| PEAS AND | PEA CULTURE | GLENN C. SEVEY x a = iN x sali Class " } Be 2a —_—— —_—— Book. Copyright N° COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. J yy f tie PH ea Ps ne i ae FOR MOTHER’S DINNER = 1 SOMETHIN Peas and Pea Culture A Practical and Scientific Discussion of Peas, Relating to the History, Varieties, Cultural Methods, Insect and Fungous Pests, with special chapters on the Canned Pea Industry, Peas as Forage and Soiling Crops, Garden Peas, Sweet Peas, Seed Breeding, Etc. By GLENN C. SEVEY, B.S. Editor New England Homestead ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1911 CoPpYRIGHT, 1911, By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY All Rights Reserved > © Printed,in U. S. A ile fa A : qQ \ \ € c.A292716 s PREFACE This little book on Peas and Pea Culture is in- tended to be of value to the student and practical farmer alike. Enough of the scientific has been provided to meet the demands of the former, and the references to principles of breeding and improvement of existing strains go into sufficient detail to prove about as interesting and sleep providing for the average college student as some of Darwin’s exten- sive treatises on plant and animal life. For the practical grower, great care has been exercised to keep details true to field conditions. The author has been interested in this crop from his early days when he first helped “ dadder ” to gather a mess for dinner, on through to his more mature years when gathering for his own family and sending the sur- plus to early market at $1 to $2 per bushel. The canning of peas, which has grown to vast proportions, is an industry by itself. So the author took two weeks’ vacation and visited large canning districts in New York and Michigan. Here he studied conditions at first hand, visiting with the packers, noting the various processes and climbing on to the lumber wagon to go and visit the farmer, watch him gather the crop and bring it to the factory. Aside from this, many resources have been drawn upon, including the scraps of testimony from various experiment stations, agricultural colleges, individual experimenters, etc. So far as advised we know of no individual treatise on the subject of Peas and their culture. In Vi v1 PREFACE fact, one is surprised to note the dearth of specific information provided on the subject in printed form. One wishing facts on: certain cultural principles might find them in one place, and to get ideas on insect and fungous pests would perhaps spend hours searching elsewhere for desired information. There- fore, the aim of this book is to save all this time and perhaps spare the temper. An honest effort has been made to provide com- prehensive, authoritative, and specific information on the subject of Peas. Readers who note errors, who have experiences not in accord, or which will supplement the principles herein set forth, will confer a favor by sending direct to the undersigned to the end that the second edition may prove more satisfactory to the author and the public alike. GLENN C. SEVEN: RussELL, Mass., April 4, 1911. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER. I Botany, History AND DISTRIBUTION Flat pea, 1; Chick pea, 1; Cowpea, 2; Partridge pea; 2; Square pod pea, 2; Tangier pea, 3; Buffalo pea, 3; Sweet pea, 3; Ceylon pea, 3; Classification OP peas, 3;. History, 4; Distribution; 4-6. CHAPTER 4 So1Ls, FERTILIZERS AND INOCULATION . Place in rotation, 7-9; Fertilizers for peas, 9-11; Nitrogen-gathering char- acteristic, 11-12; Inoculation, 12-14. CHAP VE cee CULTURAL PRINCIPLES—H ARVEST ; Planting, 15; Amount of seed, 15-17; Depth of planting, 17-18; Manner of planting, 18; Seed considerations, 18- 20; Cultivation, 20; Harvesting, 20-22; Thrashing, 22-23; Yields, 23-24. CHAPTER IV COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE : Composition, 25-26; Pea meal, 26; Composition compared with other Vii Page 1-6 15-24 25-35 Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS feedstuffs, 27; Nutritive value, 27-20; Cooking and digestibility, 29-30; Feed- ing value, 30-31; Peas for cows, 31-32; Peas for steers, 32; Peas for sheep and lambs, 32-33; Peas for swine, 33-34; Peas for horses and chickens, 34-35. CHAPTER. ¥ INSECT AND Funcous PESTS Pea weevil, 36-38; Pea moth, 38-39; Pea louse, 39-40; Miscellaneous in- sects, 40-41; Pea blight or leaf spot, 41-42; Powdery mildew, 42; Root rot fungus, 42; Miscellaneous pea fungi, 42-43. CHAPTER Vi THE CANNED PEA INDUSTRY Varieties grown, 45; Time of harvest- ing, 45-47; Grading the crop, 47-48; Thrashing, 48-49; Blanching the peas, 49; Size of cans, 49-50; Processing or cooking, 50-51; Peas spoiling, 51-52; Pea silage, 52-53. CHAPTER Vit PEAS AS FORAGE AND SOILING CROPS Culture, 54-55; Fertilizers, 55-58; Feed for live stock, 58-59; Cowpea, 59-64; Cover crop for orchards, 64-65. 36-43 44-53 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1x CEA LE Ry VL BREEDING AND SEED IMPROVEMENT. : 66-71 Seed growing specialty, 66-69; Possi- bilities in breeding, 69-71. CHAPTER 1X GARDEN PEAS AND VARIETIES : ? 72-81 Germination, 73-74; Supports, 74-76; Winter forcing, 76; Varieties, 76-81. CELA PoH Ree SWEET PEAS AND THEIR CULTURE : 82-89 Soil considerations, 83; Sowing, 83-84; Culture, 84-86; Enemies of the sweet pea, 86; Trellising, 86-87; Types and varieties, 87-88; Four cardinal don'ts, 88-89. a ana f x ; was i “an y RP bere LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Something for Mother’s Dinner—Frontispiece Harvesting with Mowing Machine Loading Green Pea Vines for the Cannery Special Pea Vine Harvester Mower with Pea-Lifting eee eae a Cutter Bar A Pea and Bean Huller, or ies Green Pea Vines Bunched Ready for Hauling Pea Weevil and Infected Pea Pea Moth and Caterpillar; Infected Pea Load of Green Pea Vines Going to New York Cannery ; Oats and Peas for Forage Cowpeas Grown at Michigan Eeeerneet Station , : Two Each of Nott’s fecicar. Prosperity, and Advancer ; Good and Poor Specimens of Juno Pea Fair Sample of Popular Thomas Laxton Gradus, an Excellent Pea The Productive Prosperity xi CHAPTER. I BOTANY, HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION Peas belong to the great legume family of plants —a family which constitutes the backbone of an improved agriculture. The Greek and Latin name of the pea is Pisum and there are six species. The important one is the common garden pea or Pisum sativum. Pisum sativum, var. arvense, is the field pea commonly known as Canada field pea. Several so- called peas are not peas at all, although belonging to the leguminose family. Some are given herewith. Flat Pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) is a forage plant closely resembling the sweet pea. It is particularly adapted to light soils, succeeding where clover or corn would fail. Under favorable conditions it will produce a remarkable growth of vines, three to four feet in length, and provide several cuttings each season. A serious objection is that stock do not like it.. In experiment, at the Michigan station, sheep and cattle lost flesh on rations of either flat pea hay or flat pea silage. It is rich in protein, air- dried hay analyzing 27 per cent protein, and would probably. be more largely grown, except that it re- quires two or three years to get it established. Plants grow eight to twelve inches tall the first sea- son, and ground must be kept free from weeds. Can be sown in the spring in drills 18 inches apart. Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum), also called Idaho and Egyptian pea, is adapted to a variety of soils, but succeeds best on clay loams. In composition it is similar to the common field pea, but leaves 2 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE possess a large amount of oxalic acid, which makes plant unfavorable for feeding horses. It is an an- nual, with vetchlike leaves growing 12 to 18 inches high. Pods are one-half to three-fourths inch long, and contain one or two wrinkled peas slightly larger than the common garden pea. The slight growth makes it undesirable for a forage plant. At the Colorado experiment station chick peas were planted in rows 30 inches apart and 6 to 12 inches distant in the row. A fine growth resulted. The cost of production was about one cent a pound. Cowpea (Vigna Catjang), really more of a bean than a pea, is a wonderful soil renovator and has been used in the South for a century and-a hale While the plant is sensitive to frost, it is being grown as far north as Massachusetts and Wiscon- sin. A special chapter is devoted to peas and cow- peas.as forage plants on a later page, which see. Partridge Pea (Cassia Chamecrista)—Some- times called sensitive pea and Magothy Bay bean. This was once popular for plowing under, and was used largely in the South, notably in Virginia and Maryland. There it was sown with oats in the spring, and after the oats were harvested peas came on to maturity. The cowpea for the South is so much superior for green manuring that the partridge pea is being used only occasionally. Plants have a conspicuous yellowish purple flower. Square Pod Pea (Lobus Tetrogonolbus) is a fine soil renovator, owing to its pronounced tendency to produce root tubercles. Plants grow rapidly, but unfortunately will not stand our climate. In Cali- fornia it produced 24 tons herbage to the acre, but will not stand either frost or drouth. BOTANY, HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION 3 Tangier Pea (Lathyrus Tingitanus).—An annual plant native to Barbary. It was brought to Cali- fornia in 1889. Apparently, it is hardy, and seeds can be used for table, while cattle will eat plants. Very little known in the United States. Buffalo Pea (Astragalus crassicarpus).—This, like the others, belongs to the legume family. It is found in the Mississippi valley, and vines are sprawling, bearing short stubby pods about one- half to two-thirds inch in diameter. These are ap- parently relished by hogs, cattle and sheep. The plant gains maturity in Texas in April, and by the middle of June in northern latitudes. Has been very little cultivated Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus).—This is known to all people, and a special chapter on the subject will be found on later pages. Ceylon Pea.—In the California experiment sta- tion report for 1895 to 1897, E. J. Wixon speaks of the Ceylon pea. He describes it as having large pods, being very prolific, stating that it grows well throughout the state. “It is of value as a late pea for table or canning.” Various Classifications of Peas—Common, every- day peas can be classified as either garden or field. The former may be used in the green state shelled, or the pods and all may be used like string beans. The latter are frequently called “edible podded” peas. The field peas, grown in a larger way, may be used as seed, canning, forage and green manur- ing, for split peas for culinary purposes, and’ for stock feeding. Special chapters are devoted to these industries. The garden pea differs from the field or stock 4 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE pea in that the blossoms are white instead of violet or purple, the seed is larger but more tender and sweet. Another classification of peas is, smooth and wrinkled sorts, the latter being sweeter and more edible, with larger pods and more peas in the pod. However, the smooth sorts are earlier and more hardy. Peas are frequently classified as early, me- dium, and late, according to the season of ripening. The varying characteristic of climbing, dwarf, and semi-dwarf habit of growth, constitutes yet another basis of classification. History.—Peas have been known for centuries | and were no doubt cultivated before the Christian era. It was a common plant among the Greeks and Romans, and reference to it is frequently found in their literature. One Lydgate, a writer in the time of Henry VII, mentions peas being peddled about the streets of London. Distribution.—Peas are pretty generally scattered about the country. They are native to Europe, but are widely cultivated in the United States and Canada. The plant prefers cool temperatures and abundant moisture supply. Growing them for seed is not recommended in the South. In Canada it is a leading crop. In the province of Ontario alone the average annual area devoted to peas for the 20 years ending 1902, was 710,408 acres, and the aver- age annual yield approximated 13,000,000 bushels, with an average yield around 19 bushels to the acre. Most of these are fed out on the farms. The northern tier of states down to, and including Penn- sylvania, New York, and New England, will pro- duce seed. The southern limit for the successful growing of seed peas has been designated as the BOTANY, HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION 5 northern limit for the most successful growing of cowpeas. In the warmer southern climate they are grown with great success for soiling purposes and in restricted sections for canning factories, and in green state for northern markets. The accompanying table, taken from the Federal Census of 1900, affords something of an idea of the pea-producing states. It gives the number of acres, comparative yield in bushels, with the increase and the average yield to the acre. PEA-PRODUCING STATES 2s 23 #2 988 States Hy ae ae SS Bas 5 Ze Zog 5s Bos < Ras Ras HE dhe South Carolina. 143,070 1,162,705 698,281 66.5 8.1 Michigan ...... 71,376 1,134,431 1,428,475 20.6 15.9 (Seetgid 2-22... 167,032 1,130,441 974,670 16.0 6.8 Wisconsin =... 68,819 1,098,819 919,058 19.6 16.0 North Carolina__ 88,407 876,167 437,284 100.4 9.9 Tennessee ----..- 82,841 760,663 96,972 684.4 9.2 Mlabama .-....- 91,126 665,388 326,413 103.8 7.3 Mississippi —---- 69,490 590,537. 254,526 132.0 8.5 Mende, S22. 33,974 333,462 205,692 62.1 9.8 Mew. York_...-_ 14,748 251,889 228,726 10.5 27.1 imtkansas. .—-.—~ 31,414 245,894 169,170 45.4 7.8 J or 22,206 219,142 19,864 1,003.2 9.9 Portia —.._..- 17,875 159,814 70,632 126.3 8.9 Poaneina 2... 15,190 146,298 81,700 79.1 9.6 Pinos: »--.-.._- 12,982 103,386 9,010 1,047.5 8.0 Washington ---- 3,573 91,889 Da h24 260.% . 25.7 mentucky —._..._ 8,394 83,089 8,445 883.9 9.9 Mahiorma _.... 2,014 57,299 32,364 77 28.5 MlissoOur? =....- 5,319 54,763 14,486 278.0 10.3 Galerado _....... 3,621 47,461 45,270 4.8 13.1 hrame 22 --. 2,300 35,991 23,146 55,6) 5e6 Montana .....- 1,512 32,265 9,652. 295.7 21.8 New Mexico-.-.. 2,220 28,071 7,430: 277.8) ) 32:6 ae 1,556 27,606 27,240 re 07.7 Oreeon, --.2-..- 1,304 22,615 Pete | WOLF EF Director Cc B. Williams of the North Carolina 6 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE experiment station writes the author: “ We consider the pea industry important in this state. They are mostly grown for garden seed and hay purposes. Very few are canned. Throughout the coastal plain section of the state much attention is devoted to the growth of garden peas for market purposes. Georgia produces large quantities of green peas, and this constitutes an important truck crop. North Carolina raises a lot of sugar peas for early markets. These are familiarly known as garden peas, pods being picked green and sold. A large dealer at. Hickory, N. C., states that 500 to I,000 acres of such peas are shipped from the vicinity of Elizabeth City and Goldsboro annually. These go to the produce trade and none reach the canning market. North Carolina is also a great state for cowpeas, there probably being about 100,000 bushels going to the North and West every season, and used for fertiliz- ing purposes.” Jonathan Havens, of Washington, N.-C., writes: “It is a broad assertion, but I believe every kind under the sun grows luxuriantly in this section. I can personally name 30-odd varieties and with one exception they are good both for stock and human food.” Wisconsin is a great pea-growing state. There are many factories within its borders and numer- ous varieties of peas are grown for the market. Field peas constitute an important farm crop. Michigan produces large quantities of both field and garden peas. Growing for seed is developing into an important industry. New York produces large quantities of peas for canning factories. More will be specified on this subject in the chapter on the Canned Pea Industry. : CHAPTER. II SOILS, FERTILIZERS AND INOCULATION A wide variety of soils will produce peas, but for best results plant on a clay loam which is not in an geia condition. Ihe stiffest’ of clays, well tilled; will produce peas, and light sandy soils will return a moderate yield. Mucky soil overladen with humus is likely to produce too rank vines, and light sandy soil will not produce enough vine growth. The ideal soil is cool and reasonably moist. W. M. Hayes’ conducted experiments in Dakota and Min- nesota which indicate that a larger yield of peas than of wheat can be obtained on sandy lands. Suzuki? gives results of four years’ continuous cul- ture of peas grown on humus loam soil unfertilized and fertilized. He declares no trace of soil weari- ness or sickness appeared when soil was liberally fertilized and concluded that soil sickness may in some cases be due simply to deficiency of available plant food. _ Place in Rotation.—As the pea crop gathers more nitrogen than consumed by the plant, it may be followed with distinct advantage by a variety of crops, notably the cereals. Von Sellhorst® states that peas, owing to the small quantity of water drawn from the soil, can with advantage be followed by winter cereals. *N. D. Sta., Bul. No. ro. * Experiment Station Record, Vol. 20. rE. S..R., Vol. 14. 7 HARVESTING PEAS WITH MOWING MACHINE. SOILS, FERTILIZERS AND INOCULATION 9 Shuttleworth? tried surface and underground irrigation with oats, wheat and peas. The water required for maturing crops in subwatered cylinders was 65 pounds for oats, 34 for wheat, and 104 for peas. In the case of peas the yield in the sub- watered cylinder was 116 grams, as compared with 63 grams on the surface water. Nobbe and Richter? state that ether and hydrogen peroxide applied to soils where peas were grown failed to sterilize the soil and increase the yield of peas. Nakamura® states that borax when used at the rate of one milligram per kilogram of soil exerted a stimulating action on peas. Fertilizers for Peas.—It is a mistaken idea that peas do not require much fertilizer. While it is possible to have lands too rich in nitrogen and humus, resulting in heavy vine growth, there is little danger of oversupply of potash and phosphoric acid, both of which materials are essential to suc- cess. Some experts say there is nothing better than stable manure, especially if plowed under the preceding fall. It supplies a good amount of decay- ing vegetable matter. Ashes and even well-com- posted hen manure will give good results. One expert says that an application of 400 to 500 pounds commercial fertilizer to the acre, composed almost wholly of potash and phosphoric acid, is desirable. He says 10 per cent potash in a fertilizer is none too much on sandy soil for peas. Nitrate of soda is used sparingly, and at time of planting, to start early growth. *Ont. Agri. Col. Farm Rpt., 1899. °BS. R., Vol. 16. ES. RK. Vol. x16. IO PEAS AND PEA’ CULTURE Jenkins’ found that a crop of peas removed from each acre 47.8 pounds nitrogen, 13.1 pounds phos- phoric acid, and 12.7 pounds potash. Brooks® reports that with peas, dried blood gave somewhat larger crop than nitrogen in other forms. When sulphate of ammonia and muriate of potash were used together, the growth was decidedly in- ferior to that where other combinations were used. Newman? tested seven varieties of peas grown on poor sandy upland with different fertilizers. High- est per cent of germination was 95, as grown on the plot fertilized with acid phosphate. The lowest germination was 66, resulting on the nitrate of soda plot. Peas planted on acid phosphate germinated three to four days earlier, blossomed four. to six days earlier, and ‘produced “ripe spads six to nine days earlier than those where kainit, nitrate of soda, or cottonseed meal were used. The application of each was at the rate of 400 pounds to tie) aere: Clinton” reports fertilizer tests with Canada field peas and various other crops. Best returns were secured with acid phosphate and dissolved bone black. Untreated phosphate floats were apparently without effect upon the peas. Von Sellhorst™ states that the yield of peas was largely increased by the use of potash, while nitro- gen was only slightly beneficial. Wagner” reports experiments extending over 12 years, which show "Ct. Exper Sta. Rpt., 1896, p. 334. * Mass. Exper. Sta. Rpt., 1897. ° Ark. Exper. Sta., Bul. 34. 7° N. Y. Exper. Sta., Cornell Bulletin 201. Taos Re, WOlery: 27/16) Re, Wolune. SOILS, FERTILIZERS AND INOCULATION BL that continuous medium applications of basic slag, frequently called Thomas slag meal, were continu- ously beneficial. He declares the richer the soils are in phosphoric acid, the smaller application of/ nitrogen is required. / Brooks found that muriate of potash is slightly better for peas than is the sulphate of potash. Clausen“ found that potash fertilizers, notably kainit, increased the proportion of seed to the vine toa meatked extent. Wheeler and Adams” reported that liming the soil was especially valuable in the case of White Wonder Canada field pea. Nodules were abundant and quite evenly distributed upon the roots. On unlimed plots only a very few nodules were found, which were of large size and tended to grow in clusters. The application of caustic lime may be so large as to prove injurious. Nitrogen-Gathering Characteristic—As with other legumes, one of the most valuable assets of the pea is its ability to gather nitrogen from the air and store it up in the soil and the plants. This is done through the medium of root tubercles, or nodules as frequently called. Beeson’ conducted a rather elaborate set of experiments relative to gathering of nitrogen by the pea plant and states that there is a greater accumulation of nitrates in the soil under leguminous plants than in the bare soil or the soil under corn, cotton, or sorghum. His results indicate that the micro-organisms or tuber- *° Mass. Exper. Sta. Rpt., 1903. aeess. KR. Vol. zo. sit. Exper. Sta., Bul. 96. 2B Ga, Vol. ro. I2 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE cles of the pea roots, assimilate more nitrogen than the plant needs for its growth. If this be true he argues that peas planted with a crop will tend to increase the yield of that crop unless plants are so thick as to interfere with the root development or as to use up too much water in growth. Various experiments have shown that uncultivated soils produce a less number of bacteria than cultivated. A fair proportion of humus favors tubercle develop- ment, yet there is likely to be slight development of tubercles where soil is exceedingly rich in humus. Potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, all favor the pro- duction of root tubercles. Inoculation.—There have been many experiments relative to development of root tubercles by treat- ing the soil or the seed with materials carrying great numbers of the desirable bacteria. Kirk” made a thorough investigation and declared that his results proved (1) that on land which will already produce a good crop of legumes the inoculation is of little benefit to the crop; but (2) it increases the number of nodules on the root and consequently a quantity of nitrogen is left in the soil for the benefit of the fol- lowing crop, such as grains or roots, which have not the power of providing nitrogen for themselves ; (3) inoculated seed invariably gave better results than the inoculated soil. Halsted® planted peas on soil where no legumi- nous plants had grown for at least eight years. Por- tions of the plot received a dressing of soil that had recently borne peas. At harvest ten plants were taken at random from the treated and untreated ™N. Z. Dept. of Agri. Annual Rpt., 1905. SN. J. Exper. Sta. Rpt., 1898. SOILS, FERTILIZERS AND INOCULATION 13 plats and the tubercles counted, the result being that there were nearly ten times as many on the roots of the treated vines as on the untreated ones. This shows decidedly favorable results through arti- ficial inoculation by means of soil taken from a field which bore peas. Ladd” conducted a series of experiments to ascer- tain whether any advantage would be derived through inoculation from especially prepared cul- tures. He used the commercial culture known as Nitragin. He reached the conclusion that where the soil is well stocked with organic matter the gain obtained is not sufficient to warrant use of the cul- ture. However, in the case of light sandy soils and for truck gardening, it may prove valuable. In re- cent months another proprietary culture known as Farmogerm is reported as having given excellent results. One interesting experiment by Nobbe and Hilt- ner” deals with the reciprocal inoculations of bac- teria upon beans and peas. It was found that if either plant were inoculated with germs from the tubercles of the other, some nodules would be formed, but the organism seemed to be without power of nitrogen assimilation. If the inoculation continued a second season, or through a second and third series of culture, the bacteria became nearly as efficient as those from the roots of the same genus. The possibility of transfer of tubercle bac- teria from the roots of one plant to those of the other genus is affirmed. Whatever the method of inoculation, the grower *N. D. Exper. Sta., Bul. 35. > E. §. R., Vol.-12. TA. PEAS’ AND PEAY CULTURE should take pains to incorporate the bacteria-carry- ing agent with the soil without delay, so as to pre- vent the killing of organisms by the hot sun and wind. This artificial inoculation does not differ materially from that recommended for alfalfa, clover, and other legumes, whether it be through “cultures” or through soil from old fields. CELA TER, LE CULTURAL PRINCIPLES—HARVEST Authorities agree that fall plowing for peas is prererable.. If for no other reason,. it: is’ desirable from the general advantage that fall plowing opens up the land for the action of frost and the elements through winter. Fall plowing is less important when light ground forms the seed bed. Spring plowing, however, is not objectionable, and is in common practice. Thorough harrowing with disk and smoothing harrows will be appreciated by the crop. Peas are very vigorous and free growers, and are broadcasted by some on the furrow and simply disked in. This provides no thoroughly worked seed bed. Planting.—The time of planting may vary with varieties and the object for which grown. In gen- eral, sow the peas early in the spring, as soon as ground can be worked. Peas do not succeed best in hot, drying sun and winds, and an early start will provide ample shade for the ground by the time the hottest days come. Shaw and Zavitz! state that peas were sown at different dates between April 22 and June 6. The weight of peas per bushel increased with each successive seeding. However, the best average yield to the acre was from seed sown April 22. Amount of Seed.—This will vary according to variety, soil, and for purpose grown. From two to three and one-half bushels is the range, with per- 1 Ont. Agri. Col. Rpt. for 1892. 15 “AWANNVO GHL YOHL SANIA Vdd NaaaD ONIGVOT 16 CULTURAL PRINCIPLES—HARVEST 17 haps the average between two and one-half and three. Zavitz and Lochhead? state that some varie- ties of peas, like New Canadian Beauty, are double in size those of other sorts, as Common Globe vine. Hence in seeding it was found necessary to vary SPECIAL PEA VINE. HARVESTER. the amount sown from two to three and one-half bushels to the acre. The time of maturity has varied for 26 varieties, from 94 to tot days, and the experiments in length of vines from 19 to 52 inches. Depth of Planting.—It is generally recommended to plant deep, three to four inches. An exception may be for early sorts for gardening purposes. Cor- bett® reports a test made of planting peas at depths "Ont. Agri. Col., Bul. 126. *W. Va. Exper. Sta., Bul. 49. 18 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE of two, three, four, five, six and eight inches. Those planted three inches’ deep, gained “hiohest -per cent of germination and a ‘greater’ yield “than those planted at other depths. Time of maturity was not materially affected by depth of planting. Manner of Planting —The popular method is drilling with grain drill. Of course, in garden cul- ture hand planting and drilling with corn planter, with special seed plates, are in vogue. When a grain drill is not. available, peas are frequently broadcasted by hand. In this event they may be either sown on the rough furrow and disked in, or the ground previously harrowed and left rather rough, peas broadcasted and a light smoothing har- row used for covering the seed. The danger of this method is that seeds will not be covered deeply enough and if heavy showers follow, are likely to be washed out. Some recommend broadcasting the peas on the land and plowing them under. The danger here is of getting them too deep. Zavitz* states that in general, during a two years’ test, drilling gave better results than broadcasting. Seed Considerations.—Good seed is an important consideration with the pea crop as with all others. “As a man sows so shall he reap.” Zavitz and Lochhead’ report experiments for a number of years in selecting large and small seed of the same variety. It resulted in an average yield of 30.3 bush- els grain and one and one-third tons straw per acre for large seed, as against 23.9 bushels grain and one and one-tenth tons straw per acre for small seed. Using split pea seed as it came from the * Ont. Agri. Col. Rpt. for 1897. © Ont. Agri. Col., Bule 226, p. 32: CULTURAL PRINCIPLES—HARVEST 1g thrasher in comparison with whole seed, the aver- ages were 10 bushels grain for the former and 30.7 bushels for the latter. Only about 30 per cent of weevil-infected peas were found to germinate. Buchanan® reports a yield from sound pea seed of 28 bushels to the acre; broken seed, 10.2 bushels. MOWER WITH PEA-LIFTING ATTACHMENT FOR CUTTER BAR. This covered a test of six years. Ward" declares that soaking pea seed in pure water tends to dissolve materials needed in the germination and growth of the seed. He recommends soaking in a solution of some fertilizer salt, which will add to, rather than detract from, the vigor of the seed. Electricity in * Ont. Agri. Col. Annual Rpt. for 1906. 7775. R., Vol 12: 20 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE the soil has a favorable action on the crop, one in- stance being recorded where the yield on the peas was double. Electricity was provided by means of upright rods placed in the ground and a network of wire connecting them below, in the soil. Cultivation—No after-cultivation is expected when field peas are broadcasted in the usual cus- tom of growing field peas. However, in case land is badly infested with weeds or grass, drilling in rows is sometimes practiced so that cultivation can be given to destroy foul growth. Soil moisture has an important relation to cultivation, and it is interesting to note the conclusion of King® on the amount of water required to produce a pound of dry matter. For peas it required 477 pounds of water to produce one pound dry matter. This may be compared with 564 pounds for clover, 301 pounds for corn, 375 pounds for barley, and 515 pounds for oats. ; If cultivation is resorted to it should be shallow. Experiments by Rotmistrov? were conducted to show the vertical and lateral distribution of roots. The season’s average growth of peas was 92 centi- meters” vertically, and 104 centimeters laterally. Corn roots measured 113 centimeters vertically and 134 laterally, while rye grew 118 and 60 respectively. Harvesting.—Harvest field peas when the ma- jority of the pods have matured and when vines are beginning to turn yellow. The scythe is sometimes used to mow the peas, in which case they are later * Wis. Exper. Sta. Annual Rpt., 1892. B.S: Rs Vol..20. ** A centimeter is slightly over one-third of an inch. CULTURAL PRINCIPLES—HARVEST 21 bunched and eventually taken to the barn or thrasher, or possibly fed to stock. Occasionally, horse rakes have been used to pull the vines, but this is inclined to shell them badly, even,,though raking is done when vines are damp. If hogs are A PEA AND BEAN HULLER, OR THRASHER. to follow the harvester the loss will not be so great. The approved method of harvesting peas is with _a mowing machine. Green peas for canneries are sometimes harvested with a special machine, some- thing similar to a reaper. When mowing machine is used a special attachment consisting of long finger guards is placed on the cutter bar of the mow- ing machine and lifts the vines from the ground, when they are cut off readily by the knives. One or two men can follow the mower and bunch the 22 PEAS AND) PEA (CULTURE peas. Three men and a team can harvest ten acres a day, under favorable conditions. Some growers provide a homemade table, something similar to that on:a reaper, for vines to run back on to, and then one man follows with a rake and pulls them off in bunches. If peas are well matured when harvested, the curing will be simple, unless very rainy weather prevails. In this event it is well to keep bunches turned to prevent molding and sprouting of those on the bottom. Peas can be hauled diréct to the thrasher or to the barn and can even be stacked satisfactorily. In the latter event be sure to pro- vide a suitable covering of hay, meadow grass, or something of that character, on top of the stack to protect against rains. The coarseness of pea vines makes it very easy for rain to soak through if not carefully topped out with suitable material. It is well to remember this when stacking the pea straw outside, to be used later for stock. Some farmers do not take the trouble of harvesting the crop with a machine, but turn in the hogs and let them clean up the peas. Thrashing.—This may be done either with stock, with a flail, or with a machine. The latter is the approved method, especially in a large way. The vines are simply run through a machine very sim- ilar to a grain separator, only that the cylinder is specially constructed. The cylinder should be run slowly to avoid cracking. If peas are to be fed to stock, this is not so important. Quereau”™ de- scribes a pea and bean thrasher which does good ™ Tenn. Exper. Sta., Bul. 79. CULTURAL PRINCIPLES—HARVEST 23 work. It resembles the ordinary grain separator in general makeup, but the distinctive differences are large, knife-edge cylinder teeth and notched sharp- edged concave teeth. He states that in tests which included 200 bushels and represented eight varieties, and with the vines in all degrees of toughness and stages of curing, a surprisingly high percentage of separation resulted. There are regular pea hullers on the market that do fine work. In a small way peas can be effectively thrashed on the barn floor with a flail or by stock being' turned in to tread the seed from the pods. In either event a layer of pea vines is distributed on the floor and contact of flail or stock with the pods causes them to split open and free the seed. One or two turnings of each layer is recommended. Later the floor can be cleaned up and the product run through a fanning mill. Old line farmers state that this method of thrashing will result in far less breaking of seed. Yields.—Naturally the yield of peas varies much, running from five to 40 bushels to the acre. Zavitz and Lochhead” found that in setting peas at differ- ent dates between April 18 and May 23, the average yield for the former date was 21 bushels to the acre, and for the latter nine bushels. There was an average increased yield in 30 experiments of one and one-third bushels to the acre from seeding peas in hills rather than broadcasting. The same author- ity reports a trial of 47 varieties of peas sown in drills one link apart. Yields varied from 14% bush- els to 33 bushels to the acre. Chancellor matured * Ont. Agri. Col., Bul. 126. 24 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE first and Oakshott Field last, there being a difference of 24 days in the ripening period of the two varie- ties. The best average yields for seven years ranged from 33 to 38 bushels per acre and were produced by White Wonder, Early Briton, Mummy, Brown and Blue. All, excepting Early Briton and Mummy, are New Zealand varieties. In another trial with New Canada Beauty and Common Globe Vine, yields varied from 23 to 38 bushels to the acre, and the average weight per bushel was 59.4 pounds for whole peas. Weevil peas varied in weight from 38 to 52 pounds and usually the smaller the peas the greater amount of injury was done by weevils. The best yielding varieties for the whole province of Ontario averaged upwards of 25 bushels to the acre, and were Egyptian Mummy, Chancellor, Prussian Blue, Striped Briton, Canadian Beauty, and Canada Cluster. Chapman® reports yields on light sandy soil rang- ing from 8 to 13 bushels to the acre in 1896. In 1898, on bottom land, underlaid with clay, the yield was 15 to 28 bushels to the acre. ** Minn. Exper. Sta., Bul. 81, p. 181. CHAP PEROT COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE Peas carry a large supply of protein, therefore should be combined carefully with carbohydrates and fats to form balanced rations. The protein in peas is not as completely digestible as the proteins of rice and cereal, although they supply just about the same amount of digestible nutrients as do beans. Moore! states that the average amount of digestible protein taken from an average crop of one acre peas equals 192 pounds, while corn would supply only 156 pounds protein from the same area, barley 102, and oats 72 pounds. Composition—Legumin forms the chief protein constituent in peas. It is closely associated with vicilin. Some investigators have supposed that legumin carried a little phosphorus, but Osborne and Campbell® were able to find only slight traces of phosphorus in some samples, while others showed no trace whatever. The same authorities gave a very comprehensive report of the action of legumin, its manner of precipitation, etc. They show that legumin carries 5.17 per cent carbon, 6.9 per cent hydrogen, 18 per cent nitrogen, .42 per cent sulphur, 22.9 per cent oxygen. Vicilin is a globulin associated with legumin in the pea, the lentil, and the horse bean. The strik- ing characteristic of it is its content of sulphur, * Wis. Exper. Sta., Bul. 178, for July, 1909. * Ct. Exper. Sta. Rpt. for 1897. 25 20 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE being less than any other known protein. Its com- position is reported by Osborne and Campbell’ as follows: 32 per cent carbon, 7 per cent hydrogen, 17 per cent nitrogen, .18 per cent sulphur and 23 per cent oxygen. Legumelin is also found in peas. The composition of peas varies slightly with the size of grain, with particular reference to nitrogen con- tent: The accompanying table, secured from analyses made by G. W. Cavanaugh of Cornell experiment station, New York, affords specific data as to the composition of seed, straw, silage, peas and oats, and pea meal. COMPOSITION OF PEAS Digestible nutrients % Dry {Carbo- Ether matter % Protein hydrates’ extract Rea. ‘seed e222 ae ee 89.5 16.8 51.8 By | Pea-Vine straw. 222222) 2 86.4 4.3 32.3 8 Pea-vine silage _______ 27.2, 4.71 II.0 5 Peas and oats (green)__ _—16.0 1.8 7.1 2 Pea-hull meal (residue from split peas)---~- 89.8 15.9 36.3 9 Pea Meal.—According to Gamble’ pea meal had an average composition of 10.34 per cent water, 23.27 per cent protein, 1.9 per cent fat, 54.62 per cent nitrogen free extract, 7 per cent crude fiber, and 2.83 per cent ash. The same authority gives the average composition of pea hulls as 7.51 per cent water, 10 per cent protein, I.44 per cent fat, 36 per cent: nitrogen free extract, 42 per cent crude aber and 2.92 per cent ash. * Ct. Exper. Sta. Rpt. for 1897. *Ont. Agri. Col. Farm, Bul. 138, p. 32. COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 27 Composition Compared with Other Feedstuffs.— Moore’ gives the following table showing the com- parative composition of peas with other common feedstuffs. The table indicates peas as being far the highest in protein content. This is of signifi- cance to the feeder, inasmuch as protein is the most expensive food element. Pea straw has a greater feeding value than barley or oat straw and compares favorably with clover and timothy hay. It is especially valuable as a feed for sheep. The table follows: PEAS COMPARED WITH OTHER FOODS Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Far ecA ratee Protein Carbohydrates Fat Peas lbs. lbs Ibs, (ADEN TS ee a 16.8 51.8 0.7 RES SS a a 4.3 22.3 8 Corn ee 7.0) 66.7 ° 4-3 SLD) 2 aa oe A 2 ap 1.7 32.4 7 Barley 5 SE eS a 8.7 65.6 1.6 SS 7 Si aE ee a7 41.2 6 Oats CET ae a 9.2 A738 4.2 Rae EN ee cs 2 a 1.2 38.6 8 Slovan tia oo. 2 ek 6.8 35.8 1.7 Mumotiy,, Hayy 225s 2.8 43-4 1.4 Nutritive Value—Zuntz and Hagemann’® report an interesting experiment to determine the nutritive value of a kilogram of different feeding stuffs. The comparison is given herewith: ° Wis. Exper. Sta., Bul. 178. oi, Soik., Vol. rx. ‘ONITOVH WO AGVAN GCAHONNA SUNIA Vad NaAaAD COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 29 NUTRITIVE VALUE DETERMINED © Labor expended True 2 in chewing nutritive s oy = and digestion value o oa o Feeding stuff = 2 m0 2 mn n : Seth eu caie cteeh iy et es | Cpu nap 2 mig mv Bi ted ee. Jeane ees ear 6 Ae a So fa €25 8235 423 825 % Grams Grams Calories Grams Calories Grams MIeldsReaS..-2 22-62 -.822 86 69 720 439 111 2,412 609 LSE Pos AO a Fae 86 59 687 402 102 2,319 586 Medium Rat (Average Cuialityess 2s. ee. eas 85 260 391 828 209 721 182 Alfalfa hay cut at be- ginning of bloom... 84 266 453 866 219 928 234 Oats (medium quality) — 87 103 615 492 124 1,943 491 [SE Se 87 17 785 325 82 2,784 703 Cooking and Digestibility—In general it is fig- ured that cooked vegetable foods are five-sixths to nine-tenths less tough or resistant than the raw foods. Lehmann and Gunkel’ report a rather elab- orate experiment along this line with peas. The relative resistance to the cutting surface or tough- ness was 220 when cooked for 15 minutes, 39 when cooked for 60 minutes in distilled water, and. 65 when cooked for 60 minutes in spring water. Rich- ter® speaks of an experiment as to the digestibility by man of peas cooked in soft and in hard water. Peas cooked in distilled water were better borne and caused less digestive disturbance than others. When cooked in distilled water peas had the follow- ing coefficients and digestibility: Dry matter 92, protein 89, fat 87, and ash 81. When cooked in hard water the coefficients were: Dry matter 91, protein,3?, fat 58, and: ashi. 51. Further digestive experiments are reported by ome S20e., Vol. 19: i Volk rs; 30 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE Lindsey. Some 40 experiments covering a period of three years are tabulated and given in the accom- panying table: COEFFICIENTS OF DIGESTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT FEEDING STUFFS ht ~ O- 4 & S) Kind of feedstuff os Si he S - Eel ste ° 2 = B yaet ahs us Bs 3 i = wa Ao Aa by ca Ei. 4 % % % % % % Hay (largely Poa Pratensis) - 6 62 61 50 63 65 = 46 DOR eee eee ae eee = 60 58 53 61 60 50 Hay oft both samples 2 See ae 10 61 60 51 62 63 48 ee of mixed grasses (late cut) 2 53 54 39 54 56 ©6226 57 55 44 57 59 42 Barnyard millet hay oy blos- om Barve millet (green, week later than above) - 1 67 u 61 65 7 61 Peas and oats (green in blossom) 3 7 70 57 7 68 49 Welchiangeoatsmees 7s ene eee 3 67 75 47 68 68 49 Corn silage (Pride of North) - Hominy meal bo -~] cs OU =] ~j ie,2) to ie.) oO to oO Feeding Value.—Peas are fed successfully in various forms to practically all kinds of live stock. They are rich in muscle, bone and blood-making constituents. They are, therefore, particularly adapted to young growing animals or even animals at work. In the early stages of fattening of all farm animals before full maturity of animal is reached, there is no better grain ration than peas. Mx peas with ground oats, shorts, or wheat bran in propor- tion of one-third to one-half and you have an ideal ration for brood sows, milch cows, ewes in milk, lambs and horses. Peas need not be ground for sheep, poultry and hogs. Neither need they be thrashed, as these animals can do that for them- selves. ° Mass. Exper. Sta. Rpt., 1898. COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 3! Pea straw is valuable and relished by sheep, horses and cattle. When vines are cut while a little green and carefully cured without being drenched with rain they will be nearly as good as clover in feeding value. Pea silage is valuable, as well as the fresh product cut green and brought direct to the stock in the form of forage. In the latter event it is usually customary to sow peas with oats or barley. More will be found concerning this subject in the special chapter on Peas as Forage and Soiling Crop. Peas for Cows.—In foreign countries, notably Scotland, peas are regarded highly as a grain ration imocows. In: America their use. is, limited? ‘This refers to the grain crop, but when it comes to mix- tures of peas with other crops to be used in the green state for dairy cows, American farmers prize the combination highly. Hills’ speaks of pea and oat hay not being relished by milch cows. How- ever, when eaten, the hay proved decidedly better, pound for pound than any other fodder used. Snyder" reports experiments with milch cows of the digestibility of a ration of pea silage and wheat bran. Peas were cut while green and placed in the silo ‘and opened the following March. The silage was sweet and in good condition and was generally rel- ished by cows, especially when mixed with bran or corn. A ration consisting of 34 pounds pea silage and 12 pounds wheat bran gave satisfactory results. Day” gives a comparison of green oats and peas with oats and tares for milch cows. The seed was mixed in the proportion of two bushels oats to one * Third Annual Rpt. of Vt. Exper. Sta., pp. 51-84. ™ Minn. Exper. Sta., Bul. 26. * Ont. Agri. Col. Rpt. for 1897, pp. 84-85. 32 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE of peas, and two bushels oats to one bushel tares. Both fodders were eaten readily and neither could be said to excel the other as a milk producer. The oats and peas yielded at the rate of 14,760 pounds green fodder to the acre, and oats and tares yielded 14,688 pounds to the acre. Neale® compared results of dairy value of pea vine silage with June pasture. The cows received a ration of 25 pounds pea vine silage and six pounds hay. In June the animals were turned to pasture and the grain: ration remained the same! 9iie change from silage to pasture indicated a possible gain of one-half pound butter per cow per week. The relative cost of silage and pasture showed about $2.91 per acre in favor of pasture. Peas for Steers.—In either a whole or ground state peas are used extensively for feeding steers in Canada and parts of the United States. Canadian experiments" indicate that peas are slightly inferior to corn for fattening steers. In the experiment, corn, barley, and oats gave better results than did peas, barley, and oats. It is believed the results are more or less influenced by the individuality of the steers. Peas for Sheep and Lambs.—Field peas form an admirable ration for growing lambs. ‘They are relished by sheep and make the finest of mutton. Day” found that the cost of food per pound of gain was 6.63 cents when peas and oats were fed lambs, and only 5.79 cents when fed corn and oats. This was based on peas at 48 cents and corn at * Del Exper. Sta., Bul. 46, pp. 9-12. Ee VOl. 1%. * Ont. Agri. Col. Rpt. for 1898, pp. 81-82. COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 33 38 cents a bushel, with hay at $6 a ton. The value of corn and peas includes cost of grinding. Ramm” conducted experiments to determine the effect of pea meal and sunflower seed cake on the quality of fat, flesh, and wool of sheep. Merino sheep made Io per cent higher gains than English sheep. They also produced more wool than others. Gains made with pea meal were about 2.2 per cent better, and the results of slaughter tests were about 6.54 per cent better than in the case of sunflower seed cake. Sheep fed pea meal showed more belly fat, the flesh containing more dry matter and more nitrogen. Morton” found that peas grazed off showed returns approximately equaling the returns from feeding alfalfa and corn, with the peas valued geo am acre, alfalfa at $5 agon, and corn at’Sr per too pounds. This although alfalfa and corn lambs gained about one-half more than pea lambs. Dur- ing shipment the lambs fed corn and alfalfa shrank 4.2 per cent per head more than the pea-fed lambs. Peas for Swine.—Mills® conducted an elaborate experiment using wheat, peas, corn, and barley in producing pork. Four lots of three pigs each were ‘in the test, and in about five months the lot of pigs receiving peas and bran made the most rapid gain and the largest gain for the food consumed. The wheat mixture came second, followed by corn and barley. Wheat and bran proved the cheapest food. Another test with 12 Berkshire boars showed that hogs fed peas and bran made the largest gain as well as the best gain for the food consumed. How- fh. 5. R., Vol. 10; ™ Wyo. Exper. Sta., Bul. 73, p. 18. ** Utah Exper. Sta., Bul. 34, pp. 8-10. a 34 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE ever, at ruling prices, the lot receiving wheat made the cheapest gain. Deducting the cost of bran and allowing 4 cents a pound live weight for pork, the following prices per bushel were realized through feeding: Wheat 89 cents, peas $1.02, corn 70 cents, barley 59 cents. Shaw and Zavitz® tried out three lots of pigs, feeding peas, barley, ground oats, and wheat middlings in various combinations. The test con- tinued for 91 days and the best gain was made on a ration of two parts peas and one part of ground barley, grain, oats, and wheat middlings. The next best gain was with a ration of equal parts peas and barley ground. The third lot was fed a mitx- ture of equal parts peas and barley unground, and the least gain was made. Experiments demon- strated the advantage of feeding ground peas and barley to pigs rather than unground. The Wiscon- sin experiment station found that ground field peas are more valuable for pork production than corn meal. However, corn was so much lower in price than peas that the meal formed a cheaper feed. The thigh bones of pigs fed on peas were 26 per cent stronger than corn-fed pigs. As an exclusive grain ration pea meal is unsatisfactory. Peas contain large amounts of protein and will produce much lean meat in hogs. They should be ground or soaked and fed with corn meal or some lighter feed. Sown with oats or barley peas make an excellent forage crop or pasture for hogs. Peas for Horses and Chickens.—Working horses thrive on peas. A ration of eight parts peas, eight * Ont. Agri. Col. Rpt., 1891, pp. 106-133. COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 35 parts corn, and one part flaxseed ground together, makes a fine ration for horses. Sometimes there is a tendency to constipation, but the flaxseed will tend to correct that. Peas, either cracked or whole, can be fed poultry with good results, either for egg or meat production. Be sure that this is used in com- bination with something else, as the chickens will do poorly if given the peas as a regular diet. Robertson” tested sugar beets and pea silage for fattening hogs. Two lots of eight pigs averaging 60 pounds in weight received a mixture of ground peas, barley and rye, with sugar beets and pea silage respectively. To one-half of each lot the grain was fed steamed and the other half raw. Pea silage was made from peas harvested when the pods were full of peas still soft, the vines being green and succulent. The silage kept well, but pigs refused to eat much of it. The results showed no striking differences between the gains on pea silage and on sugar beet rations, or between the amounts of cooked and raw food consumed per pound of gain. ** Canada Experimental Farm Rpt. for 1891, pp. 83-87. GEA PW ER INSECT AND FUNGOUS PESTS There are two classes of pests which the grower of peas must be prepared to combat: insect and fungous. They are more troublesome some seasons than others, also in some sections more than others, and even some varieties of peas are more suscepti- ble than others. There are three’ leading “imsect pests of the pea, namely, the weevil, the moth, and the louse, or aphis. There are several fungous pests which may assert themselves under favorable conditions. Pea Weevil (Bruchus pisi), much resembles the bean weevil, and the life history is similar. The beetle is brownish gray color, with two conspicuous = = 2. 2 4 SS a9 4 ——S—S—S—S SS SS ) = # N ‘ = \\ ye R S a PEA WEEVIL AND INFECTED PEA. (From U. S. Dept. of Agri.) oval black dots at the end of the abdomen, which are not entirely concealed by the wing covers. The 36 INSECT AND’ FUNGOUS PESTS 37 beetle is about one-fifth to one-half inch in length, with the head bent under the front of the body and ending in a square-cut beak. When peas blossom these miserable insects may be found upon them waiting for the young pod to develop. On the pod the eggs are deposited and the grubs as soon as hatched bore through and enter the small green peas, one beetle only infesting a single pea. The grub remains in the pea, feeding upon its substance, and passes into the pupal stage, gaining maturity when peas are ripe. Most of the beetles remain inside the peas until sown the following spring, although some emerge at harvest and remain in the field or in the barn all winter. Unlike bean weevils, the pea weevil does not increase and mul- tiply in stored peas, but will die if kept over another year. Fletcher! discusses the question whether pea weevil can be exterminated. He argues that since the weevil has no other food plant than the com- mon pea it could probably be exterminated by inter- rupting the cultivation of the crop for one or two years, or by thoroughly fumigating the seed peas. ‘There are difficulties in the way of either plan, and the author recommends harvesting peas a little ear- lier in the fall and immediately thrashing and sack- ing them so as to prevent escape of beetles in the field. Then treat all the seed peas with bisulphide of carbon. Weevil-infested peas used as seed will give very unsatisfactory results. Zavitz? found that only about one-fourth of the seed infested with weevil grew. In treating the in- genic. R., Vol. 14. * Ont. Agri. Col. Rpt. of 1898, pp. 144-148. 38 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE fested seed with carbon bisulphide, put in a tight barrel or bin, and pour on one ounce for every 100 pounds. Then‘ close the receptacle dichtly “and leave for 48 hours. Remains of the pea crop not taken from the field should be raked up and burned. Weevil-infested seed kept for two years in tight bags or boxes will kill the insects. Zavitz> reports that Grass peas proved resistant to the weevil in Ontario and gave a yield of 25 bushels grain to the acre and two tons straw. Pea Moth (Semasia Nigricana).—This insect occa- sionally does considerable damage, although it is not nearly as common as the weevil. The matured moth is small, perhaps less than one-half inch in expanse of wings and has a dull gray color. The moth deposits its eggs on the growing pea pods. Caterpillars soon hatch out and eat their way into the pod, feeding upon the young peas, consuming many of them and filling the space with a mass of excrement. Finally, the worms leave the pods and form small oval cocoons below the surface of the ground. The remedy is preventive. Pea vines may be sprayed as soon as blossoms are open with one pound soap and 25 gallons water in which has been dissolved one-fourth pound paris green. The spray- ing should be repeated once or twice at intervals of seven to ten days. The object of spraying is to kill the young caterpillars when they eat their way through the pod. Another precaution is to plow the ground deeply in the fall, so that the cocoons will be buried and thus prevent the moths coming =. S, ae, Volo a4: INSECT AND FUNGOUS PESTS 39 out in the spring. All unripe pods should be burned, as they may contain worms; and peas should not be grown upon or near the same piece of ground the following season if the moth is known to be in the soil. Sowing early varieties as early as possible in the season has been found useful, as pods get ahead of the worms. Late sowing is recommended for the opposite reason that the peas will mature after the worm has disappeared. Pea Louse (Nectar Ophora Destructor)—This pest is frequently called the pea aphis. It does great damage on the growing vines all through Nova Scotia, Canada, and the states. It is particularly destructive in some canning sections, where the an- PEA MOTH AND CATERPILLAR; INFECTED PEA. (From U. S. Dept. of Agri.) nual loss runs into the millions of dollars. These lice attack the young pea vines and multiply with great rapidity, often killing the vines outright. They have been found upon sweet peas. Ona small scale, spraying with a 25 per cent solution of kerosene and water has proved effective. Whale oil soap and tobacco dust are effective, but in a large way these remedies are too expensive. Large numbers are de- 40 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE stroyed by their insect enemies, which include the lady beetle, laced wing flies, and syrphus flies. Johnson* reports experiments in planting peas in rows, so that the cultivator and a brush can be used to knock off the lice. By this method a man or boy goes ahead of the cultivator with a pine switch and brushes the vines vigorously, knocking off the lice, and the cultivator follows and buries them. This operation can be repeated every three days during the height of the outbreak of the pea louse. Miscellaneous Insects.—Occasional references are found in literature to damage through other insects which sometimes attack peas. “A myriapod belong- ing to the species Blaniulus guttulatus has been known to cause serious injury to peas as well as beans. The attack is largely upon the seed in the ground. Vib sprouts, like young birch, and sticks them into the simply This c erower ines to climb. The AS AND VARIETIES takes some small branches of trees or growin - PE ~ g the row for the v GARDEN the familiar brush system. ground alon H Yok eae ~ =i 7, \) iy eS oe { y f y Ae Pe Aj p J BL q » 7 f fl f 4 {AT = / i) / SS = a / = J ' : Ch des vil "ORLY cere Ta Weil wy x fi) y m i wit! Sie) "a b — AK ti an My us a Moff Vira aR nr FAIR SAMPLE OF POPULAR THOMAS LAXTON. 76 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE should be done before the peas are six inches tall, as they will find difficulty in climbing if once be- coming incumbent on the ground. When brush are used, many plant two rows, either six inches apart or perhaps 12 inches, and if in a section where winds are high, brush are leaned together to support each other. Winter Forcing.—Bailey* reports investigations in growing peas in forcing houses to determine value as a commercial crop under glass. Experi- ments showed that the tall or half dwarfed varieties force readily in a cool house, yielding edible peas in II or 12 weeks from the time of sowing. The very dwarf varieties were found to yield too little to pay for their growing. Extra Early Market and ~ Rural New Yorker gave satisfactory results. Varieties.—The number of varieties covering dif- ferent types, seasons, etc., is legion. A single work mentions over 240. Anticipating this particular chapter, I secured all the different varieties offered for sale by the following reputable seed concerns: Peter Henderson & Co., Northrup, King &o M. Ferry &"Co., and W. A. Burpee. Throteiiiaem co-operation I was able to test out more than 100 varieties the same season, under similar conditions. The results were satisfactory, and in the main I find varieties as represented. Any one of these firms, or other reputable ones, provide a formidable list of varieties for different conditions, which will be more than an average gardener will want. There- fore, the reader who finds it hard to decide upon varieties cannot do better than secure the latest cat- *N. Y. Exper. Sta., Cornell, Bul. 96. GARDEN PEAS AND VARIETIES oe alogue of some of these concerns. Varieties change more or less in the course of years. My conclusion, after trying all those varieties, was that Alaska is about the earliest pea, and other good ones follow- ing along later in the season were Thomas Laxton, Gradus, Champion, Telephone, Teddy Roosevelt, and Prosperity. I was especially pleased with the two last named. Jordan® gives a comparative test made with 81 varieties of peas with reference to earliness of start- ing, earliness of maturity, length of season, per- centage of shelled peas, total weight, number of peas per pod, height of vine, and yield. Smooth sorts were reported inferior to the wrinkled varie- ties in all respects except earliness. He believes that all the numerous varieties of dwarf or smooth peas are developed from the old Philadelphia Extra Early and Dan O’Rourke, from which they differ but little. “Varieties differ much in the yield of shelled peas obtained from a given quantity of pod, the extreme variation of 12 per cent being found. Among the early dwarf wrinkled varieties Exonian and Station were earliest. Among the late half dwarf and tall, smooth varieties, Pride of America gave nearly twice as large a yield as any other. New Giant Pod Marrow was one of the earliest and most productive of the Marrowfats. Melting Sugar is recommended.” This pea is an edible-podded sort, the pods being picked and eaten, much like string beans. Among the medium and late dwarf and tall wrinkled varieties, the following are mentioned 5N. J. Exper. Sta. Rpt., 1898. 78 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE favorably by Dr. Jordan: Advancer, Admiral, Bliss, Abundance, Bliss Everbearing, Yorkshire Hero, tratagem, Stratagem Improved,’ Oween) sand Heroine. Besides a good yield, the last named gave the largest percentage edible of any variety raised. Bulletin 5 for January, 1889, at the Nebraska experiment station, gives a tabular record of one GRADUS, AN EXCELLENT PEA. season’s test of 22 varieties of peas. The best early peas were Cleveland’s Alaska, Maud S, and Rural New Yorker. The best continuous bearer was the Dwarf Sugar. Vick’s King of the Dwarfs was the best dwarf pea tried. Carter’s Premium Gem, American Wonder, Telegraph, Quality, and Pride of the Market, were good bearers. Brown® recom- “ES. R., Vol. 14. GARDEN PEAS AND VARIETIES 79 mends Surprise and Gradus for an early, and Cham- pion of England for a later pea. As one goes into the literature of varieties, and notes the different sorts recommended at the experi- ment stations and agricultural colleges, he is sur- prised to note the multitude of names which are un- familiar. Very few of the popular sorts, 15 or 20 years ago, are recognized as standards now. The classification of varieties is found in an ear- lier chapter, to which the prospective gardener is referred. Let the novice remember, one classifica- tion would divide green peas into two great classes, smooth and wrinkled. The former is the early type, and can be planted much earlier in the season, but the peas are not nearly as sweet. The wrinkled sorts are the standard, and strains are being de- veloped which come on so rapidly that they are nearly as early as the smooth sorts. A number of new classes in the extra early, early, mid-season, and late peas, have been added recently. The Alaska or Extra Early type has been added to by the Ameer and Claudit. The latter is really a large- podded Alaska. The Ameer is almost as early as the Alaska, and possesses much longer pods. It is blue-seeded, grows about three feet tall, and the pods are nearly as large as Telephone. The next class of dwarf wrinkled earlies takes in American Wonder, Nott’s Excelsior, etc. The alleged improvement in this group is Laxtonian, which is really a dwarf Gradus. Another class is the taller, early wrinkled varieties represented by the Thomas Laxton, Gradus, etc. These are two very popular varieties, and an alleged improvement on them is Early Morn. Another is re-selected Pilot. SO PEAS AND PEA CULTURE For the average reader a division made by one of the large seed houses already mentioned is perhaps as helpful as can be suggested: “Peas for the garden are divided into four classes, Extra Early Round Seeded sorts, Extra Early Wrinkled sorts, Early Dwarf sorts, and Main Crop sorts. The ex- tra early varieties are largely grown by gardeners for early market. They ripen more uniformly than THE PRODUCTIVE PROSPERITY other peas, and most of the pods can be taken from the vine at the first picking. The peas are not sweet, but can be planted very early. Examples of this class are Alaska, Maud S, First and Best, New Prolific, etc. GARDEN PEAS AND VARIETIES 81 “The extra early wrinkled varieties are nearly as early as the round seeded sorts, but do not mature as uniformly. These, while less desirable for early market purposes, are fine for family use. They are much sweeter than the round sorts. Examples are Surprise, Thomas Laxton, Gradus, Advancer, etc. The third class of early dwarf varieties require no brushing, and are in strong demand for family use. The Improved American Wonder, Nott’s Excelsior, Little Gem, Stratagem, Daisy, etc. The fourth division is the main crop sorts, including the Mar- rowfats, Telephone, Champion, Everbearing, Duke of Albany, Telegraph, Alderman, and Prosperity.” Some may be interested in the edible-podded peas, but I must confess they do not appeal to me. I tried both Dwarf Gray Sugar and Mammoth Melt- ing Sugar. They grow as represented, and are marvelous yielders. The Dwarf Gray Sugar vines grow only about 15 to 20 inches tall, whereas the Mammoth Melting Sugar will reach a height of four feet or even more. A package of these might not be amiss in the family garden. At best the multitude of varieties is confusing to the gardener without experience. However, after two or three years, he settles down to a half dozen or so varieties as best for his particular conditions. Naturally the selection will vary, but this chapter, together with the earlier ones, I, II and III, also suggestions from the latest seed catalogues, will prove helpful in arriving at the most ee. combination. CHAPTER IX SWEET PEAS AND THEIR CULTURE The sweet pea has very properly been termed the queen of all annuals. It is a magnificent flower, and its culture is comparatively simple. So much so that even amateurs secure with it most gratifying results. The sweet pea is native of Sicily, and has been known hundreds of years. The story goes that an Italian monk, by the name of Franciscus Cupani, sent seeds to England as early as 1699, and their real culture dates from that period. In 1870 im- petus was given the culture through the work of Henry Eckford of England. Another improver was the well-known plant specialist, Thomas Laxton of England. In too1, Silas Cole of England set the trade agog by bringing out the now famous Countess Spencer, which was a great improvement in size, texture, color and conformation. This was introduced in 1904, and now there are many sports from the Countess Spencer variety which are prov- ing very popular. Enterprising seedsmen in Amer- ica were not long in taking up the improvements brought out in England, the well-known firm of W. A. Burpee of Pennsylvania perhaps taking the lead. This firm alone has a two-acre garden given over exclusively to the cultivation of sweet peas. George W. Kerr, who has had many years’ experi- ence in England with the flower, recently edited a little booklet for the Burpee firm, which gives many helpful pointers on sweet peas. 82 SWEET PEAS AND THEIR CULTURE 83 Soil Considerations—The ideal soil for sweet peas is a heavy, deep loam, inclined to stiffness. However, ordinary garden soil will produce good re- sults. Do not plant the sweet peas on soil too poor to grow anything else. While a little shade will be particularly appreciated when the sun is hot in July and August, the plants should have plenty of light. Many successful growers plant in the open garden, where there is free circulation of air and sunshine. The best preparation of the soil means a start the preceding fall. Dig a trench 24 to 30 inches deep, and mix the soil with light stable dressing or something to provide humus for the plants. Re- place the soil, putting in a good layer of well- decayed cow manure, which is also covered with a few inches of dirt. Allow to remain over winter, and early the following spring the ground will be ready for planting. The trenches can be 18 to 24 inches wide for the rows, and rows themselves four to five feet apart. | Sowing.—There is little danger of sowing sweet pea seed too early. In fact, many believe in starting the seed the preceding fall. In the southern states fall planting can be safely done, perhaps in October, but in the latitude of New York, November and early December would be better. If they are sown too early they will get too much of a start and be frozen back through the winter. The ideal thing is to have the seed just nicely germinated before going into winter quarters. Of course the advantage of fall planting is to secure flowers early. In north- ern latitudes the advisability of fall planting is questionable. 84 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE Do not sow the seed less than two inches deep, and even three and four inches gives good results. When the young plants begin to grow and reach a height of three to six inches, it is easy enough to draw more soil to them to strengthen the stalks and keep the roots cool through the hot summer. An ounce of seed will sow about 15 feet in arow. Later thin out the plants to five to six inches. This will give better results, for if the plants stand too thick the vine growth will be dwarfed and flowers in pro- portion. The methods of the sweet pea enthusiast, Rev. W. T. Hutchings, formerly of Massachusetts, now of Colorado, is interesting. He figures on the plants standing five inches apart in the row. To make sure of each plant coming, he puts the seed into separate papers and buries the packets for about a week in an inch of dirt. Then he selects the seed that has germinated first, and plants it as indicated. This gives an even stand and he knows exactly what to expect. His method is of special importance where seed is high priced. In ordinary practice amateurs sow sweet peas just about the same as they would ordinary garden sorts. | Culture—The hoe and plenty of elbow grease back of it will be repaid many-fold through extra growth, size, and desirable bloom. The sweet pea is not unlike other plants in this respect, for fre- quent stirring of the soil conserves moisture and opens up the soil to the action of the elements. In hot, dry seasons many provide mulching in the form of straw, swale grass, or coarse stable manure. This may be made even more successful by thorough watering occasionally. SWEET PEAS AND THEIR CULTURE 85 As to fertilizer, bone combinations are recognized as among the best. English gardeners recommend ordinary soot, this not only because of its fertilizing value, but also its action in keeping away insects. One method of using this is as follows: Take a peck of soot in a bag and let it dissolve for a few hours in a pail or tub of water. Guano may be used in the proportion of one pound to 20 gallons of the water. Farm yard manure in a liquid state, about the cons sistency of weak tea, is very good. Nitrate of soda should be used sparingly, and only at the start, to force the plants along. One New York enthusiast gives the following ex- perience: “ Last year I sowed sweet peas early in May, along the east side of the house. A trench was dug six inches deep in which was placed some well- rotted cow manure. A little earth was placed over this, and the seeds sown. They were covered with about two inches of dirt. When peas were well up, I placed eight-inch boards around the bed to hold in the dirt and as the plants grew I put in a mixture of two parts good, rich earth and one part well- rotted manure, also one part wood ashes. This was filled in occasionally until the soil was even with the top of the boards. July 1 the peas were three feet tall and had started blooming. They continued until November, and were a continual mass of blossoms, reaching a height of seven feet. They were watered almost every night after sundown.” Sweet peas are occasionally grown in ereenhouses to furnish winter bloom. The early varieties will require two to three months to furnish profusion of bloom. They are usually started in pots, kept cool in the early stage, and later forced with heat 86 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE and well-rotted stable manure. The trailing type of sweet pea is best adapted to indoor culture. Oc- casionally, there is bother about buds dropping, es- pecially if plants are overfertilized. This is not likely to continue beyond a few days when plants will assume the proper balance, and blossoms will appear as desired. Sweet pea seed germinates slowly. Therefore, the grower should not be in too big a hurry to dig out the seed or condemn it. Enemies of the Sweet Pea.—Red spider and green aphis must be watched. They multiply rapidly and sap a tremendous amount of nourishment from the growing plants. Spraying with whale-oil soap, or a weak solution of kerosene oil, will be effective. Cutworms are occasionally destructive, especially if land has not been worked for two or three years. Trap crops, such as peas, lettuce, etc., have been used to protect the peas, also a dusting of tobacco powder about the plants. However, the poisoned bait, such as a little paris green mixed with bran or a few sprigs of clover dipped in paris green and placed for the cut worms to eat, is perhaps best of all. The blight occasionally appears and causes trouble, usually during dry seasons and when plants are cultivated shallow. The remedy is to plant the seed deeper and use every means to keep the vines growing vigorously. Trellising.—Except in the dwarf and recumbent types, some means of support should be provided for the rapidly growing vines. The simplest method in vogue is brush. In other cases, various types of framework are provided. It is possible to drive posts and string wires or strings every few inches, beginning at the bottom and working up to the top SWEET PEAS AND THEIR CULTURE 87 as the vines grow. An ordinary poultry wire nailed to posts furnishes a satisfactory support. This may be placed on a movable post and taken up each fall and wire rolled and set aside for another season. Types and Varieties.—The varieties of sweet pea are legion. As far back as 1793, a London seed man listed five varieties, including the following colors: White, purple, scarlet, black, and painted lily. Three or four decades later yellow and striped variations appeared. Then came flesh pink, rose pink, etc. When Henry Eckford interested himself in the breeding and improvement of sweet peas in 1876, he soon had many variations and combinations of color, also of form and conformation. In 1898 there were about 150 specifically named:sorts. Now there are many more. The standard type of sweet peas for decades was the tall-growing sort for northern latitudes where climate is comparatively cool. California was among the first states in America to become inter- ested in sweet peas. It was not long before the environment produced a variation of the tall sorts; a semi-dwarf more adapted to exposure where climate is dry and hot became recognized. This class is known as the Cupid sweet pea. Foliage is thick, dense, and reaches down well over the ground, protecting the roots from exposure. An- other type is the Bush sweet pea, something similar to the Cupid as regards height and adaptability. However, foliage is not so dense and does not reach down to the ground as thoroughly. It is sufficiently dwarfed so that no support is needed. Still a third type is the Trailing sweet pea, where the vine is in- clined to be recumbent. It seldom reaches more 88 PEAS AND PEA CULTURE than 18 inches in height, is an exceedingly early bloomer and adapted to sections further south than the standard sorts. This latter type is also recom- mended for growing under glass to furnish blooms for winter gardening. Edwin Jenkins, superintendent of the Bellefon- taine Gardens of Massachusetts, makes the follow- ing selection of varieties for producing satisfactory results in almost any garden. White: Dorothy Eckford, |'Nora Unwin, White Spencer. > “emake Countess Spencer, Gladys Unwin, Bolton’s Pink. Primrose: James Grieve, Primrose Spencer, Mrs. Collier. Rose: John Ingham, George Herbert, E. j- Castle. Scarlet: Queen Alexandra, Marie Corelli, King Edward. Maroon: Black Knight, Othello, Duke of Westminster. Orange: Miss Wilmott, Helen Lewis, St. George. Light Blue: Flora Nor- ton, Mrs. George Higginson, Jr., Romolo Piazzaini. Dark Blue: Lord Nelson, Navy Blue, Captain of the Blues. Variegated Blue: Helen Pierce, Prince Olaf, Phenomenal. Lavender: Asta Ohn, Frank Dolby, Lady Grisel, Hamilton. Four Cardinal Don’ts.—When it comes to select- ing varieties one can hardly do better than get in touch with some reputable seed grower who will provide a catalogue with full description for various types and strains. If one would succeed with sweet peas, there are four fundamental don’ts suggested by W. A. Burpee, the Pennsylvania seed grower, worthy of emphasis: (1) Don’t expect sweet peas to thrive in soil too poor for any other culture, or in a sunless location. They need, as nearly as possible, a free deep loam and moderately rich freely cul- tivated soil. (2) Don’t sow too shallow. Plant seed SWEET PEAS AND THEIR CULTURE 89 at least two inches deep, and when plants are two to three inches tall draw more soil up to them in ridge form. (3) Don’t overfeed with a view to ob- tain vigorous growth and profusion of growth. Bone in some form is the best fertilizer. Nitrate of soda will do for a hurry-up stimulant, but use it spar- ingly. (4) Don’t gather the blooms grudgingly. The more you cut the longer the vine will continue to flower. Remember, when they go to seed, sweet peas will cease flowering. INDEX PAGE A Aphis attacks sweet peas........ 86 B Breeding, experiments with.... 70-71 Fixing special points........ 5 Til MMEPLOVINE POSS, Aesie st cess cc . 66 IGSSIDIIIES IN. eyele ls wre ececele oie 69 Cc Canned peas as an industry..... 44 Blanching and preparing liquor 49 Dates of harvesting ........ 45,47 IS EGID IGLOS ve nl =talors)eler ais siv0c 44-45 vadin'es the Crop. < 34-35 Composition, comparative table of 26 Compared with other foods... 27 Principal constituents in...... AS Nutritive value determined.... 29 Nutritive value. Ofs.0). ss scsi 27 Value of for different animals. 30 Cooking, best manner of....... 29 EenOCeSS) LOL CANTMEM!./<.. of “for stock... sae 31 Sweet peas, best soils.......... 83 Four cardinal don’ts.......... 88 Cultures a. he. dca cern eee 82, 84 Enemies “Of: /. <:- 0) .ccjc)svsrsteroretensiete Fertilizer for (s.jciss os see erenenere 85 History: Of 2s s.c ssvcte sierclereneterene 82 In greenhouses 4 2.0. si. -se se 85 Sowing Of cin. ms ote cieeuicerene 83 Trellising. 6 i6:¢.cveiviscteteteterte 86 Types and varieties.......... 87 Swine; peas for... 2.4. ..2. camer 33 At Thrashing, approved methods of 22-23 V Varieties, classification of...... 79 Difference in yield... - =: 5220. rai How: to) selects). ac