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22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

THE pe ORRINE BIRDS OF CEYLON.
—_— \ter ast /

By W. EU Warr, M.A., F.Z8.

(With two Plates.)

4 lees present paper completes the rough draft for the

proposed Handbook on the Birds of Ceylon, and as
soon as it appears in print, I shall be able to undertake the
task of revision for publication in volume form. The Passeres
were originally to have been described by Mr. W. A. Cave.
As, however, during the whole period of the war Mr: Cave was
engaged on local military duties, in addition to his own
professional work, and as soon after his demobilization he left
the Island, he was unable to finish the task. Before his
departure he handed over to me descriptions,” in practically
complete form, of the first sixty species. Consequently this
instalment owes much to his preparation.

It is now over six years since the scheme for the Handbook
was first proposed, but the unavoidable delay caused by the
war has not been without advantages. Mr. E. C. Stuart
Baker, the recognized authority on the ornithology of the
Oriental region, is at present bringing out in the Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society a revised list of the Birds of
India on a trinomial classification. It will, therefore, be
possible to take advantage of the latest classification when
publishing the Ceylon Handbook.

Thirty years ago, when Oates and Blanford wrote their
standard work on the Birds of British India, the binomial
system, founded by Linnzeus in the middle of the eighteenth
century, was still universally used in all branches of Natural
History. That is, each species was described scientifically
by its generic and specific names. For instance, the House
Sparrow was known as Passer domesticus, Since then,
however, ornithological workers, especially field workers, have

uaa :

LAMELLICORNIA COLLECTED IN CEYLON. 21

Genus CLINTERIA.

IMPERIALIS Paykull (1817), Schénh. Syn. Ins., I., 3, App.,

p. 58.

Colombo, Peradeniya (in rotten wood), Hantana.
CHLORONOTA Blanchard (1850), Cat. Collect. Ent. Paris, p. 38.
QUATUORDECIMMACULATA Fabricius (1792), Ent. Syst., L., 2.

p. 150.

Genus Macronora.
QUADRIVITTATA Schaum (1848), Trans. Ent. Soc., London,

Vs p: 68, ple 2,4.
Talgaswella.
Genus PROTATIA,
AURICHALCEA Fabricius (1775), Syst. Entom., I., p. 49.
Ambalangoda.
WHITEHOUSE! Schaum (1848), Trans. Ent. Soc., London, V.,
Dp. 025 pleat. a:
A single specimen.
ALBOGUTTATA Vigors (1826), Zool. Journ., IT., p. 238, pl. 9, £.3.

Genus OXYCETONIA.

VERSICOLOR Fabricius (1775), Syst. Entom., I., p. 51.
Hirimbura, near Galle.
var. CRUENTA Pallas (1781), Icones Ins., p. 21, pl. B, f. A 24.
var, VARIEGALA Fabricius (1775), Syst. Entom., I., p. 51.
Puwakpitiya.

Genus ANTHRACOPHORA.

CRUCIFERA Olivier (1789), Entom., I., 6, p. 39, pl. 5, £. 29.

Genus C@NOCHILUS.

TAPROBANICUS Westwood (1874), Thes. Ent. Oxon., p. 46,
pl os i18:
Seenigoda.
A single male was found in a subterranean nest of TERMES
HORNI, Wassmann.,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 23

gradually realized that this classification was hardly sufficient
in the case of many widely distributed species. It was
apparent, for example, that with many birds which ranged all
over the Indian Empire forms from the deserts of North-West
India differed noticeably and constantly, on the one hand,
from the forms met with in the Himalayas, and, on the other
hand, from those found in Ceylon or Southern Burma, though
each geographical race passed into the next by the most
gradual transitions throughout the intervening areas. Under
the old binomial system all these geographical races had either
to be lumped together under one specific name, or split into a
variety of species with very minor distinctions. Sometimes
one course was adopted, sometimes the other. In Oates’ and
Blanford’s “ Birds of British India ’’ the geographical races
of the Madras Red-vented Bulbul, which is found practically
all over India and Burma, are divided into six different species.
On the other hand, the common Indian Crow Pheasant, in
which there are several well-marked geographical races, is
treated as one species.

To meet the situation, modern ornithologists, wherever
necessary, have adopted a trinomial classification, which
enables them to differentiate sub-species. For the definition
of a sub-species I quote Mr. Stuart Baker: ‘‘ A sub-species is
a geographical race or variation differmg in some respect
from the form first described as the species, yet linked to it
by other intermediate forms found in intervening areas.
It is essential, however, that to entitle such a variation to a
trinomial, it should have arrived at a point in its evolution
sufficiently advanced to enable it to exist as a permanent form
within some definite area. From this it will be seen that a
sub-species is merely a term for a species in the making.’’*

The principle on which the system is worked may be
explained briefly as follows: Where it is necessary to divide
a species, the sub-species identical with the form from which
the species was originally described is expressed by repeating
the specific name ; the new sub-species is given an appropriate

* ‘* Sub-species and the field Naturalist.” Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society. - May, 1919, Vol. XXVL., part 2, p. 518.

24. SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA,

sub-specitic name. Thus, if one wishes to describe as a new
sub-species the Ceylon form of the Magpie Robin—Copsychus
saularis—it may be shown as C. saularis ceylonensis. The
Indian form, to which the name C. saularis was first applied,
would become C. saularis saularis. Where two or more forms
originally ranked as separate species are to be re-grouped as
sub-species, the form which has the oldest scientific name
takes precedence. Thus, the Common Indian Mynah and the
Ceylon Mynah, formerly ranked as separate species—Acrid-
otheres tristis and A. melanosternus—are now considered to be
merely sub-species of the same bird. A. tristis was named by
Linneus in 1766, A. melanosternus by Legge in 1879. The
Indian form, therefore, becomes A. tristis tristis,and the Ceylon
form A. tristis melanosternus,

At the beginning of last year Mr. Stuart Baker kindly
furnished me with a manuscript list of the Ceylon Passeres,
showing several modifications made in the family groups since
the time of Oates, and also giving the trinomials of Ceylon forms
as far as he had then worked them out. In order not to delay
this instalment I have followed this admittedly incomplete
and tentative list, but there is no doubt that Mr. Baker’s
catalogue, when completed and printed, will contain a good
many further modifications. As I have already noted, the
Ceylon Handbook in its volume form will follow Mr. Baker’s
classification as eventually published.

Order PASSERES.

Passerine Birds.

For all the wide diversities of size, colour, and outward form,
the whole range of birds is wonderfully alike in general
structure, and the differences between the most divergent
ornithological orders are not nearly so great as those between
even nearly allied orders of mammals. The structural
keymarks distinguishing the Passeres lie in the formation of
the bones of the palate and in the two tendons which run
down the leg and serve the toes. These two tendons, known

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 25

as the deep plantar tendons, vary in their disposition. They
are said to be Passerine when the one tendon serves the three
front toes and the other the hind toe, both tendons being
wholly disconnected in such a manner that the hind toe is
mobile and worked independently of the other three. All
the Passeres are also characterized by possessing an arrange-
ment of the bones of the palate known as “‘ egithognathous.”
The combination of Passerine deep plantar tendons with the
above-mentioned form of palate will always serve to distin-
guish the Passeres from any other order. Ido not propose,
however, to go further into these structural characters, as it is
not a difficult matter to diagnose all Ceylon forms of the order
by outward marks, as follows.

They are all birds of medium or small size ; with the single
exception of the crow family, they never run larger in the
body than a Thrush or Mynah, and are frequently smaller.
The young when hatched are in a helpless and almost naked
condition, being clothed at first merely with a few isolated
patches of down. The bill is never furnished at the base with
a cere, or membrane of soft skin. The legs are feathered
down to, but no further than, the tarsal joint. Lastly, the
outward structure of the feet is typically constant. The first,
or hind toe, also known as the hallux, is always present, and
is movable independently of the three front toes, while the
front toes are separated from each other dowa to their bases,
Compare, for instance, a crow—a Passerine bird—with an
Indian Roller, often erroneously called a Blue Jay. Both
birds are of the same size and build, but in the Roller the
middle front toe is united to the outer toe at the extreme base,
and to the inner toe for the length of the first joint. Again,
in certain other orders, such as the Cuckoos, the feet are
** zyoodactylic,” z.e., two toes only are turned to the front,
while the first and fourth toes are directed backwards.

The Passeres are by far the largest order of birds, comprising
at least half of all the living species. They are also generally
acknowledged to be the most specialized and most highly
organized order. In other words, at the present general stage
of evolution, they are the dominant ornithological order,
and, as Darwin has pointed out, dominant groups show the

4 6(17)21

26 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

greatest tendency to variation. As a consequence, though
there are many exceptions, the average Passerine species are
confined to smaller areas than less specialized and more widely
distributed species and sub-species of other orders. This is
well shown by a comparison of the list of birds found within
the wide area of the Indian Empire with the list of our smaller
area in Ceylon. In the Indian list the Passeres occupy a full
half. In the Ceylon list, however, we find that only one-third
of our birds or about 120 species are Passerine. It is not so
much that Ceylon, taking into account its varieties of climate
and configuration, is remarkably poor in birds of the order,
but that a very large proportion of the Indian forms are
confined to restricted areas, being replaced in other areas
within the Empire by different, but closely allied, species and
sub-species.

With such a large assemblage of forms belonging to a single
order and possessing the same main structural characters,
the task of classification is extraordinarily difficult, and few
ornithologists agree in all particulars regarding the grouping
of the various species into families, or the sequence in which
the families themselves should be arranged. The order is
divided primarily into two main groups, based on a difference
in the structure of the syrinx, or organ of voice. In the
Acromyodi the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx are attached
to the ends of the open rings of the bronchial tubes ; in the
Mesomyodi these muscles are much simpler, and are attached
to the middle of the rings. This division need not, however,
greatly trouble the Ceylon student. The Mesomyodi are
found mainly in the New World, and only one species of the
group, the Indian Pitta—Pitta brachyura—oceurs in Ceylon.
It happens to possess a very distinctive plumage, and is also
to be diagnosed by the formation of the wing. It has ten
primary wing quills,* and the first primary is nearly as long
as the second. Many Ceylon Passeres have ten primaries, but
in every other such case the first primary is markedly
small.

* The primary quills are those which spring from the pinion—7.e,
the outer portion of the wing, beyond the ‘‘ elbow,” which is really the
joint corresponding to the wrist.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. rag

As regards the Acromyodt, 1 propose to follow the classifica-
tion given by Oates in volmes I. and II. on Birds in the
Fauna of British India, making, however, one or two modi-
fications communicated by E. C. Stuart Baker. According
to this classification, twenty families belonging to the group

‘are found in Ceylon. Some of these families may be marked

off by clear, though minor, structural characters. For in-
stance, the Larks have the hinder side of the tarsus scutellated ;
the Sun-birds and Flower-peckers have the edges of the bill
serrated ; the Swallows, Wagtail family, and the Sparrows
have only nine primaries ; while the Weaver-bird family and
the Sparrows have conical bills, in which the nostrils are set
very far back, and lie nearer to the ridge than to the cutting
edge of the mandible. The remaining families, however, all
possess ten primaries, the first being small, and no structural
differences sufficient or constant enough to serve as sharply
defined lines of division. Oates, therefore, fell back on a
system of grouping according to the types of plumage normally
found in the young of each family. He recognized five main
groups. In the first the nestling resembles the adult female,
but is paler; in the second it is more brilliant than the
adult female, and is generally suffused with yellow ; in the
third it is transversely barred ; in the fourth streaked ; in
the fifth it is mottled or scaly-patterned. In certain genera,
however, the young are exceptions to the normal family rule.
For instance, some nestling Flycatchers and Thrushes are
plain and not mottled.

I give below a short synopsis of the Passerine families found
in Ceylon. Where possible, in addition to the structural points,
I have given short remarks on distinctive characters of form,
colour, and size, which will render identification more easy
for the beginner ; but it must be remembered that in some
cases these latter distinctions hold good only for the limited
number of forms occurring in this Island. I hope that this
synopsis, taken in conjunction with the short descriptions
given in the text at the beginning of each family and sub-
family group, will enable beginners to get a fair grasp of the
different families belonging to this order, which are found
within our limits.

bho
(2)

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Synopsis of Passerine Families found in Ceylon.

ACROMYODI.

A.—Wing with ten primaries, the first being
small ; edges of mandibles not ser-
rated ; hinder part of tarsus smooth ;
nostrils clear of line of forehead.

(a) Plumage of nestling resembles that of
adult female, but paler.

(1) Nostrils completely hidden by
bristles ; first primary over 4
length of second; size large,
length over 16 inches.

(2) Nostrils completely hidden by
bristles ; first primary not over
half length of second ; size small,
length 53 inches.

(3) Nostrils bare or overhung only
by a few hairs or plumelets ;
inner and hind toe equal; size
medium or small.

(4) Nostrils overhung by a few hairs ;
climbing birds; hind toe much
longer than inner ; size small.

(5) Tail forked and with only ten
feathers ; plumage mainly black.

(b) Plumage of nestling resembles that
of female, but brighter.

(1) Size smallish, seldom reaching
74 inches. Plumage generally

plain.
(c) Plumage of nestling cross-barred.

(1) Size variable ; bill strong, hooked,
and notched.

(d) Plumage of nestling normally streaked.

(1) Rictal bristles present ; size
medium ; plumage bright yellow
and black.

Corvide
(Crow
family)

Paride
(Tits)

Crateropodide
(Babblers,
Bulbuls, and
their allies)

Sittidze

(Nut-hatches)

Dicruridez

(Drongos)

Sylviide.
(Warblers)

Laniide
(Shrikes)

Oriolide
(Orioles)

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 29

(2) Rictal bristles present ; size Hulabetide
medium ; plumage mainly glossy (Grackles)
black.

(3) No rictal bristles ; size medium .. Sturnide
(Mynahs and
Starlings)
(c) Plumage of nestling normally streaked
or scaly-patterned.

(1) Nostrils covered by horizontal Muscicapide

hairs; size variable ; legs and (Flycatchers)
feet weak.

(2) Nostrils not covered by horizontal T'urdidex
hairs; size medium; legs and (Thrushes)

feet fairly stout.

B.—Wing with either nine or ten primaries ;
edges of mandibles not serrated ;
hinder part of tarsus smooth ; bill
conical, the nostrils pierced within
line of forehead and closer to the ridge
of the bill than to the cutting edges.

(1) With ten primaries, the first Ploceide
small; size small or very (Weaver Bird

small. family)

(2) With nine primaries, the first Fringillide
and second nearly equal ; (Finches and
size small. Sparrows)

C.—Wing with nine primaries, the first and
second nearly equal ; edges of man-
dibles not serrated ; hinder part of
tarsus smooth ; bill not conical.

(1) Wings long and pointed ; in Hirundinidx
the folded wing the longest (Swallows)
secondaries fall far short
of the tips of the primaries.

(2) In thefolded wing thelongest otacillidee
secondaries reach almost to (Wagtails and
the tips of the primaries. Pipits)

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

D.—Hinder part of tarsus scutellated ; wing Alaudide
in all Ceylon forms with ten primaries, (Larks)
the first being small.

E.—A white ring of small close-set feathers Zosteropide
round the eye ; tongue split into two, (White-eyes)
each half broken up into a bunch of
brush-like fibres ; size very small.

F.—Bill with the terminal third of both
mandibles finely serrated ; size very
small.

(1) Bill Jong, curved, and cylin- Nectariniide

drical. (Sunbirds)
(2) Bill short and triangular .. Dicawide
(Flower-
peckers)
MESOMYODI.

Wing with ten primaries,the first beinglarge.. Pittide (Pittas)

Family Corvip&.
Crows, &c.

The Corvide are the first of a group of five families found in
Ceylon, in which the plumage of the nestling resembles that of
the adult female. Structurally they differ from the Paride—
Tits—in that the first primary is considerably over half the
length of the second, and, from the other three families of the
group, in that the nostrils are completely hidden by feathers
and bristles instead of being bare or only partially concealed.
The Corvide are represented in Ceylon by three birds: the
two familiar species of crow and the beautiful Ceylon Jay, or
more properly Magpie, which is found only in the hills. They
are our largest Passerine birds. The bill is fairly powerful ;
the nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead and are
protected by horizontal bristles ; the legs and feet are stout,
the back of the tarsus is smooth, the front scutellated—i.c.,
covered with shield-like plates—the hind toe is well developed,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 31

but inferior in length to the middle toe. The sexes are alike,
and there is only one moult, in the autumn. The plumage of
the nestling is paler than that of the adult.

In the genus Corvus the plumage is mainly black ; the bill
is slightly curved at the tip, but not notched ; the nostrils lie
far forward, and the bristles which conceal them are long and
stiff ; the wings are long and pointed ; the tail moderate and
rounded. Inthe genus Cissa the plumage is brightly coloured ;
the bill has a perceptible notch at the tip; the nostrils are
near the base of the bill,and the concealing bristles are rather
soft and short ; the wings are short and rounded, and the tail
long and graduated.

Key to Ceylon Corvide.

1.—Plumage mainly or wholly black, genus Corvus.
(a) Wholly black.
Corvus coronoides culminatus (The Black Crow).
(b) Neck dark smoky-gray.
C’. splendens protegatus (The Ceylon House Crow).

2.—Plumage mainly bright blue and chestnut.
Cissa ornata (The Ceylon Magpie).

CORVUS CORONOIDES CULMINATUS.

The Black Crow.

Corvus macrorhyncus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 17); Corone macror-
hynca (Legge, p. 346).

Description.—Entire plumage black ; hind-neck and sides
of neck glossless ; scapulars, wing coverts, rump, and outer
tail feathers glossed with purple ; throat and breast glossed
with dark steel blue ; the bases of the body feathers light
smoke gray in birds from the dry districts, darker and brownish
in birds from the wet zone. Pied and albino specimens are
met with occasionally, and one bird in the Colombo Museum
is a pale smoky-brown, slightly darker on the back and
abdomen,

32 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.,

Bill black ; iris hazel brown ; legs and feet black. Dimen-
sions rather variable : average length about 18; wing 11:5;
tail 7; tarsus 2°1; bill from gape 2°25. Males are rather
larger than females.

Distribution.—Found all over the low-country, except on
the strip round the coast line, where it is largely replaced by
the next species. Above 2,000 feet its numbers diminish, and
in most localities over about 4,000 feet it appears merely as a
casual visitor, but sometimes in fairnumbers. The sub-species
found in Ceylon occurs over a large part of India. Allied
sub-species are found in Australia, South-eastern Asia, China
and Japan.

Habits.—This Crow is fairly abundant, but is not nearly so
gregarious as the next species. In the villages and jungles it
is seen usually in pairs, but in the inland towns it may be met
with in greater numbers. It is fairly omnivorous, feeding on
all sorts of garbage and carrion, and is a great egg thief.
The breeding season is from June till August. The nest isa
large structure of twigs placed high up in a tree, or on the
crown of a coconut palm. There is a fairly substantial rough
lining of coconut fibre, or of grass, fine roots, wool, &c. The
eggs, three or four in number, are longish ovals, as a rule
slightly pointed at one end. The ground colour is light green,
at times with a blue or gray tinge, speckled with brown and
more washy under-markings of brownish-gray. Average size
1-63 by 1°12.

CORVUS SPLENDENS PROTEGATUS,

The Indian House-Crow.

Corvus splendens (Oates, Vol. I., p. 20); Corone splendens
(Legge, p. 349).

Description.—Forehead, crown, and lores glossy black ;
chin and throat black with a slight steel-blue gloss; back,
wings, and tail black glossed with purple and greenish ; the
nape, ear coverts, the sides and back of the neck dark smoky-
gray ; the breast darker, almost black ; remainder of lower

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 33

parts dull black, with a slight greenish gloss ; the bases of the
body feathers white. Birds from the dry districts appear
to be quite as dark as those from the wet zone. Pied and
albino specimens are occasionally seen. Young birds are
duller and less glossy.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet black. Dimen-
sions a little variable. Length about 16°5; wing 10°5;
tail 6°25 ; tarsus 1:9; bill from gape 1°9.

Distribution.—Found all round the coast, except, perhaps,
in the waste tract between Hambantota and Arugam Bay, but
never far inland. Various geographical races of this Crow are
found throughout India and Burma. The form occurring in
Ceylon is now recognized as a distinct sub-species. Unlike its
Indian relatives, the Ceylon form is never found far from the
sea. In Legge’s time it was rare even on the coast south of
Kalutara on the west and Arugam Bay on the east; but
nowadays it is common, at any rate as far east as Hambantota,
It is especially numerous in the towns and villages throughout
its range, but generally avoids uninhabited stretches of coast
line. Where found in any numbers, it has driven out the
Black Crow. The curious distribution of the two species is
well seen in the Tangalla district of the Southern Province.
In the coastal bazaars, such as Tangalla and Ranna, and at
Weeraketiya and other villages, about 8 miles inland, the
present species occurs ; whereas in the intervening fields and
chena tracts the Black Crow still holds its own.

Habits.—The House Crow is even more omnivorous and far
more gregarious than the last species, while its cunning and
thievish impudence are well known to all Colombo residents.
The breeding season is from May to August, but mainly in
May and June. The nest is similar to that of the Black Crow,
but the birds generally build in scattered rookeries. The
eggs, generally four in number, are oval, slightly pointed at the
smaller end. The ground colour is usually brighter than in
those of the last species, the markings are darker and more
profuse, while the under-markings are seldom so noticeable,
and are at times altogether absent. Average size 1°4 by
1-06,

5 .6(17)21

34 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CISSA ORNATA.

The Ceylonese Magpie.
Cissa ornata (Oates, Vol. I., p. 29; Legge, p. 353).

Description.— Head, neck, upper breast, and upper back
rich glossy chestnut ; rest of body royal blue, shading into
lighter blue on the lower back, flanks, and abdomen ; the
wing coverts shade from the hue of the back into dull brown,
faintly washed with blue, on the primary coverts ; wing quills
chestnut on the outer, blackish-brown on the inner webs, the
inner webs of the tertiaries deep blue ; thighs dusky-brown
washed with royal blue ; tail deep blue, the outer edge of the
outside feathers and the tips of all the feathers white with a
more or less irregular patch of black between the blue portion
and the white tips.

In young birds the tail is much shorter and the plumage -
paler.

Bill, legs, and feet coral red ; iris light brown ; eyelids red
and wattled at the edges, orbital skin rather paler.

Length about 18°25; wing 6°5; taill0°5; tarsus 1:7;
bill from gape 1-6.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. It is confined to the
hills, but in the damp south-west districts it is found as low
down as 1,000 feet. It probably visits the lower ranges only
in the north-east monsoon,

Habits.—A shy bird which goes about in small parties and
keeps to heavy jungle. It spends most of its time in the
branches of tall trees, but also frequents the undergrowth in
search of lizards and beetles, which together with wild fruits
form its food. The cry is said to resemble the clanking of a
loose connecting rod on a locomotive. It appears to breed in
the higher hillrangesduring the north-east monsoon. The nest
is placed in the top of a tree and much resembles thatof a crow,
but is not so carelessly put together. The eggs are bluish-
green, thickly spotted all over with light umber-brown over
larger under-markings of bluish-gray. Size about 1°3 by °98.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 35

Family Paripa
Genus Parus.
Tits.

Oates in the “‘ Fauna of British India ”’ treats the Tits as a
sub-family of the Corvide, but by most ornithologists they are
raised to the rank of afamily. As in the Corvidz, the nestling
plumage resembles that of the adult, though paler, and the
nostrils are concealed by bristles. The first primary, however,
does not exceed half the length of the second.

Tits are found over the greater part of the globe ; but only
one representative, the gray Tit, so familiar to up-country
residents, is found in Ceylon. They are all small birds, and
bear a great family resemblance. The bill is short and conical,
and, though somewhat curved, is not hooked at the tip.
The rictal bristles are short, those concealing the nostrils short
and thick. The wings are weak and rounded. The legs and
feet are fairly stout. In the genus Parus there is no crest,
and the tail is slightly rounded. In their habits all Tits are
more or less alike, going about in pairs or small parties, and
roaming actively about the trunks and branches of trees in
search of the insects and seeds on which they feed.

PARUS MAJOR MAHRATTARUM.
The Indian Gray Tit.

Parus atriceps (Oates, Vol. I., p. 46; Legge, p. 557).

Description.—Head, neck, and chest black, save for a broad
white patch on the cheeks and ear coverts ; a broad band of
black runs down the centre of the breast and abdomen ; the
nape is bordered behind by a whitish patch ; the rest of the
back, the scapulars, rump, and the wing coverts bluish-gray,
the greater wing coverts edged with gray and broadly tipped
with white ; wing quills blackish-brown, the longer primaries
narrowly and the tertiaries more broadly edged with white ;
upper tail coverts deep bluish-gray ; tail black, the outer
feathers white with broad black inner margins and black
shafts ; the sides of the breast and abdomen whitish, deepening
on the flanks to the hue of the back ; under tail coverts black
in the centre, white at the edges.

36 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

In young birds the gray of the back is tinged with yellow
and the white of the under parts with buff.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet lead colour. Length
about 5'5; wing 2°75; tail2°4; tarsus ‘7 ; bill from gape °5.

Distribution.—The Indian race of the Gray Tit is found
almost throughout the Indian Empire. In Ceylon it is
common above about 2,000 feet. In the low-country forests
it is rare, but seems to be resident here and there, and appears
at certain seasons in other localities. It is occasionally seen
in Colombo gardens, where in one or two instances it has been
known to breed.

Habits—This is a very familiar species in the hills, and
may be seen, in almost every up-country garden, busily
engaged hopping about tree trunks and branches. In the
low-country it keeps mainly to the forests. In the hills the
breeding season appears to extend from March to July.
In the Puttalam District I have found it building its nest in
April, while in Colombo a pair were observed breeding in
February. The nest is rather a loose bunch of moss, feathers,
hair, or coir fibre placed in a hole of a tree, wall, or bank.
There are four to six eggs. They are oval in shape; the
ground colour is white or pinkish-white, with red spots
generally more or less confined to a ring round the larger end.

Family CRATEROPODID.

Babblers, Bulbuls, &c.

The Crateropodidx, as treated by Oatse, comprise a large
group of ten-primaried Passeres, in which the plumage of the
nestling resembles that of the adult female, and which bear
the following characteristics : nostrils never entirely concealed
by hairs or bristles; rictal bristles present; twelve tail
feathers ; inner and hind toe equal. This group he divided
into six sub-families. Crateropodine—the larger gregarious
Babblers ; Timeliine—the smaller Babblers; Brachyptery-
gine—the Whistling Thrushes and Shortwings ; Sibiine—
confined in Ceylon to two species of White-eye ; Liotrichine—
the Bush and Green Bulbuls; Brachypodine—the true
Bulbuls.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 37

Col. Harrington, in his recent monograph on the T'imeliides,*
considerably altered this classification, proposing the name of
Timeliides for the group, which he raised to the rank of a sub-
order. From this sub-order he excluded the Brachyptery-
gine and Brachypodine, also the White-eyes and those genera
of the Liotrichin, of which representatives are found in this
Island.

Stuart Baker, in a still more recent classification, which I
propose to follow, has not been quite so drastic in his revision.
He retains the Crateropodide as a family, rejecting the
Brachypterygine which he transfers bodily to the Thrushes, as
far as Ceylon is concerned, with the exception of Hlaphrornis
palliserithe Ceylon Shortwing. . This last species is most
probably a Warbler, but its position is still a little uncertain.
The White-eyes are also raised to the rank of a family—Zostero-
pide, and placed next to the Nectarinvide—Sunbirds. .

The Crateropodide found in Ceylon, as thus reconstituted,
fall into four sub-families. The characters distinguishing the
whole family are those given by Oates, and narrated above
with the following additions: Wing rounded, habits non-
migratory. In fact, one of the main features of the family as
thus defined is the absence of any migratory species. As a
consequence, there is a tendency throughout the group for the
forms to split up into species of restricted habitat, or into
well-marked geographical races, 7.e., sub-species. A large
proportion of the forms found in Ceylon are specifically or sub-
specifically distinct from their nearest Indian allies. Further,
there is no doubt that inseveral of our Ceylon forms, birds from
the damper low-country forests tend, as a rule, to be darker
than specimens from the drier forest tracts, or from the more
open patana districts up-country. In several cases these
paler specimens have been, by some onithologists, sub-
specifically distinguished from the darker. In each case,
however, the distinction is based solely on paler tones in the
plumage generally unaccompanied by any well-marked
differences in size, &c. It is a well-known fact that the hue of
the plumage is largely influenced by the density of the rainfall

* Vide Journal Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., Vol. XXIII.

38 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Since, however, the rainfall zones in Ceylon are rather com-
plicated I have hesitated to accept a sub-specific division
based solely on paler shades of plumage. The geographical
distribution of the resultant sub-species would be about as
scattered as that of the county of Cromarty, while in all
probability, if large series were collected from all parts of the
Island, at least six out of every ten specimens would have to be
classed as “‘ intermediate,” while only one or two would be
recognized as belonging definitely to the darker or lighter races.
In some cases, too, the variation appears to be as much in-
dividual as local, and any attempted subdivision would offend
against the rule that no two sub-species of the same species can
be resident in the same locality. Far more material, than
is at present available, is required before any subdivision of
such forms can be indisputably accepted.

The Ceylon members of the four sub-families may be divided
thus :—

(1) Crateropodinz.—Larger Babblers over 8 inches in length ;
sexes alike; gregarious; partly arboreal and partly terres-
trial, and extremely noisy ; legs and feet large ; wing short
and rounded ; nostrils not completely hidden by plumes and
feathers. All the Ceylon forms lay unspotted white or blue
egos.

(2) Timeliine.—Smaller Babblers under 7 inches in length ;
sexes alike ; solitary or found only in small troops; not
noisy, and generally skulking in bushes, or on the ground
among undergrowth ; legs and feet strong ; wings short and
rounded ; nostrils exposed. All Ceylon forms lay spotted
eggs.

(3) Liotrichine.—Bush Bulbuls and Green Bulbuls. Sexes
dissimilar ; solitary or found in small troops; brightly
coloured ; entirely arboreal. The eggs in all Ceylon species
are streakily marked.

(4) Brachypodine.—True Bulbuls. Sexes alike; solitary
or found in small troops ; habits arboreal ; tarsus very short ;
wings rounded, but moderately long ; nape usually furnished
with some long hairs. The eggs are spotted, almost invariably,
with some shade of red.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 39

Sub-family Crateropodine.
Babblers.

This sub-family contains the larger gregarious Babblers,
which lay unspotted eggs. It is not well represented in
Ceylon, though one species, the familiar ‘‘seven sisters,”’ is one
of our commonest birds. Out of ten genera and about
seventy species found within Indian limits, only four species
occur in this Island. T'wo of these are specifically, and two
sub-specifically, distinct from the nearest Indian forms.
All four species are of about the same size, that of an English
Thrush. They pass a good deal of their time in trees, but
pick up their food from the ground, hopping along in small
troops, and making an incessant chatter as they turn over
dead leaves, &c., in search of the insects on which they feed.
Their legs are strong, their wings rounded and weak. In the
genus Crateropus, to which two species undoubtedly belong,
the bill is moderately long and only slightly curved. The
position of a third species, C. cinereifrons, is doubtful. It
differs from the other members of the genus in having a black,
not a yellow, bill, while the covering membrane of the
nostrils is bare instead of being half concealed with plumelets.
Its eggs are not known with certainty, and may be white.
Those of the other Crateropi are blue. In the genus Pomato-
rhinus the bill is as long as the head, slender, and with a
pronounced curve. The under plumage is mainly white,
and so are the eggs.

Key to Ceylon Crateropodine.
A.—Bill fairly stout, not greatly curved, no white in
plumage. Genus Crateropus.
(1) Bill yellowish.
(a) Plumage ashy-brown, outer web of primaries
much paler than inner.
C. striatus striatus (Southern Indian Babbler).
(b) Plumage rufous-brown, outer web of primaries
not much paler than inner.
C. rufescens (Ceylonese Babbler).
(2) Bill black.
C. cinereifrons (Ashy-headed Babbler).

40 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

B.—Bill long, slender, and markedly curved, lower plumage
largely white.
Pomatorhinus horsfieldi melanurus (Southern Scimitar
Babbler).

CRATEROPUS STRIATUS STRIATUS.

The Southern Indian Babbler.

Crateropus striatus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 112); Malacocercus
striatus (Legge, p. 494).

Description.—Upper plumage, head, neck, and chest pale
ashy-brown, the feathers with paler gray edges, those of the
back also with paler shaft stripes : wing coverts more uniform
brown ; wing quills dark brown, the outer webs with much
paler whitish-brown margins ; upper tail coverts slightly
more rufous; tail smoky-brown shading into darker brown
towards the tip and with numerous cross-rays of darker brown;
lower breast, abdomen, and under tail coverts dingy, tawny-
brown. Birds from the dry districts are slightly paler on the
head, neck, and breast, the edges of the feathers having almost
a pearly tinge.

Bill pale horny yellow ; iris white ; eyelid yellowish ; legs
and feet dingy yellowish-white.

Length 9:5; wing 4:1; tail 4; tarsus 1:3; bill from
gape 1-0.

Distribution.—The sub-species found in Ceylon is confined
to this Island. It is distinguished from the South Indian
form, OC. striatus griseus, by its smaller size and smaller bill.
It is found all over the low-country, being most abundant in
chena, scrub jungle, and cultivated tracts. In the hills it is
abundant and more locally distributed, but appears to be
increasing. It is rare, however, over 5,000 feet.

Habits.—One of our most familiar birds, generally known
as the “ Seven Sisters”? from its custom of going about in
little troops of from five to seven individuals. It is seldom
met with far from cultivation. The general habits are
described in my remarks on the sub-family,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 4]

The eggs may be found almost all the year round, but it
breeds chiefly during the north-east monsoon. The nest is a
fairly compact cup made of coarse grass and plant stalks and
lined with finer grass. It is usually placed in the fork of a
shrub from 4 to 6 feet from the ground, but I have found it in
the branches of trees as high as 20 feet up. There are usually
three, rarely four eggs. The usual shape is a dumpy oval,
slightly pointed at the smaller end. The texture is smooth

and glossy, the colour greenish-blue. Average size +95 by
vz.

CRATEROPUS RUFESCENS.

The Ceylonese Babbler.

Crateropus rufescens (Oates, Vol. I., p. 114); Malacocercus
rufescens (Legge, p. 497).

Description.—Upper plumage, wings, and tail rufous-brown,
the head slightly grayer, the outer margins of the feathers
slightly paler and tinged with olive ; the tail indistinctly cross-
rayed ; the lower plumage ferruginous-brown, the colour
deepening a little on the flanks, vent, and under tail coverts.
A specimen from Pundaluoya in the hills of the Central
Province is distinctly grayer on the head, and more dusky
elsewhere than in those from Sabaragamuwa and the Western
Province.

Bill orange yellow ; iris white, at times tinged with green
or yellow ; eyelid and orbital skin greenish-yellow ; legs and
feet dull chrome yellow .

Dimensions a little variable : length about 10; wing 4°1 ;
tail 4°5; tarsus 1°3; bill from gape 1.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and restricted to the
interior of the Island in the districts with a heavy rainfall, 7.e.,
the west and south-west sides of the main hill ranges, and the
country at the foot of these hills. Within these limits it is
found at all elevations.

Habits.—Unlike the last species this is a jungle bird, found
in thickets, bamboo scrub, and deep forest. It goes about in
fairly large troops of about a dozen, and behaves in much the

6 7 6(17)21

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

same manner as the more familiar “‘ Seven Sisters.”” The
breeding season appears to last from March to May. The nest
resembles that of the preceeding species. It is placed among
creepers surrounding tree trunks, or in a low fork, and is very
carefully concealed. According to Legge, the eggs are pointed
ovals in shape, deep greenish-blue in colour, and measure about
Lay lini Oh).

CRATEROPUS CINEREIFRONS.
The Ashy-headed Babbler.

Crateropus cinereifrons (Oates, Vol. I., p. 114); Garrulax
cinereifrons (Legge, p. 499).

Description.—Forehead, crown, and sides of head ashy-gray
with a bluish tinge in some lights, shading on the nape into
the deep rufous-brown of the upper plumage, wings, and tail ;
the outer webs of the first few primaries are slightly paler, and
the tail rather deeper in colour ; chin whitish, shading into
the tawny rufous-brown of the rest of the lower parts ; flanks
and under tail coverts rather darker.

Bill black ; iris white ; eyelids lead colour ; legs and feet
plumbeous-brown.

Length 10; wing 4:5; tail 4°25; tarsus 1°5; bill from
gape 1-2.

This bird is not a true Crateropus, and its generic status is
uncertain, In general its plumage resembles that of a
Garrulax, but the feathers of the forehead are short and
rounded, as in Crateropus. The eggs are not known with
certainty, and their authentication may clear up the situation.

Distribution.—Confined to the heavy jungles in the districts
west and south-west of the Adam’s Peak range, which it
ascends to a height of about 3,500 feet. It does not occur
outside Ceylon.

Habits.—Found in small troops in the heart of the jungle.
It is said to breed about April, but nothing is definitely known
regarding its nidification, Legge was informed by natives
that the eggs were blue, but they may possibly be white.
Further information on this point is badly required.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 43

POMATORHINUS HORSFIELDI MELANURUS.
The Ceylon Scimitar Babbler.
Pomatorhinus melanurus (Oates, Vol. I., p.118 ; Legge, p. 501).

Description.—A band from the nostrils through the eye to
the ear coverts black, bordered above by a broad white streak
over the eye to the nape ; crown and nape dark olivaceous-
brown ; upper plumage, the sides of the neck and body, the
thighs, vent, and under tail coverts rufous-brown to olive-
brown, the tint varying in individual specimens ; tail ferru-
ginous near the base, darkening to almost black at the tip ;
lower parts from chin to abdomen white. In many birds the
sides of the head and chest are streaked with white ; in others
the line of demarcation between the white lower plumage and
the back is more abrupt.

Bill gamboge yellow, blackish adjoining the nostrils ; iris
reddish-brown to dull red ; eyelid and orbital skin blue ; legs
greenish lead colour, feet with a blue tinge. In young birds
the bill is less curved than in adults.

Length 8°5; wing 3°5; tail 3°5; tarsus 1°2; bill from
gape 1-2.

Distribution.—The Southern Scimitar Babbler is found over
a large portion of Peninsular India, and is divided into four
sub-species, of which the present form is found only in Ceylon.
Col. Harrington is of opinion that our Ceylon form should also
be divided into two races, as birds from the dry zone and the
hills are, as a rule, more olivaceous than those from the low-
country zone. However, as Legge points out, the variation
is to a certain extent individual, and until a large series from
all localities is available for examination, I hesitate to
make any sub-specific distinction. This Babbler is found all
over the hills and in most of the well-wooded portions of
the low-country. li is rare, however, in the drier forest
districts.

44. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits —A shy woodland species, which keeps close to
cover, and ventures near habitations only when the thickets
admit. In the hills it is especially fond of the strips of jungle
bordering streams. It occurs usually in pairs, but sometimes
in small troops. Its presence is most frequently made known
by its deep melodious call, which Legge represents by the
syllables “‘ wok-wok-ek-ek-wok,”’ answered by a shorter call
from the female. In the hills the breeding season appears to
be from December to February. In the Puttalam District
IT have taken the eggs in March. The nest is rather a loose,
more or less domed structure of leaves, grass, &c., placed in a
bank or against the foot of a bush. Three to five white eggs
are laid. The shell is thin and smooth, bué not very glossy.
Average size °95 by °70.

Sub-family Timeliine.
The Smaller Babblers.

The Timeliine are a large group of small Babblers, over
fifty species being found within Indian limits. They are
solitary or less gregarious than the larger Babblers, and are not
noisy. They are skulking in their habits, frequenting bushy
places, or the undergrowth in forests, keeping largely to the
ground and avoiding observation. The eggs of all Ceylon
species are spotted. The wings are short and rounded, the
legs and feet strong. The sub-family is not well represented
with us, only four species out of as many genera occurring in
the Island. Of these, one is specifically and two sub-specifi-
cally distinct from any forms found in India. In the genus
Dumetia the feathers of the forehead and crown have rigid
shafts, the tail is comparatively long and graduated, and the
bill fairly slender. In Pyctorhis the bill is deep and not
notched, the nostrils are oval and exposed. In Scotocichla
the bill is slender, the nostrils linear; the tail is graduated
and almost as long as the wing ; the tarsus and toes are long
and stout. In Rhopocichla the nostrils are rounded and well
exposed, the tail short, and only slightly graduated.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 45

Key to Ceylon Timeliine.

A.—Forehead and crown not conspicuously darker than the
rest of the upper plumage.

(1) Length about 5°6; tail about same length as
wing ; bill pinkish horn colour.
Dumetia albigularis albigularis (Small White-
throated Babbler).
(2) Length about 6°5; tail longer than wing ; bill
black.
Pyctorhis sinensis nasalis (Ceylon Yellow-eyed
Babbler).

B.—A conspicuous deep chocolate cap. Length about 6:5;
lower parts rusty-brown.

Scotocichla fusicapilla (Brown-capped Babbler).

C.—Forehead and cheeks black. Length about 5°5;
lower parts whitish.

Rhopocichla atriceps nigrifrons( Black-fronted Babbler).

DUMETIA ALBIGULARIS ALBIGULARIS.
The Small White-throated Babbler.

Dumetia albigularis (Oates, Vol. L., p. 134); Dumetia
albogularis (Legge, p. 505).

Description.—Lores and feathers round the eye whitish ;
upper plumage, wings, and tail olive-brown ; forehead and
front of crown rufous with stiff shining shafts ; hind-neck
slightly paler than the back; tail faintly cross-rayed ; the
chin, throat, and centre of breast white ; remainder of lower
parts rust coloured, brighter in the breeding season.

Bill pinkish horn colour ; iris white or greenish ; legs and
feet reddish flesh-coloured.

Length 5°6; wing 2:2; tail 2°25; tarsus °75; bill from
gape °6.

46 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution.—Occurs over the greater part of the low-
country and on the patanas of the hill country up to about
5,500 or 6,000 feet. The same sub-species occurs in Southern
India, and another sub-species round Mt. Abu.

Habits.—Frequents bushy patanas, the long grass, and
undergrowth at the edges of paddy fields, roads, and jungle
paths, also waste land and low scrub. It roams about in
little troops and keeps to cover as much as possible. The
breeding season extends from November to June. The
nest is a ball of grass with the opening at one side. It is
placed within a few inches of the ground in rough grass or a
low bush. The three or four eggs are dumpy ovals of china
white, thickly speckled and spotted with dull red; the
markings are sometimes confluent at the larger end. Average
size ‘71 by °54.

PYCTORHIS SINENSIS NASALIS.

The Ceylon Yellow-eyed Babbler.
Pyctoris nasalis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 138; Legge, p. 512).

Description.— Upper plumage rufescent earth-brown, slightly
darker on the head; the tertiaries and the outer webs of
the other wing quills slightly more rufous; tail feathers
grayish-brown, with slightly paler edges; lores, eyebrows,
and the whole of the lower plumage white, tinged on the
flanks and from the breast downwards with buff.

Bill and nostrils black ; iris golden yellow, eyelid chrome
yellow ; legs and feet dull yellow.

Length about 6°5 ; wing 2:6; tail 3-25; tarsus | ; bill from
gape °65. The dimensions are a little variable.

Distribution.—This sub-species is found only in Ceylon,
but an allied form is found almost throughout the Indian
Empire and extends into Siam. It is locally but fairly
widely distributed up to about 6,000 feet, but its chief haunts
are the south-east of the Island, from the Uva patanas
to the sea.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 47

Habits —May be looked for in fern lands, stretches of
mana grass, low jungle, lantana scrub, and thick under-
growth. It keeps to cover during the day, but in the even-
ings is fond of perching at the top of a bush, giving out its
call, which Legge describes as a plaintive whistle of two
notes varied with a peculiar mewing call. The breeding
season extends from February to May. The nest is a deep
cup of grass and cobwebs, lined inside with fine grass and roots,
and placed in the fork of a shrub or in a tuft of mana grass.
The three or four eggs are of fleshy-white, spotted, mainly
at the larger end, with brownish-sienna, occasionally over-
laid with brick red. Average size -78 by °58.

SCOTOCICHLA FUSCICAPILLA.
The Brown-capped Babbler.
Pellorneum fuscicapillum (Oates, Vol. I., p. 143; Legge, p. 510).

Description.—Forehead, crown, and nape deep chocolate,
with brighter shafts; rest of upper parts, wings, and tail
dark olive-brown, the feathers of the upper back and wing
coverts with paler shafts, the edges of the primary quills
lighter rufous ; the lores, sides of head and neck, and all the
lower parts rusty rufous, the colour being deeper on the cheeks
and ear coverts and paler on the chin and abdomen ; in some
specimens the sides of the neck and breast are faintly streaked.

Bill, upper mandible deep brown with pale margins, lower
mandible flesh-coloured ; iris light to dark red ; legs and feet
brownish flesh colour.

Length 6:5; wing 2°6; tail 2°5; tarsus 1-1; bill from
gape ‘8.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. Fairly common in
jungle undergrowth all over the wooded portions of the low-
country and up to about 5,500 feet. Birds from the drier
districts are paler than those from the wet zone. A pale
specimen from Trincomalee has lately been distinguished as
S. f. dubaulti, but until more material is available, I am not
in favour of any sub-specific distinction.

48 SPOLIA. ZEYLANICA.

Habits.—A shy skulking bird, keeping almost entirely
to thick scrub, low jungle, or the undergrowth in forests.
It is more often heard than seen. The note is a whistle,
which may be described by the words ‘“‘ to meet you.” It
may frequently be heard, in the jungle, as also may the breed-
ing song of the cock, which reminds one of a small boy whist-
ling up and down the scale. The birds generally go about
in pairs, or small family groups, picking up beetles, &c., from
the ground.

The breeding season appears to be from November to
March and again about September. The description of the
nest given by Legge, as a cup-shaped structure placed in a
bush, is probably due to an error. Authentic nests have
recently been found by myself and Mr. Tunnard of Rothschild,
Pussellawa. My nest, from the North-Central Province, was
domed, and very cleverly camouflaged in a litter of dry leaves
on the ground in the forest. The opening was at one side,
and the materials were very roughly put together. The
lining consisted of a few broken up dead leaves, and the roof
of a few more broad dry leaves. Mr. Tunnard’s nest was
equally cleverly hidden, but more carefully lined with weed
stalks and the stems of maiden-hair fern. The two or three
eggs are broad ovals with rather a blunt narrow end. The
ground colour is china white, thickly covered with grayish-
purple and reddish-brown markings. Average size *85 by °64.

RHOPOCICHLA ATRICEPS NIGRIFRONS.
The Black-fronted Babbler.

Rhopocichla nigrifrons (Oates, Vol. I., p. 160); Alcippe nigri-
frons (Legge, p. 507).

Description.—Forehead, round the eye, and ear coverts
dull black, the forehead feathers with glistening shafts ;
sides of neck, upper plumage, wings, and tail rufous-brown,
darkening on the crown into the black of the forehead ; outer
wing quills with paler edges ; tail darker at the tip, and in
some specimens faintly cross-rayed ; throat, neck, breast,
and abdomen white, the feathers, except on the chin, throat,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 49

and lower cheeks, with black bases which give the plumage
a sullied appearance ; flank, vent, and under tail coverts
rufous-olive.

Birds vary a good deal in the tint of the upper plumage,
specimens from the low wet zone being, as a rule, decidedly
more rufous, those from the hills more olive-brown, while
birds from the northern forests are intermediate.

Bill dark brown on the tip, the margins of the upper mandible
and the lower mandible flesh colour ; iris whitish or pale
yellow ; legs and feet fleshy lavender.

Length 5:1; wing 2°2; tail 1°8; tarsus -85; bill from
gape °7.

Distribution—The present sub-species is confined to
Ceylon, but is widely distributed over the whole Island.
Allied sub-species occur on the Nilgiris and in Travancore.

Habits—Common everywhere in thickets and_ forest
undergrowth, especially bamboo scrub. It is an active
little bird, which flits about in small parties uttering a shrill
little rattling note. It appears to breed intermittently from
December to June. The nest, which is frequently met with
in the jungle, looks almost like a chance wisp of dry grass
or bunch of dead leaves stuck in the fork of a sapling or bush
about 4 to 7 feet from the ground. The inside is pocket-
shaped and tilted, so that the opening lies, in some cases,
almost horizontally. The two or occasionally three eggs are
smooth paper-white ovals scattered over with spots of brown-
ish-red and a few specks of bluish-gray. Average size *75

by °55.

Sub-family Liotrichine.
Bush and Green Bulbuls.

With this sub-family, which includes three species found
in Ceylon, we come to a group of birds distinguished from the
rest of the Crateropodide by the difference in plumage between
the two sexes. Unlike the Babblers, they are strictly arboreal
in their habits, frequenting leafy trees and living on fruit
and insects. In all three Ceylon species the bill is slender,

- 6(17)21

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

slightly curved, and notched at the tip; the rictal bristles
are minute, the nostrils oval, the wing rounded, the tail
short and square. In the genus Agithina there are two
moults in the year, and the males have a distinct breeding
plumage ; the bill is about two-thirds the length of the head,
and the plumage of the rump is very soft and fluffy. In
Chloropsis there is no distinct breeding plumage, and only
one moult a year. The bill is longer and slightly more curved,
the wings are rather longer, and the tarsus very short. The
eggs of all our Ceylon species are streakily marked.

Key to Ceylon Liotrichine.

A.—Bill about same length as tarsus; lower plumage
yellow ; wings mainly black and white.
Aqgithina tiphia zeylonica (Common Tora).

B.—Bill considerably longer than tarsus; plumage mainly
grass-green ; a blue moustache stripe.

(1) Forehead orange.

Chloropsis malabarica malabarica (Malabar Chloropsis).
(2) Forehead greenish.

C’. jerdoni (Jerdon’s Chloropsis).

ANGITHINA TIPHIA ZEYLONICA.
The Common Tora.

Aigithina tiphia (Oates, Vol. I., p. 230); Lora typhia (Legge,
p. 490).

Description.—Male in summer plumage: Forehead, crown
lores, nape, and mantle satin black ; the remainder of the
back and the rump black, more or less mixed with dark green ;
a tuft of concealed downy white plumes on the scapulars ;
upper tail coverts and tail black ; wing coverts black with a
broad white patch formed by the terminal half of the median
coverts, the greater coverts more or less tipped with white ;
wing quills black, the primaries brownish at the tip, and some
of the quills with faint pale edges ; face, sides of neck, and
all the lower parts rich yellow, which grows paler on the vent
and under tail coverts. In the off season the upper plumage

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 5]

becomes largely green, the black persisting most on the head
and nape ; the wings and tail remain black, but the white
tips on the coverts are more pronounced ; the lower parts
are less rich in hue.

Female : Upper plumage dull grass-green ; forehead and
upper tail coverts tinged with yellow; scapulars darker,
and tail dusky-green ; lesser wing coverts dusky-green, median
coverts blackish with broad white tips faintly edged with
yellow ; in the greater coverts the white is confined to the
outer webs and more conspicuously tinged with yellow ;
primaries blackish with faint white edges on the outer webs
and broader white inner margins on the basal portions ;
nner quills with broad white margins which are tinged with
yellow, especially on the outer webs ; lores, sides of head, and
all the lower parts yellow, shading into green on the flanks.

Bill, upper mandible black with blue margins, lower
mandible blue; iris, in males gray, mottled with brown,
in females olive-gray ; legs and feet slate blue.

Length. 5:4; wing 2°5; tail 1:9; tarsus °75; bill from
gape 7.

Distribution.—The present sub-species occurs in Ceylon,
Southern India, and the Malay Peninsula ; typical 4. tiphia
occurs over the rest of India, except in the north-west. This
Bulbul is common, and widely distributed over the whole
of the low-country and up to about 2,500 feet.

Habits.—A familiar little bird which keeps to leafy trees,
either in gardens and open scattered groves, or on the edge
of the jungle, by roadsides, &c. It is generally seen in pairs,
actively flitting about among the leaves searching for insects.
The male has a clear gentle whistle of two notes“ wheee-too.”’
The breeding season lasts intermittently from November to
June. The nest is a beautiful little cup of fine grass and
fibres, thickly coated with cobwebs and glued on to the top
of a bough, or attached to a fork from 6 to 20 feet from the
ground. I have never found more than two eggs. They
are slightly pointed ovals of grayish-white, with rather large
longitudinal streaks of bluish-gray and light brown. Average
size *70 by °53.

52 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

CHLOROPSIS MALABARICA MALABARICA,
The Malabar Chloropsis.

Chloropsis malabarica (Oates, Vol. I., p. 235); Phyllornis
malabaricus (Legge, p. 488).

Description.—Male : Forehead orange-yellow ; lores, cheeks,
chin, and throat black ; a moustache streak of hyacinth blue ;
lesser wing coverts turquoise blue; remainder of plumage
grass-green, the inner webs of the wing quills dull brown.

In the female the throat patch and cheek stripe are smaller.
Young birds are green all over.

Bill blackish ; iris brown ; legs and feet slaty-blue.

Length 7°5; wing 3°5; tail 2°6; tarsus -7; bill from
gape °95. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution.—Not so common as Jerdon’s Bulbul, but
widely, though locally, distributed both in the hills and the
low-country. It is indistinguishable in the open from the
next species, unless one is near enough to make out the orange-
yellow forehead. The present sub-species is found in India
on the Malabar Coast and as far north as Khandala ; another

sub-species is found in Assam, Eastern Bengal, Burma, and
Cambodia.

Habits.—Much the same as those of the next species, but

it is apparently not such a good mimic. Little is known of
its breeding habits.

CHLOROPSIS JERDONI.
Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

Chloropsis jgerdoni (Oates, Vol. I., p. 238); Phyllornis jerdoni
(Legge, p. 485).

Description.—Lores, cheeks, chin, and throat black; a
hyacinth blue moustache stripe ; forehead, above the eye,
and all round the black gorget greenish-yellow ; lesser wing
coverts turquoise blue; rest of plumage grass-green, the
lower parts slightly brighter.

In females the lores and gorget are bluish-green and the
cheek stripe greenish-blue. The young are green all over.

- Bill blackish ; iris brown ; legs and feet pale bluish.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 53

Length 7°4; wing 3:4; tail 2-8; tarsus -75; bill from
gape °95.

Distribution.—Found all over the low-country in well-
wooded parts. It ascends the hills to 3,500 feet or occasionally

higher. It occurs over the greater portion of the peninsula
of India.

Habits —A common bird, which often escapes notice as
the plumage so closely resembles the green of the foliage.
It frequents trees in compounds and gardens, by the roadside
and river banks, or round tanks and paddy fields. It is
generally found singly or in pairs, but when not breeding,
the females collect in little troops. It is an active little bird,
assiduously hunting among the leaves of trees or fronds of
palms for the insects on which it feeds. The male has a clear
pleasant whistle, and mimics the calls of other birds with
astonishing accuracy.

It appears to have several broods, beginning in November
or December, as soon as the rains have set in, while I have
found the eggs as late as May. The nest is hard to find.
It is a soft neatly woven cup, composed of fine strips of grass
or tow-like fibre, suspended by the rim to the fork of a slender
twig, and always well concealed by overhanging leaves.
It is generally 6 to 10 feet from the ground, but occasionally
much higher. The two eggs are slightly pointed, glossless
cream-coloured ovals, sparingly marked with short fine
streaks or spots of dark brown, at times almost black. Average
size *82 by °59.

Sub-family Brachypodine.
Bulbuls.

The Bulbuls are a familiar group of small birds, with fairly
well-defined characteristics. They are mainly arboreal in their
habits. The sexes are alike, the young closely resemble the
adults, and all species lay eggs, which are marked with
various shades of red and purple. The most characteristic
feature of this sub-family is the extreme shortness of the
tarsus, but they are further distinguished by the presence of
hairs among the feathers of the nape.

54 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

In most of our Ceylon species, however, these hairs are
short and sometimes difficult to detect. The rictal bristles
are fairly well developed ; the nostrils lie in a groove at the
base of the bill; the wings are rounded and moderate in length ;
the tail is also moderate and generally rounded. The Bulbuls
are found mainly in Africa and Southern Asia. Six species
belonging to five genera occur in Ceylon. One genus, Kelaar-
tia, is peculiar to the Island, as is also one species of another
genus. The main generic characters are given in the following
key :—

Key to Ceylon Brachypodine.
I.—A distinct bushy, black crest.

A.—Length about 9°75; wing rather pointed ; outer
tail feathers curved outwards ; bill coral red.
Hypsipetes psaroides ganeesa (Southern Indian

Black Bulbul).

B.—Length about 7°75 ; wing blunt ; bill black ; under
tail coverts crimson. |
Molpastes hemorrhous hemorrhous (Madras Red-
vented Bulbul).

Il.—No distinct crest.

A.—Bill about three-quarter length of head; upper
mandible sharply keeled. Genus Jole.

(1) Crownand upper plumage yellowish-green,
Tole icterica (Yellow-browed Bulbul).
B.—Bill about half length of head ; upper mandible
not so sharply ridged. Genus Pycnonotus.

(1) Crown and nape black; upper plumage
olive-green.
P. melanicterus (Black-capped Bulbul).

(2) Crown and upper plumage ashy-brown.
P. luteolus (White-browed Bulbul).

I1J.—Crown feathers large and rounded ; a bright yellow
streak of longish pointed feathers over ear coverts,
Kelaartia pencillata (Yellow-eared Bulbul).

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 00

HYPSIPETES PSAROIDES GANEESA.
Southern Indian Black Bulbul.

Hypsipetes ganeesa (Oates, Vol. I., p. 262; Legge, p. 469).

Description.—Lores, forehead, crown, and nape glossy-
black, with a greenish lustre in freshly moulted specimens,
the feathers longish ; hind-neck, back, rump, and upper tail
coverts dull bluish-gray with darker shaft streaks; wings and
tail dull brown, the wing coverts and inner wing quills edged
with the blue-gray of the back ; cheeks, throat, chest, and
under parts slaty-gray, paler on the abdomen, and darker
on the cheeks and chin, which are tinged with ashy-
brown.

Bill coral red ; iris orange or reddish ; legs and feet yellowish-
red:

Length 9°75; wing 4:7; tail 4°7; tarsus ‘8; bill from
gape 1-2.

Distribution.—Common in the well-wooded parts of the low-
country damp zone and on the hills, but rarely met with in the
drier forest tracts. It appears to visit the highest elevations
in the dry weather.

The sub-species found in Ceylon is also met with on the
Malabar hills. Allied sub-species occur on the Himalayas, in
Assam, and parts of Burma.

Habits —Out of the breeding season this Bulbul is generally
found in noisy flocks, feeding on fruits and berries at the top
of tall trees in forest and jungle. Its mosi frequent calls are
described by Legge as ressmbling the sounds “ tcehee ’’ and
=~ 70, kink up,”

The breeding season is from January toabout April. The
nest is a rather untidy cup of dead leaves, roots, and moss
placed in a fork of a branch genera.ly at some height from the
ground. There are usually only two eggs of a whitish ground
colour thickly speckled with red-and purplish-gray. Average
size 1°03 by °72.

56 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

MOLPASTES HZ MORRHOUS HAMORRHOUS.

The Madras Red-vented Bulbul.

Molpastes hemorrhous (Oates, Vol. L., p. 268); Pycnonotus
hemorrhous (Legge, p. 482).

Description.—Head, chin, and throat deep black, inclining
to brown on the ear coverts; there are generally one or two
longish hairs on the nape; feathers of neck, back, wing
coverts, scapulars, and breast brown with pale edges ; rump
plain brown ; upper tail coverts white; wing quills brown
with narrow paler edges ; tail brown at the base, deepening
to black at the end and tipped with white ; flanks light brown ;
abdomen whitish ; under tail coverts crimson. In some speci-
mens the tail coverts and tip of the tail are pale cinnamon.
Birds from the hills are paler than low-country specimens.

Bill black ; iris deep brown; legs and feet dark brown.

Length 7°8; wing 3°75; tail 3:2; tarsus °85; bill from
gape ‘8.

Distribution.—Extremely common over the whole of the
low-country and at medium elevations. It is only occasionally
met with in the higher hills. This species is found in one
form or another over most of India and Burma and extends
to China.

Habits —Familiar in gardens and near civilization over the
whole of its usual range. It frequents bushes, low trees,
hedges, &c. It is not nearly so common far from cultivation.
The cry is a cheerful little chirruping warble. It breeds fairly
steadily from November till May, or even later if the weather
be favourable, rearing several broods. The nest is a small,
rather coarsely woven cup of grass, lined almost invariably
with fine red root fibres. On occasions the nest is made of
fine small-leaved tender shoots. It is generally placed in a
bush or hedge, but the birds occasionally build in verandahs,
&e. There are usually three eggs; they are in most cases
rather dumpy and slightly pointed at the small end. The
ground colour varies from china-white to pinkish, thickly
spread with blotchy specks of reddish-brown and purplish-
gray. Average size *85 by °63,

a rs i A

~J

>] |

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON,

IOLE ICTERICA.

The Yellow-browed Bulbul.

Tole icterica (Oates, Vol. I., p. 283); Criniger ictericus (Legge,

. 472).
; Bs anee heck surface yellowish-green ; inner webs
of wing quills brown, the basal portions edged with yellow ;
tail feathers brighter towards the outer edges, the inner edges
of all but the central feathers and the under surface of the
shafts yellow ; lores, base of nostrils, a narrow eyebrow, face,
entire under surface, and wing lining bright yellow.

Bill black ; iris red or light red ; legs and feet bluish-lead
or dusky-slate colour.

Length about 8; wing 3°5; tail 3:2; tarsus 72; bill from
gape *82. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution.—Restricted to forest and high jungle through-
out the low-country and up to about 4,000 feet or even higher.
In India it is found on the west coast as far north as Maha-
bleshwar.

Habits.—Essentially a jungle bird. In the low-country
it keeps to the large forests ; at medium elevations it occurs
in nearly every patch of jungle. It generally wanders about
in little parties, which hunt actively among the boughs and
in the top of the undergrowth for the insects on which they
chiefly feed. The call is a soft mellow whistle. The breeding
season is probably during the first half of the year, but eggs
may be found as late as August. The nest is generally
suspended by the rim to a fork in the top of a thin sapling.
It is composed of small twigs and grass and is lined with fine
grass. The two eggs are longish ovals; the ground colour
is dull white or pinkish, thickly speckled with pale brownish-
redor pink markings. Average size (of Indian eggs) ‘96 by °67.

PYCNONOTUS MELANICTERUS.

The Black-capped Bulbul.

Pycnonotus melanicterus. (Oates, Vol. I., 288);, Rubigula
melanictera (Legge, p. 477).

Description.—Forehead, crown, nape, and sides of head
black; upper plumage and wing coverts olive-green; wing
quills brown, the outer webs olive-green ; tail feathers dark

8 6(17)21

58 - SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

brown, the basal portions washed with the hue of the back ;
there is a broad white patch on the tips of the outer feathers ;
this patch decreases on the inner feathers, the central pair
being unmarked ; lower plumage bright yellow, the sides of
the breast and body washed with olive ; wing lining and edge
of wing yellow.

Bill black ; iris dull red in males, dark brown in females;
legs and feet blackish in males, blackish-blue or deep lead
colour in females.

Length 6°5; wing 2°8; tail 2°6; tarsus ‘6; bill from
gape ‘78. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. It occurs throughout
the whole of the low-country, except in the most arid parts,
and on the hills up to about 5,000 feet.

Habits.—Fairly common in forest, low jungle, clumps of
thicket, shady ravines, &c. It may be met with either in
pairs or small troops, and often consorts with the forest
Bulbul or White-browed Bulbul. The note is a little “‘ whee
whee, whee, whee.” The breeding season is probably from
March to July, occasionally later. The nest, of the usual
Bulbul type, is placed in the fork of a low tree or bush, or even
on a dead stump. Two or three eggs are laid. The ground
colour is reddish-white, thickly marked with reddish-brown
and a little bluish-gray. Average size ‘79 by +58.

PYCNONOTUS LUTEOLUS.
The White-browed Bulbul.
Pycnonotus luteolus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 290; Legge, p. 475).

Description.—Upper plumage ashy-brown, the edges of the
feathers, except on the crown, washed faintly with green;
rump and upper tail coverts slightly paler; wings and tail
brown, washed with greenish on the outer webs; a broad
streak from the nostril over the eye and an indistinct ring
round the eye whitish ; lores streaky white and black; ear
eoverts brownish ; the point of the chin and a stripe along
the lower jaw yellowish ; under parts dingy-white, washed with

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. ov

brown on the chest and flecked with pale dingy-yellow ; vent
and under tail coverts, wing-lining, and edge of wing pale
yellow.

Bill black ; iris rusty-red to blood-red ; legs and feet dusky
lead-colour,

Length 7.4; wing 3:2; tail 3:1; tarsus ‘87; bill from
gape °85.

Distribution.—Very common all over the low-country and
in the hills to 3,000 feet or even higher. In India it is found
over a great part of the peninsula proper.

Habits.—Very much the same as those of the Madras Bulbul
but it is not nearly so partial to cultivation, being especially
common in bushy scrub, lantana, chenas, low jungle, and the
undergrowth in dry forests.

It feeds partly on insects, but is very fond of small berries,
such as those of the lantana. It is rather a shy bird, evading
observation as much as possible.

It breeds freely from February to June. The nest is
scarcely distinguishable from that of the Madras Bulbul, and
like it, is generally placed ina low bush. There are, however,
seldom more than two eggs. Typically they are longer and
narrower than those of the Madras Bulbul, but light specimens
are often very hard to distinguish. In more heavily marked
eggs the markings are less claret-coloured and more of a
light reddish-brown, while the tint of the ground colour, though
pale, differs correspondingly. Average size *91 by °62.

KELAARTIA PENCILLATA.
The Yellow-eared Bulbul.
Kelaartia pencillata (Oates, Vol. I., p. 297; Legge, p. 480).
Description.—A narrow white line from the nostril to the
upper part of the eye ; forehead and crown dull black, the
feathers broad and loose, giving a scaly effect ; a broad yellow
streak from the top of the eye to the nape; a spot on the
upper eyelid and the chin white; lores and cheeks black;
ear coverts black with a yellow spot, behind which the colour
changes into a gray patch; upper plumage olive-green ;
wings and tail dark brown washed with olive-green on the

60 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

outer webs; lower plumage from throat to tail coverts
yellow, washed with olive on the breast and flanks; wing-
lining and edge of wing yellow.

Bill black ; iris red mingled with brown or deepening to
brown next the pupil ; legs and feet dark lead-blue.

Length 7°75; wing 3°25; tail 3:2; tarsus 78; bill from
gape *85. Females are rather smaller.

Distribution.—Confined to Ceylon and restricted to the hills,
being seldom found much below 3,500 feet.

Habits —Abundant in the higher ranges where it frequents
forests, patana, woods, and the outskirts of cultivation.
It keeps generally to the lower trees and undergrowth, and
appears to live mainly on fruit. The call is a small plaintive
whistle “‘ whee, whee, whee,” quickly repeated. The breeding
season appears to be about April. The nest is a fairly neat
cup of moss, grass, and fine roots and leaves. There appear
to be only two eggs of a pale pinkish ground colour, with rather
blurred blotches and streaks of pinkish-brown. I have no
measurements, but probably the eggs are of the same size
as that of the forest Bulbul.

Family Srrrip2.
Genus Sitta.
Nuthatches.

The Nuthatches are a family of small climbing birds found
in temperate and warm climates all over the world, with the
exception of South America and Africa, south of the Sahara.
The foot is adapted for climbing, the hind toe and claw being
greatly developed and the inner front toe shortened. The
hind surface of the tarsus is smooth. The bill is about as
long as the head, straight, and wide at the base. The nostrils
are clear of the line of the forehead, and are overhung by hairs.
The rictal bristles are well developed. The wing, which has
ten primaries, is rather pointed ; the first primary is less than
half the length of the second. The tail of twelve feathers
is short and practically square.

The plumage of the two sexes is generally different, and
there is only one moult a year.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 61

Nuthatches are of non-migratory habits. They feed both
on nuts and insects, and nest in holes of trees or of rocks.
Only one species is found in Ceylon,

SITTA FRONTALIS FRONTALIS.
The Velvet-fronted Blue Nuthatch.

Sita frontalis (Oates, Vol. [., p. 307); Dendrophila frontalis
(Legge, p. 560).

Description.—Male : Lores, a broad band across the fore-
head and a long streak over the eye to the nape deep velvet
black; upper plumage and wing coverts deep lavender-blue ;
wing quills dull black, the first two primaries unmarked, the
outer webs of the remaining primaries edged with light blue,
the secondaries edged with the blue of the back, the tertiaries
almost entirely blue; the middle feathers of the tail blue,
the remainder dull black, edged and tipped with blue ; ear
coverts lilac ; chin and throat whitish ; the rest of the lower
parts brownish-lilac.

Females have no black eyebrow streak, and the lores are
generally washed with blue.

Bill coral red, the tip of the upper mandible blackish ;
iris yellow ; eyelids lead colour ; legs and feet brownish.

Length 5; wing 3; tail1°8; tarsus °7; bill from gape °7.

Distribution.—Found throughout the hills and in the tall
forests of the low-country. It occurs in one form or another
throughout the greater part of India, and extends through
Burma to Java.

Habits.—A dainty little bird, which attracts notice by its
velvety blue plumage and vivid red bill. It is generally
found in small troops, actively running up and down or round
and round tree trunks and large boughs. It never remains
long on one tree, and when descending it always proceeds
head first. The cry is a sharp little “ chick, chick, chick.”
The breeding season appears to be from February to May.
The nest is a small pad of feathers, moss, and hair in a tiny
hole in a tree. The four eggs are white spotted with red, and
measure about ‘7 by ‘56. The birds when approaching the
nest hole generally alight above it and run down into it.

62 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Family DicruRID-.
Drongos.

The Drongos, or King Crows, with their black plumage
and forked tails, form one of the best defined families of the
order. The nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead.
The beak is stout and covered at the base by thick-set hairs,
or plumelets, which partially conceal the nostrils ; the upper
mandible is keeled, the tip is more or less hooked and provided
with a single notch. The rictal bristles are well developed.
There are ten primary quills. The tail of ten feathers is
deeply forked. Members of the family are found in Africa
and South-eastern Asia. Of the six species which occur in
Ceylon, four are referable to the genus Dicrurus, which has
ho crest and a normally forked tail. Two larger crested
species are placed each in a separate genus. In Dissemurulus
the tail feathers are proportionately longer than in Dicrurus,
but the inner webs, though curling upwards at the end, are
normally webbed. In Dissemurus the outermost tail feathers,
in adults, are greatly elongated and racket-shaped, the central
portion of the shaft being practically webless. In some
localities our local species appear to undergo a certain amount
of seasonal movement.

Key to Ceylon Dicruride.
I1.—Length under 12 inches; no distinct crest. Genus
Dicrurus.
(a) Lower tail coverts not white throughout.
(1) Lower plumage black.
Dicrurus ater minor (Black Drongo).

(2) Lower plumage dark gray.
D. leucopheus longicaudatus (Indian Ashy
Drongo).

(b) Lower tail coverts unmixed white.

(1) Throat and breast gray.

D. cerulescens (White-bellied Drongo).
(2) Throat and breast dark brown.

D. leucopygialis (White-vented Drongo).

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 63

I1.—Length over 12 inches ; forehead tufted.

(a) Hind feathers of the tuft erect; inner web of
outermost tail feathers normal.
Dissemurulus lophorhinus (Ceylon Black Drongo).

(6) Hind feathers of tuft curving backwards;
terminal portion of outer tail feathers with a
distinct racket in adults; with an indentation
on inner webs in young birds.

Dissemurus paradiseus ceylonensis (Larger Racket-
tailed Drongo).

DICRURUS ATER MINOR.
The Black Drongo.

Dicrurus ater (Oates, Vol. I., p. 312); Buchanga atra (Legge
p. 386).

Description.—Plumage black glossed with steel blue ;
in fresh specimens the gloss on the tail is slightly greenish ;
primary quills rather rusty black. There is a small white
spot at the lower corner of the gape, not always easily per-
ceptible.

In young birds the wing quills and lower plumage are brown-
ish ; the feathers of the abdomen are fringed, and the lower
tail coverts barred with white, which gradually disappears as
the birds grow older.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris brownish-red or red.

Distribution.—The Black Drongo is found all over India,
and extends into China, Siam, and Java. The Ceylon race
is a distinct sub-species, which may also possibly occur in
the extreme south of India. It differs from other Indian
forms by its smaller size and comparatively smaller tail.
In Ceylon it is confined to the Jaffna peninsula and the
coastal region of the Mannar District.

Habits.—Not uncommon in the localities in which it occurs.
It frequents open and cultivated lands and scattered thorny
jungle, perching on posts and exposed branches and swooping
out on passing insects, then returning to its post of vantage.
It often also perches on the backs of cattle. The note is a

64 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

rather melodious metallic whistle. The breeding season is
probably mainly in Apriland May. The nest is a very shallow
cup placed in the fork of a leafy branch. The outside is
fairly thickly bound with cobwebs, the interior lined with
fine grass. Three appears to be the normal number of eggs
in Ceylon. They are of two types: one pure white, the other
pale salmon colour with rather bold reddish-brown blotches.
Average size about 1:00 by °75.

DICRURUS LEUCOPHEUS LONGICAUDATUS.
The Indian Ashy Drongo.

Diecrurus longicaudatus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 314); Buchanga
longicaudata (Legge, p. 390).

Description.—Upper plumage metallic bluish-black with
a gray tinge, which increases on the tail coverts ; wing quills
and tail lustred with greenish on the outer webs ; lower parts
dull grayish-black.

In young birds the plumage is dark brown ; the lower parts
are grayer than in adults, and the under tail coverts are
tipped with white, which gradually disappears.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris red.

Length 10°5; wing 5:2; tail 5:9; tarsus -7; bill from
gape 1:1.

Distribution —Like the Black Drongo this species has a
wide range over practically the whole of the Indian Empire,
the Malay Peninsula, and Java, and is split up into geographi-
eal races. The small sub-species found in Ceylon appears
to be a migrant, probably from Southern India. It occurs
during the north-east monsoon on the east side of the Island.
One or two specimens have been shot near Colombo in October,
probably while on passage.

Habits —Generally found on the edge of open spacesin heavy
jungle and forest. It perches on some point of vantage
high up in a tree, swooping out on insects and returning to
its perch. Its calls are rather shrill and varied. It is not
likely to be found breeding in the Island. The nest is of the
usual Drongo type, and the eggs resemble the spotted eggs
of D. ater minor, but are slightly smaller.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 65

DIcRURUS C@RULESCENS.
The White-bellied Drongo.
Dicrurus cerulescens (Oates, Vol. I., p. 316; vide Legge, p. 394),

Description.—Upper surface black, strongly glossed with
blue ; throat and breast gray; abdomen, flanks, vent, and
under tail coverts white.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris red.

Length about 9°5; wing 4°75; tail about 4°5; tarsus *75;
bill from gape 1°05.

Distribution.—Found over practically the whole of India
proper. Birds from South India appear to be darker and
smaller than those from the North.

Birds from the extreme north of Ceylon, perhaps migrants
from South India, are apparently nearer to typical D,
cerulescens than to D, leucopygialis, which is the form usually
met with in Ceylon.

Habits—Those of the next species. The nest and eggs,
too, would be almost indistinguishable.

DICRURUS LEUCOPYGIALIS.
The White-vented Drongo.

Dicrurus leucopygialis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 316); Buchanga leuco-
pygialis (Legge, p. 392).

Description.—Specimens vary considerably. In true D.
leucopygialis from the south of the Island the upper plumage
is black, glossed with steel blue ; wings and tail brownish
with a greenish-blue gloss ; chin, fore-neck, and breast rusty-
black ; the lower abdomen often mixed with white; vent
and under tail coverts white. Birds from up-country and the
northern forest tract are paler ; the throat and breast are a
more grayish-brown, and the white of the vent extends
further up the abdomen.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris red.

Length about 9°5; wing 4°75; tail variable, about 4°50 ;
tarsus +75 ; bill on gape 1°05.

9 e721

66 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution. —I am of opinion that this form is merely
a sub-species of D. ca@rulescens. It is peculiar to Ceylon,
and is common all over the Island up to about 4,500 feet,
except in heavy forest or in the Jaffna peninsula and that
part of the Mannar District where the Black Drongo occurs,

Habits.—A familiar bird in the cultivated parts of the
country ; it may even be seen in Colombo gardens, It
occurs also in open woods, the outskirts of chenas in the
jungle, round tanks, &c. It is entirely insectivorous, and,
like other Drongos, is fond of taking up a particular perch,
from which it makes sallies. The ordinary note is a whistling
ery. It is very pugnacious, and bullies birds far larger than
itself if they come near. The breeding season is from March
to May. The nest is a shallow cup, tightly wedged into the
fork of a slender branch. It is lined with fine grass, and
thickly coated outside with cobwebs. Three or sometimes
only two eggs are laid. In general they are rather stumpy
ovals slightly pointed at one end ; some are more elongated.
The colour is either pure white with bold brick-red markings,
or pale salmon-pink more or less boldly blotched, chiefly
at the large end, with red, and with a few fainter underlying
marks of grayish-purple. Average size *92 by ‘69.

DISSEMURULUS LOPHORHINUS,
The Ceylon Black Drongo.

Dissemurulus lophorhinus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 322); Dissemurus
lophorhinus (Legge, p. 396).

Description—Plumage black, highly glossed with blue
on the head, hind-neck, throat, and chest; on the back,
wing coverts, and tail the gloss is greener ; flanks and abdomen
rusty-black without any gloss, In immature birds the
lower tail coverts and wing-lining are tipped with white.

Bill, legs, and feet black; iris dull brownish or dark
yellowish-red.

Length, variable, up to about 14; wing 5°8~ tail, in adults,
up to 8; tarsus 1°05; bill 1-4.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 67

The crest on the forehead is about 4 inch long, the foremost
feathers are directed forwards, the hinder feathers erect, but
not curved backwards.

Distribution.—Until lately this species was supposed to be
peculiar to Ceylon, but recently it has been discovered in South
Travancore, where it is not uncommon. In Ceylon it is
restricted to the forests of the wet zone, from the Deduru-oya
on the north to the Walawe river in the south-west. Itisrarely
found east of the Peak range, which it ascends to a height of
about 4,500 feet.

Habits —A forest bird, which is generally met with in
pairs among the top branches of tall trees in the heart of the
jungle. It is very noisy and has considerable vocal powers,
being able to mimic the calls of many species of birds. I
have also heard it imitate a cat in the most realistic manner.
Like the other Drongos, it is entirely insectivorous, and takes
its prey on the wing with a short swoop from a fixed perch
to which it returns. The breeding season is about April.
Little is known of its nidification, however.

DISSEMURUS PARADISEUS CEYLONENSIS.
The Larger Racket-tailed Drongo.

Dissemurus paradiseus (Oates, Vol. I.,p. 325 ; Legge, p. 399).

Description.—Plumage black with a strong metallic gloss
of steel blue, except on the chin, lower abdomen, vent, and
the greater part of the wing quills, which are dull black, In
immature birds the wing-lining and under tail coverts are
tipped with white, and the racket feathers are not fully
developed ; but there is always, except in very young speci-
mens, an indentation in the inner web of the long outermost
feathers.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris brownish-red to deep red.

Length : Males 17 to 19 inches according to length of tail ;
wing 6; tail 11 to 13; tarsus °95,; bill from gape 1°25.
Females are rather smaller : wing 5°8; tail 10 to 11.

The crest on the forehead is up to 1 inch in length ; the
foremost feathers are almost erect ; the hind feathers curve
backwards.

68 -- SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

_. Distribution.—This Drongo is widely distributed over the
greater part of India. It ranges eastwards into Hainan,
and south-east through the Malay Peninsula to Java and
Borneo. It is divided into a number of sub-species, the
Ceylon form being distinguished by its small size, its com-
paratively short crest and shorter tail. It replaces the Ceylon
Black Drongo in the drier forest tracts, especially in the
north and east of the Island, but it is nowhere very abundant.
It does not appear to ascend the hills above about 2,000 feet.

Habits—Like the preceding species, this is a forest bird,
and has much the same habits. Its notes are varied, and it
is an expert imitator of many other birds, In addition,
it has a beautiful clear tinkling call, which is generally heard
in the early morning. Like most Drongos, it appears to have
an inveterate hatred of Owlsand Woodpeckers. It is generally
met with in pairs or in small parties of four or five. The breed-
ing season is from March to May. Three nests, of which
I have data, were all found in roadside trees, where the road
passed through heavy jungle. They were placed in slender
forks at a considerable height from the ground, and resembled
larger editions of the nest of D. leucopygialis, but were more
loosely woven and not so tightly jammed into the fork. There
are usually three eggs. They are broad ovals slightly pointed
at one end. The ground colour is pinkish-white with a
moderate amount of reddish-pink markings overlying more
cloudy marks of grayish-purple. All the markings are
inclined to be streaky, and are most numerous round the cap.
Average size 1°06 by °81.

Family SyLvip2.
Warblers.

The Warbler family contains a very large number of species,
found chiefly in the temperate and warm regions of the Old
World. They are all of small size, and nearly all of plain
appearance. The plumage of the nestling resembles that of
the adult female, but is brighter. The nostrils are clear of the
line of the forehead, the edges of both mandibles are smooth,
or at times the upper mandible has a simple notch. The

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 69

tarsus is generally slim and fairly long, its hinder aspect is
smooth. The toes also are slim and longish and well adapted
for clinging round grass stems or thin sprays of foliage. The
wing has ten primaries, the tail may have either ten or twelve
feathers. The sexes are generally alike, and when any differ-
ence does occur, it is small.

All species have a complete autumn moult, in addition to
a partial or complete spring moult. The spring moult is
often accompanied by a distinct change in the shape and
length of the tail, Several of our resident forms belong to
species which undergo such achange. In this Island, however,
such forms have a breeding season, which extends intermittent-
ly for over half the year, and it is interesting to note that in
Ceylon birds the difference between the breeding and winter
plumage is far less marked than in specimens from further
north, where the breeding season is shorter and more defined.

The majority of the species are migratory, breeding in
temperate regions and wintering further south. Not many of
the migrant species, however, penetrate as far south as Ceylon,
with the result that half the forms found with us are resident.

~The Warblers have received their family name from their
pleasing song, but as their vocal powers are generally exercised
only in the breeding season, and as these powers are sadly
lacking in our resident species, the name is rather misleading
as far as Ceylon is concerned.

More than 100 species belonging to over 30 genera are found
within Indian limits. Seventeen different species or sub-
species have been recorded from Ceylon.

As the plumage generally is plain, and as the generic and
specific distinctions are based on rather minute differences,
the group presents certain difficulties, unless carefully studied.
I have, however, endeavoured to make the key as simple
and easy as possible. The forms found in Ceylon may be
divided into three main groups :—

I.—Reed, Grass, and Bush Warblers with 12 tail feathers,
short rounded feathers on the forehead, and without any
bristles beyond the usual rictal bristles. Of these, we have
eight species, nearly all of which are resident. They are

70 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

divided among seven genera. They are all restless little
birds, which generally keep to reeds, long grass, or bushes,
seldom taking long flights in the open. They spend most
of their time actively threading their way among the grass-
growth or foliage, to the upright stems of which their slim
toes enable them to cling in the most characteristic attitudes.

II.—Tree Warblers, which have 12 tail feathers, and in
which the feathers of the forehead are soft, disintegrated, and
with somewhat produced shafts. In addition to the rictal
bristles, there are some supplementary hairs in front of them.
In Hypolais and Sylvia, however, these bristles are small,
and are clearly visible only under a lens, in Acanthopneuste
they are more strongly developed. Six species belonging
to the above-mentioned three genera have been recorded
from Ceylon. They are all migrants, and only two are regular
visitors. They are generally found in trees, and not in bushes
or long grass.

III.—Three resident and common species of Wren Warbler
belonging to the genus Prinia, which has only 10 tail feathers.
The feathers of the forehead are smooth, and there are no
supplementary bristles. In their habits they much resemble
the Grass and Bush Warblers with 12 tail feathers, and have
the same attitudes when perching.

Key to Ceylon Sylviide.

I.—Reed, Grass, and Bush Warblers ; mainly resident. Tail
of 12 feathers; feathers of the forehead short and
rounded ; no bristles on the margin of the forehead,
except the ordinary rictal bristles near the gape.

A.—Under tail coverts extremely long ; tail only normally
broad.
(a) Outer tail feathers less than three-quarter length of
tail.
(1) Upper plumage streaky; length under 5:5.
Locustella certhiola (Pallas’ Grasshopper War-
bler).

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 71

(6) Outer tail feathers more than three-quarter length
of tail ; plumage dingy and not streaky.
(1) Length 7°5 or over.
Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Indian Great
Reed Warbler).
(2) Length about 5:5.
A, dumetorum (Blyths’ Reed Warbler).

B.—Under tail coverts more normal ; plumage extremely
dark and soft ; tarsus long and stout ; length about 6°5,
Elaphrornis pallisert (Palliser’s Warbler).

C.—Small forms ; length under 5.
(1) Crown rufous ; back yellowish-green.
Orthotomus sutorius sutorius (Indian Tailor Bird).
(2) Upper plumage streaky.
Cisticola cursitans cursitans (Rufous Fan-tailed

Warbler).

(3) Upper plumage ashy-brown.
Franklinia gracilis (Franklin’s Wren Warbler).

D.—Under tail coverts extremely long; tail abnormally
broad ; length about 6.
Schenicola platyura (Broad-tailed Grass Warbler).

II.—Migrant Tree Warblers. Tail of 12 feathers; feathers
of forehead disintegrated and with lengthened shafts.
Some supplementary bristles in front of the rictal
bristles.

A.—No green in plumage, which is very plain.

(a) Length about 5. Forehead, crown, and upper
plumage sandy-brown.
Hypolais caligata (Booted Tree Warbler).

(6) Length about 6. Forehead and crown gray or
brownish-gray. Genus Sylvia.

(1) Crown dusky-gray ; upper plumage grayish-
brown.

S. althea (Hume’s Lesser White-throated Warbler).

(2) Crown brownish-gray ; upper plumage earth-
brown.

S. curruca affinis (Indian Lesser White-throated
Warbler).

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

B.—Upper plumage some shade of green. Genus Acan-
thopneuste.

(1) Upper plumage bright green ; length about 5.

A, nitidus nitidus (Green Willow Warbler).

(2) Upper plumage dull green ; length about 4:2.

A, nitidus viridanus (Greenish Willow Warbler).

(3) Upper plumage very dark green ; length about
5:4. :

A. magnirostris (Large-billed Willow Warbler).

III.—Resident Wren Warblers ; tail of 10 feathers ; plumage
not streaked ; under tailcoverts normal. Genus Prinia.
A.—Upper plumage deep bluish ash-colour; length
about 4°75.
- Prinia socialis socialis (Ashy Wren-Warbler).
B.—Upper plumage dusky-brown.
(1) Length 6 or over.
P. sylvatica robusta (Jungle Wren Warbler).

(2) Length about 5°25.
P. inornata jerdont (Southern Wren Warbler).

LOCUSTELLA CERTHIOLA.
Pallas’ Grasshopper Warbler.
Locustella certhiola (Oates, Vol. I., p. 352; Legge, p. 548).

Description.—Feathers of the head blackish-brown with
olive-brown edges ; those of the back, scapulars, and wing
coverts brownish-black with broad reddish-brown margins ;
wing quills brown with pale rufous-brown margins ; rump
reddish-brown ; upper tail coverts reddish-brown with a large
black drop on each feather ; tail olive-brown with similar, but
more irregular, black drops and rufous margins, the tips of all
but the two central feathers whitish. A streak above the eye
yellowish-white ; lores and a patch behind the eye brown ;
chin, throat, and middle of abdomen whitish ; rest of lower
plumage buff, darkening on the flanks and lower tail coverts
to chestnut-brown.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. es

In young birds the under parts are tinged with yellow, and
many of the throat feathers have dark centres.

Bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower pale horn colour ;
iris reddish-brown ; legs fleshy-brown.

Length about 5°3; wing 2°35; tail 2°3; tarsus -85; bill
from gape *7.

Distribution.—Legge obtained two specimens in the Muttu-
rajawela swamp, north of Colombo, in February, 1877. This
is the only Ceylon record. This species breeds in Northern
Asia, and winters chiefly in China and the Malay Archipelago,
but is not uncommon in the north-east monsoon in portions of
Burma and India.

Habits —A skulking little bird, which may on occasions
visit us unnoticed. It should be looked for in grassy swamps
and paddy fields. It lurks in the thick grass, and does not
rise until almost trodden on, when it darts out to take cover
again almost immediately.

ACROCEPHALUS STENTOREUS BRUNNESCENS.
The Indian Great Reed Warbler.
Acrocephalus ‘stentoreus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 356: Legge, p. 541).

Description.—Upper plumage olive-brown with a tinge of
fulvous, more pronounced in some specimens, on the back and
rump ; wings and tail brown, the outer webs edged with the
hue of the back; an indistinct pale eyebrow; lores dark
brown ; chin and throat grayish-whit2; lower cheeks and
sides of neck generally streaky brown and white ; lower parts
from fore-neck pale fulvous, the flanks and the sides of the
breast almost the hue of the back. In the breeding season the
under parts are paler, and the feathers are much worn.

Bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower horny-pink ; iris
yellowish-brown ; legs and feet plumbeous-black.

Length about 7°7; wing 3:2; tail 2°75; tarsus 1°05; bill
from gape 1°02.

10 6(17)21

74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution.—A resident among bulrush beds in swamps
and tanks here and there in the dry zone of the low-country.
Allied sub-species are migrant over a great part of India,
breeding in Kashmir and other parts of the Himalayas or in
Central Asia, and wintering in the plains.

Habits —In Ceylon this Warbler appears to confine itself
to bulrush beds. Its presence is generally detected by its
harsh grating note, which is of great volume for the size of the
bird. It is said to have a pleasing song in the breeding season.
It is of very skulking habits, keeping mainly among the lower
stems of the rushes and seldom showing itself. The food
consists of flies and small insects. The breeding season is
from June to August, and possibly also about March. The
nest is a fairly deep cup of grass and strips of rush blades, lined
with finer materials and wedged in among bulrush stems, to
which the out2r wall of the nest is attached. The two or three
eggs are of pale greenish-gray, rather thickly, but irregularly,
marked with blotches and spots of black, yellowish-brown,
and grayish-purple. Average size of eight Ceylon eggs
°81 by 60.

ACROCEPHALUS DUMETORUM.
Blyth’s Reed Warbler.
Acrocephalus dumetorum (Oates, Vol. I., p. 359; Legge, p. 545),

Description.—Kar coverts, sides of neck, and all the upper
plumage olive-brown, paling slightly towards the tail coverts ;
the colour varies a little with different specimens ; wings and
tail deeper brown, edged on the outer webs with the hue of the
back ; an indistinct pale streak over the lores to the eye ; lores
dusky-brown ; lower plumage pale buff, almost white on the
ehin, throat, and abdomen.

Bill dark brown, lower mandible horny-pink; iris olive-
brown ; legs, pale horn colour.

Length 5:5; wing 2°4; tail 2-1; tarsus +85; bill from
gape ‘7.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. io

Distribution.—A familiar migrant found during the north-
east monsoon over the whole of the low-country and in the
hills up to about 4,500 feet. It breeds on the Himalayas and
in Northern Asia, and occurs in winter over all India and most
of Burma.

Habits.—Unlike the other members of the genus this species
avoids reeds, and is generally found skulking in thick bushes or
low bushy trees, hunting for the small insects on which it feeds.
On arrival in the Island it appears to remain with great regu-
larity in the quarters which it has taken up for the season. It
seldom appears in the open, but makes its presence known by
its note, a sudden “ chik.” Towards the end of its stay it
occasionally essays a slight warble, but its full song is developed
only in the breeding season and so is not heard in Ceylon.

ELAPHRORNIS PALLISERI.
Palliser’s Warbler.
Elaphrornis pallisert (Oates, Vol. I., p. 191; Legge, p. 514).

Description.—Upper plumage olive-brown with a rusty
tinge on the rump, upper tail coverts, and tail ; wings dark
brown, edged on the outer webs of the feathers with the hue
of the back ; the centre of the tail feathers rather darker than
the margins ; a faint whitish streak over the eye ; ear coverts
dusky-brown ; lores adjoining the gape whitish ; underneath
the eye dusky-brown; chin whitish, deepening into rusty
buff on the throat and gorget ; centre of abdomen yellowish ;
rest of lower parts slaty-olive, tinged with rufous on the
flanks, thighs, and under tail coverts.

In young birds the chin is dusky-gray ; there is a slight
tinge of buff across the centre of the throat, while the breast
and lower parts are more greenish than in adults.

Bill, black above, slate coloured beneath ; iris clear red in
males, buff in females ; legs and feet deep brown or purple-
brown.

Length 6°5; wing 2'4; tail 2°6; tarsus 1; bill from
gape ‘8.

76 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The position of this species is not yet exactly determined.
It shows in its plumage and structure affinities with both the
Timeliine and the Warblers. The nest and eggs rather
resemble those of a North Indian genus—T'ribura—of
Warblers, and it is now supposed to be an aberrant species
of Warbler.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined to the main
hill ranges over about 5,000 feet.

Habits, &c.—Fairly common in the dense undergrowth of
the forests on the higher hill ranges. It seldom appears in the
open, but threads its way under cover with great activity in
search of insects and small seeds. :

I once, however, watched a bird come out of the jungle and
flit about the bushes in the garden of the Forest bungalow at
Pattipola. It was intensely restless, never staying long in
one position. Several of its attitudes were those of a Warbler,
especially when it perched on a downward-hanging spray with
its feet wide apart, the lower leg stretched out, and the upper
bent almost double. The call is likened by Legge to the sound
““ quitze,” and is a sharp insect-like note. It also has a
rapid little warble.

The nest has been found by Captain Aldworth and by
myself on the edge of the jungles round the Horton Plains in
April. My nest was about 3 feet from the ground in a wild
box bush, which stood by the side of a path where it ran
through a little grassy space in the jungle. It was a fairly
massive deep cup of moss, lined inside with carefully woven
blades of soft dry grass. It contained two rather incubated
eggs. They were oval, and only slightly pointed at the small
end. The colour was whitish-pink, thickly powdered all over
with rather deeper purplish markings and with one or two
long hair-lines of deep brown at the larger end. Size ‘90 by
“07:

ORTHOTOMUS SUTORIUS SUTORIUS.
The Indian Tailor Bird.

Orthotomus sutorius (Oates, Vol. I., p. 366; Legge, p. 517).

Description.—Forehead and crown rufous, shading into
ashy on the nape; back, scapulars, rump, and upper tail
coverts yellowish-green ; wing quills and tail feathers lightish

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 77

brown, the latter with pale tips, a sub-terminal bar of darker
brown, and bases of the same colour as the back ; wing coverts
and innermost wing quills edged with the hue of the back, the
primaries with narrow pale edges ; lores, cheeks, throat, and
lower parts whitish, tinged with yellow ; the flanks and sides
of the chest ashy-gray; thighs rufous; a concealed black
patch on either side of the throat.

In the breeding season the male acquires an elongated tail,
the central pair of feathers being about 2°5, while the next
pair are also longer than in the off season,

Bill, flesh coloured, darker on the ridge ; iris reddish-yellow ;
eyelid rufescent yellow ; legs reddish flesh colour.

Length : Males out of breeding season about 4°3; wing
1°85; tail 2; tarsus °75; bill from gape °65.

Females are slightly smaller and with shorter tails ; wing
hae tall 25.

Distribution.—Found all over the Island from sea-level to
the summits of the hill ranges. Various sub-species occur
over the whole Indian Empire and extend into Siam and

China.

Habits —Equally common in town gardens, open country,
or thick jungle. It is generally seen in pairs flitting about in
bushes or garden foliage. The birds make their presence
known at all times of the day by their little grating “* tewick,
tewick”’ but they are wonderfully unobtrusive, and will often
build, and bring up their young just outside one’s verandah
without attracting any notice. They are particularly restless
when breeding. Their food is comprised mainly of small
insects. They may be found breeding almost throughout the
year, except during long periods of dry weather. The nest is a
beautiful little structure of vegetable cotton, fine grass, or
other soft materials lodged in a pocket made by sewing
together the edges of one or two broad leaves. In Ceylon
there are usually only three, very occasionally four, eggs.
The ground colour is generally pale bluish-green, at times
almost white or even pinkish, with fairly bold splashes of pale
brownish-red, chiefly at the larger end. Average size *63
by °45.

78 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CISTICOLA CURSITANS CURSITANS.
The Rufous Fantail Warbler.
Cisticola cursitans (Oates, Vol. I., p. 374; Legge, p. 531).

Description Males in breeding season: Forehead and
sides of crown uniform sepia brown, the feathers on the centre
of the crown and the nape more or less indistinctly edged
with rufous-gray ; the rest of the upper plumage deep brown
with broad tawny margins to all the feathers; rump uniform
rufous-tawny ; wings and wing coverts dark brown with
fulvous margins; tail deep brown with lighter edges, the
feathers with broad whitish tips and blackish sub-terminal
bands, which are seen most clearly on the under side ; above
the black bar is a rufous patch, which is mainly confined to
the inner web. Lores and eyebrow whitish ; face and ear
coverts rufescent, the latter with pale shafts; throat and
lower parts white, deepening on the flanks, under tail coverts,
and thighs into pale rust colour.

In the off season the head is more streaked, and the rufous
patches on the tail disappear.

Females at all seasons have streaky heads.

Birds from the hills are darker and more plainly streaked
than those from the low-country.

Bill flesh colour, the ridge and tip darker ; iris grayish-
yellow, or pale olive ; legs pinkish.

Length about 4°3; wing 2°1; tail 1°3; in the off season
about 1°5; tarsus *75; bill from gape °6.

Distribution.—Found in paddy fields, swamps, and grassy
country all over the Island from sea level to the Horton Plains.
Various races occur throughout India and over a great part
of the Old World.

Habits.—This tiny little Warbler may be met with in any
stretch of paddy field, grassy flat, or patana. It may be
recognized by its curious spasmodic flight and the sharp
little ‘‘ chick, chick ’’ which it utters while on the wing. On
alighting it threads its way very quickly through the grass
and is soon lost to sight. It appears to breed intermittently
from November until June or even later, and probably rears
several broods during the year. The nest is a deep tubular

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 79

little structure placed generally in the middle of a tussock
of grass ; the outer wall is laced on to the surrounding grass
blades, the interior is lined with vegetable down felted with
cobwebs or saliva.

The three or four eggs are white, thickly spotted, generally
in a zone round the larger end, with brownish-red and purple.
Average size ‘61 by °46.

FRANKLINIA GRACILIS.
Franklin's Wren Warbler.

Franklinia gracilis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 376): Prinia hodgsoni
(Legge, p. 523).

Description.—Male in breeding season: Upper plumage
dusky ash-gray, the rump slightly paler, the wing quills
dusky-brown with paler rufous edgings ; the tailfeathers with a
whitish tip and a sub-terminal dusky patch seen most clearly
on the under side ; cheeks and lower parts white ; the breast
ash colour.

In the off season the upper plumage and tail are rufous-
brown; the wings brown with broader rufous edges ; the
white of the lower parts is tinged with fulvous.

In females the pectoral band is lighter than in males, and
not quite complete in the centre. They are slightly smaller
than males.

Bill blackish ; iris reddish ; legs fleshy-yellow.

Length about 4:5; wing 1°75; tail 1:9 (in the off season
up to about 2°25); tarsus -7; bill from gape °55.

Distribution.—This species appears to be confined to the
south-east of the Island, its habitat being roughly bounded
by a line drawn from Batticaloa through Madulsima and the
southern slopes of the Uva range to the south coast, a few
miles east of Tangalla. It occurs over the greater part of the
Indian Empire.

Habits.—Decidedly a Bush and not a Grass Warbler. It
frequents the edges of low jungle, underwood by the sides of
paths, and deserted chenas in which the growth is springing
up. It frequently goes about in little family troops. The
flight is weak, and the usual note a feeble little twitter. The
breeding season appears to be about June. The nest is rather

80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

like that of a Tailor Bird, and is composed of fine grass stitched
with cobwebs, silk, or wool, into the cavity of a leaf which
is drawn round it. There seem to be three eggs ; the ground
colour is pale blue, in one type unspotted, in another finely
speckled with brownish or purplish-red, often in a zone round
the larger end. Average size °59 by °42.

SCHGNICOLA PLATYURA.

The Broad-tailed Grass Warbler.

Schenicola platyura (Oates, Vol. I., p. 384; Legge, p. 532).

Description.—In the breeding season the upper plumage
including the sides of the head and neck, is ruddy-brown ;
wing quills darker brown with brighter margins ; tail brown
with distinct dark cross-rays, the tips of the feathers paler ;
lores and an indistinct streak above the eye whitish ; chin,
throat, and centre of abdomen pure white ; rest of lower
plumage tawny-brown.

In the off season the upper plumage is duller, the whole
lower plumage is whitish fulvous, the colour being most
pronounced on the breast and flanks ; the under tail coverts
are darker and tipped with dull white.

Bill black above, pale horny below; iris olive-brown ;
legs and feet pale brownish.

Length 6; wing 2°6; tail 2°7; tarsus °9; bill from gape
65.

Distribution.—A single specimen from Ceylon is in the
British Museum. The exact locality is not known.

It is found on the west coast of India, from Belgaum to
Travancore, and appears to be resident throughout its range.

Habits.—Possibly a rare resident species, which should be
looked for skulking in the long grass at the edge of paddy
fields and on the outskirts of the jungle. Messrs. Cave and
Symons believe they once saw two specimens in lantana
scrub near the Government bungalows in Colombo. In
South India it breeds about September. The nest is a ball
of grass, with the entrance at one side, and is placed in a
tussock of grass close to the ground. The four eggs are white
spotted with brownish-red, and measure about +73 by °6,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, Sl

HYPOLAIS CALIGATA.

The Booted Tree Warbler.

Hypolais caligata (Oates, Vol. I., p. 393 ; not in Legge).

Description.—Upper plumage sandy-brown; rump rather
lighter ; wings and tail dusky-brown with paler margins,
the outer tail feathers lighter and with broader, almost pearl
white margins ; lores brownish ; a pale buff streak from the
nostrils over the eye; whole under plumage pale buff, the
throat and centre of abdomen nearly white.

Bill brown above, fleshy below ; iris dark brown; legs and
feet pale brown.

Length 5; wing 2°35; tail 1°95; tarsus °75; bill from
gape °9d5.

Distribution.—A recent addition to our list ; two specimens
which have been kindly identified for me by Mr. Stuart Baker
were procured by the Museum Collector on February 15, 1905,
one at Mannar and one at Giant’s Tank, 14 miles away. The
distance apart of these two localities would appear to indicate
an incursion of this species that year. Another specimen was
procured in the Mannar District in February, 1921. This
Warbler summers in Turkestan and Southern Siberia, and
winters generally in Northern and Central India.

Habits.—A slender little bird, which is of the same genus
as the English Icterine Warbler. It flits about the lower
branches of trees and among bushes in search of insects. A
good lookout should be kept in the north-west of the Island
from November to February for this and other rare migrant
Warblers. It is quite possible that specimens visit us from
time to time unnoticed.

SYLVIA ALTHAA.

Hume’s Lesser White-throated Warbler.

Sylvia althea (Oates, Vol. I., p. 397; not in Legge).

Description.—Upper plumage mainly grayish-brown ; the
crown rather dusky-gray, the back more tinged with brown ;
wings dark brown with paler edges, the innermost quills
almost the same hue as the back ; central tail feathers dusky-
brown with pale margins, the outermost pair a!most wholly

1] 6(17)21

82, SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

white, only the base of the inner web and the shaft being
brown, the remaining feathers have white tips, which are
often abraded ; the lores, round the eye, and the ear coverts
dark brown ; lower plumage, including the edge of the wing
and the wing-lining, ashy-white.

Bill brownish-black, slaty-blue at the base of the lower
mandible ; iris brown; legs and feet plumbeous black.

Length 6; wing 2°7; tail 2°5; tarsus °85; bill from
gape °6.

Distribution.—Breeds in Kashmir and winters on the plains
of India. There are several specimens in the Colombo Museum
obtained at Mannar in February.

Habits.—A rare migrant, which should be looked for from
November to February, especially in the north-west of the
Island. It appears to keep chiefly to trees, but also frequents
bushes, hedgerows, &c.

SYLVIA CURRUCA AFFINIS.

The Indian Lesser White-throated Warbler.

Sylvia affinis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 397; Legge, p. 538).

Description.—This form differs from S. althexa in being
slightly smaller and having the plumage earth-brown with a
grayish tinge ; the forehead, crown, and nape are brownish-
gray.

Bill dusky, slaty horn colour at the base of the lower
mandible ; iris yellowish-brown ; legs and feet plumbeous.

Length about 6; wing about 2°55; tail 2:2; tarsus °75 ;
bill from gape *55.

Distribution. The present sub-species is merely the
eastern form of the Lesser White Throat, which is found over
a great part of Europe. The eastern race breeds partly in
Kashmir, but mainly, apparently, in Siberia, wintering in
the plains of India. There is a specimen in the Colombo
Museum from the Eastern Province.

Habits.—Like the last species, this is apparently one of the
migrants which on rare occasions penetrate as far south as
Ceylon in the winter. It may be looked for from November
to February. The habits are much the same as those of the
last species.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 83

ACANTHOPNEUSTE NITIDUS NITIDUS.

The Green Willow Warbler.

Acanthopneuste nitidus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 413); Phylloscopus
nitidus (Legge, p. 551).

Description.—Upper plumage and sides of neck fairly bright
yellowish-green ; wing coverts, wings, and tail brown, edged
with the hue of the back, the greater coverts with pale yellow
tips, forming a slight wing bar; lores and behind the eye
olive ; a distinct yellow streak from the nostrils over the eye
to the nape ; under parts almost primrose yellow ; the wing-
lining brighter yellow.

Bill brown above, paler beneath ; iris dark brown; legs
and feet olive-gray.

Length about 5; wing 2°4; tail 2; tarsus °8; bill from
gape °6.

Distribution.—A fairly common visitor during the north-
east monsoon over the whole Island. It is found in winter
throughout practically the whole of India westwards ot
Calcutta. Its summer quarters are probably in Kashmir and
on the Himalayas.

Habits.—Generally seen in the upper branches of leafy trees,
being especially fond of jak trees. It keeps up a perpetual
little chirrup, and like the Flyecatchers, darts out from its
perch to capture passing insects.

ACANTHOPNEUSTE NITIDUS VIRIDANUS.

The Greenish Willow Warbler.

Acanthopneuste viridanus (Oates, Vol. L., p. 414); Phylloscopus
viridanus (Legge, p. 555).

Description.—Upper plumage dull olive-green, lighter on
the rump ; wing and tail quills brown, edged with olive-green :
the wing coverts with broader olive edges, and the greater
coverts with tips of the same colour, forming a wing bar ;
a yellowish stripe over the eye ; lores and behind the eye
brown ; ear coverts greenish-yellow ; lower plumage pale
grayish-yellow ; wing-lining pale yellow. In summer the
plumage is paler, and just before the moult the wing bar often
disappears owing to the abrasion of the tips of the coverts.

84 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill dusky-brown above, paler below ; iris dark brown ;
legs and feet brownish-gray.

Length 4°2; wing 2:2; tail 1°7; tarsus °7; bill from
gape *6.

Distribution.—This sub-species breeds in some part of the
Himalayas and winters over a great part of India. Stray
specimens probably visit Ceylon on occasions.

There is a single specimen in the Colombo Museum obtained
at Ratnapura in March, 1909.

Habits.—Much the same as those of thepreceding sub-species.
Specimens may be looked for during the north-east monsoon.

ACANTHOPNEUSTE MAGNIROSTRIS.

The Large-billed Willow Warbler.

Acanthopneuste magnirostris (Oates, Vol. I., p. 415); Phyllosco-
pus magnirostris (Legge, p. 553).

Description.—Upper plumage very dark olive-green, darkest
on the head ; wing coverts and wing brown, edged with rather
brighter olive-green, the median coverts have small and the
greater coverts broader yellowish-white tips, forming two
wing bars ; these bars tend to disappear towards the moulting
season owing to abrasion ; tail feathers brown, with olive-
green edges on the outer webs and pale tips on the lower
surface. A yellowish-white streak over the eye ; lores and
behind the eye brown ; lower plumage pale grayish-yellow ;
wing-lining pale yellow.

Bill dusky-brown above, paler beneath ; iris earth-brown ;
legs and feet bluish-gray. .

Length 5°4; wing 2:7; tail 2:2; tarsus -75; bill from
gape °*65.

Distribution.—Like other Willow Warblers, this species
breeds on the slopes of the Himalayas, and visits a great
portion of India in winter. During the north-east monsoon
it is common in many parts of the Island, especially in the
drier forest tracts. It also occurs on the hills.

Habits —Unlike the Green Willow Warbler, this species is
not found near civilization, but prefers the jungle, where it

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 85

keeps to the upper branches of trees. In its ways it resembles
the Flycatchers, and its call is a whistle of three notes, which
also rather resembles that of Tickell’s Flycatcher.

PRINIA SOCIALIS SOCIALIS.

The Ashy Wren Warbler.

Primia socialis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 450; Legge, p. 520); Prinia
brevicauda (Legge, p. 1216).

Description.—Upper plumage, including the head to just
below the eyes dark bluish ash colour ; wings and tail umber-
brown, the tail feathers are slightly cross-rayed and have
whitish tips and sub-terminal black patches seen most plainly
on the under side ; wing coverts umber-brown, more or less
washed with the hue of the back ; lower parts and edge of the
wing rusty-buff, the centre of the breast and throat almost
white, the thighs and flanks darker.

In the off season there is no great difference. The hue of
the back is a little more brown, the wing coverts less tinged
with ashy, and the tail about °3 inch longer. According
to Legge, females have a more or less distinct streak of buff
just above the lores and are paler underneath.

Bill black ; iris pale red or brownish-yellow ; legs and feet
fleshy-red.

Dimensions a little variable. Length in breeding season
about 4°75; wing 1°85; tail 1-8; tarsus +75; bill from gape
*6 ; in winter the tail measures up to 2° 1.

Distribution.—Fairly widely distributed over the Island,
but nowhere very numerous. The species divided into various
geographical races is found almost throughout India proper.

Habits.—This Wren Warbler is a permanent resident in
the long mana grass of the patanas in Uva and elsewhere. In
the low-country it wanders about a good deal, visiting fields
of guinea grass when they are in growth and disappearing when
they are cut. It is more permanent in the long grass round
tanks and paddy fields and on the edges of jungle. The flight
is feeble, but the birds are very active in threading their way
through long grass stalks. The note is a feeble little warble.
I have found the eggs in Uva in June and in the Puttalam

86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

District from December to March. The nest is said oceasion-
ally to resemble that of the Tailor Bird, but is generally a neat
little doomed structure of grass with the opening at one side.
It is placed not far from the ground among tall grass stems,
to which the outer wall islaced. The three eggs are of a glossy
mahogany-red, the colour being deeper at the large end.
Average size ‘63 by °47.

PRINIA SYLVATICA ROBUSTA.
The Jungle Wren Warbler.

Prinia sylvatica (Oates, Vol. L., p. 451); Drymeca valida (Legge,
p- 525); Drymeca jerdont (Legge, p. 527).

Description.—Upper plumage dusky-brown with an ashy
tinge on the sides of the neck ; the margins of the wing and
tail feathers a little brighter ; the tail feathers have a whitish
tip and a sub-terminal black spot, these marks show more
plainly on the under surface, and are almost absent in the
central pair ; the whole tail is faintly cross-rayed ; a whitish
streak on the lores; cheeks brownish, blending into the pale
buff of the chin and throat ; the buff tinge is a little deeper
on the chest and flanks ; abdomen whitish ; thighs and lower
tail coverts pale fulvous brownish.

In Ceylon the seasonal change appears to be much less
marked than in the North Indian races, in which the bill
becomes paler, the plumage brighter, and the tail distinctly
longer than in summer. Mr. Stuart Baker suggests that the
smaller seasonal change many be due to the extended breeding
season in Ceylon; our birds moulting at different times,
whenever they happen to have finished breeding. The only
difference I can find is that some specimens have paler bills
than others. These are Legge’s Drymeca jerdoni, and are
probably either young birds or specimens in the off season.

Bill black, at times brownish, with a paler lower mandible ;
iris hazel ; legs and feet fleshy.

Dimensions a little variable : length 6 to 6°4; wing 2°2 to
2°5; tail 2°4-2°8; tarsus -8; bill from gape °73.

Distribution.—The Jungle Wren Warbler is found almost
throughout India proper west of Caleutta. It is divided into
several sub-species, the Ceylon form being distinguished by

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 87

its much darker colour and smaller seasonal change. It is
found over most of the low-country and up to about 3,000 feet,
but on the Uva patanas it ascends to considerably higher
elevations.

Habits.—A common species in low grassy jungles, in scrub
by the sides of roads and paddy fields or in young chena
growth, patanas, fern lands, &c. The note is a fairly loud
chirp. The diet is insectivorous. The breeding season lasts
from October to June. The nest is 2 woven ball of grass, with
the opening at one side, and is placed low down in coarse grass
or a thorny bush. Three or occasionally four eggs are laid.
The ground colour is of fairly glossy pinkish-white, finely
freckled all over with pale red. These markings often concen-
trate into a more pronounced zone or cap at the large end. I
have seen two abnormal clutches and one egg of a normal
clutch, in which the ground colour was clear white and the red
freckles very faint andfew. Average size *71 by °51.

PRINIA INORNATA JERDONI.

The Southern Wren Warbler.

Prinia jerdoni (Oates, Vol. I., p. 453); Drymeca insularis
(Legge, p. 529).

Description. Upper plumage dull earthy-brown, the centre
of the feathers slightly darker ; forehead and forepart of
crown tinged with rufous ; rump much paler; wing and tail
feathers brown with pale fulvous edges; the central tail
feathers cross-rayed faintly ; tips of tail feathers white with
a sub-terminal black spot, which shows most plainly on the
under side ; a pale streak from the nostrils over the eye and a
narrow white ring round the eye ; lores at the corner of the
eye brownish ; lower plumage pale buff; the sides of the
chest and belly more strongly coloured ; flanks with a dusky
tinge ; thighs rusty-brown.

There is very little difference either in the plumage or in the
length of the tail in the off season, though, on the whole, the
plumage is slightly darker then. The seasonal change is far
more marked in North Indian forms.

Bill black, the basal half of the lower mandible pale horny ;
iris pale reddish or reddish-yellow ; legs and feet fleshy-pink.

88 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.,

Length about 5°25; wing 1°9; tail 2 to 2°3; tarsus ‘8;
bill from gape °65.

Distribution.—This species has a wide range over India and
Burma, and is divided into several sub-species. The Ceylon
form occurs also in South Travancore. With us it is common
round tanks and in paddy fields and grass lands in the low-
country ; on the hill patanas it occurs as high as 5,000 feet.

Habits.—The flight is weak and jerky, and the call a little
* kink, kink, kink.” The birds feed mainly on small insects
and larve. The breeding season starts with the earliest rains
in October or November, and lasts intermittently till June
or even later. The nest is a neat little purse-shaped structure
woven of thin strips of grass or reeds, the outer wall being
laced round the long stems of grass in which it is placed. The
opening is.at one side. In the low-country the site generally
chosen is a clump of reeds or long grass growing in or near
water. Three or four eggs are laid ; the ground colour is a
beautiful clear blue with bold blotches in various shades of
chocolate-brown and generally some interlacing lines of the
same shade at the larger end. Average size *60 by °45. tis
interesting to note that the ground colour of the eggs in the
different sub-species varies considerably. Those from Ceylon
are the deepest blue, further north the colour is not so rich ;
in Oudh it is white, and in Burma pink.

Family LANIID 2.

Shrikes.

The Laniide form a family group in which the plumage of
the young is cross-barred, generally both above and below.
All the members are insectivorous, and some of the larger
true Shrikes tackle small birds, mice, frogs, &c. The bill is
strong and generally both hooked and notched. Rictal
bristles are present. The nostrils are clear of the line of the
forehead, and are more or less overhung by bristles and hairs.
There are ten primary quills and twelve tail feathers. There
is only one moult a year in autumn.

Shrikes are found all over the world, except in South
America, but are most numerous in Africa,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 89

The family is divided into two sub-families :—

(1) Laniine, which comprises our true Shrikes, Pied Shrike,
Wood Shrike, Minivets, and Cuckoo Shrikes.

In all these forms the first primary is not excessively small,
and the folded wings do not reach beyond the middle of the tail.

(2) Artamine.—Swallow Shrikes—in which the forked ©
wings reach to the tip of the tail; the first primary is very
minute, and the second primary the longest in the wing.

Sub-family Laniine.
True Shrikes, &c.

This sub-family contains rather a varied series of forms,
most of which are wholly arboreal. The head is large for the
size of the bird, and the crown is broad and flat. They may
be divided into two groups. First, the true Shrikes, Pied
Shrike, and Wood Shrike, in which the sexes are alike, or do
not differ greatly, and the shafts of the rump feathers are soft.
This group includes five species found in Ceylon: Three true
Shrikes with predaceous bills and a distinctive mask-like, dark
band across the face from the nostrils to the ear coverts ; the
tiny Black and White Pied Shrike with a broad flat bill and
the habits of a Flycatcher ; and the Wood Shrike an incon-
spicuously coloured little bird, with a strong bill well hooked
and notched. The second group, in which the sexes, as a rule,
are markedly different, and the shafts of the rump feathers
are stiffened, contains four Ceylon species, the two gaily
coloured little Minivets and two Cuckoo Shrikes. The latter
are not so gaudily coloured and include one species, of the
genus Graucalus, which is our largest Shrike. The sexes in
this species do not differ greatly.

Key to Ceylon Laniine.

I.—Shaft of rump feathers soft ; sexes similar or almost so.
A.—Outer tail feathers much shorter than inner ;
wing pointed.

(a) Bill deep and narrow, the tip well hooked
and notched ; a conspicuous dark band from
the nostrils through the eye to the ear coverts.
Genus Lanius.

12 6(17)21

90 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(1) Length about 9; forehead black ; crown
and back pale gray.

LI. schach erythronotus (Rufous-backed
Shrike).

(2) Length about 7°5; forehead white ;

crown rufous, and darker than the back.
L. cristatus (Brown Shrike).

(3) Length 8; forehead and front of crown
grayish-white ; back of crown grayish-
brown, like the back.

L. lucionensis (Philippine Shrike).
(b) Bill broad and flat, not greatly hooked ; size

small ; length not quite 5:5.

(1) Cap of head and back glossy black.

Hemipus picatus picatus (Black-backed Pied
Shrike).

B.—Tail square ; wing blunt ; bill strong, the tip well
hooked and notched.
(1) Length about 6°25; upper plumage almost
uniform ashy-gray.
Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Common Wood
Shrike).

If.—Shaft of rump feathers spiny ; sexes generally markedly
dissimilar ; wing pointed.

A.—Outer tail feathers less than half length of tail ;
upper tail coverts fiery red, or bright yellow ; bill
strong, legs weak. Genus Pericrocotus.

(1) Length 7°75; upper tail coverts red in
males, yellow in females.
P. flammeus (Orange Minivet).
(2) Length just under 6; upper tail coverts
red in both sexes.
P. peregrinus malabaricus (Small Minivet).

B.—Outer tail feathers more than three-quarters
length of tail; upper tail coverts some shade
of gray.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 91

(1) Length 7°75; bill comparatively weak ;
males: head black, back slate gray ;
females : upper plumage uniform brown-
ish-gray.

Campophaga sykest (Black-headed Cuckoo
Shrike).

(2) Length 10°25; bill massive ; sexes almost
similar ; upper plumage almost uniform
slate gray.

Graucalus macii (Large Cuckoo Shrike).

LANIUS SCHACH ERYTHRONOTUS.

The Rufous-backed Shrike.

Lanius erythronotus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 464); Lanius caniceps
(Legge, p. 383).

Description.—Forehead and a broad band through the eye
to the ear coverts black ; crown, nape, hindneck, sides of neck,
back, and scapulars pale gray, with a white edging, more
pronounced in some birds than in others, adjoining the frontal
band ; the ends of the scapulars more or less tinged with pale
rufous ; rump, upper tail coverts, and flanks rust colour ;
wing coverts and wing quills black, more or less edged with
white or pale rufous, this is most noticeable on the inner quills ;
the edge of the wing and a band at the base of the inner
primaries white ; the three central pairs of tail feathers black,
the rest brown with paler edges ; chin, throat, and upper breast
white ; abdomen and lower tail coverts tinged with rust
colour.

In young birds the upper plumage is pale sandy, darkening
into rufous on the rump, and with wavy bars of brown ; the
central tail feathers are brown, tipped with rufous, and the
band through the eye is blackish-brown.

Bill black ; iris hazel ; legs and feet blackish-brown.

Length 9; wing 3°6; tail 4°5; tarsus 1°05; bill from
gape ‘9.

Distribution Restricted to the Jaffna peninsula and the
north-west of the Island. The species ranges over the whole
of the Indian Empire to China and the Malay Archipelago,
and is divided into various geographical races.

92 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits.—Fairly common in scrub jungle near the sea through-
out its range. It is rarely found far inland. It perches on
the tops of trees and bushes, darting down to the ground on
its prey, which consists chiefly of grasshoppers, and returning
to its perch. It also feeds on frogs, which it impales on thorns
in the regular Butcher Bird fashion. It is noisy and restless
in the mornings and evenings, uttering its harsh cry and flying
from bush to bush. The birds breed from February till about
May, building a cup-shaped nest of rough grass, stalks, and
slender twigs, lined with rootlets or other soft material, and
placed ina thorn bush. The eggs appear to be four in number.
The ground colour is pale greenish or creamy-white, with
blackish-brown spots, which frequently form a zone at the
larger end. Average size ‘91 by °70.

LANIUS CRISTATUS.

The Brown Shrike.

Lanius cristatus (Oates, Vol. L., p. 468; Legge, p. 377).

Description.—Adult male : Forehead and a streak over the
eye white ; a broad black band from the nostrils through the
eye to the ear coverts ; the rest of the upper plumage and the
lesser wing coverts reddish-brown, the colour being brightest
on the crown, nape, and sides of the neck; the larger wing
coverts and the wing quills dark brown with rufous edges,
which are broadest on the secondaries ; tail feathers reddish-
brown with paler tips; cheeks, chin, and throat white ; rest
of lower plumage fulvous.

In females the black streak through the eye is smaller an
brownish. :

In young birds on their first migration the crown and back
are of the same rufous brown hue ; the lower surface is largely
marked with wavy, narrow bars, especially on the breast and
flanks ; these bars disappear very gradually, most birds
retaining slight traces of barring on the flanks.

The tip of the bill and the greater part of the upper mandible
blackish, the remainder pale bluish ; iris dark brown ; legs
and feet bluish-gray to blackish slate-colour.

Length 7:5; wing 3°45; tail 3°4; tarsus 1; bill from
gape *85.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 93

Distribution.—A common migrant during the north-east
monsoon. It spreads over nearly all parts of the Island, but
is most numerous near the sea, especially in the dry zone.
The species has a wide range, breeding in Tibet, Mongolia,
and Siberia, and wintering in Southern Asia, from Southern
China to India.

Habits—Found in scrub land, hedgerows, the borders of
jungle, &c. A restless bird, perching on the tops of bushes
and uttering a harsh ill-tempered cry. It feeds chiefly on
insects, especially grasshoppers, but occasionally takes small
birds.

LANIUS LUCIONENSIS.

The Philippine Shrike.

Lanius lucionensis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 469 ; Legge, p. 378).

Description.—Adult male: The forehead, the front of the
crown, and a streak over the eye grayish-white ; a broad
black band from the nostrils through the eye to the ear coverts ;
hinder part of crown, back, scapulars, and sides of neck grayish-
brown; rump and upper tail coverts more rufous; wing
coverts and quills blackish-brown with pale rufous edgings,
broadest on the innermost quills ; tail feathers rufous-brown,
with paler margins ; chin, throat, and sides of neck white ;
rest of lower parts pale buff.

In females the black streak through the eye is smaller and
the under parts paler.

In young birds the upper parts are brownish-rufous with
faint dark bars on the plumage ; the lower parts are wavily
barred with brown.

The tip of the bill and most of the upper mandible dark
brown, remainder paler; iris brown; legs and feet dull
lead blue.

Length 8; wing 3°5; tail 3°5; tarsus °9; bill from
gape °87.

Distribution —A very rare north-east monsoon migrant ;
it appears to have been seen in Nuwara Eliya and one or two
other localities, and there is a fine specimen in the Colombo
Museum taken at Haldummulla in February, 1906. This
Shrike breeds in Northern China and winters chiefly in the

94 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Philippines and Malay Peninsula. It occurs in the extreme
South of Burma and in the Andamans, where it appears to be
an occasional resident.

Habits —Very much the same as those of the last species.

HEMIPUS PICATUS PICATUS.
The Black-backed Pied Shrike.

Hemipus picatus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 471 ; Legge, p. 375).

Description.—Crown, sides of head to a line a little below
the eye, and most of upper plumage deep black, slightly glossed
with green ; a more or less incomplete white collar across the
back of the neck ; the feathers of the lower back and rump
long and fluffy, the former mixed with and the latter broadly
tipped with white ; wing coverts black with a white bar
across the median coverts and the inner greater coverts ;
wing quills black with white edges on some of the secondaries ;
tail black, all save the middle feathers tipped with white, on
the outer feathers the white extends to a large portion of the
outer webs ; chin, cheeks, sides of neck, vent, and under tail
coverts white ; rest of lower parts pinkish-ash colour.

In Ceylon specimens the females appear similar to the males.

Bill black ; iris reddish-brown ; legs and feet blackish.

Length 5:3; wing 2°3; tail 2°25; tarsus -45; bill from
gape °7.

Distribution.—This small Shrike ranges over a large part
of India and Burma, and extends east and south-east to Siam
and Cochin-China. The sub-species found in Ceylon also
occurs in the Indian Peninsula. It is widely distributed over
most of the Island wherever there is forest or heavy jungle,
but is commonest in the hills.

Habits —Generally found in pairs in tall trees near the edge
of forest or high jungle. It is plentiful about many up-country
estates, where it is commonly mistermed the Black and White
Flycatcher owing to its habit of darting out from its perch
and catching its food, which consists entirely of insects, on the
wing, much in the manner of the true Flycatchers. It is
really far from shy, but owing to its fondness for the top
branches of tall trees it frequently escapes notice. The con-
stantly uttered little call is likened by Legge to the syllables

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 95

“ tcheetiti, tcheetiti, tcheetiti—chee.’’ The breeding season
probably extends from about February to May. The nest,
which is hard to find, is a neatly made shallow little cup of
grass and fine roots, covered outside with cobweb and flakes
of lichen, and lined inside with soft fibres. It is placed in a
fork or on top of a branch at some height from the ground.
There are generally three eggs. They are elongated ovals in
shape. The ground colour is greenish-white mottled with
darker green and brown. Average size (of South Indian
eggs) 69 by °49.

TEPHRODORNIS PONDICERIANUS.
The Common Wood Shrike.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 475); Lephrodor-
nis pondiceriana (Legge, p. 372).

Description.—Upper plumage from forehead to tail coverts
dark slaty-gray to ashy-brown, the tint varying with indivi-
duals ; rump feathers tipped with white, upper tail coverts
very dark brown ; great wing coverts and wing quills rather
more brown than the back, the inner quills with pale edges ;
tail feathers dark brown, the two outer pairs white, except at
the base and tip ; a more or less distinct whitish streak above
the eye and a band of dark brown from the nostril through the
eye to the ear coverts ; this is bordered below by another
whitish streak, which includes the chin and centre of the throat;
rest of lower parts ash colour, which gradually merges on the
abdomen into the white of the lower tail coverts.

According to Legge the browner specimens come from the
north, but in the Colombo Museum there is a gray bird from
the Northern Province, and both gray and brown birds from
the Central and Southern Provinces ; the difference appears
to be largely individual.

Nestling birds are paler, are conspicuously spotted with
white on the head, and have wavy markings on the wings ;
these markings gradually disappear.

Bill dark horn colour, lighter beneath ; iris yellowish-brown;
legs and feet dusky-slate colour.

Length 6°2; wing 3:3; tail 2°5; tarsus °7; bill from
gape °9.

96 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution.—Rather locally distributed, but occurs over
the low-country and up to about 5,000 feet in the hills. It
ranges over practically the whole of the Indian Empire. |

Habits.—Generally found in low spreading trees, such as
kaju or suriya, round village compounds, by the roadside, on
the edge of the jungle, &c. It is, for instance, fairly abundant
in the avenues of suriya trees along the roads round Puttalam.
It keeps very much to the shelter of the trees, hopping about
among the leafy branches in search of insects. The cry is
rather a plaintive little “weet, weet, weet.”

The breeding season is from February to June. The nest
is a very shallow cup, carefully felted into a fork, or on to the
top of a bough, and so covered externally with lichen and cob-
webs as to seem a mere natural excrescence of the bark. The
lining is composed of soft fibres. The eggs, three in number,
are dumpy ovals of pale grayish or greenish-white, rather
thickly blotched with grayish-purple and brown. Average
“size °77 by °60.

PERICROCOTUS FLAMMEUS.

The Orange Minivet.

Pericrocotus flammeus (Oates, Vol. I, p. 482 ; Legge, p. 363).

Description.—Adult male: The whole head, throat, back,
and scapulars glossy black ; lower parts from breast down-
wards, rump, and upper tail coverts brilliant orange-red ;
wing coverts and quills black with a broad band of the same
colour as the rump running across the quills from the outer
web of the fifth primary ; a spot of the same fiery hue on the
ends of the inner secondaries and of the greater coverts ;
central tail feathers and the bases of the others black,
remainder of tail fiery orange-red ; thighs dusky-black.

Females: On the wings and tail the orange-red markings
of the male are replaced by bright yellow ; forehead and entire
under plumage also bright yellow ; rump and upper tail coverts
greenish-yellow ; top of head, hind-neck, back, scapulars,
and lesser wing coverts dark bluish-gray ; lores almost black.

Immature males resemble females; as they grow older
they gradually assume adult plumage, birds in the transition
state having a very patchy appearance.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 97

Bill, legs, and feet black; iris reddish-brown in males,
brown in femaies.

Length about 7°75; wing 3:55; tail 3°55; tarsus °6;
bill from gape °8.

Distribution.—Found both in the hills, where it is fairly
common, and in the low-country, where it is local. Both this
and the next species appear to wander about a good deal,
and some birds may be migrants from India, where this species
appears to be confined to the West2rn Ghauts.

Habits.—May be met with in the tops of trees in hill forests
and patana woods. In the low-country ii usually keeps to the
big trees along river banks and round tanks. Out of the
breeding season it usually occurs in little troops of one cock
and several hens. The nest has been found in Uva in Decem-
ber, but the breeding season probably continues throughout
the north-east monsoon. The nest is rather a thick-walled
little cup composed of the finest twigs and coated externally
with cobwebs and lichen. It is generally placed high up in a
tree and is glued into a smallfork, or on to the top of a slender
bough. The eggs, apparently two in number, are of pale sea
green, marked with pale yellowish-brown and grayish-purple.
Average size (of Indian eggs) *90 by °67.

PERICROCOTUS PEREGRINUS MALABARICUS.

The Small Minivet.
Pericrocotus peregrinus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 487; Legge, p. 366).

Description.—Male: Forehead, top of head, hind-neck,
back, and lesser wing coverts dark ashy-gray ; lores, cheeks,
ear coverts, chin, and throat black; rump and upper tail
coverts scarlet, with generally a whitish band at the junction
with the gray of the back ; the greater wing coverts and wing
quills black, with a band of orange red across the inner
primaries and the secondaries ; the three central pairs of tail
feathers black, the next pair with a broad orange red tip, the
outer feathers orange red, except at the base; breast and
flanks scarlet, the hue paling across the abdomen to orange-
yellow on the vent and lower tail coverts,

13 6(17)21

98 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Female: The gray parts of the upper plumage are more
ashy ; wings and tail brownish, with much paler markings
than in the male ; lower parts whitish-gray on the throat and
breast, gradually changing into faint orange-yellow on the
abdomen and lower tail coverts.

Bill black; iris brown; legs and feet black in males,
brownish-black in females.

Length 5°9; wing 2°65; tail 2°65; tarsus -6; bill from
gape °6.

Distribution.—This Minivet, divided into several geographi-
cal races, ranges over practically the whole Indian Empire and
eastwards into Siam and Cochin-China. The present sub-
species occurs in Ceylon and Malabar. It is found in suitable
localities over most of the Island, but is more abundant in the
north than in the damper south-west. It is fairly well
distributed in the hills.

Habits—Goes about in small troops, and has much the
same habits as the preceding species, but is generally met with
close to civilization, and not in the interior of forests. It is
occasionally seen in Colombo. It feeds chiefly on larve and
small insects. It appears to breed in April and May. The
nest isa tiny edition of that of the Orange Minivet, and is placed
in the same situations. The eggs are greenish-white, marked
with brown and purple, and measure about *7 by °52.

CAMPOPHAGA SYKESI.

The Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike.

Campophaga sykesi (Oates, Vol. I., p. 493); Lalage sykesii
(Legge, p. 369).

Description.—Male : Head, chin, throat, neck all round,
and upper breast black ; back, scapulars, lesser wing coverts,
and upper tail coverts slate gray, the tail coverts with paler
margins ; median and greater wing coverts black with gray
at the tips and on the outer webs ; primary coverts black with
& narrow white edge on the outer webs ; primary quills black
with narrow white edges to the outer and a large white patch
on the inner webs; secondaries with broader white borders
and with a certain amount of gray on the outer webs of the

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 99

innermost quills; the central pair of tail feathers gray, the
rest black, tipped with white ; chest and flanks pale gray ;
abdomen, vent, and lower tail coverts white.

Female: The upper plumage, including the lesser wing
coverts, brownish-gray ; the rump and upper tail coverts
rather lighter and with narrow dusky bars; the rest of the
wing coverts and wing quills dusky-brown with fulvous
white edges, the primaries with a large basal patch of the
same colour on the inner webs ; central tail feathers brownish-
gray, darkening to brown at the tips, and with faint pale
margins, the remainder blackish-brown with white tips;
ear coverts streaked with white ; cheeks, sides of neck, and
lower plumage fulvous white, with numerous narrow dusky-
brown bars, which disappear on the abdomen; vent and
under tail coverts white.

In nestlings the lower surface is more closely barred than in
the female ; the upper plumage is slaty-brown, each feather
with a white tip and a dusky sub-terminal bar.

Bill black ; iris brownish-red in males, brown in females ;
legs and feet black in males, brownish-slate in females.

Length 7°5; wing 3:9; tail 3; tarsus ‘8; bill from
gape °85.

Distribution.—Found over the greater part of the low-
country, but most common in the maritime districts of the
south-eastand north. Itascends the hills to about 4,000 feet,
and occasionally wanders to higher elevations. It occurs over
the greater part of India proper.

Habits.—May be met with in a variety of situations, either
in forest, low scrub jungle, hedgerows, or compounds. It is
occasionally seen in Colombo. Out of the breeding season the
males are solitary, the females and young associate in small
troops. The birds hunt diligently among the foliage for
larve and soft insects. Males have a clear. whistle, females
a chirping note. The breeding season appears to be about
April. The. nest is a small shallow cup made of fine twigs
bound together with cobwebs and placed in the fork of a tree,
often at the end of a horizontal branch. The two eggs are
greenish-white, rather streakily marked with pale brown, and
measure about *86 by °*62.

100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

GRAUCALUS MACII.
The Large Cuckoo Shrike.

Graucalus macit (Oates, Vol. L, p 496); Graucalus macii
(Legge, p. 360).

Description.—Male : nostrils, lores, the feathers round the
gape, and under the eye black ; ear coverts blackish ; upper
plumage, face, and sides of neck slate-gray, sometimes with a
bluish tinge ; rump and upper tail coverts paler and with
whitish tips ; chin, throat, breast, and upper abdomen rather
lighter gray, paling into white on the lower abdomen and
vent ; wing-lining and under tail coverts white ; wing coverts
blackish-gray with black shafts; wings black, the quills
edged with white, and the outer webs of the inner feathers
largely gray ; central tail feathers ashy-gray, darker at the
end and with pale tips, remainder black with grayish-white
tips, the feathers towards the centre with gray bases. Most
birds retain traces of darker cross-bars on the under surface.

In females the nostrils, lores, and ear coverts are brownish
and the general tone of the plumage lighter.

In immature birds the lower parts are more or less heavily
barred ; in very young birds the upper plumage is tipped and
margined with pale fulvous, and the lower parts are nearly
pure white.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris reddish-brown.

Length about 10°25; wing 5:9; tail 4°4; tarsus 1°05;
bill from gape 1°35.

Distribution —Not very abundant, but fairly widely
distributed in the drier forest tracts of the low-country.
It also occurs in Uva and at other medium elevations, where
the rainfall is not too heavy. It ranges over practically the
whole of the Indian Empire.

Habits —Rather a shy forest bird, generally found in tall
trees, especially in the neighbourhood of rivers and tanks.
Single specimens are to be met with, but immature birds
generally associate in small troops. The cry is a harsh
“ kur-eech.” The food consists of caterpillars, beetles, &c.
It breeds apparently in July and August, chiefly in palu trees.
The nest, which is small for the size of the bird, is a shallow
cup of small twigs, lined inside with grass and leaves, and

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 101

felted with cobwebs to the top of a branch, or in a fork high up
in the tree. The three eggs are pale green, marked with
brown and purple, and measure about 1°22 by °9.

Sub-family Artamine.
Genus Artamus.
Swallow Shrikes.

These are birds of rather swallow-like form with long wings,
which enable them to spend much of their time in the air.
They feed on insects, which they capture invariably on the
wing. They are easily recognized by the strong conical pale
blue bill, which is slightly curved and pointed, but neither
hooked nor notched. The nostril is nearly circular and
almost entirely exposed. The first primary is very minute,
but the second reaches to the tip of the wing. The tail is
short and square; the legs and feet weak. The plumage is
plain, and there is no difference between the sexes. Swallow
Shrikes are found from India to Australia. Only one species
occurs in Ceylon.

ARTAMUS FUSCUS.
The Ashy Swallow Shrike.

Artamus fuscus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 498; Legge, p. 666).

Description.—Lores black ; head and hind-neck slate gray ;
back, scapulars, and rump smoky-brown, with a slight reddish
tinge in fresh specimens ; upper tail coverts whitish ; wings
and wing coverts dark slate gray, the larger primaries almost
dull brown on the exposed portions, all the quills with a very
narrow whitish margin on the tips and inner webs ; tail dark
gray, almost brown, with a whitish tip; chin, cheeks, and
fore-neck slate gray, the chin and cheeks tinged with black ;
lower parts from the chest downwards dove gray with a
vinaceous tinge, paling to white on the inner tail coverts,
which are crossed with narrow, wavy, gray bars.

In young birds the upper plumage is duller, and the feathers
have faint paler margins ; the secondaries and inner primaries
have broad white tips.

Bill milky-blue, blackish at the tip; iris dark brown ; legs
and feet slate colour.

102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Length 7°3; wing 5:2; tail 2°25; tarsus °65; bill from
gape °95.

Distribution.—Widely distributed over the low-country.
It is fairly common in Uva, but rarer in the Central ranges.
In some districts it appears to be a partial migrant. It occurs
throughout the greater part of the Indian Empire, and extends
into Siam and China.

Habits —May be found in small flocks round paddy fields,
on open hillsides, tree-studded patanas, or clearings in the
jungle. The birds perch in rows on tall branches, sallying out
in twos or threes after insects, which are captured on the wing,
or soaring for some time in the air and then returning to their
perch. The breeding season is from February till about April.
The nest is a shallow saucer of grass and roots loosely put
together and placed generally at the junction of a palm frond
with the stem, but at times in hollow trees, or on the surface
of a large horizontal branch. There are usually three eggs,
rather narrow ovals, slightly pointed at one end, The ground
colour is creamy-white, marked with rusty-brown. Average
size ‘94 by °68.

Family ORIOLID”. -

Genus Oriolus.
Orioles.

With the Orioles we come to a group of families in which
the young are streaked. Only one genus is found in India,
and only one species is at all common in Ceylon, a second
having occurred only as a rare straggler. In our Ceylon forms
the adults are easily recognized by their rich yellow and black
plumage. The young pass through several stages from the
nestling phase, in which the upper feathers are greenish, tipped
with yellow, and the lower parts white, streaked with brown,
to the full adult dress.

The bill is about the same length as the head, the upper
mandible is slightly curved, with the tip notched and hooked,
the nostrils are horizontal slits, which stand clear of. the
feathers at the base of the bill, the rictal bristles are well
pronounced. The wings are rather long and pointed, the first

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 103

primary is more than half the length of the second. The tail
is of medium length and slightly rounded, the tarsus is short,
but fairly stout, and is covered in front by transverse scales.
Orioles are arboreal in their habits, and feed on fruits and
berries. Their notes are rich and flute-like.

Key to Ceylon Oriolide.

A.—Crown of head rich yellow.
Oriolus indicus indicus (Black-naped Oriole).

B.—Entire head, throat, and upper breast black.
Oriolus luteolus luteolus (Indian Black-headed Oriole).

ORIOLUS INDICUS INDICUS.

The Black-naped Oriole.

Oriolus indicus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 502); Oriolus diffusus (Legge,
p. 355).

Description.—Male: Lores, a band through the eye and the
nape black; remainder of body plumage bright yellow ;
wing coverts bright yellow, the inner webs of the greater
coverts and the whole of the primary coverts, except the tips,
black ; primaries black with yellowish-white tips and margins,
the secondaries with wider margins, and the innermost quills
almost wholly yellow ; tail feathers black with yellow tips,
which increase in width on the outer feathers.

In females the yellow of the back is tinged with green.

Bill pinky red; iris rich blood red; legs and feet lead
colour.

Length 9°75 ; wing 6; tail 4; tarsus 1; bill from gape 1°4.

Distribution.—Layard notes two specimens shot in Colombo,
the only Ceylon record. The species appears to be a migrant
found in winter over aconsiderable part of the Indian Peninsula
but nowhere common.

In Burma it is fairly abundant in Southern Pegu. The
summer quarters are in China and Mongolia.

Habits—Not much is on record concerning these, but it
appears to be a forest bird, and less partial to cultivated
districts than the next species.

104. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ORIOLUS LUTEOLUS LUTEOLUS.

The Indian Black-headed Oriole.

Oriclus melanocephalus (Oates, p. 506 ; Legge, p. 357).

Description.—Male : Head, chin, throat, and fore-neck jet
black ; remainder of body plumage rich yellow ; winglet
black ; primary coverts black with yellow tips; wing quills
black, the primaries with narrow yellowish tips and margins,
which are almost invisible on the first few quills ; secondaries
with broad diagonal tips of brighter yellow, which increase on
the innermost quills ; tail yellow, with a broad patch of black
on the four central feathers and a smaller black area on the
third pair.

In females the yellow of the back and breast is less bright
and generally tinged with green.

In nestlings the feathers of the upper plumage are greenish
with yellow tips, the lower plumage is white streaked with
brown. As soon as the young are fully fledged, the yellow
tips on the upper plumage disappear, the streaks on the lower
plumage turn black, and the whole plumage becomes more
yellow. The adult dress is assumed gradually from this stage.

Bill black in quite young birds, gradually changing to pink
in the adult ; iris brown in the young, crimson in adults ;
legs and feet dusky-bluish.

Length 9°5; wing 5; tail 3:2; tarsus 1; bil] from
gape 1°25.

Distribution.—This Oriole is found over the whole of India,
except the north-west; also in Burma, Ceylon, and the
Andamans. The present sub-species, from South India
and Ceylon, is distinguished by its smaller size, and the less
amount of yellow on the wing. It is found all over the Island,
wherever there are trees, either in gardens or forest, up to
about 6,000 feet and occasionally higher.

Habits.—It is by no means shy, and may be seen close to
human habitations. The breeding season extends throughout
the north-east monsoon, from October to May. The nest is a
deepish cup of grass and strips of bark, suspended by the
rim from a horizontal fork at the extremity of a leafy branch,
The eggs are two in number, very rarely three, They are

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 105

pointed ovals of a pinkish-white or pale cream colour, and
sparingly marked with spots of dark reddish-brown, occa-
sionally almost black. Average size 1-10 by -79.

Family EULABETID ®.

Genus Eulabes.
Grackles.

The Grackles, or Hill Mynahs, comprise two Ceylon species,
which in many respects resemble large Mynahs. They differ,
however, sufficiently to justify their separation into another
family, the chief outwardly distinctive feature being the
fleshy yellow wattles on the nape. Both Ceylon species have
a brilliantly glossy black plumage with a patch of white on the
wing. The bill is stout and somewhat curved, the oval
nostrils are rather sunken and lie just clear of the feathers at
the base of the bill. Rictal bristles are present, but are not
very pronounced. The first primary is minute and the wings
are long, but rather blunt ; the tail is short and nearly square,
the tarsi are stout and the feet strong. The call is a melodious
whistle, and the birds can be taught to speak or to whistle a
few bars of a tune. They are strictly arboreal and feed on
fruit.

Key to Ceylon Eulabetide.

A.—A patch of bare skin under the eye; base of lappets
prolonged forward into a V-shaped ridge.
Hulabes religiosa religiosa (Southern Grackle).

B.—No bare skin under the eye; base of lappets not
prolonged forward.

Eulabes ptilogenys (Ceylon Grackle).

EULABES RELIGIOSA RELIGIOSA,

The Southern Grackle.
Eulabes religiosa (Oates, Vol. I., p. 510; Legge, p. 682).
Description.—Whole plumage rich black, glossed with
purple on the head, cheeks, and hind-neck, and with greenish
on the rest of upper parts and throat; the feathers of the

14 6(17)21

106 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

wing coverts and lower parts are glossed on the margins with
green, and those of the side of the breast with bronze and
purple ; a patch of white on the first eight primary quills.

The wattling consists of a stripe of bare yellow skin running
backwards from the eye to the side of the nape, where it
coalesces with a similar stripe from the side of the crown to
form a broad lappet ; there is also a square, naked patch
just under the eye.

In young birds the lappets are only slightly developed and
the plumage is more or less devoid of gloss.

Bill orange-yellow ; iris brown, the outer edge white with
darker mottlings ; legs and feet lemon-yellow.

Length about 9°75; wing 5:7; tail 2°8; tarsus 1°2; bill
from gape 1°4.

Distribution.—Found rather locally through the wet and
medium zones up to about 1,500 feet. It occurs in the
hilly and well-wooded portions of South India.

Habits.—This species is found in well-wooded country, on
the borders of open spaces, round tanks, by river banks, &c.,
but is absent from the heart of heavy forest. It is rather
capricious in its distribution, and seldom wanders from its
usual haunts. The cry is a shrill whistle, higher and more
metallic than that of the next species. It is generally seen
in pairs or small parties in the tops of tall trees, where it feeds
on fruit and berries. The breeding season appears to be
from June till about August. The nest is placed in a natural
cavity in a tree, or in the old nest hole of a Barbet or Wood-
pecker. The bottom is scantily lined with a few dead leaves,
&e. The two eggs are of light greenish-blue blotched with
purple and chocolate brown, Average size (of South Indian
eggs) 1°3 by °88.

EULABES PTILOGENYS.
The Ceylon Grackle.

Eulabes ptilogenys (Oates, Vol. I., p. 513; Legge, p. 685).

Description.—Whole plumage black, glossed mainly with
purple ; a patch of white at the base of the first six or seven

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 107

primaries. The wattling is confined to two lappets of rich
yellow skin, which spring from the sides of the nape. In old
birds these lappets meet at the base.

Bill orange-red, the lower mandible for half its length and
the upper mandible from the gape to the nostrils black ; iris
in males grayish-white mottled with brown, in females white
or yellowish-white ; legs and feet gamboge yellow.

Length 10°75; wing 6; tail 2°75; tarsus 1°35; bill from
gape 1°4.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. It occurs in the well-
wooded parts of the main hill ranges from about 6,500 feet to
1,500 feet. In the forests westward of the Adam’s Peak
range it appears to descend almost to sea level.

Habits.—Much the same as those of the last species. The
eall is rather less shrill. The nest and eggs also closely resem-
ble those of the Southern Grackle, and measure about 1°30 by
98.

Family STuRNID.

Starlings and Mynahs.

The Starlings and Mynahs form a large group, with a marked
family resemblance, found over a great portion of the Old
World. Some species are migratory, others resident, but
nearly all are gregarious. They are not nearly so arboreal as
the Grackles, the greater portion of their food being obtained
on the ground. The bill is generally moderately stout, only
gently curved, or almost straight ; but there is a distinct
downward bend of the mouth near the gape.

There are no rictal bristles ; the nostrils are rather narrow
and almost horizontal ; they stand clear of the line of the
forehead, but the base of the bill is feathered down to their
margins. The feathers of the crown and nape are elongated
and in some species form a distinct crest. The first primary
is minute. The tarsus is stout, and the feet large. Four
genera, each represented by a single species, are found in
Ceylon, and one genus, Stwrnornis, is peculiar to the Island.
In the migrant genus Pastor the wing is long and pointed, the
tail short and square ; in the other three resident forms the
wing is blunt and the tail more rounded.

108 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Key to Ceylon Sturnde.

A.—A noticeable long crest in adults ; no nude skin on side
of head.
(1) Wings pointed ; throat and breast in adults black.
Pastor roseus (Rose-coloured Starling).
(2) Wings blunt ; lower parts reddish buff.
Temenuchus pagodarum (Brahminy Mynah).

B.—Feathers of crown and nape only moderately elongated ;
a patch of bare skin on side of head.

(1) Throat and fore-neck gray with white shaft-
streaks ; bare skin confined to a triangle behind
the eye.

Sturnornis senex (White-headed Mynah).

(2) Throat and fore-neck black ; a large naked patch
behind and beneath the eye.

Acridotheres tristis melanosternus (Common Ceylon
Mynah).

PASTOR ROSEUS.

The Rose-coloured Starling.
Pastor roseus (Oates, Vol. I., p. 518; Legge, p. 673).

Description.—Summer : Head, neck, throat, upper breast,
wings, and tail glossy black ; feathers of the wing-lining black,
edged with white ; thighs, a patch on each flank, and the
under-tail coverts black, tipped with white ; rest of plumage
clear rose colour.

In winter the black feathers of the head, crest, neck, and
throat are tipped with buff; the feathers of the back and
breast are rosy at the base and brown at the ends ; while the
crest is not nearly so well developed ; at the end of winter the
dull margins of the feathers wear off.

Females appear to be slightly paler, as a rule, and with a
shorter crest.

In nestling birds the whole plumage is sandy-brown, the
feathers of the crown have darker centres, and there is no
crest ; the lower plumage is paler; the foreneck is streaked
with brown; the wing and tail quills are dark brown, edged

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 109

with pale buff ; after the first autumn moult the wings and
tail become black, a patch of black appears on the upper breast,
and the rosy tinge begins to appear on the back, breast, and
abdomen ; the full adult plumage does not appear to be
assumed until the end of the second autumn.

Bill pinkish flesh-colour, the ridge brown; iris brown ;
legs and feet yellowish-brown.

Dimensions rather variable: length about 9; wing 5:2;
tail 3; tarsus 1°25; bill from gape 1°15.

Distribution.—A rather uncertain migrant. It appears to
breed in the Balkan Peninsula, in Western Asia from Turkestan
to Asia Minor, migrating rather irregularly over a great part
of Europe and Asia as far east and south as India and
Ceylon.

Habits.—Oceasionally a large flock visits the west and
north of the Island; one such flock came to Puttalam for
some weeks at the end of 1917. During their stay they
frequent open grassy spaces and fields, feeding on grass
seeds, grain, and insects. The whole flock roosts together in
trees. The birds are generally extremely wary and difficult to
approach.

TTEMENUCHUS PAGODARUM.

The Brahminy Mynah.,

Temenuchus pagodarum (Oates, Vol. L., p. 533); Sturnia
pagodarum (Legge, p. 677).

Description.—Forehead, crown, and the long crest on the
nape glossy black ; face, neck all round, and lower parts
down to the abdomen reddish-buff, the feathers of the neck,
throat, and breast elongated and with paler centres ; upper
plumage from the neck, wing coverts, and inner wing quills
brownish-gray ; primary quills rusty-black ; tail brown with
broad white tips, except the middle pair of feathers, which are
dove gray shaded with brown ; vent, thighs, and under tail
coverts pearly-white.

Young birds have no crest, the cap of the head is dark brown,
upper plumage ashy-brown, lower parts pale buff with a
grayish tinge. The adult plumage is gradually assumed.

110 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill bluish at the base, remainder yellow ; iris pale topaz
yellow ; legs and feet pale yellow.

Length 8:25; wing 4°15; tail 2°75; tarsus lel5; bill
from gape 1°05.

Distribution.—Found only in the dry parts of the Island
near the coast. It occurs in suitable districts over the whole
of India proper.

Habits.—Although in India this species occurs far inland,
with us it is never seen far from the sea. It is rather local,
though plentiful where it occurs, as it associates in fairly large
flocks, which from time to time shift their quarters to a
distance of some miles. It is generally met with in scrubby
country, or in grassy spaces dotted with bushes. The birds
are wary and hard to approach. They feed chiefly on insects,
small beetles, &c., but also on seeds and buds. They are said
to breed in the north of the Island in July and August. The
nest is a flimsy affair of grass and feathers placed in the hole
of a tree. The eggs, three to five in number, are pale whitish-
blue, and measure about *97 by °75.

STURNORNIS SENEX.

The White-headed Mynah.
Sturnornis senex (Oates, Vol. I., p. 534; Legge, p. 680).

Description.—Adult : Forehead, front of face, chin, throat,
and ear coverts buffy-white ; remainder of upper plumage, in-
cluding the wings and tail black with a greenish lustre ; the
feathers of the nape and neck with white shafts and those of
the back faintly tinged with gray; the white of the upper
throat passes into the lavender gray of the remainder of the
lower parts, the fore-neck having conspicuous, narrow, white
shaft streaks, which are less noticeable on the breast, flank, and
abdomen ; vent and lower tail coverts unstreaked, and almost
the same shade as the throat. .

In young birds the upper plumage has a brownish tinge, the
white on the top of the head is confined to the forehead and
eyebrow, the lower parts are darker, while the shaft streaks
on the breast and abdomen are broader and less streaky.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. V1)

Bill pale bluish-brown, leaden blue at the base ; iris dull
whitish with a narrow brown inner circle ; eye-lid and skin
round the eye dull bluish ; legs and feet leaden blue.

Length 8°4; wing 4°3; tail 3; tarsus 1; bill from gape
En.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined almost
entirely to the slopes of the Peak range and the Kukul korale
in the Ratnapura District.

Habits —A rare bird. It appears to be entirely arboreal
in its habits, and goes about in small flocks feeding on fruits
and berries in the tops of trees. It may be looked for in open
spaces dotted over with solitary trees and clumps of jungle,
or on the edges of forest and by the side of jungle paths.
The nest has been found by Mr. F. Lewis in April. The nest
hole wasin a tree stem, and much resembled that of the Ceylon
Grackle—Eulabes ptilogenys. It contained two pale blue eggs
laid on the bare wood. They are rather pointed at the narrow
end, and measure 1°01 by +79.

ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS MELANOSTERNUS.

The Common Ceylon Mynah.
Acridotheres melanosternus (Oates, Vol. L., p. 538; Legge p. 670).

Description.—Forehead, crown, and elongated feathers of
the nape, with the feathered portion of the cheeks and ear
coverts, glossy black; chin, throat, wpper hind-neck, and
fore-neck less glossy black; remainder of upper plumage,
with wing coverts and secondaries dark vinous brown ;
primaries and tail almost black, the tail feathers with white tips
which are sometimes abraded, the primaries with white bases ;
primary coverts, edge of wing, and wing-lining white, the outer
webs of the outermost primary coverts black ; sides of breast
and flanks vinous brown ; centre of breast, top of abdomen,
and the thighs dull black ; rest of abdomen, vent, and lower
tail coverts white.

In young birds the brown of the plumage has a more rufous
tinge, there is no crest on the nape, and the abdomen is tinged
with rufous,

I SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill yellow, the lower mandible blackish at the base ; iris
brownish-pink, pinkish-gray, or at times whitish mottled with
brown ; naked skin round eye yellow: legs and feet light
yellow.

Dimensions variable : length about 10 ; wing 5°6; tail3°3;
tarsus 1°6 ; bill from gape 1°35.

Distribution.—The Ceylon form of this bird is now recognized
as merely a sub-species of A. tristis, which occurs over practi-
cally the whole of the Indian Empire. This Mynah is one of
the most familiar birds all over the cultivated portions of the
Island, and ascends to a considerable elevation in the hills.

Habits.—A gregarious species, going about during the day
in small troops, which may be seen in gardens, coconut
estates, grassy lands, &c., or perhaps most frequently in
attendance on groups of grazing cattle, not only securing the
insects stirred up in the grass by the animals as they move
along, but also perching on the beast’s backs to feed on
parasites. At night they roost in colonies. The favourite
roosting site is often a clump of reeds or low bushes in a marsh
or large tank. In such a spot the birds often congregate at
night in hundreds. As Mynahs are easily tamed and can be
taught to speak and whistle, they are familiar pets. The
breeding season extends from about March to August. The
bird generally chooses for its nest an old Woodpecker’s hole
in the stem of a coconut palm, placing a pad of grass, roots, and
fibres at the bottom of the cavity. The eggs usually number
three, occasionally four, or even five. They are broad ovals
of uniform pale bluish-green, slightly pointed at the smaller
end, and measure about 1°16 by * 84.

Family MuscrcaPip&.

Flycatchers.

The Flycatchers are an extensive group of birds, in which,
asin the case of the next family, the Thrushes, the plumage
of the nestling is normally mottled. They have, however.
well-marked family characteristics. The bill is flat and
pointed, in most species viewed from above it has the outline
of an almost equilateral triangle, the upper mandible is simply

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 113

notched, and has a perceptible little hook at the extreme
point. The nostrils stand clear of the line of the forehead
and are covered by numerous hairs, which spring from the
forehead and lie over them horizontally. These hairs are a
most characteristic mark of the family, and are distinct from
the rictal bristles. The rictal bristles themselves are generally
strong and numerous. There are ten primaries and twelve
tail feathers. The wing is generally moderate in length and
pointed. All species have feebly developed legs and feet,
they are incapable of walking, and few of them ever descend
to the ground. They are all insectivorous, and catch their
food by darting out in short flights from a perch, to which
they return. Many of them are migratory. There is one
moult a year, in the autumn, and in most species the young
change into the adult plumage at the end of the first autumn.
There is one notable exception among our Ceylon species,
the fully mature plumage of the male, Terpsiphone paradisi,
being acquired only in the fourth year.

Ten species, belonging to eight genera, occur in Ceylon,
They fall into two groups. First we have seven species,
including four migrants, in which the tail falls short of the
wing in measurement. In all these seven species the bill is
not long, and is almost equilaterally triangular in outline ;
the rictal bristles are, save in Culicicapa, only moderately
developed ; the wing is pointed and the tail square. The
differences between the genera are largely based on the type
of colouration, and are shown in the key which follows.
In the resident forms of the above group the nest is either
placed in a hole or ledge, or attached to the side of a rock or
tree trunk. We next come to three forms which are resident,
or, at all events, mainly so. These are distinguished by their
longer tails, which are never square. The bill, though pointed
and triangular, is generally longer than in the preceding
group ; the rictal bristles are long and numerous. In Terpsi-
phone the bill is large and swollen, and the rictal bristles are
coarse. All three species build the most beautiful little cup-
shaped nests, which are placed either in a slender fork, or
glued on to the top of a thin branch. The young of the three
species are not noticeably mottled.

15 6(17)21

114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,.

Key to Ceylon Muscicapide.
I.—Tail shorter than wing.

A.—Fore-neck and breast, either rich chestnut, or ferru-
ginous in adults.

(a) Upper plumage brown; upper tail coverts
black ; some white on tail.
Siphia hyperythra (Indian Red-breasted Flycatcher)

(b) Upper plumage generally blue ; no black on tail
coverts or white on tail. Genus Cyornis.

(1) Males blue above; chin and throat dusky-
blue ; females brown above; chin and throat
dull rufous, like the breast.

C. rubeculoides rubeculoides (Blue-throated Fly-
catcher).

(2) Both males and females blue above : in males
the chin feathers adjoining the bill black,
remainder of chin and throat same colour as
fore-neck ; in females the dark chin-stripe is
lacking.

C.. rubeculoides tickelli (Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher).

B.—Sexes alike ; greater part of both upper and lower
plumage ashy-gray tinged with blue.
Stoparola melanops sordida (Dusky-blue Fly-
catcher).

C.—Sexes alike ; upper plumage plain brown, or rufous ;
lower parts white or inconspicuously coloured.
Genus Alseonax.

(1) Upper plumage and tail ashy-brown.
A. latirostris (Brown Flycatcher).

(2) Upper plumage more ruddy brown; rump and
upper tail coverts bright rufous brown.
A. mutiui (Layard’s Flycatcher).

D.—Plumage gray in front, yellow behind.
Culicicapa ceylonensis (Gray-headed Flycatcher).

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, L15

I1.—Tail as long as or longer than wing.

(a) Tail in males very elongated ; a marked crest ;
head glossy black, rest of upper plumage chestnut,
except in old males, when it is mainly white.

Tersiphone paradisi paradisi (Indian Paradise Fly-
catcher).

(b) No crest.
(1) Tail same length as wing; plumage mainly
azure blue.
Hypothymis azurea ceylonensis (Indian Black-
naped Flycatcher).

(2) Tail longer than wing and fan-shaped ; upper
plumage mainly brown; a broad band above
the eye and most of lower parts white.

Rhipidura albifrontata. (White-browed Fantailed
Flycatcher).

SIPHIA HYPERYTHRA.
The Indian Red-breasted Flycatcher.

Siphiahyperythra (Oates, Vol. I., p. 10) ; Muscicapa hyperythra
(Legge, p. 428).

Description.—Male: Whole upper plumage to the rump
dark ashy-brown ; wing coverts and quills dark brown edged
with the hue of the back ; upper tail coverts and four central
tail feathers wholly black, remaining tail feathers white for
two-thirds of their length, on the outermost feather the outer
web is black for over half its length ; lores, cheeks, and sides
of neck ashen; chin, throat, breast, and sides of abdomen
rich chestnut bordered by a bold black stripe from the gape
down to the sides of the breast ; rest of lower surface white,
tinged with rufous on the flanks and under tail coverts.

Female : Upper surface with a more earthy tint ; the black
of the tail less pronounced ; lores and round the eye grayish ;
the chin, throat, and breast are duller, and lack the dividing
black border.

116 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Young birds are brownish, streaked and mottled with
fulvous ; the lower parts are grayish in front, whitish behind,
the chestnut tint appears in dull mottled patches which
spread and brighten, at the same time in males the black
border begins to appear.

Bill brown above, paler near the forehead, the lower mandible
and gape fleshy-yellow, the tip dusky ; iris hazel brown ; legs
and feet deep brown.

Length about 4°8; wing 2°75; tail 2; tarsus *75; bill
from gape °6.

Distribution.—A north-east monsoon migrant, found in the
central Hill ranges over about 2,500 feet. The species breeds
in Kashmir, and winters apparently only in Ceylon. It has
been observed on migration in October in the Deccan, so
would seem to migrate down the centre of the Indian Peninsula.

Habits.—Generally frequents the edges of forest, trees by
the side of jungle paths, the strips of wood which line the
streams in patana country, &c. It is irregular in its visits,
being plentiful in certain localities one year and absent the
next. The note according to Legge is a monosyllabic whistle,
followed by a sharpe little trill, recalling somewhat the note
of the Wheatear. It is restless and active in its movements,
and is generally found solitary.

CYORNIS RUBECULOIDES RUBECULOIDES.

The Blue-throated Flycatcher.

Cyornis rubeculoides (Oates, Vol. II., p. 23); Siphia rubecu-
loides (Legge, p. 424).

Description.—Male : Closely resembles that of the next
sub-species, but is a little smaller and brighter. The distin-
guishing features are the throat and chin, which are dusky-
blue.

Female : Upper plumage brownish-olive with a rusty tinge
onthe forehead, round the eye, and on the tail-coverts ; wings
and tail brown with paler margins to the quills ; chin, throat,
and chest dull rufous; flanks paler; abdomen and lower
tail coverts white.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 117

Young birds are brown streaked with fulvous, and with
broad fulvous tips on the wing coverts; throat and breast
bright fulvous mottled with brown ; abdomen white.

» Bil black, the gape flesh-coloured ; iris brown ; legs and
feet grayish-blue.

Length 5°7; wing 2°7; tail 2:2; tarsus °7; bill from
gape °7.

Distribution.—This bird is now considered to be a migrant
form sub-specifically allied to Cyornis rubeculoides tickelli,
which is a resident race. It breeds in the Himalayas, and
winters over a considerable portion of the plains of India and
Burma. In Ceylon it has been obtained by Legge and Layard
during the north-east monsoon, but only in the Jaffna penin-
sula and the northern forest tract.

Habits.—A restless little bird which keeps to the under-
growth and lower branches in high jungle. The call is more
varied and longer sustained than that of the following
sub-species.

CYORNIS RUBECULOIDES TICKELLI.
Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

Cyornis tickelli (Oates, Vol. I1., p. 25) ; Siphia tickelliz (Legge.
p. 421).

Description.—Male : Forehead and a streak over the eye
shining blue ; upper plumage dull blue ; wings dull brown,
the outer webs of most quills washed with blue ; tail feathers
blue, the shafts and the greater part of the webs brown;
lores, face, and chin feathers adjoining the bill almost black ;
remainder of chin, throat, and neck bright ferruginous ;
breast and flanks paler; abdomen and under tail coverts
white.

Female: Resembles the male, but the upper plumage is
lighter and has a faded appearance ; lores whitish ; cheeks
bluish ; no dark chin stripe ; chin, throat, and breast paler
ferruginous than in the male.

Young birds are streaked with fulvous, and resemble the
young of the last sub-species.

118 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Bill blackish ; iris brown; legs and feet bluish-brown or
bluish-gray.

Length 5°8; wing 2°8; tail 2°45; tarsus °7; bill from
gape °75.

Distribution — A resident form found over the greater
part of the peninsula of India and portions of Burma, It is
widely distributed over the whole of the Island up to about
4.000 feet wherever there is forest.

Habits —Keeps to the undergrowth and lower branches in
tall forest, and may occasionally be seen in untidy village
gardens where there are jak trees. It is very active towards
dusk. The call is a little whistling chirrup. I have taken
eggs as early as February and as late as June. The nest is
rather a deep little cup of dead leaves, moss and grass, lined
with finer materials, and placed in holes in banks or trees.
Three is the usual number of eggs. They are so thickly
speckled as to seem almost uniform olive-brown, the colouring
being often deeper at the larger end, owing to the greater
density there of the markings. Average size *77 by °57.

STOPAROLA MELANOPS SORDIDA.

The Dusky-blue Flycatcher.
Stoparola sordida (Oates, Vol. IL., p. 29; Legge, p. 419).

Description.—Head and body plumage in general dull ashy-
gray tinged with blue, which is brightest on the crown ; fore-
head, an indefinite streak over the eye, and the chin washed
with bright cobalt blue ; lores and the point of the chin black ;
abdomen, vent, and under tail coverts whitish ; wing and °
tail quills dark brown edged with the hue of the back.

Young birds are dark brown above, each feather with a-
tawny centre and a blackish border; feathers of lower
plumage grayish with dark borders. The change into adult
plumage is gradual.

Bill black ; iris red brown or brown ; legs and feet dark
lead colour.

Length about 6; wing 3; tail 2°4; tarsus +75; bill from
gape °7.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 119

Distribution.—The form found in Ceylon was for long
supposed to be confined to this Island, but recently it has
been discovered as not uncommon in the Travancore hills.
It is a sub-species of S. melanops, which occurs over the
greater part of the Indian Empire. Our bird is fairly abun-
dant up-country at elevations over 2,000 feet, but chiefly in
the higher hills.

Habits.—Rather a quiet shy bird, seen chiefly on the borders
of hill streams in the jungle, by woodland paths, or on the
outskirts of forest. It has a low clear song. It generally
perches on logs, rocks, or on branches fairly close to the
ground. The breeding season is from March to May. The
nest is placed in the crevices of trees or on ledges in the banks
of streams orof path cuttings. Itisadeepish cup of moss, the
outside wall being built up from the ledge on which it rests,
and is lined with a few fine vegetable fibres. Two or occa-
sionally three eggs are laid. The ground colour is dull white
with minute red spots, which generally form a cloudy zone or
cap at the larger end, leaving the rest of the egg scantily
marked. Average size of a small series *87 by °58.

ALSEONAX LATIROSTRIS.
The Brown Flycatcher.

Alseonaz latirostris (Oates, Vol. IT., p. 35; Legge, p, 415).

Description.—Upper plumage ashy-brown, the feathers of
the crown with slightly darker centres ; a faint tinge of gray
towards the rump; lores and a thin ring round the eye
whitish ; wing coverts and quills dark brown with ashy-white
margins to the coverts and inner quills ; tail dark brown, the
outer feathers with narrow whitish edges ; under parts white,
the flanks, breast, and fore-neck tinged with ashy-gray.

In young birds the crown is blackish with fulvous streaks ;
the upper plumage and wing feathers have large fulvous spots ;
the lower plumage is mottled with brown. After their first
moult young birds are more rufous than adults.

Bill black above, the lower mandible yellow with a darker
tip ; iris brown ; legs and feet black.

Length 5:2; wing 2°8; tail 2:1; tarsus °5; bill from
gape *65,

120 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution —A migrant to Ceylon, found during the
north-east monsoon over the low-country, but nowhere
abundant. It does not appear to ascend the hills to a height
of over 3,500 feet. The species ranges from Japan and
Siberia in the north to India, Java, and the Philippines.
It breeds mainly in the north of itsrange and on the Himalayas,
but some birds appear to be resident in other parts of India,
and a few loiter in Ceylon, as it has been obtained in the
Island in June.

Habits.—A solitary, quiet, but tame bird, which frequently
escapes notice. It generally keeps to the boughs of shady
trees either in the forest or even in gardens in the middle of
habitations and close to frequented paths. It sits motionless
for long periods, darting out at times from its perch to catch
insects.

ALSEONAX MUTTUI.
Layard’s Flycatcher.
Alseonax muttui (Oates, Vol. I., p. 36; Legge, p. 417).

Description.—Head and nape olive-brown, shading through
the rufous-brown of the back into bright rufous-brown on the
rump and upper tail coverts ; wing coverts and quills brown,
edged with the hue of the rump ; tail brown, the outer webs
washed with rufous ; lores and a conspicuous ring round the
eye white ; ear coverts olive-brown ; chin and throat white ;
cheeks, sides of neck, breast, and flanks yellowish-brown ;
abdomen and under tail coverts white.

Bill dark brown above, pale horny yellow beneath ; iris
hazel brown ; legs and feet pale yellow.

Length 5:4; wing 2°8; tail 2:1; tarsus °55; bill from
gape °7.

Distribution.—This species apparently breeds in Sikkim
and other parts of the Himalayas. It winters in Travancore
and Ceylon, and seems to migrate down the centre of the
peninsula, as it has been obtained in October in the Deccan,
while on passage. As with the last species, some birds appear
to loiter, for the first specimen recorded was obtained by

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 121

Layard at Point Pedro in June. It is an extremely rare bird,
as yet noted only from the Jaffna peninsula, Trincomalee, and
the Western Province.

Habits —Not much is known about these, but they are
probably much the same as those of the last species. It
appears, however, to keep to the lower branches of trees by
the sides of paths and small glades in the forest.

Note.—Ochromela nigrorufa—The Black-and-Orange Fly-
catcher—is said to have occurred in Ceylon, but the
evidence is doubtful. Layard identified a drawing of a bird
obtained in June at Ratnapura by Mr. Mitford as being this
species, which occurs on the hill ranges of South India in
dense woods. The plumage is striking and unusual. In
males the forehead, crown, nape, hind-neck, sides of head, and
wings are black ; the rest is rich orange, slightly paler on the
abdomen ; some of the wing coverts and inner quills have
narrow orange tips. In females the black of the head is
replaced by greenish-brown ; the wings are dark brown and
the orange parts are paler.

Length about 5; wing 2; tail 2°5; tarsus °8; bill from
gape °6.

CULICICAPA CEYLONENSIS.

The Gray-headed Flycatcher.
Culicicapa ceylonensis (Oates, Vol. II., p. 38; Legge, p. 410).

Description.—Head, cheeks, and hind-neck dark ashy-gray,
the feathers of the crown with darker brown centres ; back
greenish-yellow, the colour brightening on the rump and
upper tail coverts ; wing coverts and quills dark brown edged
on the outer webs with the hue of the rump ; tail dark brown,
the outer webs of all but the two central feathers edged with
the hue of the rump ; throat, neck, and sides of breast pale
ashy-gray ; rest of lower parts bright yellow ; wing-lining pale
yellow.

Bill brown above, pale horny-yellow beneath ; iris brown;
legs and feet yellowish-brown.

Length about 5 ; wing 2°5; tail 2°1; tarsus °55; bill from
gape °55.

16 6(17)21

122 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution.—In Ceylon a hill species which rarely descends
below 1,000 feet. Above this elevation it is resident and in
many localities common. It occurs over practically the
whole of the Indian Empire, except in the north-west, being
a permanent resident in the hills and a winter visitor to the
plains. The range extends to Java and Borneo.

Habits.—A familiar species in most of the up-country forests
and jungles. It frequents the lower branches of trees,
especially by roadsides, streams, the edges of clearings, &c.
It is generally found in pairs and flits about actively, hawking
for insects. The whistle is compared by Legge to the syllables
‘* tit-titu-wheee.’’ The breeding season is probably about
April and May. The nest is a little pocket of moss fixed to
the trunk of a tree or against a rock; at times there is a
lining of fine stalks or fibres, but frequently itis unlined. In
India there are four eggs, but probably only three in Ceylon.
They are dingy yellowish-white, finely speckled with brown
and gray, chiefly ina zone towards the larger end, Average
size *61 by °48.

TERPSIPHONE PARADISI PARADISI.
The Indian Paradise Flycatcher.
Terpsiphone paradisi (Oates, Vol. II., p. 45; Legge, p. 404).

Description.—Females and young males: Forehead, crown,
crest, and nape glossy blue-black ; cheeks, chin, throat, and
all round the neck ashy-brown ; on the fore-neck this colour
gradually changes through the pale ash colour of the breast
into white on the abdomen, vent, and lower tail coverts ;
upper plumage from the neck downwards, including wings
and tail, chestnut ; the inner webs of the wing quills duller
brown ; the tail is about 4°5 inches long.

The female continues in this plumage all her life, and the
male until the second summer. He then gradually becomes
blacker on the chin, throat, and hind-neck. After the second
annual moult, the head and neck are hooded in glossy blue-
black, which contrasts sharply with the ashy-gray of the
fore-neck ; the inner webs of the wing-quills are almost

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 123

entirely chestnut ; at the same time the two central tail
feathers grow to a length of 12 inches or more. After the
third moult the breast grows lighter, and the bird gradually
changes into the white plumage, the change being not complete
until after the fourth moult, when the whole head, neck, and
crest are glossy blue-black with a metallic sheen, and the
rest of the body plumage white ; the feathers of the back and
rump have black shafts ; the wing quills are black with white
margins, which increase in width on the inner quills ; the tail
is white, with conspicuous black shafts and black borders on
the outer webs of all but the central feathers.

Bill and eyelids cobalt blue; iris dark brown; legs and
feet a rather paler blue than the bill.

Adult males: length 16°5 to 19°5; wing 3°75; tail 12 to
about 15; tarsus *7; bill from gape 1°05. Females: length
about 9 ; wing 3°55; tail 4°5.

Distribution.—This Flycatcher is found over the greater
part of India proper, and ranges west and north into Af-
ghanistan and Turkestan. A closely allied form occurs in the
East Himalayas and Burma. In Ceylon this species is subject
to a good deal of seasonal movement, concerning which we
have much to learn. In the north-east monsoon both young
and old birds are found all over the low-country, but more
abundantly in the drier forest tracts. It is not very common
above 2,000 feet, but is occasionally seen at quite high ele-
vations, and such visits are apparently increasing. About
March the birds appear to migrate north and east to the
drier forest tracts. Here the younger birds pair and breed
freely from April to June or even later. Long-tailed red
birds are not often observed during the south-west monsoon,
and Ihave only once at this season seena male in the full black
and white plumage. They are either soon killed off, or else
migrate to India.

Habits.—A fairly familiar bird, which is generally found
in forest, or in shady spots not very far from water. It is by
no means averse to the neighbourhood of man, and may
often be seen in village gardens. It takes more extended
flights aftcr insects than many Flycatchers, and is less fond

124 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of returning time and again to the same perch. The cry is
rather a grating little single note. The breeding season is
chiefly in April and May, but may occasionally extend as
late as August. The nest is a beautifully built little shallow
cup of fine grass, fibres, &c., bound together with cobwebs
and lined with similar finer materials. I have generally
found it placed about 6 feet from the ground in the fork of
a downward slanting, thin, bare branch fairly close to the
stem of the tree. With us there are generally three, often
only two, eggs. The ground colour is pinkish-white, rather
sparingly spotted, often in a zone, with brownish-red.
Average size ‘79 by °60.

HYPOTHYMIS AZUREA CEYLONENSIS.
The Indian Black-naped Flycatcher.

Hypothymis azurea (Oates, Vol. IL., p. 49); Hypothymis ceylo-
nensis (Legge, p. 408).

Description.—Male : Head, neck, back, rump, and upper
tail coverts, throat, and chest azure blue, brightest on the
head and throat ; there is a distinct dividing line across the
fore-neck between the two shades ; the extreme point of the
chin, the feathers adjoining the nostrils, and, in fully adult
birds, a patch on the nape black ; wing coverts and quills
dusky-brown, the coverts washed, and the quills edged with
the hue of the back ; tail dusky-brown, the central feathers
and the outer webs of the others washed with azure blue;
abdomen, vent, and lower tail coverts white tinged at times
with faint blue.

Females lack the black nape patch ; the blue of the plumage
is slightly duller and the brown lighter ; the breast is ashy-
blue, and the abdomen, flanks, and lower tail coverts tinged
with gray.

Bill dark blue ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet bluish lead-

colour.

Length 6:1; wing 2°7; tail 2°75; tarsus °6; bill from
gape *65.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 125

Distribution.—The form found in Ceylon is a good sub-
species, in which the black nape patch is small, and the black
bar across the throat wanting. It is fairly abundant in
forest and high jungle throughout the low-country and in
the lower hills. Allied geographical races are found almost
throughout the Indian Empire.

Habits.—A forest species, generally found singly or in pairs
in secluded spots, often near water. It keeps largely to
the undergrowth or lower branches, and, like the last species,
has a harsh little cheep. The nest is a dainty little cup of
fine grass, coated with cobwebs, and placed in the fork of a
young sapling among the forest undergrowth at no great
height from the ground. ‘The outside of the nest is generally
an inverted cone in shape. There are two or three eggs,
which are miniatures of those of the last species. Average
size ‘70 by °52.

RHIPIDURA ALBIFRONTATA.
The White-browed Fantail Flycatcher.

Rhipidura albifroniata (Oates, Vol. II., p. 52 ; Legge, p. 412).

Description.—Crown, lores, ear coverts, and the feathers
round the eye rusty-black ; the forehead and a broad band
over the eye to the nape white ; upper plumage and wings
ashy-brown ; the wing coverts with white spots on the tips ;
tail darker brown, the central feathers unmarked, the next
pair with white tips, which increase in length on the outer
feathers, the outside pair being almost entirely white ; lower
cheeks, chin, and throat rusty-black, each feather edged with
white ; lower throat and sides of breast unmarked rusty-
black ; rest of lower parts white.

Females are slightly lighter brown; in young birds the
feathers of the back and wing coverts have rufous margins.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris brown.

Length 7; wing 3°15; tail3°6; tarsus *75; billfrom gape *68.

Distribution.—This species, divided into several geographical
races, is found over the greater part of India, except on
the west and north-west. The Ceylon form is probably a
good sub-species, and has a peculiar distribution confined
to the east and south-east of the Island. The western limit

126 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of its main haunts runs from Tangalla to Haputale, then
across the Uva hills to the park country on the east of the central
range as far north as the glades round Polonnaruwa. It is
found all over the Hambantota District, but does not appear
to occur near the sea in the Eastern Province. Scattered
colonies exist outside these limits in a few localities in the
Galle and Matara Districts, also in Pussellawa and other
places on the eastern portion of the central ranges. It is
strange that a bird which is equally at home on the Uva hills
and in the dry hot chenas east of Tangalla has not spread
all over the drier districts of the Island.

Habits —A familiar little bird round Bandarawela, &c.,
where it is known as the “‘ drunken piper” from its human
little whistle, which resembles an attempt at the first line of
a tune. It has also a grating little call note, not unlike the
“ serit ”’ of the Paradise Flycatcher. It is extremely restless,
constantly flitting from perch to perch and flirting its fan-
shaped tail. It descends to the ground more frequently than
most Flycatchers. The breeding season is from April to
June. The nest is an exquisite little cup of fine grass coated
with cobwebs and placed on the top of a bough or in a small
fork. The two or three eggs are creamy-white, speckled
generally in a fairly thick zone round the broad part of the
egg, with grayish-brown. Average size *67 by °51.

TURDID.
The Thrush Family.

The T'urdide as defined by Oates are a large Passerine
group, in which the young are normally either mottled, or
marked with a scaly pattern. Herein they agree with the
Flycatchers ; they differ, however, in having longer and more
serviceable tarsi, and in lacking the horizontal hairs, which
in the Flycatchers spring from the forehead and overlie
the nostrils. I have followed E. C. Stuart Baker’s classifi-
cation by including in the family the Brachypterygine—A
sub-family transferred from the place given them by Oates
in the Crateropodidx—and also by including the genera
Arrenga and Irena in the sub-family Turdine, or true
Thrushes. °

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 127

The family includes four sub-families represented in Ceylon :
the Chats—Sazicolinz; the Redstarts and Robins—Ruticilline ;
the Shortwings and Blue Chats—Brachypterygine ; and
the Thrushes—Turdine. The above sub-families comprise
a variety of forms, but the following points are held in
common, besides those mentioned above ; the edges of both
mandibles are smooth, or the upper mandible is simply
notched ; the wing has ten primaries ; the nostrils are clear
of the line of the forehead ; there is an autumn moult, fre-
quently supplemented by a partial change in spring, caused
by the shedding of the margins of the feathers; there are
usually twelve, very seldom fourteen, tail feathers. Many
of the species are migratory.

The four sub-families may be divided thus :—

Saaicoline.—Hahits like those of the Flycatchers, but
more terrestrial. The insect food is captured by short sallies
from a perch.

Ruticilline.—Insectivorous ; largely terrestrial.

Brachypterygine.—Insectivorous ; habits terrestrial and
skulking.

Turdine.—Both terrestrial and arboreal; larger in size
than the other sub-families and more gregarious ; food partly
of insects, partly of berries, &c.

Sub-family Saxicoline.
Genus Pratincola.

Chats.

The Chats are nearly related to the Flycatchers, and have
the same habit of making short sallies, in search of insects,
from a fixed perch, to which they return. Their prey, how-
ever, is generally captured on the ground and not on the
wing. They have also a very characteristic manner of
raising and depressing their tails and darting out their wings
when on their perch. They are most strongly represented
in Africa, but are also widely distributed in Europe, Central
Asia, and India,

128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In the genus Pratincola the bill is fairly wide at the base
and moderately curved ; the rictal bristles are well developed ;
the wing is moderate in length and somewhat rounded ;
the tail is slightly rounded and shorter than the wing ; the
tarsus is smooth and moderate in length. The sexes are
dissimilar. Only one species is found in Ceylon. The male
is black and white, and may be distinguished from the little
Black Robin by its white tail coverts.

PRATINCOLA CAPRATA ATRATA.

The Southern Pied Bush Chat.

Pratincola atrata (Oates, Vol. II., p. 60); Pratincola bicolor
(Legge, p. 430).

Description.—Male: In the breeding season the whole
plumage black, except for the tips of the rump feathers, the
tail coverts both upper and lower, and a broad band on the
wing-coverts, all of which are clear white; as the season
wears on the black feathers become more or less fringed with
rufous-brown.

Female: The feathers of the upper plumage, including
the wings, dusky-brown with lighter edges, the wing coverts
with broader light margins ; ramp and upper tail coverts pale
rufous ; tail almost black ; chin and throat slightly streaky
grayish-brown ; breast, sides, and upper abdomen dull pale
brown with dark streaks; lower abdomen unstreaked ;
under tail coverts pale rufous.

Young birds are fulvous brown mottled all over with
dusky-brown ; lower breast and abdomen pale fulvous ; in
males the white wing patch is assumed at a very early stage.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris brown.

Length about 6; wing 3; tail 2°3; tarsus °9; bill from
gape °75.

Distribution.—The Pied Bush Chat is found almost through-
out the Indian Empire, and ranges from Persia to Java and
the Philippines. The present sub-species occurs in South
India and Ceylon, and unlike most southern forms, is distin-
guished by its larger size and more massive bill. In Ceylon

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 129

it is confined to elevations of over about 3,500 feet, and is
almost entirely restricted to the Horton Plains, the Nuwara
Eliya plateau, Uda Pussellawa, and the Uva hill basin.

Habits.—Fairly common in and round Nuwara Eliya and
on the patanas and bare or rocky hillsides within its range.
It usually occurs in pairs, and is not at all shy. The main
habits are described in my remarks on the sub-family. The
male has quite a pretty little warble. The breeding season
is from April to June. The nest is a saucer-shaped pad of
grass, roots, and fibres placed in a grassy ledge or a hole in
a bank. There are probably three to four eggs of bluish-
green with brownish-red markings. Average size (of South
Indian eggs) °77 by °6.

Sub-family Ruticilline.
Bluethroats and Robins.

The Ruticilline connect the Chats with the true Thrushes.
They are found mainly in Europe and Asia. Many of them
are migratory, but only one migrant species penetrates as
far south as Ceylon, and that merely as a rare straggler.
Our three resident forms, however, are familiar birds. The
members of this sub-family are mainly terrestrial ; the tarsi
are long; the feet are well adapted for running, and the
insects on which they feed are picked up from the ground.
Like the Chats, they have the habit of frequently cocking
the tail and drooping the wings. In one genus—-7’hamnobia
—the tarsus is scutellated in front ; in the rest it is smooth.
In all Ceylon species the rictal bristles are weak and the bill
fairly slender ; the wing is moderate in length and rounded,
being somewhat sharper in Cyanecula than in the other
genera ; the tail varies greatly in length and shape. The
sexes are dissimilar.

Key to Ceylon Ruticilline.

I.—No white on the tail, which is shorter than the wing.
(1) Length about 6 ; upper plumage mainly brown ;
tail brown and chestnut.
Cyanecula suecica suecica (Indian Bluethroat).

17 6(17)21

130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(2) Length about 6°3; upper plumage black in
males, dusky-brown in females; tail black,
lower tail coverts chestnut.

Thamnobia fulicata (Black Robin).

If.—Tail black and white.
(1) Length about 8; tail about 3°5; upper tail
coverts black.
Copsychus saularis ceylonensis (Magpie Robin).
(2) Length about 11; tail about 6; rump and
upper tail coverts white.
Cittocincla macrura macrura (Shama Robin).

CYANECULA SUECICA SUECICA.

The Indian Bluethroat.
Cyanecula suecica (Oates, Vol. II., p. 99; Legge, p. 443).

Description—Male: Upper plumage, including wings,
brown, the feathers of the head and neck with darker centres ;
chin and throat bright blue with a rufous patch in the centre
of the throat, the blue area is bordered below by a band of
black, and this band by another broader rufous band ; lores
black ; a buff stripe from the nostrils over the eye to the
ear coverts ; cheeks and ear coverts buff mixed with black ;
remainder of lower parts dull white ; central tail feathers
brown, the others with the basal half chestnut and the end
half blackish-brown.

Females: Whole of lower parts buffish white; a broad
blackish gorget with brown spots across the breast. Im-
mature males resemble females, only gradually assuming
the blue and chestnut of full maturity, and birds are seldom
met with in the full male plumage. In nestlings the upper
parts are blackish streaked with buff, the feathers of the
lower parts buff edged with black.

Bill black, the base flesh colour ; iris brown; legs dusky
flesh colour.

Length 5:9 ; wing 2°9; tail 2°3 ; tarsus 1-1; bill from gape
O75

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 131

Distribution.—This species, of which there are several races,
is found in summer in the far north from Western Europe
to the Pacific Coast of Asia. It winters in warmer climates
from North Africa to Southern China. With us it is an ex-
tremely rare north-east monsoon visitor. A few specimens
were procured by Layard at Ambagamuwa, and Legge
believes that he once saw it in the North-Western Province.

Habits.—May be looked for in gardens and open country.

THAMNOBIA FULICATA.

The Black Robin.

Thamnobia fulicata (Oates, Vol. II., p. 115; Legge, p. 440).

Description—Male: Whole body plumage glossy blue-
black, except the lower abdomen and lower tail coverts, which
are chestnut ; wings and tail a less glossy black; a white
patch on the lesser and median wing coverts ; towards the
moulting season the plumage loses some of its gloss and hue.

Female: Feathers of upper plumage dusky-brown with
slightly brighter brown edges, most noticeable on the wing
coverts ; wing quills rather paler brown ; upper tail coverts
and tail black; lower parts dusky-brown with a slightly
grayish tinge, the tips of the abdominal feathers and the
lower tail coverts dull chestnut.

Young: Blackish-brown above, the wing coverts and
quills with broad rufous edges ; upper tail coverts and tail
blackish ; feathers of head and fore-neck tipped with rufescent
gray ; lower parts dark brown mottled with rufous; centre
of abdomen and under tail coverts pale chestnut.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris brown.

Length 6°3; wing 2°85; tail 2°5; tarsus 1; billfrom gape 7.

Distribution.—Abundant all over the low-country, more
especially in the drier districts. It ascends the hills up to
about 4,000 feet. It also occurs in the southern half of the
Indian Peninsula.

Habits—A very familiar bird, whether in town gardens,
near villages, in chenas and low scrub jungle, or round tanks,
and fields. It is as active and perky in all its move-
ments, and as fearless of man as its namesake, the

lie SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

English Robin. The note is a cheerful little chirp. The
breeding season begins in March and lasts right on through
the dry weather to September. The nest is a little loose
structure of moss, hair, roots, or grass, placed in all sorts of
cavities, from a hole in a bank, or an empty coconut shell
lying on the ground, to any available niche in an outhouse
or verandah. There are generally only two eggs, at times
three. They vary a good deal, the ground colour ranging
from dull white to greenish or brownish-white, thickly
spotted with reddish-brown and at times dull purplish-gray.
Average size of a large Ceylon series *79 by °59.

COPSYCHUS SAULARIS CEYLONENSIS.

The Magpie Robin.

Copsychus saularis (Oates, Vol. II., p. 116; Legge, p. 433).

Description.—Male: Head, neck, breast, and upper
plumage glossy blue-black ; abdomen, sides of the body, and
lower tail coverts white ; wing coverts and quills black with
a large white area formed by the lesser and median coverts,
the outer webs of the innermost coverts and of the two
innermost secondaries ; the two central pairs of tail feathers
black, the three outer pairs white, the remaining pair white,
except for a black border on the inner web and at times a
thin black edge on the outer web as well ; wing lining white.

Females: The black of the wings, tail, and upper parts is
rather rusty, the body feathers glossed with blue; chin,
throat, and sides of neck dark gray ; the white of the under
parts not quite so clear as in the male; forehead, lores, and
cheeks slightly mottled with gray.

In young birds the dark parts of the upper plumage are
distinctly brown; the wing quills have rufous edges; the
lesser coverts are more or less mottled with rufous; the
throat and breast grayish-brown mottled with rufous.

Bill black ; eyelids lead colour; iris hazel brown; legs
and feet dark lead colour.

Length about 8; wing 3°8; tail 3°5; tarsus 1°15; bill
from gape 1 ; females are slightly smaller.

Distribution.—This species is found almost throughout the
Indian Empire. The Ceylonese form is given sub-specitic

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 133

rank. It is common over the whole of the Island up to about
5,500 feet, except in the heart of the damp forests.

Habits.—As familiar and tame a bird as the last species.
It is equally abundant in town gardens, village compounds,
cultivated lands, scrub-jungle, and open forest. It feeds on
the ground on insects, and is active on its feet. It has the
habit of cocking its tail perpendicularly at the end of its run.
The song is varied and full, and, especially during the breeding
season, is poured out for long periods in the early morning
and late evening. The breeding season is generally from
March to August, but at times in the early part of the north-
east monsoon. The nest is rather a rough structure of
grass, root fibres, &c., placed in the hole of a tree, in any
niche of a wall, or among the cadjans in the roof of an out-
house or watch hut. There are usually three eggs, very
seldom four. They are rather dumpy and slightly pointed.
The ground colour is pale bluish-green, or light green, thickly
sprinkled with various shades of sepia brown and occasionally
bluish-gray. The markings tend to coalesce at the larger end,
but vary considerably in distribution. Average size *92
by °69.

CITTOCINCLA MACRURA MACRURA.

The Shama Robin.
Cittocincla macrura (Oates, Vol. II., p. 118; Legge, p. 437).

Description.—Male : Whole head and neck, back, wing
coverts, and chest glossy blue-black ; rump and upper tail
coverts white; wing quills and primary coverts rusty-black ;
four central tail feathers entirely black, the rest black at the
base, white at the end ; abdomen, vent, and under tail coverts
chestnut ; thighs white above, black at the knee. In females
the black parts are more slaty-brown, and the chestnut of
the lower parts pale rufous; quills and wing coverts with
narrow rufous edges.

Young birds vary ; in most the upper plumage is dark
brown with some light chestnut spots; the quills are edged
with rufous ; the lower parts rusty-red motiled with brown
on the throat and breast.

134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs pale flesh colour.

Length about 11; wing 3°7; tail about 6; tarsus 1°1 ;
bill from gape °95.

Distribution.—Found throughout the greater part of the
low-country forests, but less common in the west and south-
west. It ascends the hills to about 3,500 feet. It occurs in
Central and Southern India, the sub- Himalayan region from the
Ganges eastward and in Assam and Burma.

Habits—A shy bird, which spends most of its time in
forest undergrowth and bamboo scrub. It feeds on insects,
and is generally found in pairs. It is our finest songster ;
the notes are lower and richer than those of the Magpie
Robin. I have found eggs from February till June. The
nest is made of dry leaves, grass, and twigs, and is placed
in the hole of a tree or dead stump in the forest. The eggs
are, as a rule, slightly smaller and more elongated at the
narrow end than those of the Magpie Robin. The ground
colour is pale grayish-white, at times with a slight green
tinge, thickly and rather streakily freckled all over with
umber brown. At times the markings are more pronounced
at the larger end. Average size *89 by ° 64.

Sub-family Brachypterygine.

Genus Larvivora.
Blue Chats.

In the classification adopted by Oates, the Brachypterygine
formed a sub-family of the Crateropodide, and, as he remarks,
connect them with the J'urdide. I have, however, followed
Stuart Baker, in transferring the Ceylon species Arrenga
blight from this sub-family to the Turdine, and the sub-
family itself, which now contains only one migratory Ceylon
species, to its present position in the J'urdide. The young
appear to have discarded the normal mottled plumage
characteristic of the family, but the affinities seem to be
with the Thrushes and not with the Babblers. The Blue
Chat in its general colouration is not unlike the Blue Fly-
catchers of the genus Cyornis. It is, however, strictly

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 135

terrestrial in its habits, skulking in the undergrowth, and,
as might be expected in a ground bird, has a long tarsus,
whereas the Flycatchers are arboreal and have a weak, short
tarsus.

The bill is short and slender ; the nostrils are thin ovals,
and not overhung with hairs ; the rictal bristles are scanty ;
the wing is moderate in length and somewhat pointed ; the
tail short ; the feet are delicate, the middle toe is much the
longest. The sexes are dissimilar.

LARVIVORA BRUNNEA.

The Indian Blue Chat.

Larvivora brunnea (Oates, Vol. I., p. 182; Legge, p. 446).

Description.—Male : Upper plumage, wing coverts, and
tail dull blue ; lores, cheeks, ear coverts, and a band down
the sides of the’ neck dull black ; a white line over the eye
‘to the nape; wings dusky-brown, the outer webs bluish ;
in some specimens the point of the chin and a narrow line
on the cheeks white ; throat, breast, and sides of body bright
chestnut paling into white on the abdomen, vent, and lower
tail coverts.

Female: Head, upper plumage, and lesser wing coverts
dark olive-brown, tinged with russet on the tail coverts ;
greater wing coverts and quills brown, tinged with rufous
on the outer webs, the coverts also with rufous tips ; tail
brown washed with russet ; forehead, lores, and sides of head
rufous with brown mottlings; centre of chin and throat,
abdomen, and under tail coverts pure white ; sides of chin
and throat and the breast rusty fulvous, each feather with
a brown margin ; sides of body unmarked fulvous.

Young birds resemble the adult female.

Bill black above, paler beneath ; iris dark brown ; legs and
feet flesh colour.

Length 5:5 ; wing 8 ; tail 2 ; tarsus 1°05 ; bill from gape 72.
Distribution.—This Chat is with us a north-east monsoon
migrant. The flight is weak, and it appears to cross by the

136 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

shortest sea-route from South India to the north of the Island
in October. It then makes its way to the central hills. Many
of our visitors are yearling birds. The species occurs over
the greater part of India, being a resident on many of the
hill ranges and visiting the plains in winter.

Habits—A skulking bird, which keeps almost entirely
to the undergrowth in forest, appearing for short periods
at the edge of the jungle, or by the side of jungle paths,
and searching actively on the ground for the insects on
which it feeds.

Sub-family Turdine.

Thrushes.

The true Thrushes are larger and, as a rule, more gregarious
than the other sub-families of the Turdide. Their food is
not wholly insectivorous, and berries form a considerable
part of their diet. The eight species found in Ceylon are all
of fairly stout build and of medium size from 8 to 104 inches
in length. None of them are very familiar, as they are all
local in their distribution ; most of them are rare, and all,
save one or two, are met with only in the hills. Four species
are peculiar to this Island, while the others are, with one
possible exception, rare migrants. The first six species on
the list are structurally much alike, and there has been
considerable diversity of opinion in dividing them into
genera. The wing is moderate, and generally somewhat
pointed ; the tail is never of great length, and in Geocichla
and Oreocincla is distinctly short ; the rictal bristles are feeble ;
the tarsus is moderately long, stout, and serviceable. The
birds spend a good deal of their time on the ground. There
is one moult a year, in the autumn, but in many species there
is a partial change of plumage in spring, due to the dropping
off of the margins of the feathers. In the young the lower
plumage is more or less barred or spotted, and in some
species this characteristic is maintained in the adults. As
regards the last two species, Arrenga blight and Irena puella,
I have followed Stuart Baker in transferring them from the
Crateropodide to the Turdine, although the young are no
longer spotted. Arrenga blight is Thrush-like in its general

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 137

build and appearance, but the wing is more blunt than in the
rest of the sub-family. The nest and eggs also, as far as is
known, are Thrush-like. Jrena puella is more aberrant,
and has distinct affinities with the Bulbuls. As in the
Bulbuls, there are a few long hairs springing from the nape.
The wing is rather pointed ; the rictal bristles are well devel-
oped, and the bill more arched than in other Thrushes. The
tarsus is short, and the habits arboreal. The nest and eggs
are of a distinct type, unlike either those of the Thrushes
or Bulbuls.

Key to Ceylon Turdine.

A.—Only a slight difference between the sexes ; plumage
almost uniform blackish ; lower tail coverts same
colour as lower parts.

Merula kinnisi (Ceylon Blackbird).

B.—Sexes unlike ; plumage more or less pied ; under tail
coverts unmixed white. Genus Geocichla.

(1) No chestnut in plumage ; some white in tail ;
males: black and white; females: olive-brown
and buffy-white and with lower plumage
barred, not pied.

G. Wardi (Pied Ground Thrush).

(2) Head and most of lower plumage chestnut ;
male : back and scapulars bluish-gray ; female :
back and scapulars greenish-brown with

yellowish edges.
G. citrina citrina (Orange-headed Ground
Thrush).

C.—Sexes unlike ; upper plumage blue or brown suffused
with blue; lower tail coverts not white; males:
lower parts and tail coverts same hue as rest of
plumage ; females: lower parts fulvous with sub-
terminal black bars, lower tail coverts fulvous
barred with black.

Petrophila solitaria pandoo (Western Blue Rock
Thrush).
18 6(17)21

138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

D.—Sexes alike ; lower plumage barred or spotted even in
adults. Genus Oreocincla.

(1) Bill large and coarse ; upper plumage with
darker margins; lower plumage tawny-buff
with black crescent-shaped bars.

Oreocincla imbricata (Ceylon Thrush).

(2) Bill more moderate ; upper body plumage and
tail unmarked brown; lower plumage white
with black spots.

O. Spiloptera (Spotted-wing Thrush).

E.—A slight difference in sexes ; plumage mainly dark blue
or brown suffused with blue; a bright blue patch
on the “‘ elbow ” of the wing.

Arrenga blight (Bligh’s Whistling Thrush).

F.—Sexes markedly different ; tarsus noticeably shorter
than in other genera ; plumage pied ; males vivid
blue and black ; females brownish-blue and brown.

Irena puella (Fairy Bluebird).

MERULA KINNISI.

The Ceylon Blackbird.

Merula kinnisi (Oates, Vol. II., p. 124); Turdus kinnisi (Legge,
p- 449).

Description.—Male : Upper plumage, including wings and
tail, slaty-black, each feather with slightly paler bluish-gray
margins, most noticeable on the wings and wing coverts ;
lower plumage slightly rusty-black with paler margins, the
abdomen tinged with grayish.

Female: Upper body plumage dark bluish-gray, with
blackish markings towards the tips; wing quills and tail
slightly browner than in the male ; under parts tinged with
earthy-brown ; in some, probably not fully adult specimens,
the feathers of the abdomen have light shaft-streaks.

In young birds the head and hind-neck are brownish, and
the upper plumage has a distinct bluish gloss; the lower
plumage is dull brown, with buff shaft-streaks and dark tips.

Bill orange-yellow ; iris pale brown; legs and feet pale
yellow ; in young birds the bill and legs are brownish.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 139

Length 9°5; wing 4°4; tail 3°63; tarsus 1°25; bill from
gape 1°2.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined to the
hills above 2,500 or 3,000 feet. Allied species occur on the
hill ranges of Southern India.

Habits —Rather a shy bird, passing most of its time in
the jungle undergrowth, or on the edges of cover. It is not
uncommon round Nuwara Eliya, and may be seen in the more
secluded parts of the gardens in that town, or on up-country
estates. Out of the breeding season it often collects in fairly
large parties to feed on tree fruits in the jungle. It is a fair
songster, and is most vocal in the early mornings and
towards sunset. The breeding season is from April to June.
The nest is a somewhat massive cup of grass, moss, and roots,
strengthened with a few twigs and lined with fine roots.
It is usually placed in a low fork of a tree, but may
be found on stumps, niches in tree trunks, outhouses, &c.
There are generally four eggs. The ground colour is pale
green, blotched fairly evenly with reddish-brown and umber,
and with some smaller underlying spots of reddish-gray.
Average size 1°05 by ° 82.

GEOCICHLA WARDI.

The Pied Ground Thrush.

Geocichla wardi (Oates, Vol. II., p. 137) ; Turdus wardi (Legge,
p. 453).

Description. Adult male: Whole head, neck, breast,
upper plumage, wings, and tail black ; a broad white stripe
from the bill over the eye to the nape ; wing coverts and
quills with more or less conspicuous white tips, except the
outer primaries and primary coverts, 1n which a portion of
the outer web is white ; rumpand upper tail coverts with
crescent-shaped white tips; the two outer pairs of tail
feathers all white, except for a patch of black on the outer
webs, the amount of white decreases on the inner feathers,
the central pair being almost wholly black ; abdomen, vent,
and under tail coverts white ; sides of body and axillaries
white, each feather with a broad irregular crescent of black ;
wing-lining black tipped with white.

140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Females: Head, upper plumage, wings, and tail olive-
brown, the wing coverts and inner quills tipped with buff, the
outer webs of the primaries with pale brown edges; a few
white tips on the rump and upper tail coverts ; outer tail
feathers with a patch of white on the tip ; a buff streak from
the bill over the eye to the nape ; sides of head and throat
mixed buff and dark brown; chin almost unmarked white ;
upper breast pale buff with broad, dark brown margins ;
lower breast and flanks white with crescent-shaped blackish
bars ; centre of abdomen, vent, and lower tail coverts white.

Immature males resemble females, but are of a richer
brown above, while the breast feathers are olive-brown with
drop-shaped white centres.

Bill yellow, the base of the upper mandible dusky ; iris
brown ; legs and feet pale brownish-yellow.

Dimensions a little variable ; length about 8°5; wing 4°5;
tail 3°2 ; tarsus 1 ; bill from gape 1°15.

Distribution.—Breeds on the Himalayas and appears to
winter chiefly in the hill ranges of Southern India and Ceylon.
It has been seen on passage in various parts of the Indian
Peninsula. In Ceylon it is a north-east monsoon migrant
to the hills at elevations of over 2,500 feet. In some localities
it appears to be irregular in its visits, in others more constant.

Habits.—A shy bird, which keeps mainly to thick cover
on the outskirts of forest, patana woods, &c. It occasionally
leaves its shelter, and may be seen on the lawns in up-country
gardens. At times it collects in small scattered flocks to
feed on fruit, such as guavas and wild figs, being partly
frugivorous.

GEOCICHLA CITRINA CITRINA.
The Orange-headed Ground Thrush.

reocichla citrina (Oates, Vol. IL., p. 140; Legge, p. 457).

Description.—Male: Whole head, neck, and lower parts
to vent orange-chestnut, darker on the crown, and paler on
the lower parts; vent, thighs, and lower tail coverts pure
white ; feathers of back, scapulars, rump, upper tail coverts,
and lesser wing coverts bluish-gray with paler edges; the
median wing coverts with broad white tips; outer coverts
and quills dark brown with bluish-gray outer webs; the

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 14]

central tail feathers and the outer webs of the rest bluish-gray,
the remainder of the tail dark brown, the whole with indistinct
cross-rays ; axillaries white with pale gray tips; wings
lining gray tipped with white.

In females the chestnut parts are paler, and the gray of
the upper plumage is washed with olive-green ; back and
scapulars greenish-brown with yellowish margins.

Bill blackish-brown, the gape and base of lower mandible
flesh-colour ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet fleshy-pink.

Length 8°5; wing 4°6; tail 3; tarsus 1°3; bill from gape
be.

Distribution.— Breeds throughout a large part of the
Himalayas. In winter it occurs sparingly in the plains of
India proper, but is more common in Assam and Burma. In
Southern Burma it appears to be a partial resident. In
Ceylon it is one of our rarest migrants, single specimens
having been recorded from the Jaffna and Hambantota
Districts and the Eastern Province.

Habits.—May be looked for during the north-east monsoon
by river banks, or the sides of paths in heavy forests. It
keeps mainly to the ground, turning over dead leaves in damp
spots in search of insects.

PETROPHILA SOLITARIA PANDOO.

The Western Blue Rock Thrush.

Petrophila cyanus (Oates, Vol. II., p. 146); Monticola cyana ;
Legge, p. 460).

Description—Male : In winter the whole body plumage
is blue, the colour brightest on the eye-brow, throat, and ear
coverts ; most of the feathers have narrow whitish fringes
and dull brown sub-terminal bars ; lores and round the eye
blackish ; wings and tail dark brown, the quills edged with
blue and tipped with white. At the end of winter the feathers
nearly all lose their light fringes and dark bars, so that the
body plumage is almost uniform blue.

Female: Upper plumage brown suffused with dull blue ;
lower plumage fulvous with sub-terminal black bars ; wing-
lining and under tail coverts barred with black. In summer
the fringes and bars largely disappear as in the male.

142 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Young birds resemble females, but have broader white
fringes.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris hazel.

Length about 9°5; wing 4°9; tail 3°4; tarsus 1°2; bill
from gape 1-2.

Distribution—The Blue Rock Thrush breeds over a wide
range from Southern Europe to Chinaand winters in Northern
Africa and Southern Asia. It varies considerably, the present
sub-species, which is the Western form, visits almost the
whole of the Indian Empire in winter. In Ceylon it is only
an occasional visitor, which has been recorded from a few
localities in the hills.

Habits.—A shy restless bird, which may be looked for in
bare rocky spots, especially under high precipices. Birds
which visit us appear to frequent the same locality during
the whole of their stay.

OREOCINCLA IMBRICATA.
The Ceylon Thrush.
Oreocincla imbricata (Oates, Vol. II., p. 154 ; Legge, p. 455).

Description.—Head and upper body plumage olive-brown,
slightly paler on the rump and upper tail coverts, the feathers
with crescent-shaped black tips giving the plumage a scaly
appearance ; feathers of the head and neck each with a pale
shaft-streak, which adjoining the black tip becomes a tawny
patch, this is more noticeable in some specimens than in
others ; wings dark brown, the secondary coverts tipped and
narrowly edged on the outer web with tawny-buff, the
primary coverts black on the inner web and tip, the outer
web washed with tawny-buff, the quills more faintly washed
on the outer web with the same hue; tail olive-brown, the
three feathers next the outermost on each side blackish with
paler tips; face and lower parts rich tawny-buff, the chin
and abdomen paler, each feather with a bold black crescent-
shaped tip, these tips become almost obsolete on the chin,
centre of abdomen, and lower tail coverts ; axillaries white
at the base, black at the tip ; wing-lining black tipped with
white.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 143

- Bill blackish-brown, paler at base of lower mandible ; iris
brown ; legs and feet fleshy-brown, at times with a bluish
tinge.

Length about 9°5; wing 4°9; tail 3; tarsus 1-1; bill from
gape 1:4.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon and confined to the hills
over 3,000 feet. Closely allied species are found on the
Nilgiris, Eastern Himalayas, and Burma.

Habits —An uncommon and shy bird, which may be found
in open but secluded spots in wooded country, or in thick
scrub. It keeps almost wholly to the ground, turning over
fallen leaves for the insects on which it feeds. Nothing is
known of the nidification.

OREOCINCLA SPILOPTERA.
The Spotted-wing Thrush.

Oreocincla spiloptera (Oates, Vol. IL, p. 155); Turdus
spiloptera (Legge, p. 451).

Description.—Upper plumage and lesser wing coverts rich
olive-brown with a tinge of russet ; median and greater wing
coverts blackish-brown with a clear white spot on the tip ;
wing quills dark brown, the outer webs with paler edges ;
tailrusty olive-brown with very faint cross-rays ; lores whitish ;
ear coverts and cheeks mixed black and white ; lower parts
white, the sides of the breast and body tinged with gray ; the
feathers of the fore-neck, breast, and upper half of the
abdomen tipped with more or less fan-shaped black spots ;
axillaries white tipped with dark brown; wing-lining dark
brown tipped with white.

In birds from the wet zone the upper plumage is darker
than in specimens from drier districts.

In nestlings the feathers of the upper plumage have pale
shaft-streaks, while the spots on the wing coverts and the
ground colour of the lower parts are buff.

Bill blackish, paler near the gape ; iris brown ; eye-lid lead-
gray ; legs and feet dusky bluish-gray, or fleshy-gray.

Length about 8°4; wing 4; tail 3:1; tarsus 1-4; bill from
gape 1-1.

144 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. Found in the hills up
to about 4,000 feet and in the forests at their base, extending
almost to the sea in the west and south-west. In the northern
forest tract it is rarer, but has been obtained as far north as
Trincomalee.

Habits——A shy bird, which may be found in damp jungle,
bamboo scrub, and forest undergrowth. It spends most of
its time on the ground hunting for insects. The male has a
pretty whistle, and sings from a perch on a low bough, chiefly
in the morning and evening. Both sexes have a weak little
note uttered while searching for food. The breeding season
extends from January to about May. The nest is placed
either in the fork of a sapling a few feet from the ground, or
among the roots of a tree growing on a bank or little eminence.
It is a loose-looking, though compactly put together structure
of small twigs, roots, moss, and grass, lined with finer materials
of the same sort, the egg cavity being a deep cup. There
are two or three eggs, in shape regular ovals. The ground
colour is pale bluish-green, scattered over with markings of
light reddish-brown, or light red and reddish-gray. The
marks tend to coalesce at the larger end. Average size
L212 by 7a.

ARRENGA BLIGHI.
The Ceylon Whistling Thrush.

Arrenga blight (Oates, Vol. I., p. 183); Myiophoneus blighi
Legge, p. 463).

Description.—Male : Head and neck dull black ; feathers
of back, scapulars and breast dark blue with black bases ;
a patch of bright blue on the least wing coverts and the point
of the wing ; remainder of wing and the tail brownish-black,
the wing quills with narrow bluish edges ; rump and upper
tail coverts black tinged with chocolate brown ; abdomen,
vent, and under tail coverts dull brown.

According to Legge, females resemble males, but have a
lighter and brighter wing spot.

Immature birds are largely dark brown above, with traces
of the blue wing spot, and chocolate brown on the whole of
the lower parts, the feathers of the forehead, throat, and
breast with lighter centres.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 145

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris brown.

Length about 8°25; wing 4°3; tail 3-3; tarsus 1°4; bill
from gape 1-25.

Distribution.—Peculiar to the Island and one of our rarest
residents. It is confined to the hill country at elevations of
over 3,000 feet.

Habits.—This species keeps to the neighbourhood of
mountain streams running through forest-clad gorges. It
hides in the shade of the forest, now and again showing
itself on the rocks in the stream bed. The cry, according
to Legge, is a long-drawn, plaintive, though loud, whistling
note. Its diet appears to be mainly insectivorous. Mr.
E. Green discovered what he believed to be the nest of this
species on March 1.* “ It was placed on a sheltered ledge
of rock by the side of a waterfall and hidden by surrounding
ferns. It was a very compact, solid structure of moss and
fern roots, the top forming a level platform, in which a small
and rather deep cavity was sunk for the eggs. The platform
exceeded in area the hollow space, and when first found the
fresh body of a small fish was lying upon it, its head having
apparently just been devoured. In the hollow of the nest
was a single egg, bluntly oval, with a smaller and larger
extremity ; the colour dull greenish-white stained with pale
reddish at the end. Iwas unable to get a sight of the birds,
though I heard them in the bushes close by, uttering the
complaining note common to many thrushes. I had on
former occasions seen specimens of what I believe to be
M. blighi frequenting this stream.”

IRENA PUELLA.
The Fairy Bluebird.

Irena puella (Oates, Vol. I., p. 240 ; Legge, p. 466).

Description.—Male : The whole of the upper parts, lesser
wing coverts, and under tail coverts glistening ultramarine
blue shot with lilac ; sides of head and lower parts deep
black ; greater wing coverts, wing quills, and tail black;
some of the coverts have blue tips and the central tail feathers
are washed with blue.

* Vide ‘“‘ Taprobanian,” Part II., Vol. III., 1887, p. 27.
19 6(17)21

146 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Females: Upper plumage, lesser wing coverts, and lower
tail coverts brownish-blue with brighter edges ; tail brown,
the central feathers and outer webs of the others, except the
outermost pair, the same blue as the back ; wing coverts and
quills dark brown, the greater coverts and innermost quills
tinged with blue on the outer webs ; sides of head and lower
plumage brownish-blue.

Immature birds resemble females, the change into adult
male plumage is gradual.

Bill, legs, and feet black, iris crimson,

Length 10°5 ; wing 5 ; tail 4 ; tarsus *80 ; bill from gape 1-15.

Distribution.—Very rare and probably a casual visitor.
It has been obtained near Kandy and in the Ratnapura
District. In India it occurs on the Malabar Coast, on the
lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, the Assam hills,
Burma, the Andamans, and Nicobars.

Habits —May be looked for in tall forest. It feeds entirely
on fruit, and is generally found in small parties or pairs on
the top of the higher trees. In India the breeding season is
from February to April. The nest is a shallow cup of moss
or twigs placed in a sapling or small tree. Two eggs are laid.
The colour is pale green, streaked and blotched with pale, dull
or reddish-brown. Average size (of Indian eggs) 1°14 by °77.

Family Ploceide.
Weaver Birds and Munias.

With the Ploceide we come to the first of two families
in which the bill is strong and conical, while the nostrils are
pierced within, or only just outside the line of the forehead,
and lie closer to the ridge than to the cutting edge of the bill.
There is never more than the trace of a notch in the upper
mandible. The primaries are ten in number, but the first
is quite small. Africa is the strong-hold of the family, but
it is also well represented in South-Eastern Asia and Australia.
There are two sub-family groups.

(a) Ploceine, or Weaver Birds, in which the first primary,
though small, is quite easily seen, and which have a partial
spring moult as well as the usual moult in autumn.

(b) Viduine,or Munias,in which the first primary is exceed-
ingly small, and which have no spring moult,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 147

Sub-family Ploceine.
Genus Ploceus,
Weaver Birds.

The Weaver Birds comprise two Ceylon species of about
the size of the Sparrow, to which in build they bear a con-
siderable resemblance. They feed largely on grain and are
very gregarious. They always breed in colonies and take
their name from the neatly woven flask-shaped nests which
they construct.

In addition to the autumn moult, there is a partial moult
in spring, after which the males assume a bright yellow crown.
The bill is stout and conical ; the wings are of moderate length
and rather rounded, the first primary though small is plainly
visible and reaches just beyond the primary coverts ; the tail
of 12 feathers is short and rounded ; the tarsus is strong, but
of moderate length, the claws are fairly long and curved.

Key to Ceylon Ploceine.
1.— Breast plain or not conspicuously streaked.
Ploceus passerinus baya (Common Weaver Bird).
2.—Breast conspicuously streaked.
P. manyar manyar (Striated Weaver Bird),

PLOCEUS PASSERINUS BAYA.

The Common Weaver Bird.

Ploceus baya (Oates, Vol. II., p. 175); Ploceus philippinus
(Legge, p. 641).

Description.—Male in breeding plumage : Forehead, crown,
and nape canary-yellow, blending on the nape into the dark
brown of the hind-neck ; feathers of the back and scapulars
almost black with broad yellow margins ; lower back and
rump unstreaked brown ; upper tail coverts with pale tips ;
wing coverts, quills, and tail feathers dark brown with pale
fulvous edges ; lores, face, ear coverts, and throat dark brown ;
breast bright yellow ; rest of lower parts fulvous, paling into
whitish on the vent and lower tail coverts.

148 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Males in off season and females all the year round: The
yellow is absent, the upper plumage being dark brown with
fulvous margins ; a fulvous streak over the eye ; sides of head
pale fulvous brown ; lower parts pale fulvous, darker on the
breast and flanks, and almost white on the abdomen, vent,
and lower tail coverts ; the sides of the breast and the flanks
at times have narrow brown streaks ; wings and tail as in
breeding male.

Bill, of male in breeding season, dark horny-brown, lighter
at the gape and base of the lower mandible, otherwise yellowish
horn-colour ; iris brown ; legs and feet flesh-colour.

Length 5°85; wing 2°85; tail 1:9; tarsus °8; bill from
gape °*65.

Distribution.—P.. passerinus occurs over the whole of the
Indian Empire, and ranges south-east to Java and Sumatra.
The present sub-species is found over the greater part of
India proper. In Ceylon it is met with throughout the
low-country, but is perhaps commoner in the maritime
districts than inland. It is local and occasionally shifts its
quarters.

Habits.—Occurs in flocks on the borders of open land and
scrub jungle, generally not far from water, and frequently
by the side of a paddy field or tank. The presence of a
flock can always be told by the incessant chattering and
shrill whistling made by the birds. They have a strong
rapid flight and feed voraciously on paddy and other grain
The breeding season appears to be intermittent, and extends
over a great part of the year, probably varying in different
localities. I have taken eggs in February, June, August,
and November. The birds breed in colonies, the long flask-
like nest, familiar to most people, being hung from the fronds
of a palm or the spreading branches of a tree. The con-
struction shows great skill. The upper part of the nest is
cone-shaped and: hangs from a single point. When this cone
is woven to a sufficient length, the birds add a strong trans-
verse loop, like an inverted basket handle, a little to one side
of the centre. The bottom of the egg chamber is then worked
in on one side of the loop, while on the other the weaving is
carried downwards to form the long entrance funnel, which

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 149

is added to by the male long after the hen has begun to sit,
There are generally two, but ‘not infrequently three, and
very occasionally four eggs. They are pure white ovals
slightly pointed at the small end. Average size *79 by °*57.

PLOCEUS MANYAR MANYAR.

The Striated Weaver Bird.
Ploceus manyar (Oates, Vol. II., p. 179 ; Legge, p. 646).

Description.—Male in breeding plumage. Top of head
rich yellow ; remainder of upper plumage, including wings
and tail, deep blackish-brown, with tawny margins to the
feathers ; cheeks, ear coverts, sides of neck, and throat
brownish-black ; chest and flanks tawny-brown with blackish
shaft-stripes, which are broadest on the chest; centre of
abdomen, vent, and under tail coverts whitish. Both the
amount of striation and the depth of colour on the lower
parts vary.

Males in off season and females at all times. Plumage of
head and upper parts blackish-brown with tawny edges ; a
light stripe over the eye; the lower part of the cheeks and
throat yellowish-white ; breast and flanks striated as in the
breeding male.

Bill, in breeding males, bluish-black, paler at the gape, in
females and non-breeding males yellowish horn-colour ; iris
brown ; legs flesh-colour.

Length 5°75 ; wing 2°75; tail 1°8; tarsus *75; bill from
gape °65.

Distribution.—The striated Weaver Bird is found throughout
the Indian Empire, and extends south-east to Java. It is
divided into several sub-species. Its occurrence in Ceylon is
distinctly local. It is abundant among the reed beds of the
tanks and swamps of the Tangalla district, and I have found
colonies in similar reed beds at one or two tanks in the
Puttalam District. It probably occurs in various other
suitable localities in the low-country.

Habits.—In Ceylon this species confines itself to the vicinity
‘of reed beds in swamps and tanks. Like the last species, it

150 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

oceurs in flocks, which can be heard at some distance. It
appears to feed on insects as well as on grass seeds. The
breeding season is about February and March, and again in
June. The nest is constructed like that of the last species,
but the top is almost square, not tapering, being hung from
the points of several bulrush leaves gathered together ; the
funnel, too, is shorter. The eggs resemble those of the
Common Weaver Bird, and are two or three in number.
Average size *76 by °58.

Sub-family Viduine.
Munias.

The Viduine are a fairly numerous group of small finch-
like birds, the largest of which seldom exceed 5 inches in
length. They differ from the Weaver Birds in having: an
exceedingly minute first primary, and by not undergoing any
change of plumage in spring. They are all more or less
gregarious, except in the breeding season, and all build large
globular nests of grass, often using fine grass stems with the
flower heads stillattached. The entrance 3s generally a round
opening at one side of the ball. The eggs are invariably pure
white, and the clutches are large, frequently consisting of
six eggs or even more. Munias feed on grain and small grass
seeds. Five species are found wild in Ceylon. One of them
belongs to the genus Munia, in which the tail is short and
round, while the middle pair of feathers are narrow and
pointed. The plumage in this genus is mainly black and
chestnut. The other species are all included in the genus
Uroloncha, in which the tail is longer, while the outer feathers
are considerably shorter than those in the centre.

None of the Munias are known to migrate, but as many
species are frequently kept as cage birds, several exotic forms
from time to time occur as escapes. Three such species have
been recorded in the Island :—

(1) Munia oryzivora (The Java Sparrow).—This species
has the head black with white cheeks and ear coverts ; the
rump and tail are also black; the remainder of the upper

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 151

parts, with the wings, neck, and breast, are bluish-gray ; the
abdomen, sides, and thighs are vinous, and the under tail
coverts white.

This is a native of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago,
and is a familiar cage bird. It appears to be acclimatized
near Madras, and in Legge’s time it seems to have flourished
temporarily round Colombo ; it may still be seen, occasion-
ally, on the Galle Face (vide Legge, p. 646).

(2) Munia atricapilla (The Chestnut-bellied Munia).—
This species resembles M. malacca, but the lower breast and
sides of the body are chestnut, not white. Its natural habitat
is in Northern India, Assam, and Burma. Its occurrence has
been recorded by Layard at Galle and by Legge in Colombo
(vide Legge under M. rubronigra, p. 652).

(3) Sporeginthus amandava (The Indian Red Munia).—This
bird belongs to a genus in which the middle tail feathers are
broad and rounded, and the plumage of the two sexes differs.
In the male the head, neck, breast, and upper parts are
crimson ; the rump, upper tail coverts, and part of the lower
plumage are spotted with white ; the wings are brown with
white spots ; the abdomen, vent, and tail largely black.

In the female the upper plumage and wings are mainly
brown ; the rump and upper tail coverts washed with crimson ;
the lower plumage is brownish tinged with fulvous yellow on
the abdomen.

It occurs all over India, also in Siam, Cochin-China, and
parts of Malaya. The only Ceylon records are by Legge (vide
Legge, p. 662, under Hstrelda amandava). He found a small
flock on the outskirts of Colombo in 1870, and again one or
two birds at Galle in 1872. In both cases the occurrence in
the vicinity of a large town is suspicious, but the birds may
possibly have been storm-driven from India.

Key to Ceylon Viduine.
A.—Tail rounded and short ; head black, contrasting with
the colour of the back. Genus Munia.

(1) Lower breast and sides of body white.
M. malacca (Black-headed Munia).

L152 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

B.—Tail longer and more pointed ; crown and nape much
the same colour as back. Genus Uroloncha.
(a) Some white on rump or upper tail coverts.
(1) Rump white ; throat and breast black.
U. striata (White-backed Munia).
(2) Upper tail coverts and whole of lower parts
white.
U. malabarica (White-throated Munia).
(6) No white on rump or tail coverts ; lower parts
chequered.
(1) Chin and throat blackish ; chequering includes
the whole abdomen.
U. kelaarti (Ceylon Munia).
(2) Chin and throat chestnut ; centre of abdomen
not chequered.
U. punctulata (Spotted Munia).

MUNIA MALACCA.

The Black-headed Munia.

Munia matlacca (Oates, Vol. II., p. 182; Legge, p. 652).

Description.—Whole head, neck, upper breast, the middle
of the abdomen, vent, thighs, and under tail coverts deep
black ; rest of lower plumage white ; back, scapulars, and
wing coverts chestnut ; wing quills brown edged with chestnut ;
upper tail coverts shining maroon ; tail feathers brown edged
with glistening chestnut, which at times approaches the
maroon hue of the tail coverts. In young birds the upper
plumage, wings, and tail are rufous-brown ; the under plumage
pale buff. The adult plumage is acquired gradually by moult.

Bill pale lavender ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet lead blue.

Length 5; wing 2°2; tail 1°55; tarsus °65; bill from
gape °45.

Distribution.—Rather local, and found chiefly in the east
and south-east of the Island ; in the low-country frequenting
the long grass of swamps, in the hills the long mana grass of
the patanas, and further east the grassy glades of the park
country. In other parts of the country it appears to be local
and scarce. It occurs over the southern half of India,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF GEYLON., 153

Habits.—As noted above, this Munia is found among long
grass. It generally occurs in small parties, or at times larger
flocks, and feeds on grass seeds, often doing some damage to
crops. The breeding season appears to be from March to
August in the low-country, and about May in the hills. The
nest is of the usual type described in my remarks on the sub-
family. It is generally placed in a tuft of long grass or fern,
occasionally in a low bush. There are four to six pure white
eggs. The shape is a slightly pointed oval. Average size
°66 by °46.

UROLONCHA STRIATA.
The White-backed Munia.

Uroloncha striata (Oates, Vol. IT., p. 185); Munia_ striata
(Legge, p. 660).

Description.—Forehead and crown blackish with indistinct
white shafts ; upper plumage, ear coverts, and sides of neck
dark brown, deepening on the tail coverts and wing coverts
into blackish, each feather with a white shaft ; a broad white
band across the lower back and rump ; wing quills blackish-
brown ; tail almost black ; face, chin, throat, fore-neck, and
breast deep black ; abdomen and sides of body white ; vent,
thighs, and under tail coverts blackish.

Young birds are more rufous-brown above and the throat
and breast are brown with paler shafts and margins.

Bill, upper mandible blackish ; lower bluish ; iris reddish-
brown ; legs and feet bluish lead-colour.

Length 4°5; wing 2; tail 1°75; tarsus °55; bill from
gape °4.

Distribution.—Common. over almost all the low-country.
It ascends the hills up to about 2,500 feet; on the Uva
patanas it is found up to about 4,000 feet. In India it occurs
south of a line drawn from about Bombay to South-west
Bengal.

Habits —Not so gregarious as some species. It occurs in
small parties, and frequents waste scrubby land, clearings in
the jungle, patches of grass in forests, &c. It visits paddy
fields when the grain is in ear, and also levies considerable toll
on kurakkan chenas. It breeds intermittently, chiefly during

20 6(17)21

154 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the north-east monsoon, but occasionally as late as August.
The nest is a loose ball of grass of the usual type, placed in a
bush or the branches of a low tree from 3 to 10 feet from the
ground. The situation chosen is generally rather a solitary
spot, such as the edge of the forest at the head of a tank, or
by a grassy roadside in the jungle. There are 4 to 6 eggs,
pure white ovals, occasionally rather pointed. Average size
°60 by °43.

UROLONCHA KELAARTI.

The Ceylon Munia.

Uroloncha kelaarti (Oates, Vol. II., p. 187; Munia kelaarti
(Legge, p. 650).

Description.—Upper plumage chocolate-brown with pale
shafts, the crown rather darker ; rump and upper tail coverts
almost black with white cross-shaped spots, the longer tail
coverts with shining yellow tips ; wing quills blackish-brown ;
tail almost black ; sides of neck and of breast pinkish-brown ;
cheeks, lores, chin, throat, and fore-neck brownish-black ;
lower plumage from breast irregularly chequered white and
black.

Young birds are dark brown above ; they lack the pale
shafts and the white marks on the rump; the whole of the
lower parts, including the throat and fore-neck, are mingled
brown and pale buff.

Bill blackish, base of lower mandible bluish ; iris sepia-
brown; legs and feet lead-colour, at times with a greenish
tinge.

Length 4°7; wing 2°1; tail 1°7; tarsus °55; bill from
gape *45.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon and confined to the hills,
rarely descending as low as 2,000 feet. It is commonest on
the central ranges, from the Peak to the Nuwara Eliya plateau.

Habits.—Less gregarious than most Munias, only collecting
in flocks to roost. The flight, too, is more rapid. It is found
deep in hill forests as well as in gardens or on estates. Like
the other species it feeds on seeds, and like the sparrow it will
hunt for food on dunghills, rubbish heaps, or roadsides. The

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 155

breeding season is from May to December. It frequently
places its nest among the bushy creepers growing on the walls
and verandahs of up-country bungalows, but it also builds in
forest trees or bushes. The nest is of the usual globular type.
The four or five eggs are slightly pointed ovals of pure white,
and measure about *61 by °45.

UROLONCHA MALABARICA.
The White-throated Munia.

Uroloncha malabarica (Oates, Vol. II., p. 188); Munia mala-
barica (Legge, p. 662).

Description.—Upper plumage, wing coverts, and inner
quills pale earth-brown, darker on the crown ; primary quills
rather darker, the outer webs almost black; upper tail
coverts white, the outer webs of the outside coverts black ;
tail blackish ; sides of head and all the lower parts pale buffy-
white, the lower flanks with a rusty tinge.

Bill, upper mandible partly black, partly horn-colour, lower
mandible black ; iris brown ; legs and feet mauve or lilac.

Length 4°75 ; wing 2°1 ; tail 2 ; tarsus *55 ; bill from gape °4.

Distribution.—In Ceylon this Munia is found only in the
dry maritime districts of the north and south-east. It is,
however, widely distributed over the whole of India proper
and ranges into Afghanistan.

Habits Found in dry sandy pastures round the lagoons
of the north and south-east coasts, in dry paddy fields, &c.
It goes about in flocks frequently in company with the Finch
Lark P. grisea. It feeds entirely on the ground, mainly on
small grass seeds, but occasionally visits fields of ripening
paddy. The breeding season is from December to March.
The nest is generally the usual globular mass of grass, with the
opening at one side, but at times it is only partially domed,
and in some cases the dome is altogether wanting.

The average clutch is probably from four to six eggs, but
in India as many as fifteen have been found in one nest,
probably the product of several birds. They are rather
broad, glossless white ovals. Average size *62 by °45.

156 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

UROLONCHA. PUNCTULATA.

The Spotted Munia.

Uroloncha punctulata (Oates, Vol. II., p. 189); Munia punctulata
(Legge, p. 656).

Description.—Upper plumage dull chocolate-brown with
paler shafts; rump darker with yellowish bars and white
streaks ; upper tail coverts glistening yellowish-brown ; tail
feathers brown edged with the hue of the tail coverts ; wing
quills chocolate-brown with chestnut edges; sides of head,
chin, and throat rich chestnut; lower parts white, all the
feathers, except on the centre of the abdomen, with conspi-
cuous wavy edges and cross-bars of blackish-brown ; lower
tail coverts tawny with, at times, some black marks.

Young birds are uniform rufous-brown above and pale buff
below.

Bill bluish-black ; iris lightish-red ; legs and feet black or
lead-colour.

Length 5 ; wing 2°2; tail 1°75; tarsus °6; bill from gape
*45.,

Distribution.—Our commonest species: abundant all over
the low-country and in the hills to about 2,500 feet, or in
patana districts to about 4,000 feet. It occurs throughout
India, except in the north-west ; also in Assam and parts of
Burma.

FHabits.—A gregarious species occurring in large flocks in
paddy fields, grass lands, village gardens, and compounds.
It is seldom found far from cultivation, except in patana
country. It commits considerable depredations on paddy
crops. The birds roost in colonies in low trees and bushes.
Breeding appears to be carried on almost throughout the year.
The nest is of the usual type and is placed in a low tree,
generally a lime or orange tree, or some other thorny species,
in an untidy native garden. There are often several nests
in the same tree. There are usually four to six white eggs,
oval in shape. Average size °66 by °45.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. lo?

Family FRINGILLID®.
Sub-family Fringilline.
Finches.

The Finches agree with the Ploceide in having a strong
conical bill with the nostrils pierced close to the line of the
forehead and near the ridge of the bill. The edges of the
mandibles are smooth, the rictal bristles are few and short,
and there are twelve tail feathers. The chief outward struc-
tural point of difference is that there are only nine primaries
in the wing, the first being nearly as long as the second. In
the sub-family Fringilline the bill is moderate in size, and
the cutting edges of the mandibles are in contact for the
whole length of the bill. The wings and tail are moderate in
length, the tarsi and feet fairly well developed. There is one
yearly moult, in autumn. The two sexes generally differ in
their plumage and young birds resemble adult females.

The Finches are a very large group of birds, found all over
the world, except in Australia, but chiefly in cool or temperate
regions. They are very poorly represented in Ceylon, the
only common species being the ubiquitous House Sparrow,
while one other species of a closely allied genus has been
recorded as a straggler.

Key to Ceylon Fringilline.
A.—A yellow patch on the throat ; bill comparatively long
and slender.
Gymnorhis flavicollis flavicollis (Yellow-throated
Sparrow).
B.—No yellow patch on throat ; bill short and stout.
Passer domesticus indicus (House Sparrow).

GYMNORHIS FLAVICOLLIS FLAVICOLLIS.

The Yellow-throated Sparrow.
_ Gymnorhis flavicollis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 235); Passer flavicollis
(Legge, p. 605).
Description.—Male : Upper plumage from forehead to tail
coverts sandy-brown ; lesser wing coverts cinnamon-red ;
median coverts brown with white tips; greater coverts and

158 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

secondary quills brown with buff margins and tips ; primaries
darker brown with narrow buff margins; primary coverts
black ; chin dull white ; a rich yellow spot on the throat ; the
sides of the head and neck and the breast pale ashy-brown ;
rest of lower parts ashy-white, darker on the flanks.

In females the throat spot is paler yellow and the shoulder
patch is rufous-brown, not cinnamon-red.

Bill, of males, generally black in winter, brown in summer ;
of females always brown; iris dark brown; legs and feet
dusky-bluish.

Length 5°5; wing 3°2; tail 2°1; tarsus °6; bill from
gape °6.

Distribution.—A mere straggler to Ceylon, only once recorded.
Legge came across a flock near Madampe in the Chilaw
District in October, 1876, and secured two specimens. It
occurs over the greater part of India and ranges into Persia.

Habits —This species goes about in small parties, or occa-
sionally during the winter, in larger flocks. It may be looked
for in thin jungle, open country bordered with trees, also in
groves or gardens. The chirrup and flight much resemble
those of the House Sparrow.

PASSER DOMESTICUS INDICUS.

The House Sparrow.
Passer domesticus (Oates, Vol. II., p. 236; Legge, p. 600).

Description.—Male : Top of head, from forehead to nape,
ashy-gray ; lores and round the eye, chin, throat, and middle
of breast black, some of the breast feathers with ashy-white
tips ; rest of lower plumage ashy-white ; cheeks, ear coverts,
and sides of neck white ; a broad chestnut streak over the
eye to the nape; upper back and scapulars chestnut with
broad black streaks ; lower back, rump, and scapulars ashy-
gray ; lesser wing coverts chestnut ; median coverts blackish
with broad white tips ; greater coverts and innermost quills
black with broad rufous margins and paler tips ; remaining
quills dark brown with pale rufous edges ; tail feathers grayish-
brown with paler edges.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 159

After the autumn moult the feathers of the back and
breast have ashy margins, which are soon abraded.

Female.—Top of the head to hind-neck, rump, and upper
tail coverts sandy-brown ; feathers of back and scapulars pale
rufous with blackish inner webs; wing coverts and quills
marked as in the male, but both the ground colour and
markings are more dingy and in tone with the hue of the
back ; tail pale brown with light edges; a pale buff stripe
over the eye to the nape, with a darker brown stripe below
it ; sides of head ashy-brown ; lower plumage ashy-white,
darker on the breast.

Young birds at first resemble the adult female, but the
under surface is tinged with buff.

Bill, of males, generally black in winter, horny-brown in
summer ; of females always brown ; iris brown ; legs and feet
pale brown.

Length 5°7; wing 2°9; tail 2:2; tarsus -7; bill from
gape *53.

Distribution.—Ubiquitous in every town and village of the
Island. The Indian race, which is smaller and lighter than
the European form, is found practically throughout the
Indian Empire, and extends eastwards to Cochin-China.

Habits—The Sparrow in Ceylon sticks as closely as in
England to the neighbourhood of man, and owing to the more
open construction of houses in the east is more of a nuisance
inside dwellings than its English relative. It is never found
far from habitations, except when the paddy crops are ripening,
when with its usual eye to the main chance it visits the fields
and threshing-floors in considerable numbers. It feeds on
insects, however, as well as on grain. It breeds pretty well
all the year round, making a large, untidy nest of dry grass,
&c., in any hole or ledge, on the inside or outside of a house,
on which it sets its fancy. Once it has settled on a nesting
site in any dwelling room or verandah it is most difficult to
dislodge. If the nest is demolished, it will be renewed again
and again. It will occasionally build in a thick tree or bush.
There are usually four, at times five, eggs. They vary a good
deal in size and markings. The ground colour is generally

160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

grayish or greenish-white, with markings in various shades
of brown or dull grayish-purple, sometimes uniformly distri-
buted, but generally heavier at the large end. Average size
-80 by +58.

Family HIRUNDINID.
Swallows.

The Swallows are a familiar family found all over the world.
Their whole structure is adapted to an aerial existence, and
their food consists of insects which are captured entirely on
the wing. Their wings are greatly elongated ; there are only
nine primaries, the first being almost as long as the second.
The bill is broad, flat, and triangular, with a very wide gape,
and the merest trace of a hook at the tip ; the rictal bristles
are weak. The legs and feet are feeble, and the tarsus is
smooth. The tail has twelve feathers, and is generally long
and forked. The sexes are alike, and there is only one moult
yearly, in the spring. The immature plumage does not
greatly differ from that of the adult. Swallows resemble
Swifts in their outward form, but there are wide structural
differences. The Swift has ten primaries, the first being large,
only ten tail feathers, and a hooked bill. The feet of the
Swallow are typically Passerine, the Swift has the hind toe
either drected forwards or reversible.

Many members of the family are migratory, and found over
a wide expanse of the globe ; others are resident, and in some
cases confined to a small area. All of the species authentically
recorded from Ceylon belong to the genus Hirwndo—or true
Swallow—in which the tarsus and toes are bare, and the
greater part of the upper plumage is of a highly glossy blue-
black.

The Martins have either the tarsus and toes feathered—
genus Chelidon—or the upper plumage brown and without
gloss—Cotile and Ptyonoprogne. Legge, however, records
that two competent ornithologists, Messrs. Bligh & Parker,
have observed, without being able to secure, a species of
Martin with a darkish under surface (vide Legge, pp. 598 and
1217). If specimens are ever obtained, they may possibly
turn out to be a species of Crag Martin—Ptyonoprogne—either

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 161

P. rupestris or P, concolor. The former species has a wide
range over the Old World, and the latter is found over a
great part of India proper. They might, however, possibly
be Chelidon urbica with a feathered foot. This last species
also is found over a wide extent of Europe, Africa, and Asia,
and has been recorded as far south as the Nilgiris and
Travancore.

Four species of Hirundo occur in the Island. One of these
is 2 common migrant, one a chance visitor ; the other two
are resident, and one of them is peculiar to Ceylon.

Key to Ceylon Hirundinide.
A.—Rump same colour as the back.

(1) A dark glossy band across the chest.
Hurundo rustica rustica (The Swallow).

(2) No dark band across the chest.
H. javanica (Nilgiri House Swallow).

B.—Rump chestnut, contrasting with the dark back.

(1) Lower plumage pale rufous, much paler than
the ear coverts.
H. daurica erythropygia (Syke’s Striated
Swallow).
(2) Lower plumage chestnut of same shade as the
ear coverts.
H. hyperythra (Ceylon Swallow).

HIRUNDO RUSTICA RUSTICA.

The Swallow.
Hirundo rustica (Oates, Vol. II., p. 277; Legge, p. 587).

Description.—Forehead, chin, and throat chestnut ; lores
black ; upper plumage, including wing coverts, glossy purplish-
blue ; wing quills and tail black with a greenish lustre ; all
tail feathers, except the middle pair, with a white patch on
the inner web ; sides of the head and neck and a broad band
across the breast glossy-black, a few of the feathers on the

21 6(17)21

162 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

breast band fringed with chestnut ; rest of lower parts pale
rufous, deeper on the tail coverts. In females the lower parts
are almost pure white.

The above description applies to the sub-species H. rustica
rustica, which breeds in Europe and North-western Asia,
and winters in Africa and South-western Asia. The Far
Eastern race H. rustica gutturalis, which breeds in Japan and
North-eastern Asia, has the lower plumage below the pectoral
band pure white, while the chestnut of the throat encroaches
on the black band so as nearly to sever it in the centre. It is
also slightly smaller and with a shorter tail. Many of our
birds are intermediate between these two races,while there is
one specimen in the Museum from the Northern Province,
which seems almost typical gutturalis.

Yearling birds, of which our visitors largely consist, on |
their arrival have the top of the head brownish, the forehead
grayish, the throat rufescent-white turning in patches to
chestnut, and the pectoral band brown. The long outer tail
feathers are not fully grown. They assume the adult plumage
before leaving in spring.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark brown.

Length up to 7°5; wing 4°6; tail up to 4; tarsus °4; bill
from gape ‘57. Females slightly smaller and with shorter
tails.

Distribution.—Found all over the Island, but rare at high
elevations. As noted above, the European race occurs over
the west of the Old World, breeding in temperate climates
and wintering in Africa and South-western Asia. In Central
Asia this race appears to pass gradually into the eastern form.
Many of the birds which winter in the east of India are inter-
mediate between these two races, typical gutturalis being
seldom found west of the Bay of Bengal.

Habits —The young birds appear to come first, and arrive,
generally vid the north of the Island, about the middle of
September. The old birds come a little later. All leave
about the middle of April. Both at their coming and going
they congregate in large flocks, which seem to find telegraph
wires their most convenient perch. They scatter during
their stay and hawk far and wide after flying insects,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 163

HIRUNDO JAVANICA.
Lhe Nilgiri; House Swallow.

Hirundo javanica (Oates, Vol. IL., p. 279; Legge, p. 597).

Description.—A broad forehead, chin, throat, upper breast,
ear coverts, and cheeks rusty-red ; lores blackish ; upper
plumage and lesser wing coverts black with a greenish-blue
gloss ; wings and tail rusty-black ; all the tail feathers, except
the middle pair, with a white spot on the inner webs ; lower
plumage ashy-brown, paling on the centre of the abdomen;
under tail coverts blackish, tipped with white.

In young birds the upper plumage is without gloss, and
some of the secondaries have rufous margins ; the lower parts
are paler.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet brown.

Length 5 ; wing 4°05; tail 1°8 ; tarsus °35 ; bill from gape
°63 ; tail only slightly forked.

_ Distribution —Resident in the hills, where it is common at
the higher elevations, but seldom descends as low as 2,000 feet.
It is found in the South Indian hills as far north as the Nilgiris,
also in the Andamans, Tenasserim, and Malaya, including
the Archipelago.

Habits —The most familiar Swallow in the higher hills.
The flight is easy, but not very swift. The birds often have
a regular beat, and are fond of the steep-sided railway cuttings
through cabook (laterite), which are so common on the up-
country line. They are fearless of man, and frequently build
their nests in the eaves of verandahs, or even inside rooms.
They are, however, equally ready to breed on the little ledges
on the face of rocks, or in cabook cuttings, and I have found
the nest inthe entrance of a railway tunnel. The breeding
season is from April to June, and again in September. The
nest is a little half cup of mud, firmly glued to the perpendi-
cular surface, against which it is built, and lined with feathers
or occasionally small scraps of rag, &c. The two or three
eggs are rather broad ovals, slightly pointed at the smaller
end. The ground colour is pinkish-white, with dull purple
and reddish-brown markings, chiefly at the larger end.
Average size *66 by °50.

164 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

HIRUNDO DAURICA ERYTHROPYGIA.

Syke’s Striated Swallow.

Hirundo erythropygia (Oates, Vol. II., p. 283; Legge, p. 594).

Description.—Upper plumage down to the lower back, with
the lesser and median wing coverts glossy steel-blue ; rump
and shorter upper tail coverts chestnut ; longer tail coverts
glossy-black ; remainder of wing and the tail dark brown with
a blue gloss on the outer webs; lores brown; the feathers
under the eye mixed brown and rufous ; ear coverts and a
partial collar on the hind-neck chestnut ; sides of the neck
glossy-blue ; the whole lower plumage pale rufous with fine
brown shaft-streaks ; under tail coverts tipped with black.

Bill and legs black ; iris brown.

Length 6°5; wing 4°3; tail 3°2; tarsus °5; bill from
gape °45.

Distribution.—The Indian race of this Swallow is found,
over the greater part of the plains of India as far south as the
Nilgiris. It is the merest straggler to Ceylon, having been:
recorded once from the Jaffna peninsula and once from the
Uva hills near Haputale.

Habits.—In India this species is found round mosques and
other buildings, and also in the vicinity of walls and bridges.
The flight is comparatively slow.

HIRUNDO HYPERYTHRA.

The Ceylon Swallow.

Hirundo hyperythra (Oates, Vol. II., p. 284; Legge, p. 592).

Description.—Whole upper plumage, including wings and
tail, glossy blue-black, except the rump and shorter upper
tail coverts, which are dark chestnut ; whole under surface
and sides of neck chestnut with narrow indistinct brown
shaft-streaks, except on the vent and lower tail coverts ; the
latter have broad black tips.

In young birds the chestnut parts are paler, the streaks on
the throat and fore-neck are broader, and the breast is mottled
with blackish-brown.

Bill blackish-brown ; iris sepia-brown ; legs and feet vinous-
brown.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 165

Length 6°6; wing 4°75; tail 3°2; tarsus °55; bill from
gape’ 6.

Distribution.—A resident species peculiar to Ceylon. It is
found all over the low-country and in the central hills up to
about 3,000 feet. On the Uva patanas I have seen it at
an elevation of about 4,000 feet. In the northern forest
tract it is widely distributed, but not very numerous ; it is
more abundant in the south, especially round Galle, and is
occasionally seen in Colombo.

Habits —May be seen hawking for insects over paddy
fields, tanks, marshes, and patanas, as well as round houses
in villages and the vicinity of towns. The flight is slower and
heavier than that of the common Swallow, but it is often found
in company with that species in the low-country and with
H. javanica in the hills. The breeding season is from April
to June. The nest is a solid, retort-shaped structure of mud,
glued on to the under surface of a verandah roof, the arch of
a bridge or culvert, or the roof of a rock cave. The interior
is lined with a felted layer of feathers. The two or three
eggs are elongated ovals of pure white without any gloss.
Two eggs in my collection measure *95 by °57.

Family MoractLuip 2.
Wagtails and Pipits.

The Wagtails and Pipits form a family of rather small,
slim-built birds, with straight, slender bills, slender legs and
feet, and fairly long tails. The wing has only nine primaries,
the first being nearly as long as the second ; the inner second-
aries—or tertiaries—are elongated, and in the closed wing
reach almost, if not quite, to the tip of the longest primary.
The rictal bristles are fairly well developed. The family,
which is found chiefly in the Old World, especially in the north
of Europe and Asia, divides naturally into two groups :
Wagtails and Pipits. The Wagtails are most daintily formed
birds with longish tails, which they vibrate perpetually while
standing or running. They frequent grassy lands, or the
banks of streams and tanks, running over the ground in
search of insects. Most of the species are migratory, and

166 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

none of the five forms found in Ceylon are resident ; two are
the merest stragglers to the Island. Four of these species
belong to the genus Motacilla, in which the sexes are alike or
almost so. They undergo, however, striking seasonal changes
in plumage as well as various metamorphoses between the
nestling and adult stages. In consequence birds of the same
species may be seen at the same time and place in very
different phases of plumage. The characteristics given in the
key, however, will always serve to distinguish our four Ceylon
species. The remaining Wagtail is a forest bird, which does
not undergo such continual changes.

Inthe Pipitsthe family characteristics are not so emphasized.
With their soberly streaked upper plumage and shorter tails
they resemble the Larks.

Three Pipits are found in Ceylon, all being sub-species of
Anthus richardi. Two of these forms are migratory, the third
is a common resident. The sexes are alike. Immature birds
are very spotted beneath, the spots becoming reduced in size
and number each year of the bird’s life. There is little differ-
ence between the summer and winter plumage, but the
colours are brightest just after the moult, in autumn.

Key to Ceylon Motacillide.
I.—Upper plumage, not streaked. _Wagtails.

A.—Central pair of tail feathers of same colour and as long
as the adjoining pair. Genus Motacilla.

(a) Rare stragglers, plumage white, black, and gray ;
throat and fore-neck black or with a sharply defined
black patch ; hind claw curved and shorter than
its toe.

(1) Ear coverts and sides of neck white.
M. alba dukhunensis (White Wagtail).
(2) Ear coverts and sides of neck black.
M. maderaspatensis (Large Pied Wagtail).

(b) Adult plumage largely greenish above, yellow
beneath ; young birds may be grayish above and
whitish beneath, but have no black patch on
fore-neck.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 167

(1) Tail 3-5 or more, and with three white feathers
on each side ; hind claw about *25 and shorter
than its toe.

M. melanope (Gray Wagtail).

(2) Tail about. three and with only two white
feathers on each side ; hind claw about °45, and
longer than its toe.

M. flava borealis (Gray-headed Wagtail).

B.—Central pair of tail feathers shorter than the adjoining
pair and of a different colour.

(1) Wing coverts and breast broadly barred black .
and white.
Dendrognathus indicus (Forest Wagtail).

I1.—Upper plumage streaked ; the two outermost feathers on
each side of tail largely white. Pipits.
(1) Length about 7°5; tail about 3°2; hind claw
about *75 and not much curved.
Anthus richardi richardi (Richard’s Pipit).
(2) Length about 7; tail about 2°9; hind claw
about °5, and considerably curved.
A. richardi striolatus (Blyth’s Pipit).
(3) Length about 6°5; tail 2°4; hind claw about
5, and not greatly curved.
A, richardé rufulus (Indian Pipit).

MoTACILLA ALBA DUKHUNENSIS.

The White Wagtail.
Motacilla alba (Oates, Vol. IT., p. 287; not in Legge).

Description—Summer : Forehead, front of crown, sides of
head, and of neck clear white ; back of crown, nape, hind-neck,
chin, throat, fore-neck, and breast deep black ; upper plumage
from the nape, with the lesser wing coverts gray ,; upper tail
coverts black with white margins on the outer webs ; rest of
wing coverts and the inner quills blackish with broad white
margins ; rest of quills black with narrow white margins ;
two outermost pairs of tail feathers almost entirely white, the
rest black ; lower parts from breast white.

168 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In winter the chin, throat, and fore-neck become white and
the black of the breast is confined to a narrow crescent-shapéd
patch, the horns of the crescent extending up the sides of the
fore-neck.

Young birds in their first autumn resemble adults in winter
plumage, but the back of the crown, the nape, and hind-neck
are gray, like the back, while the white parts of the head are
tinged with primrose-yellow.

Bill black, bluish beneath ; iris brown; legs, feet, and claws
blackish-brown.

Length about 7°75; wing 3°5; tail 3:6; tarsus °85; bill
from gape °75.

Distribution.—A recent addition to our list. At the end of
November, 1917, I saw several strange Wagtails on the
maidan at Puttalam, and secured one which proved to be a
young male of this form. The other birds stayed for some
weeks, but left at the end of January. This species occurs
over most of the Old World, breeding in the north of its range,
from the British Isles to Eastern Siberia, and wintering in
Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and Southern Asia. It
is divided into several sub-species, the present race breeding
in Central Siberia and wintering in India and Burma. It
seldom, however, penetrates as far as the south of India,
though possibly it may occasionally visit the Island unnoticed
among other Wagtails.

Habits.—The birds I saw frequented the grassy flats round
Puttalam resthouse along with numbers of the Gray-headed
Wagtail. It might be looked for on open grassy spaces,
wherever there are troops of the last-mentioned species

MOTACILLA MADERASPATENSIS.

The Large Pied Wagtail.

Motacilla maderaspatensis (Oates, Vol. II., p. 291; Legge,
p. 607).

Description.—Male: A broad white eyebrow from the
nostril to the nape ; head, neck all round, and upper plumage
to the tail coverts glossy-black ; Jesser and median wing

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 169

coverts less glossy-black; greater coverts almost entirely
white ; quills black bordered with white ; two outer pairs of
tail feathers almost entirely white, the remainder black with
narrow white edges; lower parts from breast downwards
white, the flanks grayish.

Females are smaller, and their upper plumage is tinged
with gray.

Young birds are grayish-brown where the adults are black ;
the white eyebrow does not extend forward of the eye ; there
is some white on the chin and throat, and the white parts are
tinged with buff.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark brown.

Length about 8°75 ; wing 3°9; tail 4:1; tarsus 1 ; bill from
gape °8.

Distribution.—A very rare straggler to Ceylon, having been
recorded once from one of the islands of the Northern Province.
In India it is resident, and is found ovre practically the whole
of India proper.

Habits.—A true Water Wagtail, which is rarely found far
from water. It may be looked for near rivers, tanks, &c. It
is very active in all its movements. It feeds on insects, and
will even tackle dragon-flies.

MoraciILLA MELANOPR.

The Gray Wagtail.
Motacilla melanope (Oates, Vol. II., p. 293; Legge, p. 610).

Description.—Male in winter: Top and sides of head, hind-
neck, back, scapulars, and lesser wing coverts ashy-gray with
a brownish-green tinge ; rump and upper tail coverts yellowish-
green ; outermost pair of tail feathers entirely white, next
two pairs with some black on the basal portion of the outer
webs ; three middle pairs black with greenish margins ; medium
and greater wing coverts and quills dark brown with white
margins, which disappear on the outer primaries ; a narrow,

22 6(17)21

170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

dull white eyebrow from the lores to the ear coverts ; chin,
throat, and fore-neck white ; rest of lower parts bright yellow,
deepest on the vent and under tail coverts.

In spring the lores change to dark brown, the white eyebrow
becomes broader and clearer, and the ear coverts dark slate-
colour ; the chin, throat, and fore-neck become black with
small white edges to the feathers, and there is a broad white
moustache stripe down the sides of the neck. Our birds
appear to leave before this change is much advanced.

Females in winter resemble males; in summer the dark
throat patch is represented by a row of dark brown spots on
each side of the throat and neck ; the lower parts are less
bright yellow.

Young birds on their arrival resemble adults in winter, but
the chin and throat are tinged with yellow, and the rest of
the lower parts are less bright, at times almost white.

Bill horn-colour, paler at the base of the lower mandible ;
iris brown ; legs and feet flesh-colour.

Length about 7°5; wing 3°15; tail 3°7; tarsus *75; bill
from gape *7; hind claw, measured straight from base to
tip °*25.

Distribution.—A regular migrant, arriving about the middle
of September, and staying near the coast for a few days after
its arrival. The birds then move on, some to the interior of
the northern forest tract, but the majority to the hills. They
leave again about the end of March.

This species has a wide range, breeding in the temperate
climates of Europe and Asia and on the Himalayas, and
wintering in Northern Africa and Southern Asia.

Habits—May occasionally be seen in the sandy beds of
rivers in the northern forest tract, but in the hills it is a very
familiar species along the streams and water-courses. It is
fond of perching on the roofs of houses, on tree stumps and
bushes, as well as on rocks in the stream bed. When perched
or running it perpetually balances its tail. The flight is
undulating, but swift; the note is a cheerful little whistle.
It is by no means shy,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. yea

MOTACILLA FLAVA BOREALIS.
The Gray-headed Wagtail.
Motacilla borealis (Oates, Vol. II., p. 294; Legge, p. 617).

Description.—Male on arrival in autumn: From forehead
to hind-neck slaty-gray ; back, scapulars, and rump dull
olive-green ; upper tail coverts dark brown edged with olive-
green ; four middle pairs of tail feathers black with narrow
yellowish-green edges ; two outer pairs mainly white ; wing
coverts and quills blackish-brown with pale margins often
tinged with yellowish-green ; lores and cheeks dark brown ;
usually an indistinct whitish eyebrow ; lower parts yellow,
the sides of the chest brown ; at times the centre of the breast
is mottled with white and blackish-brown.

During the winter the upper parts become worn and
browner, and the black bases of the breast feathers become
conspicuous.

In summer plumage, to which some birds change before
leaving, the head from forehead to nape is dark bluish-gray ;
the upper parts become greener, the pale borders of the wing
feathers more yellow ; the lores, cheeks, and ear coverts are
black, and the whole lower plumage bright yellow.

Females in winter resemble males; in summer both the
upper and lower plumage is duller ; the lores, cheeks, and ear
coverts are brown, and the black bases of the breast feathers
more conspicuous.

Birds in their first autumn are rather differen: ; the upper
parts are grayish-brown, which shades into gray-blue on the
rump ; the upper tail coverts are black edged with gray ; the
tail and wings as in the adult, but the edges of the wing
feathers are white ; there is a broad whitish eyebrow ; lores
and ear coverts grayish-brown ; lower parts white, the breast
darker and at times mottled with brown.

Bill, blackish-brown, paler at the base of the lower mandible ;
iris brown ; legs and feet dark horn-colour.

Length about 6°75; wing 3°2; tail 3°1; tarsus ‘9; bill
from gape ‘7 ; hind claw measured straight °45.

LW SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.,

Distribution.—The Gray-headed Wagtail, divided into
several geographical races, is found over the greater part of
the Old World, breeding in the north and wintering in the
south. The present sub-species breeds in Northern Europe
and Western Siberia, wintering in Africa and in Southern
Asia as far east as the Malay Peninsula. It is one of our
commonest Passerine migrants, arriving about the middle of
September. It is abundant during the north-east monsoon
all over the low-country, but is less numerous in the south-east
of the Island than in the north. In the hills it is not nearly
so common as the last species. It leaves for the most part in
April.

Habits.—On its first arrival this Wagtail may be seen in
swarms on grassy flats near the sea in the west and north of
the Island. A number of birds remain in these haunts.
Others spread inland to newly ploughed paddy fields, grassy

land round tanks, &c. They are restless birds continually.

running about or taking short flights in their hunt for flies
and other small insects. They roost at night in large colonies
in the long grass of swamps, &c.

DENDROGNATHUS INDICUS.

The Forest Wagtail.

Limonidromus indicus (Oates, Vol. II., p. 300; Legge, p. 614).

Description.—Upper plumage, including ear coverts and
lesser wing coverts, dull olive-green; tail coverts blaekish-
brown ; median and greater wing coverts black with broad
whitish tips, which form two conspicuous wing bars ; wing
quills brown, the innermost secondaries with broad olive-
brown tips, remaining quills with edges of yellowish-white
on the central portion of the outer webs ; most of the primaries
also with a patch of the same colour near the base ; middle
pair of tail feathers the same hue as the back ; next three pairs
blackish-brown, the next pair white with broad brown bases, the
outermost pair almost entirely white ; cheeks, chin, throat,
and lower plumage white with a yellow tinge on the chest,
which is crossed by two broad black bands, the lower band
being incomplete in the middle.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 173

Bill, upper mandible dark brown, lower flesh-colour ; iris
olive-brown ; legs and feet flesh-colour.

Length 6°5; wing 3'1; tail 2°8; tarsus ‘85; bill from
gape °75.

Distribution.—A migrant, breeding in Northern China and
Eastern Siberia, and wintering from India eastwards to
Southern China, but rare in most parts of India.

In Ceylon it is almost confined to the northern forest tract,
but may occasionally be met with elsewhere.

Habits.—Generally found by the grassy sides of roads
running through forest. It is, for instance, fairly numerous
from October to March on the sides of the roads leading from
Puttalam to Anuradhapura and Kurunegala. The birds are
generally in pairs, which keep flying in front of one in little
flights of about 100 yards, perching on low branches, and
moving on as one catches up with them. They will continue
in this manner for some distance before they double back.
When hunting for food they run about on the ground and
wag their tails from side to side, instead of up and down as
other Wagtails do.

ANTHUS RICHARDI RICHARDI.
Richard’s Pipit.

Anthus richardi (Oates, Vol. II., p. 307); Corydalla richard:
(Legge, p. 621).

Description.—Upper plumage fulvous-brown, the feathers
of the head and back with dark brown centres ; wings dark
brown with brownish-buff margins ; outermost tail feathers
almost entirely white, the next pair brown at the base, along
the shaft and on the marginal portions of the inner web,
the rest dark brown with paler edges; a broad buff stripe
above the eye ; lower plumage browny-buff ; the sides of the
throat, the fore-neck, and breast streaked with dark brown.

Bill brown, paler beneath ; iris brown ; legs flesh colour.

Dimensions a little variable ; length about 7°7 ; wing 3°75 ;
tail about 3°2; tarsus 1°2; bill from gape °8; hind claw
about ‘75, and not greatly curved.

174 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution.—This, the largest race of the species, breeds
in Central Asia and Siberia. In winter it is found over a
wide extent from the British Isles and France to China ;
it occurs at this season over the eastern half of India proper
and the whole of Burma. In Ceylon it arrives about the begin-
ning of October, and some birds linger till May. It spreads
fairly widely throughout the low-country, but is found chiefly
in the maritime districts. It occurs on the hills on some of
the lower patanas, but does not appear to ascend to any great
elevation. In Colombo it is not much seen before February,
apparently visiting that part of Ceylon only on its return
journey.

Habits.—Usually met with on pastures and grassy flats,
especially near the sea, in company with its smaller resident
relative A. r. rufulus. It may sometimes be found, generally
just after its arrival or before its departure in the longer
grass of marshy lands. It is a swift runner, and has a rapid
undulating flight.

ANTHUS RICHARDI STRIOLATUS.
Blyth’s Pipit.

Anthus striolatus (Oates, Vol. II., p. 308); Corydalla striolata
(Legge, p. 628).

Description.—In plumage it resembles A. r. richardi, but is
rather smaller ; the tarsus and feet are shorter and the hind
claw is considerably shorter and more curved.

Length about 7; wing 3°5; tail 2:9; tarsus 1; bill from
gape *75; hind claw *5, and considerably curved.

Distribution.—Breeds at high elevations on the Himalayas
and winters throughout the Indian Empire. Not very much
is known of its distribution in Ceylon, but it probably escapes
notice owing to its resemblance to Richard’s Pipit. The
only authentic record of its occurrence in the Island is by
Legge, who found it south of Trincomalee near the Virugal-oya.

Habits.—Resemble those of Richard’s Pipit. It may be
looked for on pasture lands near the sea. It runs about
actively, with sudden halts, and holds itself very erect.
According to Brookes, it rises with a loud discordant note.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 175

ANTHUS RICHARDI RUFULUS.
The Indian Pipit, or Titlark.

Anthus rufulus (Oates, Vol. II., p. 308); Corydalla rufula
(Legge, p. 625).

Description.—A much smaller edition of A. richardi richardi,
but the tone of the upper plumage is grayer and the lower
parts generally whiter. The bill is proportionately larger.

Dimensions a little variable. Length about 6°5; wing
3°15; tail 2°4; tarsus 1; bill from gape ‘75; hind claw °5.

Distribution.—A_ resident form, found throughout the
Indian Empire and thence south-east to the Malay Archipe-
lago and the Philippines. It also occurs over a great part
of Africa. It is found abundantly throughout the whole
Island, except at the very highest elevations, such as the
Horton Plains, where it is scarce.

Habits—May be met with everywhere, on grassy flats
near the sea, pastures, dry paddy fields, and open patanas.
It is very tame and fearless, and runs about actively through
the heat of the day. The flight is swift and undulating.
It breeds during the dry weather from April to July. The
nest is a small cup of dry grass and grass roots, well concealed
in a slight depression under the shelter of a tussock of grass.
The lining is of finer material than the outside of the nest.
The two or three eggs are almost oval in shape. The ground
colour is whitish, or at times greenish stone, generally fairly
thickly spotted with dull brown and occasionally fainter
markings of dingy purple. I have two clutches which are
much darker and with deep brown, streaky markings covering
the greater part of the surface. Average size of a fair Ceylon
series *80 by 60.

Family ALAUDID2.
Larks.

The typical Larks closely resemble the Pipits, having the
same soberly streaked plumage and long inner secondaries.
They are, however, slightly plumper in form, the bill is not
quite so slender, and the tail a little shorter, while unlike the
Pipits they soar and sing while soaring. They are also
distinguished from them and from all other Indian Passeres
by the transversely scutellated hinder aspect of the tarsus.

176 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In all the other families the hinder aspect of the tarsus is
covered by two long “ lamine’’ or thin scales, which run,
one on each side of the back edge of the tarsus, from the toes
to the tarsal joint. Im the Larks this covering consists of
several scales on each side, which are set transversely and
overlap.

All the Ceylon forms have ten primaries, the first being
always small, and in one form miscroscopic. In some outside
genera the first primary is altogether wanting. The wing,
as a tule, is somewhat pointed, the head is often crested, but
no Ceylon species has a perceptible crest. The shape of the
bill varies considerably in the different genera, but the edges
of the mandibles are smooth, except for a slight notch in the
upper one. The rictal bristles are well developed.

Larks are found all over the Old World, but only one genus
occurs in America and they are unknown in Australia. They
are somewhat gregarious, and generally frequent cultivated
or open grass lands, while many are desert-loving species.
Three forms, each belonging to a different genus, occur in
Ceylon. The main generic distinctions are given in the
following key.

Key to Ceylon Alaudide.

A.—Sexes similar ; bill moderate ; length about 6.

(1) First primary exceedingly minute ; nostrils con-
cealed by plumelets; wing somewhat pointed ;
outside tail feather almost entirely white, the next
with a whitish outer web and tip ; hind claw long
and straight.

Alauda gulgula australis (Indian Sky Lark).

(2) First primary nearly half length of second ;
nostrils exposed ; wing round ; outside tail feather
brown with a rufous-white border on the outer
web ; hind claw long and curved.

Mirafra affinis (Madras Bush Lark).

B.—Sexes dissimilar ; bill short and deep; length about
5: nostrils covered with plumelets ; tarsus short.
Pyrrhulauda grisea grisea (Ashy-crowned Finch
Lark).

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 177

ALAUDA GULGULA AUSTRALIS,
The Indian Sky Lark.

Alauda gulgula (Oates, Vol. II., p. 326 ; Legge, p. 630 and 1217).

Description.—Feathers of upper plumage rich, dark brown
broadly edged with brownish-buff; on the hind-neck and
upper back the margins are very broad, the brown being
reduced to a wide shaft-stripe ; wing coverts slightly paler
brown and with whitish tips ; wing quills brown with fulvous
margins, the outer webs tinged with rufous at the base ;
the outside tail feather almost entirely buffy-white ; the next
with the outer web and extreme tip buffy-white, rest of tail
brown with paler margins ; a whitish streak from the nostrils
over the eye ; ear coverts and cheeks streaky-brown ; lower
plumage pale, slightly rufous-buff, the breast boldly streaked
with dark brown ; sides of the body more faintly streaked.

Young birds are more rufous; the feathers of the upper
surface are rounded and white at the tips.

Bill dark horny-brown above, paler beneath ; iris brown ;
legs fleshy-brown.

Dimensions rather variable ; length about 6°3 ; wing 3°35 ;
tail 2°1; tarsus ‘9; bill from gape °7.

Distribution—The Indian Sky Lark is found almost
throughout the Indian Empire, and ranges eastwards to
Southern China and the Philippines. The present sub-species
occurs in Southern India and Ceylon. With us it appears
to be resident all the year round in the drier parts of the low-
country. In the damp west and south-west it is only a north-
east monsoon visitor, probably because it nests on the ground,
and in these parts cannot be sure of a dry spell during the
breeding season. It is also resident in the drier hill country,
and I have found it breeding at 4,500 feet on the Uva Patanas.

Habits.—Much the same as those of the English Sky Lark.
It is fairly abundant on the grassy flats round the coastal
lagoons and at the head of some of the larger inland tanks.
The song is not so loud or sustained as that of the English
Sky Lark, nor does it mount and sing for so long a period,
The breeding season is during the dry weather, from April

23 6(17)21

178 SPOLTIA ZEYLANICA.

to July. The nest is a neatly made little cup of grass and
grass roots, lined with finer materials of the same nature and
built in a little depression of the ground under the shelter of a
tussock of grass. The two or three eggs are slightly pointed
ovals in shape. There are two types. In one the egg is a
dull whitish stone-colour, thickly spotted, chiefly at the larger
end, with dull, dark brown over fainter marks of dingy
purplish-gray. In the other the colour is a more glossy
whitish with smaller and more evenly scattered freckles of
yellowish-brown and dull gray. Average size +84 by °60.

MIRAFRA AFFINIS.

The Madras Bush Lark.

Mirafra affinis (Oates, Vol. IT., p. 33855; Legge, p. 634).

Description.—Upper plumage and wing coverts dark brown
with broad, brownish-buff margins, which are paler on the
hind-neck and wing coverts ; wing quills brown with rufous
margins and a rufous area on the basal portions of the inner
webs ; tail feathers brown with pale rufous edges, the outside
feather with a broader edge on the outer web ; lores brownish ;
an indistinct buff streak over the eye ; ear coverts and cheeks
buff streaked with brown ; lower parts whitish-buff, palest on
the chin and throat, the lower throat and the breast streaked
with broad, triangular patches of rich brown; flanks tinged
with brown.

Bill: upper mandible dark brown, the margin and lower
mandible, except the tip, flesh-coloured ; iris reddish or yellow-
ish-brown ; legs and feet fleshy-white.

Dimensions rather variable: length about 6; wing 3°2;
tail 2; tarsus 1; bill from gape °7.

Distribution.—Common all over the low-country, except
in the dampest districts where it is not so abundant. It
is not found in the hills except as a straggler. It also occurs
over a large part of Southern India.

Habits.—Found wherever there is dry pasture or any little
open stretch of dry grass. It is fond of perching on bushes
or dead branches of trees. The song is sweet, but low and
not nearly so sustained as that of the Sky Lark. The bird

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. ~ 179

when singing mounts rapidly for a short distance and then
sinks down with its wings extended. The breeding season
is from about April to July. The nest much resembles that
of the Sky Lark, and is placed in similar situations, but is at
times more or less domed with a thin covering concealed
among the dry stems and blades of the tussock of grass, in
the shelter of which it is placed. The two or three eggs
are rather broad, slightly pointed ovals. The ground colour
is whitish with generally a fair amount of gloss. The mark-
ings vary a good deal in size and density, and range from
reddish to yellowish-brown over paler marks of dull purple and
purplish-gray. Average size *84 by °63.

PYRRHULAUDA GRISEA GRISEA.

The Ashy-crowned Finch Lark.
Pyrrhulauda grisea (Oates, Vol. I1., p. 341; Legge, p. 637).

Descriptiom.—Male : Upper plumage ashy-brown, the fea-
thers with pale gray margins, which are broadest on the
forehead and crown; wing coverts and quills dark brown
with whitish-gray margins, wider and more conspicuous on
the coverts and inner quills; tail feathers light brown with
whitish edges, the outer feather at times almost wholly white ;
lores, front part of cheeks, a streak over the eye, chin, throat,
sides of neck, and lower parts to the tail coverts brownish-
black ; hind cheeks and ear coverts white ; a grayish-white
patch on the sides of the breast.

Female: The upper plumage is darker brown, at times
tinged with rufous; the gray margins are narrower and
darker, the whitish margins of the wing feathers not so
conspicuous ; ear coverts brown and gray, like the crown ;
those parts, which in the male are black or white, are grayish-
white with ill-defined, dingy brown streaks.

Immature birds resemble females, but the margins on the
upper plumage are broader and more distinct.

Bill whitish in males, a little darker in females ; iris dark
brown ; legs and feet flesh-colour.

Length about 5; wing 3; tail 1°75; tarsus °6; bill from
gape °5.

180 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

- Distribution.—This little species is found in the plains
throughout the greater part of India proper. The Ceylon
form appears to be a good sub-species, which probably also
occurs in the dry south-east corner of India. With us it is
confined to the dry maritime zones of the north, north-west,
and south-east, but it occasionally straggles, probably storm-
driven, to other parts, and has been seen in Colombo and at
the top of Ramboda Pass.

Habits.—Found in little troops on arid plains near the
coast. It feeds on the ground and squats very close, occasion-
ally taking short little flights in the air, when it gives out a
cheerful but weak little warble. The breeding season is from
May to July. The nest is placed in a small depression on the
bare plain, right out in the open, occasionally in the centre
of an old desiccated patch of cowdung. It isa minute, shallow
cup of fine, dry grass and grass roots, with occasionally a
scrap of wool in the thin lining. The top is neatly levelled
off flush with the surface of the ground so that the nest
absurdly reminds one of a hole in a bagatelle board. There
are only two eggs. The ground colour is whitish, rather
sparingly, but evenly freckled with fine spots of yellowish-
brown. Occasionally the markings form a zone round the
middle. Average size *75 by *54.

Family ZoSTEROPID %.
Genus Zosterops.
W hite-eyes.

The White-eyes are a group of which the classification has
been much in dispute. Oates has placed them among the
Crateropodide, other ornithologists either with the Sunbirds
—Nectariniide, the Flowerpeckers—Dicxide, or the Honey-
eaters—Meliphagide. Their natural affinities, on the whole,
seem to be near the Sunbirds, and I have followed Stuart
Baker, who accords them family rank and places them just
before that group. They are all very small, arboreal birds,
which are found over a great part of Africa and in Southern
Asia and Australia. The bill is curved, slender, and pointed,

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 181

the rictal bristles are few and small. The tongue is peculiar ;
according to Gadow, it is split into two and each half is broken
up into numerous, stiff, horny fibres, like a little brush. The
nostrils are covered by a large membrane and the eye is
surrounded by a velvety fringe of small white feathers—a very
characteristic mark of the family. The wing is short and
rounded ; there are ten primaries, the first being microscopic.
The tail is short and square, the legs and feet weak. Two
species occur in Ceylon, one of which is peculiar to the Island.

Key to Ceylon Zosteropide.
(1) Upper plumage greenish-yellow.
Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa (Indian White-eye).

(2) Upper plumage dark olive-green.
Z. ceylonensis (Ceylon White-eye).

ZOSTEROPS PALPEBROSA PALPEBROSA.
The Indian White-eye.
Zosterops palpebrosa (Oates, Vol. I., p. 214; Legge, p. 582).

Description.—Upper plumage greenish-yellow, slightly purer
yellow on the forehead and upper tail coverts and on the sides
of the neck, where it blends into the primrose-yellow of the
throat and fore-neck ; wings and tail brown, edged with the
same greenish-yellow hue as the sides of the neck; a ring
of white feathers round the eye; lores and a small streak
below the eye black; breast, abdomen, and flanks grayish-
white, the centre of the abdomen at times faintly washed with
yellow ; under tail coverts yellow ; wing-lining white.

Bill blackish, bluish at base of lower mandible ; iris rather
variable, generally grayish or brownish-olive ; legs and feet
slate blue.

Length 4°25; wing 2°1; tail 1°6; tarsus *6; bill from
gape °47.

Distribution.—Found all over the low-country and in the
hills to about 4,000 feet, above which it is replaced by the
next species. This White-eye, divided into several races,
occurs all over India proper and in part of Upper Burma.

182 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits.—A rather gregarious little bird, which associates
in flocks or small parties, hunting among the leafy boughs
of trees, either in forests or gardens. It feeds partly on insects,
partly on buds and flowers. The breeding season is mainly
from June to August. The nest is a dainty little cup of
tendrils, fine grass stalks, and moss woven together with
cobwebs, and generally lined with a little vegetable down.
It is placed in the slender fork of a small branch about 6 to 20
feet from the ground. The two eggs are pale, uniform blue,
and are rather pointed at the small end. Average size *62
by °46.

ZOSTEROPS CEYLONENSIS.
The Ceylon White-eye.
Zosterops ceylonensis (Oates, Vol. I., p. 215; Legge, p. 585).

Description.—Upper plumage and sides of neck dark olive-
green, paler on the rump and darker on the crown and fore-
head ; wings and tail brown edged with the green of the
back ; a ring of white round the eye; lores and a small
streak below the eye blackish ; chin, throat, neck, and upper
breast, thighs and tail coverts greenish-yellow ; lower breast,
abdomen, and flanks grayish-white, the abdomen at times
tinged with yellow ; wing-lining white.

Bill blackish, base of lower mandible bluish or slaty ; iris
variable, generally yellowish or reddish-brown ; legs and feet
bluish or pale leaden.

Length 4°6; wing 2°2; tail 1°7; tarsus °65; bill from
gape °6.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon and confined to the hills
down to about 3,000 feet.

Habits.—Gregarious like the last species. It is found in
little flocks among forest, in trees and bushes on open places
near woods, or in leafy gardens. It breeds from March to
May. The nest and eggs closely resemble those of the last
species. Average size of eggs *64 by °45.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF OEYLON. 183

Family NECTARINIID 2%.
Sub-family Nectariniine.
Sunbirds.

The Sunbirds are a family of small birds, which, in the
Tropics of the Old World, correspond to the Humming Birds
of Tropical America. Together with the next family—Dicwi-
de—they are characterized by the finely serrated edges on
the terminal third of each mandible. The tongue is tubular ;
the bill long, curved, and cylindrical; the rictal bristles
are short; the wings moderate; there are ten primaries,
the first being small ; the legs and feet are weak, the claws
curved and sharp.

The sexes are markedly different ; the males are clad mainly
in brilliant metallic hues, the females in a more sober garb,
generally of pale brown above and yellow beneath. Most
field observers are of the opinion that for two or three months
in the year the males of most species drop their breeding
plumage and more or less resemble females. Oates, however,
after examining the large series from India in the British
Museum, states that this cannot be so, as the series includes
males, in full plumage, shot in practically every month of the
year, and that it is only immature males which resemble the
hens. His data may, however, be accounted for by the fact
that the off-season plumage is, admittedly, worn for only
a short period, and that the breeding season, as often happens
in India, overlaps in different localities, or even in some
districts, with different birds.

Sunbirds are entirely arboreal, and feed mainly on nectar,
which they extract from blossoms with their long tongues.
They do not, however, hover on the wing, for sustained periods
while sipping, as do Humming Birds, but cling, while feeding,
to an adjoining stem. They nearly all build the most beauti-
ful little pear-shaped nests, which are hung from a twig or
the under side of a broad leaf, but one Ceylon species—Loten’s
Sunbird—as will be noted, is an exception to this rule.

Four species have been recorded from Ceylon, all belonging
to one genus—Arachnechthra—of the sub-family Nectariniine.
The other Indian sub-family, the Spider Hunters—Arachno-
therine—is not represented in the Island.

184 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Key to Ceylon Nectariniine.

A.—Bill large, over +75 inch* ; males in full plumage with
metallic and dark hues ; females pale brown above,
uniform dingy yellow beneath.

(1) Bill over 1 inch; males with snuff-brown abdo-
men.
Arachnechthra lotenia (Loten’s Sunbird).

(2) Bill -8 inch; males with blue-black abdomen.
A. asiatica (Purple Sunbird).

B.—Bill smaller, ‘6 inch *; males with brilliant plumage above
and on fore-neck and upper breast ; lower breast
and abdomen in both sexes yellow.

(1) Males: upper tail coverts metallic red ; females :
uniform pale yellow beneath, rump and upper
tail coverts dull red.

A. minima (Small Sunbird).

(2) Males: upper tail coverts metallic purple ;
females: chin and throat ashy-white; rest of
lower parts bright yellow.

A. zeylonica (Purple-rumped Sunbird).

ARACHNECHTHRA LOTENTA.
Loten’s Sunbird.
Arachnechthra lotenia (Oates, Vol. IIL., p. 358); Cinnyris
lotenius (Legge, p. 563).

Description.—Male in full plumage : Head, upper plumage,
and lesser wing coverts metallic green, changing to lilac
according to the angle from which it is viewed ; greater
coverts and wings deep brown; tail black glossed with
purple ; chin and throat dull purple with, in certain lights,
a metallic green gloss, which becomes more brilliant on the
sides of the neck; breast a stronger purple ; rest of lower
parts snuff brown, separated from the purple of the breast
by a band of maroon red ; on each side of the breast a small
yellow tuft, at times mixed with orange.

* T.e., the distance in a straight line from gape to tip.

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 185

Female: Upper plumage, including wings and sides of
head and neck, olive-brown ; tail black, the outer feathers
with brownish-white tips ; lower parts dull yellow.

Males after the autumn moult resemble females, with the
exception of a broad metallic stripe down the fore-neck and
@ certain amount of metallic gloss on the lesser wing coverts
and tail coverts. The breeding plumage is gradually assumed
after a few weeks.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris brown.

Length 5°5; wing 2°3; tail 1:6; tarsus °6; bill from
gape 1-1. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution.—Common in most parts of the low-country,
except in the arid coast zone of the north, north-west, and
south-east. It occurs in the hills up to about 3,000 feet,
in certain localities considerably higher. It is also found in
Southern India.

Habits—Familiar in flower gardens throughout its range.
In the jungle it avoids forest, and is commonest in open
bushy spaces near trees. It feeds mainly on the nectar and
pollen of flowers, and is very partial to Hibiscus blossoms.
At times it eats small spiders and other soft insects. The
breeding season is from February to May. The nest is usually,
not the little hanging structure made by most species, but
placed in the large flocculent masses of cobweb spun in low
bushes by a certain species of spider.

In the interior of the mass the birds press out a more or
less globular chamber, lining the walls with vegetable down,
and generally providing a little eave of cobweb over the
entrance, which is at one side. If spider’s webs are not
available, they appear on occasions to construct a little pear-
shaped, hanging structure like that of the next species. The
two or, very rarely, three eggs are long ovals, rather pointed
at the small end. The ground colour is grayish-white, evenly
marked all over with fine, streaky spots of grayish-brown,
at times with a dull purplish or greenish tinge. Occasionally
the marks are concentrated in a zone towards the large end.
Average size °69 by °46.

24. 6(17)21

186 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ARACHNECHTHRA ASIATICA.
The Purple Sunbird.

Arachnechthra asiatica (Oates, Vol. II., p.359) ; Cinnyris asiaticus
(Legge, p. 566).

Description.—Male in full plumage : Upper parts, including
lesser wing coverts and sides of head and neck, metallic green
glossed with purple when viewed at certain angles ; greater
wing coverts and wings dull, dark brown very faintly washed
with purple ; tail black glossed with purple ; chin, throat,
and fore-neck dark metallic purple ; breast metallic greenish-
blue glossed with purple; pectoral tuft yellow, at times
streaked with orange ; remainder of lower parts black, shot
with deep blue ; lower tail coverts more metallic and glossed
like the breast ; below the breast there is at times an incom-
plete dull maroon band.

Female : Upper plumage pale olive-brown ; wing coverts
and quills darker and with pale edges; tail blackish with
narrow whitish tips on the outer feathers; an indistinct
whitish eyebrow ; lower plumage fairly bright yellow.

Males after the autumn moult resemble females, except
for a broad stripe of purple down the fore-neck, while the
wing coverts, quills, and tail remain practically unchanged.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris deep brown.

Length 4°5; wing 2°25; tail 1°4; tarsus °55; bill from
gape ‘8.

Distribution.—A little local, but found over the greater
part of the Island, at all elevations, where there is open
bush-covered country ; it is commonest in the drier districts.
It occurs all over India and most of Burma and ranges into
Persia on the north-west and Cochin-China on the east.

Habits ——Very similar to those of Loten’s Sunbird. Like
that species it feeds on spiders, &c., as well as on nectar.
The breeding season is during the first half of the year. The
nest is a beautiful, little pear-shaped structure hung from a
twig. The walls are made of all sorts of little scraps of dry
grass, dead wood, &c., woven together with cobwebs. The
outside is ornamented with little bits of bark, dried flower

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 187

buds, empty chrysalis cases, scraps of dead twigs, &c., the
interior is lined with soft vegetable down; the entrance
is at one side, and is protected by a neat little eave. There
are generally two eggs. These are typically a little less
elongated than those of the last species. The ground colour
is generally brownish-white, evenly marked all over with
fine streaky spots of brown; zonally marked specimens are
by no means rare. Average size ‘67 by °47.

ARACHNECHTHRA MINIMA.

The Small Sunbird.

Arachnechthra minima (Oates, Vol. II., p. 363); Cinnyrts
minimus (Legge, p. 572).

Description.—Male in full plumage: Forehead and crown
metallic green ; lores, cheeks, and ear coverts black ; back
and scapulars crimson ; rump and upper tail coverts bright
metallic red with a lilac gloss ; lesser and median wing coverts
black with crimson tips ; greater coverts and quills dull black ;
chin and throat metallic lilac ; upper breast and sides of neck
crimson ; rest of lower parts pale yellow, separated from the
crimson chest by a band of black; pectoral tufts sulphur
yellow.

Females: Head, hind-neck, back, and scapulars olive-
green ; rump and upper tail coverts dull red ; tail feathers
dark brown with rufous edges ; wings brown with olive-green
edges to the feathers ; lower plumage pale yellow.

After the autumn moult males resemble females, but retain
the lilac rump and a little red on the shoulder of the wing.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark brown.

Length about 3°75; wing 1:9; tail 1°3; tarsus °6 ; bill
from gape °*6.

Distribution.—The inclusion of this bird in the Ceylon
list rests on the records of Layard and Holdsworth, the former
of whom recorded it from the north of the Jaffna peninsula,
while the latter stated that it is occasionally seen near Colombo.
It may be looked for in the extreme north of the Island.
In India it is found on the west of the peninsula, from about
Bombay to Cape Comorin.

188 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits.—In India this species goes about in little troops
of three or four and shifts its quarters a good deal. It is
found in gardens and low brushwood. On the Nilgiris it
breeds about September. The nest and eggs are small
editions of those of A. asiatica. Size of eggs about *62 by °42.

ARACHNECHTHRA ZEYLONICA.
Purple-rumped Sunbird.

Arachnechthra zeylonica (Oates, Vol. IL, p. 364); Cinnyris
zeylonicus (Legge, p. 569).

Description.—Male: Forehead, crown, and lesser wing
coverts metallic green shot in some lights with lilac ; hind-
neck, sides of neck, back, scapulars and median coverts, and
a band across the fore-neck dull, deep maroon ; rump and
upper tail coverts metallic purple ; greater wing coverts and
quills dark brown with rust-coloured edges ; tail dull black
faintly washed with purple, the outer feathers with traces
of a white tip ; sides of head copper-brown ; chin and throat
metallic purple; breast, abdomen, and under tail coverts
bright yellow ; flanks and wing-lining silky, grayish-white.

Female: Upper plumage grayish-brown, the back tinged
with green ; upper tail coverts and tail black, the outer tail
feathers with traces of a white tip; wings brown, the quills
with rufous edges ; an indistinct whitish eyebrow ; sides of
head ash-gray; cheeks, chin, and throat grayish-white ; rest of
lower parts yellow ; flanks and wing-lining silky, grayish-white.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris red.

Length about 4°5; wing 2°1; tail 1°4; tarsus °6; bil
from gape °6.

Distribution —Common all over the Island, ascending
during the north-east monsoon to the highest elevations.
It is most abundant in the districts with a fairly heavy rain-
fall. In India it occurs over the peninsula proper and in
Bengal.

Habits —Familiar in town gardens, but it is also more
partial than the other species to heavy jungle and forest.
Like our other Sunbirds, it feeds on soft insects as well as on
nectar and pollen. The breeding season is mainly during the

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON, 189

first half of the year. The nest is a little pear-shaped structure,
like that of the Purple Sunbird, but usually a trifle more
globular and more carefully concealed, being generally
hung from a twig at the back of a bunch of leaves instead of
in plain view. There are two eggs. The ground colour is
dul] greenish or greenish-white, the markings greenish or
olive-brown, often arranged mainly in a zone or a cap near
the large end. Average size *62 by °46.

Family Dica1p 2.
Flower peckers.

Like the Sunbirds, the Flowerpeckers have the termina
third of both mandibles serrated, though the serrations are
so fine that the aid of a lens is required to see them, except
ina very good light. The bill, however, is short and triangular,
not long and cylindrical. The rictal bristles are poorly
developed, but in some forms the nostrils are covered by a
tuft of hairs.

The wing in certain genera has nine primaries, in others,
including all our Ceylon species, there are ten, the first being
small. The tail is always short, and the legs and feet weak.
Most Flowerpeckers build elaborate little hanging nests
resembling those of the Sunbirds.

All the species are of extremely small size. The forms
found in Ceylon are rather sober hued, but many of the family
are brilliantly coloured. In some species the sexes are
dissimilar. The family is found over the Oriental region
and a part of Australia. None of them are migratory. Three
species, each belonging to a separate genus, occur in Ceylon
and one is not found elsewhere.

Key to Ceylon Dicxide.
A.—Bill slender.
(1) Sexes alike ; lower parts grayish.
Diceum erythrorhyncum (Tickell’s Flowerpecker).

190 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

B.—Bill stout ; lower mandible swollen.

(1) Sexes dissimilar ; lower parts white and yellow ;
nostrils covered with hairs.

Acmonorhyncus vincens (Legge’s Flowerpecker).

(2) Sexes alike ; lower parts ashy-yellow streaked
with greenish-brown ; nostrils exposed.

Piprisoma squalida squalida (Thick-billed Flower-
pecker).

DICZUM ERYTHRORHYNCUM.
Tickell’s Flowerpecker.

Diceum erythrorhyncum (Oates, Vol. IL, p. 3881); Dicweum
minimum (Legge, p. 574).

Description.— Upper parts ashy-olive, slightly tinged with
green towards the rump ; wings and coverts brown, the coverts
and inner secondaries with paler edges ; tail blackish-brown ;
lores and cheeks whitish, darkening on the ear coverts ;
lower parts grayish-white, the sides of the chest darker, the
centre of the breast and abdomen tinged with buff.

Bill, dark brown above, fleshy beneath ; iris brown ; legs
and feet brownish slate-colour.

Length 3°3; wing 1°8; tail ‘95; tarsus °5; bill from
gape °45.

Distribution.—Common all over the Island at all elevations.
It occurs over the greater pars of India and in portions of
Burma.

Habits.—Our smallest bird. It is generally found wherever
there are trees infested with the parasitic Loranthus, on the
berries of which it feeds with avidity. In the forest it also
feeds on the berries of jungle creepers. Usually not more
than two birds are seen together. It is a restless little species,
continually darting from branch to branch. The cry is a
sharp, but weak little chirp. The breeding season appears to
be from April till August. The nest is generally a pear-shaped

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 191

structure, like that of a Sunbird, but I once saw a nest, pre-
sumably of this species, like a little hammock suspended at
either end from a twig. The two or three eggs are pure white,
glossless ovals. Average size *6 by °40.

ACMONORHYNCUS VINCENS.
Legge’s Flowerpecker.

Acmonorhyncus vincens (Oates, Vol. I1., p. 382); Pachyglossa
vincens (Legge, p. 577).

Description.—Male : Top and sides of head, the upper
plumage, and lesser wing coverts dull, steel blue, paling a little
on the rump; the concealed bases of the feathers black ;
wings and tail blackish, the coverts and inner secondaries
edged with the hue of the back, the secondaries faintly edged
toward the tip with bluish-green, the basal portion of the
inner webs of the quills white ; four central tail feathers
unmarked, the remainder with white tips, increasing in
breadth on the outer feathers ; chin, throat, and chest white ;
breast saffron-yellow, paling to almost white on the lower
tail coverts.

Female: Head and hind-neck ashy-blue ; upper plumage
olive-brown, tinged with green on the lower back and rump ;
wings and tail not so black as in the male ; lower parts not
so brightly coloured.

Bill black, paler at base of lower mandible ; iris brownish-
red ; legs and feet blackish-brown. ;

Length 4°1; wing 2°35; tail 1:2; tarsus °5; bill from
gape °45. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined mainly
to the forest of the wet low-country zone, but it has recently
been recorded from Pussellawa in the Central Province at an
elevation of 3,000 feet.

Habits—Rather a rare little bird, living entirely among,
or near heavy jungle. It associates in small flocks, hunting
among creepers on the trunks of trees for berries. Nothing
is known of its nidification,

192 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PIPRISOMA SQUALIDA SQUALIDA.

The Thick-billed Flowerpecker.

Piprisoma squalida (Oates, Vol. Il., p. 382); Piprisoma agile
(Legge, p. 579).

Description.—Upper plumage olivaceous-brown, the rump
and upper tail coverts tinged with green; wings and tail
brown edged with olive, the tail feathers with white tips,
broad on the two outer feathers, more narrow on the others ;
lores grayish ; face and ear coverts brownish ; chin and throat
white ; a narrow brown streak down each side of throat ;
lower parts pale ashy-yellow with greenish-brown streaks.

Bill leaden brown ; iris orange with a golden inner circle
legs dusky lead-colour.

Length 4; wing 2°2; tail 1:1; tarsus +5; bill from
gape ‘4.

Distribution.—Rather rare ; its chief haunts appear to be
in the interior of the northern forest tract, but it occurs sparing-
ly in Uva and parts of the Central Province. It occurs over
a great part of India proper.

Habits.—Keeps rather to the tops of trees in forest, where
it feeds on spiders and small insects. The breeding season
is probably in April and May. The nest resembles a little
pocket, with the opening at one side, hung from a twig. It
is composed of vegetable fibres and flower buds felted together
with cobwebs so firmly that it can be squeezed up and yet
regain its shape. The two or three eggs are white or pinkish,
freckled over with small brownish-pink or claret-coloured
spots. Average size (of Indian eggs) *63 by °45.

Family Prrrip 2.
Pittas.

The Pittas (vide my introductory remarks on the Order)
are the sole Indian family belonging to the group Mesomyodz.
In addition to the different structure of the syrinx, they are
also distinguished from al] other Indian Passerine birds by
the formation of the wing. There are ten primaries, but the
first, instead of being notably small, is almosi as long as the
second. Their long legs, very short tail, and beautiful

PASSERINE BIRDS OF CEYLON. 193

distinctive colouration also serve to render their identification
easy. Pittas occur all over South-eastern Asia, being most
numerous in the Malay Archipelago. Some species extend
into Australia, while one is found in Africa. They all live
on the ground, and are insectivorous. They can hop and run
well. Most species are found in thick undergrowth, and
many of them are more or less migratory. Only one form is
found in Ceylon, and it occurs only as a migrant.

PITTA BRACHYURA.

The Indian Pitta.

Pitta brachyura (Oates, Vol. II., p, 393) ; Pitta coronata (Legge,
p. 687).

Description.—Forehead and crown yellowish-brown, divided
in the centre by a slightly irregular black band, running
back to the nape and bordered below by a narrow white
band over the eye ; a broad black band from the gape of the
bill across the face and ear coverts, merging on the nape with
the median black band ; a few feathers below the eye whitish ;
back, scapulars, and upper rump green, the upper back more
or less washed with light brown; lower rump and upper
tail coverts shining turquoise-blue ; tail black tipped with
dull blue ; lesser wing coverts shining turquoise-blue with a
black patch where the wing joins the back ; median coverts
and innermost secondaries green; greater coverts green,
the outer feathers washed with blue and with black bases ;
primary coverts black; primaries black with grayish tips
and a white band across their bases ; secondaries black with
white tips and a broad border of bluish-green on the terminal
half of the outer webs ; chin, throat, and sides of neck up to
the black band white ; remainder of lower parts fawn colour ;
the middle of the abdomen, vent, and lower tail coverts
scarlet.

Bill blackish, the ridge and basal part of lower mandible
reddish-brown ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet flesh-colour.

Length about 7; wing 4:1; tail 1-7; tarsus 1°4; bill
from gape 1°1.

25 6(17)21

194 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution —A_ fairly common north-east monsoon
migrant, arriving in October and leaving in April. It spreads
all over the Island, but only occasionally visits elevations of
over 5,000 feet. It occurs over practically the whole of India
proper, but in many parts in the north and south of its range
it is a seasonal migrant.

Habits —A shy bird, which keeps to thick cover in under-
growth, secondary jungle, and thick woods. It may occasion-
ally be seen in the evening flitting from one cover to another.
Its presence is usually made known by its shrill rather pleasant
call, which is uttered chiefly in the early morning and evening,
and is well expressed by the vernacular names—avichchiya in
Sinhalese and ayitta in Tamil. Birds on their first arrival
on the west coast are much exhausted by their flight, and
frequently take shelter in town gardens or even bungalows.
Stray specimens occasionally loiter, and have been obtained
during the south-west monsoon, but it is not likely to be
found breeding in Ceylon.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate I.

Fig. 1.—Parus major mahrattarum ; x 4.

Fig. 2.—Molpastes hemorrhous hemorrhous ; x 4.
Fig. 3.—Dissemurus paradiseus ceylonensis ; X .
Fig. 4.—Lanius schach erythronotus ; x 3.

Fig. 5.—Eulabes ptilogenys ; x $.

Plate IT.

Fig. 1.—Acridotheres tristis melanosternus ; X 4.
Fig. 2.—Merula kinnisi ; X #.
Fig. 3.—Munia malacca ; x $.

1

Fig. 4.—Alauda gulgula australis ; x 4.

Fig. 5.—Zosterops ceylonensis ; X 3.

Plate I.

WIG. 2:

Plate IT.

Fiqa. 3.

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STASI INSTITUTION LIBRARIE

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Ae eo Recon SUR 3 Ua RO RO RO Sa ae eae
Rg oe eae ie oe Bate Ale ho SOR any The passerine birds of Ceylon /