3:i]e §, ^i. Hill Xihniry 5*JortlT daroHita State (UoIIrqc ^ S00764282 T m^^mmmi^ ^^''^■me J Date Due ^^^^^^^^^^■r j|'TT'viv2A 7J8n68 < ^H<-..;ftn'^:^lh'" "^ r 'Ti ^1 ' 1 ..JAY ?^95 l»^;^20*30ff-"- " ''411^^1 '^ rA-* f^ '''' ,^J MwM^ f - ^■ ^^1 lararas - flApr2I'32 - ^■^ov.30;^ 9l6Feb3j4 ^ fl2l()ct''V. 9 5My'4( IB «6M^'40f^ f ./■,/4^/!' 1 5De'40t iH . ^ ^ 2Aug'4^^ / / 1 /^//-^ > A KjSi..< PEEMANENT AND TEMPOEAEY PASTUEES. No. LIBRARY (IF rnK N. C. EXPERIMENT STATION EXECUTIVE OFFICE Case Shelf Purchased N. C. Exp t. Station, Library. Pier I'lUXl'KU BY SPO'n'liSWOODJi AND lO., SEW-STUKKT tSljL'AlUv LOMJUX PEEMANBNT AND TEMPORAEY PASTUEBS WITH DESCEIPTIONS AND COLOURED ILLUSTEATIONS OF LEADING NATURAL GRASSES AND CLOVERS, BY MAETIN J. SUTTON, MEMBER OF THE COUNCII. OF THE ROYAL AftEICULTDEAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, BASED ON AN ESSAY PUBLISHED IN THE JOUENAL OF THE EOYAL AGEICULTUEAL SOCIETY, VOL. XXII. PAET 11. BY MAETIN HOPE SUTTON. SECOND EDITION. (Sp^.. HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO., PATEENOSTER ROW. 1887. Entered at Stationers' Hall. All rights reserved. CONTENTS. -ooJ^OO- PAGK THE EXTE.>TSION OF PASTURES 1 THE DRAINAGE OF GRASS LAND . . . • 7 CULTURAL PRh^A^ATIONS 15 THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS .22 Agrostis alba — VAR. STOLONIFERA {Fiorin, or Creeping Bent Grass) . . 25 Alopecurus pratensis {Meadow Foxtail) 26 Anthoxanthum odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal) 29 AvENA FLAVESCENS {Yellofv Oat Grass) 31 AVENA ELATIOR {Tall Oat Grass) 32 Cynosurus CRiSTATus (Crested Dogstaili) 33 Dactylis glomerata (Rough Cocksfoot) 35 Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue) ; . . 37 Festuca ELATIOR (Tall Fescue) . . . 40 Festuca pratensis — vab. loliacea (Darnel-like Fescue) 43 Festuca heterophylla (Various-leaved Fescue) 45 Festuca ovina (Sheep's Fescue) 45 Festuca duriuscula (Hard Fescue) 47 Festuca rubra (Bed Fcscxie) 49 LOLIUM PEBENNE (Perennial Bye Grass) . .50 Lolium italicum (Italian Bye Grass) 55 LOLIUM vulgare, vel annuum ( Common, or Annual Bye Grass) ... 58 Phleum pratense (Timothy, or Meadow Catstail) 59 POA PRATENSIS (Smooth-stallied Meadow Grass) ....... CI POA TRIVIALIS (Rough-stallied Meadow Grass) 63 a X CONTENTS. J'AGK THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS (cwitinuedy- PoA NEMORALIS SEMPERVIUENS (IJrrrffreett Miadoir (inis.i) .... C,r> Vox AQVATICA (Water ^fe(^don•, or Sifcrt liced Grtiss) G.t Trifolium bepens perexne (Perennial White Clarer) (;."> Trifolium PRATENSE (lied, or Broad Clorer) . (>7 TRlFOLIUil PRATENSE PERENNE (PercJinial lied Clorer) 68 Trifolium hybridu.m (Al»ike Clorer) 71 Trifolium minus ( IV/^ow 5wc/t//«/7) 72 Trifolium medium (Ziijzan Clorer) 72 MedicagO hVPVLi:^A. (Common Tello7i- Clorer, or Tre/ml) 73 Lotus CORNICULATUS (liirdsfoot Trefoil) 74 Achillea Millefolium (Yarn or, or Milfoil) 74 Medicago SATIVA (Lucerne) 75 Onobrychis SATIVA (Sainfoin) 77 Petroseltnum SATIVUM (Sh^ej/s Parsley) 78 Bkomus Schb.edeRI (Sekrif'der's liromc Graan) 79 Bromus INERMIS (An-nless Brome Grasa) 71» Ammophila ABUNDINACEA (Sea Beed, or .Vat f/rafiti) 79 Elvmus AREXARIUS (Sand, or Cjjriyht Sea Lyme OraxK) 80 SOWING GRASS SEEDS 81 Spring Sowing 82 Autumn Sowing 8(1 '^TIIK IMMEDIATE AFTEK-MANAGEMENT OF NEW PASTURES . . . . 89 , THE MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVE-MENT OF OLD GRASS LAND . . 90 BINTS ON HAYMAKING 102 T HINTS ON GRAZING 109 ENSILAGE (Grass) 113 BREAKING-UP OF OLD GRASS LAND 116 TEMPORARY PASTURES 119 One Year's Ley 124 Two Ykars' Ley 12.5 Three or Four Years' Ley 12.5 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES OF GRASSES . 127-174 ILLUSTEATIONS. -oo^jSsJoo- PLATE I. AGROSTIS ALBA— VAR. STOLONIFERA (Fioriti, or Creeping Bent Grass) FaciTig page 130 II. ALOPECURUS PRATENSIS {Meadow Foxtail) . . . . „ 132 III. ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM {Sweet-scented Vernal) . . „ 134 IV. AVENA FLAVESCENS ( Yellon- Oat Grass) „ 130 V. CY^OSVnXJS CmSTATXlS {Crested Bogstail) .... „ 138 VI. DACTYLIS GLOJMERATA {Rough CocTtsfoot) „ 140 ^ VII. FESTUCA PRATENSIS {Meadow Fescue) „ 142 VIII. FESTUCA ELATIOR— VAR. FERTILIS {Tall Fescue) . . . „ 144 IX. FESTUCA HETEROPHYLLA (Fflri of a healthy neighbourhood. For hay Sheep's Fescue is practically useless. The growth is too dwarf to allow the machine or scythe to take hold of it, and horned stock show it no favour. It is pre-eminently a THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 47 pasture grass for sheep on poor light soils and in hilly country, especially where the subsoil is chalk, and it is generally believed to exercise a beneficial influence on the wool. It forms a prin- cipal component of the pastures on chalk downs, where its herbage is very sweet and nourishing, and South Down mutton doubtless owes its fine flavour and quality to being fed on this wholesome grass. In Scotland it constitutes a large part of the sheep herbage of the Highlands, and all through Russia and Siberia it affords almost the only pasturage for cattle and sheep on dry, sandy, rocky soils where no other grass will grow. Its roots penetrate to a great depth, and it is a remarkable fact that if it is highly manured it begins to yield up its place to other grasses. It is therefore most unwise to sow this grass on rich fertile land. Slieep's Fescue is peculiarly suited for autumn, or, correctly speaking, for late summer sowing. The seedlings are so tiny that they are liable to be choked by spring weeds, and if sheep are turned in too soon they tear up many plants. But when well established on suitable soil Festuca ovina propagates itself largely by the roots, and is a match for any intruder. It attains full development in the second or third year. On the soils for which it is specially adapted it is almost indispensable, and the feeding value is very high. It is difficult to state what quantity should be sown per acre. On good soils none, except for ornamental purposes, but on dry hilly pastures it should form a considerable part of the seeding. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 148, facing an illustration. Festuca duriuscula {Hard Fescue). — The common name applies solely to the flower heads, which, when ripe, become decidedly hard. TJie herbage, however, is tender, succulent, and much liked by all kinds of cattle. Hard Fescue is widely distributed, and forms one of the principal constituents of the sheep pastures of this country, (hi 48 PEEMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. all suitable soils it is of importance in forming a close bottom to the turf among stronger-grov/ing varieties, and in this respect is of especial service for u])land pastures. Sinclair found Hard Fescue to thrive best in company with Festuca pratensis and Pod trivialis, and my own experience confirms his view. Mingled with Sheep's Fescue it also forms a close and nutritious crop for sheep. This grass starts into growth early in spring, flowers at, or a little before midsummer, and yields an abundant lattermath. On moist and rich soils it affords an immense amount of herbage, which sometimes grows higher than the flowers, and the plant will stand drought well when the land is in good condition. As the nutritive value is much diminished by the formation of seed, the crop should be cut in time to prevent deterioration. In hay the presence of this grass is generally indicative of superior quality, and mountain graziers insist that Hard Fescue contains more ' proof than many varieties that receive a higher character from the chemist. Festuca duriuscula is the most robust of the small Fescues, and occupies as important a position among them as Festuca pratensis does among the taller species. It is perfectly distinct from Festuca ovina, being larger in growth ; the seed also is larger, and is wanting in the rich golden-brown colour which distinguishes true seed of Festuca ovina from that of all other Fescues. On good soil Hard Fescue is undoubtedly superior to Bed Fescue. The foliage is less harsh, the root is not creeping, and in dry seasons Festuca duriuscula is more than able to hold its own. I must also add that in dry seasons Festuca duriuscula temporarily developes a partially creeping habit, and in wet seasons Festuca nihra becomes less creeping than in dry years. This does not make it a matter of indifference as to which of the two is sown. Each variety is constant in character on the soil which suits it, and there is waste of time and fodder in putting either plant on land where it will take several years to adapt itself to un congenial surroundin<]cs. Xear the sea-coast the THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 40 foliage of Hard Fescue assumes a l^luisli-green colour, and is then known as Festaca glauca. As Hard Fescue is the most widely distributed of the small Fescues, the seed is naturally the cheapest, and is fre- quently accepted for the higher priced sorts by those who are unacquainted w^ith its appearance. This variety may properly be considered to be one of the least expensive and most desirable bases, or bottom-herbage grass, of a permanent mixture for all soils that are not very wet. But caution is recommended in including it in alternate mixtures, because on some soils the plant is difficult to eradicate, and after a ley is broken up it is often troublesome among corn. Stimulating manures do little or nothing for Hard Fescue ; they only encourage other grasses at its expense. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 150, facing an illustration. Festuca rubra ( Bed Fescve ) derives its name from the reddish-brown colour of the lower leaves. The difficulty of obtaining pure seed of this grass has fostered the frequently expressed opinion that it is only a form of F. duriuscula. But besides a more robust habit it is further distinguished by its creeping roots, which enable the plant to remain green and succulent when other grasses are burnt up. For this creeping tendency it has sometimes been wholly condemned, and, although I cannot go that length, I am quite of opinion that Hard Fescue is infinitely superior, except for poor dry harsh soils, and on upland pastures where the employment of Eed Fescue may fairly be considered essential, especially for its great power of with- standing drought. This quality naturally fits it for use on rail- way slopes, and for all burning soils and liot climates ; yet it will endure both cold and shade. On deep soils it is comparatively of so little value that Meadow Fescue may advantageously be allowed to replace it. Red Fescue shoots rather later in tlie spring than Sheeps £ 50 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. Fescue, and produces an abundance of small herbage which fills up tlie bottom of a pasture, and also renders it serviceable in ornamental grounds. It flowers in June, ripens seed at the middle of July, and is one of the few grasses which improve as they get older, the leaves and stems being actually more nutritious, as well as of superior bulk, at the time of ripening seed than earlier in the season. All cattle like it, and it is so great a favourite with hares tliat a quantity should be grown where this game is preserved in large numbers. For hay it is of small utility, and the lalter- math is inconsiderable. Eed Fescue must be reijarded as exclu- sively a pasture grass. Sinclair believed it to attain perfection in the second year, and limited its duration to seven or eight years. The seed is larger than that of Festnca dur{..scula. and germinates well — decidedly better in the open air than under artificial conditions. Lolium perenne [Ptrennial Rye Grass). — An American waiter enumerates between sixty and seventy varieties of Kye Grass, but no great experience is needed to discover that in so long a list there are more names than sorts. The majority are mere synonyms ; others are selections having no permanent character ; so that for practical purposes the number may be reduced to about half a dozen. There are tw^o well-defined types : one, a strong-growing plant represented by Pacey's Perennial ; tlie other a dwarf branching variety represented by Sutton's Perennial. Both these sections are legitimately and profitably employed in the formation of permanent pastures. Lolium perenne was the first grass gathered separately for agricultural purposes. It is better known and more frequently used than any other variety, and notwithstanding recently ex- pressed opinions that it is biennial and not perennial, I am satis- fied that It is entitled to the name by which it has been known since IGll, the date of the earliest agricultural book which men- tions it. Tliat this grass is not perennial on all soils, nor under THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 51 adverse conditions, may be freely admitted, and few, if any, grasses are. But when true Perennial Rye Grass seed is sown on soil that is adapted for it, and its natural requirements are met, it will prove a lasting plant. ^ Perennial Rye Grass was in this country first sown in the Chiltern parts of Oxfordshire, and is still of great service in some portions of that district on cold sour clays, and on light stony land so deficient in lime that it will not grow Sainfoin. The eminent Swiss botanist, Dr. F. G. Stebler, describes it as ' one of the most valuable plants in our meadows. For pasture on clay soils it cannot be replaced by any other plant, and tliere- fore it is largely used in mixtures for forming pasture grass of best quahty. In the North of Germany there are even ex- perienced growers wdio only sow Rye Gi-ass with a little White Clover. The duration of this plant varies much according to soil and climate.' Perennial Rye Grass is indigenous in many districts, and grows on a great diversity of soils. A burning sand or thin ^ Since the first edition f>f this work was issued, I have received from eminent authorities upon Grasses many confirmations of this opinion. Sir John B. Lawes has written me approving tljis view, and has also ^'ranted me the sight of some convincing evi- dence he has obtained as to the permanent character and valuable qualities of Perennial Rye Grass. Sir John visited Leicestershire for the express purpose of examining the famous ox-pastures "^f that county, and subsef[Upntly had the herbage of the best two pastures carefully analysed. The report, which 1 have been permitted to see, establishes beyond a shadow of doubt the fact that Lolium perenne is the grass of which the pastures in question principally consist, and that it must have existed in them for more than forty years, although during that time it has never been allowed to seed. Further, it is clearly shown that the pastures actually owe their high reputation to the abundant presence of Perennial Rye Gra*8 and White Clover. Professor Fieam, Consulting Botanist to the British Dairy Farmers' Association, has, in an article published in the Mark Lanr Krpress, made the following observations : ' Readers who are familiar with wliat ma}' be termed the ''grass literature" of the lasc half-dozen years will turn with some interest to Mr. Sutton's remarks on Rj'e Grass. He writes in no dubious tone.' A verbatim quotation of the above paragraph follows, and the Professor then says: — ' I am bound to express my concurrence with the position INfr. Sutton takes up. Numerous confirmatory cases have cme under ray notice, of which I need only mention one. lu tiie natural herbage of the water-meadows bordering the Hampshire Avon, Lolium perenne is, as I have found from repeated observation, a con- stant and l\y no means in.-;ignificant constituent. These meadows are invariably cut before the Rye Grass has time to ripen, much less to shed its seed, so that the continued presence of this grass can only be due to its perennial character.' T. '2 52 PEKMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. gravel is least suitable for it, but it answers on a gravelly clay, is at home on all loams, and positively revels in tenacious land. Even pure clay is not too stiff for it. The poorer and drier the soil the shorter will be its duration. On the contrary, tlie richer and more moist the land, always supposing the drainage to be good, the greater the certainty that Eye Grass will be perma- nent. It responds quickly to irrigation, either of pure water or of liquid manure, but stagnant water soon kills it. The liabit of tlie plant points to the secret of successful treatment. It roots only in the surface soil, and as poor land speedily becomes ex- hausted by the rapid growth, of necessity the plant dies. Pastures which are stimulated by the droppings of cake -fed cattle, or which are dressed at proper intervals with farm-yard manure, contiuue to grow Rye Grass year after year without the sowing of seed. Of course if a crop of liay is cut early enough, seeding is impossible, and if the pasture is grazed the cattle will take care that seed does not ripen. I have a pasture containing a large proportion of E.ye Grass, and the cattle never permit the heads to flower, but keep both culms and herbage cropped close, although the Cocksfoot culms in the same field are an annual nuisance. Perennial Rye Grass will grow under conditions that are fatal to other grasses ; it is the most certain to germinate and to produce a crop ; it comes quickly to maturity, and is unin- jured by the tread of cattle. While other grasses are dependent upon season and weather, Rye Grass is able to liold its own under all circumstances, enduring winter frost and summer heat. Another great advantage is that it is so little deteriorated by being- allowed to grow old before it is cut. In fact, there is no doubt that it improves in quality as it becomes nearly ripe, and pro- bably the discrepancies between some chemical analyses and the experience of farmers in feeding stock are traceable to the too early cutting of the crops. The high feeding value of Perennial Rye Grass is shown by Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker's report and analysis, which are THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 58 given at pages 128 and 152, from which it will be seen that of the larger grasses only Foxtail is superior to Perennial B.je Grass in nutritious properties. Experiments which have been made by feeding cattle on hay composed exclusively of this grass confirm my estimate of its valuable qualities. It also deserves to be widely known that Eye Grass straw cut into chaff is a very substantial food for cattle. An experienced grower, probably the largest cultivator of Eye Grass in this country, informs me that he always prefers giving his store cattle and horses the chaffed straw of Eye Grass, when it has been harvested in good condition, to feeding them on meadow hay cut from an old pasture, and that both beasts and horses show a preference for the former. Morton's ' Encyclopasdia of Agriculture ' contains the follow- ing remark on this subject : ' According to M. Pean de Saint- Gilles, a French agriculturist, the ripe straw left after threshing out the seeds is a better fodder than hay made from the green straw. After giving many thousand trusses of the straw to his horses without other food for several months, he found that they ate it as readily as the finest hay, and that it kept them in high condition.' The objection occasionally urged against Eye Grass, that it does not produce an aftermath, only holds good as to starved crops, and on soils which are not adapted to grow the plant. Its very cheapness has been given as a reason for not using it. In the best sense of the term Eye Grass is cheap as compared with many natural grasses, but in these days of agricultural depression surely this is a special argument in its favour. It is quite true that Fe.^tuca pratensis possesses many of its good qualities and excels it in aftermath, but the difference in the price of the two articles is considerable, and the Fescue is distinctly inferior in nutritive qualities, except in its early stage of growth. One of the main reasons for including Perennial Eye Grass in mixtures for permanent pastures is its rehability for ensuring a plant. This is a matter of great importance, for if grasses do not occupy the ground in tlie first season, weeds will inevital)ly 54 PEEMANENT AND TExMPORAEY PASTURES. do so. And the liye Grass yields a bulk of hay during each of the first two years such as coidd not possibly be obtained with- out it. Again, the Rye Grass fosters the growth of other varieties and aids the general progress and development of those grasses wdiich are slow in coming to maturity. On all these grounds I advocate the use of Perennial Eye Grass seed in prescriptions for permanent pastures. Even on land unsuitable for maintaining Rye Grass permanently, excellent service will be rendered by the plant while it lasts. On such soils it will yield up its place when other kinds are sufficiently established to occupy the land, but meanwhile crops of valuable herbage will be secured. Most of the Rye Grass seed sown in England is saved in Scot- land and in the North of Ireland, and I have no doubt that its acclimatisation in those cold districts tends to maintain its hardi- ness and its permanency. But the popular notion that the first year's crop of Perennial Rye Grass seed produces onl}^ an annual plant is a mere fiction, although to ensure all the crop being the perennial variety maiden seed should be rejected for permanent pasture. Per alternate husbandry Perennial Rye Grass may be re- garded as indispensable for all soils. Even on land where it certainly woidd not be permanent, it should be liberally sown for a short term of years. The excellence of its herbage, tlie great weight of produce, its early and late grow^th, and the fact that it endures the tramphng of stock, are all strongly in favour of its free employment. Exceplionally heavy dressings of nitrogenous manures applied to Rye Grass when in mixture with other varieties are inimical to its existence because the manures enable other strong-growing grasses to obtain the ascendency. But Rye Grass sowai alone, or when mixed w^itli Broad Clover only, is greatly increased by the application of manures, proving that the plant has no inherent objection to them. Both at Chiswick where it w^as grown alone, and at Rothamstead where it only formed a portion of the herbage, nitrate of soda had a marked effect upon its growth, and tlie fact THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 55 was especially noticeable that the nitrate produced an innnense amount of root -fibre as well as leafy herbage. And it is in- terestino; to find that at Rothamstead, after decreasinir for three years, Rye Grass then slightly increased in proportion to the other surroundinue. G4 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. Poa trivialis was first cultivated about 1780, and is now generally considered to be superior to Poa praten.sis. On strong moist soils tliis is doubtless true, but the favourable comparison does not extend to light land liable to burn, on which the former dies. The plant is rich in potash and phosphoric acid, so that unless the land is crood and constantlv fed it soon becomes ex- hausted. It is liable to injury by spring and autunm frosts, and also by severe winters. This grass forms a large part of the natural turf of the valleys in mountainous districts where the rainfall is consider- able. It thrives under trees, prospers in water-meadows and all moist dripping situations, and bears well the lioofs of stock, but it must be mown before the foliage turns yellow at the base, or it is liable to rot. Sinclair says that it is unprofitable for any purpose on dry exposed situations, Poa trivialis flowers at the time of cutting hay, but is especially useful for joastures nevertheless. The herbage is of more value at the time of ripening seed than before, but as ripening does not take place until the end of July, it is im- possible in the South of England to keep the hay crop wait- ing for it. Tlie aftermath is good after early cutting only. Sinclair advises its use exclusively for permanent pastures on rich soils and in sheltered positions, and I quite agree with this view. Valuable as this grass is for such situations, I do not consider that for any other land it is worth while to incur the cost of seed, which, if true, is always expensive. Wlierever Poa pi^atensis will answer, it should be used instead. Nitrate of soda combined with mineral manures has a marked effect on tlie development of this grass, while, on the contrary, ammonia salts diminish its growth. The Eothamstead experiments have clearly established the fact that in this respect it differs altogether from Poa pratensis. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page IGO, facing an illustration. THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 05 Poa nemoralis sempervirens [Hadsons Bay. or Euergreen Meadow Grass) grows very early in spring, yields a greater bulk of herbage than Poa pratensis, bears drought remarkably well, and is the most valuable of the cultivated Poas. For, lawns and ornamental grounds it answers admirably, and it is indispensable for sowing under the shade of trees. The seed is too costly, and the supply too uncertain, to warrant a large use of it in ordinary grass-land farming. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 162, facing an illustration of tlie plant. Poa aquatica ( Water Meadow, or Sweet Reed Grass) is adapted for low-lying land subject to floods. It is nutritious, and is generally liked by cattle. In the fen districts it forms a large part of the herbage, and yields abundant crops of hay. It is suitable for sowing in water meadows, and may be included in permanent mixtures for undrained clay. The flowering occurs in July and August. Trifolium repens perenne {Perennial White Clover). — This plant was first cultivated in the Netherlands ; hence the familiar name, Dutch Clover. It is said not to have been sown in England until the beginning; of the eighteenth centurv, althoucrh it is in- digenous all over the country. Tlie seed will lie dormant for a long time and at a great depth, and be ready to spring into life when brought to the surface. The habit of the plane is creeping, and when once established it soon covers the ground. Some-/ times its luxuriance is excessive, when it becomes a nuisance, taking possession of land which might be more profitably occu- pied, so that judgment should be exercised in sowing it. In warm, rainy seasons it spreads rapidly, but makes little or no progress during cold, dry weather. Besides the mass of fibrous surface roots there is a long tap-root which goes deep into the subsoil, sustaining the plant during drought when only 66 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. the parent stem grows, the lateral and creeping shoots remaining dormant. The character of the plant differs materially, according to the soil on which it is grown. Sinclair remarks that 'it maintains itself in soils of opposite natures,' because of its having fibrous roots and a tap-root. It prospers on mellow land containing lime, and on all soils rich in humus, from marl to gravel, or gravelly clay. It does better in poor land, and is less sensitive to atmospheric influences than Red Clover, and is of great import- ance on land which cannot be depended on to grow Perennial Red Clover. In early spring it produces very little food, and the plant is so dwarf that it is practically useless for cutting, so that Alsike should take its place for a crop of hay. Still, Perennial White Clover forms an essential constituent of every good pasture. All cattle eat it with relish, but it is less useful for the production of milk tlian of flesh, and is of special service in fattening sheep. No doubt the herbage is more palatable to stock before the plant flowers than afterwards ; indeed, a pro- fusion of flowers is no indication of an abundant bite. White Clover is not suitable for culture alone, and its herbage is better for cattle when mingled witli grasses, especially with Perennial Rye Grass. The Norfolk farmers largely use it for ewes and lambs, but from difference of climate the strong opinion they entertain in its favour is not shared by practical men in the West of En Ef land. The fecundation of White Clover is aided by insects From ten flower heads visited by bees Darwin obtained ten times as many seeds as from a corresponding number protected by gauze. On a subsequent occasion he failed to obtain a single good seed from twenty protected heads. Ammonia salts alone reduce the plant to insignificant pro- portions. Nitrate of soda is little better in its effect. Both these nitrogenous manures result in a smaller growth of Wliite Clover than when the land is left unmanured. Mineral manures, potash especially, with a small quantity of nitrate, considerably THE SELECTION OF GEASSES AND CLOVERS. 67 auo-ment its growth, as also do dressings of marl or vegetable ash. There is a Longhaulmed Diitcli or Wild White Clover whicli is prized for the heavy crop it produces, but much of the seed offered under this name is unreliable, and the best of it will, after a few years' growth in an unsuitable locality, revert to the original type. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 164, facing an illustration. Trifolium pratense {Bed, or Broad Clover) is said to be indigenous in every country in Europe except Greece. In a wild state its presence is a fair indication of the fertility of the soil. Although a strong-land plant it will grow on almost any soil, and contains so much moisture that only one-fifth of tlie weight of the green crop is found in the liaystack. Winter and spring frosts are very injurious to Eed Clover, and to save tlie plant it is often necessary to give a top-dressing of long manure, for which, however, there is a return in due time. A considerable diversity can be discerned in the various strains of Eed Clover. Seed is imported from all parts of Europe, and large quantities from JSTorth America. Each country has one or two well-defined types of this plant, and altliough growers may be careful to avoid buying any but so-called English seed, the fact that the stock may only have been imported two years previously will account for the differences which are every j-ear displayed in our crops of Eed Clover. The prejudice existing against foreign seed, especially that from America and France, is well founded. Experience has proved tliat both produce a smaller crop tlian seed saved from a stock which has been acclimatised in England for many years, and tliere is also the great danger of Dodder to be considered. Tlie seed grown in Styria and in some districts of North Germanv, however, is as robust and linrdy as tlie Englisli. p 2 68 PERMANJ5NT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. Trifoliam pratense is quite iinsuited for permanent pastures, but slioulcl form a large proportion of an alternate mixture. The great root-growtli made during its two years' existence is tlie best possible preparation for the following wheat crop. This Clover is incapable of self-fertilisation, and the Humble Bee is almost exclusively the medium by which pollen is conveyed from anther to stigma. In Australia and New Zealand, where until recently the Humble Bee was unknown, seed has rarely been ripened, and the Red Clover sown in those colonies has all been imported, principally from England. Tlie character and culture of Red Clover are so w^ell under- stood as to render further remark needless. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 166, facing an illustration. Trifolmm pratense perenn© {Perennial Bed Clover). — I believe this Clover originated in a cross between Trifolium pra- tense or Broad Clover, and Trifolium medium or Zigzag Clover. The latter has never been in commerce, nor has it been grown as a crop, yet some writers have fallen into the error of con- fusing it with Cow Grass as known in Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Hampshire, and Wiltshire. The farmers of these counties recog- nise the true Trifolium pratense jyerenne as Cow Grass, and this plant enters largely into the rotation of their arable land. They find it of immense importance to them, and are astonished that it should remain unknown in other parts of England, except for the use made of it in permanent pastures. Trifolium piratense perenne differs from Broad Clover in liaving a somewhat taller, smoother, and exce})t in its very young state a less hairy stem, and a stronger, less fibrous, and more penetrating root. It carries its flowers some way above the foliage, surpasses Broad Clover in succulence and weiglit of crop, and stands frosts much better. The root of Perennial Red Clover reaches down into the subsoil, enablinfT it to obtain moisture and nourishment in the THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 90 hottest weather, when Red Clover gives up from drought. This penetratmg habit also affords a means of sustenance to the plant on land which is too poor to grow Broad Clover, and makes it desirable to increase the proportion of tliis seed for pastures on thin uplands. Perennial Eed Clover has two characteristics wliich greatly augment its value : it does not beLnn to flower until at least ten days later than Broad Clover, and its more robust and solid stems remain succulent and eatable by stock long after Broad Clover has become pithy and withered. Perennial Red Clover fills up the gap between the first and second cuttings of Broad Clover, coming into use at a time when there is no other avaUable green food for the horses of the farm, but it rarely gives a second crop of any consequence. Cow Grass produces comparatively little seed from its single crop ; whereas Red Clover }■ ields a good crop of seed from the second cutting, after the first has been taken as fodder. For these reasons seed of the perennial variety is necessarily high in price. It is worth noting tliat Cow Grass is understood on Mark Lane, and in manj^ parts of England, to mean no more than a fine handsome sample of Broad Red Clover. The true Per- ennial Red Clover is rarely obtainable except from those who make its culture a study. And, just as all Rye Grass has been condemned because the annual variety has been used where only the perennial kind should have been employed, so true Cow Grass — TrifoUum pratense pereime — has been disparaged because Broad Clover has been called by its name and supplied as the genuine article. AVlien Mr. Jenkins was in Flanders on his tour with Mr. Howard some years ago, he found that this Perennial Clover was relied on as the chief soihng crop, and was used in exactly the same way as in the English counties I have named. So far as I am aware, however, true Belgian Cow Grass is ne\er offered in this country, and if it were offered there would be the risk of its being foul. 70 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. The true Perennial Eed Clover is an invaluable plant for permanent pastures, and should be included in every mixture for that purpose. Its presence in a pasture at midsummer, when Alsike is giving up, is of great service, and idthough it does not produce a second crop for the scytlie, it yields a quan- tity of excellent feed. In pastures, Perennial Eed Clover does not perpetuate itself by seed as is commonly supposed, but from short stout branches extended from the parent plant, which root and take the place of tlie parent when it dies from exhaustion. Stebler classes this Clover, among otliers, under the heading of Trifolium j^^'citense. He says it also bears the later and better name of pratense ijerenne^ or Perennial Meadow Clover, the very designation which my fatlier has always given it. Stebler also notes its peculiarity of having a less fibrous root than ordinary Eed Clover, that the stalks are generally sohd instead of hollow, that it produces less flower and therefore less seed, and that the seed is always dear and ditficult to obtain true. He also clearly upholds my view that it is much more perennial than any otlier Clover, and distinctly says that it is a mistake to confound it Avith Trifolium medium. At Eothamstead, ammonia salts had the effect of ehminating til is plant from the various plots to which they were applied, whether in conjunction with mineral manures or alone. Nitrate of soda also diminished the growth. Even potash and mineral manures alone did not maintain the permanence of this Clover. It is a remarkable fact that the unmanured plots, where there was little other herbage to interfere with it, were the only plots on which Cow Grass retained its original position. The Eotham- stead experiments, however, decisively proved this plant to be more perennial than Trifolium repen,^; hence there can be no doubt whatever as to its great value in laying down land to pasture. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 1G8, facing an illustration. THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 71 Trifolium hybridum {Ahike Clover). — Altlioiigli this plant was named by Linnaius, tliere is reason to doubt whetlier it is a hybrid between Eed and White Clover, as is generally assumed. The common name of Alsike is derived from the village of Syke, near Upsala in Sweden, where it has been grown with great suc- cess ; but the plant is indigenous in Southern Europe, although it does not appear to have been cultivated until after the example was set in Sweden, whence it reached this country. Alsike Clover is a true perennial, and on the greensand forma- tion it comes up year after year where once it has been sown. On some light soils it is not so permanent. Were it not for the surface growth, and the consequent inability to withstand drought, this plant would take a more important position in agricultural operations than Broad Clover, especially as it will often grow on clover-sick land. Alsike Clover is peculiarly adapted for damp soils. It is decidedly more productive in wet than in dry seasons, endures heat and cold well, will succeed in undrained clays better than any other variety, and is the only clover that will stand irrigation. On damp soils if the crop becomes laid there is a danger of its rotting at the base, and then, if possible, it should be promptly cut. For meadows, Alsike Clover is far superior to White Clover, as it produces a crop tall enough for the scythe, and materially adds to the total weight of hay. It also produces more keep and is better relished than White Clover. On some soils it will grow quite as much herbage as Red Clover, although it is not so stalky, the vegetation being principally composed of leaves, and therefore care is requisite in the process of making hay, or the leaves get broken off and lost, especially as the plant is more succulent than Eed Clover and takes longer to make into hay. The time of flowering approximates to that of Cow Grass, and the nutritive value is hio^hest at the flowerino- staf^e. The plant is not hasty in getting old and pithy, as is the case with Red 72 PERMANENT AND TEMPOEARY PASTURES. Clover. After cutting, Alsike Clover shoots quickly, liut the growth is low, and the total of the aftermath only equal to half the first cut. Still its value as a pasture plant is very great indeed, and it is one of the best clovers for alternate hus- bandry. It flourishes in tlie same deep moist soil as Timothy, and makes an excellent conq)anion to that grass, but it is equally at home with Tall Oat Grass, Italian Rye Grass, and Cocksfoot. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 170, facing an illustration. Trifolium minus {Yellow Suckling). — This clover is by no means unworthy a place in a permanent mixture, for although its growth is very small and the produce scanty on the gravelly soils and stony places where it is generally found, on strong land and on the greensands it is of considerable value, forming a dense mass of herbage and seeding itself down every year. When grown Avith Eye Grass, and cut before it gets old, it makes excellent hay which is much relished by stock. In such a case the roots cannot be depended on for another crop, but when pastured and kept constantly down the plant will provide a bite all the summer. The small foliage admirably fits it for lawns and pleasure grounds. Trifolium medium. — The Zigzag Clover of botanists, and so called from the decided zigzag growth. This plant has never yet been in commerce, nor has it been brouiiht under the influ- ence of cultivation, and it is very distinct from all other kinds of Eed Clover. The blossom is darker in colour tlian that of Trifo- lium pratense. the head less dense, and invariably grows on a long peduncle instead of immediately adjacent to the leaf. But the most uniform divergence in structure is the absence of the broad membranous stipule, and the substitution of one which is long THE SELECTION OF GEASSES AND CLOVERS. 73 and narrow, terminating gradually in a spear like point. Those who have once observed this peculiaiity are never likely to mistake Trifulium medium, again. The plant is generally found by roadsides, or on rough grassy places in dry situations, and it appears to be capable of withstanding any degree of cold or heat. I have transplanted it into fjarden soil with the result of a mucli more luxuriant growth, and liope to experiment upon it in various ways to ascertain whether agriculture is likely to benefit by its introduc- tion as a fodder plant. Medicago lupulina [Common Yelloiv Clover, oi' Trefoil). — 'A librous-rooted biennial plant, flowering from May to August. It very much resembles Yellow Suckling, but the foliage is a paler green, the stems much less hard and wiry, and tlie flowers are not so dark. The black seed-pods, whicli have earned for it the name of ' Black Medick,' are also useful as a means of identifi- cation. Trefoil starts so early in spring as to give a bite before any other clover, and it flowers ten or fifteen days in advance of Trifolium pratense. Although tlie procumbent habit of growth prevents it from being of much value for the scythe, it affords a large quantity of keep in spring, but there is no aftermath worth speaking of. Primarily it is a plant for alternate husbandry, being only bien- nial in duration ; still it propagates itself so sedulously by seed as to be practically permanent, and as chemical analysis shows the herbage to be nutritious, there is good reason for including a small proportion in most permanent mixtures, especially as it grows compactly and helps to make a good bottom to a pas- ture. Where it is indigenous in abundance, seed need not be sown, nor should it be admitted to those soils on wliich it is liable to smother other plants. Trefoil endures cold better than heat, will grow freely on almost any soil, and shows preference for such as are calcareous, because lime is one of its necessities. Clay marl is its special 74 PEEMANENT AND TEMPORAEY PASTURES. home. Fresli green manure does not suit Trefoil, but a top dressing of a good compost or of vegetable ash generally brings a full crop. All manures containing potash and phosphoric acid have a magical effect on its growth. Sheep injure it less than they do Eed Clover, and it is supposed to impart colour and good flavour to butter. Trefoil is rarely sown alone, but frequently in company with White Clover, and it is important that the latter should predominate or the former may take entire possession of the land. Foxtail, Sweet Vernal, and Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass combine well with Trefoil in affording early and valuable herbaQ:e. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 172, facing an illustration. Lotus corniculatus [Birdsfoot Trefoil). — This plant is strictly perennial, and attains maturity in the second year after sowing. It often fills up the bottom of a pasture when other sorts are deficient, and it will do this on land which is clover-sick. Birdsfoot Trefoil is useful for all soils, and is remarkable for its endurance of drought, however extreme. There arc high exposed thin soils where it is more productive than any other clover, and it seems to augment the total of the crop without detriment to the taller upright-growing varieties. Therefore, if expense need not be considered, seed in hmited quantity sliould certainly be sown. Unfortunately such soils do not often warrant the outlay for this clover, the price of which is almost prohibitory. Achillea Millefolium {Yarrow, or Milfoil), although neither a grass nor a clover, is sucli an ever-present constituent of dry pastures that it naturally comes up for consideration among agricultural grasses. It is strictly perennial, and multiplies itself by root-growtli. The leaves are dense and elegantly fimbriated. The flowering time is after midsummer. This plant appeal's THE SELECTION OF GKASSES AND CLOVERS. 75 to be independent of the presence of potasli in the soil, and will consequently flourish where clovers can scarcely maintain existence, or fail entirely. Yarrow is a plant for pastures, not for meadows, and its seed should be excluded from the mixture for a crop that is to be generally mown. Sheep are very fond of it, and it is believed to give an excellent flavour to mutton, venison, and to butter also, notwithstanding its astringent qualities. Yarrow will grow on dry gravels and light sands that will hardly support any other plant, and no summer is too hot for it. So great is its power of enduring drought that after a dry season there is always a large demand for the seed, and as it is difficult to obtain of good growth, the price runs up to an extravagant figui^e. Ammonia salts appear to be inimical to the growth of Yarrow, nitrate less so, but heavy doses of any ammoniacal manure are certain to reduce its bulk by increasing the strength of surrounding grasses. Mineral manures alone seem to favour its development. The botanical description and chemical analysis are given on page 174, facing an illustration. Medicago sativa [Lucerne). — The name of this plant is o-enerally supposed to be derived from the canton or town of Lucerne, in Switzerland. But Dr. Stebler controverts this opinion, although he is at a loss to account for its appellation. Lucerne was known to the ancient Greeks and Eomans as a forage plant. It is mentioned by Virgil, and at the beginning of the Christian era by several agricultural writers. In Persia and other Eiistern countries the plant is still used for horses. Eecent wet summers have much diminished the culture of Lucerne in England, but a few dry seasons will restore it to favour, although English farmers have never appreciated its merits to the same extent as their continental brethren. In part, no doubt, this is owing to climate, and in part to soil. Lucerne 76 PEKMANENT AND TEMPOEARY PASTURES. is essentially a plant for dry climates and dry soils. Cold, dry air has no ill effect upon it ; but moisture, with or without heat, is directly prejudicial. Its duration depends more upon the subsoil than upon tlie surface ; indeed, the nature of the surface is of small moment so long as the subsoil is calcareous. In some parts of the Continent Lucerne remains as good a crop twenty- five years after sowing as in the third year of its existence, but five years is the usual term, and seven years may be considered the fair limit of its vigorous life even on suitable land. It is in- teresting; to note the diverse surface soils on which Lucerne thrives, but investigation will always prove that whatever tlie nature of the surface may be there is a substantial agreement in the subsoils where this plant flourishes. The distance to which the tap-roots penetrate is almost incredible. In the first season they will often go down two feet or more. I have been told of one instance where a Lucerne root was traced to a depth of six- teen feet. In many localities Lucerne cannot be cultivated successfully, and it will only be waging a fruitless war against Nature to attempt to grow it on impervious clay, or on any cold adhesive land. Warm and calcareous soils are highly favourable to its growth, and a sheltered field, sloping to the south, will suit it to perfection, provided always that lime can be reached, for this it must have. Sometimes there is a strong desire to grow Lucerne on soil deficient in lime. To meet the requirements of the plant a heavy marling is applied six months before sowing ; but the process is costly, and at best the effects are only temporary, be- cause there is no possibility of burying the marl deep enougli to feed the roots after they have pierced down into the subsoil. The richer the soil the earlier will Lucerne come to full development, and land should be cliosen in which the roots will he able to strike down without undue resistance. The principal point in tlie culture of Lucerne is to secure a thoroughly clean seed-bed. Weeds soon ruin the plant, and therefore farm-yard or stable manure, although good in itself, is THE SELECTION OF GEASSES AND CLOVERS. 77 dangerous from the seeds it may contain. Ash of all kinds is beneficial, and, of course, artificial manu]-e can be freely resorted to. Three hundredweight of superphosphate per acre is a good dressing. The best preparation is a crop of potatoes. As a rule, April is the time for sowing, and the seed must not be deeply buried. In England Lucerne is almost always sown alone, while on the Continent a thin seeding of corn is often put in with it.^ When well established the herbage must on no account be allowed to grow old before being cut ; in fact, it should not be permitted to flower. Lucerne is rarely made into hay, as the leaves are lost during the drying, and the process is exceedingly wasteful. The most convenient and profitable way of growing it is to sow a patch near the homestead, so that the daily portion when cut has only to be carried a short distance to the stables. The plant is peculiarly rich in albumen, and is even more nutritious than Eed Clover. Given alone, and especially when very young, there is a possibility that cattle fed upon it may become blown, but when chaffed with good oat or barley straw it makes a wholesome and valuable food. Several cuts are obtained in a jesLY, making altogether an immense w^eight of keep. It is not worth while to sow Lucerne unless the plant can remain down for at least three j^ears. Onobrychis sativa {Sainfom) is a native of England and has been cultivated in this country for over two hundred years. This plant is essentially a food for sheep, and in pasturing it the sheep do it no injury. It is also useful for horses, but produces nothing like the quantity of green food that can be obtained from the Lucerne plot. ^ Mr. Clare Sewell Read tells me that lie has been most successful in obtaining a plant of Lucerne by sowing it iu wheat, while he has never succeeded with it in barlej-, and seldom when sown alone. He attributes the failure among barley to tlie closer sowing of this corn as compared with wheat ; and the failure when sown alone to the plant beuig smothered bv annual weeds. 78 PERMANENT AND TEMPOEARY PASTURES. In Norfolk and some other of the Eastern counties, Sainfom takes the place of Eed Clover, and is rarely allowed to remain down more than two years, generally only one. Against this practice nothing can be urged, for it is probably the best jDossible preparation for wheat. But the method adopted in Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire of putting down Sainfoin alone for four or five years, has grave disadvantages. There is a gradual diminution of the Sainfoin plant and a gradual accumu- lation of every form of vegetable rubbish, until the land comes to be exceedingly foul. Instead of sowing Sainfoin alone, I strongly urge its use as a predominant constituent in a mixture of grasses and clovers for three or four years' ley. The sowing of Sainfoin alone is an expensive, and more or less a precarious proceeding. It is by no means certain to produce a plant. But combined with strong growing grasses there is less risk, and the grasses keep down weeds and prevent the growth of couch and other pests which almost invariably overrun a pure Sainfoin ley after the first two years. In the green state Sainfoin is quite free from the danger of blowing cattle, and when made into hay it is an admirable and nutritious food. But the making of Sainfoin hay is rather a ticklisli business, particularly in catching weather. Like Tri- folium, the plant has a hollow stem, and when cut it is more quickly deteriorated by wet than any of the clovers. There are two varieties, the common, and the giant or double cut, the latter being the earher and more rapid-growing of the two, but decidedly less durable. Petroselinuin sativum [Sheep's Parsley). — This plant is frequently included in mixtures of grasses for uplands and sheep downs. Sheep display a great fondness for it, and it has been said to be a preventive of rot and red-water in that animal. Hares will visit gardens for the sake of the Parsley grown in them, and wliere this o;ame is abundant it mav be wortli wliile THE SELECTION OF GKASSES AND CLOVERS. 79 to sow patches in the covers. The seed germinates so slowly tliat it may be six or seven weeks before making a start. Bromus Schrsederi (Schrceder's Brome Grass). — This grass is not strictly perennial, and there is a prejudice against it be- cause of the harshness of its foliage ; still it is a valuable forage plant. From the sweetness of its taste and the readiness with which it is eaten by stock, there can be little doubt that it is highly nutritious. It is one of the earliest grasses to start in a temporary pasture, and I strongly urge a more extended trial of it in mixtures for two or three years' leys which are mainly to be fed off. In warm moist seasons especially its usefulness will be manifested. Several years ago I saw a field of this grass which kept an extraordinary flock of sheep which were penned on it during a hot summer. The crop was ready at one end of the field as soon as the sheep had finished at the other. This grass grows so strong as to crowd out weeds. It feeds on the surface, and will thrive on the thinnest soil. It has not been sufficiently cultivated in England. Bromus inermis (Aivnless Brome Grass). — This grass is much used in the South-east of Europe, and grows an extra- ordinary amount of fodder. From trials made of it in this country I believe it is likely to be of great value to the English agriculturist. All kinds of stock eat it greedily, and take it even in preference to Italian Eye Grass. Compared with that grass, Bromus inermis starts earlier in spring, yields quite double the crop at the first cut, and the analysis made for me by Dr. J. Auo-ustus Voelcker shows the Bromus to be the richer in albu- minoids and nitrogjen. Ammophila arundinacea {Sea Reed, or Mat Grass). — An Act passed in the reign of Elizabeth, and renewed in the reign of George II., proliibited the pulling up or otherwise destroying of 80 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. this plant. Like Elymus arenarius it is used for fixing sand on the sea-coast, but it possesses no feeding value, and is rejected by all herbivorous animals. The name of Mat Grass arises from its being emplo3^ed as a material for mats. It also makes excel- lent thatch. Tiie time of flowering is Jidy. Elymus arenarius {Sand, or Upright Sea Lyme Grass), has no equal for binding loose or blowing sand, for which purpose its mat-like roots are naturally adapted. It lias been extensively sown on portions of the English and Dutch coasts. Height, four feet. Flowers in July. 81 Sowing Grass Seeds. The actual work of sowing grasses is simplicity itself", but as the germination of the seed and the equal distribution of tlie plant depend upon the accuracy of the process, the details should be carried out with due regard to the serious loss which failure certainly entails. The necessity for making the seed-bed fine and lirm has already been enforced. At sowing time tlie additional requirement is a soil dry enough to allow the implements to work freely without any tendency to gather in clods on the roller. I know that waiting to sow will often tax the patience severely. But it is worse than useless to enter into a vain conflict with Nature. All such conflicts inevitably end in the defeat of man. The first business is to run the harrow over the land to pre- pare it for the seed, and the sowing may be either performed by hand or by means of the common seed-barrow. Some men are skilful in spreading seeds equally by hand, and on a still day their work answers well. But grass seeds are light, and it does not need a very high wind to make the sowincr irresfular. As the barrow delivers tlie seed nearer to the ground, it will, as a rule, distribute the grasses more evenly than the most practised sower by hand. But whichever method is adopted, there is a decided advantage in making two sowings. If the grasses and clovers are mixed together, half the quantity should be sowm by passing up and down the land, and the other half by crossing the first sowdng at right angles. When the grasses and clovers are separate, the grasses can be put in one Avay, and the clovers should cross them. G 82 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. A bush-harrow is the best implement for coveriiiu the seeds. 111 its absence a YvAit iron harrow will answer, and the li'diter it is the better. What is wanted is that as many seeds as possible shall be just covered with soil and no more. Grass seeds will germinate and become established when they are merely pressed upon the surface of the earth, provided that they are not consumed by birds or scorched under a hot sun. But many will not germinate at all at a greater depth than half an inch. Hence the necessity of a fine soil and shallow sowing. The roller must promptly follow the harrow, and it makes a better and more certain finish to ^o over the ground twice in different directions with a roller of moderate weig:ht than to accomplish the task at one stroke with a heavier implement. The importance of this part of the work will be made apparent if any spots are missed by the roller, for on those spots there will be no grass plants. A specially good plant may often be obtained by first rolling with the Cambridcre or I'vn^ roller, then sowing the seed, and afterwards crossing the land once or twice with the ordinary smooth roller. Hard and fast rules cannot be laid down as to the time for sowing. In a great measure it depends on the weather, and perhaps the easiest way of arriving at a conclusion will be to consider separately the relative merits of spring and autumn sowmsj. Spring Sowing. — The term ' spring sowing ' is here in- tended to apply to the months of March, April, and May. And as a rule it is better to sow early than late. In the early spring the soil is always damp enough to keep the plants growing after they have made a start. But as the season advances the state of the ground becomes increasingly critical in this respect, and there is serious risk that it may not be sufiiciently moist to maintain the grasses until the next rainfall. Then follows the extreme morti- fication of seeing a promising plant gradually wither away. SOWING GBASS SEEDS. 83 April is ]:)roperly regarded as a very safe and fiivoiirable month in which to sow, but if the seed-bed is ready, and the land in working order by the middle of March, there need be no scruple as to putting in the seed. And should there happen to be signs of ap])roaching rain, it is worth any reasonable effort to iiet the sowinjj done and the land rolled down before a chanije of weather can put a stop to operations. Sowing before is better than immediately after a shower, even supposing the land can be worked soon after rainfall, which may or may not be the case. The seeds sown before rain gradually absorb moisture from soil and dew until w^et weather comes, and then the plants s})ring up with great rapidity. To sow later than the end of May is most hazardous. Even the middle <:)f May will often be too late, especially upon heavy soils, which in a dry season are also liable to crack, to the injury of the grasses. Now comes the question as to sowing alone or upon a corn cro]). The answer depends partly on the object in view, and partly on the length of the purse. Apart from the money con- sideration, each method has its advocates, and undoubtedly there are sound reasons to be urged in favour of either practice. If a first-class pasture or an ornamental park sward be wanted on the earliest day it can be obtained, and tlie cost need not be thou^jht of, the sowiufj of masses alone will, in the majority of seasons, produce the most satisfactory pasture in the sliortest possible time. Opportunity is tlius afforded of early and frequent mowing, which not only checks weeds but tends to strengthen the young grass. A still more valuable service is i-en- dered by the scythe in preventing weeds from seeding, and these are certain to be quite troublesome enough without that. On tlie other hand, in an extremely dry summer, the shelter of a liglit corn crop will prove of great value to the young grass ])lant. It may even result in an actual gain of time. Without its aid there is a possibility that the grasses may stand still or conq)letely fade away. An established pasture when burned brown by the suii G 2 84 PEEMANENT AND TEMPORAKY PASTUEES. speedily recovers its verdure after rain, but yoinig grasses c:.n- not endure so fiery an ordeal. The assistance rendered in checking weeds is another benefit derived from a corn crop. To appreciate its vahie, compare one of the finer grasses with some weed growing near, and tlien say whether the dehcate striphng has any chance of resisting its masterful neighbonr. Of course the annual weeds will die out by-and-by, but in the meantime almost every one of them Avill destroy some grass plants. It follows tliat the more abundant tlie weeds the thinner will be the pasture, and until the grasses tiller out and cover the ground the crop will be proportionately small. Unfortunately, too, both drought and weeds prove more injurious to the smaller than to the coarser grasses. The fact that corn assists in the battle against both foes is quite sufficient to account for the ver}^ general practice of sowing permanent grass seeds with a corn crop. Still it must be admitted that corn does not keep down weeds so effectually as the constant use of the scythe over land that has been sown with grass seeds alone. Upon the pecuniar}" value of the corn it is needless to say one word. Such an inducement cannot be overlooked. Tliis consideration would as a rule suffice to settle the question, even if the grasses were pretty certain to suffer, which is happily not the case. Of course a corn crop will levy the usual tax upon the land, and it should be clearly understood that the grasses are not to sustain the loss. A liberal to])-dressing of cake-fed manure must be applied after the corn is cut, which will compensate the grass for what the corn has taken away. One point is of utmost consequence if corn is not to injure the coming pasture, and this is the necessity of a very light seeding of corn. A heavy crop is harmful in itself, and involves further danger when it becomes laid. On the spots where a heavy crop is lodged the grass will almost certainly be killed outright, and the slight additional gain derived from a full seeding of corn will SOWINCx GRASS SEEDS. 85 be more tliaii counterbalanced by losses in the grass plant, to say nothing of the labour of patching it afterwards. The time for sowing grass seeds with corn will be either immediately after the spring corn is got in, or when the autumn- sown wheat is only two or three inches high. It is well un- derstood that the less forward the cereal, the better the chance for the grass. On heavy, and especially on rich land, the choice of corn is open. It may be either barley, oats, or wheat, and the last-named is always desirable for the grass. ^ For lighter soils barley and oats are often only available, and in this case oats are more suitable tlian barley. Broadcasting the corn is preferable to diilling, as the cereal and the grasses then come evenly and cover the soil. There are instances when it answers well to cut the oats green, and turn tlie crop into hay or silage. This method of treating tlie herbage helps to keep down weeds quite as much as when the oats are allowed to mature, and it takes far less out of the land.^ Occasionally a field in autumn wheat is wanted for a per- manent pasture, and there is no difficulty in effecting it if the land be clean enouGfli, and tlie iri'ass seeds can be sown before the wheat is too high. In favourable weather the seeds may be put in even as early as tlie middle of February, as the corn will defend the young grass from injury by frost. Should tJie wheat ^ I have teen most successful from an April sowing on a thin plant of wheat, and xMr. f!lare Sewell Read in a recent letter says: ' I never find any diiHculty in obtaining a plant of seeds, even in May, when sown with wheat, for then tlte ground is firm and the surface soil very tine. Olteu when the seeds fail in barley, the headlands round by the gales have a good plant, because there is fine mould on the surface and a solid bottom.' ^ A well-known Scotch agriculturist says that he * considers the best method of sowing to be with about two bushels of oats, to be cut green before there is any kernel. There is a large crop of useful fodder, tlie small seeds have benehcial protection while they require it, annual weeds are kept down, and the grasses get relief by t'le early cutting at the staue most suitable for them to have full possession of the soil.' lie adds : 'I have sown down one hundred and sixteen acres in this way. The same grasses, sown at the same time and sometimes on parts of the same field, but with the oats allowed to ripen', have proved decidedly inferior.' 86 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. be very backward, liowever, or stand thin on tlie ground, tlie sowing; liad better be deferred for a time. In tlie event of tlie land beinor at all foul, liand-lioeing must be resorted to, and this ^vill open the ground for the grass seeds. The necessary har- rowinfT and rolling; will be beneficial to the wheat plant. Notwithstanding; all that has been said in favour of sowinsj ra})e Avitli grass seeds, I cannot recommend the practice. In- stances can doubtless be cited where no injury lias resulted from it. But the great objection remains that it necessitates feeding off the crop by sheep, and, when the rape is ready, the grasses are rarely established sufficiently to bear grazing. The animals eat the hearts out of some plants, ])iill up many more, and altogether do a lot of mischief to a young pasture. Autumn Sowing. — Many writers have vexed their souls over the relative merits of spring and autumn sowing without advancing the problem any nearer to a solution. It cannot be solved at all by generalities, although the attempt has often been made. For practical ends it may be disposed of here by accepting necessity as our guide, and then perhaps there need be little or no controversy about it. The decision largely depends upon the possibihty of working heavy land in a wet spring. Sometimes autumn sowing is resorted to Avhen a hot dry summer has scorched the life out of a spring plant. This is one of the many misfortunes to which the agricultuiist is liable, Init it does not touch the point now under consideration. Were all the land of tlie United Kingdom light, ])robably the question would never have fi risen. There would have been a general consensus of opinion in favour of spring sowing. It is the extreme difficulty of making heavy land ready for grass seeds before the spring is too much advanced, which renders the state of the weather of so much more importance when sowing grasses than when sowing any other seed. Sometimes it is abso- lutely impossible to pulverise a tenacious soil sufficiently until May is far gone, and then it is very risky indeed to put in SOWING GRASS SEEDS. 87 grass seeds. Thus an autiiiiin sowing becomes imperative. Having reached this conchision, it is satisfactory to remember that in addition to the chance it affords of making a thorouglily sound seed-bed, tlie temperature of tlie hmd in autumn is highly favourable to the germination of grass seeds, particularly in the IN'orth of England. There is also the further benefit to be derived from the previous clearing of successive crops of annual weeds, most of which would have appeared among tlie grasses of an earlier sowing. The danger of an autumn sowing mainly concerns the clovers. Young grasses, especially of the coarser varieties, Avill stand much winter cold with impunity. Not so with clovers, although when established they also will endure severe weatlier luiharmed. But in a young state, a wet cold winter will ahnost certainly make an end of them. A retentive soil will foster a magnificent pasture containing plenty of clovers when once the plants are established, and yet on such soils it will frecpiently prove most difficult to establish clovers from a sowing of seed in autumn. As to tlie best month for autumn sowimr, it must not be for- gotten that grass seeds are peculiarly liable to be ' malted ' under a burning sun when the ground is not moist enougii to keep the plants going. A slight thunder shower upon a dry soil, followed by scorching sunshine, is cpiite sufficient to do the miscliief, and many failures of autumn-sown seeds are attributable to tliis cause alone. Even when the failure is not total, it is a serious matter if the finer grasses are killed and only the coarser varieties survive For it is very difficult to get the finer sorts to take after tlie stronger varieties have had a six months' start. As a consequence the pasture may always be inferior in quality. Supposing, however, that tlie soil is not too dry, and is other- wise in good condition, sowing in August is to be commended, and the earlier the better. The plants will then have some chance of becoming fairly established before winter sets in. The first week in September is, in most seasons, the latest date at which a 88 PERMANENT AND TEMPOEAEY PASTURES. permanent pasture can be laid down with any reasonable hope of a satisfactory resnlt, except in the extreme south. I have formed a good grass layer by sowing in autumn with winter oats, and the grass came so forward as to be fit to carry stock in September of the succeeding year. Every field sown in antumn should underg-o a searchincf examination in the following spring. If it is evident that the clovers and finer grasses have failed, more seed of the missing sorts should be sown before the grasses become too stronsf. There need be no anxiety as to the effects of spring frosts, for the grasses will afford the young clovers friendly and effectual shelter. 89 The I M MEDIA TE A FTER-Ma NA GEMEN T OF Ne w Pa s tures. A SPRIXG sowing of grasses is made at a time when atmospheric changes are sometimes sudden and severe, and grass seeds are not so well constituted for resisting these violent changes as corn and other heavy seeds. Besides, the spring is never so dry and cold as to prevent the growth of weeds, nor is the May sun liot enough to scorch them to deatli ; but after sowing, a long spell of unfavourable weather will seriously retard the grasses. Mean- while the ground may be covered with chickweed, groundsel,^ and other weeds. As these extend, the chances of the grasses diminish, until at length it is possible that only a few spots will be found on whicli they show sufficiently to prove that there would have been a crop had circumstances been favourable. In a backward spring the danger of tlie grasses being smothered by weeds increases in proportion to tlie early sowing of tlie seeds. But if early sowing has its dangers, late sowing is not free from them. From the former arises the possibility that the young grasses will be injured by weeds, and from the latter that before the grasses are sufficiently established to endure great heat, they may be scorched beyond recovery by fierce sunshine. Or the soil may be so dry that the germination of the seed is ^ Groundsel will actually flower when the thermometer stands near the fret- zing- point. Humboldt observed the plant growing in the upper reaches of tlie Andes, just below the region of eternal snow, where the sun had little power, and where hurricanes are incessant and not a tree is able to rear it.s head. 90 PEEMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. (lepeiident on rain, and it" only a brief sliower falls, the seeds will start. Then if there come the dry blast of an east wind, or burning drought, every seedling will perish. I am not conjuring up difficulties for the sake of saying 'There is a lion in the path,' but rather to show that for so im- portant and costly an undertaking as laying down land .to grass there is absolute necessity for insisting on the cleanest possible seed-bed. Even when the farmer has done his utmost to clean the land, plenty of weeds will spring up in the soil. It is then a question of precedence. If the grasses come qidckly, the annual weeds do little harm when promptly checked, but if the weeds obtain a strong lead the injury to the grasses may prove serious, perhaps entirely destructive. Happily the majority of seasons favour the sower, but that does not relieve him from the necessity of taking every reasonable precaution to ensure success under what may prove to be very adverse influences. Possibilities must be considered, and by being forearmed the probability of success may be considerably enhanced. It is in the immediate after-management of newly-sown grass that the advantages of dispensing with a corn crop are realised. Nothing can be done to help grasses sown in corn until the corn is cut and carried, but when grass is sown alone it is possible to top the plant as soon as it is a few inches high with a sharp scythe, and the benefit will speedily be visible. After mowing, the roller should be put over the land again, which will help still further to consolidate it, and to give the young plants a firm grip of the soil. The more frequently the pasture is mown and rolled during summer, the more rapidly Avill the ground be clothed with verdure. By August or September, if there has been a favour- able season, the grass may be allowed to grow on to produce a small lattermath hay crop, after whicii it will carry horned stock, eating cake, through the autumn. Althouo-h constant mowinj? will e of an inferior pasture. The folding of sheep thickly will also produce marked benefit on poor upland .-Zrass if the animals are at the same time fed Avith corn or cake. They shoidd be penned on the gi'onnd long enough to clear the crop, and then many weeds will be killed outright. This practice is very different in its effects from that of giving sheep the run of the land. Whatever discourages the fjrowtli of roucrh herbaize encourages that which is better. On the other hand, however good a pasture may be, it has only to be treated with a policy of masterly inactivity, and in time it will revert to the waste con- dition of a moorland. A succession of wet summers is another fruitful source of in- jury to pastures. The bulk of herbage forced from them during warm damp seasons tends greatly to their impoverishment, and some of the grasses which are more especially adapted for dry soils will probably perish. Well-drained land naturally suffers least. Land not so well drained becomes sour and unwholesome, and only the sedges and coarse water-grasses survive. Hitherto nothing has been said about seed, and it may be frankly admitted that with liberal management it is quite possible to restore the fertility of a pasture without sowing seed at all. But it will take time, perhaps many years, and it appears to me to be a penny-wise and pound-foohsh procedure to occupy a long period in making an improvement which might be effected in a single season at a very trifling outlay beyond that necessarily incurred in carrying out improvements already suggested. In THE MANAGEMENT OF OLD GRASS LAND. 101 every case where tlie plant stands thin on the ground I am persuaded that it will pay to bush in a few pounds of the finer grasses and clovers per acre. I am acquainted with a farmer who sows twenty pounds of grass seeds per acre every autumn on an old pasture, because he has found by experience that when he omits doing so there is a difference of a ton of hay per acre in the cut of the following year. The seed may either be sown before the grass starts growth in February, or immediately the hay has been cut in June. February is, however, a very good time. On damp land preparation should be made by an applica- tion of salt to the most weedy parts, and a severe dragging over the entire surfoce. A Avell-mixed compost of lime, the contents of ditches, and any other available rich material, should be distributed over the whole meadow, and the seeds can be sown on any day wlien the ground is dry enough to permit the roller to be used. The meadow should then l^e laid in for hay. And after the crop is cut cattle may be allowed to depasture the land, but sheep must not be admitted until the following year. Upland pastures may be treated in a similar fashion. For destroying moss there is no better dressing than two cart-loads of lime mixed witli eight cart-loads of light loam per acre : pure lime is too powerful to be applied alone. The heap should be turned several times until the lime is thoroughly slaked and well incorporated with the loam. After dragging the turf with heavy iron harrows, ten cart-loads of tlie compost should be spread over each acre. There will soon be a marked improve- ment, and a full return for the outlay. The effect of dragging a pasture is not everywhere appre- ciated at its full value. The mechanical action breaks up the congested surface, allows the atmosjjhere to penetrate to the roots, and thus promotes a free and healthy growth of tlie plants. It also enables the grasses to absorb and derive benefit from any fertilising agent or compost which may be applied to the surface, instead of allowing the dressing to be in great part washed awav by the first heavy i-ain. 102 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. Hints on Haymaking, A GOOD deal has been written for and against tlic practice of nioAviug and grazing alternately. Strictly speaking, meadow land is always mown, and pasture land is always grazed. Both the terms and the practice are now generally regarded as con- vertible. Yet there is more in the distinction than appears at first siglit. Certain grasses are better adapted for the scythe than for being eaten down by stock, and some fields contain a preponderance of one or more of these varieties. A meadow which answers to its strict definition should consist of such grasses as flower almost simultaneously, so that the entire crop may be ready for mowing at one time. Such land will, of necessity, be most unsatisfactory for grazing. There will be no early or late grasses for the cattle, but an overpowering crop in June and Jidy, which cannot be fed off economically. On the other hand, a good pasture containing such grasses as will ensure a continued succession of food yields a poor hay crop. However, the question before us now is not the best means of creating either the one or tlie other, but tlie turning into hay of such grass as may have been set apart for that purpose. The presence of stones, crocks, and other hard rubbisli which may have been deposited by previous dressings not only diminishes the crop wJiile growing, but will by-and-by make it necessary to set tlie machine high enough to avoid breakage. NoAv the mower should always be set as low as possible, for the bottom herbage is, weight for weight, always more valuable tlian the top, and everv inch of the former counts both in weiglit HINTS ON HAYMAKING. 103 and in quality. Tlie clearing of stones from the field is therefore worth scrupulous attention, and it should be done before tlie grass makes a start in early spring. The turf must also be well bush-harrowed and firmly rolled down. The time for mowino; varies in different localities and in different seasons. But there are sound reasons for urging the importance of cutting the grass young, before even the earliest varieties have formed seeds in their flower-heads. In most grasses, and in all clovers, the secretion of saccharine matter occurs in their stems during the early stage of growth, and the best hay is usually made from grass before the flowering heads have begun to turn colour. Experiments made in the chemical laboratory prove that, although there are exceptions, the great majority of grasses contain nearly double the quantity of nutritive matter before, than they do after, ripening seeds. This applies with especial force to the clovers which form so large a proportion of every good pasture. An objection to the early cutting of grass deserves a passing remark. It is quite true that young grass shrinks more than that of older growth. Still the balance is in favour of early mowing, for the hay is of higher quality and far more digestible, to say nothing of the advantage of an increased aftermath and the benefit conferred on the pasture by early cutting. Mowing machines have greatly altered the conditions of haymaking, and the change is not always in favour of the hay. There is a temptation to cut more grass than can be dealt with, and in wet seasons this may involve serious loss. And in a scorching time, when the grass becomes hay almost without any making, it will be so burnt up before it can be ricked as to render the fibres hard and woody. The stems of grass are protected by a covering of silica, which has been termed ' Nature's waterproof mantle.' Tossing the fjrass about breaks the stems. There is a rent in the mantle by which wet enters and decay is hastened. Hence in continued wet weather the cut grass should be allowed to lie just as it is 104 PEKMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. left 1)}' the scythe or mower, and it Avill then take the minimum ( f harm. In fine weather the tedding machine should be used nuieli more freely than is commonly the case, for every time the machine goes over the ground a diflerent set of grass stalks are exposed to tlie sun. Often, when the end of a field is reached, the beginning is ready for a fresh start, and it is a mistake to suppose that because scorched grass makes bad hay, therefore quickly made hay resembles scorched grass. These remarks are intended to apply exclusively to meadow hay. Clovers, Sainfoin, (fcc, should be turned in the swath by hand, and with utmost care, to avoid breaking off the leaves. When a particular field is ready, the whole strength of the farm shoukl be concentrated on the labour of gathering and cart- ing the liay to the rick. I have known a crop of grass cut one morning and stacked at night ; but the crop was light, the heat unusual, and the desiccation of the plant had considerably advanced before the mower was used. Still I am persuaded that in liot weather grass miglit often with advantage be put into windrows or cocks on the day it is cut, although it is seldom done. Dcav is well-nigh as injurious to half-made hay as rain, and grass wdiich has parted with much of its water on a liot summer day is in a condition to reabsorb moisture i'rom the atmosphere at night. This process goes on much more rapidly wlien tlie hay lies scattered on the ground than when it is cocked. Tlie cocks sliould not be opened too early in tlie morning, and if the sun prove liot it will spoil the colour to scatter the grass very much. Greenness is one of the indications of well-made hay, while a brown shade, whether resulting from rain or sunburning, is a certain sign of deteriorated condition. Three days ought to make good hay in fair weather from an ordinary crop. Grass w^hich is cut one day, tedded repeatedly the next, cocked that night, and opened out again on the following morning, may be fit to carry in the afternoon of that — the third — day. A very heavy crop, however, or a crop in which there is an unusual proportion of clover, must not be ricked so HINTS ON HAYMAKING. 105 quickly, nor must it be left too thin on the ground. Succulent grass with large, solid stems full of moisture is least easy to turn into hay, and is most liable to fire when ricked. The leaves and smaller shoots become ready to carry before the succulent stems, and this damper is often greatest in fine weather. Those who have had experience with water-meadows are aware of the extreme hazard of carrying hay from them too soon. An old and safe test of fitness is to gather together a few of the stout stems and twist them tightly into a rope. If moisture exudes, tlie grass is not ready for the rick. Clover stems, Cow Grass especially, also contain a large amount of moisture, and if ricked too soon there is a risk of the heat rising injuriously. The use of the haymaking machine must be avoided entirely when clover forms a large proportion of the crop. Dry and benty grass which does not contain much clover will almost 'make itself in fine w^eather, and but little fear need be entertained that it will fire. Indeed, if the rick does not heat somewhat the hay will be of inferior quality. Eicks may occasionally be seen standing on the bare ground where floods are not unknown. It is unwise to erect them on such spots, for they absorb moisture almost as readily as a lump of sugar placed in water. Some injury will probably ensue from the damp ground, and the wdiole bulk of hay may be made mouldy by a flood. The use of stone or iron staddles will often pay in a single year, and they render it safe to put hay into a rick much earlier than where this means of bottom ventilation is lacking. The best shape for a rick is square. A thin oblong form exposes too large a surface to the atmosphere, and a very high- pitched roof is objectionable on the same ground. The bottom of the stack should be smaller than the eaves, so that rain falling from the thatch will clear the sides of the rick. In building, the centre should always be kept higher than the outside, and every layer of grass must be firmly trodden down. The roof must be steep enough to shoot off rain and snow, but it injures the upper 106 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. portion of the liay to go higher. Eoiighly stated, the top of the rick measured across under the eaves should be about one and a half or two feet more than from the eave to the ridge. This gives almost an equilateral triangle. A set of rick-cloths cost money, but they are of great service in protecting partially made ricks when hay-carting is suddenly interrupted by rain. Tliey also make it easy to proceed wdtli several ricks simultaneously, and therefore the grass can be stacked in a more moist condition than when a rick has to be hurried up and promptly thatched. Indeed, rick-cloths save all anxiety about thatcliing, for the task can be deferred until after the first rise of heat has been dissipated, and it is consequently safe to put the roof on. The practice of making ventilating sliafts in the centre of a rick by pulling up a sackful of hay as the work proceeds need only be resorted to in catching Aveather, when it is impossible to put tlie hay together in first-rate order. No doubt the con- trivance has jirevented many ricks from firing, but it restricts the partial fermentation which takes place in a solid stack, and this is an important influence in the manufacture of a fragrant sample of hay. A much better method of treating grass about the dryness of which there is a doubt, is to place layers of dry straw between thicker layers of hay. The straw will absorb the excessive moisture, and with it many of the valuable juices of the clovers, which will greatly enhance the feeding value. This plan is not available for hay which is intended to be sold, but it will make capital fodder for home consumption. ' Weathered ' hay — that is, hay wdiich has been repeatedly soaked and dried until much of its value has been lost — will be improved in quahty and made much more palatable to stock by sprinkling coarse salt over the layers of the rick as the building proceeds. From ten to twenty pounds of salt should be used for each ton of hay. After grass is cut for hay, it parts with nearly tliree-fourths oi its weight by evaporation, but no chemical change of im- HINTS ON HAYMAKING. 107 portance occurs in tlie field. In the rick, however, very con- siderable chemical clianges take place, such as the creation of sugar by the action of heat on the starch contained in the grass. The difference between good and bad hay nearly as often results from too little or too great heat being evolved in the stack, as from faults in the process before stacking. Overheating, even when it does not go so far as to blacken and char the hay, pro- duces so much acetic acid as to make the fodder sour and unpalatable. Dr. Thompson showed that 387-| pounds of grass are required to make 100 pounds of hay. The loss is chiefly water, but not entirely so. This is demonstrated by the fact that an animal which thrives on 100 pounds of grass will not do nearly so well on 25 pounds of hay supplemented with 75 pounds of water. The loss of nutritious ingredients is of course attribut- able to the process of fermentation carried on in the stack. The sugar has been largely converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, by which a certain amount of waste has occurred. However closely a field may be raked after the hay cart, a quantity of loose hay will remain scattered about, and it v/ill be well worth while to turn in some rough cattle to pick this up, and also to browse on the patches round the headlands and ditches which have escaped the mowing machine. Much waste is incurred by carelessness in this matter, and if the grass by the hedges and ditches is not eaten down while green it will be unsightly all the summer. Immediately the cattle have con- sumed it they must be driven out of the field, to give the aftermath time to make a fair start. The making of aftermath hay is not by any means general, and is always precarious. The autumnal dews and shortening days, combined with the succulent nature of the herbage, are all against it. But as many of the late-growing grasses, of which the herbage principally consists, are specially nutritious, there is a prevalent opinion that the lattermath is of higher quahty than the first cut. The old Welsh system of ' fogging,' or allowing the hay crop 108 PERMANENT AND TEMPOEARY PASTURES. to cure itself, uncut, in the open fields, demands but brief notice here, and I cannot speak from personal experience of the practice. It appears to be similar to the method pursued on the Eocky Mountains, but there it is supposed to be possible only at great altitudes. I understand that the fields are fed off by winter stock early in the spring up to the end of April ; then the grass is laid in as if for hay, but is left uncut all the summer, and stock are not permitted to graze until December. The' animals, it is stated, do so well on the dry grass that cows feeding on it give as good butter as in the spring of the year; that the frost makes the grass sweet ; and that the herbage shoots very much earlier in the following spring, because it is protected by the brown growth of the previous year ; also that when mixed with the old grass, it is much more v/holesome and sustaining food. The inducement to adopt this system is that all expense and anxiety of haymaking are avoided. Some farmers actually let their grass fields stand untouched from May until February or March of the followinfj year, when the stock are turned out of doors. No doubt the practice supplies a great deal of food at a time of year when it is most scarce, and this food is specially prized for the early-calving cows. The whole system is, of course, contrary to all the recognised canons on which grass land is managed in other parts of the country. 109 Hints on Grazing. It needs the most watchful care to obtain tlie best results from grazing land, and only those who are actually engaged in the business have any adequate conception of the ceaseless anxiety it involves. Two main ol)jects must be kept steadily in view — the constant progress of the stock and the maintenance of fertility in the pasture. It may be necessary to change the cattle from field to field, or to alter tlie relative proportions of sheep and horned stock at very brief intervals. However arduous the labour, the cattle must be kept growing, and the grass be so fed off as to avoid waste and ensure continuous herbag-e. Allow- ance has also to be made for differences in seasons. In dry summers wnat little grass there may be is extremely valuable for its high quality and sustaining power ; but when vegetation is rank and sodden with moisture a much larger quantity may fail to put on flesh. Truly the farmer's eye makes the beast fat. No precise date can be given for beginning to graze pastures in spring. Cattle should not be turned out until there is enough feed to keep them going without too much help from hay, nor until the ground is firm enough to prevent their hoofs from damaging the young shoots of the grasses. On tlie other hand, if the grass gets too old the animals will refuse much of it and the fodder will be lost. Pastures consisting largely of early, strong- growing grasses, particularly Cocksfoot, will need to be stocked before others which produce finer and later varieties. Even after cattle have made a start, late spring frosts or a persistent east wind may upset the grazier's calculations, and tlie stock may no PEEMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. befrin to iro back tliroiic^li scarcity of food. Then a supply from the mangel clamp, or from a few acres of cabbage or thousand-headed kale, will prove a boon indeed. When sheep begin to graze in mixed pastures they will probably keep the plant down close ; but, as herbage grows more rapidly, young horned stock should be added, so as to feed down the rising culms and flower stalks which the sheep pass by. Sometimes neither sheep nor bullocks will eat the stems of Cocksfoot, and then it is necessary to run the mower over the pasture to prevent a copious seeding of this grass, which, however valuable in suitable proportions, is a great pest on certain soils when allowed to predominate. I have known cattle to derive great benefit from grazing in one pasture by day and being turned into a different field at night, and it is interesting to note the eagerness which stock soon display for this change in their run. A pasture specially adapted for fattening bullocks should not, as a rule, have a sheep upon it, and a perfect sheep pasture should never have the grass long enough to feed a bullock ; but from an ordinary pasture, devoted to mixed stock, probably the aggregate produce will not be utilised except by a judicious combination of horned stock, horses, and sheep. Nothing evi- dences a successful grazier more clearly than the skill displayed in taking advantage of the special characteristics of every sepa- rate field. By so proportioning the stock as to feed the crop down evenly the pasture is benefited, and by changing the animals from field to field a difference of diet is ensured, for scarcely any two pastures produce exactly the same herbage. Each animal has its own likes and dislikes, but between them they are pretty sure to clear the crop. Calves need the best grass that can be given them, and they generally thrive better alone than in company with other animals. Cows and sheep feed better together than do fat bullocks and sheep, and this mixture of stock is exceedingly good for the grass. But a first- rate bullock pasture is not certain to be a suitable place for milch HINTS ON GRAZING. Ill COWS, for tliey are more likely to put on fat than to increase the flow of milk. As fat beasts approach fitness for the butcher they become very dainty, and will often leave behind a lot of feed. This should be got rid of quickly by crowding the field with store stock. Tlien a brief rest will prepare it for bullocks again. It is a wise rule to start the stock on the worst pasture on the farm, and gradually move them forward to those which are better. Stock which have once had good food will not take kindly to that which is inferior, but when placed upon it tliey lose flesh, and this is a ruinous business for the grazier. No matter how rich a pasture may be, I believe it to be sound practice for the beasts, for the grass, and for the farmer's pocket, that a liberal addition of cabbage, mangel, and above all of oil cake, should be supplied before the feed runs at all short. A good grazier will not be content unless the stock lie down on the pastures a great part of every day. Unless they can quickly satisfy appetite they cannot put on fat, and this is impossible when the animals are wholly dependent on grass whicli is eaten down close. After harvest if sheep have a run on the stubbles it will give a most desirable rest to the pastures, enabling the grass to come on sufficiently to keep the sheep in good condition when put to the ram. A stringent rule cannot be laid down as to when grazing land should be cleared of cattle for the winter. It sliould cer- tainly be in time to ensure ample pasturage in the followiiDg spring, but the grass must be eaten down close before very cold weather sets in, and it is surprising with what relish cattle will take some of the coarse grasses late in autumn which they have refused to eat during summer. Frost no doubt sweetens and makes these coarse tufts palatable. If they are not consumed they must be mown before Christmas. The necessity of scattering the droppings of cattle is well und.erstood, but is often neglected nevertheless. By postponing 112 PERMANENT AND TEMrORAEY PASTURES. it until late in the year a quantity of grass is lost to the gra- zier. Large unsightly patches of herbage appear, which the animals will not touch. Yet after the grass of these patches is mown and become withered it is often sought for by animals affected with scour, and it has been stated to have a medicinal effect in curing; them. The riglit thing; to do, liowever, is to have the droppings scattered frequently, and in any case of neglect to have the tufts mown. A supply of pure water is a matter of great consequence for the animals. It is true they will drink that which is impure, stagnant, and filthy, but it is a vitiated taste, and such water is distinctly injurious to them. Norton's tube wells often prove cheaper and better than the old system of pond-making. Shade and shelter are also helpful to cattle. Trees and hedgerows save them from fierce sunshine, and ditches should not intervene to prevent access to the shade. Groups of trees in tlie field not only improve the landscape, but prove beneficial to the animals on scorching days. Rough sheds, open in front and facing south, are desirable in early spring, as they afford protection from biting east winds and cold, violent rains. In these sheds lumjDS of rock salt should always be kept within reach of the stock. 113 Ensilage, (GRASS.) The process of preserving green forage in an undried state is now fairly before the public, and has taken considerable hold of the popular imagination. The principle admits of, and has received, very wide application, but in this connection we are only con- cerned with its relation to grass. I have taken great interest in the question, and was the medium of first placing ensilage obtained from France throu<2:h Mr. Kains- Jackson before ai^ri- culturists at the Smithfield Cattle Show. I do not anticipate that ensilage will ever render haymaking unnecessary, or that silos or silage stacks v/ill supersede hayricks. The economic advantage of the process has yet to be demon- strated. It is clear that there is enormous loss in the nutritive quahties of the green provender after being placed in the silo. The idea that fermentation breaks down and digests the woody fibre of the crop placed in the silo in any profitable degree is practically exploded. The chemical experiments made under tlie auspices of the Bath and West of England Agricultural Society prove a loss of 16 or 17 per cent, of flesh and fat formers, and the experiments in feeding animals, carried out by Sir John B. Lawes, support this conclusion. Although the woody fibre is rendered in a degree palatable to stock, it is proved that the fibre passes through the animals unchanged. The fermenta- tion also results in a considerable loss of nitrogen in a gaseous state, for there appears to be a very distinct transformation of valuable albunu'noids suitable for assimilation by stock into I 114 PERMANENT AND TEMPOEARY PASTURES. ammonia, wliicli is useless as animal food. It is by no means evident tliat these losses are not greater than when hay is even badly weathered. Apparently the cost of labour in making ensilage is not generally higher than the cost of haymaking in (ordinary weather, and is decidedly less than the outlay for haymaking in bad weather. In wet seasons, too, the hay is not only more costly to make, but, wdien made, is of low^ feeding quality, so that ensilage in such years may not only be cheaper but superior. Tliose who have tried ensilage as food for dairy cows are practically unanimo- s in its favour, although recent losses of valuable animals show that there is danger in feeding with it alone. In fattening bullocks, however, the Eothamstead experi- ments prove that for putting on flesh swedes and mangels have a considerable advantage over grass or clover ensilage, whether sweet or sour. To my mind all the facts which have been disclosed to the present time point in the direction of making ensilage entirely subordinate to haymaking. I do not for a moment believe that when a farmer can turn his grass into hay in three genial days he will consent to cart nearly four times the w^eight of freshly- cut grass to the silo. The haystack, properly made, takes care of itself, but the full silo involves weeks of anxious waiting and watching, with the risk of failure in the end. And when wet seasons make the silo a valuable adjunct to a farm, I think that the aim should be to preserve the ensiled grass wdth as little fer- mentation as possible, instead of attempting to manufacture a new product out of the green material. The fact that silage has been made in silage stacks, and also in old petroleum casks, shows that costly permanent buildings are not necessary for the majority of farmers, however reason- able they may be on large estates where the owners take a pleasure in making experiments which they hope may prove beneficial to the whole agricultural community. But on most homesteads there might probably with advantage be a portable ENSILAGE. 115 silo, the property of tlie tenant, as part of tlie dead stock. Old barns and buildings can also be converted into silos, and these will be of no slight benefit if they provide us with the means of supplying cattle with succulent food of good rpiality in the winter and spring, especially in seasons when roots are short, quite apart from the possibility of making us partially independent of the sun at the time of haymaking. The weighting of the mass has hitherto been a vexed ques- tion. According to the Eeport of the Ensilage Committee, ordered to be printed by the House of Commons, July 31, 1885, good results are claimed to have been obtained by means of weights varying from seven pounds to three hundred pounds per superficial foot of the top of the stack. Such an immense difference naturally suggests a doubt as to whether weighting is a necessity at all. The exclusion of air, which is a vital matter, can be effected without it, by means of a cover resting in water, as in Mr. James Howard's silo. Only a few years ago silos were unknown in Great Britain ; now they are very common, and ensilage stacks are being put up all over the country. The system is, therefore, having a thorough trial, but my own opinion is that the present enthusiasm will shortly cool, and that while we can grow roots and make decent hay, the silo will at best be only an auxiliary. The grass crop for which the silo can most reasonably be used is the lattermath, which is more difficult to make into hay in autumnal weather than the first crop. Lattermath hay has also the repu- tation of possessing more ' proof,' which renders it additionally suitable for this purpose. The system will no doubt encourage the growth of maize and other semi-tropical plants ; but interesting as the treatment of these crops in the silo may be, they do not relate to the immediate subject in hand. So far as its application on a large scale to grass is concerned, I am well persuaded that the use of the silo will be the exception, and that grass will continue to be turned into hay very much as heretofore. r 2 110 PEEMANENT AND TEMPOKARY PASTURES. Breaking up of Old Grass Land. Some pastures are so unproductive and fold with weeds, tliat in order to secure better crops there is every inducement to break them up, grow turnips or other roots for a year or two, and then sow good permanent grasses and clovers. This is always a sei'ious proceeding ; but if, in addition to breaking up the land, there be the additional willingness to brave the cost of paring and burning, I believe the operation may often be worth undertaking, provided the soil is suitable. A poor mountain pasture, however practicable it may be to ameliorate its condition in other ways, must on no account be destroyed. Paring and burning will almost certainly fail to in- crease its productiveness, and it is well-nigli impossible to form a sod on such land by artificial means. Nor will burning answer with any light sandy soil. Unless clay is a principal constituent, burning is to be avoided, for it will only do harm. As a rule peats and thin clays resting on chalk are benefited by the process. The colour of the soil generally indicates whether or not burning will be advantageous. A bronzy black soil is fair evidence of the presence of protoxide of iron. Where this chemical com- pound exists in quantity burning will generally improve the soil, for the protoxide is injurious to vegetation ; by the action of lire it becomes a peroxide, which is beneficial to plant-life. An old and easy mode of discovering whether land will benefit by burning is to place some sods in a large iron pot or kettle, closely covered, and put it over a gentle fire. There must not be enough heat to create a flame. Gradually the sods will BEEAKING UP OF OLD GEASS LAND. 117 char iway to ashes. If the land is suitable, the ashes will be red and powdery, mixed with a few black particles, and when put into water will make it more or less muddy. In the proportion that the water holds the ashes in suspension will the land be benefited by burning. If the land is unsuitable, the ashes will be sandy, and instead of making the water tliick they will be precipitated to the bottom, leaving the water almost clear. Supposing this experiment to be in favour of the operation, even then only a small area should be tried until there is conclusive evidence that the proceeding would be advantageous. There is no necessity to pare the soil deeper than three or four inches, and instead of the spade or turfing iron, a paring plough made for the purpose is to be preferred, especially as it leaves the slice of soil on its edge, so that a drying wind soon fits it for being gathered into heaps. To economise labour, many small fires scattered over the field have been advocated, and undoubtedly they save much carrying of the turf and facilitate the spreading of the ashes. But small heaps are very wasteful. It is almost impossible to prevent them from flaring, and that is ruinous. Large dense masses, however, can be consumed slowly and evenly, and at a comparatively low temperature. This point is worth close attention, for it makes an enormous difference in the fertilising value of the ash. The inorganic constituents of the soil are rendered soluble when burnt slowly, and become more insoluble when overburnt. The effect of burnino; is to get rid of all the orcranic matter. But the mineral constituents — with the exception of nitrogen, which plant-life had abstracted from the soil — remain, and they are so transformed by fire as to be easily assimilable by future crops. The consumption of all the organic matter by fire is of course a destructive process, and in itself involves a considerable loss, but the effect of fire upon the inorganic substances goes far to neutral- ise this loss. The soil is rendered capable of assimilating ammonia, nitrogen, and other plant foods more rapidly than before. Fire 118 PERMANENT AND TEMPOEARY PASTURES. reduces clay to a friable, disintegrated condition, wliicli readily absorbs fertilising matter. The late Dr. Voelcker conclusively proved this to be the case, and that the effect of heat is to trans- form some of the mineral elements from an insoluble to a soluble state. For instance, as the soil probal)ly contains various com- pounds of silicates and of lime, the lime becomes liberated by the lieat, and, under the high temperature, attacks the silicates, liberates part of the potash from its insoluble compound, and converts it into soluble plant food. This liberation of potasli has probably more to do with the success of burning than any other result consequent upon it. Thus the action of fire effects chemical and pliysical changes in the soil which are of material advantage to the plant-life which follows. Burning has really very much the same effect, but in a more intense degree, that liming has in sweetening the soil, and in setting free quantities of inorganic matter which were previously in a locked-up condition.^ An admixture of lime with the ashes greatly augments their value for clay soils. Burning also destroys the noxious forms of vege- tation, and tlie land is freed from bots and grubs, and other destructive larvae of insects. It is usual to take at least one crop of roots immediately after burning, and in such a case a mis-plant is rarely known. The ashes absorb so much moisture from the atmospliere, and give it up so slowly, that the turnip seeds have plenty of time to germinate, however great the heat. Even the fly is seldom troublesome on newly-burnt land. ^ The following is Sir H. Davys analysis uf tlie ash of burnt turf: — Parts i'arbonate of lime 80 Sulphate of lime, or gy^psura H Charcoal ....... J) iSaliue matter, pviucipally sulphate of potash and muriate of magnesia . 3 Oxide of iron ........... 15 Insoluble earthy matter 82 200 119 Tempora r y Pa s tures. Although a large proportion of the cultivated soil of the United Kingdom is perfectly adapted for being laid away to pasture, it is unquestionably true that there are soils which do not take kindly to permanent grasses. There are also cases where the absence of fences and the lack of funds to make them, the cultural preparations, and the expense of the seeding, combine to place the creation of a permanent pasture out of the question. In relation to this subject I published a short paper some years ago which had this question for its title : ' Is there no Alterna- tive ? ' As an answer I ventured strongly to press upon the attention of agriculturists the necessity of adopting the system of alternating grass with corn and roots as a means of enabling them to work with less capital and of reducing the labour bill by at least one-third. Mr. Clare Sewell Eead has given the sanction of his high authority to this practice by publicly stating that he considered it to be the only possible way of meeting the present agricultural depression. Several of the reasons why some land will not grow a satis- factory permanent pasture are very ably stated by one of the greatest French agricultural authorities. Monsieur H. Joulie, in his essay on ' Permanent and Temporary Meadows and Pastures,' for which the Societe des Agriculteurs de France awarded liim a gold medal. He says : ' At first the grass plants find a soil suit- ably dressed with farm-yard or other manure, that is to say, con- taining all the elements necessary for their growth. So they grow vigorously. But little by little the soil becomes more compact, 120 PERMANENT AND TEMPORAEY PASTURES. the subsoil more dense, and the rain or water of inigation pene- trates ^vith greater difficulty. During the droughts of summer the moisture rises up less easily from tlie subsoil, and thus, from physical causes, the production settles down to a normal level. In time the chemical condition of the land also undergoes a material change ; not only is the layer of soil which is occupied by the roots rendered incapable of supplying a sufficiently large amount of the elements necessary to the vegetation, but, owing to the continued accumulation of vegetable debris, the layer of soil in wliicli tlie roots live at length becomes sour, even where the earth may originally have been calcareous, and may still be so in tlie underlying layers, so that the good plants tend to disappear and give place to a vegetation which is characteristic of sour land.' After giving the reasons and experiments which prove his case, Monsieur Joulie adds: 'From all that has been stated we can now draw the following practical and economical conclusions : — ' 1st That the cultivation of roots and cereals deprives the soil of nitrogen, whilst that of grass and leguminous plants, temporary or permanent, on the contrary, causes it to accumulate in the soil. That nitrogen being the most expensive manure to buy, it is not economical to devote part of the land permanently to arable and part to grass, for wdiilethe one uses up the nitrogen, the other accumulates it in excess. On the contrary, it is pre- ferable to alternate on the same piece of land the cultivation of roots and cereals with that of grass leys, so as in a measure to repair by the second the loss of nitrogen which the first cause to the soil. By this means cultivation can be kept up indefinitely without purchased nitrogen, provided that the land be maintained in a fit state of richness as regards the mineral elements which are indispensable to healthy vegetation, ' 2nd. Tlie practical application of this principle is, that the temporary occupation of the land by a grass ley for two or three years, which takes its turn in the rotation of crops, should be preferred. We thus secure the improvement of the soil obtain- TEMPORARY PASTURES. 121 able from the cultivation of legiiminosa3 (clover, lucerne, vetches, &c.). But as this class of plant will not succeed on every soil, temporary " leys " with graminaceous (grass) herbage ought to give, where leguminous plants do not succeed, analogous, if not equally good results, and so assist materially in solving the pro- blem of producing cereal, root, and other crops with increasing economy.' Upon such soils alternate husbandry may be adopted with immense advantage. The periodical breaking up of tlie land at the end of every three or four years, and its treatment as arable for one or two seasons, will render it capable of again yielding heavy and valuable crops of grass. As a light sandy soil rarely forms a satisfactory pasture, it is far wiser to sow a temporary mixture upon it. The heavy crops that can be obtained from artificial grasses during a limited number of years are only partially at- tributable to the judicious selection of the grasses and clovers. The chief causes are that the continual use of manure has put the land into good heart, and cultural operations have allowed the atmosphere to set free the elements which grasses readily assimilate. The third or fourth year is generally regarded as the critical time for a permanent pasture. There are, unfor- tunately, plenty of instances where improper seeding or starved land renders a profitable pasture impossible. To these pre- ventible causes I am not now alluding, but to soils which, in despite of fair treatment, agglomerate and become impervious to atmospheric influences, and refuse to give up the necessary elements for the free growth of grasses. Apart, however, from this question of an unsuitable soil, there are weighty reasons for the adoption of a system of alter- nate husbandry. Two-thirds of many farms might with advantage always be in artificial grass. A great saving would be effected in tillage operations, horseflesh, and labour. The land would break up at the end of the term in excellent condition and full of clover roots as a store of nourishment for the succeeding grain 122 PERMANENT AND TEMPOEARY PASTURES. crop. The custom of maintaining agricultural holdings that are almost entirely arable or almost entirely pastoral, has failed to meet the necessities of our time. What is wanted now is a combination of arable and pastoral husbandry, so that when corn does not pay and stock is profitable, or vice versd, each occupier may obtain benefit from one branch of his business. The grazier would be profited in being able to winter his own stock instead of selling; it to make a winter's manure for the arable farmer. On the other hand, tlie arable farmer would not then, as now, be compelled to sell his stock immediately his roots were exhausted, or i)ay the grazier to summer the animals for him. When neither arable nor pastoral land yields a profit, the system I am advocat- ing has the merit of reducing expenses to a minimum. The specialising of agriculture has been carried to injuri- ous excess. Great arable farms, without enough pasture to keep half-a-dozen cows, and large grazing farms that are wanting in sufficient arable to grow straw and roots for winter consumption, should both be regarded as evils, demanding prompt rectification. The admirable system, pursued in Lancashire and in Scotland, of annually laying away in artificial grasses a proportion of each farm for a period of three or four years, is so successful that it is surprising the practice has not long since been adopted all over the country. Instead of this, the sowing of Broad Clover alone is still the rule, and the admixture even of Eye Grass the excej)tion. In comparatively few instances is it usual to sow with the clovers such heavy cropping varieties as Eye Grass, Foxtail, and Timothy, without which the best results cannot be obtained from the alternate system. The admission of corn into this country without duty, with the present high rate of labour, renders it impossible to grow wheat at a profit on land heavily burdened with rates, taxes, and other charges. Were the price of wheat to rise to a figure that would make it a profitable crop to grow, we could ahnost, if not entirely, supply ourselves from Enghsh soil ; but while the doctrines of Free Trade prevail the farmer must turn his atten- TEMPORAKY PASTUEES. 123 tion to otlier crops besides wheat, and discontinue flogging tlie dead horse. The oft-repeated statement that our land is only fit for wheat-growing is erroneous and results in a practice that is economically false. I am fully persuaded that the general adop- tion of tlie alternate system will prove at least a partial remedy for the evil. In itself the system of temporary pastures is good, and a means of good, for it opens up a less ruinous method of farming with a much smaller capital than is sufficient for the conduct of a purely arable farm. It has been said with truth that the immediate return from grass land is not so high as from arable ; and while farmers were paying high rents they could not afford to dispense with a crop like wheat, which could readily be turned into money. TJiis argument takes no account of the continued outlay a wheat crop involves, and which more than absorbs the price it at present fetches. But now that rents are being generally reduced, there no longer remains this excuse for losing the advantage to be derived from temporary pastures. My esteemed friend, Mr. John Chalmers Morton, has pub- lished remarks on this subject which are worthy of attention. He says: — ' It is honestly believed by many that great loss has come, both to landlords and tenants in England, because they have per- sistently continued to cherish good hopes of a wheat harvest as year succeeded year. ' Let us be sure that it is an economical sin to carry on a trade year after year at a loss. We are turning a deaf ear to the teachings of Providence, oft repeated, as long as we continue to attempt to grow wheat on cold and worn-out arable land. It is our old turf that has kept the agriculture of England going for many years past. Much encouragement is held out for a great development in dairy farming and stock production. But mean- while many of those who actually make a profit in the items of milk and stock throw that profit away. Metaphorically, the mixed farms of our midlands are now pouring their milk down 124 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES. the furrows. And, we repeat it, all this evil comes because we will " cherisli hopes of harvest." 'If some prophet or judge would free us from the slavery of wheat-ijrowino;, as the children of Israel were freed from their slavery by Othniel, then the future historian might write of England, " And the land had rest forty years." ' The wide assumption that there is no alternative between corn-growing and the laying down of land to permanent pasture will not bear a moment's examination. The result of this fallacy is fraught with mischief, and entails an enormous loss on the farmers of this country every year. The alternate system offers a remedy of proved value, the adoption of which will tend very materially to turn a deficit into a favourable balance. Cocks- foot, Timothy, Italian Eye Grass, and other strong-growing grasses not only produce heavy crops of nutritious hay, but they smother weeds and keep tlie land clean ; that is, supposing it to have been in a reasonably clean condition when sown. The alternate system will neither justify slovenly preparation nor foul seeding. Those wlio sow rubbish will assuredly reap as they sow. The seeds sold for leys sometimes consist largely of Goose Grass and Yorksliire Fog with a liberal sprinkling of sorrel and docks. Let no man who j)uts such a vile mixture into his land blame the system I am advocating for the miserable results he may obtain. One Year's Ley. — For this purpose the varieties must ob- viously be restricted to those which yield a large and immediate return. Annual or Italian Eye Grass will form the basis of the mixture, and an addition of Perennial Eye Grass will generally be desirable, as also a very small quantity of Cocksfoot. For grazing. Broad Clover is preferable to Cow Grass, and Wliite Clover will also be a necessary constituent. But for hay, Alsike should replace White Clover. Trefoil is a doubtful article ; upon many soils it is indigenous, and in some few cases objectionable ; but there are many instances where a proportion of it is not only legitimate, but necessary. TEMPOEAEY PASTUEES. 125 Two Years' Ley. — The extended duration of the ley justi- fies the addition of Timothy and an increase of Cocksfoot, but it is very easy to overdo the latter. Italian will almost certainly be preferable to Annual Eye Grass, but the proportion must be diminished, and a larger quantity of Perennial Eye Grass be sub- stituted. Alsike and White Clover should be more freely sown, and the weight of Broad be slightly reduced. A heavier total seeding will be necessary to make a satisfactory two years' ley than is required for a single season, and more regard must be paid to peculiarities of soil and to the object in view. Three or Four Years' Ley. — These two periods may fairly be considered together, for the major part of a prescription, adapted for three years, will, as a rule, hold good for another season. There is a general impression that, for so long a term as four years, a permanent mixture should be used, but this is a mistake. Some of the finer grasses that are properly included for permanent pastures would be wasted if sown for only three or four years ; they would scarcely become established until the term had expired, and would certainly yield no adequate return for the outlay incurred. Besides retaining Timothy, Alsike, White Clover, and Perennial Eye Grass, it is still necessary to include some Italian Eye Grass, Broad Clover, and Trefoil for the sake of the first year's produce, but on suitable soils the place of the Eye Grass may largely be taken by Avena elatior. The value of the hay will be increased, and tlie pasture will be more palatable to stock, by partially replacing Cocksfoot with Meadow Fescue ; and Foxtail must also be introduced. When the ley is needed for pasturage, an addition of Hard Fescue will render good service by making the bottom grass dense, and the Broad Clover may then be supplemented with Cow Grass. On chalky soils either Sainfoin or Lucerne may be desirable. The total quantity of seed will approximate more nearly to that required for a permanent pasture, although the finer varieties will be omitted. 126 PERMANENT AND TEMPORAEY PASTUEES. Temporary pastures are almost invariably sown with spring corn, and they require substantially the same treatment as per- manent pastures, although, as the varieties are strong growers, there is not quite the same necessity for extreme caution in pre- paring the land; but even here laxity and carelessness entail a sufficiently heavy penalty. A temporary pasture ma}^ in a genial, showery summer, afford a valuable bite for horned stock soon after the corn is cut ; and as the grasses are robust and comparatively coarse, although none the less nourishing on that account, they will not be injured by the hoofs of the cattle. The rolhng should be done in November, instead of waiting until spring. Supposing stock to be kept off the ground, and the autumn to prove warm and genial, it wdll sometimes be jDossible by the end of October to get a cut of useful green food. A heavy dressing of cake-fed farm-yard manure applied toAvards the close of the year will pay well. Nothing stimulates artificial grasses so much, and there must be no niggardliness in its use. The fresher the manure when placed on the ground, and^ the less it has been allowed to ferment, the better the grass will thrive. The pasture needs bush-harrowing and rolling down early in spring before being laid in for hay. The first year's crop will mainly consist of Eye Grasses and Clovers, but the bottom of a three or four years' ley may be expected to improve for at least two years, and the Foxtail, Timothy, Cocksfoot, Tall Oat Grass, and other plants, will increase in bulk in the third and fourth seasons. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS, ANALYSES AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN NATURAL COLOURS OF THE PEIXCIPAL GRASSES AND CLOVERS USED IN PEEMANENT PASTUEES AND IN ALTEENATE HUSBANDEY. NOTE by Dr. J. A. VOELGKER for the SECOND EDITION. The analyses in the following pages represent the chemical composition of the several grasses and clovers opposite which they appear. Each variety was grown separately and was perfectly pure ; the sample being taken, in every instance, as nearly as possible at the time when it would have been cut for hay. In these analyses for the first time the relative amounts of true albuminoids have been determined directly, and not, as in previously recorded results, merely given by calculation of the total nitrogen into albuminoids. It will be observed that in every case a very considerable proportion of the Total Nitrogen exists in a non-albuminoid form, and that these proportions vary much in the individual grasses. It is not intended in these remarks to indicate more than the chemical features brought out by the analyses; for it must be apparent that chemical analysis alone cannot fully determine the relative values of ditlerent grasses and their suitability for permanent or other pastures. The adaptability of some kinds of grasses for certain soils, the amount of growth attained, the time of maturity, the length of duration, the ability to resist drought, the strength to overpower weeds, and other circumstances, must of necessity be taken into account. As far, however, as the chemical properties are concerned, the analyses show that the several grasses, cut just as they would have been for haying, have very different nutritive px'operties. These difi'erences are most marked in respect of the water, the total nitrogen and albuminoid nitrogen, and in a somewhat lesser degree in the digestible fibre, soluble carbo-lij'drates, &c. The varying proi^ortion of water in different grasses constitutes a point of much importance, for while the yield of two kinds may be equal in bulk, the nutritive properties of one may be far superior to those of the other. Not only must this be borne in mind when the grasses are used in the fresh or green state, as e.g. for ensi- lage, but also in considering them in the dried state, as hay, when, practically speaking, the value of the dry matter in each must be taken into account. For this reason the analyses of the grasses in the dried state, viz. at 212° Fahr., have also been given. If any special grasses are to be selected out of the number by reason of the high nutritive properties they possess, Alopecurvs pratovsis, Festuca ovina, Poet tiemoruUs, Festuca heterophylla, and Poa trivialis must be named among the first, and then LoHurn perenne, Phleum pratense, Aiithoxanthum odoratum, Lolium italicum, and Dactylis glomerata. In the five first named, together with Lolium perenne and Phleum pratense, the amounts of total nitrogen and true albuminoids are considerably higher than in the other grasses. No one grass, taking the different nutritive properties together, excels, in a chemical sense (though others nearly approach), Alopec.urus jjratensis, which, besides being rich in flesh-forming constituents, contains also a high amount of digestible matters. While not being so highly nitrogenous in character as others named, Antlioxanthum odoratum,, Lolium italicum, Dactylis glomerata, and Aveiia Jlavescens are specially rich in digestible carbo-hydrates, &c. The clovers are marked by the high projjortions of nitrogen and true albuminoids they contain, and by their small amounts of indigestible woody fibre as compared with the grasses. This may be best seen by a comparison of the analyses in the dried state, bearing out, as they do, the practical value of clover hay. Among the Clovers Trifolium pratense and Trifolium hybridum stand out jirominently. (Signed) J. AUGUSTUS VOELGKER. NOTE AS TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS. The following have been drawn by Miss Butler expressly for this work, from specimens grown in soils naturally adapted to their full development. The plants were fine but not extravagant examples. As an instance, I may mention that near the Timothy, represented on Plate XIV., there was growing a very much larger head, which measured rather more than nine inches. Each flower or portion of a plant is drawn to the exact natural size, but it has required care in some cases to bend the plant in such a manner as to bring the total length within the limited space of one of these pages. MARTIN J. SUTTON. 128 AGROSTIS ALBA— VAR. STOLONIFERA. Florin, or Creeping; Bent Grass. AGROSTIS ALBA-VAR, STOLONIFERA, FIORIN, OR CREEPING BENT GRASS. Eoots creeping, rootstock perennial and stoloni- ferous. Stems G inches to 3 feet. Leaves numerous, flat, short, and usually scabrid ; sheath rough ; ligule long and acute. Panicle spreading, with whorled branches. Spikelets one-flowered, small. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, unequal, smooth, and awnless. Flowering glumes slightly hairy at the base, with occasionally a minute awn. Palea minute and cloven at the point. Flowers from July to September. Grows in pastures and damp places throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, and North America. ANALYSIS. Grass in Dried at Natural State. 212° Fahr Water .... 67-22 . — *Soluble albuminoids •06 •19 **Insoluble albuminoids . 1-44 4^37 Digestible fibre 10-14 80-93 Woody fibre . 13-30 40-57 f Soluble mineral matter . 1-85 5-64 ff Insoluble mineral matter •98 2-98 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo -hydrates, etc .5-01 15-32 100-00 100-00 * Containing Nitrogen •01 •03 »■' Containing Nitrogen . •23 •70 Albuminoid Nltrogci I -24 •73 Xon-albuminoid Nitrogen . •19 •58 Total NitrogpL L -43 1-31 t Containing Siica •17 •60 •51 ft Containing Si.ica ... . 1-83 130 ALOPECURUS PRATENSIS. Meadow Foxtail K 2 ALOPECURUS PRATENSIS. MEADOW FOXTAIL. Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems 1 to 3 feet, erect and smooth. Leaves fiat and scabrid ; slieatli smootli and longer than its leaf; ligule large and truncate. Panicle spike-like, cylindrical, and ob- tuse. Spikelets one-flowered, and laterally compressed. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, hairy on the keel, awnless. Flowering glumes with straight awn inserted at the middle of the back. Palea none. Flowers from the middle of April to June. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, and North-western India. ANALYSIS. Grass in Natural State. Dried at 212° Fahr Water . 55-58 — *Soluble albuminoids •50 1-13 **Insoluble albuminoids . 2-56 5-75 Digestible fibre .... 14-22 32-01 Woody fibre ..... 16-42 3fr96 f Solublp minei'al matter . 2-58 5-81 Iflnsoluble mineral matter •94 2-11 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c 7-20 16-23 100-00 100-00 « Containing Nitrogen '* Containing Nitrogen •08 •41 •18 •92 Albuminoid Nitrogei Non-albuminoiil Kitrogen 1 -49 •30 1-iu •67 Total Kltroger I -79 1-77 t Containing Si'ioa tt Containing Si ica •37 •52 •83 1^17 132 >( \ ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATIJM Sweet-scented Vernal. ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM. SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL. Roots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems 1 to 2 feet, tufted, erect, glabrous, and with few joints. Leaves hairy, flat and pointed ; sheath ribbed and slightly hairy ; ligule hairy. Panicle spike-like, pointed at sum- mit, uneven below. Spikelets one-flowered, lanceolate. Empty glumes in two pairs; outer two much larger than the flowering glumes, unecpial, hairy at the keels and pointed at the ends, awnless ; second j^air shorter and narrower than first pair, equal ; also hairy and both awned, one with short straight awn inserted at the back near the summit, the other with long bent awn inserted at the centre of the back. Flowering glumes snuiU, glabrous, and awnless., Palea adherent to the seed. Stamens two. Anthers large. Flowers April and May, Grows in fields, woods, and on banks through- out Europe, Siberia, and North Africa. ANALYSIS. Water .... *Soluble albuminoids **Insoliiblc albuminoids . Dif^estible fibre Woody iibre . fSolulile mineral matter tflnsoluble mineral matter Chlorophyll, solub'e carbo-hydrates, \c Grass in Natural State. 61-84 •69 1-31 14-43 14-56 1-76 •83 4-58 * Containing' Nitrogen ** Containing Nitrogen Albuminoid Nitrogen Non-albuminoid Nitrogen Total Nitrogen t Containing Silica tt Containing Silica .......'. 100-00 -11 -21 •32 •SO •52 •38 -44 Dried at 212° Fahr. 1-81 3-44 37-81 38-15 4-61 2-18 12-00 100-00 -29 •55 •84 •55 •99 1-15 134 AVENA FLAVESCENS. Yellow Oat Grass. AVENA FLAVESCENS. YELIiOW OAT GRASS. Rootstock perennial, creeping, and somewhat sto- loniferous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect, glabrous, and striated. Leaves flat; slieath slightly hairy; lignle truncate and ciliated. Panicle spreading, with many branches, broad at the base and pointed at the sum- mit. Spikelets three- or four-flowered, smaU, shining, and of a bright yehow colour. Empty glumes unequal, keeled, and rough. Flowering glumes hairy at the base and toothed at summit, with slender twisted awn springing from below the middle of the back. Palea narrow, short, and blunt. Flowers June, July, and August. Grows in dry pastures throughout Europe, North Africa, and Asia. ANALYSIS. Water . Soluble albuminoids *Insoluble albuminoids Digestible tibie Woody fibre . fSoluble mineral matter j-flnsoluble mineral matter Chloroi)hyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c Grass in Kixtural State. 63-11 1-50 11-95 14-05 1-04 1-11 7-24 100-00 Dried at 212° Fahi: 4-06 32-39 38-09 2-81 3-01 19-64 100-00 * Containing Nitrogen Kon-albuminoid Nitrogen Total Nitrogen + Containing Silica tt Coutaiuiug Silica •24 ■a ■;38 •13 •75 •65 •38 1^03 •35 2^03 136 AVENA FIAVFSnF CYNOSURUS CRISTATUS. Crested Dogstaii. CYNOSURUS CRISTATUS. CRESTED DOGSTAIIi. Rootstocli perennial, stoloniferous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, tufted, erect, smooth, and wiry. Leaves very narrow, ribbed, slightly hairy ; sheath smooth ; lignle short and bifid. Panicle spike-like, secnnd. Spikelets many-flowered, ovate, flat, with a barren spikelet consisting of empty glumes arranged in a pectinate manner at the base. Empty glumes sharply pointed, shorter than flowering glumes, unequal, with prominent rough keels. Flowering glumes lanceolate, with a short awn at summit. Palea very thin, slightly ciliated. Flowers July and August. Grows in dry hilly pastures throughout Europe, AVestern Asia, and North Africa. Grass in Natural State. 72-33 ANALYSIS. Water Soluble albuminoids ..... — *Insoluble albuminoids 1-50 Digestible fibre 7-91 Woody fibre 11-34 fSoluble mineral matter 2-08 tflnsoluble mineral matter .... -76 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, itc. . 4-08 100-00 * Coutaiiiing Kitrogen -M Nou-alburuiuoid Nitrogen -18 Total Nitrogen -42 t Containing Silica -19 tt Containing Silica -39 Dried at 212° Falir. 5-38 28-59 40-98 7-51 2-74 14-80 100-00 •86 •65 l^ol ■68 1-41 138 GYNOSURUS CRISTATUS. DACTYLIS GLOMERATA. Koiio-h Cocksfoot. DACTYLIS GLOMERATA. ROUGH COCKSFOOT, Boots fibrous, rootstock perennial. Stems 2 to 3 feet, erect, stout, and smooth. Leaves broad, keeled, and rough; sheath scabrid; ligule long. Panicle secund, spreading below, close and pointed above. Spikelets three- to five-flowered, laterally com- pressed, and closely clustered at the end of the branches. Empty glumes smaller than flowering glumes, unequal, keeled, and hairy on upper part of the keel, pointed at summit. Flowering glumes with hairy keel, pointed and ending in a short awn. Palea bifid at summit, and fringed at base. Flowers June and July. Grows in pastures, woods, orchards, and waste places throughout Europe, North Africa, North India, and Siberia. ANALYSIS. Grass in Natural State. Dried at 212° Fahr Water 60-74 — ^Soluble albuminoids •25 •62 **Insoluble albuminoids . 1-50 3^81 Digestible fibre .... Woody fibre ..... 11-30 16-24 '28-78 41-36 fSoluble mineral matter . 2-04 5-19 tf Insoluble mineral matter •91 2-32 Chloroiihyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c 7-02 17^92 100-00 100-00 * Containing: Nitrogen *■» Ctoutainiug Nitrogen •04 •24 •10 •61 Albuminoid Xitrogei Non-albuminoid Nitrogen L •as -18 -71 -46 Tot.al Nitrogei f Containing Silica 1 -46 •35 ■51 1-17 •89 tt Containing Silica 1^29 140 DACTYLIS GLOMERATA FESTUCA PRATENSIS. Meadow Fescue. FESTUCA PRATENSIS. MEADOW FESCUE. Eootstock perennial, creeping. Stems 18 inches to 3 feet, tufted, erect, and smooth. Leaves flat and smooth ; sheath smooth ; ligule short. Panicle si^reading, but closer and narrower than in F. elatior, with fewer branches. Spikelets many-flowered, lan- ceolate. Empty glumes shorter than flowering glumes, unequal and acute. Flowering glumes rough, and slightly awned. Palea acute and ribbed, with hairy nerves. Flowers June and July. Grows on good pastures throughout Europe and Northern Asia. ANALYSIS. Grass in Statural State. Dried at 212° Pabr Water 71-04 — Soluble albuminoids — — *Insoluble albuminoids . 1-13 3-88 Digestible fibre Woody fibre . 8-91 12-51 30-77 43-19 Soluble mineral matter . 1-05 3-62 f Insoluble mineral matter Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hj drates, etc. •64 4-72 2-21 16-33 » Containing Nitrogen Non-albuminoid Nitrogen 100-00 100-00 •18 •18 •62 -62 Total Nitrogen -36 1-24 t Containing Silica •39 1-35 142 T^TV.r\ PRATENSIS. FESTUCA ELATIOR— VAR. FERTILIS. Tall Fescue. FESTUCA ELATIOR-VAR. FERTILIS. TALL FESCUE. Eootstock perennial, stoloniferous or tufted. Stems 3 to 6 feet, erect and smooth. Leaves broad, flat, and scaberulous ; sheath smooth ; ligule short. Panicle diffuse and nodding. Spikelets many-flowered, half an inch long or more, lanceolate. Empty glumes shorter than flowering glumes, acute and unequal. Flower- ing glumes broad, rough, and toothed at the apex. Palea acute and ribbed, with hairy nerves. Flowers June and July. Grows in damp pastures and wet places throughout Europe, North Africa, and North America. ANALYSIS. Grass in Dried at Katural State. 212° ralir Water 71-25 — Soluble albuminoids .... — — ^Insoluble albuminoids .... 1-31 4-50 Digestible fibre 6-80 23^65 Woody fibre ...... 14-2.5 49^56 Soluble mineral matter 1-09 3^79 f Insoluble mineral matter •56 1^95 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. 4-74 irr55 100-00 100-00 * Containing Nitrogen •21 •72 Non-albuminoid Nitrogen •13 ■45 Total Nitroger 1 -34 M7 t Containing Silica . •31 1-08 144 FESTUCA HETEROPHYLLA. Various-leaved Fescue. L FESTUCA HETEROPHYLLA. VARIOUS-LEAVED FESCUE. Boots fibrous, rootstock perennial, tufted. Stems 2 to 2^ feet, numerous, erect, and smooth. Leaves various, dark green, lower ones folded, upper ones flat. Panicle diffuse. Spikelets many-flowered. Empty glumes unequal, shorter than flowering glumes, with prominent midrib and long awn. Flowers June and July. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Central Europe; introduced into Great Britain for cultivation in permanent pastures. ANALYSIS. Water . * Soluble albuminoids **Insoluble albuminoids Digestible fibre Woody fibre . f Soluble mineral matter ■j-flnsoluble mineral matter Chloropliyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c Grass in Natural State. 41-07 •31 2-13 17-81 26-21 3-18 1-51 7-78 * Containing Nitrogen ** Containing Nitrogen Albuminoid Nitrogen Non-albuniiuoid Nitrogen Total Nitrogen t Containing Silica tt Containing Silica •05 •34 -39 •42 •36 •94 Dried at 212= Fahr. •50 3-64 30-22 44-48 5-39 2-56 13-21 100-00 100-00 •08 •58 •66 •71 •61 1-59 146 FESTUCA HETEROPHYLLA. FESTUCA OVINA. Sheep's Fescue. f 1 2 FESTUCA OVINA. SHEEFS EESCUE. Eootstock perennial, creeping or tufted. Stems 6 to 12 inches, erect, and densely tufted, rough at the upper part and smooth below. Leaves very slender, chiefly radical, upper ones rolled ; sheath smooth ; ligule long and bilobed. Panicle small, erect, con- tracted, and subsecund. Spikelets many-flowered, small, upright. Empty glumes shorter than flowering glumes, unequal and acute. Flowering glumes small, with minute awn. Palea toothed, with hairy nerves. Flowers June and July. Grows in dry, hilly pastures throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, North America, and Australia. ANALYSIS. Water .... ^Soluble albuminoids **Insoluble albuminoids . Digestible fibre Woody fibre . jSoluble mineral matter, tflnsoluble mineral matter * Containing Nitrogen *•* Containing Nitrogen Non-albu iuoid Nitrogen t Containing Silica tt Containing Silica Grass in Dried at Natural State. 212° Falir t . . . 55-62 — 1-06 2-44 1-54 3^37 16-72 37-77 lo-31 34^49 1-59 3-60 1-72 3-88 ydrates, &c. &-U 14-45 100-00 100-00 •17 •39 •24 •54 Ibiuuiuuid Nitrogen •41 •93 •23 •54 Total Nitrogen ■64 1-47 ^i^^ •69 1-58 VA5 3-26 148 ->\¥ LOLIUM PERENNE SUTTONI. Sutton's Perennial Rye Grass LOLIUM PERENNE SUTTONI, SUTTON'S PERENNIAL RYE GRASS. Eoots fibrous, rootstock perennial, sometimes sto- loniferous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, Lent at the base, as- cending, smooth, and sHghtly compressed. Leaves flat, narrow, and pointed ; edges and upper surface scabrid ; sheath smooth and compressed ; Kgule short and Wunt. Panicle spiked. Spikelets many-flowered, solitary, sessile, distichous. Empty glumes, only an outer one to each spikelet, except in the case of the upper spikelet, which has two, lanceolate, smooth, distinctly ribbed, and shorter than the spikelets. Flowering glumes obtuse, ribbed, and with sometimes a minute awn. Flowers May and June. ANALYSIS. Grass in Dried at Natural State. 212° Falir Water C2-01 — * Soluble albuminoids •38 1-00 **Insoluble albuminoids . 2-06 5-38 Digestible fibre .... 7-98 21-01 Woody fibre 17-71 46-62 f Soluble mineral matter . 2-90 7-61 fflnsoluble mineral matter •78 2-05 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, *c 6-18 16-30 100-00 100-00 * Containing Nitrogen •06 -16 ** Containing Nitrogen -33 -86 Albuminoid Nitrogen -39 1V2 Non-a'.buminoid Nitrogen -38 1-00 Total Nitrogen -77 2-02 t Containing Silica -05 •13 tt Containing Silica . , -32 •84 152 T/^TTTT'»i" TM AT ri r* TTrnrP/^ HT T LOLIUM ITALICUM SUTTONI. SUTTON'S ITALIAN RYE GRASS. Annual or biennial. Eoot fil)rous. Stems 2 to 4 feet, erect, stout, smooth. Leaves long, broad, glabrous, and succulent ; sheaths slightly rough ; ligule short and obtuse. Spikelets many-flowered, sessile, distichous on a long rachis. Upper empty glume only present in the terminal spikelet ; lower empty glume persistent, lanceolate, obtuse, scarcely reaching to middle of spikelet. Flowering glumes lanceolate. Awn as large as glume. Palea ciliate at base. Flowers June and -July. Not known in a wild state. ANALYSIS. Grass in Natural State. Dried at 212° Fahr Water .... ... . 60-84 — * Soluble albuminoids •25 •75 **Insoluble albuminoids . 1-31 3'31 Digestible fibre 11-46 29-30 Woody fibre . . 11^09 28-32 f Soluble mineral matter . 1^35 3-47 ff Insoluble mineral matter 110 2-81 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. 12-60 32-04 . 100^00 100^00 * Containing' Kitrogen ** Containing Niti'ogcn •04 •21 •12 •53 Xon-albuminoid Nitrogen Alhuminoid Nitrogci 1 ^25 •19 •65 •50 Total Nitroger I ^44 ri5 t Containing Silica ■24 •91 •61 tt Containing Silica . . , 2-33 154 \ » '^ / / \ ALICliM SHTTl i i. , r PHLEUM PKATENSE. Timothy, or Meadow Catstail. PHLEUM PRATENSE. TIMOTHY, OR MEADOW OATSTA.IL. Piootstock perennial, somewhat creeping. Stems 1 to 3 feet, erect and smooth. Leaves short, flat, and soft ; sheath smooth ; hgule oblong. Panicle spike - like, cylindrical, elongate, and compact. Spikelets one-flowered, laterally compressed. Empty glumes larger than flowering glumes, equal, each with stiff hairs on the keel and a short scabrid terminal awn. Palea minute and pointed. Flowering glumes much smaller than empty glumes, toothed and awnless. Flowers end of June to August. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, North Africa, Siberia, and Western Asia. ANALYSIS. Grass in Natural State. Dried at 212° Fahr Water 39-99 — ^Soluble albuminoids ..... •25 •43 **Insoluble albuminoids ..... 2-19 3-63 Digestible fibre 12-74 21-23 Woody fibre 31-97 53-27 •fSoluble mineral matter ..... 3-59 5-98 ff Insoluble mineral matter .... Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. 1-26 8-01 . 2-09 13-37 100-00 •Oi •35 100-00 » Containing Nitrogen »■' Containing Nitrogen •07 •58 Albuminoid Nitrogen Non-albuminoid Nitrogen •39 •48 -65 •80 Total Nitrogen -87 1-45 t Containing Silica tt Containing Silica ■27 •69 -45 1-15 15G ^ -^ • ' D POA PRATENSIS. Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass. POA PRATENSIS, SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS. Eootstock perennial, creeping and stoloniferous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect, smooth, and rather stout. Leaves flat, rather broad and sHghtly concave at the tip; sheath smooth and longer than its leaf; ligule short and blunt. Panicle loose, spreading and pyra- midal in shape. Spikelets four-flowered, compressed. Empty glumes much webbed, lanceolate, almost equal. Flowering glumes larger, webbed, keeled, and acute. Palea short. Flowers June and early in July. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, and North America. ANALYSIS. Water . Soluble albuminoids *Insoluble albuminoids Digestible fibre Woody fibre . f Soluble mineral matter ft Insoluble mineral matter Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c Grass iu Natural State. 65-81 1-81 9-29 15-24 1-11 1-42 5-82 Dried at 212° Pahr. lOU-00 * Contaiuing Nitrogen .59 Noa-albuminoid Nitrogen .15 Total Nitrogen -44 t Containing Silica .40 tt Containing Silica [ I-IS 5-31 27-17 44-57 3-24 4-13 15-58 100-00 •85 •44 P29 1-17 3-29 158 Kr^'i poA PM POA TRIVIALIS. Rouoii-stalked Meadow Grass. POA TRIVIALIS. ROUGH- STALKED MEADOW GRASS. Eootstock perennial, somewhat creeping, but not stoloniferous. Stems 1 to 2 feet, erect, rough and slender. Leaves flat, narrow, acute, and rough; sheath rough and equal to its leaf; ligule long and pointed. Panicle loose, spreading and pyramidal in shape. Spikelets three- to five-flowered, compressed. Empty glumes webbed, lanceolate, and nearly equal. Flowering glumes keeled and acute. Palea short and slightly fringed. Flowers June to end of -July. Grows in meadows and pastures throughout Europe, Siberia, North Africa, and North America. ANALYSIS. Water . * Soluble albuminoids **Insoluble albuminoids Digestible fibre Woody fibre . f Soluble mineral matter fflnsoluble mineral matter Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hy ilrates, etc. Grass iu Natural State. Dried at 212° Fahr 42-50 — •92 1-56 1-50 2-69 18-45 .S2-00 20-31 35-32 2-24 3-90 1-58 2-75 12-50 21-78 100-00 100-00 * Containing Nitrogen '14 ** Containing Nitrogen '24 Albuminoid Nitrogen -38 Nou-albuminoid Nitrogen -13 Total Nitrogen -51 t Containing Silica '15 tt Containing Silica 1-40 ■25 •43 •68 •24 •92 •27 2^44 160 POA NEiMORALIS SEMPERVIRENS. Evergreen Meadow Grass. .AI POA NEMORALIS SEMPERVIRENS. EVERGREEN MEADOW GRASS. Eootstock perennial, slightly creeping, but not stoloniferous. Stems 1 to 3 feet, erect, smooth. Leaves narrow, pointed, rough on the surface and outer edges ; sheath smooth ; ligule none or very minute. Panicle diffuse, slender, and nodding. Spike- lets lanceolate, compressed. Empty glumes acute, nearly equal, sometimes slightly webbed. Flowering glumes rather larger, lanceolate, with three hairy ribs. Palea with nerves slightly fringed. Flowers June and July. Grows in woods and shady places throughout Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. ANALYSIS. Water .... ^Soluble albuminoids **Insoluble albuminoids . Digestible fibre Woody fibre . f Soluble mineral matter . ff Insoluble niincral matter Chloroi^hyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. * Containing Kitrogren •» Containing Nitrogen Albuminoid Nitrogen Kon-albumiuoid Nitrogen .... Total Nitrogen t Containing Sil iea tt Containing Silica Grass in Natural State. Dried at 212° Pahr , 35-92 — 1-08 1-69 2-fi9 4-19 . 17-48 27-28 . 27-65 4315 2-65 4-14 2-25 3-51 . 10-28 16-04 100-00 100-00 -17 •43 n -60 •26 •■27 -67 •9i -41 a -86 1-35 -78 1-73 1-22 2-72 162 TRIFOLIUM REPENS PERENNE. Perennial White Clover. M 2 TRIFOLIUM REPENS PERENNE. PERENNIAL WHITE CLOVER. Rootstock perennial. Stems solid, prostrate, creeping, rooting at the nodes. Stipules lanceolate- cuspidate. Leaves on long stalks. Leaflets obtuse or obcordate ; margins finely toothed, generally with a white curved band. Peduncles axillary, long, erect, bearing a globose head of flowers. Pedicels deflexed after flowering. Calyx-teeth unequal, subulate, slightly shorter than tube. Corolla persistent, white or pink, turning brown. Pods three- to four-seeded. Flowers from May to October. Native of Europe, North Africa, Asia, India, and North America. ANALYSIS. Water . * Soluble albuminoids **Insoluble albuminoids Digestible fibre Woody fibre . fSoluble mineral matter fflnsoluble mineral matter Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, cfcc * Containinpr Nitrogen ** Coutainiug Nitrogen Xon-albuminoid Nitrogen t Containing Si'ica tt Containing Silica Albuminoid Nitrogen Total Nitrogen •578 •13 •30 Dried at 212° F.ihr. 302 •fi9 1-56 1C4 TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE, Red, or Broad Clover. TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE. RED, OR BROAD CLOVER. Biennial. Boot much branched, fibrous. Stems hollow, branching from base, clothed with fine hairs. Stipules membranous ; free portion adpressed to stem, terminating abruptly in a bristle-like point ; veins anastomosing. Leaflets oblong, obtuse, pubescent, usually strongly marked with a crescentic band. Heads terminal, sessile, globose. Flowers dull rose- purple. Calyx-teeth hairy, as long as tube. Corolla persistent, turning brown. Pods one-seeded. Flowers June to September. Grows throughout Europe, Central and Northern Asia, and India. ANAT^YSIS. Clover in Natural State. Drieil at 212° Pahr Water 06-89 — *Solublc albuminoids •62 1^94 **Iusolublo albuminoids .... 2-94 8^87 Digestible fibre 5-70 17-22 Woody fibre 8-78 26-52 f Soluble mi'heral matter .... 2-58 7-80 ttlnsoluble mineral matter •67 2-02 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. 11-82 35-63 100-00 100-00 » Containing Kitrogcn ** Containing Kitrogen •10 •47 •31 1-42 Albuminoid Nitrogei Kon-albumiuoid Nitrogen 1 -57 •26 1-73 •81 Total Nitrogei t Containing Silica tt Containing Silica I -83 •03 •06 2-54 •10 •19 166 TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE PERENNE. Perennial Red Clover. TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE PERENNE. PERENNIAL RED CLOVER. Perennial. Eoot long and tapering. Kootstock branching freely. Stems solid, erect or ascending, glabrous or sub-glabrous, tinged with purple. Stipules membranous, veined, gibbous at the base, free portion longer than in T. pratense, and more or less purple. Leaflets elliptical or oblong-lanceolate, broadly marked. Heads terminal and axillary, sessile or slightly stalked, ovoid. Flowers deep purple. Calyx-tube sub-glabrous, teeth setaceous, unequal, pods one-seeded. Flowers July. ANALYSIS. Clover in Statural State. Dried at 212° Fahr Water 70-24 ■ — *Soluble albuminoids . . . . . •56 200 **Insoluble albuminoids .... 2-31 7^81 Digestible fibre ..... 7-66 25^68 Woody fibre ...... 8-52 28-63 {soluble mineral matter .... 1-94 6^52 finsoluble mineral matter •60 2-03 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. 8-17 27-33 100-00 100-00 ** Oontaininf? Nitrogen »* Coutaining Nitrogen •09 -37 •32 1-25 Albuminoid Nitrogei Non-albuminoid Nitrogen 1 -46 •16 1-57 •54 Total Nitrogei t Containing Silica 1 -62 •06 211 •23 168 TRIFOLIUM HYBRIDUM. Alsike Clover. TRIFOLIUM HYBRIDUM. ALSIKE CLOVER. Eootstock perennial. Stems hollow, branched, flcxiious, glabrous. Stipules ovate-lanceolate, veins few. Leaflets obovate or elliptical, denticulate. Peduncles axillary, longer than the leaves. Heads globose, depressed. Calyx glabrous, teeth equalling tube. Corolla persistent, white or pink, turning brown. Pods three- to four-seeded. Flowers July and August. Native of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. ANALYSIS. Clover in Natural State. Dried at 212° I'ahr Water 70-78 — ^Soluble albuminoids 1-OG 3^69 **Insoluble albuminoids . 200 6-81 Digestible fibre 5-34 18^30 Woody fibre . 8-49 29-05 fSoluble mineral matter . 1-90 6-49 ft Insoluble mineral matter •74 2-55 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. 9-69 38-11 100^00 100-00 • Containing Xitrogen ** Coutaiuiug Nitrogen •17 •32 •59 1^U9 Albuminoid Nitrogci Kon-albumiuoid Nitrogen 1 ^49 •35 1-68 1^21 Total Nitrogei I -84 2-89 t Containing Silica tt Containing Silica . . . . . •01 . -07 •03 •26 170 MEDICAGO LUPULINA. Common Yellow Clover, or Trefoil. MEDICAGO LUPULINA. COMMON YELLOW CLOVER, OR TREFOIL. Animal, rarely biennial. Stems much branched from base, hairy or sub-glabroiis. Leaflets obovate, denticulate, emarginate, mucronate. Stiimles ob- liquely ovate-toothed. Peduncle longer than the leaf. Head many-flowered, depressed, ovoid. Flowers lemon-yellow. Pedicels shorter than calyx ; calyx- teeth longer than tube. Standard of corolla longer than wings. Pods naked, black, one-seeded. Flowers May to September. Distributed throughout Europe, North Africa, and India. ANALYSIS. Clover in Dried at Natural State . 212° Fahr. Water 71-47 * Soluble albuminoids .... •42 1-50 **Insoluble albuminoids .... 1-81 6^50 Digestible fibre 6-10 21-22 Woody fibre 7-85 27-51 fSolublc mineral matter 205 7-iy tflnsoluble mineral matter .... 1-25 4-39 Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hydrates, &c. 9-05 31-69 10000 • Containing Nitrogen -069 100-00 •24 *' Coutaluiug Nitrogen -29 1-04 Albuminoid Nitrogen -359 1-28 Non-albuminoid Nitrogen -38 1-35 Total Nitrogen -739 2-63 t Conttiining Si:ica -20 •70 tt Containing Silica •57 2-01 172 A .^f^ ^ T T 1 "\ I t i i N I ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM. Yarrow, or Milfoil. ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM, YABROW, OR MILFOIL. Eootstock perennial, creeping extensively under- ground, with smooth reddish stolons. Stems 2 to 3 feet, erect, furrowed, woolly or sub-glabrous. Stem- leaves lanceolate ; radical leaves stalked, both doubly pinnatifid ; lobes cut into linear segments. Heads corymbose, dense. Phyllodes oblong, obtuse, glabrous. Flowers white or pink. Eay flowers few. Ligule broad as long. Disc flowers perfect, five-toothed. Fruit oblong, compressed, shining. Flowers June to September. Native of Northern Europe, Northern and Western Asia, Northern India, and North America. ANALYSIS. Water .... •Soluble albuminoids **Insoluble albuminoids . Digestible fibre Woody iibre . Soluble mineral matter, finsoluble mineral matter Chlorophyll, soluble carbo-hy drates, &c. Yarrow in Natural State. 78-01 •05 1-37 C-82 G-49 1-33 •98 4-95 Dried at 212° Fahr. •25 6-19 31-04 29-51 6-04 4-47 22-50 100-00 100-00 • Containing Xitrogen "008 "04 *» Containing Nitrogen -22 '99 Albuminoid Nitrogen -228 1-03 Non-albuminoid Nitrogen -IS -75 Total Nitrogen ;3S8 1-78 t Containing Silica -38 1-73 174 lX iL^ 'f>^r. ■■ .■ '^'i^'"-'- -.v^" " *-.':wA,t:v«-«rfiiV'-;'^-' lb 5V#''~^---'^^' :'*^A'-'''-#'--* ■■*'^^<^v''' •■•■■'^'^^' •■■^ ■•■'■-■ '■'■■' r ' { i ' ; ' ■ " - !!i