;-NRLF jiiiiilsiii ii iiii II !! ill ilii! i : £W '*%* THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Biology BEQUEST OF Theodore S. Palmer , <^\_y a/L*^*-CH- THE . . . LIVING RACES OF MANKIND AN ARAB WOMAN. THE PEOPLE'S Natural History EMBRACING Living Animals of the World and Living Races of Mankind EDITORS AND SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS: Charles J. Cornish, F. C. Selous, Ernest Ingersoll, Sir Harry Johnston, K.C.B., Sir Herbert Maxwell, F.R.S., H. N. Hutchinson, F.R.G.S., J. W. Gregory, F.G.S., R. Lydekker, F.R.S., F.Z.S., and many other eminent naturalists Nearly Two Thousand Illustrations Vol. IV OCEANIA— ASIA— AFRICA 1905 THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY NEW YORK COPYRIGHT, 1901-1902 By DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1903 By THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY Ci 1103 v. V -D ' 0 I L ' b r a. V- M CONTENTS. :HAP. PAGE INTBODDCTION i I. FIJI ISLANDS, POLYNESIANS, POLY- NESIAN RELIGION, TONGA OR FRIENDLY ISLANDS, SAMOA, HERVEY ISLANDS, SOCIETY ISLANDS, PITCAIRN ISLANDS AND SANDWICH ISLANDS ... 1 n. NEW GUINEA, BISMARCK ARCHI- PELAGO, ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, SOLO- MON ISLANDS, NEW HEBRIDES, NEW CALEDONIA, AND NEW ZEALAND . 25 III. AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA . . 49 FV. CELEBES, BORNEO, JAVA, SUMATRA, PHILIPPINES, MALAY PENINSULA . 73 V. SIAM, ANAM, CAMBODIA, BURMA . 97 VI. CHINA AND MONGOLIA . . .121 VII. JAPAN, THE HAIRY AINU, KOREA, FORMOSA, Liu - KITJ ISLANDS, AND TIBET 145 VIII. THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. — THE VED- DAS OF CEYLON. — THE ABORIGINAL RACES OP INDIA: CENSUS RETURNS OF POPULATION : CLASSIFICATION OF RACES : THE ARYAN INVASION : CASTE : KOLS, GONDS, TODAS, KHONDS, ETC 169 IX. INDIA (continued) : WOLF - REARED CHILDREN, KASHMIRIS, PARSIS, KHASIS: RELIGION IN INDIA: ARYAN THEOLOGY, LITERATURE, ETC. — AFGHANISTAN AND BALUCHISTAN X. TURKESTAN, BOKHARA, SIBERIA, AND PERSIA 193 217 CHAP. PAGE XI. ARABIA, SYRIA, PALESTINE, ASIA MINOR, AND ARMENIA . . . 241 XII. AFRICA: INTRODUCTORY — THE PYGMY OR NEGRILLO RACES — THE PEOPLE OF MADAGASCAR 265 XIII. THE NEGRO IN GENERAL — THE BANTU NEGROES .... 289 XIV. THE BANTU OF EASTERN AND WESTERN AFRICA .... 3t3 XV. THE EQUATORIAL AND NILOTIC NEGROES 337 XVI. THE SOUDANESE AND GUINEA NEGROES, AND THE ABYSSINIAN AND ETHIOPIC GROUPS . . . 361 XVII. THE HAMITIC AND SEMITIC RACES OF NORTH AFRICA . 385 XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. EUROPE: RUSSIA, CAUCASIA, FIN- LAND, LAPLAND, NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND ICELAND ..... 409 GREECE AND ISLES, TURKEY, BULGARIA, ROUMANIA, SERVIA, MONTENEGRO, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, THE GYPSIES . 433 GERMANY, SWITZERLAND, ITALY, FRANCE, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL . 457 DENMARK, BELGIUM, HOLLAND, GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND . 481 ARCTIC AMERICA AND GREENLAND . 505 NORTH AMERICA .... 529 CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA (INCLUDING MEXICO) .... 553 524 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS. PAGE A Swazi warrior .... 1 Krao ii, ill Julia Pastrana v Map showing distribution of the races of the Pacific Ocean vi, vii A mail of Fiji, with necklace of cachalot teeth .... viil A war-dance, Fiji .... 1 A grass house, Fiji .... 2 A woman of Fiji .... 3 Natives making flre, Fiji . . 4 A man of Fiji 5 A quiet game of spellicans (Vava, Tonga Islands) .... 6 The king of the Tonga Islands . 7 Group of Tonga men on board H.M.S. Challenger ... 8 A woman of the Tonga Islands 9, 11 A girl of the Tonga Islands . . 10 Tanu, a Samoan chief, with head- dress and necklace of cachalot teeth 12 A Samoan girl . . . . 13, 14 Talolo, the late K. L. Stevenson's favourite cook .... 15 Three Samoan belles ... 16 Agirl of Tahiti (proflleand full-face) 17 AmanofTahiti(full-faceand profile) 17 Royal family of Vahitai, Taouata (the Marquesas Islands) . . 18 A group of natives, Hawaii . . 19 A young girl, Hawaii ... 20 A fisherman, Hawaii . . 21, 23 A woman of Hawaii ... 22 A man with calabashes, Hawaii . 24 Three New Guinea girls ... 25 Youngmenof Siar, East New Guinea 26 Dobo, or tree-house for unmarried women ..... 27 Two New Guinea boys . . 28 Pile-dwellings, Koitapu, at low water ...... 29 Two Arfak men .... 30 Man of New Britain ... 31 Woman of New Britain ... 31 Woman of the Admiralty Islands . 32 Men of New Britain ... 33 A New Ireland maiden . . .34 Men of New Ireland, with spears . 35 Men of New Ireland, in battle-array 35 Women of Port Adam, Solomon Islands 36 Anative of the Solomonlslands, with large ring in the lobe of his ear 37 A man of the Solomon Islands . 38 A woman of the Solomon Islands . 39 Women at Mota Island, New Hebrides 40 A group of natives, Pentecost Island . . . . .41 A Maori girl and child ... 42 A Maori woman .... 43 A Maori girl 44 Pataragurai, a Maori chief . . 45 A Maori man and his wife . . 46 Porotiti, a Maori chief ... 47 A family group of Maoris . . 48 Natives making a canoe ... 49 A native of Prince of Wales Island 50 A gin of the Workii tribe, Gilbert River 51 Natives of River Endeavour, North Queensland . . 52, 53, 54, 62 PAGE Native girls of River Endeavour, North Queensland ... 53 A native warrior, Prince of Wales Island 55 A native of Tweed River . . 56 An old man of the Arunta tribe . 57 Natives in outrigger, River En- deavour, North Queensland . 58 A group of the Arunta tribe . . 59 Unchichera of Imanda ... 59 A man of the Workii tribe, Gilbert River 60, 61 A native, with wife and mother . 63 River landscape, with hut . . 64 A group of native Australians . 65 Women in mourning — their bodies coated with white clay . . 66 William Lanney .... 67 " Truganina," William Lanncy's wife 68 A native of Tasmania ... 69 A young man of Tasmania . . 70 A group of Tasmanians . . 71, 72 A woman of Celebes ... 72 Sakarang Dyas .... 73 Dya women and children . . 74 Sarebas Dya women ... 75 A Kanowit chief .... 76 A man of Java .... 77, 79 Java women . ..." 78 A Java woman ..... 79 Two Java women 80 Battas 81, 82 Batta warriors ..... 83 A group of Malays .... 84 Igorotte tattooing .... 85 A Negrito man, with spear . . 86 A Negrito woman .... 87 A Moro Indian girl .... 88 A Moro Indian .... 89 Two Negritos, with sumpitan . 90 A group of Negritos . . 91, 93, 94 A Negrito man, with spear . . 92 Two Negrito women ... 92 Negrito women . . . 95, 96 A Siamese gentleman ... 97 A Shan man ..... 98 A family group .... 99 A Buddhist priest . . . .100 A royal priest, Siam . . . 101 Siamese street-singers . . . 102 A typical Siamese nobleman and family 103 A young couple (Khas) . . . 104 A Siamese prince .... 105 A group of Lao people . . . 106 Burmese dancing-girls . . 107 A Burmese native, with tattooedlegs 108 A hairy family of Mandalay . . 109 Drawing of a girl two years old, with thick hair on neck, back, and shoulders .... 110 Julia Pastrana, the hairy woman of Mexico 110 Dacoits in prison . . . .111 " Shwe Maong," founder of the hairy family of Asia . .112 " Andrian." a Russian hairy man over fifty-five years old . .112 Three Burmese girls . . .113 A Burmese princess . . .114 A Burmese lily . . . .115 A Shan beauty 116 PAGE A Shan-Talok woman . . . 117 Kachins — boy and girl . . .118 Karen women 119 Out for an afternoon drive . . 120 A pair of dwarfs from Burma . 120 Chinese coolies in rain-coats . . 121 A Chinese barber .... 122 A Chinese lady of high rank . . 123 A Chinese woman, with nail-pro- tector (on left hand) . . 124 Opium-smokers .... 125 AChinese woman with deformed foot 126 Female musicians and singers of Foo-chow 127 A Chinese garden party . . . 128 A woman of Manchuria . . . 129 Alap of Asia, showing distribution of races 130 Chinese taking tea .... 131 A Chinese nurse and child . . 132 Two Chinese mandarins . . . 133 A woman of Shanghai . . . 134 A Chinese family group of three generations .... 135 A Chinese fortune-teller . . .136 Chinese mandarins. Canton . . 137 Chinese husband and wife . . 138 A -Chinese mother, with nurse and children 139 A Chinese bride, with veil of beads 140 A family group of Mongols, Kuldja 141 A group of Mongols . . . 142 Chinese soldiers of Kuldja . . 143 Khan Wang, a Mongol of Kuldja . 144 Three Japanese girls . . . 145 A Japanese vegetable-pedlar . .146 The Japanese mode of conveyance 147 Two fair daughters of Japan . . 148 An elaborately tattooed Japanese man 149 An elaborate Japanese head-dress . 150 Professional Japanese wrestlers . 151 A village scene in Japan . . 152 A daughter of Japan . . . 153 A Japanese doctor and patient . 154 A wayside resting-place in Japan . 155 Two Ainu men in dug-out canoe . 156 Ainu man and wife .... 157 Three Ainu women .... 158 Three Ainu men . . . .159 Ainu children 160 A Korean coolie .... 161 Korean secretaries of state . . 162 A group of Tibetans . . .163 Women and girl of Ladak . . 164 Buddhist priests at Leh, with copper trumpets, drums, and cymbals . . ' . . 165 Tibetan dancers .... 166 Two Lamas of Nud .... 167 Tibetan women .... 168 A group of Andamanese . . 169 The chief of a tribe living in the vicinity of Port Blair, and his wife 170 Andamanese shooting fish . . 171 A group of Andamanese. Method of shooting turtle . . . 172 A Vedda woman .... 173 A Vedda man, with leaf girdle . 174 Two Veddas, with bows . . .175 A Vedda man (profile) . . .176 A Vedda man (full-face) . . 177 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS Devil-dancers, Ceylon . . 178, 182 A group of Tamil girls . . . 179 A Tamil man of Ceylon (mixed type) 180 A Tamil girl 181 A group of Kols .... 183 Two Irulas (from the left), two Badagas, two Todas, two Kotas, and two Kurumbas . . . ] 84 A group of Kol girls . . . 185 Two Toda girls .... 186 A Toda home (or maud) . . 187 Kota women making pots . . 188 Kurumbas, with house . . . 189 Jscards, soldiers of the Maharajah of Kashmir . . . .190 Nautch-girls of Kashmir . . 191 A Parsi girl 192 Paharis (hill women) . . .193 Dancing-men at Mongknem dance, Khasia Hills . . . .194 Dancing-girls at Mongknem dance, Khasia Hills . . . .194 A Lepcha 195 A Brahman at prayers . . . 196 Native princes of Orissa . . . 197 Nagas in full dress .... 198 A religious mendicant . . . 199 A fakir 200 A native Indian lady . . . 201 A fakir's home . . . .202 A fakir and family in dwelling- place under the White Rock, nearDowlie . . . .203 The late Maharajah of Holkar . 204 A Hindu sacrifice .... 205 A Cormghi woman, Madras . . 206 A Marwarl 207 An Ajmir Mohammedan . . 207 A Delhi Mohammedan . . .207 A Multani 207 A Madrasi 207 A Brahman 207 A Brahman priest .... 207 A fakir 207 A.Bhatia 207 An executioner of Rewa . . 208 An Indian prince who attended the Queen's Jubilee, 1897 . . 209 A native from the Afghan-Baluch frontier 210 Natives from the Afghan-Baluch frontier 211 An Afghan woman and child . 212 Brahuis of Afghanistan . . . 213 Afridis 21* Chiefs of Baluchistan . . 215, 216 A Turkoman 217 A Kara-Kirghiz woman . . . 218 A Kirghiz man of Tashkend . . 219 A Kirghiz man, district of Semi- retchensk 219 A Kara-Kirghiz, district of Semi- retchensk 219 An Usbeg man, district of Zaraf- shan 219 An Usbeg woman, district of Zaraf- shan 219 A Tajik man of Tashkend . . 219 A Tajik woman of Tashkend . . 219 A Tarancha man, district of Kulja 219 A Tarancha woman, district of Kulja 219 A Kirghiz bed .... 220 Turkoman women .... 221 A Dungan woman, province of Kulja 222 Dungans of Kulja . . . .223 A group of Sarts and Dungans, with cart (or arbas) . . . 224 Durani mendicants .... 225 A Kalmuk woman on camel . . 226 A Kalmuk woman (profile) . . 227 A Kalmuk woman (full-face) . 227 Kalmuk children . . . .227 A Kalmuk man .... 227 Women of Turkestan . . . 228 PAGE A group of Samoyedes . . . 229 A Samoyede man and woman . 230 A group of Golds . . . 231, 234 A Giliak woman . . . 232, 233 A Giliak man .... 233, 236 Two Tunguses 233 Two Golds 233 Tunguses, with reindeer . . . 235 A group of Giliaks . . . .237 A Persian horse soldier . . . 238 A Persian dervish . . . .239 A group of dervishes (religious mendicants), Persia . . . 240 Prisonersand jailors in prison-yard, Nar-ha-band, Persia . . .241 Persian lady in indoor costume . 242 Persian ladies in outdoor costume 243-4 Arab children 245 An Arab mother and child . . 246 A Bedouin 247 An Arab family . . . .248 An Arab sheikh . . . .249 A bride of Bethlehem . . . 250 Women of Bethlehem . . . 251 A native guide, Palestine . . 252 Jewish lepers, Palestine . . . 253 Nestorian teachers and scholars, Armenia 254 Three Turks 255 A group of teachers, American Missionary Society, Armenia . 256 Butter-making in goat-skin churns (Nestorians, Armenia) . . 257 Armenians water-carrying (Nes- torians) 258 Armenian merchants and wives . 259 An English missionary, with his native teachers .... 260 Armenian orphans rescued from the massacres .... 261 A Kurdish mountain chief (head of tribe) 262 Kurdish mountain brigands, Ar- menia 263 People of Transcaucasia . . . 264 A Bushman 265 A Bushman (profile and full-face) 266 Map showing the distribution of African races .... 267 A pygmy woman (front view) . 268 A pygmy woman (side view) . . 268 An Akka girl (front view) . . 269 An Akka girl (side view) . . 270 An Akka girl . . . - 271, 272 Bushman boys 273 A Malagas! girl . . . .274 Water-carriers, Antananarivo . 275 Various types of hair-dressing, Antananarivo .... 276 Hova women selling rice, Antana- narivo district .... 277 Pounding rice, Antananarivo . 278 Malagas! men ..... 279 A Hova in a pilanjana . . . 280 A group of Hova .... 281 Malagas! women pounding rice . 282 A native dance, Madagascar . . 283 A Griqua family . . . .284 A Fingo man 285 Wife of a Kaffir chief . . .286 A Kaffir induna . . . .287 Kaffir women 288 Ova-Herero women . . . 289, 290 A Swazi girl 291 A Kaffir woman. Natal . . .292 Three Kaffirs 293 Khama, chief of the Bamangwato Bechuanas 294 Khama's brother . . . .295 A Cape Kaffir 296 Kaffirs in fighting-costume . . 297 A Kaffir wedding-party . . .298 Zulu women grinding corn . . 299 Three Zulu girls . . . .300 A Basuto girl 301 Two Zulu girls 302 PAGE Usipebu's wives, Zululand . . 303 A Zulu witch-doctor . . .304 A Zulu girl 305 Matabili warriors .... 306 Mashonas bartering . . . 307 Two Mashona men . . . .308 Chief Umgabe and his followers, Mashonaland . . . .309 Two Nyasalandmen andtheirwives 310 Natives of Kast Central Africa in full-dress costume . . . 311 Confirmationcandidates,Nyasaland 312 Waganda scholars .... 313 Nubian police, Uganda . . .314 A Uganda man and woman in native style .... 315 Wakwafi men of Kavirondo . . 316 A group of Suk . . . .317 Y'suk warrior, Karaniojo . . 318 Wabeni school-girls . . . 319 Natives of Lumbwa .... 320 Wateita boys, East Africa . . 321 An Elgon chief . . . .322 Unyoro chiefs 323 An Unyoro girl (full-face) . . 324 An Unyoro girl (profile) . . 325 A princess of Unyoro (full-face) . 326 A princess of Unyoro (profile) . 327 A Monbuttu negress . . . 328 Congo natives 329 Two Congo natives . . . .330 A Congo woman .... 331 A Congo man and woman . . 332 A group of Congo men . . . 333 A Congo native, with primitive stringed instrument . . . 334 A Congo warrior and his wife . 335 A group of Congo natives dressed for a war-dance .... 336 A Congo man in native canoe . 337 Treaty-making, Kikuyu . . . 338 Wyaki and his brother chief, Kikuyu 339 A group of Niam-niam natives . 340 Niam-niam warriors . . .341 A Niam-niam girl . . . .342 A Niam-niam witch-doctor . . 343 A Niam-niam native . . . 344 Typical women of the Equatorial region 345 Women and children of Equatorial Africa 346 Liberated slavesfrom Central Africa 347 A Central African chief and his wives 348 A Monfu woman . . . . 349 A Dinka girl (full-face) . . .350 A Dinka girl (profile) . . .351 A Shilluk girl 352 A Shilluk man 353 Fajelu men and woman . . . 354 A Bari girl 355 A Bari woman (side view) . . 356 A Bari woman (front view) . . 357 A Madi man 358 Madi women 359 A Lango chief, showing peculiar head-dress 360 The Mandingan balenjeh, or native piano 361 Native carriers, Upper Mendi . 362 An Upper Mendi princess . . 363 An Upper Mendi chief . . .363 An Upper Mendi chief in war costume ..... 364 Amazons of Dahomey . . . 365 Natives of the Niger Delta . . 366 A native of the Oil Rivers, Niger Coast Protectorate . . .367 A Dahomeyan baby .... 368 Dahomeyan Amazons . . . 369 A Dahomeyan warrior . . . 370 A Dahomeyan man .... 371 A Yoruba woman .... 372 A Yoruba man . . . .373 Somali children .... 374 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS Somali 375 A Somali man 3~i A Somali man and his wife . . 377 An Abyssinian girl .... 378 A native of Abyssinia . . . 379 A group of Abyssintans . . . 380 Haussa 381, 383 A Haussa woman .... 382 A group of Hanssa .... 384 A group of Tuaregs, South Algeria 385 A Tuareg woman .... 386 A Tuareg man 38 Mixed type, Berber and Negro race, Sahara 388 A Fellah woman .... 3 Two Nubian girls .... 390 Two Nubian dancing-girls . . 391 A Nubian dancing-woman . . 392 An Uled-Na'il (Algerian type) . 393 An Uled-Nail woman, Biskra 394, 396 An Uled-Nail woman . . . 395 Uled-Nails and two Negro girls . 397 A Kabyle man 398 A Kabyle woman . . . 399, 402 Two Kabyle women, Algeria . . 400 Arab children at play . . . 401 Kabyle children .... 403 Street minstrels, Cairo . . .404 An Algerian Moorish girl . . 405 A Moorish lady .... 406 An Arab man 407 An Arab camp ..... 408 A Russian mendicant . . . 409 A Russian coachman . . • 410 A group of Russian women . .411 A sergeant in the Russian army . 412 A Russian school .... 413 Tartars 414 A Russian nurse .... 415 Two dancers. Little Russia . . 416 A Russian bride of the better class 417 Map based (by permission) on Pro- fessor Keane's language map of Europe in " Stanford's Com- pendium of Geography" . . 418 Russian peasant in costume . . 419 A Georgian woman, Caucasia . 420 Caucasian soldiers .... 421 A Finlander ..... 422 A Lapp child on reindeer . . 423 A Mountain Lapp .... 424 A family of Lapps .... 425 A Lapp woman .... 426 A Norwegian girl in bridal dress . 427 A Hardanger girl .... 428 Hardanger peasant women . . 429 A Swedish girl in bridal dress . 430 A Tellemarken peasant . . . 431 An Iceland woman . . . 432 A Greek girl in national costume . 433 A Greek girl 434 A Greek soldier .... 435 A Turk 438 A Turkish pedlar . . . .437 A Rumanian bride .... 438 A Rumanian dairy-maid . . . 438 A Montenegrin 439 National dance of Montenegro at the present day : dancing the hora 440 Bosnian falconers .... 441 A Bosnian belle .... 442 A native of Bosnia . . . 443, 445 A Bosnian soldier .... 444 A Bohemian woman . . . 446 Chekhs 447, 448 A Wend (front and back view) . 448 Wend woman in full dress . . 448 Germans of South Austria . . 449 Hungarian peasants . . .450 A South Austrian peasant . . 450 A Tyrolese girl 451 A Hungarian woman from Szirok . 452 PAGE A Hungarian 453 A pure Gypsy, Alsace (profile) . 454 A pure Gypsy, Alsace (full-face) . 455 A Bohemian Gypsy girl . . . 456 A little German boy . . . 457 A German lady .... 458 Three Swiss girls .... 459 A Swiss man 460 A young woman of Bern . . 461 A Swiss girl in bridal dress . . 462 A n Italian man .... 463 The tarantette in Naples . . . 464 An Italian shepherdess . . . 465 An Italian monk .... 466 Young women of Valence . . 467 An Italian peasant-girl in her wedding-dress .... 468 A fisher-woman of Portel . . 469 An old Frenchwoman . . . 470 Two French peasants . . . 471 A French fisherman . . . 472 A Brittany boy 473 A Gypsy of Granada . . 474, 476 A Spanish fandango, Granada . 475 A Spanish lady ..... 477 Two Portuguese boys . . . 478 A Portuguese woman . . 479, 480 A Danish bride 481 A Danish couple .... 482 A Danish fisher-girl . . . 483 A Belgian peasant woman and her draught-dogs .... 484 A native of the Ardennes . . 485 A Belgian man and his wife, Ardennes 486 A family group of Marken people 487 A Dutch married woman, North Holland 488 A Dutch man, Volendam . . 489 A Dutch peasant woman, showing head-dress 490 A maid-of-all-work, Holland . . 490 A Derbyshire yeoman . . . 491 A Lowestof t srnacksman . . 492 A type of English beauty . . 493 An English girl . . . .494 A group of fishermen, Devonshire . 495 A city waif 496 A Welsh woman at her spinning- wheel ...... 497 A Newhaven fishwife . . . 498 In a Shetland crofter's home . . 499 An old Scot salt . . . .500 Two old men of Skye . . .501 A native of Mourne .... 502 An old Irishwoman at her spinning- wheel 503 An Irish peasant-girl . . . 504 A type of Irish beauty . . .504 Greenland Eskimo in the snow . 505 A party of Greenland Eskimo . 506 Eskimo, with their sleighs and kayak 507 An Eskimo man .... 508 An Eskimo woman .... 509 A pair of Eskimo boys . . . 510 Heads of three Eskimo children . 511 Eskimo and sledge .... 512 A Greenland Eskimo grandmother 513 An Eskimo belle .... 514 Distribution of Eskimo and North American Indians . . . 515 An Eskimo youth .... 516 An Eskimo girl and child . . 517 A party of Eskimo, with their tent of seal-skin and bear-skin . 518 A North American Indian in full dress 519 A group of North American Indians 520 A North American brave . . 521 North American Indian chiefs, with their wives and children . 522 A Chippewa Indian . . . 523 , PAGE 523 523 523 Ma-gi-ga-bow (chief) A Chippewa chief .... " Cut-nose," a Sioux criminal A North American Indian (pro- file) .U'4 A North American Indian (full- face), with pipe-tomahawk . 525 A North American chief, with feather head-dress . . . 526 A Dakota-Siouan chief, thirty-eight years of age, with pipe-toma- hawk 527 A North American Indian chief (profile) 528 A North American Indian, show- ing mocassins .... 529 An American Indian and his wife 530 Indian "sun dance" (the making of abrarf) 531 A group of North American Indians in full dress .... 532 North American Indians dressing . 533 | An Indian chief and his squaws . 533 I An Indian hunter, with wapiti skull 534 North American Indians prepared for a journey .... 535 An Indian tent in winter, with squaw carrying papomie (child) 536 A woman of Kiawa .... 537 A North American Indian smoking tomahawk-pipe .... 538 Indian squaw and papoose (child) . 539 An aged Indian woman . . . 540 A group of Mic-mac Indians . . 341 A Dakota-Siouan squaw . . . 542 A group of North American Indians 543 A Mandan Indian in European dress 544 North American Indians in camp 545 Guanajuato water-carriers, Mexico 546 A Hopi bride 547 Guatuso women and child, Costa Rica 548 A Carib woman of Dutch Guiana, with leg-bands .... 549 A Carib or Ackawoi woman (pro- file), with spikes in lower lip and ears 550 A Carib or Ackawoi woman (full- face), with spikes in lower lip and ears . . . . . 551 A Carib man 552 A Carib woman .... 553 A Peruvian Indian, with orna- ments in the lobes of the ears . . ' . . . . 554 Natives of Peru .... 555 A Gaucho of La Plata . . . 556 Map showing distribution of South American Indians . . . 557 A group of Sanapana men of the Paraguayan Chaco . . . 558 A group of Sanapana women of the Paraguayan Chaco . . 559 A party of Botocudos . . . 560 War Indians of the Lengua tribe 561 Lenguas of the Paraguayan Chaco 562 An encampment of Lengua Indians 563 A group of Lengua children. Paraguayan Chaco . . . 564 Araucanians and their children . v;~> An Araucanian man . . . 566 A witch-doctor of Araucania . . 567 Civilised Arancanians . . . 568 A Chilian native and his wives . .VS!) An Araucanian beauty . . . 570 A Tehuelche woman and children, dressed in guanaco robes . . 571 Mapuche natives of Araucania . 572 A Fuegian man .... 573 A Tehuelche man . . . 574 A Fuegian woman .... 575 Fuegiaus 576 INTRODUCTION. BECESTT years have witnessed a great growth of interest among the people of this country in the more distant races of mankind. Until lately our relations with the rest of the world seemed so remote and accidental that colonial expansion was a fact for which statesmen were al- most apologetic. Our views of foreign politics rarely extended beyond the Con- tinent of Europe, and we were content for the most part that they should be directed, without criticism, by the experts in Downing Street. The attention of the nation was mainly directed to internal affairs, local government, taxation, and the electorate. A great change has now taken place. The rise of new. and the decline of old, powers; the stress of com- mercial competition ; the extraordinary expansion of Greater Britain, and the " pin -pricks " inflicted upon some of its long limbs by Continental rivals; the improved facilities for travel; the books of certain popular writers; and, above all, the growth of the im- perial spirit called forth by t Photo by the Tnt/ t Monastery, Mariann 11UL \itttil. A SWAZI WARRIOR. 11 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND the celebration of the Diamond Jubilee of the Empress-Queen, — have awakened Englishmen and Englishwomen to the fact that their island-home is but a small piece of the world, or even of the British Empire. We have begun to realise that the most promising fields of / enterprise for our ever-increasing community, the most profitable markets for our wares, may some day be found in places which are now the darkest corners of the earth; and that the half-clothed savage, just emerging from the brute condition, is a human being capable of being educated, in the near future, into a customer for British trade and a contributor to the world's wealth. The confidence of the British merchant, nursed in a period of prolonged peace, has been rudely shaken by the successful rivalry of other nations, which attach more im- portance to commercial educa- tion. It is now perceived that, if we are to maintain a great Imperial Policy and a lasting supremacy in trade, it must be through a better understanding of the needs and characteristics of the various peoples with whom we are brought in contact. It is of the highest im- portance that the British public, and especially those who are responsible for moulding its opinions and directing its affairs, should possess the widest possible knowledge of the peoples and races included in its great and worldwide empire. Sad mistakes have resulted from our ignorance, mistakes for which we have suffered severely. Everything should be done to popularise the study of Ethnology; but, unfortunately, we are in this respect as yet far behind some other nations. A work like the present fhnrofnro iiro-pnHv oallpd for IS, therefore, urgently CailC a£ ^Jjg present moment. tV oat j • i a/»;oritifir> IS required IS not a f Pfioto by W. cfe I). Itowney. • Krao," whose photograph we here reproduce, was a very hairy female child, from the forest of Laos, Burma, alwut six or seven years of age, and was exhibited in 1883 and in 1887 at the Koyal Aquarium, London. The opinion H-HS widely entertained at the time that Krao possessed ape-like peculiarities Inherited from wild parents, and therefore might be regarded as a •' Missing Link." The newspapers helped to spread this mistaken view. The report by Dr. J. O. Garson, published in the BrloM Medical Journal, January 6, 1883, showed conclusively that extreme (ubtnoi "a* almost the only peculiarity exhibited in Krao. Her parents did riot possess this feature. Fourteen or more cases of extreme hairiness are on record : they may possibly be cases of "Atavism," or reversion to a low ape-like ancestor of the human race, but this view cannot yet be demonstrated. In some cases, as in that of 'Julia Pastrana " (p. v), the arrangement of the teeth is abnormal. INTRODUCTION in treatise on Ethnology — a science as yet in its infancy, and presenting many problems that can only be solved by long and patient accumulation of facts — but a thoroughly popular book, presenting information in a concise and readable form. The subject is so vast that it has been found necessary to exclude very much matter which, how- ever interesting to the student, did not appear to help the end in view. Hence the text which accompanies the large series of illustrations here presented deals chiefly with the physical features of the races of mankind, their clothing, ornaments, food, dwellings, weapons, habits, and customs, especially those connected with birth, marriage, and death; their modes of thought and mental characteristics; not omitting their games, sports, and pastimes. A few statistics of population, race, and religion have been added for the sake of completeness. It is not possible to enumerate here the many valuable papers in geographical and other journals to which the writers are largely indebted, nor to the many important books of travel by which our knowledge has been so vastly increased of late years. The works of Lieutenant Peary, Dr. Sven Hedin, Dr. Gregory, Sir Harry Johnston, Stanley, Nansen, Younghusband, and others, have been of the greatest service to ethnologists, and the writers have freely drawn upon the latest and fullest sources of information. With a view to simplicity, and the avoidance of the difficult problems of race-relation- ship, the various peoples described are treated from a geographical standpoint. To a large extent the geographical arrangement agrees with the purely ethnographical classification. Nearly all races, however, are mixed, there being few pure types anywhere. All the ingenious schemes of classification as yet put forward by ethnologists are provisional and temporary; but it is convenient to retain the use of such familiar terms as Caucasian, Mongolian, Polynesian, Negro, Negrito, and Papuan. In the illustration of this subject an entirely new departure has been taken, and the author and publishers claim to have produced a work which is unique. Pictures, or wood- engravings, may sometimes be prettier, but they can never be so absolutely trustworthy as the products of the camera, which show us the natives of other climes as they live in their Photo by W. & II. Downey. iv THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND natural surroundings, their dress (or want of it), their weapons, dwellings, and the tattoo-marks on their bodies, or the flesh-wounds arid scars of which Australians — and some negroes — seem so proud. Such a collection of photographs from life — carefully selected so as to avoid half- castes, or very mixed types, as far as it is possible — can never be entirely superseded, even when artists of the camera discover their philosopher's stone — photography in colour. Many standard works on Ethnology are disfigured by engravings which are far from accurate, and in some cases are nothing less than parodies of the people they profess to portray. Even when a woodcut is prepared directly "from a photograph," it cannot always be trusted. However excellent the photograph may be, the engraver often entirely fails to interpret it. lie has not studied anatomy, or the different types of human physiognomy, and to him there is very little difference between a Polynesian or a Papuan and an African negro. If the illustrations in so admirable and scientific a work as KatzePs "History of Mankind" sometimes fail to convey a true idea of the type, some others, well known to the public, are far worse. The photographs here reproduced have been selected from a large collection gathered together with much labour by the author from professional and amateur photographers at home and abroad. Full acknowledgment of his obligations to many friends in connection with this work cannot be made here. In order to get as many good photographs as possible, he has visited the ethnographical collections of Paris, Leyden, Hamburg, Dresden, and Leipzig, besides Oxford and Cambridge. The ethnologists of these universities have rendered much valuable assistance. The plan adopted is to deal first with Polynesia and Australia, passing on to the East Indies and Malay Peninsula. This affords a convenient bridge to the Continent of Asia, each country being dealt with in turn. The races of Africa will next be described; then we pass on to Europe, and finally to North and South America. The writer has, in previous works, expressed his acceptance of the doctrine of Evolution, and he can see no sufficient reason for refusing to believe that Man has ascended from some humbler type; more than this he cannot say, because scientific problems would be out of place in the present work. In conclusion, the writer is greatly indebted to his friends Dr. J. W. Gregory and Mr. Lydekker for the very kind way in which they have assisted him to carry out his task. Dr. Gregory, whose wide knowledge of the subject is derived both from his own travels and from his extensive study of the subject, has written the six chapters dealing with the African races; whilst Mr. Lydekker, who is so well known by his writings and researches on Natural History, Palaeontology, and Anthropology, has kindly contributed the chapters dealing with the races of North, Central, and South America. II. N. HUTCHINSON. JULIA PASTRANA. From a photo in the possession of the Anthropological Institute, London. r^rM^ Museum. Her upper eye-teeth aud incisors are missing. A -\U S --TA R • -A MAP SHOWING 1>JSTRIBUTIO.S O** — Straight- haired, light-brown Race. (Malays, pure or mixed with Chinese, Japanese, and Indians.) Crisp-haired, dark-brown Race, (Melanesians, Papuans, and Negritos.) • Wavy-haired, in-own Race. (Separate, or mixed with the two above named ; Eiifit Malays, so-called Alfurs, Polynesians, and Australians.) 'rtmlc of C&rvcer ft Tropic of CK SPEI.LU'AX* (VAVA, TdNHA INLANDS). FIJI ISLANDS I'koto bij Josiah Martin] [Auckland, New Ztalaiul. THE KING OF THE TONGA ISLANDS. when a man became feeble from old age, or any other cause, he asked his sous to strangle him. Indeed, this act was considered a filial duty. To be strangled by one's children, or to be buried alive by them, was considered a highly honour- able way of dying. The people being of a really affectionate nature were un- willing to see their parents dragging out a useless existence; death was con- sidered preferable to infirmity, for these people firmly believed that their condition after death in the spirit world would be entirely dependent on their state at death. Therefore, however strange and cruel such a practice may appear when judged by our own standards, it may be considered as simply the logical cou- eequence of firmly rooted ideas. In judging of the manners and customs of alien races, it is only fair to make great allowances for their idiosyncrasies, and to remember always that their standpoint is generally very different from ours. In old days, when a chief died, many of his slaves and favourite wives were strangled, in order that they might still continue to attend him in the next life. One might have supposed that the women would have objected to this practice; but so far from that being the case, they died quite willingly, in the belief that they were securing for themselves a happy and honourable life in the next world. Custom demanded that they should not survive their husbands, and any woman refusing to die would only have found herself condemned to a miserable life of neglect and insult. Such practices were common in Britain in prehistoric times, as is proved by the researches of archaeologists who have explored British barrows; and the reader is probably aware that the same ideas prevailed not long ago in India, when suttee was practised, and women offered themselves willingly, often lighting the funeral pyre with their own hands. Again, in China, women frequently preferred death to widowhood. A missionary was once invited by a young man of Fiji to attend the funeral of his mother, and great was his surprise on joining the funeral procession to see the old lady taking part in it, and cheerfully walking to her grave. It is related in " Erskine's Journal " that a certain young man, on becoming very thin and weak from illness, expressed a desire to be buried, because he was afraid the girls would laugh at him and call him a skeleton. Accord- ingly his father buried him alive; but when the young man requested to be first strangled, he was scolded and told to be quiet, and be buried like other people, and give no more trouble. The Fijian women are simply the domestic slaves of their husbands, and they perform a great deal of hard labour. The daughter of a chief is usually betrothed early in life. Should her intended husband refuse to carry out the contract, it is considered a great insult, and becomes the cause of a serious quarrel, sometimes leading to blows. Should the young man •die before the girl is grown up, then his next brother takes his place, and the child is betrothed to him. If a young man wishes to marry a certain girl, he must obtain her father's permission. This having been granted, he makes her a small present. Shortly afterwards he sends to her house some food prepared by himself; this is the ceremony known as "Warming." 8 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND For four days the girl enjoys a brief holiday, sitting at home arrayed in her best, and painted with turmeric and oil; she is then taken to the sea by some married women, and all set to work to catch fish. As soon as the cooking of what they have caught is finished, the young man is sent for, and the betrothed couple par- take of a meal together. Some little interval follows, during which the future husband is busily occupied in building the new home. On the completion of the house a great feast takes place. On the bride's de- parture from home her friends and relatives make a great fuss, all showing their affection by kissiug her. GROUP OF TONGA MEN ON BOARD H.M.S. "CHALLENGER." The FijiallS are by Taken during the Scientific Exixdition of 1872-6. Pub/Med by Horsburg/i & Son, Ed'tn- natlU'6 Very superstitious. A Frenchman who visited them some years ago relates that the natives of a certain island in the group evinced great emotion the first time that they saw a European smoking a cigar. Great was the excitement, and people were hastily summoned by their chiefs to come and see this extraordinary spectacle. To them the white man with his cigar was a god, burning internally! There was no room for doubt, because smoke came out of his mouth ! The people have of late years abandoned all their old barbaric customs. This great change is entirely due to missionary enterprise. As far back as the year 1835 the "\Vesleyans established a mission in the archipelago, and probably there are few places in the Pacific Ocean where missionary effort has been more successful, or its fruits more visible. Native teachers and ministers are trained for the work. In 1891 there were as many as 914 Wesleyau chapels, with a large number of native teachers, and about 100,000 followers. •The Roman Catholics also have a numerous following, and twenty European Sisters are engaged in teaching the girls. The children nearly all attend school. The Church of England has two churches, one in Suva and one in Levuka. The islands have been under British rule since 1874, and the state of things at the present day offers a marvellous contrast to the pictures drawn by the earlier travellers. POLYNESIANS. PROCEEDING eastwards from Fiji, we pass over the boundary-line that separates the dark frizzly-haired Papuans from the brown Polynesians, who inhabit most of the Pacific islands. The Polynesians are certainly of a distinct race; but for all that the term Polynesian implies a purely arbitrary division, not founded upon geographical or racial distinctions. Polynesia Photo by Joslah Martin] [Auckland, Xtw Zealand. A WOMAN OF THE TONGA ISLANDS. 9 IO THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND itself is not a distinct unit. The people who inhabit New Zealand belong to the same race. Although the Polynesians are all of one stock, and speak dialects of a common language, yet they are far from being unmixed. However, the term is in general use, and has been fouud to be more or less convenient. The Polynesians, according to universal testimony, are one of the very finest races in the whole world. In their habits they are clean and tidy, with a sense of order and neatness never found among barbarous peoples. The reader will perceive, on examining our illustrations, that the type of face shows a marked approach to that of the European. The hair, always an important feature in determining race, is dark brown or black, smooth and curly, and quite unlike the frizzly hair of the Papuan, or the perfectly straight black hair of the Malay. As a rule the Polynesians have not much beard. In stature they are fully equal to Europeans. Unlike the Malay, their disposition is cheerful, and they are fond of dancing, singing, and all kinds of amusements. One of their games resembles draughts, but is not so simple. Perhaps it is the same game as that which, as we see from the frescoes on temple and tomb, was played ages ago by Egyptian Pharaohs and tlieir wives. The board has 238 squares, divided into rows of fourteen. Another game is to hide a stone in a piece of cloth and try to find it by hitting with a stick; here betting is the chief excitement. Cricket has been introduced by Englishmen, and the late Kobert Louis Stevenson said that in Samoa, where he lived, cricket matches used to be played by whole villages, some hundreds on a side, so that a game sometimes lasted for weeks! At length the waste of time and cost of entertaining the visitors reached such a pitch that the chiefs interfered. Ball games are very popular. In the Hawaiian game called lala, a wheel- shaped stone (maika) is thrown as far as possible; and players, have been known to stake all their property, their wives and children, their arm- and leg-bones (after death), and at last even their own persons, on one throw. Boys and girls get up races among themselves — not separately, for the girls can run as well as the boys. In Tahiti and in Hawaii surf-swimming is a favourite pastime. Children have toy-boats. New Zealanders are very fond of flying kites. Games with the fingers also are common. POLYNESIAN RELIGION. "ANIMISM," universal animation, or the endowing of all things with a soul, is the foundation of all Polynesian religion. But we must guard against misinter- preting the words "spirit" and "soul," as the terms are used here. " Soul " generally means " life," a sense also found in the Hebrew Psalms. In Tahiti, the term for "spirit" extends to the squeaking of rats, or the talk of children in their sleep! Everything has its soul, be it a tree, a stone, an implement, or an animal. Thus arose the primitive J'/Ol/O b'j Mr. J. J. t.l*t: I . V. ./«//, '/• . ' ''llnl'l i'l'l' . A GIRL OF THE TONGA ISLANDS. POLYNESIAN RELIGION ii Pantheism of Oceanica. Atua indicates the spiritual in its widest sense. The word may be used more generically, as Mana is used by Solomon Islanders. In this lower sense it is a power or influence expressing itself in any kind of force or superiority which a man may possess. It can be transferred to anything. Spirits possess this coveted influence, whether they be the souls of dead people or of some beings of a higher grade. Tutelary spirits (or deities) have an important place; their inspiration is desired because they are supposed to have learnt much from the gods of the upper regions. Should they not come willingly to man's assistance, they must be con- strained by prayers, sacrifices, and incantations. But Animism often de- generates into pure beast-worship. Thus in the Mortlock Islands the bastard mackerel caranx is reverenced as the god of war. The souls of old departed chiefs take rank as gods, to be invoked by prayer and sacrifice. As living men on earth are divided into different grades, so are spirits. A chief's spirit at once takes a higher place than that of an ordinary person. Some say chiefs go to the stars, while others wait about on the earth. Thus we see how gods originate. Heroic men are deified. The chief god of the Gilbert Islanders was formerly a chief; now he is Hai, living above the clouds. The legends that relate to the origin of the gods show that they were once men, and that all religion originated by a slow evolution from the worship of ghosts. This is the view generally held by anthropologists, but it has been ably controverted by Mr. Andrew Lang in his recent work on "The Making of Keligion." Some spirits never were human, and so take at once a higher rank. With spiritual beings abounding everywhere, every aspect of nature meets with a ready explanation, and thus thousands of nature-gods who are merely localised spirits come into existence. A score or so of them rule the sea; others employ great blue sharks to execute vengeance. In certain places sharks are fed on fish and pigs, until they get into the habit of approaching the shore at certain times; and then the deluded natives maintain that the fish come at a priest's bidding. Iliro, a famous sea-god, was originally a bold and ingenious native of Raiatea, Society Islands, and until Christianity replaced paganism his skull was on view. In the Gilbert Islands sacrifices are offered on one stone in a stone circle. Upright stones are worshipped as in India. The megalithic monuments of Europe date from a distant time, when our ancestors were no farther advanced in culture. (See " Prehistoric Man and Beast.") In some parts of Polynesia the priest adds to his other duties that of the healer, or "medicine man." But in the most populous districts, as in New Zealand, a separate class of priests is created for this business, which is chiefly based on pure sorcery. One of the chief llioto by Mr. J. J. Lister, St. John's Vollerje, A WOMAN OF THE TONGA ISLANDS. 12 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND duties of the healer is to obtain information about the patient's illness from some god. He puts questions to the deity, and is supposed to receive answers. It is perhaps hardly necessary to explain that all over the world with primitive people death, sickness, and disease are believed to be the work of evil spirits, or of human beings who have cast a spell by some magical art. So the priest endeavours to discover the criminal, and "ordeals" are held. In Hawaii the suspected person must hold his hands over water, and if the water trembles in the vessel while the priest looks at him his guilt is supposed to be proved. Having thus indicated the general characteristics of the Polynesian, we will pro- ceed to visit some of the islands in which he is to be found, beginning with the TONGA OR FRIENDLY ISLANDS. LORD GEORGE CAMPBELL says in his description of the voyage of II. M.S. Challenger: "There are no people iu the world who strike one at first so much as these Friendly Islanders (or people of Tonga). Their clear, light, copper-brown coloured skins, yellow and curly hair, good- humoured, handsome faces, their tout ensemble, form a novel and splendid picture of the (jenus homo ; and as far as physique and appear- ance go, they give one certainly the impression of being a superior race to ours." Captain Erskine, speaking of the same people, says: "The men were a re- markably fine-looking set of people, and among them were several six feet high, and of herculean proportions. One stout fellow attracted attention as soon as he crossed the gangway, and I found that his arm measured above the elbow 15J inches, whilst that of one of our forecastle men, probably the stoutest man in the ship, r by ,/u>byii.w.HeMhau!,iiuo,ii of T(t»riiftnij pt WOMEN OF PORT ADAM, SOLOMON ISLANDS. Mr. II. N. Moseley, of the Challenger Expedition — to whom we are indebted for the above facts — to be excitable, rapacious, greedy, and jealous. A few words, in conclusion, with regard to their expressions of emotion. Astonishment is shown by placing the finger in the mouth, delight by clapping the hands. To say "Yes" the head is jerked upwards. To express "No," or a negative, the 7iose is struck with the right forefinger, as if the tip were to be cut off. This action is capable of modification. Thus, a decided negative is indicated by a quick stroke; a hesitating one by rubbing the finger slowly across the hose. The natives quite understood the action of a burning-glass, but a looking-glass was beyond their comprehension, and they have been known to break one in order to get at the image behind! Crowds of people came to see the man with white arms who showed them all these things: they could not understand his arms and legs being white. SOLOMON ISLANDS 37 SOLOMON ISLANDS. THE Solomon group comprises seven large islands and others which are smaller; they now all belong to Great Britain. Formerly the natives were so treacherous that Europeans held but little intercourse with them. But now traders come frequently, and a mission has been established ever since 1847. Mission work is spreading fairly rapidly in the Diocese of Melanesia, which now contains 12,000 Christians. Some bushmen in the island of Guadalcanal-, noticing the difference between their own lives and those of the Christian teachers, who neither killed people nor stole, said : " We see that you are different from us. What have you got inside you that makes you different from us?" The teachers promised to tell them, and thus a mission was started there. The people are of a deep brown colour, with a frizzly but rather loose mass of hair. They wear very little clothing. The lobes of the ear are often greatly distended for the insertion of very large rings (see illus- tration below). The men wear a great many ornaments, and in this respect resemble Papuans; but they have certain customs which (together with their brownish colour) point to a Polynesian influence. Their large war-canoes, from 40 to 50 feet long, are highly carved and much decorated. They have hereditary chief s, differing in this respect from the New Guinea Papuans. Polygamy and cannibalism prevail. They cultivate the banana, taro, and sweet potato. Besides the usual weapons, they make beautiful shields of wicker-work. A girl is not sought in marriage until her charms have been enhanced by the tattooer's art. The painful and tedious operation is performed by a specialist— a sort of sorcerer (called a tintlitla), whose services are hand- somely rewarded. It is considered necessary to employ musicians as well ; so he first engages a company of pro- fessional vocalists. The concert begins at sunset, and is kept up vigorously throughout the night. The poor child is kept awake by her friends in order to hear it all. At sunrise the man begins his operations, using only a sharp bamboo knife, for bamboo is very hard and frequently used for making knives, as with the Andaman Islanders. He makes a curious and artistic network of patterns on the girl's face and chest. It is a painful process, but she suffers without a murmur, for all primitive races train up their young people to endure pain silently. Next day all is forgotten in the joyful thought that she is now an eligible young woman. From this time her parents keep a watchful eye Pkoto by Henry King} •.,„/„,,,. A NATIVE OP THE SOLOMON ISLANDS, WITH LARGE RING IN THE LOBE OP HIS EAR. THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND over their daughter, and check any levity on her part. Proposals follow ere long, and her friends, who have subscribed towards the expense of the tattooing, look forward to repayment when she gets a husband. The higher her rank the more her parents demand of a suitor; consequently a needy young man often has to wait a long time for a wife — as in some other places. But if a swain is known to have "expecta- tions," he may pay down a part of the purchase-money, and claim the girl as his fiancee. Chiefs' daughters seldom marry early; their fathers expect too much. Oc- casionally it happens that the daughter of a chief remains in single blessedness until the death of her father, when she may be bought "for an old song," as the saying is, by some middle-aged widower, or an impecunious suitor who has been waiting for years. AVhen a young girl is betrothed, and her future husband has paid the amount in full, she goes to live with his mother until the time comes when she may become his wife. Soon after the purchase has been made her parents give a feast to those who have generously subscribed towards the tattooing; this is followed by another feast, given by the bridegroom's parents, and there are no other ceremonies, either at betrothals or marriages. In a small island of this group, known as Florida Island, marriage customs are somewhat different. The money is paid to the girl's female relations. The act of giving away the bride is rather curious; she is lifted off the ground, and carried out of the house on the back of one of the women, who delivers her to the youth's father. For two or three months after this she stays in the house of her future father-in-law, until the necessary presents of pigs and food arrive. Not till then can the wedding be celebrated. And here we meet with another curious custom. During the morning of the feast the boys of the village harass the bride's relations by playfully shooting arrows at them. So skilful is their practice that they can safely send arrows whizzing past the ears of a guest, over his head, beneath his legs, or even through his hair. These delicate attentions, however, become a positive nuisance; and after many forcible expressions of disgust the men gladly purchase immunity from further hair breadth escapes by paying ransom. In the large island of Malanta betrothed children pay frequent visits at the homes of their parents, and thus become well acquainted with one another. Consequently, when the wedding day comes, the girl shows none of that reluctance so often displayed elsewhere. The Solomon Islanders are very fond of dancing, though they do not carry the art to such a state of perfection as do the people of the Xew Hebrides, farther south. However, they make it a professional business, on the principle that the greatest delight is to watch other people dance. The chief and his advisers choose the dance, and select the dancers out of a large number of aspirants. Then comes the rehearsal, which sometimes lasts for a year or more. We will only attempt to describe one of their dances, the sottmka, and that only briefly. Thirty-six dancers are required, who take up their position in a wedge-like phalanx — four ranks of fours, four of threes, and four of twos, one rank behind the other; the big BIJ {Kiiiussion of Messrs. Maiieell IHJ Mi. It. m/lii>f.\ \.llri«fol. .. NATIVES OF RIVER ENDEAVOUR, NORTH QUEENSLAND. Ollt,' 33 WC SllOllld 83y— that AUSTRALIA 53 Pkolo .]//•. /.'. I'liUliiu] NATIVES OF RIVER ENDEAVOUR, NORTH QUEENSLAND. [Itriftol. is, before she can be con- sidered a woman and marriageable — she must go through a very painful opera- tion. Great gashes are cut across her back in horizontal lines with a sharp-edged flint or a shell. The blood that flows out freely is wiped off with bunches of grass, or with green boughs warmed near the fire. After some weeks the wounds have healed up, and the cicatrices are con- sidered to enhance her natural charms, if she has any. Sometimes the belly and the arms are similarly adorned. During the opera- tion of making these scars the girl's nearest relations express their sympathy by shedding tears and uttering loud lamentations. Marriage is a very simple affair, and a wife is either obtained by purchase from her father or brother, or else carried off by main force. In the latter case the usual practice is to lie in wait for the girl at night, stun her by a heavy blow on the head with a club, and drag her off to a place of retrofit. In accordance with customs not yet fully understood, girls are betrothed to certain men as soon as they are born. This "engagement" is considered so binding that a woman breaking it is killed — and often eaten; while the offending man is punished with a severe wound from a spear. The wives have a hard time of it, and are cruelly treated, being often beaten or speared. To kill a gin (wife) is thought no offence, and few women are free from frightful scars. The men are not insensible to female charms. A young woman at all celebrated for her beauty usually undergoes a series of captivities to different masters. She never stays long with one man, be- cause another steals her away. It is her sad fate to be a wanderer among strange families, and to be the cause, like Helen of Troy, of many a fight. When women are scarce, the men make raids on other tribes. Widows be- come the property of the tribe. Wives are some- times lent to friends or strangers. In the dry season many parts of Australia I'hoto !>y Mr. It. Phillips] [Briftol. NATIVE GIRLS OF RIVER ENDEAVOUR, NORTH QUEENSLAND. 54- THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND will not support human life; hence the Aborigines lead rather a wandering existence. Having no beasts of burden, they are compelled to carry everything themselves, and sore burdens are placed on the unfortunate women. One woman usually carries on her back the following articles: a sack containing a flat stone for crushing eatable roots; pieces of quartz for knives and spear-heads ; stones for axes; cakes of gum from the xanthorrlicea or grass-tree, for mending old weapons or preparing new ones; kangaroo sinews for thread, and needles of kangaroo bone; opossum hair to make girdles; pieces of kangaroo skin for polishing the spears; sharp shells to serve as knives and axe-heads; yellow and red ochre for painting; a piece of bark for making "bast," ropes, girdles; ornaments; tinder for making fire; some fat and a piece of quartz revered as a relic, having been extracted by the "doctor," or magician, from a sick man; and besides these things, she must carry roots or fruits collected on the road. But this is not all, for between the sacks and her own back she carries a store of undressed hides, and in her hand a staff 5 or 6 feet long, or a firebrand. Sometimes she carries her husband's spears also! One need not therefore be surprised that, as a rule, 16 or 18 miles is considered a good day's march. It can hardly be said that the Austra- lians are a brave race, like Zulus, Arabs, or Sikhs; but here and there examples have been found of truly heroic determination or of great coolness. Self-control they certainly have in a high degree. To the present day the natives reverence the names of certain brave and fiery leaders who fought in .many a desperate battle with Euro- peans. They seem somewhat fond of fighting among them?elves. But such fights are not very deadly; their mode of warfare does not, as a rule, lead to much bloodshed. One reason for this is obvious: every death must be avenged, and therefore they have the fear of blood-feuds constantly before their eyes. They are very fond of pouring torrents of abuse on their enemies from a safe distance. They prefer to attack from an ambush, and they are extremely clever at dodging spears by a sudden and almost imperceptible movement, or at covering themselves with their small wooden shields. They often catch a spear and throw it back at the enemy who hurled it. The Australian shows more skill in the making of his weapons than he does in making tents, clothing, or in cookery. Except in the extreme north, he is ignorant of the bow and arrow used by his neighbours the Malay and the Papuan; but his spears, throwing-sticks, clubs, and boomerangs are well made and very skilfully used. The wooden spear is found everywhere. Of the spears used in war, some are 8 or 9 feet long. Thin stems of the eucalyptus are used for this purpose, straightened and hardened by the action of heat. Some have sharp flints, or pieces of quartz, fastened by gum in two grooves near the point. A\ant of space forbids the writer from enlarging on the subject of weapons; but he would like to I'liutu IHJ Mr. It. PkUHft} NATIVES OF RIVER ENDEAVOUR, NORTH QUEENSLAND. [SrMot, AUSTRALIA 55 direct the reader's attention to the splendid exhibition of arms, clothing, and ornaments of all the primitive peoples in the ethnographical collection at the British Museum, now under the care of Mr. C. H. Read. The University of Oxford possesses a very fine ethnographical collection, and that of the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury is also most admirable. Heavy spears the Australian Aborigines can throw by hand a distance of from 50 to 70 feet; light spears, hurled by means of a throwing-stick, may travel as far as 100 yards, for this implement gives a powerful leverage. Their accuracy in throwing is wonderful. We must say a few words about that remarkable Australian weapon the boomerang. It is a flat piece of hard wood, about as large as a scimitar (though sometimes smaller), bent in the middle, flat on one side and a little rounded on the other. For this purpose pieces of wood that are naturally curved are selected; hence their strength. The boomerangs used in warfare are large and heavy, with pointed ends, and capable of inflicting a serious wound. In hunting, and especially for killing birds, a smaller boomerang, the ends of which are slightly twisted in opposite directions, is used. It has the remarkable property of changing its course while in the air, and finally returning to the thrower. It is hardly necessary to say that the boomerang, while travelling forward with great speed, revolves rapidly on its own axis, and takes a slanting direction. In the use of this weapon dexterity is required rather thau strength. Some of the Austra- lian Aborigines are trog- lodytes, or dwellers in caves, like the prehistoric men of Europe (see the writer's " Prehistoric Man and Beast"). But caves are only to be found in certain districts. More- over, as we have already remarked, the Aborigines lead a rather wandering life. They usually erect rude huts or screens, constructed of whatever material happens to be at hand • twigs and bushes, covered with bark, turf, or leaves. These shelters are purely temporary, but serve for a few weeks or months, until the family moves on. In the north and north-west, where Papuan influence evidently comes in, they build regular huts, as high as a man, A NATIVE WAHRIOH, PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND. Kerry & C'o. [Sydney. THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND [Sydney. Photo by Kerry y the great weight of metal she carried. Dya houses are generally very large, many families residing together. Every village has a common house where the young unmarried men sleep and travellers are lodged. The Dyas cultivate many kinds of fruit and vegetables, and they are fond of tobacco and cane sugar. In hunting they use the sumpitan, or blow- pipe, a wooden tube about 8 feet long, through which small poisoned arrows are blown. An interesting description of a curious method of courtship, which is found both among the Laud and Sea Dyas, is given by Sir S. St. John, who says: "Besides the ordinary attention which a young man is able to pay to the girl he desires to make his wife— as helping her in her farm work, and in carrying home her load of vegetables or wood, as well as in making her little presents, as a ring, or some brass chain- work with which the women adorn their waists, or even a petticoat — there is a very peculiar testimony of regard which is worthy of note. About nine or ten at night, when the family is supposed to be fast asleep within the mosquito curtains in the private apartment, the lover quietly slips back the bolt by which the door is fastened and enters the room on tip-toe. He goes to the curtains of his beloved, gently awakes her, and she on hearing who it is rises at once, and they sit conversing together, and making arrangements for the future in the dark over a plentiful supply of sirrah- leaf and betel-nut, which it is the gentleman's duty to provide. If when awoke the young lady rises and accepts the prepared betel-nut, happy is the lover, for his suit is in a fair way to prosper; but if, on the other hand, she rises and 1'holo by Nfyrttti rmi**ifm). IGOKOTTE TATTOOING. looking at photographs of Philippine Islanders one is often struck with the strong resemblance to the Chinese type. In old days, moreover, Mexicans and Peruvians occasionally established themselves here, and in the island of Luzon one can trace also the effects of Japanese influence. The confusion of types is still further complicated by the fact that the Spaniards have mixed freely both with the native Malays and with the half-castes; indeed, there is 110 part oJ Australasia which presents so great a confusion of races. 86 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND In a cosmopolitan city like Manila and its suburbs, where so many races of humanity assemble, it is in- teresting to observe the varied costumes and modes of attire. The Americans and Europeans mostly dress in white. The Chinese keep to their own peculiar national dress, with the pig-tail curled up into a chignon. Pure natives and many half-breeds wear the shirt outside the trousers. The native " lady " wears a flowing skirt of gay colours, bright red, green, or white. She has not yet adopted the corset. In her hand she carries a fan, without which she would feel lost, and she makes a great display of jewellery. Her gait is awk- ward, quite unlike the digni- fied and graceful air of a Spanish lady. The peasant women look very picturesque in their short skirts, enveloped in a cotton cloth of blue, red, or black. A "first-class" native funeral in Manila is a remarkable display. The bier is hideous with rude relics of savage ornaments. A native driver, with a tall " chimney- pot" hat, drives the funeral team of mules, followed by a band playing a lively march and a line of carriages containing the deceased's relations and friends. The chief amusement of the natives is cock-fighting, a sport carried on with a passionate earnestness that strikes every stranger. Almost every native keeps a fighting-cock. Some men are seldom seen out of doors without their favourites under their arms. They pay as much as fifty dollars, and sometimes even more, for these pets; and should a native discover that his house is on fire, he flies to rescue his bird rather than his wife and family. This passion for cock-fighting may well be termed a national vice. Incredibly large sums, in proportion to the means of the gamblers, are staked on the result of a match, and it lias been well said that the sport does more harm and causes more misery than the earthquakes and typhoons together. The passion for the game leads many to borrow at usury, to embezzlement, and even to highway robbery. Many of the pirates are ruined gamesters. According to M. Reclus, the population of the Philippine Archipelago is over 6,000,000; of these the Christians and Chinese make up about 2,500,000. Here we have a country which has been conquered as much by ecclesiastical as by military power. The Christianised "Indians" (natives) have, to some extent, grafted their new religion on to the old one. Being deeply superstitious, they became ready converts of the Roman Catholic missionaries. The Church From Dr. A. B. Meyer's "Album von Philippine!! Typeit," Dresdtn. A NEGRITO MAN, WITH SPEAR. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS appealed to their senses by its brilliant processions, rich robes, and images. Even the smallest villages have now their religious fetes. The priest is the king of the village, and looks upon the spread of knowledge with an unfavourable eyo. In the year 1886 there were no fewer than 1,608 schools in the Philippines. At the time of writing the natives are at war with the United States of America, and the future of the islands politically cannot be forecast, but the Spanish dominion appears to be doomed. The aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippine Islands are the Negritos (Ae'tas), a little dark race — of whom we shall have more to say presently, when dealing with the Malay Peninsula — with crisp black hair, and features somewhat like those of a Negro. These primitive people are found in the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, and Mindanao, but not as a pure race, for the Malays have intermarried with them. The pure Negrito has a stature of only about 4 feet 6 inches, the skull is round (brachycephalic), the legs are without calves, and the feet are turned inwards. The head appears to be rather large for the small body. The man and the woman shown in our illustrations have their bodies decorated with deep scars. By nature, these people are gentle, timid, and affectionate. Their mental powers are of a low order, and they cannot count beyond the number of fingers on one hand. They mostly wander about from place to place, except in those districts where Malays and others have influenced their habits. The Aeta carries a bamboo lance, a bow of palm wood, and poisoned arrows. He is wonderfully light- footed, running with great speed after deer, or climbing trees like a monkey. If he has any religion at all, it is a kind of spirit-worship. Anything which to these people appears to have a supernatural character is deified. For the dead and for old age they have a profound respect. They offer little encouragement to those who endeavour to train them up to a higher standard of life, and even when more or less domesti- cated can never be trusted to do anything which requires an effort of judgment. Mr. John Foreman, F.R.G.S., was fortunate enough to see a Negrito wedding, which he thus describes: "The young bride, who might have been about thirteen years of age, was being pursued by her future spouse as she pretended to run away, and it need hardly be said that he succeeded in bringing her in by feigned force. She struggled and again got away, and a second time she was caught. Then an old man with grey hair came forward, and dragged the young man up a bamboo ladder. An old woman grasped the bride, and both followed the bridegroom. The aged sire then gave them a ducking with a cocoanut shell full of water, and they all descended. The happy pair knelt down, and the elder having placed their heads together, they were man and wife. We endeavoured to find out which hut was allotted to the newly married couple, but were given to understand that until the sun had re- appeared five times they would spend their honeymoon in the mountains." The Negritos live principally on fish, roots, and mountain rice, but they often make raids on the valleys and carry off cattle: their Ji'ium l/r. A. B. Mtyn-'x ••Album ion 1'itilippinen Ti/litn," Dresden. A NEGRITO WOMAN. 88 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND husbandry is of the most primitive kind; it consists of scraping the ground and throwing in the seeds. They do not even cut down trees to make a clearing. THE MALAY PENINSULA. IN certain parts of the Malay Peninsula— for example, in the valley of Batang-Padaug— we meet with a very wild and primitive little race of Negritos, who are called Sakais. They may be regarded as the pygmies of the Malay Peninsula, and doubtless come from the same very ancient stock as the Negritos of the Philippine Islands. These Sakais, Semangs, Jakuns, or Orang Benua ("Men of the Soil"), as they are variously called by their Malay neighbours, are more numerous than was until recently supposed, and in the year 1890 5,000 of them were said to live in the Vlu Pahang district alone. Almost everywhere they have intermarried with Malays. They speak a language which possesses names only for the first three or four numerals. When unmixed with Malay blood, the Sakai shows the true Negrito type even in an exaggerated form, with black woolly hair, a large round head (too large in proportion to the body), and a very prominent lower jaw. Among special features may be mentioned the crisp black beard, an inner fold to the eyelid, and the position of the three outer toes, which are turned towards the inner two, as in many apes. The Malays say there are two groups of Sakais — one of which is quite wild and lives entirely aloof in the recesses of the forest, and another which associates freely with settled communities. One of Mr. M. Maclay's photographs is described by Giglioli as presenting a "highly remarkable exaggeration of the bestial characters, exceeding even the Kalang of Java in its prognathism [protruding jawj ... a real chimpanzee profile, and I believe the highest degree of prognathism possible in a human being." The Malays, who call themselves the " Men of the Country,'' a title which they cannot rightly claim, since the Sakais are the aborigines, look down upon the latter, calling them "Men of the Woods" (Orang- utan), or "Men of the Hills" (Orang-bukit). Mr. iio,, ,,f,i. ».*.>• chat- Abraham Hale, who spent some time among these ' primitive little people, has given much valuable information concerning their habits in a paper read before the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, and to this source we are indebted for the following information. In those districts where they live more or less by themselves, undemoralised by Malays, they are simple-hearted, kind, and always anxious to do their best to assist any white man who may happen to want their aid. Mr. Hale was always received with the greatest hospitality. On entering a house, a bed was prepared for him in the best situation, water was brought, and roots of maize or of tapioca were placed on the ashes of the fire to roast. The people are naturally inquisitive, and every one belonging to the house was called into see the white stranger and his belongings. For dress the men wear a strip of bark-cloth twisted round the waist and drawn between the legs. The women sometimes wear small cotton-cloth petticoats (sarongs), purchased from the Malays, and the men occasionally adopt Chinese trousers; but in their own native forests none of these luxuries are indulged in. Their ornaments are of the during th* scientific A MORO INDIAN GIRL. THE MALAY PENINSULA 89 simplest kind; the men's bracelets and belts are made from a black leafless aquatic creeper that grows in the mountain streams. The women make bracelets of any curiosities they can get from the Malays. One, which Mr. Hale purchased from an old woman, was made up of the following strange collection — nine strings of black and white seeds, a string of old Malay copper coins, a few glass beads, one tip of a squirrel's tail, two tufts of monkey's hair, a serpent-ring (or spiral) made of brass wire, five snail-shells, and part of the brass support of the ribs of an umbrella! Through the septum of the nose they wear either a porcupine quill or a bone of a bird. Earrings are also worn. The Sakais paint their faces (as our illustra- tions on pages 90-96 show) with juice from a plant which they cultivate for the purpose. Their hair is gene- rally worn in true Negrito style, standing out from the head all round in a great mop; but near the Malay villages they drop their own primitive fashion and tie the M;»-7« r-Mutifd by h hair back in a knot, as their g±US^C^"Al neighbours do. When they ,///, •,to by Mr. Leonard \\i-ay, J'.tui M-i.-tum. SIR HUUH Low COLLECTION. TWO NEGRITOS, WITH SUMPITAN. THE MALAY PENINSULA end is provided with a small hub of pith. A wad of some kind is necessary, and for this purpose the velvet-like covering found at the base of the midribs of the leaves of some rattans (bamboo) is used. It is a deadly weapon. The roof of a Sakai house is supported on nine posts; these are very slight, and some of them are crooked, but one of the number is much stouter than the others, being composed of the trunk of a tree. All the rafters, uprights of the walls, joists, etc., are entirely made of bamboo. Bark and leaves are often used for the partitions. Each hearth is simply a mat of leaves, over which earth is spread. Ou this logs of wood are burned — two logs at a time, arranged so that their ends are nearly touching, and small sticks burn between and under the ends. Where a man supports two or three wives, each has her own separate hearth. On two occasions Mr. Hale witnessed a Sakai dance. A man commences the performance by beating a drum. This very primitive (musical?) instrument is made from a section of a tree trunk, hollowed out by burning. Across one end the skin of some animal, perhaps that of a monkey, is stretched and kept taut by means of cords. This is the only instrument used. After about five mintues of very monotonous drum-beating, to a one-two time tune, another man gets up and performs a dance; or perhaps two men dance. It is an extremely simple performance, consisting of certain gesticulations, the chief of which is a sort of curtsey made once to every one-two beat of the drum. At the same time the man makes grotesque gestures with his hands. After about an hour the men squat about on logs of wood, and commence a dreary chant to the same tune. The song closes with a shout or cry, something like "Heugh! " The song apparently consists of nothing more than a repetition of the names of a number of mountains, rivers, and other natural objects in the Sakai country. Later on Pltoto by Mr. E. J. Jtvbertmi] A GROUP OF NEGRITOS. [Singapore. 92 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND or 'Peace be uuto you.' " Le Tour du Monde. A NEGRITO MAN, WITH SPEAR. which he pronounced after having blown the fumes [of aromatic gum and wood] of his censer from his hand, most probably to the four winds, as he faced to the four points of the compass, pronouncing the word and blowing the fumes to each. He told me that the word Sumbat meant the same as Salamnt means in Malay— i.e. either 'Hail I asked him to whom he prayed; he said to the Hantus. Xow, Hanlu in Malay may be taken to mean either Ghost or Spirit only— not God; the spirit may also be either benignant or malignant. I then asked him to tell me what Hantu, and he said the Hantus of the forest, of the mountains, of the rivers, of the winds; also the Hantus of Malay and Sakai chiefs who had died; also the Hantus of headache, of stomach-ache — the Hantus that caused his people to gamble, to smoke opium, and who sent all sorts of disputes, and who sent mosquitoes. He prayed to these Hantus to be kind to him and to his people — to send plenty of food to eat, and not to send any evil things. He further said that the Sakais do not pray to Allah— that is, to God. The question, undecided in my mind as yet, is whether this worship was learned from the Sakais by the Malay Pawangs of the present day who practise it, or vice versd." the women come forward, and go through certain evolutions, clapping their hands frequently and making curtseys. The other musical instruments are bamboo flutes and whistles, a Jew's harp, and a simple guitar. "My friend who accom- panied me," says Mr. Hale, "and I, both considered that the effect was perfectly har- monious. The music of the Sakais is in fact very pretty, much more so than the Malay music as a rule. I took the opportunity to question the chief concerning his prayer, which he delivered in & queer mixture of Malay and Sakai, preceding each string of peti- tions by the expression Sumbat, TWO NEGRITO WOMKN. THE MALAY PENINSULA 93 As every anthropologist is aware, it is most difficult for travellers to obtain clear and true information with regard to the religion of any savage race. According to Mr. Hale's testimony, which he gives for what it is worth, the Sakais offer up prayers to a great variety of spirits — spirits of the forest, of the mountains, of the rivers, of the winds, and also of chiefs now departed. When a Sakai dies, the friends bury with the corpse some of the articles which the deceased used in daily life, — such as a necklace, if a woman; or a rattan tobacco-box, if a man. The house of death is invariably burned down, and the place entirely forsaken — even if it involves the loss of a crop of tapioca or sugar-cane. All the objects that belonged to the dead are considered to be bartered or given away. Professor Keane, in his latest work "Man Past and Present," says of these little people: "Surrounded from time out of mind by Malay peoples, some semi-civilised, some nearly as wild as themselves, but all alike slowly crowding them out of the land, these aborigines have developed defensive qualities unneeded by the more favoured insular Xegritos, while their natural development has been arrested at perhaps a somewhat lower plane of culture. In fact, doomed to extinction before their time, they never have had a chance in the race, as Mr. Hugh Clifford sings in 'The Song of the Last Semaugs': — • The paths are rough, the trails arc blind The Jungle People tread; The yams are scarce and hard to find With which our folk are fed. We suffer yet a little space Until we pass away, The relics of an ancient race That ne'er has had its day. Photo hi/ Mi . K. -I. /.'• A GROUP OP NEGHITOS. 94 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND These peculiar Semangs, who have hitherto succeeded in maintaining their independence, have a weird legend of a mysterious nation of great Amazons destined one day to come and smite the faithless Sakai people, who have gone over to the enemy's camp, and now join with them in tracking and hunting flown their own kinsfolk. These female warriors — who dwell in the depths of the dark woodlands beyond the Gunong Korbu heights, and are stronger, taller, bolder, and of paler colour than any men — have even been seen, and their bows and blow-pipes also, larger and truer and better carved than any others, are found now and then in the deep recesses of the forests. A Semang chief tells how, 'many months ago,' he and his two brothers, when following the trail of a wounded stag, found it lying by a brook, killed by a larger arrow than theirs, and that instant, looking up, on hearing a loud threatening cry in a strange tongue, he beheld a gigantic pale-skinned woman breaking through the jungle, I'hoto bij Mr. E. J. [Singapore. A GROUP OP NEGRITOS. and then his elder brother fell pierced by an arrow. He escaped by flight, and alone lived to tell the tale, for the two brothers were never seen again. Mr. Clifford, who relates this story (' In Court and Kampong,' 1897, page 179 sq.), and has perhaps been more intimately associated with the Orang-utan (Wild Men), as the Malays often call them, than any other white man, describes those of the Plus Kiver Valley as 'like African Negroes seen through the reverse end of a field-glass. They are sooty-black in colour; their hair is short and woolly, clinging to the scalp in little crisp curls; their noses are flat, their lips protrude, and their features are those of pure Negroid type. They are sturdily built and well set upon their legs, but in stature little better than dwarfs. They live by hunting, and have no permanent dwellings, camping in little family groups wherever, for the moment, game is most plentiful." Professor Keane goes on to say: "All the faculties are sharpened mainly in the quest for food, and of means to elude the enemy now closing round their farthest retreats in the Pfioto by Mr. Leonard JVray, Perak Mu&ewn. SIR HUGH Low COLLECTION. NEGRITO WOMEN. 95 96 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND upland forests. When hard pressed and escape seems im- possible, they will climb trees and stretch rattan ropes from branch to branch where these are too wide apart to be reached at a bound, and along such frail aerial bridges women and all will pass with their cooking-pots and other effects, with their babies also at the breast, and the little ones clinging to their mothers' heels. For, like the Andamanese, they love their women-folk and children, and in this way rescue them from the Malay raiders and slavers. But, unless the British raj soon intervenes, their fate is sealed. They may slip from the Malays, but not from their own traitorous kinsmen, who often lead the hunt, and squat all night long on the tree- tops, calling one to another and signalling from these look- outs when the leaves rustle and the rattans are heaved across; so that nothing can be done, and another family group is swept away into bondage." A Sakai man, when looking out for a wife, goes to a considerable distance, generally to a tribe who speak quite a different dialect. He gives the parents presents of considerable value, which are sometimes purchased from Malays. In some cases the young man sets to work and clears one or two acres of jungle, and plants it with tapioca and sugar-cane, iu order to present it to the parents of the girl he wishes to make his wife. Photo by Mr, Leonard \\'rtty, Ptrak NEGRITO WOMEN. SIR HUGH Low COLLECTION. THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. FORMERLY attached to British India, the Straits Settlements now form a Crown Colony, with a separate administration vested in a Governor at Singapore and two others at Penang and Malacca. Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, Pahang, and Johor are " Protected States." Taking the population of Singapore, Penang, and Malacca together, we find there are roughly speaking, 213,000 Malays, 228,000 Chinese, and 54,000 Kliugs (Indians). CHAPTER V. SI AM, A NAM, CAMBODIA, BURMA. THE chief inhabitants of Indo-China and Malacca are the Shans, Laos, and Siamese, the Anameee and Cambodians. Not so long ago this part of the world was generally supposed to be occupied only by Mongolian peoples allied to Chinese and Tibetans. Of late years, however, a Caucasian element has been discovered in the Me Kong Valley (French Cochin-Chiua and Cambodia), where the people speak languages akin to those of the Malayo-Polynesian family. SIAM. THE kingdom of Siam (see map, page 130) embraces part of the Indo-Chinese and part of the Malay Peninsula. On the west lies British Burma; on the north, as a buffer between Siam and China, are the Independent Shan States; on the east lies the kingdom of Anam, under which heads are included Tong- king and Cochin-China; and south of Siam we find Cambodia and French Cochin-China. The great natural and economic centre of Siam is the delta of the Me Nam River, which is flooded every year between June and November. The population is estimated by the Siamese Government at 6,000,000, or more. Until a few years ago the eastern frontier coincided with the mountains that border Anam; but the French, by a display of force, compelled the king to sign a treaty, which surrendered to them part of his kingdom, and shifted the eastern frontier westwards to the right bank of the River Me Kong. In this way the French took possession of a region 80,000 square miles in extent. England then intervened, and the region from Tougking to British Burma was left to form a " buffer state " between Britain, China, France, and Siam. By this, and other arrangements, Siam is now prac- tically reduced to the Me Nam Valley. She still retains a part of the Malay Peninsula, which is called Lower Siam, and to the eastward the Korat Plateau and Battambony Plain. Pltotu bij 3fi. II. W. Ifolff] A SIAMESE QENTLEMAX. [Bangkok. 97 98 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND Photo by Mr. 11. Wariiigton Smyth. A SHAN MAN. Both Shans and Siamese proper call themselves Tai (Khan Tai), i.e. "free." Assam may be a translation of the word Shan. The obsolete Siamese word is Siein, and the Chinese Sien-lo, the Sien being, according to them, a tribe which came north about A.D. 1341. The Siamese call Shans "Great Tai," as having preceded them, and them- selves " Little Tai." There is certainly a close relationship between them; but the Siamese, having had much intercourse with the Malays, and other southern races, are of inferior physique. The Cambodian kingdom formerly extended much farther north. Tradition says that the town of Lapong was founded in 575, and that the half-mythical king Phra Ruang freed the Siamese from the Cambodian yoke. The Siamese proper are a well-formed people, with olive complexion and black hair. They are darker than the Chinese, but fairer arid handsomer than the Malays. Their eyes are well shaped, the lips rather prominent; the nose is slightly flattened, the face rather wide across the cheek- bones, the top of the forehead pointed, and the chin short. They are dearly fond of bathing and swimming in their rivers many times in the course of the day, a practice rendered almost necessary by the heat of the climate. Many of the men shave off the hair of the head, leaving only a coarse tuft on the top. The preservation of this tuft, and the changes it undergoes under different circumstances, are matters of considerable social importance. The tuft on a child's head is prettily knotted, and kept together by a gold or silver pin, unless the family are poor, in which case a porcupine quill serves instead; but it is generally wreathed with fragrant flowers. The shaving of the hair-tuft of children is an important family festival, to which friends and relations are invited. Displays of fireworks announce the event. Priests recite prayers and wash the head of the young person, who is decorated with all the jewellery the family can lay their hands on. Music is played during the ceremony; congratulations, together with gifts of silver, are presented to the newly shorn one. One seldom sees a bearded man, for the hairs on the chin are generally plucked out. The passion for ornaments is universal. Scarcely a family is so poor as not to possess some jewellery. Rings of silver and gold adorn the arms and legs of children;- and rich necklaces, earrings, and belts are sometimes worn in such quantity as to embarrass the wearer's movements. As among the Chinese, so here also long nails are regarded as a mark of aristocracy; and every art is employed for making the teeth black, betel and areca being used to accomplish this object. As a rule, the people go about barefooted. The Siamese are decidedly a sober race, though when a man takes to strong drink he generally becomes a hopeless drunkard. Opium- smoking, owing to severe edicts against the practice, lias not increased very much of late years. Tobacco is smoked a good deal, and tea is used almost as freely as in China. Bishop Pallegoix, who knew the Siamese very well, was favourably impressed with the character of these people. "They are," he says, "gentle, cheerful, timid, careless, and almost passionless. They are disposed to idleness, inconstancy, and exaction; they are liberal alms- givers, and severe in all matters of decorum. They are fond of sports, and lose half their time in amusements. They are sharp, and even witty in conversation, and resemble the Chinese in their aptitude for imitation." Serious disputes are of rare occurrence, and strangers can rely upon being hospitably received. Reverence for authority appears as the ground-work on which all institutions and habits are founded, and is developed to the most absurd extremes. Xo man of inferior rank dares to raise his head to the level of that of his superior; no person can cross a bridge if some 90 IOO THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND one of higher grade happens to be passing below; no mean person may walk upon a floor above that occupied by his betters. As in China, great respect is shown to old age. The king is treated as almost divine, and his subjects on approaching him must prostrate themselves hundreds of times. A person of rank is approached by his attendants in a, peculiar prostrate position, the number of prostrations being determined by his rank. The education of women is much neglected; few of them can read or write. Many, however, are taught music; and the wives and concubines of nobles are frequently engaged in, singing and in giving concerts for the amusement of their lords and guests. A few can embroider, many more can prepare sweetmeats and other delicacies for the table. Xo sooner has a child been born than the mother is placed near a large fire, where she remains for days, exposed to such intense heat that serious illness and even death sometimes ensue. So strong is the prejudice in favour of this barbarous practice, both among high and low, that the king himself has vainly attempted to stop it. Marriages take place at an early age. When the necessary negotiations have been nearly completed, the bridegroom travels by water to the house of the bride-elect, in a large boat gaily adorned with flags, and laden with presents, such as garments for his future wife, plates, fruits, betel-nut, etc. In the centre is a huge cake, in the form of a pyramid, and decorated with bright colours. Musicians in the boat play as it glides along. Arrived at his destination, the bridegroom lands and makes his way to the house to arrange the final details and to fix the happy day. There is no religious ceremony, only a great feast, at which the musicians again perform. When any one is grievously ill, the priests sprinkle holy water over him, recite passages from the sacred books, and utter loud exclamations. When death takes place, the family address the deceased in some such terms as these: "0 father, benefactor, why leave us? What have we done to offend you? Why depart alone? It was your own fault; why did you eat the fruit that caused the dysentery? 0 misery! 0 desolation!" The body, having t been washed and enveloped in white cloth, is placed in a coffin covered with gilded paper and decorated with tinsel flowers. A thus is prepared ornamented with the same materials as the coffin, but with wreaths of flowers and a number of wax lights. After a day or two the coffin is removed, not through the door, but through an opening specially made in the wall. It is then carried three times round the house at full speed, in the hope that the ghost of the dead person, forgetting the way through which he or she has passed, will not be able to return to molest the living. The coffin is then taken, to the sound of melancholy music, to a large barge, and placed on a platform surmounted by the dai's. A procession of small boats containing the friends and re- lations accompanies the barge to the temple, where the cremation takes place. The officials charged with this duty wash the face of the corpse with cocoanut milk. Witli the poorest people, however, the body, instead of being cremated, is cut up and given to the birds of prey. After a cremation, the relations assemble, collect the principal J'/u>to by Mr. II. II. Iloife] A BUDDHIST PRIEST. litimi SIAM 101 bones, which they place in an urn and convey them to the family abode. The garb of mourning is white. At a rich man's funeral there are fireworks, sermons by the priests, and theatricals wherein all sorts of monsters are in- troduced. Tents are erected within the precincts of the temple, and games and gam- bling accompany the sacred rites connected with the dead. The Siamese are a musical people and possess a great variety of wind and stringed instruments. They have no written music, their tunes being taught by ear alone. The profession of music is highly esteemed. In every nobleman's house there is music and dancing in the evening. Cock-fighting, though forbidden, is a favourite sport. Crowds sur- round the scene of combat. A courageous game-cock is a great treasure and the object of special attention. The passion for gaming and betting seems unchecked by public opinion, but the Government is taking steps to check these evils. Young and old also indulge in kite-flying. The domain of the Slians and the Laos, who are of one and the same race, occupies the whole of Northern Siain and a portion of East Burma, whence it stretches far into Yun-nan, and down the Me Kong River to the frontier of Cambodia.' Hence the allegiance of these people is divided between Burma, China, and Siam. Ethnographically, of course, they belong to the Siamese proper, as they are all members of the Tai ("free" or "noble") race. The Chinese have partly absorbed them, driving them southwards into Yun-nan and Further India. Here they become more or less assimilated to the Khas, or wild aboriginal tribes of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The word Kha means "man," or "savage." The physical characteristics of the Tai race are a low stature, light yellow complexion, black hair and eyes, small nose, dilated nostrils, and a somewhat dull expression of countenance. On the whole, it is not a pleasing type, although the children are often pretty, and the women may be fairly good-looking while yet in their teens. (For illustrations of Shan people, see pages 98, 116, 117). The domain of the Laos is divided into many provinces, ruled by hereditary princes, under the superintendence of commissioners appointed by the King of Siam. These Lao states were long subjected to regular slave-hunting expeditions, organised by the rulers themselves, or by their subordinates. Dr. Harmand, an eye-witness of one of these forays, " The brother of the Prince of Bassac told me without any reserve that he was about to pitoto A ROYAL PRIEST, SIAM. IO2 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND take a trip to the left bank of the Me Kong in order to hunt down the Khas. It seems that when times are bad the Lao mandarins organise these expeditions against the savages. Under some slight pretext a favourable camping-ground is selected, whence forays are made against the surrounding villages. When a sufficient number of all ages and both sexes have been captured, they are bound together, and led to Bassac, Sienpang, and Attopeu. Here they are purchased by native, Chinese, and especially Malay traders, who form them into gangs, and forward them chiefly to Bangkok, Korat, and Pnompenh, the capital of Cambodia." But this slave-hunting has now ceased. The traditions of the Northern Shans tell of an ancient and great kingdom held by them in the north of Burma. They all speak the same language, but there are many dialects. In the Tai or Shan language there are, according to Mr. J. G. Scott, four different characters in use. The Western Shans use letters very much like those of the Burmese; the Siamese have a writing of their own, very much like Pali; the Shans called Lii have theirs, and the Lao Shans use another. The Western Shans differ somewhat from their eastern neighbours both in their dress and in their architecture. The men's dress, usually white, consists of a short jacket and full trousers, but on festive occasions coloured silk and velvet trousers are much worn, and the most fashionable shape is that which most nearly approaches a sack with holes at the corners for the feet and arms to pass through. The women wear variegated turbans and striped petticoats, made like a sack, open at both ends, and fastened over the breasts and under the arms. A small jacket is worn over this. The Shans are a law-abiding people, and loyal to the families of their rulers. A Shan of good birth is very proud of his family. Among the Western Shans marriage is a very simple affair. As a rule, the young people merely eat rice together out of the same dish in the presence of their relatives and the village elders, and the bridegroom then declares that he marries the girl and will support her. Among the Eastern Shans, however, there is more ceremony on the wedding day. A feast is held, to which all the rela-' tives and many friends are invited. Liquor flows freely on these occasions. Early in the afternoon the bridegroom is taken to the bride's house, accompanied by the relatives and friends. As the procession advances it finds its way obstructed at various points by ropes, at each of which the bridegroom has to pay toll. When the governor of a district of Reng Tung married the Sawbwa's aunt, he had to pass twenty of these ropes in the distance of half a mile. The Sawbwa himself had H rope, and so had each of the royal ladies, the bridegroom on this occasion being mulcted of about seventy rupees. The Sawbwa's sister demanded twenty rupees for permission to pass, but eventually accepted fifteen. Arrived at the bride's house, the bridegroom takes his seat beside her, and their hands are tied together, with a piece of string; they eat together and an old man pronounces them to be man and wife. Meanwhile, the guests amuse themselves by throwing balls of rice at each other and at SIAMESE STKEET-SINGKUS. the happy couple. SIAM 103 The burial customs of the Shans are sufficiently interesting to be briefly described. When a person dies, the corpse is washed, dressed in a new suit, and some money is put into the mouth; this "passage-money" is considered to be necessary, in order to prevent any let or hindrance to the transmigration of the soul. The priests recite prayers over the body daily, until the day of the funeral, when the corpse is carried out in a coffin highly decorated with coloured paper and tinsel, tinder a gaudy canopy. The eldest son heads the procession with a naked sword in his hand, in order to clear the way, which is supposed to be barred by evil spirits, and the relations dance as they go along. Presents for the priests, such as yellow robes, handkerchiefs, and umbrellas, are carried to the grave. Arrived there, the wife or wives, and children, and the brother's wife or wives, all go in procession round the coffin, carrying lighted candles as a last sign of respect for the departed; the priests then recite a few prayers, and the body is buried; sometimes a rocket is fired. Priests and chiefs are burned, not buried, since burning is considered more honourable. Both Shans and Burmese believe that a man's spirit takes the form of a butterfly, which leaves him when he is asleep or unconscious. Hence they are unwilling to awaken any one suddenly, "for fear," as they say, "that his butterfly may not return in time." Nominally Buddhists, they are given to the worship of spirits, or Nats, the genii supposed to reside in all natural and material objects — stones, mountains, rivers, trees, clouds, winds, etc. In some places buffaloes are sacrificed to the spirits; and there are Nats which can only be appeased by human sacrifices. The guardian spirit of a certain ferry, for instance, claims a victim every year, preferably a Chinaman; and if no one is obliging enough to be accidentally drowned Photo by Mr. Itonaga] [lianykok. A TYPICAL SIAMESE NOBLEMAN AND FAMILY. J04- THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND at the proper season, a boat-load of passengers is capsized in order that the ferry may be safe for the ensuing year. A human sacrifice is necessary to pro- cure a good harvest; and although the Shans dare not in these days openly kill a fellow-creature as a sacrifice, they endeavour to poison some one at a State festival. The chiefs set their faces against the custom, but cannot suppress it altogether. The people of Siam have for ages intermarried with Laos, Shans, Peguans, Cambodians, and Chinese, as well as with slaves of the aborigines, or Khas, of whom many cpiite different tribes are found. Hence the type is varied. Not very much is known about the Khas. While the Laos inhabit the mountain valleys, these people live on ridges and heights, never less than 3,000 feet above the sea-level, and their clearings in the forest on the high hill-slopes are often visible many a mile away. The Siamese name Kha Che is generally applied to all of them. According to Mr. H. Warington Smyth. F.K.G.S., author of the interesting work "Five Years in Siam," they are a short, thick-set people. They live in small communities, with no chiefs, and possess no social organisation. Mr. Warington Smyth says: "Notwithstanding their wild and savage mieji, the Khas are gentle, harmless folk, patient and enduring on the march, and grand climbers." At the same time he speaks of their "singular stupidity." He has very kindly lent some of the photographs here reproduced. AN AM. THE kingdom of Anam occupies the eastern side of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and is bordered on the south by Lower Cochin-China and the subject kingdom of Cambodia. The French, having established themselves on the Me Kong Delta, have asserted their authority throughout the whole of Anam, and made it a vassal state. It consists of three divisions: Tongking, i.e. the "Eastern Land"; Lower Cochin-China, or the "Interior Land"; and Chiampa, in the south-east corner of the peninsula. The country has a population roughly estimated at from 10,000,000 to 20,000,000. The civilised inhabitants of the above countries present a striking uniformity of physical and mental characteristics. They appear to have been moulded in the course of ages, partly by geographical and partly by political conditions, into a homogeneous ethnographical group. The Anamite man is scarcely of middle height, shorter and less vigorous than his neighbours; his complexion is tawny, but darker than that of the Chinese; the forehead is low, Fmm ML • Le Tour du Monde." A YOUNG COUPLE (KHAS). Photo by Mr. /.7 KACHIN3— BOY AXI) GIHL. Hangoon. BURMA 119 greatly oppressed by the Burmese, who con- quered them; they occasionally visit the towns of the lowlands for purposes of trade. To some extent they appear to approach the European type. They live in small settle- ments near streams in the woodlands, culti- vating rice, bananas, betel-nut, and other fruits or vegetables, such as sweet potatoes. In ordinary circumstances they are a quiet and peaceable people; but one branch of them, the Eed Karens, are the most brutal savages, committing every atrocity except cannibalism. The Karen girl's dress is pretty and picturesque. The tamein, or skirt, re- sembles that worn by the Burmese girl, but the Kareii prefers more sober hues. A dark cloth sleeveless jacket, made like a short skirt, cut in a low peak at the breast and back, replaces the Burmese white jacket and coloured neckerchief. It is decorated with scroll designs worked in coloured threads banded with narrow red and white braids, and sometimes with spangles bought in bazaars. Occasionally it is further embellished by narrow ribbons, generally made of red flannel, 20 inches long, which are sewn in pairs under the armholes and at the breast and back. The effect is very pleasing when worn by a bright-looking Karen girl, whose beauty, however, from an English stand- point, is doubtful. The Karens have a curious way of cele- brating marriages and funerals at the same time. When celebrating one of their " wakes," a platform of bamboo is erected in front of the house where the dead man lived. On this platform or stage, barbarously adorned with pieces of cloth, a linen sheet is placed, on which the body is laid. People from neighbouring villages come in large numbers; but although certain funeral rites are performed, these they postpone until the young men and maidens have done their courting and chosen their partners for life. And so the occasion partakes more of the nature of a public courting than of a funeral. The proceedings are somewhat after this fashion: — The young men and girls separate into two choirs, and seat themselves on opposite sides of the remains. Family jewels are displayed in great profusion. The young men begin with a chorus celebrating the beauties of the Karen maidens, their charm of movement, and modest demeanour. To this the girls respond in a falsetto of the usual drawling character, accepting the eulogy of their graces. These overtures are usually set pieces handed down from antiquity, or rendered into the Karen tongue from some popular Burmese play. Then the young bachelors begin, each in turn, and sing love-stricken solos, calling on the name of some particular damsel. Among an Eastern and poetic people, a flowery language is only what might be expected on such an occasion; so we need not be surprised to learn that the girl is compared to a star, a flower, or a ruby. No painter could l'/ioto by Messrs. Walts Jt Hk«-n \ KAKEN WOMEN. [liat/ffooti. I2O THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND \* „ ' "•-MB.!* - ^^^^^^^1 4 •KB.".. OUT FOE AN AFTERNOON DRIVE. possibly do justice to her charms; she would ruin the peace of mind of a hermit! When rejected, the suitor becomes plaintive — perhaps in the belief that "pity is akin to love"- saying that he can neither eat nor drink, and will assuredly die before the morning! Far from feeling embarrassed, the Karen maidens appear to be pleased at such expressions of devotion. Their answers are usually of a somewhat stereo- typed character. The girl will declare that it is a shameful thing not to be married, but that to be divorced afterwards is much worse — "to be like a dress that has ' been washed." Another will declare that she is not going to give herself away too cheaply. She lets the suitor know that she is not like a day dim with the heat-haze, nor like a diamond that lias lost the foil below to set it off, nor like a peacock's tail draggled in the wet. All this means that the wrong man has applied, and the lucky swain will be a great fool if her eyes do not let him know that, when his turn comes, the answer will be favourable. A girl seldom says " Xo " outright; she prefers a more indirect and less crushing mode of refusal. But these cases are exceptional; for, as a rule, the girl has made up her mind which young man she will accept, and the others will look elsewhere. The young people have met before, and so matters are considerably simplified. When all p/koto 6y n'uttebn sctiarmann, Berlin. the courting is over thej" retire, and are forthwith married. A PAIR OF DWARFS FROM BURMA.* Then the elders go on with the funeral rites. * The writer saw these two little dwarfs, a boy and girl, of about eighteen and nineteen years of age respectively, and a little over three feet high, at Herr Karl Hagenbeck's Indian Exhibition in Berlin, 189H, and is much indebted to him for permission to reproduce the photograph, as well as another which illustrates India in this book. CHAPTER VI. CHINA AND MONGOLIA. CHINA. ANCIENT writers speak of the Chinese as the people of the land of Seres. The country has been called by different names at different eras in the past, but always by some form of the name Sin, Sinae, Chin, or China. This region was described in the classic age of Rome as a vast and populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the limits of the habitable world, a line beyond which, in the words of Cosmas, "there is neither habitation nor navigation." The people, imperfectly as they were then known, were described as civilised, mild, just, and frugal, avoiding collisions with their neighbours, and ever shy of close intercourse, but not averse to dispose of their own products, of which raw silk is the staple — Photo by Mr. Afony\ CHINESE COOLIES IN RAIN-COATS. 121 [llong-kong. 16 122 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND a description which, although too favour- able, might be still applied to them ia a general way. The present area of the Chinese Empire is 4,500,000 square miles, only two other empires, the British and the Russian, exceeding it in extent. But, measuring by population, it is actually the biggest empire on record, the number of people subject to its rule being esti- mated at 360,000,000, whereas that of India is less than 300,000,000. The area of China Proper is not more than half of the whole empire. The early history of the Chinese is singularly obscure. Their own " Book of History " records events said to have occurred so far back as 2350 B.C., the period from which, according to Cou- fucins, the authentic annals of China begin. But it gives uo account of the origin of the race. A few learned Chinese have gone so far as to say that the race now and for more than 4,000 years dominant in China is not the race which first possessed the land. They maintain that the original ancestors of the Chinese . were the Bak Sing tribes, and that they came into the country from the west, easily conquering and exterminating the aborigines, and so becoming undisputed lords of the Flowery Land. The Bak Sings were in a much more advanced state of civilisation; hence their advance was made easy. Ethnologists divide mankind into four great families, or stocks: the Caucasian, or white; the Ethiopian, or black; the Mongolian, or yellow; and the American, or red. The Mongolian stock in the course of time became divided into a number of branches, which spread over Central and East Asia. Two of the great branches from that stock are the Mongolo-Tartar and Tibeto-Indo-Chiuese, and it is with the latter important section of the Mongol race we are now concerned. Since they became masters of their vast dominions, they have passed through wars and revolutions which would almost certainly have divided such a teeming population into different states if they had been of any other race. But the most violent convulsions did not destroy their cohesion. They did not even lead to any change in the fundamental principles and beliefs on which their social and political life was founded 4,000 years ago, and which continue to be the guiding and controlling sources of their government at the present time. The strength of national unity and the durability of national institutions are the every-day boast of most peoples; but on both points history compels us to award the highest place to the Chinese. The physical traits of the average Chinaman may be described in a few words. The form ia well built, and, though rather short to represent what we regard as perfect symmetry, is fairly proportionate. It is something between that of the lithe, supple Hindu and the muscular, fleshy European. The complexion may be described as brunette, with a strong yellowish tinge. In the south of China the people are darker in tint than in the northern provinces, but their swarthiness is not so deep as that of the Portuguese. A CHI.VESE HAUMEli. Photo by Mr. AJO A CHINESE LADY OF HIGH RANK. 103 124 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND The hair of the head is lank, black, coarse, and glossy; the beard is always black, and is very scanty; while whiskers are still more scanty or wholly wanting. Very little hair grows on the body. The eyes, distinctly typical features, are always black, narrow, and apparently oblique. The latter appearance is due to the very slight degree in which the inner angles of the eyelids open, not allowing the whole iris to be seen. This Mongolian peculiarity in the eye distinguishes the races of Eastern Asia from all other races of mankind. The cheek-bones are high, and the outline of the face is remarkably round; the nose is short, flat, but wide at the end; the lips are somewhat thicker than those of Europeans; while the hands are small, and the lower limbs of average proportions. The women in China are smaller than European women; and even at the risk of being reproached as ungallant, we must say they possess very little of the form and the air which we consider essential to female beauty. The broad upper face, flat nose, and narrow eyes are decidedly not handsome, though sometimes brightened witli good- humour and the animation of youth and health. Fashions in dress among the Chinesb are not quite so unalterable as some other things. They change occasionally, as they do in less conservative lands, but far longer intervals elapse before auy alteration will be admitted, and then such changes are not so thorough and so striking as those so frequently introduced into the costume and ornaments of our people. The Chinese dress has remained in its main characteristics the same for centuries. Garments of fur or velvet or silk are handed down from parent to child for two, three, or more generations, and no fear is entertained that they will be condemned as old-fashioned when seen "on the form of some sallow young lady or gentleman eighty or ninety years after they were made. The materials mostly used in the making of clothes are silk and cloth, with a fabric called grass- cloth, which is much worn in summer. 'Furs and skins largely constitute the winter finery, woollens being very sparingly used, and always of foreign manufacture. The costume of the Chinese is simple, yet as fully serviceable as more elaborately designed robes could be. Inner and outer tunics, made of cotton or silk, according to the social rank of the wearer, are the principal articles. In some cases they are made to reach only below the loins, but oftener the outer tunic goes down to the feet. The lapel on the right side folds over the breast and fits close around the neck, which is otherwise uncovered. Photo by Mi ir. /.'•/» A CHINESE WOMAN, WITH NAIL-PKOTECTOR (OX LEFT HAND). CHINA 125 I'ho/olnj .Mi. At [Uo/ig-kong. OPIUM-SMOKEHS. The sleeves are very wide, and much longer than the arms. They have no cuffs, and in most cases sleeves are made to serve the purpose of pockets. If a Chinaman accepts a present, purchases a ball, or appropriates any small article of value to which he has no just claim — acquires anything which an ordinary Briton would deposit in his pocket — the Celestial does not say he "pockets it," but "sleeves it,'' as he actually does. The lower limbs are not so fully protected. A pair of loose trousers, covered to the knee by cloth stockings, is the usual summer wear. Tight leggings are pulled over both in winter, and fastened to the girdle by loops. As the trousers are very loose and baggy and the tunic is short, the excess of trouser material forced to the rear by the tight leggings protrudes behind in what we should think a rather awkward manner. Shoes are made of silk and cotton, the soles of felt being defended on the bottom by hide. Quilted cotton garments are very common, and are so made as to protect the whole person from cold and obviate the need of fires. In the north dressed sheepskin robes serve for bedding as well as garments, and their durability makes them more desirable than the best woven fabrics. Next to the oblique eyes the plaited "tail," or, more correctly, the queue, is generally regarded as the most distinctive feature of the Chinaman. But that fashion of dressing the hair is not one of the ancient customs of the Chinese, nor was it originally practised by them for their own gratification. The ancient Chinese wore the hair long, bound upon the top of the head in a fashion similar to that practised by the Loo-choo islanders. They took pride in its glossy blackness, and had long distinguished themselves from other peoples as " the black-haired race." But two centuries and a half ago the Mauchu Tartars invaded China from the north, and defeated the Chinese in successive battles. They wore their hair in the long queue with which all who have seen Chinese are now familiar; and in 1627 they issued an 126 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND order that all Chinese should adopt their coiffure as a sign of allegiance on pain of death. As they overthrew the ruling dynasty at that time with ease, and the chief of the Manchus was made emperor, they enforced the order with such merciless rigour that the Chinese throughout the land eventually submitted. The queue was imposed on the people as a badge of subjection; but before the Manchu dynasty (the present rulers of China) had been fifty years established, the "tail" had become an appendage of which the Chinese were proud, and a long thick queue was an object of intense desire to every honest Chinaman. The head-dress of married women is at once tasteful and becoming. The plentiful black hair is bound upon the head in an oval knot, which is secured in its place by a pin placed lengthwise in it, and fastened by a shorter pin thrust across and under the bow. In front of the knot a tube is often worn, in which flowers can be placed. A widow is known by white flowers in her hair, a maiden by one or two plaits instead of a knot; but in some parts white flowers are worn by all women. Matrons wear an embroidered fillet on the forehead, about an inch wide, pointed between the eyebrows, and covering the front of the hair. This fillet, embroidered or adorned with pearls, is a favourite ornament with Chinese ladies. Along the Yang-tse-kiang River women wear a band of fur around the head. The hair of children is unbound; but girls advancing in age allow the side-locks to grow until the hair reaches the waist, and plait a tress down the neck. False hair is made use of by men and women, the men particularly being fond of making their queues as long as possible. The population of China as we know it is the result of a fusion of tribes of connected lineage. Different classes from beyond the bounds of China Proper, as the Mongolo-Tartars under Genghis Khan and his successor, and the Mauchu Tartars under Tsen-ning, at different periods assumed the mastery of the settled inhabitants. But the Chinese were only governed and plundered by their new masters, not destroyed. They invariably absorbed into their own nation intrusive neighbours whom they were unable to expel, for common sense and practicality are strongly developed traits in the character of the people. The Chinaman thinks nothing is worthy of serious regard but that which is visibly useful or materially beneficial. His arts and sciences, his poems and romances, his religions and philosophies, all re- volve around and minister to the needs and pleasures of his daily life. Abstract virtue, the universal, the Photo by Mr. Afony] [Hong-kong. ideal, are terms which A CHINESE WOMAN WITH DEFORMED FOOT. have hardly the shadow of 128 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND Photo by Mr. Afong\ [Uong-kong. A CHINESE GARDEN PARTY. a meaning to him. Such an action as a missionary "voluntarily incurring hardship and danger in the attempt to secure eternal felicity for men who have never done him service, and from whom he caunot expect any compensating good, he can understand only as the result of a wofully deranged mind. He is not endowed with much imagination, or it may be that centuries of rigorous training within strictly material lines have practically clogged that mental faculty, until it has become so torpid that it cannot become active under normal conditions. The Mongol character, in Mr. Keane's estimation, is sluggish, with little initiative, but great endurance; frugal, thrifty, and industrious; morality low; science slightly, art and letters moderately developed. Men who possess little initiative — that is, little of the bold, originative power which constitutes genius — are naturally largely imitative, and still more markedly tenacious of that which they have tried and approved. They will expend immense energy on the elaboration of a work they have begun, but the mind shrinks from the attempt to conceive a new task involving different principles and possessing a totally different character. On a given solid base the Chinese will produce astonishing results, giving proof of tireless industry, ingenuity, and perseverance. This fondness for elaboration of detail is displayed in nearly every act of his ordinary life, and gives rise to the many ceremonies which the Chinaman — a very ceremonious creature — daily practises. "Ceremony is the type of virtue," said Confucius about 2,400 years ago; and the Chinese have not failed to preserve the axiom of the great teacher. The form of government in China is decidedly patriarchal. The State is embodied in the Emperor, who assumes towards his subjects at large the office of guide and guardian, which CHINA 129 the head of a family should hold with relation to the minor and dependent members of the same. His title, Tien-Tsze, proclaims him "the Son of Heaven," and the people he governs are supposed to be his children. Standing in this intermediary position, he, and he alone, has power to mediate between his father, Heaven, and his children, his subjects. His sacrifices and prayers in discharging the duties pertaining to this high office are conducted with great parade and ceremony; and the pomp, it need hardly be said, tends to impress upon the people a sense of the greatness and dignity of their chief, who is able thus to commune on their behalf with the Everlasting and Almighty. But the power wielded by the Emperor is still circumscribed by certain laws and hampered by precedents. From the day on which he ascends the throne, special duties are appointed by the Board of Rites to nearly every hour of his daily life. In all offices of State the Emperor is assisted by the Nt(y-Ko, or Privy Council. The provinces are mainly self -governed. Each province (in a few cases, two conjointly) is presided over by a Viceroy, who is supreme within his jurisdiction, and who has, in cases of emergencv, the power of life and death in his hands. Next to him comes the Governor, whose authority in all matters relating to the province is second only to that of the Viceroy. Each province is divided into several departments, and each department or district has to maintain its own staff of officials. There are prefectures and sub- prefectures, prefects and sub-prefects. The smallest of these divisions is again sub- divided into districts, over each of which is placed a magistrate, and subordinate to the magistrate are a host of petty officials, each and all of whom have to be maintained and enriched at the cost of the people whose affairs they administer. Every occupant of office must be a mandarin. Mandarins of all classes are divided into nine ranks, each distinguished by the button or buttons worn on the top of the cap. These buttons are the insignia of rank. The first and highest is a plain red button; the second, a flowered red button; third, a transparent blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an un- coloured glass button; sixth, a white glass button; seventh, a plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in relief; and ninth, a gilt button with engraved flowers. Theoretically, the system of government practised in the provinces is nearly all that can be desired; but, as a matter of fact, it is as corrupt as any system regulating Photo by Mr. W. Ran} [Philadelphia. A WOMAN OF MANCHURIA. K\ .c w\ /A^J 4) A_\N ~"<^* • i ^-— } I ' , ' i\ *\ ^ *v-\v,. ?pr / ^^j *,' tft '!. jj ~ » \. ,v\<-. — // .«* »- . .— r^??-<^2^ 130 CHINA intercourse between different classes of men could be. The mandarins are blamed for nearly all the iniquity attaching to the system; aud though it is beyond denial that they are as powerful and rapacious as they are numerous, there is yet a word to be said in extenuation of their conduct. The salaries they receive when in office — and when, they are regularly paid, which is seldom the case — are so trifling that they hardly suffice to maintain the staff which it is necessary for each mandarin in office to keep. The mandarin thinks it is a sacred duty to himself to remedy that state of things at the cost of the people. This becomes a more imperative duty because there is a law which forbids that any mandarin shall hold office for more than three years. The instant he arrives at his post all the subordinate officials hasten to pay their respects to him. Not one of them would dare absent himself, and each vies with his colleague in procuring a present of the utmost value he can afford to give to the mandarin as a proof of his loyalty and devotion. Then, again, when a suitor comes with a legal cause to the yamen, or mandarin's office, he is obliged to pay fees to the mandarin and all the subordinate officials, or he would have but small chance of securing a hearing. The shocking corruption which is audaciously aud flagrantly practised in open day in high places has a most demoralising effect upon the people. Dishonesty is hardly regarded as a vice; it is practised every day aud everywhere, the only deterrent being the fear of discovery and punishment. False-speaking is as prevalent as dishonest dealing. The Chinese set little or no value upon truth. It has been said that the Chinaman may sometimes speak the truth by accident. The makers of the fatherly laws which the mandarins administer, and the mandarins themselves, apparently have knowledge of the rarity of such accidents, and therefore, to have more on their side than the chance of accident when trying to elicit truth in their courts of justice, they employ torture. Flogging is the kind most commonly inflicted to bring home to the mind of a prevaricating Photo l»j Mr. CHINESE TAKING TEA. 132 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND witness the necessity for speaking the truth. Shocking as the application of the lash is thought to be iii England, the Chinese method of flogging is more painful, if not more debasing. The witness is laid flat on his face, and the executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with the concave side of a split bamboo. When the strokes are heavy, the flesh rises in ridges in the hollow part of the cane, and the sharp edges cut the victim terribly. This punishment is not limited to a fixed number of blows. The sufferer may release himself by giving the evidence required, or the flogging is continued until he becomes insensible. Many other kiuds of torture are resorted to. The Chinese display a horrible inge- nuity in producing the greatest possible suffering with the most apparently simple means. For example, one of the ordinary punishments in China is compulsory kneeling, bare-legged, on a coiled chain. This does not sound shocking, and it might be supposed that it could hardly inconvenience people so little sensible to pain as the hardier Chinese are known to be. But the agony that is caused by this punishment is indescribable, especially as two officers stand by the sufferer to prevent him from seeking even a momentary relief by changing his position. Broken crockery is some- times substituted for the chain, but those who have experienced the punishment find one material as cruel as the other. A common punishment in China is that of the cangue, a sort of movable pillory. It is a collar formed of a piece of wood, four feet square and nearly four inches in thickness. It has a hole formed in the middle, through which the culprit's head is passed. The machine opens •with a hinge. When closed around the culprit's neck, it is locked, and a placard, describing the offence for which he suffers, is always pasted on it. As long as the cangue is worn the delinquent cannot feed himself, so that he would soon expiate his offences by death from starvation if he were not kept alive by occasional scraps tendered by good-natured people. Indeed, little risk of actual starvation is run, for it is popularly thought a becoming and meritorious action to feed a prisoner in the cangue. The principal terror of this instrument is the pain caused by continuously carrying so much dead weight upon the neck and shoulders. There is another mode of punishment in which the cangve is used, but in this case the collar is fixed and does not rest on the shoulders. A tall cage is constructed, the top of which is flat and thick, with a hole in the centre, through which a man's head may be thrust. The top of the cage is so adjusted in height from the bottom that the sufferer is forced to stand on tiptoe to avoid supporting the weight of his body by his jaws, under Ptiato by Mr. A/ong] A CHINESE NURSE AND CHILD. \Jlong-kvixj. 133 134- THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND which the board passes. His hands being bound behind him, he cannot relieve himself for a moment. Iron snakes are another form of torture; they are tubes of soft metal, fashioned in the form of snakes with open mouths. The sufferer is stripped naked and forced to a kneeling position, with his arms extended straight out on each side. One of the metal snakes is then coiled round each arm from the wrist to the shoulder, the mouth or orifice of the tube appearing at the latter end. Another tube is coiled round the body, with the mouth at the back of the neck. Boiling water is then poured into the snakes until they are filled, and the burning torture thus inflicted can hardly be imagined. Finger-squeezing is a torture also frequently used. Four pieces of bamboo are tied loosely together at one end, and a string passes through the other ends, so arranged that, by pulling the string with some force, the pieces of cane can be drawn closely together. The fingers are placed between the pieces of bamboo, and the executioner, by pulling on the string with gradually increasing force, can inflict excru- ciating torment, aud even break the bones of the fingers to pieces. This torture is often employed by the mandarins when trying to force money from persons whom they suspect of having concealed wealth somewhere. The ankles are squeezed in a similar manner, only that the implement of torture is necessarily much larger. Capital punishment is inflicted in several ways. The mode that is thought to be least terrible is to be accorded permission to commit suicide. This is a privilege granted only to men of very high rank, and is con- ferred upon them by sending " the silken cord." When the mandate is received which intimates to the offender that he may use the silken cord, the doomed man takes some of his relatives and nearest friends to his house, fastens the silken cord to a beam, stands upon a stool, places the noose round his neck, then leaps off -the stool, and so hangs himself. For criminals of no particular social standing strangulation is the mode of execution generally practised. It is inflicted in a manner closely resembling the garrote. The criminal is placed, standing, with his back to a post, through which a hole is bored at the level of his neck. The two ends of a cord are passed through the hole, and the loop embraces the man's neck. The ends are then twisted round a stick, and by a few rapid turns the loop is so tightened that strangulation is almost instantaneous. Beheading is another way in which criminals are executed, but to this death the Chinese have the strongest objection. They believe that the spirits of the dead appear in the next world minus any members which their P/ioto by 3Ir. Afontj] [Iloi,g-b»iy. J . A WOMAN OP SHANGHAI. bodies may have lacked when they died m CHINA '35 this, and they shrink with a horror which it is hard for us to conceive from appearing hereafter as armless, legless, or, above all, as headless ghosts. The mode of execution requires a few words. The criminal is carried to the place of execution in a bamboo cage, and by his side is a basket in which his head will be removed. He is eifectively pinioned. The middle of a long, thin rope is passed round the back of his neck, and the ends are crossed on the chest and brought under the arms. They are then twisted round the arms, the wrists tied together behind the back, and the ends fastened to the portion of rope upon the neck. A slip of paper, containing the culprit's name, crime, and sentence, is fixed to a reed and stuck at the back of his head. On arriving at the place of execution, the officials remove the paper and take it to the presiding mandarin, who writes on it in red ink the warrant for execution. The paper is then replaced, a rope loop is passed over the head of the culprit, and the end given to an assistant, who draws the head forward so as to stretch the neck, while a second assistant holds the body from behind. In a moment the executioner wields his broad, heavy sword, sweeps it down in one deadly, unerring stroke, and the head is removed from the body. It is taken away, and generally hung up in a bamboo cage near the scene of the crime for which the death-penalty was inflicted, with a label announcing the name and offence of the criminal, and also the name of the presiding mandarin by whose order he was executed. A Chinese wife is extremely anxious to present her husband with sons, who will perpetuate his name and burn incense before his tablet after death. Female children are of so little account that when a baby-girl is born it is often made away with. A childless woman sometimes, however, adopts a girl from another family, believing that this course will make Photo by Mr. Afong] A CHINESE FAMILY GROUP OF THREE GENERATIONS. \_llony-kony. 136 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND her in time a happy mother. The idea is based on a strange superstition, or rather on a curious and interesting conception of the relation between the spirit-world and the earthly life. The train of thought is explained thus: — The woman is represented by a tree in the unseen world. Whether she will have children or not, and what their number and sex will be, is indicated by the condition of the tree, — • whether it has flowers or not; and if it has flowers, what is their number and colour. If the tree has red flowers, she will have girls; if white flowers, she will have boys. If the flowers be of different colours, some white and some red, she will have boys and girls; if no flowers at all, the poor woman will be childless. But as in this world men graft on one tree a shoot from another, and thus have the desired fruit, so the Chinese adopt a child into a childless family, in the hope that there will be flowers on the flowerless tree in the spirit-land that represents the barren wife. This custom is consequently known as "grafting." There is a goddess of children, commonly called " Mother." Every year, between the llth and 15th of the first and of the eighth months, several of the most popular temples of this goddess are visited by childless women, who burn incense and candles before her image, vowing to offer a thanksgiving if the goddess will grant their desire. As the time approaches for a woman to give birth to a child, a custom is observed in some families for the purpose of propitiating two female demons believed to be present with the intention of killing the woman. A table is spread with plates of food, incense, flowers, and false money. A priest makes suitable recitations. At the end of this ceremony various evil spirits are invited to come and receive the worship of the woman and her husband. When a woman suffers much pain in child-birth, or if the child be not born after long waiting, and her life appears to be in danger, friends or relations produce a kind of puppet- show, in which is a puppet representing "Mother." These puppets are made to dance near the door of the sick-room; in some cases the particular puppet of the goddess is made to walk and dance on the body of the woman herself. This treatment is supposed to relieve pain and hasten the birth. In China three different religions are upheld and favoured by those in authority; these are Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. But besides these religious systems there is the worship of ancestors, which plays so important a part in the life of the people, from the highest to the lowest. Two features distinguish Chinese religions from those of other countries. In the first place, there are no human sacrifices; and, secondly, vice is not personified or deified. No Aphrodite or Venus is found in the list of goddesses, and it cannot Photo by Mr. Afong \Ilong-kong. A CHINESE FORTUNE-TELLER. CHINA be said that the Chinese have endeavoured to lead the votaries of sensuality farther on the road to ruin by putting immorality under the protection of a god or goddess. It may also be remarked that it is no easy matter for Europeans to understand the Chinese religion. The people appear to entertain such indefinite ideas on the real character of their ceremonies, and to hold such varied opinions on religious matters, that the inquirer finds it difficult to obtain clear and consistent accounts on this subject. Confucianism would be more accurately described as a system of moral philosophy than as a religion. But the belief in a Supreme Power always underlies its teachings, though it is not so pointedly and persistently expressed as in other systems. The State worship of "Heaven," or "God," was, and still is, confined to the Emperor in his double capacity of father and priest of the people. It is held that the will of God is to be learned from the moral principles of man's nature. Government is ordained by God for the good of the people; and when the sovereign ceases to promote the popular good, his government is antagonistic to the divine ordinance, and therefore he has forfeited his right to the throne. Thus it is that revolutions and changes of dynasty are always referred to as "the will of Heaven." Associated with the worship of Heaven was the worship of heaven and earth and the powers of nature, but they were always regarded as subordinate to God, and fulfilling His will for the good of men. Both Emperor and people worship their ancestors. This worship is universally practised in China. It is a perpetuation of " the duty which every one owes to his parents — the first and chief of all virtues." On this Confucius laid the greatest stress, endeavouring to derive all other virtues from it. Taoism derives its name from a treatise composed by Lao-Tsze, a contemporary of Confucius. It is called "The Tao," or "The Way and its characteristics." The "Way" is the Photo by Mr. Afony] CHINESE MANDAKI.NS, CANTON i38 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND quiet, passionless discharge of all which our nature prompts and our relations require us to do, without violent striving or crying, while steadily maintaining and preserving life. "Heaven" in this "Way" is not a ruler or legislator, as in Confucianism, but only a pattern. The system was older than Lao-Tsze, who, however, reduced it to method. The recognised head of Taoism has his seat on the Lung-hu Mountain in Chiang-hsi. To Lao-Tsze belongs the merit of having formulated the grand principle that good will overcome evil, and should be returned for it. The form of Buddhism prevailing in China is called Shamanism, or Hivatig Kiao (Yellow Sect) in Chinese, from the colour of the priestly robes. A Shaman is one who has overcome all his passions. The Dalai Lama at Lassa, in the great monastery of the Putala, is the head of the religion, the abode of deity. Mongolia swarms with Lamas; and the Government at Pekin, in order to maintain its influence, aids in supporting them. The Photo by Messrs. Watts /•/. F.I!. n.x. WOMEN AND GIRL OF LADAK.* TIBET 165 who are disembodied spirits. The latter comprise the five Buddhas of contemplation, and all those myriads of pious men who became canonised after death. Inferior in rank to these saints are the gods and spirits, such as Indra, the god of the firmament; Yama, the god of death and the infernal regions; Siva, the god of vengeance — the avenger in his most terrible shape; and Vaisravana, the god of wealth. Lamaism, like Buddhism, forbids injury to life, and does not allow the burial of the dead as practised by us. Persons distinguished by rank, learning, or piety are burned after their death; but the general way for disposing of dead bodies is to expose them in the open air to be devoured by birds and beasts of prey. One of the most interesting features of Lamaism is the organisation of its hierarchy, or priesthood. It may be said there are two heads of the national religion in Tibet. This anomalous feature resulted from the action of a reformer, one Tsongkapa, who has been styled " the Luther of Tibet," though his attack on the corruptions in Lamaism was effected two hundred years before the Protestant Keformation. He died in Lassa in 1419, and there were then in that city three huge monasteries containing 30,000 of his disciples, besides many more in other parts of the country. In doctrine this great Tibetan teacher adhered to the purer forms of the Buddhist school. He took very little part in church government, and did not question the right of the Sakya Lamas to supremacy in title, though in other matters he raised and resolutely maintained the standard of revolt till his ends were attained. So completely did the new sect outnumber and overshadow the old, that the Emperor of China in the middle of the fifteenth century acknowledged the two leaders of the reformed religionists as titular overlords of the Church and tributary rulers of the realm of Tibet. These two rulers were then known as the Dalai Lama and the Pantsken Lama, and were the abbots of the great monasteries at Gedun Dubpa, near Lassa, and at Krashis Lunpo, in Further Tibet, respectively. Since that time the abbots of these monasteries have continued to exercise sovereignty over the country. The reincarnation of a Lama's spirit is naturally regarded as an event of greater consequence Photo by Mr. II. ('. V. lln:,/n. F. !:.<;.*. BUDDHIST PRIESTS AT LEH, WITH COPPER TRUMPETS, DRUMS, AND CYMBALS. 1 66 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND Ptioto by Mtxvrit. A'«7>/> tt' C't/.j TIBETAN DANCERS. [Calcutta. than the restoration to flesh of an ordinary layman's soul. To ascertain when that takes place, several means are resorted to. Sometimes the deceased had, before his death, confidentially mentioned to his friends where and in which family he would reappear, or possibly his will contained an intimation with the same purport. In most cases, however, the sacred books and the official astrologers are consulted, and they, by virtue of an extraordinary wisdom amounting to inspiration, after many ceremonies and long periods of contemplatiou, give all who are interested the information they seek. It can be easily imagined that extraordinary and startling consequences may result from the introduction of the same soul as the vivifying principle in members of different and probably hostile families. What must be regarded as the Lamaist clergy consists of four orders; and the lowest of these, having no claim to holiness on the grounds of good works done by predecessors, recruits its ranks on the principles of personal merit and theological proficiency. It has four grades. Every member must make the vow of celibacy, and by far the greater number of them live in convents. A Lamaist convent, or lamaiscrni, consists of a temple, which forms its centre, and of a number of buildings connected with the temple, appropriated as the meeting- rooms, library, refectory, dwellings, and for other worldly and spiritual wants of the monks. Lamaism has likewise its nuns and nunneries. The Lamaist Sacred Books bear the name of the Kandjur, and consist of 1,083 distinct works, which, in some editions, fill from 102 to 108 volumes, folio. The political authority of the Dalai Lama is confined to Tibet, but he is the acknowledged head of the Buddhist Church also throughout Mongolia and China. The Bonba are sometimes called the "Sect of the Black," to distinguish them from the "Red" or "Yellow" Lamaists, these appellations arising from the colour of the garments worn by the members of the respective sects. The Bonba have eighteen principal gods and goddesses, of whom the most popular and the one universally worshipped is the "Tiger-god of Glowing Fire." Those Bonba who, when travelling, camp in black tents are presumably very orthodox, and perhaps divide their worship among a dozen at least of their divinities. I'/tolo by Messrs. Johnson to by Messrs. P. Klelr & Co.] [Rangoon. ANDAMANESE SHOOTING FISH. rather long separation. Kissing, rubbing noses, hand-shaking, etc., are quite unknown. The two friends merely gaze silently into each other's faces. But with relations the case is rather different. Two relations after a long separation demonstrate their joy at meeting by sitting with their arms round each other's necks and weeping and howling in a manner which would lead a stranger to suppose that some bitter sorrow had befallen them. In fact, there seems to be no difference at all between demonstrations of joy and of grief. When any one dies, the women begin to cry in loud chorus, but the men speedily join in. Then they all weep together, until, through sheer exhaustion, they are compelled to desist. Then if neither of the parties is in mourning, they get up a- dance, in which the families not infrequently take part. When a husband returns to his home, his wife hangs upon his neck and sobs with joy as if her heart would break. He then goes to his relations, who also burst into tears. The early stories of cannibalism among these people do not at the present day require to be refuted. The natives express the greatest horror of such a custom, and indignantly deny that it ever held a place among their own institutions. Marriage is only allowed between those who are known to be not even distantly connected. So inexorable is this rule that it applies equally to such as are merely falsely related by the custom of adoption above referred to. A first cousin, even if only a cousin by adoption, is 172 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND regarded as a half-brother or a half-sister, as the case may be, and nephews and nieces are looked upon almost as sons and daughters. Notwithstanding the lack of female chastity before marriage, the girls are always modest and childlike in their behaviour, and when married they make good wives and become models of constancy. The statement made by some writers that communal marriage here exists is without foundation. As they have no idea of invoking the aid or the blessing of a Supreme Being, nothing of a religious character attaches to the marriage ceremony. It often happens that a young couple will pass several days after their nuptials without exchanging one single word, and to such an extent do they carry their bashfulness that they even avoid looking at each other. In fact, their behaviour would lead a stranger to suppose that some serious quarrel had arisen. THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON. THE aboriginal inhabitants of Ceylon are the Veddas,* who until a comparatively recent period ranged over a much more extended area. They may be regarded as a remnant of the Yakkos, who, after the conquest of the island, retired before the invaders into the wilder parts, withdrawing themselves deeper and deeper into the jungle, so as to avoid contact with the conquering race. For upwards of 2,000 years this remarkable fragment of an ancient race has remained almost unaltered as regards its customs, language, and pursuits, and therefore exhibits to the present day a living portrait of the condition of the islanders as described by the native chroniclers before the conquerors had taught the people even the rudiments of agriculture. All Veddas present the same characteristics of wretchedness and dejection — namely, * All except one of our illustrations of Veddas are from photographs kindly sent by Dr. Paul and Dr. Fritz Sarasin, of Basle, whose valuable German monograph on the subject is adorned by very many of their photographs. One is by the Apothecaries' Company of Colombo. Photo btj Messrs, hoaiuv it •>/«///* r/'ij A GROUP OF A.NDA.MANESE. METHOD OF SHOOTING TURTLE. THE VEDDAS OF CEYLON 173 projecting jaws, prominent teeth, flat noses, small stature, and every evidence of the effects of in- sufficient diet. The children are unsightly objects, entirely naked, with ill-shaped limbs, huge heads, and prominent stomachs; the women, as the reader will see from our illustrations on pages 173-7, are, to say the least, not pleasing specimens of humanity. Some of the men and women present a type apparently somewhat similar to that of the native Australian. Those who live in the forests subsist chiefly on roots, fish, honey, iguana lizards, and the products of the chase, such as the AVandura monkey, the deer, and the wild boar. In their choice of food they are omnivorous, no carrion or even vermin being too repulsive to suit their appetite; but grain and fruits, when procurable, are used. Being skilful archers, they bring down with their long arrows such prey as bats, crows, owls, and kites, but for some curious reason they will not touch the bear, the elephant, or the buffalo. The flesh of deer and other animals they dry in the sun and store it away in hollow trees for use on some future occasion. Their food is always cooked. Veddas may be divided, according to Sir James Tennent, into three groups: first, the " Kock Veddas," who till lately dwelt almost entirely within the Bintenne forests, and lodged in caves or under the shelter of overhanging rocks, sometimes sleeping in trees, in which a kind of stage or platform has been constructed; secondly, the "Village Veddas," on the eastern coast, where they cultivate some kinds of grain, and even dwell in rude huts of mud and bark. These Village Veddas are but slightly removed from the wild tribes of the jungle, with whom they have no dealings. Their position is somewhat intermediate between the more or less civilised people of Kandi and the Veddas of the rock. Probably they have to some extent intermarried with the people of Kandi. The only garment they wear is a bit of cloth larger than that worn by the forest tribes. Some, as the reader will see from the illustrations on pages 173-7, simply make a substitute for cloth out of leaves. The women ornament themselves with necklaces of brass beads and bangles cut out of shells. The third division, or " Coast Veddas," numbering about 300, have settled down in the jungles, and eke out a living by helping the fishermen in their operations, or by felling timber for the Moors, to be floated down the rivers to the sea. By the assistance of the Government their condition has been materially improved. In the year 1844 they came in, expressing the utmost reluctance to abandon the seashore and the water, but nevertheless gladly accepting Photo by Doctors Paul and Fritz Sarasin, Basle. A VEDDA WOMAN. 174- THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND patches of land which were cleared for them in the forest near the beach. Cottages were built, fruit-trees were planted, and seed was supplied. Education has here made some progress, and as the result of missionary enterprise the majority of them have embraced Christianity. The principal weapon of the Veddas is a big bow 0 feet long, the strings of which they prepare from the tough bark of the upas-tree. They occasionally use their feet as well as their hands in manipulating the bow; but it cannot be said that their skill in archery is great, for they appear to bring down game rather through luck than by any adroitness. Formerly the country was regarded by Euro- peans with some apprehension. This was due to absurdly exaggerated misrepresentations on the part of the people of Kaudi, who attributed to them a savage disposition, so that none but armed parties ventured to pass through their fastnesses. Of late years, however, this delusion has been entirely dispelled, and travellers now feel them- selves as safe in the neighbourhood of these people as in the villages of the Singhalese. They are constantly visited by traders in search of deer's horns and ivory, also supplies of dried deer's flesh and of honey. The Yecldas have to a large extent lost their former shyness and timidity, so that now they not only come with confidence into the open country, but even venture into the towns for such commodities as they can purchase with their slender means. Mr. Atherton, formerly Assistant Government Agent, spoke in favourable terms of the gentleness of -their disposition. Notwithstanding an apparently almost complete indifference to morals, grave crimes, he said, were rarely committed. In cases of theft the delin- quent, if detected, must make restitution. Thus, if a girl be carried off from her parents, she is claimed and brought home. The husband of a faithless wife is content to receive her back, while his family punish the seducer by flogging him. Murder is almost unknown. In a general way these people may be described as gentle and affectionate one to another. They are strongly attached to both their children and their relatives. AVidows are invariably supported by the local community, receiving their share of fruits or grain and the products of the chase. Altogether they appear to be a quiet and submissive race, obeying the slightest expression of a wish, and being very grateful for any assistance or attention. They consider themselves superior to their neighbours, and are unwilling to exchange their wild forest life for any other. Their intellectual c.ipacity is very low; they cannot count, even on their fingers, and their memory is most defective. They never wash, thinking it would weaken them! and they never laugh! With regard to their moral character, it is only fair to add that another writer, Mr. B. F. Hartshorne, who contributes an interesting paper on these people to Tlie Fortnightly Review for 1876 (New Series, Vol. XIX., page 406), says that they think it perfectly inconceivable that any person should ever take that which J'/toto by Doctors Paul ami Fr'nz Sarasin, Basle. A VEDDA MAN, WITH LEAF GIRDLE. Photo by the Colombo AfOilueortaf Co.] [ Ceylon. TWO VEDDAS, WITH BOWS. 175 176 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND does not belong to him, strike his fellow, or say anything that is untrue. The language of the Veddas, which is extremely limited, is said to be a dialect of the Singhalese. They appear to have no marriage ceremonies, although acknowledging the duty of supporting their families. Marriages amongst them are settled by the parents of the young people. The bride's father presents his son-in-law witli a bow, while his own father bestows upon him the right of chase in any portion of his hunting-ground. The youth presents the lady of his choice with a cloth and a few simple ornaments, where- upon she straightway follows him into the forest, where they become man and wife. They are not polygamists, probably because the man's slender means will not allow of supporting more than one wife. Marriage with sisters is allowed, but never with the eldest sister; and they are generally re- markable for constancy and affection. These people live in such a primitive state that what we should call a funeral is quite unknown. Instead of burying their dead they simply cover them with leaves and brushwood from the jungle. The Veddas have no knowledge of a God, not even of a future state, no temples, no idols, and no altars. They have nothing which one can call an act of worship, unless it be certain ceremonies, by means of which they hope to drive away the evil spirits which they believe to be the cause of death and disease. Photo by Doctor* l\ttil and Fritz Sarmin, haste. A VEDDA MAN (PROFILE). INDIA.* IN describing the " Hindu type" Dr. Topiuard, in his well-known "Anthropology," divides the population of the Indian Peninsula into three strata — viz. the Black, the Mongolian, and the Aryan. "The remnants of the first," he says, "are at the present time shut up in the mountains of Central India under the name of Bhils, Mahairs, Gonds, and Khonds; and in the South under the name of Yenadis, Maravers, Kurumbas, Yeddas, etc. Its primitive characters, apart from its black colour and low stature, are difficult to discover, but it is to be noticed that travellers do not speak of woolly hair in India. The second has spread over the plateaux of Central India by two lines of way, one to the north-east, the other to the north-west. The remnants of the first invasion are seen in the Dravidian or Tamil tribes, and those of the second in the Jats. The third, more recent, and more important as to quality than as to number, was the Aryan." The same authority, in harmony with the late Mr. Huxley, considered the Australians to be also Dravidian, and therefore allied to the ancient inhabitants * For permission to reproduce the photographs illustrating India, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan, the writer is much indebted to Messrs. Bourne & Shepherd: Herr Karl Hagenbeck, of Hamburg; Messrs. Watts &• Skren, Rangoon: Messrs. Frith & Sons; Mr. Fred. Bremner, Quetta; to the Under-Secretary of State for India for permission to use photographs illustrating two books published by the Indian Government, which we quote in the text ; and to Messrs. J. \V. Gregory & Co., Strand, W.C. INDIA 177 of the Deccan. The features of the present blacks in India, and the characters which the Dravidian and Australian languages have in common, tend to assimilate them. The existence of the boomerang in the two countries helps to support this view. We would ask the reader to judge for himself whether the remarkable photograph of a female Vedda on page 173 does not show quite a striking resemblance to those of Australian women in Chapter III. The second general census of India, taken in 1891, gave a population of over 287,000,000; or, including the French and Portuguese settlements, of over 289,000,000. This figure is about equal to one-fifth of the world's entire population! Since the census of 1881 there has been an increase of 28,000,000, which nearly equals the entire population of England and Wales. And yet the rate of increase is only about 10 per cent. As above stated, the population has increased under English rule, as might have been expected, but the apprehensions expressed by newspaper writers at home do not appear to be shared by some experts. The Kolarians, or Kols (e.g. Santhals, Kurkus, Bhils, etc.), appear to be the oldest race in the peninsula, but it is not known whether they were really the true aborigines. They came first, however, and after them the Dravidians arrived. Both are in an exceedingly low state of culture. It is perhaps undesirable to separate them in this way, for anthropologists now consider the Kols to be Dravidian. They were only separated by the linguists, who are inclined to attach too much importance to language. The anthropologist rightly judges by the physical type— shape of the skull, etc. However, for the sake of convenience, we now give a brief abstract of the scheme of classification given by Professor Keane in his " Asia," Vol. II. in Stanford's " Compendium of Travel and Geography." The divisions of the Kolarians and the Tibeto-Burmans are chiefly of a tribal character; those of the Dravidians and all the Hindus are based on languages : — I. HINDUS (Aryan mixed stock), classified by languages. — Kashmiri, 2£*; Pun- jabi (Sikh, Jat, etc.), 17£; Sindi, 2; Gujarat! and Kachi, 10£; Marathi and Konkani, 19; Hindi and Urdu (North- West Provinces, Kajputana, and Upper Bengal), 100; Bengali, 41; Uriya, 9; Assamese, li; Nepali, 2. II. DRAVIDIANS (classified by languages). — Telugu, 20; Tamil, 16; Kanarese, 9£; Malaya] im, 5£; Tula, 9£; Kodagu, about %; Oraon, about f; Kajmahal, about 3^; Khondi, about J; Gondi, H; Toda, only about 750 persons; Kota, about 1,000 persons; (?) Singhalese, If; (?) Vedda, supposed to number about 3,000 persons. III. KOLARIANS (classified by tribes). — San thai, If; Munda, f; Kharia, Mal- Paharia, Juang, Gadaba, Korwa, Kurku, Mehto, Savara, and Bhil, altogether about 2. IV. TIBETO-BURMANS (Mongol stock), classi- fied by tribes. — Ladakhi, Champa, etc., TV, Garhwali, etc., £, (?); Magar, Sarpa, etc, |; Lepcha, etc., J,T (?); •The figures denote millions (approximately). To save space we are obliged to omit the geographical distributions, but the names themselves in some cases will give a clue. Photo by Doctors Paul and Fritz Sarasin, Basle. A VEDDA MAN (FULL-PACE). i78 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND Photo bij Plait it Co.] [Colombo. DEVIL-DANCERS, CEYLON. Llopa, etc. (of Bhutan), f (?); Miri, etc., ^ (?); Kachari, |; Singpo and Kuki, £ (?); Mikir, 3^; Khasi (of the Khasia Hills), -fa (?); Naga, about £. V. SUNDRIES (making a total of only about 2,000,000). — Shan, Malay, Negrito (Andaman Islands), Indo-Arab, "Moormen" (Arab), Baluchi, Afghan (Afridi, Waziri, Yusafzai, etc.), Swati, etc., Persian, Parsi, Eurasian (half-caste), and European, about-536,000 persons. As already stated, the last census, of 1891, gave the total population as over 287,000,000. Speaking of the Dravidiaus and Hindus, Mr. Keane says: "All have long beeu fused together in one common ethnical, social, and religious system, while still separated one from another mainly by their different languages, all derived in Europe from the common Latin stock, in India either from a common Sanskrit or from a common but now extinct Dravidian mother- tongue." It is hardly necessary after this to point out that India presents a great diversity of tribes and races. Some are in a high state of culture; others can only be spoken of as savages. The great bulk of the population can be traced to two main sources — the Aryan Hindus, chiefly in the northern plains, and the Dravidians in the Deccan. Thrust back by the Aryans from the plains that once were theirs, the aborigines lie hidden in the recesses of the mountains, like the fossilised remains found by geologists in mountain caves — only these "specimens" are not dry bones, but actual living people. Thus India is a great museum of races, in which we can study man in various stages of culture, some very low, and in fact interesting survivals from prehistoric times, others more advanced in the scale of civilisation. All are fond of music and dancing. Sometimes they form a ring by joining hands, and advance in step towards the centre, and again retire, while circling round and round. When INDIA 179 wearied with dancing they sing. A man steps out of the crowd, and sings a verse impromptu, a woman there joins him, and the pair chant in alternate strains, for the most part taunting each other with personal defects. They all seem prone to excessive drinking. Nearly all the aboriginal hill people have the dark skin, flat nose, and thick lips which so easily distinguish them from the Aryan race, and they mostly dress in the same way. For men and women alike a cloth wound round the waist constitutes the chief article of attire. Necklaces of beads, earrings of brass and iron, brass bracelets, and girdles of twisted cords find favour in the eyes of young men and women. They seldom wear any covering on the head, though the women often add false hair to their own. In one of the religious hymns of the Gonds their god alleges as one cause of his displeasure against the first-created Gonds that they did not bathe for six months together. It must be confessed that, in this respect, the hill tribes of to-day do not belie their ancestry; and though they carry their scanty costume with a certain grace, their dirtiness, and the tattoo-marks on their faces, arms, and thighs, have a repelling effect. For the most part light-hearted and easy-tempered, when once their shyness is overcome they prove very communicative. But while naturally frank, and far more truthful than the Aryan Hindus, they are nevertheless arrant thieves, though their pilfering is generally managed in the simplest and most maladroit manner. It may be said generally of the dark aborigines that they possess no written records, being ignorant of letters, and even of hieroglyphics. The only works of their forefathers are the rude stone circles, upright standing stones, and the mounds beneath which they were buried, reminding one of a time when Europe was in an equally primitive stage of culture. The knives and rough flint instruments found in the Narbada Valley speak of a time yet more distant. By permission of Ilerr Karl Hagenbtck. A GROUP OF TAMIL GIRLS. i8o THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND The new-comers from the north prided themselves on their fair complexion. Their earliest poets, three or perhaps four thousand years ago, praised in the Rig-Veda their gods, who " subjected the black-skin to the Aryan man," and speak of those who, " slaying the Dasyus, protected the Aryan colour." The Aryan with his finely formed features loathed the ugly and perhaps somewhat Negroid faces of the aborigines. Vedic hymns abound in scornful epithets for the primitive tribes, such as "disturbers of sacrifices," "lawless," "without rites," "without gods." Having been driven back into the forests, they were painted in still more hideous shapes, until they became the "monsters" and " demons " of the Aryan poets. Their name " enemy " thus came to mean " devil." Our friend Mr. William Crooke, a well- known ethnologist, has formed a different idea of the so-called Aryan invasion. He thinks " it was never apparently an invasion in the common sense of the word, an inroad of a fully organised nation, overwhelming and enslaving the indigenous races, such as was, for instance, that of the Turkish tribes into Europe. The colonisation of Central Asia by the Mongol races probably took place through the Indian Peninsula, and this was followed by a continuous southward movement of the Aryans which was only part of that great series of emigrations which went on continuously during prehistoric times. Their incoming may have been gradual and spread over vast eras of time; it may have taken the shape of successive waves of colonists, never very numerous, and establishing their superiority more by the influence of their higher culture -than by actual brute force. In some places they may have become real over-lords of the races which they found in the country; in the other parts the conquered may have absorbed their conquerors. This theory would in a measure account for some of the most difficult problems in the ethnology of 'Upper India." He goes on to point out that the Aryans did not, as has previously been supposed, occupy the fertile plains and rich alluvial valleys, because they were covered with impenetrable forests, swarming with dangerous beasts, and full of malaria. Rather they took the course of the lower hills that flank the river valleys. His view is not that the Dravidians were driven into the mountains by the Aryans, but that the former were always living among the mountains where we find them. Photo by J/. Pierre Prill] [Pirns. A TAMIL MAN OF CEYLON (MIXED TYPE). HINDU CASTES. THE dark aborigines of India, Kolarians and Dravidians, were undoubtedly far more numerous than their fair Aryan conquerors, and the latter would certainly have been absorbed by them had not the system of caste been invented. Accordingly, by the laws of Manu, marriage with the dark races was strictly forbidden, and a definite rank was assigned to each shade of colour which had been already developed. Caste therefore originally meant colour, and by its means the intruding Aryans maintained their supremacy. But already a certain amount of fusion Photo by .Vesffi. II'. L. II. Skttn A L'o.\ [Colombo. A TAMIL GIRL. 181 182 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND had taken place. The subject is too compli- cated for discussion in these pages, but it may be pointed out that caste, as now known in India, is the product of several factors — viz. race, occupation, and religion. The four original castes are the priests (Brahman s); the warriors (JTshatriyas); citizens, traders, and agriculturists (Vu'ixfii/Hx); and the menials (Sudras). These, however, have been under- going a continual subdivision, until now there are 2,500 main divisions. Some castes are of political origin. Of this the most striking example is to be met with in the hill tracts of the Punjab, where the rajah is the fountain of honour, and by his word creates, enlarges, or restricts the castes of the people in his realm. As a rule the process is confined to the two upper classes of Brahman and Rajput. Lower castes may gradually acquire a higher caste. In the Deccan a landholder who be- comes rich may rise to a higher caste, but as a rule the process is the other way, and in the direction of degradation. The barriers of caste are supposed to be immutable, but it is plain that the people contrive to leap over them and to creep under them. Mention must also be made of the Pariahs, or outcasts. The term originally meant " hillmen," a fact which throws no small light on the institution. And so the Pariahs were the independent highlanders who were excluded from all social privileges. One is reminded by this of the absurd contempt with which the famous Dr. Johnson spoke of the Scotch highlanders; in his narrow view they were simply pariaJml These hill people may be regarded as being of the aboriginal elements of a prehistoric period. • Caste, again, has been somewhat affected by the spreading of Mohammedanism. But the sacerdotal caste (Brahmans) have survived this and other changes, often retaining the noble cast of countenance which is characteristic of the race. The following table shows at a glance the chief castes and tribes: — Pholi, l.ij M. I'i,,i, !>, /',/] DEVIL-DANCERS, CEYLON. [farit. I. Agricultural. Military anil dominant, e.g. Rajputs. Other cultivators. Field labourers. II. Pastoral. Cattle-grazers, shepherds, etc. III. Fnrext Tribrx (very numerous). Santhals, Kols, Gonds. Hhils, Todas, Kotas, Irulns, Kliasis, Kukis, l.u.-liai-, Chins, and others. IV. Fishers. Kahars. Mallahs, etc. V. Carpenters. masons, potters, etc. VI. Pfrxniinl Si'i-rii-f. I'liml. e/c. Hnrbers. servants, butchers, washerwomen. VII. Leather-workers and Loieer Village Menials. VIII. Traders. 1 X. Professionals. Priests, devotees, etc. Temple servants, writers. X. Arts, etc. Astrologers, singers, ilaneer-, :iet. XI. Ciirriirx. XII. Viii/niii/x. Knife-grinders, mat- and cane-workers, hunters and fowler.;. jugglers and acrobats. XIII. lade fin iff Iinlinn Castes. XIV. Xillii'i Clii-ixtiini*. Then follow Himnese. Western Asiatics, Eurasians, Europeans, and Africans. INDIA THE WARRIOR OR KSHATRIYA CASTE. THE true Kshatriya, when engaged in fighting an enemy, should give up all desire to live. Far be it from him to think of retreating or taking to flight! On the contrary, let him advance bravely, resolved to conquer or to die! The happiest death for a Kshatriya, the one he should wish for most, is to die sword in hand, fighting. It procures for him the inestimable happiness of being admitted to Swarga (Paradise). Boundless ambition is the highest virtue a Kshatriya can possess. However vast his possessions may be already, he should never say that he has enough. All his thoughts should tend to enlarging and improving his territories and to making war on neighbouring princes, with a view to appropriating their possessions by main force. He should show faith and piety towards the gods, and should respect Brahmans (a caste we shall speak of later on), placing the utmost confidence in them and loading them with gifts. Truth and justice are the foundation on which all his actions should be based. In a work like the present it would be quite impossible to describe, however briefly, all the principal races and tribes and castes of the peninsula with its teeming population. We therefore have selected a few, especially those of which we procured the best photographs. These we shall now deal with as far as space permits. The reader should first consult the brief scheme of classification on page 177. THE KOLS. THE Kols, or Kolarians, formerly overspread the plains of Bengal, but are now to be found only in the hill and jungle tracts between Upper and Lower Bengal, the Nagpur Plateau, and generally from the Ganges to about 18° N. latitude. According to Colonel Dalton, they show much variety, and there may have been a good deal of fusion with the Aryan conquerors. Pkoto by Messrs. lioni'/te & Shepherd] OF KOLS. 1 84 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND la colour they vary greatly, the copper tints being most common. The hair is black and straight or wavy, as everywhere in India. They carry themselves very well. Many have high noses and oval faces, and some of the young girls have delicate and regular features, finely chiselled straight noses, and perfectly formed mouths and chins. However, the eyes (dark brown) are seldom so large, so bright, and so gazelle-like as those of pure Hindu maidens. There are also traces of some fusion with the Mongols of the North (see illustrations on pages 183 and 185). The Mirzapur Kols appear to have lost all recollection of the sun-god revered by the Mundas of Bengal. Still, they venerate the sun. The Kols worship demons aud spirits, whom they greatly fear, and the souls of the dead. THE JUANGS OF ORISSA. Ix the Tributary States of Orissa there is a poor tribe of Juangs (also Kolarian), or Pattias (literally the " leaf- wearers "), whose women wear no clothes, but only a few strings of beads round the waist, aud a bunch of leaves tied in front and behind. Her Majesty's Government, shocked at this state of things, gave orders in 1871 that those under British influence should be clothed. The English officer therefore called the tribe together, made a speech on the subject of clothes, and then handed out strips of cotton for the women to put on! Obediently they passed before him in single file, to the number of 1,900, made obeisance as a sign of their submission, and were afterwards marked on the forehead with vermilion. But this enforced submission to the great Mrs. Grundy was not a success, for before long many of the Juang women had gone back to their leaves. These people, until quite lately, had no knowledge of metals, and may be regarded as a relic from the Stone Age. An officer who knew them well said their huts were the smallest ever deliberately constructed as dwellings. The head of the family and all the females huddle together in one hut about 6 feet by 8 feet in area. The boys and young men live in a separate building. THE BHILS. THE Bhils (also Kolarian) are of small stature, slender, and very dark, but possessing great '-.. agility and strength. Robbery and war are their delight. As thieves they still keep their old reputation for adroitness. Many tales are told illustrating their wonderful skill in this art, so widely practised in India. They have been known to steal the blanket from under a sleeping man, although warned that the attempt would be made! Xaked aud oiled all over, they move about without making any noise, and it is no easy matter to lay hold of them. They are very clever at hiding, and cases are on record in which they have escaped capture when pursued by adopt- ing what naturalists call " pro- tective mimicry." Their plan From " Tli' 1'rimi/irr 'l'i il* * • i>f tlir Xitugim," by J. \Y. lintfa (ty iKimueion r blftCk **»J limb8 ilU° AND TWO KUKUMBAS. such attitudes that they are 1 » . -A '' "\t- i86 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND Photo IHJ Mr. E. T/iuretoii, Madras Museum. TWO TODA GIRLS. mistaken for the scorched and burned stumps of trees, so often to be met with in India on account of forest fires. Sir James Outram won many of them over to comparative civili- sation; and there are now two regiments of Bhils in the native army. Their huts in the forest are made of boughs and sticks thatched and wattled with long grass. They are fearful of evil omens, and worship trees, stones, etc. They number 900,000. THE GONDS. THE domain of the Gouds, who are Dravidian, is in the highlands north of the Deccau, and called after them Goudwana. Many of them were formerly employed in the coal-pits of the Narbada Valley. According to Mr. Hislop, they are darker than most of the other aboriginal races, are of average height, and have well-proportioned bodies, but rather ugly features. They have a somewhat round head, wide month and wide nostrils, thick lips, and straight black hair, with only a scanty beard. It is quite a mistake to suppose that any of them have woolly hair, like a Negro. On the contrary, both hair and features are decidedly Mongolian. Captain Forsyth says the women differ among themselves more than the men: in the opener parts of the country, near the plains, they are often great robust creatures; but in the interior bevies of Gond women may be seen who are more like monkeys than human beings. The features of all are strongly marked and coarse. As soon as their short youth is over, they all pass at once into a hideous old age. This is not surprising, for they lead very hard lives, sharing in nearly all the men's labours. They dress decently enough in a short petticoat often dyed blue, tucked in between the legs, so as to leave them naked to the thigh; a mantle of white cotton covers the upper part of the body. They have their legs elaborately tattooed. Their number appears to be about 124,000. THE TODAS. THE Todas dwell quite in the south in scattered hamlets on the slopes of the Nilgiri Hills, or "Blue Hills." They are a tall, sturdy race, with regular features, and of a dark chocolate colour. The nose is aquiline, the lips thick, and they are very hairy, a feature which at once distinguishes them from the Aryan Hindus and reminds one of the Australians. The general contour of the head and cast of countenance are rather such as we are accustomed to associate with the ancient Roman. Mr. William Crooke, however, considers them to be probably the earliest race in India, and retaining certain Negrito characteristics. Their brown eyes are wonderfully quick and bright, full of intelligence, often melancholy and gentle. In some instances the physiognomy appears rather Jewish; hence they have been associated by some writers with the lost tribes of Israel. These people are essentially herdsmen (as their [Tamil] name implies), and herdsmen they have been for untold ages. Raised high above the torrid plains of India, they inhabit a sort of tropical Switzerland. Secluded amongst their pastures, taking pleasure only in their own customs, they hold aloof from all foreign influences. The tone of voice is kind and grave, but with the women solemnity is replaced by a THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND certain playfulness. It is impossible not to be struck by the taste and simplicity of their cos- tume. Draped in a sort of toga, with one arm and thigh uncovered, they have quite the "grand air "; but it is a pity they do not wash themselves. Mr. J. W. Breeks says: " We could not help liking them. They were extremely amused at our British idiosyncrasies, and laughed at them un- restrainedly, not consider- ing themselves in any way our inferiors.'' Their hearty good-humour and free, jovial manners are no less pleasing than their politeness, affability, and courtesy. Dr. Shortt, writing in 18G8, made the sweeping assertion that most of the women have been debauched by Europeans, who have in- troduced diseases to which these innocent tribes were once perfect strangers, but which are no less surely sapping their once hardy and vigorous constitutions. This, however, is untrue. They are sadly addicted to strong drink, and will drink neat brandy out of a mug. The women are treated with respect, and enjoy a largo amount of freedom. They tend children, cook the family meals, bring water from the spring, and keep the house in order — such as it is. The men tend the cattle and do most of the outdoor work. They are a quiet, undemonstrative, and very domestic people. The entire family, down to the last cousin, are regarded as one household. The men maintain their authority sensibly and without tyranny. But sometimes a woman of superior intelligence may rule her husband. The women mark, or tattoo, portions of the body — namely, the arms, chest, and legs; and they wear a heavy metal ring on the arm. Though their intellect is of a very inferior order, and they possess but little force of character, yet what they do know they know well. They may be said to be even intelligent within certain narrow limits. The odorous abode of the Todas is called a mand (village, or hamlet), which is composed of huts (see illustration on page 187), dairy, and cattle-pen. Each mand usually comprises about five buildings, or huts, three of which are used as dwellings. These are usually 10 feet high, 18 feet long, and 9 feet broad. The very small entrance, only 18 inches wide, is not provided with any door or gate, but is closed by a wooden plank, which forms a sort of sliding-door. To enter, one has to go down on all-fours, and even then much wriggling is necessary. The hut is built of bamboos closely laid together, and the roof is thatch; only in the middle is the height sufficient to enable a tall man to walk about comfortably. On one side there is a platform where the family sleep. Each hut is surrounded '.,„ •• /'/,. /•/;//.;•/>. 7Vi/»« nf ti,e MlagMt," by J. il'. y;/> the L'f"/' r-*«-i'i'inj of State for lixli<\). KOTA WOMEN', MAKING POTS. INDIA 189 by a wall of loose stones. The dairy is situated at some distance from the inhabited huts, and strangers never attempt to approach too near, for fear of incurring the ill-will of the god or spirit believed to preside therein. The herd of buffaloes retreats at night to a circular enclosure with a wall of loose stones. The writer is indebted to Mr. R. Lydekker, F.R.S., who is arranging the Anthropological Collection at the Museum of Natural History, for kindly lending the photograph of two Toda girls on page 186. It is by Mr. E. Thurston. THE KOTAS. PROBABLY the Todas and the Kotas lived near to each other before the latter settled on the Nilgiri Hills. The Kotas number about 1,200. Each village consists of from thirty to sixty huts, arranged in rows along the street. There is no caste; the people are divided according to the streets in which they live; people belonging to the same street may not marry. They are, unfortunately, very fond of intoxicating liquors. They are universally looked down upon as unclean feeders and eaters of carrion, a custom which is to them no more repulsive than eating "high" game is to ourselves. However, they make excellent artisans. The Kota women have none of the fearlessness and friendliness of the Todas, and on the approach of a European to their domain bolt out of sight, like frightened rabbits in a warren, and hide within the inmost recesses of their huts. As a rule they are clad in filthy dirty clothes, all tattered and torn, and frequently not reaching nearly as low as the knees. They fetch water, collect firewood, and make baskets and earthen pots. They worship rude images of wood or stone, a rock, or a tree in some secluded place. Both the Todas and Kotas have long (dolichocephalic) heads. From " The Primitive Tribes of the Nilayiris," by ./. IV. Breeks (by permission of the Vnder-Secretury of Stale for India). KURUMBAS, WITH HOUSE. 190 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND THE KUKUMBAS. THE picture drawn by Mr. King in his " Aboriginal Tribes of the Nilgiris" (1876) is not a pleasant one. Their food consisted then of wild roots and berries, or grain soaked in water, with occasionally a porcupine or a polecat. Their dwellings were generally a few branches piled up together like heaps of dead brushwood in a plantation, often simply holes or clefts among the rocks. No such ceremony as marriage existed among these people, who lived together like the brute creation. Though they have somewhat improved since those days, and work on planters' estates for regular wages, their appearance even now is wretched. They are short and ill-made, with bleared eyes, a rather wide mouth, and often projecting teeth. Spare to leanness, there is also a total absence of any apparent muscle, and the arms and legs are as much like black sticks as human limbs. The illustration of Kurumbas on page 189 is from a photograph in Brocks' " Primitive Tribes of the Nilagiris," published by the Indian Government at Calcutta, and the writer is indebted to the Under-Secretary of State for India for permission to reproduce this photograph as well as those on pages 184 and 188. THE SANTHALS. AMONG aborigines who have progressed to a higher stage of civilisation are the Santhals. They still live in villages in the jungles or among the mountains of Lower Bengal. Although still clinging more or less to their forests and keeping up the customs of a hunting forest tribe, yet they have learned the use of the plough, and make skilful husbandmen. JUNGLE FOLK. MAXY of the Dravidian tribes and castes live in the jungles, and thus acquire a knowledge of the wild animals therein which to us seems astounding, and their faculty of ob- servation has been very highly developed. Speaking of this, our friend Mr. William Crooke, whose researches in Indian ethnology are well known, says: " One thing he [the jungle-dweller] does acquire by this course of life is a marvellous insight into Nature and her secrets. His eyesight or power of hearing is not, I think, by nature better than onrs, but he will hear or see a tiger creeping down a ravine long before the English sportsman will. Every sound in the forest has a meaning for him — the grunt of the baboon as the tiger comes beneath his tree, the hoarse alarm bark of the stag. From the way the vultures hover in the air he will tell whether the tiger has finished his meal or is still tearing the carcase. Every footmark, a displaced pvbble, a broken grass- stalk, will tell him something — what beast has passed there, and how long ago. AVe of late hours and crowded rooms and artificial light look upon such powers as almost a miracle; but it is really only the result of Photo by Mt**i*. t'l'iih A- CV/.J [Keigate. ISCARD8, SOLDIERS OF THE MAHARAJAH OF KASHMIR. INDIA 191 the fact that he has thoroughly adapted himself to his environment, and this he must do or starve" (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, New Series, Vol. I., p. 223). THE KHONDS. ANOTHER Dravidian race is that of the Khonds. In old days they practised human sacrifice, but this custom has been suppressed. They also used to kill the baby-girls, saying that they were too poor to support useless children. In 1835 they became subject to English rule; their stock of human victims was delivered up, and they had to be content with sacrificing goats and buffaloes. They have a strange belief that certain persons can change themselves into tigers. General Campbell, when in their country, saw fourteen of their great wooden elephant- figures on which human victims were offered, tied on to the trunk and hacked to pieces while the whole image was spun round. He ordered these images to be destroyed; but it Photo by Messrs. Frith & Co.] NAUTCH-GIRLS OF KASHMIR. [lieigate. was no easy matter to overthrow a practice so deeply rooted, which had existed from time immemorial. They even believed that he wanted to sacrifice the very victims whom he released, in order to bring back water into a certain large tank made for his elephants! One day at this very place the English officer was told that a human victim was acutally being offered up. It was a handsome girl of about fifteen years of age. Instantly, therefore, he set off with a large party. On arrival they saw the aged priest ready to give the signal, and the onlookers mad with excitement. He came to the rescue and demanded the girl's release, which was granted — -but only from motives of fear. No sooner had the soldiers gone out of sight than the Khonds broke out into loud murmurings. They would not be disappointed; and so, at the suggestion of one of the party, they sacrificed the aged priest himself, because, being seventy years old, he could be of no further use! And so he was forthwith tied on to the wooden elephant-image and cut to pieces. They kidnapped their victims from the plains, and a thriving Khond village usually kept a small stock in reserve "to meet sudden demands for atonement." The victim, on being 192 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND brought to the hamlet, was welcomed at every threshold, daintily fed, and kindly treated till the fatal day arrived. He was then solemnly sacrificed to the earth-god, the people shouting in his or her dying ears, " We bought you with a price; no sin rests with us." His flesh and blood were distributed among the village lands. Among these people the custom of "marriage by capture" prevails. The young man snatches up his bride, while her friends pretend to pursue them. How- ever, his friends come to the rescue and prevent her recapture. As soon as his own village is reached he is safe, and the young couple settle down to married life. In spite of the cruel human sacrifices above referred to, which of course have a religious aspect, the Khonds have good points in their favour. According to Captain Macpherson, their nine cardinal sins are: to refuse hospitality; to break an oath or promise; to speak falsely, except to save a guest; to break the pledge of friendship; to break an old law or custom; to commit incest; to contract debts, the payment of which is ruinous to the man's tribe, they being responsible; to skulk in time of A PARSI GIRL. war; to divulge a public secret. On the other hand, their three chief virtues are: to kill a foe in public battle; to die in public, battle; and to be a priest. THE JATS AXD KAJPUTS. AMONG the people of the Punjab the Jats and Uajputs come first, they being the most numerous. Both may perhaps belong to the same stock, although differing in appearance. They are considered by Sir J. B. Lyall, late Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, to be directly descended from the military clans which the Indian chiefs led against Alexander the Great when he invaded the Punjab in 325 B.C., but the latest view is that they came from Central Asia. The Greek historians of that time described these people as eminently brave in war, tall, and graceful. This is still true of them. In the Sikh wars they opposed us in the hardest battles ever fought in India; aud since then they have fought side by side with British soldiers. Among the Jats those who are Mohammedan are usually not so fond of fighting as the Hindu Jats; the most martial of them are those living in the centre of the Punjab and belonging to the Sikh religion. It was the Jats who in the eighteenth century gradually overturned the Mohammedan government of the Punjab ("India," British Empire Series). Professor Keane, however, accepts Mr. William Crooke's view that they represent an invasion of the Yu-cchi from Central Asia. CHAPTER IX. INDIA (continued): WOLF-REARED CHILDREN, KASHMIRIS, P ARSIS, KHASIS: RELIGION IN INDIA: ARYAN THEOLOGY, LITERATURE, ETC.— AFGHAN- ISTAN AND BALUCHISTAN. WOLF-REARED CHILDREN. READERS of Mr. Kipling's most fascinating "Jungle-Books" will possibly not be altogether surprised to learn that a good deal of valuable and trustworthy evidence has been collected to establish the fact, so long denied as unworthy of credence, that human babes have been carried off and nurtured by wolves. Tradition, as we all know, has said so for ages, ever since the story of Romulus and Remus. But it has been the fashion till lately to reject most traditions. However, a re- action in their favour has at length taken place. In a valuable paper entitled "Jungle Life in India," Mr. V. Ball, of the Indian Geo- logical Survey, brings together the evidence which has been collected. It is published in The Journal of the Anthro- pological Institute, Vol. IX., • page 466. The following is the text of a letter he received from a correspon- dent:— "DEAR SIK,— " I see your name mentioned in the newspapers as one who leans to the belief that children have been nourished by wolves. And as there are sceptics who will have it that you labour under a delusion, it may be in- teresting to you to learn a few particulars about a Photo by Messrs. Bourne -u. is greeted with joy; but the arrival of a girl is felt .as a burden and a misfortune. When a death takes place, the body is well washed, dressed in clean white clothes, wrapped in linen and felts, and carried with but little delay to the grave. The ground is dug out to a depth of three feet, the spot is marked with a stone, and mourners visit the grave for forty days after the interment. Religion is scarcely more than a name. The people profess themselves Mohammedans, but very few have any fixed religious principles. There is no settled and recognised priestly order. They rarely pray; and such notions as are entertained concerning things supernatural are nearly all derived from older paganism and contemporary Shamanism, which is a species of Nature-worship, with Shamans or wizards to officiate and to interpret signs and omens. From the earliest accounts Turkomans appear as a plundering nomad race, who were never politically organised. "We are all equal," they say; "with us every man is a king." The title of khan among them is little more than honorary. As their name implies, they are of Turki stock. The number of these people is estimated at over 600,000. They are divided into nine sub-tribes, each of which is independent of the others, though all recognise a common origin. A feeling of brotherhood prevents anarchy. The Turkoman was till recently a slave-dealer, selling Persians, whose caravans he waylaid in Khiva and Bokhara. In 1881 the Russians destroyed the military power of the Turkomans by capturing their principal Pluito by M. LiMe\ A KIRGHIZ BED. BOKHARA 221 fortress, Geok-Tepe, when 20,000 people were slaughtered, and the "White Czar'5 has since repressed slave-dealing. They are a brave, hardy race, naturally averse to restraint, preferring a free life on the steppe to the routine and method of a city.* BOKHARA. Ix Bokhara we find TJsbegs, of Turki stock, and Tajiks, who represent the original Iranian element, differing in many respects from the Persians. Bokhara, though nominally independent, is so completely dominated by Russia as to be practically part of her empire. Few states of its small size contain a population so heterogeneous; for besides the Usbegs and Tajiks there are Arabs, Persians, Turkomans, and Jews. The population has been conjecturally estimated at about 1,000,000. Most of the TJsbegs in Bokhara are engaged in agriculture and inhabit towns, but a few are still wandering nomads. Their manner is bold and straightforward. They associate with Tajiks, but as yet no real friendliness exists between the tribes, although * The author is again indebted to Mr. E. Delmar Morgan, F.R.G.S., for his kindness in allowing him to reproduce here some of the excellent photographs taken for him during his travels in Eastern Turkestan. The originals are in the possession of the Royal Geographical Society, the Council of which also kindly gave their permission. TURKOMAN WOMEN. 222 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND intermarriage takes place to a certain extent. In appearance, as well as in character, they are readily distinguished. The Usbegs are taller and thinner, have but scanty beards (owing to the Mongol strain in their blood), and much more strongly marked faces. They look upon Tajiks as effeminate and time-serving, although the latter have intellectual qualities which make them indispensable. The government is in their hands; their soldiers are brave and dashing. In religion all are fanatical Mohammedans. The Usbegs cultivate with great assiduity the music and poetry iden- tified with their race. They arrange mock battles to celebrate great occa- sions, and are particularly fond of horse-racing. The Tajiks claim to be of Arab descent; but physical traits, and the fact that their language is a dialect of Persian, prove them to be a branch of the latter race. They came from the west, and settled on the banks of the Zarafshan Eiver at a time when the country was uninhabited, and only a jungle of reeds was to be seen where the town of Bokhara now stands. In that city Tajiks consti- tute the majority of the population, and have won a reputation as enter- prising and skilful traders. Their peaceable disposition is attributed by the Usbegs to cowardice. They are known to be avaricious, faithless, and deceitful. The Iranian type is appa- rent in their faces; yet they differ in some respects from Persians who have settled in Bokhara within recent times. They may be described as tall, with handsome and regular features, rather fair in complexion, with black hair and eyes. The men cultivate ample beards, and try to improve their personal appearance as much as possible; yet their faces show an expression of shrewdness and of cunning which excites suspicion in others. Most of them speak Turki, the language of the Usbegs. Their intellectual superiority has secured for them a leading place in Bokharan society. (See illustrations on page 5il9.) SIBERIA. THE native inhabitants of Siberia are said to number scarcely 750,000, excluding the Bashkirs, who dwell west of the Ural River, and both the Kara Kirghiz and the Kirghiz-Kazaks, who live mostly south of the Aralo-Caspian region. All the numerous native races, of which we shall only describe a few typical ones, are being rapidly absorbed by the Russians, or Slavs. Xone of them appear able to hold their own, except the Yakuts of the Lena Basin, and the Kirghiz of the West Siberian Steppes. Ostiaks, Samoyedes, Giliaks, and others are fast dying out. All these and many more aboriginal tribes belong to the Mongolo-Tartar division, except the "Hyperboreans," who are as yet unclassified. By permission of the Royal OugfOpMcti .Society. A DUNCAN WOMAN, PROVINCE OF KDLJA. SIBERIA 223 Of Mongolian stock are the Kalmuks, including Zungars, etc., all Buddhists, numbering about 20,000; the Buriats (eastern and western branches) about 250,000 in number. Of Manchu stock are the Tuuguses, including Lamuts, Oroches, Golds, Dungans, etc., about 80,000. Of Finnic stock are Samoyedes, including Soyots, and others, about 35,000; Ugriaus, including Ostiaks, 25,000; and Voguls, 4,500; and, lastly, mixed Fiuno-Tartars, to the number of 5,000. Of Turki stock are Yakuts, Red and Black Tartars, etc., about 280,000. By permission of the Royal (reoffrajt/ticai Socitty. DUNGANS OF KULJA. Finally (leaving out Russians, Chinese, Manchus, Koreans, and Japanese), we have some unclassified races, such as Koriaks, Chukchis, Kamchadales, Giliaks, and Eskimo. Kalmuks are found in Eastern Turkestan (the Tarim Basin) as well as in Siberia. They are Buddhists by religion; Lamas are their priests. At the yearly festival, held at a place called Job, the bones of defunct Lamas, brought from all quarters, are boiled in a huge cauldron. On this occasion (according to the testimony of the late Sir T. D. Fraser's " Report on the Indian Government Mission to Yarkand ") two or three aged Lamas always sacrifice themselves by jumping into the boiling liquor. At the conclusion of the festival the liquor is distributed among the attendant Lamas, who fill copper vessels, which they afterwards carry about suspended from their girdles. On returning home, they distribute the liquor to other Lamas, 224 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND lly pti'in'mioii of the lloyul Geographical Xwii/y. \ GHOUP (IF SAKTS AND DUNCAN'S, WITH CART (OR " ARBAS "). who again fill smaller copper vessels with it; and when a Lama eats, he first dips a wood pencil into his little copper bottle and passes it across his tongue. At the present day the Kalmuks iiumber about 20,000. In personal appearance they are ugly, and those who have deal- ings with them consider them cunning, dishonest, and drunken. The men are excellent horsemen, and breed camels for the Tiflis market. The Mongolian race ^^^ in Siberia is best repre- sented by the '^jjuriats, who possess its typical features and characteristics in a more marked degree than the Kalmuks. Their physiognomy undeniably proclaims their origin. They have very large skulls, square faces, and low, flat foreheads; the cheek-bones are high and wide apart, the eyes elongated, the nose is flat, the skin swarthy and yellowish, and the hair jet black. With the men the hair is allowed to grow upon the crown of the head, and is plaited into a queue that hangs down at the back. The hair around the crown is cut as closely as possible, but not shaved off. The women wear their hair in two thick braids, which fall from the temples to below the shoulders; and the unmarried girls interweave their hair with strings of coral. The Buriats have been long settled on both sides of Lake Baikal. The two great branches of the Buriats, distinguished as the east branch and the west branch, according to the side of the lake they occupy, number 250,000, the highest number assigned to any of the natives races of Siberia. They are divided into eleven principal tribes, each of which is again divided into clans or families. Previously to their subjugation by the Russians all were addicted to the old Shamanist religion of Siberia; but towards the close of the seventeenth century those dwelling east of Lake Baikal adopted Buddhism, while most of the others conformed to the Orthodox Greek Church and became Christian, in name at least — though, it is said, both branches are still, at heart, genuine Shamanists. The Buriats are of a decidedly phlegmatic temperament. They lack the active enterprise from which greatness is usually developed, and they have such an inborn disinclination for work of any kind that sometimes only the stimulus of hunger will move them to exertion. Through the Russians, with whom they have long had considerable intercourse, they have, unhappily, acquired a passionate love of strong drink and tobacco, and now one may often come across children eight or nine years old with pipes in their mouths. The ordinary occupation of the Buriats is that of tending cattle. Mr. Lansdell mentions some rich Buriats who possessed G,000 or 7,000 sheep, 2,000 head of horned cattle, and 200 horses; while Captain Cochrane tells of the mother of a Buriat chief who owned 40,000 sheep, 10,000 horses, and 3,000 horned cattle, beside a large property in furs. Though they are commonly unsociable and phlegmatic, there is no ground for assuming that the Buriats lack intellectual power. The English missionaries taught some of them Latin, and prepared in the Buriat language an elementary work on geometry, which is still much appreciated. One class of the Lamas among the Buddhistic Buriats study and practise medicine, in which they acquire a reputation for skill. Those of the Buriats who are Buddhists — and they are by far SIBERIA 225 the greater number of the people — have temples, ritual, an order of priests, and a considerable literature. Those who are Christians are not less endowed intellectually, and their number is increasing. Most travellers glance only superficially at what has been done and what is being done by the English Mission to the Buriats, and conclude without sufficient evidence that its efforts muet be necessarily futile. Mr. Lausdell, however, has shown that, years ago, the English missionaries laid a solid foundation. They taught and trained several Buriat scholars, and they translated the Scriptures into the Buriat tongue, which translation the Russian missionaries have in their hands to-day. The Russian missionaries of the Greek Church count their converts by thousands. It has been ascertained that on the eastern side of Lake Baikal, among the Buddhist Buriats, 300 converts and children are baptised each year, and on the western side, where Shamanism prevails, the 11 timber annually baptised exceeds 1,000. Following the scheme of classification already set forth — a scheme which is based on that of Keane — we come to the tribes of Mauchu stock, in- cluded under the general name Tuuguses. The Tunguses hold an enormous domain, stretching from the Yenisei River to the shore of the Pacific Ocean, and washed at two points by the waters of. the Arctic Ocean. Travellers who have lived among them enthusias- tically praise the many ad- mirable qualities of these people, and Mr. Keane asserts that "there can be no doubt that they are one of the very noblest types of mankind." They are of Manchu stock, and number about 80,000, divided into a great number of tribes, who wander over a far larger area than the men of any other race in Siberia. Those in the Valley of the Yenisei give themselves to the care of reindeer and to the chase. M. Theel says ' they are by far the most in- telligent of the natives on the Yenisei, and that their rich women (such as the wives of chiefs) often wear furs of beaver, sable, and grey fox to the value of many hundred pounds sterling. lie men- tions, as a proof of their intellectual cultivation and -*V p*TWf*rt0fl oj (he Royal Geographical Society. their taste, a hexagonal spindle DUKANI MENDICANTS. 226 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND A KALMUK WOMAN ON CAMEL. of ivory which was presented to him there, upon which the days, the weeks, and the mouths of the year were represented by signs. The southern tribes of the race have adopted Buddhist doctrines; the northern tribes are mainly Shamanist, or pagan, though many have hearkened to the teaching of missionaries aud become Christians. They are partly nomads and partly settled agriculturists and rearers of cattle. Cheerful under the most depressing circumstances, persevering, candid, and trust- worthy, they are a fearless race of hunters, yet modest aud self-reliant. Born amidst the gloom of their dense pine forests, they are not gloomy. Exposed from the cradle to the grave to every danger from wild beasts, rigorous climate, and rapacious man, they are not repelled by any difficulty. Want and hardships of every kind they endure with surprising fortitude, and nothing can induce them to quit their solitary woodlands, where they cheerfully face the Arctic terrors of their long winter rather than take service under the Russians. Among the principal animals which the Tunguses hunt — whose furs they find marketable, and whose flesh is their food — are the sable, the common fox, the white fox, the elk, the reindeer, the wolf, the bear, the ermine, and the squirrel. At the beginning of October they start out on their snow-shoes, with the long, supple bow and a sheaf of arrows, or perhaps one of the common, almost worthless guns with which Russian traders supply them in exchange for the valuable spoils of the chase. Alone or in company the hunter goes into the virgin forest, and is followed by a little sledge drawn by dogs. The hunting of the elk is carried on to such an extent that in some years as many as 10,000 skins are offered for sale at Yeniseisk, after the Tuuguses have taken all they require for tent-making, clothing, and other uses. The Tunguses have no towns, no permanent villages, but live in tents of skin or of bark, according to the season. They have little idea of the mineral wealth with which their country abounds, though the many tons of gold procured there prove that a great part of the Yenisei Valley is a veritable El Dorado. They spend their lives peacefully, yet industriously, fishing in summer and hunting in winter, and on the whole, as we are justified in concluding, happily. Middendorff says that the senses of these people are highly developed, their sight being extremely keen. But he found them incapable of distinguishing kindred colours — yellows and greens, greens and blues. They could only recognise the strongest tints, and that after long pondering. In their eyes all dark colours appear to be confused with black. They have but few musical instruments. Rattles made of reindeer teeth, sables' jaws, roes' feet, hang by the cradle of the Tungus baby to keep it quiet. In summer the people celebrate in song the feats of ancestors and heroes, the return of the sun, and other themes. Wrangel calls them " the Frenchmen of the tundra," on account of their liveliness, sociability, and courtly manners. Their way of life is an admirable example of the social virtues. Castren calls them " the nobility of Siberia." From the people of Finnic stock we select for description the Samoyedes and the Ostiaks. The Samoyedes are perhaps the most primitive and untaught of all the Siberians. Their domain lies within the Arctic Circle, extending from the Khatanga River westward to the A KALMUK WOMAN (PROFILE). A KALMUK WOMAN (FULL-FACE). KALMUK CHILDREN. A KAI.MTK MAN. The illustrations of Kalmuks are from photographs by M. Pierre Petit, Pans. 227 228 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND By permission of the Royal Geographical Socie/y. WOMEN OF TURKESTAN. Kanin Peninsula, one of the most northerly points of Russia in Europe. They are usually represented as dwelling wholly on lands abutting on the Arctic Ocean; but the eastern branch, that found near the upper waters of the Khatanga River, does not appear to have quite reached the coast. Though only a dwindling remnant of a race, some of their natural qualities, as well as the conditions under which they are developed, render the Samoyedes an interesting people. In physiognomy they are strongly Mongolian; the expression is pleasant, though rather sad. We are indebted for the accompanying photographs to Dr. J. Szombathy, of Vienna, who took the pictures himself, and who has written an important paper on these people (Anthrop. Soc., Vienna). Their average height is above that of the Laplanders, and their limbs are better proportioned. Tlie name Samoyedes has been given them by the Russians. They call themselves Hasovo, which is equivalent to "men," and also Nyenech, with the same meaning. Their immediate neighbours, the Ostiaks, call them Yergan-yach; the Vognls have another name for them. Their riches consist of reindeer, which pasture on the mosses of the tundras, or vast marshes, scraping off the snow with their feet. When alive, the reindeer draws the Samoyede's sledge, and after death its flesh is eaten and its skin is used for making tents and clothing. Almost every part of the animal is used in some way. In winter the men wear short trousers of reindeer-skin, coming down to the knees. Their stockings are made of the skin of young fawns, with the hair worn inside. Then come SIBERIA 229 the boots, which may almost be called boot-stockings, coming up nearly to the thighs. The tunic is a reversible garment, also of reindeer-skin, fastened at the waist with a girdle and furnished with sleeves. It has a high, straight collar, which is sometimes worn so as to rise above the top of the head. The cap is of the same material. In fine weather the tunic is worn with the hair outside; in wet weather, with the hair inside. When a long spell of cold weather comes, a second garment is worn. Honesty is a marked characteristic of the Samoyedes. The merchants of Tobolsk, when they go north in the summer to purchase fish, take with them flour and salt, place them in the summer stations, and leave what they do not use for the following year. If a Samoyede should pass by, and be in pressing want, he takes as much as he needs. But he leaves an I.O.TJ. in the form of a notched stick. In the fishing season, when he can procure the means to pay back, he goes to the merchant and asks for his notched stick, compares it with a duplicate he has kept, and, having assured himself that the notches correspond, pays over sufficient fish to cancel the debt. Mr. Rae, Mr. Seebohm, Mr. Lansdell, and Captain AViggins, who have written interesting accounts of their personal experiences among the Samoyedes, agree with other northern explorers in describing them as a kindly and cheerful people, very hospitable, and generous in sharing the things that come into their possession. The Samoyede is a peace- able being, and eminently sociable. He will travel a long way out of his ordinary course in order to visit a tent where fellow-tribesmen live. He is fond of gossip, a characteristic of all races of Mongol stock. He treats his women with great respect. The wealthier and less wandering families of the Samoyedes profess Chris- tianity. This religion is in fashion solely because it is that of the Russians, who are their masters, and whom they dare not offend by openly practising the rites of the paganism which is still cherished among them. The difficulty of educating and Christianising these wander- ing tribes is exceedingly great. A priest of the Russian Church is sent yearly among them to baptise children and converts, and to marry such of them as are professedly Christian; but though many go through the form of being admitted within the pale of Christianity, "all A GROUp OF SAMOYEDES. flioto by ./. Szombathij] 230 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND alike," as Mr. Keane tersely says, "are true pagans, or idol-worshippers. Their gods are carnivorous, and are fond of raw flesh, which is accordingly thrust between their teeth at stated times." As long as things go well with him, the Samoyede is content to be regarded as a Christian; but should his reindeer die or other catastrophe happen, he returns to his ancient gods Num and Cliaddi. Of all the Christian teaching, that relating to marriage and chastity has the least influence on converted Samoyedes, Tunguses, and others. An observer in Central Siberia writes as follows: "The feeling of modesty seems to be entirely lacking here. Any one not accustomed to this kind of life is so much shocked and degraded in his own eyes by what he is obliged to see and hear, that he is ready to despise himself and the whole world. This lack of modesty is furthered by the close contiguity in which married and unmarried persons live." Exchange of wives is a common form of hospitality. Brandy, the scourge of all the northern races, makes trade very unprofitable to these peoples; for whenever it is wanted, traders and •whalers obtain any quantity of skins and walrus teeth for liquor of the very worst and cheapest quality. Notwithstanding this weakness, Mr. Rae, who lived among them, expresses a high opinion of the Samoyedes, considering them superior in generosity and general character to the Russians who are found in their country. The Ostiaks, one of the three tribes of Finnic stock inhabiting the most westerly part of Siberia, are scattered about in groups along the basin of the Ob River, northward towards the Arctic Ocean, and eastward towards the River Yenisei. In a wide domain of about 400,000 square miles they do not number more than 25,000, though once accounted a powerful people. Their old national organisation is broken up, and it is prob- able that they will ultimately be absorbed among the Russian settlers, as only the Ural Mountains, which are comparatively near, divide them from Russia in Europe. They have now no towns or villages, although they are divided into many tribes. Their dress is the same as that of Russian peasants. For food they are dependent on the spoils of the chase and the fish which are plentiful in their rivers. The Ostiaks are short of stature, with dark hair and eyes and flat faces. In complexion and general appearance they are not unlike some of the Chinese. They are noted Photo by J. Szombathy} A SAMOYEDE MAX AXD WOMAN. [ Vienna. SIBERIA 231 A GROUP OF GOLDS. among other Siberians for the dexterity with which they capture or kill the wild reindeer that roam over the dreary tundras, or marshes, of which their domain largely con- sists. They tie leathern cords across the tops of the antlers of tame deer, and turn them loose one by one when in the neighbourhood of a herd of wild animals. The wild deer attack the tame deer, and in the con- test which ensues their antlers become en- tangled in the leathern cords, which hold them until the Ostiak hunters come within bowshot, when the wild ones become their prey. The wolf and the bear are regarded by the Ostiaks as highly gifted creatures, and aa such are celebrated in some of their songs. When a bear is killed, its skin is stuffed with hay, and the people gather round their fallen enemy to celebrate their triumph with appropriate songs of mockery; but when that ceremony has been performed, the stuffed skin is set upright on its hind legs, and regarded with all the veneration due to a guardian power. The curious worship of the bear, which is found among American Indians, Ainu, and others, runs through all the Hyperboreans of the Old World. From the Tunguses to the Finns the bear takes rank, immediately after the sky and the queen of the under-world, as a divine being, particularly as the lord of all spirits, a god endowed with power and wisdom hidden under a bear's skin. Many superstitions are connected with the beast, and women may not cross his trail, nor even touch the hunting-gear. The Ostiaks believe in a " third world," where there are no more bodily ailments; but they cannot attain that heavenly state. They are fated to pass only into the " second world," a far less happy place of existence, lying somewhere beyond the frozen ocean, far north of the estuary of their great river, the Ob. Belief in Shamanism governs their whole life. Nowhere else does the wizard, or medicine-man, enjoy more influence than amongst them. The brave man, they say, may possess muscular strength, but the Shaman possesses the wisdom which can make that strength useless or effective. The man of strong sinew may draw the bow or hurl the dart, but the course of the arrow or the spear is directed by the Shaman. The people of Yakutsk, the largest province in Siberia, are of Turki stock, very energetic and versatile. Their territory lies on both sides of the River Lena. Yakutsk is said to be the coldest place on the face of the earth. During a part of the winter the thermometer goes down to 58° Fahr. below zero, and the ground is frozen to a depth of 50 feet. So accustomed, however, are the people to these low temperatures, that women may be seen with bare arms chatting pleasantly, as if the weather were like that of an English spring. The people are of middle height, of a light copper colour, with black hair, which the men cut close to the head. Their faces express gentleness and indolence rather than the vigour and passion which they certainly possess. As a race they are good-tempered, orderly, hospitable, and industrious. They are capable of long-continued work, and endure privation with much patience. Their 232 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND winter dwellings are made of logs and wicker, caulked with cow-dung, and flanked with banks of earth piled as high as the windows. The doors are made of raw hides. The windows are sheets of ice or thin semi-transparent skin. If of ice, they are held in place by frost. Water is poured around the edges, and quickly freezes. The fact that it takes a long time to melt this natural fastening of ice is suggestive of what the temperature must be within the hut as well as without. The fireplace consists of a wicker frame, plastered over with clay; the hearth is made of beaten earth, and on it there is always a blazing fire of wood, which throws up sparks to the roof. In summer the people live in tents. If the Yakuts could choose their food from the limited variety the country affords, they would prefer horse-flesh. They have an adage that it is the highest destiny of man to eat much meat and grow fat upon it, and whenever circumstances permit they practically demonstrate their belief in the adage by inordinate feeding. It used to be said that four Yakuts could eat a horse! Some travellers describe the Yakuts as pagans, but those who have been most recently amoug them call them Christians. The method of their conversion was extraordinary. It appears that the Russian priests of the Greek Church being unable to make much headway against their superstitions, a ukase was issued, setting forth that the good and loyal nation of the Yakuts were thought worthy, and were consequently admitted into the Russian Church, to become a part of the Czar's Christian family, and entitled to all the privileges enjoyed by the rest of his children. This audacious proclamation, it appears, was attended with extraordinary success. The new Christians speedily adopted the faith with which they were thus arbitrarily credited, and the Russian priests have now established their sway over the Yakuts, although the sorceries of Shamanism still in- fluence their ordinary life. The Giliaks, but few in number (about 5,000), are representative of a different racial stock from that of the more powerful tribes who inhabit adjoining lands. Their physique and temperament are Mongolian in character. Their eyes are small, and sparkle with a dull light. They have squat noses, thick lips, prominent cheek- bones, and more beard than is generally found in people of Mongolian stock. In stature they are diminutive. The colour of the skin is tawny, like that of the Chinese. The hair is black, but not abundant; it is tied up in a long tail, and neither shaven nor cut, as with the Manchus and Golds. The country of the Giliaks is restricted to the region embraced in the Valley of the Lower Amur to the Okhotsk Sea, and their villages are not numerous. Being farther from the Manclius than the Tunguses, the Giliaks are wilder than the latter, and have a higher idea of tribal and JndividuaJ- liberty. Acknowledging no master, they are governed wholly by custom. They do not cultivate the land, but subsist entirely on fish. The flesh of such animals as they may take in the chase is reserved for extraordinary occasions, when with a little millet it converts what would otherwise be but an ordinary meal into a sumptuous banquet. Their summer clothing is made of the skin of salmon. The skin is stripped off the fish with great dexterity, and by beating with a mallet the scales are removed and the skin is made supple. The Giliak men and women dress very much alike, which indeed is true also of the Golds, who are hardly distinguishable from the Giliaks in appearance, manners, and A G1LIAK MAN. A (JILIAK WOMAN. TWO TUNGUSES. TWO GOLDS. 30 234 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND customs. Among both peoples women occupy a low position. A blouse fastened in front is the outer garb of both sexes; but a number of small metal disks, about the size of a sixpence, fastened around the bottom edge of the garment, distinguishes the gentler sex. The blouse of the men is confined round the waist by a belt, from which are suspended a number of articles required for daily use. They consist of a large knife, a Chinese pipe, an iron instrument for cleaning the pipe, steel for striking a light, a bone for smoothing fish-skins and loosening knots, a bag of fish-skin for tinder, and a tobacco-pouch, which last article is frequently made of the strong skin of the sturgeon. The Russians have tried to Christianise and to educate the Giliaks, but their efforts have not produced any satisfactory results. Neither the Giliaks nor the Golds have any written signs, and they are as obstinate in their paganism as ignorance generally is in clinging to the beliefs it has formed. They have many superstitions. They believe that the carrying of fire in or out of a house, even in a pipe, is likely to bring bad fortune in hunting or fishing; and they are fatalists. If one falls into the water, the others will not help him out, holding that the accident is caused by a superior power, in opposition to whose will it would be both wicked and futile to act. The treatment of the dead varies among different sections of the Giliaks. Some tribes burn their dead on funeral pyres, and build low frames over the ashes; others place the bodies, wrapped in bark-cloth, into forks of trees, out of the reach of wild animals, until the ground is prepared to receive them. The soul of the Giliak is supposed to pass at death into his favourite dog, which is therefore fed with dainty food until the Shaman has prayed the soul out again, when the animal is sacrificed upon the grave of its master, whose spirit is supposed to exist in the nether-world in the same manner, following the same pursuits and indulging the same tastes, as in the world above. The Chukchis, Koriaks, and Kamchaclales fill the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas, and occupy a portion of Sakhalin and of the opposite mainland about the Lower Amur. In former times the Chukchis lived almost entirely on their immense herds of reindeer, but now so many of these have died that the people are obliged to hunt the seal and the walrus. They are pagans and nominal Christians, numbering about 12.000. The Koriaks may be the parent stock of all sub-Arctic races, except the Hairy Ainu. Some are nomads; but others, who have come in contact with Eussians, live in villages. They number about 5,000, and are generally in poverty and misery. Travellers give them a very good character. A harsh word is never spoken against their women, and the children are treated kindly. The Koriaks rarely die a natural death. When no longer capable of A GROUP OF GOLDS. PERSIA 235 enduring the hardships connected with their uomad life, they have no desire to live; and so the aged are dispatched (as in Fiji) by their considerate children. The bodies of the dead are burned. Though Shamanists in religion, like most Siberian tribes, they offer oblations, at least twice a year, to ensure a plentiful catch of fish and seals, and a prosperous season generally. This is in addition to the sacrifices offered by the Shamans, or priests. The Kamchadales, or aborigines of the Kamchatka Peninsula, differ both in language and in appearance from their neighbours, the Koriaks. They are nominally Christians, and now number about 3,000, having been greatly reduced by disease and famine. Some of the northern islands of the Kurile Archipelago also contain Kam- chadales. Travellers speak favourably of them. Their huts are scrupulously clean inside. They spear the salmon in summer, and cultivate rye, potatoes, and turnips, and keep a few cattle. In business they are mere children, and a glass of spirits will tempt them to part with the most costly fur.* TUNGUSES, WITH REINDEER. PERSIA. THE Persians once possessed an empire extending from the Bosphorus to the Indus. They are often called Qajar, from the tribal name of the reigning dynasty. Now their country is restricted to little more than half of the high tableland between the Tigris Valley and that of the Indus. The total area of Persia, called by the natives Iran, is about 630,000 square miles, and its population is estimated at 9,000,000. The Persian or Iranian group comprises the inhabitants not only of Persia proper, but also of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Bokhara, and Central Asia generally. In Central Asia more traces are found of the old Persian language than in Persia itself. The two primary Asiatic types — viz. the Caucasian and the Mongolo-Tartar — meet in the Persians. They are divided into so many different branches that at first sight the country appears to be inhabited by several distinct races. The Tajiks, as the Persians call themselves, the Kurds, the Luris, the Leks, and the Baluchis are all offshoots of the Iranian branch of the Caucasian stem. There has been a copious blending with Turkish and Usbeg stocks, and pure Iranian Persians must necessarily be rare. * The author is greatly indebted to Professor Hamy, whose name is well known to anthropologists, for permission to reproduce a number of valuable photographs of Siberian tribes in the Natural History Museum of Paris (see pages 2:)2 to 237). Our thanks are also due to M. Pierre Petit, of Paris, for photographs of Kalmuks, as well as to Dr. ,T. Szombathy, of Vienna, for the excellent photographs lie kindly sent of Samoyedes. 236 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND The ancient Persians were celebrated for manly beauty, tall stature, pleasing faces, and the good looks of their women. The modern Persians have not deteriorated in this respect. In form they are tall and graceful, with oval faces. Their features are clearly marked and of Cau- casian type, but suggesting delicacy rather than strength. Their hair is black, luxuriant, and glossy, while the eyes are unusually attractive, being dark, full, and luminous. A gentleman who held a professional appointment in Persia for many years, and was intimate with people of all classes, was favourably impressed by their character. He describes the Persian as easy-going, and always ready to make things as pleasant as possible for every one else. Unlike most Asiatics, he is well disposed to the foreigner, extremely hospitable, and fairly honest in his dual- ings. Persians of pure blood have a quick apprehension, a ready wit, and a persua- sive manner. They are fluent in oratory, and have more sense of beauty than the Turks. As a parent the Persian is kind and indulgent to his children, and as a son he always pays the utmost respect to his parents. He addresses his father as ''master," and unless requested to do so will not sit down in his presence. He never ceases to love and reverence his mother. So universal is the sense of filial devotion that an undntiful son or daughter is hardly known in all the country. Rtsspect for the aged is general, and much charity is shown to the poor. Indeed, most of the rich have regular pensioners — old servants or poor relations — who live on their bounty. There is no institution in Persia corresponding to the English workhouse, yet in ordinary times death from privation is unknown. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the Persian is a great liar. So prevalent is lying in all ranks of society that it is hardly considered an insult for one man to call another a liar. It may truly be said that the Oriental tendency to exaggerate is carried to an extreme among the Persians. Their culture, industry, readiness of address, and subtlety— in a word, the combination of their good and bad qualities— have earned for the Persians the reputation of making first-rate diplomatists, negotiators, and brokers. It is perhaps owing to their natural politeness and vanity that titles are so extraordinarily common in Persia. "Mirza" (learned) is prefixed to the name, or "Khan" or "Beg" appended. Pious people are styled " Hadji," the title given to a pilgrim to Mecca; or " Kerbelai " or " Meshedi," from pilgrimages made to other places. It must be admitted, however, that the Persians are cruel. For murder, theft, and political offences savage sentences are imposed and carried out in a cold-blooded manner. The Persian dresses so as to display his physical advantages in the best light. Men generally wear an unstarched shirt of cotton, sewn with white silk; and when they can afford it, elaborately embroidered round the neck. It is without collar, the sleeves are loose and A GILIAK MAN. PERSIA 237 without wristbands, and it seldom comes below the hips. The trousers, or zerejumah, of the upper classes are made of cloth, while the lower classes have trousers of white, blue, or red cotton. They are held up by a cord of red or green silk, worn round the waist. When at work or when running, the working classes tuck up the ends of the trousers under this cord, and leave the leg bare to the middle of the thigh. Over the shirt and zerejumah comes the alka-luk, or closely fitting, collarless garment, open in the front and with sleeves tight to the elbow. Above this is the coat, sometimes of coloured satin, gold-embroidered, or coloured calico, according to the wearer's means. Like the alka-luk, it is open in front, and shows the shirt. The length of the coat denotes the class of the wearer. The military and official classes and upper servants of the nobility wear it short, not descending below the knee. Priests, merchants, lawyers, doctors, and others wear it so long that it touches the heels. The long juba, or cloth cloak, must also be mentioned. The kemmerbund, or belt, is a characteristic article of apparel. Among priests, merchants, and traders it consists of muslin or cotton cloth. Merchants and the literary class — the Mirzas — carry in it a pen-case and roll of paper, while all classes use its folds as pockets. The priests generally wear a white turban, and so also do manv of the merchants. The national hat, however, is the kola. It consists of dark cloth or sheep-skin over a pasteboard frame. The most expensive are made of the black skin of the foetal lamb. The bulk of the people wear coloured lamb-skin or sheep- skin hats with the wool long. Fashion in hats is constantly changing, but does not affect their peculiar form except to increase or diminish the height by an inch or two. The women also wear trousers, which, however, are very wide. Frequently each leg is wider than the skirt of an ordinary gown. The trousers of ladies of high rank are made of very rich material, such as gold brocade, and are decorated with pearls and other ornaments. Persian ladies have been known to wear as many as ten or eleven pairs at once, one over the other. Chilian (boiled rice) and pillau (also of rice), but in a greasy and pudding-like form, are among the chief articles of diet in Persia. Fruit, sweetmeats, and sherbet are freely taken. In spite of the Koran, which prohibits its use, wine plays a conspicuous part in Persian life. Tobacco is consumed in large quantities by means of the nargltileh, in which the smoke is cooled by being drawn over water before coming into the mouth. In Persia air- dried bricks are used for building. These bricks are often made of earth or rubbish from the roads, and houses in conse- quence do not last very long. The bricks of old buildings are, however, used in the construction of new ones. " Houses, palaces, and whole villages are aban- doned for a whim, on account of evil prog- nostics, or in case of death" (Ratzel). A GKOTP OF GILIAK> 238 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND The Iranians are the more intelligent part of the population. To them chiefly are due the arts, philosophy, science, and poetry for which Persia has been famous for many centuries. Among them a number of the ancient sect of fire-worshippers still survive. These are the Guebres. They are a re- markably pure race, for they have never intermarried with other people. The Guebres are Parsis, the word being derived from Pars, an ancient province of Persia, from which the country takes its name. Parsi is the name given to the fire-worshippers in India, who, flying from religious persecution at home, established themselves at Bombay. Special mention must be made of the colony of Nestorians, of whom there are about 30,000 in the north-western provinces. They have become distinguished among the sectarians of the world for the ' devotion with which they have preserved the doctrines of Nestorius, who was Patriarch of Con- stantinople in the year A.D. 430. In Persia they are called Nasranee. They are Chaldeans, and their language as they speak it to-day is Chaldaic. The Kurds of the north, one of the sub-tribes of the old Iranic branch, are as rugged and wild in character as the region they inhabit. They are the most turbulent of the tribes over whom the Persian ruler attempts to exercise authority. Their fierce aspect is in keeping with the deeds of brigandage and murder for which they are notorious. Though classed as Iranian and apparently of Caucasian stock, the Kurds are rather puzzling to the ethnologist. Polak says of them, that in colour of hair, skin, and eyes they are so little different from the northern, especially the Teutonic- breed, that they might easily be taken for Germans. They are prob- ably a mixed race. Professor Keane, speaking of the Kurds of the Euphrates and Tigris Valley (which is included in Turkey in Asia), says they appear to represent the aboriginal pre-Aryan race, which at a remote period extended almost continuously from the southern slopes of the Caucasus throughout the whole of the present Armenia, Luristan, and Kurdistan. He considers them to be the Allophylian race spoken of by Herodotus. The word Kurd is doubtless a corruption of Carduchi, whom Xenophon mentions as inflicting so much damage on the 10,000 Greeks retreating from Artaxerxes. The Kurds are wanderers, and to this day make their winter quarters in the ramifying caverns where Xenophon found the Carduchi. They have a reputation for honour as well as courage, and in Persia the Shah entrusts his safety to Kurdish officers in preference to any others. In Central and Southern Persia the more important of the Iranic tribes are the Luris and Bakhtians. Together they number about 500,000, of whom at least 200,000 are Bakhtians. They are brave and warlike, inhabiting the Bakhtian Mountains, and yield only a half-hearted obedience to the Shah. They are very poor, and frugal in their diet. A former chief of the Bakhtians broke through the primitive habits of his race. He built himself a palace at Changanghove, and furnished it with articles imported from Europe. His style of living was Sy permission of Messrs. Newton & Co., 3, Fleet Street, E. C. A PERSIAN HORSE SOLDIER. From a photo lent by Hassan. Ml Khan. A PERSIAN DERVISH. 240 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND By ]K A GROUP OF DERVISHES (RELIGIOUS MENDICANTS), PERSIA. in strong contrast with that of his subjects, whose black goat's-hair tents were pitched in hundreds on the hillsides and in the hollows of the surrounding country. It was his habit every morning to take a certain pill supposed to have the power of preserving him from any evil. It was made of ruby, the precious stone being ground fine and mixed with paste. Its virtue failed to avert the catastrophe which closed the chief's career. He had secretly collected a store of arms, and the Shah in time came to suspect his ambitious projects. The chief of the Bakhtians was accordingly invited to visit the Shah at his palace in Ispahan. Violating the sacred rites of hospitality, the Shah caused him to be assassinated. Deprived of its leader, the intended revolt of the Bakhtians fell through. The Persians are for the most part Mohammedans of the Shiah sect. This is the most fanatical of the Moslem sects. It denies the right of the first four Caliphs and their immediate successors to the Caliphate, and asserts that All was the true successor of Mohammed. The laws of the Persians are based on the precepts of the Koran. CHAPTER XL ARABIA, STRIA, PALESTINE, ASIA MINOR, AND ARMENIA. AEABIA. THE Arabs are generally regarded as the most interesting as well as the most picturesque and romantic race of people in the East. Their country is the great south-western peninsula of Sinai, having an area of 1,230,000 square miles. The population is about 5,000,000. These low figures (in proportion to the vastness of Arabia) are explained by the fact that at least 420,000 square miles of the country are desert, unproductive, and uninhabitable. The Arabs are one of the extensive Semitic families, differing from each other in some details, but in all important racial characteristics essentially Caucasian in type. Few countries contain a more homogeneous population. They are a remarkably handsome race, lithe and well formed. The typical Bedouin of the desert has bronze-coloured skin, black coarse hair, large eyes, dark and bright, aquiline nose, and features generally well shaped. The beard and moustache are apt to be scanty. On the average the European excels the Arab in physical strength. The inferiority of the Bedouin in height and bulk may be put down to the hardships endured for generation after generation. The Arabs are clean in their persons, and take great care of their teeth, which are generally fine. Courage and temperance are the Arab's leading •virtues, while his chief failings are a lack of scruple in pecuniary dealings and a spirit By itemdssion of Messrs. Newlon efc Co., 3, Fleet Street, E.G. PRISONERS AND JAILORS IN PRISON-YARD, NAR-HA-BAND, PERSIA. 241 242 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND of revenge. The basis of the Arab character is frank and bold. His intellect is active, his perceptive faculties acute, and his judgment sound. Vambery says, in contrasting the Arab with the Turk, "The Turk is a man of religious sentiment only; the Arab is a religious thinker." The jealous and fiery temperament of the Arabs has always been the source of feuds among themselves. They are quick to resent any injury, and are extremely sensitive to the slightest violation of established etiquette. Quarrels frequently arise which end in bloodshed. Their code of law permits the shedding of blood to be atoned for by the payment of money or property, otherwise the wild tribes would long ago have exterminated themselves. They are kept back in the general march of progress by their want of organising power and incapacity for combined action. Hospitality is a leading trait of the Arab character; it is regarded as a sacred duty. The most lawless Arab never fails in his obligations as a host. The life and property of a stranger are always safe under his roof. Nothing will excuse a breach of this duty when a guest has once rested his hand on the tent-pole of a Bedouin or tasted his bread and salt. The Arab is eminently polite. Even the fierce nomads have a code of etiquette which they rigidly observe. "Peace be with you" is the usual salutation. In towns, where manners are naturally more ceremonious, the ordinary morning greeting is, " May your day be white." That white is held to be an emblem of good is further shown by the customary answer, "May yours be like milk." The national dress is simple but picturesque. The nnder-garment is a long white shirt. Over this comes a close-fitting tunic of silk or cotton, according to the means of the wearer. It is generally of a striped material, and is gathered in by a girdle of raw leather. Then comes the abba, or cloak of camel's hair, black or with broad white bars, through which the arms are thrust. Bed shoes, are worn, pointed and turned up at the toes. The head-dress is peculiar, but highly practical and comfortable. It is made of a piece of cotton or silk, some 4 feet square, with yellow or red stripes, fringed on two sides. This is doubled triangularly and thrown over the head, so that the two long ends hang down over the shoulders, and the third hangs down the back. Hound the crown of the head is wound a double wisp of brown camel's hair, partially twisted. The string round the temples is a pro- tection against sunstroke, while the eyes can be shaded by drawing the ends of the cloth over them. The dress of the town-dwelling Arabs and of the South Arabian agriculturists By permission of Messrs. Newton A Co., S, fleet Street, E.G. . , , , . , PERSIAN LADY IN INDOOR COSTUME. consists, for men, of a blue shirt By permission of Messrs. Xewton cfc Co., 3. Fleet Street, E.C. PERSIAN LADIES IN OUTDOOR COSTUME. 343 244- THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND By permission of Messrs. A'fWton tt Co., 3, FUet strert. A'. ( '. PERSIAN LADIES IN OUTDOOR COSTUME. with loose sleeves, a white apron, and a blue head-fillet, ronnd which is twisted a yellow string. The women wear trousers and brightly coloured shifts. On their heads they wear a kerchief, and over that a broad-brimmed straw hat. They are not veiled. The women are fond of setting off their simple attire with silver earrings, and even nose-rings, and silver bangles round the arm and ankle. The weapons of the Arab consist as a rule of a short sword or dagger, a spear, and a long flint-lock gun. He is proud of his weapons, and they are often handsomely ornamented. In South Arabia silver mountings, often of a costly kind, are used, and the silver looks particularly well against the dark skin of its owner. The conditions iiuder which the town-dwellers live naturally differ from those of their nomad brethren. The houses in the more important towns are usually built two storeys or more in height, with ranges of apartments opening into a square or inner court. Subterranean rooms, called .v nl/*. .V "•/"// ,(• r<, , .^, J~'ffti BUTTER-MAKINa IN GOAT-^KTX CHL'HXS Mr**, E.G. NESTOKIANS, ARMENIA). 33 258 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND li\i i if M, »*/*. Xtirlim i(- (''/.. 3. Ft,, I ,v/-.f/. K.I'. ARMENIANS WATER-CARRYING (NESTORIANS). People of Turkish race have much the same dress all over Asia Minor aud Syria. The striped silk of the country is the favourite material for the upper clothing. Heavy stuffs with gold-work are also very popular. Colonel Burnaby, when going through Asia Minor, was struck by the economical way in which the natives build their dwellings. When a man is old enough to marry, and wishes to set up under a roof of his own, he marks a piece of ground, generally of an oblong shape, on the side of a hill. He then digs out the earth to a depth of 6 or 7 feet. His next step is to cut down wood and make six stout posts, each about 10 feet high. These he drives into the ground to a depth of 3 feet, putting three posts on each side of the oblong. Cross-beams are fastened to the top of these uprights, and branches of trees, laid closely and plastered down with clay, make a covering. A few planks, with a hole made in them to serve as a doorway, compose the ends and sides of the building. The door is formed by a broad, heavy plank, with strips of cowhide to serve as hinges. One part is devoted to lodging such sheep, oxen, camels, aud cows as the owner of the house may possess. He and his family occupy the other part. No partition wall separates the cattle from the human tenants. Colonel Burnaby may well be believed when he says that the smell which arises at night from the confined air and the animals in the building is exces- sively disagreeable to a European. In cold weather a hole in the roof which serves as a ventilator is stopped up by a large stone. The inmates, sometimes consisting of twelve or fourteen people, lie huddled together on the floor. In the poorer houses the floor is covered with rugs made of camel's hair, and in the houses of the wealthier class with thick Persian carpets. The Greeks have been connected with Asia Minor from the earliest period of their history. Emigrants went out from ancient Greece and seized upon the maritime border of Asia, where they planted important colonies. These formed some of the brightest jewels in the diadem of imperial Athens. The Asiatic Greek to-day still bears many of the physical characteristics of his ancestors. Tall and slim, but well proportioned, with oval face and arched nose, regular white teeth, animated eyes, and small hands and feet, he ranks high among civilised races in personal comeliness. By intermarriage with Armenians aud other non-Hellenic peoples the Greeks have no doubt lost much of the purity of their race. But their pride and individuality have always kept them from extensive intermixture with the peoples among whom they live. Compared with their European brethren, they are probably entitled to be considered more typical of the ancient Greeks. In Smyrna, and even inland, the Hellenic build can frequently be seen. Greek women may from time to time have passed into Turkish harems, but difference of faith has prevented any union of the two races. His religion assists his deep sense of nationality to keep the Greek of Asia Minor comparatively free from foreign elements. 260 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND The Greek all over the world is known for his clever- ness, subtlety, and energy. He also has the reputation of being deceitful and cunning. In Asia Minor this is especially the case. If his faults cannot be excused, they can at any rate be explained. He has long lived under Turkish op- pression, and it is only by superior ability that he can hope to hold his own. More- over, he has had to deal with Orientals, who regard sharp practice in business matters almost with admiration. While the Turk is so indolent, it is not surprising that the active, energetic, quick-witted Greek, in com- petition with him, should seem likely to attain the leading place in Asia Minor which the former has in- herited. The Greek surpasses the Moslem in every pursuit in which both engage. He is a skilful seafarer, an intelligent farmer, and a shrewd trader. He excels in the learned professions. Teachers, lawyers, doctors, and bankers are in nearly every instance Greeks. The Greek is chosen to be the broker or agent who negotiates important matters of business for "his Turkish friend." He has secured almost exclusive control over local finances and trade. He never forgets that he is a Greek. His pride in his Hellenic nationality is fostered by every means. He does not acquire the manners or the creed of the masters of the land. Consequently Asia Minor is becoming more Greek than Turkish. Smyrna, which is really the capital, is a Greek city. a, flu I xtrnt. K.C. AN ENGLISH MISSIONARY, WITH HIS NATIVE TEACHEIiS. THE ARMENIANS. THE Armenian race formerly numbered 8,000,000, but is now under 3,000,000. In Turkish Armenia there are 1,000,000; in Persian Armenia, 150,000; in Caucasia and Russia in Europe, 850,000; in Turkey in Europe, 250,000; and elsewhere, 00,000. They are a handsome race, though their features generally are large. Of the Caucasian type, they appear to be one of the early offshoots of the Semitic branch. By some ethnologists they are classed with the Iranian group, and Ratzel says that many Armenians could be described as fairer and fatter Persians. In appearance they are strongly suggestive of the Jews. Their national name is Hai, or Haik, or Haikcn. The average Armenian is rather above the medium height. His complexion is darkish brown or yellow. The hair is black and straight, though brown hair is often seen, and in young people even fair hair. The nose is large and sharply curved, and the forehead is more noticeable for width than height. The Armenian lias a marked tendency to run to fleshiness. The women are often handsome, with regular features and a stately carriage; they have fine, dark eyes, shaded by lashes of unusual length and thickness, which lend their olive complexions a peculiar charm. The Armenian is serious, industrious, clever, and hospitable. His quick intelligence THE ARMENIANS 26 i enables him to adapt himself readily to the manners and habits of the people among whom he may happen to be living. This intellectual suppleness makes him especially qualified for trading. Timid and taciturn, he displays at least an outward obedience to his rulers. Their history past and present surrounds the Armenians with a halo of romance. For centuries they have had no separate existence as a nation. Formerly independent, and at times even powerful, they passed under the influence of Persia, which, with Turkey and in more recent years Russia, divides the sovereignty over them. In this state of subjection their position has been little better than that of slaves. Yet it is among the Armenians, whose country extends into Asia Minor, that some of the best traditions and most prevailing religions have started out to influence the world. In classic times Armenia included the whole of the Van district southward to the 38" parallel. Their land has been the arena on which the peoples of the East and West have struggled for the dominion of Asia. Assyrians, Medes, and Persians have passed through it. The great generals of antiquity, Darius, Xerxes, and Alexander the Great, have led their armies into it. The Roman Empire was constantly visiting it with her legions. Arabs, Mongols, and Tartars in more recent times overran it with their devastating hordes. In many respects the history of the Armenians is analogous to that of the Jews. Fated to be driven from their own homes, and the victims of every conceivable form of political mischance, they have proved their Semitic ancestry by their remarkable power of persistence as a people. Their family and tribal sentiment, the depth of their consciousness of nationality, and their religion have been preserved by them for generations without the least apparent diminution. It is to these elements of national character that they owe their survival. Even at the present time the Armenians in Turkey are subject to the harassing incursions of nomad Kurds, who quarter themselves in Armenian villages and compel their hosts to feed them and their cattle, without the slightest payment in return except in the form of insults and blows. It is not more than a few years ago that Europe was startled and shocked by the dreadful massacres which the Sultan's unruly subjects perpetrated wholesale in Armenia. Bit permission J peraMm of Mm Xeu>to/t A c,0 , 3 Fteet stralt & t, in Venice, the other in Paris, KURDISH MOUNTAIN BRIGANDS, ARMENIA. 264 THE LIVING RACES OF MANKIND Photo by Vittoiio Sella] [Bietta. PEOPLE OP TRANSCAUCASIA. where brothers of the order, assisted by French professors, educate young Armenians. Many of their pupils afterwards enter the service of the Turkish, Persian, and Eussian Governments, in which some of them prove the excellence of the education they have received by rising to the highest administrative posts. Yriarte, in his work on Venice, gives a graphic description of the gorgeous ritual for which the Armenian Church is celebrated. Describing a high festival at San Lazzaro, he says that "the pontiff and his clergy, clothed in the sacerdotal vestments, intone the sacred chants preserved for centuries by the national tradition. The robes worn by the archbishop and clergy are of the richest materials and most delicate colours, enriched with embroideries, pearls, and silk. . . . The costume of the archbishop consists of a pontifical robe, hidden under the large folds of a Byzantine dalmatic; he wears the mitre ornamented with the emblematic triangle, on the ground of which stands out the mystic eye of the Deity; and in his hand he holds the episcopal staff, the symbol of his dignity. The second personage is the Vartalud Ananias, vicar-general of the monastery. He wears the dress of the Armenian doctors, the Greek cap on his head; he holds the doctoral staff, of which the top is in the form of two serpents. Then follows the archdeacon, dressed in the alb, wearing the stole and the sacerdotal cap; his function during the service is to hold the censer. The effect of all this is extremely grand. The deacon also wears the alb and the stole as a scarf; it is his duty to hold the gospel to be kissed by the clergy and assistants. The sub-deacon wears the alb; the stole rests only on his left arm; during the ceremony he swings a metal instrument (kechoth, in Latin flalelhtm), which is in the shape of a disk, ornamented in the centre with the head of a winged angel. Eight acolytes, dressed in long albs, carry the insignia of the archi-episcopal office, the mitre and pallium; others hold the cross, the Latin cross, the doctoral staff, and the staff surmounted with the globe and cross, the badge of the diocese of Siounic, of which the principals of the Mekhitarists are the titularies." A fir F \S y,*^ * H atiA JlW y M^