except the strait of Pyrrha,? where they
flourish equally well in winter, and the reason for this
is that in winter they have a more plentiful supply of
foodstuff, due to the fish leaving the district at that
season.

The Sea-urchins all have the same number of ova— `
an odd number, five, identical with the number of
teeth and stomachs which they have. This is ας-
counted for by the “ ovum ” not being really an ovum
(as I said before) but simply a result of good nourish-
ment. The “ ovum " is found in Oysters too, though
see H. M. Fox, Selene, especially pp. 35 ff., and id. Proc.
Roy. Soc. B., 1923, 95, 523.

ὃ In Lesbos, leading to the lagoon, one of Aristotle's

favourite hunting-grounds: see Hist. An. 544 a 21 (sea-
urchin), 548 a 9, 603 a 21, 621 b 19. Cf. Gen. An. 763 b 9.

329

ARISTOTLE
680 b
, , ^ , , ` À / Di 3 .
μόνον ἐν τοῖς ὀστρέοις, τὸ καλούμενον ᾠόν. ταὐτὸ
- - , , ,
δὲ τοῦτό ἐστι καὶ τὸ ἐν τοῖς ἐχίνοις. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν
^ M er ~
10 ἐστὶ σφαιροειδὴς 6 ἐχῖνος, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν
^ D ^
ἄλλων ὀστρέων τοῦ σώματος κύκλος εἷς, ὁ Ò ἐχῖνος
^ ^ ^ >
ov TH pev τοιοῦτος τῇ ὃ οὔ, ἀλλὰ πάντῃ ὅμοιος
(σφαιροειδὴς γάρ), ἀνάγκη καὶ τὸ ᾠὸν ὁμοίως ἔχειν"
οὐ γάρ ἐστιν, ὥσπερ, τοῖς ἄλλοις, τὸ κύκλῳ ἀν-
όμοιον' ἐν μέσῳ γὰρ ἡ κεφαλὴ πᾶσιν αὐτοῖς, τῷ δ᾽
^ 2 . M
15 ἄνω τὸ τοιοῦτον μόριον. ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδὲ συνεχὲς
ORA > 7T \ BLF > \ \ ^ L4 > "ΤΡ ΜΑ
οἷόν τ᾽ εἶναι τὸ ᾠόν-- οὐδὲ γὰρ τοῖς ἄλλοις--ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ
θάτερα τοῦ κύκλου μόνον. ἀνάγκη τοίνυν, ἐπεὶ
~ / 7
τοῦτο μὲν ἁπάντων κοινόν, ἴδιον δ᾽ ἐκείνου εἶναι
τὸ σῶμα σφαιροειδές, μὴ εἶναι ἄρτια τὰ ὠά. κατὰ
διάμετρον γὰρ ἂν ἦν, διὰ τὸ ὁμοίως δεῖν ἔ ἔχειν τὸ
ου ἔνθεν καὶ ἔνθεν, εἰ ἦν ἄρτια [kat κατὰ διάμετρον]':
342 > , ^
οὕτως δ᾽ ἐχόντων em ἀμφότερα ἂν τοῦ κύκλου
7 ` rM 4 ^ δ᾽ , = ^9 34.9 ^ y
εἶχον τὸ Qóv. τοῦτο Ò οὐκ ἦν οὐδ᾽ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων
Lim / \ ^ / »
ὀστρέων: ἐπὶ θάτερα yap τῆς περιφερείας ἔχουσι τὰ
ε ^
ὄστρεα καὶ οἱ κτένες TO τοιοῦτον µόριον. ἀνάγκη
E 5 y
τοίνυν τρία ἢ πέντε εἶναι ἢ ἄλλον τιν᾽ ἀριθμὸν
> > / > / /
95 περιττόν. εἰ μὲν οὖν τρία εἶχε, πόρρω λίαν (av)?
ἦν, εἰ δὲ πλείω τῶν πέντε, συνεχὲς àv: τούτων δὲ
4 M 3 . > 3 > / > /
τὸ μὲν οὐ βέλτιον, τὸ δ᾽ οὐκ ἐνδεχόμενον. ἀνάγκη
ἄρα πέντ᾽ αὐτοὺς ἔχειν τὰ Qd.
. ^ , ` > Ἂν A M € , ,
Διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν δ᾽ αἰτίαν καὶ ἡ κοιλία τοιαύτη
^ ^ , ^
ἔσχισται καὶ τὸ τῶν ὀδόντων τοσοῦτόν ἐστι πλῆθος.
^ ^ T ^ , ^ kd
ἕκαστον γὰρ τῶν wav, οἷον σῶμά τι τοῦ ζῴου ὄν,
A ~ / »
30 πρὸς τὸν τρόπον τὸν τῆς κοιλίας" ὅμοιον ἔχειν
1 secludenda. 2 (ἂν) Ogle.
* κοιλίας Ogle: ζωῆς vulg.

330

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

on one side of the body only ; it is the same as that of
the Sea-urchin. Now the Sea-urchin is spherical,
and is not just one flat disk like the Oysters ; thus,
being spherical, it is not different shapes in different
directions, but equiform in all directions ; hence of
necessity its '' ovum " is correspondingly arranged,
since this creature's perimeter is not, as in the others,
non-equiform ^: they all have their head in the
centre, whereas the Sea-urchin's is at the top.
Yet even so the “ovum” cannot be continuous,
since no other of the Testacea has it thus; it
is always on one side of the disk only. Hence,
since this is a common property of all species
of Testacea, and the Sea-urchin is peculiar in having
a spherical shape, the result follows of necessity that
the Sea-urchins cannot have an even number of ova.
If they were even, they would have to be arranged in
diametrically opposite positions, because both sides
would have to be alike, and then there would be ova
on both sides of the circumference ; but this arrange-
ment is not found in any of the other Ostreae ; both
Oysters and Scallops have ova on one side only of
their circumference. Therefore there must be three,
or five, or some other odd number of ova in the Sea-
urchin. If there were three, they would be too far `
apart; if more than five, they would be quite con-
tinuous ; the former would not subserve a good
purpose, the latter is impossible. Therefore the
Sea-urchin must of necessity have five ova.

For the same cause the creature's stomach is cloven
into five and it has five teeth. Each of the ova, being,
as it were, a body belonging to the creature, must
conform to the general character of the stomach,

9 That is, it is circular in all planes, not in one only.
* 2891

ARISTOTLE

680 b
ἀναγκαῖον' ἐντεῦθεν γὰρ ἡ αὔξησις. μιᾶς μὲν γὰρ

οὔσης ἢ πόρρω ἂν ἦσαν, ἢ πᾶν ἂν κατεῖχε τὸ κύτος,
ὥστε καὶ δυσκίνητον εἶναι τὸν ἐχῖνον καὶ μὴ πλη-
ροῦσθαι τῆς τροφῆς τὸ ἀγγεῖον: πέντε δ᾽ ὄντων
τῶν διαλειμμάτων ἀνάγκη πρὸς ἑκάστῳ οὖσαν

85 πενταχῇ διῃρῆσθαι. διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν δ᾽ αἰτίαν καὶ

τὸ τῶν ὀδόντων ἔστι τοσοῦτον πλῆθοςὶ. τὸ γὰρ
681a ὅμοιον οὕτως ἂν ἡ φύσις εἴη ἀποδεδωκυῖα τοῖς
εἰρημένοις μορίοις.

Διότι μὲν οὖν περιττὰ καὶ τοσαῦτα τὸν ἀριθμὸν
ἔχει ὁ ἐχῖνος τὰ Wa, εἴρηται: διότι δ᾽ οἱ μὲν πάμπαν
μικρὰ οἱ δὲ μεγάλα, αἴτιον τὸ θερμοτέρους εἶναι
τὴν φύσιν τούτους" πέττειν γὰρ τὸ θερμὸν δύναται

ετὴν τροφὴν μᾶλλον, διόπερ περιττώματος πλήρεις
ot ἄβρωτοι μᾶλλον. καὶ παρασκευάζει κινητικω-
τέρους ἡ τῆς φύσεως θερμότης, ὥστε νέμεσθαι καὶ
μὴ μένειν ἑδραίους. σημεῖον δὲ τούτου τὸ ἔχειν
τοὺς τοιούτους ἀεί τι ἐπὶ τῶν ἀκανθῶν ὡς κινου-
μένους πυκνά: χρῶνται γὰρ ποσὶ ταῖς ἀκάνθαις.

10 Τὰ δὲ τήθυα μικρὸν τῶν φυτῶν διαφέρει τὴν
φύσιν, ὅμως δὲ ζωτικώτερα τῶν σπόγγων: οὗτοι
γὰρ πάμπαν ἔχουσι φυτοῦ δύναμιν. ἡ γὰρ φύσις
μεταβαίνει συνεχῶς ἀπὸ τῶν ἀψύχων εἰς τὰ CHa
διὰ τῶν ζώντων μὲν οὐκ ὄντων δὲ ζῴων, οὕτως
ὥστε δοκεῖν πάμπαν μικρὸν διαφέρειν θατέρου

15 θάτερον τῷ σύνεγγυς ἀλλήλοις. ὁ μὲν οὖν σπόγγος,

1 hine manus recentior E ( — E).

? This is true ; but motion is effected mainly by the tube-
feet, not noticed by Aristotle (vide Ogle).
> The “ sea-squirts.”

332

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

because growth has its origin from the stomach.
Now if there were only one stomach, either the ova
would be too far away from it, or the stomach would
entirely fill up the cavity, which would make it
difficult for the Sea-urchin to move about and to find
sufficient food to replenish itself. But, as it is, there
are five ova separated by five intervals, and so there
must be five departments of the stomach, one for
each interval. For the same reason there are five
teeth, since this enables Nature to assign one tooth
alike to each ovum and each department of the
stomach.

I have now stated why the Sea-urchin has an odd
number of ova, and why it has five of them. Now
some Sea-urchins have quite small ones, and some
large : the reason for this is that the latter have a
hotter constitution, and the heat enables them to
concoct their food better. This explains why the
uneatable ones tend to be full of residue. This
natural heat also induces the creatures to move about,
and so instead of remaining settled in one place they
keep on the move as they feed. Απ indication of
this is that Sea-urchins of this sort always have some-
thing sticking on to their spines (which they use
as feet), which suggests that they are continually `
moving about.

The Ascidians’ differ very little in their nature from
plants, but they are more akin to animals than the
Sponges are, which are completely plants. Nature
passes in a continuous gradation from lifeless things
to animals, and on the way there are living things
which are not actually animals, with theresult that one
class is so close to the next that the difference seems
infinitesimal. Now a sponge, as I said just now, is in

999

ARISTOTLE
681 a

” \ ^ ^ ^ ,
ὥσπερ εἴρηται, καὶ τῷ ζῆν προσπεφυκὼς μόνον,
> ^ ^ ^
ἀπολυθεὶς δὲ μὴ ζῆν, ὁμοίως ἔχει τοῖς φυτοῖς
^ ^ M , € , ` ε ,
παντελῶς: τὰ δὲ καλούμενα ὁλοθούρια καὶ οἱ πνεύ-

^ ^ /
poves, ἔτι δὲ καὶ ἕτερα τοιαῦτ᾽ ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ

` / , ^ > , »

μικρὸν διαφέρει τούτων τῷ ἀπολελύσθαι: αἴσθησιν
M ^ ” `
20 μὲν γὰρ οὐδεμίαν ἔχει, ζῇ δ ὥσπερ ὄντα φυτὰ
5 ^ ^
ἀπολελυμένα. ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἐπιγείοις φυτοῖς

» ^ ^ Ex
evia τοιαῦτα, ἃ καὶ ζῇ καὶ γίνεται τὰ μὲν ἐν ἑτέροις
- e > ^
φυτοῖς, τὰ δὲ καὶ ἀπολελυμένα, otov καὶ τὸ ἐκ τοῦ
Παρνασσοῦ καλούμενον ὑπό τινων ἐπίπετρον" τοῦτο
. - 3 4 ^
yàp ζῇ πολὺν χρόνον κρεμάμενον ἄνω ἐπὶ τῶν

/ » > “ ` . / M N

25 παττάλων. ἔστι Ò ὅτε καὶ τὰ τήθυα, καὶ εἴ τι
τοιοῦτον ἕτερον γένος, τῷ μὲν προσπεφυκὸς ζῆν
μόνον φυτῷ παραπλήσιον, τῷ δ᾽ ἔχειν τι σαρκῶδες

ὃ / A » 5 » { yw λ δὲ , ^
ὄξειεν ἂν ἔχειν τιν᾽ αἴσθησιν: ἄδηλον δὲ τοῦτο

ποτέρως θετέον.

"E ὃ M ^ 4 ^ Ò , / M /

χει δὲ τοῦτο τὸ ζῶον δύο πόρους καὶ μίαν
^ ,
80 διαίρεσιν, ᾗ τε δέχεται τὴν ὑγρότητα τὴν εἰς
τροφήν, καὶ ᾗ πάλιν διαπέμπει τὴν ὑπολειπομένην
ὑκμάδα' περίττωμα γὰρ οὐδέν ἐστι δῆλον ἔχον,
σ > ^ > , ` , A
ὥσπερ τἆλλα τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα. διὸ μάλιστα καὶ
τοῦτο, κἂν εἴ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον τῶν ζῴων, φυτικὸν
δίκαιον καλεῖν: οὐδὲ γὰρ τῶν φυτῶν οὐδὲν ἔχει
/ ὃ M / δὲ λ ` ὃ , > T^
a5 περίττωμα. διὰ μέσου δὲ λεπτὸν διάζωμα, ἐν à
τὸ κύριον ὑπάρχειν εὔλογον τῆς ζωῆς. ἃς δὲ
- πι / e yv , » ` 9
καλοῦσιν οἱ μὲν κνίδας οἱ Ò ἀκαλήφας, ἔστι μὲν οὐκ
681 b ὀστρακόδερμα, ἀλλ᾽ ἔξω πίπτει τῶν διῃρημένων
γενῶν, ἐπαμφοτερίζει δὲ τοῦτο καὶ φυτῷ καὶ ζῴῳ
a Or “ sea-cucumbers."

> The precise reference of this term is not known.
* Sea-anemones, called by the Greeks *''sea-nettles."

334

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

all respects like a plant: it lives only while it is
growing on to something, and when it is pulled off it
dies. What are called Holothuria and the Sea-lungs?
and other similar sea-animals differ only slightly
from the sponges in being unattached. They have
no power of sensation, but they live just as if they
were plants unattached to the soil. Even among
land-plants such instances exist: living and growing
either on other plants or quite unattached: for
example, the plant found on Parnassus, sometimes
called the Epipetron (Rockplant). If you hang this
up on the pegs? it will keep alive for a consider-
able time. Sometimes it is doubtful whether these
Ascidians and any other such group of creatures
ought to be classed as plants or as animals: In so far
as they live only by growing on to some other object
they approach the status of a plant; but yet they
have some fleshy substance and therefore probably
are capable of sensation of a kind.

‘This particular creature (the Ascidian) has two
orifices and one septum; by one orifice it takes in fluid
matter for food, by the other it discharges the surplus
moisture ; so far as can be seen it has no residue like
the other Testacea. And as no plant ever has any
residue this is a strong justification for classing it .
(and any other such animal) as a plant. Through its
middle there runs a thin partition, and it is reason-
able to suppose that the governing and vital part of
the creature is situated here. As for what are called
Knides or Acalephae,? they are not Testacea, it is
true, but fall outside the defined groups. In their
nature they incline towards the plants on one side

Those common to the Mediterranean are more virulent in
their stinging powers than those of the north.

335

ARISTOTLE
681 b

τὴν φύσιν. τῷ μὲν γὰρ ἀπολύεσθαι καὶ mpoo-
πίπτειν πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν ἐνίας αὐτῶν ζῳικόν ἐστι,
ο καὶ τῷ αἰσθάνεσθαι τῶν προσπιπτόντων" ἔτι δὲ τῇ
τοῦ σώματος τραχύτητι χρῆται πρὸς τὴν σωτηρίαν"
τῷ δ᾽ ἀτελὲς εἶναι καὶ προσφύεσθαι ταχέως ταῖς
πέτραις τῷ γένει τῶν φυτῶν παραπλήσιον, καὶ τῷ
περίττωμα μηδὲν ἔχειν φανερόν, στόμα δ᾽ ἔχειν.
ὅμοιον δὲ τούτῳ καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀστέρων ἐστὶ yévos—
10 καὶ γὰρ τοῦτο προσπῖπτον ἐκχυμίζει πολλὰ τῶν
ὀστρέων--τοῖς τ᾽ ἀπολελυμένοις τῶν εἰρημένων
ζώων, otov τοῖς τε μαλακίοις καὶ τοῖς µαλακο-
στράκοις. ὁ δ᾽ αὐτὸς λόγος καὶ περὶ τῶν ὀστρακο-

δέρμων..
Τὰ μὲν οὖν μόρια τὰ περὶ τὴν τροφήν, ἅπερ
ἀναγκαῖον πᾶσιν ὑπάρχειν, ἔχει τὸν προειρημένον
5 τρόπον, δεῖ δὲ δηλονότι καὶ τῶν τοῖς ἐναίμοις
ὑπαρχόντων κατὰ τὸ κύριον τῶν αἰσθήσεων ἔχειν
ἀνάλογόν τι μόριον" τοῦτο γὰρ δεῖ πᾶσιν ὑπάρχειν
τοῖς ζῴοις. ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο τοῖς μὲν μαλακίοις ἐν
ὑμένι κείμενον ὑγρόν, δι οὗπερ ὁ στόμαχος τέταται
πρὸς τὴν κοιλίαν, προσπέφυκε δὲ πρὸς τὰ πρανῆ
20 μᾶλλον, καὶ καλεῖται μύτις ὑπό τινων. τοιοῦτον δ᾽
ἕτερον καὶ τοῖς μαλακοστράκοις ἐστί, καὶ καλεῖται
κἀκεῖνο μύτις. ἔστι Ò ὑγρὸν καὶ σωματῶδες ἅμα
τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, τείνει δὲ δι αὐτοῦ, καθάπερ
εἴρηται, διὰ μέσου μὲν ὁ στόμαχος: εἰ γὰρ ἦν
μεταξὺ τούτου καὶ τοῦ πρανοῦς, οὐκ ἂν ἠδύνατο
25 λαμβάνειν ὁμοίως διάστασιν εἰσιούσης τῆς τροφῆς
διὰ τὴν τοῦ νώτου σκληρότητα. ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς μύτιδος
τὸ ἔντερον ἔξωθεν, καὶ ὁ θολὸς πρὸς τῶ ἐντέρῳ,

T
σι

a That is, dorsal.
336

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, IV. v.

and the animals on the other. ‘Towards the animals,
because some of them detach themselves and fasten
upon their food, and are sensible of objects that come
up against them ; and also because they make use
of the roughness of their body for self-preservation.
Towards the plants, because they are incomplete,
and quickly attach themselves to rocks ; and further,
because they have no residue that can be seen,
though they have a mouth. The group of Starfish
resembles these creatures ; Starfish too fasten on to
their food, and by doing this to oysters suck large
numbers of them dry. But Starfish also resemble
those unattached creatures of which we spoke, the
Cephalopods and the Crustacea. The same may be
said of the Testacea.

The parts connected with nutrition are such as I
have now described. These must of necessity be
present in all animals. But there is yet another part
which every animal must have. These creatures must
have some part which is analogous to the parts
which in blooded animals are connected with the
control of sensation. In the Cephalopods this con-
sists of a fluid contained in a membrane, through
which the gullet extends towards the stomach. It is
attached to the body rather towards the upper " side. :
Some call it the mytis. An organ just like this, also
called the mytis, is present in the Crustacea. This
part is fluid and corporeal at the same time. The
gullet, as I said, extends through the middle of it.
If the gullet had been placed between the mytis and
the dorsal side, the gullet would not have been able
to distend sufficiently when the food enters, owing to
the hardness of the back. The intestine is placed up
against the outer surface of the mytis, and the ink-bag

337

ARISTOTLE

681 b e v ^ > / ^ , / . `
ὅπως ὅτι πλεῖστον ἀπέχῃ τῆς εἰσόδου καὶ τὸ

δυσχερὲς ἄποθεν ἡ τοῦ βελτίονος καὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς.
ὅτι δ᾽ ἐστὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον τῇ καρδίᾳ τοῦτο τὸ μόριον,

80 δηλοῖ ὁ τόπος (οὗτος γάρ ἐστιν ὃ αὐτός) καὶ ἡ
γλυκύτης τῆς ὑγρότητος ὡς οὖσα πεπεμμένη καὶ
αἱματώδης.

"Ev δὲ τοῖς ὀστρακοδέρμοις ἔχει μὲν τὸν αὐτὸν
τόπον! τὸ κύριον τῆς αἰσθήσεως, 7) ἧττον δ᾽ ἐπίδηλον.
πλὴν δεῖ ζητεῖν ἀεὶ περὶ μεσότητα ταύτην τὴν
ἀρχήν, ὅσα μὲν μόνιμα, τοῦ δεχομένου μορίου τὴν

85 τροφήν, καὶ δι᾽ οὗ ποιεῖται τὴν ἀπόκρισιν η

τὴν σπερματικὴν ἢ τὴν περιττωματικήν, ὅσα δὲ

682a καὶ πορευτικὰ τῶν ζῴων, ἀεὶ ἐν τῷ μέσῳ τῶν
δεξιῶν καὶ τῶν ἀριστερῶν.

Tots δ᾽ ἐντόμοις τὸ μὲν τῆς τοιαύτης ἀρχῆς
μόριον, ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς πρώτοις ἐλέχθη λόγοις,
μεταξὺ κεφαλῆς καὶ τοῦ περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν ἐστὶ
κύτους. τοῦτο δὲ τοῖς μὲν πολλοῖς ἐστιν ἕν, τοῖς

50€ πλείω, καθάπερ τοῖς ἰουλώδεσι καὶ μακροῖς:
διόπερ διατεμνόμενα ζῇ. βούλεται μὲν γὰρ ἡ φύσις
ἐν πᾶσι μόνον ἓν ποιεῖν τὸ τοιοῦτον, καὶ δυναμένη
μὲν ποιεῖ μόνον év, οὐ δυναμένη δὲ πλείω. δῆλον
δ᾽ ἐν ἑτέροις ἑτέρων μᾶλλον.

Τὰ δὲ πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν μόρια οὐ πᾶσιν ὁμοίως,

10 ἀλλὰ διαφορὰν ἔχει πολλήν. ἐντὸς γὰρ τοῦ στό-
ματος ἐνίοις μέν ἐστι τὸ καλούμενον κέντρον,
ὡσπερανεὶ σύνθετον καὶ ἔχον γλώττης καὶ χειλῶν

1 τόπον Rackham: τρόπον vulg. * ἐν P: om. vulg.
3 sic SUY (δυνάμενα bis S): καὶ δυναμένην μέν, ἓν ποιεῖ - μόνον"
οὐ δυναμένη δὲ πλείω Z: οὐ δυναμένη δ᾽ ἐνεργείᾳ ποιεῖ μόνον ἕν,

δυνάμει δὲ πλείω: vulg. (cf. 667 b 25).
358

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

up against the intestine ; this is to ensure that it and
its unpleasantness are kept as far as possible from the
body's entrance and from the sovereign and most
noble part. The mytis occupies a place which corre-
sponds exactly with that of the heart in blooded
creatures : which shows that it is the counterpart of
it Another proof of this is that the fluid in it is
sweet—that is, it has undergone concoction and is of
the nature of blood.

In the Testacea the part which rules sensation
occupies the same place but is not so easy to pick out.
But this source of control should always be looked for
around some middle position in these creatures: in
stationary ones, in the midst between the part which
receives the food and the part where the seed or the
residue is emitted ; and in those which move about,
always midway between the right side and the left.

In insects the part where this control is placed, as
was said in the first treatise,? is situated between the
head and the cavity where the stomach is. In the
majority there is one such part, but in creatures like
the Centipede, that is, which are long in the body,
there are more than one : so if the creatures are cut
up they go on living. Now Nature's desire is to make
this part a unity in all creatures, and when she can, `
she makes it a unity, when she cannot, a plurality.°
This is clearer in some cases than in others.

The parts connected with nutrition are by no means
alike in all insects; indeed they exhibit great -
differences. For instance: Some have what is
known as a sting inside the mouth—a sort of com-
bination of tongue and lips,—which possesses the

a The heart of invertebrates escaped the notice of Aristotle.
ὁ At Hist. An. 531 b 84. ο Cf. 661 b 22 ff.

339

682 a

—
Cn

20

t5
or

90

ceo
σι

ARISTOTLE

e / ^ M M » » `
ἅμα δύναμιν" τοῖς δὲ μὴ ἔχουσιν ἔμπροσθεν τὸ
- ^ ,
κέντρον ἐστὶν ἐντὸς τῶν ὀδόντων τοιοῦτον αἰσθη-
΄ ^ `
τήριον. τούτου δ᾽ ἐχόμενον πᾶσιν ἔντερον εὐθὺ καὶ
^ ^ ^ gr
ἁπλοῦν μέχρι τῆς ἐξόδου τοῦ περιττώματος: ἐνίοις
-- ’
δὲ τοῦτο ἑλίκην ἔχει. τὰ δὲ κοιλίαν μετὰ τὸ στόμα,
ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς κοιλίας τὸ ἔντερον εἱλιγμένον, ὅπως
.
ὅσα βρωτικώτερα καὶ μείζω τὴν φύσιν ὑποδοχὴν
- - /
ἔχη πλείονος τροφῆς. τὸ δὲ τῶν τεττίγων γένος
ἰδίαν ἔχει μάλιστα τούτων φύσιν: τὸ γὰρ αὐτὸ
- 2
μόριον ἔχει στόμα καὶ γλῶτταν συμπεφυκός, δι
τν M \ € / M \ > .
οὗ καθαπερεὶ διὰ ῥίζης δέχεται τὴν τροφὴν ἀπὸ
τῶν ὑγρῶν. πάντα μὲν οὖν ἐστὶν ὀλιγότροφα τὰ
ἔντομα τῶν ζῴων, οὐχ οὕτω διὰ μικρότητα ὡς
διὰ ψυχρότητα (τὸ γὰρ θερμὸν καὶ δεῖται τροφῆς
καὶ πέττει τὴν τροφὴν ταχέως, τὸ δὲ ψυχρὸν ἄ-
^ ε
τροφον), μάλιστα δὲ τὸ τῶν τεττίγων γένος" ἱκανὴ
γὰρ τροφὴ τῷ σώματι ἡ ἐκ τοῦ πνεύματος ὑπο-
μένουσα ὑγρότης, καθάπερ τοῖς ἐφημέροις ζῴοις
(γίνεται δὲ ταῦτα περὶ τὸν llóvrov), πλὴν ἐκεῖνα
- - - /
μὲν ζῇ μιᾶς ἡμέρας χρόνον, ταῦτα δὲ πλειόνων
μὲν ἡμερῶν, ὀλίγων δὲ τούτων.
᾿Επεὶ δὲ περὶ τῶν ἐντὸς ὑπαρχόντων μορίων τοῖς
ζῴοις εἴρηται, πάλιν περὶ τῶν λοιπῶν τῶν ἐκτὸς
ἐπανιτέον. ἀρκτέον δ᾽ ἀπὸ τῶν νῦν εἰρημένων,
» 2 3 2 5 τ > / e > \ ,
ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἀφ᾽ ὧν ἀπελίπομεν, ὅπως ἀπὸ τούτων
διατριβὴν ἐλάττω ἐχόντων ἐπὶ τῶν τελείων καὶ
> / / € , / ^
ἐναίμων ζῴων ὁ λόγος σχολάζῃ μᾶλλον.
VI. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἔντομα τῶν ζῴων οὐ πολυμερῆ
t
^ ` 2 0 / 3 e Di » A AAA λ
μὲν τὸν ἀριθμόν ἐστιν, ὅμως δ᾽ ἔχει πρὸς ἄλληλα
340

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.—v1.

character of both. ‘Those that have no sting in front
have a sense-organ of that sort behind the teeth.
After the mouth, in all insects comes the intestine,
which is straight and simple right up to the residual
vent. (Sometimes, however, it has a spiral in it.)
And some there are which have the stomach next
after the mouth, while from the stomach runs a
twisted intestine ; this gives the bigger and more
gluttonous insects room for a larger amount of food.
Of all these creatures the grasshoppers are the most
peculiar. In them the mouth and tongue are united
so as to make one single part, and through this they
draw up their nourishment from fluid substances as
through a root. All insects take but little nourish-
ment; and this is not so much because they are
small as because they are cold. (Heat needs nourish-
ment and quickly concocts it; cold needs none.)
This is most marked in the grasshoppers. They find
sufficient nourishment in the moisture which the air
deposits ; so do the one-day creatures which occur
around the Black Sea. Still, they live only for the
space of a day; whereas the grasshoppers live for
several, though not many, days.

Now that we have spoken of the internal parts of
animals, we must go back and deal with the remainder
of the external parts. We had better begin with the
creatures of which we have just been speaking, and
not go back to the point where we left the external
parts. This will mean that we take first those which
need less discussion, and that will give more time for
speaking of the “ perfect " animals, 1.6. the blooded
ones.

VI. Insects first, then. Though their parts are not
numerous, insects differ from one another. They all

341

EXTERNAL
PARTS OF
BLOODLESS
ANIMALS,

682 8

ARISTOTLE

/ λή ὃ \ / , / 8 ^ 1
διαφοράς. πολυποοα pet γαρ εστι παντα οια par

682 b πρὸς τὴν βραδυτῆτα καὶ κατάψυξιν τῆς φύσεως τὴν

πολυποδίαν ἀνυτικωτέραν αὐτοῖς ποιεῖν τὴν κίνησιν:
καὶ μάλιστα πολύποδα τὰ μάλιστα κατεψυγμένα διὰ
τὸ μῆκος οἷον τὸ τῶν ἰούλων γένος. ἔτι δὲ διὰ τὸ

, `
5 ἀρχὰς ἔχειν πλείονας αἵ T ἐντομαί εισι και πολύ-

ποδα κατὰ ταὐτά' ἐστιν.
e D gee) / » / ^ ^99 `
Όσα ὃ ἐλάττονας ἔχει πόδας, πτηνὰ ταῦτ᾽ ἐστὶ
πρὸς τὴν. ἔλλειψιν τὴν τῶν ποδῶν. αὐτῶν δὲ τῶν
πτηνῶν ὧν μέν ἐστιν ὁ βίος νομαδικὸς καὶ διὰ τὴν
,
τροφὴν ἀναγκαῖον ἐκτοπίζειν, τετράπτερά, τέ ἐστι
καὶ τὸν τοῦ σώματος ἔχει κοῦφον € ὄγκον, οἷον. αἵ τε

10 μέλιτται καὶ τὰ σύμφυλα ζῷα ταύταις" δύο γὰρ ἐφ᾽

1

σι

20

ἑκάτερα πτερὰ" ἔχουσιν. ὅσα δὲ μικρὰ τῶν τοιού-
των, δίπτερα, -καθάπερ τὸ τῶν μυιῶν γένος. τὰ δὲ
βαρέα" καὶ τοῖς βίοις ἑδραῖα πολύπτερα μὲν ὁμοίως
ταῖς μελίτταις" ἐστίν, ἔχει δ᾽ ἔλυτρα τοῖς πτεροῖς,
οἷον αἵ τε μηλολόνθαι καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν ἐντόμων,
ὅπως σώζῃ τὴν τῶν πτερῶν δύναμιν’ ἑδραίων γὰρ
ὄντων εὐδιάφθορα μᾶλλόν ἐστι τῶν εὐκινήτων,
διόπερ ἐ ἔχει φραγμὸν πρὸ αὐτῶν. καὶ ἄσχιστον δὲ
τούτων ἐστὶ τὸ πτερὸν καὶ ἄκαυλον: οὐ γάρ ἐστι
πτερὸν ἀλλ᾽ ὑμὴν δερματικός, ὃ ὃς διὰ -ξηρότητα ἐξ
ἀνάγκης ἀφίσταται τοῦ σώματος αὐτῶν ψυχομένου
τοῦ σαρκώδους.

"Evropa ὃ᾽ ἐστὶ διά τε τὰς εἰρημένας αἰτίας, καὶ
ὅπως σώζηται δι᾽ ἀπάθειαν συγκαμπτόμενα: συν-
ελίττεται γὰρ τὰ μῆκος ἔχοντ᾽ αὐτῶν, τοῦτο δ᾽ οὐκ
ἂν ἐγίνετ᾽ αὐτοῖς μὴ οὖσιν ἐντόμοις. τὰ δὲ μὴ

* ταὐτά Peck: ταυτὰ Y : ταῦτ᾽ vulg.: ταύτας Ogle.
2 πτερὰ τοῦ σώματος vulg. : τοῦ σ. delevi.

* βαρέα Ogle: βραχέα vulg. * μελίτταις (οὐκ) Platt.
342

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. νι.

have numerous feet ; this is in order to make their (a) Insects.
motion quicker, and to counteract their natural slow-

ness and coldness. Those which are most subject to
coldness owing to their length (e.g. the Centipedes)

have the greatest number of feet. Furthermore,

these creatures have several sources of control; and

on that account they have the *' insections " in their

bodies, and the numerous feet which are placed in

precise correspondence.

Those that have fewer feet are winged by way of
compensation. Some of these flying insects live a
wandering life and have to go abroad in search of
food ; so they have a light body and four wings, two
on either side ; such are the bees and the kindred
tribes. The small ones have only two wings all told
—like the flies. Those that are heavy and sedentary
in their habits have the larger number of wings like
the bees, but they have shards round their wings
(e.g. the Melolonthae" and similar insects) to preserve
them in their proper condition ; for, as these creatures
are sedentary, their wings are more liable to be
destroyed than those of the nimbler insects; and
that is why there is this protection round them.
An insect's wing is not divided, and it has no shaft.
In fact, it is not a wing at all, but a membrane of skin,
which being dry detaches itself of necessity from the
creature's body as the fleshy part cools off.

I have already stated some reasons why these
creatures have '' insected " bodies : there is another,
viz. it is so that they may curl up and thus escape
injury and remain safe. It is the long ones that roll
themselves up, and this would be impossible for them
if they were not insected. Those that do not roll up

α Perhaps cockchafers (Ogle).
343

682

8

b
€

0

οι

683a

1

σι

o

ARISTOTLE

ἑλικτὰ αὐτῶν σκληρύνεται μᾶλλον συνιόντα εἰς τὰς
τομάς. δῆλον δὲ τοῦτο γίνεται θιγγανόντων, οἷον
ἐπὶ τῶν καλουμένων κανθάρων' φοβηθέντα γὰρ
ἀκινητίζει, καὶ τὸ σῶμα γίνεται σκληρὸν αὐτῶν.
ἀναγκαῖον ð ἐντόμοις αὐτοῖς εἶναι' τοῦτο γὰρ ἐν
τῇ οὐσίᾳ αὐτῶν ὑπάρχει τὸ πολλὰς ἔχειν ἀρχάς, καὶ
ταύτῃ προσέοικε τοῖς φυτοῖς. ὥσπερ γὰρ τὰ φυτά,
καὶ ταῦτα διαιρούμενα δύναται ζῆν, πλὴν ταῦτα μὲν
μέχρι τινός, ἐκεῖνα δὲ καὶ τέλεια γίνεται τὴν φύσιν
καὶ δύο ἐξ ἑνὸς καὶ πλείω τὸν ἀριθμόν.

Ἔχει δ᾽ ἔνια τῶν ἐντόμων καὶ κέντρα πρὸς
βοήθειαν τῶν βλαπτόντων. τὸ μὲν οὖν κέντρον
τοῖς μὲν ἔμπροσθέν ἐστι τοῖς δ᾽ ὄπισθεν, τοῖς μὲν
ἔμπροσθεν κατὰ τὴν γλῶτταν, τοῖς δ᾽ ὄπισθεν κατὰ
τὸ οὐραῖον. ὥσπερ γὰρ τοῖς ἐλέφασι τὸ τῶν
ὀσμῶν αἰσθητήριον γεγένηται χρήσιμον πρός τε
τὴν ἀλκὴν καὶ τὴν τῆς. τροφῆς χρῆσιν, οὕτως τῶν
ἐντόμων ἐνίοις τὸ κατὰ τὴν γλῶτταν τεταγμένον"
αἰσθάνονταί τε γὰρ τούτῳ τῆς τροφῆς καὶ ἀναλαμ-
βάνουσι καὶ προσάγονται αὐτήν. ὅσα δὲ μή ἐστιν
αὐτῶν ἐμπροσθόκεντρα, ὀδόντας ἔχει τὰ μὲν
ἐδωδῆς χάριν τὰ δὲ τοῦ λαμβάνειν καὶ προσάγεσθαι
τὴν τροφήν, otov ot τε μύρμηκες καὶ τὸ τῶν μελιτ-
τῶν πασῶν γένος. ὅσα δ᾽ ὀπισθόκεντρά ἐστι, διὰ
τὸ θυμὸν ἔχειν ὅπλον ἔχει τὸ κέντρον. ἔχουσι δὲ
τὰ μὲν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς τὰ κέντρα, καθάπερ αἱ μέλιτται
καὶ οἱ σφῆκες, διὰ τὸ πτηνὰ εἶναι" λεπτὰ μὲν γὰρ
ὄντα καὶ ἔξω εὔφθαρτα (ἂν) ἦν: εἰ δὲ παχέα ἦν"
ὥσπερ τοῖς σκορπίοις, βάρος ἂν παρεῖχεν. τοῖς δὲ

1 (ἂν) Ogle. 3 δὲ παχέα ἦν Platt: δ᾽ ἀπεῖχεν vulg.
9344

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. νι.

increase their hardness by closing up the insections.
This is obvious if you touch them—e.g. the insects
called Canthari (dung-beetles) are frightened when
touched and become motionless, and their bodies
become hard. But also it is necessary for them to
be insected, for it is of their essential being to have
numerous sources of control; and herein they re-
semble plants. Plants can live when they are cut
up; so can insects. There is a difference, however,
for whereas the period of survival of a divided insect
is limited, a plant can attain the perfection of its
nature when divided, and so two plants or more come
out of one.

Some of the insects have a sting as well, for defence
against attackers. In some the sting is in front, by
the tongue; in others it is behind at the tail-end.
Consider the elephant's trunk: this is its organ of
smell; but the elephant uses it as a means of exert-
ing force as well as for the purposes of nutrition.
Compare with this the sting of insects: when, as in
some of them, it is ranged alongside the tongue, not
only do they get their sensation of the food by means
of it, but they also pick up the food with it and convey
it to the mouth. Those which have no sting in front
have teeth ; which some of them use for eating,
others for picking up the food and conveying it to the
mouth, as do the ants and the whole tribe of bees.
Those that have a sting at the back are fierce crea-
tures and the sting serves them as a weapon. Some-
times the sting is well inside the body, as in bees and
wasps. ‘This is because they are winged, and a deli-
cate sting on the outside of the body would be easily
destroyed ; on the other hand, a thick one such as
scorpions have would weigh them down. Scorpions

345

ARISTOTLE

683 a
σκορπίοις πεζοῖς οὖσι καὶ κέρκον" ἔχουσιν ἀναγ-

καῖον ἐπὶ ταύτῃ" ἔχειν τὸ κέντρον, ἢ μηθὲν χρήσιμον
εἶναι πρὸς τὴν ἀλκήν. δίπτερον δ᾽ οὐθέν ἐστιν
ὀπισθόκεντρον" διὰ τὸ ἀσθενῆ γὰρ καὶ μικρὰ εἶναι
16 δίπτερά ἐστιν" ἱκανὰ γὰρ τὰ μικρὰ αἴρεσθαι ὑπὸ
τῶν ἐλαττόνων τὸν ἀριθμόν. διὰ ταὐτὸ δὲ τοῦτο
καὶ ἔμπροσθεν ἔχει. τὸ κέντρον: ἀσθενῆ γὰρ ὄντα
μόλις δύναται τοῖς ὄπισθεν" τύπτειν. τὰ δὲ
πολύπτερα, διὰ τὸ μείζω τὴν φύσιν εἶναι, πλειόνων.
τετύχηκε πτερῶν καὶ ἰσχύει τοῖς ὄπισθεν μορίοις.
20 βέλτιον δ᾽ ἐνδεχομένου μὴ ταὐτὸ ὄργανον ἐπὶ
ἀνομοίας ἔχειν χρήσεις, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν ἀμυντικὸν
ὀξύτατον, τὸ δὲ γλωττικὸν σομφὸν καὶ σπαστικὸν
τῆς τροφῆς. ὅπου γὰρ ἐνδέχεται χρῆσθαι. δυσὶν
ἐπὶ ov’ ἔργα καὶ μὴ ἐμποδίζειν πρὸς ἕτερον,
οὐδὲν ἡ φύσις εἴωθε ποιεῖν ὥσπερ ἡ χαλκευτικὴ
25 πρὸς SL ὀβελισκολύχνιον' ἀλλ᾽ ὅπου μὴ
ἐνδέχεται, καταχρῆται τῷ αὐτῷ ἐπὶ πλείω ἔργα.
Tovs δὲ πόδας τοὺς προσθίους μείζους ἔνια τού-
των ἔχει, ὅπως ἐπειδὴ διὰ τὸ σκληρόφθαλμα εἶναι
οὐκ ἀκριβῆ τὴν ὄψιν ἔχουσι, τὰ προσπίπτοντα τοῖς
προσθίοις ἀποκαθαίρωσι σκέλεσιν: ὅπερ καὶ φαί-
80 γονται ποιοῦσαι at τε μυῖαι καὶ τὰ μελιττώδη τῶν
ζῴων: ἀεὶ γὰρ χαρακίζουσι τοῖς προσθίοις σκέλεσιν.
τὰ Ò ὀπίσθια μείζω τῶν μέσων διά τε τὴν βάδισιν
καὶ πρὸς τὸ αἴρεσθαι ῥᾷον ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ἀναπετ-
1 κέρκον Z (coniecerat Ogle) : κέντρον vulg.

2 ταύτῃ Ogle: ταῦτ᾽ vulg.
3 ὄπισθεν Ogle, Thurot: ἔμπροσθεν vulg.

5 The principle of “ division of labour " ina living organism,
not stated again until 1827 (by Milne Edwards). See Ogle's

note.

346

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. τι.

themselves, being land-creatures and having a tail,
are bound to have their sting on their tail ; otherwise
it would be no use for exerting force. No two-
winged insect has a sting at the rear ; these are small
weak creatures, and can be supported by a smaller
number of wings: that is why they have only two.
The same reason explains why they have their sting
in the front: owing to their weakness they cannot
well deliver a blow with their hind parts. Many-
winged creatures, on the other hand, owe their
greater number of wings to their own greater size,
and so too their hind parts are stronger and bear the
sting. Itis better, when it is possible, that one and the
same organ should not be put to dissimilar uses ; that
is. there should be an organ of defence which is very
sharp, and another organ to act as a tongue, which
should be spongy and able to draw up nourishment.
And thus, whenever it is possible to employ two
organs for two pieces of work without their getting in
each other's way, Nature provides and employs two.”
Her habits are not those of the coppersmith who for
cheapness' sake makes you a spit-and-lampstand
combination. Still, where two are impossible, Nature
employs the same organ to perform several pieces
of work.

Some insects, whose eyesight is not distinct owing
to their eyes being made of some hard substance, have
specially long forefeet, which enable them to clear
away anything that comes down on to the eyes.
Flies and bees and the like are obvious examples :
they are always crossing their front legs. These
creatures' hind legs are longer than their middle ones
for two reasons : (1) to assist them in walking, and
(2) to lift them more easily off the ground when they

M , 347

ARISTOTLE

683a / e M M » c^ » ^ ^
όμενα. ὅσα δὲ πηδητικὰ αὐτῶν ἔτι μᾶλλον τοῦτο

φανερόν, οἷον αἵ τ᾽ ἀκρίδες καὶ τὸ τῶν ψυλλῶν
85 γένος" ὅταν γὰρ κάμψαντ᾽ ἐκτείνῃ πάλιν, ἀναγκαῖον
ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ἦρθαι. οὐκ ἔμπροσθεν. δ᾽ ἀλλ᾽
683b ὄπισθεν μόνον ἔχουσι τὰ πηδαλιώδη αἱ ἀκρίδες
τὴν γὰρ καμπὴν ἀναγκαῖον εἴσω κεκλάσθαι, τῶν
δὲ προσθίων κώλων οὐδέν ἐστι τοιοῦτον. ἑξάποδα
δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα πάντ᾽ ἐστὶ σὺν τοῖς ἁλτικοῖς μορίοις.
ΥΠ. Τῶν © ὀστρακοδέρμων οὐκ ἔστι τὸ σῶμα
5 πολυμερές. τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον τὸ μόνιμον αὐτῶν
εἶναι τὴν φύσιν: πολυμερέστερα. γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον
εἶναι τῶν ζῴων τὰ κινητικὰ διὰ τὸ (πλείους)᾽ εἶναι
αὐτῶν πράξεις: ὀργάνων γὰρ δεῖται πλειόνων τὰ
πλειόνων μετέχοντα κινήσεων. τούτων δὲ τὰ μὲν
ἀκίνητα πάμπαν ἐστί, τὰ δὲ μικρᾶς μετέχει κι-
10 νήσεως: ἀλλ᾽ ἡ φύσις πρὸς σωτηρίαν αὐτοῖς τὴν
τῶν ὀστράκων σκληρότητα περιέθηκεν. ἔστι δὲ
τὰ μὲν μονόθυρα τὰ δὲ δίθυρα αὐτῶν, τὰ δὲ -στρομ-
βώδη, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον" καὶ τούτων τὰ
μὲν ἑλίκην ἔχοντα, οἷον κήρυκες, τὰ δὲ σφαιροειδῆ
μόνον, καθάπερ τὸ τῶν ἐχίνων γένος. καὶ τῶν
15 διθύρων τὰ μέν ἐστιν ἀναπτυκτά, οἷον κτένες καὶ
μύες (ἐπὶ θάτερα γὰρ συγκέκλεισται, ὥστε dv-
οίγεσθαι ἐπὶ θάτερα καὶ συγκλείεσθαι), τὰ δ᾽ ἐπ᾽
ἄμφω συμπέφυκεν, οἷον τὸ τῶν σωλήνων γένος.
ἅπαντα δὲ τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα, καθάπερ τὰ φυτά,
20 κάτω τὴν κεφαλὴν ἔχει. τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι
κάτωθεν λαμβάνει τὴν τροφήν, ὥσπερ τὰ φυτὰ
ταῖς ῥίζαις. συμβαίνει. οὖν αὐτοῖς τὰ μὲν κάτω
ἄνω ἔχειν, τὰ δ᾽ ἄνω κάτω. ἐν ὑμένι δ᾽ ἐστί, δι᾽
1 ἐπλείους) Peck: (πολλὰς) Platt.
948

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. νι.-νιι.

rise in flight. This peculiarity is even more notice-
able in the leaping insects, such as locusts and the
various sorts of fleas, which first bend their hind legs
and then stretch them out again, and this forces them
to rise up from the ground. The rudder-shaped legs
which locusts have are at the rear only and not in
front; this is because the joint must bend inwards,?
and no front limb satisfies this condition. All
these creatures have six feet, inclusive of the parts
used for leaping.

VII. In Testacea the body is not divided into () Testacea.
several parts, owing to their being of stationary
habits, as opposed to creatures which move about :
the latter are bound to have more parts to their body
because their activities are more numerous, and the
more motions of which a species is capable, the more
organs it requires. Now some of the Testacea are
altogether stationary : others move about but little ;
and so, to keep them safe, Nature has compassed
them about with hard shells. Some of them are (as I
said earlier ^) one-valved, some two-valved ; and some
conical, either spiral like the Whelks, or spherical
like the Sea-urchins. The two-valved shells are
divided into (a) those which open—z.e. which have a
joint on one side and can open and shut on the other ;
e.g. the scallops and mussels ; (6) those which are
joined together on both sides, e.g. the group of razor-
fishes. In all Testacea, just as in plants, the head is
down below. The reason for this is that they take up
their food from below, as plants take it up by their
roots ; so they have their nether parts above and their
upper parts below. ‘These creatures are enveloped
in a membrane, and through this they strain fresh-

α See note on 693 b 3, p. 433. ὃ At 679 b 16.
349

683 b

25

ARISTOTLE

D ^ ` / M / ` /
οὗ διηθεῖ τὸ πότιμον καὶ λαμβάνει τὴν τροφήν.
ἔχει δὲ κεφαλὴν μὲν πάντα, τὰ δὲ τοῦ σώματος
µόρια παρὰ τὸ τῆς τροφῆς δεκτικὸν ἀνώνυμα
τἆλλα.

VIII. Τὰ δὲ μαλακόστρακα πάντα καὶ πορευτικά,
διὸ ποδῶν ἔχει πλῆθος. ἔστι δὲ γένη μὲν τέτταρα
τὰ μέγιστ᾽ αὐτῶν οἵ τε καλούμενοι κάραβοι καὶ
ἀστακοὶ καὶ καρίδες καὶ καρκίνοι: τούτων
ε / / » , M / , / ^
ἑκάστου πλείω εἴδη ἐστὶ διαφέροντα οὐ µόνον κατὰ

\ \ > \ \ \ ` / / \
50 τὴν μορφὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ κατὰ τὸ .μέγεθος πολύ" τὰ

684 a

e

10

μὲν γὰρ μεγάλα τὰ δὲ μικρὰ πάμπαν αὐτῶν ἐστιν.
τὰ μὲν οὖν καρκινώδη καὶ καραβώδη παρόμοι᾽
ἐστὶ τῷ χηλὰς ἔχειν ἀμφότερα. ταύτας δ᾽ οὐ
πορείας ἔχουσι χάριν, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τὸ λαβεῖν καὶ
κατασχεῖν ἀντὶ χειρῶν. διὸ καὶ κάμπτουσιν ἐναν-

/ ` \ ^ 9. \ ^
5 TLWS TAUTAS τοῖς Tool: TOUS μεν γαρ επι TO κοῖλον

τὰς δ᾽ ἐπὶ τὸ περιφερὲς κάμπτουσι καὶ ἑλίσσουσιν'
οὕτω γὰρ χρήσιμαι πρὸς τὸ λαβοῦσαι προσφέρεσθαι
τὴν τροφήν.

.Διαφέρουσι δ᾽ ᾗ οἱ μὲν κάραβοι ἔχουσιν A
οἱ δὲ καρκίνοι οὐκ € ἔχουσιν οὐράν: τοῖς μὲν γὰρ
τὸ νευστικοῖς εἶναι χρήσιμος ἡ οὖρά (νέουσι πον
ἀπερειδόμενοι οἷον πλάταις αὐταῖς), τοῖς δὲ καρ-
κίνοις οὐδὲν χρήσιμον διὰ τὸ πρόσγειον εἶναι τὸν
βίον' αὐτῶν καὶ εἶναι τρωγλοδύτας. ὅσοι δ᾽ αὐτῶν
πελάγιοί εἰσι, διὰ τοῦτο πολὺ ἀργοτέρους ἔχουσι
τοὺς πόδας" πρὸς τὴν πορείαν, οἷον αἵ τε μαῖαι
καὶ οἱ “Ἡρακλεωτικοὶ καλούμενοι καρκίνοι, ὅτι
ὀλίγῃ κινήσει χρῶνται, ἀλλ᾽ ἡ σωτηρία αὐτοῖς
τῷ Γον εἶναι γίνεται: διὸ αἱ μὲν μαῖαι

τὸ βίον Bekker per typothetae errorem.
* αὑτῶν post πόδας vulg.: om. Y.

350

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vrr.-vriri.

water to drink, which is their way of taking nourish-
ment. All of them possess a head, but except for
the part which takes in the food none of the other
parts has a special name.

VIII. All the Crustacea can walk on land as well as (o Crus-
swim; and hence they all have numerous feet. There ^*^
are four main groups of Crustacea, called (1) Carabi ;
(2) Astaci; (3) Carides; and (4) Carcini.^ Each of
these contains several species which differ not only
in shape, but also in size, and that considerably, for
some species are large, others extremely small. The
Carcinoid and the Caraboid crustacea resemble each
other, in both having claws. These claws are not for
the sake of locomotion, but serve instead of hands,
for catching and holding ; and that is why they bend
in an opposite direction to the feet, which bend and
twist toward the concave side, while the claws bend
toward the convex side. This makes the claws
serviceable for catching hold of the food and convey-
ing it to the mouth.

The two groups, Carabi and Carcini, differ in that
the former have a tail and the latter have not. The
Carabi find a tail useful because they are swimmers :
they propel themselves with it as though with oars,
A tail would be useless to the Carcini, which spend
their lives near the land and creep into holes and
crannies. ‘Those that live out at sea and move about
but little, and owe their safety to their shelly exterior,
have for these reasons feet which are considerably less
effective for locomotion: examples of this are the

^ Roughly, these four divisions may be represented by our
own groups, thus: (1) lobsters ; (2) crayfish ; (3) prawns and
shrimps ; (4) crabs.

. 991

ARISTOTLE

684 a
λεπτοσκελεῖς, οἱ δ᾽ "Ἡρακλεωτικοὶ μικροσκελεῖς

εἰσίν.

Οἱ δὲ πάμπαν μικροὶ καρκίνοι, οἳ ἁλίσκονται ἐν
τοῖς μικροῖς ἰχθυδίοις, ἔχουσι. τοὺς τελευταίους
πλατεῖς πόδας, ἵ ἵνα πρὸς τὸ νεῖν αὐτοῖς χρήσιμοι
ὦσιν, ὥσπερ πτερύγια ἢ πλάτας ἔχοντες τοὺς πόδας.

Αἱ δὲ καρίδες τῶν μὲν καρκινοειδῶν διαφέρουσι

15 τῷ ἔχειν κέρκον, τῶν δὲ καραβοειδῶν διὰ τὸ μὴ
ἔχειν χηλάς: ἃς οὐκ ἔχουσι διὰ τὸ πλείους ἔχειν
πόδας, ἐνταῦθα γὰρ ἡ ἐκεῖθεν ἀνήλωται αὔξησις.
πλείους δ᾽ ἔχουσι πόδας, ὅτι νευστικώτερά ἐστιν
ἢ πορευτικώτερα.

Τὰ δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις μόρια. καὶ περὶ τὴν κε-
φαλὴν τὰ μὲν εἰς τὸ δέξασθαι τὸ ὕδωρ καὶ ἀφεῖναι

20 ἔχουσι βραγχοειδῆ" πλακωδέστερα δὲ τὰ κάτω αἱ
ἤλειαι τῶν ἀρρένων καράβων. ἔχουσι, καὶ τὰ ἐν
τῷ ἐπιπτύγματι δασύτερα αἱ θήλειαι καρκίνοι
τῶν ἀρρένων, διὰ τὸ ἐκτείνειν τὰ ᾠὰ πρὸς αὐτά,
ἀλλὰ μὴ ἄποθεν, ὥσπερ, οἱ ἰχθύες καὶ τἆλλα τὰ
(pay? τίκτοντα" εὐρυχωρέστερα γὰρ ὄντα. καὶ μείζω

95 χώραν ἔχει τοῖς wots μᾶλλον. οἱ μὲν οὖν κάραβοι
καὶ οἱ καρκίνοι "πάντες τὴν. δεξιὰν ἔχουσι χηλὴν
μείζω καὶ ἰσχυροτέραν: τοῖς .γὰρ δεξιοῖς πάντα
πέφυκε τὰ ζῷα δρᾶν μᾶλλον, ἡ δὲ φύσις ἀποδίδω-
σιν ἀεὶ τοῖς χρῆσθαι δυναμένοις ἕκαστον ἢ μόνως
ἢ μᾶλλον v, οἷον χαυλιόδοντας καὶ ὀδόντας καὶ

30 κέρατα καὶ πλῆκτρα καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα µόρια,
ὅσα € βοήθειαν καὶ ἀλκήν € ἐστιν."

Οἱ ἀστακοὶ μόνοι, ὁποτέραν ἂν τύχωσιν
τόσο, µείζω τῶν χηλῶν, καὶ αἱ θήλειαι καὶ οἱ

1 (ὠὰ) Peck: τήκοντα S: κυΐσκοντα PY: ᾠοτοκοῦντα Ogle.
2 ἐστιν Peck: εἰσιν vulg.

352

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vi:

Maiae® (whose legs are thin) and the crabs called
Heracleotic (whose legs are short).

The little tiny crabs, which are found among the
catch with small fishes, have their hindmost feet flat,
like fins or oars, to make them useful for swimming.

The Carides differ from the Carcinoids in having a
tail, and from the Caraboids just mentioned in not
having claws. Claws are absent because they have
more feet: the material for their growth has gone
into the feet. And they have more feet because they
swim about more or move about more.

As for the parts on the under? surface around the
head, in some animals these are formed like gills so as
to let in the water and to discharge it ; the lower
parts, however, of female crabs are flatter in formation
than those of male ones, and also the appendages on
the flap are hairier. This is because they deposit
their eggs there instead of getting rid of them, as the
fishes and the other oviparous animals do. These
appendages are wider and larger and so can provide
more space for the eggs. In all the Carabi and in
all the Carcini the right claw is bigger and stronger
than the left. This is because all animals in their
activities naturally use the right side more; and
Nature always assigns an instrument, either ex- `
clusively or in a better form, to those that can use it.
This holds good for tusks, teeth, horns, spurs and all
such parts which serve animals for assistance and
offence.

In Lobsters only, whether male or female, it is
a matter of chance which claw is the bigger. The

? Probably the spiny spider-crab.
> That is, ventral.

353

684 a

35
684 b

5

10

20

ARISTOTLE

ἄρρενες. αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ μὲν ἔχειν χηλὰς ὅτι ἐν TA
γένει εἰσὶ τῷ ἔχοντι χηλάς" τοῦτο Ò ἀτάκτως
ἔχουσιν ὅτι πεπήρωνται καὶ οὐ χρῶνται ἐφ᾽ ὃ
πεφύκασιν, ἀλλὰ πορείας χάριν.

Καθ’ ἕκαστον δὲ τῶν μορίων, τίς ἡ θέσις αὐτῶν
καὶ τίνες διαφοραὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα, τῶν τ᾽ ἄλλων καὶ
τίνι διαφέρει τὰ ἄρρενα τῶν θηλειῶν, ἔκ τε τῶν
ἀνατομῶν θεωρείσθω καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἱστοριῶν τῶν
περὶ τὰ ζῷα.

ΙΧ. Τῶν δὲ μαλακίων περὶ μὲν τῶν ἐντὸς
εἴρηται πρότερον, ὥσπερ καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων
ζῴων: ἐκτὸς δ᾽ ἔχει τό τε τοῦ σώματος κύτος,
ἀδιόριστον ὄν, καὶ τούτου πόδας ἔμπροσθεν περὶ
τὴν κεφαλήν, ἐντὸς μὲν τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν, περὶ δὲ
τὸ στόμα καὶ τοὺς ὀδόντας. τὰ μὲν οὖν ἆλλα ζῷα
τὰ ἔχοντα πόδας τὰ μὲν ἔμπροσθεν ἔχει καὶ
ὄπισθεν, τὰ δ᾽ ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου, ὥσπερ τὰ πολύποδα
καὶ ἄναιμα τῶν ζῴων: τοῦτο δὲ τὸ γένος ἰδίως
τούτων" πάντας γὰρ ἔχουσι τοὺς πόδας ἐπὶ τὸ
καλούμενον ἔμπροσθεν. τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι
συνῆκται αὐτῶν τὸ ὄπισθεν πρὸς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν,
ὥσπερ τῶν -ὀστρακοδέρμων τοῖς στρομβώδεσιν.
ὅλως γὰρ τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα ἔχει. τῇ μὲν ὁμοίως
τοῖς μαλακοστράκοις, τῇ δὲ τοῖς μαλακίοις. ᾗ
μὲν γὰρ ἔξωθεν τὸ γεῶδες ἐντὸς δὲ τὸ σαρκῶδες,
τοῖς μαλακοστράκοις, τὸ δὲ σχῆμα τοῦ σώματος
ὃν τρόπον συνέστηκε, τοῖς μαλακίοις, τρόπον μέν

a See Hist. An. 595 a 30—527 b 34, 541 b 19 ff.

δ At 678 b 24 ff.

* The theory that the cuttle-fish is comparable to a verte-
brate bent double was put forward in a paper read before the
Academy of Sciences in 1830, and was the origin of the famous

354

PARIS ΟΕΠΑΝΕΜΆΣΩΙ TV. vur-ix.

reason why they have claws is because they belong
to a group which has claws; and they have them
in this irregular way because they themselves are
deformed and use the claws not for their natural
purpose but for locomotion.

For an account of every one of the parts, of
their position, and of the differences between them,
including the differences between the male and the
female, consult the Anatomical treatises and the
Inquiries upon Animals."

IX. With regard to the Cephalopods, their internal (2) Cepha.
parts have already been described, as have those °P°°*
of the other animals. The external parts include
(1) the trunk of the body, which is undefined, and
(2) in front of this, the head, with the feet round it :
the feet are not beyond the eyes, but are outside the
mouth and the teeth. Other footed animals either
have some of their feet in front and some at the
back ; or else arranged along the sides—as with the
bloodless animals that have numerous feet. The
Cephalopods, however, have an arrangement of
their own. All their feet are on what may be
called the front. The reason for this is that their
back half is drawn up on to the front half,’ just as
in the conical-shelled Testacea. And generally, `
though in some respects the Testacea resemble the
Crustacea, in others they resemble the Cephalopods.
In having their earthy material outside and their
fleshy material inside, they resemble the Crustacea ;
but as regarding the formation and construction of

their body they resemble the Cephalopods — all of

controversy between G. St-Hilaire and Cuvier about unity of
type. This controversy excited Goethe more than the revolu-
tion of the same year. (Ogle.)

M 2 + 50

684 b

25

80

ARISTOTLE

, / M ^ ^ .
τινα πάντα, μάλιστα δὲ τῶν στρομβωδῶν τὰ
» ` ΕΝ 3 , . ^ »
ἔχοντα τὴν ἑλίκην" ἀμφοτέρων γὰρ τοῦτον ἔχει
τὸν τρόπον ἡ φύσις᾽: et propter hoc ambulant uni-

. 3 24 ^
formiter (ἀλλ᾽ οὐ) καθάπερ συμβέβηκεν ἐπὶ τῶν
τετραπόδων ζῴων καὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων. homo vero
habet os in capite, scilicet in parte superiori corporis,
» M / » \ . ’ > M \
ἔπειτα τὸν στόμαχον, ἔπειτα δὲ τὴν κοιλίαν, ἀπὸ δὲ

/ M » ^ / ^
ταύτης τὸ ἔντερον µέχρι τῆς διεξόδου τοῦ περιτ-
^ > A ^
τώματος. τοῦτον μὲν οὖν τὸν τρόπον ἔχει τοῖς
3 / Z \ ^ \ / > € /
ἐναίμοις ζῴοις, καὶ μετὰ τὴν κεφαλήν ἐστιν ὁ καλού-

/ . \ ` ^ M M . ’
μενος θώραξ, καὶ τὰ περὶ τοῦτον" τὰ δὲ λοιπὰ μόρια

/ / ^
τούτων τε χάριν καὶ ἕνεκα τῆς κινήσεως προσέθηκεν
ε / T T if ^ ` A +
ἡ φύσις, οἷον τά τε πρόσθια κῶλα καὶ τὰ ὄπισθεν.
΄ M ^ ^ ^
βούλεται δὲ καὶ τοῖς μαλακοστράκοις καὶ τοῖς
3 / “ > , , ^ 3 / ` 3 .
ἐντόμοις ἢ γ᾽ εὐθυωρία τῶν ἐντοσθιδίων τὸν αὐτὸν
» , . \ \ € / S »
ἔχειν τρόπον, κατὰ δὲ τὰς ὑπηρεσίας τὰς ἔξωθεν

A / ^ > / . \ / /

κινητικὰς διαφέρει τῶν ἐναίμων. τὰ δὲ µαλάκιά
` \\3 / ^ > / »

τε καὶ (rà) στρομβώδη τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων ἔχει

! sequitur locus corruptus. quae corrigi possunt sec. vers.
arabicam correxi, suppositicia eieci, amissa e versione latina
Mich. Scot supplevi. text. vulg. habet ἡ φύσις ὥσπερ εἴ τις
νοήσειεν ἐπ᾽ εὐθείας, καθάπερ συμβέβηκεν ἐπὶ τῶν τετραπόδων
ζῴων καὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, πρῶτον μὲν ἐπὶ ἄκρῳ τῷ ἄνω στόματι
τῆς εὐθείας κατὰ τὸ A, ἔπειτα «κατὰ addunt PY» τὸ B τὸν
στόμαχον, [τὸ δὲ om. PY] T QTY κοιλίαν: ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ ἐντέρου
μέχρι τῆς διεξόδου τοῦ περιττώματος, ᾗ τὸ A. τοῦτον μὲν οὖν
τὸν τρόπον ἔχει τοῖς ἐναίμοις ζῴοις, καὶ περὶ τοῦτό ἐστιν ἡ
κεφαλὴ καὶ ὁ θώραξ καλούμενος (Kar. θώραξ SU): τὰ δὲ λοιπά,

etc. vide et quae p. 432 scripsi.
2 «ἀλλ᾽ οὐ» Peck. 3 «τὰ Peck.

356

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. 1x.

them do so to some extent, but most markedly
those conical Testacea which have a spiral shell,
since both these classes have this natural struc-
ture?; and therefore they walk with an even gait,
and not as is the case with quadrupeds and man.?
Nom man has his mouth placed in his head, viz. in the
upper part of the body, and after that the gullet, then
the stomach, and after that the intestine which
reaches as far as the vent where the residue is dis-
charged. This is the arrangement in the blooded
animals, 1.6.. after the head comes what is known as
the trunk, and the parts adjoining. The remaining
parts (e.g. the limbs at front and back) have been
added by Nature for the sake of those which I have
just mentioned and also to make movement possible.
Now in the Crustacea too and in the Insects the
internal parts tend to be in a straight alignment of
this kind; though with regard to the external parts
which subserve locomotion their arrangement differs
from that of the blooded animals. The Cephalopods
and the conical-shelled Testacea have the same

a The passage which follows has been badly corrupted by
references to a diagram which have ousted the text. The
words in italics have been translated from the Arabic version,
of which Michael Scot's Latin translation is given opposite, in
default of the original Greek. See supplementary note on

. 432.

ò This refers to their uneven progression by moving first
one side of the body and then the other. The Testacea, how-
ever, “ have no right and left” (De incessu an. 114 b 9), and
their movement was evidently an awkward problem for
Aristotle. He reserves them until the very end of the De
incessu, and he has to admit that they move, although they
ought not to do so! They move παρὰ φύσι. The mechan-
ism of their motion can be detected by the microscope, and is
known as ciliary. See also De incessu, 106 a 13, 33, Hist.
An. 598 b 9.

‘ 357

ARISTOTLE

€ ^ M / ve > >
6854 αὐτοῖς μὲν παραπλησίως, τούτοις δ᾽ ἀντεστραμ-
. ` /
µένως' κέκαμπται yap ἡ τελευτὴ πρὸς τὴν ἀρχήν,
u E » \ 3 ^ »1]? τ ` 1 /
ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις τὴν εὐθεῖαν [ep ἧς τὸ EJ) κάμψας
t ^
προσαγάγοι τὸ Δ πρὸς TO A. οὕτως γὰρ κειμένων
νῦν τῶν ἐντοσθίων περίκειται τοῖς μὲν μαλακίοις τὸ
/ A ^ / > \ ^ / /
ο κύτος, ὃ καλεῖται μόνον ἐπὶ τῶν πολυπόδων κεφαλή"
- 2 -
τοῖς Ò ὀστρακοδέρμοις τὸ τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν Ò στρόμ-
Bos. διαφέρει © οὐδὲν ἄλλο πλὴν ὅτι τοῖς μὲν
\ \ / ^ \ ` \ \ ^
μαλακὸν τὸ πέριξ, τοῖς δὲ σκληρὸν περὶ τὸ σαρκῶδες
/ e ,
περιέθηκεν ἢ φύσις, ὅπως σώζηται διὰ τὴν δυσκινη-
, ` A ^
σίαν' καὶ διὰ τοῦτο TO περίττωμα τοῖς τε μαλακίοις
LP A ` ^
10 ἐξέρχεται περὶ τὸ στόμα καὶ τοῖς στρομβώδεσι,
. ^ ^
πλὴν τοῖς μὲν μαλακίοις κάτωθεν, τοῖς δὲ στρομ-
βώδεσιν ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου.
, Ss ^ e
Διὰ ταύτην μὲν οὖν τὴν αἰτίαν τοῖς μαλακίοις οἱ
/ ^ 7 ` /
πὀδες τοῦτον ἔχουσι τὸν τρόπον, καὶ ὑπεναντίως
^ ^ » » 5 5 / € / `
ἢ τοῖς ἄλλοις. ἔχουσι Ò ἀνομοίως αἱ σηπίαι καὶ
E € ^
15 αἱ τευθίδες τοῖς πολύποσι διὰ τὸ νευστικαὶ μόνον
εἶναι, τοὺς δὲ καὶ πορευτικούς. αἱ μὲν γὰρ τοὺς
” ^ »ς / a Να » \
ἄνωθεν τῶν ὀδόντων (ἐξ μικροὺς)' ἔχουσι, καὶ
.
τούτων τοὺς ἐσχάτους δύο μείζους, τοὺς δὲ λοιποὺς
- e
τῶν ὀκτὼ δύο κάτωθεν μεγίστους πάντων." ὥσπερ
γὰρ τοῖς τετράποσι τὰ ὀπίσθια ἰσχυρότερα κῶλα,
A ^
καὶ ταύταις μέγιστοι οἱ κάτωθεν «πόδες)'' τὸ γὰρ
12 ^ ` [1
90 φορτίον οὗτοι ἔχουσι καὶ κινοῦσι μάλιστα. καὶ οἱ
- ,
ἔσχατοι δύο μείζους τῶν µέσων, ὅτι τούτοις συν-
1 seclusi; post ἧς add. Z τὸ ὅλον φησί. vid. p. 432.
? Schneider ex Gazae vers. (senos exiguos) ; sew Σ : μικροὺς

Z (sed ποδῶν pro ὀδόντων), idem E teste Buss.
3 πάντων Ogle: τούτων vulg. 4 <7d5es> Rackham.

358

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. rx.

arrangement as one another, but it differs completely
from that of the others, as the tail-end of these
creatures is bent right over to meet the front,
just as if I were to bend the straight line over
until the point D met the point A. Such

Amico

then, is the disposition of their internal parts.
Round them, in Cephalopods, is situated the sac (in
the Octopuses and in them only it is called the head):
in the Testacea the corresponding thing is the conical
shell. The only difference is that in the one case
the surrounding substance is soft, and in the other
Nature has surrounded the flesh with something
hard, to give them the preservation they need owing
to their bad locomotion. As a result of the above-
mentioned arrangement, in both sets the residue
leaves at a point near the mouth : in the Cephalopods
under the mouth, in the conical Testacea at the side
of it.

So what we have said explains why the feet of
Cephalopods are where they are, quite differently
placed from all other animals’ feet. Sepias and
Calamaries, however, being swimmers merely, differ
from the Octopuses, which are walkers as well; they
have six small feet above the teeth, and of these the
ones at each end are larger; the remaining two out
of the total eight are down below and largest of
all. These creatures have their strongest feet down
below, just as quadrupeds have their strongest limbs
at the back ; and the reason is that they carry the
weight of the body and they chiefly are responsible
for locomotion. The two outer feet are larger than
the inner ones because they have to help the others

* 850

ARISTOTLE

685 a
υπηρετοῦσιν. ὁ δὲ πολύπους τοὺς ἐν μέσῳ τέτταρας
μεγίστους.

Πόδας μὲν οὖν πάντα ἔχουσι ταῦτα ὀκτώ, ἀλλ᾽
αἱ μὲν σηπίαι καὶ αἱ τευθίδες βραχεῖς, τὰ δὲ
πολυποδώδη μεγάλους. τὸ γὰρ κύτος τοῦ σώματος

95 αἱ μὲν μέγα ἔχουσιν τὰ! δὲ μικρόν, ὥστε τοῖς μὲν
ἀφεῖλεν ἀπὸ τοῦ σώματος, πρὸς δὲ τὸ μῆκος τῶν
ποδῶν προσέθηκεν ἡ φύσις, ταῖς δ᾽ ἀπὸ τῶν
ποδῶν λαβοῦσα τὸ σῶμα ηὔξησεν. .διόπερ τοῖς
μὲν οὐ μόνον πρὸς τὸ νεῖν χρήσιμοι οἱ πόδες ἀλλὰ
καὶ πρὸς τὸ βαδίζειν, ταῖς δ᾽ ἆ ἄχρηστοι: μικροὶ γάρ,

80 τὸ δὲ κύτος μέγα ἔχουσιν. ἐπεὶ δὲ βραχεῖς ἔχουσι
τοὺς πόδας καὶ ἀχρήστους πρὸς τὸ ἀντιλαμβάνεσθαι
καὶ μὴ ἀποσπᾶσθαι ἀπὸ τῶν πετρῶν, ὅταν κλύδων
Ñ καὶ χειμών, καὶ πρὸς τὸ τὰ ἄποθεν προσάγεσθαι,
διὰ ταῦτα προβοσκίδας ἔχουσι δύο μακράς, αἷς

35 ὁρμοῦσί τε καὶ ἀποσαλεύουσιν ὥσπερ πλοῖον ὅταν

685 b χειμὼν 7), καὶ τὰ ἄποθεν θηρεύουσι καὶ προσάγονται
ταύταις αἵ τε σηπίαι καὶ αἱ τευθίδες. οἱ δὲ πολύ-
ποδες οὐκ ἔχουσι τὰς προβοσκίδας. διὰ τὸ τοὺς
πόδας αὐτοῖς εἶναι πρὸς ταῦτα χρησίμους. ἐνίοιο"
δὲ .κοτυληδόνες πρὸς τοῖς ποσὶ καὶ πλεκτάναι

6 πρόσεισι, δύναμιν ἔχουσαι" καὶ σύνθεσιν τοιαύτην
οἵανπερ τὰ πλεγμάτια οἷς οἱ ἰατροὶ οἱ ἀρχαῖοι τοὺς
δακτύλους ἐνέβαλλον: οὕτω καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἰνῶν

1 τὰ Peck: οἱ vulg.

ἀποσπᾶσθαι Bekker: ἀντισπᾶσθαι codd.

3 ἐνίοις Peck: ὅσοις vulg.
4 ἔχουσαι P: ἔχουσι vulg.

* The use of these σαῦραι or σειραί is described by Hippo-
crates, Περὶ ἄρθρων (Littré iv. 318-320 ; L.C.L. iii. 390 : ** The
tubes woven out of palm-tissue are satisfactory means of

360

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. rx.

in performing their duty. Inthe Octopuses, however,
the four middle feet are the biggest.

And although all these creatures have eight feet,
the Sepia's and the Calamary's are short ones, since
their bodies are large in the trunk, and the Octopus's
feet are long, because his body is small. Thus in
one case the substance which she took from the body
Nature has given towards lengthening the feet, and
in the other she has taken away from the feet and
made the body itself bigger. Hence it results that
the Octopuses have feet which will serve them for
walking as well as for swimming, whereas the other
creatures' feet will not do so, being small, while the
body itself is big. And inasmuch as these creatures’
feet are short, and useless for holding on tightly to
the rock in a storm when there is a strong sea running,
or for bringing to the mouth objects that are at a
distance, by way of compensation they have two long
probosces, with which during a storm they moor
themselves up and ride at anchor like a ship; there-
with also they hunt distant prey and bring it to their
mouths. These things the Sepias and Calamaries
do. The Octopuses have no probosces because their
feet serve these purposes. Some creatures have
suckers and twining tentacles as well as feet: these `
have the same character and function as well as the
same structure as those plaited tubes which the early
physicians used for reducing dislocated fingers.” They
are similarly made out of plaited fibres, and their

reduction, if you make extension of the finger both ways,
grasping the tube at one end and the wrist at the other."
The σαύρα was thus a tube open at both ends. A similar
passage in Diocles ap. Apollonius of Kitium, no doubt taken
from Hippocrates, refers to * the σειραί which children plait”
(L.C.L. iii. 453).

361

ARISTOTLE

685 b λ / 3 7 Mo ` / `
aina EYHEVAL ELOW, και ἕλκουσι — —— και

τὰ ἐνδιδόντα. περιλαμβάνει μὲν γὰρ χαλαρὰ 6 ὄντα"
ὅταν δὲ συντείνῃ, πιέζει καὶ ἔχεται τοῦ ἐντὸς
θιγγάνοντος᾽ παντός.

10 Ὥστ᾽ ἐπεὶ ἄλλο οὐκ ἔστιν ᾧ προσάξονται, ἀλλ᾽
7 τὰ μὲν τοῖς ποσὶ τὰ δὲ ταῖς προβοσκίσι, ταύτας
ἔχουσι πρὸς ἀλκὴν καὶ τὴν ἄλλην βοήθειαν᾽ ἀντὶ
χειρῶν.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἄλλα δικότυλά ἐστι, γένος δέ τι πολυ-
πόδων μονοκότυλον. αἴτιον δὲ τὸ μῆκος καὶ ἡ λεπ-
τότης τῆς φύσεως αὐτῶν: μονοκότυλον γὰρ avay-

15 καῖον εἶναι τὸ στενόν. οὐκ οὖν ὡς βέλτιστον ἔχουσιν,
ἀλλ᾽ ὡς ἀναγκαῖον διὰ τὸν ἴδιον λόγον τῆς οὐσίας.

ΠἩτερύγιον © ἔχουσι ταῦτα πάντα κύκλῳ περὶ τὸ
κύτος. τοῦτο Ò ἐπὶ μὲν τῶν ἄλλων συναπτόμενον
καὶ συνεχές ἐστι, καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν μεγάλων τευθῶν:
αἱ Ò ἐλάττους καὶ καλούμεναι. τευθίδες πλατύτερόν

20 τε τοῦτο ἔχουσι καὶ οὐ στενόν, ὥσπερ αἱ σηπίαι
καὶ οὗ πολύποδες, καὶ τοῦτ᾽ ἀπὸ μέσου ἠργμένον,
καὶ οὐ κύκλῳ διὰ παντός. τοῦτο Ò ἔχουσιν
ὅπως νέωσι καὶ πρὸς τὸ διορθοῦν, ὥσπερ τοῖς μὲν
πτηνοῖς τὸ ὀρροπύγιον, τοῖς δ᾽ ἰχθύσι τὸ οὐραῖον.
ἐλάχιστον δὲ τοῦτο καὶ ἥκιστα ἐπίδηλον τοῖς

οὗ πολύποσίν ἐστι διὰ τὸ μικρὸν ἔχειν τὸ κύτος καὶ
διορθοῦσθαι τοῖς ποσὶν ἱκανῶς.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἐντόμων καὶ μαλακοστράκων
καὶ ὀστρακοδέρμων καὶ μαλακίων εἴρηται, καὶ
περὶ τῶν ἐντὸς μορίων καὶ τῶν ἐκτός.

3 X. Πάλιν δ᾽ s ὑπαρχῆς περὶ τῶν ἐναίμων καὶ

καὶ Ogle: αἷς vulg.
= D χρείαν καὶ βοήθειαν Y, Ogle.

909

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. 1x.-x.

action is to draw flesh and yielding substances, as
follows. First they encircle the object while they
are still relaxed ; then they contract, and by so doing
compress and hold fast the whole of whatever is in
contact with their inner surface.

So, as these creatures have nothing else with which
to convey objects to the mouth except the feet (in
some species) and the probosces (in others), they
possess these organs in lieu of hands to serve them
as weapons and generally to assist them otherwise.

All these creatures have two rows of suckers, except
a certain kind of Octopus, and these have only one,
because owing to their length and slimness they are
so narrow that they cannot possibly have another.
Thus they have the one row only, not because this
arrangement is the best, but because it is necessitated
by the particular and specific character of their being.

All these animals have a fin which forms a circle
round the sac. In most of them it is a closed and con-
tinuous circle, as it is in the large Calamaries (teuthz),
while in the smaller ones called teuthzdes it is quite
wide (not narrow as in the Sepias and Octopuses),
and furthermore it begins at the middle and does not
go round the whole way. They have this fin to
enable them to swim and to steer their course, and
it answers to a bird's tail-feathers and a fish's tail-
fin. In the Octopuses this fin is extremely small and
insignificant because their body is small and can
be steered well enough by means of the feet.

. This brings to an end our description of the internal
and external parts of the Insects, the Crustacea, the
Testacea, and the Cephalopods.

X. Now we must go back and begin again with
363

ARISTOTLE

685 b
ζωοτόκων ἐπισκεπτέον, ἀρξαμένοις ἀπὸ τῶν ὑπο-

λοίπων καὶ πρότερον «εἰρημένων μορίων" τούτων δὲ
διορισθέντων περὶ τῶν ἐναίμων καὶ ᾠοτόκων τὸν
αὐτὸν τρόπον ἐροῦμεν.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν μόρια τὰ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν τῶν ζῴων
εἴρηται πρότερον, καὶ τὰ περὶ τὸν καλούμενον
αὐχένα καὶ τράχηλον. ἔχει δὲ κεφαλὴν πάντα τὰ
686 a ἔναιμα ζῷα: τῶν ὃ ἀναίμων ἐνίοις ἀδιόριστον
τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, οἷον τοῖς καρκίνοις. αὐχένα οὖν
τὰ μὲν ζῳοτόκα πάντ᾽ ἔχει, τῶν δ᾽ ᾠοτόκων τὰ
μὲν ἔχει τὰ δ᾽ οὐκ ἔχει" ὅσα μὲν γὰρ πνεύμονα
ἔχει, καὶ αὐχένα ἔχει, τὰ δὲ μὴ ἀναπνέοντα θύραθεν
οὐκ ἔχει τοῦτο τὸ μόριον.

Ἔστι δ᾽ ἡ μὲν κεφαλὴ μάλιστα τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου
χάριν' ἀνάγκη γὰρ τοῦτο τὸ μόριον ἔχειν τοῖς ἐν-
αίμοις, καὶ ἐν ἀντικειμένῳ τόπῳ τῆς καρδίας,
διὰ τὰς εἰρημένας πρότερον αἰτίας. ἐξέθετο δ᾽ ἡ
10 φύσις ἐν αὐτῇ καὶ τῶν αἰσθήσεων ἐνίας διὰ τὸ

σύμμετρον εἶναι τὴν τοῦ αἵματος κρᾶσιν καὶ ἐπι-

τηδείαν πρός τε τὴν τοῦ -ἐγκεφάλου. ἀλέαν καὶ
πρὸς τὴν τῶν αἰσθήσεων ἡσυχίαν καὶ ἀκρίβειαν.
ἔτι δὲ τρίτον μόριον ὑπέθηκε τὸ τὴν τῆς τροφῆς
εἴσοδον δημιουργοῦν' ἐνταῦθα γὰρ ὑπέκειτο συμ-
μέτρως μάλιστα: οὔτε γὰρ ἄνωθεν κεῖσθαι τῆς
15 καρδίας καὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς ἐνεδέχετο τὴν κοιλίαν, οὔτε
κάτωθεν οὔσης ὃν τρόπον ἔχει νῦν ἐνεδέχετο τὴν
εἴσοδον ἐ ἔτι κάτω εἶναι τῆς καρδίας" πολὺ yàp av
τὸ μῆκος ἣν τοῦ σώματος, καὶ πόρρω. λίαν τῆς
κινούσης ἀρχῆς καὶ πεττούσης. ἡ μὲν οὖν κεφαλὴ
τούτων χάριν ἐ T ὁ δ᾽ αὐχὴν τῆς ἀρτηρίας χάριν’

e»
c

e

ἂν P, om. vulg.

364

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, IV. x.

the blooded viviparous animals. Some of the parts
which we have already enumerated still remain to
be described, and we will take these first. This
done, we will describe similarly the blooded Ovipara.

We have already ^ spoken of the parts around the Exregsar
head, and what is called the neck, and the throat. 1755555
All blooded animals have a head, but in some of the anmats.
bloodless ones the head is indistinct (e.g. in crabs). ee
All Vivipara have a neck, but not all Ovipara: to
be precise, only those which breathe in air from with-
out and have a lung.

The presence of the head is mainly for the sake of Head and
the brain. Blooded creatures must have a brain, ~~
which (for reasons aforeshown) ὃ must be set in some
place opposite to the heart. But in addition, Nature
has put some of the senses up in the head, apart from
the rest, because the blend of its blood is well pro-
portioned and suitable for securing not only warmth
for the brain but also quiet and accuracy for the senses.

There is yet a third part which Nature has disposed of
in the head, viz. the part which manages the intake
of food ; it was put here because this gave the best-
ordered arrangement. It would have been impossible
to put the stomach above the source and sovereign :
part, the heart; and it would have been impossible
to make the entrance for the food below the heart,
even with the stomach below the heart as it actually
is, because then the length of the body would be
very great, and the stomach would be too far away
from the source which provides motion and concoc-
tion. These then are the three parts for whose sake
the head exists. The neck exists for the sake of the

α At 655 b 27—665 a 25. ^ At 652 b 17 ff.
365

ARISTOTLE

686 " / / , \ / ’ \ A 3
20 πρόβλημα γάρ ἐστι, καὶ σώζει ταύτην καὶ τὸν οἶσο-

/ / / B \ D » 5.1 α
φάγον κύκλῳ περιέχων. τοῖς μὲν οὖν ἄλλοις ἐστὶ
\ \ / » € . , A
καμπτὸς καὶ σφονδύλους ἔχων, οἱ δὲ λύκοι καὶ
λέοντες μονόστουν τὸν αὐχένα ἔχουσιν. ἔβλεψε
γὰρ ἡ φύσις ὅ ὅπως πρὸς τὴν ἰσχὺν χρήσιμον αὐτὸν
ἔχωσι μᾶλλον ἢ πρὸς τὰς ἄλλας βοηθείας.
^ ,
᾿Εχόμενα δὲ τοῦ αὐχένος καὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς τά τε
yp ^ ^ / » . ` / € A
25 πρόσθια κῶλα τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστὶ καὶ θώραξ. ὁ μὲν
οὖν ἄνθρωπος ἀντὶ σκελῶν καὶ ποδῶν τῶν προσθίων
βραχίονας καὶ τὰς καλουμένας ἔχει χεῖρας. ὀρθὸν
μὲν γάρ ἐστι μόνον τῶν ζῴων διὰ τὸ τὴν φύσιν
αὐτοῦ καὶ τὴν οὐσίαν εἶναι θείαν: ἔργον δὲ τοῦ
/ ^ ^ ^ ep
θειοτάτου τὸ νοεῖν καὶ φρονεῖν: τοῦτο Ò οὐ ῥάδιον
80 πολλοῦ τοῦ ἄνωθεν ἐπικειμένου σώματος: τὸ γὰρ
/ ^ A
βάρος δυσκίνητον ποιεῖ τὴν διάνοιαν καὶ τὴν
\ ^
κοινὴν αἴσθησιν. διὸ πλείονος γινομένου τοῦ
^ .
βάρους καὶ τοῦ σωματώδους ἀνάγκη ῥέπειν τὰ
σώματα πρὸς τὴν γῆν, ὥστε πρὸς τὴν ἀσφάλειαν
^ ,
ἀντὶ βραχιόνων kai χειρῶν τοὺς προσθίους πόδας
^ . .
95 ὑπέθηκεν ἡ φύσις τοῖς τετράποσιν. τοὺς μὲν
. ^ ^ ^
686b yàp ὀπισθίους δύο πᾶσιν ἀναγκαῖον τοῖς πορευ-
^ ^ ,
τικοῖς ἔχειν, τὰ δὲ τοιαῦτα τετράποδα ἐγένετο οὐ
/ /
δυναμένης φέρειν τὸ βάρος τῆς ψυχῆς. πάντα γάρ
ἐστι τὰ ζῷα νανώδη aha παρὰ τὸν -ἄνθρωπον:
νανῶδες γάρ ἐστιν οὗ τὸ μὲν ἄνω μέγα, τὸ δὲ
/ \ / \ ^ ’ 3 > 3 \
δ φέρον τὸ βάρος καὶ πεζεῦον μικρόν: ἄνω Ò ἐστὶν
ὁ καλούμενος θώραξ, ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς μέχρι τῆς
a For the “ general” “ common " sense see De mem.
450 a 10, etc. ; and 6]. De. dis an. 656 a 28, 665 a 12. The

“ general " sense is not another sense over and above the
ordinary five, but rather the common nature inherent in

366

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

windpipe : it acts as a shield and keeps the windpipe
and the oesophagus safe by completely encircling
them. The neck is flexible and has a number of
vertebrae in all animals except the wolf and the lion
whose neck consists of one bone only, for Nature's ob-
ject was to provide these with a neck that should be
useful for its strength rather than for other purposes.

The anterior limbs and the trunk are continuous
with the head and neck. Man, instead of forelegs
and forefeet, has arms and hands. Man is the only
animal that stands upright, and this is because his
nature and essence is divine. Now the business of
that which is most divine is to think and to be intelli-
gent; and this would not be easy if there were a great
deal of the body at the top weighing it down, for
weight hampers the motion of the intellect and of the
general sense.” Thus, when the bodily part and the
weight of it become excessive, the body itself must
lurch forward towards the ground; and then, for
safety's sake, Nature provided forefeet instead of
arms and hands—as has happened in quadrupeds.
All animals which walk must have two hind feet, and
those I have just mentioned became quadrupeds be-
cause their soul could not sustain the weight bearing

Limbs, and
their
relative
sizes.

it down. Compared with man, all the other animals `

are dwarf-like. By “ dwarf-like " I mean to denote
that which is big at the top (i.e. big in the “ trunk,"
or the portion from the head to the residual vent),
and small where the weight is supported and where

them all; thus Aristotle (De somno) argues that their simul-
taneous inactivity during sleep is not a mere coincidence but
is due to the inactivity of the central perceptive faculty of
which they are differentiations. Among the functions of the
“ general " sense are: discrimination between the objects of
two senses, and the perceiving that we perceive.

367

686 b
,

10

20

το
on

ARISTOTLE

1 ^ , ^ A 4 3 0 ,
ἐξόδου τοῦ περιττώματος. τοῖς μὲν οὖν ἂν ρώποις
τοῦτο πρὸς τὸ κάτω σύμμετρον, καὶ πολλῷ
/ E
ἐλαττόν ἐστι τελειουμένοις' νέοις δ᾽ οὖσι τού-
’ / ,
ναντίον τὰ μὲν ἄνω μεγάλα, τὸ δὲ κάτω μικρόν
\ \ er , 5 k , A .
(διὸ καὶ ἕρπουσι, βαδίζειν δ οὐ δύνανται, τὸ δὲ
^ 9909 e , 2 5 ’ /
πρῶτον οὐδ᾽ ἕρπουσιν, ἀλλ᾽ ἀκινητίζουσιν): νάνοι
, 5 °. ~ ^
γάρ εἶσι τὰ παιδία πάντα. προϊοῦσι δὲ τοῖς μὲν
ἀνθρώποις αὔξεται τὰ κάτωθεν: τοῖς δὲ τετράποσι
τοὐναντίον τὰ κάτω μέγιστα τὸ πρῶτον, προϊόντα
δ᾽ αὔξεται ἐπὶ τὸ ἄνω, τοῦτο δ᾽ ἐστὶ τὸ ἀπὸ τῆς
e , A A \ / A A ^ e €
έδρας ἐπὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν κύτος. διὸ καὶ τῷ ὕψει οἱ
^ A ” , , z ,
πῶλοι τῶν ἵππων οὐδὲν ἢ μικρὸν ἐλάττους εἰσί,
. “A /
καὶ νέοι μὲν ὄντες θιγγάνουσι τῷ ὄπισθεν σκέλει
τῆς κεφαλῆς, πρεσβύτεροι δ᾽ ὄντες οὐ δύνανται.
τὰ μὲν οὖν μώνυχα καὶ δίχηλα τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν
τρόπον, τὰ δὲ πολυδάκτυλα καὶ ἀκέρατα νανώδη
T^ M »
μέν ἐστιν, ἧττον δὲ τούτων: διὸ kai τὴν αὔξησιν
πρὸς τὰ ἄνω τὰ κάτω κατὰ λόγον ποιεῖται τῆς
ἐλλείψεως.
"E M \ ` ^ , ’ . . ^ , AU.
στι δὲ καὶ τὸ τῶν ὀρνίθων καὶ τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων
γένος καὶ πᾶν τὸ ἔναιμον, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, νανῶδες.
^ ^ 5
διὸ καὶ ἀφρονέστερα πάντα τὰ ζῶα τῶν ἀνθρώπων
^ , ’
ἐστίν. καὶ γὰρ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, οἷον τά τε παιδία
^ ^ , € ’ ε
πρὸς τοὺς ἄνδρας καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν ἐν ἡλικίᾳ οἱ
/ \ / .ν ’ 3 » ,
νανώδεις τὴν φύσιν, ἐὰν καί Tw’ ἄλλην δύναμιν
^ ^ y ,
ἔχωσι περιττήν, ἀλλὰ τῷ τὸν νοῦν ἔχειν ἐλ-
/ σ
λείπουσιν. αἴτιον δ᾽, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρὀτερον, ὅτι
ε - ^ 5 . λλ ^ δὴ ὃ ’ T ,
ἡ τῆς ψυχῆς ἀρχὴ πολλοῖς δὴ δυσκίνητός ἐστι
/ ^
καὶ σωματώδης. ἔτι Ò ἐλάττονος γινομένης τῆς
1 πολλοῖς δὴ Peck: πολλῷ δὴ vulg.: add. καὶ Y, Platt, qui
εἰ insuper addit (βαρεῖ σώματι καταφερομένη).
268
v

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

locomotion is effected. In man, the size of the trunk
is proportionate to the lower portions, and as a man
grows up it becomes much smaller in proportion.
In infancy the reverse is found : the upper portion is
large and the lower is small (and that is why infants
cannot walk but crawl about, and at the very be-
ginning cannot even crawl, but remain where they
are). In other words, all children are dwarfs. Now,
in man, as time proceeds, the lower portion grows :
Not so with the quadruped animals: their lower
portion is biggest at the beginning, and as time
proceeds the top portion grows (i.e. the trunk, the
portion between the head and the seat). Thus foals
are quite or almost as high as horses, and at that age a
foal can touch its head with its hind leg, but not when
it is older.” What has been said holds good of the
animals that have solid hoofs or cloven. The poly-
dactylous, hornless animals are indeed dwartf-like
too, but not so markedly, and so the growth of their
lower portions compared with the upper is propor-
tionate to the smaller deficiency.

The whole groups of birds and fishes are dwarf-like ;
indeed, so is every animal with blood in it, as I have
said. Thisis why all animals are less intelligent than
man. Even among human beings, children, when
compared with adults, and dwarf adults when com-
pared with others, may have some characteristics in
which they are superior, but in intelligence, at any
rate, they are inferior. And the reason, as afore-
said, is that in very many of them the principle of the
soul is sluggish and corporeal. And if the heat which

a These observations are entirely correct. Cf. Ogle's
quotation ad loc. from T. H. Huxley. See also Hist. an.
500 b 26 ff.

' 369

ARISTOTLE

686 b , ’ , \ ^ / / ’
αἱρούσης θερμότητος καὶ τοῦ γεώδους πλείονος, τά

/ > / ^ 74 > M . /

30 TE σώματα ἐλάττονα τῶν ζῴων ἐστὶ καὶ πολύποδα,
τέλος δ᾽ ἄποδα γίνεται καὶ τεταμένα πρὸς τὴν γῆν.
μικρὸν δ᾽ οὕτω προβαίνοντα καὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχουσι
κάτω, καὶ τὸ κατὰ τὴν κεφαλὴν μόριον τέλος
ἀκίνητόν ἐστι καὶ ἀναίσθητον, καὶ γίνεται φυτόν,

ε
85 ἔχον τὰ μὲν ἄνω κάτω, τὰ δὲ κάτω ἄνω: αἱ γὰρ
- - ^ »
ῥίζαι τοῖς φυτοῖς στόματος καὶ κεφαλῆς ἔχουσι
` \
687 a δύναμιν, τὸ δὲ σπέρμα τοὐναντίον: ἄνω γὰρ καὶ
> ^
ἐπ᾽ ἄκροις γίνεται τοῖς πτόρθοις.
3€ M T 2 n ` \ / M M λύ
Av’ ἣν μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν δίποδα τὰ δὲ πολύ-
. 2 » ^ L4 , / M . pi
moda τὰ Ò ἄποδα τῶν ζῴων ἐστί, καὶ διὰ τίν
^ »
αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν φυτὰ τὰ δὲ ζῷα γέγονεν, εἴρηται,
καὶ διότι μόνον ὀρθόν ἐστι τῶν ζῴων ὁ ἄνθρωπος:
ὀρθῷ Ò ò ἣν φύ δεμί ία σκελῶν τῶν
ρθῷ à ὄντι τὴν φύσιν οὐδεμία χρεία σκελ
2 / > 3273 M d / ^
ἐμπροσθίων, ἀλλ ἀντὶ τούτων βραχίονας καὶ χεῖρας
2 / M >
ἀποδέδωκεν 7 Φύσις. Αναξαγόρας | μὲν οὖν φησι
διὰ τὸ χεῖρας ἔχειν φρονιμώτατον εἶναι τῶν ζῴων
ἄνθρωπον: εὔλογον δὲ διὰ τὸ φρονιμώτατον εἶναι
- - + /
10 χεῖρας λαμβάνειν. ai μὲν γὰρ χεῖρες ὄργανόν
> e ὃ M A 334 ὃ ’ 0 / » 0
εἶσιν, ἡ δὲ φύσις ἀεὶ διανέμει, καθάπερ ἄνθρωπος
φρόνιμος, ἕκαστον τῷ δυναμένῳ χρῆσθαι (προσ-
- - - - ^
ήκει yàp τῷ ὄντι αὐλητῇ δοῦναι μᾶλλον αὐλοὺς
^ ^ /

ἢ τῷ αὐλοὺς ἔχοντι προσθεῖναι αὐλητικήν): τῷ γὰρ

>

μείζονι καὶ κυριωτέρῳ προσέθηκε τοὔλαττον, ἆ

-
15 οὐ τῷ ἐλάττονι τὸ τιμιώτερον καὶ μεῖζον. εἰ οὖν
οὕτως βέλτιον, ἡ δὲ φύσις ἐκ τῶν ἐνδεχομένων

οι

a With the terminology used in ll. 28-29 cf. Hippocrates,
Περὶ διαίτης, i. 35.
Ὁ That is, it answers to residue in animals; cf. 655 b 35.

370

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

raises the organism up wanes still further while the
earthy matter waxes," then the animals' bodies wane,
and they will be many-footed ; and finally they lose
their feet altogether and lie full length on the ground.
Proceeding a little further in this way, they actually
have their principal part down below, and finally the
part which answers to a head comes to have neither
motion nor sensation; at this stage the creature
becomes a plant, and has its upper parts below and its
nether parts aloft ; for in plants the roots have the
character and value of mouth and head, whereas the
seed counts as the opposite," being produced in the
upper part of the plant on the ends of the twigs.
We have now stated why it is that some animals
have two feet, some many, some none at all; why
some creatures are plants and some animals; and
why man is the only one of the animals that stands
upright. And since man stands upright, he has no
need of legs in front ; instead of them Nature has
given him arms and hands. Anaxagoras indeed
asserts that it is his possession of hands that makes
man the most intelligent of the animals ; but surely
the reasonable point of view is that it is because he
is the most intelligent animal that he has got hands.
Hands are an instrument ; and Nature, like a sen-
sible human being, always assigns an organ to the
animal that can use it (as it is more in keeping to
give flutes to a man who is already a flute-player
than to provide a man who possesses flutes with the
skill to play them); thus Nature has provided that
which is less as an addition to that which is greater
and superior; not vice versa. We may conclude, then,
that, if this is the better way, and if Nature always does
the best she can in the circumstances, it is not true

371

ARISTOTLE

687a ^ \ / , M ` eee , 4
ποιεῖ τὸ βέλτιστον, οὐ διὰ τὰς χεῖράς ἐστιν ὁ

/
ἄνθρωπος φρονιμώτατος, ἀλλὰ διὰ τὸ φρονιμώ-
.
τατον εἶναι τῶν ζῴων ἔχει χεῖρας. ὁ γὰρ φρονι-
/ Z
μώτατος πλείστοις ἂν ὀργάνοις ἐχρήσατο καλῶς,
90 7 δὲ χεὶρ ἔοικεν εἶναι οὐχ êv ò ὄργανον ἀλλὰ πολλά:
ἔστι γὰρ ὡσπερεὶ ὄργανον πρὸ ὀργάνων. τῷ οὖν
L JETS
πλείστας δυναμένῳ δέξασθαι τέχνας τὸ ἐπὶ
- - M ^ >
πλεῖστον τῶν ὀργάνων χρήσιμον τὴν χεῖρα ἀπο-
δέδωκεν ἡ 7) φύσις.
᾿Αλλ᾽ οἱ λέγοντες ὡς συνέστηκεν οὐ καλῶς ὁ
ἄνθρωπος ἀλλὰ χείριστα τῶν ζῴων (ἀνυπόδητόν
\
τε γὰρ αὐτὸν εἶναί φασι καὶ γυμνὸν καὶ οὐκ
» e A \ 1A / , > Ad λέ
ἔχοντα ὅπλον πρὸς τὴν ἆ ucv) οὐκ ὀρθῶς λέγουσιν.
τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἄλλα μίαν ἔχει. βοήθειαν, καὶ µετα-
>
βάλλεσθαι ἀντὶ ταύτης ἑτέραν οὐκ ἔστιν, ἀλλ
ἀναγκαῖον ὥσπερ ὑποδεδεμένον ἀεὶ καθεύδειν καὶ
^ /
πάντα πράττειν, καὶ τὴν περὶ TO σῶμα ἀλεώραν
δέ θέσθ δὲ ἵλλεσθαι ὃ δὴ
μηδέποτε καταθέσθαι, μηδὲ μεταβάλλεσθαι ὃ δὴ
30 ἐτύγχανενὶ ὅπλον ἔχον" τῷ δὲ ἀνθρώπω τάς τε
y M » \ / SPAN »
687b βοηθείας πολλὰς ἔχειν καὶ ταύτας ἀεὶ ἔξεστι
/ » > er ΩΙ -- / `
μεταβάλλειν, ἔτι δ᾽ ὅπλον otov ἂν βούληται καὶ
“ ἽΝ Ὁ / » e ^ \ «7; M
ὅπου à» βούληται ἔχειν. ἡ yàp χεὶρ καὶ ὄνυξ καὶ
χηλὴ καὶ κέρας γίνεται καὶ δόρυ καὶ ξίφος
καὶ ἄλλο ὁποιονοῦν ὅπλον καὶ ὄργανον: πάντα γὰρ
5 ἔσται ταῦτα διὰ τὸ πάντα δύνασθαι λαμβάνειν καὶ
/ 5!
ἔχειν αὐτήν" εὖ' δὲ συμμεμηχάνηται". καὶ τὸ εἶδος"

τῇ φύσει τῆς χειρός, διαιρετὴ γὰρ καὶ πολυσχιδής:

bo
Ὅν

1 ἐτύγχανεν êv U! : τυγχάνει ἓν Th. ; hic alia omnino X.
? ἔχον Z, et corr. U: ἔχων vulg.
} ὅπου ἂν] ὁπόταν Ogle.
4 ἔχειν αὐτήν' εὖ P: ἔχειν' ταύτῃ vulg.

συμμεμηχάνηται Ogle: συμμεμηχανῆσθαι vulg.
ê εἶδος καὶ vulg. : εἶδος PSUYZ.

δ΄,

979

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

to say that man is the most intelligent animal because
he possesses hands, but he has hands because he is the
most intelligent animal. We should expect the most
intelligent to be able to employ the greatest number
of organs or instruments to good purpose ; now the
hand would appear to be not one single instrument
but many, as it were an instrument that represents
many instruments. Thus it is to that animal (viz.
man) which has the capability for acquiring the
greatest number of crafts that Nature has given that
instrument (viz. the hand) whose range of uses is the
most extensive.

Now it must be wrong to say, as some do, that
the structure of man is not good, in fact, that it is
worse than that of any other animal. "Their grounds
are: that man is barefoot, unclothed, and void of
any weapon of force. Against this we may say
that all the other animals have just one method of
defence and cannot change it for another: they are
forced to sleep and perform all their actions with
their shoes on the whole time, as one might say ;
they can never take off this defensive equipment of
theirs, nor can they change their weapon, whatever
it may be. For man, on the other hand, many |
means of defence are available, and he can change
them at any time, and above all he can choose what
weapon he will have and where. Take the hand:
this is as good as a talon, or a claw, or a horn, or again,
a spear or a sword, or any other weapon or tool:
it can be all of these, because it can seize and hold
them all. And Nature has admirably contrived the
actual shape of the hand so as to fit in with this
arrangement. It is not all of one piece, but it
branches into several pieces ; which gives the possi-

373

657 b

10

2

©

to
C

ARISTOTLE

ἔνι γὰρ ἐν τῷ διαιρετὴν εἶναι καὶ συνθετὴν εἶναι,
ἐν τούτῳ Ò ἐκεῖνο οὐκ ἔστιν. καὶ χρῆσθαι ἑνὺ
καὶ δυοῖν καὶ πολλαχῶς ἔστιν. καὶ αἱ καμπαὶ τῶν
δακτύλων καλῶς ἔχουσι πρὸς τὰς λήψεις καὶ
πιέσεις. καὶ ἐκ πλαγίου εἷς, καὶ οὗτος .βραχὺς
καὶ παχὺς ἀλλ᾽ οὐ μακρός" ὥσπερ γὰρ εἰ μὴ ἦν
χεὶρ ὅλως, οὐκ ἂν ἦν λῆψις, οὕτω κἂν εἰ μὴ ἐκ
πλαγίου οὗτος ἦν. οὗτος γὰρ κάτωθεν ἄνω πιέζει,
ὅπερ οἱ ἕτεροι ἄνωθεν κάτω: δεῖ δὲ τοῦτο συμβαί-
νειν, εἰ μέλλει ἰσχυρῶς ὥσπερ σύναμμα, ἰσχυρὸν
συνδεῖν, ἵνα ἰσάζῃ εἷς ὢν πολλοῖς. καὶ βραχὺς
διά τε τὴν ἰσχὺν καὶ διότι οὐδὲν ὄφελος εἰ μακρός.
(καὶ ὁ ἔσχατος δὲ μικρὸς ὀρθῶς, καὶ ὁ μέσος
μακρός, ὥσπερ κώπη μεσόνεως"' μάλιστα γὰρ τὸ
λαμβανόμενον ἀνάγκη περιλαμβάνεσθαι κύκλῳ
κατὰ τὸ μέσον πρὸς τὰς ἐργασίας.) καὶ διὰ τοῦτο
καλεῖται μέγας μικρὸς ὤν, ὅτι ἄχρηστοι ὡς
εἰπεῖν οἱ ἆλλοι ἄνευ τούτου. εὖ δὲ καὶ τὸ τῶν
ὀνύχων μεμηχάνηται" τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἄλλα ζῷα € ἔχει
καὶ πρὸς χρῆσιν αὐτούς, τοῖς δ᾽ ἀνθρώποις ἐπι-
κα υπτήρια᾽ σκέπασμα γὰρ τῶν ἀκρωτηρίων εἰσίν.

Αἱ δὲ καμπαὶ τῶν βραχιόνων ἔχουσι πρός τε
τὴν τῆς τροφῆς προσαγωγὴν καὶ πρὸς τὰς ἄλλας
χρήσεις ἐναντίως τοῖς «τετράποσιν. ἐκείνοις μὲν
γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον εἴσω κάμπτειν τὰ ἐμπρόσθια κῶλα
(χρῶνται γὰρ cs? ποσίν) ἵν᾽ 7) χρήσιμα πρὸς τὴν

1 ἑνὶ] μιᾷ Ogle.

? µεσόνεως Schneider: μέσον νέως vulg.
3 ὡς P, om. vulg.

? That is, the pieces. Ogle’s suggested emendation
would be translated “‘ use the hands singly." The two
transpositions suggested for this passage by Ogle seem un-
necessary.

374

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

bility of its coming together into one solid piece,
whereas the reverse order of events would be im-
possible. Also, it is possible to use them “ singly, or
two at a time, or in various ways. Again, the joints
of the fingers are well constructed for taking hold
of things and for exerting pressure. One finger is
placed sideways: this is short and thick, not long
like the others. It would be as impossible to get
a hold if this were not placed sideways as if no hand
were there at all. It exerts its pressure upwards
from below, whereas the others act downwards from
above; and this is essential for a strong tight grip
(like that of a strong clamp), so that it may exert
a pressure equivalent to that of the other four. It
is short, then, first, for strength, but also because it
would be no good if it were long. (The end finger
also is small—this is as it should be—and the middle
one is long like an oar amidships, because any object
which is being grasped for active use has to be
grasped right around the middle. And on this
account it is called “ big ” although it is small, be-
cause the other fingers are practically useless without
it. The nails, too, are a good piece of planning. In
man they serve as coverings : a guard, in fact, for the
tip of the fingers. In animals they serve for practical
use as well.

The joints of the arms in man bend in the opposite
direction to those of quadrupeds : this is to facilitate
the bringing of food to the mouth, and other uses to
which they are put. Quadrupeds must be able to
bend their fore limbs inwards ^ so that they may be
serviceable in locomotion, since they use them as

> "That is, as tools.
* See note on 693 b 3, p. 433.

375

687 b

30

688 a

σι

10

M
on

ARISTOTLE

πορείαν, ἐπεὶ θέλει γε κἀκείνων τοῖς πολυδακτύλοις
οὐ μόνον πρὸς τὴν πορείαν χρήσιμ᾽ εἶναι τὰ ἔμ-
προσθεν σκέλη, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀντὶ χειρῶν, ὥσπερ. καὶ
φαίνεται χρώμενα" καὶ γὰρ λαμβάνουσι καὶ ἀμύ-
νονται τοῖς προσθίοις. τὰ δὲ μώνυχα τοῖς ὀπισθίοις"
οὐ γὰρ ἔχει αὐτοῖς τὰ πρόσθια σκέλη ἀνάλογον τοῖς
ἀγκῶσι καὶ ταῖς χερσίν. τῶν δὲ πολυδακτύλων
ἔνια καὶ διὰ τοῦτο καὶ πενταδακτύλους ἔχει τοὺς
προσθίους πόδας, τοὺς δ᾽ ὄπισθεν τετραδακτύλους,
οἷον λέοντες καὶ λύκοι, ἔτι δὲ κύνες καὶ παρδάλεις"
ὁ γὰρ πέμπτος ὥσπερ ὁ τῆς χειρὸς γίνεται μέγας
[πέμπτος]: τὰ δὲ μικρὰ τῶν πολυδακτύλων καὶ
τοὺς ὀπισθίους ἔχει πενταδακτύλους διὰ τὸ
ἑρπυστικὰ εἶναι, ὅπως τοῖς ὄνυξι πλείοσιν οὖσιν
ἀντιλαμβανόμενα ῥᾷον ἀνέρπῃ πρὸς τὸ μετεωρό-
τερον καὶ ὑπὲρ κεφαλῆς.

Μεταξὺ δὲ τῶν ἀγκώνων τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, τοῖς
δ᾽ ἄλλοις τῶν ἐμπροσθίων σκελῶν, τὸ καλούμενον
στῆθός ἐστι, τοῖς μὲν ἀνθρώποις ἔχον πλάτος εὖ-
λόγως (οὐ γὰρ κωλύουσιν οἱ ἀγκῶνες ἐκ πλαγίου
προσκείμενοι τοῦτον εἶναι τὸν τόπον πλατύν), τοῖς
δὲ τετράποσι διὰ τὴν ἐπὶ τὸ πρόσθιον τῶν κώλων
ἔκτασιν ἐν τῷ πορεύεσθαι καὶ μεταβάλλειν τὸν
τόπον στενὸν τοῦτ᾽ ἐστὶ τὸ μόριον. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο
τὰ μὲν τετράποδα τῶν ζῴων οὐκ ἔχει μαστοὺς ἐν
τῷ τόπῳ τούτῳ: τοῖς Ò ἀνθρώποις διὰ τὴν εὐρυ-
χωρίαν καὶ τὸ σκεπάζεσθαι δεῖν τὰ περὶ τὴν
καρδίαν, διὰ τοῦτο ὑπάρχοντος τοῦ τόπου σαρ-
κώδους οἱ μαστοὶ διήρθρωνται, σαρκώδεις ὄντες
τοῖς μὲν ἄρρεσι διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν, ἐπὶ δὲ

1 πέμπτος seclusi.

376

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

feet; though even among quadrupeds the poly-
dactylous ones tend to use the fore limbs not only for
locomotion but also instead of hands ; and this can
actually be seen happening: they take hold of things
and defend themselves with their fore limbs. (Solid-
hoofed animals, on the other hand, do this with their
hind limbs, as their forelegs have nothing that corre-
sponds to elbows and hands.) This explains why
some polydactylous quadrupeds actually have five
toes on their forefeet (lions, wolves, dogs and leo-
pards, for instance), although there are only four on
their hind feet: the fifth one, like the fifth? digit
on the hand, is a “big” one. However, the small
volydactylous quadrupeds have five toes on their
hind feet too, because they are creepers ; and this
gives them more nails, and so enables them to get a
better hold and creep up more easily to greater
heights and above your head.

Between the arms in man (in other animals be-
tween the forelegs) is what is known asthe breast. In
man the breast is broad, and reasonably so, for the
arms are placed at the side and so do not in any way
prevent this part from being wide. In the quadru-
peds, however, it is narrow, because as they walk
about and change their position the limbs have to be
extended forwards. And on this account, in quadru-
peds, the mammae are not on the breast. In man,
on the other hand, as the space here is wide, and the
parts around the heart need some covering, the
breast is fleshy in substance and the mammae
are placed on it and are distinct. In the male they
are themselves fleshy for the reason just given. In

^ Now generally called the “ first.”
> And needed when the foot is used as a hand.

59
~%
-1

Breast

ARISTOTLE
688 a \ ` y »
^ ^ / €
τῶν θηλειῶν παρακέχρηται καὶ πρὸς ἕτερον ἔργον
€ , y ^ >
ἡ φύσις, ὅπερ φαμὲν αὐτὴν πολλάκις ποιεῖν' ἆπο-
/ ^ ^ / /
τίθεται γὰρ ἐνταῦθα τοῖς γεννωμένοις τροφήν. δύο
> QN / >
δ᾽ εἰσὶν οἱ μαστοὶ διὰ τὸ δύο τὰ μόρια εἶναι, τό τ
> /
ἀριστερὸν καὶ τὸ δεξιόν. καὶ σκληρότεροι μέν,
διωρισμένοι δὲ διὰ τὸ καὶ τὰς πλευρὰς συνάπτεσθαι
μὲν ἀλλήλαις! κατὰ τὸν τόπον τοῦτον, μὴ ἐπίπονον
5 ^ ^ 3
δ᾽ εἶναι τὴν φύσιν αὐτῶν. τοῖς δ᾽ ἄλλοις ζῴοις ἐν
\ ^ ^ ^ ,
80 μὲν τῷ στήθει μεταξὺ τῶν σκελῶν ἀδύνατόν ἐστιν
/ \
ἔχειν ἢ χαλεπὸν" τοὺς μαστούς (ἐμποδίζοιεν μὲν
^ A M M / » 5 "o λλ \
γὰρ ἂν πρὸς τὴν πορείαν), ἔχουσι Ò ἤδη πολλοὺς
/ \
τρόπους." τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὀλιγοτόκα καὶ μώνυχα καὶ
- - P
κερατοφόρα ἐν τοῖς μηροῖς ἔχουσι τοὺς μαστούς,
M / ? . M / ^ ^ ^
καὶ τούτους δύο, τὰ δὲ πολυτόκα ἢ πολυσχιδῆ τὰ
E Φ
85 μὲν περὶ τὴν γαστέρα πλαγίους καὶ πολλούς, otov
688b bs καὶ κύων, τὰ δὲ δύο μόνους, περὶ μέσην μέντοι
D er
γαστέρα, otov λέων. τούτου ὃ᾽ αἴτιον οὐχ ὅτι
93A / , \ / \ λ / δ ^ 1λλ᾽ eo
ὀλιγοτόκον, ἐπεὶ τίκτει ποτὲ πλείω δυοῖν, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι

2

or

οὐ πολυγάλακτον: ἀναλίσκει γὰρ εἰς τὸ σῶμα τὴν
λαμβανομένην τροφήν, λαμβάνει δὲ σπάνιον διὰ τὸ
/ e
5 σαρκοφάγον εἰναι, 66 sine, | hae 3
€ 345» / e ^
O δ᾽ ἐλέφας δύο μόνον ἔχει, τούτους δ᾽ ὑπὸ ταῖς
μασχάλαις τῶν ἐμπροσθίων σκελῶν. αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ
ἐν δύο ἔγειν ὅτι μονοτόκον ἐστί, τοῦ δὲ μὴ ἐν τοῖς
μ χ T
^ e λ ὃ / ( ^8 M ^ » λ 8 \
μηροῖς ὅτι πολυσχιδές (οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔχει πολυσχιδὲς
ἐν τοῖς μηροῖς), ἄνω δὲ πρὸς ταῖς μασχάλαις,
1 ἀλλήλας Bekker per typothetae errorem.

? ἢ χαλεπὸν P: vulg. non habet.
3 fort. τόπους Rackham (sic etiam E teste Buss. et Z).

378

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

the female, Nature employs them for an additional
function (a regular practice of hers, as I maintain),
by storing away in them nourishment for the off-
spring. There are two mammae because the body
has two parts, the right and the left. The fact that
they are somewhat hard and at the same time two in
number is accounted for by the ribs being joined to-
gether at this place and by the nature of the mammae
not being at all burdensome. In other animals it is
either impossible or difficult for the mammae to be
situated upon the breast, 1.ε. in between the legs,
since they would be a hindrance to walking ; but, ex-
cluding that particular position, there are numerous
ways in which they are placed. Animals which have
small litters, both those that have solid hoofs and those
that carry horns, have their mammae by the thighs ;
and there are two of them. Animals that have large
litters or are polydactylous, either have numerous
mammae placed at the sides upon the abdomen—
e.g. swine and dogs; or have only two, set in the middle
of the abdomen—e.g. the lion.” The reason for this is
not that the lion has few cubs at a birth, because
sometimes the number exceeds two, but that it is
deficient in milk. It uses up all the food it gets upon
the upkeep of the body, and as it is a flesh-eater it
gets food but rarely.

The elephant has only two mammae (this is because
it has its young one at a time), and they are under the
axillae of the forelegs and not by the thighs because
the elephant is polydactylous and no polydactylous
animal has them there. They are high up, near the
axillae, because that is the place of the foremost

α This, like many of Aristotle’s statements about the lion,
is incorrect.

N 379

ARISTOTLE

688 b
e ^ D ^ ^ ^ »
10 ὅτι πρῶτοι οὗτοι τῶν μαστῶν τοῖς πολλοὺς ἔχουσι

μαστούς, καὶ ἱμῶνται γάλα πλεῖστον. σημεῖον
δὲ τὸ ἐπὶ τῶν ὑῶν συμβαῖνον: τοῖς γὰρ πρώτοις
γενομένοις τῶν χοίρων τοὺς πρώτους παρέχουσι
/ a“
μαστούς: d οὖν τὸ πρῶτον γινόμενον ἓν μόνον
ἐστί, τούτῳ τοὺς μαστοὺς ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν τοὺς
πρώτους" πρῶτοι δ᾽ εἰσὶν οἱ ὑπὸ ταῖς μασχάλαις.
15 ὁ μὲν οὖν ἐλέφας διὰ ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν δύο ἔχει
καὶ ἐν τούτῳ τῷ τόπῳ, τὰ δὲ πολυτόκα περὶ τὴν
γαστέρα. τούτου ὃ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι πλειόνων δεῖ µα-
στῶν τοῖς πλείω μέλλουσιν ἐκτρέφειν: ἐπεὶ οὖν ἐπὶ
πλάτος οὐχ οἷόν τε ἀλλ᾽ ἢ δύο μόνους ἔχειν διὰ τὸ
δύο εἶναι τό τ᾽ ἀριστερὸν καὶ τὸ δεξιόν, ἐπὶ μῆκος
20 ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν: 0 δὲ μεταξὺ τόπος τῶν ἔμπροσθεν
σκελῶν καὶ τῶν ὄπισθεν ἔχει μῆκος μόνον. τὰ
δὲ μὴ πολυσχιδῆ ἀλλ᾽ ὀλιγοτόκα 3 5 κερατοφόρα ἐ ev"
τοῖς μηροῖς ἔχει τοὺς μαστούς, οἷον ἵππος, ὄνος,
κάμηλος (ταῦτα γὰρ μονοτόκα, καὶ τὰ μὲν μώνυχα,
95 τὸ δὲ δίχηλον), ἔτι δ᾽ ἔλαφος καὶ βοῦς καὶ αἲξ καὶ
τἆλλα πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι τούτοις
ἡ αὔξησις ἐπὶ τὸ ἄνω τοῦ σώματός ἐστιν. ὥσθ᾽
ὅπου συλλογὴ καὶ περιουσία γίνεται τοῦ περιτ-
τώματος καὶ αἵματος (οὗτος Ò ὁ τόπος ἐστὶν ὁ
κάτω καὶ περὶ τὰς ἐκροάς), ἐνταῦθα ἐποίησεν ἡ
φύσις τοὺς μαστούς" ὅπου γὰρ κίνησις γίνεται τῆς
30 τροφῆς, ἐντεῦθεν καὶ λαβεῖν ἐστιν αὐτοῖς δυνατόν.
ἄνθρωπος μὲν οὖν καὶ ὁ θῆλυς καὶ ὁ ἄρρην ἔχει
μαστούς, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἔνια τῶν ἀρρένων οὐκ
ἔχει, οἷον ἵπποι οἱ μὲν οὐκ ἔχουσιν οἱ Ò ἔχουσιν,
ὅσοι ἐοίκασι τῇ μητρί.

1 καὶ ἐν vulg.: καὶ del. Ogle.

980

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

mammae in those that have many, and these are the
ones that yield the most milk. An illustration of
this is the case of the sow: a sow will offer the
first of its mammae to the first ones of the litter.
Thus, where the first of an animal's litter amounts
to one and no more, such an animal must possess
these first mammae, and “ the first mammae ” means
those under the axillae. This explains, then, the
number and position of the elephant's mammae.
The animals that have large litters have their mammae
upon the abdomen. Why is this? They have
numerous young to feed, and so they need numerous
mammae. Now as the body has two sides, right and
left, the mammae cannot be more than two deep
across the body, and so they have to be disposed
lengthwise, and the only place where there is suffi-
cient length for this is between the front and hind
legs. Non-polydactylous animals which yet produce
few at a birth, or carry horns, have their mammae by
the thighs, as the horse and the ass (both solid-
hoofed) and the camel (cloven-hoofed), all of which
bear their young singly ; also the deer, the ox, the
goat, and all such animals. The reason for which is,
that in them the growth of the body proceeds in an
upward direction ; so the place where the superfluous
residue and blood collects is down below, near the
places of efflux, and there Nature has made the
mammae ; for where the food is set in motion, there
is the very place where they can getit. In man, both
male and female have mammae, but some males of
other animals have none, as e.g. stallions, some of
which have none, while others, which resemble their
dams, have them.

381

688 b

35
689 a

5

10

—
σι

20

ARISTOTLE

Kai περὶ μὲν μαστῶν εἴρηται, μετὰ δὲ τὸ στῆθος
ὁ περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν ἐστὶ τόπος, ἀσύγκλειστος ταῖς
πλευραῖς διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην ἔμπροσθεν αἰτίαν,
ὅπως μὴ ἐμποδίζωσι μήτε τὴν ἀνοίδησιν τῆς
τροφῆς, ἣν ἀναγκαῖον συμβαίνειν θερμαινομένης
αὐτῆς, μήτε τὰς ὑστέρας τὰς περὶ τὴν κύησιν.

Τέλος δὲ τοῦ καλουμένου θώρακός ἐστι τὰ μόρια
τὰ περὶ τὴν τῆς περιττώσεως ἔξοδον, τῆς τε ξηρᾶς
καὶ τῆς ὑγρᾶς. καταχρῆται Ò ἡ φύσις τῷ αὐτῷ
μορίῳ ἐπί τε τὴν τῆς ὑγρᾶς ἔξοδον περιττώσεως
καὶ περὶ τὴν ὀχείαν, ὁμοίως ἔν τε τοῖς θήλεσι καὶ
τοῖς ἄρρεσιν,. ἔξω τινῶν ὀλίγων πᾶσι τοῖς ἐναίμοις,
ἐν δὲ τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις πᾶσιν. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι ἡ γονὴ
ὑγρόν ἐστί τι καὶ περίττωμα. (τοῦτο δὲ νῦν μὲν
ὑποκείσθω, ὕστερον δὲ δειχθήσεται περὶ αὐτοῦ.)
τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐν τοῖς θήλεσι τά τε
καταμήνια, καὶ ἢ προΐενται τὴν γονήν"' διορισθή-
σεται δὲ καὶ περὶ τούτων ὕστερον, νῦν δ᾽ ὑποκεί-
σθω μόνον ὅτι περίττωμα καὶ τὰ καταμήνια τοῖς
θήλεσιν: ὑγρὰ δὲ τὴν φύσιν τὰ καταμήνια καὶ ἡ
γονή, ὥστε τῶν ὁμοίων εἰς τὰ αὐτὰ" μόρια τὴν
ἔκκρισιν εἶναι κατὰ λόγον ἐστίν. ἐντὸς δὲ πῶς
ἔχει, καὶ πῇ διαφέρουσι τά τε περὶ τὸ σπέρμα καὶ
τὰ περὶ τὴν κύησιν, ἔκ τε τῆς ἱστορίας τῆς περὶ
τὰ ζῶα φανερὸν καὶ τῶν ἀνατομῶν, καὶ ὕστερον
λεχθήσεται ἐν τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως. ὅτι δ᾽ ἔχει καὶ

1 τοῖς ἆ Ogle: τῶν ἀρρέ ]
ρρεσιν Ogle: τῶν ἀρρένων vulg.

9 M > E / ,
* καὶ εἰ προϊενταί τινα γονήν Platt.
3 post ὥστε vulg. habet τῶν αὐτῶν καὶ: Ogle del.
4 τὰ αὐτὰ Peck: ταῦτα τὰ vulg.

382

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

This concludes our remarks on the mammae.

After the breast comes the region around the
stomach, which is not enclosed by the ribs for
the reason stated earlier,? viz. to avoid interference
(a) with the food when it swells, as it must do when
it is heated, and (b) with the womb during pregnancy.

At the end of what is called the trunk are the parts
that have to do with the discharge of the residue,
both solid and fluid. Nature employs one and the
same part for the discharge of the fluid residue and
for copulation in all blooded animals (with a few
exceptions), male and female alike, and in all Vivipara
without exception. The reason is that the semen is a
fluid, and a residue. (This statement may stand for
the present: the proof of it will be given later on.°)
The same applies to the catamenia in females, and
the part where they emit the semen.^ This also will be
dealt with particularly later on. For the present, let
the statement stand simply that the catamenia in
females (like the semen in males) are a residue. Now
both semen and catamenia are fluids, so it is reason-
able that things which are alike should be discharged
through the same parts. A clear account of the
internal structure of these parts, showing the differ-
ences between the parts connected with semen and
those connected with conception, is given in the
Researches upon Animals? and the Dissections, and
there will be a discussion of them in the book on

a At 655 a 2.

ὃ In De gen. an. 724 Ὁ 21 ff.

¢ This seems to agree with what Aristotle says on the
subject in the Hist. An., but contradicts what he says in De
gen. an. Platts suggested emendation would make the
translation read : ** and to the semen, if so be they emit any."

4 At 493 a 24-b 6, 497 a 24 ff., book iii, ch. 1.

383

Excretory
organs,

689a

to
on

30

689 b

10

ARISTOTLE

τὰ σχήματα τῶν μορίων τούτων πρὸς τὴν ἐργασίαν
ἀναγκαίως, οὐκ ἆδηλον. ἔχει δὲ διαφορὰς τὸ τῶν
ἀρρένων ὄργανον. κατὰ τὰς τοῦ σώματος διαφοράς.
οὐ γὰρ ὁμοίως ἅπαντα νευρώδη τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν.
ἔτι δὲ µόνον τοῦτο τῶν μορίων ἄνευ νοσερᾶς µετα-

4 βολῆς αὔξησιν ἐ ἔχει καὶ ταπείνωσιν: τούτων γὰρ τὸ

μὲν χρήσιμον πρὸς τὸν συνδυασμόν, τὸ δὲ πρὸς τὴν
τοῦ ἄλλου σώματος χρείαν: ἀεὶ γὰρ ὁμοίως ἔχον
τἆλλα' ἐνεπόδιζεν ἄν. συνέστηκε δὲ τὴν φύσιν
ἐκ τοιούτων τὸ μόριον τοῦτο ὥστε δύνασθαι ταῦτ᾽
ἀμφότερα συμβαίνειν: τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔχει νευρῶδες
τὸ δὲ χονδρῶδες, διόπερ συνιέναι τε δύναται καὶ
ἔκτασιν ἔχειν καὶ πνεύματός ἐστι δεκτικόν. τὰ
μὲν οὖν θήλεα τῶν τετραπόδων πάντ᾽ ἐστὶν όπι-
σθουρητικὰ διὰ τὸ πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν οὕτως εἶναι
αὐτοῖς χρησίµην τὴν θέσιν, τῶν δ᾽ ἀρρένων ὀλίγα
ἐστὶν ὀπισθουρητικά, οἷον λύγξ, λέων, κάμηλος,
δασύπους: μώνυχον δ᾽ οὐδέν ἐστιν ὀπισθουρητικόν.

Τὰ δ᾽ ὄπισθεν καὶ τὰ περὶ τὰ σκέλη τοῖς ἀνθρώ-
ποις ἰδίως ἔχει πρὸς τὰ τετράποδα. κέρκον δ᾽ ἔχει
πάντα σχεδόν, οὐ μόνον τὰ ζῳοτόκα ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ
ᾠοτόκα: καὶ γὰρ ἂν μὴ μέγεθος αὐτοῖς ἔχον τύχη"
τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, ἀλλὰ σημείου" γ᾽ ἕνεκεν ἔχουσί
τινα στόλον. ὁ δ᾽ ἄνθρωπος ἄκερκον μέν ἐστιν,
ἰσχία δ᾽ ἔχει, τῶν δὲ τετραπόδων οὐδέν. ἔτι δὲ καὶ
τὰ σκέλη ὁ ὁ μὲν ἄνθρωπος σαρκώδη καὶ μηροὺς καὶ
κνήμας," τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα πάντ᾽ ἄσαρκα ἔχει, οὐ μόνον τὰ
ζῳοτόκα ἀλλ᾽ ὅλως ὅσα σκέλη ἔχει. τῶν ζῴων"
νευρώδη γὰρ ἔχει καὶ ὀστώδη καὶ ἀκανθώδη.
τούτων δ᾽ αἰτία μία τίς ἐστιν ὡς εἰπεῖν ἁπάντων,

- ἔχον ; τἆλλα Peck: ἔχοντα vulg.
2 τύχῃ Rackham: 7 vulg.

384

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

Generation.^ Still, it is clear that the actual forms of
these parts is determined of necessity by the function
they have to perform. The male organ, however,
exhibits differences corresponding to those of the
body as a whole, for some animals are more sinewy,
some less. Further, this organ is the only one which
increases and subsides apart from any change due
to disease. Its increasing in size is useful for copula-
tion, its contraction for the employment of the rest
of the body, since it would be a nuisance to the
other parts if it were always extended. And so it
is composed of substances which make both con-
ditions possible : it contains both sinew and cartilage ;
and so it can contract and expand and admits air
into itself. All female quadrupeds discharge the
urine backwards, as this arrangement is useful to
them for copulation. A few males do this (among
them are the lynx, the lion, the camel, and the
hare), but no solid-hoofed animal does so.

The rear parts and the parts around the legs are
peculiar in man compared with the quadrupeds, nearly
all of which (Ovipara as well as Vivipara) have a tail,
which even if it is not of any great size, still is present
for a token as a sort of stump. Man has no tail, but
he has buttocks, which no quadruped possesses. In
man, the legs, both in thighs and calves, are fleshy :
in all other animals that have them (not only Vivi-
para) the legs are fleshless, being sinewy, bony and
spinous. One might say that there is a single ex-
planation which covers them all, which is, that man is

a At 716 a 2—721 a 29.

> There seems to be something wrong with this statement,
but perhaps when taken in conjunction with the whole of the
argument which follows, it may appear less unjustifiable.

3 σημείου Buss.: σμικροῦ vulg. * κνήμας] πόδας Y.
385

Rear parts.

ARISTOTLE

η διότι μόνον ἐστὶν ὀρθὸν τῶν ζῴων ἄνθρωπος. ἵν᾽
οὖν φέρῃ ῥᾳδίως τἄνω κοῦφα ὄντα, ἀφελοῦσα τὸ
σωματῶδες ἀπὸ τῶν ἄνω πρὸς τὰ κάτω τὸ βάρος
7 φύσις προσέθηκεν: διόπερ τὰ ἰσχία σαρκώδη

15 ἐποίησε καὶ μηροὺς καὶ γαστροκνημίας. ἅμα δὲ
τήν τε τῶν ἰσχίων φύσιν καὶ πρὸς τὰς ἀναπαύσεις
ἀπέδωκε χρήσιμον: τοῖς μὲν γὰρ τετράποσιν ἄκοπον
τὸ ἑστάναι, καὶ οὐ κάμνουσι. τοῦτο ποιοῦντα συν-
εχῶς (ὥσπερ γὰρ κατακείμενα διατελεῖ ὑπο-
κειμένων τεττάρων ἐρεισμάτων), τοῖς δ᾽ ἀνθρώποις

90 οὐ ῥάδιον ὀρθῶς ἑστῶσι διαμένειν, ἀλλὰ δεῖται τὸ
σῶμα ἀναπαύσεως καὶ καθέδρας. ὁ μὲν οὖν ἄν-
θρωπος ἰσχία τ᾽ ἔχει καὶ τὰ σκέλη σαρκώδη διὰ

τὴν εἰρημένην. αἰτίαν, καὶ διὰ ταῦτα ἄκερκον (7
T€ yàp ἐκεῖσε' τροφὴ πορευομένη εἰς ταῦτα ava-
λίσκεται, καὶ διὰ τὸ ἔχειν ἰσχία ἀφήρηται ἡ τῆς

25 οὐρᾶς ἀναγκαία χρῆσις), τὰ δὲ τετράποδα καὶ
τἆλλα ζῶα ἐξ ἐναντίας" νανώδεσι γὰρ οὖσι πρὸς τὸ
ἄνω τὸ βάρος καὶ τὸ σωματῶδες ἐπίκειται πᾶν,
ἀφῃρημένον ἀπὸ τῶν κάτωθεν: διόπερ ἀνίσχια καὶ
σκληρὰ τὰ σκέλη ἐ ἔχουσιν. ὅπως δ᾽ ἐν φυλακῇ καὶ
σκέπῃ 2 TO λειτουργοῦν μόριον τὴν ἔξοδον. τοῦ

30 περιττώματος, τὴν καλουμένην οὐρὰν καὶ κέρκον
αὐτοῖς ἀπέδωκεν ἡ φύσις, ἀφελομένη τῆς εἰς τὰ
σκέλη γιγνομένης τροφῆς.

C O δὲ πίθηκος διὰ τὸ τὴν. μορφὴν ἐπαμφοτερίζειν
καὶ -μηδετέρων τ᾽ εἶναι καὶ ἀμφοτέρων, διὰ τοῦτ᾽
οὔτ᾽ οὐρὰν ἔχει οὔτ᾽ ἰσχία, ὡς μὲν δίπους ὢν οὐράν,
ὡς δὲ τετράπους ἰσχία.)

690a Τῶν δὲ καλουμένων κέρκων διαφοραί τ᾽ εἰσὶ

1 ἐκεῖσε Peck: ἐκεῖ vulg.

986

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

the only animal that stands upright. Hence, Nature,
so as to make the upper parts light and easy to carry,
took off the corporeal matter from the top and trans-
ferred the weight down below ; and that is how she
came to make the buttocks and the thighs and the
calves of the legs fleshy. At the same time, in
making the buttocks fleshy, Nature made them useful
for resting the body. Quadrupeds find it no trouble
to remain standing, and do not get tired if they
remain continually on their feet—the time is as good
as spent lying down, because they have four supports
underneath them. But human beings cannot remain
standing upright continually with ease; the body
needs rest ; it must be seated. That, then, is why
man has buttocks and fleshy legs, and for the same
reason he has no tail : the nourishment gets used up
for the benefit of the buttocks and legs before it can
get as far as the place for the tail. Besides, the
possession of buttocks takes away the need and
necessity of a tail. But in quadrupeds and other
animals it is the opposite : they are dwarf-like, which
means that their heavy corporeal substance is in the
upper part of them and does not come into the lower
parts ; and as a result they have no buttocks and their
legs are hard. Yet to ensure that the part which
serves them for the discharge of the residue shall be
guarded and covered over, Nature has assigned to
them tails or scuts by taking off somewhat of the
nourishment which would otherwise go into the legs.

(The Ape is, in form, intermediate between the
two, man and quadruped, and belongs to neither, or
to both, and consequently he has no tail, qua biped,
and no buttocks, qua quadruped.)

There are numerous diiferences in the various tails,

N2 387

690 a

1

2

$

0

or

e

ARISTOTLE

πλείους καὶ ἡ φύσις παρακαταχρῆται καὶ ἐπὶ τού-
των, οὐ μόνον πρὸς φυλακὴν καὶ σκέπην τῆς ἕδρας,
ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς ὠφέλειαν καὶ χρῆσιν τοῖς ἔχουσιν.
Οἱ δὲ πόδες τοῖς μὲν τετράποσι διαφέρουσιν: τὰ
. . , , ^ 3 ^ \ , . A
μὲν γὰρ μώνυχα αὐτῶν ἐστι τὰ δὲ δίχηλα τὰ δὲ
^ .
πολυσχιδῆ, μώνυχα μὲν ὅσοις διὰ μέγεθος καὶ τὸ
πολὺ γεῶδες ἔχειν ἀντὶ κεράτων καὶ ὀδόντων εἰς
τὴν τοῦ ὄνυχος φύσιν τὸ τοιοῦτον μόριον ἔλαβεν
ἀπόκρισιν, καὶ διὰ πλῆθος ἀντὶ πλειόνων ὀνύχων
-.-» eie y: Ts A +5 / Y `
εἷς ὄνυξ ἡ ὁπλή ἐστιν. καὶ ἀστράγαλον δὲ διὰ
τοῦτο οὐκ ἔχουσιν ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ εἰπεῖν, καὶ διὰ!
τὸ δυσκινητοτέραν εἶναι τὴν καμπὴν τοῦ ὄπισθεν
σκέλους ἀστραγάλου ἐνόντος: θᾶττον γὰρ ἀνοίγεται
καὶ κλείεται τὰ μίαν ἔχοντα γωνίαν ἢ πλείους, ὁ
, 5 / / ^ e 5 , ^
δ᾽ ἀστράγαλος γόμφος ὢν ὥσπερ ἀλλότριον κῶλον
ἐμβέβληται τοῖς δυσί, βάρος μὲν παρέχον, ποιοῦν
δ᾽ ἀσφαλεστέραν τὴν βάσιν. διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο καὶ ἐν
τοῖς ἐμπροσθίοις οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἀστράγαλον τὰ ἔχοντα
5 / 5 2 , ^ 3 [74 ^ 3 $
ἀστράγαλον, ἀλλ᾽ ἐν τοῖς ὄπισθεν, ὅτι δεῖ ἐλαφρὰ
5 νε / XT i» 1 Qo » V `
εἶναι τὰ ἡγούμενα καὶ εὔκαμπτα, τὸ δ᾽ ἀσφαλὲς καὶ
^ A
τὴν τάσιν ἐν τοῖς ὄπισθεν. ἔτι δὲ πρὸς τὸ ἀμύνε-
^ M ^
σθαι ἐμβριθεστέραν ποιεῖ τὴν πληγήν" τὰ δὲ τοιαῦτα
^ ^ ` ^
τοῖς ὄπισθεν χρῆται κώλοις, λακτίζοντα τὸ λυποῦν.
M . FA » 5 / , 4
Τὰ δὲ δίχηλα ἔχει ἀστράγαλον (κουφότερα γὰρ
> /
τὰ ὄπισθεν), καὶ διὰ τὸ ἔχειν ἀστράγαλον καὶ οὐ
μώνυχά ἐστιν, ὡς τὸ ἐκλεῖπον ὀστῶδες ἐκ τοῦ

1 καὶ διὰ SUZ Ogle: διὰ vulg.

? The word used in the Greek is “ part." See Introd. p. 28.
è See Introduction, pp. 38-39.

388

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

which provide another example of Nature's habit of
using an organ for secondary purposes, for she
employs the tail not only as a guard and covering for
the fundament but also in other serviceable ways.

There are differences too in the feet of quadrupeds.
Some have a solid hoof, some a cloven hoof ; others
have a foot that is divided into several parts. Solid
hoofs are present in those animals which are large
and contain much earthy substance," which instead of
making horns and teeth forms an abscession? so as
to produce nail, and owing to the abundance of it, it
produces not several separate nails but a single one,
in other words, a hoof. Because of this, these
animals in general have no hucklebone ; and also
because the presence of a hucklebone makes it
rather difficult to bend the hind leg freely, since a
limb that has one angle can be bent to and fro more
quickly than one that has several. It is a sort of
connecting-rod, and therefore practically interpolates
another bit of a limb between the two, thereby in-
creasing the weight; but it makes the animal's footing
more reliable. This explains why, when hucklebones
are present, they are present in the hind limbs
only, never in the front: the front limbs have to be
light and flexible because they go first, while the
hind limbs must be reliable and able to stretch.
Further, a hucklebone puts more force into a blow—a
useful point in self-defence—and animals which have
one use their hind limbs in this way : if anything
hurts them they kick out at it.

Cloven-hoofed animals have a hucklebone, as their
hind limbs are on the light side ; and that is the very
reason why they are cloven-hoofed : the bony sub-
stance stays in the joint and therefore is deficient in

389

Hoofs, ete,

690 a

95

30

690 b

5

10

ARISTOTLE

ποδὸς ἐν τῇ κάμψει μένον. τὰ δὲ πολυδάκτυλα
οὐκ ἔχει ἀστράγαλον: οὐ γὰρ ἂν ἦν πολυδάκτυλα,
ἀλλὰ τοσοῦτον ἐσχίζετο τὸ πλάτος ὅσον ἐπέχει
6 ἀστράγαλος. διὸ καὶ τῶν ἐχόντων αὐτὸν τὰ
πλείω δίχηλα.

'O ο) ἄνθρωπος πόδας μεγίστους ἔχει τῶν ζῴων
ὡς κατὰ μέγεθος, εὐλόγως: μόνον γὰρ ἕστηκεν
ὀρθόν, ὦ ὥστε τοὺς μέλλοντας. δύ᾽ ὄντας ἕξειν πᾶν τὸ
τοῦ σώματος βάρος δεῖ μῆκος ἔχειν καὶ πλάτος.
καὶ τὸ τῶν δακτύλων δὴ μέγεθος ἐναντίως ἔχει ἐπι
τε τῶν ποδῶν καὶ τῶν χειρῶν κατὰ λόγον: τῶν
μὲν γὰρ τὸ λαμβάνειν € ἔργον καὶ πιέζειν, ὦ ὥστε δεῖ
μακροὺς ἔχειν (τῷ γὰρ καμπτομένῳ μέρει περι-
λαμβάνει 7) χείρ), τῶν δὲ τὸ βεβηκέναι ἀσφαλῶς,
πρὸς δὲ: τοῦτο δεῖ τὸ μόριον εἶναι μεῖζον τὸ
ἄσχιστον τοῦ ποδὸς τῶν δακτύλων. ἐσχίσθαι δὲ
βέλτιον ἢ ἄσχιστον εἶναι τὸ ἔσχατον: ἅπαν γὰρ ἂν
συμπαθὲς ἦν ἑνὸς μορίου πονήσαντος, ἐσχισμένῳ"
δ᾽ εἰς δακτύλους τοῦτ᾽ οὐ συμβαίνει ὁμοίως. ἔτι
δὲ καὶ βραχεῖς ὄντες ἧττον (ἂν) βλάπτοιντο." διὸ
πολυσχιδεῖς οἱ πόδες τῶν ἀνθρώπων, οὐ µακρο-
δάκτυλοι Ò εἰσίν. τὸ δὲ τῶν ὀνύχων γένος διὰ
τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν χειρῶν ἔχουσιν: δεῖ
γὰρ σκέπεσθαι τὰ ἀκρωτήρια μάλιστα διὰ τὴν
ἀσθένειαν.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων καὶ ζῳοτόκων
καὶ πεζῶν εἴρηται σχεδὸν περὶ πάντων: ΧΙ. τῶν
δ᾽ ἐναίμων ζῴων ᾠοτόκων δὲ τὰ μέν ἐστι τετρά-

1 πρὸς δὲ Ogle: ὥστε vulg.
2 μεῖζον Platt, Th. : νομίζειν vulg.
ἐσχισμένῳ Peck: -ov PY: -wv vulg. : -ov Ogle.
* «ἂν» Platt, Th. : βλάπτοιντο Y : συμβλάπῃ ο τό vulg.

390

PARTS OB. ANIMALS, IV. χ.-χι.

the foot. The polydactylous animals have no huckle-
bone, otherwise they would not be polydactylous,
and the divisions of the foot would cover only so
much width as the hucklebone itself. So most of
the animals which have a hucklebone are cloven-
hoofed.

Man of all the animals has the largest feet for his
size, and reasonably so, since he is the only one of
them that stands upright, and as the feet have to bear
the whole weight of the body and there are only
two of them, they must be both long and broad.
Also the toes are short compared with the fingers,
and this too is reasonable. "The business of the hands
is to take hold and to keep hold of things, and this is
done by means of that part of the hands which bends ;
therefore the fingers must be long. The business of
the feet is to get a firm and reliable footing ; and to
secure this the undivided part of the foot must be
greater than the toes. And it is better to have the
tip of the foot divided than not, for otherwise, if one
part were affected the whole foot would suffer as well,
whereas this is to some degree avoided by the divi-
sion of the tip of the foot into toes. Again, short
toes are less liable to injury than long ones would be. `
All this indicates why the human foot has toes and
why they are short. There are nails on the toes for
the same reason that there are nails on the fingers :
the extremities have but little strength and there-
fore specially need to be protected.

We have now dealt with practically all the blooded
animals that are viviparous and live on the land.

XI. We now pass on to another class of blooded ϱ) Ovipara:
animals, the oviparous, some of which have four feet, (L) Serpents

391 quadrupeds.

ARISTOTLE

690 b . > LÀ ^ > a / LA
moða τὰ δ᾽ ἄποδα. τοιοῦτον δ᾽ ἓν μόνον γένος

15 ἐστὶν ἄπουν, τὸ τῶν ὄφεων: ἡ δ᾽ αἰτία τῆς ἀποδίας
αὐτῶν εἴρηται ἐν τοῖς περὶ τῆς πορείας τῶν ζῴων
διωρισμένοις. τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα παραπλησίαν ἔχει τὴν
μορφὴν τοῖς τετράποσι καὶ ὠοτόκοις.

Ἔχει δὲ τὰ ζῷα ταῦτα κεφαλὴν μὲν καὶ τὰ ἐν
αὐτῇ μόρια διὰ τὰς αὐτὰς αἰτίας τοῖς ἄλλοις τοῖς

20 ἐναίμοις ζῴοις, καὶ γλῶτταν ἐν τῷ στόματι πλὴν
τοῦ ποταμίου κροκοδείλου" οὗτος Ò οὐκ ἂν δόξειεν
ἔχειν, ἀλλὰ τὴν χώραν μόνον. αἴτιον. δ᾽ ὅτι τρόπον
μέν τινα ἅμα χερσαῖος καὶ ἔνυδρός ἐστιν' διὰ μὲν
οὖν τὸ χερσαῖος εἶναι ἔχει χώραν γλώττης, διὰ δὲ
τὸ ἔνυδρος ἄγλωττος. οἱ γὰρ ἰχθύες, καθάπερ εἴρη-

25 ται πρότερον, οἱ μὲν οὐ δοκοῦσιν ἔ ἔχειν, ἂν μὴ σφό-
Opa ἀνακλίνῃ τις, οἱ LO. ἀδιάρθρωτον € ἔχουσιν. αἴτιον
δ᾽ ὅτι ὀλίγη τούτοις χρεία τῆς γλώττης διὰ τὸ μὴ
ἐνδέχεσθαι μασᾶσθαι μηδὲ προγεύεσθαι, ἀλλ᾽ ἐ ἐν τῇ
καταπόσει γίνεσθαι τὴν αἴσθησιν καὶ τὴν ἡδονὴν
πᾶσι τούτοις τῆς τροφῆς. ἡ μὲν γὰρ γλῶττα τῶν

80 χυμῶν ποιεῖ τὴν αἴσθησιν, τῶν δὲ ἐδεστῶν ἐν τῇ
καθόδῳ ἡ ἡδονή" .καταπινοµένων γὰρ αἰσθάνονται
τῶν λιπαρῶν καὶ θερμῶν καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν
τοιούτων. ἔχει μὲν οὖν καὶ τὰ ζῳοτόκα ταύτην
τὴν αἴσθησιν (καὶ σχεδὸν τῶν πλείστων ὄψων καὶ

691 a ἐδεστῶν ἐν τῇ καταπόσει τῇ τάσει τοῦ οἰσοφάγου
γίνεται ἡ χάρις" διὸ οὐχ οἱ αὐτοὶ περὶ τὰ πόματα
καὶ τοὺς χυμοὺς ἀκρατεῖς εἰσι καὶ τὰ ὄψα καὶ τὴν

- ᾠοτόκοις PUYZ: ζφοτόκοις vulg.
2 ἦν τούτοις χρεία S : ἦν χρεία τούτοις vulg.: ἦν delevi.

° At De inc. an. 708 a 9 ff; see also infra, 696 a 10.
è At 660 b 13-25.

392

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x1.

and some no feet at all. Actually there is only one
group that has no feet, the Serpents ; and the reason
why they have none has been stated in my treatise on
the Locomotion of Animals.” In other respects their
conformation is similar to that of the oviparous
quadrupeds.

These animals have a head, and the parts that com-
pose it, for the same reasons that other blooded
creatures have one, and they have a tongue inside the
mouth—all except the river crocodile, which appar-
ently has none, but only a space for it ; and the reason
is that in a way he is both a land-animal and a water-
animal. In virtue of being a land-animal, he has a
space for a tongue ; as a water-animal, he is tongue-
less. This agrees with our previous statement, that
some fishes appear to have no tongue unless you pull
the mouth very well open, others have one which is
not distinctly articulated. The reason for this is that
these creatures have not much need for a tongue
because they cannot chew their food or even taste
it before they eat it: they can perceive the pleasant-
ness of it only while they are swallowing it. This
is because the perception of juices is effected by the
tongue ; whereas the pleasantness of solid food is .
perceived while it is passing down the gullet, and
thus oily food and hot food and the like are per-
ceived while they are being swallowed. Of course
the Vivipara as well as these creatures have this
power of perception (indeed, the enjoyment derived
from practically all edible dainties takes place while
they are being swallowed and is due to the distension
of the oesophagus—which is why intemperate ap-
petite for edible dainties is not found in the same
animals as intemperate appetite for drink and juices) ;

303

691 a

10

15

20

25

ARISTOTLE

ἐδωδήν), ἀλλὰ τοῖς μὲν ἄλλοις ζῴοις καὶ ἡ κατὰ
5 τὴν γεῦσιν ὑπάρχει αἴσθησις, ἐκείνοις δ᾽ ἄνευ
ταύτης μόνη! uU ἑτέρα. τῶν δὲ τετραπόδων καὶ
ᾠοτόκων οἱ σαῦροι, ὥσπερ καὶ οὗ ὄφεις, δικρόαν
ἔχουσι τὴν γλῶτταν καὶ ἐπ᾽ ἄκρου τριχώδη πάμπαν,
καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον. ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ αἱ φῶκαι
δικρόαν τὴν γλῶτταν: διὸ καὶ λίχνα" πάντα τὰ ζῷά
ἐστι ταῦτα.

Ἔστι δὲ καὶ καρχαρόδοντα τὰ τετράποδα τῶν
ᾠοτόκων, ὥσπερ οἱ ἰχθύες. τὰ δ᾽ αἰσθητήρια
πάντα ὁμοίως ἔχουσι τοῖς ἄλλοις ζῴοις, οἷον τῆς
ὀσφρήσεως μυκτῆρας καὶ ὄψεως ὀφθαλμοὺς καὶ
ἀκοῆς ὦτα, πλὴν οὐκ ἐπανεστηκότα, καθάπερ οὐδ᾽
οἱ ὄρνιθες, ἀλλὰ τὸν πόρον μόνον: αἴτιον δ᾽ augo-
τέροις ἡ τοῦ δέρματος σκληρότης: τὰ μὲν γὰρ
πτερωτὰ αὐτῶν ἐστι, ταῦτα δὲ πάντα φολιδωτά,
ἔστι δ᾽ ἡ φολὶς ὅμοιον χώρᾳ λεπίδος, φύσει δὲ
σκληρότερον. δηλοῖ Ò ἐπὶ τῶν χελωνῶν τοῦτο
καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν μεγάλων ὄφεων καὶ τῶν ποταμίων
κροκοδείλων: ἰσχυρότεραι γὰρ γίνονται τῶν ὀστῶν
ὡς οὖσαι τοιαῦται τὴν φύσιν.

Οὐκ ἔχουσι δὲ τὰ ζῷα ταῦτα τὴν ἄνω βλεφαρίδα,
ὥσπερ οὐδ᾽ οἱ ὄρνιθες, ἀλλὰ τῇ κάτω μύουσι διὰ
τὴν αἰτίαν τὴν εἰρημένην ἐπ᾽ ἐκείνων. τῶν μὲν οὖν
ὀρνίθων ἔνιοι καὶ σκαρδαμύττουσιν ὑμένι ἐκ τῶν
κανθῶν, ταῦτα δὲ τὰ ζῷα. οὐ σκαρδαμύττει: σκληρ-
οφθαλμότερα γάρ ἐστι. τῶν ὀρνίθων. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι
ἐκείνοις χρησιμωτέρα ἡ ὀξυωπία" πτηνοῖς οὖσι πρὸς

1 δ᾽ ἄνευ ταύτης μόνη Peck: δ᾽ ἂν ἢ ὥσπερ μόνη Y: δ᾽
ὡσπερανεὶ vulg. ; plurima hic transposuit Ogle.

2 καὶ οἱ Y : οἱ vulg.

$04

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xr.

but whereas the rest of the animals have the power of
perception by taste as well, these are without it
and possess the other one only. Among oviparous
quadrupeds, lizards (and serpents too) have a two-
forked tongue, the tips of which are as fine as hairs.
(This has been stated earlier.? Seals also have a
forked tongue. This forked tongue explains why all
these animals are so dainty in their food.

The four-footed Ovipara also have sharp interfitting
teeth, as Fishes have. Their sense-organs are all
similar to those of other animals : nostrils for smell,
eyes for sight, and ears for hearing—though their ears
do not stand out: they are merely a duct, as in
birds ; and in both groups the cause is the same, viz.
the hardness of their integument. Birds are covered
with feathers, and these creatures are all covered
with horny scales which correspond in position to the
scales of fishes, but are harder in substance. This
is clearly illustrated by the tortoises, the great snakes,
and the river crocodiles, where the scales are made of
the same material as the bones and actually grow
stronger than the bones.

These animals, like birds, have no upper eyelid ;
they close their eyes with the lower lid. The reason
which was given? for birds applies to them too. Some
birds can also blink by means of a membrane which
comes out of the corner of the eye; but these
animals do not do this, since their eyes are harder
than birds’ eyes. The reason for this is that keen
sight is of considerable use to birds in their daily

a At 660 b 9. ^ ΑΙ 601 2 68.
3 λίχνα Karsch: ἰσχνὰ vulg.

* ὀξυωπία καὶ τὸ πόρρω προϊδεῖν UY.

905

691a

80

691 b

5

10

15

ARISTOTLE

τὸν βίον, τούτοις δ᾽ ἧττον: τρωγλόδυτα γὰρ πάντα

^ ^ / ,
τὰ τοιαῦτά ἐστιν.

Eis δύο δὲ διηρηµένης τῆς κεφαλῆς, τοῦ τε ἄνω
μορίου καὶ τῆς σιαγόνος τῆς κάτω, ἄνθρωπος μὲν"
καὶ τὰ ζῳοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ ἄνω καὶ κάτω
κινοῦσι τὰς σιαγόνας καὶ εἰς τὸ πλάγιον, οἱ Ò
ἰχθύες καὶ ὄρνιθες καὶ τὰ ᾠοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων
εἰς τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω μόνον. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι ἡ μὲν
τοιαύτη κίνησις χρήσιμος εἰς τὸ δακεῖν καὶ διελεῖν,
ἡ δ᾽ εἰς τὸ πλάγιον ἐπὶ τὸ λεαίνειν. τοῖς μὲν οὖν
ἔχουσι γομφίους χρήσιμος ἡ εἰς τὸ πλάγιον κίνησις,
τοῖς δὲ μὴ. ἔχουσιν οὐδὲν χρήσιμος, διόπερ ἀφήρηται
πάντων τῶν τοιούτων" οὐδὲν γὰρ ποιεῖ περίεργον 7
φύσις. τὰ μὲν οὖν ἄλλα πάντα κινεῖ τὴν σιαγόνα
τὴν κάτω, ὁ δὲ ποτάμιος κροκόδειλος μόνος τὴν ἄνω.
τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι πρὸς τὸ λαβεῖν. καὶ κατασχεῖν
ἀχρήστους ἔχει τοὺς πόδας: μικροὶ γάρ εἰσι πάμπαν.
πρὸς οὖν ταύτας τὰς χρείας ἀντὶ ποδῶν τὸ στόμα

ἡ φύσις χρήσιμον αὐτῷ ἐποίησεν. πρὸς δὲ τὸ
παρὸν ἢ λαβεῖν, ὁποτέρωθεν ἂν ἡ ἡ πληγὴ
ἰσχυροτέρα, ταύτῃ χρησιμωτέρα κινουμένη ἐστίν"
ἡ δὲ πληγὴ ἰσχυροτέρα ἀεὶ ἄνωθεν ἢ κάτωθεν: ἐπεὶ
οὖν ἀμφοτέρων μὲν διὰ τοῦ στόματος ἡ χρῆσις, καὶ
τοῦ λαβεῖν καὶ τοῦ δακεῖν, ἀναγκαιοτέρα Ò ἡ τοῦ
κατασχεῖν μήτε χεῖρας ἔχοντι μήτε πόδας εὐφυεῖς,
χρησιμώτερον τὴν ἄνωθεν κινεῖν σιαγόνα ἢ τὴν
κάτωθεν αὐτοῖς. διὰ τὸ αὐτὸ δὲ καὶ οἱ καρκίνοι
τὸ ἄνωθεν τῆς χηλῆς κινοῦσι μόριον, ἀλλ᾽ οὐ τὸ
κάτωθεν: ἀντὶ χειρὸς γὰρ ἔχουσι τὰς χηλάς, ὥστε
πρὸς τὸ λαβεῖν ἀλλ᾽ οὐ πρὸς τὸ διελεῖν χρήσιμον

1 μὲν οὖν vulg.: μὲν YZ.
206

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x1.

life, because they fly about ; but it would be very
little good to these creatures, because they all spend
their time in holes and corners.

Their head has two divisions : the upper part, and
the lower jaw. In man and in the viviparous
quadrupeds the lower jaw moves from side to side as
well as up and down ; in fishes, however, and birds
and these oviparous quadrupeds it moves up and
down only. The reason is that this vertical motion is
useful for biting and cutting up food, while the
sideways motion is useful for grinding the food down.
Of course this sideways raotion is useful to animals
which possess grinder-teeth ; but it is of no use to
those which lack grinders, and so not one of them
hasit. Nature never makes or does anything that is
superfluous. Allthese animals, then, move the lower
jaw—with one exception, the river crocodile, which
moves the upper jaw, and the reason for this is that
his feet are no use for seizing and holding things :
they are too small altogether. So Nature has given
him a mouth which he can use for these purposes
instead of his feet. And when it comes to seizing
things and holding them, the most useful direction
for a blow to take is that which gives it the greatest
strength. Nowa blow from above is always stronger
than one from below. And to an animal who has no
hands and no proper feet, who has to use his mouth
for seizing his food as well as for biting it, the power
to seize it is the more necessary ; and therefore it is
more useful to him to be able to move his upper Jaw
than his lower one. For the same reason crabs move
the upper part of their claws and not the lower:
claws are their substitute for hands, so the claws have
to be useful for seizing things (not for cutting them

397

691 b
90

25

90

692 a

ARISTOTLE

δεῖ εἶναι τὴν χηλήν" τὸ δὲ διελεῖν καὶ δακεῖν ὁδόν-
των ἔργον ἐστίν. τοῖς μὲν οὖν καρκίνοις καὶ τοῖς
ἄλλοις ὅσοις ἐνδέχεται σχολαίως ποιεῖσθαι τὴν
λῆψιν διὰ τὸ μὴ ἐν ὑγρῷ εἶναι τὴν χρῆσιν τοῦ
στόματος, διήρηται, καὶ λαμβάνουσι μὲν χερσὶν ἢ
ποσί, διαιροῦσι δὲ τῷ στόματι καὶ δάκνουσιν τοῖς
δὲ κροκοδείλοις ἐπ᾿ ἀμφότερα χρήσιμον τὸ στόμα
πεποίηκεν ἡ φύσις, κινουμένων οὕτω τῶν ᾿σιαγόνων.

Ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ αὐχένα πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα διὰ τὸ
πλεύμονα ἔχειν: δέχονται γὰρ τὸ πνεῦμα διὰ τῆς
ἀρτηρίας μῆκος ἐχούσης.

1 Ἐπεὶ δὲ τὸ μεταξὺ κεφαλῆς καὶ ὤμων κέκληται
αὐχήν, ἥκιστα τῶν τοιούτων ὁ ὄφις δόξειεν ἂν
ἔχειν αὐχένα, ἀλλὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον τῶ αὐχένι, εἴ γε
δεῖ τοῖς εἰρημένοις ἐσχάτοις διορίζειν τὸ μόριον
τοῦτο. ἴδιον δὲ πρὸς τὰ συγγενῆ τῶν ζώων
ὑπάρχει τοῖς ὄφεσι τὸ στρέφειν τὴν κεφαλὴν eis
τοὔπισθεν ἠρεμοῦντος τοῦ λοιποῦ σώματος. αἴτιον
δ᾽ ὅτι καθάπερ τὰ «ἔντομα ἑλικτόν ἐστιν, ὥστε
εὐκάμπτους ἔχειν καὶ χονδρώδεις τοὺς σπονδύλους.
ἐξ ἀνάγκης μὲν οὖν διὰ ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν τοῦτο
συμβέβηκεν αὐτοῖς, τοῦ δὲ βελτίονος ἕνεκεν πρὸς

υλακὴν τῶν ὄπισθεν βλαπτόντων: μακρὸν γὰρ ὂν
καὶ ἄπουν ἀφυές ἐστι πρός τε τὴν στροφὴν καὶ πρὸς
τὴν τῶν ὄπισθεν τήρησιν' οὐδὲν γὰρ ὄφελος αἴρειν
μέν, στρέφειν δὲ μὴ δύνασθαι τὴν κεφαλήν. ἔχουσι
δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα καὶ τῷ στήθει ἀνάλογον μόριον.

10 μαστοὺς. δ᾽ οὐκ ἔχουσιν οὔτ᾽ ἐνταῦθα οὔτ᾽ ἐν τῷ

ἄλλῳ σώματι, ὁμοίως Ò οὐδ᾽ ὄρνις, οὐδ᾽ ἰχθὺς
οὐδείς. αἴτιον δὲ τὸ μηδὲ γάλα ἔχειν τούτων

1 hinc usque ad 695 a 22 varia codd. ; text. vulg. exhibui.
398

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. χι.

up: this, and biting, is the business of the teeth).
In crabs, then, and in other creatures which, because
their mouth does not come into action while under
water, can take their time about seizing their food,
the labour is divided: they seize their food with
their hands or feet, and cut it up and bite it with
the mouth. For the crocodile, however, by making
the jaws move as I have described, Nature has
constructed a mouth which can be used for both
these purposes.

All these animals have also a neck ; this is because
they have a lung and there is a long windpipe through
which they admit the breath to it.

Since the neck is the name given to the part of
the body between the head and the shoulders, the
serpent would appear to be the very last of these
creatures to possess one : at any rate, if the neck is
to be defined by the limits mentioned above, he has
merely something analogous to a neck. Compared
with kindred animals, serpents have this peculiarity :
they can turn their heads backwards while the rest of
the body remains still. The reason is that their body
(like an insect's) can roll up; the vertebrae are cartila-
ginous and flexible. This, then, is the necessary cause
why they have this ability; but it serves a good purpose `
too, for it enables them to guard against attacks from
the rear, and with their long bodies devoid of feet
they are ill adapted for turning themselves round to
keep watch over the rear. Το be able to raise the
head and yet unable to turn it round would be useless.
These animals have also a part which is a counter-
part to the breast. But they have no mammae either
here or elsewhere ; nor have any of the birds or fishes.
This is because the mammae are receptacles, vessels,

399

692 a

692 b

σι

ARISTOTLE

/ € M A € \ M e > al
μηθέν: ὁ δὲ μαστὸς ὑποδοχὴ καὶ ὥσπερ ἀγγεῖόν
ἐστι γάλακτος. γάλα Ò οὐκ ἔχει οὔτε ταῦτα οὔτ᾽
» 3 M ^ M p > ς ^ ,
ἆλλο οὐδὲν τῶν μὴ ζῳοτοκούντων ἐν αὑτοῖς, διότι
ᾠοτοκοῦσιν, ἐν δὲ τῷ WH ἡ τροφὴ ἐγγίνεται ἐν
τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις γαλακτώδης ὑπάρχουσα. σαφέ-

5 \ . , ^ / , ^ ^
5 gTepov δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν λεχθήσεται ἐν τοῖς περὶ

/ M δὲ ^ ^ λῶ 1 / ,
γενέσεως. περὶ δὲ τῆς τῶν σκελῶν! κάµψεως ἐν
τοῖς περὶ πορείας πρότερον ἐπέσκεπται κοινῇ περὶ
πάντων."

T δὲ \ / ^ ^ . \ /,
χουσι δὲ καὶ κέρκον τὰ τοιαῦτα, τὰ μὲν μείζω
ο ὃν 7 eons τ ο. 9 y / /
τὰ Ò ἐλάττω, ὑπὲρ οὗ τὴν αἰτίαν καθόλου πρότερον
εἰρήκαμεν.
> / > € , ^ 3 / `
loxvóraros δ᾽ ὁ χαμαιλέων τῶν ᾠοτόκων καὶ
πεζῶν ἐστίν" ὀλιγαιμότατον γάρ ἐστι πάντων. ταὐτὸ
^ ^ ^ / , \ ^
δ᾽ αἴτιον τοῦ τῆς ψυχῆς ἤθους ἐστὶ τοῦ ζῴου" πολύ-
/ ^
µορφον γὰρ γίνεται διὰ τὸν φόβον, ὁ δὲ φόβος

/ 5 > / A 9 3 o» /
κατάψυξις δι ὀλιγαιμότητά ἐστι καὶ ἔνδειαν θερμό-
τητος.

\ \ [ΩΙ ^ . / E: ^ 5 /
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων τῶν τε ἀπόδων
3

καὶ τετραπόδων, ὅσα μόρια τὰ ἐκτὸς ἔχει καὶ διὰ
τίνας αἰτίας, εἴρηται σχεδόν.

XII. Ἔν δὲ τοῖς ὄρνισιν ἡ πρὸς ἄλληλα διαφορὰ
ἐν τῇ τῶν μορίων ἐστὶν ὑπεροχῇ καὶ ἐλλείψει καὶ

^ D , ^

κατὰ τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον. εἰσὶ γὰρ αὐτῶν οἱ μὲν
μακροσκελεῖς οἱ δὲ βραχυσκελεῖς, καὶ τὴν γλῶτταν
οἱ μὲν πλατεῖαν ἔχουσιν. οἱ δὲ στενήν" ὁμοίως δὲ
καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων μορίων. ἰδίᾳ δὲ μόρια ὀλίγα
1 σκελῶν ΡΖ, Ogle : καμπύλων σκελῶν Y : καμπύλων vulg.
περὶ δὲ . . . πάντων fortasse secludenda.

+ correxit Peck, cf. 667 a 11 seqq. : τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον τὸ ἦθος

τοῦ ζῴου τὸ τῆς ψυχῆς vulg. : αἴτιον δὲ τὸ τῆς ψυχῆς ἦθός ἐστιν
αὐτοῦ PSUZ : sed fortasse haec verba secludenda.

400

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xr.-xrr.

as it were, for the milk, and none of these creatures
has any milk. Neither has any of the other animals
that are not internally viviparous ; the reason is that
as they produce eggs the milky nutriment which they
contain goes into these eggs. A more detailed
account of these matters will be given in the treatise
on Generation.” With regard to the way in which they
bend their legs, a general account, including all
animals, has already been given in the treatise on
the Locomotion of Animals.

These creatures have a tail, some a large one, some
asmall one. We have already given the reason for
this as generally applicable. c

Among the oviparous land-animals, the chameleon
has the least flesh on him ; this is because he has
least blood, and the same reason is at the root of the
animal's habit of soul—he is subject to fear (to which
his many changes in appearance are due), and fear is
a process of cooling produced through scantiness of
blood and insufficiency of heat.?

This fairly concludes our account of the external
parts of the blooded animals both footless and four-
footed, and of the reasons thereof.

XII. We now pass on to Birds. As among them- (ii) Birds.
selves, they differ in their parts in respect of the `
more and less, and excess and defect ^—e.g., some of
them have long legs, some short ones ; some have
a broad tongue, some a narrow one; and similarly
with the other parts. Thus, as among themselves

? At 752 b 16 ff.
> At 712 a 1 ff. See also below, 693 b 3, and additional
note on that passage, p. 433.
ο At 689 b 1 ff.
4 Compare the passages at 650 b 27 and 667 a 11 ff.
* See 644 a 19, and introductory note on p. 19.
401

692 b

10

15

20

693 a

ARISTOTLE

» ^
διαφέροντα ἔχουσιν ἀλλήλων: πρὸς δὲ τὰ ἄλλα ζῷα
καὶ τῇ μορφῇ τῶν μορίων διαφέρουσιν. πτερωτοὶ
μὲν οὖν ἅπαντές εἶσιν, καὶ τοῦτ᾽ ἴδιον ἔχουσι τῶν

- /
ἄλλων. τὰ γὰρ μόρια τῶν ζῴων τὰ μὲν τριχωτά

5
ἐστι τὰ δὲ φολιδωτὰ τὰ δὲ λεπιδωτά, ot Ò ὄρνιθες
πτερωτοί. καὶ τὸ πτερὸν σχιστὸν καὶ οὐχ ὅμοιον
τῷ εἴδει τοῖς ὁλοπτέροις: τῶν μὲν γὰρ ἄσχιστον

^ M
τῶν δὲ σχιστόν ἐστι, καὶ τὸ μὲν ἄκαυλον, τὸ δ᾽
» , » A M «i? ^ ^ \
ἔχει καυλόν. ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ περιττὴν

MOS M ^ ei^ /4 \ Nx ^
καὶ ἴδιον τὴν τοῦ ῥύγχους φύσιν πρὸς τἆλλα: τοῖς
\ ^ ^
μὲν γὰρ ἐλέφασιν ὁ μυκτὴρ ἀντὶ χειρῶν, τῶν δ᾽
> ^ 7

ἐντόμων ἐνίοις ἡ γλῶττα ἀντὶ στόματος, τούτοις
5: > \ iY) / M λ ^ \ es » » 1
ἀντὶ ὀδόντων καὶ χειλῶν τὸ ῥύγχος ὄστινον Ov.

περὶ δὲ τῶν αἰσθητηρίων εἴρηται πρότερον.

5 ^
Αὐχένα δ᾽ ἔχει τεταμένον τῇ φύσει, καὶ διὰ τὴν
. > ~

αὐτὴν αἰτίαν ἥνπερ καὶ τἆλλα" καὶ τοῦτον τὰ μὲν
\ ^
βραχὺν τὰ δὲ μακρόν, καὶ σχεδὸν ἀκόλουθον τοῖς
M ^ ^
σκέλεσι τὰ πλεῖστα. τὰ μὲν γὰρ μακροσκελῆ
μακρὸν τὰ δὲ βραχυσκελῆ βραχὺν ἔχει τὸν αὐχένα,
χωρὶς τῶν στεγανοπόδων: τὰ μὲν γὰρ εἰ εἶχε βρα-
χὺν ἐπὶ σκέλεσι μακροῖς, οὐκ ἂν ὑπηρέτει αὐτοῖς ὁ

\ \ \ ^ ^ ^
αὐχὴν πρὸς τὴν ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς νομήν, τοῖς δ᾽ εἰ

^ , 3, ^

μακρὸς ἦν ἐπὶ βραχέσιν. ἔτι δὲ" τοῖς κρεωφάγοις
αὐτῶν ὑπεναντίον av ἦν) τὸ μῆκος πρὸς τὸν βίον:

ε M λ , \ 2 / ^ > € , >
o γὰρ μακρὸς αὐχὴν ἀσθενής, τοῖς δ᾽ ὁ βίος ἐκ
τοῦ κρατεῖν ἐστιν. διόπερ οὐδὲν τῶν γαμψωνύχων
μακρὸν ἔχει τὸν αὐχένα. τὰ δὲ στεγανόποδα καὶ

MNA
(rà)' διηρηµένους μὲν ἔχοντα τοὺς πόδας σεσιµω-

1 ὄν Y, Ogle: om. vulg.
402

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. πι.

they have few parts which differ from one to another.
But as compared with other animals, they differ in
respect of the form of their parts. One peculiarity
of the birds is that they all have feathers, whereas
in other animals the parts are covered with hair, or
scales, or horny plates. A bird's feather is split, and
therefore different in form from the wing of certain
insects, which is undivided ; as well as having a shaft,
whereas the insects have none. Another peculiarity
of birds is the beak, an extraordinary appendage to
the head. It is made of bone, and serves them
instead of teeth and lips, just as the elephant's trunk
takes the place of hands, and the tongue of certain
insects replaces a mouth. We have spoken already
of the sense-organs.^

Birds have a neck which sticks up, and for the same
reason that other creatures have one. Some have a
long neck, some a short one : in most of them it corre-
sponds in length fairly closely to the legs, so that the
long-legged birds have a long neck and the short-
legged birds a short neck (web-footed birds excepted.)
What assistance in getting food out of the ground
would a short neck be to a bird on long legs, or a long
neck to a bird on short legs? Furthermore, the
carnivorous birds would find a long neck a real dis-
advantage in their daily life. These birds depend
for their livelihood on superior strength, and length
of neck means lack of strength ; so no crook-taloned
bird has a long neck. Web-footed birds, how-
ever, together with others in the same class whose

?^ [n Book II. chh. 12 ff.

2 δὲ Langkavel: ye Yb: om. vulg.
* ἂν ἦν PYb, Ogle: om. vulg.
* «τὰ» Ogle.

403

693 a

10

T
c

20

to
CY

693 b

ARISTOTLE

μένους δὲ Kal! ἐν τῷ, αὐτῶ γένει ὄντα τοῖς στεγανό-
ποσι, τὸν μὲν αὐχένα μακρὸν ἔχουσιν (χρήσιμος
\
yap τοιοῦτος ὢν πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν τὴν ἐκ τοῦ
ὑγροῦ), τὰ δὲ σκέλη πρὸς τὴν νεῦσιν βραχέα.
Διαφορὰν δ᾽ ἔχει καὶ τὰ ῥύγχη κατὰ τοὺς βίους.
τὰ μὲν γὰρ εὐθὺ ἔχει τὰ δὲ γαμψόν, εὐθὺ μὲν ὅσα
τροφῆς € ἕνεκεν, γαμψὸν δὲ τὰ ὠμοφάγα: χρήσιμον
γὰρ πρὸς τὸ κρατεῖν τὸ τοιοῦτον, τὴν δὲ τροφὴν
ἀναγκαῖον ἀπὸ ζῴων .. ee καὶ τὰ πολλὰ

5 βιαζομένοις. ὅσων δ᾽ ἔλειος ὁ βίος καὶ ποοφάγος,

πλατὺ τὸ ῥύγχος ἔχουσιν: πρός τε γὰρ τὴν ὄρυξιν
χρήσιμον τὸ τοιοῦτον καὶ πρὸς τὴν τῆς τροφῆς
σπάσιν καὶ κουράν. ἔνια δὲ καὶ μακρὸν ἔχει τὸ
ῥύγχος τῶν τοιούτων, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸν αὐχένα, διὰ
τὸ λαμβάνειν τὴν τροφὴν ἐκ τοῦ βάθους. καὶ τὰ
πολλὰ τῶν τοιούτων καὶ τῶν στεγανοπόδων 7
ἁπλῶς ἢ κατὰ᾽ μόριον" θηρεύοντα ζῇ τῶν ἐν τῷ
ὑγρῷ ἔνια ζωδαρίων: καὶ γίνεται τοῖς τοιούτοις ὁ
μὲν αὐχὴν καθάπερ, ἁλιευταῖς ὁ" κάλαμος, τὸ δὲ
ῥύγχος otov ἠ" ὁρμιὰ καὶ τὸ ἀγκιστρον.

Ta δὲ πρανῆ τοῦ σώματος καὶ τὰ ὕπτια, καὶ τὰ
τοῦ καλουμένου θώρακος ἐπὶ τῶν τετραπόδων,

ε \ Cat), DR em yof. , / E
: ὁλοφυὴς ο τοπος επι TWV ὀρνίθων εστιν: και εχουσιν

ἀπηρτημένας ἀντὶ τῶν βραχιόνων καὶ τῶν σκελῶν
^ ,
τῶν προσθίων" τὰς πτέρυγας, ἴδιόν τι μόριον,
διόπερ ἀντὶ ὠμοπλάτης τὰ τελευταῖα ἐπὶ τοῦ νώτου
τῶν πτερύγων ἔχουσιν.
/ \ / » , ,
Σκέλη δὲ καθάπερ ἄνθρωπος δύο, κεκαμμένα

1 καὶ Yb, Ogle: ὡς vulg.
? κατὰ Y, Ogle: κατὰ τὸ vulg.
ὃ post μόριον habet ταὐτὸ vulg.: ravra S: ταῦτα P : τούτοις

coni. Ogle.
404

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. Xi:

feet though divided into toes yet are fashioned like
a snub-nose "—these have long necks, because a long
neck is useful to them for getting food out of the
water. Their feet, on the contrary, are short so that
they can swim.

Birds' beaks also differ according to their different
habits oflife. Some beaks are straight, some curved ;
straight if they are used simply for feeding, curved if
the bird eats raw meat, because a curved beak is
useful for overpowering their prey, and such birds
have to get their food from animals, most often by
force. Those whose life is spent in swamps and are
herbivorous have broad beaks, which are useful for
digging and pulling up their food and for cropping
plants. Some of them, however, have a long beak and
a long neck as well, because they get their food from
some depth. Practically all these birds and the com-
pletely or partially web-footed ones live by preying
upon certain of the tiny water-animals, and their
neck is to these birds what his fishing-rod is to an
angler, while their beak is like a line and hook.

The under and the upper sides of the body (1.ε. of
what is called the trunk in quadrupeds) are in birds
one uninterrupted whole. Instead of arms and fore-
legs they have wings attached to this part (wings are
another peculiarity), and hence, instead of having the
shoulder-blade on their back they have the ends of
the wings there.

Birds, like men, have two legs, which are bent in-

? According to Ogle, this means that the main stem of the
toe corresponds to the ridge of the nose, and the lobes on
either side of it to the flattened nostrils.

* ἁλιευταῖς ὁ PQSU : ἀλιευτικὸς ὁ Yb: ἁλιευτικὸς Z, vulg.
δ ἡ Yb: om. vulg.
6 sic Yb, Ogle: ἀπηρτ. γὰρ ἀντὶ et mox ἔχουσι post προσθίων
vulg. i
405

693 b

10

15

ARISTOTLE

/ \ Z ” M , σ »”
καθάπερ τὰ τετράποδα εἴσω, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ ἄνθρω-
πος ἔξω" τὰς δὲ πτέρυγας, ὡς τὰ πρόσθια σκέλη
τῶν τετραπόδων, ἐπὶ τὸ περιφερές. δίπουν Ò ἐξ
ἀνάγκης. ἐστίν: τῶν γὰρ ἐναίμων ἡ τοῦ ὄρνιθος
οὐσία, ἅμα δὲ καὶ πτερυγωτός, τὰ δ᾽ ἔναιμα οὐ
κινεῖται πλείοσιν 7 τέτταρσι σημείοις. τὰ μὲν οὖν
ἀπηρτημένα μόρια. -τέτταρα, ὥσπερ τοῖς ἄλλοις
τοῖς πεζοῖς καὶ τοῖς πορευτικοῖς, ἔστι καὶ τοῖς
ὄρνισιν: ἀλλὰ τοῖς μὲν βραχίονες καὶ σκέλη, τοῖς δὲ
τετράποσι σκέλη τέτταρα ὑπάρχει, τοῖς Ò ὅ ὄρνισιν
ἀντὶ τῶν προσθίων σκελῶν η βραχιόνων πτέρυγες

,

τὸ ἴδιόν ἐστιν" κατὰ ταύτας γὰρ τονικού: εἶσι, τῷ
Ò ὄρνιθι ἐν τῇ οὐσίᾳ τὸ πτητικόν ἐστιν. ὥστε
λείπεται αὐτοῖς ἐξ ἀνάγκης δίποσιν εἶναι’ οὕτω γὰρ
τέτταρσι σημείοις κινήσονται μετὰ τῶν πτερύγων.

Στῆθος δ᾽ ἔχουσιν ἅπαντες ὀξὺ καὶ σαρκῶδες,
ὀξὺ μὲν πρὸς τὴν πτῆσιν (τὰ γὰρ πλατέα πολὺν
Dr Φ 3 ^ / / > ^ / /
ἀέρα ὠθοῦντα δυσκίνητά ἐστι), σαρκῶδες δέ, διότι

R > \ > \ M M » /
τὸ ὀξὺ ἀσθενὲς μὴ πολλὴν ἔχον σκέπην.

cy ` M \ ^ / / ` M »

Yao δὲ τὸ στῆθος κοιλία μέχρι πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον
^ ^ ^ /
τοῦ περιττώματος καὶ τὴν τῶν σκελῶν καμπήν,
καθάπερ τοῖς τετράποσι καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις. µε-
ταξὺ μὲν οὖν τῶν πτερύγων καὶ τῶν σκελῶν ταῦτα

τὰ μόριά ἐστιν.
2 M 2 , \ ^ , er »
Ομφαλὸν © ἐν μὲν τῇ γενέσει ἅπαντα ἔχει

1 sic PYb, Ogle: σκέλη, τοῖς δὲ τετρ. om. vulg.
2 πτητικοί conieci ; idem Th. (volatiles Gaza).

a For an explanation of Aristotle's terminology on this
subject see additional note on p. 433.

» "The chief difficulty in translating this passage is due to
the word τονικοί, a jargon-adjective in -ικός, which seems to
have been suggested to Aristotle’s mind by the similar adjec-

406

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xn.

wards as in the quadrupeds, not outwards as in man.^
The wings are bent with the convex side outwards,
like the forelegs of quadrupeds. It is inevitable that
a bird should have two feet, for (a) it belongs essenti-
ally to the blooded creatures and (b) it is winged,
and (c) four is the greatest number of motion-
points which a blooded creature can have. So there
are four parts (or limbs) attached to a bird's body.
and this corresponds exactly with the other blooded
creatures, viz. those that live and move upon the
ground. The only difference is that whereas the
latter have two arms and two legs (or, if they are
quadrupeds, four legs), the peculiarity of birds is
that they have wings instead of arms (or forelegs).
As its very essence includes the power to fly, a
bird must have something which it can stretch out,
and wings provide this. ^ So it remains that of ne-
cessity a bird shall have two feet: these with the two
wings bring up the number of its motion-points
to four.

ΑΙ] birds have a sharp-edged, fleshy breast:
sharp-edged, for flying (a wide surface displaces so
much air that it impedes its own motion); fleshy,
because a sharp-edged thing is weak unless it has
a good covering.

Below the breast is the stomach, which extends (as
in the quadrupeds and in man) as far as the residual
vent and the point where the legs join the body.

Those are the parts, then, which have their situation
between the wings and the legs.

Birds, in common with all animals which are pro-

tive πτητικόν in the next line. Literally, the passage reads:
* for it is at these [viz. the wings] that birds are stretchable ;
and flight-ability is included in the essence of a bird."

407

693 b

t5
or

694a

οι

10

15

ARISTOTLE

ὅσαπερ ζῳοτοκεῖται 7 ἢ ᾠοτοκεῖται, τῶν δ᾽ ὀρνίθων

αὐξηθέντων ἄδηλος. ἡ Ò αἰτία δήλη ἐν τοῖς περὶ

| γένεσιν" εἰς γὰρ τὸ ἔντερον ἡ σύμφυσις γίνεται, καὶ

οὐχ ὥσπερ τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις τῶν φλεβῶν τι μόριόν
ἐστιν.

Ἔτι τῶν ὀρνίθων οἱ μὲν πτητικοὶ καὶ τὰς πτέρυγας
μεγάλας ἔχουσι καὶ ἰσχυράς, οἷον οἱ γαμψώνυχες
καὶ ὠμοφάγοι: ἀνάγκη γὰρ πτητικοὺς᾽ εἶναι διὰ τὸν
βίον, ὥσθ᾽ ἕνεκα τούτου καὶ πλῆθος ἔ ἔχουσι πτερῶν
καὶ τὰς πτέρυγας μεγάλας. ἐστι δ᾽ οὐ μόνον τὰ
γαμψώνυχα ἀλλὰ καὶ ἄλλα γένη ὀρνίθων πτητικά,
ὅσοις 7) σωτηρία ἐν τῇ ταχυτῆτι τῆς πτήσεως ἢ
ἐκτοπιστικὸς 6 βίος. ἔνια ὃ᾽ οὐ πτητικὰ τῶν
ὀρνίθων ἐστὶν ἀλλὰ βαρέα, οἷς ὁ βίος ἐπίγειος καὶ
ἔστι καρποφάγα ἢ πλωτὰ καὶ περὶ ὕδωρ βιοτεύου-
σιν. ἔστι δὲ τὰ μὲν τῶν γαμψωνύχων σώματα
μικρὰ ἄνευ᾽ τῶν πτερύγων διὰ τὸ εἰς ταύτας" dva-
λίσκεσθαι τὴν τροφὴν (καὶ) εἰς τὰ ὅπλα καὶ τὴν
βοήθειαν: τοῖς δὲ μὴ πτητικοῖς τοὐναντίον τὰ σώ-
para ὀγκώδη, διὸ βαρέα ἐστίν. ἔχουσι Ò ἔνιοι
τῶν βαρέων βοήθειαν ἀντὶ τῶν πτερύγων τὰ καλού-
peva? πλῆκτρα ἐπὶ τοῖς σκέλεσιν. apa Ò οἱ αὐτοὶ
οὐ γίνονται πλῆκτρα ἔχοντες καὶ γαμψώνυχες:
αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι οὐδὲν ἡ φύσις ποιεῖ περίεργον. ἔστι
δὲ τοῖς μὲν γαμφωνύχοις καὶ πτητικοῖς ἄχρηστα τὰ

1 πτητικοὺς P, Rackham: πτητικὰ Yb: πτητικοῖς Z, vulg.
2 post ἄνευ habent τῶν πτερῶν καὶ Yb.

3 εἰς ταύτας QSUZ : ἐνταῦθα vulg.
4 «καὶ» Ogle. * desinit Z.

? 'This passage must be supplemented by reference to others
(such as De gen. an. 153 b 20 ff., and Hist. An. 561 b), in which
Aristotle speaks of two umbilici or umbilical cords—i.e. he
recognized the allantois as well as the umbilical vesicle. He

408

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xr.

duced alive or out of eggs, have an umbilicus while
they are developing, but when they are more fully
grown it ceases to be visible. The reason for this is
clear from what happens during their development :
the umbilical cord grows on to the intestine and
unites with it, and does not form a part of the system
of blood-vessels, as it does in the Vivipara.^

The good fliers have big strong wings, e.g. the
birds which have crooked talons and feed on raw
meat: these must be good fliers owing to their habits
of life, and so they have an abundance of feathers and
big wings. Butthere are other sorts of birds which are
good fliers beside these: birds whose safety lies in
their speed of flight ; and migrants. Some birds are
poor fliers : heavy birds, which spend their time on
the ground and feed on fruits ; or birds that live on
and around the water. The crook-taloned birds, leav-
ing out of account their wings, have small bodies, be-
cause the nutriment is used up to produce the wings
and weapons of offence and defensive armour. The
poor fliers, on the contrary, have bulky, and therefore
heavy, bodies. Some of these instead of wings have
as a means of defence “ spurs " on their legs. The
same bird never possesses both spurs and talons, and
the reason is that Nature never makes anything that `
is superfluous or needless. Spurs are of no use to a
states that in the bird's egg, as the embryo grows, the allantois
(the ** second umbilicus ”) collapses first and then the “ first
umbilicus" (De gen. an. 754 a 9). Actually the reverse
order is the correct one, but the interval is comparatively
short. The umbilical vesicle in mammals, which shrivels
very early in the process of development, escaped the notice
of Aristotle, who supposed their allantois to be comparable to
the umbilical vesicle of reptiles and birds. The umbilical

vesicle of mammals was discovered by Needham in 1667.
(See Ogle's note ad loc.)

409

ARISTOTLE
694 a

^ , / , , ^ ^ ,
πλῆκτρα: χρήσιμα γάρ ἐστιν ἐν ταῖς πεζαῖς μάχαις,
διὸ ὑπάρχει ἐνίοις τῶν βαρέων: τούτοις δ οὐ

, y 5 A \ A € Sim
μόνον ἄχρηστοι ἀλλὰ καὶ βλαβεροὶ οἱ γαμψοὶ ὄνυχες
τῷ ἐμπήγνυσθαι ὑπεναντίοι πρὸς τὴν πορείαν ὄντες.

/

20010 καὶ τὰ γαμφώνυχα πάντα φαύλως πορεύεται
καὶ ἐπὶ πέτραις οὐ καθιζάνουσιν: ὑπεναντία yap
αὐτοῖς πρὸς ἀμφότερα ἡ τῶν ὀνύχων φύσις.

> 5 "ὁ A ^ ` \ / /
Εξ ἀνάγκης δὲ τοῦτο περὶ τὴν γένεσιν συμβέβη-
“~ > ^
κεν. τὸ γὰρ γεῶδες ἐν TH σώματι ἐξορμώμε-
vov! χρήσιμα μόρια γίνεται πρὸς τὴν ἀλκήν" ἄνω
, Y!
μὲν ῥυὲν ῥύγχους ἐποίησε σκληρότητα ἢ μέγεθος,

95 ἂν δὲ κάτω ῥυῇ, πλῆκτρα ἐν τοῖς σκέλεσιν ἢ ἐπὶ
τῶν ποδῶν ὀνύχων μέγεθος καὶ ἰσχύν. dpa δ᾽
» . z e ^ , ^
ἄλλοθι καὶ ἄλλοθι ἕκαστα τούτων ov ποιεῖ: δια-

. ε / P ~
σπωμένη γὰρ ἀσθενὴς γίνεται ἡ φύσις τούτου τοῦ
περιττώματος. τοῖς δὲ σκελῶν κατασκευάζει μῆ-

694b κος. ἐνίοις δ᾽ ἀντὶ τούτων συμπληροῖ τὸ μεταξὺ
^ ^ ^ €
τῶν ποδῶν: καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἀναγκαίως ot πλωτοὶ
^ , ’ ε . E ^ 9 4 ’ ε .
τῶν ὀρνίθων οἱ μὲν ἁπλῶς εἰσὶ στεγανόποδες, οἱ δὲ
διηρηµένην μὲν ἔχουσι τὴν καθ᾽ ἕκαστα τῶν δακτύ-
ὅλων φύσιν, πρὸς ἑκάστῳ δ᾽ αὐτῶν προσπέφυκεν
οἷον πλάτη καθ᾽ ὅλον συνεχής.
^E 5 / ^ T ^ / à A ,
É ἀνάγκης μὲν οὖν ταῦτα συμβαίνει διὰ ταύτας
^ 3 / € \ A . ’ » ,
τὰς αἰτίας: ὡς δὲ διὰ τὸ βέλτιον ἔχουσι τοιούτους
~ ~ ᾽ ^
τοὺς πόδας τοῦ βίου χάριν, ἵνα ζῶντες ἐν ὑγρῷ καὶ
τῶν πτερύγων: ἀχρείων ὄντων τοὺς πόδας χρησί-
^ . e
μους ἔχωσι πρὸς τὴν νεῦσιν. γίνονται γὰρ ὥσπερ

1 ἐξορμώμενον Peck : καὶ ἔξορμον ἐκ τούτου τὰ Yb: ἔξω ῥυὲν
Langkavel ; fortasse ἐξορμᾶται καὶ ἐκ τούτου τὰ.

2 πτερύγων Yb, Ogle: πτερῶν vulg.
410

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, IV. χι.

bird that has talons and can fly well: spurs are useful
for fights on the ground, and that is why certain of
the heavy birds possess them, while talons would not
be merely useless to them but a real disadvantage ^ :
they would stick in the ground and impede the birds
when walking. And in fact all crook-taloned birds
do walk badly, and they never perch upon rocks ;
in both instances the nature of their claws is the
impediment.”

This state of affairs is the necessary result of the
process of their development. There is earthy sub-
stance in the bird’s body which courses along and
issues out and turns into parts that are useful for
weapons of offence. When it courses upwards it
produces a good hard beak, or a large one; if it
courses downwards it produces spurs on the legs or
makes the claws on the feet large and strong. But
it does not produce spurs and large claws simul-
taneously, for this residual substance would be
weakened if it were scattered about. Again, some-
times this substance makes the legs long; and in
some birds, instead of that, it fills in the spaces be-
tween the toes. Thus it is of necessity that water-
birds either are web-footed, simply, or (if they have
separate toes) they have a continuous fan or blade, :
as it were, running the whole length of each toe and
of a piece with it.

From the reasons just stated it is clear that feet
of this sort are the result of necessity, it is true ; but
they conduce to a good end and are meant to assist
the birds in their daily life, for these birds live in the
water, and while their wings are useless to them,
these feet are useful and help them to swim. They

a See above, note on 648 a 16.
ο 411

694 b
10

20

25

695 8

ARISTOTLE

αἱ κῶπαι τοῖς πλέουσι Kal’ τὰ πτερύγια τοῖς ἰχθύ-
ow: διὸ καὶ ἐὰν τῶν μὲν τὰ πτερύγια σφαλῇ, τῶν
δὲ τὸ μεταξὺ τῶν ποδῶν, οὐκέτι νέουσιν.
3 \ ^ ^ , ’ Sere »
Ενιοι δὲ μακροσκελεῖς τῶν ὀρνίθων εἰσίν. αἴτιον
2 σ € ’ - , e ^ 5 »
ὃ ὅτι ὁ βίος τῶν τοιούτων ἔλειος" τὰ ὃ ὄργανα
πρὸς τὸ ἔργον ἡ φύσις ποιεῖ, ἀλλ᾽ οὐ τὸ ἔργον πρὸς

5 τὰ ὄργανα. διὰ μὲν οὖν τὸ μὴ πλωτὰ εἶναι οὐ

στεγανόποδά ἐστι, διὰ δὲ τὸ ἐν ὑπείκοντι εἶναι τὸν
βίον μακροσκελῆ καὶ μακροδάκτυλα, καὶ τὰς Kap-

. » / 3 ^ P ε M
πὰς ἔχουσι πλείους ἐν τοῖς δακτύλοις οἱ πολλοὶ
αὐτῶν. ἐπεὶ Ò οὐ πτητικὰ μέν, ἐκ τῆς δ᾽ αὐτῆς
e > ` / € > ` > / , ^ M
ὕλης ἐστὶ πάντα, ἡ eis τὸ οὐροπύγιον αὐτοῖς τροφὴ
εἰς τὰ σκέλη καταναλισκοµένη ταῦτα ηὔξησεν. διὸ
καὶ ἐν τῇ πτήσει ἀντ᾽ οὐροπυγίου χρῶνται αὐτοῖς
πέτονται γὰρ ἀποτείνοντες εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν: οὕτω γὰρ

᾽ - / ^ / + 2 59 / y
αὐτοῖς χρήσιμα τὰ σκέλη, ἄλλως ὃ ἐμποδίζοιεν ἄν.

Τὰ δὲ βραχυσκελῆ (τὰ) σκέλη" πρὸς τῇ γαστρὶ
ἔχοντα πέτονται’ τοῖς μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν οὐκ ἐμποδί-
ζουσιν οἱ πόδες οὕτω, τοῖς δὲ γαμψώνυξι καὶ πρὸ
ἔργου εἰσὶ πρὸς τὴν ἁρπαγήν.

Τῶν δ᾽ ἐχόντων ὀρνίθων τὸν αὐχένα μακρὸν οἱ
μὲν παχύτερον ἔχοντες πέτονται ἐκτεταμένῳ τῷ
αὐχένι, οἱ δὲ λεπτότερον" συγκεκαμμένῳ᾽ ἐπιπετο-
μένοις yàp. διὰ τὴν σκέπην ἧττον εὔθρυπτόν ἐστιν.
ἰσχίον δ᾽ ἔχουσι μὲν οἱ ὄρνιθες πάντες 7) οὐκ ἂν

’ 2 . Z \ \ ` a 3 /
δόξαιεν ἔχειν, ἀλλὰ δύο μηροὺς διὰ τὸ τοῦ ἰσχίου
μῆκος: ὑποτέταται γὰρ μέχρι μέσης τῆς γαστρός.
αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι δίπουν ἐστὶ τοῦτο τὸ ζῷον οὐκ ὀρθὸν

καὶ Yb, Ogle: om. vulg.
? de δὲ βραχυσκελῆ PYb ; correxi: ἔνια δὲ βραχέα <ra Lang-
kavel» σκέλη vulg.
3 λεπτότερον Peck: λεπτὸν καὶ μακρὸν vulg.: [καὶ μακρὸν]
secl. Rackham.
412

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. χι.

are like oars to a sailor or fins to a fish. A fish that
has lost its fins can no longer swim ; nor can a bird
whose webs have been destroyed.

Some birds have long legs, owing to their living in
marshes ; for Nature makes the organs to suit the
work they have to do, not the work to suit the organ.
And these birds have no webs in their feet because
they are not water birds, but because they live on
ground that gives under them they have long legs
and long toes, and most of them have additional Joints
in their toes. Furthermore, though these birds are
not great fliers, they are composed of the same ma-
terials as the rest, and thus the nutriment which in the
others goes to produce the tail feathers, in these is
used up on the legs and makes them grow longer, and
when in flight these birds stretch them out behind
and use them in place of the missing tail feathers :
placed thus, the legs are useful to them ; otherwise
they would get in the way.

Short-legged birds keep their legs up against the
belly while they are flying, because if the feet are
there they are out of the way ; the crook-taloned
birds do it for an additional reason: the feet are
convenient for seizing prey.

When a bird has a long neck, this is either thick and `
is held stretched out during flight ; or it is slender
and is bent up during flight, because being protected
in this way it is less easily broken if the bird flies into
anything. All birds have an ischium, but in such
a way that they would not appear to have one ; it is
so long that it reaches to the middle of the belly and
looks more like a second thigh-bone. The reason for
this is that a bird, although a biped, does not stand

413

695 a

b

10

15

20

ARISTOTLE

» I.e » 5 / > Apa z ^
(ὄν), ὡς et γε εἶχε, καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἢ
- . ^
τοῖς τετράποσιν, ἀπὸ τῆς ἕδρας βραχὺ τὸ ἰσχίον
. . / , . , , 3 P A σ 9
καὶ τὸ σκέλος εὐθὺς ἐχόμενον, ἠδυνάτει ἂν ὅλως
/ ^
ἑστάναι. ὁ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ὀρθόν, τοῖς δὲ τε-
/ /
τράποσι πρὸς τὸ βάρος σκέλη ἐμπρόσθια ὑπερήρει-
E > ”/ , 3 \ A . A /
σται. οἱ Ò ὄρνιθες οὐκ ὀρθοὶ μὲν διὰ τὸ νανώδεις
7 . ’ , 2 , , ᾽ »
εἶναι τὴν φύσιν, σκέλη δ᾽ ἐμπρόσθια οὐκ ἔχου-
5 ^ > .
σιν διὰ τὸ πτέρυγας ἔχειν᾽ ἀντ᾽ αὐτῶν. ἀντὶ δὲ
4 >
τούτου μακρὸν ἡ φύσις τὸ ἰσχίον ποιήσασα εἰς
μέσον προσήρεισεν: ἐντεῦθεν δ᾽ ὑπέθηκε τὰ σκέλη,
~ A »
ὅπως ἰσορρόπου ὄντος τοῦ βάρους ἔνθεν καὶ ἔνθεν
, ^
πορεύεσθαι δύνηται καὶ μένειν." δι᾽ ἣν μὲν οὖν
5» ^ >
αἰτίαν δίπουν ἐστὶν οὐκ ὀρθὸν ὄν, εἴρηται: τοῦ ὃ
> . ^
ἄσαρκα τὰ σκέλη εἶναι ἡ αὐτὴ αἰτία καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν
τετραπόδων, ὑπὲρ ἧς καὶ πρόσθεν εἴρηται.
P 5 ») \ / € y ε ’ ε
Τετραδάκτυλοι δ᾽ εἰσὶ πάντες οἱ ὄρνιθες ὁμοίως οἱ
στεγανόποδες τοῖς σχιζόποσιν (περὶ γὰρ τοῦ στρου-
θοῦ τοῦ Λιβυκοῦ ὕστερον διοριοῦμεν, ὅτι διχηλός,
ἅμα τοῖς λοιποῖς ἐναντιώμασιν οἷς ἔχει πρὸς τὸ τῶν
- »
ὀρνίθων γένος). τούτων δ᾽ οἱ μὲν τρεῖς ἔμπρο-
ε 5 T 3 \ > / > M ,
σθεν, ὁ δ᾽ εἷς ὄπισθεν πρὸς ἀσφάλειαν ἀντὶ πτέρνης:
καὶ τῶν μακροσκελῶν λείπει τοῦτο κατὰ μέγεθος,
οἷον συμβέβηκεν ἐπὶ τῆς κρεκός: πλείους Ò οὐκ
ἔχουσι δακτύλους." ἐπὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἄλλων οὕτως
ε ^ / » / € 8 Pee. / /
ἡ τῶν δακτύλων ἔχει θέσις, ἡ δ᾽ ἴυγξ δύο μόνον
ἔχει τοὺς ἔμπροσθεν καὶ δύο τοὺς ὄπισθεν": αἴτιον

1 «ὄν» Rackham, cf. |. 14 infra.

2 ὅλως PQU, Ogle: ὀρθὸν vulg.

? correxi; ἔχουσιν: διὰ τοῦτο πτέρυγας ἔχουσιν vulg. (πτέρυ-
yas, δὲ altero ἔχουσιν omisso, Y, Ogle, qui post διὰ τοῦτο
interpungit).

414

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xu.

upright ; and if it had an ischium which extended
only a short way from the fundament and was fol-
lowed immediately by the leg (as in man and the
quadrupeds), it would be unable to stand up at all.
Man can stand upright, and quadrupeds have fore-
legs to support their forward weight ; birds, how-
ever, neither stand upright (because they are dwart-
like), nor have forelegs (because they have wings in-
stead). By way of compensation, Nature has made
the ischium long, reaching to the middle of the
body, and has fixed it fast, while beneath it she has
placed the legs, so that the weight may be equally
distributed on either side and the bird enabled to
walk and to stand still. This shows why birds are bi-
peds although they are unable to stand upright. The
reason why their legs are lacking in flesh is the same
as for all quadrupeds and has been stated already."
All birds, web-footed or not, have four toes on each
foot. (The Libyan ostrich will be dealt with later,*
and its cloven hoof and other inconsistencies with the
tribe of birds will be discussed.) Of these four toes,
three are in front, and the fourth is at the back in-
stead of a heel, for stability. In the long-legged
birds this toe is deficient in length, as for instance in
the Crex. Still, the number of toes does not exceed `
four. This arrangement of the toes holds good gener-
ally, but the wryneck is an exception, for it has only
two toes in front and two at the back. This is because

α See above, 693 b 3 ff.
> See 689 b 10 ff.
* At the end of the book.
5 uévew Yb: pén vulg.
5 διὰ τὴν στενότητα τοῦ σκέλους add. PYb.
6 ἔμπροσθεν ... ὄπισθεν Karsch: ὄπισθεν... ἔμπροσθεν vulg.

415

ARISTOTLE

5a
ài 25 0. ὅτι ἧττόν ἐστιν αὐτῆς τὸ σῶμα προπετὲς ἐπὶ τὸ
πρόσθεν ἡ ἢ τὸ τῶν ἄλλων.

Ὄρχεις δ᾽ -ἔχουσι μὲν πάντες οἱ ὄρνιθες, ἐντὸς
δ᾽ ἔχουσιν: 5 δ᾽ αἰτία ἐν τοῖς περὶ τὰς γενέσεις
λεχθήσεται τῶν ζῴων.

6060 Tà μὲν οὖν τῶν ὀρνίθων μόρια τὸν τρόπον ἔχει
τοῦτον.

XIII. To δὲ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος ἔτι μᾶλλον κεκολό-
βωται τῶν ἐκτὸς μορίων. οὔτε γὰρ σκέλη οὔτε
χεῖρας οὔτε πτέρυγας ἔχουσιν (εἴρηται δὲ περὶ τού-

ετων 7 αἰτία πρότερον), ἀλλ᾽ ὅλον ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς
τὸ κύτος συνεχές ἐστι μέχρι τῆς οὐρᾶς. ταύτην δ᾽
οὐχ ὁμοίαν ἔχουσι πάντες, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν παραπλη-
σίαν,᾽ τῶν δὲ πλατέων ἐ ἔνια ἀκανθώδη καὶ μακράν:
ἡ ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ αὔξησις γίνεται εἰς τὸ πλάτος, οἷόν
ἐστι νάρκαις καὶ τρυγόσι καὶ εἴ τι τοιοῦτον ἄλλο

10 σέλαχός ἐστιν. τῶν μὲν οὖν τοιούτων ἀκανθῶδες
καὶ μακρὸν τὸ οὐραῖόν ἐστιν, ἐνίων δὲ σαρκῶδες μὲν
βραχὺ δὲ διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν δι᾽ ἥνπερ ταῖς
νάρκαις: διαφέρει γὰρ οὐδέν, ἢ ἢ βραχὺ μὲν σαρκω-
δέστερον δέ, ἢ μακρὸν μὲν ἀσαρκότερον ὃ εἶναι.

Ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν βατράχων τὸ ἐναντίον συμβέβηκεν

15 διὰ γὰρ τὸ μὴ σαρκῶδες εἶναι τὸ πλάτος αὐτῶν
τὸ ἐμπρόσθιον, ὅσον ἀφῄρηται σαρκῶδες, πρὸς τὸ
ὄπισθεν αὐτῶν" ἔθηκεν 7) φύσις καὶ τὴν οὐράν.

Οὐκ € ἔχουσι δ᾽ ἀπηρτημένα κῶλα οἱ ἰχθύες διὰ τὸ
νευστικὴν εἶναι τὴν. φύσιν. αὐτῶν κατὰ τὸν τῆς
οὐσίας λόγον, ἐπεὶ οὔτε περίεργον οὐδὲν οὔτε μάτην

1 μὲν ἄλλα m. P: μὲν ἄμῃ m. Platt: μὲν παραπλήσια «τοῖς

πτερυγίοις) Ogle, similia voluit Thurot.
? αὐτῶν U : αὐτὸ vulg.

a See De gen. an. 114 b 4 ff., 719 b 11.

416

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xu.—xut1.

the weight of its body tends forward less than that of
other birds.

All birds have testicles, but they are inside the
body. The reason for this will be stated in the
` treatise on the different methods of generation
among animals.?

This concludes our description of the parts of Birds. (iii) Fishes:

XIII. In the tribe of Fishes the external parts
are still further stunted. Fishes have neither legs,
hands, nor wings (the reason has been stated earlier),
but the whole trunk has an uninterrupted line from
head to tail. Not all fishes’ tails are alike ; but the Tail,
general run of them have similar tails, though some
of the flat-fish have a long, spiny one, because the
material for the tails growth goes into the width
of the flat body : this happens in the torpedo-fishes,
in the Trygons, and any other Selachians of the same
sort. These have long, spiny tails. Others have
short, fleshy ones, and for the selfsame reason: it
comes to the same thing whether the tail is short
and has a good deal of flesh or long with little flesh.

In the fishing-frog ® the opposite has taken place.
Here, the wide, flat part of the body in front is not
fleshy ; Nature has taken the fleshy material away
from the front and added an equivalent amount at `
the back—in the tail.

Fishes have no separate limbs attached to the body.
(a) This is because Nature never makes anything that
is superfluous or needless, and by their essence and
constitution ^ fishes are naturally swimmers and so

> Lophius piscatorius, known as the ''goosefish" in
U.S.A., erroneously included by Aristotle (De gen. απ.
754 a 25) with the Selachia, though he observed that it

differed in many important points.
* Logos: see Introduction, pp. 26 f.

417

695 b
20

2

or

696 a

10

ARISTOTLE

Ù, φύσις ποιεῖ. ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἔναιμά ἐστι κατὰ τὴν
οὐσίαν, διὰ μὲν τὸ νευστικὰ εἶναι πτερύγια ἔχει, διὰ
δὲ τὸ μὴ πεζεύειν. οὐκ ἔχει πόδας" ἡ γὰρ τῶν ποδῶν
πρόσθεσις πρὸς τὴν ἐπὶ τῷ πεδίῳ κίνησιν χρήσιμός
ἐστιν. ἅμα δὲ πτερύγια τέτταρα καὶ πόδας οὐχ
οἷόν T ἔχειν, οὐδ᾽ ἄλλο κῶλον τοιοῦτον οὐδέν:
ἔναιμα γάρ. οἱ δὲ κορδύλοι, βράγχια € ἔχοντες πόδας
ἔχουσιν' πτερύγια γὰρ οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ἀλλὰ τὴν οὐρὰν
μανώδη καὶ πλατεῖαν.

"Exovat δὲ τῶν ἰχθύων ὅσοι μὴ πλατεῖς, καθάπερ
βάτος καὶ τρυγών, τέτταρα πτερύγια, δύο μὲν ἐν
τοῖς πρανέσι, δύο δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις: πλείω δὲ
τούτων οὐδείς, ἄναιμοι γὰρ ἂν ἦσαν. τούτων δὲ τὰ
μὲν ἐν τῷ πρανεῖ σχεδὸν πάντες ἔχουσι, τὰ δ᾽ ἐν
τοῖς ὑπτίοις ἔνιοι τῶν μακρῶν καὶ πάχος ἐχόντων
οὐκ ἔχουσιν, οἷον ἐγχέλυς καὶ γόγγρος καὶ κεστρέων
τι γένος τὸ ἐν τῇ λίμνῃ τῇ ἐν Σιφαῖς. ὅσα δ᾽ ἐστὶ
μακροφυέστερα καὶ ὀφιώδη μᾶλλον, οἷον σμύραινα,
οὐδὲν ἔχουσι πτερύγιον. ἁπλῶς, ἀλλὰ ταῖς καμπαῖς
κινοῦνται, .Χρώμεναι τῷ ὑγρῷ ὥσπερ οἱ ὄφεις τῇ
yn TOV αὐτὸν" γὰρ οἱ ὄφεις τρόπον” νέουσιν ὅ ὄνπερ
ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ἕρπουσιν. αἰτία δὲ τοῦ μὴ ἔχειν τοὺς
ὀφιώδεις τῶν ἰχθύων πτερύγια, ἥπερ καὶ τῶν
ὄφεων τοῦ ἄποδας εἶναι. τὸ δ᾽ αἴτιον ἐν τοῖς περὶ
πορείας καὶ κινήσεως τῶν ζῴων εἴρηται. ἢ γὰρ

κακῶς ἂν ἐκινοῦντο, τέτταρσι σημείοις κινούμενα

1
2

τὸν αὐτὸν Peck: τοῦτον vulg.
οἱ ὄφεις τὸν τρόπον Yb: τὸν delevi: τὸν τρόπον οἱ ὄφεις

vulg.

? The Cordylus was probably the larval form of some
triton or newt, such as Triton alpestris or Salamandra atra,
which retains its gills till it is well grown (D'Arcy Thompson).

> i.e. pectoral. * i.e. ventral,

418

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x11.

need no such limbs. But also (b) they are essentially
blooded creatures, which means that if they have four
fins they cannot have any legs or any other limbs of
the sort; so they have the fins because they are
swimmers and do not have the feet because they are
not walkers (when an animal has feet it has them
because they are useful for moving about on land).
The Cordylus,” however, has feet in addition to its
gills, since it has no fins, but only a scraggy flattened-
out tail.

Excluding flat-fish (like the Batos and Trygon), fish
have four fins : two on their under and two on their
upper surface, never more, for then they would be
bloodless animals. Almost all fishes have the two
upper ? fins, but some of the large, thick-bodied fishes
lack the under ° two—as for instance the eel and the
conger, and a sort of Cestreus that is found in the lake
at Siphae.? Fishes that have even longer bodies than
these, and are really more like serpents (as the
Smyraena*^), have no fins at all, and move along by
bending themselves about: that is, they use the
water just as serpents use the ground. And in fact
serpents swim in exactly the same way as they creep
on the ground. The reason why these serpent-like

"rj

fishes have no fins and the reason why serpents

have no feet are the same, and this has been stated
in the treatises on the Locomotion and Movement of
Animals (a) If they had four motion-points, their
movement would be poor, because the fins would

4 [n Boeotia, on the south coast near Thespiae; now
Tipha. Aristotle refers to this Cestreus of Siphae again,
De incessu απ. 108 a 5. Cf. also Hist. An. 504 Ὁ 33.

* Probably Muraena Helena.

7 See De incessu an. 109 b T; perhaps the other passage
which Aristotle has in mind is 690 b 16, in this book.

ο 419

ins,

ARISTOTLE

696 a » ` , > \ , , A
(εἴτε yap σύνεγγυς εἶχον τὰ πτερύγια, μόγις ἂν

, ~ » / ^ ` . ΄ >
16 ἐκινοῦντο, εἴτε πόρρω, διὰ τὸ πολὺ μεταξύ): εἰ
- τ P
δὲ πλείω τὰ κινητικὰ σημεῖα εἶχον, ἄναιμα ἂν ἦν.
ε , , M AR \ PTA ^ /, / , /
ἡ 9 αὐτὴ αἰτία καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν δύο μόνον ἐχόν-
/ 3 / > / / , A >
των πτερύγια ἰχθύων: ὀφιώδη γάρ ἐστι καὶ eù-
^ ^ / ^
µηκέστερα, καὶ χρῆται τῇ κάμψει ἀντὶ τῶν δύο
/ ^ ^ ^
πτερυγίων. διὸ καὶ ἐν τῷ ξηρῷ ἕρπουσι καὶ ζῶσι
. / \ A . , , / A 5 > ^
20 πολὺν χρόνον, καὶ τὰ μὲν οὐκ εὐθύ, τὰ Ò οἰκεῖα
τῆς πεζῆς ὄντα φύσεως ἧττον ἀσπαρίζει.

Αὐτῶν δὲ τῶν πτερυγίων τὰ ἐν τοῖς πρανέσιν ἔχει
τὰ δύο ἔχοντα πτερύγια μόνον, ὅσα μὴ κωλύεται
. ` / \ > » \ ^ ^»
διὰ τὸ πλάτος" τὰ Ò ἔχοντα πρὸς τῇ κεφαλῇ ἔχει

^ ^ a M
διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν μῆκος ἐν τῷ τόπῳ, ὦ ἀντὶ τούτων
M ^
95 κινήσεται' ἐπὶ γὰρ τὴν οὐρὰν πρόμηκες τὸ τῶν
, Z ^ e
τοιούτων ἐστὶν ἰχθύων σῶμα. οἱ δὲ βάτοι καὶ τὰ
^ ^ / ^
τοιαῦτα ἀντὶ τῶν πτερυγίων τῶ ἐσχάτῳ πλάτει
^ /
νέουσιν. τὰ Ò ἧττον ἔχοντα πλάτος πτερύγια
» e AN, τε ο ` \\2 2
ἔχουσιν, otov 7 νάρκη καὶ ὁ βάτραχος, τὰ (uev)? ἐν
τῷ πρανεῖ κάτω διὰ τὸ πλάτος τῶν ἄνω, τὰ δ᾽ ἐν
^ / ^ ^ ^
τοῖς ὑπτίοις πρὸς τῇ κεφαλῇ (οὐ γὰρ κωλύει κινεῖ-
4 / > > > M ^» 3 / ^
80 σθαι τὸ πλάτος): ἀλλ᾽ ἀντὶ τοῦ ἄνω ἐλάττω ταῦτα
- > ~ ^» e ` , ` ^
τῶν ἐν τῷ πρανεῖ ἔχει. ἡ δὲ νάρκη πρὸς τῇ οὐρᾷ
» ` ’ / > M \ ^ A ^ /
ἔχει τὰ δύο πτερύγια: ἀντὶ δὲ τῶν δύο τῷ πλάτει
^ € ^
χρῆται ὡς δυσὶ πτερυγίοις ἑκατέρῳ τῷ ἡμικυκλίῳ.
Περὶ δὲ τῶν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ μορίων καὶ αἰσθητη-
»
ρίων εἴρηται πρότερον.

1 τὰ δ᾽ ἧττον . . . οἷον ἡ P: ἡ δὲ tantum vulg.
2 «μὲν» Langkavel.

420

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xm.

either be very close together, or else a long way apart,
and in either case would not move easily. (b) On the
other hand, if they had more than four motion-points
they would be bloodless creatures. The same reason
holds good for those fishes that have only two fins.
These also are serpent-like and fairly long, and they
use their power of bending instead of the two missing
fins. And this enables them besides to crawl about
and to live a good length of time on dry land; and
it is some while before they begin to gasp; indeed,
those which are akin to the land-animals are affected
even less than the others.

Except for those whose width and flatness prevents
it, all fishes that have only two fins have the upper 4
ones ; and these fins are by the head, because there
is no length of body just there which they could use
instead of fins for propulsion—length such as fish
of this sort have towards their tail-end. The Batoi
and such fishes swim by means of the edge of their
flat surface which they use instead of fins. Fish
which are not so flat, such as the torpedo-fish and the
fishing-frog, possess fins, but they have their upper
fins toward their tail-end owing to the flatness of
the forepart, and their under fins near the head (since
the flatness of the fish does not prevent its motion) ; `
but the under ones are smaller than the upper ones,
to make up for being placed forward. The torpedo-
fish has two of his fins by his tail; and instead of
these two he uses the wide piece on each of his semi-
circles? as though it were a fin.

We have already spoken of the parts in the head
and of the sense-organs.

α i.e. pectoral.
> Cf. De incessu an. 109 b 17.

421

ARISTOTLE

696 a » ` nix. , / ` ^ `

Ίδιον ὃ ἔχει τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος πρὸς τἆλλα τὰ

696 b ἔναιμα ζῷα τὴν τῶν βραγχίων φύσιν" δι᾽ Jv δ᾽
αἰτίαν, εἴρηται ἐν τοῖς περὶ ἀναπνοῆς. καὶ ἔχει δὲ
τὰ ἔχοντα βράγχια τὰ μὲν ἐπικαλύμματα τοῖς
βραγχίοις, τὰ δὲ σελάχη πάντα' ἀκάλυπτα. αἴτιον

$i ς \ > A > / ` > , ,

50. ὅτι οἱ μὲν ἀκανθώδεις εἰσί, τὸ Ò ἐπικάλυμμα
2 - A \ / / , »
ἀκανθῶδες, τὰ δὲ σελάχη πάντα χονδράκανθα. ἔτι
D. e / ^ \ 0 ^2 ^ \ A > ,

ἡ κίνησις τῶν μὲν νωθρὰ” διὰ τὸ μὴ ἀκανθώδη
εἶναι μηδὲ νευρώδη, τῶν δ᾽ ἀκανθωδῶν ταχεῖα" τοῦ
δ᾽ ἐπικαλύμματος ταχεῖαν δεῖ γίνεσθαι τὴν κίνησιν:
ὥσπερ γὰρ πρὸς ἐκπνοὴν ἡ τῶν βραγχίων ἐστὶ

10 φύσις. διὰ τοῦτο τοῖς σελαχώδεσι καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν
πόρων ἡ συναγωγὴ γίνεται, τῶν βραγχίων, καὶ οὐ
δεῖ ἐπικαλύμματος, ὅ ὅπως γίνηται ταχεῖα.

Οἱ μὲν οὖν αὐτῶν ἔχουσι πολλὰ βράγχια οἱ δ᾽
9X / M ε \ ^ € > € ^ ` , ο
ὀλίγα, καὶ ot μὲν διπλᾶ οἱ Ò ἁπλᾶ: τὸ Ò ἔσχατον
ε - ε - M 5 > / , ^
ἁπλοῦν οἱ πλεῖστοι. (τὴν δ᾽ ἀκρίβειαν ἐκ τῶν

15 ἀνατομῶν περὶ τούτων καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις ταῖς

M \ ^ ^ ^ » \ ^ /
περὶ τὰ ζῶα δεῖ θεωρεῖν.) αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ πλήθους
καὶ τῆς ὀλιγότητος τὸ τοῦ ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ θερμοῦ
πλῆθος καὶ ὀλιγότης- θάττω γὰρ καὶ ἰσχυροτέραν
τὴν κίνησιν δεῖ εἶναι τοῖς πλείω ἔχουσι θερμότητα.
τὰ δὲ πλείω καὶ διπλᾶ βράγχια τοιαύτην ἔχει τὴν

20 φύσιν μᾶλλον τῶν ἁπλῶν καὶ ἐλαττόνων. διὸ καὶ
ἔνια αὐτῶν ἔξω ζῆν δύναται πολὺν χρόνον, τῶν
ἐχόντων ἐλάττω καὶ ἧττον ἐγκρατῆ τὰ βράγχια,
T , / \ e > / > \ ^
οἷον ἐγχέλυς καὶ ὅσα ὀφιώδη: οὐ yap πολλῆς
δέονται καταψύξεως.

"Exe δὲ καὶ περὶ τὸ στόμα διαφοράς. τὰ μὲν

25 γὰρ κατ᾽ ἀντικρὺ ἔχει τὸ στόμα καὶ εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν,

1 (χονδράκανθα γὰρ) post πάντα vulg., om. P.

2 ἡ κίνησις . . . νωθρὰ Y: αἱ κινήσεις . . . νωθραὶ vulg.

422

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. χιπ.

The peculiarity which marks off fishes from the Gills.
other blooded animals is the possession of gills. It
has been explained in the treatise on Respiration ^ why
they have them. All fishes have coverings over their
gills, except the Selachia, none of which have them.
This is because their bones are cartilaginous, whereas
other fishes' bones are of fish-spine, and this is the
substance out of which the coverings are made. And
again, the Selachia move sluggishly owing to their
lack of fish-spine—and of sinews—while the spinous
fishes move quickly, and the movement of the cover-
ing must be a quick one, for gills are a medium for
expiration of asort. On this account in the selachian
group of fishes the passages of the gills can close up
by themselves, and no covering is needed to make sure
they close quickly.

Now some fish have many gills, some have few ;
some have double ones, some single. The last one
is nearly always a single one. (For precise details
consult the Anatomical treatises and the Researches
upon Animals") The number of gills depends upon
the amount of heat in the heart. The more heat an
animal has, the quicker and stronger must be the
movement of its gills ; and if the gills are numerous
and double they are better adapted for this than if -
they are few and single. And on this account, some
fishes (e.g. the eels and the serpentine fishes) which
need but little cooling, as is shown by their having
only a few weakish gills, can live a long time out of
water.

Fish differ also with regard to the mouth. Some Mouth,
have their mouth right at the tip, straight in front ;

9 At 476 a 1 ff., 480 b 13 ff.
> At 504 b 28 ff.

493

ARISTOTLE

696 b
. - "Y ) ^ ^ M `
τὰ δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις, οἷον ot τε δελφῖνες" καὶ τὰ

/ ` το / , `
σελαχώδη: διὸ καὶ ὕπτια στρεφόμενα λαμβάνει τὴν
/ / > € , 3 , ,
τροφήν. φαίνεται δ᾽ ἡ φύσις οὐ μόνον σωτηρίας
ἕνεκεν ποιῆσαι τοῦτο τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων (ἐν γὰρ τῇ
στρέψει σώζεται τἆλλα βραδυνόντων" πάντα γὰρ
. ^ / , , > \ . ` ` \
80 τὰ τοιαῦτα ζῳοφάγα ἐστίν), ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς τὸ μὴ
^ ^ ^ ta
ἀκολουθεῖν τῇ λαιμαργίᾳ τῇ περὶ τὴν τροφήν' ῥᾷον
M / / > A M M /
γὰρ λαμβάνοντα διεφθείρετ᾽ ἂν διὰ τὴν πλήρωσιν
- M
ταχέως. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις περιφερῆ καὶ λεπτὴν
- ,
ἔχοντα τὴν τοῦ ῥύγχους φύσιν οὐχ οἷόν τ᾽ eù-
διαίρετον ἔχειν.
ad δὲ ` ^ + 4 , ᾽ / . .
τι δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄνω τὸ στόμα ἐχόντων τὰ μὲν
5 A » \ » ^ \ / “ A
697 a ἀνερρωγὸς ἔχει τὸ στόμα τὰ δὲ μύουρον, ὅσα μὲν
σαρκοφάγα, ἀνερρωγός, ὥσπερ τὰ καρχαρόδοντα,
διὰ τὸ ἐν τῷ στόματι εἶναι τοῖς τοιούτοις τὴν ἰσχύν,
ὅσα δὲ μὴ σαρκοφάγα, μύουρον.
\ \ / e . ` » , A e
Τὸ δὲ δέρµα οἱ μὲν λεπιδωτὸν ἔχουσιν αὐτῶν (ἡ
M \ . / M / ^ ,
68€ Aeris διὰ λαμπρότητα καὶ λεπτότητα τοῦ σώ-
> / € \ / T ε/ ` /
µατος ἀφίσταται), οἱ δὲ τραχύ, οἷον ῥίνη καὶ βάτος
M A ^ 3x P \ ^ ^ . ` ,
καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα: ἐλάχιστα δὲ τὰ λεῖα. τὰ δὲ σελάχη
> / . / > > A . A /
ἀλεπίδωτα μὲν τραχέα δ᾽ ἐστὶ διὰ τὸ χονδράκανθα
A . ^ , ^ e / > ` /
εἶναι" τὸ γὰρ γεῶδες ἐκεῖθεν ἡ φύσις εἰς τὸ δέρμα
κατανήλωκεν.
Μ 5 > ` wv > \ VAD. 8 A 34373».9 /
10 “Opyets δ᾽ οὐδεὶς ἔχει ἰχθὺς οὔτ᾽ ἐκτὸς οὔτ᾽ ἐντός
1 δελφῖνες non probant Frantzius, Ogle; similia Hist. 4m.
591 b 26 secludunt Aubert et Wimmer.

a This statement about dolphins, though repeated at Hist.
an. 591 b 26, is incorrect, and as Aristotle was familiar with

424.

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. χιπ.

others have it underneath (e.g. the dolphin * and the
selachians) and that is why they turn on to their backs
to get their food. It looks as if Nature made them
do this partly to preserve other animals from them,
for they all prey on living things, and while they are
losing time turning on to their backs the other things
get away safely ; but she did it also to prevent them
from giving way too much to their gluttonous craving
for food, since if they could get it more easily they
would presently be destroyed through repletion.
Another reason is that their snout is round and small
and therefore cannot have much of an opening in it.

There are differences too among those that have
their mouth above. With some it is a great wide
opening (these are the flesh-eaters, as e.g. those with
sharp interfitting teeth, whose strength is in their
mouth); with others (the non-flesh-eaters) it is on
a tapering snout.

As for the skin: some have a scaly skin (these Skin.
scales are shiny and thin and therefore easily come
loose from the body) ; others have a rough skin, e.g.
the Rhine and the Batos and such. Those with
smooth skins are the fewest. Selachia have skins
which are scaleless but rough, owing to their bones
being cartilaginous: instead of using the earthy
matter on the bones Nature has used it for the skin.

No fish has testicles ὃ either without or within. Nor Testicles

the creature, some editors consider this reference to be an
interpolation.

^ By this Aristotle does not mean that fish have no organ
for the secretion of sperm, but that they have no organ similar
in shape and consistency to those of mammalia, etc. He calls
the corresponding organs in fish not testes, but tubes, or roe.
Aristotle's statement does not, of course, include the Selachia,
which have compact, oval testes.

425

697 a

15

2

e

25

80

697 b

ARISTOTLE

(οὐδ᾽ ἄλλο τι τῶν ἀπόδων οὐδέν, διὸ οὐδ᾽ ot ὄφεις),
πόρον δὲ τοῦ περιττώματος καὶ τῶν περὶ τὴν
γένεσιν τὸν αὐτόν, καθάπερ καὶ τἆλλα ᾠοτόκα'
πάντα kai τετράποδα, διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν κύστιν
μηδὲ γίνεσθαι περίττωμ᾽ αὐτοῖς ὑγρόν.

To μὲν οὖν τῶν ἰχθύων γένος πρὸς τἆλλα ζῷα
ταύτας ἔχει. τὰς διαφοράς, οἱ δὲ δελφῖνες καὶ αἱ
φάλαιναι καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν κητῶν βράγχια
μὲν οὐκ ἔχουσιν, αὐλὸν δὲ διὰ τὸ πνεύμονα ἔχειν'
δεχόμενα γὰρ κατὰ τὸ στόμα τὴν θάλατταν ἀφιᾶσι
κατὰ τὸν αὐλόν. ἀνάγκη μὲν γὰρ δέξασθαι τὸ
ὑγρὸν διὰ τὸ λαμβάνειν τὴν τροφὴν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ"
δεξάµενα δ᾽ ἀφιέναι ἀναγκαῖον. τὰ μὲν οὖν βράγ-
χιά ἐστι χρήσιμα τοῖς μὴ ἀναπνέουσιν" δι᾽ ἣν δ᾽
αἰτίαν, εἴρηται ἐν τοῖς περὶ ἀναπνοῆς: ἀδύνατον γὰρ
ἅμα τὸ αὐτὸ ἀναπνεῖν καὶ βράγχια ἐ ἔχειν" ἀλλὰ πρὸς
τὴν ἄφεσιν τοῦ ὕδατος ἔχουσι τὸν αὐλόν. κεῖται δ᾽
αὐτοῖς οὗτος πρὸ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου" διελάμβανε γὰρ
ἂν ἀπὸ ) THIS ῥάχεως αὐτόν. αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ πνεύμονα
ταῦτ᾽ ἔχειν καὶ ἀναπνεῖν, ὅτι τὰ μεγάλα τῶν ζῴων
πλείονος δεῖται θερμότητος ἵνα κινῆται: διὸ ὁ
πνεύμων ἔγκειται αὐτοῖς θερμότητος ὢν πλήρης
αἱματικῆς. ἔστι δὲ ταῦτα τρόπον τινὰ (καὶ) πεζὰ
καὶ ἔνυδρα" τὸν μὲν γὰρ ἀέρα δέχεται ὡς πεζά,
ἄποδα δ᾽ ἐστὶ καὶ λαμβάνει ἐκ τοῦ ὑγροῦ τὴν
τροφὴν ὥσπερ τὰ ἔνυδρα. καὶ αἱ φῶκαι δὲ καὶ
αἱ νυκτερίδες διὰ τὸ ἐπαμφοτερίζειν αἱ μὲν τοῖς
ἐνύδροις καὶ πεζοῖς, αἱ δὲ τοῖς πτηνοῖς καὶ πεζοῖς,
διὰ τοῦτο ἀμφοτέρων τε μετέχουσι καὶ οὐδετέρων.

1 ζῳοτόκα PSUY.

3 καὶ (δίποδα καὶ) Ogle.
ὃ (xai) Rackham.

426

PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS, IV. χπι.

have any other footless animals, and this includes the
serpents. In fish the passage for the residue and for
the generative secretion is one and the same ; and
this is so in all other oviparous animals, four-footed
ones included. This is because they have no bladder
and produce no liquid residue.

Thus we have seen what are the differences to be Inter-
noticed in fish as a group as compared with other ος.
animals. Dolphins and whales and all such Cetacea, (-) Cetacea.
however, have no gills, but they have a blowhole
because they have a lung. They cannot help letting
the sea-water enter the mouth because they feed in
the water, and once it has got in they must get it out
again, and they do so through the blowhole. Gills,
of course, are of service herein to those creatures that
do not breathe. The reason for this has been given
in my book on Hespiration^: no creature can breathe
and at the same time have gills; instead, these
Cetacea have a blowhole for getting rid of the water.

It is placed in front of the brain, otherwise it would
separate the brain from the spine. The reason why

these creatures have a lung and breathe is that large
animals need more heat than others to enable them to

move ; consequently they have a lung inside them -

full of heat derived from the blood. They are, in a

way, land-animals as well as water-animals : they

inhale the air, like land-animals, but they have no

feet and they get their food from the water as water-
animals do. Similarly, seals and bats are in an inter- (ii.) Seals
mediate position. Seals are between land-animals *"4 bate.
and water-animals, bats between land-animals and

fliers : thus they belong to both classes or to neither.

* References given above, see on 696 b 2.

427

ARISTOTLE

697 b ` ^ ε \ » , ” ε
δ αἵ τε γὰρ φῶκαι ὡς μὲν ἔνυδροι πόδας ἔχουσιν, ὡς

\ \ / 1 ` \ ” / ,
δὲ πεζαὶ πτερύγια) (τοὺς γὰρ ὄπισθεν πόδας ἴχθυ-
ώδεις ἔχουσι πάμπαν, ἔτι δὲ τοὺς ὀδόντας πάντας
καρχαρόδοντας καὶ ὀξεῖς): καὶ αἱ νυκτερίδες ὡς μὲν
πτηνὰ ἔχουσι πόδας, ὡς δὲ τετράποδα οὐκ ἔχουσι,
E ’
καὶ οὔτε κέρκον ἔχουσιν οὔτ᾽ οὐροπύγιον, διὰ μὲν
M ^ 7 / ^ M . M 3 ,
10 τὸ πτηνὰ εἶναι κέρκον, διὰ δὲ τὸ πεζὰ οὐροπύγιον.
/ > , ^ ^5 , > / α | ^
συμβέβηκε δ᾽ αὐταῖς τοῦτ᾽ ἐξ ἀνάγκης: εἰσὶ γὰρ
M
δερμόπτεροι, οὐδὲν O° ἔχει οὐροπύγιον μὴ σχιζό-
πτερον' ἐκ τοιούτου γὰρ πτεροῦ γίνεται τὸ οὐρο-
kà [ΩΙ LA
πύγιον. ἡ δὲ κέρκος καὶ ἐμπόδιος ἂν ἦν ὑπάρχουσα
ἐν τοῖς πτεροῖς.
A , A \ / N31 € ` ε ,
Tov αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ 6 στρουθὸς ὁ Λιβυκός:
16 τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὄρνιθος ἔχει, τὰ δὲ ζώου τετράποδο
τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὄρνιθος ἔχει, ράποδος.
Ἐ ^ A / . » ,
ὡς μὲν γὰρ οὐκ ὢν τετράπους πτερὰ ἔχει, ὡς ὃ
οὐκ Qv ὄρνις οὔτε πέταται μετεωριζόμενος, καὶ τὰ
πτερὰ οὐ χρήσιμα πρὸς πτῆσιν ἀλλὰ τριχώδη: ἔτι
M e M / A / » ^
δὲ ὡς μὲν τετράπους wv βλεφαρίδας ἔχει τὰς
3 M / , ^ M ^ M . ^
ἄνωθεν καὶ ψιλός ἐστι τὰ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν καὶ τὰ
20 ἄνω τοῦ αὐχένος, ὥστε τριχωδεστέρας ἔχειν τὰς
/ e > ὁ A \ , , /
βλεφαρίδας, ὡς δ᾽ ὄρνις æv τὰ κάτωθεν ἐπτέρωται-
M , / , € » , > ε
καὶ δίπους μέν ἐστιν ὡς ὄρνις, δίχαλος δ᾽ ὡς
/ > . / » > ^ /
τετράπους" οὐ γὰρ δακτύλους ἔχει ἀλλὰ χηλάς.
τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι τὸ μέγεθος οὐκ ὄρνιθος ἔχει
2 . / > / . 2 - 7 ^
ἀλλὰ τετράποδος: ἐλάχιστον γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι τὸ
, € / > ^ M ^ , / 3 M
25 μέγεθος ὡς καθόλου εἰπεῖν τὸ τῶν ὀρνίθων" οὐ γὰρ
ῥάδιον πολὺν ὄγκον κινεῖσθαι σώματος μετέωρον.

1 πτερύγια Ogle: πτέρυγας vulg.
428

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xm.

Seals, if regarded as water-animals, are anomalous in
having feet ; if regarded as land-animals, in having
fins (their hind feet are altogether like those of
fishes—4.e. fins ; and all their teeth too are sharp and
interlocking). Bats, too, if regarded as birds, are
anomalous in having feet^; if regarded as quadrupeds,
in not having feet^; furthermore, they have neither a
quadruped's tail (because they are fliers) nor a bird's
tail (because they are land-animals). This their lack
of a tail like a bird's is a necessary consequence,
since they have membranous wings, and no creature
has a tail of this sort unless it has barbed feathers :
such tails are always made out of barbed feathers.
And a tail of the other sort growing among feathers
would be a definite impediment.

After the same style is the Libyan ostrich: in (ii) The
some points it resembles a bird, in others a quadruped. ο
As not being a quadruped, it has feathers ; as not
being a bird, it cannot rise up and fly, and it has
feathers that are like hairs and useless for flight.
Again, as being a quadruped, it has upper eye-
lashes, and it is bald in the head and the upper part
of the neck, as a result of which its eyelashes are
hairier than they would otherwise be; as being a
bird, it is feathered on its lower parts. Also, as:
a bird, it has two feet ; but, as a quadruped, it has
cloven hoofs (it has hoofs and not toes). The reason
is that it has the size not of a bird but of a
quadruped. Speaking generally, a bird has to be
very small in size, because it is difficult for a body of
large bulk to move off the ground.

α That is, of the sort that birds ought not to have, viz. on
their wings.
> That is, of the sort that quadrupeds ought to have.

4290

ARISTOTLE

697 b ` M 5 - / δ . pro 3 3 e ,
Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν μορίων, διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν εκαστὀν

ἐστιν ἐν τοῖς ζώοις, εἴρηται περὶ πάντων τῶν ζῴων
92/9. e / M , , ^ 3
καθ᾽ ἕκαστον: τούτων δὲ διωρισμένων ἐφεξῆς ἐστι
80 τὰ περὶ τὰς γενέσεις αὐτῶν διελθεῖν."

1 τούτων . . . διελθεῖν om. Yb, et statim incipiunt librum
de incessu.

430

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xm.

We have now spoken severally of all the animals : Conclusion,
we have described their parts, and stated the reason
why each is present in them. Now that this is
concluded, the next thing is to describe the various
ways in which animals are generated.

431

ARISTOTLE

ADDITIONAL Nore on 684 Ὁ 21-29

Commentators agree that no satisfactory sense can be
obtained from the first three lines of this passage as it stands
in Bekker's edition. None has so far produced a remedy ;
but an examination of the Arabic translation (or of Michael
Scot's Latin translation made from the Arabic) shows plainly
what has happened. Jn neither of these two translations is
there any reference whatever to a diagram until 685 a 2.
Thus the ms. from which our present Greek text is derived
had been corrupted through the efforts of someone who tried
to improve the text of 684 b 22-27 by inserting references to
a diagram here also ; and the result is that these references
have caused the complete loss of one important phrase (b 22)
and serious corruption of another (b 24-25). Some disloca-
tion has also been caused in the lines following, up to line 29.

The two diagrams given in the ws. Z are obviously con-
structed to suit the interpolated text. One of the mss. (Mer-
ton 278) of Michael Scot’s version has an entirely different
diagram; the three mss. of Scot at Cambridge have no
diagram at all, nor has the Arabic ms. B.M. Add. 7511.

I give below the passage as it appears in Michael Scot’s
version.

Natura ergo istorum duorum modorum est sicut diximus ;
et propter hoc ambulant uniformiter? sicut accidit animalibus
quadrupedibus et hominibus etiam. homo vero habet os in
capite, scilicet in parte superiori corporis ; deinde habet
stomachum, deinde ventrem, et post ventrem intestinum per-
veniens ad locum exitus superfluitatis. iste ergo res in
animalibus habentibus sanguinem sunt secundum hanc dis-
positionem, et post caput est clibanus, scilicet pectus, et quod
vicinatur ei. alia vero membra sunt propter ista, etc.

I am much indebted to Dr. R. Levy for his kindness in
reading this passage for me in the Arabic in Brit. Mus. ws.
Add. 7511.

1 inuniformiter Caius 109 & Camb. U.L. Ii. 8. 16; fortasse igitur
scribendum uniformiter et non inuniformiter.

432

PARTS OF ANIMALS

ΑΡΡΙΤΙΟΝΑΙ, Note on 609 b 3

Explanation of Aristotle’s terminology for describing the
bending of limbs.

When Aristotle is speaking about the bending of limbs,

backwards and forwards are relative to the direction in
which the whole animal moves ;

κο 5 outwards are relative to the bulk of the body
itself.

Thus, backwards means that the angle of the bent joint
points backwards ; inwards means that the extremity of the
limb is brought inwards towards the body, that is, the angle
of the bent joint points away from the main bulk of the body.
(“ Inward” and * outward " bending thus have no connotation
of ** bandy-legs " and “ knock-knees.")

All four legs bend inwards ;
Example (1) The forelegs bend forwards :
The hindlegs bend backwards,

The leg bends inwards, and

Example (2) backwards

(See De incess. an. 711 a 8 ff., Hist. An. 498 a 3 ff.)

433

ARISTOTLE

AnppDpITIONAL NOTE on THE ΜΒ. Z

The following portions of the text of De partibus are con-
tained in the Oxford ws. Z (see p. 50):

fol. 60r, 60%. I. 639 b 29 to 640 b 24. μέχρι to μᾶλλον ἂν

inclusive.
fol. 617, 617. I. 644 a 95 to 645 a 17. καθόλου to τοῖς du in-
clusive.

Between these two folios it has apparently lost four folios,
as re as one at the beginning of Book I and another at the
end.

fol. 17-19". Book II.

fol. 191-365. Book III, but the words οὐ πολὺ to εὐρυχώρους
inclusive (675 a 30-b 27) are omitted,
with no indication by the original scribe
that anything has been omitted: this
passage has been supplied by a later hand
in the margins of fol. 35Y and 96: and
on 367.

Book IV is written by yet another (later) hand, and this
Book occupies fol. 377—59v, at the end of which folio it breaks
off at the words τὰ καλούμενα (694 a 13). The rest of Book
IV is lost.

In the apparatus I have used the following abbreviations
in quoting this ms. :

Z Books I, II and most of III (first hand, c. a.p. 1000).

Zi indicates the reading of the first hand where this has
been altered by another.

Z? indicates later correctors of 41.

Z indicates the readings of the ws. in Book IV.

I have collated from photostats the whole of the portion
written by the first hand, and the readings of Z quoted have
been confirmed by reference to the photostats.

I have used the symbol # when quoting the readings of
E from 680 b 36 onwards, as this part of the ws. is written
in a later hand.

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS

INTRODUCTION

Tuar the De incessu animalium is a genuine work of
Aristotle himself has never been disputed. ‘The De
motu animalium has been regarded by many critics as
a spurious work, though recent opinion has favoured
its genuineness. Brandis, Rose and Zeller all con-
demn it, but its Aristotelian authorship has been up-
held by Werner Jaeger (Hermes, xlviii. pp. 31 ff.), who
makes out a very strong case in its favour, and by the
Oxford translator, Mr. A. S. L. Farquharson. Those
who deny its authenticity rely mainly on the supposi-
tion that there is a reference in 703 a 10-11 to the De
spiritu. ‘This treatise is generally admitted to be un-
Aristotelian, but the reference, as Mr. Farquharson
has pointed out, might relate equally well to numerous
other passages in the Aristotelian corpus ; Michael
Ephesius refers it to a treatise Περὶ τροφῆς, not
otherwise known. In style, vocabulary and syntax
the De motu animalium is entirely Aristotelian, and its
doctrine corresponds with that set forth in Aristotle's
genuine works.

Each treatise has its proper place in the scheme of
Aristotle's biological works. Both are theoretical,
the De incessu animalium, like the De partibus ani-
malium, dealing with the material side of living things,
and the De motu animalium, like the De generatione
animalium, dealing with their consequential pro-
perties.

436

MOVEMENT & PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

The chief mss. of the De motu animalium are E, Y,
P and 5. Of these E, one of the most famous of
Aristotelian mss., is the oldest ; Y is closely related
to E. P and 5 are similarly related and form a second

roup.

Of the De incessu animalium the principal mss. are
Z,Y,U,SandP.^ Of these Z is the oldest, and Y is
closely related to it, while the other three wss. form
another group.

A full account of these mss. and their relations to
one another will be found in the Introduction (pp.
iv. fF.) of W. W. Jaeger's text (Teubner, 1913).

The text used for the present translation is based
on that of I. Bekker, all divergences from which are
noted and the authority given for the reading adopted.
Jaeger's text and apparatus criticus have been con-
sulted throughout.

The Commentary of Michael Ephesius (Com-
mentaria in Aristotelem Graeca, xxii. 2, Hayduck, 1904)
has been of some assistance both for the text and for
the interpretation, and the Latin version of Nicholaus
Leonicus (died 1599), printed in the Berlin Aristotle,
Vol. III, has been constantly consulted.

The two treatises have been translated into French
by J. Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire, and into English by `
Mr. A. S. L. Farquharson in the Oxford translation
(1912). This translation with its ample explanatory
notes constitutes much the most serious attempt that
has been made to interpret these two treatises, and
anyone who follows in Mr. Farquharson's footsteps
must necessarily be heavily indebted to him.

E. S. F.

4 For the meanings of these symbols see pp. 439 and 483.
437

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

Cuar. I. The origin of all movement must itself be un-
moved. So if there is to be animal movement, something
in the animal must be at rest. Hence joints are necessary.

II. There must also be a resisting medium external to the
moving animal. Illustration from the rowing of a boat.

III. The nature of the “ prime mover." The fable of
Atlas.

IV. The “ prime mover" is of necessity outside the
universe. The movement of inanimate things must
originate from animate things.

V. Alteration, growth, generation and corruption as
forms of motion.

VI. How does the soul move the body ? Animal move-
ment lies in the sphere of action. Its limitation in com-
parison with eternal movement.

VII. Animal movement the result of the syllogism of
action, not of the speculative syllogism. Animal move-
ment compared with that of automatic toys.

VIII. The psychology of animal movement and the
organic changes which accompany it. ‘The cause of move-
ment must be situated in a definite origin.

IX. The two sides of the body are similar and can move
simultaneously : both are moved by the soul.

X. The motive power is “ innate spirit." Comparison
between the animal organism and a well-ordered civic
community.

XI. Involuntary and non-voluntary movements. Con-
clusion.

438

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE APPARATUS
CRITICUS

E= Codex Parisinus Regius 1853.

Y = Codex Vaticanus 261.

P= Codex Vaticanus 1339.

S= Codex Laurentianus 81. 1.
Leon.= Latin translation of Nicolaus Leonicus.
Mich.— Greek commentary of Michael Ephesius.

439

ΠΕΡΙ ZOION ΚΙΝΗΣΕΩΣ

698a I. Περὶ δὲ κινήσεως τῆς τῶν ζῴων, ὅσα μὲν
3 A M “ e / / M ,
αὐτῶν περὶ ἕκαστον ὑπάρχει γένος, καὶ τίνες
διαφοραί, καὶ τίνες αἰτίαι τῶν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον ovp-
βεβηκότων αὐτοῖς, ἐπέσκεπται περὶ ἁπάντων ἐν
ἑτέροις: ὅλως δὲ περὶ τῆς κοινῆς αἰτίας τοῦ κι-
5 νεῖσθαι κίνησιν ὁποιανοῦν (rà μὲν γὰρ πτήσει Kt-
νεῖται τὰ δὲ νεύσει τὰ δὲ πορείᾳ τῶν ζῴων, τὰ δὲ
κατ᾽ ἄλλους τρόπους τοιούτους) ἐπισκεπτέον νῦν.
Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἀρχὴ τῶν ἄλλων κινήσεων τὸ
αὐτὸ ἑαυτὸ κινοῦν, τούτου δὲ τὸ ἀκίνητον,
καὶ ὅτι τὸ πρῶτον κινοῦν ἀναγκαῖον ἀκίνητον
10 εἶναι, διώρισται πρότερον, ὅτεπερ καὶ περὶ κι-
νήσεως ἀῑδίου, πότερον ἔστιν ἢ οὐκ ἔστι, καὶ εἰ
ἔστι, τίς ἐστιν. δεῖ δὲ τοῦτο μὴ μόνον τῷ λόγῳ
καθόλου λαβεῖν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν καθ᾽ ἕκαστα
καὶ τῶν αἰσθητῶν, δι ἅπερ καὶ τοὺς καθόλου
ζητοῦμεν λόγους, καὶ ἐφ᾽ ὧν ἐφαρμόττειν οἰόμεθα
15 δεῖν αὐτούς. φανερὸν γὰρ καὶ ἐπὶ τούτων ὅτι
ἀδύνατον κινεῖσθαι μηδενὸς ἠρεμοῦντος, πρῶτον
μὲν ἐν αὐτοῖς τοῖς ζῴοις. δεῖ γάρ, ἂν κινῆταί τι
τῶν μορίων, ἠρεμεῖν τι" καὶ διὰ τοῦτο αἱ καμπαὶ

1 τούτου EPY: τοῦτο S.

440

ON ΤΗΕ MOVEMENT ΟΕ ANIMALS

I. We have inquired elsewhere ? into the details of
the movement of the various kinds of animals, the
differences between these movements, and the causes
of the characteristics which each exhibit ; we must
now inquire generally into the common cause of
animal movement of whatever kind—for some animals
move by flight, some by swimming, some by walking,
and others by other such methods.

Now that the origin of all the other movements is
that which moves itself, and that the origin of this is
the immovable, and that the prime mover must neces-
sarily be immovable, has already been determined
when we were investigating ὃ whether or not eternal
movement exists, and if it does exist whatitis. And
this we must apprehend not merely in theory as a
general principle but also in its individual manifesta-
tions and in the objects of sense-perception, on the
basis of which we search for general theories and
with which we hold that these theories ought to
agree. For it is clear also in the objects of sense-
perception that movement is impossible if there
is nothing in a state of rest, and above all in the
animals themselves. For if any one of their parts
moves, another part must necessarily be at rest ; and

5 [n the De partibus animalium.
> Physics viii. 258 b 4-9.
441

ARISTOTLE

698 a ^ , 3:92 e \ , ^
τοῖς ζῴοις εἰσίν. ὥσπερ γὰρ κέντρῳ χρῶνται

- ^ M , `
ταῖς καμπαῖς, καὶ γίνεται τὸ ὅλον µέρος, ἐν ᾧ ἡ
20 / χα ` ὃ , ` )θὺ ` /
καμπή, καὶ ἓν καὶ δύο, καὶ εὐθὺ καὶ κεκαμμένον,
LAA ὃ / . 3 / . . /
μεταβάλλον δυνάμει καὶ ἐνεργείᾳ διὰ τὴν καμπήν.
καμπτομένου δὲ καὶ κινουμένου τὸ μὲν κινεῖται
- ` \ ^ ^ ^ o
σημεῖον τὸ δὲ μένει τῶν ἐν ταῖς καμπαῖς, ὥσπερ
ΝΛ , ^ / € M ` e , € \
ἂν εἰ τῆς διαμέτρου ἡ μὲν A καὶ ἡ A μένοι, ἡ δὲ
- ` / e > > > ^ ^
B κινοῖτο, καὶ γίνοιτο ἡ AT. ἀλλ᾽ ἐνταῦθα μὲν
- / / τ A
25 δοκεῖ πάντα τρόπον ἀδιαίρετον εἶναι TO κέντρον
A ^ ` A / 9n 9
(καὶ γὰρ τὸ κινεῖσθαι, ὡς φασί, πλάττουσιν ἐπ
9 um ^ ^ ^
αὐτῶν" οὐ γὰρ KwetoÜüa) τῶν μαθηματικῶν
5 / ^ D. 19 ^ ^ δ A 3 ,
οὐδέν), τὰ Ò ἐν ταῖς καμπαῖς δυνάμει καὶ ἐνεργείᾳ
2 7
698b γίνεται ὁτὲ μὲν ἓν ὁτὲ δὲ διαιρετά. ἀλλ᾽ οὖν
αι, 2€ > \ e \ c / ^ /
ἀεὶ ἡ ἀρχὴ ἡ πρὸς ὅ, 7] ἀρχή, ἠρεμεῖ κινουμένου
^ , ^ ^ ^ /
τοῦ µορίου τοῦ κάτωθεν, οἷον τοῦ μὲν βραχίονος
/ A > / e ^ ^ , €
κινουμένου τὸ ὠλέκρανον, ὅλου δὲ τοῦ κώλου ὁ
αν M ^ ` M ^
ὦμος, καὶ τῆς μὲν κνήμης τὸ γόνυ, ὅλου δὲ τοῦ
M > A > ^
ὅ σκέλους TO ἰσχίον. ὅτι μὲν οὖν καὶ ἐν αὑτῷ
σ , ^ » *, ^ e e > A
ἕκαστόν τι δεῖ ἔχειν ἠρεμοῦν, ὅθεν ἡ ἀρχὴ
^ M > /
τοῦ κινουμένου ἔσται, Kal πρὸς ὃ ἀπερειδόμενον
1 κινεῖσθαι ESY : κινεῖται P.

3 ἡ πρὸς 0, ᾗ Jaeger: ἡ πρὸς ὃ ἡ EY: ἡ πρώτη À S: ἡ πρόσω
(om. altero ἀρχὴ) P.

a e,g. the arm as an arm is one, but is divided into two at
the elbow.

ὃ The term ἀρχή, which occurs frequently in this treatise,
is difficult to render in English by a single word. It is some-
times used generally of the “ origin" of movement (e.g.
701b33), but more often of a localized **origin"' of movement,

442

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, 1.

it is on this account that animals have joints. For
they use their joints as a centre, and the whole part
in which the joint is situated is both one and two,?
both straight and bent, changing potentialy and
actually because of the joint. And when the part
is being bent and moved, one of the points in the
joint moves and one remains at rest, just as would
happen if A and D in the diameter of a circle were
to remain still while B moved, and the radius AC
were formed. (In geometrical figures, however, the
centre is considered to be

in every respect indivisible—
for movement, too, in such ο
figures is a figment, so they

say, since in mathematics D B
nothing actually moves,—

whereas the centres in the

joints are, potentialy and

actually, sometimes one and

sometimes divided.) Be that as it may, the origin ὃ
to which the movement can be traced, qua origin,
is always at rest while the part below it is in motion
—the elbow-joint, for instance, when the forearm
is in motion, the shoulder when the whole arm is
moved, the knee when the shin is moved, and the .
hip when the whole legis moved. It is obvious, then,
. that every animal too must have in itself something
that is at rest, in order to provide that which is
moved with the origin of its movement, supported
whether, as here, in a single member, or at the centre of the
body, viz. the heart (701 b 25, 29), where a further idea of
" ruling " seems to be implied (e.g. 702 a 37). It is also used
sometimes in the literal sense of ** beginning," and this and

the meaning of “ origin " of motion may occur in the same
passage and cause confusion (e.g. 702 a 36-b 9).

P 443

698 b

ARISTOTLE

^ e > / / M . /
καὶ ὅλον ἀθρόον κινηθήσεται καὶ κατὰ μέρος,
φανερόν.
Π. ᾿Αλλὰ πᾶσα ἡ ἐν αὐτῷ ἠρεμία ὅ l
ἡ ἐν αὐτῷ ἠρεμία ὅμως ἄκυρος,
ΝΜ , d ç € ^ , ^
ἂν μή τι ἔξωθεν ἢ ἁπλῶς ἠρεμοῦν καὶ ἀκίνητον.

” 2 > , , , A ^
10 ἄξιον δ᾽ ἐπιστήσαντας ἐπισκέψασθαι περὶ τοῦ

15

20

25

/ » ^ M / > / e
λεχθέντος" ἔχει γὰρ τὴν θεωρίαν οὐ μόνον ὅσον
, ^ Ll
ἐπὶ τὰ ζῶα συντείνουσαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς τὴν τοῦ

\ / A >
παντὸς κίνησιν καὶ φοράν. ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ ἐν

- - 2 / , ^
αὐτῷ δεῖ τι ἀκίνητον εἶναι, εἰ μέλλει κινεῖσθαι,

e » ^ » ^ 7 ^ ,
οὕτως ἔτι μᾶλλον ἔξω δεῖ τι εἶναι τοῦ ζῴου
> / ` a > ^ A ,
ἀκίνητον, πρὸς ὃ ἀπερειδόμενον κινεῖται τὸ κινού-

, , ^ M ^
μενον. εἰ γὰρ ὑποδώσει ἀεί, otov τοῖς μυσὶ τοῖς
> ^ ^ à ^ , ^
ἐν τῇ yo ἢ τοῖς ἐν τῇ uuw πορευομένοις, ov
> ^
πρόεισιν, οὐδ᾽ ἔσται οὔτε πορεία, εἰ μὴ ἡ γῆ μένοι,
^ ^ ^ > \ ε .ν ε
οὔτε πτῆσις ἢ νεῦσις, εἰ μὴ ὁ ἀὴρ ἢ ἡ θάλαττα
’ > / ~ x ^
ἀντερείδοι. ἀνάγκη δὲ τοῦτο ἕτερον εἶναι τοῦ
M A / >
κινουμένου, καὶ ὅλον ὅλου, καὶ μόριον μηδὲν εἶναι
^ /
τοῦ κινουμένου τὸ οὕτως ἀκίνητον" εἰ δὲ μή, οὐ
`
κινηθήσεται. μαρτύριον δὲ τούτου τὸ ἀπορού-
/ ^ y
μενον, διὰ τί ποτε τὸ πλοῖον ἔξωθεν μέν, ἄν τις
> ^ ^ ^. \ e ` » ”/ /
ὠθῇ τῷ kovrQ τὸν ἱστὸν ἢ τι ἄλλο προσβάλλων
- ε , ΣᾺ > ^ ^ ^
μόριον, κινεῖ ῥᾳδίως, ἐὰν δ᾽ ἐν αὐτῷ τις Ov τῷ
- ^ A
πλοίῳ τοῦτο πειρᾶται πράττειν, οὐκ ἂν κινήσειεν

M 9.9 e \ » n e / / » >
οὔτ᾽ ἂν ὁ Γιτυὸς οὔθ᾽ ὁ Βορέας πνέων ἔσωθεν ἐκ

- A “
τοῦ πλοίου, εἰ τύχοι πνέων τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον ὅν-

1 μυσὶν libri: ἑμύσι coni. Diels.
2 +7 libri: ζειᾷ coni. Farquharson.

α Τι is doubtful whether the ws. reading will bear this
interpretation, and ἐν τῇ γῇ is probably corrupt. It is more

44-1.

MOVEMENT ΟΕ ANIMALS, 1-1.

upon which it will move both as an integral whole
and in its several parts.

II. Any quality of rest, however, in an animal is of
no effect unless there is something outside it which is
absolutely at rest and immovable. And it is worth
while to stop and consider this dictum ; for the re-
flection which it involves applies not merely to animals,
but also to the motion and progression of the universe.
For just as in the animal there must be something
which is immovable if it is to have any motion, so
a fortiori there must be something which is immov-
able outside the animal, supported upon which that
which is moved moves. For if that which supports
the animal is to be always giving way (as it does when
mice walk upon loose soil and when persons walk on
sand), there will be no progress, that is, no walking,
unless the ground were to remain still, and no flying
or swimming unless the air or sea were to offer resist-
ance. Andthat which offers resistance must be other
than that which is moved, the whole other than the
whole, and that which is thus immovable must form
no part of that which is moved ; otherwise the latter
will not move. This contention is supported by the
problem : Why can a man easily move a boat from
outside if he thrusts it along with a pole by pushing
against the mast or some other part of the boat,
but if he tries to do this when he is in the boat
itself, Tityus could not move it nor Boreas by blow-
ing from inside it, if he really blew as the artists

than likely that the comparison is with a mouse trying to
walk upon a heap of corn. Farquharson emends ἐν τῇ ΥΠ to
ἐν τῇ ζειᾷ, which would bear this meaning. (The form ζέῃ,
cp. Petrie Pap. ii. p. 69 (3rd cent. p.c.), would be nearer to the
Ms. reading.) Diels’ suggestion of ἑμύσιν for μύσω is in-
genious, but does not give the required sense.

445

698 b

699a

a

10

15

20

ARISTOTLE

περ οἱ γραφεῖς ποιοῦσιν' ἐξ αὑτοῦ γὰρ τὸ πνεῦμα
ἀφιέντα γράφουσιν. ἐάν τε γὰρ ἠρέμα ῥιπτῇ τὸ
πνεῦμά τις ἐάν T ἰσχυρῶς οὕτως ὥστ᾽ ἄνεμον
ποιεῖν τὸν μέγιστον, ἐάν τε ἄλλο τι ἢ τὸ ῥιπτού-
μενον η ὠθούμενον, ἀνάγκη πρῶτον μὲν πρὸς
ἠρεμοῦν τι τῶν αὑτοῦ μορίων. ἀπερειδόμενον ὠθεῖν,
εἶτα πάλιν τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, ἢ αὐτὸ ἢ οὗ τυγχάνει
μόριον ὄν, πρὸς τῶν ἔξωθέν τι ἀποστηριζόμενον
μένειν. ὁ δὲ τὸ πλοῖον ὠθῶν ἐν τῷ πλοίῳ αὐτὸς
ὧν καὶ ἀποστηριζόμενος πρὸς τὸ πλοῖον εὐλόγως
οὐ κινεῖ τὸ πλοῖον διὰ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι πρὸς ὃ
ἀποστηρίζεται μένειν" συμβαίνει δ᾽ αὐτῷ τὸ αὐτὸ
6 τε κινεῖ καὶ πρὸς ὃ ὃ ἀποστηρίζεται. ἔξωθεν δ᾽
ὠθῶν ἢ ἕλκων κινεῖ: οὐθὲν γὰρ μέρος ἡ γῆ τοῦ
πλοίου.

III. ᾿Απορήσειε © ἄν τις, Gp εἴ τι κινεῖ τὸν
ὅλον οὐρανόν, εἶναί τε δεῖ ἀκίνητον τοῦτο kai
μηθὲν εἶναι τοῦ οὐρανοῦ μόριον μηδ᾽ ἐν τῷ
οὐρανῷ. εἴτε γὰρ αὐτὸ κινούμενον κινεῖ αὐτόν,
ἀνάγκη τινὸς ἀκινήτου θιγγάνον κινεῖν, καὶ τοῦτο
μηδὲν εἶναι μόριον τοῦ κινοῦντος: εἴτ᾽ εὐθὺς ἀκίνητόν
ἐστι τὸ κινοῦν, ὁμοίως οὐδὲν ἔσται᾽ τοῦ κινου-
μένου μόριον. καὶ τοῦτό γ᾽ ὀρθῶς λέγουσιν ot
λέγοντες ὅτι κύκλῳ φερομένης τῆς σφαίρας οὐδ᾽
ὁτιοῦν μένει μόριον- ἢ γὰρ ἂν ὅ ην ἀναγκαῖον ἦν
μένειν, η διασπᾶσθαι τὸ συνεχὲς αὐτῆς. ἀλλ᾽
ὅτι τοὺς πόλους οἴονταί τινα δύναμιν ἔχειν, οὐθὲν

1 τοῦτο καὶ Scripsi: καὶ τοῦτο libri.
2 ἔσται Jaeger (cum Leon.): ἔσεσθαι libri.

? Just as Odysseus’ companions while seated in the ship
open the bags containing the winds, and the ship is blown
out of its course (Homer, Od. x. 46 ff.). :

446

- MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, mn.-r.

paint him?; for they make him emit the breath
from his own lips. For whether one emits the
breath gently or so strongly as to create the greatest
gale (and the same is true if that which is thrown
or pushed is something other than breath), it is
necessary, first, that one should be supported upon
one of one's own members, which is at rest, when one
pushes, and secondly, that either this member itself
or that of which it forms part, should remain still,
resting upon something which is externaltoit. Now
the man who tries to push the boat while he himself
is in it and leaning upon it, naturally does not move
the boat, because it is essential that that against
which he is leaning should remain still; but in
this case that which he is trying to move and that
against which he is leaning, is identical. If, on
the other hand, he pushes or drags the boat from
outside, he can move it ; for the ground is no part of
the boat.

III. The difficulty may be raised, whether, if some-
thing moves the whole heaven, this motive power
must be unmoved and be no part of the heaven nor.
in the heaven. Forif it is moved itself and moves the
heaven, it can only move it by being itself in contact
with something that is immovable, and this can be no |
part of that which causes the movement ; or else, if
that which causes the movement is from the first im-
movable, it will be equally no part of that which is
moved. And on this point at any rate they are quite
right who say that, when the sphere is moved in a
circle, no part of it whatsoever remains still; for
either the whole of it must remain still, or its continu-
ity must be rent asunder. ‘They are not right, how-
ever, in holding that the poles possess a kind of force,

447

699 a

25

ARISTOTLE

» / > > » ” M ,
ἔχοντας μέγεθος ἀλλ᾽ ὄντας ἔσχατα καὶ στιγμάς,
^ 1 ^ ^
οὐ καλῶς. πρὸς γὰρ τῷ μηδεμίαν οὐσίαν εἶναι
τῶν τοιούτων μηδενός, καὶ κινεῖσθαι τὴν μίαν
, € R ^ > , ^ M / ,
κίνησιν ὑπὸ δυοῖν ἀδύνατον: τοὺς δὲ πόλους δύο
^ e > ^ e
ποιοῦσιν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἔχει τι καὶ πρὸς τὴν ὅλην
y ^ ^ M
φύσιν οὕτως ὥσπερ ἡ γῆ πρὸς τὰ ζῷα καὶ τὰ
> ^ , ^ ”
κινούμενα δι αὐτῶν, ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων ἄν τις
/ ε \ ^ \ »
διαπορήσειεν. οἱ δὲ μυθικῶς τὸν ”Ατλαντα
ποιοῦντες ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ἔχοντα τοὺς πόδας δόξαιεν
ἂν ἀπὸ διανοίας εἰρηκέναι τὸν μῦθον, ὡς τοῦτον
ὥσπερ διάμετρον ὄντα καὶ στρέφοντα τὸν οὐρανὸν

\ \ / ~ 2 A / `
80 περὶ τοὺς πόλους: τοῦτο Ò ἂν συμβαίνοι κατὰ

λόγον διὰ τὸ τὴν γῆν μένειν. ἀλλὰ τοῖς ταῦτα
λέγουσιν ἀναγκαῖον φάναι μηδὲν εἶναι μόριον
αὐτὴν τοῦ παντός. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις δεῖ τὴν ἰσχὺν
ἰσάζειν τοῦ κινοῦντος καὶ τὴν τοῦ μένοντος. ἔστι
γάρ τι πλῆθος ἰσχύος καὶ δυνάμεως καθ’ ἣν μένει

M / e M > e^ ^ ` ^ `
85 το μενον, ὥσπερ και καθ ην KWEL το κινοῦν' και

699 b

5

» > / ᾽ » / e ^ 3 ,
ἔστι τις ἀναλογία ἐξ ἀνάγκης, ὥσπερ τῶν ἐναντίων
\ ^ ^ ` `
κινήσεων, οὕτω καὶ τῶν ἠρεμιῶν. καὶ αἱ μὲν
v» > ^ e 23 > / ^ M ^
ἴσαι ἀπαθεῖς ὑπ᾽ ἀλλήλων, κρατοῦνται δὲ κατὰ
. ε / ὃ / » 2 gi: d » rey
τὴν ὑπεροχήν. διόπερ εἴτ᾽ "Άτλας εἴτε τι τοιοῦτόν

e ^ ^ , \ ^
ἐστιν ἕτερον τὸ κινοῦν τῶν ἐντός, οὐδὲν μᾶλλον
- - ^ ^ ε - / /

ἀντερείδειν δεῖ τῆς μονῆς ἣν ἡ γῆ τυγχάνει μένουσα"
^ ^ , ^
7 κινηθήσεται ἡ γῆ ἀπὸ τοῦ µέσου καὶ ἐκ τοῦ
^ ^ , ^ e A
αὐτῆς τόπου. ws yap τὸ ὠθοῦν ὠθεῖ, οὕτω τὸ
^ \ € / > ya 4 ^
ὠθούμενον ὠθεῖται, kai ὁμοίως KaT ἰσχύν. κινεῖ

a i.e. their limbs. We should, however, perhaps read δι
αὑτῶν “the things which move of themselves": Leon.
renders ** ea quae per se moventur."

448

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, τῃ.

since they have no magnitude and are only ex-
tremities and points. For besides the fact that
nothing of this kind has any substance, it is also im-
possible for a single movement to be started by a dual
agency ; and they represent the poles as two. From
these considerations one may hazard the suggestion
that there is something which stands in the same
relation to Nature as a whole as the earth stands to
the animals and the things which are moved through
them.^

Now those who in the fable represent Atlas as hav-
ing his feet planted upon the earth would seem to
have shown sense in the story which they tell, since
they make him as it were a radius, twisting the
heaven about the poles ; it would be a logical account,
since the earth remains still. But those who hold
this view must declare that the earth is no part of the
universe ; and, further, the force of that which causes
the motion and the force of that which remains still
must be equal. For there must be a certain amount
of force and strength in virtue of which that which
remains still remains still, just as there is a force in
virtue of which that which causes motion causes
motion ; and there is of necessity a similar proportion
between absences of motion as there is between .
opposite motions, and equal forces are unaffected by
one another, but are overmastered by a superiority.
Therefore Atlas, or whatever else it is of like kind
within that causes motion, must not exert any pressure
which is too strong for the equilibrium of the earth ;
or else the earth will be moved away from the centre
and her proper place. For as that which pushes
pushes, so that which is pushed is pushed, and in
exact proportion to the force exerted ; but it creates

440

699 b

10

15

20

25

ARISTOTLE

. ^ , ^ ^ e ^ A ,
δὲ τὸ ἠρεμοῦν πρῶτον, ὥστε μᾶλλον kai πλείων
ἡ ἰσχὺς ἢ ὁμοία καὶ ἴση τῆς ἠρεμίας. ὡσαύτως
δὲ καὶ τῆς' τοῦ κινουμένου μέν, μὴ κινοῦντος δέ.
τοσαύτην οὖν δεήσει τὴν δύναμιν εἶναι τῆς γῆς
3 ^ ^ ^
ἐν τῷ ἠρεμεῖν ὅσην ὅ T€ πᾶς οὐρανὸς ἔχει καὶ
τὸ κινοῦν αὐτόν. εἰ δὲ τοῦτο ἀδύνατον, ἀδύνατον
καὶ τὸ κινεῖσθαι τὸν οὐρανὸν ὑπό τινος τοιούτου
τῶν ἐντός.
M ^
IV. "Ἠστι δέ τις ἀπορία περὶ τὰς κινήσεις τῶν
^ ^ , ^
τοῦ οὐρανοῦ µορίων, Tv ὡς οὖσαν οἰκείαν τοῖς
>
εἰρημένοις ἐπισκέφαιτ᾽ ἄν τις. ἐὰν γάρ τις ὕπερ-
βάλλῃ τῇ δυνάμει τῆς κινήσεως τὴν τῆς γῆς
^ 5 ^
ἠρεμίαν, δῆλον ὅτι κινήσει αὐτὴν ἀπὸ τοῦ μέσου.
M € > \ > > > Ὁ e € / eo >
καὶ ἡ ἰσχὺς δ᾽ ἀφ᾽ ἧς αὕτη ἡ δύναμις, ὅτι οὐκ
^ >
ἄπειρος, φανερόν' οὐδὲ γὰρ ἡ γῆ ἄπειρος, ὥστ
, ` M / 9". ^ , M . M > , /
οὐδὲ τὸ βάρος αὐτῆς. ἐπεὶ δὲ τὸ ἀδύνατον λέγεται
πλεοναχῶς (οὐ γὰρ ὡσαύτως τήν τε φωνὴν ἀδύνατόν
φαμεν εἶναι ὁραθῆναι καὶ τοὺς ἐπὶ τῆς σελήνης
e 9 e ^ ` \ M > > / ` ` `
ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν" τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἐξ ἀνάγκης, τὸ δὲ πεφυκὸς
E ovo > > / \ > 3 ` »
ὁρᾶσθαι οὐκ ὀφθήσεται), τὸν δ᾽ οὐρανὸν ἄφθαρτον
> M > / 37 \ 2 » , 5
εἶναι καὶ ἀδιάλυτον οἰόμεθα μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης εἶναι,
συμβαίνει δὲ κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν λόγον οὐκ ἐξ ἀνάγκης"
πέφυκε γὰρ καὶ ἐνδέχεται εἶναι κίνησιν μείζω
- , ^ ^ M > > 7 ^
καὶ ἀφ᾽ ἧς ἠρεμεῖ ἡ γῆ καὶ ἀφ᾽ ἣς κινοῦνται τὸ
πῦρ καὶ τὸ ἄνω σῶμα. εἰ μὲν οὖν εἰσὶν αἱ ὑπερ-
/ / / ^ e^ 37:592 /
έχουσαι κινήσεις, διαλυθήσεται ταῦτα ὑπ᾽ ἀλλήλων.

1 τῆς PS: ἡ Y: αἱ E.

a i.e, its central position in the universe.
> i.e. the region between the air and the moon (Meteor.
340 b 6 ff.).

450

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, rmr.-1v.

motion in that which is first at rest, so that the force
exerted is greater than the immobility rather than
similar and equal to it, and likewise greater than the
force of that which is moved but does not create
movement. Therefore the power of the earth in its
immobility will necessarily be as great as that pos-
sessed by the whole heaven and that which sets it in
motion. If, however, this is impossible, the move-
ment of the heaven by any such force within it is also
impossible.

IV. A problem also arises about the movements
of the parts of the heaven, which might well be dis-
cussed, since it is closely connected with what has
been said above. If one were to overmaster the im-
mobility of the earth by the power of motion, one will
obviously move it away from the centre.^ Moreover
it is clear that the force from which this power is de-
rived is not infinite ; for the earth is not infinite, and
so its weight is not infinite either. Now the word
“impossible ” is used in several senses (we are using
it in different senses when we say that it is impossible
to see a sound, and when we say that it is impossible
for us to see the men in the moon ; for the former is
of necessity invisible, the latter are of such a nature
as to be seen but will never be seen by us), but we
hold that the heaven is of necessity impossible to
destroy and dissolve, whereas according to our present
argument it is not necessarily so ; for it is within the
nature of things and the bounds of possibility that a
motive force should exist greater both than that
which causes the earth to be at rest and than that
which causes the fire and upper body? to move.
If, therefore, the overpowering motive forces exist,
these will be dissolved by one another; but if they

P2 451

699 b

30

35

700a

e

ARISTOTLE

3 M M 3/13 / > / > 7 » ^
εἰ δὲ μὴ εἰσὶ μέν, ἐνδέχεται δ᾽ εἶναι (ἄπειρον γὰρ

, , / M \ M ^ > /
οὐκ ἐνδέχεται διὰ τὸ μηδὲν σῶμα ἐνδέχεσθαι
v , / 5» Ἂ ^ ` > /
ἄπειρον εἶναι), ἐνδέχοιτ ἂν διαλυθῆναι τὸν οὐρανόν.
τί γὰρ κωλύει τοῦτο συμβῆναι, εἴπερ μὴ ἀδύνατον;
οὐκ ἀδύνατον δέ, εἰ μὴ τἀντικείμενον. ἀναγκαῖον,
ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τῆς ἀπορίας ταύτης ἕτερος ἔστω
λόγος.

Ἆρα δὲ δεῖ ἀκίνητόν τι εἶναι καὶ ἠρεμοῦν ἔξω
τοῦ κινουμένου, μηδὲν ὂν ἐκείνου μόριον, ἢ οὔ;
καὶ τοῦτο πότερον καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ παντὸς οὕτως
ὑπάρχειν ἀναγκαῖον; ἴσως γὰρ ἂν δόξειεν ἄτοπον

^ .
εἶναι, εἰ ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως ἐντός. διὸ δόξειεν
ἂν τοῖς οὕτως ὑπολαμβάνουσιν εὖ εἰρῆσθαι Ομήρω:
s οὕτως ὑπολαμ ρῆ μήρᾳ
ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἂν ἐρύσαιτ᾽ ἐξ οὐρανόθεν πεδίονδε
a 2ο ’ 309 , / ^ ,
Ζῆν᾽ ὕπατον πάντων, οὐδ᾽ εἰ μάλα πολλὰ κάμοιτε"
/ D 2 / \ ^ / /
πάντες δ᾽ ἐξάπτεσθε θεοὶ πᾶσαί τε θέαιναι.

A ^ € > / ε..:93 , ` > /

τὸ γὰρ ὅλως ἀκίνητον ὑπ᾽ οὐδενὸς ἐνδέχεται
^ e 7 ` e / ^

κινηθῆναι. ὅθεν λύεται καὶ ἡ πάλαι λεχθεῖσα
ἀπορία, πότερον ἐνδέχεται ἢ οὐκ ἐνδέχεται δια-
λυθῆναι τὴν τοῦ οὐρανοῦ σύστασιν, εἰ ἐξ ἀκίνητου
ἤρτηται ἀρχῆς.

"Emi δὲ τῶν ζῴων οὐ μόνον τὸ οὕτως ἀκίνητον
δεῖ ὑπάρχειν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν αὐτοῖς τοῖς κινουμένοις

a ἄπειρον] $c. κίνησιν. The argument is as follows: these
overpowering motive forces might exist and be dissolved by
one another, because if they can be dissolved, they are not
infinite, and the reason why they are not infinite is that they
act upon what is finite, and the infinite cannot act on the
finite (De caelo, 274 b 93 {.).

δ [t is discussed in the Physics and De caelo.

452

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, rv.

do not really exist, but there is a possibility of
their existing (for an infinite motive force ^ is impos-
sible because an infinite body is also impossible),
it would be possible for the heaven to be dissolved.
For what is there to prevent this happening if it
is not impossible? And it is not impossible, unless
the opposite proposition is inevitable. But let us
leave the discussion of this question for another
occasion.

Must there, then, or must there not, be something
immovable and at rest outside that which is moved
and forming no part of it? And must this be true
also of the universe? For it would perhaps seem
strange if the origin of motion were inside. And so
to those who hold this view Homer's words would
seem appropriate :

Nay, ye could never pull down to the earth from the

summit of heaven,

Zeus, the highest of all, no, not if ye toiled to the utmost.

Come, ye gods and ye goddesses all, set your hands to

the hawsers.*
For that which is entirely immovable cannot be
moved by anything. And it is here that we must
look for the solution of the problem stated some time
ago, namely, whether it is possible or impossible for
the composition of the heaven to be dissolved, seeing
that it depends upon an origin which is immovable.

Now in the animals there must exist not only that
which is immovable in this sense,? but there must
also be something immovable in the actual things
which move from place to place and which themselves

* Iliad viii. 20-22. The lines are quoted in the wrong
order and the textus receptus reads μήστωρ᾽ for πάντων.

4 i.e. something immovable and at rest which is outside
that which is moved and forms no part of it (cf. 699 b 32).

453

ARISTOTLE

700a A , e ^ 3 . ε , ^ . > ^
κατὰ τόπον ὅσα κινεῖ αὐτὰ αὑτά. δεῖ γὰρ αὐτοῦ

A M , ^ A . - A a > ,
τὸ μὲν ἠρεμεῖν τὸ δὲ κινεῖσθαι, πρὸς ὃ ἀπερειδό-
` / ^
10 µενον τὸ κινούμενον κινήσεται, otov ἄν τι κινῇ
^ A
τῶν μορίων: ἀπερείδεται γὰρ θάτερον ὡς πρὸς
` A ^
μένον θάτερον. περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀψύχων ὅσα κινεῖται
5 e ^
ἀπορήσειεν ἄν τις, πότερον ἅπαντ᾽ ἔχει ἐν ἑαυτοῖς
M ^ ^ M ` ^
καὶ τὸ ἠρεμοῦν καὶ τὸ κινοῦν, καὶ πρὸς τῶν
» > Z > / 5 xu `
ἔξω τι ἠρεμούντων ἀπερείδεσθαι ἀνάγκη καὶ
^ KAJ > / .^ ^ ΝΛ - ΝΛ - > ,
ταῦτα, ἢ ἀδύνατον, otov πῦρ ἢ γῆν ἢ τῶν ἀφύχων
1λλ er D ^ ^ lA /
15 τι, ἆ ὑφ᾽ ὧν ταῦτα κινεῖται πρώτων. πάντα
\ e SEN ^ A » > M M ,
γὰρ ÚT ἄλλου κινεῖται τὰ ἄφυχα, ἀρχὴ δὲ πάντων
^ . ^
τῶν οὕτως κινουμένων τὰ αὐτὰ αὑτὰ κινοῦντα.
^ ^ » ^
τῶν δὲ τοιούτων περὶ μὲν τῶν ζώων εἴρηται: τὰ
. - , ^ »
γὰρ τοιαῦτα πάντα ἀνάγκη καὶ ἐν αὑτοῖς ἔχειν
A , ^ A » A ^ > , 3 δέ
τὸ ἠρεμοῦν, καὶ ἔξω πρὸς ὃ ἀπερείσεται. εἰ δέ
» A ^ y
20 TL ἐστὶν ἀνωτέρω καὶ πρώτως κινοῦν, ἄδηλον,
M » / M ^ , 3 ^ M
καὶ ἄλλος λόγος περὶ τῆς τοιαύτης ἀρχῆς. Ta
^ ^ ` M / >
δὲ ζῶα ὅσα κινεῖται, πάντα πρὸς τὰ ἔξω arep-
- ` , ,
ειδόµενα κινεῖται, καὶ ἀναπνέοντα Kal ἐκπνέοντα.
\ M , €^ ’ A /
οὐδὲν γὰρ διαφέρει μέγα pipar βάρος ἢ μικρὸν,
Ld ^ . / M ε
ὅπερ ποιοῦσιν οἱ πτύοντες καὶ βήττοντες καὶ οἱ
25 εἰσπνέοντες καὶ ἐκπνέοντες.
- - . ,
V. Πότερον δ᾽ ἐν τῷ αὑτὸ κινοῦντι κατὰ τόπον
- ` ^ / or o
μόνῳ δεῖ τι μένειν, ἢ καὶ ἐν τῷ ἀλλοιουμένῳ αὐτῷ
- . \ /
ὑφ᾽ αὑτοῦ καὶ αὐξανομένω; περὶ. δὲ γενέσεως
- ^ A ^ , > , ,
τῆς ἐξ ἀρχῆς καὶ φθορᾶς ἄλλος λόγος: εἰ γάρ ἐστιν

1 ἀλλ᾽ Jaeger: ἀλλὰ P: ἄλλ᾽ ESY.
454

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, w.-v.

move themselves. For while one part of the animal
must be in motion, another part must be at rest,
supported upon which that wil be moved which
is moved, if, for example, it moves one of its parts ;
for one part rests on another part in virtue of the
fact that the latter is at rest.

But regarding inanimate things which are moved,
one might raise the question whether they all possess
in themselves both that which is at rest and that which
creates movement, and whether they too must be
supported by something external which is at rest.
Or is this impossible—for example, in the case of
fire or earth or any inanimate thing—but motion is
due to the primary causes by which these are moved ?
For all inanimate things are moved by something else,
and the origin of all the things that are thus moved is
the things that move themselves. Among things of
this class we have already dealt with animals ; for all
such things must necessarily have within themselves
that which is at rest and something outside them on
which they are to support themselves. But whether
there is something higher and primary which moves
them is uncertain, and the question of such an origin
of movement is a matter for separate discussion. But
animals which move all do so supported upon things |
outside themselves, as also when they draw their
breathinandout. Forit makes no difference whether
they propel a great or a small weight, as those do who
spit and cough, and breathe in and out.

V. But is it only in that which moves itself in
respect of place that something must remain at rest,
or is this also true of that in which alteration is
caused by its own agency and in that which grows ?
The question of original coming into being and

455

700a

30

35
700 b

σι

10

15

ARISTOTLE

σ

ἥνπερ φαμὲν πρώτη κίνησις, γενέσεως καὶ φθορᾶς
αὕτη. αἰτία ἂν εἴη, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων δὲ κινήσεων ἴσως
πασῶν. ὥσπερ δ᾽ ἐν τῷ ὅλῳ, καὶ ἐν τῷ ζῴῳ
κίνησις πρώτη αὕτη, ὅταν τελεωθῇ: ὥστε καὶ
αὐξήσεως, εἴ ποτε γίνεται, αὐτὸ αὑτῷ αἴτιον καὶ
ἀλλοιώσεως, εἰ δὲ μή, οὐκ ἀνάγκη. αἱ δὲ πρῶται
αὐξήσεις καὶ ἀλλοιώσεις ὑπ᾽ ἄλλου γίνονται καὶ
δι᾽ ἑτέρων: γενέσεως δὲ καὶ φθορᾶς οὐδαμῶς οἷόν
τε αὐτὸ αἴτιον εἶναι αὑτῷ οὐδέν. προὐπάρχειν
γὰρ δεῖ τὸ κινοῦν τοῦ κινουμένου καὶ τὸ γεννῶν
τοῦ γεννωμένου' αὐτὸ δ᾽ αὑτοῦ πρότερον» οὐδέν
ἐστιν.

VI. Περὶ μὲν οὖν ψυχῆς, εἴτε κινεῖται η μή,
καὶ εἰ κινεῖται, πῶς κινεῖται, πρότερον εἴρηται ἐν
τοῖς Baca cst περὶ αὐτῆς. ἐπεὶ δὲ τὰ ἄψυχα
πάντα κινεῖται ὑφ᾽ ἑτέρου, περὶ δὲ τοῦ πρώτου
κινουμένου καὶ ἀεὶ κινουμένου, τίνα τρόπον κινεῖται,
καὶ πῶς κινεῖ τὸ πρῶτον κινοῦν, διώρισται πρότερον
ἐν τοῖς περὶ τῆς πρώτης φιλοσοφίας, λοιπὸν δ᾽
ἐστὶ θεωρῆσαι πῶς ἡ ψυχὴ κινεῖ τὸ σῶμα, καὶ
τίς ἀρχὴ τῆς τοῦ ζῴου κινήσεως. τῶν γὰρ ἄλλων
παρὰ τὴν τοῦ ὅλου κίνησιν τὰ ἔμψυχα αἴτια τῆς
κινήσεως, ὅσα μὴ κινεῖται ὑπ᾽ ἀλλήλων διὰ τὸ
προσκόπτειν ἀλλήλοις. διὸ καὶ πέρας ἔχουσιν
αὐτῶν πᾶσαι αἱ κινήσεις: καὶ γὰρ καὶ αἱ τῶν
ἐμψύχων. πάντα γὰρ τὰ ζῷα καὶ κινεῖ καὶ
κινεῖται ἕνεκά τινος, ὥστε τοῦτ᾽ ἔστιν αὐτοῖς
πάσης τῆς κινήσεως πέρας, τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα. ὁρῶμεν

1 δὲ ES: μὲν Y.
9 τουτέστιν . . . οὐκ ἀνάγκη εἶναί τι τῶν ἀλλοιουμένων καὶ

αὐξανομένων ὑφ αὑτῶν ἠρεμοῦν (Mich.).
> i.e. the Metaphysics.

456

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, ν.-νι.

corruption is a different one ; for if there is, as we
assert, a primary movement, this would be the cause
of coming into being and wasting away, and per-
haps of all the other movements as well. And as in
the universe, so in the animal, this is primary motion,
when the animal comes to perfection; so that it is
itself the cause of its own growth, if this ever takes
place, and of any alteration which occurs ; otherwise
it is not necessary that something should remain at
rest.^ But the first growth and alteration occur
through another's agency and by other means, and
nothing can in any way be itself the cause of its own
coming into being and wasting away ; for that which
moves must be prior to that which is moved, and that
which begets to that which is begotten, and nothing
is prior to itself.

VI. Now whether soul is moved or not, and if
it is moved, how it is moved, has already been
discussed in our treatise On Soul. But since all
inanimate things are moved by something else—and
how that which is primarily and eternally moved is
moved, and how the prime mover moves it, has been
already set forth in our work on First Philosophy »—
it remains to inquire how the soul moves the body
and what is the origin of movement in an animal.
For, if we exclude the movement of the universe,
animate things are the cause of movement in every-
thing else, except in things which are moved by one
another through coming into collision with one
another. Therefore all their movements have a
limit; for the movements of animate things have a
limit. For all animals move and are moved with
some object, and so this, namely their object, is the
limit of all their movement. Now we see that the

457

ARISTOTLE

700b ..
. - M ^ , ` +
δὲ τα κινουνγτα TO ζῶον διάνοιαν και φαντ ασιαν

M , ` / Avy? , ^
καὶ προαίρεσιν καὶ βούλησιν καὶ ἐπιθυμίαν. ταῦτα
- . .
δὲ πάντα ἀνάγεται εἰς νοῦν καὶ ὄρεξιν. καὶ γὰρ
20 ἡ φαντασία καὶ ἡ αἴσθησις τὴν αὐτὴν τῷ νῷ χώραν
. .
ἔχουσιν: κριτικὰ γὰρ πάντα, διαφέρουσι δὲ κατὰ
^ > / 3 » Z , `
τὰς εἰρημένας ἐν ἄλλοις διαφοράς. βούλησις δὲ
M € M
καὶ θυμὸς καὶ ἐπιθυμία πάντα ὄρεξις, ἡ δὲ προ-
e A
αίρεσις κοινὸν διανοίας καὶ ὀρέξεως: ὥστε κινεῖ
πρῶτον τὸ ὀρεκτὸν καὶ τὸ διανοητόν. οὐ πᾶν
. ` / > \ \ ^ ^ /
25 δὲ τὸ διανοητόν, ἀλλὰ τὸ τῶν πρακτῶν τέλος.
^ ^ ^ ^ > >
διὸ τὸ τοιοῦτόν ἐστι τῶν ἀγαθῶν τὸ κινοῦν, ἀλλ
^ A D .
οὐ πᾶν τὸ καλόν: ἢ γὰρ ἕνεκα τούτου ἄλλο, καὶ
ἡ τέλος ἐστὶ τῶν ἄλλου τινὸς ἕνεκα ὄντων, ταύτῃ
LZ L2
^ ^ X / M ` / > \
κινεῖ. δεῖ δὲ τιθέναι καὶ τὸ φαινόμενον ἀγαθὸν
ἀγαθοῦ χώραν ἔχειν, καὶ τὸ ἡδύ: φαινόμενον γάρ
80 ἐστιν ἀγαθόν. ὥστε δῆλον ὁ ὅτι ἔστι μὲν ᾗ ὁμοίως
κινεῖται TO ἀεὶ κινούμενον ὑπὸ τοῦ ἀεὶ κινοῦντος
M ^ L4 e » 9: eov ` \
καὶ τῶν ζῴων ἕκαστον, ἔστι δ᾽ ἡ ἄλλως, διὸ καὶ
2 ^ ^ »
τὰ μὲν ἀεὶ κινεῖται, ἡ δὲ τῶν ζῴων κίνησις ἔχει
, ^ A 5.4. / ` ` 5 ^ A
πέρας. τὸ δὲ ἀΐδιον καλόν, καὶ τὸ ἀληθῶς καὶ
> A A A A ,
πρώτως ἀγαθὸν καὶ μὴ ποτὲ μὲν ποτὲ δὲ μή,
85 θειότερον καὶ τιμιώτερον ἢ ὥστ᾽ εἶναι πρότερόν: TU.
Τὸ μὲν οὖν πρῶτον οὐ κινούμενον κινεῖ, ἡ δ᾽
` > ^
701a ὄρεξις καὶ τὸ ὀρεκτικὸν κινούμενον κινεῖ. τὸ δὲ
τελευταῖον τῶν κινουμένων οὐκ ἀνάγκη κινεῖν
, / . > > / ` e > /
οὐδέν. φανερὸν Ò ἐκ τούτων καὶ ὅτι εὐλόγως
1 πρότερον ESY : πρὸς ἕτερον P.
* τι add. Jaeger.

a De anima, iii. 427 b 14 ff.
458

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vr.

things which move the animal are intellect, imagina-
tion, purpose, wish and appetite. Now all these can
be referred to mind and desire. For imagination
and sensation cover the same ground as the mind
(since they all exercise judgement) though they
differ in certain aspects as has been defined else-
where. But will, temper, and appetite are all
forms of desire, while purpose partakes both of
intellect and of desire. So the objects of desire and
intellect first set up movement— not, however, every
object of intellect, but only the end in the sphere of
action. So amongst good things it is the good in the
sphere of action that sets up movement, and not any
and every good; for it sets up movement only in so
far as it is the motive of something else or the end
of something which has something else as its object.
And we must lay down the principle that the apparent
good can take the place of a real good, and so can the
pleasant, for it is an apparent good. So that it is
clear that in one respect that which is eternally
moved by the eternal mover, and the individual
animal, are moved in a similar manner, but that in
another respect they are moved differently ; and so,
while other things move eternally, animal movement
has a limit. Now the eternally beautiful and that :
which is truly and primarily good, and not at one
moment good and at another not good, is too divine
and precious to have anything prior to it.

The prime mover, then, moves without itself being
moved, but desire and the desiderative faculty set
up movement while being themselves moved. But
it is not necessary that the last of a series of things
which are moved should move anything ; and from
this it is clear that it is only reasonable that pro-

450

701a

5

10

15

20

25

ARISTOTLE

^ ,
ἡ φορὰ τελευταία τῶν γινοµένων ἐν τοῖς κινου-
^ M A ^
μένοις!" κινεῖται γὰρ καὶ πορεύεται τὸ ζῷον ὀρέξει
ἢ προαιρέσει, ἀλλοιωθέντος τινὸς κατὰ τὴν αἴ-
σθησιν ἢ τὴν φαντασίαν.
VII. Πῶς δὲ νοῶν ὁτὲ μὲν πράττει ὁτὲ δ᾽ o)
πράττει, kai κινεῖται, ὁτὲ Ò οὐ κινεῖται; ἔοικε
/ ` ^
παραπλησίως συμβαίνειν καὶ περὶ τῶν ἀκινήτων
M / ^
διανοουμένοις καὶ συλλογιζομένοις. add’ ἐκεῖ μὲν
A
θεώρημα τὸ τέλος (ὅταν γὰρ τὰς δύο προτάσεις
M
νοήσῃ, τὸ συμπέρασμα ἐνόησε καὶ συνέθηκεν),
^ ^ \
ἐνταῦθα δ᾽ ἐκ τῶν δύο προτάσεων τὸ συμπέρασμα
^ T^ / e
γίνεται ἡ πρᾶξις, otov ὅταν νοήσῃ ὅτι παντὶ Pa-
’ 2 / 3 1 > 2/ ,
διστέον ἀνθρώπῳ, αὐτὸς δ᾽ ἄνθρωπος, βαδίζει
3 / A > “ > M , ^ > ,
εὐθέως, av δ᾽ ὅτι οὐδενὶ βαδιστέον νῦν ἀνθρώπῳ,
> ` > » 3 M 3 A \ ^ »
αὐτὸς δ᾽ ἄνθρωπος, εὐθὺς ἠρεμεῖ: καὶ ταῦτα ἄμφω
A >
πράττει, ἂν μή τι κωλύῃ ἢ ἀναγκάζῃ. ποιητέον
> / 5 / 5 5 / ^ 3 3 /
μοι ἀγαθόν, οἰκία δ᾽ ἀγαθόν: ποιεῖ οἰκίαν εὐθύς.
σκεπάσµατος δέομαι, ἱμάτιον δὲ σκέπασμα" ἱματίου
« /
δέομαι. οὗ δέομαι, ποιητέον: ἱματίου δέομαι"
` `
ἱμάτιον ποιητέον. καὶ τὸ συμπέρασμα, TO ἱμάτιον
^c! > > ^
ποιητέον, πρᾶξίς ἐστιν. πράττει δ᾽ am ἀρχῆς.
, > / ~
εἰ ἱμάτιον ἔσται, ἀνάγκη τόδε πρῶτον, εἰ δὲ τόδε,
τόδε: καὶ τοῦτο πράττει εὐθύς. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἡ
^ \ /
πρᾶξις τὸ συμπέρασμα, φανερόν' at δὲ προτάσεις
αἱ ποιητικαὶ διὰ δύο εἰδῶν γίνονται, διά τε τοῦ
ἀγαθοῦ καὶ διὰ τοῦ δυνατοῦ.
e \ ^ 3 / » e M € ,
Ωσπερ δὲ τῶν ἐρωτώντων ἔνιοι, οὕτω τὴν ἑτέραν

1 κινουμένοις Jaeger: γιγνομένοις libri.

a i.e. the objects of science ; cf. An. Post. 71 b 18 ff.
460

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, v1.-vn.

gression should be the last thing to happen in things
that are moved, since the animal is moved and walks
from desire or purpose, when some alteration has been
caused as the result of sensation or imagination.

VII. But why is it that thought sometimes results
in action and sometimes does not, sometimes in
movement and sometimes not? Apparently the
same kind of thing happens as when one thinks and
forms an inference about immovable objects.^ But
in the latter case, the end is speculation (for when you
have conceived the two premisses, you immediately
conceive and infer the conclusion) ; but in the former
case the conclusion drawn from the two premisses
becomes the action. For example, when you conceive
that every man ought to walk and you yourself are a
man, you immediately walk ; or if you conceive that
on a particular occasion no man ought to walk, and
you yourself are a man, you immediately remain at
rest. In both instances action follows unless there is
some hindrance or compulsion. Again, I ought to
create a good, and a house is a good, I immediately
create a house. Again, I need a covering, and a
cloak is a covering, I need a cloak. What I need I
ought to make; I need a cloak, I ought to make
a cloak. And the conclusion “ I ought to make a
cloak” is an action. The action results from the
beginning of the train of thought. If there is to be
a cloak, such and such a thing is necessary, if this
thing then something else; and one immediately
acts accordingly. That the action is the conclusion is
quite clear ; but the premisses which lead to the doing
of something are of two kinds, through the good and
through the possible.

And as those sometimes do who are eliciting con-

461

701a

ARISTOTLE

/ M / 2525 € , , ^ ^
πρότασιν τὴν δήλην οὐδ᾽ ἡ διάνοια ἐφιστᾶσα σκοπεῖ
, / ο > \ / > ` > / e
οὐδέν: otov εἰ τὸ βαδίζειν ἀγαθὸν ἀνθρώπω, ὅτι
3 ` v >? > / \ 1 et \
αὐτὸς ἄνθρωπος, οὐκ ἐνδιατρίβει. διὸ καὶ ὅσα μὴ
λογισάμενοι πράττομεν, ταχὺ πράττομεν. ὅταν / γὰρ
ἐνεργήσῃ ἢ τῇ αἰσθήσει πρὸς τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα 5 τῇ

80 φαντασίᾳ ἢ η τῷ νῷ, οὗ ὀρέγεται, εὐθὺς ποιεῖ" ἀντ᾽

86

ἐρωτήσεως γὰρ ἢ νοήσεως ἡ τῆς ὀρέξεως γίνεται ἐν-
έργεια. ποτέον μοι, 7) ἐπιθυμία λέγει: τοδὶ δὲ ποτόν,
7) αἴσθησις εἶπεν ἢ ἢ 7 φαντασία ἢ ἢ ὁ νοῦς" εὐθὺς πίνει.
οὕτως μὲν οὖν ἐπὶ τὸ κινεῖσθαι καὶ πράττειν τὰ
ζῶᾳ ὁρμῶσι, τῆς μὲν ἐσχάτης αἰτίας τοῦ κινεῖσθαι
ὀρέξεως οὔσης, ταύτης δὲ γινομένης ἢ δι αἰσθήσεως
7 διὰ φαντασίας καὶ νοήσεως. τῶν δ᾽ ὀρεγομένων
πράττειν τὰ μὲν δι ἐπιθυμίαν ἢ θυμὸν τὰ δὲ δι

701 b ὄρεξιν ἢ βούλησιν τὰ μὲν ποιοῦσι, τὰ δὲ πράττουσιν.

σπερ δὲ τὰ αὐτόματα κινεῖται μικρᾶς κινήσεως
γινομένης, λυομένων τῶν στρεβλῶν καὶ κρουουσῶν᾽
» / ` / 9 ` Are dde ο
ἀλλήλας [τὰς στρέβλας] καὶ τὸ ἁμάξιον, ὅπερ

` > / \ ^ , M
5 (τὸ) ὀχούμενον αὐτὸ κινεῖ εἰς εὐθύ, καὶ πάλιν

κύκλῳ κινεῖται τῷ ἀνίσους ἔχειν τοὺς τροχούς
(ὁ γὰρ ἐλάττων ὥσπερ κέντρον γίνεται, καθάπερ
ἐν τοῖς κυλίνδροις), οὕτω καὶ τὰ ζῷα κινεῖται.
ἔχει γὰρ ὄργανα -τοιαῦτα τήν τε τῶν νεύρων
ύσιν καὶ τὴν τῶν ὀστῶν, τὰ μὲν ὡς ἐκεῖ τὰ
1 κρουουσῶν Scripsi (Leon. renders laxatis seque mutuo im-

pellentibus vertebris): κρουόντων libri.
2 τὰς στρέβλας seclusi. 3 τὸ addidi.

a For this technical use of ἐρωτᾶν cf. An. Prior. 94 a 94.

> By the removal of the pegs (ξύλα), cf. below, 701 b 9, 10.

* The context seems to show that the toy-carriage was
on an axle which coupled two wheels of unequal diameter.
There is, however, no evidence for the existence of such toy-
carriages in antiquity.

462

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vit.

clusions by questioning,” so here the mind does not
stop and consider at all one of the two premisses,
namely, the obvious one; for example, if walking is
good for a man, one does not waste time over the pre-
miss “ I am myself a man." Hence such things as we
do without calculation, we do quickly. For when a
man acts for the object which he has in view from
either perception or imagination or thought, he
immediately does what he desires ; the carrying out
of his desire takes the place of inquiry or thought.
My appetite says, I must drink; this is drink, says
sensation or imagination or thought, and one
immediately drinks. It is in this manner that animals
are impelled to move and act, the final cause of their
movement being desire ; and this comes into being
through either sensation or imagination and thought.
And things which desire to act, at one time create
something, and at another act, by reason either of
appetite or of passion, or else through desire or wish.

The movement of animals resembles that of
marionettes which move as the result of a small
movement, when the strings are released ? and strike
one another; or a toy-carriage which the child that
is riding upon it himself sets in motion in a straight
direction, and which afterwards moves in a circle `
because its wheels are unequal, for the smaller wheel
acts as a centre, as happens also in the cylinders.?
Animals have similar parts in their organs, namely,
the growth of their sinews and bones, the latter cor-
responding to the pegs in the marionettes and the

4 The marionettes seem to have been worked by means of
cylinders round which weighted strings were wound, the
cylinders being set in motion by the removal of pegs.

463

ARISTOTLE

701b A
ξύλα καὶ ὁ σίδηρος, τὰ δὲ νεῦρα ὡς αἱ στρέβλαι"
10 ὧν λυομένων καὶ ἀνιεμένων κινοῦνται. ἐν μὲν
5 ^ M ^

οὖν τοῖς αὐτομάτοις καὶ τοῖς ἁμαξίοις οὐκ ἔστιν
, ` / , € , A
ἀλλοίωσις, ἐπεὶ εἰ ἐγίνοντο ἐλάττους οἱ ἐντὸς
\ ᾽ ` μμ
τροχοὶ καὶ πάλιν µείζους, κἂν κύκλῳ τὸ αὐτὸ
ἐκινεῖτο: ἐν δὲ τῷ ζῴῳ δύναται τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ
μεῖζον καὶ ἔλαττον γίνεσθαι καὶ τὰ σχήματα µετα-

A » / ^ / M ,

15 βάλλειν, αὐξανομένων τῶν μορίων διὰ θερμότητα

καὶ πάλιν συστελλομένων διὰ ψύξιν καὶ ἀλλοιου-
/ > ^ > ε / M e , ,
μένων. ἀλλοιοῦσι δ᾽ αἱ φαντασίαι καὶ at αἰσθήσεις
καὶ αἱ ἔννοιαι. αἱ μὲν γὰρ αἰσθήσεις εὐθὺς ὑπ-
ἄρχουσιν ἀλλοιώσεις τινὲς οὖσαι, ἡ δὲ φαντασία καὶ
7 νόησις τὴν τῶν πραγμάτων ἔχουσι δύναμιν" τρό-
?0 πον γάρ τινα τὸ εἶδος τὸ νοούμενον τὸ τοῦ θερμοῦ
7 ψυχροῦ ἢ ἡδέος 7 φοβεροῦ τοιοῦτον τυγχάνει
à οἷόν περ καὶ τῶν πραγμάτων ἕκαστον, διὸ καὶ
φρίττουσι καὶ φοβοῦνται νοήσαντες μόνον. ταῦτα
δὲ πάντα πάθη καὶ ἀλλοιώσεις εἰσίν. ἀλλοιου-
/ > > ^ / . \ , . » 3 ,
μένων ὃ ἐν τῷ σώματι τὰ μὲν μείζω τὰ ὃ ἐλάττω
,

25 γίνεται. ὅτι δὲ μικρὰ μεταβολὴ γινομένη ἐν ἀρχῇ
μεγάλας καὶ πολλὰς ποιεῖ διαφορὰς ἄποθεν, οὐκ
ἄδηλον: οἷον τοῦ οἴακος ἀκαριαῖόν τι μεθισταμένου

^ A
πολλὴ ἡ τῆς πρώρας γίνεται µετάστασις. ἔτι δὲ
M / ul Z ^ > z A
κατὰ θερμότητα ἢ ψύξιν ἢ kar ἄλλο τι τοιοῦτον

/
πάθος ὅταν γένηται ἀλλοίωσις περὶ τὴν καρδίαν,

30 καὶ ἐν ταύτῃ κατὰ μέγεθος ἐν ἀναισθήτῳ μορίῳ,
πολλὴν ποιεῖ τοῦ σώματος διαφορὰν ἐρυθήμασι
καὶ ὠχρότησι καὶ φρίκαις καὶ τρόμοις καὶ τοῖς
τούτων ἐναντίοις.

VIII ᾿Αρχὴ μὲν οὖν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, τῆς
? The reference is probably to some part of the toy-
carriage.

464

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, νῃ.-νπῃ.

iron,? while the sinews correspond to the strings, the
setting free and loosening of which causes the move-
ment. In the marionettes and the toy-carriages no
alteration takes place, though, if the inner wheels
were to become smaller and then again larger, the
same circular movement would take place. In the
animal, however, the same part can become both
greater and smaller and change its form, the mem-
bers increasing through heat and contracting again
through cold and thus altering. Alteration is
caused by imagination and sensations and thoughts.
For sensations are from the first a kind of altera-
tion, and imagination and thought have the effect
of the objects which they present; for in a way the
idea conceived—of hot or cold or pleasant or terrible—
is really of the same kind as an object possessing one
of these qualities, and so we shudder and feel fear
simply by conceiving an idea; and all these affec-
tions are alterations, and when an alteration takes
place in the body some parts become larger, others
smaller. Now it is clear that a small change taking
place in an origin of movement ὃ causes great and
numerous changes at a distance ; just as, if the rudder
of a boat is moved to an infinitesimal extent, the
change resulting in the position of the bows is con- `
siderable. Furthermore, when, owing to heat or
cold or a similar affection, an alteration is caused
in the region of the heart—and even in an imper-
ceptibly small part of it—it gives rise to a consider-
able change in the body, causing blushing or pallor
or shuddering or trembling or the opposites of these.

VIII. The origin, then, of movement, as has already

δ i.e. here, the heart, cf. below, 701 b 30; see also note on
698 b 1.

465

ARISTOTLE

701b / ` > ^ ^ A M ,
κινήσεως τὸ ἐν τῷ πρακτῶ διωκτὸν καὶ φευκτόν"

, > / 3 9 ^ ^ / \ ^ ,
ἐξ ἀνάγκης δ᾽ ἀκολουθεῖ τῇ νοήσει καὶ τῇ φαντασίᾳ
5 αὐτῶν θερμότης καὶ ψύξις. τὸ μὲν γὰρ λυπηρὸν
/ M 5 € \ / > \ ^ M
φευκτόν, τὸ δ᾽ ἡδὺ διωκτόν (ἀλλὰ λανθάνει περὶ
τὰ μικρὰ τοῦτο συμβαῖνον), ἔστι δὲ τὰ λυπηρὰ
` € / , A ^ 9 , `
702a καὶ ἡδέα πάντα σχεδὸν μετὰ ψύξεώς τινος καὶ
θερμότητος. τοῦτο δὲ δῆλον ἐκ τῶν παθημάτων.
θάρρη γὰρ καὶ φόβοι καὶ ἀφροδισιασμοὶ καὶ τἆλλα
τὰ σωματικὰ λυπηρὰ καὶ ἡδέα τὰ μὲν κατὰ μόριον
μετὰ θερμότητος ἢ ψύξεώς ἐστι, τὰ δὲ καθ᾽’ ὅλον
M ^ ^ M M , / [ΩΙ > 7
δτὸ σῶμα' μνῆμαι δὲ καὶ ἐλπίδες, οἷον εἰδώλοις
ώμεναι τοῖς τοιούτοις, ὁτὲ μὲν ἧττον ὁτὲ δὲ
Hh ιβ ^ , ^ , n e > 3 /
μᾶλλον αἰτίαι τῶν αὐτῶν εἰσίν. ὥστ εὐλόγως
ἤδη δημιουργεῖται τὰ ἐντὸς καὶ τὰ περὶ τὰς ἀρχὰς
τῶν ὀργανικῶν μορίων μεταβάλλοντα € ἐκ πεπηγότων
10 ὑγρὰ καὶ ἐξ ὑγρῶν πεπηγότα καὶ μαλακὰ καὶ
σκληρὰ. ἐξ ἀλλήλων. τούτων δὲ συμβαινόντων
τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον, καὶ ἔτι τοῦ παθητικοῦ καὶ
ποιητικοῦ τοιαύτην ἐχόντων τὴν φύσιν οἷαν πολ-
λαχοῦ εἰρήκαμεν, ὁπόταν συμβῇ. ὥστ᾽ εἶναι τὸ
ἐν ποι τικὸν τὸ δὲ mab, τικόν, καὶ μηδὲν ἀπολύ
η η
15 αὐτῶν ἑκάτερον τῶν ἐν τῷ A. εὐθὺς τὸ μὲν
ποιεῖ τὸ δὲ πάσχει. διὰ τοῦτο δ᾽ ἅμα ὡς εἰπεῖν
νοεῖ ὅτι, πορευτέον καὶ πορεύεται, ἂν μή τι ἐμ-
ποδίζῃ ἕτερον. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὀργανικὰ µέρη Tapa-
σκευάζει ἐπιτηδείως τὰ πάθη, ἡ δ᾽ ὄρεξις τὰ
πάθη, τὴν δ᾽ ὄρεξω ἡ φαντασία: αὕτη δὲ γίνεται
A ὃ \ / Ἂ ὃ 2 , 0 2 e δὲ M \
ἢ διὰ νοήσεως ἢ δι αἰσθήσεως. ἅμα δὲ καὶ ταχὺ
20 διὰ τὸ (TOY. ποιητικὸν καὶ παθητικὸν τῶν πρὸς

ἄλληλα εἶναι τὴν φύσιν.
1 τὸ add. Bonitz.
466

MOVEMENT ΟΕ ANIMALS, vut.

been said, is the object of pursuit or avoidance in the
sphere of action, and heat and cold necessarily follow
the thought and imagination of these objects. For
what is painful is avoided, and what is pleasant is
pursued. We do not, it is true, notice the effect of
this in the minute parts of the body ; but practically
anything painful or pleasant is accompanied by some
degree of chilling or heating. This is clear from the
effects produced. Reckless daring, terrors, sexual
emotions and the other bodily affections, both pain-
ful and pleasant, are accompanied by heating or
chilling, either local or throughout the body. Re-
collections too and anticipations, employing, as it
were, the images of such feelings, are to a greater or
less degree the cause of the same effects. 3ο it is
with good reason that the inner portions of the body
and those which are situated near the origins of the
motion of the organic parts are created as they are,
changing as they do from solid to liquid and from
liquid to solid and from soft to hard and vice versa.
Since, then, these processes occur in this way, and since,
moreover, the passive and the active principles have
the nature which we have frequently ascribed to them,
whenever it so happens that the one is active and the
other passive and neither fails to fulfil its definition,
immediately the one acts and the other is acted upon.
So a man thinks he ought to go, and goes, practically
at the same time, unless something else hinders him.
For the affections fittingly prepare the organic parts,
the desire prepares the affections, and the imagina-
tion prepares the desire, while the imagination is due
to thought or sensation. The process is simultaneous
and quick, because the active and the passive are by -
nature closely interrelated.

467

702a

2

e

90

96

702 b

ex

ARISTOTLE

Τὸ δὲ κινοῦν πρῶτον τὸ ζῷον ἀνάγκη εἶναι ἔν τινι
ἀρχῇ. ἡ δὲ καμπὴ ὅτι μέν ἐστι τοῦ μὲν ἀρχὴ ^ τοῦ
δὲ τελευτή, εἴρηται. διὸ καὶ ἔστι μὲν ὡς ἑνί, ἔστι
δ᾽ ὡς δυσὶ χρῆται ἡ φύσις αὐτῇ. ὅταν γὰρ κινῆται
ἐντεῦθεν, ἀνάγκη τὸ μὲν ἠρεμεῖν τῶν σημείων τῶν
ἐσχάτων, τὸ δὲ κινεῖσθαι: ὅτι γὰρ πρὸς ἠρεμοῦν δεῖ
ἀπερείδεσθαι. τὸ κινοῦν, εἴρηται πρότερον. κινεῖται
μὲν οὖν καὶ οὐ κινεῖ τὸ ἔσχατον τοῦ 0 βραχίονος, τῆς δ᾽
ἐν τῷ ὠλεκράνῳ κάμψεως τὸ μὲν κινεῖται τὸ € ἐν αὐτῶ
τῷ ὅλῳ κινουμένῳ, ἀνάγκη δ᾽ εἶναί τι καὶ ἀκίνητον,
ὃ δή φαμεν δυνάμει μὲν ἓν εἶναι σημεῖον, ἐνεργείᾳ
δὲ γίνεσθαι δύο: ὥστ᾽ εἰ τὸ ζῷον ἦν βραχίων, ἐν-
ταῦθ᾽ ἄν που ἦν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς ψυχῆς ἡ κινοῦσα.
ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἐνδέχεται καὶ πρὸς τὴν χεῖρα ἔχειν τι
οὕτως τῶν ἀψύχων, οἷον εἰ κινοίη τὴν βακτηρίαν
ἐν τῇ χειρί, φανερὸν ὅτι οὐκ ἂν εἴη ἐν οὐδετέρῳ
7 Ψυχὴ τῶν ἐσχάτων, οὔτ᾽ ἐν τῷ ἐσχάτῳ τοῦ
κινουμένου οὔτ᾽ ἐν τῇ ἑτέρᾳ ἀρχῇ. καὶ γὰρ. τὸ
ξύλον ἔχει καὶ ἀρχὴν καὶ τέλος πρὸς τὴν χεῖρα.
ὥστε διά γε τοῦτο, εἰ i μὴ ἐν τῇ βακτηρίᾳ ἡ ἡ κινοῦσα
ἀπὸ τῆς ψυχῆς ἀρχὴ ἔνεστιν, οὐδ᾽ ἐν τῇ χειρί᾽
ὁμοίως γὰρ ἔχει. καὶ τὸ ἄκρον τῆς χειρὸς πρὸς τὸν
καρπόν, καὶ τοῦτο τὸ μέρος πρὸς τὸ ὠλέκρανον.
οὐδὲν γὰρ διαφέρει τὰ προσπεφυκότα τῶν μή

α i.e. the same relation as the forearm has to the elbow.

> i.e. the end of the stick where it meets the hand.

* i.e. the origin of the movement of the hand which is
situated in the wrist.

* It is impossible to find a word in English which covers
the double meaning given to ἀρχή here and in the previous line
(see note on 698 b 1). The sentence καὶ yàp Tò ξύλον . . . χεῖρα
explains why the ἀρχὴ κινήσεως of the hand is called ἡ ἑτέρα

ἀρχή, viz. that there is another ἀρχή (in the sense of “ be-
ginning ’’) in the stick, namely, the point nearest the hand.

468

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vu.

Now that which first causes movement in the
animal must be situated in a definite beginning.
Now it has already been stated that the joint is the
beginning of one thing and the end of another ; where-
fore nature employs it sometimes as one and some-
times as two. For when movement is being origin-
ated from it, one of its extreme points must be at
rest, while the other must move ; for we have already
said that what causes movement must be supported
on something which is at rest. The extremity, there-
fore, of the forearm is moved and does not cause
movement, but in the elbow-joint one part, namely
that which is situated in the actual whole which is in
motion, is moved, but there must also be something
which is unmoved ; and this is what we mean when
we say that a point is potentially one but becomes
actually two. Soifthe forearm were a living creature,
itis somewhere near this point that the origin of move-
ment set in motion by the soul would be situated.
Since, however, it is possible for an inanimate object
to bear this same relation to the hand,? for instance
if one moves a stick in one's hand, it is clear that the
soul could not be situated in either of the extremities,
neither in the extremity of that which is moved ὃ nor
in the other origin of movement (ἀρχή): ; for the stick
has an end and a beginning (ἀρχή) ^ in relation to the
hand. So, for this reason, if the origin of movement
set up by the soul is not situated in the stick, it is not
situated in the hand either ; for the extremity of the
hand * bears the same relation to the wrist as the
latter does to the elbow. For there is no difference
between what is attached by growth and what is not

* i.e. the point where the hand joins the stick.

469

702b

ARISTOTLE

γίνεται γὰρ ὥσπερ ἀφαιρετὸν µέρος. ἡ. βακτηρία.
ἀνάγκη ἄρα ἐν μηδεμιᾷ εἶναι ἀρχῇ, 7 ἐστιν ἄλλου
τελευτή, μηδὲ εἴ τι ἐστὶν ἕτερον ἐκείνου ἐξωτέρω,
otov τοῦ μὲν τῆς βακτηρίας -ἐσχάτου ἐν τῇ χειρὶ
7 ἀρχή, τούτου δ᾽ ἐν καρπῷ. εἰ δὲ μηδ᾽ ἐν τῇ

10 χειρί, ὅτι ἀνωτέρω ἔτι, À ἀρχὴ οὐδ᾽ ἐνταῦθα: ἔ ἔτι

16

20

γὰρ τοῦ ὠλεκράνου μένοντος κινεῖται ἅπαν τὸ
κάτω συνεχές.

ΙΧ. Ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ὁμοίως ἔχει ἀπὸ τῶν ἀριστερῶν
καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν δεξιῶν, καὶ ἅμα τἀναντία κινεῖται,
ὥστε μὴ εἶναι τῷ ἠρεμεῖν τὸ .δεξιὸν κινεῖσθαι τὸ
ἀριστερὸν μηδ᾽ αὖ τῷ τοῦτο ἐκεῖνο, ἀεὶ δ᾽ ἐν τῷ
ἀνωτέρω ἀμφοτέρων ἡ ἀρχή, ἀνάγκη ἐν τῷ μέσῳ
εἶναι τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς ψυχῆς τῆς κινούσης: ἀμφοτέρων
γὰρ τῶν ἄκρων τὸ μέσον ἔσχατον. ὁμοίως δ᾽ ἔχει
πρὸς τὰς κινήσεις τοῦτο καὶ τὰς ἀπὸ τοῦ ἄνω καὶ
κάτω, οἷον τὰς ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς καὶ τὰς ἀπὸ τῆς
ῥάχεως τοῖς ἔχουσι ῥάχιν. καὶ εὐλόγως δὲ τοῦτο
συμβέβηκεν' καὶ γὰρ τὸ αἰσθητικὸν ἐνταῦθα εἶναί

αμεν, ὥστ᾽ ἀλλοιουμένου διὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν τοῦ
τόπου τοῦ περὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν καὶ μεταβάλλοντος τὰ
ἐχόμενα συμμεταβάλλει ἐκτεινόμενά τε καὶ συναγό-
μενα τὰ μόρια, ὥστ᾽ ἐξ ἀνάγκης διὰ ταῦτα γίνεσθαι

- ^ ,
95 τὴν κίνησιν τοῖς ζῴοις. τὸ δὲ μέσον τοῦ σώματος

1 καὶ scripsi: πρὸς libri.

a This is simply a restatement of the doctrine of 702 b 1-4.
The true ἀρχή is not situated in the extremity of the stick
nearest to the hand (which is an ἀρχή as being the place
where the stick begins in relation to the hand), nor yet in any
other member, such as the wrist, which is still farther away
from the stick and is an ἀρχή as being the origin of motion
in the hand. The wrist, elbow, and shoulder are all of them

470

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vutt.-tx.

so attached ; for the stick becomes a kind of detached
member. ‘The origin of movement, therefore, cannot
be situated in any origin which is the termination of
something else, nor in any other part which is farther
from it ; for example, the origin of movement of the
extremity of the stick is in the hand, but the origin
of the movement of the hand is in the wrist.^ And
so if the origin of movement is not in the hand, be-
cause it is still higher up; neither is it in this higher
position ; for, again, if the elbow is at rest, the con-
tinuous part below it can be set in motion as a whole.

IX. Now since there is similarity in the left and the
right sides of the body, and the opposite parts can be
moved simultaneously, so that it is impossible for the
right side to move just because the left is at rest or vice
versa, and the origin of movement must be in that
which lies above both sides, it necessarily follows that
the origin of movement in the moving soul must be
between them ; for the middle is the limit of both
extremes. And it stands in the same relation to the
movements above as to those below, to those, for
example, which proceed from the head and to those
which proceed from the spine in animals which have
aspine. And there is good reason for this ; for we
say that the organ of sensation is also situated in
the centre of the body ; and so if the region round
about the origin of movement is altered by sense-
perception and undergoes change, the parts which
are attached to it change with it by extension or con-
traction, so that in this way movement necessarily
takes place in animals. And the central part of the

ἀρχαί in relation to the parts below them, but the true ἀρχή
is situated in the soul, which lies in the centre of the body.
^ i.e. the wrist.

471

702 b

80

85

108 8

10

ARISTOTLE

, , \ e > / > > , ,
µέρος δυνάμει μὲν év, ἐνεργείᾳ δ᾽ ἀνάγκη γίνεσθαι
πλείω" καὶ γὰρ ἅμα κινεῖται τὰ κῶλα ἀπὸ τῆς
2 ^ ^ ^
ἀρχῆς, καὶ θατέρου ἠρεμοῦντος θάτερον κινεῖται.

/ > D μας ^ M ^ ^
λέγω Ò otov ἐπὶ τῆς ABI τὸ B κινεῖται, κινεῖ
δὲ τὸ A. ἀλλὰ μὴν δεῖ γέ τι ἠρεμεῖν, εἰ μέλλει
τὸ μὲν κινεῖσθαι τὸ δὲ κινεῖν. ἓν ἄρα δυνάµει ὂν

\ 3 / , » e > > / M A
τὸ A ἐνεργείᾳ δύο ἔσται, WOT ἀνάγκη μὴ στιγμὴν
> \ / / 7 > M . > / ^
ἀλλὰ μέγεθός τι εἶναι. ἀλλὰ μὴν ἐνδέχεται τὸ T
ἅμα τῷ B κινεῖσθαι, ὥστ᾽ ἀνάγκη ἀμφοτέρας τὰς
ἀρχὰς τὰς ἐν τῷ A κινουμένας κινεῖν. δεῖ τι ἄρα
εἶναι παρὰ ταύτας ἕτερον τὸ κινοῦν καὶ μὴ κινού-
μενον. ἀπερείδοιντο μὲν γὰρ ἂν τὰ ἄκρα καὶ αἱ
2 ` e; 9 ^ \ > / , e
ἀρχαὶ αἱ ἐν τῷ A πρὸς ἀλλήλας κινουμένων, ὥσπερ
ἂν εἴ τινες τὰ νῶτα ἀντερείδοντες κινοῖεν τὰ σκέλη.
> . M ^ z > ^ 7 ^ >
ἀλλὰ τὸ κινοῦν ἄμφω ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι. τοῦτο ὃ

e - ^ ^
ἐστὶν ἡ ψυχή, ἕτερον μὲν οὖσα τοῦ μεγέθους τοῦ
τοιούτου, ἐν τούτω Ò οὖσα.

. . ç \ / A / ^

X. Κατὰ μὲν οὖν τὸν λόγον τὸν Aéyovra τὴν

^ \ Ld ` ^

αἰτίαν τῆς κινήσεως ἐστὶν ἡ ὄρεξις τὸ μέσον, ὃ

- - , ^

κινεῖ κινούμενον: ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐμφύχοις σώμασι δεῖ
^ ^ A 4

τι εἶναι σῶμα τοιοῦτον. τὸ μὲν οὖν κινούμενον

- / >

μὲν μὴ πεφυκὸς δὲ κινεῖν δύναται πάσχειν κατ

ἀλλοτρίαν δύναμιν: τὸ δὲ κινοῦν ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν

. / M , ή / M , \

τινὰ δύναμιν καὶ ἰσχύν. πάντα δὲ φαίνεται τὰ

- ^ \ > ,
ζῷα καὶ ἔχοντα πνεῦμα σύμφυτον καὶ ἰσχύοντα

- ε ’ - ,
τούτῳ. (τίς μὲν οὖν ἡ σωτηρία τοῦ συμφύτου
^ \
πνεύματος, εἴρηται ἐν ἄλλοις.) τοῦτο δὲ πρὸς
. , e
τὴν ἀρχὴν τὴν ψυχικὴν ἔοικεν ὁμοίως ἔχειν ὥσπερ
a See Introd. p. 436.
472

MOVEMENT ΟΕ ANIMALS, 1x.-x.

body is potentially one, but actually must necessarily
become more than one; for the limbs are set in
motion simultaneously from the origin of movement,
and when one is at rest the other is in motion. For
example, in ABC, B is moved and A moves it ; there
must, however, be something at rest A
if one thing is to be moved and
another is to move it. So A, though
potentially one, will be actually two,
so that it must be not a point but a
magnitude. Again, C may be moved
simultaneously with B, so that both 8 e
the origins in A must cause movement by being
moved ; there must, therefore, be something other
than these origins which causes movement without
being itself moved. Otherwise, when movement took
place, the extremities, or origins, in A would rest
upon one another, like men standing back to back and
moving theirlimbs. There must be something which
moves them both, namely the soul, other than such
a magnitude as we have described but situated in it.
X. In accordance with the definition which defines
the cause of motion, desire is the central origin, which
moves by being itself moved ; but in animate bodies
there must be some bodily substance which has these
characteristics. That, then, which is moved but does
not possess the natural quality of setting up move-
ment may be affected by a power external to it, and
that which causes movement must possess some
power and strength. Now all animals clearly both
possess an innate spirit and exercise their strength
in virtue of it. (What it is that conserves the innate
spirit has been explained elsewhere.?) This spirit
seems to bear the same relation to the origin in the

473

703a

15

20

25

80

ARISTOTLE

A 3 ^ ^ ^ . ^ ,

τὸ ἐν ταῖς καμπαῖς σημεῖον, τὸ κινοῦν kai κινού-
^ / , A ^

μενον, πρὸς τὸ ἀκίνητον. ἐπεὶ Ò ἡ ἀρχὴ τοῖς
2 ^ / ^ ^ ^

μὲν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τοῖς δ᾽ ἐν τῷ ἀνάλογον, διὰ τοῦτο
Mi ^ ^ , »

καὶ τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ σύμφυτον ἐνταῦθα φαίνεται ὄν.

- - otis -^

πότερον μὲν οὖν ταὐτόν ἐστι τὸ πνεῦμα ἀεὶ ἢ

/ 3 -N e » y , e 38
γίνεται ἀεὶ ἕτερον, ἔστω ἄλλος λόγος (6 αὐτὸς

£ > M M ^ » , , >
γάρ ἐστι καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων μορίων)’ φαίνεται ὃ

- ’
εὐφυῶς ἔχον πρὸς τὸ κινητικὸν εἶναι καὶ παρέχειν
> > ^ T 1 `
ἰσχύν. τὰ δ᾽ ἔργα τῆς κινήσεως ὦσις καὶ ἕλξις,
e ^ JUI, »ὅ / / 7 \
ὥστε δεῖ τὸ ὄργανον αὐξάνεσθαί τε δύνασθαι καὶ
συστέλλεσθαι. τοιαύτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἡ τοῦ πνεύματος

/ M
φύσις: καὶ γὰρ ἀβίαστος | συστελλομένη, καὶ

^
βιαστικὴ καὶ ὠστικὴ διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν. αἰτίαν, καὶ
ἔχει καὶ βάρος πρὸς τὰ πυρώδη καὶ κουφότητα
` A A ^
πρὸς τὰ ἐναντία. δεῖ δὲ τὸ μέλλον κινεῖν μὴ
5 ~ 7 ^ M
ἀλλοιώσει τοιοῦτον εἶναι: κρατεῖ γὰρ κατὰ τὴν
ε M ^ . / > / A M
ὑπεροχὴν τὰ φυσικὰ σώματα ἀλλήλων, τὸ μὲν
^ / ^
κοῦφον κάτω ὑπὸ τοῦ βαρυτέρου ἀπονικώμενον,
τὸ δὲ βαρὺ. ἄνω ὑπὸ τοῦ κουφοτέρου.
Ὧι μὲν οὖν κινεῖ t κινουμένῳ μορίῳ ἡ į ψυχή, εἴρηται,
/
καὶ δι ἣν αἰτίαν" ὑποληπτέον δὲ συνεστάναι τὸ
ζῷον ὥσπερ πόλιν εὐνομουμένην. ἔν τε γὰρ τῇ πόλει
^ ^ /
ὅταν ἅπαξ συστῇ: ἡ τάξις, οὐδὲν δεῖ κεχωρισµένου
^ ^ > ^
μονάρχου, ὃν δεῖ παρεῖναι παρ᾽ ἕκαστον τῶν
2 - M e ^
γινομένων, ἀλλ᾽ αὐτὸς ἕκαστος ποιεῖ τὰ αὐτοῦ
/ ^
ὡς τέτακται, καὶ γίνεται τόδε μετὰ τόδε διὰ
1 συστῇ P: στῇ ESY.

* For this meaning of ἀβίαστος cf. Plato, Tim. 61 a. The
action of the πνεῦμα 15 represented as resembling that of the
breath in the lungs ; when the breath contracts it lacks force
and the lungs collapse, when it expands it thrusts outwards

and exercises force.
> Namely, expansion.

474

MOVEMENT ΟΕ ANIMALS, x.

soul as the point in the joints, which moves and is
moved, bears to that which is unmoved. Now since
the origin is in some animals situated in the heart, in
others in what corresponds to the heart, it is therefore
clear that the innate spirit also is situated there.
Whether the spirit is always the same or is always
changing must be discussed elsewhere (for the same
question arises about the other parts of the body) ;
at any rate it is clearly well adapted by nature to be
a motive power and to exercise strength. Now the
functions of movement are thrusting and pulling, so
that the organ of movement must be able to increase
and contract. And the nature of spirit has these
qualities ; for when it contracts it is without force,"
and one and the same cause ὃ gives it force and en-
ables it to thrust, and it possesses weight as compared
with the fiery element, and lightness as compared
with the contrary elements.^ Now that which is to
create movement without causing alteration must be
of this kind ; for the natural bodies ? overcome one
another according as one of them prevails, the light
being conquered and borne down by the heavier and
the heavy borne up by the lighter.

We have now stated what is the part by the move-
ment of which the soul creates movement and for
what reason. ‘The constitution of an animal must be
regarded as resembling that of a well-governed city-
state. For when order is once established in a city
there is no need of a special ruler with arbitrary
powers to be present at every activity, but each indi-
vidual performs his own task as he is ordered, and one
act succeeds another because of custom. And in the

¢ Thecontrary of fire is water, cf. De gen. et corrupt. 331 a 1.
4 i.e. the elements.

Q 475

ARISTOTLE
703a
- πὸ ἔθος: ἔν τε τοῖς ζῴοις τὸ αὐτὸ τοῦτο διὰ τὴν

35 φύσιν, γίνεται καὶ τῷ πεφυκέναι ἕκαστον οὕτω
συστάντων ποιεῖν τὸ αὑτοῦ ἔργον, ὥστε μηδὲν
δεῖν ἐν ἑκάστῳ εἶναι ψυχήν, ἀλλ᾽ ἔν τινι ἀρχῇ τοῦ

703 b σώματος οὔσης τἆλλα ζῆν μὲν τῷ προσπεφυκέναι,
ποιεῖν δὲ τὸ ἔργον. τὸ αὑτῶν διὰ τὴν φύσιν.

XI. Πῶς μὲν οὖν κινεῖται τὰς ἐκουσίας κινήσεις

τὰ ζῷα, καὶ διὰ τίνας αἰτίας, εἴρηται". κινεῖται δέ

5 TWAS καὶ ἀκουσίους ἔνια τῶν μερῶν, τὰς δὲ
πλείστας οὐχ ἑκουσίους. λέγω δ᾽ ἀκουσίους μὲν
οἷον τὴν τῆς καρδίας τε καὶ τὴν τοῦ αἰδοίου (πολλάκις
γὰρ φανέντος τινός, οὐ μέντοι κελεύσαντος τοῦ
νοῦ κινοῦνται), οὐχ ἑκουσίους δ᾽ οἷον ὕπνον καὶ
ἐγρήγορσιν καὶ ἀναπνοήν, καὶ ὅσαι ἄλλαι τοιαῦταί

10 εἰσιν. οὐθενὸς γὰρ τούτων κυρία ἁπλῶς ἐστὶν

οὔθ ἡ φαντασία οὔθ᾽ ἡ ὄρεξις, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπειδὴ ἀνάγκη
ἀλλοιοθσθα. τὰ ζῷα φυσικὴν ἀλλοίωσιν, ἀλλοιου-
μένων δὲ τῶν μορίων τὰ μὲν αὔξεσθαι τὰ δὲ φθίνειν,
ὥστ᾽ ἤδη κινεῖσθαι καὶ μεταβάλλειν τὰς πεφυκυίας
ἔχεσθαι μεταβολὰς ἀλλήλων (αἰτίαι δὲ τῶν

15 κινήσεων θερμότητές τε καὶ ψύξεις, αἵ τε θύραθεν
καὶ αἱ ἐντὸς ὑπάρχουσαι φυσικαί), καὶ αἱ παρὰ
τὸν λόγον δὴ γινόμεναι κινήσεις τῶν ῥηθέντων
μορίων ἀλλοιώσεως συμπεσούσης γίνονται. 7 yàp
νόησις καὶ 7 φαντασία, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, τὰ
ποιητικὰ τῶν παθημάτων προσφέρουσιν' τὰ γὰρ εἴδη

20 τῶν ποιητικῶν προσφέρουσιν. μάλιστα δὲ τῶν
μορίων ταῦτα ποιεῖ ἐπιδήλως διὰ τὸ ὥσπερ ζῷον
κεχωρισμένον ἑκάτερον εἶναι τῶν μορίων [* τούτου

a See note on 698 b 1.
^ Viz. the heart and the privy member.
* 701 b 18 ff.

476

MOVEMENT ΟΕ ANIMALS, χ.-Χι.

animals the same process goes on because of nature,
and because each part of them, since they are so
constituted, is naturally suited to perform its own
function ; so that there is no need of soul in each
part, but since it is situated in a central origin of
authority over the body," the other parts live by
their structural attachment to it and perform their
own functions in the course of nature.

XI. We have now discussed the manner of the
voluntary movements of animals, and the cause of
them. Some of their parts, however, undergo certain
involuntary movements, though most of these are
really non-voluntary. By involuntary I mean such
movements as those of the heart and of the privy
member, which are often moved by the presentation
of some image and not at the bidding of reason. By
non-voluntary I mean sleeping and waking and respira-
tion and thelike. For neither imagination nor desire
is strictly speaking responsible for any of these move-
ments ; but, since animals must necessarily undergo
physical alteration, and, when their parts undergo
alteration, some increase and others decrease, and so
their bodies immediately move and undergo the
natural sequence of changes (the causes of their
movements being the natural heatings and chillings,
both external and internal) the movements too of
the above-mentioned parts ® which occur contrary to
reason are due to the occurrence of a change. For
thought and imagination, as has already been said,*
induce the states which cause the affections ; for
they present the images of the things which cause
them. Now these parts act in this way much more
conspicuously than any others, because each is as it
were a separate vital organism[, the reason being that

477

703b

ARISTOTLE

δ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι ἔχουσιν ὑγρότητα ξωτικήν].' 7 μὲν « οὖν
καρδία φανερὸν δι; ἣν αἰτίαν" τὰς γὰρ ἀρχὰς ἔχει
τῶν αἰσθήσεων: τὸ δὲ μόριον τὸ γεννητικὸν ὅτι

25 τοιοῦτόν ἐστι, σημεῖον" καὶ γὰρ ἐξέρχεται ἐξ

90

704a

704b

αὐτοῦ ὥσπερ ζφόν τι 7 τοῦ σπέρματος δύναμις.
αἱ δὲ κινήσεις τῇ τε ἀρχῇ ἀπὸ τῶν μορίων καὶ
τοῖς μορίοις ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς εὐλόγως συμβαίνουσι,
καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλας οὕτως ἀφικνοῦνται. δεῖ γὰρ
νοῆσαι τὸ A ἀρχήν. αἱ οὖν κινήσεις καθ᾽ ἕκαστον
στοιχεῖον τῶν ἐπιγεγραμμένων ἐπὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἀφικ-
νοῦνται, καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς κινουµένης καὶ pera-
βαλλούσης, ἐπειδὴ πολλὰ δυνάμει ἐστίν, ἡ μὲν τοῦ
B ἀρχὴ ἐπὶ τὸ B, ἡ δὲ τοῦ Τ ἐπὶ τὸ Γ, ἡ δ᾽ ἀμφοῖν

5 \ o A LOST \ ^ ` M ^
ἐπ᾽ ἄμφω. ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ B ἐπὶ τὸ T τῷ" ἀπὸ μὲν τοῦ

5 B ἐπὶ τὸ A ἐλθεῖν ὡς èr ἀρχήν, ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ A ἐπὶ

τὸ l' ὡς am’ ἀρχῆς. ὅτι δὲ ὁτὲ μὲν ταὐτὰ" νοησάν-
των γίνεται 7 κίνησις 7) παρὰ τὸν λόγον ἐν τοῖς
μορίοις, ὁτὲ δ᾽ οὔ, αἴτιον τὸ ὁτὲ μὲν ὑπάρχειν τὴν
παθητικὴν ὕλην ὁ ὁτὲ δὲ μὴ τοσαύτην ἢ τοιαύτην.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν μορίων ἑκάστου τῶν ζῴων,
καὶ περὶ ψυχῆς, ἔτι δὲ περὶ αἰσθήσεως καὶ ὕπνου
καὶ μνήμης καὶ τῆς κοινῆς κινήσεως, εἰρήκαμεν
τὰς αἰτίας: λοιπὸν δὲ περὶ γενέσεως εἰπεῖν.

1 τούτου > . . ‘Sei i ut interpolamentum del. Jaeger.

? yàp om. EY.

3 τῷ EP: τῷ δὲ Y: τὸ δὲ S.
4 ταὐτὰ Jaeger: τὰ αὐτὰ P: ταῦτα ESY.

α These words are probably an interpolated gloss; they

478

MOVEMENT ΟΕ ANIMALS, xı.

each contains vital moisture].* The reason for this as
regards the heart is plain, for it contains the origins
of the senses. That the generative organ is of the
same nature is shown by the fact that the seminal
force comes forth from it, being as it were a living
thing. Now it is only in accordance with reason that
movements are set up both in the central origin by
the parts and in the parts by the central origin,
and thus reach one another. Let A be the central
origin ; the movements at each letter in the diagram
drawn above ? reach the central origin, and from the
central origin, when it is moved or undergoes change
(for it is potentially many), the origin of movement
in B goes to B, and the origin of movement is C to C,
and of both to both ; but from B to C it travels by
going from B to A as to a central origin, and from
Α to C as from a central origin. Movement, however,
contrary to reason, sometimes takes place and some-
times does not take place in the organs as the result
of the same thoughts, the reason being that the
matter which is liable to be affected is sometimes
present and sometimes not present in the proper
quantity and quality.

We have now dealt with the reasons for the parts
of each animal, the soul, and also sense-perception,
sleep, memory, and general movement. It remains
to deal with the generation of animals.

are unnecessary in view of the following sentences and con-

tradictory in doctrine to them.
è See figure on p. 473.

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i 2 =
zu

PROGRESSION
OF ANIMALS

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

Cuar. I. Introduction. Problems which arise about
animal locomotion. Different number of limbs and
different modes of bending them found in different animals.

II. Assumption of generally-accepted principles and
definitions.

III. Animal movement requires (1) a resisting surface
against which the limbs can press, (2) a distinction of
active and passive parts in the animal.

IV. The dimensions of living bodies. Superior and
inferior determined by function and not by position.
Plants and animals compared. Distinction of front and
back, right and left. The right, as the source of move-
ment, superior to the left. Man the most highly differen-
tiated of the animals.

V. Bipeds, quadrupeds, polypods and footless animals
distinguished. Quadrupeds inferior to bipeds. Man the
highest form of biped, being the most “ natural."

VI. All movement in the animal must originate in a
common centre, equidistant from the centres of movement
in the limbs.

VII. Red-blooded animals move at four points: such
animals are a continuous whole, while bloodless animals
and polypods are composed of a number of separate
entities. Even limbless red-blooded animals move at
four points.

VIII. Reason for the absence of limbs in snakes. Limbs
necessarily even in number.

IX. Flexion necessary to movement, even in limbless
animals. Its mechanism explained. Illustrations from
leaping, flying, and swimming animals.

X. Movement of birds. Use of the tail to guide flight.
482

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

XI. Man, the only erect animal, compared with the
birds. Winged human beings an impossible invention of
the artists.

XII. Differences of flexion in the limbs of man and of
the quadrupeds explained.

XIII. The different modes of flexion enumerated and
illustrated by diagrams.

XIV. “ Diagonal " movement of the legs of quadrupeds.
Movement of crabs.

XV. Birds and quadrupeds compared. The structure
of the legs of birds. Oblique attachment of wings and
fins. The structure of oviparous quadrupeds.

XVI. Movement of bloodless animals. The peculiar
movement of the crab.

XVII. Crabs, lobsters, flat-fish, and web-footed birds.

XVIII. Why birds have feet, while fishes have not.
Fins and wings compared.

XIX. The movement of testaceans. Conclusion.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE
APPARATUS CRITICUS

Z=Codex Oxoniensis Collegii Corporis Christi W.A.
PO

U=Codex Vaticanus 260.

S=Codex Laurentianus 81. 1.

P=Codex Vaticanus 1339.

Y — Codex Vaticanus 261.
Leon. — Latin translation of Nicholas Leonicus.
Mich. — Greek commentary of Michael Ephesius.

Q2 483

-

ΠΕΡΙ ΠΟΡΕΙΑΣ ZOION

I. Περὶ δὲ τῶν χρησίμων μορίων τοῖς ζῴοις
M
5 πρὸς τὴν κίνησιν τὴν κατὰ τόπον ἐπισκεπτέον διὰ
τίν᾽ αἰτίαν τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν καὶ τίνος
- A ^ ^
ένεκεν ὑπάρχει αὐτοῖς, ἔτι δὲ περὶ τῶν διαφορῶν
^ ^ A ^ A ε
τῶν τε πρὸς ἄλληλα τοῖς τοῦ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἑνὸς ζῴου
^ ^ ^ ^
µορίοις, καὶ πρὸς τὰ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν τῶ γένει δια-
^ / M
φόρων. πρῶτον δὲ λάβωμεν περὶ ὅσων ἐπι-
σκεπτέον.
10 Ἔστι δὲ πρῶτον μὲν πόσοις ἐλαχίστοις τὰ ζῷα
- / / /
κινεῖται σηµείοις, ἔπειτα διὰ τί τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα
, . 35,9 / ` / M ^
τέτταρσι τὰ Ò ἄναιμα πλείοσι, καὶ καθόλου δὲ διὰ
{3 9. . . » A M , ^ A
τίν᾽ αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν ἄποδα τὰ δὲ δίποδα τὰ δὲ
/ ^ \ / ^ / > / `
τετράποδα τὰ δὲ πολύποδα τῶν ζῴων ἐστί, καὶ
/ / 2 2 p »
διὰ τί πάντ᾽ ἀρτίους ἔχει τοὺς πόδας, ὅσαπερ ἔχει
- y > ΩΙ -
15 πόδας αὐτῶν: ὅλως δ᾽ οἷς κινεῖται σημείοις, ἄρτια
i 23". 9 ,
ταῦτ᾽ ἐστίν.
» M . P 32 327 » M S vw
Ετι δὲ διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν ἄνθρωπος μὲν καὶ ὄρνις
/ € 395 / » / 3 M . /
δίπους, οἱ Ò ἰχθύες ἄποδές εἶσιν: καὶ τὰς κάμψεις
e + ` εαν / » , ,
ὅ τε ἄνθρωπος καὶ ὃ ὄρνις δίποδες ὄντες ἐναντίας
- ^ €
ἔχουσι τῶν σκελῶν. ὁ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἐπὶ
, >
ϱ0 τὴν περιφέρειαν κάμπτει TO σκέλος, ὁ δ᾽ ὄρνις
` ^ M € ` ^
ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον. καὶ ὁ ἄνθρωπος αὐτὸς αὑτῷ
484

704a

PROGRESSION ΟΕ ANIMALS

I. We must next discuss the parts which are useful
to animals for their movement from place to place,
and consider why each part is of the nature which
it is, and why they possess them, and further the
differences in the various parts of one and the same
animal and in those of animals of different species
compared with one another. We must first decide
what questions we have to discuss.

One question is, what is the smallest number of
points at which animals move ; the next is, why red-
blooded animals move at four points, while bloodless
animals move at more than four; and, in general,
why some animals are without feet, others biped,
others quadrupeds, and others polypods, and why all
that have feet at all have an even number of feet ;
and, in general, why the points at which movement
is made are even in number.

We must further consider why a man and a bird are
bipeds, while fishes are without feet ; and why a man
and a bird, being both bipeds, have opposite bend-
ings of the legs. Fora man bends his legs in a convex
direction, a bird in a concave direction ; and a man

485

ARISTOTLE

704a , , M / ` ` / ^ .
ἐναντίως τὰ σκέλη καὶ τοὺς βραχίονας" τοὺς μὲν
γὰρ ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, τὰ δὲ γόνατα ἐπὶ τὴν περι-
φέρειαν κάμπτει. καὶ τὰ τετράποδα τὰ ζῳοτόκα
τοῖς T ἀνθρώποις ἐναντίως κάμπτει καὶ αὐτὰ
αὑτοῖς: τὰ μὲν yàp πρόσθια σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτὸν

704b τῆς περιφερείας κάμπτει, τὰ δ᾽ ὀπίσθια ἐπὶ τὸ

5 κοῖλον. ἔτι δὲ τῶν τετραπόδων ὁ ὅσα μὴ ζῳοτοκεῖ
ἀλλ᾽ ᾠοτοκεῖ, ἰδίως καὶ εἰς τὸ πλάγιον κάμπτει.
πρὸς δὲ τούτοις διὰ τίν᾽ αἰτίαν τὰ τετράποδα
κινεῖται κατὰ διάμετρον. περὶ δὴ πάντων τούτων,
καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα συγγενῆ τούτοις, τὰς αἰτίας θεωρη-
τέον. ὅτι -μὲν γὰρ οὕτω ταῦτα συμβαίνει, δῆλον ἐκ
10 τῆς ἱστορίας τῆς φυσικῆς, διότι δέ, νῦν σκεπτέον.
II. ᾿Αρχὴ δὲ τῆς σκέψεως ὑποθεμένοις οἷς
εἰώθαμεν χρῆσθαι πολλάκις πρὸς τὴν μέθοδον
τὴν φυσικήν, λαβόντες τὰ τοῦτον ἔχοντα τὸν
τρόπον ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς τῆς φύσεως ἔργοις. τούτων
15 δ᾽ êv .μέν ἐστιν ὅτι ἡ φύσις οὐθὲν ποιεῖ .μάτην,
ἀλλ᾽ ἀεὶ ἐκ τῶν ἐνδεχομένων τῇ οὐσίᾳ περὶ ἕκαστον
γένος ζῴου τὸ ἄριστον: διόπερ εἶ βέλτιον ὡδί,
οὕτως καὶ ἔχει κατὰ φύσιν. ἔτι τὰς διαστάσεις
τοῦ μεγέθους, πόσαι καὶ ποῖαι ποίοις ὑπάρχουσι,
δεῖ λαβεῖν. εἰσὶ γὰρ διαστάσεις μὲν ἕξ, συζυγίαι
90 δὲ τρεῖς, μία μὲν τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω, δευτέρα δὲ
τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν, τρίτη δὲ 93 δεξιὸν
καὶ τὸ ἀριστερόν. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ὅτι τῶν κινήσεων
τῶν κατὰ τόπον ἀρχαὶ ὧσις καὶ ἕλξις. καθ
αὑτὰς μὲν οὖν αὗται, κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς δὲ κινεῖ-

a i.e. the front right foot with the left back foot, and the left
front with the right back. > The Historia Animalium.

* Leon. renders eodem . . . modo which seems to im-
ply that he was translating τὸν αὐτὸν ἔχοντα τρόπον.

486

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, r.-11.

himself bends his legs and his arms in opposite
directions, the arms concavely and the knees con-
vexly. And viviparous quadrupeds bend their limbs
in the opposite way to a man's and in opposite
ways to one another ; for they bend their front legs
convexly and their back legs concavely. Further,
quadrupeds which are not viviparous but oviparous
have the peculiarity of bending their legs sideways.
A further question is why do quadrupeds move their
legs diagonally.?

We must examine the reasons of all these and
similar facts ; that they are facts is clear from our
Natural History," and we have now to examine their
causes.

II. We must begin our inquiry by assuming the
principles which we are frequently accustomed to
employ in natural investigation, namely, by accept-
ing as true what occurs in accordance with these
principles 6 in all the works of nature. One of these
principles is that nature never creates anything
without a purpose, but always what is best in view
of the possibilities allowed by the essence of each
kind of animal ; therefore, if it is better to do a thing
in a particular manner, it is also in accordance with
nature. Further, we must accept the dimensions of
magnitude in the size and quality in which they are
present in various objects. For there are six dimen-
sions grouped in three pairs, the first being the
superior and the inferior, the second the front and
the back, and the third the right and the left. We
must further postulate that the origins of movement
from place to place are thrusting and pulling. These
are movements per se; that which is carried by

487

ARISTOTLE

704b M , € > » > . > A ὃ -
ται τὸ φερόμενον ὑπ᾽ ἄλλου: οὐ γὰρ αὐτὸ δοκεῖ
- ε A > > € > ” - A] € ,
705a κινεῖν αὑτὸ ἀλλ᾽ ὑπ᾽ ἄλλου κινεῖσθαι τὸ ὑπό τινος
φερόμενον.
.
III. Τούτων δὲ διωρισμένων λέγωμεν τὰ τούτων
> ^ ^ \ , e / .
ἐφεξῆς. τῶν δὴ ζῴων ὅσα μεταβάλλει κατὰ
M ^
τόπον, τὰ μὲν ἀθρόῳ παντὶ τῷ σώματι μεταβάλλει,
/ ι ε / ` MT ` L 1 /
5 καθάπερ τὰ ἀλλόμενα, τὰ δὲ κατὰ µέρος, καθάπερ
τῶν πορευομένων ἕκαστον. ἐν ἀμφοτέραις δὲ ταῖς
- A
μεταβολαῖς ταύταις ἀεὶ μεταβάλλει τὸ κινούμενον
/ ^
ἀποστηριζόμενον πρὸς τὸ ὑποκείμενον αὐτῷ.
- - ~ σ >
διόπερ ἐάν τε ὑποφέρηται τοῦτο θᾶττον ἢ ὥστ
3,9 ^ ^
10 ἔχειν ἀπερείσασθαι τὸ ποιούμενον em αὐτοῦ τὴν
> ^
κίνησιν, ἐάν θ᾽ ὅλως μηδεμίαν ἔχῃ τοῖς κινουμένοις
^ ^ €
ἀντέρεισιν, οὐθὲν ἐπ᾽ αὐτοῦ δύναται κινεῖν ἑαυτό.
A A M € / A A . \g > ,
καὶ γὰρ τὸ ἀλλόμενον kai πρὸς αὐτὸ" ἀπερειδόμε-
νον τὸ ἄνω καὶ πρὸς τὸ ὑπὸ τοὺς πόδας ποιεῖται
A e » / > / 4 L4
τὴν dAow: ἔχει γάρ τινα ἀντέρεισιν πρὸς ἄλληλα
^ ^ A
15 τὰ μόρια ἐν ταῖς καμπαῖς, καὶ ὅλως τὸ πιέζον
1 A / \ A ε , σ
πρὸς τὸ πιεζόμενον. διὸ καὶ οἱ πένταθλοι ἄλλονται
^ ^ »
πλεῖον ἔχοντες τοὺς GATHpas ἢ μὴ ἔχοντες, καὶ
- / ^
οἱ θέοντες θᾶττον θέουσι παρασείοντες τὰς χεῖρας:
, ^ /
γίνεται γάρ τις ἀπέρεισις ἐν τῇ διατάσει πρὸς τὰς
χεῖρας καὶ τοὺς καρπούς. ἀεὶ δὲ τὸ κινούμενον
, , ^
20 δυσὶν ἐλαχίστοις χρώμενον ὀργανικοῖς μέρεσι
- ^ /
ποιεῖται τὴν μεταβολήν, τῷ μὲν ὡσπερανεὶ θλίβοντι,
^ δὲ θλ β / ` \ . , 0A iB ὃ A
τῷ δὲ θλιβομένῳ. τὸ μὲν γὰρ μένον θλίβεται διὰ
1 κατὰ µέρος Z: μέρει S: τοῖς μορίοις cet.
3 αὐτὸ PUY: αὑτὸ S: ἑαυτὸ 7.

a Special weiche (ἁλτῆρες) or sometimes stones were held
in the hands and thrown backwards by jumpers while in the
air to add to their impetus; cf. Norman Gardiner, Greek

488

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, 11.-111.

something else is only moved accidentally, for what
is carried by something else is regarded not as mov-
ing itself but as being moved by something else.

III. These points having been decided, let us
proceed to the considerations which follow from
them. Of the animals, then, which change their local
position, some do so with their whole body at the
same time, for instance those which jump ; others
move part by part, for example those that walk.
In both these changes the animal that moves makes
its change of position by pressing against that which
is beneath it; and so, if the latter slips away too
quickly to allow that which is setting itself in motion
upon it to press against it, or if it offers no resistance
at all to that which is moving, the animal cannot move
itself at all upon it. For that which jumps performs
that movement by pressing both on its own upper
part and on that which is beneath its feet ; for the
parts in a way lean upon one another at their joints,
and, in general, that which presses leans on that
which is pressed. Hence athletes jump farther if
they have the weights in their hands than if they
have not," and runners run faster if they swing their
arms ὃ : for in the extension of the arms there is a
kind of leaning upon the hands and wrists. Now that
which moves always makes its change of place by the
employment of at least two organic parts, one as it
were compressing and the other being compressed.
For the part which remains still is compressed by

Athletic Sports and Festivals, pp. 298 ff., who proves by
experiment the truth of the statement made in the present
passage.

ὃ On the importance attached by the Greeks to arm-
action in running, especially in short races, cf. N. Gardiner,
op. cit. p. 282.

489

ARISTOTLE

705a \ / ` > > / / ^ ,
τὸ φέρειν, τὸ ὃ αἱρόμενον τείνεται τῷ φέροντι
τὸ φορτίον. διόπερ ἀμερὲς οὐδὲν οὕτω ᾿κινηθῆναι
δυνατόν" οὐ yàp. ἔχει τὴν τοῦ πεισομένου καὶ τοῦ
25 ποιήσοντος ἐν αὑτῶ' διάληψιν.
IV. Erei δ᾽ εἰσὶν αἱ διαστάσεις τὸν ἀριθμὸν
v eoe ἐν / \ ^g / »” `
ἕξ, ais ὁρίζεσθαι πέφυκε τὰ Ca, τό τε ἄνω καὶ
/ \ A «ΝΡ LN » \ `
κάτω καὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ὄπισθεν, ἔτι δὲ δεξιὸν
καὶ ἀριστερόν, τὸ μὲν ἄνω καὶ κάτω μόριον πάντ᾽
^ \ ^
ἔχει τὰ ζῶντα. οὐ μόνον γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστὶ
χα. \ / > \ A , ^ ^
τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τοῖς φυτοῖς. δι-
80 είληπται δ᾽ ἔργῳ, καὶ οὐ θέσει µόνον τῇ πρός τε
τὴν γῆν καὶ τὸν οὐρανόν. ὅθεν μὲν γὰρ ἡ τῆς τροφῆς
διάδοσις καὶ E αὔξησις ἑκάστοις, ἄνω τοῦτ᾽ ἐστίν"
705b πρὸς ὃ δ᾽ ἔσχατον αὕτη περαίνει, τοῦτο κάτω.
M M > / \ \ > \
τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχή τις, TO δὲ πέρας" ἀρχὴ δὲ TO ἄνω.
καίτοι δόξειεν ἂν τοῖς φυτοῖς οἰκεῖον εἶναι τὸ κάτω
μᾶλλον: οὐχ ὁμοίως γὰρ ἔχει τῇ θέσει τὸ ἄνω καὶ
κάτω τούτοις καὶ τοῖς ζῴοις. ἔχει δὲ πρὸς μὲν
ὅ τὸ ὅλον οὐχ ὁμοίως, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ἔργον ὁμοίως.
αἱ γὰρ ῥίζαι εἰσὶ τὸ ἄνω τοῖς φυτοῖς: ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ
ε . ὃ δίὸ ^ / \ A y
ἡ τροφὴ διαδίδοται τοῖς φυομένοις, καὶ λαμβάνει
ταύταις αὐτήν, καθάπερ τὰ ζῶα τοῖς στόμασων..
Ὅσα δὲ μὴ μόνον ζῇ ἀλλὰ καὶ ζῷά ἐστι, τοῖς
τοιούτοις ὑπάρχει τό τε ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν.
10 αἴσθησιν γὰρ ἔχει ταῦτα πάντα, ὁρίζεται δὲ κατὰ
ταύτην τό τε ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν: ἐφ᾽ à
μὲν γὰρ ἡ αἴσθησις πέφυκε καὶ ὅθεν ἐστὶν ἑκάστοις,

1 αὑτῴ Jaeger: αὐτῷ libri. 2 toa Y: ζῶντα ceteri.
Q g 4 Q

9 Cf. above, 704 b 19 ff. ὃ Cf. De caelo, 994 b 11.
ο More literally “ personal."
4 Cf. De vit. long. et brev. 467b 2; Phys. 199 a 28.

400

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, m1.-1v.

having to carry the weight, and the part which is
raised is extended by that which carries the weight.
And so nothing that is without parts can move in
this manner; for it does not contain in itself the
distinction between what is to be passive and what
is to be active.

IV. Now the dimensions by which animals are
. naturally bounded are six in number, namely,
superior and inferior, front and back, and also right
and left.^ Now all living things have a superior and
an inferior part; for the superior and the inferior is
found not only in the animals but also in plants.’
The distinction is one of function and not merely of
position in relation to the earth and heavens. For
the part from which is derived the distribution of
nutriment and the growth in any particular thing is
the superior; the part to which the growth extends
and in which it finally ends is the inferior. The one
is a kind of origin, the other a termination ; and it is
the superior which is an origin. It might, however,
seem that in plants the inferior is the more essential ὁ
part; for the superior and the inferior are not in the
same position in them as in the animals. Though in
relation to the universe they have not the same posi-
tion, they are similarly situated as regards function.
For in plants the roots are the superior part ? ; for it
is from them that the nutriment is distributed to the
parts that grow, and it is from their roots that plants
receive it, as do animals from their mouths.

Things which not only live but are also animals have
both a front and a back. For all animals have sense-
perception, and it is on account of sense-perception
that the front and the back are distinguished ; for
the parts in which the sense-perception is implanted

401

ARISTOTLE

705 b » a > 3 / ^ > > / ,
ἔμπροσθεν ταῦτ᾽ ἐστί, τὰ Ò ἀντικείμενα τούτοις

ὄπισθεν.
Ὅσα δὲ τῶν ζώων μὴ μόνον αἰσθήσεως κοινωνεῖ,

15 ἀλλὰ δύναται ποιεῖσθαι τὴν κατὰ τόπον pera-
βολὴν αὐτὰ δι᾽ αὑτῶν, ἐν τούτοις δη” διώρισται
πρὸς τοῖς ᾿λεχθεῖσι τό T ἀριστερὸν καὶ τὸ δεξιόν,
ὁμοίως τοῖς πρότερον εἰρημένοις ἔργῳ τινὶ καὶ οὐ
θέσει διωρισμένον ἑκάτερον αὐτῶν" ὅθεν μὲν γάρ
ἐστι τοῦ σώματος ἡ τῆς κατὰ τόπον -μεταβολῆς à ἀρχὴ

90 φύσει, τοῦτο μὲν δεξιὸν ἑκάστῳ, τὸ δ᾽ ἀντικείμενον
καὶ τούτῳ πεφυκὸς ἀκολουθεῖν .ἀριστερόν. τοῦτο
δὲ διήρθρωται μᾶλλον ἑτέροις ἑτέρων. ὅσα μὲν
yàp. ὀργανικοῖς μέρεσι χρώμενα (λέγω δ᾽ οἷον
ποσὶν ἢ πτέρυξιν ἢ τινι ἄλλῳ τοιούτῳ) τὴν eip-
µένην μεταβολὴν ποιεῖται, περὶ μὲν τὰ τοιαῦτα

25 μᾶλλον διήρθρωται τὸ λεχθευ: ὅσα δὲ μὴ τοιούτοις
μορίοις, αὐτῷ δὲ τῷ σωματι διαλήψεις ποιούμενα
προέρχεται, καθάπερ ἔνια τῶν ἀπόδων, οἷον οἵ
τε ὄφεις καὶ τὸ τῶν καμπῶν γένος, καὶ πρὸς τούτοις
ἃ καλοῦσι γῆς ἔντερα, ὑπάρχει μὲν καὶ ἐν τούτοις
τὸ λεχθέν, οὐ μὴν διασεσάφηταί y ὁμοίως.

80 ‘On δ᾽ ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεώς € ἐστι,
σημεῖον καὶ τὸ φέρειν τὰ φορτία πάντας ἐπὶ τοῖς
ἀριστεροῖς: οὕτως γὰρ ἐνδέχεται κινεῖσθαι τὸ φέρον,
λελυμένου τοῦ κινήσοντος. (διὸ. καὶ ἀσκωλιάζουσι
ῥᾷον ἐπὶ τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς" κινεῖν yàp πέφυκε τὸ

706 a δεξιόν, κινεῖσθαι δὲ τὸ .ἀριστερόν.)᾽ ὥστε καὶ τὸ
φορτίον οὐκ ἐπὶ τῷ κινήσοντι ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τῷ κινησο-

1 δὴ Jaeger: δὲ libri.

α Viz. superior and inferior.
> i.e. from place to place.

402

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, rv.

and whence every kind of creature derives it are at
the front, and the opposite parts to these are at the
back.

Those animals which not only partake of sense-
perception but can also of themselves make the
change from place to place, in addition to the dis-
. tinctions already mentioned," have a further distinc-
tion of left and right, these being each, like the above,
distinctions of function and not of position. For the
part of the body where the origin of change from
place to place naturally arises is the right in each
kind of animal, while the part which is opposed to
this and naturally follows its lead is the left.

There is a greater differentiation between right
and left in some animals than in others. All animals
which make the above-mentioned change ὃ by the use
of instrumental parts—for example, feet or wings
or the like—show a greater differentiation between
right and left in such parts ; those, on the other hand,
that progress not by means of such parts but by
moving the body itself in sections—like some of the
footless animals, such as snakes and the caterpillars,
and also earthworms—possess, it is true, this differ-
entiation, but it is not nearly so clearly defined.

That the origin of movement is from the right side
is shown by the fact that men always carry burdens
on the left shoulder ; for then it is possible for that
which bears the weight to be set in motion, that
which is to initiate the movement being free. (For
this reason, too, it is easier to hop on the left leg ; for
it is natural to the right leg to initiate movement,
and to the left to be set in motion.) The burden,
therefore, must rest not on the part which is to
initiate movement, but on that which is to be set in

493

ARISTOTLE

706 a / a 3 ^ 22 > DMRA. ^ ^ ` ^
LEV δεῖ ἐπικεῖσθαι. εαν ὃ pes τω € ώς
n

ἀρχῇ τῆς κινήσεως ἐπιτεθῇ, Tjrot ὅλως οὐ κινήσεται
5 ἢ χαλεπώτερον. σημεῖον δ᾽ ὅτι ἀπὸ τῶν δεξιῶν
7] ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως καὶ αἱ προβολαί: πάντες
γὰρ τὰ ἀριστερὰ προβάλλονται, καὶ ἑστῶτες προ-
βεβλήκασι. τὰ ἀριστερὰ μᾶλλον, ἂν μὴ ἀπὸ τύχης
συμβῇ. οὐ γὰρ τῷ προβεβηκότι κινοῦνται, ἀλλὰ
τῷ ἀποβεβηκότι: καὶ ἀμύνονται τοῖς δεξιοῖς.
10 διὰ ταύτην δὲ τὴν αἰτίαν καὶ τὰ δεξιὰ ταὐτά ἐστι
πάντων. ὅθεν μὲν γὰρ ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως, τὸ
αὐτὸ πᾶσι καὶ ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ τὴν θέσιν ἔχει κατὰ φύσιν:
δεξιὸν δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὅθεν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεώς ἐστιν.
καὶ διὰ τοῦτο τὰ στρομβώδη τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων
δεξιὰ πάντ᾽ ἐστίν. οὐ γὰρ ἐπὶ τὴν ἑλίκην κινεῖται,
15 ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τὸ .καταντικρὺ πάντα προέρχεται, οἷον
πορφύραι καὶ κήρυκες. κινουμένων οὖν πάντων
ἀπὸ τῶν δεξιῶν, κἀκείνων ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ κινουμένων
ἑαυτοῖς, ἀνάγκη πάντα δεξιὰ εἶναι ὁμοίως. ἀπο-
λελυμένα Ò ἔχουσι τὰ ἀριστερὰ τῶν ζῴων uá-
λιστα ἄνθρωποι διὰ τὸ κατὰ φύσιν ἔχειν μάλιστα
90 τῶν ζῴων: φύσει δὲ βέλτιόν τε τὸ δεξιὸν τοῦ
ἀριστεροῦ καὶ κεχωρισμένον. διὸ καὶ τὰ δεξιὰ
ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις μάλιστα δεξιά ἐστιν. διωρισµέ-
νων δὲ τῶν δεξιῶν εὐλόγως τὰ ἀριστερὰ ἀκινη-
τότερά ἐστι, καὶ ἀπολελυμένα μάλιστα ἐν τούτοις.
καὶ αἱ ἄλλαι δ᾽ ἀρχαὶ μάλιστα κατὰ φύσιν δι-
οὗ ωρισμέναι ἐν τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ ὑπάρχουσι, τό τ᾽ ἄνω
καὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν.

1 προβεβλήκασι PSU: προβεβήκασι YZ.

a i.e. in the sense that man is right-handed.
404

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ιν.

motion; and if it be placed on that which causes
and is the origin of movement, it will either not be
moved at all or with greater difficulty. The manner
in which we step out also shows that the origin of
movement is in the right side; for all men put the
left foot foremost, and, when standing, preferably
. place the left foot in front, unless they do otherwise
accidentally. For they are moved, not by the foot
which they put in front, but by that with which they
step off; also they defend themselves with their
right limbs. Therefore the right is the same in all ;
for that from which the origin of movement is derived
is the same in all and has its position by nature in the
same place, and it is from the right that the origin
of movement is derived. For this reason, too, the
stromboid testaceans all have their shells on the
right ; for they all move not in the direction of the
spiral but in the opposite direction, the purple-fish,
for example, and the trumpet-shell. Since, then,
movement in all animals starts from the right, and
the right moves in the same direction as the animal
itself, they must all alike be right-sided.^ Now man
more than any other animal has his left limbs de-
tached, because of all animals he is most in accord-
ance with nature, and the right is naturally better
than the left and separated from it. Therefore the
right is most right-sided in man. And since the right
is differentiated, it is only reasonable that the left is
less easily set in motion and most detached in man.
Moreover the other principles,? the superior and the
front, are in man most in accord with nature and most
differentiated.

ὃ The ἀρχαί here are the διαστάσεις of 704 b 19, 705 a 26,
from the point of view of function rather than position.

405

ARISTOTLE

706a 48 zi £
V. Οἷς μὲν οὖν τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν δι-

ώρισται, καθάπερ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις καὶ τοῖς ὄρνισι,
ταῦτα μὲν δίποδα (τῶν δὲ τεττάρων τὰ δύο σημεῖα
τοῖς μὲν πτέρυγες τοῖς δὲ χεῖρες καὶ βραχίονές
> e > 5. A 3 A \ / » M
80 εἰσιν). ὅσα δ᾽ ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ τὸ πρόσθεν ἔχει καὶ
` ”/ / ὃ M λύ ὃ M 3 8
τὸ ἄνω, τετράποδα καὶ πολύποδα καὶ ἄποδα.
καλῶ γὰρ πόδα μέρος ἐπὶ σημείῳ πεζῷ κινητικῷ
κατὰ τόπον: καὶ γὰρ τὸ Ò ὄνομα ἐοίκασιν εἰληφέναι
ἀπὸ τοῦ πέδου οἱ πόδες. ἔνια Ò ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ
ἔχει τὸ πρόσθιον καὶ τὸ ὀπίσθιον, οἷον τά τε
706 b μαλάκια καὶ τὰ στρομβώδη τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων"
εἴρηται δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν «πρότερον. ev ἑτέροις.
Τριῶν © ὄντων τόπων, τοῦ ἄνω καὶ μέσου
καὶ κάτω, τὰ μὲν δίποδα τὸ ἄνω πρὸς τὸ τοῦ
e z » . M / ^ » A
ὅλου ἄνω ἔχει, τὰ δὲ πολύποδα ἢ ἄποδα πρὸς
\ / M \ . ` \ / » >
ὅ τὸ µέσον, τὰ δὲ φυτὰ πρὸς TO κάτω. αἴτιον ὃ
\ M
ὅτι τὰ μὲν ἀκίνητα, πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν δὲ τὸ ἄνω,
7 δὲ τροφὴ ἐκ τῆς γῆς. τὰ δὲ τετράποδα ἐπὶ
τὸ μέσον, καὶ τὰ πολύποδα καὶ ἄποδα, διὰ τὸ
μὴ ὀρθὰ εἶναι. τὰ δὲ δίποδα πρὸς τὸ ἄνω διὰ
` > . σ / > € » ,
1070 ὀρθὰ εἶναι, μάλιστα Ò ὁ ἄνθρωπος" μάλιστα
^ M / 2 \ , , / M M €
yàp κατὰ φύσιν ἐστὶ δίπους. εὐλόγως. δὲ καὶ αἱ
ἀρχαί εἰσιν ἀπὸ τούτων τῶν μορίων: ἡ μὲν γὰρ
ἀρχὴ τίμιον, τὸ δ᾽ ἄνω τοῦ κάτω καὶ τὸ πρόσθεν
τοῦ ὄπισθεν καὶ τὸ δεξιὸν τοῦ ἀριστεροῦ τιμιώτερον.
καλῶς δ᾽ ἔχει καὶ τὸ ἀνάπαλιν λέγειν περὶ αὐτῶν,
a The whole of man is '' front," and his “ front ” is divided
into superior and inferior; in a quadruped only that part
is ** front " which is superior in man.
> P.A. 684b 14 ff. ; H.A. 593b 21 ff.
e ᾽Αρχή has here the double meaning of “ starting-point”

and ''centre of authority "; see note on De mot. anim.
698 b 1.

496

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.

V. Animals in which the superior and the front are
differentiated, man, for example, and the birds, are
bipeds (two of the four points being wings in birds,
and hands and arms in man). But the animals in
which the superior and the front are in the same
position ^ are four-footed (quadrupeds), many-footed
(polypods), and footless. By '' foot " I mean the part
that is at a point which has connexion with the ground
and gives movement from place to place; for the
feet (πόδες) seem to have derived their name from
the ground (πέδον). Some animals have their front
and their back in the same position, for example the
molluses and the stromboid testaceans ; with these
we have already dealt elsewhere.

Now since there are three regions, the superior,
the middle, and the inferior, bipeds have their
superior part in a position corresponding to the
superior region of the universe, polypods and footless
animals in a position corresponding to the middle
region, and plants in a position corresponding to the
inferior region. The reason is that plants lack
movement, and the superior part is situated with a
view to nutriment, and their nutriment comes from
the earth. Quadrupeds, polypods, and footless
animals have their superior part in a position corre-
sponding to the middle region because they are not
erect ; bipeds have it in a position corresponding to
the superior region because they are erect, especially
man, the biped most in accordance with nature. And
it is only reasonable that the origins ^ should come
from these parts; for the origin is honourable, and
the superior is more honourable than the inferior, and
the front than the back, and the right than the left.
It is also true if we reverse the proposition and assert

407

ARISTOTLE

706 b € \ \ ^ 5 \ 3 2 A
15 ὡς διὰ τὸ τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐν τούτοις εἶναι ταῦτα

τιμιώτερα τῶν ἀντικειμένων μορίων ἐστίν.

VI. Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν ἡ τῆς κινήσεώς
ἐστιν ἀρχή, φανερὸν ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων. ἐπεὶ δ᾽
ἀνάγκη παντὸς συνεχοῦς, οὗ τὸ μὲν κινεῖται
τὸ δ᾽ ἠρεμεῖ, ὅλου δυναμένου κινεῖσθαι ἑστῶτος

20 θατέρου, ᾗ ἄμφω κινεῖται ἐναντίας κινήσεις, εἶναί
τι κοινὸν καθ᾽’ ὃ συνεχῆ ταῦτ᾽. ἐστὶν ἀλλήλοις,
κἀνταῦθ᾽ ὑπάρχειν τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς ἑκατέρου τῶν
μερῶν κινήσεως (ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῆς στάσεως),
δῆλον ὅτι, καθ᾽ ὅσας τῶν λεχθεισῶν ἀντιθέσεων
ἰδία κίνησις ὑπάρχει τῶν ἀντικειμένων μερῶν

25 ἑκατέρῳ, πάντα ταῦτα κοινὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχει κατὰ"
τὴν τῶν εἰρημένων μερῶν σύμφυσιν, λέγω δὲ τῶν
τε δεξιῶν καὶ ἀριστερῶν καὶ τῶν ἄνω καὶ κάτω
καὶ τῶν ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τῶν ὄπισθεν. κατὰ μὲν οὖν
τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν διάληψις οὐκ ἔστι
τοιαύτη περὶ τὸ κινοῦν ἑαυτό, διὰ τὸ μηθενὶ

30 φυσικὴν ὑπάρχειν κίνησιν εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν, μηδὲ
διορισμὸν ἔχειν τὸ κινούμενον καθ᾽ ὃν τὴν ἐφ᾽
ἑκάτερα τούτων μεταβολὴν ποιεῖται: κατὰ δὲ τὸ
δεξιόν γε καὶ ἀριστερὸν καὶ τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω
ἐστίν. διὸ τῶν ζῴων ὅσα μέρεσι; ὀργανικοῖς

707 a χρώμενα προέρχεται, τῇ μὲν τοῦ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ
ὄπισθεν διαφορᾷ οὐκ ἔχει διωρισμένα ταῦτα, ταῖς
δὲ λοιπαῖς, ἀμφοτέραις μέν, προτέρᾳ δὲ τῇ κατὰ
τὸ δεξιὸν καὶ ἀριστερὸν διοριζούσῃ, διὰ τὸ τὴν
1 δῆλον ὅτι (Leon. manifestum est quod, etc.) : δηλονότι libri.

2 κατὰ P Leon.: om. ceteri.
* i.e. the three pairs of * dimensions ” (704 b 19).

408

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.-v1.

that, because the origins are situated in these parts,
they are therefore more honourable than the opposite
parts.

VI. It is clear, then, from what has been said that
the origin of movement is on the right. Now in
anything continuous of which part is in motion and
part at rest (the whole being able to move while one
part stands still), there must be, at the point where
both parts move in opposite movements, something
common to both which makes these parts continuous
with one another (and at this point must be situated
the origin of the movement of each of these parts,
and likewise also of their immobility): it is evident,
therefore, that in respect of whichever of the above-
mentioned contraries the individual movement of
each of the opposite parts takes place, there is in
all these cases a common origin of movement by
reason of the interconnexion of the said parts, namely,
of the right and the left, the superior and the inferior,
the front and the back. The differentiation accord-
ing to front and back is not one which applies to
that which moves itself, because nothing possesses a
natural movement backwards nor has the moving
animal any distinction in accordance with which it
can make a change from place to place in each of
these two directions ^; but there is a differentiation
of right and left, superior and inferior. All animals,
therefore, which progress by the employment of in-
strumental parts have these parts differentiated, not
by the distinction between front and back, but by the
other two pairs, first, by the distinction of right and
left (for this must immediately exist where there are

ὃ Τη other words an animal cannot divide itself into two
parts, one of which goes forwards and the other backwards.

499

707a

ARISTOTLE

^ M ^
μὲν ἐν τοῖς δυσὶν εὐθέως ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι ὑπ-

5 άρχειν, τὴν Ò ἐν τοῖς τέτταρσι πρώτοις.

10

15

20

25

᾿Επεὶ οὖν τό τε ἄνω καὶ κάτω καὶ τὸ δεξιὸν καὶ
ἀριστερὸν τῇ αὐτῇ ἀρχῇ καὶ κοινῇ συνήρτηται πρὸς
αὗτά (λέγω δὲ ταύτην τὴν τῆς κινήσεως κυρίαν), δεῖ
δ᾽ ἐν ἅπαντι τῷ μέλλοντι κατὰ τρόπον ποιεῖσθαι
τὴν ἀφ᾽ ἑκάστου κίνησιν ὡρίσθαι πως καὶ τετά-
χθαι ταῖς ἀποστάσεσι ταῖς πρὸς τὰς ῥηθείσας
ἀρχάς, τάς τε ἀντιστοίχους καὶ τὰς συστοίχους
τῶν ἐν τοῖς μέρεσι τούτοις, τὸ τῶν λεχθεισῶν
κινήσεων ἁπασῶν αἴτιον (αὕτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἀφ᾽ ἧς
ἀρχῆς κοινῆς τῶν ἐν τῷ ζῴῳ ἢ τε τοῦ δεξιοῦ καὶ
ἀριστεροῦ κίνησίς ἐστιν, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἡ τοῦ ἄνω
καὶ κάτω), ταύτην δ᾽ ἔχειν ἑκάστῳ 1) παραπλησίως
ἔχει” πρὸς ἑκάστην τῶν ἐν τοῖς -ῥηθεῖσι μέρεσιν
ἀρχῶν, VII. δῆλον οὖν ὡς ἢ μόνοις η μάλιστα
τούτοις ὑπάρχει τῶν ζῴων ἡ κατὰ τόπον κίνησις,
ἃ δυσὶν ἢ τέτταρσι. ποιεῖται σημείοις Tv κατὰ
τόπον μεταβολήν. ὥστ᾽ ἐπεὶ σχεδὸν τοῖς ἐναίμοις
τοῦτο μάλιστα συμβέβηκε, φανερὸν ὅτι πλείοσί
τε σημείοις τεττάρων οὐθὲν οἷόν τε κινεῖσθαι τῶν
ἐναίμων ζῴων, καὶ εἴ τι τέτταρσι σημείοις κινεῖσθαι
πέφυκε μόνον, ἀναγκαῖον τοῦτ᾽ εἶναι ἔναιμον.

Ὁμολογεῖ δὲ τοῖς λεχθεῖσι καὶ τὰ συμβαίνοντα

περὶ τὰ ζῷα. τῶν μὲν γὰρ ἐναίμων οὐδὲν εἰς
πλείω διαιρούμενον δύναται ζῆν οὐθένα χρόνον
1 δ᾽ PUZ: om. SY. 2 ἔχει Z: om. cet.

a i.e. the distinction of superior and inferior.

ὃ Namely, the soul situated in the heart (Mich.).

ο The legs move in pairs, either the front and back legs
on the same side together, or the front leg on one side with
the back leg on the other (cf. 704b 7).

500

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vr.-vrr.

two things), and, secondly, by the distinction which
must arise as soon as there are four things.?

Since, then, the superior and the inferior, and the
right and the left are connected with one another by
the same common origin (and by this I mean that
which controls their movement δ), and since in any-
thing which is to carry out the movement of each
part properly the cause of all the said movements
must be somehow defined and arranged at the right
distance in relation to the said origins, namely;
those in the limbs, which are in pairs opposite or
diagonal to one another,’ (and the cause of their
movement is the common origin from which the
movement of left and right and likewise of superior
and inferior in the animal’s limbs is derived), and
since this origin must in each animal be at a point
where it is in more or less the same relation to each
of the origins in the said parts,? (VII.) it is, therefore,
clear that movement from place to place belongs
either solely or chiefly to those animals which make
their change of place by means of two or four points.
And so, since this condition occurs almost exclusively
in red-blooded animals, it is clear that no red-blooded
animal can move by means of more than four points,
and if an animal is so constituted by nature as to
move by means of four points only, it must neces-
sarily be red-blooded.

What actually occurs in animals is also in agree-
ment with the above statement. For no red-blooded
animal can live for any time worth mentioning if it be

4 There are two kinds of ἀρχαί in, e.g., a quadruped, (a)
those in each of the four legs and (0) the central ἀρχή in the
heart; the former must each be approximately equidistant
from the latter.

501

ARISTOTLE

707a e , ^ ^ \ / / 3 A
ὡς εἰπεῖν, τῆς τε κατὰ τόπον κινήσεως, καθ᾽’ ἣν

ἐκινεῖτο συνεχὲς OV καὶ μὴ διηρηµένον, οὐ δύναται
κοινωνεῖν: τῶν Ò ἀναίμων τε καὶ πολυπόδων ἔνια
διαιρούμενα δύναται ζῆν πολὺν χρόνον ἑκάστῳ
τῶν μερῶν, καὶ κινεῖσθαι τὴν αὐτὴν ἥνπερ καὶ
80 πρὶν διαιρεθῆναι κίνησιν, οἷον αἵ τε .καλούμεναι
σκολόπενδραι καὶ ἄλλα τῶν ἐντόμων καὶ προμηκῶν"
πάντων γὰρ τούτων καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν μέρος ἐπὶ
707b ταὐτὸ ποιεῖται τὴν πορείαν τῷ ἔμπροσθεν. αἴτιον
δὲ τοῦ διαιρούμενα ζῆν ὅτι, καθάπερ ἂν εἴ τι
συνεχὲς ἐκ πολλῶν εἴη ζῴων συγκείμενον, οὕτως
ἕκαστον αὐτῶν συνέστηκεν. φανερὸν δὲ τοῦτο ἐκ
τῶν πρότερον εἰρημένων, διότι τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν
δ τρόπον.

Δυσὶ γὰρ ἢ τέτταρσι σημείοις πέφυκε. κινεῖσθαι
τὰ μάλιστα συνεστηκότα κατὰ φύσιν, ὁμοίως. δὲ
καὶ ὅσα τῶν ἐναίμων ἄποδά ἐστιν. καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα
κινεῖται τέτταρσι «σημείοις, δι ὧν τὴν κίνησιν

ποιεῖται. δυσὶ γὰρ χρώμενα προέρχεται kap-

10 mais" TO yap δεξιὸν. καὶ ἀριστερὸν καὶ τὸ πρόσθιον
καὶ ὀπίσθιον ἐν τῷ πλάτει ἐστὶν ἐν ἑκατέρᾳ τῇ
καμπῇ αὐτοῖς, ἐν μὲν τῷ πρὸς τὴν κεφαλὴν
μέρει τὸ πρόσθιον σημεῖον δεξιόν τε καὶ ἀρι-
στερόν, ἐν δὲ τῷ πρὸς τὴν οὐρὰν τὰ ὀπίσθια
σημεῖα. δοκεῖ δὲ δυοῖν σημείουν κινεῖσθαι, τῇ T
ἔμπροσθεν ἀφῇ καὶ τῇ" ὕστερον. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι

15 στενὸν κατὰ πλάτος ἐστίν, ἐπεὶ καὶ ἐν τούτοις τὸ
δεξιὸν ἡγεῖται, καὶ ἀὐτατεοδίδινοι ος ὄπισθεν,
ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς τετράποσιν. τῶν δὲ κάμψεων
» ^ ^
αἴτιον TO μῆκος: ὥσπερ γὰρ οἱ μακροὶ τῶν dv-
θρώπων λορδοὶ βαδίζουσι, καὶ τοῦ δεξιοῦ ὤμου

a Centipedes,

502

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vu.

divided into several parts, and can no longer partake
of the motion from place to place whereby it moved
while it was still continuous and undivided. On the
other hand, some of the bloodless animals and poly-
pods can, when they are divided, live in each of
these parts for a considerable time and move with
the same motion as before they were divided, the so-
called scolopendrae;? for example, and other elongated
insects ; for the hinder part of all these continues to
progress in the same direction as the fore-part. The
reason why they live when they are divided is that
each of them consists as it were of a continuous body
made up of many animals. And the reason why they
are of this kind is clear from what has been said above.

Animals which are constituted most in accordance
with nature naturally move by means of two or four
points, and likewise also those among the red-blooded
animals which are footless ; for they too move at four
points and so effect locomotion. For they progress
by means of two bends ; for in each of their bends
there is a right and a left, a front and a back in
their breadth—a front point on the right and another
on the left in the part towards the head, and the two
hinder points in the part towards the tail. They
appear to move at two points only, namely, the points
of contact with the ground in front and behind. The
reason for this is that they are narrow in breadth ;
for in these animals too, as in the quadrupeds, the
right leads the way and sets up a corresponding move-
ment behind. The reason of their bendings is their
length; for just as tall men walk with their backs
hollowed è and, while their right shoulder leads the

> λορδός is the opposite of κυφός, hunchbacked (Hippocr.
Fract. 763).

503

707 b

20

25

ARISTOTLE

,

εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν ἡγουμένου τὸ ἀριστερὸν ἰσχίον εἰς
τοὔπισθεν μᾶλλον ἀποκλίνει, καὶ τὸ μέσον κοῖλον
γίνεται καὶ λορδόν, οὕτω δεῖ νοεῖν καὶ τοὺς ὄφεις
κινουμένους ἐπὶ τῇ γῇ λορδούς. σημεῖον δ᾽ ὅτι
ὁμοίως κινοῦνται τοῖς τετράποσιν ' ἐν μέρει γὰρ
μεταβάλλουσι τὸ κοῖλον καὶ τὸ κυρτόν. ὅταν
γὰρ πάλιν τὸ ἀριστερὸν τῶν προσθίων ἡγήσηται,
ἐξ ἐναντίας πάλιν τὸ κοῖλον γίνεται" τὸ γὰρ δεξιὸν
ἐντὸς πάλιν γίνεται. σημεῖον δεξιὸν πρόσθιον
ἐφ᾽ οὗ A, ἀριστερὸν ἐφ᾽ οὗ B, ὀπίσθιον δεξιὸν ἐφ᾽
οὗ I’, ἀριστερὸν ἐφ᾽ οὗ Δ.

Οὕτω δὲ κινοῦνται τῶν μὲν χερσαίων οἱ ὄφεις,
τῶν δ᾽ ἐνύδρων αἱ ἐγχέλεις καὶ οἱ γόγγροι καὶ αἱ

, A ^ » er » \ A
30 µύραιναι, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσα ἔχει τὴν μορφὴν

708 a

5

10

ὀφιωδεστέραν. πλὴν ἔνια μὲν τῶν ἐνύδρων τῶν
τοιούτων οὐδὲν ἔχει πτερύγιον, οἷον αἱ μύραιναι,
ἀλλὰ χρῆται τῇ θαλάττῃ ὥσπερ οὗ ὄφεις τῇ γῇ
καὶ τῇ θα άττῃ (νέουσι. γὰρ οἱ ὄφεις ὁμοίως
καὶ ὅταν κινῶνται ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς): τὰ δὲ δύ᾽ ἔχει
πτερύγια μόνον, οἷον οἵ τε γόγγροι καὶ αἱ ἐγ-
χέλεις καὶ γένος τι κεστρέων, οἳ γίνονται ἐν
τῇ λίμνῃ τῇ ἐν Σιφαῖς. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ταῖς
καμπαῖς ἐλάττοσι κινοῦνται ἐν τῷ ὑγρῶ ἢ ἐν τῇ
γῇ τὰ ζῆν εἰωθότα ἐν τῇ γῇ, καθάπερ τὸ τῶν
ἐγχέλεων γένος. οἱ δὲ δύο πτερύγια € ἔχοντες τῶν
κεστρέων τῇ καμπῇ ἀνισάζουσιν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ τὰ
τέτταρα σημεῖα. VII. τοῖς δ᾽ ὄφεσιν. αἴτιον τῆς
ἀποδίας τό τε τὴν φύσιν μηθὲν ποιεῖν μάτην,

α On the Boeotian coast of the Corinthian Gulf, the Tipha
of Paus. ix. 32. 3.

è i.e. two of its ** points" are fins and the other two are
made by bends.

504

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vrr.-virr.

way forward, their left hip inclines towards the rear
and the middle of the body becomes concave and
hollow, so we must suppose that snakes too move
upon the ground with their backs hollowed. And
that they move in the same manner as quadrupeds
is shown by the fact that they change the concave
into the convex and the convex into the concave.
For when the left forward point is again leading
the way, the concavity comes in turn on the other
side, for the right again becomes the inner. Let
the front point on the right be A, and that on the

DA
AY B
left B, and the rear point on the right C, and that on
the left D.

This is the way that snakes move as land-animals,
and eels, conger-eels and lampreys and all the
other snake-like creatures as water-animals. Some
water-animals, however, of this class, lampreys for
example, have no fin and use the sea as snakes
use both the sea and the land ; for snakes swim in
just the same manner as when they move on land.
Others have two fins only, conger-eels for example,
and ordinary eels and a species of mullet which occurs
in the lake at Siphae.? For this reason too those
which are accustomed to live on land, the eels for
example, move with fewer bends in the water than
on dry land. The kind of mullet which has only two
fins makes up the number of four points in the water
by its bends. VIII. The reason why snakes are
footless is, first, that nature creates nothing without

505

708a

2

e

90

ARISTOTLE

ἀλλὰ πάντα πρὸς τὸ ἄριστον ἀποβλέπουσαν ἑκάστῳ
τῶν ἐνδεχομένων, διασώζουσαν ἑκάστου τὴν ἰδίαν
οὐσίαν καὶ τὸ τί ἦν αὐτῶ εἶναι" ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὸ πρό-
τερον ἡμῖν εἰρημένον, τὸ τῶν ἐναίμων μηθὲν οἷόν
T εἶναι πλείοσι κινεῖσθαι σημείοις 7 τέτταρσιν.
ἐκ τούτων γὰρ φανερὸν ὅτι τῶν ἐναίμων ὅσα κατὰ
τὸ μῆκος ἀσύμμετρά ἐστι πρὸς τὴν ἀλλην τοῦ
σώματος φύσιν, καθάπερ οἱ ὄφεις, οὐθὲν αὐτῶν
οἷόν θ᾽’ ὑπόπουν εἶναι. πλείους μὲν γὰρ τεττάρων
οὐχ οἷόν τε αὐτὰ πόδας ἐ ἔχειν (ἄναιμα γὰρ ἂν ἦν),
ἔχοντα δὲ δύο πόδας ἢ τέτταρας σχεδὸν ἦν ἂν
ἀκίνητα πάμπαν" οὕτω βραδεῖαν ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι
καὶ ἀνωφελῆ τὴν κίνησιν.

Ἅπαν δὲ τὸ ὑπόπουν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀρτίους ἔχει
τοὺς πόδας" ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ἆλσει χρώμενα μόνον
ποιεῖται τὴν κατὰ τόπον μεταβολήν, οὐθὲν ποδῶν
πρός γε τὴν τοιαύτην δεῖται Know: ὅσα δὲ
χρῆται μὲν ἄλσει, μή ἐστι δ᾽ αὐτοῖς αὐτάρκης
αὕτη 7 κίνησις ἀλλὰ καὶ πορείας προσδέονται, δῆ-
λον ὡς τοῖς μὲν βέλτιον τοῖς Ò (άλλως) ὅλως
ἀδύνατον' πορεύεσθαι. [διότι πᾶν ζῷον ἀναγκαῖον
ἀρτίους ἔχειν τοὺς πόδας T οὔσης γὰρ. τῆς
τοιαύτης. μεταβολῆς κατὰ μέρος, ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἀθρόῳ

παντὶ τῷ σώματι. καθάπερ τῆς ἄλσεως, ἀναγκαῖόν
ἐστι τοῖς μὲν μένειν μεταβαλλόντων τῶν ποδῶν
τοῖς δὲ κινεῖσθαι, καὶ τοῖς ἀντικειμένοις τούτων
ποιεῖν ἑκάτερον, werd ἀπὸ τῶν κινουμένων
ἐπὶ τὰ μένοντα τὸ βάρος. διόπερ οὔτε τρισὶ μὲν
1 «ἄλλως) ὅλως ἀδύνατον] ὅλως ἀδύνατον «ἄλλως» Farquharson.
3 διότι... πόδας om. PSU: tanquam glossema del. Jaeger.

a Mich.'s explanation of this passage is that certain poly-
pods, which can walk with an uneven number of legs (of.

506

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ντ.

a purpose but always with a view to what is best for
each thing within the bounds of possibility, preserv-
ing the particular essence and purpose of each ; and,
secondly, as we have already said, because no red-
blooded animal can move by means of more than four
points. It is clear from this that all red-blocded
animals whose length is out of proportion to the rest
of their bodily constitution, like the snakes, can none
of them have feet ; for they cannot have more than
four feet (for if they had, they would be bloodless),
whereas, if they had two or four feet, they would be
practically incapable of any movement at all, so slow
and useless would their movement necessarily be.
Every animal which has feet must necessarily have
an even number of feet ; for those which move from
place to place by jumping only do not require feet
(at least not for this movement), while those which
jump but do not find this mode of locomotion suffi-
cient by itself and need to walk also, must clearly
either progress better with an even number of legs
or else cannot otherwise progress at all? For since
this kind of change from place to place is carried out
by a part and not, like jumping, with the whole of
the body at once, some of the feet during the change
of position must remain at rest while others are in
motion, and the animal must rest and move with
opposite legs, transferring the weight from the legs
in motion to those at rest. Hence no animal can

108b 5 ff.), would walk better with an even number; quad-
rupeds and bipeds, on the other hand, cannot walk at all with
an uneven number of legs. Farquharson's insertion of ἄλλως
seems therefore a certain emendation : the omission of ἄλλως,
however, in our mss. would be better accounted for if it is
inserted before ὅλως rather than before πορεύεσθαι.

R 507

ARISTOTLE

M
708b οὐθὲν οὔθ᾽ ἑνὶ χρώμενον βαδίζειν οἷόν τε" τὸ μὲν
\ , M e € , » 27? T A ^
yàp οὐθὲν ὅλως ὑπόστημα ἔχει ἐφ᾽ ᾧ τὸ τοῦ
ε
σώματος ἕξει βάρος, τὸ δὲ κατὰ τὴν ἑτέραν
2 / > ^
ἀντίθεσιν μόνην, ὥστ᾽ ἀναγκαῖον αὐτὸ οὕτως
> ^ ^
ἐπιχειροῦν κινεῖσθαι πίπτειν. ὅσα δὲ πολύποδά
,
5 ἐστιν, otov αἱ σκολόπενδραι, τούτοις δυνατὸν μὲν
M ^ ^
καὶ ἀπὸ περιττῶν ποδῶν πορείαν γίνεσθαι, καθάπερ
/ ^ ~
φαίνεται ποιούµενα καὶ νῦν, ἄν τις αὐτῶν ἕνα
^ ^ ^ ^ 5 ,
πηρώσῃ τῶν ποδῶν, διὰ τὸ τὴν τῶν ἀντιστοίχων
- / IA ~ ^ / ^
ποδῶν κολόβωσιν ἰᾶσθαι τῷ λοιπῶ πλήθει τῶν
5» ε ^ Ea
ἐφ᾽ ἑκάτερα ποδῶν' γίνεται γὰρ τούτοις otov
» ^ / / ^ »
10 ἔφελξις τοῦ πεπηρωμένου μορίου τοῖς ἄλλοις,
> >
ἀλλ᾽ οὐ βάδισις. οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ φανερὸν ὅτι βέλτιον
\ ^ ^ ,
ἂν καὶ ταῦτα ποιοῖτο τὴν μεταβολὴν ἀρτίους
ἔχοντα τοὺς πόδας, καὶ μηθενὸς ἐλλείποντος, ἀλλ᾽
ἀντιστοίχους ἔχοντα τοὺς πόδας" οὕτω γὰρ (ivy
`
αὑτῶν ἀνισάζειν τε δύναιτο᾽ τὸ βάρος καὶ μὴ
- /
15 ταλαντεύειν ἐπὶ θάτερα μᾶλλον, εἰ ἀντίστοιχα
eSP
ἐρείσματ᾽ ἔχοι καὶ μὴ κενὴν ΠΕ ἑτέραν χώραν
τῶν" ἀντικειμένων. προβαίνει ὃ ἀφ᾽ ἑκατέρου
τῶν μερῶν ἐναλλὰξ τὸ πορευόμενον" οὕτω γὰρ
,
εἰς ταὐτὸ τῷ ἐξ ἀρχῆς σχήματι γίνεται ἡ κατά-
στασις.
“ ` ^ 5 / ” ` , ,
2 Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἀρτίους ἔχει τοὺς πόδας πάντα,
M \ ο 9 η, » : r e δ᾽ 3 θὲ
καὶ διὰ τιν αἰτίαν, εἰρηται ΙΧ. οτι εἰ pev
ἦν ἠρεμοῦν, οὐκ ἂν ἦν κάμψεις οὐδ᾽ εὔθυνσις, ἐκ
τῶνδε δῆλον. ἔστι γὰρ κάμψις μὲν ἡ ἐξ εὐθέος ἢ
,
eis περιφερὲς 7 εἰς γωνίαν μεταβολή, εὔθυνσις
δ᾽ ἡ ἐκ θατέρου τούτων εἰς εὐθύ. ἐν ἁπάσαις δὲ
- - ` «^ ^
95 ταῖς εἰρημέναις μεταβολαῖς ἀνάγκη πρὸς Ev σημεῖον
1 οὔτε τρισὶ μὲν οὐθὲν οὔθ᾽ ἑνὶ Jaeger: οὐδὲ (οὐδὲ om. PYZ)
τρισὶ μὲν οὐθὲν οὐθενὶ libri. 2 ἂν add. Jaeger.
508

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vrrr.-ix.

walk using either three legs or one leg ; for if it uses
one leg it has absolutely no support on which it is to
rest the weight of the body, and if it uses three it will
rest it on a pair of opposite legs, so that, if it attempts
to move thus, it necessarily falls. Polypods, however,
for instance the scolopendrae, can achieve progression
with an odd number of legs, as they canbe immediately
seen to do if you mutilate one of their feet, because
the maiming of some of the feet in the opposing rows
is compensated by the greater number of feet still
remaining on either side; the result is that the
maimed leg is as it were dragged along by the others,
and the animal does not walk properly. However,
it is clear that these maimed animals would achieve
the change of position better if they had an even
number of feet, that is, if none were lacking and they
had all the feet in the corresponding rows ; for then
they would be able to distribute their weight evenly
and would not sway to one side, if they had corre-
sponding supports on each side and had not one space
in the opposite rows devoid of a leg. An animal,
then, when it walks progresses by means of each of
its limbs alternately ; for thus its state is restored so
as to be identical with its original form.

It has now been established that all animals have
an even number of feet, and the reason for this has
been stated. IX. That, if nothing were at rest, there
could be no bending or straightening is clear from the
following considerations. Bending is the change from
whatis straight to what is curved or angular; straighten-
ing is the change of either of these to what is straight.
In all the above changes the bending or straightening

3 δύναιτο scripsi: δύναται Z: δύναιντο ceteri.
4 τὴν ante τῶν add. 7.

509

ARISTOTLE

708b
τὴν κάμφιν 1 T εὔθυνσιν ίνεσθαι. ἀλλὰ μὴν

κάμψεώς. γε μὴ οὔσης οὔτ᾽ ἂν πορεία οὔτε νεῦσις
οὔτε πτῆσις ἦν. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὑπόποδα ἐπειδὴ ἐν
ἑκατέρῳ τῶν ἀντικειμένων σκελῶν ἐν μέρει ἵσταται
καὶ τὸ βάρος ἴσχει, ἀναγκαῖον θατέρου προ-
80 βαίνοντος θατέρου ποιεῖσθαι κάμψιν. ἴσα τε γὰρ.
πέφυκεν é ἔχειν τῷ μήκει τὰ ἀντίστοιχα. κῶλα, καὶ
ὀρθὸν δεῖ εἶναι τὸ ὑφεστὸς τῷ βάρει, οἷον κάθετον
πρὸς τὴν γῆν. ὅταν δὲ 'προβαίνῃ, γίνεται ἡ
709 a ὑποτείνουσα καὶ δυναμένη. τὸ μένον μέγεθος καὶ
τὴν μεταξύ. ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἴσα τὰ κῶλα, ἀνάγκη κάμψαι
τὸ μένον, 7 ἐν τῷ γόνατι ἢ ἐν τῇ κάμψει, οἷον
εἴ τι -ἀγόνατον εἴη τῶν βαδιζόντων. σημεῖον
5 ὅτι οὕτως ἔχει" εἰ γάρ τις ἐν yi) βαδίζοι παρὰ
τοῖχον, ἡ γραφομένη € ἔσται οὐκ εὐθεῖα ἀλλὰ σκολιά,
διὰ τὸ ἐλάττω μὲν κάμπτοντος γίνεσθαι τὴν
γραφομένην, μείζω δ᾽ ἱσταμένου καὶ .ἐξαίροντος.
νδέχεται μέντοι κινεῖσθαι καὶ μὴ ἔχοντος KAH-
πὴν τοῦ σκέλους, ὥσπερ τὰ παιδία ἕρπουσιν. καὶ
10 περὶ τῶν ἐλεφάντων ὁ παλαιὸς ἦν λόγος τοιοῦτος,
οὐκ ἀληθὴς ὤν. κινεῖται δὲ καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα
κάμψεως γινομένης ἐν ταῖς ὠμοπλάταις 7 τοῖς
ἰσχίοις. ἀλλ’ ὀρθὸν οὐδὲν δύναιτ᾽ ἂν πορευθῆναι
συνεχῶς καὶ ἀσφαλῶς, κινηθείη δ᾽ ἂν οἷον ἐν
ταῖς παλαίστραις οἱ διὰ τῆς κόνεως προϊόντες. ἐπὶ
τῶν γονάτων. πολὺ γὰρ τὸ ἄνω μέρος, ὥστε
1 ἐν γῇ libri: locus corruptus et lacuna mutilatus.

α [t does not actually do so because it is not long enough
to reach the ground : and so, as is explained below, the other
leg must be bent to enable it to do so.

> Δύναμις in mathematics is used of a “ power," generally

the second power, i.e. the square of a number: similarly in
geometry δύναμις and δύναμαι are used of the figure which

510

ες

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, 1x.

must necessarily be relative to a single point. Further,
if there were no bending, there would be no walking
or swimming or flying. For since animals with feet
stand and rest their weight alternately on each of
their two opposite legs, as one leg advances the other
must necessarily be bent. For the corresponding
legs on either side are naturally equal in length, and
the leg which supports the weight must be straight,
at right angles, as it were, to the ground. But when
a leg advances, it is assuming the position of the side
subtending a right angle," the square upon which
equals the squares ὃ on the side which is at rest and
the line between the two legs; but since the legs
are equal, the leg which is at rest must bend either
at the knee or, in any kneeless animal that walks, at
the joint. That this is so is shown by the fact that
if a man were to walk on the ground alongside a wall
[with a reed dipped in ink attached to his head],
the line traced |by the reed] would not be straight
but zigzag, because it goes lower when he bends and
higher when he stands upright and raises himself.

It is possible, however, to move even if the leg has
no bend in it, as happens when children crawl. (The
old account attributed such motion to elephants, but
it is untrue. Movement of this kind takes place
through a bending in the shoulders or hips. But no
creature could walk erect in this way continuously
and safely, but could only move like those who drag
themselves forward through the dust in the wrestling-
school on their knees. For the upper portion of the
can be formed by constructing squares on the side of, e.g. a
triangle.

¢ The text here is corrupt and something has fallen out in
all our mss.: the words here bracketed are supplied from the
explanation given by Mich.

511

ARISTOTLE

709a
15 δεῖ μακρὸν εἶναι τὸ κῶλον: εἰ δὲ τοῦτο, κάμψιν

ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι. ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἕστηκε πρὸς ὀρθήν,
16 b εἰ ἄκαμπτον ἔσται τὸ κινούμενον εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν;
5 καταπεσεῖται ἐλάττονος τῆς ὀρθῆς γινομένης, ἢ
οὐ προβήσεται. εἰ γὰρ ὀρθοῦ ὄντος θατέρου. σκέλους
θάτερον ἔσται προβεβηκός, μεῖζον. ἔσται, ἴσον ov"
δυνήσεται yàp. τοῦτο τό T ἠρεμοῦν καὶ τὴν ὑπο-

90 τείνουσαν. ἀνάγκη ἄρα κάμπτεσθαι τὸ προϊόν, καὶ
κάµμψαν ἅμα ἐκτείνευν θάτερον, ἐκκλίνειν τε καὶ δια-
βεβηκέναι καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς καθέτου μένειν" ἰσοσκελὲς
γὰρ γίνεται τρίγωνον τὰ κῶλα, καὶ ἡ κεφαλὴ γίνε-
ται κατώτερον, ὅταν. κάθετος ᾖ 7) ἐφ᾽ ἧς βέβηκεν.

ο Ta δ᾽ ἄποδα τὰ μὲν κυμαίνοντα προέρχεται
(τοῦτο δὲ διττῶς συμβαίνει τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἐπὶ
τῆς γῆς, καθάπερ οἱ ὄφεις, τὰς καμπὰς ποιεῖ-
ται, τὰ Ò εἰς τὸ ἄνω, ὥσπερ at κάμπαι), ἡ δὲ
κύμανσις καμπή ἐστιν" τὰ δ᾽ ἰλυσπάσει χρώμενα,

80 καθάπερ τὰ καλούμενα γῆς ἔντερα καὶ βδέλλαι.
ταῦτα γὰρ τῷ n ἡγουμένῳ προέρχεται, τὸ δὲ
λοιπὸν σῶμα πᾶν πρὸς τοῦτο συνάγουσι, καὶ τοῦ-
τον τὸν τρόπον εἰς τόπον ἐκ τόπου μεταβάλλουσιν.
φανερὸν δ᾽ ὅτι εἰ μὴ αἱ δύο τῆς μιᾶς μείζους ἦσαν,

1 εἰ ἄκαμπτον ἔσται τὸ κινούμενον els τὸ πρόσθεν om. PSU
Bekker: εἰ et πρόσθεν om. Z.

A a Let AB be the stationary leg and
AC the advanced leg, which are by
hypothesis of equal length. If the right-
angled triangle ABD is constructed its
hypotenuse AD must be longer than

B D SAC:
512

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, 1x.

body is large, and therefore the leg must belong; and
if this is so, there must necessarily bea bending. For
since a standing positionis perpendicular, the leg which
is moved forward, if it is to be unbent, will either fall
as the right angle becomes less, or else it will not ad-
vance at all ; for if, while one leg is at right angles, the
other is advanced,the advanced leg will be greater and
at the same time equal ; for it will be equal to the leg
which is at rest and also to the side subtending the
right angle.^ The advancing leg must therefore be
bent, and the animal, as it bends it, must at the same
time stretch the other leg and lean forward and make
a stride and remain in the perpendicular ; for the legs
form an isosceles triangle and the head becomes
lower when it is perpendicular to the base of the
triangle.^

Of animals which are footless, some advance with
an undulating motion—this can be of two kinds, for
some animals, for example snakes, make their bends
on the ground, while others, for instance caterpillars,
make them upwards—and undulation is bending.
Others move by crawling, like the earthworms and
leeches ; for these advance with one part leading the
way, and then draw up all the rest of their body to it,
and in this manner make the change from place to
place. It is plain that, if the two lines which they

è When the stride has been completed the result is an
isosceles triangle formed by the two legs and the ground; the
head, which is necessarily lower than when the legs were
together, is perpendicularly above the base.

513

ARISTOTLE

709b οὐκ ἂν ἐδύναντο κινεῖσθαι τὰ κυμαίνοντα τῶν
ζῴων. ἐκταθείσης γὰρ τῆς καμπῆς, εἰ ἴσην
κατεῖχεν, οὐθὲν ἂν προῄεσαν' νῦν δ᾽ ὑπερβάλλει
ἐκταθεῖσα, καὶ ἠρεμήσαντος τούτου ἐπάγει τὸ
λοιπόν.
Ἐν πάσαις δὲ ταῖς λεχθείσαις μεταβολαῖς τὸ κινού-
δ μενον ὁτὲ μὲν ἐκτεινόμενον εἰς εὐθὺ προέρχεται,
ὁτὲ δὲ συγκαμπτόμενον, τοῖς μὲν ἡγουμένοις
μέρεσιν εὐθὺ γινόμενον, τοῖς δ᾽ ἑπομένοις ovy-
καμπτόν. ποιεῖται δὲ καὶ τὰ ἀλλόμενα πάντα
κάμψιν ἐν τῷ ὑποκειμένῳ μέρει τοῦ σώματος,
καὶ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον ἔχοντα ἄλλεται. καὶ τὰ
πετόμενα δὲ καὶ τὰ νέοντα, τὰ μὲν τὰς πτέρυγας
10 εὐθύνοντα καὶ κάμπτοντα πέταται, τὰ δὲ τοῖς
πτερυγίοις, καὶ τούτων τὰ E τέτταρσι τὰ δὲ
δυσίν, ὅσα προμηκέστερα τὴν μορφήν,. ὥσπερ. τὸ
τῶν TEON γένος" τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν κίνησιν ἀντὶ
τῶν δύο πτερυγίων τῷ λοιπῷ τοῦ σώματος καμπτό-
peva νεῖ, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον. οἱ δὲ πλατεῖς
15 τῶν ἰχθύων τῇ μὲν τῶ πλάτει χρῶνται τοῦ σώματος
ἀντὶ πτερυγίων, τῇ δὲ πτερυγίοις δυσίν. τὰ δὲ
πάμπαν πλατέα, καθάπερ 6 βάτος, αὐτοῖς τοῖς
πτερυγίοις καὶ ταῖς ἐσχάταις τοῦ σώματος περι-
φερείαις εὐθύνοντα καὶ κάμπτοντα ποιεῖται τὴν
νεῦσιν.
2 X. ᾿Απορήσειε δ ἄν τις ἴσως πῶς κινοῦνται
τέτταρσι σημείοις οἱ ὄρνιθες, 7) πετόμενοι ἢ πορευό-
ε H , 4 / 3r ΔΗ ^
μενοι, ὡς εἰρημένου ὅτι πάντα τὰ ἔναιμα κινεῖται
τέτταρσιν. οὐκ εἴρηται δέ, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι οὐ πλείοσιν.
οὐ μὴν ἀλλ᾽ οὔτ᾽ ἂν πέτεσθαι δύναιντο ἀφαιρε-

α The bend is represented as two lines forming an angle;
514

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, 1x.-x.

form were not greater than the one,” movement would
be impossible for animals which advance by undula-
tions. For, when the bend is extended, they would
not have made any advance, if it subtended an equal
line ; whereas, in fact, it is longer when it is extended,
and then, when this part has come to a standstill,
the animal draws up the rest.

In all the above-mentioned changes that which
moves advances by first extending itself straight out
and then curving itself—straightening itself out with
its leading parts and curving itself in the parts which
follow. All animals, too, which jump make a bend
in the lower part of their body and jump in this
manner. Animals also which fly and those which
swim, fly by straightening and bending their wings
and swim with their fins, some fish having four
fins and others, namely those which are of a more
elongated form (eels for example), having two fins.
The latter accomplish the rest of their movement
by bending themselves in the rest of their body, as a
substitute for the second pair of fins, as has already
been said. Flat-fish use their two fins, and the flat
part of their body instead of the second pair. Fish
that are entirely flat, like the ray, manage to swim by
using their actual fins and the outer periphery of their
body, which they alternately straighten and bend.

X. A question might perhaps be asked as to how
birds, whether flying or walking, can move at four
points, in view of the statement that “ all red-blooded
animals move at four points." But this is not exactly
what we stated ; what we said was “ at not more than
four points." However, they could not fly if their

these two lines together must be longer than the line which
subtends their angle.

R 2 515

ARISTOTLE

709b / ^ / » Z ^ 4
θέντων τῶν κώλων οὔτε πορεύεσθαι τῶν πτερύγων

25 ἀφαιρεθεισῶν, ἐπεὶ οὐδ᾽ ἄνθρωπος βαδίζει μὴ
κινῶν τοὺς ὤμους. ἀλλὰ πάντα γε, καθάπερ
εἴρηται, κάμψει καὶ ἐκτάσει ποιεῖται τὴν μετα-
βολήν" ἅπαντα γὰρ εἰς τὸ ὑποκείμενον μέχρι τινὸς
olovel ouvuTreticov® προέρχεται, ὥστ᾽ ἀναγκαῖον,
εἰ μὴ καὶ κατ᾽ ἄλλο μόριον γίνεται ἡ κάμψις, ἀλλ᾽

30 ὅθεν γε ἡ ἀρχὴ τοῖς μὲν ὁλοπτέροις τοῦ πτεροῦ,
τοῖς Ò ὄρνισι τῆς πτέρυγος, τοῖς δ᾽ ἄλλοις τοῦ
ἀνάλογον μορίου, καθάπερ τοῖς ἰχθύσιν. τοῖς δ᾽,
ὥσπερ. οἱ ὄφεις, ἐν ταῖς καμπαῖς τοῦ σώματός

710a ἐστιν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κάμψεως. τὸ δ᾽ οὐροπύγιόν ἐστι
τοῖς πτηνοῖς πρὸς τὸ κατευθύνειν τὴν πτῆσιν,
καθάπερ τὰ πηδάλια τοῖς πλοίοις. ἀναγκαῖον δὲ

καὶ ταῦτα ἐν τῇ προσφύσει κάμπτειν. διόπερ τά
ὅτε ὁλόπτερα καὶ τῶν σχιζοπτέρων οἷς τὸ οὐροπύγιον
ἀφυῶς é ἔχει πρὸς τὴν εἰρημένην χρῆσιν, οἷον τοῖς τε
ταῷς καὶ τοῖς ἀλεκτρυόσι καὶ ὅλως τοῖς μὴ πτητι-
κοῖς, οὐκ εὐθυποροῦσιν: τῶν μὲν γὰρ ὁλοπτέρων
ἁπλῶς οὐθὲν ἔχει οὐροπύγιον, ὥστε καθάπερ a-
πήδαλον πλοῖον φέρεται, καὶ ὅπου ἂν τύχῃ ἕκαστον

10 αὐτῶν προσπίπτει, ὁμοίως τά τε κολεόπτερα,
οἷον κάνθαροι καὶ μηλολόνθαι, καὶ τὰ ἀνέλυτρα,
οἷον μέλιτται. καὶ σφῆκες. καὶ τοῖς μὴ πτητικοῖς
ἀχρεῖον τὸ οὐροπύγιόν ἐστιν, οἷον τοῖς τε πορφυ-
ρίωσι καὶ ἐρωδιοῖς καὶ πᾶσι τοῖς πλωτοῖς: ἀλλ᾽
ἀντὶ τοῦ οὐροπυγίου πέτανται τοὺς πόδας ἀπο-

1 οἱονεὶ συνυπεῖκον Z: οἷον εἰς ὑπεῖκον ceteri.

o Lit. “ creatures with undivided wings." (The Greek
here has different words for the wings of insects and those
of birds.)

> Lit. creatures with cloven wings (i.e. made up of feathers)

as opposed to insects which have undivided wings.
516

PROGRESSION ΟΕ ANIMALS, x.

legs were taken from them, or walk if their wings
were taken from them, just as a man cannot walk
without moving his shoulders to some extent. All
things, as has been said, make their change of position
by bending and stretching ; for they all progress
upon that which, being beneath them, also as it were
gives way to them up to a certain point; so that,
even if the bending does not take place in any other
part, it must at any rate do so at the point where the
wing begins in flying insects ^ and in birds, and where
the analogous part begins in other animals, such as
fishes. In other animals, snakes for example, the
beginning of their bending is in the joints of the body.

In winged creatures the tail is used, like the rudder
in a ship, to direct the flight ; and this too must bend
at the point where it Joins the body. Flying insects
also, therefore, and those birds ® whose tails are ill-
adapted for the purpose just mentioned, peacocks,
for example, and domestic fowls and, generally, those
birds which are not adapted for flight, cannot keep
a straight course. Of the flying insects not a single
one possesses a tail, so that they are carried along
like rudderless ships and collide with anything that
they happen to meet. The same is true of sheath-
winged insects," such as beetles and cockchafers,
and the sheathless insects, such as bees and wasps.
The tail is useless in such birds as are not adapted
to flight, the porphyrio,? for example, and the heron
and water-fowls in general; these fly stretching out

* Coleoptera.

4 The identity of this bird is disputed. W. W. Merry (on
Aristoph. Aves, 707) suggests some kind of coot; D'A. W.
Thompson (on H.A. 509a 11, 595a 13) suggests the purple
coot or the flamingo.

517

ARISTOTLE

710 a , A ^ > > *, , ^
τεινοντα, και χρωνται αντ ουροπυγιου τοις

15 σκέλεσι πρὸς τὸ κατευθύνειν τὴν πτῆσιν. βρα-
δεῖα δ᾽ ἡ πτῆσις τῶν ὁλοπτέρων ἐστὶ καὶ ἀσθενὴς
διὰ τὸ μὴ κατὰ λόγον ἔχειν τὴν τῶν πτερῶν φύσιν
πρὸς τὸ τοῦ σώματος βάρος, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν πολύ,
τὰ δὲ μικρὰ καὶ ἀσθενῆ. ὥσπερ ἂν οὖν εἰ ὁλ-
καδικὸν πλοῖον ἐπιχειροίη κώπαις ποιεῖσθαι τὸν

20 πλοῦν, οὕτω ταῦτα τῇ πτήσει χρῆται. καὶ ἡ
ἀσθένεια δὲ αὐτῶν τε τῶν πτερῶν καὶ ἡ τῆς
ἐκφύσεως συμβάλλεταί τι πρὸς τὸ λεχθέν.͵ τῶν
δ᾽ ὀρνίθων τῶ μὲν ταῷ TO οὐροπύγιον ὁτὲ μὲν
διὰ τὸ μέγεθος ἄχρηστον, ὁτὲ δὲ διὰ τὸ ἀπο-
βάλλειν οὐθὲν ὠφελεῖ. ὑπεναντίως δ᾽ ἔχουσιν οἱ

95 ὄρνιθες τοῖς .ὁλοπτέροις τὴν τῶν πτερῶν φύσιν,
μάλιστα δ᾽ οἱ τάχιστα αὐτῶν πετόμενοι. τοιοῦτοι
δ᾽ ot γαμψώνυχες: τούτοις γὰρ ἡ ταχυτὴς τῆς
πτήσεως χρήσιμος πρὸς τὸν βίον. ἀκόλουθα δ᾽
αὐτῶν ἔοικεν εἶναι καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ μόρια τοῦ σώ-
ματος πρὸς τὴν οἰκείαν κίνησιν, κεφαλὴ μὲν

80 ἁπάντων μικρὰ καὶ αὐχὴν οὐ παχύς, στῆθος δ᾽
ἰσχυρὸν καὶ ὀξύ, ὀξὺ μὲν πρὸς τὸ εὔτονον εἶναι,
καθάπερ ἂν εἰ πλοίου πρώρα λεμβώδους, ἰσχυρὸν
δὲ τῇ περιφύσει τῆς σαρκός, ἵν᾽ ἀπωθεῖν δύνηται

710b τὸν προσπίπτοντα ἀέρα, καὶ τοῦτο ῥᾳδίως καὶ μὴ
μετὰ πόνου. τὰ δ᾽ ὄπισθεν κοῦφα καὶ συνήκοντα
πάλιν εἰς στενόν, iv ἐπακολουθῇ τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν,
μὴ σύροντα τὸν ἀέρα διὰ τὸ πλάτος.

p κα, Kai περὶ μὲν τούτων διωρίσθω τὸν τρόπον
τοῦτον, τὸ δὲ μέλλον ζῷον ὀρθὸν βαδιεῖσθαι διότι
δίπουν τε ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστιν εἶναι, καὶ τὰ μὲν ἄνω
τοῦ σώματος μέρη κουφότερα € ἔχειν τὰ δ᾽ ὑφεστῶτα
τούτοις βαρύτερα, δῆλον: μόνως γὰρ ἂν οὕτως
518

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, x.-xr.

their feet in place of a tail and use their legs instead
of a tail to direct their flight. The flight of flying
insects is slow and weak, because the growth of their
wings is not in proportion to the weight of their body ;
for their weight is considerable, while their wings
are small and weak ; so they use their power of flight
like a merchant-ship attempting to travel by means
of oars. The weakness also of the wings themselves
and of their manner of growth contributes to some
extent to the result which we have described. Among
birds, the peacock’s tail is at one season of no service
because of its size, at another useless because the
bird moults. But birds are the exact opposite of
winged insects in the nature of their wings, especially
the swiftest flyers among them, namely, those with
curved talons; for their swiftness of flight is useful
in enabling them to gain their livelihood. The other
parts of their body, too, seem to be similarly adapted
for their particular movement, the head being always
small and the neck not thick and the breast strong and
sharp—sharp so as to be compact like the prow of a
light-built ship, and strong owing to the way the flesh
grows—so as to thrust aside the air which meets it,
and that easily and without effort; but the hinder
parts are light and contract again to a narrow point,
in order that they may follow the forward parts with-
out sweeping the air by their breadth.

XI. So much for the discussion of these topics.
The reason why an animal which is to walk erect
must both be a biped and also have the upper part
of its body lighter and the parts situated beneath
these heavier is obvious; for only if it were so

519

ARISTOTLE

710 b ,
ἔχον οἷόν T εἴη φέρειν ἑαυτὸ ῥᾳδίως. διόπερ

10 ἄνθρωπος μόνον ὀρθὸν τῶν ζῴων. ὧν τὰ σκέλη
κατὰ λόγον ἔχει πρὸς τὰ ἄνω τοῦ σώματος μέγιστα
τῶν ὑποπόδων καὶ ἰσχυρότατα. δῆλον δε ποιεῖ
τοῦτο καὶ τὸ συμβαῖνον τοῖς παιδίοις: οὐ γὰρ
δύνανται βαδίζειν ὀρθὰ διὰ τὸ πάντα νανώδη εἶναι
καὶ μείζω καὶ ἰσχυρότερα ἔχειν ἢ κατὰ λόγον τὰ

15 ἄνω μέρη τοῦ σώματος τῶν κάτωθεν. προϊούσης
δὲ τῆς ἡλικίας αὔξησιν λαμβάνει τὰ κάτω μᾶλλον,
μέχρι περ ἂν λάβωσι τὸ προσῆκον μέγεθος, καὶ
ποιοῦνται τότε τοῖς σώμασι τὴν βάδισιν ὀρθήν.
οἱ δ᾽ ὄρνιθες κοῦφοι ὄντες δίποδές εἶσι διὰ τὸ
ὄπισθεν αὐτοῖς τὸ βάρος εἶναι, καθάπερ ἐργάζονται

20 τοὺς ἵππους τοὺς χαλκοῦς τοὺς τὰ πρόσθια ἠρκότας
τῶν σκελῶν. αἴτιον δὲ μάλιστα τοῦ δίποδας
ὄντας δύνασθαι ἑστάναι τὸ ἔχειν τὸ ἰσχίον ὅμοιον
μηρῷ καὶ τηλικοῦτον ὥστε δοκεῖν δύο μηροὺς
ἔχειν, τόν T ἐ ἐν τῷ σκέλει πρὸ τῆς καμπῆς καὶ τὸν
πρὸς τοῦτο τὸ µέρος ἀπὸ τῆς ἕδρας" ἔστι Ò οὐ
μηρὸς ἀλλ᾽ ἰσχίον. εἰ γὰρ μὴ τηλικοῦτον ἦν,

95 οὐκ ἂν ἦν ὄρνις δίπους. ὥσπερ γὰρ τοῖς ἀνθρώ-
ποις καὶ τοῖς τετράποσι ζῴοις, εὐθὺς ἂν ἦν ἀπὸ
βραχέος ὄντος τοῦ ἰσχίου ὁ μηρὸς καὶ τὸ ἄλλο
σκέλος: λίαν οὖν ἦν ἂν τὸ σῶμα πᾶν προπετὲς
αὐτῶν. νῦν δὲ μακρὸν ὂν μέχρι ὑπὸ μέσην παρα-
τείνει τὴν γαστέρα, ὥστ ἐντεῦθεν τὰ σκέλη ὑπ-

30 ερηρεισµένα φέρει. τὸ σῶμα πᾶν. φανερὸν δ᾽
ἐκ τούτων καὶ ὅτι ὀρθὸν οὐκ ἐνδέχεται τὸν
ὄρνιθα εἶναι ὥσπερ | τὸν ἄνθρωπον. ἡ yàp τῶν
πτερῶν φύσις ὡς ἔχουσι τὸ σῶμα νῦν οὕτως

711a αὐτοῖς χρήσιμός ἐστιν, ὀρθοῖς δ᾽ οὖσιν ἄχρηστος
1 $ κατὰ λόγον om. PY.
520

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xr.

constituted would it be able to carry itself easily.
Therefore man, the only erect animal, has legs larger
and stronger in proportion to the upper part of his
body than any of the other animals which have legs.
What happens with children illustrates this: they
cannot walk erect because they are always dwarfish
and have the upper parts of their body too big and
too strong in proportion to the lower parts. As they
grow older, the lower parts increase more quickly,
until they attain their proper size ; and it is only then
that they can walk with their bodies erect. Birds
are lightly built but can stand on two feet because
their weight is at the back, just like bronze horses
which are made by sculptors with their fore-legs
raised in the air. The chief reason why birds can
stand although they are bipeds is that their hip-joint
resembles a thigh and is of such a size that they seem
to have two thighs, one on the leg above the joint and
the other between this and the fundament ; but it is
not really a thigh but a hip. Ifit were not so large,
a bird could not be a biped ; for then, just as in man
and the quadrupeds, the thigh and the rest of the
leg would be directly attached to a short hip, and so
the whole body would tend to fall forward too much.
But, as it is, the hip, being long, extends up to the
middle of the belly, and so the legs form supports at
that point and carry the whole body. It is clear too
from this that it is impossible for a bird to stand erect
in the way that a man stands ; for the way that birds'
wings grow is useful to them in the position in which
they now hold themselves, but if they stood erect,

521

711a

σοι

10

16

20

ARISTOTLE
A > e / \ » »
ἂν ἦν, ὥσπερ γράφουσι τοὺς ἔρωτας ἔχοντας
πτέρυγας.
"A ^ ^ > / δῇλ Ld ἠδ᾽ » 0
pa yap τοῖς εἰρημένοις δῆλον ὅτι οὐδ᾽ ἄνθρωπον
5» 3 » ^ / , M ^ M
οὐδ᾽ εἰ ἄλλο τι τοιοῦτόν ἐστι τὴν μορφὴν δυνατὸν
εἶναι πτερωτόν, οὐ μόνον ὅτι πλείοσι σημείοις κινή-
σεται ἢ τέτταρσιν ἔναιμον ὄν, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι ἄχρηστος
αὐτοῖς ἡ τῶν πτερύγων ἕξις κατὰ φύσιν κινου-
/ e M / > \ ^ ^ /
μένοις: ἡ δὲ φύσις οὐδὲν ποιεῖ παρὰ φύσιν.
e M > > \ / O > ^
XII. Ὅτι μὲν οὖν εἰ μὴ κάµψις ἦν ἐν τοῖς
σκέλεσιν ἢ ἐν ταῖς ὠμοπλάταις καὶ ἰσχίοις, οὐθὲν
οἷόν T "v ἂν τῶν ἐναίμων καὶ ὑποπόδων προ-
βαίνειν, εἴρηται πρότερον, καὶ ὅτι κάμψις οὐκ ἂν
ἦν μηθενὸς ἠρεμοῦντος, ὅτι τε ἐναντίως. οἵ τε
ἄνθρωποι δίποδες ὄντες καὶ of ὄρνιθες τὴν τῶν
σκελῶν ποιοῦνται κάμψιν, ἔτι δὲ τὰ τετράποδα
/ ^ ^ €
ὑπεναντίως καὶ αὑτοῖς καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις. οἱ
μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωποι τοὺς μὲν βραχιόνας κάμπτουσιν
ἐπὶ τὰ κοῖλα, τὰ δὲ σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, τὰ δὲ
τετράποδα τὰ μὲν πρόσθια σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν,
τὰ Ò ὀπίσθια ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον" ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ οἱ
ὄρνιθες. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι 5 φύσις οὐδὲν δημιουργεῖ
μάτην, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, ἀλλὰ πάντα πρὸς
τὸ βέλτιστον ἐκ τῶν ἐνδεχομένων, ὥστ᾽ ἐπεὶ
πᾶσιν ὅσοις ὑπάρχει κατὰ φύσιν ý κατὰ τόπον
μεταβολὴ τοῖν σκελοῖν, ἑστῶτος μὲν ἑκάστου τὸ

βάρος ἐν τούτῳ ἐστί, κινουμένοις δ᾽ εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν

- aj / \ e / ^ / ^
δεῖ τὸν πόδα τὸν ἡγούμενον τῇ θέσει κοῦφον εἶναι,
συνεχοῦς δὲ τῆς πορείας γινομένης αὖθις ἐν τούτῳ
` / > / ^ e > ^ ,
τὸ βάρος ἀπολαμβάνειν, δῆλον ὡς ἀναγκαῖον ἐκ

ου τοῦ κεκάμϕθαι τὸ σκέλος αὖθίς τε εὐθὺ γίνεσθαι,

^ /
μένοντος τοῦ τε κατὰ τὸν προωσθέντα πόδα
^ ^ , σ
σημείου καὶ τῆς κνήμης. τοῦτο δὲ συμβαίνειν ἅμα
522

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, χι.-χη.

as winged cupids are represented in pictures, the
wings would serve no purpose.

At the same time it is clear from what has been
said that man, or any other creature of like form,
cannot be winged, not only because, being red-
blooded, he would then move at more points than
four, but also because the possession of wings would
be useless to him when moving in a natural manner.
Now nature creates nothing unnatural.

XII. It has already been stated that, if there were
no bending in the legs or shoulders and hips, none
of the animals which are red-blooded and have feet
could progress ; and that bending would be impos-
sible if something were not at rest ; and that men
and birds, being both bipeds, bend their legs in
opposite directions ; and, furthermore, that quadru-
peds bend their pairs of legs in opposite directions
to one another and in an opposite manner to men.
For men bend their arms concavely and their legs
convexly, but quadrupeds bend their front legs con-
vexly and their back legs concavely ; birds too do
the latter. The reason is that nature never does
anything without a purpose, as has been said before,
but creates all things with a view to the best that
circumstances allow. And so since in all creatures
which possess by nature the power of locomotion by
means of their two legs, when each leg is stationary
the weight must be upon it, but when they move
forward, the leading leg must have no weight upon
it, and as progression continues it is necessary to
transfer the weight on to this leg; it is clearly essential
that the leg after being bent should become straight
again, the point at which the leg is thrust forward
and the shin remaining at rest. And it is possible

523

ARISTOTLE

PT kal προϊέναι τὸ ζῷον eis τοὔμπροσθεν μὲν ἔχοντος
τὴν καμπὴν τοῦ ἡγουμένου σκέλους δυνατόν, εἰς
τοὔπισθεν δ᾽ ἀδύνατον. οὕτω μὲν γὰρ προενεχθέν-

s0 Tos τοῦ σώματος ἡ ἔκτασις τοῦ σκέλους ἔσται,
ἐκείνως δ᾽ ἀνενεχθέντος. ἔτι Ò εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν
μὲν τῆς καμπῆς οὔσης διὰ δύο κινήσεων ἐγίγνετ᾽
ἂν ἡ τοῦ ποδὸς θέσις ὑπεναντίων. τε αὐταῖς,' καὶ
711b τῆς μὲν εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν τῆς δὲ eis τὸ ἔμπροσθεν:
ἀναγκαῖον γὰρ ἐν τῇ συγκάμψει τοῦ σκέλους τοῦ
μὲν μηροῦ τὸ ἔσχατον εἰς τοὔπισθεν προάγειν,
τὴν δὲ κνήμην ἀπὸ τῆς καμπῆς εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν
τὸν πόδα κιεῖν. εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν δὲ τῆς καμπῆς
5 οὔσης, οὔθ᾽ ὑπεναντίαις κινήσεσι μιᾶ τε τῇ εἰς
τὸ ἔμπροσθεν ἡ λεχθεῖσα πορεία. συμβήσεται.

Ὃ μὲν οὖν ἄνθρωπος δίπους ὢν καὶ τὴν κατὰ
τόπον μεταβολὴν κατὰ φύσιν τοῖς σκέλεσι ποιού-
μενος διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν κάμπτει εἰς τὸ ἔμ-
προσθεν τὰ σκέλη, τοὺς δὲ βραχίονας ἐ ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον

10 εὐλόγως: ἄχρηστοι γὰρ. ἂν ἦσαν καμπτόμενοι τοῦ-
ναντίον πρός τε τὴν τῶν χειρῶν χρῆσιν καὶ πρὸς
τὴν τῆς τροφῆς λῆψιν. τὰ δὲ τετράποδα καὶ
ζῳοτόκα τὰ μὲν ἔμπροσθεν. σκέλη, ἐπειδὴ ἡγεῖταί
τε τῆς πορείας αὐτῶν καὶ ἔστι ταῦτ᾽ ἐν τῷ μέρει
τῷ ἔμπροσθεν τοῦ σώματος, ἀνάγκη κάμπτειν

16 ἐπὶ τὴν περιφέρειαν διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν ἤνπερ
καὶ οἱ ἄνθρωποι" κατὰ γὰρ τοῦτο ὁμοίως ἔχουσιν.
διόπερ καὶ τὰ τετράποδα κάµπτουσιν εἰς τὸ
πρόσθεν τὸν εἰρημένον. τρόπον. καὶ γὰρ. οὕτως
μὲν τῆς κάμψεως αὐτῶν γινομένης. ἐπὶ πολὺ
δυνήσονται τοὺς πόδας μετεωρίζειν: ἐναντίως δὲ

1 ὑπεναντίων τε αὑταῖς Jaeger: ὑπεναντίως re (δε UZ) αὐταῖ
libri,
524

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xn.

for this to happen and for the animal at the same
time to progress if the leading leg can bend forward,
but impossible if it bends backwards. For in the
first case the extension of the leg will take place with
the forward movement of the body, in the second
case with its backward movement. Further, if the
bending were backwards, the planting of the foot
would be carried out by two movements contrary to
one another, one backwards and the other forwards.
For in bending the leg it is necessary to draw the
extremity of the thigh backwards, and the shin
would move the foot forwards from the point of
bending; but if the bending be forward, the
progression described above will take place not by
two contrary movements but by a single forward
movement.

Man then, being a biped and carrying out the
change from place to place in a natural manner by
means of his legs, bends his legs forwards for the
reason already stated, but bends his arms concavely.
This is only in accordance with reason; for if they
were bent in the opposite direction, they would be
useless for the purpose of the hands and for taking
food. But viviparous quadrupeds of necessity bend
their front legs in an outward curve, because these
legs lead the way when they walk, and are also
situated in the front part of their bodies ; and the
reason is the same as in man, for in this they resemble
man. Thus the quadrupeds too bend their legs
forward in the manner already described ; for indeed,
since they bend their legs in this way, they will be
able to raise their feet high in the air, whereas, if
they bent them in the opposite direction, they would

525

ARISTOTLE

711a / \ > \ ^ ^ A > A >
20 καμπτοντες μικρὸν απο τῆς γῆς αν αὐτους €pe-

, . \ , . e . .
τεώριζον διὰ τὸ. τόν τε μηρὸν ὅλον καὶ τὴν
/ 5 2 T^ e ’ / e \ ^ \
καμπήν, ad ἣς ἡ κνήμη πέφυκεν, ὑπὸ τῇ γαστρὶ
.. ^ ^ - Ψ ^
γίγνεσθαι προϊόντος αὐτοῦ. τῶν δ᾽ ὄπισθεν σκελῶν
εἰ μὲν ἦν εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν ἡ κάμψις, τῶν ποδῶν
ὁ μετεωρισμὸς ὁμοίως ἂν αὐτοῖς εἶχε τοῖς προ-
, , \ ^ M -^ , ’ .
25 σθίοις (ἐπὶ βραχὺ γὰρ ἂν ἐγίγνετο καὶ τούτοις
^ ^ ^ ^ .
κατὰ τὴν ἄρσιν τῶν σκελῶν, τοῦ τε μηροῦ καὶ
τῆς καμπῆς ἀμφοτέρων ὑπὸ τὸν τῆς γαστρὸς τόπον
ε , , 2 , λ » , `
ὑποπιπτόντων), εἰ Ò εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν, καθάπερ καὶ
νῦν κάμπτουσιν, οὐθὲν ἐμπόδιον αὐτοῖς γίγνεται
A ^ ^ ^
πρὸς τὴν πορείαν ἐν τῇ τοιαύτῃ κινήσει τῶν ποδῶν.
^ ^ M
ἔτι τοῖς γε θηλαζομένοις αὐτῶν καὶ πρὸς τὴν
/ , > ^ av / / > e
80 τοιαύτην λειτουργίαν ἀναγκαῖον ἢ βέλτιόν γ᾽ οὕτω
/ 0 . ZA 3 M € 7 A ,
κεκάμφθαι τὰ σκέλη" οὐ yàp ῥάδιον τὴν κάμψιν
>] A > A
ποιουμένων ἐντὸς ὑφ᾽ αὑτὰ ἔχειν τὰ τέκνα καὶ
σκεπάζειν.
712a XIII. Ὄντων δὲ τεττάρων τρόπων τῆς κάμψεως
κατὰ τοὺς συνδυασμοὺς' (ἀνάγκη γὰρ κάμπτειν
^ , . \ tA \ M ’ . . 3 /
ἢ ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον καὶ τὰ πρόσθια καὶ τὰ ὀπίσθια,
’ 3 ? €T kA 3 . t , , A A /
καθάπερ ἐφ "ots A, ἢ ἐπὶ τοὐναντίον ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν,
, 27? ^ n° n ` x 19/248
καθάπερ ἐφ᾽ ois D, ἢ ἀντεστραμμένως καὶ μὴ ἐπὶ
. . / 5 ^ . . ’ , 4 A "d A
5 TA αὐτά, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πρόσθια ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, τὰ
δ᾽ ὀπίσθια ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, καθάπερ ἐφ᾽ οἷς τὸ I,
KAJ , / ΄ . . ` A EA
ἢ τοὐναντίον τούτοις τὰ μὲν κυρτὰ πρὸς ἄλληλα,

1 συνδυασμοὺς Zi: συνδέσμους ceteri.

526

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xu.—x111.

lift them only a little way from the ground, because
the whole of the thigh and the joint from which the
shin grows would come up against the belly as the
animal advanced. On the other hand, if the bend-
ing of the back legs were forward, the raising of the
feet would be similar to that of the front feet (for
they could only be raised a short distance by lifting
the legs, since the thigh and the joint of both legs
would come up under the region of the belly), but
the bending being, as it is, backwards, there is no-
thing to hinder their progression as they move the
feet in this manner. Again, for those animals which
are suckling their young, it is necessary, or at any
rate better, that their legs should bend in this way
with a view to this function ; for if they bent their
legs inwards, it would not be easy for them to keep
their young underneath them and to protect them.
XIII. Now there are four ways of bending the legs
taking them in pairs. Both the fore and the hind
legs must bend either concavely, as in figure A ; or
in the opposite manner, that is convexly, as in B:

EU QU Ron ΟΝ
Ro (CCCo Du

(Mich. supplies the figures which are lacking in the Mss. In each group
the front legs are the left pair, the hind legs the right.)

or inversely, that is to say, not in the same direction,
but the forelegs bend convexly and the back legs
concavely, as in C; or (the converse of C) with the
convexities towards one another and the concavities

527

7125

ARISTOTLE
τὰ δὲ κοῖλα ἐκτός, καθάπερ ἔχει ἐφ᾽ ots τὸ N),
€ \ » $725 T \ ^ \ 3 \ /
ὡς μὲν ἔχει ἐφ᾽ οἷς τὸ A ἢ τὸ D, οὐθὲν κάμπτεται
οὔτε τῶν διπόδων οὔτε τῶν τετραπόδων, ὡς δὲ

` \ ~
10 τὸ I’, τὰ τετράποδα, ὡς δὲ τὸ A, τῶν μὲν τετρα-

16

20

το
Qnr

80

πόδων οὐθὲν πλὴν ἐλέφας, ὁ δ᾽ ἄνθρωπος τοὺς βρα-
χίονας καὶ τὰ σκέλη" τοὺς μὲν γὰρ ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον
κάμπτει, τὰ δὲ σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν.

"Act δ᾽ ἐναλλὰξ ἐναντίως ἔχει τὰ κῶλα τὰς
κάμψεις. τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, οἷον τὸ ὠλέκρανον ἐπὶ τὸ
κοῖλον, ὁ δὲ καρπὸς τῆς χειρὸς ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, καὶ
πάλιν ὁ ὦμος. ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν" ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ
τῶν σκελῶν ὁ μῆρος ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, τὸ δὲ γόνυ ἐπὶ
τὸ κυρτόν, ὁ δὲ ποὺς τοὐναντίον ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον. καὶ
τὰ κάτω δὴ, πρὸς τὰ ἄνω Φανερὸν ὅτι ἐναντίως"
7 yàp ἀρχὴ ὑπεναντίως, ὁ μὲν ὦμος ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν,
ὁ δὲ μηρὸς ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον" διὸ καὶ ὁ μὲν ποὺς
ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, ὁ δὲ καρπὸς τῆς χειρὸς ἐπὶ τὸ

,
κυρτόν.

XIV. At μὲν οὖν κάμψεις τῶν σκελῶν τοῦτόν
τε τὸν τρόπον ἔχουσι καὶ διὰ τὰς αἰτίας τὰς
εἰρημένας, κινεῖται δὲ τὰ ὀπίσθια πρὸς τὰ ἔμ-

5 προσθεν κατὰ διάμετρον" μετὰ γὰρ τὸ δεξιὸν τῶν
ρ μετρον' μετὰ γὰρ

ἔμπροσθεν τὸ ἀριστερὸν τῶν ὄπισθεν κινοῦσιν,
εἶτα τὸ ἀριστερὸν τῶν ἔμπροσθεν, μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο τὸ
δεξιὸν τῶν ὄπισθεν. αἴτιον Ò ὅτι εἰ μὲν τὰ
ἔμπροσθεν ἅμα καὶ πρῶτον, διεσπᾶτο ἂν ἢ καὶ
προπετὴς ἂν ἐγίνετο ἡ βάδισις οἷον ἐφελκομένοις
τοῖς ὄπισθεν. ἔτι δ᾽ οὐ πορεία ἀλλὰ ἅλσις τὸ
τοιοῦτον: χαλεπὸν δὲ συνεχῆ ποιεῖσθαι τὴν μετα-
βολὴν ἁλλόμενα. σημεῖον δέ: ταχὺ yàp ἀπαγορεύ-
ουσι καὶ νῦν τῶν ἵππων ὅσοι τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον
ποιοῦνται τὴν κίνησιν, otov οἱ πομπεύοντες. χωρὶς
528

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xin.-xiv.

outwards, as in D. No biped or quadruped bends its
limbs as in figure Α or B, but quadrupeds bend them
as in C. The bendings illustrated by figure D occur
in none of the quadrupeds except the elephant, and
in the movement of the arms and legs by man, for
he bends his arms concavely and his legs convexly.

In man the bendings of the limbs always take
place alternately in opposite directions ; for example,
the elbow bends concavely but the wrist convexly,
and the shoulder again convexly. Similarly in the
legs, the thigh bends concavely, the knee convexly,
and the foot, on the other hand, concavely. And
obviously the lower limbs bend in opposite directions
to the upper; for the origin of movement bends in
opposite directions, the shoulder convexly and the
thigh concavely ; therefore also the foot bends con-
cavely and the wrist convexly.

XIV. The bendings, then, of the legs take place
in this manner and for the reasons stated. But the
back legs move diagonally in relation to the front
legs; for after the right fore leg animals move the
left hind leg, then the left fore leg, and after it the
right hind leg. The reason is that, if they moved the
fore legs at the same time and first, their progression
would be interrupted or they would even stumble
forward, with their hind legs as it were trailing behind.
Further, such movement would not be walking but
jumping ; and it is difficult to keep up a continuous
movement from place to place by jumping. An illus-
tration of this is that, in actual fact, horses that move
in this manner, for example in religious processions,
soon become tired. For this reason, then, animals do

* i.e. prancing instead of walking.

520

712a

ARISTOTLE

. T ^ » . v ^
μὲν οὖν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ὄπισθεν διὰ ταῦτα

713 ὑ οὐ" ποιοῦνται τὴν κίνησιν: εἰ δὲ τοῖς δεξιοῖς åp-

5

10

15

φοτέροις πρώτοις, έξω ἂν ἐγίγνοντο τῶν ἐρει-
σμάτων καὶ ἔπιπτον ἄν. εἰ δὴ ἀνάγκη μὲν ἢ
τούτων τῶν τρόπων ὁποτερονοῦν ποιεῖσθαι τὴν
κίνησιν ἢ κατὰ διάμετρον, μὴ ἐνδέχεται δ᾽ ἐκείνων
μηδέτερον, ἀνάγκη κινεῖσθαι κατὰ διάμετρον:
οὕτω γὰρ κινούμενα ὥσπερ εἴρηται οὐδέτερα τούτων
οἷόν τε πάσχειν. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο οἱ ἵπποι καὶ ὅσα
τοιαῦτα, ἵσταται προβεβηκότα κατὰ διάμετρον,
καὶ οὐ τοῖς δεξιοῖς ἢ τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς ἀμφοτέροις
ἅμα. τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ὅσα πλείους ἔχει
πόδας τεττάρων ποιεῖται τὴν κίνησιν: ἀεὶ γὰρ ἐν
τοῖς τέτταρσι τοῖς ἐφεξῆς τὰ ὀπίσθια πρὸς τὰ
ἔμπροσθεν κινεῖται κατὰ διάμετρον. δῆλον δ᾽
ἐπὶ τοῖς βραδέως κινουμένοις. καὶ οἱ καρκίνοι
γὰρ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον κινοῦνται: τῶν πολυπόδων
γάρ εἶσι. ἀεὶ γὰρ καὶ οὗτοι κατὰ διάμετρον
κινοῦνται, ἐφ᾽ ὅπερ ἂν ποιῶνται τὴν πορείαν.
ἰδίως γὰρ τοῦτο τὸ ζφον ποιεῖται τὴν κίνησιν'
μόνον γὰρ οὐ κινεῖται ἐπὶ τὸ πρόσθεν τῶν Lov,
ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τὸ πλάγιον. ἀλλ᾽ ἐπεὶ τοῖς ὄμμασι
διώρισται τὸ πρόσθιον, ἡ φύσις πεποίηκεν ἀκο-
λουθεῖν δυναμένους τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς τοῖς κώλοις"

^ ^ 2 A / ᾽ - GA /
20 κινουνται yap ει» TO πλάγιον αυτοις, WOTE τροπον

τινὰ καὶ τοὺς καρκίνους κινεῖσθαι διὰ τοῦτ᾽ ἐπὶ
τὸ ἔμπροσθεν.

XV. Οἱ © ὄρνιθες τὰ σκέλη καθάπερ τὰ τετρά-
ποδα κάμπτουσιν. τρόπον γάρ τινα παραπλησίως
1 où P: om. 9Υ 02.

530

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, χιν.-Χγ.

not move separately with their front and back Ίεσςα;
and, if they moved with both their right legs first,
they would not be above their supporting limbs and
would fall. If, then, they must necessarily move in
one or other of these two ways or else diagonally,
and neither of the first two ways is possible, they
must necessarily move diagonally ; for if they move
thus they cannot, as has been explained, suffer
either of the above ill results. For this reason horses
and similar animals stand at rest with their legs
advanced diagonally and not with both right or both
left legs advanced at the same time. And those
animals which have more than four legs move in
the same manner ; for in any four adjoining legs the
back legs move diagonally with the fore legs, as can
be plainly seen in those which move slowly.

Crabs too move in the same fashion, for they are
among the polypods. They, too, always move on
the diagonal principle in whatever direction they are
proceeding. For this animal moves in a peculiar
manner, being the only animal to move obliquely
and not forward. But since “ forward ” is determined
in relation to the vision, nature has made the crab's
eyes able to conform with its limbs; for its eyes
move obliquely, and so, for this reason, crabs too can,
in a sense, be said to move '' forward."

XV. Birds bend their legs in the same manner as
quadrupeds ; for in a way their nature is closely

4 i.e. do not move first the front legs together and then
their back legs together. The ws. authority is strongly in
favour of the omission of the negative; but 712 b 4 ** one or
other of these two ways ” implies the alternative of movement
with the front legs together and then the back legs together,
or else with the right legs together and then the left legs
together.

531

712b

25

30

713a

σι

10

10

ARISTOTLE

ἡ φύσις αὐτῶν ἔχει" τοῖς γὰρ ὄρνισιν at πτέρυγες
ἀντὶ τῶν προσθίων. σκελῶν εἰσίν. διὸ καὶ -κεκαμ-
μέναι τὸν αὐτὸν εἰσὶ τρόπον ὥσπερ ἐκείνοις τὰ
πρόσθια σκέλη, ἐπεὶ τῆς ἐν τῇ πορείᾳ κινήσεως
τούτοις ἀπὸ τῶν πτερύγων 7 κατὰ φύσιν ἀρχὴ
τῆς μεταβολῆς ἐστίν: πτῆσις γάρ ἐστιν 7) τούτων
οἰκεία κίνησις. διόπερ ἀφαιρεθεισῶν τούτων οὔθ᾽
ἑστάναι οὔτε προϊέναι δύναιτ᾽ ἂν οὐθεὶς ὄρνις.

"Ert δίποδος ὄντος καὶ οὐκ ὀρθοῦ, καὶ τὰ ἔμ-
προσθεν μέρη τοῦ σώματος. κουφότερα ἔχοντος, ἢ
ἀναγκαῖον η βέλτιον πρὸς τὸ ἑστάναι δύνασθαι τὸν
μηρὸν οὕτως ὑποκείμενον ἔχειν ὡς νῦν ἔχει, λέγω
δ᾽ ὅτι εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν πεφυκότα. ἀλλὰ μὴν εἰ ἔδει
τοῦτον ἔχειν τὸν τρόπον, ἀνάγκη τὴν κάμψιν ἐπὶ
τὸ κοῖλον γίνεσθαι τοῦ σκέλους, καθάπερ τοῖς
τετράποσιν ἐπὶ τῶν ὀπισθίων, διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν
ἥνπερ εἴπομεν ἐπὶ τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ ζῳοτόκων.

Ὅλως δὲ ot τε ὄρνιθες καὶ τὰ ὁλόπτερα τῶν TE-
τομένων καὶ τὰ ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ νευστικά, ὅσα αὐτῶν
δι ὀργάνων τὴν ἐπὶ τοῦ ὑγροῦ ποιεῖται πορείαν, οὐ
χαλεπὸν ἰδεῖν ὅτι βέλτιον ἐκ πλαγίου τὴν τῶν εἰ-
ρημένων μερῶν πρόσφυσιν ἔχειν, καθάπερ καὶ

αίνεται νῦν ὑπάρχειν αὐτοῖς ἐπί τε τῶν ὀρνίθων
καὶ τῶν ὁλοπτέρων. ταὐτὸ δὲ τοῦτο καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν
ἰχθύων" τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ὄρνισιν αἱ πτέρυγες, τοῖς δ᾽
ἐνύδροις τὰ πτερύγια, τὰ δὲ πτίλα τοῖς ὁλοπτέροις
ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου προσπέφυκεν. οὕτω γὰρ ἂν τά-
χιστα καὶ ἰσχυρότατα διαστέλλοντα τὰ μὲν τὸν
ἀέρα τὰ δὲ τὸ ὑγρὸν ποιοῖτο τὴν κίνησιν: εἰς γὰρ
τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὰ ὄπισθεν μόρια τοῦ σώματος
ἐπακολουθοίη ἂν ὑπείκοντι φερόμενα τὰ μὲν ἐν
τῷ ὑγρῶ τὰ Ò ἐν τῷ ἀέρι. τὰ δὲ τρωγλοδυτικὰ
532

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv.

similar. For in birds the wings serve instead of front
legs, and so they are bent in the same manner as the
front legs of quadrupeds, since in the movement
involved in progression the natural beginning of
the change is from the wings, for their particular
form of movement is flight. Hence, if the wings
were taken away, no bird could stand or progress
forward.

Further, since the bird is a biped and not erect, and
the front parts of its body are lighter, it is either
necessary (or at any rate more desirable), in order to
enable it to stand, that the thigh should be placed, as
it actually is, underneath, by which I mean growing
towards the hinder part. But if the thigh is neces-
sarily in this position, the bending of the leg must be
in a concave direction, as in the back legs of quad-
rupeds, and for the same reason as we gave in dealing
with viviparous quadrupeds.

Generally in birds and winged insects and creatures
that swim in the water (all, that is to say, that progress
in the water by means of their instrumental parts), it
is not difficult to see that it is better that the attach-
ment of such parts should be oblique, as in fact
it seems actually to be in the birds and the flying
insects. The same is also true of the fishes ; for the
wings in birds, the fins in fishes, and the wings in
flying insects all grow obliquely. This enables them
to cleave the air or water with the greatest speed
and force, and so effect their movement; for the
hinder parts, too, can thus follow in a forward direc-
tion, being carried along in the yielding water or air.

The oviparous quadrupeds which live in holes,

1 καὶ τὰ ὄπισθεν μόρια Jaeger: καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν τὰ (rà om. YZ)
μόρια libri.

533

713a

20

30

713 b

10

ARISTOTLE

τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ ᾠοτόκων, otov ot T€ κρο-

/ \ ^ Spia ^ E Eod
κόδειλοι καὶ σαῦροι καὶ ἀσκαλαβῶται καὶ ἐμύδες
τε καὶ χελῶναι, πάντα ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου προσπε-

/ ^ / » AT ΙΓ ^ ^ /
φυκότα τὰ σκέλη ἔχει καὶ ἐπὶ τῇ γῇ κατατεταμένα,
καὶ κάμπτει εἰς τὸ πλάγιον, διὰ τὸ οὕτω χρήσιμα

- ε

εἶναι πρὸς τὴν τῆς ὑποδύσεως ῥᾳστώνην καὶ πρὸς
τὴν ἐπὶ τοῖς ᾠοῖς êpe δρείαν καὶ φυλακήν. ἔξω
δ᾽ ὄντων αὐτῶν, ἀναγκαῖον τοὺς μηροὺς προσ-
στέλλοντα! καὶ ὑποτιθέμενα ὑφ᾽ αὑτὰ τὸν µετεω-
ρισμὸν τοῦ ὅλου σώματος ποιεῖσθαι. τούτου δὲ
γινομένου κάµπτειν αὐτὰ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄλλως ἢ
ἔξω.

XVI. Τὰ δ᾽ ἄναιμα τῶν ὑποπόδων ὅτι μὲν
πολύποδά ἐστι καὶ οὐθὲν αὐτῶν τετράπουν,
πρότερον ἡμῖν εἴρηται: διότι δ᾽ αὐτῶν ἀναγκαῖον
ἦν τὰ σκέλη πλὴν τῶν ἐσχάτων ἔκ τε τοῦ πλαγίου
προσπεφυκέναι καὶ εἰς τὸ ἄνω τὰς καμπὰς ἔχειν,

` , ^ € / > > wre /
καὶ αὐτὰ ὑπόβλαισα εἶναι εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν, φανερόν.

^ ^ ,
ἁπάντων γὰρ τῶν τοιούτων ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστι τὰ
μέσα τῶν σκελῶν καὶ ἡγούμενα εἶναι καὶ ἑπόμενα.
εἰ οὖν Um αὐτοῖς ἦν, ἔδει αὐτὰ καὶ εἰς τὸ ἔμ-
προσθεν καὶ εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν τὴν καμπὴν ἔχειν, διὰ
^ ^ M \
μὲν τὸ ἡγεῖσθαι εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν, διὰ δὲ τὸ
2 - > \ » , \ > > ,
ἀκολουθεῖν εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν. ἐπεὶ Ò ἀμφότερα
/ > ^ ᾽ - . ^ /
συμβαίνειν ἀναγκαῖον αὐτοῖς, διὰ τοῦτο βεβλαίσω-
ταί τε καὶ εἰς τὸ πλάγιον ἔχει τὰς καμπάς, πλὴν
τῶν ἐσχάτων: ταῦτα Ò ὥσπερ πέφυκε μᾶλλον,
τὰ μὲν ὡς ἑπόμενα τὰ Ò ὡς ἡγούμενα. ἔτι δὲ
κέκαμπται τὸν. τρόπον. τοῦτον καὶ διὰ τὸ πλῆθος
τῶν σκελῶν" ἧττον γὰρ ἂν οὕτως ἐν τῇ πορείᾳ
ἐμπόδιά τε αὐτὰ αὑτοῖς εἴη καὶ προσκόπτοι. 7
M
τε βλαισότης αὐτῶν ἐστὶ διὰ τὸ τρωγλοδυτικὰ
534

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv.-xv1.

such as the crocodile, the common and the spotted
lizard, and land and water tortoises, all have their
legs attached obliquely and stretched out upon the
ground ; and they bend them obliquely, since they
are thus useful in enabling them to crawl easily into
their holes and to sit upon and protect their eggs.
Since their legs project, they are obliged to raise
their whole body by drawing in their thighs and
placing them underneath them ; and in this process
they cannot bend them otherwise than outwards.
XVI. It has already been said that bloodless
animals which have legs are polypods, and none of
them quadrupeds. Their legs, except the two
extreme pairs, are necessarily attached obliquely
and bend upwards and are themselves bowed some-
what backwards; and the reason for this is plain.
For in all such animals the middle legs must both
lead and follow. If, therefore, they were under-
neath them, they would have to bend both for-
wards and backwards—forwards because they lead,
and backwards because they follow. But since they
must do both these things, their legs are bowed
and make their bends obliquely, except the extreme
pairs, which are more in accordance with nature,
since the first pair leads and the last pair follows.
The number of legs is a further reason for their being
bent in this way ; for they would thus be less likely
to get in each other’s way during movement and
collide with one another. The reason that these
animals are bow-legged is that they all, or most of

1 προσστέλλοντα (cum Mich.) Jaeger: προστέλλοντα libri.

535

ARISTOTLE

713b κ » " ` E > ^ er ε `
εἶναι πάντα ἢ τὰ πλεῖστα" οὐ γὰρ οἷόν τε ὑψηλὰ
εἶναι τὰ ζῶντα' τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον.

Oc δὲ καρκίνοι τῶν πολυπόδων περιττότατα πεφύ-
κασιν' οὔτε γὰρ. εἰς τὸ ) πρόσθεν ποιοῦνται τὴν πορείαν
πλὴν ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, πολλούς τε τοὺς
ἡγουμένους ἔχουσι μόνοι τῶν ζῴων. τούτου δ᾽

16 αἴτιον ἡ σκληρότης τῶν ποδῶν, καὶ ὅτι χρῶνται
οὐ νεύσεως χάριν αὐτοῖς ἀλλὰ πορείας" πεζεύοντα
γὰρ διατελοῦσιν. πάντων μὲν οὖν τῶν πολυπόδων
εἰς τὸ πλάγιον αἱ καμπαί, ὥσπερ καὶ τῶν τετρα-
πόδων ὅσα τρωγλοδυτικά: τοιαῦτα δ᾽ ἐστὶν οἷον
σαῦραι καὶ κροκόδειλοι καὶ τὰ πολλὰ τῶν ᾠο-

20TOKOUVTOV. αἴτιον δ᾽ ὅτι τρωγλοδυτεῖ τὰ μὲν
τοῖς τόκοις, τὰ δὲ καὶ τῷ βίῳ παντί.

XVII. ᾿Αλλὰ τῶν μὲν ἄλλων βλαισοῦται τὰ κῶλα
διὰ τὸ μαλακὰ εἶναι, τῶν δὲ καράβων ὄντων σκλη-
ροδέρμων οἱ πόδες εἰσὶν ἐπὶ τῷ νεῖν καὶ οὐ τοῦ
βαδίζειν χάριν" τῶν δὲ καρκίνων 7 κάμψις εἰς τὸ

95 πλάγιον, καὶ οὐ βεβλαίσωται ὦ ὥσπερ τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις
τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ τοῖς ἀναίμοις καὶ πολύποσι,
διὰ τὸ σκληρόδερμα εἶναι τὰ κῶλα καὶ ὀστρακώδη
ὄντι οὐ νευστικῷ καὶ τρωγλοδύτῃ- πρὸς τῇ γῇ γὰρ
ὁ βίος. καὶ στρογγύλος δὲ τὴν μορφήν, καὶ οὐκ
ἔχων οὐροπύγιον ὥσπερ ὁ κάραβος’ πρὸς τὴν

80 νεῦσιν γὰρ τοῖς καράβοις χρήσιμον, ὁ δ᾽ οὐ νευ-
στικός. καὶ ὅμοιον δὲ τῷ ὄπισθεν τὸ πλάγιον
ἔχει μόνος, διὰ τὸ πολλοὺς ἔχειν τοὺς ἡγεμόνας

1 τὰ ζῶντα om. SU.

? η]19 0908.
* Viz. two pairs of front legs.
ο i.e. they walk both on dry land and in the sea.
4 The whole of the section is obscure, and the text doubtful.

536

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv1.-xvit.

them, live in holes; for creatures that live thus
cannot be tall.

Crabs are the most strangely constituted of all the
polypods ; for they do not progress forward (except
in the sense already mentioned”), and they alone
among animals have several leading legs.^ The
reason is the hardness of their feet and the fact that
they use them not for swimming but for walking ;
for they always go along the ground.^ All the
polypods bend their legs obliquely like the quad-
rupeds that live in holes; lizards, for instance, and
crocodiles and most oviparous quadrupeds are of
this nature. The reason is that they live in holes,
some only during the breeding season, others through-
out their lives.

XVII. Now the other polypods 4 are bow-legged
because they are soft-skinned, but the legs of the
spiny lobster, which is hard-skinned, are used for
swimming and not for walking./ The bendings of
crabs' legs are oblique but their legs are not bowed,
as are those of viviparous quadrupeds and bloodless
polypods, because their legs are hard-skinned and
testaceous, the crab not being a swimming animal
and living in holes, for it lives on the ground. More-
over, the crab is round in shape and does not possess
a tail like the spiny lobster; for the latter's tail is
useful for swimming, but the crab does not swim.
And it is the only animal in which the side is like a
hinder part, because its leading feet are numerous.?

* There is no single word in English for this animal, the
Latin locusta and the French langouste.

7 And therefore are not bowed, as Mich. explains.

9 Since the crab moves sidewise, one of its sides becomes
as it were the back, but why it should be so for the reason
given is obscure.

537

ARISTOTLE

713b Z > » e > , > .
πόδας. τούτου Ò αἴτιον ὅτι οὐ κάμπτει εἰς τὸ

714a πρόσθεν οὐδὲ βεβλαίσωται. τοῦ δὲ μὴ βεβλαι-
σῶσθαι τὸ αἴτιον πρότερον εἴρηται, ἡ σκληρότης
καὶ τὸ ὀστρακῶδες τοῦ δέρματος. ἀνάγκη 7
διὰ ταῦτα πᾶσί τε προηγεῖσθαι καὶ eis TO πλάγιον,
εἰς μὲν τὸ πλάγιον ὅτι εἰς τὸ πλάγιον ἡ κάµψις,

δ πᾶσι δ᾽ ὅτι ἐνεπόδιζον ἂν οἱ ἠρεμοῦντες πόδες
τοῖς κινουμένοις. οἱ δὲ ψηττοειδεῖς τῶν ἰχθύων,
ὥσπερ οἱ ἑτερόφθαλμοι βαδίζουσιν, οὕτω νέουσιν"
διέστραπται γὰρ αὐτῶν ἡ φύσις. οἱ δὲ στεγανό-
ποδες τῶν ὀρνίθων νέουσι τοῖς ποσίν, καὶ διὰ μὲν

1070 τὸν ἀέρα δέχεσθαι καὶ ἀναπνεῖν δίποδές εἰσι,
διὰ δὲ τὸ ἐν ὑγρῷ τὸν βίον ἔχειν στεγανόποδες"
ἀντὶ πτερυγίων γὰρ χρήσιμοι οἱ πόδες αὐτοῖς
τοιοῦτοι ὄντες. ἔχουσι δὲ τὰ σκέλη οὐχ ὥσπερ
οἱ ἄλλοι κατὰ μέσον, ἀλλ᾽ ὄπισθεν μᾶλλον: βρα-
χυσκελῶν γὰρ αὐτῶν ὄντων ὄπισθεν ὄντα πρὸς
τὴν νεῦσιν χρήσιμα. βραχυσκελεῖς δ᾽ εἰσὶν οἱ

15 τοιοῦτοι διὰ τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ μήκους τῶν σκελῶν
ἀφελοῦσαν τὴν. φύσιν προσθεῖναι εἰς τοὺς πόδας,
καὶ ἀντὶ τοῦ μήκους πάχος ἀποδοῦναι τοῖς σκέλεσι
καὶ πλάτος τοῖς ποσίν" χρήσιμοι γὰρ πλατεῖς'
ὄντες μᾶλλον 3] μακροὶ πρὸς τὸ ἀποβιάζεσθαι τὸ
ὑγρόν, ὅταν νέωσιν.

2 XVIII. Εὐλόγως δὲ καὶ τὰ μὲν πτηνὰ πόδας
ἔχει, οἱ δ᾽ ἰχθύες ἄποδες: τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ὁ βίος ἐν
τῷ ξηρῷ, μετέωρον δ᾽ ἀεὶ μένειν ἀδύνατον, ὥστ᾽
ἀνάγκη πόδας ἔχειν: τοῖς δ᾽ ἰχθύσιν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ
ὁ βίος, καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ δέχονται, οὐ τὸν cepa. Ta

Ti4b μὲν οὖν πτερύγια χρήσιμα πρὸς τὸ νεῖν, οἱ δὲ
πόδες ἄχρηστοι. εἰ δ᾽ ἄμφω εἶχον, ἄναιμοι ἂν
ἦσαν. ὁμοίως δ᾽ ἔχουσιν οἱ ὄρνιθες τρόπον τινὰ
538

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xvit.-xvum.

The reason is that it does not bend its legs forwards
and is not bow-legged. Why it is not bow-legged
has been already explained before, namely, because
its skin is hard and testaceous. For this reason it
must lead off with allits legs and obliquely—obliquely
because its bendings are oblique, and with all its legs,
because otherwise those which were at rest would
impede those which were moving.

Flat-fish swim as one-eyed men walk; for their
nature is distorted. Web-footed birds swim with
their feet. They are bipeds, because they take in
breath and respire; they are web-footed, because
they live in the water, for their feet being of this
kind are of service to them in place of fins. They do
not have their legs, as the other birds do, in the
centre of the body, but placed rather towards the
back; for since they are short-legged, their legs
being set back are useful for swimming. This class
of bird is short-legged because nature has taken
away from the length of their legs and added to their
feet, and has given thickness instead of length to
the legs and breadth to the feet ; for, being broad,
they are more useful than if they were long, in order
to force away the water when they are swimming.

XVIII. It is for a good reason, too, that winged
animals have feet, while fishes have none. The
former live on dry land and cannot always remain up
in the air, and so necessarily have feet; but fishes
live in the water, and take in water and not air.
Their fins, then, are useful for swimming, whereas
feet would be useless. Also, if they had both feet
and fins, they would be bloodless. Birds in a way

4 πλατεῖς Z: παχεῖς PSUY.
S 539

714b

ARISTOTLE

^ ^ d v € /
τοῖς ἰχθύσιν. τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ὄρνισιν ἄνω αἱ πτέρυγές

, ^ \ Z / > ^ ^ M ^
5 εἰσι, τοῖς δὲ πτερύγια δύο ἐν τῷ πρανεῖ' καὶ τοῖς

μὲν ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις οἱ πόδες, τοῖς δὲ ἔν τε τοῖς
ὑπτίοις καὶ ἐγγὺς τῶν πρανῶν πτερύγια τοῖς
πλείστοις: καὶ οἱ μὲν οὐροπύγιον ἔχουσιν, οἱ δ᾽
οὐραῖον.

ΧΙΧ. Περὶ δὲ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων ἀπορήσειεν
ἄν τις τίς ἡ κίνησις, καὶ εἰ μὴ ἔχουσι δεξιὸν καὶ
ἀριστερόν, πόθεν κινοῦνται: φαίνονται δὲ κινού-

10 μενα. 7) ὥσπερ ἀνάπηρον δεῖ τιθέναι πᾶν τὸ

τοιοῦτον γένος, καὶ κινεῖσθαι ὁμοίως οἷον εἴ τις
e

ἀποκόψειε τῶν ὑποπόδων τὰ σκέλη, (NY ὥσπερ
\ ~ /

ἡ φώκη καὶ ἡ νυκτερίς" καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα τετράποδα,

^ 5 ^ /

κακῶς δ᾽ ἐστίν. τὰ Ò ὀστρακόδερμα κινεῖται μέν,

- λ . / , / 2 / 2 >

κινεῖται δὲ παρὰ φύσιν: οὐ γάρ ἐστι κινητικά, ἀλλ

M / / \
15 ὡς μὲν μόνιμα καὶ προσπεφυκότα κινητικά, ὡς δὲ

20

\ / » M / M € /
πορευτικὰ μόνιμα. ἔχουσι δὲ φαύλως καὶ οἱ καρκίνοι
. / 3 1; 54 / ^ STe / ,
τὰ δεξιά, ἐπεὶ ἔχουσί γε. δηλοῖ δ᾽ ἡ χηλή' μείζων
^ ` > i € 4 e λ / ὃ
γὰρ καὶ ἰσχυροτέρα ἡ δεξιά, ὡς βουλομένων ὃι-
ωρίσθαι τῶν δεξιῶν καὶ τῶν ἀριστερῶν.
ç A ^ `
Ta μὲν οὖν περὶ τῶν µορίων, τῶν 7 ἄλλων καὶ
τῶν περὶ τὴν πορείαν τῶν ζῴων καὶ περὶ πᾶσαν
^ /
τὴν κατὰ τόπον μεταβολήν, τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον"
τούτων δὲ διωρισµένων ἐχόμενόν ἐστι θεωρῆσαι
M ^
περὶ ψυχῆς.
1 j addidi.

* i.e. a second pair of fins.

> See H.A. 527 b 35 ff., where land-snails, sea-snails, oysters
and sea-urchins are given as examples.

€ See H.A. 498a 31, Ρ.4. 697 b 1 ff.

4 These words can only refer to the De anima, which from
its citation in the De generatione animalium, De partibus
animalium, etc., must be regarded as an earlier work. This

540

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, χΧνιπ.- χιχ.

resemble fishes. For birds have their wings in the
upper part of their bodies, fishes have two fins in
their fore-part ; birds have feet on their under-part,
most fishes have fins? in their under-part and near
their front fins ; also, birds have a tail, fishes a tail-fin.

XIX. A question may be raised as to what is the
movement of testaceans,® and where their movement
begins if they have no right and left; for they
obviously do move. Must all this class be regarded
as maimed and as moving in the same way as an
animal with feet if one were to cut off its legs, or as
analogous to the seal and bat, which are quadrupeds
but malformed ?^ Now the testaceans move, but
move in a way contrary to nature. They are not
really mobile ; but if you regard them as sedentary
and attached by growth, you find that they are
capable of movement; if you regard them as pro-
eressing, you find that they are sedentary.

Crabs show only a feeble differentiation of right
and left, but they do show it. It can be seen in the
claw; for the right claw is bigger and stronger, as
though the left and right wished to be differentiated.

So much for our discussion of the parts of animals
and particularly those which have to do with progres-
sion and all change from place to place. Now that
these points have been settled, our next task is to
consider soul.4
has led some critics (e.g. Brandis) to reject the whole of this
paragraph as a later addition. Such a paragraph, however,
is a characteristic conclusion in Aristotle, and should not be
rejected as a whole. It is quite possible that the words
περὶ ψυχῆς are corrupt, and indeed the word ψυχῆς has been
supplied by a later hand in Z, whereas the first hand had
left a blank and had written ζωησ (sic) in the margin, which
would be a reference to the latter part of the group of treatises
known as the Parva Naturalia,

αν 541

V > . E ET

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* —

INDEX TO PARTS OF ANIMALS

Tue Index is to be regarded as supplementary to the Sum-

mary on pages 12-18.

Further references will sometimes be

found in the notes on Terminology, pages 24-39.
The numbers 3 to 50 refer to the pages of the Introduction.
The numbers 39a to 97b (standing for 639a to 697b) refer
to the pages and columns of the Berlin edition which are

printed at the top of each page of the Greek text.

'The lines

are referred to in units of five lines ; thus
40al-640a1-640a4
40b5 = 640b5—640b9.
Such references include footnotes to the translation.
f, ff — following section or sections.
Under any heading, each entry is separated from the pre-
ceding by a dash ( / ), unless it has the same page number,

abdomen (abdominal cavi-
ties) 50210

abomasum 74b15 | 76a10

abscess 67b5

** abscession " 39 / 90a5

Acalephae 81a35

Aesop 63a35

allantois 93b25

Amia 76b20

analogy, difference by 44b10
/ 45b5

Anaxagoras 40b5 / 45a35 |
77a5 | 87a5

animal 53b20 / 66a35

antelope 63a10

ants 50b25 / 78b15 / 83a5

Aorta 52b25 /66b25/67b15 ff
[11015 | 77a5 | 78al

ape 89530
appendage 10430
Aquinas, St Thomas 49
Arcadia 73a15
Aristotle, “ lantern " of

80a5
art 39b15 / 40a25
Ascidian 80a5 / 81a10, 25f
ass 67a20 / 88b20

* Indian " ass 63a15

Astaci 83b25 ff

attributes, ''essential" (or
“ inseparable”) 43a25 |
45b1

auditory passages 57a15

backbone 51b30 / 52a10 /
54b10

543

ARISTOTLE

backward-grazing oxen
59al5

Bacon, Francis 58b15

barn-door fowls 57b25

bat 97b1 ff

Batos 95b25 | 96225 | 97a5

beak 59b1 ff /
69480 ff / 92b15 | 93a10 f

bear 58b1

beautiful, the 45a25

bee 48a5 / 50b25 / 61a20 /
78b10f | 82b10 / 83a5,
30

beetle, see dung-beetle

belly ὅδα]

bending 54b5 / 83b1, 30 /
87b25f / 99α10 / 93b1

Bergson 3

bile 49b30. See also gall

birds 42b10 | 57b5, 15 |
59b1 ff / 60a25 | 74b15 ff |
76a30 / 91490 | 92b1 ff |
97b20

bison 63a10

bivalves 79b15 ff

Black Sea 82a25

bladder 70b25 ff | 71b15, 25 |
76a25

** blend " 31 [27198189]
50b95 / 52b25, 35 | 69a10 |
73b30 / 86a10

blinking 57a35, b15f / 91a20

blood 4 / 45b5 / 47b1 (current
of), 30 ff / 49a15, b20 |
50a30 ff / 51a10 / 56b1 /
66295 / 67b15 ff | 78a5

blood-vessels 47b5 / 50a25 f |
59b30 / 54b1 / 65b10 f, 25 |
66b95 / 67b15 ff

Great Blood-vessel 52b25 /

66b25 / 67b15 ff | 71b1 |
78al

blooded animals 22 / 42b10 /

544

50b25 | 65a25 | Τ6ΡΙΟΕ |
78a5 | 85085 ff

bloodless animals 22 / 23 |
42b10 / 50b25 / 73a30 |
78a25 ff

blowhole 59b15 / 97a15 ff

boar 5lal

Bonasus 63a10

bone 52a1 ff / 53b30 ff /
54a30 ff / 66b15

Boyle, R. 45a6

brain 52a20 ff | 56a10 ff |
58b1 / 73b10 / 8625

breast 884104

breathing-machine 59a5

bregma 53a35

bronchial tubes 64a25

bull 51a1 / 63a35

buttocks 89b5 ff

caecal appendages 75a10

caecal dilatation 75b5

Calamary 54a20 / 78b30 /
79a15 | 85a10 ff, b15

camel 6841 / 74a30 | 76b25 /
77a35 | 88b20 | 89a30

Canthari 82b25

Carabi, caraboids 79480 f /
83b25 ff

Carcini 83b25 ff

Caria 73a15

Carides 83b25 ff

carnivorous animals 55a10 /
61b5 / 62b1 / 93al / 97al

Cartesian co-ordinates 20

cartilage 54b25 / 55a30

catamenia 48a30 / 89a10

cattle-flies 61a20

Causes 3 / 8/11 / 21 | 24ff |
39b10 ff / 40b5 / 41a95 |
46a10

cavities 66b20 ff

centipede 8225, b1

INDEX TO PARTS OF ANIMALS

Cephalopods 23 / 54a10 /
78a25 ff, b25 ff | 84b5 ff

Cercidas 73a15

Cestreus 75a10 | 96a5

Cetacea 69a5 / 97a15 ff

Chalcis in Euboea 77a1

chamaeleon 99490

chance 40450 / 41b20 / 45a20

ciliary motion 84b20

classification 18 / 20 / 42b5 ff /
43b10 ff

claws 62b1 / 83b30 f / 84a15,
30

cloven hoof 74225 | and
passim

cockchafer $2b15

** eolliquescence " 38 | 77a10

colon 75b5, 15

common functions to body
and soul 9 / 484365

components in isolation 45a35

* composition " 4 / 46a10 ff

composition of Aristotle’s
works 10

“ concoction ” 31 / 34 / 50a5 /
51a20, b25 | 52a5 | 68b5/
70a20, 25 | 72al | 75al0f |
77b25 f

connate pneuma 59b15 | 69al

controlling part 73b10 /
81b15 ff / 82b1, 25 / 86215

Cook, A. B. 73a15

cooling 56a20 / 62a15 /
68b35 ff / 92a20 | 96b20

copulation 8980, 25

Cordylus 95b25

couvre-feu 54a5

crab 79a30 / 91b15

Crex 95a20

crocodile 60b25 f / 90b20 /
91al5, b5 ff

crop 74b20 ff / 78b30 f

crow 62b5

Crustacea 23 | 54a1 | 57b30 |
78a25 ff | 83b25 ff

cuttlefish 542320. See also
Sepia

Cuvier 44 / 84b15

Cyprinoi 60b35

Darwin 4 / 7

deer 50b15 / 63a10, 510 /64α1
| 61490 | 77a30 | 88b25

deformed animals 57a20 /
60b25 / 84b1 / 95b1

Democritus 40b30 f / 42a25 |
65a30

derivation of words 62b20 /
72b30

diaphragm 70a5 / 72b10 ff

dichotomy 18 / 42b5 ff

differentiae 42b20 ff

disadvantageous parts 48a15 |
59215 / 63a5 | 64a5 | 94a15

Dissections 50a30 | 66a5 |
68b30

divers 59a5

divine things 44b25 ff / 56a5

“ division of labour ” 83a20 /
91b20

dog 7441 | 75a25 | 88a5, bl

Indian dog 43b5

dog-teeth 61b10

dolphin 55a15 / 69a5 / 77a35 |
96b25 / 97al5

duality of the body 56b30 |
63a20 / 67b30 / 69b10 ff

dung 75b30

dung-beetle 82b25

dwarf-like 86b1 ff / 89b25/
95a5

dynamis 29 | 30-32 | 40490 |
46a10, b15 ff / 47b5/ 55b10

ears 57a10 ff
earth 51a25
545

ARISTOTLE

earthy matter 63b25 ff etc.

editions of Aristotle's De
partibus 44-45

Edwards, Milne 83a20

eel 96a1, b20

eggs 65a35 | 84490 | 92a15

* Elements " 30 / 42a20 /
46a10, b5 / 47a10 / 48b10

elephant 58b30 ff / 61a25 /
63al | 82b30 | 88b5, 15 /
92b15

embryo 51b20 / 55a1 / 65b1 /
66a20 / 71b5 | 76a15

Empedocles 40490, b5 /
42a15 | 48a30

Emys 71a30

epiglottis 64b20 ff

epipetron 81a20

equivalents, law of organic
55a25

* excess and defect " (“ the
more and less ”) 19 / 44220,
bl5 / 49a30 | 55a30 |
61b30 ff | 84450 | 92b5

excrement 63a15. See
residue

excretory organs 89a5 ff

eye and eyelid 57a25 1f/
91a20

eyebrows 58b10 ff

eyelashes 58a10 ff

Fabricius 43

fat 51a20 ff | 72al

fear 50b25 | 67al5f | 79a25 |
82b25 / 92a20

feathers 92b10

fibres 50b10, 30

fin 85b15 / 95b25 ff

Final Cause 21 / 39b15 ff /
46b25

fire 49a20 / 50a5 ff / 52b5

fishes 42b10 / 58a1 / 60b10 ff,

546

35f/62a5f /66b10 /75a1 ff/
76a25, b20 / 95b1 ff

fishing-frog 95b10 / 96a25

fishing-rod 93a20

flea 83a30

flesh 47a20 | 51b5 | 53b15 ff |
6025 f | 68a25 ff

fly 61490 | 78b15 | 82b10 /
83a30 l

fiuid and solid 32 / 46a15

flux 52b30

fontanel, anterior 53a35

foot 82a35 ff / 85a10 ff /
90a25 ff

foreskin 57b1

form (and matter) 9 / 11 / 25 |
40a15, b20 | 41α15

formation (process of) 27 /
40a10 ff / 46a95

funnel 79al

gadflies 61a20

gall and gall-bladder 5 /
76b15 ff

gazelle 50b15 / 63a10, b25

gills 59b15 / 96b1 ff / 9τα15Ε

gladius 54a20

goat 73b30 | 74b5 | 76b35f |
88b25

Goethe 84b15

good, the 39b20 / 59b30 /
70b20

“ good life " 56a5

* goodness ” (arete) 42a30

goosefish 95b10 / 96a25

grasshopper 82a15f

grease 51a25

Great Blood-vessel, see under
blood-vessels

Grosseteste, Richard 41

gut 74a10 / 75a30f

haematoporphyria 68b5

INDEX TO PARTS OF ANIMALS

haemorrhage 68b15 immortality 37

hair 58a15 ff “ Indian ass " 63a15f

hand 8725 ff, b1 ff / 90330 ink 79a1 ff / 81b25

hare 67490 | 69b30 / 76a15 | Insects 93 | 54a25 | 51b35 |
Harun-al-Rashid 40 59b15 / 78b10 | 82a1 ff
Harvey, William 43 / 44 instruments, instrumental
hawk 70b1 parts 30 / 45b15, 25 | 46095
head 56a10 ff / 58b1 / 86a5 ff | 47al ff, b20 | 87a5 ff
hearing 56b10 intelligence 48a1 / 50b20 /

heart 47a95 | 53b5 | 54b10/ | 72a30 | 86a25 f | 87a5
56a25 | 65a10, 910 ΗΒ / | intermediate creatures 23 |
70a20f | 73b10 / 77b1 / | 69a10 / 8lal0, blO |

78b1 | 80α15 / 96b15 89b30 / 97a15 ff
heat 53b5 / 96b15 / and “ internal finality 7 3
passim intestines 50a15 / 74a10 ff /
hepatopancreas, see mecon | — 75bl ff / 76b10
Heracleitus 45a15 irrigation 68a10 f

Heracleotie crabs 84a10 ischium 95a1 ff
Herodotus 59a15
Hippocrates 30 | 31 / 37 / | jaws 91a25 ff
40b15 | 48al | 50b20 / | jejunum '15b25 ff
85b5 / 86b25 | joints 54b15. See also
Historia Animalium 46a5 | bending
50a30 | 60bl / 74b15 | |.
8041 / 84b5 | 89al5 / | Kerkidas 73al5

96b15 | Kestreus 75a10 / 96a5
Holothuria 814165 | kidney 70a15, b20 / 71a25 ff
Homer 73a15 | kite 70b1
hoof 90a5 ff | Knides 81a35
horned animals 73b30 | Ktesias 63a15
horns 62b20 ff i à ij /
horse 6841 / 66b15 / 88b20, ‘ lantern of Aristotle " 80a5
90 lard 51a20 ff, 995 | 72a5
hot, the 50a5 ff layrnx 64a15 ff
hot and cold 41b15 / 46215 / | laughter 73al ff
48420 ff Lee, HDs E, 10
hucklebone 51a30 / 54b20 /. | Leonardo da Vinci 65b5
90210 ff leopard 67a20 / 88a5
hyaena 67a20 Lesbos 80b1

life 55b35 | 78b1
“idly " (“ Nature does no- limpet 79b25 / 80490
thing idly ") 61b20 / 91b1/ | lion 51535 | 55a10 | 58a30 /
94215 / 95b15 86220 / 88a5, b1 / 99430
547

ARISTOTLE

lips 59b20

liver 66a25 ff | 69b25 ff /
190154 | T7a15, 35f, b35

lizard 76a25 / 91a5 ff

“lizards (σαῦραι, plaited
tubes) 85b5

lobster 84a30

locust 83a30

logos 96Ε/ 39b15 | 40a30 /
49490 | 4621 | 49b25/
78a35 | 95b15

Lophius piscatorius 95b10

lumen Ί1Ὀ]

lung 64a20 f / 65a15 | 65000 ff

lynx 89230

Maia 84a10

mammae 88a15 ff

Man 44al / 45b25 | 53a25 ff |
56a5 | 58al5, b1 | 59b30 /
60a10ff / 61b5 | 62b15 |
66b5 | 69a20, b5 | 71b1 /
13a5, 95 | 16b30 | 86495 ff |
88b30 / 89b5 ff / 90a25 |
95a5

marrow 51b20 ff

marten 67a20

matter and form 9 / 35 / 36

mecon 79b10 / 80490

melanin 34

Melolontha 82016

membrane 73b1 ff / 77b15,35/
82b15 / 88290 / 91490

mesentery 50a25 / 76b10 /
11b35 ff

Methydrion 73a15

metre 60a5

mice 67490 | 76b30

Michael Scot 40 ff / 46-47

migrants 94a5

milk 76a10 f / 8851

moderation 52b15

Moerbeke, William of 42

548

moon, full 80480

mouth 50a10 ff / 62a15 ff
96b20 ff

Murex 61a20

mussel 79b25 / 83b15

mytis 79a5 | 81b20 ff

nails 87b20 / 90b5

Natural science 39a10 / 40a

* Natural Selection ” 4

Nature 39b15 / 41a25, b10ff
42a15 | and passim

Naxos 77al

Necessity 21 | 8395904 |
49414, 304 | 46030 |
46295 | 51al5 | 68290 |
10230, 590 / 19280 /77al5,
b20. / 78al [19225 | 890956 |
85216 / 92al | 94b5

neck 64410 / 86a5 ff / 92b20 ff

Nerites 79b20

nictitating membrane 57a30

“ non-uniform ” parts 28-30 /
46490, b5, 30 | 47a25 |
55b25 ff

nostrils 58b25 ff

nutriment (** ultimate 3)
50a30 / 51a15 / 78a5, 15

nutrition 47a25 / 50a35

octopus 52b25 | 54a20 |
78b25 | 19a5ff | 85a5,15 ff

oesophagus 50a15 / 64a15 ff /
74a10, b20 | 86490 |
91al

omasum '14b15 | 76a10f

omentum 76b10 / 77b15

operculum T9b15

opposites, division by 43a30

orifice 81a25

Oryx 63a20

os sepiae 54a20

Ostreae 80b20

INDEX TO PARTS ΟΕ ANIMALS

ostrich 58a10 / 95a15 /
97 b10 ff

** ova." 80a10 ff, b1 ff

ox 66b15 / 71b5 / S8b25

etc.
oyster 8026, 20 / 81b10

Parmenides 48a25

Parnassus 81a20

parrot-fish 62a5 / 75al

“part” 28-30 / 61995 | 64a5 |
90a5 /

passages 50a15 / 56b15 /
71bl, 10 ff | 78a10

" pen" of Calamary 54220

penis 89a20 f

" perfect " animals 55b30/
66a25 | 82a30

philosophers, early 40b5 /
4146 ff / 47410

“ philosophical treatises "'
42a5

phlegm 53a1 | 77b5

pigeon 70b1

plants 50220 | 55b30 / 78 α10 )
81α16 ff / 82090 / 88015 |
86b30

Plato 30 | 42056 / 45a35 |
51b20 / 69a15 / 76b25

pneuma, connate 59b15 |
69a1

“ potentiality " 42a1 / 47a5 |
49b1ff | 67b20 / 68a30

*"* pounce " (of cuttlefish)
54a20

privative terms, privation
42b20 ff | 49a15

proboscis 78b10 / 79a5 /
85a30, b10

Protagoras 42a25

purpose 45a20 / 51al5 |
63b20 | 70b20 / 77al5 |
78a15 / 92al

Purpura 61a20 / 79b15f
Pyrrha, strait of 80b1
Pythagoreans 70b20

rain 53al

razor-fishes 83b15

“ realization " 35 ff

relative size of parts 65b5

rennet 76a5 ff

residue 99 | 32-34 | 47b25 |
50a20 | 70b25 | Τ1α5 |
74a15 | 75b10 ff / 76a30 ]
77al0f, 25 | 81a30

respiration 5 / 49430 / 62a15 |
64b1 / 65al5

reticulum 74b15 | 76a5

Rhiné 97a5

rhinoceros 63a15

ribs 55al

Risus Sardonicus 73a10

rot 72a30 ff

rumen '14b15

rumination, ruminants 74b5 /
15alf

πος J.Barthélemy- 44 |

St- "Hilaire, G. 84b15
saw-teeth 61b15 / 62a5
scales 91a15
scallops 79b25 / 80b20 /
83b15
Scarus 62a5 / 75al
scorpion 83a10
sea-anemone 814835
sea-cucumber 81a15
sea-lung 81a15
sea-nettle 81a35
sea-sickness 64b10
sea-snail 78b20 / 79b5
sea-squirt 81a10
sea-urchin 79b25 f / 80a1ff, 30,
b1 ff / 83b10
540

ARISTOTLE

seal 57220 / 71b5 | 76b25 |
97b1f

seed 41b25 / 89a5f

Selachia 4 / 55220, 25, 35 /
T6b1 / 95b5 / 9601 ff / 97a5

self-defence 55b5 | 62525 ete.

semen 51b10, 20 / 89a5f

sensation 47alff / 48ai /
50b25 | 51a10, b1 / 53b20 /
56al, 15 | 66a35 | 72b30 |
81al5 ff

sense, '' general " 86a30

sense-organs 47a5 / 56b25

senses 56a25 ff / 86a10

Sepia 54220 | 78b95 | 1945 ff |
85a10 ff

septum 81a30

serpents 60b5 | 7
90b15 ff / 91b2
97a10

serum 5lal5 / 53al

Shakespeare 33 / 34

sheep 71b5 / 72a25 ff | 73b30 /
76035 f

sheep-rot 72a30 ff

sinews 66b10 / 96b5

Siphae 96a5

sleep 53a10

smell 59b15

Smyraena 96a5

snake 91a15

Socrates 42a25

solid and fluid 47a20, b10 /
48b1 / 49b10 ff

solidification 49a30 / 51a10

Soul 9 / 34-37 | 38 | 41a15 ff /
50b25 | 59b5f | 61020 |
72b15 | 76b95 | 78bi |
86b25 / 92a20

sounds 60a1 f

speech 59b30 ff / 60a20/
61b15 / 64b1 | 73a20

spider-crab 84a10

550

6a25, 990 /
5 ff | 96a5 |

spiral shells 79b10

spit-and-lampstand 83a25

spleen 66a25 / 69b25 ff /
70a30 ff, b30

sponge 8lal0f

spontaneous production
40a30

spurs 94a10

starfish 81b5 f

sterility 51b10

sting 61a15, 25 | 82a10, b30 ff

stomach 74a5 ff / 80b25 ff /
89b35

stone 67b1

substratum 49a15 f

suckers 85b10

suet 51a20 ff, b25 / 72a5

sutures 53a35 | 58b1 / 67a5

sweat 68b1

swine 63a5 | 8851, 10 ete.

symmetria 52b35 | 86a10

systoichia, 10b20

tail 58330 / 84a1 | 89b1 ff /
95b5 f

talons 94a15

taste 56b35 / 60a20 | 61a5 /
90b25 ff

Taylor, Prof. A. E. 90

teeth 55b5 | 61a30 ff / 78b15 /
80b25

teleology 3 / 48a15 / 59a15 |
68410 / 94490

tentacles 85b1 f

Testacea 23 | 54a1 / 78b10, 20
/ 79b1 ff | 83b1 ff

testicles 95a25 / 97a10

text and manuscripts of De
partibus 45 ff

theoretical sciences 40a

Thompson, Prof. D'Arcy 10 /
19 [90 / 44a20

Tipha 96a5

INDEX

tissues 4

toad 73b30

Toledo 40 / 41

tongue 59b35 ff / 78b5 ff /
90b20 ff

torpedo-fish 95b5 / 96325 f

tortoise 54a5 / 71a15f |
73b30 / 76230 / 91al5

touch 47 / 53b20 / 56235

Transformations, theory of
19 / 90

translations of Aristotle's
works 39-43 / 44-45

transmigration 36

troglodytes 69b5 / 84a5

Trygon 95b5, 25

tube-feet 81a5

turtle 54a5

tusks 55b10

umbilical cord 93b25

umbilicus 93b20

"uniform" parts 28-30 /
40b20 | 46a20, b5, 30 /
47a25, b10

upright posture 53a30 / 56a10
| 58a20 | 62090 | 69b5 |
86a25 ff / 87a5 | S9b10 ff /
90a25 | 95a1 ff

ureters 71b15

TO PARTS OF ANIMALS

vaporization 52b35 / 72b15

variations in “ parts” 47b25 ff
/ 73b10 ff

ventilation 53b1

vermiform appendix 75a15

vertebrae 51b30 / 54b15 /
86490

Vertebrates and Inverte-
brates 45b10

viper 76b1 f

viscera 47a30 / 65a25 ff /
73b10 ff

Vivipara 55a5, b10 / = 90 |
73b15 | 74a25 | 85b35 ff

wasp 83a5

whale 69a5 / 97a15 ff

whelk 79b15f / 83b10

windpipe 64235 ff / $6a15

wing (of birds) 93b1 ff

wing (of insects) 82b5 ff

wolf 86a20 / 88a5

woodpecker 62b5

wryneck 95a20

xanthopterine 34
Zeus hoplosmios 13a15

zoological works of Aris-
totle 8

551

INDEX TO MOVEMENT AND
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

Notre: 98a-99b = 698a-699b
00a-14b = 700a-7 14b.

The matter contained in lines 1-5, 5-10 etc. is treated as a
section, and each section is referred to by the number of its
first line: e.g. 98al refers to anything contained in page
698a lines 1-4, and 13b10 to anything contained in page

713b lines 10-14.

action, the result of the prac- |

tical syllogism 01a22 ff

active )( passive 02b10 /
05a20

alteration, causes of 01b15

animals passim

appetite 00b10

arms, movement of, in run-
ning 05a15

athletes, use of weights in
jumping by 05a15

Atlas, the fable of 99a25, b1

back )( front, of animals
05a25, b10

bat 14b10

bees 10a10

beetles 10a10

bending, as a means of
motion 07b5 / 08b20 ff /
0951 : concave and convex
ib. 10: of legs in walking

552

by man 11a25 ff, by quad-
rupeds ib. blO, by birds
19290

bipeds 04a10, 15 / 06a25,
b1 ff / 10b5 / 12b30

birds 09b20; are bipeds
06a25; standing position
of 10b15 ff; compared with
fishes 14a20 ff ; birds with
talons the swiftest flyers
10a25; web-footed birds,
14a5

bloodless animals, progres-
sion of 12b20 ff; struc-
ture of ib. 30; can have
more than four feet 08a15;
can live though divided in
parts 07a30

boat, illustration from a
98b20

bones 01b5

Boreas 98b25

MOVEMENT & PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

bronze, horses in 10b20

caterpillars, 05b25 / 09a30

children, their difficulty in
walking 10b10

cockchafer 10a10

conger-eels 08a1

crabs 12b10 / 14b15; curious
structure of 13b10 ff

crawling 09a5, 25

crocodile 13a15, b15

cupids, pictures of winged
llal

De anima, referred to 00b5 /
14b20

De partibus animalium, re-
ferred to 98al

desire, as a cause of motion
00b15 /Olal /03a5; absent
in involuntary movements
03b10

diagonal movement of the
legs 04b1 / 12a20, b5

dimensions of animals 04b15 /
05a25

earth, immobility of the
99a30, b5 ff

earthworms 05b25

eels 0841 ff / 09b10

elbow 19410 : elbow-joint
98b1 / 02a25

elephant 09a10 / 12a10

feet, even number of, in all
animals 04a15 / 08a20 ff

fiery element 03a20

fire, movement of 99b25 /
00a10

fishes 09b30 / 13b5; com-
pared with birds 14220 ff

flat-fish 09b10 / 14a5

flying 98a5, b15 / 09b5

“ foot," defined 06480

footless animals 04a10 |/
05b20 | 06b1; movement
of 0706 | 09a25

fore-arm 9851 / 02a25

fowls, domestic 10a5

geometrical illustrations
98a10 / 09095 | 03b25

good, the, as a cause of move-
ment 00295 ; real )( appar-
ent good, ib.

hand 02a30 ff

heart 03a10 / 03b5, 20

heavens, movement of the
99a10

heron 10a10

hips 98b5 / 09410 / 11a5; of
birds 10b20, of man 4b.

Historia animalium, referred
to 04b10

Homer, quoted (Od. viii. 20-
22) 99b35

hopping 05b30

horses, of bronze 10b20, in
religious processions 12a30

“ impossible," meaning of
99b15

imagination 00b10 / O1b15 /
02a15 | 03b10 ff

inferior )( superior parts
04b20 / 05a25 | 06b1 ff /
07a5

insects 09b30 / 10a5 ff / 13al

intellect 00b10

joints 98a15 / 02490 / 03a10 |
05a15 ; of elbow 09851
jumping 05a5, 15 / 08220 |
09b5
553

ARISTOTLE

knee 98b1

lampreys 08α1

leeches 09a30

left )( right 05a25, b15 ff;
left and right sides of
the body, similar 02b10;
weights carried on left
shoulder 05580: why men
step off with the left foot
06a5

legs, the 98b5 / 10b10 ; posi-
tion of, in movement
09b15 ff; of man, bent in
convex direction 04a15, of
birds, in a concave direc-
tion ib. 20; four ways of
bending the legs 12al :
transference of weight from
one leg to another 11al0 :
of polypods 13b25 ff;
necessary to birds 09b20 :
used to direct flight
10a15

lizards 13b15

lobster 13b20 ff

man, the only erect animal
10b10; right-handed 06490:
why a biped 04a15; why
not winged lal; his
action in walking O7b15 ;
bends his legs in a convex
direction 04a15

marionettes, illustration from
Oibl

Metaphysics, referred to
00b5

mice 98b15
molluses 06a30
moon 99b15
motion, movement,

554

of the

universe 98b10, of the
heavens 99al0, b10, of
animate things 00Ρ10, of
inanimate things 00Ρ10,
of the soul 00b1, of red-
blooded footless animals
07b5; various kinds of
movement 98a5 | 05al ff;
cause of movement OOb15ff;
where situated 02a20, b5 ff;
origin of movement 98a15,
bl ff | 01b30 / O6b15;
points at which movement
takes place 04a10 /07a15 ff,
b5 ff / 09b20; movement
begins on the right side
05030 / 06b15; movement
implies something at rest
outside 99b30 / 02a25;
movement of one part
necessitates rest of another
part 98a15, bl ff / 00a5;
movement by bending
08090 ff | O9b1 / 1146:
voluntary )( involuntary
movement 03b5; diagonal
movement of the legs
0401 / 19490, b5; move-
ment in jumping, running,
and walking 05a5 ff

mover, the prime 00b5,
moves without being itself
moved 98a5 | 00b35, is
eternal 00b30

mullet 08al

nature, creates nothing with-
out a purpose 04b15 /
08a10, creates nothing un-
natural 11a5

nutrition, of plants 06b5, of
plants and animals com-
pared 05b5

MOVEMENT & PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

opposite parts of the body
move simultaneously 02b10

oviparous quadrupeds 0481 /
13al5

passive )( active 02a10 /
05a20

peacock 10a5, 20

Physics, reference to (258b49)
98a10

plants, nutrition of 06b5, lack
movement 4b. compared
with animals 05b5, superior
and inferior parts of 05225,
b1 ff

points at which movement
takes place 04a10 / 07a15 ff,
b5 ff / 09b20

poles, the 99430 ff

polypods 04a10 / 06230, b5 /
0881 / 12b10 / 13a25, b15

porphyrio (a bird) 10a10

procession, religious 12a30

purple-fish 06a15

purpose 00b10 / 01a5, in
nature 04b15 / 08a10

quadrupeds 04a10 ff / 06a30 /
07b15; bending of the legs
of quadrupeds in walking
11b10; oviparous quad-
rupeds 04b1

ray (fish) 09b15

red-blooded animals 11a,
move at four points 04a10 /
ΟΤα16. b5 / 09b20, cannot
live if divided into parts
07a25

resistance of earth, air or sea
necessary to movement
98b15

rest )( motion 98b5

right )( left 05a25, b1 /
06b25 | 07a5; movement
originates on the right side
05b30/06b15; right side
superior to left 06220,
b10; right limbs used in
defence 06a5

roots of plants 05b5

rudder, slight movement of,
changes direction of boat
01b25

scolopendrae 07230 / 08b5

seal 14b10

sensation 01a35, cause of
alteration Olbl5; origin
of sensation situated in the
centre of the body 02b20

sense-perception, in animals
05b10; objects of 98a10

sexual organs 03b5, 20

shin 98b1

shoulder 98 b1 / 09a10 / 11a5 /
12a10

sinews 01b5

Siphae 08a5

snakes 05b25 / 09a25, move-
ment of 07920 ff, why
footless 08a5 ff

soul, movement of the 9081,
central position of 03235,
as origin of movement
02b1 ff / 03al

spine 02b20

spirit, innate, in animals
03a10 ff

stromboid testaceans 06a10,
b1

superior )( inferior parts
04b20 /05a25/06b1 ff/ 07a5

swimming 98a5, b15 / 09b5

syllogism, the practical
01alO ff

555

ARISTOTLE

tail, used as a rudder 10a1

talons, birds with, the swiftest
flyers 10a25

testaceans 06a10, bl / 14b5

thighs 12a15, of birds 12b30

Tityos 98b25

tortoise 13a15

toy-carriage, illustration from
01bl

trumpet-shell 06a15

universe, movement of the
98b10

viviparous quadrupeds 04a20
voluntary )( involuntary
movement 03b5

walking 05a5

wasps 10α10

water-fowl 10a10

web-footed birds 14a5

weights, used by athletes
when jumping O5al5,
carried on left shoulder
05b30

wings 05b20 / 06a25 | 09b5,
30 ; of birds, necessary for
walking 09b20, and for
standing 10b30, serve as
front legs 12b20; of cupids,
useless llal; of insects
10315; grow obliquely
13a5

wrestling-school 09b10

wrist 02b1

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Prato VI: Cnarvrus, PARMENIDES, GREATER ἨΗΠΡΡΙΑΒ,
Lesser ἨΠΡΡΙΑ5. H. N. Fowler.

Prato VII: Timaeus, (ἨΙτΙας, CLiITOoOPHO, MENEXENUS, Eri-
STULAE. Rev. R. G. Bury.

Prato VIII: CHARMIDES, ÂLCIBIADES, ἨΙΡΡΑΒΟΗύ3, THe
Lovers, ΓΤΗΕΑΟΕΒ, Mixos AND ΕΡΙΝΟΜΙ5. W. R. M. Lamb.

Prato: Laws. Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.

Prato: ΒΠερυπιις. Paul Shorey. 2 Vols.

PrurAncH: Moratta. 15 Vols Vols. I-V. F.C. Babbitt;

7

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

Vol. VI. W. C. Helmbold ; Vol. VII. P. H. De Lacy and
B. Einarson; Vol. X. H. N. Fowler; Vol. XII. H.
Cherniss and W. C. Helmbold.

PrurAnCH: Tue ΡΑΠΑΙΙΕΙ, Lives. B. Perrin. 11 Vols.

Porvsivus. W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.

Pnocorrus: Hisrory or ΤΗΕ Wars. H. B. Dewing. 7 Vols.

Protemy: TrernABIBLOs. Cf. MANETHO.

Quintus Smyrnagus. A. S. Way. Verse trans.

Sextus Emrinicus. Rev. R. G. Bury. 4 Vols.

SornuocLes. F. Storr. 2 Vols. Verse trans.

Srraso: GrocnAPHY. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols.

‘THEopHRASTUS: CHARACTERS. J. M. Edmonds; ΗΕΠΟΡΕΒ,
etc. A. D. Knox.

Tueornrastus: Enaurry ΙΝΤΟ Prants. Sir Arthur Hort.
2 Vols.

Tuucypipes. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols.

Trypuioporus. Cf. OPPIAN.

XrNoPHON: Cyroparepia. Walter Miller. 2 Vols.

XENOPHON : HELLENICA, ANABASIS, APOLOGY, AND SyMpo-
stum. C. L. Brownson and O. J. Todd. 3 Vols.

XENOPHON: MEMORABILIA AND Orconomicus. E. C. Mar-
chant.

ΧΕΈΝΟΡΗΟΝ : Scripta MiwNoma. E. C. Marchant.

VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

GREEK AUTHORS

ARISTOTLE: History or Anrmats. A. L. Peck.
Ῥτοτινυ5. A. H. Armstrong.

LATIN AUTHORS

Barrus AND Puaeprus. B. E. Perry.

DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION

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