Lut bilak tye =. we aa :: pan ia i sy a f ve ite tps ae 7 er Mi ith aes coear: An". Aaah a want a saannnac an) wey. \ an oy b apaaal ~ | i alee wy. ree Ana, pe ; Al 2 aA aay a a a ON > WD. > ‘4 eat = ies - ay = mareen aie ne a r na RAAARK, . afr nie Ga 2S | a? > 2.5 pe LASS RRASAA A AR a mee a am wm ie len ie! LARP RP AAAe Pn cere Nanna tcace SA npn aas Aaa. Aananaanas : an NAAN SFA AAG ay Le » ~ 7 Asa a Anan an Aas VA AMMAR, Anan 7.’ \ — BPO aA a. ‘aa@lat aoa aag0AP are’ *7 ry P =~“s_ a Nana YYWARIA nl alan Aas aS aheast. = Baan aga QAa. PAD: NP RAnenn acne aes ape ea eonathnaitnossaananaAs 4 in’ NAT] z Praay 9 en a ee Oe Seeman aan AMAA Anant aA al - sea FS | TS” ‘PAA Asasaay = el a AABAsA an . AAS? Aa bURtatanennnn ApananaBhs nanan s RaAamersan NASAAAnRAn--: SPongnuaanaaanannans ari. =2,, _ Rp l¥. An ~ 7 o- NNN oN = as a 4 i A, AanaanAma OP m aAe > CO anne onl) an” le alpina} YN TAG Aaa: Ve reer A AA ee eae Antes: Saneaaii in a af yw =~ " 7 . fel \ pe : , J > op e ANN AAA ANS SAAR RRAAR AR Res Anne aan Nena nanaeshh 225 Pt OA ee ) ~ ) OPER Aa-sanace aaa -) a an AAAS sa eS =) aD» >, f ~ a ARaardsrdp 3-8 mahnnne aa all aha am AnABAan*Amn ry & AAR AASZRAZA a Al nly Pee sa ROAR RR A ASA arse PNNINAY ger) \ ; = : Aa AA a nay APPAR RAAAns anaads Been = an —ARhe asaene -—ea'in ~ goPRoa QE RT a wy... ox PRs = AS pp eo ammapAn” Aaa asaRarz ar ane oper Ra RAR OO RARA Ry AAAR PARA me igla\~rery oD ARR AA a ARna- POLE, rT RA errr ml A Pes aeGaG Ee a a-~~@ a AA: p ™ oF ae NARA i a@e ~~ S ENA = Pa ents antaan a LIAAAA) A igh agan) A = faa aA A aa As = ate 3 a presen an more Dmatahananaa fi . Aeneas sat yy wy OO Py | com ca ra bes fos tt as. ~ ane Ae ory. lal » eal lanl la. IGA. *APapan, B& ‘y TN ee 33a px\ SARA A Ra BAae Aae F sy ~ pe) rN SS tis SA oY al! <5 -2FARe = A Ay “ama > nn a a , AAA mar ‘ARs aA AR ps A ~~. 8 AAA Aa ss snABAAABRAM MADD S WY. aieGea: AA = aie =~ > aiMaesanaaaat na = POR AW An o Piranan™ aA annn Rastenws RA s aA A a aaat AG ARsAa= 2 Lr aaa A tanan aman nn yay tey\ | ln aneatannnas rine er: RSARARRR AAR ¥ al AA \e TY Y \eié - 1_Val = ei Pt Zz 2332 PX ely ol ciel . aD ag Dae ; my a WA —~ Pam Aw ee Y oY oma i ase Sn Onopanhs A Oe aac Rec Ae OW arnaAe aA an nail ARE Pain | | * aARAAR& Vs ORa)? = y im Cy v ~~: A, 2 a Vr 4 a mo Re anes eaAnhe : aN = a lid ae, | Py nae the » an RA lal as alldany iAaane y RAT A eas aangaeaananen we AAA aaa S mn ion, Bs A = AN a A a Me ry ~ . aan S anne! a ~~ al fa = . _ sag par - AA... AZAL.aAatn Oe Ee THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE : EDITED BY : PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Pu. D. ; WITH THE COOPERATION OF : MERTON L. MILLER, Pu. D.; GEORGE F. RICHMOND, M. S. WeeD SMI Pr. Dr Al J. COX, Pr. D: RAYMOND F. BACON, Pu. D.; CHARLES §. BANKS, M. S. H. D. GIBBS, B. S.; R. C. McGREGOR, A. B. | fA PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE | OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS A. GENERAL SCIENCE VOLUME IV 1909 Wit 88 PLATES, 60 FIGURES, 7 CHARTS AND 1 DIAGRAM MANILA BUREAU OF PRINTING 1910 91701 be 7 } ws CONTENTS. | No. 1, January, 1909. | I, Ferguson, Henry G. Physiography of the Philippine Islands: RISER Mes berm ass ate ars esate ol aE oes ese . Plates I-III (maps). II. Smith, Warren D. Contributions to the Physiography of the ! Philippine Islands: JV. The Country Between Subig and | SAM SOIT) ETH ETD XO), ee ea eee ane ! : Plates I-VII. ILI. Bean, Robert Bennett. Filipino Ears. —Sss THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE . EDITED BY PAUL C). PREER, M.’D., Pa. D. CO-EDITOR, RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D. ; WITH THE COOPERATION OF MERTON L. MILLER, Pu. D.; GEORGE F. RICHMOND, M. S. W. D. SMITH, Pu. D.; ALVIN J. COX, Pu. D. RAYMOND F. BACON, Pu. D.; CHARLES S. BANKS, M. S. H. D. GIBBS. B. S.; R. C. McGREGOR, A. B. PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS A. GENERAL SCIENCE MANILA BUREAU OF PRINTING 1909 No. 1 See a eaemrial Inedltiyss : oe ——, oral \ SUH + , } 4 r q POS Soper ven % ’ A ORDE No. 15. Li 19. 20. 21, 22, 24, 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 35. 36. 39. 40. 401. 102. 103. PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS. Bureau of Government Laboratories, * No, 1, 1902, to No. 14, 1904. No. 15, 1904, Biological and Serwm Laboratories —Report on Bacillus Violaceous Ma- nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. * No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation against Asiatic Cholera: An Experimental Study. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. ANA ote ee, or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Blmer D, Merrill, otanist. * No. 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—I. Amebas: Their Cultivation and Etiologic Significance. By W. E.. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of yatestial Amebiasis (Amcebic Dysentery) im the Tropics. By W. E. Mus- grave, M. D. No. 19, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Observations on the Biology of the Chol- era Spirillum. By W. B. Wherry, M. D. No. 20, 1904.—Biological Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Exist Where the Disease is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum Laboratory: Il. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. S. Serwn Laboratory: V. Frambesia: Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of Micro-Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard P, Strong, M. D. No. 22, 1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories——I. A Description of the New Buildings of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Paul C. Freer, M. D., Ph. D. II. A Catalogue of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Mary Polk, Librarian. * No. 28, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and Histopathology (Including a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian Herzog, M. D. 5 No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders: Its Diagnosis and Prevention (To- gether with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on the Bacteriology and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry, M. D. No. 25, 1904.—Birds from the Islands of Romblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. By Richard C. McGregor. (For first four bulletins of the ornithological series, see Philippine Museum below.) No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. BR No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’s Flora de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 28, 1904.—I. The Polypodiacee of the Philippine Islands. II. Edible Philip- pine Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D. No. 29, 1904.—I. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III. II. The Source of Manila Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory.—I. Autocatalytic- Decomposition of Silver Oxide. II. Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D. No. $1, 1905, Biological Laboratory—t. Notes on a Case of Hematochyluria (To- gether with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna). By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. McDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. II. A Search into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “‘Peptone,”’ with Special Reference to Its Influence on the’ Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera- Red Reactions. By William B. Wherry M. D. No. 32, 1905.—Biological Laboratory: 1. Intestinal Hemorrhage as a Fatal Com- plication in Amcebic Dysentery and Its Association with Liver Abscess. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. II. The Action of Various Chemical Substances upon Cultures of Amebex. By J. B. Thomas, M. D., Baguio, Benguet. Biological and Serum Laboratories: III, The Pathology of Intestinal Amebiasis, By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and W. E. Musgrave, M. D. No. 38, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—Further Observations on Fibrin Thrombosis in the Glomerular and in Other Renal Vessels in Bubonic Plague. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D. * No, 34, 1905.—1I.. Birds from Mindoro and Small Adjacent Islands, II. Notes on Three Rare Luzon Birds. By Richard ©. McGregor, No. 85, 1905.—I. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, IV. II. Notes on Cuming’s Philippine Plants in the Herbarium of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. III. Hackel, ‘“‘Notes on Philippine Grasses.” IV, Ridley, ‘“Scitimines Philippinen- sis. V. Clarke, ‘Philippine Acanthacexz.’”” By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 36, 1905.—A Hand-List of the Birds of the Philippine Islands. By Richard C. McGregor and Dean C. Worcester. 4 *Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1902. (Appendix M of Third Annual Report of the Philippine Commission. ) 7 * Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories in the Philippine Islands for the Year Ending September 1, 1903. (Appendix G of the Fourth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission.) Third Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1904. Fourth Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1905. Bureau of Science—Publications. Price and Exchange List of Philippine Bird Skins in the Collection of the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. (Effective January 1, 1908.) No. 1, 1909.—A Check-List of Philippine Fishes. By David Starr Jordan and Robert Earl Richardson. In press. No. 2, 1909.—A Manual of Philippine Birds. By Richard C. McGregor, Parts IT and II. A systematic index to the orders, families, and genera. Paper, PS for the two parts. ‘ * Out of print. 7 (Concluded on third page of cover.) THE BRIEIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. GENERAL SCIENCE Niches JANUARY, 1909 No. 1 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: Il. WESTERN MASBATE. By Henry G. Fercuson. (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science.) INTRODUCTION. During the winter of 1907-1908 I was engaged in topographic and geologic work in the Aroroy mining district on the Island of Masbate. Although most of the time was devoted to topographic mapping in a limited area, a short reconnaissance was made over the western part of the island, southward as far as Mandaon, thence eastward to Milagros and Malbog and northward to Mobo and Masbate; I was assisted by Mr. R. N. Clark, field assistant of the Division of Mimes, during the greater part of the field work and in the preparation of the maps which accompany this paper. POSITION. The Island of Masbate hes almost in the exact center of the Philip- pine Islands, between latitudes 11° 43’ N. and 12° 36’ N. and longitudes 123° 09’ KH. and 124° 05’ E., and has an area of approximately 3,200 square kilometers. Its two-pronged shape makes it unique among the islands of the Archipelago. Its main trend is to the northwest, parallel to the southeastern part of Luzon, and the islands of Burias, Ticao, and Samar. A smaller prong has a southwesterly direction and forms a part of the Panay, Negros, and Cebu series. The islands of Jintotolo, he Zapatos, and Olutaya form connecting links between the southwest — 2 FERGUSON. CLIMATE, The rainfall of Masbate is well below the average for the Philippines (2,200 millimeters), observations at Port Palanoc (Masbate) for the years 1904, 1905, and 1906 giving an average annual rainfall of only 1,446 millimeters.t At only four out of the-sixty-four stations in the Islands do the records show a smaller rainfall. The dry season extends from February to May, inclusive, only 17 per cent of the total rainfall occurring during these four months. Through- out the remainder of the year the rainfall is fairly evenly distributed. Destructive typhoons visited the island in November, 1905, and Sep- tember, 1908. PREVIOUS WORK. Harlier writers on the geology of the Philippines have noticed the geniculate form of this island. Von Drasche? first called attention to this junction of the two principal trends of the Visayan Islands. Koto* suggests a similarity to the divergence of the mountain system of the Eastern Alps. Suess* notes a possibility of similarity of structure to that of Porto Rico. Becker® speaks of two main, curved fissure systems parallel to the two arms of Masbate. In spite of its significant form it was not until several years after the American occupation that the island was visited by geologists. Gold had been discovered in workable amounts near Aroroy in 1900 or 1901 and the development of the industry led to visits by members of the Mining Bureau.® Mr. A. J. Eveland made a short visit to the mining district in 1904 and noted in his report’ the topo- graphical youth of the district and the limestone benches on the west side of Porta Barrera. Mr. H. B. MecCaskey and Mr. H. M. Ickis made a more extensive visit to the mining district in 1906. Mr. McCaskey in his report *® was the first to call attention to the fact that the great majority of the mineral veins strike in a northwestherly direction, parallel to the principal axis of the island. TOPOGRAPHY. It is my purpose to show that the principal topographic features of the island may be resolved into two principal series of lineaments, parallel to the general directions of the two prongs of the island, which are themselves a part of the two principal trends of the Visayan Islands 1Mas6, Rey. M.8., 8. J.: The rainfall in the Philippines. Bull. P. I. Weather Bur., Manila (1907). *Fragmente zu einer Geologie der Insel Luzon. Vienna, 1878. *B. Koto: On the geologic structure of the Malayan Archipelago. Journ. College Sci., Tokyo (1899), Pt. 2, 11, 117. ‘BE. Suess: The face of the earth. (English translation) Oxford, (1906), 2, 173. : °G. F. Becker: Report on the geology of the Philippine Islands. Bull. U. 8. Geol. Surv. 21st Ann. Rept. (1901), Pt. 3, 546. ° Now Division of Mines, Bureau of Science. ™Manuscript in Bureau of Science. ‘Manuscript in Bureau of Science. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 3 and southern Iuzon. Both series are present in the northern part of the island, but the northwest series is soon lost to the southwest and the last prominent northeast feature on the main range of the island is Port Palanoc. In addition to these two principal series of lineaments there is, in the northern part, a third, minor series showing the northern trend developed more extensively in western Panay and Tablas. PORT BARRERA. Port Barrera is a deep bay cutting far into the land in a general southwesterly direction. It is S-shaped, the deepest and widest part running westerly for about 4 kilometers. This part is about 3 kilo- meters wide and reaches a maximum depth of 60 meters. Southward from Point Matalantalan the bay narrows and shoals rapidly, a marked submarine escarpment running westerly from the northern part of the east shore to the coral reefs outside Point Matalantalan. This stretch of the bay extends southward for about 4 kilometers and is comparatively narrow, not over 1 kilometer wide, and shallow, nowhere over 6 meters deep. At Poimt Lungib the direction changes to southwest and the bay broadens out and becomes much shallower, being bordered by large mud flats and mangrove swamps. A well-defined channel, however, extends as far as the village of San Agustin. A very peculiar feature of the topography of Port Barrera is the complete dissimilarity of the two sides of the bay, the western consisting of limestone terraces of apparently rather recent date, and the eastern of a series of older rocks eroded to a much greater extent than the limestones of the western side. Punta Colorada owes its name to the bright red color of its cliffs and is said to be formed of iron-stained limestone. The country across the western arm of the bay from Punta Colorada consists almost entirely of coralline limestone in a series of terraces. Running northwesterly from Point Lungib the limestone forms a high, sharp ridge, with two prominent terraces. It breaks off steeply on the northeast side into a long, narrow valley separated from the bay by a smaller ridge. At the corner of the western branch of the bay the larger ridge joins a south- westerly escarpment of a similar limestone. To the southwest the main ridge slopes off comparatively gently to an irregular plateau, the floor of which is formed by one of the more resistant limestone beds. Farther to the southwest there are a great number of small, conical mesas. In the southern part of the bay the southwestern series of lineaments is represented by a line of hills running southwest from San Agustin. THE AROROY DISTRICT. The country to the east of Port Barrera shows a strikingly different topography. While the western side is the result of recent elevation of coral limestones, the eastern shows a topography dependent on the 4 FERGUSON. more mature erosion of a complex of older sedimentary, igneous, and pyroclastic rocks without any evidence of recent eleyation; on the contrary, it is not unlikely that there has been some depression in recent times. The country lying directly east of the bay forms the Aroroy mining district, and has been mapped in detail. In the northern part of the district, near the barrio of Aroroy, there are scattered outcrops of a quartz diorite. Further south on Aroroy and Bagadilla Mountains oc- cur metamorphosed sediments together with basic effusives. On either side of the canyon of the Guinobatan River are two small ledges of a dark, fine-grained limestone which forms a capping on two of the points. Between Kalakbao hill and the hills near the Lanang River the preyail- ing rock is an andesitic breccia, the beds of which dip at low angles to the southwest; some of the hills, however, such as Panique hill and two small ones near the bay are composed of andesite and may be volcanic stocks. The high range of hills cut by the Lanang River is also andesite, while to the south basalt and conglomerates with basalt pebbles come in. The topography of the region shows, even more clearly than the western side of the bay, the rectangular system of lineaments. Mounts Aroroy, Bagadilla, Kalakbao, and Cogran show a most marked northwesterly trend. ‘These hills contain practically all the mineral veins of the dis- trict, and owe their prominence to the greater resistance offered to erosion by the quartz of the veins. The vein system shows very clearly the presence of a northwestern line of weakness, as all but two or three of the veins strike in a northwesterly direction. They all give evidence of frequent opening and recementation with several periods of minerali- zation. Furthermore, the three principal streams of the district, the Guinobatan, Panique, and Lanang, all follow a northwesterly course, as do the two brooks which empty into the bay near Aroroy. The south- westerly lineaments are also very strongly marked. Principal among these are the rather broad valley of Balagting Creek, Mount Vil-lon, and the two gorges of the Lanang River. Mount Vil-lon is the highest mountain in the district, reaching an altitude of 400 meters. It has a clear and sharp northeasterly trend and breaks off precipitously at Monument Rock, near the Guinobatan River, thus differing from the other hills of the district which all trend to the northwest. The rock is an andesitic porphyry and the mountam may be a voleanic stock or more probably an intrusive mass. A peculiar feature of Mount Vil-lon is that, while it lies on the strike of the principal veins of the Aroroy district, diligent prospecting has failed to reyeal any mineral yeins. Veins occur on the northeast side of the mountain, but in an irregular network and no longer showing the dominant northwesterly strike. Nearly all the mineral bearing veins of the district occur in the com- PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 5 paratively small area occupied by Mounts Avoroy, Bagadilla, and Ka- lakbao. ‘The summits of these hills lie in an almost direct north and south line, although the imdiyidual hills show a marked northwesterly trend. This trend is in a large measure due to the greater resistance to erosion offered by the quartz yeims, which practically all show a north- westerly strike. Mount Aroroy (elevation, 250 meters) shows this trend very clearly, im a long, cogon-covered point running out from the summit to the northwest. A large vein has been opened on the summit of the mountain and its continuation along the ridges is shown by bowlders of iron- stained quartz. Mount Bagadilla (elevation, 340 meters) shows two large ridges running off to the northwest, the southern certainly being due to the presence of quartz veins and the northern probably to the same cause. The veins of the southern ridge of Mount Bagadilla continue across the Guinobatan River and there form the backbone of Mount Kalakbao (elevation, 200 meters). Mount Kalakbao is a long ridge following the northwest strike of the vems. It contains at least ten veins, including the best known in the district. Only two veins have been found across Kaal Brook to the southeast, and apparently none continue farther southeast into Mount Vil-lon. It seems as if the northerly stretch of the Guinobatan River on the west and Mount Vil-lon on the east form the boundaries of the Aroroy vein system, a line southeast from the turn of the Guinobatan River at the Gold Bug prop- erty, and between Mount Kalakbao and Panique Hill bounding the system on the south. The drainage features of the Aroroy district also show marked pe- culiarities. In the extreme north of the district the Buyuan River has a northerly course near its mouth, although farther up the stream the course is northwesterly. The two small streams near Aroroy, Ambulong and Iubigang Creeks flow northwesterly into the mangrove swamp which surrounds Aroroy, between narrow, northwesterly ridges. An unexplained feature of the course of Lubigang Creek is the sharp bend it makes into Mount Aroroy. ‘There seems to be nothing in the structure of the rocks to account for this, nor does it seem probable that a north- westerly area of weakness would be developed for such a short distance. Bangong Creek flows between Mount Aroroy and Mount Bagadilla, but cuts obliquely across the strike of the veims instead of running parallel, as would be the case with perfectly adjusted drainage. An- other peculiarity of this stream is in its headwaters. It rises east of Mount Aroroy and flows at first to the southeast, draining country which would naturally be expected to be a part of the drainage basin of one of the creeks flowing toward Aroroy, or of the Buyuan River. It is evidently a capture of the headwaters of Balagting Creek, a stream flowing southwest, tributary. to the Guinobatan River. 6 FERGUSON. The Guinobatan River presents several peculiarities in its course, inexplicable except by the supposition of superimposed drainage. Ris- ing to the east of Mount Vil-lon it flows alternately west-northwest and west. North of Mount Vil-lon it flows to the west with Jong, graded stretches and small rapids. At the junction with the Kaal there is a small fall and the course changes to nearly north with one sharp ox-bow, until it reaches the junction with Balagting Creek, where it turns sharply to the west and enters a deep canyon between Mounts Bagadilla and Kalakbao. This canyon, 2 kilometers long, cuts diagonally across almost the whole of the vein series. After a sharp turn to the south- west at the Gold Bug mine, the river flows north for 3 kilometers to its Junction with Bangong Creek, where it turns to the west again and enters the mangrove swamps that surround the bay. On this northerly stretch the river again cuts diagonally across the trend of the veins, but here it is noteworthy that, while outcrops and bowlders show the presence of veins extending down to the river on the eastern bank, the hills to the west are entirely barren. This northern stretch is parallel to the bay and only a kilometer from it. Evidently there is a northerly element in the lineaments of this district, which, while less distinct than the northwestern and southwestern trends, shows in Port Barrera, the line of low hills on its eastern shore and the lower part of the Guinobatan. The Lanang River also has a very peculiar course. Rising in the mountainous upland in the central part of the island, it enters the Aroroy district with a northwesterly course, then suddenly turns to the southwest and for 2 kilometers flows through a deep, narrow gorge, when it turns again at right angles and flows irregularly to the northwest for the same distance until it once more makes a sudden turn and takes a northeast course through a smaller, but similar gorge. From here on it flows to the north through a small flood plain until it enters the great mangrove swamp of the upper part of Port Barrera. Northwestward from the angle made by the river, on entering the upper gorge, a broad and rather flat valley is found between two ranges of hills. This valley would seem to be the natural course of the Lanang, and the sharp angle of the river and the small stream entering at this poimt suggest capture. However, there seems to be no reason why a stream having such a direct and regular course should be captured by one so unfavorably situated as is the present Lanang River. A possible explanation is that fissuring in a northeasterly direction has produced lines of weakness, allowing a stream leading in this direction an advantage over the more regular stream flowing northwest. The course of the river in the upper gorge, prolonged to the northeast, would be continued in the valley to the southwest of the hill forming the divide between the headwaters on PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. lh Panique Creek and yarious small tributaries of the Lanang, and would run along the northwestern flank of Mount Vil-lon. The headwaters of Panique Creek and Kaal Creek also form a northeasterly trough. It is quite probable that the cutting off of the vein series may be due to a fault along the northwestern side of Mount Vil-lon. Since the vein system is later than the andesite breccias, Mount Vil-lon can hardly be an intrusion of later date than the period of vein formation, and the vein series being regular rather than radiating, can not owe its origin to fractures formed around an intrusive mass. : In the westerly stretch of the Lanang, between the two gorges, is an abandoned meander of the river, its course haying been shortened by lateral erosion on the convex sides of the two bends. The hill between the old and new courses is composed of a firm conglomerate of basalt pebbles, a common country rock of the surrounding region, and is about 50 meters above the river. The river must, therefore, have been at grade at least 50 meters above the present level, and this implies an uplift. Its course having been already determined for it, the cutting through of the lower gorge allowed the stretch above to remain at grade, and as the gorge was cut down its meander became entrenched and it could only have been in comparatively recent times that the river, being nearly at grade up to the upper gorge, cut through the neck of its old meander. The deserted meander is filled with old river gravels and furnishes promising dredging ground, as the Lanang and its tributaries cut the Mount Cogran vein and several as yet undeveloped veins to the west of Mount Cogran. The course of the Lanang gives the impression that the present stream is the result of the union under peculiar circumstances of two streams flowing northwest, beimg a case where captures have tended to lengthen rather than simplify the course of the stream. ‘The evidence of the streams in the Aroroy district seems to point to a period of elevation . after the courses of the streams were in a large degree determined, followed by a period of considerable depression when deep bays were formed and the dark blue limestone found in the valley of the Guinobatan at 150 meters’ elevation was deposited. Uplift followed, and during this period the readjustments of drainage of Balanting Creek and the Lanang region took place. Since then there seems again to have been some slight depression shown by the slight embayment at the mouths of rivers, and the extent of the mangrove swamps. The growth of the mangrove swamps has played an important part in the formation of the land on this side of the bay. The mangrove tree must grow with its roots in the water, and the network of roots catches débris and soon builds up the land. As solid ground is built up, the inland trees die and the swamp keeps advancing seaward, building up 8 FERGUSON. the land as it goes. Lehnert * estimates for Borneo that under favorable circumstances land may be thus formed at the rate of 100 meters in forty to forty-five years. Near the mouth of the bay recent coral largely replaces the mangroves as an agency for upbuilding the land. The movements of the western side of Port Barrera do not seem to have been synchronous with those of the Aroroy district. Probably dur- ing the greater part of the oscillations of the Aroroy region the opposite side of the bay was submerged and its uplift seems to have taken place contemporaneously with the depression of the opposite side. This in- dependence of movement points to faulting along a line in the bay. LANANG TO MANDAON. Only a hurried reconnaissance was made southward from the Lanang Mining Company's camp on the Lanang River, and the country was studied in far less detail than the Aroroy district. Leaving the amphi- theater formed by the deserted meander of the Lanang, the ground rises rather steeply to the south with hills composed of basalt, basaltic tuffs and conglomerate until Mount Nabongsuran is reached. ‘This mountain is the highest between Mounts Vil-lon and Mandaon, probably reaching an elevation of over 300 meters, and has its long axis following the pre- yailing northwesterly trend. The small, triangular valley of Manda- lidon is found at the foot of the mountain. The Mandalidon River flows northwest to Port Barrera and a small branch joins it here from the northeast. The two hills to the west of Mount Nabongsaran, Mount Masapinit and a smaller hill, both of conglomerate dipping to the southwest, show the northeasterly trend which now becomes the dominant feature of the country. The hills trend to the northwest for 6 or 7 dlometers southward from the Mandalidon River. The Mabui River, where it is crossed by the trail, flows to the west, but soon turns and assumes a northwesterly course, where it flows through a broad valley, on the southwestern side - of which a sharp escarpment of sedimentary rocks is encountered, show- ing several prominent benches. This escarpment extends to Pagbhulun- gan Point, west of Mandaon, and is broken only by the two small canyons of the Butuan and Mombog Creeks. For about 8 kilometers this line of hills runs due south and then turns to the southwest for about 12 kilometers until it reaches Point Paghbulangan. Near this point it was found to consist of conglomerate, shale, and sandstone, evidently of marine rather than fluviatile origin, but in the northern part, as far as could be judged at a distance, there was a capping of limestone as well. This ridge forms the most prominent feature of the landscape of this ® Lehnert: Ubef Landbildungen im Sunda-Gebiet, Deutscher Rundschau f. Geog. u. Stat. (1882), 58. Quoted by Posewitz, Th., Borneo (English translation) London (1892), 257. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. i) region as it rises in sharp cliffs from the plain at its foot to a height of perhaps 200 meters above the plain. ‘To the westward its slope is eradual. About 3 kilometers south of the Mabui River the land, which has been gradually rising from an elevation of 160 meters at the Mabui River to 240 at this point, suddenly falls off in a very steep slope to a broad, flat pla, haying an average elevation of about 130 meters, the bounding escarpment running first to the southeast and then northeast. The plain is drained by two parallel streams, the Butuan and Mombog Rivers, which flow to the westward through the escarpment already described, although the principal branch of the Butuan has a southwest course parallel to the cliffs hounding the plain. The peculiarity of the courses of these rivers again suggests superposition. One would hardly expect to find two such deep, narrow canyons close together when more reasonable avenues for the draimage of the plain he to the northwest around the end of the escarpment into the Mabui River or southwest into Nin Bay. A sharp pinnacle of limestone, Butuan Hill, stands in the center of the plain. This peak is flat-topped, rismg in a sharp cliff about 70 meters above the plaim; its base is elliptical, the axes bemg about 400 and 150 meters in length. ‘The limestone has been largely dissolved and large caves haye been formed. As several skeletons have been found in these places, it is evident that they once served for burial. This limestone peak and the conglomerate to the west mark the present limit of a marine sedimentary series which extends northward to San Agustin and the western side of Port Barrera. The country south from the Lanang River, consisting of well-worn hills of voleanic and pyroclastic rock with occasional fluviatile sediments, clearly repre- sents the old land upon which these sediments were laid down. That the sediments probably once covered a larger area is indicated by the peculiarities of the courses of the various streams, particularly the Lanang River and Butuan and Mombog Creeks. The present boundary of the series is well defined by a trough running northward from the Butuan plain to the head of Port Barrera. Possibly the escarpment bounding the plain on the north represents the old shore line and Butuan Peak is an isolated coral reef. Butuan plain itself drops off to the south im another escarpment similar to, although smaller, than the first. To the west the sedimentary escarpment, now turning off to the south- west, overlooks the plain, while on its eastern side the upper plain, 70 meters above, stretches away in a southeasterly cliff. In both the upper and lower plains the underlying rock is basalt, strongly magnetic. The lower plain is broken by numerous small hills and grades gently down from an elevation of about 40 meters to the mangrove swamps surround- ing Port Mandaon. 10 FERGUSON. NIN BAY. The bay on which the little town of Mandaon is situated consists of three different bodies of water, Nin Bay, Loog Bay, and Port Mandaon. The outer of these, Nin Bay, has regular outlines and shoals off very evenly. At its head is a broad line of beach with lowland back of it. The town of Mandaon is at the southeast end of this. The water is very shallow along this beach and at low tide mud flats extend out for a considerable distance. Southwestward, following the long axis of the bay, the water shoals off very regularly at the rate of about 3 meters per kilometer. A line drawn across the entrance of the bay, from Pagbulungan Point to the eastern end of Puré Island, shows a fairly constant depth of about 17 meters and crosses the only shoals in the bay, Nin and-Ochoa banks, which show a minimum depth of 3 meters. However, on the northwestern and southeastern sides of the bay, the water deepens much more rapidly, depths of over 15 meters being shown on the chart at distances of less than 500 meters from the two points, showing that the present shallowness of the bay is due to silting up from its head. The sedimentary escarpment already described extends along the northeast shore to Pagbulungan Point. A broken range of basalt hills exists to the southeast of the bay. The range, beginning at Mount Tuitong above Mandaon, extends through the Gapus Hills (elevation, 144 meters), Purd Island (elevation, 162 meters), and Kamasusu Island (elevation, 159 meters), being broken by deep channels between Mandaon and the Gapus Peninsula, and between Puro and Kamasusu’ Islands, a shallow channel being found between Puro Island and the mainland. The basalt is strongly magnetic, so much so that magnetic observations taken in 1895 for the center of Nin Bay showed an eastward declination of 3° 47’ instead of the normal eastward declination of less than one degree. Loog Bay is south of Nin Bay and connected with it by the two inlets at the ends of Puré Island. Like its northern neighbor it has a north- easterly direction. Its maximum depth is 15 meters at the entrance, and it shoals rather more rapidly toward its head than Nin Bay. The basalt hills of Kamasusu and Puro Islands on its northern side show their steepest faces in this direction and the deepest part of the bay is close to these islands. ‘The channel between the two is about 400 meters wide and reaches a depth of 17 meters, whereas the channel between Puré and the mainland although shghtly wider, has a greatest depth of only 4 meters, a wide bench with a maximum depth of 2 meters joining the island with Gapus Peninsula. The western side of Purd Island is fringed with mangroves and the mudflats extend out for some distance. At the head of Loog Bay is a broad stretch of beach and mud flat, and the mangrove swamp extending south from Port Mandaon forms the greater part of the isthmus. The south shore of the bay is low-lying PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 11 and fringed with coral reefs and mangrove swamps. Near the western point there is a smaller bay reaching to the southeast about 2 kilometers and continued inland in a large mangrove swamp. ‘Talisay Point .at the southern side of the entrance to the bay is low and fringed with mangroves, with a coral reef extending out about half a kilometer. Port Mandaon is the third portion of the bay, a narrow stretch of water extending nearly north and south, into which flow the Mandaon and Tagpoc Rivers, as well as several smaller streams. The deepest channel is on the western side under the hills east of Mandaon. The maximum depth reached in this inner bay is 74 meters at a point near the western shore, about 2 kilometers north of the mouth. Wide mud flats and large mangrove swamps occur on the eastern shore and at the northern and southern ends. The narrow strait connecting Port Man- daon with the outer bay is of interest because of its depth. Just inside of Sanig Point the soundings show a depth of from 3 to 6 meters; however, four are encountered in the narrowest part of the strait, giving 13, 15, 16, and 17 meters; outside in Nin Bay the water again shoals rapidly to 3 meters. This deep “pothole” and the deep channel between | Kamasusu and Puré Islands seem to represent old river channels and consequently imply a considerable amount of submergence, 20 meters at the least. The “pothole” between Gapus Peninsula and Mandaon Point seems to be all that remains of a large stream valley. The broader stretches have silted up, while the former gorge, now the strait, has been kept open through tidal scour.. It is not possible to venture any opinion ‘as to the courses of these two submerged streams or as to what led to the cutting of canyons through the basalt ridge instead of their following the broad southwesterly valley now marked by Loog Bay. In all prob- ability the conditions were not unlike those in the Lanang district, where fissuring in two directions has influenced drainage readjustments. THE COUNTRY SOUTH OF NIN BAY. A fine view of the country to the south may be obtained from Kama- susu Peak, this view extending as far as the Zapatos Islands, small islets between Masbate and Panay. As far as can be seen, a narrow and regular range of fairly high mountains extends to the southwest. These grade down to a constantly narrowing plain on the east. ‘This plain, except possibly for the outer fringe where the mangroves have been at work as a land-forming agency, does not appear to be a ‘coastal plain in the true sense of the word, but rather a plain of erosion, terrestrial, or marine, in part covered by wash from the hills. The central range rises without foothills and the plain below may be roughly divided into three belts, the first with smooth outlines where the wash from the hills has covered previous irregularities ; the second, grad- ing into the first and in places reaching the sea, a plain broken by 12 FERGUSON. small, irregular hills having the appearance of “monadnocks;” and the third, an irregular fringe of mangrove swamps together with the smooth, flat stretches probably formed by this agency. The submarine contours of Nin Bay suggest depression rather than elevation and this would be in accord with the topography of the coastal plain. An elevation of 35 meters would connect Masbate with Panay by a narrow ridge containing Jinototo and the two Zapatos Islands, which would stand out as peaks above the rest of the ridge. Mr. Worcester,*® reasoning from zodlogical evidence, suggested that Masbate, Panay, Guimaras, and Negros were formerly connected, and at least as far as concerns Masbate and Panay, the physiographic evidence confirms this. Dr. Becker,4 following this and from a study of the charts of these waters, suggests the separation of these islands by the submergence of a coastal peneplain. The prolongation of the southern fork of Mas- bate does not form a continuation of the western line of the hills of Panay, but is offset to the east so that the Jintotolo Channel is S-shaped. A deep channel extends from the mouth of the Panay Riyer east of the connecting ridge, apparently a submarine prolongation of that riyer, and in that case furnishing further evidence of depression. This channel follows a northeasterly course as far as Jintotolo Island, where it makes a sharp turn and runs about §. 30° E., roughly parallel to the main prong of Masbate. THE SOULHWESTERN RANGE. Leaving Port Mandaon and traveling eastward across the island, one passes through 5 or 6 kilometers of gently rolling country—the same plain as that crossed in coming from the north—and then follows the valley of the Tagpoc to the mountain range. A large hill of ir- regular outline stands on the north, while to the south a range of low hills extends out from the main range in a northwesterly direction. The upper part of the main ridge, here known as Mount Gantal, is very steep, rising from an elevation of about 200 meters where the main part of the ascent begins to about 550 meters at the pass, less than a kilometer distant. At this point the axis of the range has a direction of N. 10° H., but farther south it resumes its normal northwesterly direction. The underlying rocks in the lower part are grits or pyroclastic rocks much decomposed, with one outcrop of a black slate. The summit of the ridge shows fine-grained igneous rocks also much altered, while a red slate outcrops on a spur extending eastward from the summit. - After a steep descent on the eastern side a rough plain studded with small, irregular hills is reached. The Burakai River, having its head- 2 Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. (1898), 20, 578. “U.S. Geol. Sur., 21st Ann, Rep. (1900), Pt. 3, 567. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 13 waters near the pass, flows west by south imto the Gulf of Asid. The country between the ridge and the gulf shows even more clearly than on the west that its lack of relief is due to combined erosion accompanied by upbuilding from the wash from the ridge, rather than to uplift. In other words, it is a plain of degradation rather than a true coastal plain. The loose material is largely composed of irregular gravel and there are numerous small “monadnocks” and outcrops of a red slate. The Gulf of Asid is a broad, shallow bay occupying the space between the two prongs of the island. The deepest portion is along its western shore, but it is nowhere over 40 meters in depth. At the head of the bay, near Milagros, it deepens so gradually that there are 2 or 3 kilo- meters of sand exposed at low tide. ‘The eastern side of the gulf is very shallow and filled with numerous reefs and small islands. The barrio of Mangsalange is situated some kilometers to the east of Milagros, whence the trail leads to the copper and lead deposits. Conditions here are similar to those on the west shore of the gulf, but the plain is much rougher because the hills are farther inland and lower and consequently the surface is not smoothed by the piedmont wash deposits. A small hill of hornblende andesite rises near the coast at Mangsalange and further back is an irregular plain with numerous small hills, capped by a light-colored, coralline limestone. Outcrops of a red slate similar to that found on the western shore of the gulf, together with some jasper occur in the stream beds. Farther inland the copper and lead deposits are reached. Native copper occurs scattered irregularly through a mela- phyre, which is sheared and jointed along lines running north and N. 60° E. Many veins occur nearby in a country rock of decomposed feldspar porphyry, some of these carrying copper ores and others galena. The usual strike is from 10 to 20 degrees east of north, showing that even as far east as this point the northeasterly series of lineaments is still present. The white limestone found near the shore is no longer present, but the small hills are capped with a dark limestone similar to that found in the Guinobatan canyon in the Aroroy district. Thick forest is encountered northward from this point towards Mobo, and little can be seen of the general nature of the country. To all ap- pearances a rather low, plateau-like ridge extends in a northwesterly direction, with black limestone outcropping on its southern side and on its summit, overlying a series of yoleanic rocks, which in turn overlie the older slates. Between Masbate and Milagros the ridge is broken by a broad, north- easterly trough, extending across the island, being a southwestward prolongation of Port Palanoec. he dark limestone is also found in this depression, showing that it is of comparatively early origin. Between Milagros and Lanang the country becomes more rugged and the hills seem to be higher. his portion of the island is for the most 14 FERGUSON. part heavily wooded, and little idea could be gained of the general topography. Occasional outcrops of the same dark limestone and rare outcrops of a dark slate underlying the limestone, are found near the headwaters of the Lanang basalt and basalt conglomerates are prominent. The streams cut deep canyons and the topography is generally younger than it is nearer the sea. The country southeast of the town of Masbate was not visited, but as far as can be seen from an examination of the charts, Port Palanoc, with the transverse trough already mentioned, forms the last important northeasterly lineament. The entrance to this bay is through a narrow channel less than 300 meters in width and about 60 meters in depth. On the northeast the deep water is close to the shore, but on the opposite side a coral reef extends out for about 600 meters. This narrow channel is nearly a kilometer long, and at the end of it the bay suddenly widens and there is a small, but deep, branch to the southwest. The town of Masbate is situated at the junction of this branch with the main bay. THE SOUTHEASTERN PENINSULA. I was unable to visit this part of the island, so that all my informa- tion is derived from a study of the charts. ‘These, while complete as to coast line and soundings, are sadly lacking in interior topography, only the most prominent peaks being shown. According to the map pub- lished in the “Atlas de Filipinas” the streams flowing into the Gulf of Asid are much longer than those flowing northeast, thus implying that the crest of the range as a whole fronts the northeast side. Peaks 383, 514, and 403 meters high are shown between Mobo and Uson. Two peaks are situated near Cataingan, height not given; these are termed the Tetas de Cataingan. Deposits of coal have been worked between Cataingan and Palanas, and the Spanish records show that there is here a coal-bearing formation of considerable extent. Reéntrants, following the northwest- southeast trend, are shown in Uson and Naro Bays and Port Cataingan. On the southwest coast the land is generally low, except for the single peak of Mount Vigia on the coast midway between Milagros and Point Caduran. The changes of level for western Masbate seem to have been as follows: An old land surface, which itself contained sedimentary rocks, as is shown by the red slates found in various places, was probably rather maturely dissected and the streams given something like their present courses. Depression followed, during which the black limestone was deposited, and reélevation, during which the same limestone was largely eroded. It is probable that durimg this period Masbate and Panay were connected, and the Panay River flowed through what is now the Jintotolo Channel. Another period of depression separated the islands and allowed the formation of the later white coralline limestone PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 15 found at lower levels. At a subsequent period a partial elevation took place in which Panay and Masbate may again have been connected, but the northern shore of Masbate, between Ports Palanoe and Barrera, does not seem to have taken part in this. Later still some small depres- sion seems to have taken place. RELATIONS OF MASBATE AND NEIGHBORING ISLANDS. Tm the preceding pages I have tried to show that the principal features of the topograhpy of the island are referable to two main sets of linea- ments, one trending in a northwesterly and the other in a northeasterly direction, with a third minor set having a northerly trend. A glance at a map of the Visayan Islands will show that this holds good in a general way for the neighboring islands as well. Surigao Peninsula of Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, eastern Masbate, Ticao, Burias, and the southern part of Luzon belong to the northwesterly group. The north- easterly series includes Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, eastern Panay, and western Masbate. Western Panay and Tablas, with possibly northern Cebu and southern Negros, show the northerly trend. Throughout all these islands there is a curious dovetailing of the land areas with the deeper basins. ‘This is particularly noticeable around Masbate. The southeastern point of this island is separated from Leyte by a deep channel, the soundings giving 150 meters without bottom. Between Samar and Luzon lies the northeasterly San Bernardino Strait. Ticao is connected with Vigia Point in Masbate by a chain of small islands with shoal water between them, but to the northwest the island ends abruptly in water over 180 meters deep. Between Ticao and Mas- bate the soundings show a maximum depth of 911 meters, but this deep water ends abruptly in Uson and Naro Bays on Masbate. The Island of Burias, instead of being a continuation of Masbate or Ticao, points toward this deep strait. Similarly, its northwestern end is offset to the west from Batangas Peninsula and points into Ragay Gulf. Much the same conditions exist in regard to the islands showing a northeasterly trend, Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, eastern Panay, and western Masbate. These le to the southwest of the northwesterly series, but the northeast influence is shown in San Bernardino Strait and Sorsogon Bay on Luzon. Northern Cebu, southern Negros, and the southern part of Tanon Strait all show northerly trends. Between Cebu and Negros, Tanon Strait has a depth of over 200 meters, but is cut off on the north by the small islands west of Cebu and on the south by the coast of Negros. Southern Negros seems to follow the northerly series of linea- ments, but the island as a whole has a northeasterly trend. (Guimaras Strait is between northern Negros and Panay, this does not show sound- ings exceeding 25 meters, but a deep northeasterly embayment west of Ee Seth", 16 FERGUSON, southern Negros ends abruptly at Guimaras Island. . Abella ** has called attention to the island of Guimaras and the range of hills on the southeastern coast of Panay as forming a part of the orographic line extending from Borneo through the Sulu Archipelago, Basilah, the ee Peninsula, Negros, and Masbate, but as I have “a but is offset a the west. ¥ Descripcion fisica, geol6gica y minera en bosquejo de la Isla de Panay. Publ eacion oficial, Manila, 1890. 2 tare ILLUSTRATIONS. Puate I. Map of Masbate, P. I. II. Map of Aroroy mining district, Masbate, P. I. III. Map of route. Aroroy to Mandaon, Masbate, P. I. 81630——2 IN? WERGUSON: PHYSIOGRAPMY OF THE fF Ht Le thet, CUUNING Whey VUE AV, ANU. te BUREAU OF SCIENCE | _ DIVISION OF MINES [ 124° Q /2Tichn = | 1 Juace SS 72Cylintan 30 fo) PROM NA & os R = v 4yn 14 DALURIRL v ) de Puerés Ide 5. Andres me) ine eae [2delMedio reels te 19 Darsena Bie laAguada We Een Rs Destacado Re Tiguijan 14 S16 ugay > IA TAGAPULA ee 0 re 4 preavaom: PHYSIOGRAPMY OF THE PHILIPPINE T8LANDS.] Frac oui ee tal te Nok BUREAU OF SCIENCE DIVISION OF MINES fas* Tegudr P& y Bantay we Tasiren Pt S. Rafael 8 MTatus ” wotetad\, aCabera Negrite Bantay 4 Balantucr” & Nogearagut rm, of Man we Azucor P* Tabunan 9 i? Deagan uv ware * vege Pp Tumolaytaycs Seno ¢, e 70 P™ Moriveles 2 a, ; > ~ NISCapulujan Pe paniquN® g° . aa o N ; : & it Sh NS ! * pei Skene .! < ison . BArAy oy Pie nee 7 SAS ey, Sd} | DPM Tigusian f-4 cemesiss OY aay P* Balodsao, A S$ |/ O PGurnluthagan® : : Aes St, auidteng [Monee I Namotan i" Pobre IGuitutugeno 0 PGuinledagen Oo {iene so P™Nauco ° i*Nabugta I Nare chico} MNagarao 0 Gorrita © /"Zapote mayor (*Chinela® « /*Zapato menor P&Caduruan : COPIED FROM Kilometres ATLAS DE FILIPINAS D wield SeTune 4 ‘sadigyeyin™ H a heath om a 4 P ~*~ i ol er tav tint Pay wie jw armor, ms ete pty ne Sit Vaaiininnibscasienal fi ‘SatucnienNt A, aerTT rT) nner on 22 aa memypewomanense te We tan So Ty Leics eM are Dene FERGUSON: PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE BUREAU OF SCIENCE Fi HY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. FenausoN: PHYSIOGRAP J [PHtL. JouRN. Scr. Vou. IV, No. 1. BUREAU OF SCIENCE DIVISION OF MINES ES NS y R } i Us \ ee ea ae dll aeecvenate'D site bY etapmotiree Sonne ~ uazAUA ; 4 ce a RN om repels aoe 4 ¥ a Cy Ae FERGUSON: PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE Is BUREAU OF SCIENCE oo 's0N: PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.) (Px. Journ, Sct, Vou. IV, No. 1. VISION OF MINES BUREAU OF SCIENCE a San Agustins i = Nee ete Cogran “e * Nabi Mi ‘i jongeusan eregular hills ~ Butuan Hill harp limestone peok) GN i) SO @ if A Uiregalor peaks) elk { pe ondaon Re Mandao: Mandaon Pts cee ee er ee — iw: ce eA ane einen wi tmeniarecn Nice Ce”: , even ye Suthers a CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PHILIP- PINE ISLANDS: IV. THE COUNTRY BETWEEN SUBIG AND MOUNT PINATUBO. By WARREN D. SmitH. (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science.) A practice march from Olongapé, United States naval station, to Mount Pinatubo, Zambales Province, was made in the month of April, 1907, by a batallion of the United States Marine Corps, under the com- mand of Major H. K. Cole. The botanical notes referred to in this paper are contributed by F. W. Foxworthy, of the Bureau of Science, who ac- companied the expedition; the sketch route map is by Sergeant Stockel and myself; the photographs were taken by me. Our thanks are due to Major Cole, United States Marine Corps, and to Dr. Jos. H. Thomp- son, assistant surgeon United States Navy, for the assistance they rendered and for the many courtesies they showed us. The time consumed in making the trip from Olongapé to Pinatubo and return, a distance of approximately 200 kilometers, was one week; the average marching rate was therefore about 28 kilometers a day. As 20 kilometers a day is the usual rate with full equipment in the Tropics, it was not possible to make a very thorough examination of the country. Subig Bay, our starting point, is one of the most beautiful in the Archipelago, large enough to shelter several battleship fleets as well as all the commercial vessels that visit Manila. The bay is very irregular im outline and has several islands scattered here and there. Its beauty is further enhanced by a girdle of hills, some of which are quite worthy of the name of mountains. Some of these are heavily wooded, while others are rounded and bare, thus giving a clue to the underlying rocks. The former are usually of limestone, shale, or andesite formation, the latter of serpentine or pyroxenite. Both the formation and the topog- raphy of the Cinco Picos range are remarkably similar to much of the California coast range. A thorough examination of this region will no doubt bring to light a host of minerals we have not yet found, but the presence of which we are led to suspect from the paragenesis of minerals. We began the march proper from Subig at the head of the bay. The 19 20 SMITH. first day’s journey took us along a comparatively level, alluvial-filled valley, or a series of valleys, separated by low spurs from the hill country to the east. This is good rice land. ‘The soil is largely the disintegrated débris from the immediately adjacent hill country. Cuts along the road for the most part show a dioritic formation, in some places overlain by shales. At Pamatauan the country begins to undergo a noticeable change, it becoming more level and dryer. A short distance before Castillejos is reached there is a sudden and complete change both in soil and vegetation. From here on the country simulates in a remarkable degree the arid regions of the western part of the United States. Prac- tically the only trees are agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.), which appear very much like pines. Between Santa Fé and Aglao there is some lowland which is flooded by means of ditches leading from the river and which makes good rice land. The great flat stretch of country between Castillejos and Santa Fé is almost treeless and has a coarse, sandy floor with occasional bowlders. The Aglao River flows through this almost uninhabited stretch of country between high and steep banks of sand and gravel. The heat and glare encountered on the march across this part of the route are very trying, particularly to soldiers under full equipment. Monadnocks of various sizes here and there are to be seen on this plain. One of these just beyond Castillejos is composed of andesite, and still a larger one near, but across the river from Aglao, 215 meters above the plain, is made up of practically the same rock as that constituting Mount Pinatubo, namely, feldspar porphyry. A few miles east of Aglao we left the broad, nearly flat plain and entered a valley which flares widely at its mouth, but which gradually narrows toward its head. This we followed all the way to the foot of Pinatubo, crossing and recrossing the Aglao several times. At the entrance to this valley we pitched camp on the high bluff overlooking the river. Here we were visited by a small band of wandering Negritos, a photograph of whom, together with some of the American marines, is shown on Plate I. As these little people have already been described by ethnologists, no further mention need be made of them except that they are a nomadic, extremely shy tribe. They are short, usually thick set, kinky-haired, quite dark, and resemble as their name implies little negroes. The men use bows and arrows, wear few clothes, generally only a breech clout, and are very active. They live for the most part on wild hogs and deer and probably any sort of wild meat they can find. Their houses are of the rudest kind; in fact they are nothing more than temporary shelters of grass, trees or caves. For a full description of these people I refer the reader to Mr. Reed’s* work. * Reed, W. A.: Negritos of Zambales, Hthnol. Sur. Pub. Manila, (1904), Pt. 1, 2. CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHYSIOGRAPHY OF PHILIPPINES. alk We left part of the force behind at Camp Clinton and then proceeded up the valley, making halts as indicated on the accompanying route sketch. At the foot of the mountain proper, our force again was divided and one company took the trail over the pass and down the the long eastern slope to Camp Stotzenburg on the Pampanga side. The remaining company with us marched to the next water hole and then likewise separated, one part remaining below with the superfluous baggage and arms. Here a select number of men were chosen and we began one of the hardest pieces of mountain climbing I have engaged in in the Philippine Islands. From the 915 meters’ elevation up to about 1,525 meters the trail leads over an exceedingly rocky slope where great care must be taken not to dislodge loose stones and bowlders and hurl them upon the party following. The Negrito guides easily outdistanced us in this part of the climb. At 1,525 meters we entered the heavy growth of timber and small vegeta- tion which so persistently clings about the summits of the majority of high mountains in the Tropics. The botanist calls this the mossy forest. as it is marked by a great profusion of moss covered trees. The white men of the party kept with the Negritos after entering the forest, and one or two made even better headway. Although the trees are somewhat stunted on the summit of the mountain, the vegeta- tion is very dense and this, together with the haze, prevented our having a yery clear view over the surrounding country. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE AGLAO VALLEY. The Aglao Valley presents a physiographic puzzle which to me at least has been almost inexplicable. A cross section of it about midway in its length is given in the accompanying map. ‘This figure shows that the valley consists of two chief parts, an upper portion wide, flat- bottomed, and with moderately steep walls, and a second and lower part, a deep gorge with exceedingly straight walls, narrow and rather more Y-shaped at the bottom. The gorge shows that the valley filling is of loose material, sand, and bowlders. As these gorges are in places, from 30 to 45 meters deep we can count on the filling extending to at least that depth, and if we continue the natural slopes of the valley walls downward so as to re- construct the preéxisting valley, we get some idea of the probable amount of fill, which must be in the neighborhood of 120 to 150 meters in depth. The floor of the upper valley is strewn with immense bowlders, some of them many tons in weight. They possess a remarkable similarity to a valley train in glaciated countries. In certain portions of the valley there are gorges smaller than the large one which follows more nearly 22 SMITH. the central line of the valley; these are along the sides, just as are usually found along the sides of glaciers. Three distinct stages are to be noted in the history of the valley: a. The erosion of the broad yalley; bv. The filling of the broad valley; c. The engorging of the Aglao River. ‘The first stage was that of normal erosion and began immediately as this area rose from the sea. The second points to submergence or sinking’ of the land mass and cessation of erosion. The third marks reélevation of the land and quickening of the streams, so that they could again begin to cut. Tt has occurred to me that very possibly’ when this region subsided, a tidal bore may have passed in and out of this valley and thus have spread the immense bowlders oyer the floor as we now find them. (Plate UL.) : Plates III and IV are two photographs showing some interesting topographic features along the route. The formation is presumably the same as that composing Mount Pinatubo. However, as we had not time to examine the rocks very far from the trail, I shall not go any further into the discussion in this preliminary notice. At about 440 meters’ elevation the steep climb to the summit of Mount Pinatubo begins. The slopes from this elevation on to about 1,525 meters are quite bare and covered with small bowlders, but I saw no sign of voleanic ash, nor any of the usual indications of volcanic activity. Plate V shows this slope material at close range. There is a small, conical peak to the right and the rear which is the highest point on Mount Pinatubo and of the whole range between Zam- bales and Pampanga. We reached the high point to the left, 1,705 meters aneroid reading, as the Negrito guide said this was the higher point, and then found a cafon of great depth and width cutting us off. As our rations were running short, we were forced to forego the ad- ditional descent and climb. We would not have gained much if we had undertaken the ascent, as the formation is undoubtedly the same on the two peaks. We could see that with a glass. Plate VI, taken from an elevation of 1,500 meters, will give some idea of the view toward the west over the route we came. The Pinatubo rock is a feldspar porphyry. On weathered surfaces it is a dirty gray, giving a pepper and salt effect. On the fresh surfaces it is seen to be made up of idiomorphic crystals of glassy feldspar, or plagioclase, varying in length from 1 or 2 to 15 millimiters. The black mineral is usually a well-erystallized hornblende. The matrix is grayish to yellow. The rock is not firm so that it easily weathers. The hornblendes are invariably much smaller than the plagioclases. It is this CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHYSIOGRAPHY OF PHILIPPINES. 23 rock which, disintegrating, furnishes the coarse sand of the valley and the plain. I shall quote here a few sentences from Dr. Foxworthy’s notes on the plant life on the mountain: The soil seems to become progressively worse as one ascends the valley and trees almost entirely disappear, except at the edges of the formation along the water courses. In the river valley itself there is, comparatively, a very rich vegetation. In the rocky bed of the main stream there are numerous agoho trees (Casuarina equise- tifola Forst.) and a good many ferns and herbs of various sorts. Wherever the valley widens out, there are found a number of tall trees of different kinds with undergrowth of wild banana, bejuco, ete. Fs In the small upper valleys of the small branch streams are found some tree ferns, several figs, Dalbergia, Oratoxylon, Duabanga, and Vaccinum species. The coarse, rocky soil at the base of Mount Pinatubo contains practically no vegetation, the very small amount of grass which starts being periodically burned off by the Negritos. - The bare, burned surface of the mountain which is scarred by land slides goes _up to about 1,400 meters, where the mossy forest begins very abruptly, being protected only by a narrow fringe of very coarse, reedy grasses. The lower part of the mossy forest contains a few figs and Vaccinwins with some Rubus and Deutzia in the undergrowth. One of the few herbs is a Carex. Among the less -common shrubs are Cyrtandra and Geniostoma. From about 1,525 meters to just about the top there is another type of vegetation. In this, Medinilla whitfordii Merr. with its brilliant purple flowers is the most conspicuous, and this one tree constitutes fully one-half of the flora. Interspersed with this are Ficus, Alangium, and Vaccinwm. In the lower part of this range, the Medinilla reaches a height of about 30 feet and is a very clearly marked tree. In fact its shape is such as to give almost the effect of a formal Japanese garden. In the upper part of this range the tree is very stunted in habit, being only 1 or 1.5 meters in height. One of the few flowering herbaceous plants found in this range is Nertera depressa Banks & Soland. In the more sheltered parts of this formation, filmy ferns, lichens, and mosses are very abundant. At the summit all the woody plants are stunted in habit. Sphagnum and other mosses, and lichens are very abundant. Great masses of moss cover the tree trunks. Many orchids are found in this moss on the trunks, one yellow-flowered form being very abundant. I shall conclude this preliminary note by saying that Mount Pinatubo is not a voleano and we saw no signs of its ever having been one, although the rock constituting it is porphyritic. The mountain and the surrounding country afford-excellent opportunity for physiographic studies. The region is quite unique and I have seen nothing in the Philippines quite like it. It is a matter of regret to me that I have not time now to return to it, and so for the present this preliminary account must suffice. , + P) mT Ae pee fe : : NE ; n att re eee ye. ; is 1 Puare I. Il. Til. IV. We Wale VII. ILLUSTRATIONS. Negritos and United States Marines. Valley of the Aglao, showing large bowlders. The valley of the Aglao. Mount Pinatubo in the distance obscured by the haze. : Topography along the Aglao River, Zambales Mountain. The formation is igneous. Character of material on slopes of Mount Pinatubo at 1,370 meters’ altitude. Looking west over the Aglao Valley from 1,520 meters’ elevation on Mount Pinatubo. Map of route Paumatawan-Mount Pinatubo. 25 Pot T ON “AI ‘0A “10S Nuno ‘IIHg] [‘SONIddITIHNgG FO AWdVUYOISKH OL SNOILOGININOD * HOINS ‘T ‘ON ‘AT “‘IOA “IOS ‘NunOF “TIHg] [SaNIddIMHqd JO AHAVUNOISAH OL SNOILAGIMINOD : HLINS ‘T (ON ‘AT “I0A “IOS “NunOr “TIHg] [SONIddIIMIg JO AHAVUDOISAHA OL SNOIGAAIUINOD : HLINS a1 ve} \ i eet all i SMITH: CONTRIBUTIONS | % SMITH: CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHYSIOGRAPHY OF PHILIPPINES] (Puit. Journ. Scr, Vou. IV, No. 1 “A Btvid ‘T ON ‘AI “IOA “10S “NunOr 11H] [S@NIddITIHgG 0 AHAVANOISAHG OL SNOILOGININOD : HLINS tae PTA oll a "IAN S1LV1a0 ‘T (ON ‘AI “IOA “IOS “NunOr “ITHd] [ SUNIddITINgG JO AHAVUNOISAH OL SNOILAAIMENOD : HLINS , neta pial fH, Pe as Sree, | sky i. oe: ke ep sunlehwnd Soest says, SLi ib a Sean ae bs Wa ae.” a PORE PHVA doa bneet ame \! ; ; t i esi) AK ne NTRIBUTIONS TO PHYSIOGRAPHY OF PHILIPPINES.] [PH Journ. Scr, Vou. 1V, No. 1. pene (co) Mt. Pinatubo Sanidine porphyry anutd Last holt | S eG SS aoe e Flat bottomed boulder = Wertere filled valley he bottomed / a eke boulder filled, valley Sanidine porphyry SS Ory Cross Section of River Valley S 7 ] 2040 | Tloilo_________ 32 | 10 years..__ Alpine. 2105) Cebuano 22 | 22 years___ Cro-Magnon. 2276 16 years___ Alpine. 2802 30 years___ Northern. 3202 25 years___ Cro-Magnon. 3426 20 years___ Iberian 6. 3851 10 years___ Do. 3865 12 years___ Malay. 3958 | Leyte___.---__ 18 | 25 years___ B. B. B. 4012 | Bohol ~___-___ 28 | 20 years___ Alpine. 4048 | Bulacan -_____- Pay fe = 0 (oye Iberian a. 4367 | Manila _-_____ 46 | 12 years___ Cro-Magnon. 4843 | Pangasinan __| 18 |___-do _____ Negroid 5013 | Batangas_____ 59 | Life _--__ 166: alee =e Bee ane Ee eee .....| Cro-Magnon. FILIPINO EARS. dl Taste I—Types of Bilibid prisoners—Continued. [- See ys ap = = Ss Ae ‘Term of | 2 | eae ie No. Nativity. imprison- | 9 g ny = = 6 a Ear type. 2 ment. = CS) a ko} co} 80 = Sp et Ele lis Ie (Ree =< an | =) iso] q faa) ic] 5017 | Mindoro__---- LON inte Malay. 5060 | Laguna__----- 20 | 20 years__- Iberian a. 5334 | [loilo -_-------] 36 |_---do -____ Negroid. 5450 | Misamis ______ 28 | 30 years___ Iberian a. 5453 |____- GO) | 7A |= 619) Malay. 5517 | Lloilo 20 years___ Do. 5701 | Laguna atid oe Cro-Magnon. 5715 10 vears___' B. B. B. 5770 | Samar ________ 35 | 14 years___ Malay. 6909 | Antique _-____ 35 | 12 years___ Do. 5936 | Nueva Ecija__| 26 | 8 years____ 3 84. a 7 Alpine. 5958 | Manila _______ 41 | Life ______ 173 | 171 | 91.5 | 19.5 | 15.4 | 14 6.9 | Cro-Magnon. 5970 | Laguna____-_- 44) ed oee ls 172 | 172 | 95.2 | 18.9 | 16.1 | 15.2 | 6.6] B. B. B. 6161 | Leyte--------- 18 | 25 years___| 156 | 164 | 86 17.6 | 15 15 5.5 | Malay. 6260 | Ilocos Sur ----| 20 | 7 years____| 169 | 174 | 89 18.6 | 15.2 | 13.7 | 6.4 | Alpine. 6278 | Leyte__-.---.- 25 | 25 years___| 161 | 168 | 86.5 | 17.6 | 16.2 | 14 6.4 | Negrcoid. 6328 20 years___| 166 | 177 | 86.2 | 17.9 | 14.8 | 13.7 | 6.3 | Malay. 6511 7 years____| 169 | 173 | 87.7 | 18.6 | 15.1 | 14.2 | 6.7 | Cro-Magnon. 6584 | Leyte_________| 21 | 20 years___| 149 | 154 | 82.6 | 18.4 | 15.5 | 13.6 | 6 Iberian Malay. 6610 | Nueva Ecija__| 28 | 9 years-___| 169 | 173 | 90.1 | 17.7 | 15.1 | 13.7] 6 Iberian a. 6742 23 | 6 years____| 156 | 160 | 84.7 | 17.8 | 15 14 5.8 | Malay. 6747 3) Wife 222 = 166), /S25=5| See ee Ses ese eee Seas 6749 29 |____do -_---| 156 | 160 | 81 17.4 | 14.4 | 18.9 | 5.3 | Iberian a. 6930 27 | 16 years___| 164 | 172 | 85.3 | 19.4 | 15.6 | 14 5.8 | Mestizo. 6985 | Pampanga-___| 46 | 18 years___| 171 | 178 | 93 18.1} 14.3 | 14 7.5 | B. B. B. 7100 | Borongan -___| 25 | 20 years___| 148 | 155 | 80.7 | 18.2 | 15.7 | 14.3 | 5.8 | Malay. 7156 | Pangasinan __| 38 | Life ______ 167 | 174 | 90.5 | 17.6 | 16 14 6.8 | Sub-Northern. 7218 | Capiz_-------- 38 | 12 years___| 162 | 164 | 85.3 | 17.3 | 14.9 | 13.2 | 6.3 | Alpine. 7264 20 years___| 152 | 161 | 82.1 | 17.3 | 14.8] 13.3 | 6.2 | Malay. 7306 17 years___| 152 | 155 | 82 16.9 | 15.6 | 14 5.6 | Negroid. 10279 (2) 165 | 174 | 86.3 | 17.9 | 14.8 | 18 4.7 | Iberian b. 13020 4 years____| 165 | 177 | 86.5 | 19.1 | 16.1 | 14.2 | 6.2 | Alpine. 13120 2 years___-} 151 | 154 |; 82 17.4 | 15.2 | 13.3 | 5.6 | Iberian a. 18734 Kee d Oem ee 157 | 162 | 87.4 | 18.5-| 16.3 | 14.3 | 6 Alpine. 13885 eed oem 152 | 155 | 83.6 | 17.4 | 14.7 | 18.9 | 5.5 | Malay. 14085 lyear_____ 150 | 150 | 88.5 | 19.8 | 13.1 | 18 5,8 | Iberian Malay. 14183 6 months _| 165 | 174 | 86.3 | 17.9 | 14.8 | 13 4.7 | Iberian b. 14202 2 years____| 151 | 154 | 82.1 | 17.4 | 15.2 | 13.3 | 5.6 | Iberian a. 14499 1year_____ 157 | 163 | 89 19.7 | 15 14.2 | 6.9 | B.B.B. 14583 | Nueva Ecija__| 31 | 4 months _| 167 | 174 | 87.8 | 18.8 | 15.4 | 14.2 | 7 Sub-Northern. 14655 | Laguna______- 30 | 4 years_-__| 159 | 163 | 86 18 15.4 | 13.7 | 5.7 | Iberian a. 14783 | China __-_____ SPO |] Gammon aS ee el ea Sub-Northern. 14811 | Manila ______- 25 | 2 months _| 159 | 164 | 86.5 | 18 15.2 | 14 7.1 | Alpine. 14857 | Ambos Cama- | 58 | 4 years____| 153 | 155 | 84.5 | 19.1 | 15.4 | 13.5 | 6.7 | Cro-Magnon, rines. 14867 | Manila _---__- 35 | 2 months _| 160 | 166 | 88 18.6 | 14.7 | 14 6 Do. 14882 | Samar —___---- 30 | 2 years____| 159 | 103 | 87.5 | 18.2 | 15.6 | 14.6 | 5.9 | Negroid. 14957 i 3 months -| 165 | 170 | 88.2 | 18.5 | 15.3 | 14.6 | 7 Cro-Magnon. 14964 TE STAY NAH AY all le Do. 15006 4 months _| 168 | 170 | 89.3 | 18.2] 15.1) 13.4) 6.1) Iberian a. By BRAN. TABLE II.—Averages for the various types of Bilibid prisoners. Ear type. Ninn: Age. | Stature. lemsint ieee nr Seth Cro-Magnon-_-__--_--__ 10 41 163 6.7 18.9} . 15.2 Iberian @-_---___----|_ | 1 28 157 5.8 18 14.9 ibenianip} == 4 24 167 4.7 17.9 14.8 12 | 25 153 5.8 17.9 15 5 26 157 | 6 17.6 15.8 9 27 159 6.3 18.2. 15,3 5 39 166 6.9 18.9 15.3 a The head length is measured from the nasion to the maximum oceipital protub Prate I. ILLUSTRATIONS. The Malay ear. II. The Malay ear. Modified. II, The Malay ear. Modified. . The Malay ear. Y. The Alpine ear. Modified. . The B. B. B. ear. Modified. . The Cro-Magnon ear. Modified. . The Iberian ear (Type a). Modified. . The Iberian ear (Type 6). Modified. X. The Chinese ear. 1. (In the text.) 2. (In the text.) 3. (In the text.) 4. (In the. text.) 5. (In the text.) 6. (In the text.) 7. (In the text.) 8. (In the text.) 9. (In the text.) tO. (In the text.) 11. (In the text.) 12. (In the text.) 13. (In the text.) 14. (In the text.) 15. (In the text.) 16. (In the text.) 17. (In the text.) 18. (In the text.) 19. (In the text.) Type l. Type 2. . Type 3. Type 4. Type 5. : The Negroid ear. Filipino. Sketch from life. The Malay ear. Filipino. Sketch from life. Malay ears from behind. Sketch from life. The B. B.B. ear. European. Sketch from life. The B. B.B. ear. Mestizo. Sketch from life. The Alpine ear. Mestizo. Sketch from life. The Cro-Magnon ear. Filipino. Sketch from life. Cro-Magnon Filipino. Sketch from life. The Iberian ear, type a. European. Sketch from life. The Iberian ear, type 6. American. Sketch from life. The Sub-Northern ear. Chinese. Sketch from life. The Northern ear. American. Sketch from life. Negro ear.—Hrdlicka. Copied from photograph. An odd type. Filipino. Schematic outline from life. 53 Bran: FILIPINO BARS.] (PHIL, Journ. Sci., Vou. IV, No. 1. ‘ON ‘AI “1OA “IOS “Nunor “TIHd] [Suva ONTdITIY : NVO "hl S41tv71d0 ‘T ‘ON ‘AT “IOA “IOS “NUQOf “InTg] [SUV ONIdIIy? : NvVad \ 60-86-01, | d-2Z TeseGar — >» 1 ON ‘AI “TOA “10S ‘NuDOr TWIHA] [sttva@ ONIdIIIW + Nya a \ \ 4 \ Blot : Bs OLA ‘T (ON “AI “TOA “IOS) ‘(NUNor ‘IIH ] [SUV ONTdIIIWy : Nvaed IA S4Vv1d T ON ‘AT “TOA “IOS "NUDOC ‘THG] [suvaq ONIdImIy + Nv T ‘(ON ‘AT “DOA “IOS ‘NuNOL TWH] [SUV ONIdITIW : Nvagd TIA S4tv1d i — 60-9 1-6 \ ) 1-076, \ \ ‘T ‘ON ‘AT “TOA “TOS ‘NUDOLr “TIH] [Suva ONIdITI] +: NVA ‘i ‘ AY tired . ie re 7 ; are oe ; —) we: ~ (ie , q hip me : n ae cS ee 1 é : ' "1 - ‘ t BEAN: FILIPINO EARS. ] (PHIL. JourN. Scr.. Vou. IV, No. ad paar TON “AT “TOA “10S Nuno¢ “TIE [SUVA ONIdIIMW] + NWSE ‘ j j hat ett ‘ 41 Ea t \ 11) = "ai - hes ~~ a TWO NEW SPECIES OF SNAKES FOUND IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. By LAwRENcE E. GRIFFIN. (From the Department of Biology, Philippine Medical School.) In the collection of reptiles in the museum of the Biological Labor- atory, Bureau of Science, are two species of snakes belonging to the genus Dendrelaphis, which appear to be new. ‘Their descriptions follow. Dendrelaphis caeruleatus sp. nov. Maxillary teeth 18 or 19. Hye as long as its distance from the nostril (a little longer in young specimen). Rostral broader than deep, barely visible from above; internasals three-fourths as long as the prae-frontals; frontal once and a third as long as broad, as long as its distance from the end of the snout (longer in young specimen), shorter than the parietals; loreal twice as long as broad; one prae- and two post- oculars; temporals 2-+-3; nine upper labials, fifth and sixth entering the eye; five lower labials in contact with the anterior chin shields, which are considerably shorter than the posterior. Scales in 13 rows. Anal divided. Dark brown or nearly black above; a very indistinct black stripe on each side of the head, passing through the eye; lower surface of the head cream-yellow 3 upper lip splotched with blue and cream-yellow, outer rows of scales and ventrals blue, slightly tinged with green; a narrow black line along the outer edge of the subcaudals and posterior ventrals; a black median line along the lower surface of the tail. When the scales of the upper surface are rubbed off the underlying skin is of a dull blue color. When collected. | Collector. Museum. Locality. Number. Total length Length of tail. Scale rows. Ventrals. Anals. Subcaudals. Temporals. Supra-labials. Bureau of Science_| a | Siquijor__| Mar., 1908 | A.Celestino| 840 | 225 | 13 | 173 Bureau of Science_| b | Banton___} Aug. 2,1905 | A. Celestino |1,055 | 287 | 13 | 186 | 2/| 105/242) 9 L a = = = =] S) = Ss r= 2+2 | 9 Dendrelaphis fuliginosus sp. nov. Maxillary teeth 18. Hye as long as its distance from the nostril. Rostral broader than deep, barely visible from above; internasals a little shorter than the prae-frontals; frontal once and a half as long as broad, longer than its dis- tance from the end of the snout, a little shorter than the parietals; loreal 60 56 GRIFFIN. elongate; one prae- and two post-oculars; temporals 242; nine upper labiale, fifth and sixth entering the eye; five lower labials in contact with the anter chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior. Scales in 13 rows. divided. Uniform seal-brown above, shading into a slightly lighter shade beneath, lip and lower surface of head and throat fuscous. Scarcely visible trac black median line along the lower surface of the pee a faint dark ee” ocular and near the aaninntion edge of each haat ae hee ole : When a vate eel ge Museum. 58 Locality. col- Collector. 2 5 Ce et 2 lected, 2 lecoell dei z a lta | SJ i a Z a|ajale|4 Burean of! - _ | Mm. | Mm. yee Science... a | Negros --- 1902 | C. S. Banks_| 350] 90| 13/179! 2 THE FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: Il. SPONGES AND SPONGE FISHERIES. By Atyin SEALE. (From the Section of Fisheries, Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science.) INTRODUCTION. The past year has marked the opening of the Philippine sponge - fisheries from a commercial standpoimt, some thirty thousand sponges having been shipped from the Islands during the year. The greater part of these were sold in Singapore for export to London. Philippine Sponges are new products to the trade and many of them are slightly different from those usually handled and therefore the prices obtained varied greatly, in some instances, no doubt, being below the real value of the export. Specimens of all the different varieties of Philippine sponges at present obtainable: were taken to the United States and shown to Dr. H. F. Moore, of the United States Bureau of Fisheries. They were compared with specimens from Florida, Cuba, and the Mediterranean. After this the same specimens were taken to some of the largest whole- sale sponge dealers in New York and San Francisco, who examined them with great interest, suggested commercial names for those new to the trade, and so far as possible, gave quotations of prices of sponges of the latter class among the samples. The facts I have so far collected are given below. SPONGES IN GENERAL. A sponge when in its native state (see Pl. 1) closely resembles a boiled plum pudding covered by a thin, dark skin. It is quite different in appearance from the ordinary sponge of commerce which is merely the bleached skeleton of the animal. Sponges are usually classed by themselves in the faunal subkingdom Portfera; most of the sponges belong to the division Keratosa; the great majority of the Philippine forms to the genus Huspongia.* 1Tt is intended in a later paper to give a small check list with the scientific names of all the Philippine sponges. 57 58 SEALE. All of the several varieties of soft sponges found in the Philippines are of more or less commercial value. In addition to these, an almost unlimited variety of silicious sponges is encountered; the fiber of these is now being used in some countries as a substitute for asbestos. PHILIPPINE SPONGES OF COMMERCIAL VALUE. THE SHEEP’S-WOCL SPONGE (PLATE It). The sheep’s-wool sponge is the most valuable variety found in the Philippines. It has a strong, elastic fiber, resembling in every respect the well-known sheep’s-wool or bath sponge of Florida and it probably grows to about the same size. The only place where this sponge at present is known to occur in the Philippines is at Siasi, but doubtless it will also be found around Tawi-Tawi. It would be to the advantage of those interested in sponging to give particular attention to the finding and developing of these sponges, as they are well-known to the trade, are always in demand, and the supply is becoming limited. There would be no difficulty in marketing any quantity in the United States or Hurope where the product would bring from 8 to 20 pesos (4 to 10 dollars, United States currency) per lilo in wholesale lots. The specimen figured is of second grade and the price quoted by the largest New York dealer was ten pesos per kilo. THE PHILIPPINE ZOMOCCA SPONGE (PLATE III). This is a very tough, elastic sponge of moderately coarse fiber, usually rather flat in shape. The organisms grow in shallow water of 1.2 to 2 meters’ depth, on a hard rock bottom. Specimens 30 centimeters in diameter are frequently found. This sponge seems to be intermediate in grade between the sheep’s-wool and grass sponges; some of the dealers classing it with the former and others with the latter. All admit it to be different from any of the American forms. Dr. Moore considered it to be the best among those submitted to him and suggested the name “flat bath sponge” for it. However, a comparison with a large number of European sponges on the market mduced me to follow the suggestion of one of the sponge dealers and term it the Philippine Zomocca sponge because it most nearly resembles the well-known commercial form, the European “Zomocea.” This sponge is found in considerable numbers in the waters around Tawi-Tawi and the nearby islands; in deeper water, it will be of better quality. In all probability it occurs near other islands of the Archipelago. The Philippine Zomocca sponge would find a ready market both in the United States and in Hurope, the wholesale price quoted bemg from two to six pesos per kilo. FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINH ISLANDS. 59 THE PHILIPPINE ROCK SPONGE (PLATE IV). No commercial name exists for this organism. It resembles the Flor- ida yellow sponge to a certain extent, but the fiber is not as strong and the texture is considerably softer. It is very porous and covered with small tufts. It grows attached to bowlders and rocks in water of 1.5 to 5 meters in depth, reaching a diameter of 40 centimeters. Some of the dealers whom I consulted designated this as a good sponge; others con- sidered it to be almost worthless. As a matter of fact it is not very durable and therefore would probably not bring a large price. It is only known from the Island of Sitanki, but it probably will be found throughout the Sulu group. THE PHILIPPINE REEF SPONGE (PLATE Y). This is a beautiful sponge of very soft, closely woven fiber; un- fortunately it is quite fragile. This fact greatly detracts from its value; however, it is of a slightly better quality than the majority of American reef sponges. This specimen was termed “gloye sponge” by some of the wholesale dealers of New York, but reef sponge is undoubtedly a better name. It is quite abundant in many places in the southern Philippine Islands, especially so at Sitanki, where it is found in very shallow water, usually growing on the reefs among the moss and seaweed. Ii reaches a diameter of 20 to 25 centimeters. It is a fine, soft, bath sponge, but because of its fragile nature its period of usefulness is short. Considering its abundance, cheapness, and the ease with which it is gathered, the probabilities are that it will play an important part in the Philippine sponge industry. The prices quoted on this sponge ranged from 2 to 3 pesos per kilo. PHILIPPINE GRASS SPONGES (PLATE VI). The group of grass sponges which embraces a variety of forms re- presenting distinct genera, contains the great majority of sponges found in almost all Philippine waters; they are especially abundant at Sitanki, Tawi-Tawi and Siasi to the south, and at Masbate and Cebu farther to the north. In these places they outnumber all the other sponges com- bined. They are usually encountered on reefs, in water of from 40 centimeters to 1.5 meters in depth. They are from 8 to 30 centimeters in diameter. The best grade of Philippine grass sponge (shown by Pl. VI) is of a closely woven, fine, and soft texture; it is in every respect most desir- able for bathing or general use. More than thirty thousand of these sponges were taken from the beds at Sitanki during the past year, but many were of very small size and also poorly cleaned, so that the price obtained was very low. Wholesale dealers gave the value of my specimen 60 SEALE. at 2 pesos 40 centavos per kilo for the best quality and 40 centavos to 1 peso for the smaller kind, although I have seen sponges of the same classes marked in the retail trade at from 50 cents to 2 dollars, United States currency, each. The Philippine grass sponge, in comparison with any of the American or Cuban varieties, is regarded by wholesale dealers as being softer and stronger and of a better grade. It is probable that when these sponges are better known the price will be materially increased. THE PHILIPPINE SILK SPONGE. A small variety of the grass sponge, usually of 10 to 15 centimeters in diameter is frequently associated with the preceding variety. It is characterized by an extremely soft, silky texture; in fact it is the softest sponge found in the Islands. Acting upon the suggestions of sponge dealers I have decided to designate it as the Philippine silk sponge. The silk sponge has been taken in shallow water at Tawi-Tawi and Sitanki and it will also probably be found near several other islands. It would be very useful as a toilet sponge for infants and should bring a slightly better price than the ordinary grass sponge. THE SULU SEA BATH SPONGE (PLATE VII). This is a grass sponge of very coarse, tough fiber. It is quite common near Sitanki in water of from 1.3 to 2 meters in depth; it attains a di- ameter of 60 centimeters or more. No sponges exactly like the Sulu Sea sponge are taken in the American fisheries and therefore the large dealers were not inclined to consider it at its full value, mainly, I believe, because of lack of familiarity with it. One dealer believes that to a certain extent it resembles the Florida yellow sponge, but it is tougher than the latter, and contrary to what might be expected, holds water well. It could be used as a bath or horse sponge, for cleaning carriages, automobiles, large guns, or mortars, or as a stiffening for various fabrics. The prices given for this variety are only 40 to 60 centavos per kilo, but these are probably much below the true value of the sponge and much less than they will be when it becomes known to the trade. THE PHILIPPINE ELEPHANT’S-EAR SPONGE (PLATE VIII). This is a true elephant’s-ear sponge, but specimens so far examined do not seem to have the thickness of the Mediterranean variety ; however, those secured from a depth of 15 to 30 meters are thicker and have a softer texture. The Mediterranean elephant’s-ear is in great demand and brings high prices, and the Philippine variety from deep waters should compare favorably with it. This sponge is used by glazers, and as padding in the more expensive racing saddles. The market seems to be almost entirely European, and no quotation of prices could be secured in the United States, because of the very small and unsatisfactory specimen in my collection. This HISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 61 sponge is found in many localities throughout the Sulu Archipelago, but it seems to be especially abundant in the vicinity of the Island of Sulu. The pearl divers frequently bring up fine specimens. THE TUBE SPONGE (PLATE IX). This is a peculiar sponge found in the shallow waters at Sitanki. It is of very little if any commercial value, but as sponges are becoming rarer each year and as even the smallest clippings are being utilized, it may in time come about that even this sponge will have a value. THE PREPARATION OF SPONGES FOR THE MARKET. The sponges are first placed in their normal position, on a plat- form, the deck of a vessel, flat rock, or any place where they will not become filled with sand or dirt. They are left in the sun for two or three days until killed. They are then placed in a corral ‘(usually built at the edge of the water), where they will be covered with water; they are squeezed out from time to time and allowed to remain in this place for from five to six days, large sponges requiring more time than the small ones. The shorter the time in which they are macerated in the corral, the better for the sponges, the object being to keep them in the water only for, a sufficient period to permit them to be squeezed out and cleaned easily. The corral may be constructed of any size and in almost any manner, the object being to keep the sponges covered with salt water and free from dirt. If the enclosure is made simply by driving stakes in the ground, it is best to put in a floor of bamboo or boards to keep the sponges off the bottom and thus prevent them from rotting. Mr. John Byersdoffer, of Sitanki, constructs a floating enclosure of boards and slats with cracks sufficiently wide to permit the water to enter freely. (Fig. 1.) The box is about 4 meters long, 2 meters wide, Fia@. 1. Iie. 2. 62 SEALE. and 1.5 meters deep. Its advantages are that it keeps the sponges clean and it may be towed to any place; its own weight sinks it sufficiently to keep the sponges under water. The cleaning is greatly facilitated by frequently squeezing out the sponges and a flat paddle of considerable weight may be used with good effect. (Fig. 2.) A washboard made by tacking a cleat 2 centimeters thick about 8 centimeters from each end of a wide board and then stretching galvanized wire netting of 2 centimeters’ mesh over the cleats, tacking it to the ends of the board, is very useful. (Fig. 3.) This instrument is especially useful to remoye the dead, black skin from the sponges. After five or six days in water, during which time the sponges have been thoroughly squeezed, they are washed out in clean, salt water and put in the sun to dry. They should still be kept in the same position in which they grow, otherwise they are apt to burn and become red. However, the red color should not be confused with that which many sponges naturally show in the center of their structure. The sponges may be strung on stout twine about two meters in length to facilitate handling them rapidly. Salt water only is used im curing. After the sponges are thoroughly dry they are ready to sack or bale for market. Great care should be taken that the sponges are thoroughly dry and clean, as the Philippine sponge can only obtain the best market if it is always shipped as a thoroughly cured, cleaned article. BLEACHING SPONGES. Sponges are always shipped to the general market in an unbleached condition, but the following method by R. F. Bacon, of the chemical laboratory, Bureau of Science, is very effective, doing the least damage to the fiber: _ The sponges are placed in a saturated solution of potassium permanganate for two minutes, then transferred to fresh water and thoroughly washed. They are then squeezed out in a 10 per cent solution of sodium bisulphite until white; then again thoroughly washed in fresh water until all the chemicals are removed. They are afterward dried in the sun. . CULTIVATION AND GROWING OF SPONGES. The growing of sponges for commerce has become established and it promises to result in a profitable industry. Sponges are reproduced from eggs and by budding. The eggs are formed and fertilized within the body of the sponge; they develop mto minute, free-swimming forms which are thrown out into the water through the large openings. After about twenty-four hours the young settle, become attached, and grow into separate sponges. Reproduction by budding, however, is the method taken advantage of in growing sponges from cuttings. The sponge should be placed on a wet board, FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 63 or better still, kept under water and cut with a very sharp knife into cubes of about 5 centimeters, care being taken to keep on as much of the thin, black skin as possible and not to squeeze the animal. These pieces are then placed on a thick, copper wire, about 4 centimeters apart, the wire being fastened to stakes at each end and about 15 centimeters above the bottom. (Fig. 4.) It is quite possible that rattan would do = 2 Fig. 4. as well as copper wire; bamboo has been used with fair results. Within a day or two the sponges become attached to the wire and grow into fine, round organisms which have a much better shape than those growing naturally. These slips planted in Florida waters reached a marketable size in less than two years. The time required for them to grow in the Philippines is not known. Sponges should always be propagated in water in which they grow well naturally and at about their normal depth. It is probable that improved varieties can be cultivated by uniting cuttings of superior sponges, and some of the best grade of European sponges might even be introduced with advantage. It is my firm conviction that by care and work, not only in growing sponges, but by opening new beds, and fishing in deeper waters, a sponge industry amounting to several hundred thousand pesos per year may be built up im the Philippines. Regulations governing the gathering of sponges in the waters of the Moro Province were passed in June, 1908, and copies of these regulations may be obtained from the Secretary of the Moro Proyince at Zamboanga. LITERATURE. The following is a very incomplete list of literature dealing with sponges, chiefly of this or related regions: CARTER. Descriptions of Sponges from the Neighborhood of Port Philip Heads, South Australia, Ann. € Mag. Nat. Hist. (1885), V, 16, 277, 347; (1886), V, 17, 40, 112, 431, 502; (1886), V, 18, 34, 126. Contributions to our knowledge of the Spongida, bid. (1883), V, 11, 344; (1879), V, 3, 343; (1875), IV, 16, 126, 177; (1882), V, 9, 266, 346; (1869), IV, 3, 15; (1873), IV, 12, 17; (1872), IV, 9, 82; (1883), V, 12, 308; (1879), V, 3, 284; (1876), IV, 18, 226, 307, 388, 458. 64 SEALE. DENBY. The Sponge-fauna of Madras, Ibid. (1887), V, 20, 153. Report on a Second Collection of Sponges from the Gulf of Manaar, Ibid. (1889), VI, 3, 73. Report on Sponges of Ceylon, in Report on Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, Pt. III, Supplementary Reports (1905), 18, 57 to 246. GRAY. Notes on the Arrangement of Sponges, with the Description of Some New Genera, Proc, Zoél, Soc., Lond. (1867), 492. HAECKEL, Die Kalkschwiimme, 1872. HYAtrr. ; Revision of the North American Porifere, Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. (1875), 2. LINDENFELD. A Monograph ef the Australian Sponges, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. W. (1883), 9, 121, 310; (1884-85), 10, 283, 475, 481, 455. Descriptive Catalogue of the Sponges in the Australian Museum, Sidney, London, 1888. POLEJAEFF. Report on Keratosa. Collected by H. M. 8. Challenger, 1884. Report on the Carcarea. Collected by H. M. 8. Challenger, 1883. RIDLEY. Spongiide. Report on the Zoélogical Collections Made in the Indo-Pacific Ocean During the Voyage of H. M. 8. Alert, Brit. Mus. 1884. SCHULZE. Die Familie Spongidie, Zeit. f. wiss. Zodl. (1879), 32. SMITH. The Florida Commercial Sponges, Bull. U. S. Fish Com. (1897), 17, 225 to 240. Pl. 12 to 31. WILSON. The Sponges Collected in Porto Rico in 1899, Ibid, (1900), 2, 375. On the Feasibility of Raising Sponges from the Egg, Ibid (1897), 17, 241 to 245. WHOLESALE SPONGE BUYERS. For the benefit of those interested directly in the sponge industry I am appending a list of some of the sponge buyers in the United States who would be glad to correspond with those who have sponges for sale: Lasker & BERNSTEIN, 161 William St., New York City. Corrin, Repineton, Co., 35 Second St., San Francisco. Lanety & Micwaets Co., San Francisco. AMERICAN Sponee Co., 127 Larkin St., San Francisco. A. Isaacs & Co., Beatman St., New York City. Lronis Cronney & Co., 39-41 Walker St., New York City. SmirnH, Kring & Frencu, Philadelphia, Pa. James H. Konps & Co., 117 E. Kinzie St., Chicago, Ill. Meyer Bros., Druceists, St. Louis, Mo. THE GREEK AMERICAN SPONGE Co., Chicago, III. JouHN K. Curynry, Tarpon Springs, Fla. ILLUSTRATIONS. Prare I. A Philippine commercial sponge in its natural state. II. The Philippine Sheep’s-Wool Sponge. III. The Philippine Zomocca Sponge. IY. Philippine Rock Sponge. V. The Philippine Reef Sponge. VI. The Philippine Grass Sponge. VII. The Sulu Sea Bath Sponge. VIII. The Philippine Elephant’s-Har Sponge. IX. The Tube Sponge. (In the text.) The Byersdoffer floating corral. (In the text.) The Byersdoffer paddle. (In the text.) The Byersdoffer sponge washboard. (In the text.) Sponges planted on copper wire. 81630——5 i ‘ * SEALE: FISHPRY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] [Pumm. JourRN. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 1. SEALE: FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] [PHIL. JourN. Sctr., Vou. IV, No. 1. IG cm. 4 SEALE: FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] (PHI. JouRN. Scr., Vou. IV, No, 1. PLATE Ill. Ser., Vou. IV, No. 1. SEALE: FISHPRY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] [PHIL. Jou 10 Gm. PLATE Iv. SEALE: FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] (PHIL. JOURN. Scr., Vou. lV, No. 1. PLAST We 1 SEALE: FISHHRY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES.] [PHin. Journ. Ser., Vou. IV, No. 1. | 19 em PLATE VI. SEALE: FISHERY RPSOURCES OF THR PHILIPPINES. ] [PHrIu. Journ. Sct., Vou. IV, No. 1. 10 cm. PLATE VII. SEALE: FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE . JOURN, SCI., Vou. IV, No. 1. PHILIPPINES. | [PHIL PLATE vill. SEALE: FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. | [PHIm. JouRN. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 1. f Ly glee | - . f Y Ee" i 1m ’ . { . ' 1 3 o t F - i + A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM NORTHERN MINDANAO. By Ricwarp C. McoGrecor. (From the Zoélogical Section, Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) During the months of October, November, and December, 1907, Mr. Andres Celestino, an assistant in the Bureau of Science, was engaged in collecting zodlogical specimens in northern Mindanao. He spent a few days at Cagayan and nearly a month in the vicinity of Hsperanza on the Agusan River; the remaining time he employed at Butuan. The present paper is a list of the birds collected by Mr. Celestino on this trip. Most of these are species of wide distribution, or are already well known from Mindanao, but the following I believe have not been previously recorded from that island, namely: Mareca penelope, Tachornis pallidior. Camgumia helene, Budrepanis pulcherrvma, Oriolus samarensis and Corvus samarensis. The capture of Chloropsis flavipennis in northern Mindanao is espe- cially noteworthy. Blasius had recorded this species from near Davao, but the record had been considered somewhat doubtful. The Island of Cebu is the only other locality where the species has been found. 4 LIST OF SPECIES COLLECTED. TRERONIDA. Osmotreron axillaris (Bonaparte). One adult male. Phapitreron amethystina Bonaparte. Four males and one female from Butuan. These can not be distin- guished from specimens collected in Bohol or in Luzon. Phapitreron brevirostris Tweeddale. One male and three females from Butuan. P. albifrons of Bohol is closely related to this species, but differs in having the forehead white and the subocular line decidedly brown instead of black. Muscadivores chalybura (Bonaparte). One specimen of the fruit pigeon is probably of this species. 67 68 M’GREGOR. Ptilocolpa mindanensis Grant? The only Ptilocolpu in the present collection is a female and, as no other specimen from Mindanao is available, its identity is somewhat doubtful. PERISTERIDA. Chalcophaps indica (Linneus). One female with plumage partly immature. CHARADRIIDA. Charadrius fulvus (Gmelin). Three specimens, taken November 2 to 17, are in winter plumage. Himantopus leucocephalus Gould. Six specimens from Cagayan, September 12, 1907. Rhyacophilus glareola (Linnzus). One female. Pisobia ruficollis (Pallas). Six specimens in winter plumage were collected at Butuan, November 9, 1907. Gallinago megala Swinhoe. Swinhoe’s snipe is represented by a female, taken November 4. CICONIIDA. Dissoura episcopus (Boddaert). A female was taken at Cagayan. ARDEIDZA. Butorides javanica (Horsfield). One male was taken November 5. This specimen appears to belong to the small-billed race and not to B. amurensis. ANATIDA. Mareca penelope (Linnzus). A pair in nonbreeding plumage, taken December 27, are the third and fourth specimens to be recorded from the Philippines. This is also the first record of the occurrence of the species in Mindanao. FALCONIDA. Circus melanoleucos (Pennant). A female in second year plumage was taken on September 13. Astur trivirgatus (Temminck). A pair of adults and one young female. Accipiter manillensis (Meyen). One male. BIRDS FROM NORTHERN MINDANAO. 69 Lophotriorchis kieneri Sharpe. A. female of this species, killed October 12, held in its claws a Tanygnathus everetti. Both birds were preseryed. Spilornis holospilus (Vigors). One male specimen. Pernis ptilorhyncus (Temminck) . A male in perfect plumage was taken, October 21. Microhierax meridionalis Grant. A pair taken in Butuan, September 18. The male does not have the characters given by Grant, as the imner webs of the primaries are conspicuously barred with white. This barring is probably a character of the young and I doubt the validity of the species WZ. meridionalis. PANDIONIDA. Polioaetus ichthyzetus (Horsfield). One specimen of this powerful fishing eagle was collected near Butuan, Mindanao. A young female was taken near Naujan, Mindoro. BUBONIDA. Ninox japonica (Temminck and Schlegel). One female from Butuan, November 29. Ninox spilocephala Tweeddale. One female from Butuan. CACATUIDZA. Cacatua hematuropygia (P. L. S. Miiller). One male and one female; the latter has the breast, abdomen, and flanks faintly washed with red. PSITTACIDA. Prioniturus discurus (Vieillot). One male of this common species. Tanygnathus lucionensis (Linneus). One adult male and two young females. Tanygnathus everetti Tweeddale. This distinct species is represented by three males and one female. One of the males had been Jalled by a Kiener’s hawk. As pointed out by Grant, the female of Everett’s parrot has the bill dirty white, while in the male the bill is red as in both sexes of the common species, 7’. lucionensis. Bolbopsittacus mindanensis (Steere). Seventeen specimens representing both sexes. 70 M’GREGOR. Loriculus apicalis Souancé, Five specimens. The only male is immature so that it is useless to compare these birds with other species. PODARGIDA. Batrachostomus septimus Tweeddale. A female taken near Butuan, October 5, differs from a female taken in Basilan, in being slightly darker and a little more rusty on the back, throat, and breast. The tail is decidedly longer; 123 mm. in the Min- danao specimen against 110 in the Basilan female. CORACIIDA. Eurystomus orientalis (Linnzus). One specimen of this common roller. ALCEDINIDA. Pelargopsis gigantea Walden. One male in good plumage. Alcedo bengalensis Brisson. A pair from Butuan. Alcyone argentata (Tweeddale). Sixteen specimens. ‘Two of these are slightly bluer than the others, but do not agree with A. flumenicola from Samar. This species closely resembles A. flumenicola, but differs from that species in having the chin and throat pure white and the under parts washed with greenish-blue; the bill is shghtly longer in A. argentata. Ceyx mindanensis Steere. One male and two females. These do not differ from specimens taken in Basilan. The amount of black on the back probably depends upon the age of the individual. Halcyon coromandus (Latham). One adult male was taken November 2; another male, taken November 22, has the feathers of throat, breast, and sides of neck edged with dark brown, forming numerous crescent-shaped marks. Halcyon gularis (Kuhl). One female. Halcyon winchelli Sharpe. One male and one female. Halcyon chloris (Boddaert). One female. Halcyon hombroni (Bonaparte). One male of this rare kingfisher was taken during October. i BIRDS FROM NORTHERN MINDANAO. 71 BUCEROTIDA. Hydrocorax mindanensis (Tweeddale). One immature female. Penelopides affinis Tweeddale. One young female with smooth bill was taken September 18. Craniorrhinus leucocephalus (Vieillot). One male and two females in adult plumage. MEROPID~. Merops americanus P. L. S. Miiller. One female. CAPRIMULGIDA. Lyncornis macrotis (Vigors). One female from Butuan, October 21. This specimen is exactly similar in color to a female from Bataan Province, Luzon, but is much smaller. The male collected by us in Basilan is also smaller than males from Luzon and from Mindoro. Whitehead found both large and small birds in northern Luzon. Grant,’ who had the advantage of comparing his speci- mens with the types, seemed to think that mindanensis was not distinct from macrotis. Whitehead was in doubt on the subject and gave both species in his field notes.* The case is a very puzzling one. Were it not for Whitehead’s single small specimen from Luzon I should certainly consider these two species distinct. Measurements of Lyncornis. Sex and locality. Wing. | Tail. mm. mm. Mallestromps sil omy eases eee eee 265 165 Male from Mindoro _______ 282 180 Female from Mindanao___ 252 160 Female from Luzon __-_-------_--___ 280 190 CYPSELIDA. Collocalia troglodytes Gray. One female was taken, September 23. Collocalia fusciphaga (Thunberg). A single specimen of Thunberg’s swift was collected. 1Tbis (1894), WI, 6, 519; (1895), VII, 1, 463. 2 Ibis (1899), VII, 5, 383. ie, M’GREGOR. Tachornis pallidior McGregor. Three specimens from Butuan, November 9. These differ slightly from typical specimens in haying the back darker and of a less smoky hue, but the difference does not seem to be sufficient for specific separation. This genus has not previously been recorded from Mindanao. TROGONIDA. Pyrotrogon ardens (Temminck) . One pair. CUCULIDZA. Surniculus velutinus Sharpe. Two males were taken in October. Chalcococcyx malayanus (Raffles). A female taken at Butuan, September 25, is in every respect similar to a female taken in Basilan. Eudynamys mindanensis (Linneus). An immature female in mixed plumage was taken October 4. This specimen is similar to a female from Fuga Island in which the black plumage is partly replaced by the barred and spotted plumage of the adult. Centropus melanops Lesson. One female of this striking cuckoo. CAPITONIDA. Xantholzeema hemacephalum (P. L. S. Miiller). One adult male. PICIDA. Yungipicus fulvifasciatus Hargitt. One male. Chrysocolaptes montanus Grant. A pair from Butuan. I have compared these two with specimens of CO. lucidus from Basilan and with C. rufopunctatus from Bohol, and believe that they are specimens of Grant’s C. montanus. The male has the shaft of one tail-feather dirty white. Lichtensteinipicus fuliginosus (Tweeddale). ; One pair of adult birds and one young female. The latter resembles the adult female, but lacks the white tips on feathers of throat and head which are indicated by faint, gray spots. EURYLA-MIDA. Sarcophanops steeri Sharpe. Two males and one female from Butuan. ~I [eN) BIRDS FROM NORTHERN MINDANAO. PITTIDA. Pitta erythrogaster Temminck. One adult male from Cagayan and one immature female from Butuan. MUSCICAPIDA. Muscicapula basilanica (Sharpe). One male in poor plumage, September 21. Hypothymis occipitalis (Vigors). One male specimen of this common blue flycatcher. Rhipidura superciliaris (Sharpe). One male. This species seems to belong in the genus Rhipidura rather than in Hypothymis. Camiguinia helenz (Steere). The little blue flycatcher, which was described from Camiguin Island as Camiguinia personata, proves to be the same as Cyanomyias helene Steere. Nevertheless I believe that the genus Camiguinia is a valid one. A number of specimens were collected in northern Mindanao which is a new locality for this species. Cyanomyias ccelestis (Tweeddale). One male and one female. Zeocephus cinnamomeus Sharpe. Two males without elongated central tail-feathers. Rhinomyias ruficauda (Sharpe). Six specimens from Mindanao differ in no way from others collected by us in Bohol and Basilan. Cryptolopha olivacea (Moseley). Two specimens from Butuan. CAMPOPHAGIDA. Artamides kochi [Xutter. One pair of this well-marked species was taken at Butuan on No- vember 20. Lalage minor (Steere). Three males and two females from Butuan. This species, while similar to LZ. melanoleuca, is considerably smaller and the female has the throat and breast nearly uniform gray, not barred as in L. mela- noleuca. A young male resembles the female, but has the throat and breast barred with white. ; Lalage niger (Forster). One specimen. * 74 M’GRHGOR. PYCNONOTIDA. Chloropsis flavipennis (Tweeddale). One female from Butuan, October 14, in worn plumage. Wing, 87 mm.; tail, 72; exposed culmen, 21. This is the most interesting speci- men in the present collection as it confirms the record made by Blasius which for a long time was considered a mistake. Fortunately we are enabled to compare this interesting specimen directly with skins of C. flavipennis from Cebu. The Butuan skin is a little darker green than the Cebu skins, but with the material at hand there are no grounds for separating the Mindanao bird. lole philippensis (Gmelin). One male and one female. lole everetti (Tweeddale). One male in fine plumage from Butuan. Poliolophus urostictus (Salvadori). One specimen, October 5. Pycnonotus goiavier (Scopoli). One specimen. TIMELIIDA. Ptilocichla mindanensis Steere. One male and two females. This species differs very slightly from P. basilanica. Yn the latter species the back is more olivaceous-brown, but there is no appreciable difference in the size of the two species. Zosterornis capitalis (Tweeddale). Seventeen specimens, including adults and young of both sexes. ‘The young birds, taken in September, differ from the adults in haying chin, throat, and rest of under parts white, faintly gray on sides of breast; forehead and fore part of crown ocherous, the shafts lighter and con- spicuous. Specimens from Basilan are slightly larger than those from Mindanao but the difference is trifling. Macronous mindanensis Steere. Several specimens collected. SYLVIIDA. Orthotomus frontalis Sharpe. One male from Cagayan and a pair from Butuan. Orthotomus nigriceps Tweeddale. Two adult males and two young females from Butuan. One of the young birds has the chin and throat spotted with white. The other young bird has chin and throat almost all white. As pointed out by f : : BIRDS FROM NORTHERN MINDANAO. 75 Sharpe,? the type figured by Tweeddale? is a young bird. The adult has chin, throat, and sides of head and neck black, the white being con- fined to lores, a ring around eye, and a line over eye which extends back- ward to occiput. There is also a trace of white on chin and jaw. Megalurus tweeddalei McGregor. One specimen of the rufous-headed grass warbler. Acanthopneuste borealis (Blasius.) One specimen, taken in October. Acanthopneuste xanthodryas (Swinhoe). A willow warbler, taken at Butuan in November, is identified as A. zanthodryas, because of its yellowish coloration and comparatively long first primary. ARTAMIDAZA. Artamus leucorynchus (Linnezus). A pair taken in November; the female has two white feathers on the forehead. LANIIDA. Otomela lucionensis (Linneus). One male was taken, November 6. Hyloterpe apoensis Mearns. A pair from Butuan. CERTHIIDA. Rhabdornis minor Grant. Four males and two females of this well-marked species. Males from Mindanao have the bill a trifle longer than males from Bohol, but there are no color differences correlated with this. DICAIDA. Diczeum papuense (Gmelin). Three specimens. Diczeum davao Mearns. One male taken, November 4; wing, 43 mm.; tail, 21; culmen from >) 3 oP) >) 2 2 base, 10; tarsus, 11. Diczeum cinereigulare Tweeddale. Three males and three females from Butuan. The orange-breasted flowerpecker of Bohol seems to belong to this species and not to D. besti. 1Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. (1883), 7, 222. 2 Proc. Zoél. Soc. London (1877), 828, pl. 85. 76 M’GREGOR. Diczsum mindanense Tweeddale? One female of a plain-colored Dicwwm is doubtfully assigned to this species. NECTARINIIDA. AEthopyga bella Tweeddale. Two young males in molt, three females in good plumage, and one immature female. Neither of the males shows all the specific characters, but I do not hesitate to identify them as AY. bella, the type of which came from Surigao. Eudrepanis pulcherrima (Sharpe). Two adult males of this handsome little sunbird were taken in October. H. decorosa of Bohol differs from this species in being very much lighter yellow on chin, throat, and breast. Hudrepanis pulcherrima has not been previously recorded from Mindanao. Cinnyris sperata (Linnzus). One male. Cinnyris jugularis (Linneus). One adult male and one immature male, the latter taken in September. Arachnothera flammifera Tweeddale. Three males and one female. Anthreptes griseigularis Tweeddale. Two males in freshly molted plumage were taken, December 26. MOTACILLIDA. Anthus rufulus Vieillot. One female. Anthus gustavi Swinhoe. Two specimens. The only previous record for Mindanao is that by Grant.t PLOCEIDA. Munia jagori Martens. A male from Butuan, November 17, has the head and neck extremely black. Uroloncha everetti (Tweeddale). One male was taken, December 27. ORIOLIDA. Oriolus samarensis Steere. Two males and two females. These specimens are perfectly similar to a specimen of O. samarensis from Catbalogan, Samar. 17bis (1906), VIII, 6, 472. 2 BIRDS FROM NORTHERN MINDANAO. 77 DICRURID-A. Dicrurus striatus Tweeddale. One male and two females. STURNIDA. Sarcops melanonotus Grant. The only specimen of bald starling in the collection from Butuan is undoubtedly of the black-backed race. CORVID-A. Corvus samarensis Steere. A female crow from Butuan, October 18, is identified as C. samarensis without Samar specimens for examination. The measurements of this Butuan skin are nearly the same as those given by Steere for C. samar- ensis. The species has not been taken before in Mindanao, so far as known. ool otal 9 Eero eb ee r ee i yells POLS Fi om -~- a 1. Een «ie, PHILIPPINE ORNITHOLOGICAL LITERATURE, II. By Ricuarp C. McGrecor. (From the Zoological Section, Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) This section of Philippine ornithological literature consists mainly of titles of papers by the Marquis of Tweeddale. Most of these were first published in The Ibis, in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, or in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History and were reprinted in the Ornithological Works of Arthur, Ninth Marquis of Tweeddale, the full title of which is given below, under Ramsay. ‘'T'weed- dale was particularly interested in the birds of the Malayan islands and- his last papers constitute a very important part of Philippine ornitho- logical literature. Hay, Lord Arthur: Descriptions of some supposed new, or imperfectly deseribed, species of birds. Madr. Jour. Lit. & Scr. (1845), 18, 145-164. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 1-15. Description of Muscicapa bella, new species, on page 158. Walden, Viscount: On the rufous-tailed shrikes. Jbis (1867), II, 3, 211-226, pls. 5 & 6. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 38-48. Synonymy and critical notes on Laniws cristatus, L. lueionensis, and L. superciliosus. Walden, Viscount: Note on Lanius melanthes, Swinhoe, and on Lanius cephalomelas, Bp. Ibis (1868), Il, 4, 69-71. Reprinted in Tweed- dale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 50-51. Lanius cephalomelas Bonaparte is identified as L. naswtus Seopoli. Walden, Arthur, Viscount: On the Cuculide described by Linneeus and Gmelin, with a sketch of the genus Hudynamis. Jbis (1869), II, 5, 324-346, pl. 10. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 57-70. List of the cuckoos described by Linneus and Gmelin in the 12th and 13th editions of the Systema Nature and a review of the genus Hudynamys. Walden, Arthur, Viscount: On the sun-birds of the Indian and Aus- tralian Regions. Jbis (1870), II, 6, 18-51, pl. 1. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 71-93. Synonymy and critical notes; the Philippine species considered are: Arachnechthra jugularis, Nectarophila sperata, Ohalcostetha insignis, and Anthreptes malaccensis. 79 80 M’GREGOR. Walden, Arthur, Viscount: On two new species of birds from the Phil- ippine Islands. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1872), IV, 10, 252. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 234. Hyloterpe philippinensis and Orthotomus castaneiceps, new species, de- scribed. Walden, Arthur, Viscount: On a collection of birds recently made by Mr. A. H. Everett in northern Borneo. Jbis (1872), II, 2, 360-383, pl. 12. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 217-233. ; Notes on Spilornis bacha, Centrococcyx javanensis, Surniculus lugubris, Tchitrea affinis, Melanopitta muelleri, Oriolus sxanthonotus, and several commoner species which range to the Philippines. Walden, Arthur, Viscount: A list of the birds known to inhabit the island of Celebes. Yvrans. Zool. Soc. London (1872), 8, pt. 2, 23-118, pls. 3-10. Reprinted in T'weeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 127-215. Discussion of the zodlogical relationships of Celebes and notes on a number of species which range to the Philippines. Mgialitis peronii is figured on plate 10. ; Walden, Arthur, Viscount, and Layard, E. L.: On birds recently observed or obtained in the Island of Negros, Philippines. Ibis (1872), III, 2, 93-107, pls. 4-6. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 114-123. Notes on 22 species observed or collected by Layard; Janthanas griseogu- laris, Chrysocolaptes xanthocephalus, and Dicrurus mirabilis, new species, are figured and described. Walden, Arthur, Viscount: Descriptions of two new species of birds. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1874), 1V, 138, 123. Reprinted in Tweed- dale’s Ornith.. Works (1881), 253. Pelargopsis gigantea, new species, described from Salok Island. Walden, Arthur, Viscount: A list of the birds known to inhabit the Philippine Archipelago. Trans. Zodl. Soc. London (1875), 9, pt. 2, 125-252, pls. 23-34. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 293-413. A most important review of Philippine ornithology giving a list of 218 species with critical notes and a map of the Philippine Archipelago; the following species are figured: Limnaétus philippensis, Ninox philippensis, Pseudoptynx philippensis, Lempijius megalotis,- Merops bicolor, M. suma- tranus, Cranorrhinus leucocephalus, Penelopides panini, Lanius lucionensis, Pseudolalage melanoleuca, Graucalus striatus, Volvocivora ccrulescens, Di- crurus balicassius, Hyloterpe philippensis, Philentoma cyaniceps, Pycnonotus urostictus, Copsychus mindanensis, Amaurornis olivacea, Leucotreron giro- nieri, Phapitreron amethystina. ~~ i ; PHILIPPINE ORNITHOLOGICAL LITERATURE, II. 81 Walden, Arthur, Viscount: [Letter showing that only one species of Artamus is known to inhabit the Philippine Archipelago.] bis (1876), ILI, 6, 133-136. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 420-422. A discussion on the various names which have been given to the Philippine swallow shrike. : Tweeddale, Marquis of: | Letter on Anthus gustavi.| Ibis (1877), IV, 1, 258. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 437. Notes the occurrence of Anthus gustavi in Celebes and that it is to be looked for in the Philippines in winter. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Descriptions of some new species of birds. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1877), IV, 20, 533-538. Reprinted in Tweed- dale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 561-565. Includes first descriptions of the following Philippine birds: Tanygnathus everetti, Ceyx argentata, Mulleripicus fuliginosus, Penelopides affinis, Mixornis (?) capitals, Criniger everetti, Hypothymis celestis, Prionochilus olivaceous, Diceum schistacewm, D. everetti, Bthopyga bella, Ptilopus wmcognitus. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Notes on the species of the genus Batra- chostomus inhabiting the Indian Region. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1877), 420-445, pls. 45-49. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 438-459. Detailed descriptions and plate (45) of Batrachostomus affinis. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Reports on the collections of birds made during the voyage of H. M. S. ‘Challenger No. II. On the birds of the Philippine Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1877), 535-551. Reprinted in Report of the scientific results of the voyage of H. M. 8. ‘Challenger’? during the years 1873-76. (1881), Zool. 2, 5-25, pls. 1-6. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 459-475. Notes on 49 species; Totanus incanus, Gallinago stenwra, Demiegretta sacra, and Sterna bergvi are recorded for the first time from the Philippines and the following new species are described: Loriculus panayensis, Batrachos- tomus septimus, Dicrurus striatus, Nectarophila julie. Buceros mindanensis, Diceum mindanense, Phabotreron brevirostris. The following species are figured with the Challenger reprint: Loriculus panayensis, Batrachostomus septimus, Buceros mindanensis, Dicrurus striatus, Diceum mindanense, Nectarophila julie, Phabotreron brevirostris. Tweeddale, Marquis of: | Letter relating to two species of Batrachostomus deseribed by Mr. A. O. Hume.] Jbis (1877), IV, 1, 388-392. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 506-509. The identity of Batrachostomus affinis Blyth is discussed. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Description of four new species of birds from the Indian Region. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1877), IV, 20, 94-96. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 509-510. Three Philippine species described: Megalurus ruficeps, Dicewm «xantho- pygwum, and Oxycerca everetti. 81630——6 82 MW’GREGOR. Tweeddale, Marquis of: On a new Philippine genus and species of bird. Proc. Zobl. Soc. London (1878), 114, 115, age 9. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 573, 574 Dasycrotapha speciosa, new genus and species, described and figured. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Notes on the Dicruridee, and on their arrange- ment in the catalogue of the collection of the British Museum. Ibis (1878), IV, 2, 69-84. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 574-583. Useful notes on the family Dicruride with some notes on the genus Jrena. Tweeddale, Marquis of: On a new species of the genus Buceros. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1878), 277-280. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 548-586. Buceros semigaleatus, new species, described from Leyte; text figures of heads of B. mindanensis and B. semigaleatus. Tweeddale, Marquis of: | Letter on the genus Artamus.| Ibis (1878), IV, 2, 383-385. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 625-627. Maintains that the specific name lewcorhynchus should be used for the Philippine swallow shrike. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Philip- pines.—No. I. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Island of Luzon. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1877), 686-703, pls. 72 & 73. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 512-528. A list of 86 species of which Motacilla ocularis, Anthus maculatus, and » Turme fasciatus are recorded as new to the Philippines; Megalurus ruficeps, Oxycerca everetti, and Diceum xanthopygium are figured. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Philip- pines.—No. IJ. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Island of Zebu. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1877), 755-769, pls. 76 & 78. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 529-543. A list of 75 species of which Hirundo javanica and Rallina ewrizonoides are recorded as new to the Philippines; the new species described are: Zosterops everetti, Turnizx nigrescens, Oriolus assimilis, Phyllornis flavipennis, Prionochilus quadricolor, Megapodius pusillus; all of the new species ba the first two are figured on the plates. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Philip- pines.—No. III. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett m the Island of Mindanao. Proc. Zodl. Soc. (1877), 816-834, pls. 82-85. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 543— 561. In this paper 43 species are added to the species known from Mindanao; Cisticola greyi, Afgialitis cantianus, and Limnocinclus acuminatus are re- corded as new to the Philippines; Lorinculus hartlaubi, Mulleripicus fuli- ginosus, Criniger everetti, and Orthotomus nigriceps are figured. PHILIPPINE ORNITHOLOGICAL LITERATURD, II. 83 Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Philip- pines.—No. IV. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Islands of Dinagat, Bazol, Nipah, and Sakuyok. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London (1878), 106-114, pls. 6-8. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 566-573. A list of 39 species obtained in Dinagat and 13 species obtained in the small islands of Nipah, Bazol, and Sakuyok. The species figured are: Ceyxr argentata, Hypothymis celestis, Mixornis capitalis, Diceum schistaceum, D. everetti, and Prionochilus olivaceus. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Phil- ippines.—No. V. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Island of Negros. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1878), 280-288. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 586-594. A list of 56 species, 24 of which are recorded from Negros for the first time and three, Collocalia francica, Butalis latirostris, and Limosa cegoce- phala are new to the Philippines. Zosterops nigrorum and Macropygia eurycerca are described as new species. , Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Phil- ippines—No. VI. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Island of Leyte. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London (1878), 339-346. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 595-602. A list of 67 species of which Arachnothera flammifera is new. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Phil- ippimes—No. VII. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Island of Panaon. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London (1878), 379-381. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 602-604. A list of 20 species; Dicewm modestum is the only new species described in this paper. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Phil- ippimes—No. VIII. On some Luzon birds in the museum at Darmstadt. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1878), 429-430, pl. 26. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 604-606. Notes on 8 species collected by von Othberg, and said to have come from the vicinity of Manila. The plate illustrates Pitta kochi. The other species listed are: Collocalia fuciphaga, Turdus obscurus, T. chrysolaus, T. varius, Acrocephalus fasciolatus, Anthus gustavi, and A. maculatus. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Phil- ippines—No. IX. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Hyverett in the Island of Palawan. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1878), 611-624, pls. 37 & 38. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 606-609. A list of 52 species of which 32 were not obtained by Steere on his first visit to Palawan. The following new species are described: Dicrurus pala- wanensis, Broderipus palawanensis, Drymocataphus cimereiceps, Brachypus cinereifrons, Criniger palawanensis, Corvus pusillus, Cyrtostomus aurora, Tiga everetti, and Trichostoma rufifrons. The last two species are figured on the two plates. 84 M’GREGOR. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Phil- ippines.—No. X. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Everett in the Island of Bohol. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London (1878), 708-712. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 620-625. A list of 47 species collected in northern Bohol of which Cisticola cursitans, Alauda wattersi, Terekia cinerea, Limicola platyrhyncha, Limosa lapponica, Tringa albescens, and Strepsilas interpres are recorded as new to the Phil- ippines. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Phil- ippines.—No. XI. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Hyerett at Zamboanga, in the Island of Mindanao. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London (1878), 936-954, pls. 57-59. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 627-645. A list of 101 species of which 65 are recorded for the first time from Mindanao; of these Accipiter stevensoni, Ninox lugubris, Coccystes coro- mandus, Cacomantis sepulchralis, and Ptilopus melanocephalus are new to the Philippines and 6 are new to science; viz: Pseudoptyng gurneyi, Ninow spilocephalus, Scops everetti, Chetura picina, Lyncornis mindanensis. The species figured are: Accipiter stevensoni Pseudoptynx gurneyi, and Chetura picina. Tweeddale, Marquis of: Contributions to the ornithology of the Philip- pines.—No. XII. On the collection made by Mr. A. H. Hverett in the Island of Basilan. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London (1879), 68-73. Reprinted in Tweeddale’s Ornith. Works (1881), 645-651. A list of 56 species of which 48 were not obtained by Steere. Totanus calidris was obtained in Basilan thus giving it a definite locality in the Philippines. Ramsay, R. G. W.: The ornithological works of Arthur, Ninth Marquis of Tweeddale, (* * *) reprinted from the originals by the desire of his widow. Hdited and revised by his nephew, Robert G. Wardlaw Ramsay, F. L. 8., F. Z. S., M. B. O. U., captain 74th Highlanders (late 67th regiment) together with a biographical sketch of the author by William Howard Russell, LL. D. for private circulation. London (1881), i-lxiv and 1-651, appendix 653-676; index 677-760. Includes reprints of the important papers on Philippine birds by Tweed- dale, mostly from the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society, of London, The Ibis, and The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, but without the plates. The appendix contains the important “Revised list of the birds known to oceur in the Philippine Islands, showing their geographical distri- bution,” compiled by Ramsay from the writings of Tweeddale and Sharpe. Elera, Casto de: Catalogo sistematico de toda fauna de Filipinas cono- cida hasta el presente y 4 la vez el de la coleccién zooldgica del museo de PP. dominicos del colegio-universidad de Santo Tomas de Manila escrito con motivo de la exposicion regional filipina. Ma- nila (1895), 1 (vertibrados), 52-398 (aves). In the pages indicated Father Casto has listed all the birds known from the Archipelago and in addition all the species of birds represented in the PHILIPPINE ORNITHOLOGICAL LITERATURE, II. 85 Santo Tomas Museum. Native names, distribution, and copious synonymy are given for nearly every species but there are no descriptions. Some 25 new names are proposed, but as they are without the slightest diagnoses they need not be given here. A large number of species are credited to the Philippines which no previous author has recorded from the Islands; some of these species are doubtless entitled to a place on the Philippine list, but so many of these records are clearly erroneous that none of them can be accepted without the greatest caution. Maimatus religiosus, M. javanicus, and M. palawanensis are recorded from Palawan; Calornis me- tallica, C. chalybea, and C. panayensis from Luzon. These and similar cases are sufficient to throw suspicion on the more plausible records. Everett, A. H.: A list of the birds of the Island of Balabac, with some notes on and additions to the avifauna of Palawan. [bis (1895), WAL, th PMS), Notes on 10: species from Palawan not enumerated in Whitehead’s “Notes on the Birds of Palawan;” a list of 68 species from Balabac. Everett, A. H.: Remarks on the zoo-geographical relationships of the Island of Palawan and some adjacent islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1889), 220-228, pl. 23 (map). Everett concludes that “Palawan and the other islands [Balabae and the Calamianes] mentioned by Prof. Steere have never been directly connected with any part of the Philippines since the former received their existing population, but that they have been almost certainly so connected with Borneo, or, more correctly perhaps, with a southeastern extension of conti- nental Asia, of which Borneo forms a part.” Everett, A. H.: A list of the birds of the Bornean group of islands. Jour. Straits Branch Roy. As. Soc. (1889), 20, 91-212. A useful check-list of the birds of Borneo as well as of Palawan; critical remarks, names of collectors, and the leading references to literature are included. Guillemard, F. H. H.: The cruise of the Marchesa to Kamschatka & New Guinea with notices of Formosa, Liu Kiu, and various islands of the Malay Archipelago. London 2d. ed. (1889), i-xvii, 1-455, 139 illustrations, 14 maps. This is a popular narrative of Guillemard’s experiences while naturalist on the yacht Marchesa. Notes are given on the birds of Cagayan Sulu, Sulu, Siasi, and Tawi Tawi (pp. 175, 187, 189, 199-200, 230-232). A full page illustration of Macronus kettlewelli Guillemard is given on page 232, and the head of Sarcops calvus is figured. Guillemard, F. H. H.: Report on the collections of birds made during the voyage of the yacht Marchesa—tI. A provisional list of the birds inhabiting the Sulu Archipelago. Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1885), 247-275, pls. 17 & 18. A list of 65 species with copious notes, largely from material collected by author. Plates and descriptions of three new species; Iyngipicus ramsayt, Macronus kettlewelli, Pericrocotus marchese. A useful map of the Sulu Archipelago is given. Guillemard, F. H. H.: Report on the collection of birds made during the yoyage of the yacht ‘Marchesa.—Part. II. Borneo and the 86 M’GREGOR. Island of Cagayan Sulu. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London (1885), 404-420, pl. 25. Notes on 15 species from Cagayan Sulu with description and plate of one new species, Mixornis cagayanensis. ; Hartert, E.: Fam. Hurylemide. Gen. Aviwm (1905), pt. 1, 1-8, pl. 1. An enumeration of the broadbills with keys, references, and distribution. The head of Sarcophanops steerii is illustrated on the plate, fig. 6. Jordana y Morena, R.: Bosquejo geografico é histérico-natural del Ar- chipiélago Filipino. Madrid (1885), 176-190, ayes, pl. 5. A general description of the commoner and more notable birds found in the Philippines, concluding with the scientific, Spanish, and Tagalog names of 110 species in the form of a table. The colored plate illustrates Buceros hydrocoraz. Oberholser, H. C.: The avian genus Bleda Bonaparte and some of its allies. Smiths. Misc. Colls. Washington (1905), 48, No. 1588, 149-172. Trichophorus Temminck, is revived to replace Criniger; the other generic names considered do not affect species on the Philippine list. Oberholser, H. C.; Some untenable names in ornithology. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (1899), 51, 201-216. This paper consists of proposed changes in numerous generie and in a few specific names. Mulleripicus Bonaparte is revived again for Picus pul- verulentus Temminck; Pyrotrogon Bonnaparte is shown to be the correct generic term for Trogon ardens Temminck; Calornis Gray is found to be untenable because of the previous Calornis Billberg, and Lamprocorax Bona- parte is suggested for the glossy starlings. The other names considerel do not affect species on the Philippine list. Richmond, ©. W.: Notes on the birds described by Pallas in the “Adumbratiuneula” of Vroeg’s catalogue. Smiths. Mise. Colls. Washington (1905), 47, No. 1551, 342-347. In this paper Doctor Richmond identifies the species described in the Adumbratiuncula. Limosa lapponica, Actitis hypoleucos, and Calidris alba seem to be the only species of interest to students of. Philippine ornithology. Salvadori, T.; Fam. Cacatuide. Gen. Avium (1905), pt. 5, 1-7 pls. 1 and 2. An enumeration of the cockatoos with keys, references, and distribution. Sherborn, C. D.: The new species of birds in Vroeg’s Catalogue, 1764. Smiths. Misc. Colls. Washington (1905), 47, No. 1551, 332-341. A reprint of the “Adumbratiuncula” of P. 8. Pallas in which a number of new species are described. Trynga alba affects the name of a species found in the Philippines. Shufeldt, R. W.: Osteological and other notes on Sarcops calyus of the Philippines. Phil. Jowr. Sci. Manila (1907), 2, sec. A, 257-267, pl. 1. A deseription of the skeleton of Sarcops with some notes on the osteology of Oriolus and Lamprocorax, The plate illustrates the skeleton of Sarcops calwus. ? =e EDITORIAL. THE MARBLE AND SCHIST FORMATIONS OF ROMBLON ISLAND. The Island of Romblon is remembered by travelers in the Philippines because of its well-protected, deep-water harbor, its conspicuous outcrops of marble, and its coconut groves. Its longer axis, which extends from north to south, measures about 14 kilometers, and its greatest width from east to west is about 7 lilometers. The town of Romblon, situated on the harbor in the northwestern part of the island, is picturesque in its location. The water front is in a narrow gap in aridge, on which bowlders and ledges of marble show conspicuously through the tropical vegetation. The main portion of the town lies behind the ridge in a small, fan-shaped basin formed by the junction of several short stream valleys, which descend from the hills. From one of the streams water is brought to the town and the landing stages of the port by a gravity system. I made an unexpected visit to Romblon on February 13 and 14 of this year. During the two days spent in port there was opportunity between the showers of rain to examine the geology of the vicinity. ROMBLON MARBLE. The inner shore of Romblon harbor is a nearly straight line striking approximately N. 30° H. and extending along the base of a ridge of marble broken by the gap and valley in which the town lies. The marble as seen on this ridge for the most part has a very even, fine-grained texture and is thoroughly crystalline. It does not appear as massive ledges, but in the form of jointed blocks, and on the surface occurs in irregular, weathered masses. The dip of the marble could not be determined accurately but is probably about 30° to the westward. The color varies from a pure white to a mottled white and bluish variety which in some cases has a streaked appearance. By carefully selecting the quarries, large amounts of any particular type can be obtained, but no place was seen near the port where a large commercial quarry could be opened and operated by modern machinery. It is possible, however, that good quarries admitting of extensive operations can be found at other localities on Romblon or one 87 88 EDITORIAL, of the adjacent islands. The masses of marble obtainable near the port are suitable for sawing into blocks and slabs. The marble has been used for paving floors in a few of the better houses of Romblon and it wears well. There are six holy-water fonts in the San Sebastian Church in Manila each bearing an inscription indicating that it came from Romblon. These fonts of good workmanship and pleasing appearance indicate that the marble is suitable for many uses. The so-called artificial stone manufactured in Manila is usually made by mixing small pieces of Romblon marble in a matrix of cement mortar colored with various pigments. After the cement has set, the surface is polished and the product is used in trimming and ornamenting build- ings, and for stairways. SCHIST. Lying to the west of the ridge of marble and well exposed at Binagon Point on the west shore of the inner harbor, there is a schist formation which strikes approximately N. 30° E., and dips about 30° to the west- ward. Outcrops of the schist were seen farther to the west on Rosas Point, Macaban Point, and undoubtedly it extends to the western point of the island. It is also found on Agbatan Point to the north of the harbor. ‘To the eastward from the ridge of marble and to the east of the town, the base of the hill slopes are composed of schist. This rock is usually yellowish, but dark varieties also are found. It shows thin laminz and jointing in many places where it is weathered. It is micaceous and siliceous and the formation contains occasional small gash veins and stringers of quartz. In a few places schistose material was seen in the marble near the contact of the two formations. ORIGIN AND GEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MARBLE AND SCHIST. The marble and schist were originally deposited as limestone and shale. Their present condition is due to metamorphism produced by dynamic action. The pressure which developed the laminated structure in the schist also produced a streaked appearance in portions of the marble, which show the mixture of blue and white colors. No igneous rocks are reported from Romblon and the inhabitants say that the whole island consists of schist and marble. There are some small bowlders of igneous rocks lying on the sea wall near the landing stages, but they were brought in as ballast. The northern point of the island is largely marble, as I observed when leaving Romblon on a steamship. Lugbung Island in front of the port appears to consist mainly of schist, with some marble. Alad Island is largely composed of marble and the northern point of Tablas Island clearly shows great slopes covered with this unmistakable rock. Tablas, Sibuyan, and Romblon Islands, together with some lesser islands, constitute a small group in an interisland sea which is defined EDITORIAL. 89 by Mindoro on the west, Luzon on the north and northeast, Masbate on the east, and Panay on the south. The Romblon group is more closely related geographically with Panay. Abella in his “Descripcién Fisica. Geologica y Minera en bosquejo de la Isla de Panay” does not mention any marble or schists. Similarly, Ferguson in his study of Masbate did not find a formation similar to that of Romblon. The writer in crossing from Lucena to Atimonan in Luzon found a schist formation in the eastern Cordillera of Luzon a few miles west of Atimonan, but there was no marble associated with it. This schist is evidently older than the main group of sandstones, shales, and limestones, which have been folded and faulted, producing the mountain structure parallel with the eastern coast of Luzon in Tayabas Province, and extending into Tayabas peninsula. The ‘geologic structure of Mindoro has never been studied. The marbles and schists of Romblon can not be safely correlated on lithologic appearance and in the absence of fossils their age must for the present remain unknown. ANALYSES OF THE MARBLE AND SCHIST. Tt has been proposed to establish a cement plant at Romblon, and in order to determine the adaptability of the materials available, the marble and schist have been analyzed. The analyses made in the laboratory of mineral analysis and physical chemistry of the Bureau of Science are given herewith. The marble supplies the requisite calcium, and is very low in magnesia, which is an objectionable element, but the schist is high in silica and low in alumina. Some surface clay is ayail- able which might possibly supplement the alumina of the schist, but there is not a sufficient supply to warrant the building of a cement plant. Moreover, it would be necessary to ship fuel to Romblon. Accordingly the manufacture of cement at Romblon does not seem feasible unless a schist lower in silica and higher in alumina can be found. Average chemical analyses of Romblon marble and Romblon schist. Constituents. Marble. | Schist. ‘ Per cent. | Per cent. (Sh O js cae GT Mee ow ek eee eee oP PE aoe Se .10} 80.12 LO a a ee 2, Al,03 \ ag { 12. 56 BNE ELO ee ar ae ame err 1.15 (Of 0) ae 55. 23 12 WO es I a a ee ~45 48 WIQH0) eee sy ree o sonece eee eeo re cess 2 See Se Se ee Se ee ened | poecemeses } 3 3.69 VS GON CY LR OSS(ONW N10 Deere een eee eee ees 43. 80 2.14 GEORGE I. ADAMS. 81630——7 pe x i: is PrShise' > ved ae Pad lsh a> 1 7. iv & ae ee Gee he Se lel, 1D, G. 91 ( us 5 PUBLICATIONS —Continuca. “Bureau of Scie 1ce—Annual Reports. i ‘Fifth Aarual Report ‘of the Director of ‘the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending -. August 1, 1906. — “Sixth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending August 1, 1907. . Seventh ‘Annual ‘Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending at 1, BSE: J 3 h 5 Philippine Museum. * Nat ( _ (Now Section of Ornithology.) * No. ie, 1903.—On Birds from Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Cuyo, Culion, Caga- yan Sulu and Palawan. By Richard C. McGregor. a he 2, 19038.—List of Bird Skins Offered in Exchange. 43, No. 8, 1904. —Birds from Benguet Province, Luzon, and from the Islands of Lubang, i Mindoro, Cuyo, and Cagayancillo. By Richard C. McGregor. Wace 1904.—The Baad oF Celene and Buga, Babuyan Group. By Richard C. ceGregor. Mining Bureau, (Now Division of Mines.) © 45. 1890. .—Deseripcion fisica, geolégica y minera en bosquejo de la Isla de Panay por -, DD. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del Archipiélago. '* 1890.—Memoria descriptiva de los manantiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luz6n, estudiados por la comisién compuesta de los Sefiores D. José Centeno, Inge- niero ‘de ‘Minas y Vocal Presidente, D. Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Vocal Far- ; ‘macéutico, y D. José de Vera y Gomez, Vocal Médico. 1893.—Estudio ‘desecriptivo de algunos manantiales minerales de Filipinas ejecutado por la comisién formada por D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de ‘Minas, D. José de Vera y G6mez, Médico, y D. A welerp del Rosario y Sales, Far- macéutico ; precedido de un prélogo escrito por el] Excmo. Sr. D. Angel de Avilés, ‘ Director General de Administracién Civil. : 48, 1898 —Terremotos experimentados en la Isla de Luz6n durante los meses de Marzo y Abril de 1892, especialmente desastrosos en Pangasinan, Unién y Benguet. Estudio “ejecutado por D. eons Abella y- Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del eee ELEC ’ Charles H. iy 19) Pie 1908, Bulletin. No, ao piatinim eal Associated Rare Metals in Placer Formations, nee PH: D. McCaskey, B. S. : 52. 1908. .—Report of the Chief of the Mining Bureau of the Philippine Islands. Charles ‘ Burritt. — 53. 1903, Bulletin No. 2.—Complete List of Spanish Mining Claims Recorded in the Sy "Mining: Bureau. Charles H. Burritt. 54. 1903, ‘Bulletin No, 3.—Report on a Geological Reconnoissance of the Iron Region of ‘Angat, Bulacan. H. D. McCaskey, B. Ss. a 4.—Fifth Annual Report of the Mining Bureau. H. ‘D. McCaskey. .—Sixth Annual Report of the Chief of the Mining Bureau. H. D. McCaskey. 1905, Bulletin No. Ae Preliminary Reconnoissance of the Mancayan- Suyoe Mineral ‘Region, Lepanto, pul . A, J. HEveland, Geologist: . ; 1905 : Ee No. 5 —The Coal Deposits of Batan Island. Warren D. Smith, B. S., "Division of Mines, i. Tecan of Commercial Mineral Products during the year 1907, issued by Warren De Smith, Chief of the Division of Mines. iy ab ada ‘ Ethnological Survey. f Bese Hah aera, - (Now Division of Ethnology.) : “401. Vol L é, 1906. —The Bontoe Tgorot, by Albert Ernest Jenks. Paper, ®2 ; half morocco, P. 402. ‘Vol. ZT, Part il “1904 _—Negritos of Zambales, by William Allen Reed. Paper, #0.50; half morocco, #1.50. _ we II, Part 2 and Part 3, 1905.—The Nabaloi Dialect, by Otto Scheerer. The Bataks Palawan, by ‘Edward Y. Miller. (Bound also in one volume with Part 1, ‘Negritos of Zambales.) Paper, P0.50; half morocco, 1.50. Combined, half morocco, #3. 04, Vol. III, Zeer —Relaciones Agustinianas de las razas del Norte de Luzon, by IE , E 5; half morocco, P2. — Pant 1, 1905.—Studies in Moro History, Law, and Religion, by Najeeb M. ‘Saleeby: VapED PO. 50; half morocco, 1.50. if ‘Division of Ethnology. 'V, Pai £2, 1908. —History of Sulu, by Najeeb M. Saleeby. Paper, P1.50. ‘V, Part 1 ‘and Part 2, 1908.— The Batan Dialect as a Member of the Philippine Troup of samt, Papel Le Dit Scheerer. “HF” and “V” in Philippine Languages, by S Paper, art “Vocabulary of the Igorot Language as spoken by the Bontok ; 0. the | Rev. Walter Clayton Clapp. Bert ch Ree English- WED OE CONTENTS. FERGUSON, HENRY G. Physiography of the Philip- pine Islands. III, Western Masbate _-_____--______ SMITH, WARREN D. Contributions to the Physiog- raphy of the Philippine Islands. IV, The Country _ Between Subig and Mount Pinatubo PERC Rape Se 2 Ae Fe BEAN, ROBERT BENNETT. Filipino Ears. A Clas- sification of Bar Wy pese 2225s 2 oe & aia ae igi GRIFFIN, LAWRENCE E. Two New Species of Snakes Found in the Philippine tsland see ees re SEALE, ALVIN, The Fishery Resources of the Philip- } pine Islands. Bt Sponges and Sponge Fisheries ____ McGREGOR, RICHARD C. A Collection of Birds from Northern’ Mindanao. io) \../iaho toes oh ue p en raee McGREGOR, RICHARD C. Philippine Ornithological — ' iteratune, lle os Rees jee Nina lew Meat artes shear a PDITORIALA |e) 0) a eRe Re RE VIB Moo ena uCineesns ae J Sea aes Mee The ‘‘Philippine Journal of Science’’ is issued as follows: Section A. General Science, $2, United States currency, per year. ; is Section B. Medical Sciences, $3, United States currency, per year. ‘ Section C. Botany, $2, United States currency, per year. The entire “‘Journal”’ $5, United States currency, per year. Single numbers, 50 cents, United States currency. Authors receive 100 copies of their papers free. The numbers of each section will appear as rapidly as material is available, Ea tion will be separately paged and indexed. Subscriptions may be sent to the DIRECTOR OF PRINTING, Manila, Pek. Corresp n hm i ence should be addressed to the Business Manager, Philippine Journal ee : oe Manila, P. I. Rah FOREIGN AGENTS. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York. Messrs. WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, WwW. c. MARTINUS NIJHOFF, Nobelstraat 18, ’s Gravenhage, Holland. ‘ka Messrs. MAYER & MULLER, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin, N. Ww. a Messrs. KELLY & WALSH, LIMITED, 32 Raffles Place, Singapore,S.S. Messrs. A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 19 Baillie Street, Colombo, Ceylon. (Entered at the post- office at Manila, P. I.,as Pua matter.) A limited number of unbound copies of previous volu 4 are available which may be secured from the Di f Printing at the following rates: Volume I, 1906 (not 4 he into sections), $5, United States currency; Supplement ° ume I, $2.50, United States currency; Volume I supplement), $3, United States currency; all ' at current subscription prices. 4 Vou. 1V MARCH, 1909 © No. THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDITED BY PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Pu. D. CO-EDITOR, RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D. WITH THE COOPERATION OF MERTON L.- MILLER, Pu. D.; : GEORGE F. RICHMOND, M. 8. W. D. SMITH, Pu. D.; ALVIN J. COX, Pu. D. RAYMOND F. BACON, Px. D.; CHARLES S. BANKS, M. S. H. D. GIBBS. B. S.; R. C. McGREGOR, A. B. PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS A. GENERAL SCIENCE MANILA BUREAU OF PRINTING 1909 ORDE No. 15, 17. 19. 20. 21, 22. 24, 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31, 32, 33. 35. 36. 39. 40: 101. 102. 103, PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS, Bureau of Government Laboratories, * No, 1, 1902, to No. 14, 1904. No. 15, ” 1904, Biological and Serum Laboratories.—Report on Bacillus Violacevus Ma- nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism, By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. * No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation against Asiatic Cholera : * An Bxperimental Study. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. ay ate ie .-—New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D. Merrill, otanis * No, 18, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—I. Amebas: Their Cultivation and Etiologic Significance. By W. E, Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of aot ne Amebiasis (Amcebic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Mus- grave, No. 19, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Observations on the Biology of the Chol- era. Spirillum. By W. B. Wherry, M. D. No. 20, 1904.—Biological Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Exist Where the Disease is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum Laboratory: 11. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D. V. S.- III. Pinto (Pano Blanco). By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M, 8. Serum Laboratory: V, Frambeesia: Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of Micro-Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. No. 22,.1904, Bureau of Government Laboratories—I. A Description of the New Buildings of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Paul C. Freer, M. D., Ph. D. II. A Catalogue of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. - By Mary Polk, Librarian. * No. 23, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and Histopathology (Including a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers}. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D, No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory,—Glanders: Its Diagnosis and Prevention (To- gether with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Maniia and B Some Notes on the Bacteriology and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry, M. D. No. 25, 1904.—Birds from the Islands of Remblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. By Richard C. McGregor. (For first four bulletins of the ornithological series, see Philippine Museum below.) No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’s Flora de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. Wo. 28, 1904.—I. The Polypodiacee of the Philippine Islands. II, Edible Philip- pine Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D. No. 29, 1904.—1. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III. II. The Source of Manila Blemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory.—I.. Autocatalytic Decomposition of Silver Oxide. II. Hydration in Solution.. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D. No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—I. Notes on a Case of Hematochyluria (To-~ gether with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna). By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. McDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. TI. A Search into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “‘Peptone,” with Special Reference to Its Influence on the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera- Red Reactions. By William B. Wherry M. D. No. 22, 1905.—Biological Laboratory: I. Intestinal Hemorrhage as a Fatal Com- plication in Amcbic Dysentery and Its Association with Liver Abscess. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. II. The Action of Various Chemical Substances upon Cultures of Amebz. By J. B. Thomas, M. D., Baguio, Benguet. Biological and Serum Laboratories: III. The Pathology’ of Intestinal Amebiasis. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and W. E. Musgrave, M. D. No. 33, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—Further Observations on Fibrin Thrombosis in the Glomerular and in Other Renal Vessels in Bubonic Plague. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D. * No. 34, 1905.—I. Birds from Mindoro and Small Adjacent Islands. II. Notes on Three Rare Luzon Birds. By Richard C. McGregor. No. 35, 1905.—1. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, IV. II. Notes on Cuming’s Philippine Plants in the Herbarium of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. III. Hackel, ‘‘Notes on Philippine Grasses.’ IV. Ridley, “‘Scitamineew Philippinen- ses. V. Clarke, ‘Philippine Acanthacee.’”? By Elmer D,. Merrill, Botanist. Wo. 36, 1905.—A Hand-List of the Birds of the Philippine Islands. By Richard C. McGregor.and Dean ©. Worcester. * Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1902.. (Appendix M of Third Annual Report of the Philippine Commission.) * Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories in the Philippine Islands for the Year Ending September 1, 1903. (Appendix G of the Fourth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission.) Third Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1904. Fourth Annual Report of the Sunerintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1905. Bureau of Science—Publications, Price and Exchange List of Philippine Bird Skins in the Collection of the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. (Bffective January i, 1908.) No. 1, 1909.—A Check-List of Philippine Fishes. By David Starr Jordan and Robert. Barl Richardson. In press. No. 2, 1909.—A Manual of Philippine Birds. By Richard C. McGregor, Parts I and II. A systematic index to the orders, families, and genera. Paper, PS for the two parts. * Out of print. (Concluded on third page of cover.) EE See PINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. GENERAL SCIENCE Von. 1V MARCH, 1909 No. 2 PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. By Raymonp F. Bacon. (From the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science.) In endeavoring by a general survey to ascertain the economic pos- sibilities of the Philippines in the field of terpenes and essential oils, I have found it convenient to plan the work in accord with the available material. This has made it necessary to leave many interesting oils when their study has been only well started, as the raw material is often available but once a year. The important factors of yield per hectare, the best time for harvesting, the effects of various soils, ete., must be ascertained on some of the perfume plants by slow experiments in the laboratory garden before reliable statements can be made as to the economie possibilities of these plants in the Philippines. In the present paper I present under separate subheads, the results obtamed during the past year in this field. Im all cases where the plant offers commercial promise the work is being continued as fast as new material is available MANILA ELEMI. INTRODUCTION. A. M. Cloyer* has published the results of the examinations of the terpene oils from twenty-one authentic samples of Manila elemi and he thus was able to isolate pure specimens of d-limonene, d-phellandrene, dipentene, terpinene, and terpinolene. I have continued this investiga- tion and have collected over one hundred specimens of elemi from 1This Journal, Sec. A. (1907), 2, 1. 82592 93 94 BACON. individual trees, together with botanical material corresponding to each specimen. In spite of the very careful work on this subject, published from this laboratory, the recent literature still abounds with inaccurate state- ments as to this resin, especially as to its source. T'schirch? in his handbook, states, “Das Manila Elemi stammt von Canarium commune,” and again,® “Hs darf jetzt als festgestellt betrachtet werden, dass das Manila Elemi von Canariwm commune L. stammt.” He also remarks that the tree is called by the Tagalogs abilo, a name which I find is wholly unknown to natives in the districts where elem is collected. ‘The native name for the tree is pili. Semmler* in discussing Manila elemi states that it is now well established that the resin is a product of the tree Canarvum commune L. There is little doubt but that in India and Java a resin very similar to Manila elemw has as its source Canarium com- mune l., but for the Philippine elemi, the source has been definitely shown by Merrill to be Canarwuum luzonicum A. Gray.° Tschirch ° divides Manila elem into three classes, (a) soft elemi, (b) hard elemi, (¢) Tacamahac elemi. He speaks of the hard elemi as containing from 7 to 8 per cent of essential oil as compared with about 30 per cent for the soft variety and he gives the following constants for the two classes: Soft elemi. Hard elemi. Acid number, direct 19.6 22.4 Acid number, indirect 22.4 Dore, Saponification number, cold 29.4 30.8 Saponification number, hot 33:6 = 37.8 Manila elemi as it exudes from the trees is always soft. When it has remained on the trees exposed to the sun and air for several months it loses the greater part of its volatile constituents through evaporation and polymerization and becomes quite hard. There is no difference in the source of the elemi, the so-called hard elemi simply beimg more resinified by the action of the elements. There is but one elemi gum collected in the Philippines. While there are many species of Canariwm in the Islands, only Canariwm luzonicum yields an elemi-like resin in sufficient quantities to render its collection profitable. Tschirch gives such meager data regarding the Tacamahac elemi that it is impossible to identify it. It may possibly be the resin known in the Philippines as pagsainguin from Canarium villosum F.-Vill. This resin occurs in considerable quantities, but is always black or very dark, contains as the principal constituents of its volatile oil pure cymol, it does not have * Die Harze and die Harzbehiilter (1908), 424. * Loe. cit., 427. “ Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1908), 41, 1768. * The source of Manila Elemi, Gov. Lab. Pub., Manila (1905), 29, 51 to 55. ® Loc. cit. , PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, II. 95 the same odor as elenw, and would hardly be confused with true Manila elemi by anyone familiar with these resins. It is also possible that — Tschirch’s resin is the dipterocarpous resin from balao or apitong which in appearance is deceptively like elemi, but which has a decidedly dif- ferent odor and the volatile oils of which are sesquiterpenes rather than terpenes. The present condition of the Manila e/emz industry is not very satis- factory. In several localities, especially in Tayabas Province in the neighborhood of Atimonan, the trees are regularly tapped and in past times the collection of elem was one of the important industries of this province. ‘The trees are usually owned in small holdings. The Bureau of Forestry assesses the trees at 50 centavos each and all minor forest products, such as resins, pay a tax of 10 per cent of their value at the place of collection. The resin is bought up by the small Chinese traders who then ship it to Manila. Im recent years these Chinese traders have ‘shown no eagerness to buy elemi, so that the native is either not able to sell his product at all or must accept a very small price for it. This price, since the collectors are a very primitive and ignorant class of men, naturally varies much with the personal needs and desires of these natives. Im Calaoag, Tayabas Province, clean, white, fresh elemi is valued at 40 centavos per arroba of 11.5 kilos. When it is transported to Atimonan, T'ayabas, 35 kilometers distant, it has a value of 1 peso for the same quantity and by the time it has reached Manila its value has risen to about 3 pesos. The market value in Hurope is several times this amount. I quote these figures because they are typical of the con- dition under which all minor, tropical forest products are marketed. ‘The native collectors usually live in the forests entirely out of touch with civilization, and know nothing of the real value of the products which they handle. Some of the resin is shipped from Manila to Europe for use in medicinal ointments, and to a smaller extent in lithographic inks, and in varnishes, while much of the product is sent to China, where it is used to make transparent paper to be employed for window panes, in place of glass. The resin flows in the bark principally at the time when new leaves are coming out on the trees. This occurs most abundantly about the months of January and of June in the great collecting district around Atimonan, Tayabas. At other times of the year, when the tree is losing its leaves, it is not possible to obtain a flow of resin. The natives hack the tree with bolos, and the resin flows out through the cuts and ‘collects on the bark of the trees. It is then scraped off every few days before it has an opportunity to become dirty or hard. From observations made at the time, I should estimate that healthy, mature trees will average 4 to 5 kilos of resin per year. I have seen as much as 22 kilos of elemi on one large tree, representing a two months’ flow of the resin. 96 BACON. EXPERIMENTAL. The fresh elemi resin was distilled in vacuo, the volatile oils being separated from water, shaken out with dilute alkalies, dried over calcium chloride, and redistilled in vacuo, only the terpene fraction being collected. The terpenes were then distilled at ordinary pressure. In Table I, the figures are given for series of these terpene oils representing samples of resin from individual trees, all being identified by Mr. Merrill from the botanical material as C. lwzonicwm. Under the column “Ter- pene,” limonene is abbreviated as L; phellandrene, represented by P, stands for any terpene giving a crystalline nitrite of a melting point not over 121°. J will deal with the separate phellandrenes afterwards. TasLe I.—JWanila elemis from Calaoag, Tayabas. E | | 7 | wo, | Ter) Bodine | souation, | No. [ter] Bolles | rotation, 10 em. tube.} g | 10 ce. tube. | Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. 21| P | 170 =173 | + 46 108 | P | 169 -172 + 96.2 BY || 12 ainay alr} = 95 105| P | 172 -174 + 68.5 67| P | 172 =175 4134.5 92} P | 172 -174 E=eSas0 Sb Pi eel72) 178 +126.0 |} 111) P | 169 -170 + 70.5 69) P | 172 -175 +125.5 |) 98| P | 171 -174 + 30.3 | 56} P | 172 =175 SEED gel) || i aur + 94.8 OON EP) 708-178) = 44.5 75) Peele + 86.2 109 | PB | 170 173 +106.2 70) P | 471 -174 108.8 | S80 wea ire 174 ot ee 0986 (el 18y ewe Mn eT 6ON—1i78 =+ 106) P | i7l 174 +119. 6 Pl) 22 ay =the |b = RG 76| P | 169 -172 25 Bil(5 81} P | 172 -175 + 12, 738| P | 169 -172 He RIE) || CVE 1 4) ai) ar} = 30.4 80) P | a2 =174 — 50.5 |} 120] P | 171 172.6) + 99.7 86| P | 173 -175 493.7 || 84| P | 172.5-174 + 95.8 70} P | 178 -175 | —24.4|| 95] P | a7 -172.5 | +117.5 73 aE Leo eet72 SEV OLY) CEE) 1 | at) Sap) | SE 117} P | 169 -171 + 46.5 63| P | 170 -173 + 84.0 || 12) oie aiyal ate) +109. 0 71} P | 170 -173 + 95.5 110) P|) 170) 173 e379) 1 iet|) ea 7oN + 89.9 90| L | 175 -176.5 + 96.0 |} 118) P | 168 -172 + 88. 114] P | 170 -173 — 93.3)|| 101] © || ave 178 + 91.8 122] P | 171.5174 + 93.5 || 108) P | 173 -175 + 68. 88) |) re S174 4116.0 || 102] P | 176 -179 ++ 85.2 116} P | 172 -174 Oe 8 | P | 169 -173 + 48.9 77| P | 169 -173 + 65.5 |] 119] P | 172 -174 + 54.4 99} P | 169 -172 78s || |) 2 178) 076 + 48.9 100 | P | 172 -174 + 16.0 | 46) PB || a5 —197 + 45.3 133\) 2ee|eel cle74 | + 66. |} 89) PB | 172 —175 + 79.6 1216 eae |e + 34.3 || 94] P | 174 -176.5] + 91.1 87] P | 174 =176 + 86.8 4) P | 172 -174.5| +125.6 96] L | 174 -176 + 89.0 |} 93] P | 171 -174 + 85.6 This table is striking because it shows the yery great differences in boiling poimt and especially in optical rotation of the various terpene PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 97 oils. For purposes of further purification the terpenes were now united into five classes: 1. Laboratory number B-3.—Lower boiling phellandrenes. Seventeen samples numbered 109, 76, 78, 73, 117, 110, 77, 99, 108, 111, 118, 74, 63, 71, 113, 85, 59. 2. Laboratory number B-4.—High boiling phellandrenes. Five samples num- bered 94, 46, 102, 87, 101. 3. Laboratory number B—5.—Middle boiling phellandrenes. Thirty samples numbered 88, 106, 86, 82, 122, 83, 116, 100, 13, 121, 105, 98, 97, 75, 70, 81, 120, 84, 95, 112, 103, 119, 115, 89, 4, 93, 61, 66, 58, 60. 4. Laboratory number B-6.—Phellandrenes with a negative optical rotation. Six samples numbered 80, 70, 114, 92, 72, 91. 5. Laboratory number B-7.—Limonenes numbered 90, 96. Before discussing the above terpenes I desire to present nine speci- mens of very carefully purified terpenes from elemi resin obtained in Gumaca, Tayabas Province: TaBLE IIl.—Wanila elemis from Gumaca, Tayabas. Ter- 30° | Boilin | ae 30° No. | pene. Ny pom gue || Nagy 4° Degrees. | 1 L 1.4674 | 175 -177 0. 8360 116.8 2 PB 1.4658 | 9165 -169 0.8350 92.2 3] L 1.4673 | 175.5-178 | 0.8360 117.8 4 L 1.4672 | 175 -178 0. 8359 111.8 5 Pa 1.4680 | 173 -175 0. 8365 107.6 6 L 1.4670 | 175 -178 0. 8358 117.9 7 L 1.4670 | 175 -178 0, 8363 117.6 8 PB 1.4660 | 166 -169 0. 8355 90.7 9 L 1.4670 | 176 -177 0, 8364 115. 6 aBoiling point 63° to 64° at 15 millimeters. > Boiling point 60° to 65° at 9 millimeters. Tt will be noted that of this last series, six terpenes are limonene, two are @ phellandrene, and one a phellandrene. It is interesting to note that almost all of the elemi collected by me in the neighborhood of Calaoag contained phellandrene, while that collected near Gumaca showed that six of the nine samples contained limonene. Cloyer* found a large per cent of the elemis which he examined to contain limonene. Of all the elenus from various sources which I have examined, over 90 per cent contained phellandrene. Two phellandrenes a and B have been distinguished by chemists. These phellandrenes have been differentiated not only by their physical properties, but principally by their nitrites. Wallach ® ascribes a melting point of 113° to 114° to the a modification of the nitrite of a phellan- drene, the 8 modification of the nitrite of this terpene having a melting 7 Loe. cit. 5 Ann. d. Ohem., (Liebig) (1904), 336, 9. 98 BACON. point of 105°. Schreiner ® found 120° to 121° as the melting point of the a modification of a phellandrene nitrite. My work seems to show that if the phellandrene nitrite is crystallized from cold solvents it is very easy to isolate the body of the higher melting point. Wallach heated his solvents, which probably accounts for the lower melting point. The yield of phellandrene nitrite is very far from quantitative, hence it is not possible by use of the nitrites to determine whether a phellandrene is pure or contains other terpenes. Moreover, I was able to obtain a- considerable yield of a phellandrene nitrite of a melting point of 121° from a terpene which from its physical properties and its behavior on oxidation, I believed to be practically pure 8 phellandrene. The experi- ments on the phellandrene nitrites follow: (A) Supposed a phellandrene. The united specimens B-5 were three times distilled over sodium, in vacuo, and in the last distillation the terpene was collected in three equal fractions to test its unformity. RS te ae: Mindee | 4a srt Boiling point at 12 mm. pressure. 30° D 30° pee) | (GD) BS OGY 8) a a ee 1, 4680 92.2 | 0.8363 | (2) 26253: 6258 eee eee 1. 4680 | 91.2 | 0.8364 | (G3) GAO VO GRRE) pe ee ee 1. 4683 91.0} 0.8363 | The whole, once redistilled at ordinary pressure, had a boiling point of 172° to 174°; specific gravity, se =0.8363 N ou = 14681; A + =91°.4. This terpene corresponds very well in its physical properties with the best published data for a phellandrene. (1) 13.6 grams of this a phellandrene were added to 12 grams of sodium nitrite (Kahlbaum fused) dissolved in a small amount of water, and while the whole was immersed in a freezing mixture, with vigorous shaking, 12 grams of cold glacial acetic acid were added drop by drop. ‘There were obtained 6 grams of crude phellandrene nitrite. This was purified by dissolving in cold chloroform and precipitating by ether. It was then recrystallized once from cold acetic ether, when 1.6 gram of a substance having a melting point of 120° to 121° was obtained. (2) 13.6 grams a phellandrene obtained as in experiment (A) with 16 grams of sodium nitrite and 16 grams of glacial acetic acid, gave 8 grams of crude nitrite, which purified as above gave 2.2 grams of pure nitrite melting at 120°. (B) Fractions 2 and 8 of the Gumaca terpenes were united and twice distilled over sodium, giving an oil of the following properties: Boiling point, 760 milli- 9pn° to} oo meters, 166° to 168°.2; specific gravity, 4) =0.8354: wit’ = 1.4658; a =91°.2. To judge from its boiling point, this terpene would be taken for f phellandrene and it seems hardly possible that it could contain any quantity of a phellandrene, yet it gives large quantities of the same nitrite as the a phellandrene. (1) 13.6 grams f phellandrene, 12 grams of sodium nitrite, 12 grams of glacial acetic acid treated exactly as above gave 5 grams of crude nitrite which gaye 1.2 grams of pure nitrite of a melting point of 121°, ° Chem. Centralbl. (1901), 2, 544. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, UI. 99 In addition to the a and £ phellandrene above noted, there would seem to be a higher boiling phellandrene in elemi resin, boiling point fo) € fo) 175° to 178° at 760 millimeters; specific sev SORES N 4° 1.4685; A a 82.4. This phellandrene by the above treatment also gives the phellandrene nitrite melting at 121°. phellandrene on oxida- tion with dilute potassium permanganate gives the aldehyde, phellandral, with an odor like cuminol, while this is not obtained with my a phellan- drene. It is evident that much more extensive study is necessary to clear up the difficulties noted here and I will again take up this subject when I have obtained the two standard phellandrenes, the a from bitter- fennel oil, Feniculum vulgare Mill, and the 8 from waterfennel oil, Phel- landrium aquaticum lu. for comparative purposes. Semmler *° oxidized phellandrenes with dilute potassium permanganate and the first products which he obtained he subsequently oxidized with lead superoxide, thus separating quantitwely 1-isopropyl succinic acid from a phellandrene, and from f£ phellandrene a isopropyl glutaric acid, both being crystalline compounds easily identified. Semmler does not give the exact condi- tions under which he made these oxidations. I have oxidized my a and @ phellandrenes with potassium permanganate under various con- ditions, but have never been able to obtain quantitative yields of these acids.1+ Unless quantitative yields can be obtained, it is evident that the method is not of much value in deciding the difficult question as to whether a sample of a phellandrene contains a small quantity of another phellandrene. THE RESIDUE FROM THE DISTILLATION OF ELEMI. From 12 to 18 per cent of terpenes are obtained by the distillation of elem im vacuo, and from 12 to 15 per cent of a higher boiling oil, of which one of the constituents has recently been proved by Semmler 7” to be elemicin, (allyl-1-trimethoxy-3,4,5-benzol). The distillation resi- due, usually amounting to about 70 per cent of the clemi, is a light brown, transparent, solid resin, with a brillant-fracture. This elemi residue is completely and easily soluble in the cold in the following solvents: Alcohol; ether; benzol; petroleum ether; ligroin; xylol; choloroform; amyl acetate; acetone; methyl alcohol; carbon tetra- chloride; ethyl acetate; turpentine; amyl alcohol, and glacial acetic acid. » Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1903), 36, 1749. 4 Kondakow (Journ. f. prakt. Chem. (1908), n. s. 78, 42) has recently proved that, contrary to the long accepted view, the phellandrene from Phellandrium aquaticum is not an individual terpene, but contains over 20 per cent of pinene. He announces a thorough investigation of the whole phellandrene chemistry. Kondakow’s work throws grave doubt on the quantitative yields claimed by Semmler for the oxidation of these terpenes with potassium permanganate. 2 Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1908), 41, 1768, 1918, 2183. 100 BACON. Solutions in these solvents leave a brillant varnish coat which, however, dries quite slowly. The resin dissolves only yery slowly in cold kerosene and in chloral hydrate, but quite easily on warming with these solvents. The use of e/emi residues with turpentine and linseed oil has not given us very satisfactory varnishes, for even with excessive quantities of driers, the varnish coat remains somewhat sticky for three or four days. This elemi residue, however, mixed with varying proportions of Manila copal, melted with boiled linseed oil, and properly thinned with turpen- tine has given us most excellent varnishes, which giye a hard, brillant, and elastic coating on wood. The use of the elemi resin residue for varnishes seems not only to give a paler and more brilliant varnish than copal alone, but renders the melting of the copal much easier. I believe this elem resin distillation residue has a future as a varnish gum. This. entire question will be taken up by George F. Richmond, Bureau of Science, who is now studying Manila copals. In this connection I desire to note a few further experiments on the distillation of Manila elemi. ‘The resin as it comes into the market is often mixed with bark, dirt, and other impurities. Before shipment to Europe these impurities are usually picked out by hand as far as possible. Solution of the resin in alcohol, filtermg, and distilling off the alcohol even in vacuo, leaves a dark colored resin, which in appearance is not at all like elemi. The best method of purifying elemi resin is by solution in benzol, filtering, and distillation of the benzol, when a white resin of the same leafy appearance as elemi is obtained. Six and five-tenths kilos of commercial elemi were distilled in the usual manner in vacuo, and the volatile oil redistilled at ordinary pressure. The following fractions, each of about 135 cubic centimeters, were obtained: Boiling point, Rotation in a 10 em. degrees (760 mm.). tube (degrees). (1) 168-174 99.1 (2) 174-177 95.5 (3) 177-179 95.0 (4) 179-181 92.0 (5) 181-183 90.0 (6) 183-190 83.0 (7) 190-210 63.0 These fractions were now washed with dilute alkalies, dried and refractioned with the following results: Boiling Specific 3 i 30° | 10 cm. o Tayity, No. |Quantity. eae Ay | tube. | 2} = 5 30°” (760 mm.). 4° ce. 100 169-170 | 118.8 99.0 1.4680 | 0, 8345 440 170-173 | 113.9 95.0 1.4680 | 0.8357 170 173-175 | 103.4 86.5 1.4684 | 0.8363 160 175-180 88,1 74.0 1.4697 | 0.8396 45 180-190 76.8 65.0 1.4712 | 0.8463 oF, wh PHILIPPINH THPRPENES AND ESSHNTIAL OILS, I. 101 The total yield of terpene oil was 14 per cent. The greater part of these terpenes consisted of phellandrenes, although in the higher boiling fractions, dipentene (present only a very small amount) could be detected by the formation of dipentene tetrabromide melting at 124°. It is eyident from the two above-mentioned distillations that there is very little decomposition caused in phellandrenes by distilling them at ordinary pressure. ‘I’o test more thoroughly the effect of such distillations, 2 kilos of the same lot of e/enu resin were worked up just as in the above experi- ments, save that all distillations were made in vacwo. After the second distillation of the terpene oil, the following fractions were obtained, each number representing about 55 cubic centimeters of oil in a 10-centimeter tube. Optical rotation, 10 cm. te) agen go tube, N - (degrees). (1) 51 —51 101 = (2) 51 -52 101 (3) 52 -52.5 98 (4) 52.5454 93 (5) 54 -57 83 (@) an San 83 This experiment shows that there has been a slight lowering of the optical activity of the phellandrene due to distillation at ordinary pressure. This has been my experience in other experiments. In repeatedly distilling 300 grams of a phellandrene, I have noted, after each distillation, that the optical rotation is lowered by 0°.5 to 1°.0. None of the other constants of the terpene are affected, and phellan- drenes are not as sensitive to heat as would be judged from the state- ments on this subject in the literature. Sunlight affects the optical activity of phellandrenes much more markedly than heat, as is shown by the following: Sample 55, Calaoag resins, a phellandrene. Rotation in a 10-centimeter tube, 134°.5. After two hours in the sunlight, 132°.0. After eight hours more of sunlight, 124°.7. Sample 69, a phellandrene. Rotation in a 10 centimeter tube, 125°.5; after one week’s exposure to the sun 101°.5. Sample 99, 6 phellandrene. Optical rotation in a 10-centimeter tube, 78°.7. After one week’s exposure to the sunlight, 32°.1. This phellandrene had then become markedly thicker and more viscous. Pesci’ obtained a glassy mass (C, Hi.) #, melting at 86°, by heating B phellandrene for twenty hours in a sealed tube from 140° to 150°. The 6 phellandrene from elemi is not nearly as sensitive to heat as this phellandrene from waterfennel oil, which Pesci used. Sample 90, a limonene. Optical rotation in a 10-centimeter tube, 96°.0. After one week’s exposure to the sunlight, 94°.9. Sunlight, therefore, has very little effect on limonene. 13 Gazz. chim. ital. (1886), 16, 225; Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1886), Ref. 19, 874. 102 BACON. The following experiments probably throw a little hght on the whole question of the sensitiveness of various terpenes to heat, light, etc. Two sealed tubes were heated in a bomb furnace from 270° to 300°, one containing limonene from elemi, the other limonene from orange-peel oil. After five hours the limonene from elemi had decreased in its optical rotation by only 1°.3, while that from orange oil had decreased 14°.7. Wallach™ states that by several hours’ heating at 250° to 270°, hesperidene (d—limonene from orange-peel oil) is changed to dipentene. Clover** found limonene from elemi to be little changed by heat. The above experiments would seem to show that both state- ments are correct, and it seems probable to me that the change in the limonene from orange-peel oil is due to a small amount of a catalyzing impurity in this substance. I am strengthened in this supposition by the fact that whereas limonene is relatively stable in light and air, orange-peel oil containing over 90 per cent of limonene is exceedingly sensitive to light and air, and very readily change into a resinous mass. Some experiments which I made on Philippine oranges point in the same direction. The peel of the native orange contains a very large quantity of oil, but this is so unstable that in the course of two minutes a rather thick layer of it will be completely converted into a solid resin. I finally succeeded in obtaining a small quantity of this orange-peel oil by squeezing it onto sponges soaked in sodium carbonate solution, and over 90 per cent of the oil proved to be a d—limonene boiling at 174° to 176°, giving a tetra- bromide melting at 104° and limonene nitrolbenzylamine melting at 93°. I con- sider, therefore, that many cases of observed changes in terpenes on heat- ing may not represent intrinsic properties of the terpene itself, but may be due to small traces of impurity, for in layers of similar thickness, Philippine orange- peel oil, consisting of 90 per cent of limonene, changes to a resin several hundred times as fast as limonene itself. DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF THE “ELEMI” RESIN. The residue of elem from which the volatile oils had been distilled im vacuo was used in this experiment, as there is very little destruction at the temperature at which the terpenes distill at ordinary pressure, and I did not wish to contaminate the resin oil with the terpene. One kilo of this residue was distilled in a 2-liter Jena flask. It melts quietly with very little darkening and no foaming, evolution of gas, or other signs of decomposition. As the temperature is increased, considerable cracking and evolution of water soon takes place and the whole mass becomes very dark, the oil beginning to distill at a vapor temperature of 200°. The whole distillation is very quiet with no foaming or frothing and very little evolution of gas. The oil at first is green, then an intense, fluorescent blue and toward the close of the dis- tillation almost white. The total distilled was 670 cubic centimeters of which 40 were the aqueous layer. Three hundred and ten grams of black tar were left in the distilling flask. The oil, shaken out with dilute alkalies, gave 18 grams of acids, while after saponification with alcoholic potash a further 7 grams “4 Ann. d. Chem., (Liebig), (1885), 227, 289. *% Toc. cit. PHILIPPINE THBRPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, 1. 103 of acids were obtained. The neutral oils distilled in vacuo gave fractions at 10 millimeters of about 90 grams each, as follows: A Specific Boiling 30° gravity, 30° No. point. N an 30° Ay 10m, m. rs | } Degrees. Degrees. 1 80-89 1. 4650 0. 842 18.1 2) 89-180 1. 4830 3 | 180-145 1.4970 4) 145-155 1.5030 5 | 155-158 1.5100 6 | 160-180 1.5270 7 Residue a thick, viscous, tarry oil. | There were no indications of any separable, individual products, and nitration and oxidation of these fractions under various conditions gave no promise of ob- taining individual compounds. ‘This oil obtained by the destructive distillation of elemi is evidently a resin oil of the same general character and useful for the same purposes as other resin oils. I have examined two specimens of elemi resin, one being from Culion and the other from the Island of Mindanao, which were unusual in that the terpene was almost entirely pinene, a solid hydrochloride melting at 125° being obtained from each specimen. A few elemis from Mindoro gave the following results: (1) Two kilos resin gave 240 cubic centimeters terpenes. Boiling point, 172° to 174°; specifie gravity, 20° —0.344; N SP = 1.4680 Ast = 1155. The ter- 4° pene proves to be phellandrene, giving a crystalline nitrite melting at 121°. Probably this is a phellandrene. (2) One kilo resin, which has become somewhat hard, gave 95 cubic centi- meters terpene. Boiling point, 175° to 177° at 760 millimeters; specific =0.8383; NAP = 1.4687; sx =111.0. This gave a good yield of gravity, tetrabromide melting at 105°. Therefore, the terpene is a limonene. (3) Five hundred grams resin gave 60 cubic centimeters terpenes. Boiling point, 177° to 180° at 760 millimeters; specific gravity = 0.8383; ne =1.4687; a3; tetrabromide melts at 124°. This terpene is principally dipentene. (4) Five hundred and twenty grams resin gave 74 cubic centimeters oil. Boiling point, 172° to 173°.5 at 760 millimeters; specific gravity, =0.8341; NoP = 14678; A e148. Abundant precipitate of phellandrene nitrite melt- ing after purification at 120°. Probably a phellandrene. (5) One and one-tenth kilos resin gave 140 cubic centimeters terpene. Boiling 104 BACON. point, 166° to 168° at 760 millimeters; specific gravity, 7 0.8354: NP 1.4658; A420" =91.5. This terpene oil gaye an abundant precipitate of phellandrene nitrite and was considered to be # phellandrene. LIMONENE. The various samples of terpenes from elemi which were considered to be pure d—limonene were united and after three distillations over sodium gave an oil boiling between 176° to 177°.4 (thermometer wholly in = 0.8356 ; N= 1.4670; AS 115.7. This oil yielded limonene tetrabromide melting at 104°. Repeated dis- tillations over sodium always gave the same range in the boiling point and no change in the optical activity, and therefore, I consider this to be a very pure sample of limonene. vapor) ; with a specific gravity I have obtained more satisfactory results in preparing the hydrochlorides and hydrobromides of terpenes, by using petroleum ether to dilute the terpene, instead of carbon bisulphide as recommended by Wallach. Petroleum ether has the advantage of permitting the terpene and. the solvent to be distilled over sodium directly before the dry hydrogen halide is run into the mixture and absolute certainty that everything is anhydrous is assured. Limonene hydrochloride pre- pared with petroleum ether as a solvent is a much purer product than when carbon bisulphide or any other solvents are used; the body made in this way boils within 2° or 3° on the first distillation in vacuo, while with carbon bisulphide a range of 10° to 15° is common and several fractionations are necessary to obtain a pure product. I have also been able to prepare pure limonene hydrobromide and phellandrene hydrochloride by this method; the properties of these bodies are not recorded in the literature.” In a previous article’’ in this series, I have shown that limonene hydrochloride reacts with magnesium according to the Grignard reaction, the product of the decomposition of the hydro-limonene magnesium chloride with water being a dihydroterpene C,,H,,. This dihydroterpene instead of the expected carbinol was also obtained with benzaldehyde, the benzaldehyde behaving as if it contained a hydroxyl group. A con- tinuation of this line of research has shown that while terpene halides in general easily react with magnesium in the presence of ether, the addi- tion products so formed do not readily enter into reaction with other 1° A uniform, easily controlled stream of dry. hydrogen bromide may be obtained by the following method: Red phosphorus is covered with a layer of completely saturated, aqueous hydrobromie acid, and a mixture of 3 parts bromine and | part saturated hydrobromic acid is dropped slowly into this mixture. The gas is evolved quietly and regularly and after passing two wash bottles containing red phosphorus, suspended in saturated hydrobromie acid, is dried by means of a long tube of granulated calcium chloride. There is practically no contamination with hydrochloric acid by this method, although calcium bromide would be better for drying purposes. "This Journal, Sec. A. (1908), 3, 49. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, LI. 105 substances, as would be expected from bodies of this nature formed according to the reaction of Grignard. I will record but a few of the experiments performed to show the type of reactions. LIMONENE HYDROCHLORIDE. (1) Limonene from elemi, distilled over sodium with an equal volume of pe- troleum ether, was saturated with dry hydrochloric acid gas; limonene hydro- chloride with the following properties was obtained on distilling this product in vacuo: Boiling point at 12 millimeters’ pressure, 95° to 97°, specific gravity, 9 = 30° __ 4° 0.9616; NS 14798: A * =80°.1; yield, 90 per cent. Found Calculated (per cent). (per cent). Cl 20.2 20.3 Fifty grams of this limonene hydrochloride, 10 grams of magnesium, and 100 cubic centimeters of absolute ether were allowed to react in an atmosphere of dry hydrogen. When the reaction was over, 45 grams (calculated 43 grams of ortho- formic ester) were added.“ The resulting reaction was not violent and, therefore, the mixture was heated for two hours on a steam bath, the greater part of the ether escaping through the reflux condenser. The yellowish, solid reaction product was during the next morning treated in the usual manner by placing it upon crushed ice and adding dilute, cold sulphuric acid. There were thus obtained 48 grams of an oil (calculated 85 grams). This oil consisted principally of the dihydroterpene C,,H,, boiling at 171° to 173°; N SP = 1.4610. The ortho-formic ester had apparently disappeared in the aqueous solution, as alcohol and formic acid were both easily detected therein. (2) Limonene hydrochloride 60 grams, absolute ether 150 cubic centimeters, magnesium 10 grams. After the reaction was over, 60 grams of ortho-formic ester were added with very vigorous stirring. The apparatus was arranged to catch any gas which might be evolved during the reaction, but none was obtained. After heating for two hours on a steam bath, the reaction mass was separated into ether soluble and ether insoluble portions, and each portion was decomposed separately with ice and dilute sulphuric acid. Portion soluble in ether. Portion insoluble in ether. Alcohol, 23.1 grams. Alcohol, 12.5 grams. Formic acid, 8 grams. Formic acid, 7.5 grams. Oil, 45 grams, which consisted of 7 grams High boiling oil, 5 grams. This latter “Vorlauf,’ 31 grams of C,,Hys, and 4 oil boils at 150° to 220° at 10 milli- grams of a high boiling oil. The meters, leaving a tarry residue of 2.3 “Vorlauf” contained considerable grams. The 2.5 grams high boiling quantities of ethyl formate and the oil, distilled once gave no reaction high boiling oil gave no reaction with with phenylhydrazine, and dilute phenylhydrazine, even after boiling boiling acids had no effect on it. with dilute acids and was probably principally a diterpene. 18 Kahlbaum fractioned several times over small amounts of sodium with which it reacts only slightly; boiling point, 144° to 146°; N SOP = 1.3035. 106 BACON. These experiments show that a reaction, which is very different from the normal one between ortho-formic ester and organo-magnesium halides, had taken place. It is to be noted that the great tendency in the terpene series during reactions of this nature, is to produce the reduced terpenes. To exclude any possibility that these reduced ter- penes might result from the action of the sulphuric acid used in decom- posing the reaction mass, or any excess of magnesium, I attempted to reduce limonene, a phellandrene, and 8 phellandrene with magnesium and dilute sulphuric acid. The results were absolutely negative. The refractive index of the terpene was in each case the same before as after the attempt at reduction. Oxygen reacts with hydrolimonene magnesium chloride to give ter- pineol as is shown by the following result: One hundred and ten grams of limonene hydrochloride, 20 grams of magnesium, 300 cubic centimeters of absolute ether. After the reaction according to Grignard was completed, I ran a copious stream of dry oxygen into the apparatus during eight hours. There was a considerable evolution of heat and reddening of the mass. The products of the reaction were decomposed by means of a cold solution of ammonium chloride, and the resulting oils were fractional in vacuo. Nine grams of terpineol, boiling between 98° and 102° at 9 millimeters’ pressure were thus obtained; specific gravity, =0.930; NS = 1.4805 ; A=15°2. The phenyl urethane derivative was prepared in a solution of petroleum ether and when once recrystallized melted at 112° to 113°. The lower boiling fractions of this oil (78 grams), boiling between 172° and 175° at ordinary pressure, still had some terpeneol odor. Specific gravity, 30° — 9.8250; ns 1.4617. Therefore, this ore oil probably consisted largely of the dihydroterpene C,,H,s. LIMONENE HYDROBROMIDE,. Seventy-five grams of dry limonene, dissolved in an equal volume of dry petro- leum ether, were saturated with dry hydrogen bromide. Distillation in vacuo gave 45 grams of limonene hydrobromide, boiling between 108° and 112° at 12 5 Db el : p savity 20° —1 19909- 20° —7 5006 millimeters’ pressure; specific gravity, ao 11209); NC cr Found Calculated (per cent). (per cent). Br. 35.8 36.4 Limonene hydrobromide was allowed to react according to the method of Grignard with 8 grams of magnesium. The reaction is more vigorous than with the corresponding hydrochloride. A test-tube experiment showed that the hydro- limonene magnesium bromide did not react with chlorocarbonie ester. Twenty grams of benzaldehyde were then added to the hydrolimonene magnesium bromide. The reaction was very vigorous, a yellow solid separating just as in the similar reaction with the hydrochloride. The products obtained were principally benzal- dehyde and dihydrolimonene. The reaction with benzaldehyde is, therefore, exactly the same as when limonene hydrochloride is used. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 107 LIMONENE HYDROBROMIDE AND ACETALDEHYDE. Limonene hydrobromide with the following properties, boiling point at 10 millimeters, 106° to 109°, specific gravity, 9°° =1.1211; xx =1.5012; bromine 4° found, 36.1; calculated, 36.4 per cent. Fifty grams of this hydrobromide were subjected to the Grignard reaction with 10 grams of magnesium. After the reaction was complete, 15 grams of acetaldehyde were slowly distilled into the mixture. There is marked heating and a yellowish, sticky solid separates. From this solid, using the usual method of treatment, there were obtained 27.0 grams of C,,H,; (calculated, 31.3 grams), boiling point, 173° to 175° at 760 millimeters, specific gravity, oe =0.8256 ; ny 0 1.4583. The residual oil, 3.5 grams, contained a trace of halogen, had no hydroxyl groups, and was probably a diterpene. Ace- taldehyde, therefore, reacts on hydrolimonene magnesium bromide just as does benzaldehyde. It is very interesting to note that hydrolimonene magnesium bromide is, when first formed, a liquid insoluble in ether. After lying under the ether for a few days it changes into a crystalline solid insoluble in ether. LIMONENE DIHYDROBROMIDE AND BENZALDEHYDE, One hundred grams of limonene from orange-peel were mixed with an equal volume of absolute ether and saturated with dry hydrogen bromide, 150 grams of erystalline dihydrobromide melting at 64° (from ether) resulted.? A mixture of 150 grams of limonene dihydrobromide and 150 grams of benzaldehyde was slowly added to 35 grams magnesium, which had been rendered active, in 400 cubic centimeters of ether. A fairly vigorous reaction took place. The reaction mixture was decomposed with ice and dilute sulphuric acid, the oils were poured into petroleum ether, and 14 grams of a crystalline solid separated. This was recrys- tallized several times from benzol. It is moderately soluble in hot benzol, insoluble in the cold, almost insoluble, hot or cold, in ether, petroleum ether, ligroin, acetic ester, methyl or ethyl alcohol, acetone, or carbon bisulphide. The melting point is not sharp. At 195° the compound begins to darken and at about 212° it melts with marked decomposition. The compound used in the following analysis had been recrystallized 15 times from benzol and consisted of beautiful, white crystals which under the microscope seemed to be homogenous. 0.2000 gram substance gaye 0.2181 gram AgBr. 0.2000 gram substance gave 0.2180 gram AgBr. 0.2340 gram substance gave 0.4365 gram CO, and 0.0590 gram H.0O. 0.2730 gram substance gave 0.5100 gram CO. and 0.0700 gram H.O. 0.5 gram dissolved in 27 grams benzol raised the boiling point 0°.065. Calculated Calculated for CxpHapBry Cop Ho Bry Found Found (per cent). (per cent). (per cent). (per cent). Cc 51.40 50.58 50.93 50.90 H 2.85 2.90 2.80 2.84 Br 45.70 46.49 46.40 46.40 Molecular weight 700.00 690.00 TAS OO RCE Ag Riese The dihydrohalide always results no matter how thoroughly dried the solvent has been, when hydrogen halides are run, to saturation, into limonene dissolved in ether, while with petroleum ether, only the mono compound is obtained. 108 BACON. The other principal products of the reaction are benzaldehyde and tetrahydrolimonene C,,H.,. Another bromine determination was made on some of the compound, the analysis of which is given above, erystalized eight times from benzol. 0.2000 gram sub- stance gave 0.221 gram AgBr. Bromine found, 46.8 per cent. This would seem to show that I was dealing with a pure compound. The reaction which has taken place is so entirely different from the normal course of the Grignard reaction that even speculation as to the nature of this crystalline compound is out of the question. The per- centage of hydrogen is so low that it would seem as if limonene had taken no part in the reaction. It is still more difficult to see how bromine could unite with a benzaldehyde derivative in the presence of activated magnesium. he extensive literature of the Grignard reaction shows that, while this method has a very wide applicability, there never- theless are very many cases in which the reaction proceeds in an abnormal (direction, especially when other than the halides of the first members of any given series are used. Thus, isoamyl magnesium bromide with benzophenone does not give the diphenyl isoamyl carbinol which would be expected, or the dehydrated hydrocarbon derived from it, but benzhydrol and benzhydrol ether.” Similarly, benzyl alcohol is one of the reaction products in the action of ethyl magnesium iodide on benzaldehyde.” J. Schmidlin and H. Hodgson,” in speaking of the action of various reagents on 8 triphenyl magnesiumchlormethane (C,H,),C. MgCl, say “Es scheinen somit diese Reagenzien, Aceton, Acetaldehyd, Acetylehlorid, so zu wirken, dass sie die MgCl-Gruppe abreissen, ohne sich mit dem verbleibenden Triphenylmethylrest zu verbinden.”’ Auwers and Hessenland* found that it was impossible to obtain a normal reaction with alkyl magnesium halides and 2-methyl-2-dichlormethyl 1-keto-dihydrobenzol. With methyl magnesium iodide they observed the following reaction: H H IN A ~ CH HC CH C CH a +CH,MgI+H,0 = +Mg(OH)I. ods ZEN: A CHCl, NF CHCl, Cc Cc (0) oO * Schorigin, Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1908), 41, 2715. Konowalow, Journ. Russ. phys. chem. Ges. (1902), 34, 26; (1908), 38, 447. * Schorigin, Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1908), 41, 2721. = Toid., 431. *“ Tbid., 1790. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 109 There was no action on the carbonyl group. It is well-known that very many reactions carried out according to the Grignard method give yields which are not by any means quantitative. The secondary products which will throw so much light on the mechanism of this reaction have, as a general rule, been utterly neglected. It is exceedingly probable that these reactions take place in many different directions, depending upon the conditions and upon the reacting masses, as is shown by my work in the terpene series. : PHELLANDRENE. PHELLANDRENE HYDROCHLORIDE. The united terpenes of series Calaoag B-3 were distilled over sodium in vacuo ; boiling point, 64°.5 to 65° at 15 millimeters (62° to 62°.5 at 10 millimeters) ; specific gravity, 92 0.8349: NI = 1.4657 ASe= TT’ 8. An equal volume of dry ligroin was added and the terpene was then saturated with dry hydrogen chlo- ride. After removing the liquid, the residual oil was distilled at 1 millimeter pressure; boiling point, 80° to 83°; specific gravity, 30° =0.960; N= 14T70 4° chlorine found, 20.2 per cent; chlorine calculated, 20.3 per cent. The odor of this hydrochloride is much like that of the corresponding limonene derivative. Phellandrene hydrochloride did not react com- pletely with magnesium in the presence of ether; therefore, phellandrene hydrobromide was prepared. This compound can not be distilled in vacuo without decomposition and in fact it slowly decomposes with evolution of hydrobromic acid even at the ordinary temperature. Phel- landrene hydrochloride begins to split off hydrochloric acid at about 85°, and must be distilled below that temperature. PHELLANDRENE HYDROBROMIDE, a phellandrene, boiling point at 9 millimeters 62° to 63°; specific gravity, 30° =0.8364 ; 20° = 1.4673, was mixed with an equal volume of dry petroleum ether 4° D and saturated with dry hydrogen bromide. After removing the petroleum ether the crude hydrobromide had the following properties: Specific gravity, = =1.1302; ° o - NB =15018; bromine found, 37.6 per cent; calculated, 36.8 per cent. 70 grams of this hydrobromide were subjected to the Grignard reaction with 10 grams of Magnesium and 200 cubic centimeters of absolute ether, and after the reaction was complete, 40 grams of benzaldehyde were added. A yellow-white solid separated. The reaction mixture was separated into ether soluble and ether in- soluble substances, and each portion was separately decomposed with ice and dilute sulphuric acid. 82592——_2 110 BACON. Portion soluble in ether. Portion insoluble in ether. 0.3 gram magnesium, 29 grams ben- 2.5 grams benzoin, melting point 136° to zaldehyde phenylhydrazone corre- 137°, 38 grams phenylhydrazone of sponding to 15.6 grams benzaldehyde ; benzaldehyde corresponding to 20.5 34 grams C,,H,s, boiling point, 169° to grams benzaldehyde. 173° ; specific gravity, 0.8220; nie 1.4600. 11 grams higher boiling oil from which there were separated by means of ligroin 0.8 gram of a halogen-free, crystalline solid. After purification by several crystallizations from petroleum ether, it melted at 137° and proved to be benzoin, by melting it with that substance. The reaction between hydrophellandrene magnesium bromide and ben- zaldehyde thus corresponds exactly to the similar limonene reaction al- ready studied in a previous paper.** Several additional experiments were performed with phellandrene hydrobromide and benzaldehyde under varying conditions, but in every case dihydrophellandrene and henzal- dehyde were the principal products of the reaction.** PHELLANDRENE DIHYDROCHLORIDE. The dihydrochloride of phellandrene was also prepared. It does not crystallize and is quite unstable, evolving hydrogen chloride at the ordinary temperature. It does not react well with magnesium according to the Grignard reaction. THE FORMATION OF DIPENTENE. I have succeeded in converting a phellandrene into dipentene. The chloride of a phellandrene was heated for six hours on a reflux condenser with an excess of alcoholic potash, and the product shaken out well with water, dried with calcium chloride and distilled. The greater part of the terpene now boiled at 178° to 180° and had no optical activity. This terpene was dissolved in an equal volume of amyl alcohol and two volumes of ether, together with 0.7 volume of bromine, were added slowly on a freezing mixture. After several weeks in the ice box, a large yield of crystalline dipentene tetrabromide, which after crystallization from acetic ether melted at 124°, was obtained. The original a phellandrene treated in the same manner and then inoculated with a crystal of the tetrabromide showed the presence of no dipentene. * Loc. cit. * The majority of terpenes when treated with iodine are oxidized to p cymol. Specimens of a and of 8 phellandrene were allowed to stand for two months with an excess of iodine. They were then shaken out with alkalies, dried and distilled and each gave a large yield of p cymol, with the following properties: Boiling =| ° ‘ore -| Ae aus ze 7 30° _ point, 174° to. 176°; specific gravity, ie =0.8489; N a =1.4970. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 111 BROMINE ADDITION PRODUCT OF PHELLANDRENE. One hundred and six grams of bromine were slowly added to 80 grams of a phellandrene dissolved in 100 grams glacial acetic acid. The bromination pro- ceeded quite smoothly, without any evolution of hydrobromic acid. When treated in this manner one molecule of a phellandrene adds only two atoms of bromine. This dibromophellandrene reacts very satisfactorily according to the method of Grignard, and by decomposing the reaction products with water, 25 grams of a dihydroterpene C,,H,, were obtained boiling between 170° and 172°; specific Byatel Gyp\e} gravity, 97 =0.8231 g nis 1.4590; and 13 grams of terpene polymerization prod- uets still containing a small amount of bromine. LEMON GRASS OIL. Andropogon citratus DC. is not cultivated on a large scale in the Philippines, although it is found growing as a garden herb and also in the wild state in all parts of the Islands, being quite abundant in the highlands of the Province of Benguet. No commercial distillation of the oil is carried on at the present time. The first mention of lemon grass from the Philippines dates from 1635, when Juan Husebeus Nurem- berg, a Spanish Jesuit, describes it quite unmistakably under the name of “tanglat.’ his is still the Tagalog name for the plant. The correct spelling is “tafiglad.” Another name is salai, and in the Visayas this grass is termed balyoco, while the Spanish name is Paja de Meca. Many Filipinos have small patches of the grass. It is cooked with stale fish to improve the taste and is used as a flavor in wines and various sauces and spices; it is also used medicinally, being applied to the forehead and face as a cure for headache, and an infusion is held in the mouth to alleviate the suffering of toothache. It is also used for baths and fomentations, particularly in female complaints. The writings of the ‘older botanists show that these uses date back to the first mention of the plant from the Malay regions. A perusal of the extensive literature on lemon grass oil leaves considerable doubt as to whether the cultiva- tion of the grass for oil distillation in the Philippines should be recom- mended. The market for lemon grass oil must always remain quite limited, and it has been stated that the oil from one of the species of Australian eucalyptus, Backhousia citriodora F. Muell. would soon drive out that from lemon grass as a source of citral. The oil from this Austra- lian plant has a citral content which is from 10 to 20 per cent higher than that from lemon grass, still it seems probable, in view of the great differences in the price of labor in Australia and in tropical countries, that lemon grass will be able to hold its own as the source of the world’s ‘supply of citral. The price of lemon grass oil has been very low during the past two years and the further cultivation of it has been strongly dis- couraged by Huropean essential-oil houses. Still the plant has some 112 BACON.. advantages. It gives quick results, the first returns coming in about six months after planting, and on the virgin soils of the Philippines it grows luxuriantly without any cultivation or care. I am strongly in- clined to recommend it as a catch crop to help pay plantation expenses until the slower growing staple crops are ready to be harvested. It is almost impossible to obtain from the literature any idea as to the yield of oil per hectare. On this point I note the following statements. About 300 kilos lemon grass yield 1 kilo oil.7 Under normal conditions an annual yield of 8,000 ounces oil per acre can be reckoned upon. The grass is cut twice a year.” 496 pounds fresh lemon grass yield 1 pound of crude oil (0.2 per cent). The annul yield per acre amounts to about 20 pounds of crude oil. The grass is cut three to four times per year." The average yield per acre is 49 quarts of lemon grass oil.* One acre yields 100 quarts of oil (lemon grass oil).” From thoroughly dried leaves, which had lost 70 per cent of their original weight, 8 to 8.5 per cent of oil was obtained, while leaves distilled immediately after the harvest yielded in the rainy season 2 per cent and in the dry season 5.5 per cent oil. Perhaps, considering the many possible variations of soil, climatic conditions, etc., these wide differences of oil yield are not remarkable. It must also be remembered that there are many varieties of lemon grass. We have never been able to obtain Philippine lemon grass in flower and hence can give no data as to the variety or varieties growing wild on these Islands. In fact, no accurate botanical determinations of the grass have been made for the same reason and it is assigned to Andropogon citratus DC. solely from the character of the oil obtained from the grass.°* We obtained one shipment from Benguet which we worked up directly, but, in view of all these facts it was considered necessary to plant experimental plots of lemon grass. One lot was grown from grass obtained in Manila, at the Singalong experiment station of the Bureau of Agriculture on ground which has at various times had abundant applications of fertil- izers, and another from Lamao plants was grown at the Government agricultural farm at Lamao, Bataan, on unfertilized virgin soil. The results obtained from these plots of grass were as follows: Lamao.—Planted February 14, 1908. First cutting July 29, 1908. Obtained 432 kilos grass, from 57 square meters of ground, distilled two days after cutting, the yield was 900 grams of oil (0.2 per cent) of the following properties: Specific “1 it 30°_ 9 894: SOe= 4857: ae 4 ee! 1=7 . . Shi yt gravity, Goa 8 ND =I, g A es citral=79 per cent; mmel’s test passes the oil. ** Journ. agr. trop. (1905), 5, 42. * Kew Bull. (1906), No. 8,364. *S Bull. Imp. Inst., London (1907), 5, 300. “Trop. Agr. (1904), 24, 35. 9 Tbid., (1905), 25, 672. 5 Bull. Chambre Agr. Cochinchine (1908), 11, 218. “The very confused botany of the oil-producing grasses has only recently been cleared up by the excellent monograph of Otto Stapf. Kew Bull. (1906), No. 8, 297. PHILIPPINE THRPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 113 The grass from the same plot was again cut about four months later (November 23, 1908) and yielded 230 kilos, giving on distillation 467 grams of oil of the 30° _ ewe 30° _ =0.8841; N° =1.4765; AX =+2.1; D D following properties: Specific gravity, 7G citral=77 per cent; Schimmel’s test passes the oil. Singalong station plot.—134 square meters planted on November 6, 1907, and cut July 27, 1908, gave 545 kilos grass which distilled immediately gave 1,145 grams (0.21 per cent) oil of the following properties: Specific gravity,?°” =0.891; 4° ° 9 N= 14812; ASM = +1165 citral=78 per cent; Schimmel’s test passes the oil. All of these oils were distilled with steam in this laboratory and were of a very light yellow color when first distilled. It was noted that on standing in colorless, glass-stoppered bottles in the light, they darken to a brown color in a few months. Three hundred and. thirty-five grams of the Singalong oil were distilled in vacuo at 16 millimeters and gave the following fractions: No. | Boiling | point Quantity. 30° a N>5, Properties. | | | Degrees. | Grams. | | 1] Uptois | 20 | 1.4681 colorless. | | @l nese | 62 | 1.4808 colorless. | 3) 121-124 | 65 | 1.4810 colorless. | 4] teea97 | 63 | 1.4813 colorless, | 5| 127-133 | 58 | 1.4820 clightly yellow. 6 | Residue. | 53 | Dark, thick resin. None of the fractions 1 to 5 showed any optical rotation, and united they gave an almost colorless, very fragrant oil, which was completely soluble in 65 per cent alcohol. The resinous residue, saponified with alcoholic potash, gave considerable quantities of higher boiling, fatty acids, and a thick, neutral oil which to judge from the odor, probably contained geraniol. ‘The results of our experiments would seem to show, assuming, as the young leaves contain a higher per cent of oil than the old ones, at least three cuttings of the grass per year, that a yield of from 240 to 300 kilos of oil per hectare can be obtained on good ground in the Philippines. Considering that the demand for this oil is increasing (due partially to the expiration of the ionone patents), I think lemon grass should be considered as a possible catch crop for the first few years of new Philippine plantations. As large stills are necessary, I would suggest that these be built of reénforced concrete on the place. This can be done by any intelligent manager at a much cheaper price than it is possible to purchase metal stills and they can be set up on the ground. For a permanent crop, I do not recommend lemon grass because of the present limited demand for the oil. The grass from which the oil has been distilled is dried and burned under the distilling boilers, and the ashes are distributed over the fields for fertilizing purposes. The exhausted 114 BACON. grass is also used for making paper. The crop is rather an exhausting one for the soil, so that after three years it is usually considered necessary to transplant the grass into a fresh field. CINNAMOMUM MERCADOI VID. This large tree, the Tagalog name of which is calingag, is very widely distributed throughout the Philippine Islands. The laboratory has botanical collections showing this species of Cinnamomum to occur in Dayao, Rizal, Pampanga, Bataan, Antipolo, the Camarines, and Tayabas, and it is probably found throughout all parts of the Islands. Tropical forests do not often have many trees of the same species growing together, as is the case with the almost pure stands of the temperate zones, but as many as 150 trees of Cinnamomum mercadoi Vid. haye frequently been noted on one hectare, and quantities of the bark sufficient for com- mercial utilization could be obtained if it were of sufficient value. Hence, I obtained 25 kilos of bark from the Lamao region, Bataan Province. This bark was ground and distilled with steam, giving 260 grams (1.04 per cent) of a light yellow oil. The oil car an odor like page and es oe es properties: Specific parity ge 2 Sasi 0461; wi oe = 1.5270; Sore oe are no aldehydes in this oil, neither sodium bisulphite nor phenylhydra- zine react. I consider that cinmnamic adehyde could be detected in this way by distilling a very small percentage in petroleum ether; experiment demon- strated that cinnamic aldehyde instantly gave a crystalline precipitate of the phenylhydrazone with phenylhydrazine. The oil was distilled at 10 millimeters and gave the following fractions : eye ane xe oe |Quantity. nt | | Degrees. | Grams. | | 119-124} 770 -| 1.5333 | | 2] a4tg0/ 9.2] 1.5820 | 3 | Residue. | 11.5 | 1.5278 | Fraction No. 1 redistilled at ordinary pressure had a boiling point 235° to 238° at 760 millimeters; specific gravity, = =1.0631; nos =1.5335; A> =+0.9. By oxidation with chromic acid this has gives piperonylic acid melting at 227°. Piperonal was obtained by heating with alcoholic potash and then oxidizing with potassium permanganate. These results leave no doubt but that the oil from Cinnamomum mer- cadov Vid. is almost entirely safrol, and it is remarkable in this respect as most oils from Cinnamomwm species contain only small amounts of > PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 115 safrol and large percentages of cinnamic aldehyde. I have also examined two samples of bark of Cinnamomum sp. from the Davao region of Mindanao. No sufficient botanical material was sent with these barks to permit the identification of the species, but from the taste and odor of the bark and from the oil obtained by distillation (yield 1.1 per cent) there is little doubt but that they represent the true cinnamon of commerce. Older accounts from Philippine travelers speak of Cin- namomum zeylanicum Nees as occurring in Mindanao, and American planters state that the true cinnamon occurs in some quantity in the region back of Davao, and that a small amount of trading in it is carried on among the natives. We have not yet been able to obtain any quantity of this bark or any botanical material for its identification, but expect to be able to do so soon. PETROLEUM NUTS. The fruits of Pittosporwm resimfevrum Hemsl. are known in the Philippines as petroleum nuts, because of a fancied resemblance in the odor of the oil to that of petroleum, and because even the green, fresh fruits will burn brilliantly when a match is applied to them. The tree is essentially an inhabitant of the high mountain ridges, being usually found at an elevation of 500 meters or more. However, one tree was found in Mindoro at an altitude of 170 meters, although it was found in the same region again at 2,500 meters (Mount Halcon). ‘The tree is not very abundant in any part of the Islands, but it is widely distributed, botanical material having been collected from Tayabas, Zambales, Pam- panga, Cagayan, Mindoro, Benguet, and Bataan. There is no Tagalog name for the plant as the natives generally do not know the high moun- tain flora. The oil from the petroleum nut proved to be very interesting as it contained considerable quantities of normal heptane, which has only once before been found in nature, occurring in the digger pine of California, Pinus sabiniana Dougl.,°* and also a dihydroterpene, C,,H,.- Jn working up the various lots of Pittosporwm fruits, considerable dif- ferences were noted in the proportions of heptane and dihydroterpene found in the oil, and the season and degree of ripeness of the fruits undoubtedly play a considerable réle in this respect. The first lot of nuts was obtained from Baguio, Benguet, in the autumn of 1907. One kilo of whole, fresh nuts gave 52 grams of oil on a press. The residue ground up and again pressed yielded an additional 16 grams of oil; specific gravity =—0.883 ; Nae = 14577. It was not possible to determine the optical rota- tion. ‘The oil is quite sticky, and in a thin layer rapidly becomes resinous. In an open dish it burns strongly, with a sooty flame. It distills unchanged up to 165°, then with decomposition to give a resin oil. The oil distilling from 100° to % Ann. d. Chem., (Liebig), (1879), 198, 364. 116 -. BACON. 165° is colorless, with an orange-like odor; specific gravity, - =0.7692; A a= +37°.0. By two careful distillations the following fractions were obtained: Fraction (degrees). Grams, (1) 98-103 41 (2) 103-110 18 (3) 110-120 21 ~ (4) 120-140 12 (5) 140-150 7 (6) 150-155 47 (7) 155-160 49 Fraction No. 1 had a pleasant odor recalling oranges, and the following prop- é 2,0 erties: specific gravity, “py = 0.68315 N= 1.3898 optical rotation=0. Fraction No. 7 had a turpentine-like odor. Specific gravity, ae =0.8263, 30° i oe =1'-4630. N D The properties of fraction No. 1 leave little doubt of the identity of this compound with normal heptane. A second lot of petroleum nuts was obtained in December, 1908, from one of the upper ridges of Mount Mariveles, Bataan Province. One tree gave 15 kilos of fruits, which by pressure yielded 800 cubic centimeters of oil. The residue ground up and distilled with steam yielded 73 cubic centimeters more. This oil distilled in steam contained no heptane, showing that probably all the latter is in the oil cavities immediately surrounding the seeds, and that the pulp of the fruit contains only resins’ and the higher boiling portions of the oil. It was also noted that the leaves, branches, bark, wood, and in fact, all parts of the tree are distinctly resiniferous and have the same pleasant, orange-like odor as the fruits. The united 873 cubic centimeters of crude oil were slowly distilled at ordinary pressure giving the following fractions: Fraction (degrees). Grams. (1) 98-110 15 (2) 110-130 13 (3) 130-150 18 (4) 150-160 520 Destructive distillation began above 160°, the temperature of the vapor being from 170° to 240°. The color of the resin oil became con- tinuously darker as the distillation proceeded until near its close, when a light colored oil was collected and the temperature of the vapor fell coincident with a very hot liquid below. The raw oil thus obtained had a light brown color and quite a pleasant odor; specific gravity, a 39718» No 1.4790; acid number=263. The neutral oil is especially pleasant in odor, recalling that of menthol, although I failed to find this compound. Thirty kilos of fruits from Baguio, Benguet (December, 1908), were ground and distilled with steam without preliminary treatment with the hydraulic press. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. ike 1,350 cubic centimeters of oil were obtained. This was redistilled over sodium and showed about the same relative percentage of heptane and hydropinene as the nuts collected from Mount Mariveles at the same season. (Second lot above.) The Benguet nut is considerably smaller and thinner than that from Mariveles.™ All the distillates up to 165° were now united and carefully fractionated ten times, the final result being as follows: Fraction (degrees). Grams. (1) 97-101 203 (2) 101-120 12 (3) 120-130 8 (4) 180-140 7 (5) 140-150 14 (6) 150-160 600 (7) Residue, a very resinous oil. Fraction No. 1 was shaken out twice with concentrated sulphuric acid and then distilled over sodium, giving 197 grams of an oil, boiling point, 97° to 98°; 30° 30° ano t specific gravity, =0.6752 ; Ny eee Ayo? The odor is very pleasant, being very much like diphenyl methane. This oil is undoubtedly normal heptane. 125 grams of heptane were treated with 200 grams of bromine in the sunlight. The influence of sunlight on the speed of bromination is very pronounced. It was noted by counting the number of drops of bromine decolorized per minute, that the reaction proceeded about six times as fast in direct sunlight as when the sun was behind a cloud. The principal product of the reaction under these conditions were n—heptyl bromide, boiling at 93° at 70 millimeters’ pressure, 178° to 181° at ordinary pressure. It gives n—heptyl acetate when treated with fused sodium acetate dissolved in glacial acetic acid. This is a liquid of pleasant odor, boiling at 192°. Fraction No. 6 was distilled three times over sodium and then gave an oil ano of the following properties: Boiling point, 158° to 160°; specific gravity, = 30° 30° 0.8252 ; Np 8t AS =29°.6- The hydrochloride prepared from this oil had the following properties: Boiling point, 114° to 116° at 34 millimeters; ° ano te} specific gravity, x =0.9343 ; ut =1.4655; at a+9°. The reaction of this chloride with magnesium according to Grignard was not very vigorous or complete and therefore the corresponding hydrobromide was prepared and 50 grams subjected to the Grignard reaction, which was quite violent. On treating the product of the reaction with water and dilute acids, a hydrocarbon of the follow- ing properties was obtained: Boiling point, 168° to 170°; specific gravity, Tn distilling resiniferous oils of the kind under discussion, it is often noted that an emulsion is formed before the liquid has reached the boiling point, the vapor and gas bubbles penetrate this emulsion with great difficulty; they have a fibrous structure, are full of gas bubbles and are so persistent as to be well worthy of note. One of these, while I was heating Pittosporwm oil in a beaker, was so persistent, that on emptying the contents into a Hirsch funnel, the oil retained the form of the beaker, although on applying a vacuum, it filtered practically clear, with only traces of water and dirt left on the filter paper. These emulsions always disappear as soon as boiling becomes vigorous. 118 BACON. 0 = 0.8050 5 wih = 1.4460; aati. This hydrocarbon is, therefore, hexa- hydro p cymol and the substance found in the oil from the Pittosporum fruits is a dihydroterpene C,,H,;. I performed one experiment in which I subjected the dihydroterpene hydrobromide C,,H,,Br to the Grignard reaction and heated the reaction product with benzaldehyde for one hour. On decomposing with water and dilute acids, I obtained, besides large quantities of the above hexahydro p cymol, a small amount of a crystalline substance melting at 136°, which on analysis proved to be benzoin, the principal product of the reaction being the reduced hydrocarbon C,,H.,,. 0.2032 gram substance gave 0.590 gram CO, and 0.1125 gram H,0O. Calculated for C),H20. Found (per cent). (per cent). Cc 79.3 79.1 H 5.6 6.1 Therefore this reaction corresponds with that of dihydrolimonene mag- nesium chloride on benzaldehyde under the same conditions.*® A low-country species of Pittosporum, (P. pentandrum (Blanco) Merr.) was also examined. This tree is very abundant in the lowlands of all parts of the Islands. Special experiments have shown that it grows vigorously in cultivation. The fruits are quite small, and there is con- siderable labor involved in gathering them. One tree yielded 16 kilos of fruit which after grinding gave 210 cubic centimeters of an oil of pleasant odor by distillation with steam. The crude oil boiled from 153° to 165° and after being washed with alkalies and distilled over sodium, had the following properties: Boiling point, 155° to 160° (principally 157° to ° ° 2 ° 160°) ; specifie gravity, a = 0.8274 No) =1.4620; 9" 40.40. These properties leave little doubt but that this oil consists principally. of the same dihydroterpene that is found in the higher boiling portions of the oil of the ordinary petroleum nut. VETIVER OIL. Andropogon squarrosus L. f. (A. muricatus Retz.) is native to the Phil- ippines and is found wild and very abundantly in all parts of the Archi- pelago. It is identical with the khus-khus or khas-khas of India. I have never seen screens and mats woven from roots in the Philippines as is common in India, but the roots are usually laid away with the clothing to impart to it a pleasant odor. This Andropogon is sold in all the larger public markets. The price for small lots is from 15 to 25 centayos, Phil- ippine currency, per kilo. The natives term the roots moras or raiz moras, and claim that boiling them with vinegar preserves the odor. I was not able to verify this statement by experiments in the laboratory, as it seemed to me that acetic acid simply slightly intensified the apparent * This Journal, Sec. A. (1908), 3, 59. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, Ul. 119 odor by its own volatility. The experiments conducted in the laboratory on native grass have not yet thoroughly cleared up all points connected with the cultivation and utilization of the roots for perfumery purposes. The yield of roots from various sources and especially the percentage of _ oil obtainable from them have been very variable. We have now planted — on the laboratory grounds in Manila some experimental plots and hope to discover the best methods of handling this crop, as the grass promises to be quite profitable in the Philippines. The oil is valued at 100 to 200 pesos, Philippine currency (50 to 100 dollars, United States currency), per kilo according to quality. The greater part of the distillation at the present time is carried on in Europe from roots shipped principally from India, although some oil is distilled in Retmion. The plant offers possibilities in the Philippines either for the distillation of the oil or for the export of the dried roots. I am not able to discover that there is at present any exportation of the vetiver roots. Our experiments on vetiver are as follows: (1) Thirty kilos of fresh vetiver roots were distilled for two working days (seven hours each) with steam, the condensed water being continually poured back over the roots, and the oil collected in a little petroleum ether to effect easier separation from the water, as the vetiver oil has almost the same specific gravity as water. The petroleum ether was distilled im vacuo and there were thus separated 327 grams of a light yellow oil (1.09 per cent) which had a very 30° strong, pleasant odor and the following properties: Specific gravity, —— =0.9935; A =+82.1; NST =1.5212; saponification number=47.4. The roots used in the above experiment were obtained from small gardens about Manila and were crushed between the rollers of a sugar mill before being distilled. Such a crushing of the roots seems to improve the yield of oil. (2) Thirty-one kilos of fresh roots, uncrushed, on distillation as above gave 140 grams oil (0.3 per cent). (3) Six kilos of dried roots, uncrushed, gave by extraction with ligroin 14 grams of an oil which had only a very slight vetiver odor. (4) Highty-one kilos of dry moras which had been stored in jute sacks for about three months after harvesting, were distilled with steam with continuous cohobation and yielded 370 grams of oil (0.456 per cent) of an intense odor and brown color. This oil had the following properties: Specific gravity, = =0.9964; w= 1.5163; a 432.1; saponification number =60.6. _ It is to be noted that this oil with a higher saponification number has a much stronger odor than that obtained in experiment 1 given above (saponification number=47.4). (5) A plot of well-fertilized ground containing 150 square meters was planted with vetiver grass. In six months time the plants had flowered and reached matur- ity; they were then removed, giving 270 kilos of roots, or at the rate of over 18,000 kilos per crop per hectare. However, it was found when these roots were transferred to the laboratory, that they had lost most of their odor, and they gave so small a yield of oil as not to make it worth while to distill them. Some of these plants had been pulled up from time to time and tested for their oil content; they seem to contain the oil up to the time of flowering. 120 BACON. These preliminary experiments seemed to indicate:that the proper time for harvesting is about three months after planting, at which time, of course, the yield of roots is not nearly so heavy. The oil in the roots _is a protection, and is withdrawn when the plant flowers and seeds. We have planted all of our vetiver by simply burying pieces of divided root tufts in the ground. We have as yet made no experiments on the propagation of the grass from the seed. It was found that the roots can very conveniently be harvested by washing away the soil with a stream of water, catching detached rootlets with a coarse screen. One hundred plants of the above lot, treated in this manner, gave 60 kilos of roots (wet) and 100 plants at Parafaque in a sandy beach soil, gave 23 kilos of roots. The latter were presumably three to four months old and contained a large percentage of oil. THE COMPOSITION OF VETIVER OIL. Genvresse and Langlois *° found in yetiyer oil a sesquiterpene, C,,H.,,, which they termed vetivene, a sesquiterpene alcohol, C,,H.,,0, vetivenol, and an acid C,,H.,0,. They assign the vetiver odor to an ester of this acid and vetivenol. I am inclined to believe that there may be quite marked differences in the composition of the oil of vetiver due to dif- ferences in the age of the roots, methods of storing, distillation, etc., as I have noted that distillates from various lots of roots often had markedly different odors. One oil had very little of the distinctive vetiver odor and reminded me very strongly of gurjun balsam. Another on saponifi- cation with alcoholic potash gave large quantities of benzoic acid. One hundred grams oil (Experiment No. 4) with a strong and pleasant vetiver odor were saponified for one hour on a steam bath with an excess of alcoholic potash. The product was poured into water and separated into neutral and acid products in the usual manner. There were obtained 19 grams of acids, the odor resembling that of fatty acids. The neutral oils retained a very strong odor of vetiver. Purification through the lead salt did not give a crystalline acid, there- fore, the acids were distilled im vacuo, and after two such distillations gave a 40 per cent yield of a body boiling between 200° to 205° at 4 millimeters’ pressure. This acid was a light yellow, viscous oil with a fatty odor like that of oleic acid. With phenolphthalein as an indicator, 1.7850 grams acid required 7.0 cubic centimeters N sodium hydroxide for neutralization, the sodium salt oO being a noncrystalline, soapy mass; the acid itself had a refractive index, N * =1.4850. This refractive index precludes the possibility of a sesquiterpene acid, as is suggested by Genvresse and Langlois. The analysis is as follows: (1) 0.210 gram acid gave 0.5730 gram CO, and 0.1945 gram H.O. (2) 0.1870 gram acid gave 0.5125 gram CO, and 0.1650 gram H.O. Caleulated for C),Ho4Os Found Found (per cent). (per cent). (per cent). Cc 75. 74.4 74.63 H 10.7 10.19 9.86 Na 913 10) Ree tie hy ees ® 8 5 Compt. rend. Acad. sct. (1902), 135, 1059; Chem. Ztg. (1902), 26, 501. PHILIPPINE TERPENES. AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 121 Titration with potassium permanganate showed that 4.2 atoms of oxygen to one molecule of acid were used in oxidation. The zine salt was prepared by adding a zine chloride solution to the solution of the sodium salt. It is in- soluble in all solvents. At first this salt precipitates as a gummy mass, which, however, on standing for twenty-four hours in the ice box becomes crystalline. 1.3290 grams substance gave 0.2110 gram ZnO. Calculated for (Ci4Hox02)oZn Found (per cent). (per cent). Zn 12.74 12.70 The zine salt melts at a comparatively low temperature with decomposition to a brown liquid and burns very easily in the air. The lead, copper, silver, and calcium salts are all amorphous precipitates, insoluble in hot water or in alcohol. The neutral oils were separated into the following three fractions by distilla- tion at 12 to 15 millimeters. Fraction (degrees). Grams. (1) 125-133 17 (2) 137-140 25 (3) 140-145 22 Residue (semi-solid tar) 17 _Fraction No. 1 had no yetiver odor and to judge from its properties is probably a sesquiterpene, identical with the vetivene of Genvresse and Langlois. Fractions (2) and (3) and especially the tarry residue, still had a persistent vetiver odor and the first two in their properties cor- respond to sesquiterpene alcohols. I expect to make more exhaustive studies on the composition and especially on the best methods of culti- vating, storing, and distilling vetiver when more material is available. I consider it doubtful whether the odor of this oil is due to an ester. It is always noted that the odor becomes more marked when a little of the oil is placed in water, and saponified vetiver oils and resinous residues always have this same strong vetiver odor when placed in water. The native practices of both India and the Philippines of wetting the roots to make them exhale their odor are probably due to this fact. BALAO RESIN. Balao, panao, or apitong, is a soft, semi-solid resin coming from Dipterocarpus vernicifluus Blanco and D. grandiflorus Blanco. Clover has already made a preliminary report on this resin from this laboratory. The further studies on this subject are given below. The principal present use of balao is in the varnishing and caulking of native boats. The balao thus used gives a very brilliant, tough and durable coat and would seem to have properties that would make its general use for varnish manufacture desirable. The tree is rather widespread and in many localities quite abundant in the Philippines. I am informed by Doctor Whitford and Mr. Curran, of the Bureau of Forestry, that there is no question hut that very large quantities of 122 BACON. these resins could be gathered if there were a commercial demand for them, and as they do not belong to the present class of varnish gums (fossil resins) the supply would be perpetual. In spite of the advantage which balao has in its exceedingly tough, durable, and hard coat, it has the very serious disadvantage of drying very slowly. Thus far I have not been able thoroughly to combine it with linsed oil, turpentine, or with other driers to make a quick-drying varnish. Another suggested use for the resin is for the treatment of gonorrhcea as a substitute for copaiba. A similar, possibly identical, resin is now being shipped from the Malay States for this purpose. The distillation of balao presents some difficulty as there is a con- siderable quantity of water mixed with the resin, hence a violent foaming occurs on attempting distillation im vacuo. On running steam through the viscous resin to remove the volatile constituents, the difficulty is soon encountered that after heating for a short time the whole resin becomes very hard and solid, so that steam does not readily penetrate it. These difficulties were overcome by distillation im vacuo from an oil bath with the following arrangement: Between the air pump and the receiver a three-way stop-cock is inserted. This is arranged to connect the distilling flask with the air pump or with the open air. As soon as the resin threatens to foam, a little air is let in through this stop-cock, and thus, by careful manipulation, it is possible to control the distillation until all the water has passed over, after which time there is no difficulty. The record of the various experiments made on balao yvesin is as follows : (1) I attempted to dissolve 270 grams of fresh balao resin in 500 cubic centi- meters of ether, with the idea that in this manner the water could be removed and the resin easily distilled im vacuo. One hundred and ninety grams were dis- solved and after drying with calcium chloride distilling off the ether, etc., were added to the filtered oil of experiment (2). The insoluble 80 grams was a hard, brittle, yellowish resin, which proved of value in making varnishes. (2) One kilogram of balao was treated with 2 liters of ligroin (boiling point 60° to 80°). After heating for one hour on a reflux condenser, the solution was filtered. This is a very slow operation, as the paper is clogged by the gummy mass. Two hundred and twenty grams insoluble resin and a little dirt remained on the filter paper. After removing the water, shaking out with alkalies, drying and distilling off the ligroin, there remained 620 grams of the viscous, yellow oil. This was distilled im vacuo, and once redistllled in vacuo gave 190 grams of an almost colorless oil haying the following properties: Boiling point at 10 milli- meters’ pressure, 120° to 125°; specifie gravity, 50.9105; nu =1.5014; aan D This sesquiterpene is only partially soluble in 95 per cent alcohol. It is not completely miscible with glacial acetic acid. On adding to this mixture a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, there is obtained a fine, red color, which gradually darkens. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, I. 123 The distillation residue is a hard, yellow, lustrous resin, soluble to the extent of about 75 per cent in alcohol or turpentine, the solutions giving hard, lustrous varnish coatings. This resin dissolves completely in two volumes of linseed oil and two of turpentine, giving a varnish which dries slowly (five days) to a tough, hard coating. The resin was further tested: as to its solubility in the following solvents: petroleum ether hot or cold, very slight; cold acetone 75 per cent soluble, no more soluble on heating; almost completely soluble in cold xylol, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and amyl acetate; in benzol it is but slightly soluble, hot or cold; it is 75 per cent soluble in ethyl acetate and 50 per cent soluble in cold chloral hydrate, the latter solvent taking it up with ared color. It is completely soluble on warming, the color being darker, approaching blue. (3) Five hundred and seventy grams balao resin were carefully heated in a large evaporating dish over a free flame, the temperature being noted by means of a thermometer thrust into the resin. At 100° there was much foaming, due to water separation. The mass was kept at 100° for one hour, then gradually raised from 110° to 120°. Water continued to be given off and there was a very marked thickening of the mass, but no especial evidence of decomposition. In the next half hour, during which time the temperature had risen to 160°, the mass gradually became thicker and more solid, with constant evolution of water. At this stage 75 grams had been lost, and the acid number was 20.0 as compared to 18.6 for the original resins. The corresponding saponification numbers were 25.4 and 23.0. All these differences may readily be credited to the loss of water and show that this heating has no effect on thesé two factors. The solubility in alcohol seems to be somewhat increased over that cf the unheated resin, but this may be due to the water loss. The temperature was finally raised and maintained at 200° to 220° for one hour. The resin melted and on cooling solidified to a hard, brittle, lustrous mass. The loss finally was 240 grams or 42 per cent. (4) Three hundred grams balao, 700 cubic centimeters alcohol, and 50 grams potassium hydrate were heated to 100° for one hour with a reflux condenser. Almost complete solution had taken place upon saponification. The mass was poured into water and separated into neutral and acid portions. Fifty-two grams of solid, crystalline acids were separated from the alkaline extract on treating - with hydrochloric acid. These acids were only partly soluble in ether, and this solvent therefore gives a means of separation. The neutral oils were shaken out with ether. At first all were soluble, but after the ether solution had stood for two days, 60 grams of a crystalline solid separated; this was filtered. The ether was then dried and evaporated, whereupon the residual oil distilled in vacuo gave 7) grams of sesquiterpene, boiling between 130° and 134° at 15 millimeters, nearly all passing over at 130°; specific gravity, =0.9111; ue 1.4969 ; a ° +108.7. There remained in the distilling flask 70 grams of hard, yellow resin with properties similar to those detailed under experiment 3. (5) Acid and saponification numbers of two samples of balao. . (1) (2) Acid number 13.0 10.0 Saponification number 18.5 34.16 124 BACON. (6) A sample of a very liquid balao was obtained and the solid constituents were separated from it by using a coarse, muslin cloth for a filter. A thick, viscous oil was obtained having approximately the consistency of castor oil. It had the following constants: ny 0 1.5120; ASP +33°.1; acid number=20.8; saponification number=23.6. This oil, treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, gives a brillant scarlet-red color. It is but partially soluble in a glacial acetic acid, and if a drop of concen- trated sulphuric acid is added to this solution, a red color is obtained which in the course of a few minutes becomes darker and changes into an intense purple. With a drop of concentrated nitric acid, the oil only gradually gives this deep purple color, the acid beneath the oil being red. (7) The product of five trees was caught in small boxes cut in the trees, similar to those used in the turpentine industry of the southern United States. This was done during four days and the total gathered amounted to 1,025 grams with an acid number of 13.4 and a saponification number of 20.9. This resin was white and of the usual consistency. It was thoroughly mixed and 50 grams heated from 200° to 220° in a metal bath with a reflux condenser for four hours. At first there was violent foaming, which soon eeased. The product was very liquid on removing from the hot bath, but on cooling changed to about the same consistency as that of the unheated resin. The hardening noted in other experi- ments when heat was employed was probably due to the removal of water. The solubility of this fresh resin in various solvents is about the same as that of the older, commercial resins. The product of one tree (40 centimeters in diameter) for five days (320 grams) was also collected. This was an exceedingly fluid resin which gathered in a very liquid state in longitudinal cracks in the heart of the tree. An attempt was made to centrifugate the solid particles from this resin, but there were evidently not sufficient differences in specific grayities to make this operation a success. . (8) The destructive distillation of balao resin.—Five hundred grams balao resin were distilled from a 1.5 liter Jena flask, a metal bath being used in the first part of the operation. There was slight foaming in the beginning, but after one-half hour, during which time the temperature of the metal bath had risen to 200°, the mass became very thick and gelatinous. Twenty grams of water and 5 grams of oil had distilled. It was now necessary to use a free flame. The whole mass melted, a considerable quantity of water was given off, and a fraction of oil (155 grams) boiling at 253° was obtained, the thermometer remaining practically constant. The next fraction (50 grams) came over very slowly, the thermometer registering 253° to 255°. The temperature of the vapor then began to fall and decomposition set in, as was evidenced by the blue color of the distillate, and the marked darkening of the resin in the flask, by gas evolution, etc. There were obtained 120 grams of a green oil, at a moderate heat, during the next two hours, the thermometer in the vapor showing a temperature of 220° to 230°. The heat was now markedly increased, a 7-inch Bunsen flame playing directly on the flask, and 110 grams of a greenish-brown oil distilled at 290° at 310°. Thirty grams of a black, solid tar remained in the flask. The total time of distillation was four hours. The amount of gas given off during the destructive distillation of balao resin is very small. All fractions were redistilled as follows: (a) The fractions obtained up to the time of decomposition were united, dried with calcium chloride, and distilled in vacuo, the boiling point being 128° to 131° at 13 millimeters’ pressure, the greater part passing over at 129° and leaving a residue in the distilling flask of 12 grams, which was added to the fraction below. This is termed fraction number 1. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 125 (b) The resin oils were redistilled at ordinary pressure, giving two fractions; these are fractions numbered 2 and 3. (2) 180° to 225°, a light brown oil, 85 grams. (3) 225° to 310°, a blue, fluorescent oil, 210 grams. Various determinations were now made upon these three oils by Mr. Mariano Vivencio del Rosario of the Bureau of Science as follows: Specific am No gravity, Index San Onin Acid : 20° number. . | Dumber. | Aah | number. 0. 9089 | 268.3 4.01 1.8 | 0. 8882 192.1 10.7 23.0 3 | 0. 9387 120.9 12.75 18. | | The properties of the resin oil, fractions (2) and (3) united, were as follows: Specific gravity, 0.9215; index number, 144.6; saponification number, 12.07; acid number, 19.7. These oils, when extracted with alkali, washed, dried, etc., give a light green, fluorescent oil of a rather pleasant odor. (9) Many attempts were made to dissolve balao resin in linseed oil or turpen- tine, or to treat it with driers to give a quicker drying varnish. Balao is completely and easily soluble in hot linseed oil, but on cooling the whole separates out, constituting a jelly which is not very soluble in turpentine. However, if balao is heated with linseed oil to 300° for six hours and then two volumes of turpentine added, about 75 per cent of the resin remains in solution and this solution, when filtered, gives a very satisfactory varnish. Additions of lead oxide, lead linoelate, manganese borate to balao resin, with subsequent boiling, did not seem to increase the drying properties. Terpineol. in which many unmelted resins dissqlve, gave no better results. THE SESQUITERPENE FROM BALAO RESIN. I consider that, because of the narrow range of the boiling point of the fraction 128° to 131° at 13 millimeters, an individual sesquiterpene is contained in balao resin. Six hundred grams of this sesquiterpene were distilled three times im vacuo over sodium, the resulting oil being almost colorless, with the peculiar pleasant odor of the resin, reminding one slightly of oil of cedar. This oil had the following constants: Boiling point at 8 millimeters, 118° to 119°; specific gravity, 30.9104; 30° 30° D =1.4956; By smelt ester and saponification numbers=O. Molecular refraction: Calculated : for CisHasF, Found (per cent). (per cent). 66.15 65.9 This latter number shows that the sesquiterpene belongs to the bicyclic series, with two double bonds and one bridge bond. The sesquiterpene, isolated in the manner described above, was now distilled at ordinary pressure; 150 grams of the oil passing over completely between 261° to 825923 ‘ 126 BACON. 262°.4 (standard thermometer, wholly in the vapor). The distillate was yellow in color, being somewhat darker than the oil distilled in vacuo, but no odor, gas evolution, or other phenomena which would indicate any decomposition were 9n0 ° noted. The constants found were: Specific gravity, = 0.9104; w 30 = 1.4960; ° 2nh° a Ss iiloag “\ * =+120.8. The action of bromine on the sesquiterpene was as follows: Some of the body of a constant boiling point was mixed with glacial acetic acid in which it is not very soluble. A violent reaction took place on adding bromine drop by drop, and the liquid turned an intense blue color, later passing into purple. As the sesqui- terpene is completely and easily soluble in chloroform, the next experiment was made while using this solyent. The same results were obtained. On adding a very dilute, cold solution of bromine in chloroform to a solution of the terpene in chloroform in a freezing mixture, the first few drops were simply decolorized, but very soon the same color changes as have been mentioned above manifested themselves. The brominated sesquiterpene in every instance proved to be a hopeless tar. A small amount of sesquiterpene gave no reaction either in the cold or at 100° when treated with sublimed aluminum chloride. The oil reacted instantly with warm, acidified potassium permanganate, reducing the permanganate, and giving a tar of a very pleasant odor from which no definite bodies could be isolated. The sesquiterpene when treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid at first gave a pink color which later deepened to an intense purple. Jodine numbers for this sesquiterpene were determined for me by Mr. Reibling and Mr. del Rosario of the Bureau of Science. Working according to the standard Hanus method they found 367, 372, 375, 384 (caleulated Hanus number for 61=376). The iodine number which was found, depended upon the length of time during which the sesquiterpene remained in contact with the iodine solutions. If these solutions were left standing for twenty-four hours or more, iodine numbers much higher than the above were obtained, namely, 564, 583, etc. These results are probably due to the peculiar, unsaturated, and easily oxidizable structure of the sesquiterpenes. Some of the sesquiterpene isolated as described above and which had been allowed to stand in a glass-stoppered bottle in the light for one and one-half years was redistilled over sodium in vacuo. It gave the following constants: Boiling point at 15 millimeters, 130° to 131°; specific gravity, 370.9100; 30° 30° Nj 31.4950; A Dp 7101.2. This body was dissolved in an equal weight of dry ligroin and satur- ated with dry hydrochloric acid. Two molecules of hydrochloric acid for one molecule of the sesquiterpene were added and the solution became purple. No solid hydrochloride could be obtained and the addition product could not be distilled 1 vacwo without decomposition. An attempt was therefore made to subject the crude product to the Grignard reaction in the hope that di- and tetra-hydro sesquiterpenes, at present an unknown series of bodies, might be obtained. ‘The hydro- chloride had a slight action on magnesium, but as the reaction did not go to completion it was impossible to isolate the compounds wished for. The attempts to prepare these reduced sesquiterpenes, which may throw some light on the very dark field of their chemistry, will be repeated PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND! ESSENTIAL OILS, II. 127 with cadinene hydrobromide, as we have in the Philippines a large supply of this sesquiterpene obtainable from the oil of supa. THE DISTILLATION OF BLUMEA BALSAMIFERA DC. Blumea balsamifera DC. grows very abundantly in many parts of the Philippines. I have made a few experiments for the purpose of determining whether this plant can profitably be cultivated and utilized. From 0.1 to 0.4 per cent of a yellow oil with a camphor-like odor is obtained on distilling the leaves. ‘This is almost pure /-borneol. As this substance is so easily oxidized to camphor, the oil from Blwmea balsamifera should be valued at from one-half to three-fourths the price of camphor. The growth of this plant in the Philippines is exceedingly vigorous and the leaves could be cut four times a year. According to some experiments made in Indo-China,*" it is possible to obtain 50,000 kilos of leayes per hectare, per year, which would give a possible borneol yield of from 50 to 200 kilos per hectare. As labor is not exceedingly cheap in the Philippines, it is a question whether the cultivation and distillation of these plants could be handled at a profit, This would need to be worked out. THE DISTILLATION OF LANTAVNA CAMARA L. Lantavna camara L., a sweet-scented weed, is exceedingly abundant im the Philippines. It grows so abundantly and so luxuriantly that if the oil is of any value, its cultivation is certainly a commercial possibility. Seventy kilos of the leaves distilled with steam gave 60 cubic centimeters of a light yellow oil; 100 kilos gave 245 cubie centimeters, and 110 kilos gave 78 cubic centimeters of oil. These results show that the yield of oil evidently varies considerably, the differences depending upon the season, age of the leaves, etc. The oil has a specific gravity of ae =0.9132; ne =1.4913; aX =+11.5. Its odor reminds me somewhat of sage. Fifty grams distilled in vacuo gave two fractions as follows: a2N0 (1)- Twenty-two grams boiling between 125° to 130° at 12 millimeters; N — 1.4892. (2) Twenty-four grams boiling between 130° and 140° at 11 millimeters; w 30° =1.4970. D We shall send samples to Hurope for valuation, and if it proves to be of any commercial value we will study the question further. OIL OF YLANG-YLANG. In a previous paper in this series,** I published constants on first and second grade, pure ylang-ylang oils of known origin. Various regular- ities were noted which justified me in stating that first grade ylang-ylang 7 Bull. Econom. (1907), n. s. 9, 202. - SThis Journal, Sec. A. (1908), 3, 65. 128 BACON. oils were characterized by a low refractive index, low optical activity, and high ester numbers. J have continued the investigation on this season’s distillates of this oil and find exactly the same series of regularities. Acetyl numbers have also been made on these oils, and it will be noted that first-grade ylang-ylang oils are characterized by high acetyl numbers as compared with the second-grade oils. The actual determination of these numbers was made by the method of Zerewitinoff *° and the results calculated to the usual definition of acetyl number, namely, saponifica- tion number of 1 gram of oil after acetylation. The numbers obtained by this method are from 15 to 20 per cent higher than those given by the standard method, due no doubt to the well-known behavior of alcohols like linalool and geraniol toward acetic anhydride. TABLE I1l.—First-qrade ylang-ylang oils. 2 Specific | Re Se || cy joe ee Lace 4° Deqrees. 20 1.4944 | —24.3 0.943 119 203 24d] 1.4863 | —32.5 0.915 100 177 48 1.4880 | —42.5 0.910 90 154 49 1.4935 | —85,2 0. 930 108 187 58 1.4920 | —31.0 0. 92 106 180 27 1.4872 | —40.0 0.918 109 188 28 1.4877 | 44.8 0.914 106 183 29 1.4882 | —45.6 0.913 102 196 30 1.4897 | —43.1 0. 922 407 189 31 1.4868 | —44.3 0. 916 107 192 32 1.4870 | 44.6 0.917 106 181 33 1.4892 | —50.2 0.915 102 182 34 1.4880 | —51.8 0. 908 92 147 35 1.4898 | —43.0 0.931 129 214 51 1.4860 | —22.0 0.934 126 202 52 1.4860 | —81.0 0.929 105 182 55 1.4923 | —50.2 0.919 97 177 56 1.4921 | —50.3 0.919 97 174 57 1.4924 | —50.2 0. 918 98 179 58 1.4921 | —50.3 0.919 96 172 59 1.4921 | — 50.0 0. 917 96 175 60 1.4924 | —50.2 0.918 98 178 61 1.4922 | —50.1 0.918 98 178 62 1.4922 | —50.0 0. 917 97 176 63 1.4923 | —50.0 0.919 97 175 64 1.4921 | —50.3 0. 918 97 176 1 1.4885 | -—40.0 0. 917 102 182 2 1.4880 | —40.0 0.910 92 161 3 1.4880 | —36.5 0.924 118 201 4 1.4860 | —34.0 0.922 120 209 7 1.4910 | —43.0 0. 932 100 178 Samples 55 to 64 inclusive represent ten distillations made in the same day, using three stills and the same lot of mixed flowers. 3° Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1901), 40, 2023. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, III. 129 TaBiLE I1V.—Second-grade ylang-ylang oils. ° 30° 30° eee Ester Acetyl No. | Na AD ls 380° ‘ aise Raabe 4° Degrees. 21} 1.4933} —46.2 0.915 85 132 A| 1.4998} —40.4 0.912 86 130 M/ 1.4923} —38.5 0.914 86 138 L| 1.4918] —42.9 0.910 86 127 26] 1.4923] —39.8 0.915 88 141 39] 1.5014} —79.3 0.910 83 112 40} 1.5011 | —70.9 0.916 84 108 41} 1.5004} —70.4 0.914 83 109 42} 1.5010} —74.0 0.912 74 107 43 1.5012) —78.8 0. 909 74 104 44] 1.5012| —73.2 0.912 85 109 45| 1.4922) —39.2 0.912 87 120 46| 1.4910) —41.0 0. 905 85 124 47; 1.4915; —41.0 0.913 85 | 131 36| 1.4990} —71.2|, 0.905 71 96 37 | 1.5002} —77.2 0. 906 72 101 38} 1.5008} —71.9 0. 912 74 103 50] 1.4910] —43.0 0.910 84 131 54] 1.49290] —41.8 0.910 84 127 | 5| 1.5030] —58.7 0. 923 80 115 6} 1.5005) —49.0 0. 925 87 118 8} 1.5021) —56.0 0.925 7 110 I have also undertaken the extraction of the perfume oil from ylang- ylang flowers. Many of the constituents of essential oils are very delicate substances and distillation with steam decomposes these compounds to a considerable extent, so that a steam-distilled oil but rarely has exactly the same odor as the flowers from which it was obtained. Extraction with cold solvents and the removal of the solvent in vacuo, the tem- perature never being allowed to rise above 40°, gives oils which have exactly the same aroma as the flowers. This process has the further com- mercial advantage that such extracted flower oils can not be imitated synthetically, as the change in aroma is undoubtedly due to traces of very easily decomposable compounds which it will be difficult, if not impossible, ever to isolate and identify. The extracted oil need fear no competition with synthetic oils. Alcohol, ether, chloroform, and pe- troleum ether have been used as solvents for ylang-ylang oil, and the last named has given the best results. Naturally, a very high grade of petroleum ether, which leaves no bad smelling residue when distilled up to 40° in a vacuum of 40 millimeters, must be used as the solvent for the essential oil. Operating in this manner, we have obtained oil yields of from 0.7 to 1.0 per cent. The oil is of a very dark color and contains a considerable amount of resin in solution. When in bulk, the odor is not particularly pleasant or very strong, but when the extract is greatly 130 BACON. diluted the pleasant aroma of the flowers becomes very apparent. The physical constants of one sample of this oil were as follows: Specific 30° D ° gravity, p> =0.940 N 208. The oil is too dark to permit readings of its optical rotation to be practicable. These constants are seen to agree quite well with those of a very high grade distilled oil, and as was stated above, the different odor is probably due to traces of delicate compounds present in the extracted oil, which are destroyed during the process of distillation. It is rather curious to note that when this extracted oil is shaken out with water, a considerable amount of resin separates, carrying the distinctive flower aroma, and the separated oil then has an odor resembling that of methyl-p—kvesol. These extracted oils should sell for a considerably higher price than the best distilled oils, which fact, taken in consideration with the in- creased yield and the impossibility of competition from synthetic oils, offers a very attractive new industry to the Philippines. =1.4920 ; ester number=135 ; acetyl number— OTHER PRODUCTS. The leaves of an unknown species of Fagara collected in the northern provinces were examined and found to contain a small percentage of an oil which contained limonene and also probably a limonene derivative which may also be obtained by the action of a solution of dilute, alkaline, copper sulphate on limonene. The compound gives a crystalline deriva- tive with phenylhydrazine and its nature will be taken up im a sub- sequent publication. One of the mints, Hyptis suaveolens Poir., known by the Tagalog name of swb-cabayog, was also examined. . Two hundred kilos of this weed distilled with steam yielded only 27 grams of a greenish oil, with a powerful menthol odor. Investigation proved that menthol was the principal constituent of this oil, but the yield is much too small to render the plant of any value for purposes of distillation. The leaves of Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merr., a tree which is rather abundant in some parts of the Philippines, have an odor which is strongly like that of anise. Alcoholic extracts of these leaves also have a very strong anise-like odor. It is possible that this plant can be used locally in preparing “anisados,” which are favorite alcoholic beverages among the natives. It is interesting in this connection to note the state- ment of Busse,*° who, speaking of the medicinal and economic plants of Dutch Hast Africa, states that Clausena anisata Willd. does not smell © Ber. d. deutschen pharm. Ges. (1904), 14, 215. PHILIPPINE TERPENES AND ESSENTIAL OILS, II. 131 like anise, but like heliotrope. his is not true for the Philippine species of this plant. There are two varieties of flowers known as champaca in the Philip- pines, the yellow and the white, Wichelia champaca and M. longifolia Bl. Of these the yellow has much the finer odor and it is considered by experts to be by far the finest perfume in the Philippines, the scent being at the same time very soft, strong, and lasting. Small parcels of champaca oil, principally distilled from the white variety, have been sold in Europe, the supply coming mostly from Java. The Filipinos are very fond of the flowers, they being made into wreaths and sold in small lots at the rate of a peso to a peso and a half per kilo. One attempt at steam distillation of an oil from the flowers was not successful. The yield of oil was very small and did not have an odor greatly resembling that of the flowers. Hnfluerage with paraffine oil has been successfully applied. The paraftine oil is allowed to stand over the flowers for twenty- four hours, drawn off, filtered and made up to the original volume before being applied to fresh flowers. By ten such extractions a very fine, strong odor is imparted to the paraffine which is now suitable as a base for perfumes, or the champaca oil may be extracted from the paraffine with strong alcohol. The loss in paraffine is large, so that we shall endeavor to extract the flowers with petroleum ether, alcohol, ether and other volatile solvents. Very few flowers were available this year because of the many typhoons during the flowering season, which lasts from September to November. ‘The tree is readily propagated from the seeds and begins to bear in three years. The quantity of flowers which can be obtained from one tree is much less than from the ylang-ylang, but the price of champaca extracts is enormously higher than those from the latter. We have also attempted to obtain a perfume oil from the flowers of Plumeria acutifolia Poir., which is used as an ornamental tree in the cemeteries throughout the Islands. The fragrance of the flowers is faint, but characteristic, and the flower is supposed to be the source of the perfume known as “frangipani.” I distilled 40 Inlos of flowers with steam, but obtained no oil, nor even an aqueous distillate of pleasant odor. Many extraction experiments with different solvents have shown that the perfume is very easily destroyed by heat so that the temperature used in handling these flowers must never rise above 40°. Extraction with low-boiling petroleum ether and distillation of the petroleum ether in vacuo gives a gummy oil with a satisfactory odor. The best results which we have obtained thus far are by enfluerage with paraffine oil, the operation being carried out as detailed above under champaca. The season, weather conditions, and time of day seem to have a very pro- nounced effect on the amount of perfume in these flowers, and we have not yet worked out all these factors. 132 BACON. We have distilled 100 kilos of the roots of Curcuma zedoaria Rosc., which is very abundant in many localities near Manila. Sixty-five grams of oil (0.665 per cent) were obtained and also 40 grams of a volatile, beautifully crystalline solid. The oil has a dark, greenish-brown color and a pleasant, slightly camphoraceous odor. It is probably optically imactive; certainly its optical activity does not exceed +1°.5. The oil is so dark as to preclude ° ° 30 3 more accurate measurement. Specific gravity, go =0.933 2 Ny =1.4920. It is readily soluble in two or more volumes of 80 per cent alcohol. On distilling the lowest boiling portions of the oil 1m vacuo, it loses its camphoraceous odor (probably due to cineol) and the scent then becomes quite flower-like. Although oil of zedoary is one of the oldest known essential oils, very little has been discovered concerning its composition. A study of the chemical composition of this oil will be taken up later. It is to be noted that the specific gravity of the oil I obtained does not agree with the figures recorded in the literature for oil of zedoary. THE OXIDATION OF PHENOL: THE EFFECT OF SOME FORMS OF LIGHT AND OF ACTIVE OXYGEN UPON PHENOL AND ANISOLE. By H. D. Gusss. (From the Laboratory for the Investigation of Foods and Drugs, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) I have shown * that neither pure phenol, moist crystals, nor a solution of the crystals in water are affected by the intense sunlight of this locality when exposed in sealed glass tubes in atmospheres of nitrogen, hydrogen, or carbon dioxide. Kohn and Fryer’ have exposed both pure phenol crystals and moist phenol in vacuo and found the light to have no effect. From these experiments they, and Richardson,® conclude that the reactions responsible for the red coloration of phenol are due to hydrogen peroxide oxidation and that the presence of water, oxygen, and sunlight are all necessary factors, the absence of any one of which will prevent the reaction. These writers, as I have shown,* are correct in their opinion that the cause of the red coloration is oxidation and I have isolated the products to be expected from such a reaction, namely, quinone and catechol. Another substance which is probably formed during the reaction is quinol and the presence of the condensa- tion product phenoquinone is extremely probable. Kohn and Fryer state® “since the coloration is always accompanied by the absorption of moisture, the presence of moisture is most probably intimately as- sociated with the formation of the color” and® “in the absence of moisture no coloration takes place.” Since writing the first article’ “The Compounds which Cause the Red Color in Phenol,” this phase of the question has been investigated and I find that these statements are not in accord with the facts. It is not surprising that Kohn and Fryer were led into this error, for the character of the sunlight available to them and the atmospheric conditions in their 1This Journal, Sec. A, (1908), 3, 361. 2 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1893), 12, 111. 3 Ibid, (1893), 12, 415. * Loc. cit. 5 Loc. cit. 110. ® Loc. cit., 111. ™ Loc. cit. 133 134 GIBBS. locality are hardly comparable with those in which I have worked in the ‘Tropics. Richardson * says: “Dr. Kohn also tells me that a degree of darkening in phenol, such as was obtained by me after three days’ exposure in Clifton, England, could only be produced after many weeks under the conditions under which he has exposed it in Liverpool,” and Kohn himself remarks* that in his own experi- ments the exposures have been made more under the conditions under which the usual reddening of phenol occurs, the samples being exposed in the south windows of a well lighted room. I am led to believe that active oxygen in any of its forms will react with pure, dry phenol and consequently produce the coloration. Kohn and Fryer *° think that the oxidation of phenol goes on in the absence of light and they make the following statement: “In respect to the action of light a series of experiments showed that the coloration is produced in the dark, although slowly, and therefore the light acts as an accelerator of the change only—an action of which there are many other INStaNCeS ek oce They made exposures of dry phenol in dry air to the light conditions in their locality and found no coloration im seven months. I have, incidental to other work, exposed dry phenol in dry, pure oxygen to the diffused light of this laboratory for several weeks, and moist phenol to moist, atmospheric air in the dark at room temperature for two months without any appreciable coloration becoming visible. Nevertheless, it can not be considered proved that there is no reaction between oxygen and phenol in the dark. In fact it is probable, from considerations which will be advanced later, that a slow reaction takes place. Hydrogen peroxide reacts readily and I will show, in the experimental part of this paper, that dry ozone is very reactive, either with the pure, dry crystals or with melted phenol. The intimate association of water with the coloration, which Kohn and Fryer observed, is thus explained not as a compound necessary to the reaction, but as one of the products of the reactions: C,H,OH-+-0=C,H, (0H),, C,H, (0H),+0=C,H,0,+H,0, or C,H,0H-+20=C,H,0.+H,0. There is no doubt, however, but that the rate of oxidation is more rapid im the presence of moisture. Chapman, Chadwick, and Ramsbottom™ found that the presence of moisture in the reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen in the presence of ultra- S Loe. cit., 415. ® Loc. cit., 416. DONTOCMGUUe mele u Journ. Chem. Soc. London (1907), 97, 943. THE OXIDATION OF PHENOL. 135 _ violet light increases the rate of the formation of carbon dioxide and that while dry carbon dioxide is decomposed by the light, in the presence of moisture no decomposition could be detected. They conclude that in a photo-chemical reaction, the catalyst (moisture) exerts a marked influence in determining the mode of distribution of the energy amongst the molecules of the reacting substances. EXPERIMENTAL. Crystals of purest phenol were placed in a bulb tube and heated in an atmosphere of dry hydrogen until about 75 per cent yolatilized. After cooling in the current of hydrogen, this gas was replaced by dry, atmospheric air which had been passed through a purifying chain. ‘The tube was then carefully sealed and placed in the sunlight, at a tem- perature of about 30°. The crystals: colored slowly with liquefaction, until the entire mass had changed into a liquid of a deep red color. The coloration was first noticeable in two hours and liquefaction was complete after about five days, depending upon the quantity of phenol and oxygen present, the size of the tube, the quality of the glass, and some other factors. The experiment and results described were dupli- cated several times. : This work was then -repeated with the utmost care and with an ap- paratus especially designed to eliminate all known sources of error. It permitted the double distillation of phenol over sodium in an atmosphere of dry, pure hydrogen and the condensation of any desired fraction in two tubes which could be sealed out of the apparatus independently of each other, the replacement of the hydrogen with purified, dry at- mospheric air or oxygen, and the treatment of one or both of the tubes with ozonized oxygen in the dark. During all of these operations there was no possibility for the entrance of moisture, for all of that portion of the apparatus between the extremities of the drying tubes at both ends of the chain was composed of glass vessels sealed in a continuous chain. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS. (FIG. 1.) The gases employed, hydrogen, atmospheric air, and oxygen, were purified by passing through concentrated sulphuric acid, two tubes of calcium chloride, one tube of soda lime, a combustion tube filled with purified asbestos heated to redness, and then into the chain of apparatus shown in fig. 1. Here the gases successively passed through a saturated solution of caustic potash, A, con- centrated sulphuric acid, B, three tubes of phosphorus pentoxide held in place by plugs of glass wool, C, D, and H#, an ozonizer of the Siemen’s” form, /’, and a tube of tightly packed glass wool, G. The next portion of the apparatus con- sists of an arrangement of tubes and distilling flasks, inclosed in an asbestos oven, for the handling of the phenol, and the tube of phosphorus pentoxide J, with its end dipping under mercury in the dish WN to exclude moisture. All of the apparatus from A to N was connected by glass seals. 2% Ann. d. Phys. (1857), 102, 120. GIBBS. 136 ‘suaq@Wii1Ua9 UI ajes5 : q 3 roe 4 4 a Nn ea ‘ cs Sai, ( i$ al a i. . ; pa, SS ( WwW = ——$— THE OXIDATION OF PHENOL. 137 DRYING THE APPARATUS AND THE PHENOL. After the complete chain was closed by glass seals, with the exception of the two extremities and the stopcock g, the combustion tube was heated and a slow current of hydrogen passed through for six hours. The portions of the ap- paratus inclosed in the asbestos oven, shown in fig. 1 by the heavy lines, and also the tubes # and G were heated to 140° for four hours after which the hydrogen current was stopped and the apparatus allowed to stand for ten days. A pure sample of about 400 cubic centimeters of colorless phenol was em- ployed as a starting material. It was distilled over a smali piece of metallic sodium ** and the middle fraction collected in a receiver arranged to exclude the light. After cooling, the flask was gently shaken and the crystals which im- mediately formed represented only about one-half of the total mass, owing to the sudden rise in temperature due to the crystallization of the supercooled liquid. The melted portion was at once drained from the crystals. These were again distilled and the middle fraction collected in the flask J through the side tube. A small stick of metallic sodium was dropped in, the side tube sealed, and a slow hydrogen current turned on. The purified sample was again dis- tilled, the first fraction passing out through the tail of the stopcock g and the middle fraction condensed in the flask H without stopping the distillation, by quickly turning the stopcock. The flask J was then removed by sealing the outlet tube below the stopcock g. The asbestos oven was heated to from 160° to 180° in the steady current of hydrogen for two hours, the phenol partly vaporizing and collecting in the receiver LZ. A small flame was then placed under the flask H and the phenol boiled until about one-third had passed through the tubes J and K and col- lected in H. The source of heat was removed from the oven and the phenol condensed in the tubes J and K until they were about one-third filled. The whole apparatus was cooled in the current of hydrogen and the distilling flask sealed out of the chain by closing the tubes at 6 and ec. The residue in the distilling flask was colorless. In order to change the gas in the apparatus and avoid the phenol coming in contact with oxygen which had not been heated (to eliminate the possibility of the presence of ozone) the outlet @ was opened and the hydrogen in the com- bustion-furnace displaced by air. The combustion-furnace was again heated, the outlet a sealed, and the hydrogen throughout the apparatus displaced by air. The tube K was removed by careful fusion at the points d and e. The phenol in this tube (K) colored gradually when it was placed in the direct sunlight until the oxygen was practically all in combina- tion. On breaking one of the points under water, the amount of oxygen which had combed was shown by the amount of water sucked in. Other tubes sealed in the same way were found to color more or less rapidly depending largely upon the temperature. When cooled by con- tact with broken ice, the coloration was only visible after several days’ exposure to a bright sun. When the temperature was nearly that of the melting point of phenol, the color appeared in from fifteen minutes to 13The sodium employed was in the form of sticks inclosed in small glass tubing into which it has been introduced by melting im vacuo. Sections of the tube of the desired length were broken and immediately dropped into the distill- ing flask. By this means sodium of a comparatively pure quality, free from moisture and hydroxide, was obtained. 138 GIBBS. one hour, probably because minute particles had been melted. Several tubes after exposure were tested for the presence of carbon dioxide by dipping the point under a clear solution of barium hydroxide and allow- ing a small quantity of the solution to be sucked in. Small quantities of carbon dioxide were indicated in every case. About 2 grams of pure phenol sealed, in a dry, purified atmosphere containing a little more oxygen than atmospheric air, in a 200 cubic centimeter flask with two outlet tubes, was exposed to the direct sunlight for a month and then tested for carbon dioxide by aspirating the gases through a barium hydroxide solution. All necessary precautions to avoid the introduction of the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere were taken. The tips of the outlet tubes of the flasks were not broken until the rubber tube con- nections were in place, a clear solution of barium hydroxide contained in a U tube attached, and soda lime tubes and a wash bottle containing a concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide, to prevent the entrance of carbon dioxide, connected. A considerable amount of carbon dioxide was indicated by the heavy precipitate of barium carbonate. After the tube A’ had been sealed off, the atmosphere in the apparatus was replaced by pure oxygen, the tube J being wrapped in black paper to exclude the light. No coloration of the phenol could be observed. The tube J containing the phenol crystals was then packed in broken ice and the oxygen current ozonized by connecting the terminals of the ozonizer #’ with an induction coil. The reaction between the ozone and the cold phenol crystals was at first very slow, no appreciable coloration being visible for several hours. However, when it had begun, the action proceeded with increasing velocity, no ozone escaping from the reaction tube containing the phenol after the reaction was well under way. How- ever, before that time a small quantity of supercooled, liquid phenol farther along in the apparatus, at the poimt f, colored instantly upon the contact with the ozone, but none of the latter escaped at NV, as was proved by repeated tests. In both cases the first color was bright yellow ; this color gradually extended throughout the mass and changed from yellow to pink and finally to a dark, reddish-brown with gradual lique- faction of the crystals, Another experiment was carried out in the same way, except that the phenol in the tube J was not cooled with ice and was in the form of a supercooled liquid. In this instance the phenol colored with great rapid- ity and no ozone escaped to the tube f. The liquid phenol in f, in this experiment, was not protected from the diffused daylight of the room, and nevertheless remained colorless after exposure to the rapid current of oxygen throughout the entire experiment which lasted for fourteen days.14 On bubbling the oxygen escaping at V through a potassium “The phenol was subjected to the action of the oxygen current for this length of time for the reason that the ozonizer was rather feeble and produced only a small degree of ozonization. THE OXIDATION OF PHENOL. 139 iodide-starch solution, no coloration was produced, showing that the ozone was entirely remoyed by reaction with the phenol. Carbon dioxide is given off in considerable quantities during the reaction. The tube J was finally opened and a study of the reaction products made. The reddish-brown liquid was shaken with water, the insoluble portion separated and the aqueous solution extracted repeatedly with chloroform and ether. These extracts were found to contain considerable quantities of unchanged phenol, small amounts of quinone and catechol, and considerable amounts of quinol. The aqueous solution contained an acid which was volatile with steam, reduced ammoniacal silver solution and mercuric chloride, was precip- itated by calcium hydroxide, and on boiling precipitated calcium oxalate. It gave an orange-yellow precipitate with phenylhydrazine ** in the cold. This precipitate on purification and recrystallization formed yellow erystals. Eyen though an insufficient quantity of the phenylhydrazine compound was obtained for an analysis, it is reasonably safe to assert that the acid in aqueous solution was glyoxylic acid. Several experiments were completed in the same manner with the difference that the issuing gases were passed through = solutions of e barium hydroxide. The following was the result: Grams. Carbon dioxide evolved 0.11 Weight of the mixture in the tube J when the evolution of carbon dioxide had practically ceased 3.00 Acidity of aqueous extract was equivalent to 18 cubic centi- meters 1 =glyoxylic acid (CHO.COOH) equivalent to 4.4 per cent of the residue. 0.13 Chloroform extract 0.64 Ether extract 0.23 The chloroform and ether extracts were dried in a vacuum desiccator with the loss of considerable of the products. The principal loss in weight was due to phenol vaporized. Two grams of another residue, on distillation with steam gave an acid distillate equivalent to 16 cubic centimeters a alkali which, cal- eulated as glyoxylic acid, equals 5.9 per cent. THE ACTION OF OZONE UPON PHENOL. Otto *® observed that ozone reacts with phenol producing a red color. He studied the reaction at 16° and 50° and isolated no reaction products. Dry ozone is, in general, not reactive. It is more reactive when traces of moisture are present.’ Pure, dry, ozonized oxygen will react * Wischer, H., Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1884), 17, 577. Ann. chim. et phys., Paris (1898), III, 13, 136. “Uhrig, Richarz, Phys. Ztschr. (1905), 6, 1. 140 GIBBS. at once with pure, moisture-free phenol in the liquid state and more slowly when the phenol is in the form of crystals. The reactions which take place are largely influenced by the temperature. At the room temperature, 30°, the first action is the production of quinone, and possibly quinol, as indicated by the coloration. As the reaction proceeds an ozonide is undoubtedly produced. This is evidenced by the copious evolution of carbon dioxide and the formation of glyoxylic acid, a reaction analogous to the breaking down of the triozonide of benzene, (Jre-tm0~zon0 . CHO+2C0,4+-4H,0, ©, as demonstrated by Harries and Weiss.*s When ozone acts upon dry phenol, the water which seems to be neces- sary to the breaking down of the ozonide, and which also accelerates the reaction, is produced during the formation of quinone as follows: C,H, . OH+20—C,H,0,+H,0 When ozone reacts upon moist phenol, the same reaction products are produced, quinol resulting in larger quantities than quinone. Whether it is the diozonide of quinone or the triozonide of quinol which breaks down according to the reactions— Q C HC CH OI “2 O,+2H,0,=2HOOC . CHO+2C0,-++-2H,0 HC CH c O or H O yO CA IC ASCin One =2HO0C. CHO+2C0,+-H,0 a H 18 Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1904), 37, 3431. vied hs THE OXIDATION OF PHENOL. ; 141 has not been determined. When dry ozone comes in contact with dry phenol, cooled in an ice bath, the velocity of the reaction is very much reduced ; the products, however, appear to be the same. Carbon dioxide is evolved and no ozonide can be isolated. No attempts have been made to work at lower temperatures and employ solvents for the phenol, with the view of isolating an ozonide. THE ACTION OF NASCENT OXYGEN, LIBERATED AT THE ANODE, UPON PHENOL. By the action of the alternating current upon aqueous solutions of phenol in the presence of magnesium sulphate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate, Drechsel*® has obtained catechol, quinol, phenolsulphonic acid, y diphenol, formic acid, oxalic acid, succinic acid and a number of other products. The action of-the alternating current in aqueous alkaline solutions has also been studied. Bartoli-and Papasogli *° have studied the products of the action of the direct current upon alkaline solutions of phenol. It is to be expected that the oxidation of alkaline solutions of phenol will produce more complicated reaction products than when an acid solution is employed, for the reason that quinone is so easily oxidized to complicated products in presence of alkalies. EXPERIMENTAL. A concentrated aqueous solution of phenol, acidified with sulphuric acid to facilitate the passage of the electric current, was divided between two vessels con- nected by a syphon, and electrolyzed with a direct current passing between plati- num electrodes placed one in each vessel. While the evolution of hydrogen was quite brisk from the cathode, very little oxygen escaped from the anode. The solution surrounding the anode quickly assumed a yellow color deepening to a red, while that surrounding the cathode remained colorless. The anode became coated with a thick layer of a yellowish- red substance which was removed from time to time by washing the electrode in alcohol. This compound is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and in phenol, imparting to both solutions a brilliant red color. It is in all probability one of the condensation products to which the coloration of phenol is to be attributed. The solution around the anode was found to contain considerable quantities of quinone. No complete investigation of the reactions involved was attempted. THE QUESTION OF THE CHEMICAL ACTIVITY OF OXYGEN GAS IONS. Experimental data seems to point to the fact that gas ions are not reactive in the chemical sense. Gockel * found that the ionization of ozonized oxygen made by passing oxygen over moist phosphorus was not destroyed by passing the gases through various * Journ. f. prakt. Chem. (1884), 2, 29, 229; and (1888), 2, 38, 67. *» Compt. rend. Acad. sci, (1882), 94, 1339; Gazz. chim. ital. (1884), 14, 90. 71 Phys. Ztschr. (1903), 4, 602. 325924 142 GIBBS. solutions, water, potassium hydroxide, dilute and concentrated sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate, pyrogallol, potassium iodide, and oil of turpentine, even though the ozone was in some cases completely removed. Bredig and Pemsel* observed that the rate of the oxidation of sodium sulphite is not accelerated when the air, before passing into the solution, is exposed to the action of ultra-violet or Réntgen rays, uranium or phosphorus. Ewan™ after studying the slow oxidation of phosphorus, sulphur and aceteldehyde, concludes that in the process only a small portion of the oxygen which is dissociated into its atoms takes part in the oxidation. WVan’t Hoff * in commenting upon the work of Ewan says that the oxidation may be due to oxygen atoms or oxygen ions and that it is not due to ozone. Eder~ balances the evidence by saying that in the present state of our knowledge it is by no means excluded that oxidation is accelerated by contact of the oxidizable substance with the oxygen which has been ionized by exposure to light and that ozone formation and ionization are ac- companying phenomena. From the experiments performed with the apparatus shown in fig. 1, it is to be concluded that another instance has been added to those above cited, pointing to the inactivity of the oxygen ions in the process of oxidation. By means of this apparatus pure, dry ozonized oxygen was brought into contact with pure, dry phenol in the dark. The tube G, con- taining a length of 18 centimeters of tightly packed glass wool removed the gas 1ons *° produced by the brush discharge in the tube /’, so that it is to be presumed that oxygen in the condition of O, and O, (and perhaps some atoms due to an equilibrium O, == 20) only pass into the tube J con- taining the phenol. In some experiments the glass-wool filter was omitted from the chain and in others it was in place as shown in fig. 1. In both cases the reaction with phenol in the liquid state, supercooled or not, proceeded at once upon contact with the ozone, no ozone escaping reaction with the phenol, while with phenol which was entirely crystalline the reaction was very much diminished in speed. No variations were noted between the rate or character of the reaction due to the presence or absence of the ion filter in the apparatus chain. While it is to be concluded from these experiments that ozone is a form of oxygen reactive with phenol, with or without the presence of the gas ions, it is not proved, from the method of experimentation, that the gas ions exert no influence. *2Dammer, Handbuch d. anorg. Chem. (1903), 4, 122; Eder, Photochemie, Halle, a/S. (1906), 87; Jahresb. d. Chem. (1899), 1, 380. 3 Chem. News. (1894), 70, 90. * Ztschr. f. phys. Chem. (1895), 16, 411. 75 Photochemie, Halle a/S. (1906), 87. °° With respect to the removal of the ions formed by the action of Réntgen rays see Thomson and Rutherford, Phil. Mag. € Journ. Sci. (1896), 42, 392. With respect to ions formed in other ways see Conduction of Electricity through Gases, 1906, 11. On page 39 Thomson states: “From these numbers we conclude that the ions produced by Réntgen rays, by radio-active substances and by ultra- violet light are identical, a conclusion which we shall find confirmed by several other courses of reasoning.” THE OXIDATION OF PHENOM. 143 INFLUENCE OF THE GLASS OF THE CONTAINING VESSEL ON THE RATE OF COLORATION. Different varieties of glass have been found to show different absortion values to short wave lengths. Atmospheric air is more opaque to the most chemically active ultra-violet rays than fluorspar, rock salt, or quartz.?7 Phenol exposed to the action of the sun’s rays is colored more rapidly under quartz glass than under ordinary glass. A sample of pure phenol was divided into two equal portions in watch glasses, one covered by a clear ‘glass dish and the other by a quartz dish of almost exactly the same thick- ness, and placed side by side in the sun. The sample protected by the quartz glass distinctly showed more coloration in two hours. After several days the coloration of the two samples was found to have deepened in about the same ratio. Two small, thin glass bulbs of equal size inclosing equal quantities ‘of phenol, were placed in the sun, one protected by a soda-glass dish and one by a quartz dish. The coloration was noticeably more rapid under the quartz than under the soda glass. Layers of equal thickness showed the difference in color to be marked when viewed through a color comparator. THE PRODUCTION OF OZONE IN THE SUNLIGHT. Atmospheric air and oxygen are ozonized by ultra-violet rays. Lenard * has shown that under their influence gases become conducting and in ‘the case of oxygen, ozone is formed. These effects were brought about in air by the short wave lengths to which the atmosphere is comparatively opaque. Lenard’s ” ‘observations that coal gas or an atmosphere charged with coal gas is even more ‘opaque to the short wave lengths than pure air has been confirmed by J. J. ‘Thomson.” Regner * has found the wave lengths below 200 wu to be ozone produ- cing, while those above 257 wu have the opposite effect. Since Meyer * observed that the ozone absorption spectrum shows a maximum at wave length 257 yu, it is to be expected that these waves will be most active in the process of deozoni- zation. The oxygen absorption spectrum™ begins about the wave length 193 wu ‘and extends farther into the ultra-violet and Lenard™ found that the region of ‘greatest ozone production lies between the wave lengths 140 to 190 up. Since only the absorbed rays produce chemical reactivity it is evident that, as the character of the vibrations changes from the shorter to the longer wave lengths, the ozonization process is changed to one of 7 Lenard, Ann. d. Phys. (1900), 306, 486. 2 Ann. d. Phys. (1900), 70, 486. 2» Phil. Mag. (1897), 43, 254. 2» Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. (1903), 14, 419. 4 Ann. d. Phys. (1906), 325, 1033. 2Tbid. (1903), 12, 849. *® Kreusler, Ann. d. Phys. (1901), 6, 418. i * Toc. cit. 144 GIBBS. deozonization, the change in wave length producing this effect being about 60 pp; that is, from 193 to 257 pu. The sun’s rays being a mixture of wave lengths constantly changing in character as they pass through the earth’s atmosphere, the shorter being absorbed, and, as suggested by Fisher and Braehmer,®® with the formation of ozone, it is reasonable to suppose that the ozonization process gradually changes to one of de- ozonization as the earth’s surface is approached and that greater quantities of ozone are not found near the surface, not so much through the destrue- tion of ozone by oxidation, as Fisher and Braehmer have advanced, as through the influence of the longer wave lengths,** the temperature also being an important factor. From the experiments of Regener it may be assumed that there is an equilibrium between O, and O,, at every tem- perature, and that the concentrations of the molecular oxygen and the ozone depend, other conditions being equal, upon the concentrations or intensities of the various absorbed wave lengths in the rays to which the gas mixture is exposed. Moreover Briner and Durand * have found that the temperature is an important factor in this equilibrium. Oxygen, under the influence of the silent discharge, reaches an equilibrium with 11 per cent ozone formation at —78°, while at —194° the conversion to ozone is practically quantitative. Elster and Geitel found that amalgams of sodium or potassium in- ~ closed in glass vessels loose a negative charge in the daylight. J. J. Thom- son,** referring to their work, stated that “The glass vessel would stop any small quantity of ultra-violet light which might be left in the light after its passage through the atmosphere.” In this reference he must have had in mind the shorter wave lengths, for it can not be doubted but that wave lengths shorter than 300 pp reach the surface of the earth. Edmond Becquerel,®® sixty-six years ago, with a crude apparatus and a flint-glass prism, succeeded in photographing the sun’s spectrum to about % Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1905), 38, 2639. 83 Qzone in the upper atmosphere will be swept to the surface by air currents. The variation in the amounts found in the surface atmosphere may be thus accounted for. Peyrou (Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1894), 119, 1206) could find ozone in the atmosphere of Paris only when there were high winds. He, however, rather at- tributes the results to the circulation of ozone formed over growing crops. De Thierry (Ibid. (1897), 124, 460) has observed that the quantity of ozone in the atmosphere increases with the altitude. At Chamonix, altitude of 1,050 meters, the amount found was 3.5 milligrams, while at Grands-Mulets, Mont Blanc, altitude 3,020 meters, 9.4 milligrams per 100 cubic centimeters were found. Hartley (Journ. Chem. Soc. London (1881), 39, 127) states, “The foregoing experiments and considerations have led me to the following conclusions: First, that ozone is a normal constituent of the higher atmosphere. Second, that it is in higher proportion there than near the earth’s surface.” 57 Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1907), 145, 1272. 8 Conduction of Electricity through Gases, Cambridge Uniy. Press (1906), 251. °° Ann. d. chim. et phys. (1843), III, 9, 298. CO,-++-N,-+2H,0 In alkaline solution with hypobromites. CO(NH,),.+-30 —> CO,+-N,-++2H.,Q. 2NH,-+-30 —> N,+3H,0. CO(NH,),+3Na0Br+2Na0H —> 3NaBr+Na,C0;+-N,+3H,0 2NH,+3Na0Br —> N,+3NaBr-+3H,0. The gas evolved by reason of the action of urea on an alkaline hypo- bromite solution is nitrogen. Both nitrogen and carbon dioxide are given off by the action of urea on the acid mercuric nitrate solution and as they are evolved in equal volumes, half of the gas obtained is 155 156 BACON. nitrogen. Ammonia, as stated above, has no effect on this reagent, whereas with the hypobromite solfition the ammonia is also oxidized to nitrogen. Consequently, by oxidizing a solution containing ammonia and urea in two separate pieces of apparatus and noting the amount of gas obtained after the action of each reagent, it becomes a simple matter of calculation to ascertain the respective quantities of urea and ammonia in the original solution. I have devised the following simple form of apparatus for carrying out these determinations. (See fig. 1.) Two pieces of apparatus are used. A is a tube holding 10 cubic centimeters, graduated in 0.1. B is a glass bulb having a capacity of 20 cubic centimeters. The tube C of about 1-millimeter bore leads from the top of the latter to the graduated eudiometer below. To avoid making the apparatus inconveniently long I have inserted a gas chamber just below the zero mark F of the eudiom- eter; this in the apparatus used with the hypobromite solution has a capacity of 30 cubic centimeters and in the one used with the mercuric nitrate solution one of 60 cubie centimeters. The remainder of the eudiometer H is graduated in 0.1 up to 100 cubie centimeters. To measure the gases under the same conditions of pressure, a jacket tube, G@, of the form shown in the illustration is provided. For the determination in alkaline solution this is filled with water, but for that in acid solution glycerine, mercury, or some other liquid which does not absorb carbon dioxide must be used. Details of the manipulation are as follows: The mercuric nitrate reagent is prepared by dissolving 10 cubic centimeters of mercury in 130 cubic centimeters of strong nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.4). When solution is complete, 140 cubic centimeters of water are added and, if necessary, the whole is filtered. The reagent keeps well. 10 cubic centimeters of this solution (preferably hot) are run into the bulb B of the proper apparatus, the level of the liquid is brought to the zero of the ureometer by raising or lowering the apparatus, and the stop-cock H is closed. Then 5 cubic centimeters of the urine (or a sufficient amount of urine to eyolye a quantity of gas which will fall on the graduated part of the ureometer) is placed in A, and the ureometer is raised until its lower level is just below the surface of the liquid in the jacket G. The urine is then run in slowly by opening the stop-cock H until only a few drops remain in A. Two or three cubic centimeters of water are added to A to wash in these last few drops of urine and this is also run into the bulb B, care being taken, of course, not to admit any air into B. The gas evolution soon begins and may be assisted by shaking the apparatus gently. When the evolution of gas has ceased and the latter has attained the room temperature, the ureometer is lowered until the liquid level is the same inside and outside the eudiometer tube and the gas volume is read. The manipulation with the hypobromite is just the same as with the mercuric nitrate solution, and the urine is added to each solution within a few minutes, so that the gas volumes in both pieces of apparatus may be read off at the same time, both then being under the same conditions of tempera- ture and pressure, no correction is necessary for these factors, as the ammonia index is a percentage coéfficient. The hypobromite reagent is conveniently pre- pared by adding 1 cubie centimeter of bromine to 10 cubic centimeters of a 20 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide. AMMONIA COKEFICIENT OF URINES. 157 In making the calculation of the ammonia coéfficient from the volumes of gas obtained, it is evident that this would be exceedingly simple if the reactions were quantitative. Unfortunately, this is not the case. One gram of urea treated with the mercuric nitrate reagent gives 724 cubic centimeters of the gases, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, instead of the calculated 744 cubic centimeters, an error of 2.67 per cent. One gram of urea with the alkaline hypobromite solution gives only 354.3 cubic centimeters of nitrogen instead of the calculated 372.7 cubic centi- meters. I have obtained from one gram of ammonium chloride 208 cubic centimeters of the gas, instead of the calculated 211 cubic centimeters. All these volumes were measured under standard conditions of tem- perature and pressure, although for the purpose of the determination of the ammonia coéfficient of urine it is not necessary to reduce the volume of the gas to standard conditions. It is only required that the gases in the two ureometers should have the same temperature and be under the same pressure, as the actual quantities of urea and ammonia are not required, but only their ratio. ‘To avoid calculation in the future, I have prepared a table giving the ammonia coéfficient corresponding to various volumes of gases. The number of cubic centimeters of urine plus wash water is subtracted from the observed volume of gas and the ammonia index is then read off directly from the table. The table is calculated by dividing the number of cubic centimeters of gas obtained from the mer- curic nitrate solution by 2.05. This number is then subtracted from the number of cubic centimeters of gas liberated from the hypobromite solu- tion, and the ratio of this remainder to the total cubic centimeters of gas from the hypobromite, represents the ammonia coéfficient, as ex- pressed by a formula: M (1-35) Soe A= H Where A is the ammonia coéfficient. M = number of cubic centimeters of gas from the mercuric nitrate solution. H = number of cubic centimeters of gas from the hypobromite solution. 825925 BACON. 158 | | | | } | | . P90 (ep |e epe PTE EE | | ae pe epee Percale sg oar Peres sl eoeee tegen eo ali es “|| 08) 8 P'Le | TES GROG |aePIeN eS) CIO |PxO Le Sue) | Ce |e laine Fpeealpe ssa paaee Poeserltaror apse oac|eer a GHles | 8°83 PEG Te | RL | SRG Tall Oe | Ta) | eS 22pm |iecCl bn [nen | emacs | a | ania Re zas oes peters Cees ---| 9119 | 363 | | a'0z | Ger | £90 | SFL | B'cL | 401} 9°8 | 39 | rae clean 3 ease alesoee u\s | BCT Gy) OEM a Gea AT e7 ae TS a ls ale ec i (a Tas sl a om eae "| 91S aca Cpe || geteqe |) pees PONTE EY NY YG EES fil Ge =o 6'AT | 0'9L | OFT | GIT) 46 | PL | 0°G #1) 5 eae L'6E | GLE | o'er | o'er | OT | 2°83 | 89 el 5 sass erctes | a'02 | PSE | 9°9L | FFE | G'2E | OOF | 97% aL) & Psa pte | ¢'6r | 9-20 | 9'9L | o's | SIT} 06 | e'9 | 68 [--—— eel aai| afl saan ee | 4:02 | Ser | 8°90 | 8°FL | 9°er | oot |e |e'@ fo || OL) Saale 9'¢¢ | 61a | 0°02 | OSL | O'9T | 8’st | 9'IT| a6 | 9°9 | oF 69| & Ieuan aera esa || (Ta || catia || eta || eon || aw Tepe |) CAFeke |) Caryn |) HE) | zt) |e ee a yn craso(roaaes, 6a | TFs | Fao | G'0a | 9'8L | POT | BL] GIL | P68 | 89 . Boao ealee ses 8°92 | ea | Fea | Ga | Ser | FE | Ter | over | 9'0r | 0'8 5 Fee wh as | 6° | G92 | "FG | 9°%s | 2°0G | LST | 9°9T | 6's | BIT | 46 5 16a | FZ | 4'¢2 | 6'€G. | O'S | 0'0G | GLE | Ler | 8’sT | BOL 2 Z'08 | 9'82 | 89a | T'Ga | 3'8a | ots | o’6L | OL | L°FL | "or 3 Pe | 4°62 | 1°82 | 8°94 | SFG | Gree | 0a | eB | T'9T | 4’er a cae | 608 | a’6a | S20 | 4°9a | 8°62 | BTS | L°6E | S*AT | T’eT a 9°28 | 0'2e | P08 | 4°82 | 0°40 | Esc | Tez | O'TG | 8°8T | GOT 2 | sp | ep | oe | i | op | ee | se | ze | 96 | ce | te | g8 | es | Te | 08 *WOTINIOS a}TMIOIGOdAY YIM 8BS JO S1OJIMITYUD OIqNd JO IoqUINN ‘sauin fo mapur muouwmp 247 Dunjnojno .0og—] AIA, AMMONIA COEFFICIENT OF URINES. ~ 159 . To render this table reasonably compact I have calculated it only for entire cubic centimeters. In the most frequently occurring cases, where fractions of a cubic centimeter of gas are involved, the ammonia coéfii- cient may he very easily interpolated, from the numbers given in this table. I also present a table (IL) calculated from that of Vanino? whereby the actual quantity of urea in a urine may be ascertained from the num- ber of cubie centimeters of gas evolved by the mercuric nitrate solution. To obtain the amount of urea, the number of cubic centimeters of gas obtained is multiplied by the number given in the table corresponding to the temperature and pressure of the gas, thus: if 76.4 cubic centimeters’ of gas were found at 25° and 734 millimeters’ barometric pressure, the urea amounts to 76.4 & 1.181—0.091 gram urea. 1Ztschr. f. anal. Chem. (1895), 34, 56. BACON. 160 ——— ROleet va ae sd GOG'L | LOGT | PIGL | OZG'L | 9ZT | CELL | SEZT | PFET | OG4L | 98G°L | S92'T | 69°L | GLA'T | G8A°L | L82°T Dice. “| GLE | FOGL | LIT | LIG@L | SA6°T | 626°C | SEGT | ThO'L | APO T | CSS L | 696 L | 99GL | GLC L | SLOT | €80°T UL) ap ec eae | S6L°T | OODLE | LOZT | SIGE | GIGT | C2G°L | GGT | A8G°L | PROT | GPGL | 99G°T | 892 T | B9G'L | S20°T | 08%°T (ages ane dae Z6L°L | AGEL | #00 | OLS | OTST | CooL | 822°C | PEST | OPE | OPaT | SCS | 6S%°L | G9a°L | TOL | L22°T Ue keer | S8E°L | S6L°L | 00OGT | 90Z°L | GIZT | SIZ‘T | FOL | TSB | Leak | Sha L | GFT | GOST | 29ST | LOST | PLa'T SOL eae Sar sas aia GST'L | OGLE | 46E°L | 80G'T | 60G°T | SIGL | Tao LT | L0Z'L | PEST | GEST | OFZ T | CSZT | 8G6'T | F96T | OLZ'T (AS ale AS aes @E'T | ASI'L | POLL | OOGL | 90GT | GIST | LIST | FosL | OS4'L | 984°L | SPOT | SPSL | GGT | O9G°T | 292°T (Oe a eran | GLEE | PSE'L | TELL | LLL | $OGL | GOST | PIG'L | 123'T | L2Z'L | S8UT | GEST | SHAT | Zee't | Ac27L | e90'T (Paes eee LUT | OST'T | ABET | S6E°L | GOEL | GOST | TIGL | AIST | bea | OFS L | OOL | GET | SPOT | SGT | 096'T | 2 Ss eo ee | GLEE | ALL°L | PSEL | OBL'T | 96L°T | 204'L | LOT | PICT | Test | 920° | cesT | 880° | ShoL | OSs'r | 9ca'T Tee PSU ae: | 6OL'T | FALL | ISTE | ABEL | S6E°L | 662 L | FOGT | TIGL | AIG]L | $2G'L | OST | GEST | TOT | LOL | Sc2'T CEL. ieiaeee es | 9OL°L | TALL: | SATE | FSET | OBL'L | 96L'T | OGL | L0G'L | SIG T | 026 | 926° | Gest | 88'T | PROT | OSG'T () Dr acpi s aee | TOE'E | 29L | ArT | Gate | eenn | tert | sext | o'r | oreT | o12‘t | ceo't | Seo'E | Fest | One. | 9Fe'T CSiss= aa > aR ; SSL°T | POLL | OALL | OALL | GSLL | SSLL | FELL | LOST | 906 | SIGT | SIGT | Sco" TSG'L | 98G'L | €ha'T GON agaac eae ppt | CCL'L | OOL'T | LOEL | SALT | GALL | G8L'L | I6L TL | S6L°L | SO6'T | OLGL | SI@T | G26 | Leet | S86 L | OFZ T Roh ace quer s eee } ICE-T | 2SE°r | SOrE | G90°E | G20-T | Tet'T | srr | PEEL | OOS LT | 902°T | GI@L | SIGT | FeG'T | O86T | SET (42) Aen eae | SPELT | FSET | OOL T | OOTL | GALT | SALT | PSET | T6E LT | 96L°T | SOG LT | G00 | PICT | 1G | 906° T | CET OS2nss Seca, so SSPLAE [Tener | err | ore | eon | GAcT | Terr | S8SL°L | S62 L | 00G'T | COGT | TIT | SIZT | €22T | 820'T alta me oe | TPR LE | APLLD | S802 |} GEE LT | SOL |} TLL || S40 tr | @SL'T O6L'L | 96L'L | COSTE | 80G'L | FIST | O22 T | S2o'T OG testa 3 oe eo) } SSI°L | PRE'L | OST°E | 9GE°L | COLL | SOL'T | GATT | O8L'L | O8L'L | SELL | GLE | FOV | OIE | 9TSL | Zeer ROLea enero poe * | CSL | TPL T LPL T | SCL | 6S2 LT | COLL | TALL | ZALT | SSL LE | G8LL | C6E LT | LOGT | 900T | SIG T | 616 T (dips Pore a Bes ee | EVIE [ASE | TEE | GPL°L | GCL°L | TOLL | SOLL | SLL LE | OSL'L | BLL | COLL | S6L°E | 8O2'L | OIG TL | SIS T 002283 > a ae | ScI°L | PSL L | OPEL | OPE L' | GCL LT | SCLL | COLL | OLE'T | LAT T | C8L'L | 680 LE | C6LT | OO T | COZ TL | GIST “UU UL IOJOMMOLBET | 008 066 086 | oG 096 0fG oPG =|" 086 0GG olG 00% o6L o8T oLlT o9f | £66 T 686 T 986 T G86 T 6L6'T 916 'T CLOT 696 °T 996 °T 196 T 862 °T ccs 'T Go 8FG T cre T GGT LECT P86'T 0&6 ‘T LOG $661 10G'T LG 'T oST “nN “OO) aunque spb sajawmujuan a1gno [ 02 burpuodsas1o9 pawn fo swpsbyjum ur zybiaM— JT ATAV,L, er pe ptenrOL Fp ee eID Ls ees ODL eae pene Rukia) Rapeocy awe RE Sy ak Meee Ripa ar ramon lds Se siggs eam SOP “CPL Grey eegaare cs 0Gk “UU Ul JojoMO0IBg AMMONIA COEFFICIENT OF URINES. 161 I have made over two hundred determinations to test the accuracy of this method of estimating the ammonia coéfficient, for the greater part using known quantities of urea and ammonium chloride. A series of these results is given below in Table III. In the determination of the ammonia coéfficient in the urines listed, the figure given under the heading “Calculated” represents the value obtained by determining total nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method and the ammoniacal nitrogen by distillation with powdered magnesia according to the standard method. Taste IIT. Number of Number of Perob sis ce. of gas | Ammonia} Gajoy_ Taken. Pere ninic with alka- | coefficient lated : nitrate. | ive hypo-| found. SES ale bromite reagent. 3 0.08 gram urea in 5 ec. of water -_---_-__-__---_-- } 65.0 33.7 5.9 5,6 0.008 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water --__-_---_____- 0.08 gram urea in 5 ce. of water --___-___________- } 61.0 33.5 10.4 10.6 0.016 gram NH,Cl in 5 cc. of water -----_-----___- 0.1 gram urea in 5 ec. of water -----__----_-----__ \ 75.0 47.5 21.6 93.5 0.05 gram NH,Cl in 5 ee. of water _____--------_-- 0.1 gram urea in 5 ce. of water ___ } 77.0 43.0 12.8 12.4 0 025 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water --_------__-_-- 0.1 gram urea in 5 ce. of water ----__--_-__ 77.5 44.8 14.7 14.2 0.03 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water 0.1 gram urea in 5 cc. of water __-___----_--_-_--_-- 77.2 45.9 18.1 18.3 0.04 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water 0.1 gram urea in 5 ce. of water __-__-____-________ 78.1 40.3 5, 45 5.6 0.01 gram NH,Cl in 5 ee. of water 0.1 gram urta in 5 ce. of water _-----.----_-_-___- 76.2 39.1 5.0 5.6 0.01 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water Oieram ures in’5 ce: of water —-—2-=—--— === 76.0 47.8 22.1 93.5 0.05 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water 0.1 gram urea in 5 ce. of water --__----_--_-______ } 76.8 50.0 25.0 24.9 0.06 gram NH,Cl in 5 ee. of water -____-_-_____-__- 0:1 gram urea in 5 ce. of water —----_----_-_-_____ } 76.8 59.8 29,0 98,1 0.07 gram NH,Cl in 5 ee. of water ---------------- 0.1 gram urea in 5 ce. of water ___--_-_---__-_-__- } 77.2 54.0 30.4 31.0 0.08 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water __-____-----____- 0.1 gram urea in 5 ce. of water ___ Saas } 77.0 57.0 33.6 93.4 0.09 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water ----_------__--- 0.1 gram urea in 5 cc. of water___--__--_-_----__- \ 17.5 59.6 35.8 35.2 0.1 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water -----__-___-____- 0.1 gram urea in 5 cc. of water-_-—------_5__--____- } 77.5 60.0 36.4 35.2 0.1 gram NH,Cl in 5 ce. of water ----------------- 01 gram urea in 5 ee. of water -________-_-_______ \ 76.1 59.4 37.5 35.2 0.1 gram NH,Cl in 5 ec. of water ------_-----____- 3 TeSHMOLM aM elo) CC mee ee eer 38.0 17.8 4.3 4.1 Urine very much decomposed, 5 ce - 20.3 17.9 44,4 45.9 Hreshenorm glsurin elo! C Cassese eee 64.2 32.8 4.5 4.1 a 69.4 35.4 4.5 4.1 Urine 24 hours’ old, 5 ee___- 57.2 30.3 7.6 Yo) Urine 2hoursy oldii5iccssss eee ene 52.4 32,1 20.6 19.9 162 BACON. Taste IJI—Continued. Number of Number of Ces ee ce. of gas | Ammonia with alka-| coefficient greene Seep pO- found. reagent. (Urin epresmancyiCase) eee ee ee 31.4 16.6 7.8 Urine pregnancy case, duplicate determination. Urine 3 hours older, no new Kjeldahl made on this one -_-----__ Se i eee ee ee 32.9 17.4 8.0 Urine, fresh normal 65.0 33.3 5.1 Urine, fresh normal, duplicate____---_-________-- 65.5 33.6 4.8 Urine saboutel weekly seen eee 34.6 23.1 26.8" Urine about 24 hours’ old ~--_--_______----------- 51.0 26.7 6.7 persons suffering with various diseases. ‘The results will be publishe later. EDITORIAL THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF MACHINE- AND HAND- STRIPPED ABACA FIBER.?. Promoters of hemp-stripping machines have from time to time main- tained that the hand-stripped fiber is not as strong as the machine- stripped hemp. It is of considerable importance to the Manila hemp industry to substantiate these claims, as there seems to be little doubt but that in a few years a large part of the abaca leaves will be stripped by machines, and if the machine-stripped hemp is stronger than the hand-stripped variety, the whole Manila hemp industry will be very materially benefited. ‘The present active competition which Manila hemp must meet with the sisal and maguey fibers is largely due to the fact that these latter are machine-stripped, and consequently more uniform and stronger than retted or hand-stripped fibers of the same species. I have made tests on the comparative tensile strength of machine- and hand-stripped abaca fibers. In the first series of tests, stalks from the same plantation of the same age were selected at random, one-half were stripped on the machine and one-half by hand. ‘The latter represented the best grade of hand-stripping, with a smooth-edged knife, and the resulting hemp was much cleaner than that usually found in the market. While the aboye method of selection would not be rigid without a very large number of tests, still the results obtained so markedly and uni- formly point in the same direction that little doubt is left as to the relative strength of the fibers. In making the tests, ten fibers at one time were twisted together and the number of kilos necessary to break them measured with a Riehle testing machine. Fifty lots of ten fibers each of hand- and machine-stripped hemp of the same length were then weighed to obtain the average weight of the fibers, so that any differences in breaking strain could not be ascribed to different sizes of the fibers used. An arbitrary strength factor X was then calculated, representing the breaking strength divided by the weight of the fibers. The results of the first series of tests are presented in Table I. 1These tests were made possible through the kind codperation of Mr. M. A. Clarke, the machine used being that of the Manila Hemp Machine Company. 163 164 EDITOREAL. TABLE I. lea ast wel ee = z ae fatec ro ae = = ar ar eee | Break- | Break- | f ing nae ing Class of fiber. | strength Class of fiber. latran ete | | | in kilos. | | in kilos. | MMe ee ic | Mindoro machine-stripped__ 21.4 | Davao machine-stripped _____ 31.4 | DOs sears. eee ee ek | 23.8 )---- dot i532 see j 33.6 Dee eae ene ee Re 1 ANSO4R0N EE OR een eee ee, a | 81.0 Doe ee ses eee |i 206) | ele eee ee 34.5 | TG tes ee) Neg ol | 434.0 \| Mindoro hand-stripped -_____ 14.5 | Doses ae en Du Atal Scat cho eee = eek es | 18.6 | | Do =k) vine eee yes GOse stele | 16.3 | I | N02 2% 2 | -8 || (3 (0 eee See eee eee | 14.1 | DOES. Sees aa ae eae | 24.5 Paceel dO;=2232538-4"5 2 es #20.4 | DOiw eee een, 659i |e AG 2 ee ee 14.5 Doss ereeee Sioapee eed |" poet} Bf] ete sek elute ne wan Sea lievestaea Dowie See em Senate 27.6 | She Soe Of net SUE ree eee een Don Se Cats | Wee 3 0). ee ee 12.7 Dayao machine-stripped ____| 32.6 | eat’, do S82) eee eed7a7 Down ee an eee ees 34.0i{|22.000 25 ee a see eee ae eke) Doe ae ee SP) |e Ost See Se ee ee 14.1 | DO v eae ee eke eee {ORS "| See CO Sakon ares na imeem ee 15.4 | | | a Picked samples. The averages for the first series of tests are as follows: Number} Bréak- | Average | Strength of ing weight of Class. determi-/| strength | 10 fibers factor, nations. | in kilos. |in grams. | Mind oromma chin esate sees eee 13 25.3 0. 0509 50 | NaN (ohio) TN OVO = ee ee 13 15.4 0. 0510 30 IDPS FENG) ana¥sNCC as Oey se ne 9 35.4 0.0716 48 | | | In the second series of tests each leaf was split into two parts, one- half was stripped by machine and the other half by hand. This lot of hemp was from Albay Province. The numbers opposite each other represent the same leaf, and hence are comparable. The results are presented in Table II. Tasre II. Breaking strength | Breaking strength in kilos. in kilos. Machine-| Hand- | Machine-) Hand- stripped. | stripped. || stripped. | stripped. 26.8 11.4 17.8 11.8 19.9 14.0 19.5 10.9 28.4 14.4 }} © 21.8 18.2 22.3 10.9 20.9 | 7.2 21.0 11.4 27.3 11.8 23.1 10.9 16.8 11.4 26.4 13.2 16.8 11.8 11 5.6 a21.0| 912.2 16.8 11.8 15.0 8.6 a Averages. EDITORIAL. 165 The average weight of the two classes of fibers in this last series was the same, so that their relative tensile strength is correctly given by the average breaking strain. Many other determinations with the same results have been made. There is little doubt but that the machine-stripped fiber is very con- siderable stronger than the hand-stripped variety. ‘To give a reason for this difference is another matter. Examination under the microscope showed that both classes of fibers were quite clean and revealed no differences between them. It is my opinion that the difference is due to the continuous, steady pull of the fiber under the machine’s knife as compared to the intermittent jerky pull which is necessary in hand stripping. ‘The jerks of the hand-stripper strain the fibers so as very markedly to lower their tensile strength. Confirmatory evidence for this theory is given by the fact that hand-stripped hemp shows very many broken fibers, so that a bundle of this class of abaca consists of a series of shorter and longer fibers, while the machine-stripped abaca has prac- tically no fibers broken and all are of the same length. The advent of the hemp-stripping machine should very materially advance the quality of Manila hemp. Raymonp F. Bacon. THE EXCRETA OF THE PYTHON. The Biological Laboratory of this Bureau has one young python, the exereta of which I have examined. ‘This python is now about 18 months old. It is 2.4 meters long and is already so strong that it is very difficult for one man to handle it. This snake eats on an average once in eight days, the meal consisting of one large guinea pig or two rats. It may perhaps be of interest to note that none of the pythons in ‘captivity in Manila must be forced to eat, as is often the case in colder climates. The exeretum is passed two days after feeding as a white, slightly moist solid, accompanied by a considerable quantity of water, which carries most of the mineral constituents in solution. Ten grams of the solid portion of the excreta, dried in vacuo, lost 10.3 per cent water. Ten grams of dried exereta distilled with sodium hydrate gave 0.87 gram of ammonia and 8.9 grams uric acid. The calculated amount of am- monia for 8.9 grams uric acid, to form ammonium acid urate is 0.899. The solid excreta of the python are, therefore, almost pure ammonium acid urate. Raymonp F. Bacon. 166 EDITORIAL. A RUBBER VINE. The woody, climbing vine Parameria philippenensis Radlk, is very abundant in the Philippines. The bark of this vine contains a rubber- like gum, which, however, does not flow sufficiently upon tapping to obtain it in that manner. ‘There is such a large quantity of this vine in the Islands of Mindoro and Cebu that at various times companies have been formed to exploit this product commercially as a rubber-yielding plant. At the present time, the bark, which in Tagalog is called lagulaoay, is macerated with coconut oil or some other fatty oil, and the resulting thick solution of the gum is used by the natives in treating wounds, the solution acting like surgeon’s plaster. It is claimed that by its use infection is absolutely prevented. This was the only disinfectant carried by the Filipino insurgent armies and was used entirely to prevent infections of wounds during the Philippine insurrection. Whether or not it has any value for these purposes can not at present be stated. Analyses of the bark show that it contains from 4 to 5 per cent of this rubber-like gum. Several experiments were made on methods looking toward its extraction on a large scale. The bark of the vine is easily ground to a coarse powder, from which gasoline extracts practically all the rubber. A sticky, greenish, resimous mass was obtained on distilling the gasoline. It was not in this manner possible to obtain a rubber which was not decidedly tacky. Carbon bisulphide gave better results, the rub- ber being strong and not sticky. The freshly extracted rubber is yellow, but it soon turns black in the air and becomes somewhat tacky. Our experiments seem to show that the commercial utilization of the Parame- ria vine as a source of rubber is very doubtful. Much more can be expected from the rubber gum from the various species of Ficus, which is one of the most abundant trees in the Islands. We will soon take up a study of these Ficus rubbers. Raymonp F. Bacon. NOTE ON THE ACTION OF SODIUM ALCOHOLATES ON ALCOHOLS. Guerbet + has recently published results which demonstrate that when sodium benzylate is heated with members of the lower series of fatty alcohols from 200° to 220°, the hydrogen in the alcohol is substituted by a benzyl group. Thus, with ethyl aleohol he obtained the alcohol C,H, .CH,.CH,.CH,.OH, ete. When he substituted aromatic al- 1 Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1908), 146, 1405. EDITORIAL. 167 cohols for the aliphatic he obtained hydrocarbons. Thus, for example, with benzyl alcohol and sodium benzylate, he did not obtain phenyl benzyl carbinol, but stilben, diphenyl, and toluol. The publication of these results induces me to call attention to some experiments made in connection with my studies on sodium benzhydrol and sodium benzylate.? I have found by many experiments in which I heated sodium benzhydrol with methyl and ethyl alcohol to between 250° and 300° in sealed tubes that it was not possible to substitute hydrogen in these alcohols under the given conditions. There were obtained with ethyl alcohol and sodium benzhydrol, instead of the expected diphenyl propyl alcohol the follow- ing: Benzol; diphenyl methane; sodium benzoate; tetraphenyl ethylene and ethane; ethylene; ethyl ether, and acetaldehyde condensation pro- ducts; in other words, simply the decomposition products, at this tem- perature, of sodium benzhydrol and of sodium ethylate. It would also seem theoretically improbable that vv diphenyl propyl alcohol could be formed at this temperature, for the very similarly constituted benzhydrol very readily decomposes at 300°. ‘The results of Guerbet are self-evident from the work of Nef on sodium alcoholates, and from my work on sodium benzhydrol and sodium benzylate. The methylene hypothesis of Nef, assuming an equilibrium between di- and tetra-valent carbon, is not only a very satisfactory explanation for the chemical behavior of alkyl halides and of metallic alcoholates, but makes it possible to predict with a considerable degree of accuracy the reaction between these compounds under yarious conditions. Fromm obtained symmetrical tetraphenyl butane as one of the products of the dissociation by heat of benzyl sulphide. According to the theory of Nef, this must have been formed by the addition of phenyl methylene to dibenzil, the latter resulting from the union of two phenyl methylene particles and the subsequent reduction of the stilben, thus formed, these reactions are represented by equations as follows: (1) (C,H,CH.),S—> C,H,CH<-+H.S (2) 20,H,. CH<—> C,H, .CH : CH. C,H, (3) O,H,CH : CHC,H,+H.S —=> C,H; . CH, . CH, .C,H,;-+S C;H;.CH, H,C.C,H; | (4) 2C.H;.CH<+C,H,. CH, .CH,.C,H;—>C.H; .C———C . C,H; H H To confirm this method of the formation of symmetrical tetraphenyl butane I chose the benzyl ester of an acid which on decomposition would yield products which could reduce the stilben first formed in the reaction, 2Am. Chem. Journ. (1905), 33, 68. 8 Ber. d. deutschen chem. Ges. (1903), 36, 534. ee Pe 168 EDITORIAL. as special experiments showed that the heat dissociation of benzyl eat _ zoate yielded principally tetraphenyl ethylene, and no symmetrical tetra- 4a phenil butane. To this end I heated two molecular quantities of benzyl — chloride with one molecular amount of anhydrous potassium oxalat a sealed tube from 160° to 200° for-four hours. I Shain ee per cent yield of symmetrical tetraphenyl butane melting at 255°. is the best method thus far suggested for preparing this yates ‘ Raymonp F. Bacon: REVIEW. Soils and Fertilizers. By Harry Snyder, B. S. Third edition. Cloth. Pp. Xv+-350. Price, $1.25 net. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1908. This book is primarily intended as a text and manual for agricultural instruction. It presents in a brief but comprehensive form the physical and chemical principles of the science. Only one chapter is devoted to the physical properties of soils; this seems rather too brief in view of their relative importance. The chapters on chemical composition of soils, fertilizers, soil preparation, and crop rotation are especially com- plete and should prove valuable not only to the student in the classroom, but to the practical agriculturist as well. Much of the subject matter discussed, particularly the questions of soil nitrogen and humus, is based upon the author’s extensive work in this field of investigation, hence the facts are presented in a very con- vincing manner. \ The most important features of the work from the students’ stand- point are the chapters on laboratory practice and the review questions. The only reference throughout the book to the effect of climatic condi- tions on soil fertility is to the checking of nitrification by cold and strong sunlight, with the consequent general tendency to less soil nitrogen in southern latitudes. As the book is not written to meet the demands of tropical conditions, this can not be considered as an adverse criticism. The book is especially well illustrated throughout. G. F. R. 169 : ORDER ‘No. 201, * 202. 203. 43. ~ 45, 50. Sos 54. 56. 5. 58. ous “401. 402. 403. “a 404. re 406. (407. ARS 408, -1890.—Descripcién fisica, 55. 7904—Fifth Annual Report of the. Mining Bureau. 4 -405./ Vol. IV, Part ah, Rate 409. = PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS—Continued. Bureau of Science—Annual Reports, Fitth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Hnding ugust y Sixth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending _ August 1, 1907. Seventh Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Hnding August 1, 1908. Philippine Museum. (Now Section of Ornithology.)- , No. L5 1908.—On Birds. from Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Cuyo, Culion, Caga- yan Sulu and Palawan. By Richard C. McGregor, * No. 2, 1903.—List of Bird Skins Offered in Exchange. No. 3, 1904. -——Birds from Benguet Province, Luzon, and from the Islands of Lubang, Mindoro, Cuyo, and Cagayancillo. By Richard C. McGregor. "Meare 1904.—The Birds of Calayan and Fuga, Babuyan Group. By Richard €. eGregor. 3 $ Mining Bureau. (Now Division of Mines.) geolégica y Minera en bosquejo dé la Isla de Panay por D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del Archipiélago. .* 1890.— Memoria descriptiva de los manantiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luz6n, estudiados por la comisién compuesta de los Senores D: José Centeno, Inge- niero de Minas y Vocal. Presidente, D. Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Vocal Far- macéutico, y D. José de Vera y Gomez, Vocal Médico. 5 1893.—Estudio descriptivo de algunos manantiales minerales de Filipinas ejecutado por la comisién formada per D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas, D. José de Vera y G6mez, Médico, -y D. Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Far- macéutico; precedido de un prélogo..escrito por el Excmo. Sr. D. Angel de Avyilés, Director General de Administracién Civil. . 1893.—Terremotos experimentados en la Isla de Luz6én durante los meses de Marzo y Abril de 1892, especialmente desastrosos en Pangasinan, Uniédn y Benguet. Estudio ejecutado por D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del Arckipiélago. 1901.—The Coal Measures of the Philippines. Charles H. Burritt. 1902.—Abstract of the Mining Laws (in force in the Philippines, 1902). Burritt. Charles H. .1802., Bulletin No. 1.—Platinum and Associated Rare Metals in Placer Formations, H. D. McCaskey, B. S. 1903. a ReDOEL of the Chief of the Mining Bureau of the Philippine Islands. Charles H. Burritt. 1808, Bulletin No. 2.—Complete List of Spanish Mining Claims Recorded in the Mining Bureau. Charles H. Burritt. 1903, Bulletin No; 3.—Report on a Geological Reconnoissance of the Iron Region of Angat, Bulacan. H. D. McCaskey, B: S. H. D. McCaskey. 1905.—Sixth Annual Report of the Chief of the Mining Bureau. H. D. McCaskey. 1905, Bulletin No. 4.—A Preliminary Reconnoissance of the SUETNGE TENS Suyoe Mineral Region, Lepanto, P. I. A. J. Eveland, Geologist. 1905, Bulletin No, 5.—The Coal Deposits of Batan Island. Warren D. Smith, B. $., M. oA Geologist. 5 Division of Mines, 1908.—The Mineral Resources of the Philippine Islands, with a Statement of the Production of Commercial Mineral Products during the year 1907, issued by Warren D. Smith, Chief of the Division of Mines. Ethnological Survey. : a (Now Division of Ethnology.) - Vol. I, 1905. —The Bontoc Igorot, by Albert Ernest Jenks. Boe Vol. II, Part 1, 1904 SN SSUES of Zambales, by William Allen Reed. Paper, 0.50; half morocco, P1.50. Vol. II, Part 2-and Part 3, 1905: —The Nabaloi Dialect, by Otto Scheerer. The Bataks - of Palawan, by Edward Y. Milier. (Bound also in one yolume with Part 1, Negritos of Zambales.) Paper, 0.50; half morocco, ?1. 50. Combined, half -morocco, P3. Vol. IIT, 1904. —Relaciones Agustinianas de las razas del Norte de Luzon, by Perez. Paper, #0.75 ; half morocco, \P2. 1905.—Studies in Moro History, Law, and Religion, by Najeeb M. e > Saleeby. ~Paper, F0.50; half morocco, 1.50. fe Division of Ethnology. Vol, Iv, Part 2, 1908.—History of Sulu, by Najeeb M. Saleeby. Paper, P1.50. ‘Vol. V, "Part 1 and Part 2, 1908.—The Batan Dialect as a Member of the Philippine Group of Languages, by Otto Scheerer. “‘F’’ and “V” in Philippine Languages, by C. E. Conant. Paper, P1.60. Vot. V, Part 8—A Vocabulary of the Igorot Language as spoken by the Bontok Igorots, by. the Rev. Walter Clayton Clapp. Tgorot-Hnglish, English- ‘Tgorot. - Paper, #1:50. Mine swans for eu EROETS Ono Observations. and Collections, 1908. For free dis- PLR Ce , 3 NOTE: Paper, P2; half morocco, Those of the” above-listed publications which are for sale may be obtained from the _ Director. -of Printing, Manila, P. I. be had by writing to the Business WEES Baluppiae Journal of Science, Manila, P. I. ‘Please give order number, Publications for free distribution, listed above, may CRO a” > | é '* Out of print. CONTENTS. BACON, RAYMOND F. Philippine Terpenes and Es-~ sential Oils yD soe es A a ee tee ee GIBBS, H. D. The Oxidation of Phenol. The Effect of Some Forms of Light and of Active ree Upon Phenoliand#Anisolesss3 ots 2352 ee ee ee BACON, RAYMOND F. On a Rapid Clinical Method for Determining the Ammonia Coefficient of Urines - = ‘EDITORIALS Waal in eget yee Seat Dat Pe nea SZ oe SS ge PREV EW eae, PRBS Ed 16 pe eee The ‘‘Philippine Journal of Science” is issued as follows: - Section A. General Science, $2, United States currency, per year. Section B. Medical Sciences, $3, United States currency, per year. Section C. Botany, $2, United States currency, per year. The entire ‘Journal’ $5, United States currency, per year. Single numbers, 50 cents, United States currency. Authors receive 100 copies of their papers free. The numbers of each section will appear as rapidly as miatemal is available, Each seo. tion will be separately paged and indexed. | Subscriptions may be sent to the DIRECTOR OF PRINTING, Manila, P. I. Guetenneaies ence.should be addressed to the Business Manager, Philippine | Journal of _Solenisey, Manila, P, I. ; FOREIGN AGENTS. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York. — Messrs. WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W. C. tas MARTINUS NIJHOFF, Nobelstraat 18, ’s Gravenhage,, Holland, _ Messrs. MAYER & MULLER, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin, N. W. Messrs. KELLY & WALSH, LIMITED, 32 Raffles Place, Singapore,8.S. Messrs. A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 19 Baillie Street, Colombo, Ceylon. ; (Entered at the post- peice at Manila, P. I., as second-class matter.) ie A limited number of unbound ‘copies of previous -volum are available which may be secured from the Director Printing at the following rates: Volume I, 1906 (not divid into sections), $5, United States currency; Supplement to Vol. ume I, $2.50, United States currency; Volume I (wit O1 supplement), $3, United States GUSFaHEY? all later 1 ( at current Sabocepties prices.. A OF SCIENCE ees = EDITED BY [Seapets i DORE SUE a PAUL G FREER, M a Pu. D. anes - ee oes EDITOR, ee 2 - RIGHARD Pp STRONG, PH. B., M. D. 2 ee aes : we : ee THE ae OF eee *, a4 MERTON ie MILLER, Pu. D,; GEORGE F. RICHMOND, 4 WOD: SMITH, PH. De ALVIN J. COX, Pa. D. "RAYMOND F, BACON, Px. oe CHARLES S. BANKS, : eee D. GIBBS. B. 8.5 R. c. ‘McGREGOR, ee "PUBLISHED, BY ORDE No. 15. aly(- 19, 20. 21, 22. 24, 25. 26. 27. 28, 29. 30, 31. 32. 33. 35. 36. 39. 40. 101, 102. t03. PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS, Bureau of Government Laboratories, * No. 1, 1902, to No. 14, 1904. No, 15, 1904, Biological and Serum Laboratories.—Report on Bacillus Violacevus Ma- nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. * No, 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation against Asiatic Cholera: An Experimental Study. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. ae is eae or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D.- Merrill, otanist. * No. 48, 1904, Biological Laboratory—ti. Amebas; Their Cultivation and Etiologic Significance. By W. B. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of Intestinal Amebiasis (Amcbic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. E. Mus- grave, M. D, : Wo, 19, 1904, Biological Laboratory,—Some Observations on the Biology of the Chol- era Spirillum. By W. B. Wherry, M. D. Wo. 20, 1904.—Biological Laboratory: I, Does Latent or Dormant Plague Exist Where the Disease is Endemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum Laboratory: II. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with _B. Bovisepticus. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D, V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. 8. Serum Laboratory: V. Frambesia: Its Occurrence in Natives in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of Micro-Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. No. 22, 1904, Bureaw of Government Laboratories —I. A Description of the New Buildings of the Bureau of Goyernment Laboratories. By Paul GC. Freer, M. D., Ph. D. Il. A Catalogue of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Mary Polk, Librarian. *No. 23, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and Histopathology (Including a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers). By Maximilian Herzog, M. D. No. 24, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders: Its Diagnosis and Prevention (To- gether with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on the Bacteriology and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry, M.D. « No. 25, 1904.—Birds from the Islands of Remblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de~Gallo. By Richard C. McGregor. (for first four bulletins of the ornithological series, see Philippine Museum below.) ~ : No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’s Flora de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. 7 No. 28, 1904.—I. The Polypodiacee of the Philippine Islands. II. Edible Philip- pine Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D. < Wo. 29, 1904.—1. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, III. II. The Source of Manila Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. 2 : No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory—I. Autocatalytie Decomposition of Silver Oxide. II. Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D. No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—I. Notes on a Case of Hematochyluria (To- gether with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna). By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. McDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. II. A Search into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s “‘Peptone,” with Special Reference to Its Influence on the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera- Red Reactions.. By William B. Wherry M. D. - No. 22, 1905—Biological Laboratory: I. Intestinal Hemorrhage as a Fatal Com- plication in Amebic Dysentery and Its Association with Liver Abscess. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. II.-The Action of Various Chemical Substances upon Cultures of Amebe. By J. B: Thomas, M. D., Baguio, Benguet. Biological and Serum Laboratories: III. The Pathology of Intestinal Amebiasis. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and W. E. Musgrave, M.D. . No, 33, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—Further Observations on Fibrin Thrombosis in the Glomerular and in Other Renal Vessels in Bubonic Plague. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D. é " * No. 384, 1905.—1I. Birds from Mindoro and Small Adjacent Islands. II. Notes on Three Rare Luzon Birds. By Richard C. McGregor. ° No, 35, 1905.—I. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, IV. II. Notes on Cuming’s Philippine Plants in the Herbarium of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. III. Hackel, ‘“‘Notes on Philippine Grasses.” IV. Ridley, ““Scitaminee Philippinen- ses. V. Clarke, ‘‘Philippine Acanthacex.’’ By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 36, 1905.—A Hand-List of the Birds of the Philippine Islands, By Richard C. McGregor and’ Dean C. Worcester. * Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1902. (Appendix M of Third Annual Report of the Philippine Commission.) , *Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories in the Philippine Islands for the Year Ending’September 1, 1903. (Appendix G of the Fourth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission.) Third Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1904. : e Fourth Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1905. Bureau of Science—Publications. Price and Exchange List of Philippine Bird Skins in the Collection of the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. (Effective January 1, 1908.) No. 1, 1909.—A Check-List of Philippine Fishes. By David Starr Jordan and Robert Earl Richardson. In press. : No. 2, 1909.—A Manual of Philippine Birds. By Richard C. McGregor, Parts I and II. A systematic index to the orders, families, and genera. Paper, #8 for the two parts. R * Out of print. (Concluded on third page of cover.) ‘ ¢ a te ERE P INE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. GENERAL SCIENCE Vou. 1V MAY, 1909 No. 3 CALORIMETRY, AND THE DETERMINATION OF THE CALO- RIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE AND OTHER COALS FROM THE RESULTS OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. By Atvin J. Cox. (From the Laboratory of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) Many engineers are accustomed to judge of the steaming quality of coal from its specified heating value* rather than from the analysis of the fuel. ‘To determine this a steaming test is not satisfactory, because different furnaces give different values and the personal equation of firing and manipulation enter to a large degree into the results. Steam- ing tests are useful only for comparative purposes and then only when they are carried out in identical apparatus and under like conditions. The only absolutely reliable means of determining the heating value of a coal is by the use of a standard calorimeter which records accurately. There are many kinds of calorimeters * of varying accuracy, some of which show discrepancies of as much as 15 per cent and are seldom if ever used. In general, the large apparatus is to be condemned, because it is impossible to detect the errors which creep in and to make allowance for them. This is not the place to describe the difficulties and defects connected with these calorimeters. Im all cases the +The heating value of a coal is expressed in calories. A calorie,.is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1° C. The “pound calorie” is sometimes used by English writers; it is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1° C. The figures would be the same in either case, for when the heating value of a coal is given in calories it means that 1 gram of coal will heat the given number of grams of water 1° C. or that 1 pound of coal will heat the given number of pounds of water 1° C. One British thermal unit is the heat necessary to raise 1 pound of water 1° F., therefore, 1 calorie=9/5 B. T. U. the end of this article. * A bibliography of the literature of calorimeters, arranged alphabetically, is given at the end of this article. 85320 171 ie: COX. burning takes place in pure oxygen. In all older calorimeters this occurs slowly under atmospheric pressure, while in a number of the more recent ones the explo- sion method is used; that is, the combustion occurs under a pressure of fifteen to twenty-five atmospheres. Another method used in some of the calorimeters is to effect combustion with combined oxygen. The explosion method is the one used in the Berthelot*® bomb and has the advantage over most of the other forms of apparatus in that perfect combustion is attained.* In 1892, Mahler® employed an enameled bomb and obtained results as satisfactory as with the platinum bomb of Berthelot, while the cost of the apparatus is much less. In 1849, Hempel ° intro- duced the idea of pressing the wire into the coal briquette for electrical incineration and in 1897 Kréker 7 added to the bomb a head which was fitted with two gas-tight yalyes, which greatly facilitates the determination of the products of combustion. These points are all included in the Berthelot-Mahler*® bomb calorimeter which ‘See bibliography. ; =< ‘Fries, J. A. (Journ. Am. Ohem. Soe. (1909), 31, 272), using an Atwood bomb (which is a modification of that of Berthelot) with a modified top has shown that the determination of carbon by means of it “is absolutely reliable and gives very accurate results.” 5Mahler, P! Ztschr. f. angew. Chem. (1892), 5, 491; (1898), 11, 865. ‘Hempel, W. Ibid. (1892), 5, 389; Langbein, H. Ibid. (1896), 9, 488. 7 Kroker. Jbid. (1898), 11, 865. * Calorimeter nach Berthelot-Mahler mit geiinderter Einrichtung der Verbren- nungsbombe (nach dem System yon Dr. K. Kréker). Verfertiger, Julius Peters, Berlin, N. W., Thurmstr. 4. This is an apparatus in which the combustibles are burned in compressed oxygen in a vessel, called a “bomb,” surrounded by a large quantity of water, and the products of combustion cooled by the water until the temperature is reduced to that of the water. Any water formed by the combustion is condensed, and its latent heat is also given up to the calori- meter. Corrections are made on the end temperature for the water yalue of the apparatus, for radiation and for the heat of formation of the products of combustion, including the water formed, and the difference determined between this result and the initial temperature. The increase in temperature is a measure of the heat-producing power of the coal. The calorific value is the product of the units of water by the degrees raised; that is, the heat produced by the burning of a unit weight of coal under these conditions. The most troublesome source of error in careful calorimetric work is the loss or gain of heat by the calorimeter from its surroundings. Unavyoidable ir- regularities in the conditions make this correction variable and its determination somewhat uncertain. Many methods of making it have been proposed. In the experiments given in this paper this loss, which is mostly due to radiation, was in the majority of cases taken into consideration according to the Regnault-Stoh- mann-Pfaundler formula (Stohmann, Journ. f. prakt. Chem. (1889), N. F. 39, 517 et seq.), that is: w—v’ (t—t, , +t, n—1 : The correction= 77> e 9 +4 it ar Ws) ee —(n—1) v where, il v=the mean temperature difference of the preliminary period. =the mean of the temperature readings of the preliminary period. - t, =the temperature readings of the combustion period. .v’=the mean temperature difference of the period after combustion. 7 =the mean of the temperature readings of the period after combustion. n=the number of the temperature readings of the combustion period. oes > ae eh i CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 173 was used in my tests. This apparatus is generally accepted as being the most accurate.° While accurate, it is nevertheless expensive and requires an elaborate equipment and a skill in manipulation which prevents as wide a usage as it deserves. A great many attempts have been made to find a substitute for this apparatus as is shown by the references given at the end of this paper; however, few of these other types give the calorific value more accurately than the result as calculated from easily obtained data. When the necessary apparatus for the direct determination of the heating power is not at hand, it is an important — feature to have some means of approximately estimating the calorific value and it is one object of this paper to indicate a method for the calculation of this value for Philippine coal from the results of the proximate analysis. It is hoped that this calculation will fulfill the essential requirements for commercial _ purposes. Owing to the recent revival of mterest in Philippine coal, we now make many more analyses than formerly. It is not always convenient to undertake calorific determinations of all of these, but I have direct data in sufficient quantity to correlate a formula which will give a result approximately equal to that obtained with the calorimeter. Many attempts have been made to develop a reliable formula for calculating the heating power from analytical data. That first proposed was by Dulong for the calculation of the heat of combustion from the results of ultimate analysis, and is as follows: : mite ; O Calorific power=;55| 80800 +34500( 3) | . Others who have contributed to the development of this line of work by furnishing data, suggesting formule or modifications of that given above are Gmelin, v. Jiiptmer, Cornut, Ser, Kern, Scheurer-Kestner, Meunier-Dollfus, Mahler, Bunte, ete. The calorific work done by Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier- * continued The results obtained by this formula agree very well with those from the empirical formula, which is a correction in calories of two-thirds of the dif- ference between the highest temperature and that of the room, multiplied by four times the duration of the combustion in minutes; this correction was used in some cases. The temperature difference was determined by the use of a Beckmann thermometer. : Detailed directions for the manipulation of a bomb calorimeter in heat determinations, for the determination of the water value of the apparatus, the calculation of the results, ete., may be found, in the publications of Stohman, F., Weber, Cl., and Langbein, H. Journ. f. prakt. Chem. (1889), N. F. 39, 503; Atwood, W. O. and Snell, J. F. Jowrn. Am. Ohem. Soc. (1903), 25, 659, and also in many text-books. *Braume, J. S. S., and Cowan, W. A. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1903), 22, 1232 and Gray, Tho. and Robertson, J. G. Jbid. (1904), 23, 704 haye made comparative studies of different types of calorimeters and agree that reliable results can be obtained only with some form of bomb calorimeter. *Liebig’s process for the estimation of carbon and hydrogen in coals is discussed and the calorific value is calculated by use of the formula 8080C+- 34,460H. Kern, 8S. Chem. News (1876), 34, 233. 174 COX. Dollfus (1868-1875) has long been considered the most reliable ever accomplished on European coal and has done much to further the determination of the heating power of coal and the substantiation of Dulong’s formula. Beginning in 1885 * these authors continued their earlier investigations and made a number of deter- minations in order to fix a fair average for all coals. They found the heating power of many coals to be greater than that calculated from the elements; the Russian coal gave results which were very much nearer, in fact, fell slightly below the calculated value; therefore, indicating that the calculated value was a fair approximation to the truth. Mahler has also done much careful work on European coal. He modified Dulong’s formula by using the yalue 8140 for the heating power of carbon as determined by Berthelot and Petit™ instead of 8080 as determined by Favre and Silbermann” and also so as to take into ac- count the nitrogen content as follows: \e% Calorific value=3i5 [ 81400-34500 (4 — (O20) ] ised! ~ 100 [ sisoc 1-34500H 4312.5((0-+-N)—-1) | Mahler emphasized the fact that Dulong’s formula generally gaye results which were below the actual, corroborating the observations of Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus, and proposed the adoption of the formula modified to read: 81400—34500H—3000 (O—N) 100 Caloritic value= The application of this to a large number of coals gave variations of about the same magnitude from the actual value as that of Dulong, but in the opposite direction. 4 Dulong’s formula has stood the test through many years of discussion and suggested substitutions. The formula has no scientific value, but in 1891, Bunte,” as the result of a series of investigations in Munich, showed it to be sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes; and in 1899 the report of the Committee on Coal Analysis” appointed by the American Chemical Society gave it in the following form as the most reliable formula for the calculation of the heating effect of a coal burned to liquid water: “Calorifie power=8080C-+ 34,460 (H—0) +22508” ™ Scheurer-Kestner, A., and Meunier C. Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1868), 66, 1220; 67, 659, 1002; (1869), 68, 608; 69, 412; (1871), 73. 1061: (1873), 77, 1385; Ann. chim. et phys. (1874), V, 2, 325; Bull. Soc. chim. Paris (1874), n. s. Il, 21, 402. Scheurer-Kestner, A. Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1868), 66, 1047. * Scheurer-Kestner, A., and Meunier-Dollfus, C. Compt. rend. Acad. set. (1885), 100, 908; Ann. chim. et phys. (1886), VI, 8, 267. Mahler, P. Bull. Soc. encowrag. ind. nat. (1892), 91, 358. “Ann. chim. et phys. (1889), VI, 18, 80. % Tbid. (1852), III, 34, 403. *% Journ. f. Gasbeleuchtung (1891), 34, 21 and 41. ” Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1899), 21, 1130. CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 175 The literature is full of material showing an agreement within 2 or 3 per cent between results obtained by direct determination and those calculated from elementary analyses.* Lord and Haas” have shown from their work that the results on American coals “if calculated from the ultimate analysis, might be expected to le within two per cent of the calorific value” and the work of the Coal Testing Plant at St. Louis has shown a similarily close agreement. However, all of these formule have the disadvantage that elementary analysis is too tedious for ordinary technical work. At the time these were originally proposed, it was much easier to make an elementary analysis, in point of time at least, than to make a determination of the heating power. To-day it is simpler to determine at once calorimetrically the heating power of the material than to carry out an elementary analysis. The prediction of the heating power of a coal from the results of a proximate analysis was suggested by Kent *4 in 1892. He writes, “Mahler’s results group themselves very closely around the average curve of the diagram, indicating therefore that there is a law of relation between the composition of the coal as determined by proximate analysis and the heating value. Knowing, therefore, the percentage of fixed carbon in the dry coal free from ash, we may in the case of all coals containing over 58 per cent of fixed carbon, predict their heating value within a limit of error of about 3 per cent.” A formula for the derivation of the calorific power from the proximate analysis was first proposed by Goutal”? in 1896. Later De Paepe * applied it to a wider range of coals and suggested some modifications for the values first proposed. Since then Goutal has extended his investigations to more than six hundred anthracitic and bituminous coals and finds ** that the calorific value can be calculated with sufficient accuracy for industrial purposes. Such a formula is only an approximation. It would be impossible to derive an absolutely correct formula from analyses made by an entirely empirical method, of a substance so complex and varied as coal. How- ever, it has often been recorded ?° that the results obtained by calculation 8 Alix, J., and Bay, Il. Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1904), 139, 215 have pointed out that mearly all coals contain more or less calcium carbonate, and in the ultimate analysis the carbon dioxide from this is also calculated to carbon. This may be a source of variation. * Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. (1897), 17, 268. * Prof. Papers 48, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1906), 1, 174. * Kent, W. Mineral Ind. (1892), 1, 105. * Ann. chim. anal. (1896), 1, 169; Rev. d. chim. ind., (1896), 7, 65. De Paepe, D. Bull. Ass. belge (1898), 12, 279. * Goutal. Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1902), 135, 477; Ann. chim. anal. (1903), 8, 279; Analyst (1903), 28, 128. é #5 Noyes, W. A., McTaggart, J. R., and Craver, H. W. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1895), 17, 843; Gill, A. H. Gas and Fuel Analyses for Engineers, N. Y. (1902), 90; Hempel, W. Ztschr. f. angew. Chem. (1892), 5, 389. 176 cox. vary by less than 2 per cent on either side, from those given by the calorimeter. ‘ Other methods haye been proposed for the determination of the heating power of coal without the use of the calorimeter. These methods are never more than approximations. The oldest of these is that of Berthier,” the determination being made by intimately mixing 1 gram of powered coal and 50 grams of litharge together in a clay crucible and covering with a layer of salt. The mixture is heated in a crucible furnace, with a gradually increasing heat until fusion is complete; this requires about fifteen minutes. The crucible is removed, poured, and when cold the buttom is cleaned and weighed. Pure carbon should reduce 34 times its own weight of lead; hydrogen 103 times its own weight. One part of pure carbon can raise the temperature of 8,080 parts of water 1°. If the fuel is assumed as carbon, its value in heat-units may be estimated by multiplying x by the weight of the lead buttom obtained in the assay. As hydrogen is always present in the coal, this method necessarily gives low results. Stélzel* observed that between the results obtained by this method and those calculated from the ultimate analysis there was an almost constant difference; those by Berthier’s method being about one-ninth too low. Von John and Fullon®™ made a series of comparisons of the results of Berthier’s process with those caleulated from analysis on European coals. The former were almost uniformily lower than the latter, in some cases 900 calories. In 1895, Noyes, McTaggart, and Crayer™ compared the results obtained by Berthier’s method, on various coals in the calorimeter and by calculation from the ultimate analysis. They corroborate the statements made in previous work that Berthier’s method gives low results. “Theoretically, 1 gram of lead should correspond to a heating effect in the coal of 234 calories. The results calculated with this factor are, however, about 12 per cent too low. The average of the results obtained, give an empirical factor of 268.3 calories per gram of lead.” The results given were calculated with this empirical formula and agree with those determined by the calorimeter as well as those calculated by Dulong’s formula. Munroe™ proposed a “modification of Berthier’s process for the valuation of a coal.” This has all of the constant error of the conventional process and in general is a more complicated manipula- *° Polytech. Journ., (Dingler) (1835), 58, 391. * Favre, P. A., and Silbermann, J. T. Ann. chim. et phys. (1852), III, 34, 403. : *Langbein, H. Chem. Ztg. (1906), 30, 1116, has pointed out that this method will not even give accurate results for coke. *Stilzel, C. Polytech. Journ., (Dingler) (1857), 146, 138; Jahresbr. chem. Technol. (1858), 3, 499. ; * Von John, C., and Fullon, H. B. Jahresbr. d. Reichsanst. (1892), 155; Zischr. f. angew. Chem. (1893), 6, 285. * Noyes, W. A., McTaggart, J. R., and Craver, H. W. Journ. Am. Chem. Soe. (1895), 17, 847; Analyst (1896), 21, 22. Munroe, C. E. Am. Chem. Journ. (1880-81), 2, 277. = CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. WAT tion. In like manner Lebaigne® proposed to grind together 0.2 gram of finely powered coal with 2 grams of pure potassium nitrate. In order to lessen the action of the nitrate on the coal, 5 grams of sodium sulphate are mixed in and the whole slowly melted in a silver crucible. When the mass becomes white, then the heat is gradually increased until it is thoroughly fused. The mass is dissolved in water and titrated with sulphuric acid. Im order accurately to determine the heating power of a coal by Berthier’s method it would be necessary to determine the relation between the carbon and hydrogen, that is, their per- centages by an elementary analysis. It is not surprising that the method has fallen into disuse. However, the process might be of use locally. The coal of a vein or sometimes of an entire region is very similar and a constant empirical factor might be determined which would give good results. Goutal’s formula as originally proposed applies only to coals capable of being analyzed by the official method and was not extended to coals where the percentage of fixed carbon in the pure coal is as low as 50 “per cent. Some time ago I attempted to extend the formula of Goutal to Philippine coal.** It was thought at that time that the coals of this Archipelago were of the same class as many of the bituminous coals of America. However, sufficient data were not then at hand to demon- strate this fact; more recent work has shown them to be of slightly lower grade, the volatile combustible matter to be of slightly lower calorific value and large discrepancies occur in their analyses when made by the official method.*? It is a well-known fact that the quantity and character of the yolatile products of a coal are influenced by the con- ditions of distillation; by the official method of analysis the rise of temperature in the coal is very rapid and more of the coal is volatilized than by the smoking-off method and for this reason if for no other the volatile combustible matter of Philippine coals would appear different from others of the same grade. The calorific value of the fixed carbon of Philippine coal is also slightly lower than that of coking coals. That of pure coke, free from ash, is often greater than that of pure carbon because of the hydrogen from the pitch (hydrocarbon) which charac- terizes a coking coal, a part of which is always left as the cementing material in the coke. As a rule, the heating value does not differ materially from that of pure anthracite coal. Goutal gives the average for pure anthracite coal as 8250 calories.*° The heating power of a sample of coke is given as follows: 33 Répert. d. Pharmac. (1880) No. 6; Jahresbr. d. chem. Technol. (1882), 27, 990. Cox, A. J. This Journal, (1906), 1, 877. % Tdem, Sec. A. (1907), 2, 41; Sec. A. (1908), 3, 301. * Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1902), 135, 479. A similar number is given by The Coal and Metal Miners’ Pocket Book, Scranton, Pa. (1902), 168. 178 COX. Proximate analysis of the coal. [The figures give percentages. ] Fixed | IDYo yeaa a | Zoe (6() 2.53 36.07 | 48.96 | 12, 44 | pe Ee mnie — Volatile Source Method of “ i ' of the coal. analysis. | Water. eres carbon. Ash. alae | | | Australia —______ | Official 87 _______ 2.53 36,12 48.99 | 12.36 0.09 | Analysis of the coke. [The figures give percentages. ] | Combustible | matters | 48h. ae | 79. 85 20.15 | Trace. 79. 7: i} | No. Source of the coal. Method of analysis. a By difference. Calorific value of the coke in calories: 1 2 6550 6562 Caleulated calorific value of the pure coke (free from ash) : 1 2 8209 8224 The latter results corroborate those of Goutal and substantiate his formula for coking coals, that— P=82C+aV where, P=the heating power in calories. C=percentage of fixed carbon as determined by analysis. V=percentage of volatile combustible, as determined by analysis, a=function of the ratio between the volatile combustible and the total com- bustible matter in the coal, that is: per cent of volatile combustible matter 100— (per cent moisture-+-per cent ash) In my previous publication, as was stated, the values for a were given tentatively, as sufficient data were not available thoroughly to test the accuracy of the formula when applied to coals of these Islands. Atten- tion was called to the fact that greater discrepancies between calculated and determined values were noted in the analyses of Philippine coals than in the ones from which the numbers were calculated. A satisfactory explanation was not then at hand, but it is now believed that these were due to the inapplicability of the methods of analysis existing at that time, as will be shown below. The numbers were calculated from American * Accurate. Of. This Journal, Sec, A. (1907), 2, 52. CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 179 bituminous and subbituminous coals and are applicable only to coals of that class. They are as follows: When the percentage of volatile combustible as compared with total combustible Then ais matter is equal to— equal to— 25 102 27.5 97 30 92 32.5 87 35 82 ‘ 37.5 afl 40 72 42.5 67 45 63 47.5 59 50 58 52.5 os 55 56 Australian coal is strictly of the class of the American bituminous coal and the use of the formula with the values of @ as given aboye is applicable to it, as 1s shown by the following table where the deter- mined and calculated results are tabulated side by side: Tase [.8 Vola- Calories. tile 4 Fixed No. Source. Water. | com- pusti- |C@tbon. Calor- | Caleu- ble. : imeter.| lated. @ 1 | Westwaldsend (1905) -_| © 2,59 | 32.85 | 62.97 | 11.59 |__---___ 38.3 | 6,637 | 6,775 2 | Westwaldsend (1906) -_| 2,60] 34.84] 52.57 9.99 0. 01 39.9 | 6,976 | 6,825 BD ead Gojse esa Seta 2.44 | 34.77 | 45.18 | 11.61 0. 61 43.6 | 6,128) 6,000 4 | Westwaldsend (1907) --| 2.80} 34.23} 50.94) 12:03 0. 09 40.2 | 6,614) 6,600 5 | Westwaldsend (1908)*_| 1.74 | 36.64] 52.43 9.19 0.15 41.1 | 6,988 | 6,875 6 | Westwaldsend (1907)»_) 2.56 | 32.97} 51.68 | 12.79 0. 12 38.9 | 6,472) 6,650 7 | Westwaldsend (1908) --| 2.80) 31.24] 54.35) 11.61 |_-_-_-__ 36.5 | 6,835 | 6,920 8| New Westwaldsend 2.56 | 35.28) 52.46 9.70 0,31 40.2 | 6,906 | 6,825 (1907). 9 | IllawarranearSydney_| 1.26 | 25.26} 63.49 CHO) eee caks ' 28.5 | 7,624 | 7,600 10 | Lichzow Valley (1908) -) 2.11 | 32.47 | 52.62] 12.80 0.58 38.2 | 6,987 | 6,770 2 Selected lump. > Double screened and picked twice. We would anticipate that the Goutal formula using the values of a given above, is applicable to Australian coal, since the latter is of the same class as the 150 American coals from which the values were calculated. ' I have devised a chart (fig. 1) which is generally applicable to coals of this class, by means of which the same results may be obtained and the formula and laborious process of calculating entirely dispensed with. TT *s Analyses made by the official method (Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1899), 21, 1116). 180 erquorjdde st poqjout pBoyo om} Aq siscyeue Woy ‘fsosA[VUY OPVMXOAd Joy} Woay Spwod sNouTWINIq-qns puve snouruiNyIq JO ON[VA OYTAO[Vo OG} Aujpuy 10oy yLRYO—'T “OWT OOfSZ Oo]oz ere Ee) oofo9 oo[ss oojos Oo[S7 ooj|o7 ojs Sv ol” Sel] Ole YILIVW J718I1LSNBaWOD S31YO1VS NI 1VO9 3JHL JO ANIVA DIsINOT1VvS VLOL NI 37a1LSnaWod JULVIOA 40 ADVLNIOYIAd 00S! bbs, Vex/oy (Cy fury J 1/9, Sole Voy Os Ry SS) YSTo 0007¢ Ko) 4, OM ” an /, ~ Oe Ad Cys) Rh WEAVE (c} ic rs, 7p Welel, ie (psTes) e) YEG (> ofA, \_/7 Th, Ne HL C) fs) | 00S (@) fs | iS 2 ooo] | “x | H3LLvVW 37181 LSnNaWwood > [| ANMLVIOA 3HL 40 JNIVA DI4lyO1Vd a CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 181 This chart has been drawn on the basis of the Goutal formula with my values for “a” given on page 179, and from it the approximate calorific value of the coal may be found, when the proximate analysis as made by the official method is known. The procedure is as follows: Find from the analysis the percentage of volatile combustible matter in the __ 100 V. C. M. V. C.M.+F. C. ordinate (vertical line), until-it intersects the curve representing the volatile combustible matter which agrees with the percentage determined in the analysis; continue from this point along the abscissa (horizontal line), until the curve representing the percentage of fixed carbon of the analysis is reached; continue downward on the ordinate to the base line where the calorific value of the coal may be directly read. Example: : pure coal ( ). Locate this yalue on the chart and follow the Analysis of the coal. Constituent. Per cent. Water 5.75 Volatile combustible matter 40.00 Fixed carbon 50.00 Ash 4.25 Total - 100.00 100 V. C. M. ‘Ti aeons the percentage of volatile combustible matter in the pure coal. Locate 45 on the chart and follow the ordinate as indicated by the arrow until it intersects the curve representing 40 per cent of yolatile combustible matter; continue from this point along the abscissa until the curve representing 50 per cent of fixed carbon is reached; continue downward on the ordinate to the base line where the calorific value of the coal may be read as 6,620 calories. Goutal assumed the calorific value of the fixed carbon of all coal to be 8,200 calories,*® or the share that fixed carbon contributes to the calorific value of coal as eighty-two times the per cent of fixed carbon in the sample. ‘This was substantiated by the determination of the calorific value given above for an Australian coal, but it does not #2 Streit, H. Dissert. Univ. Ziirich (1906); Chem. Abs. (1908), 2, 1040 has shown that the heat of combustion of ash- and moisture-free coke obtained by one and the same method from different coals is the same but differs if different methods are employed. Crucible coke produced by the French (Goutal) method is least degasified, by the American method most; that by the Bochum method occupies an intermediate position. Im general the heat of combustion of pure cokes is as follows: Crucible coke: Calories. Goutal 8,230 Bochum .... - 8,160 American - 8,100 182 cox. hold good for Philippine noncoking coals as is shown by the following results : Prozimate analyses of the coals. [The figures give percentages.] | (Pee are Source of the coal. | Poe aie eomnbus “Bisel | Ash, hes | | | | Cebu, near Garman! Smoking-off#__! 14.61 35.58 | 48.16 | 1.65 | 0.12 | Dou an eeee [iG aa oi | ut 35.43 | 48,29 | 1.57 anna | Polillo == Sree es | Load doze | 5.88 39.18.| 48.90] 6.04 |__-.___ Dos: eee [Seats Ae ed Gyn 39.39 48,75 | BS Op eee | | I | I | Analyses of the residues from which the volatile matter has been expelled [The figures give percentages. ] Combustibl | Source of the coal. ooatter.s | Ash. |Sulphur, | Cebu, near Carmen.- =) =~ = ale eee 96. 69 | 3.31 | Trace. | 9 [0 ee ee ee eee er SL tn ere eee 96. 85 8.15") s ee | Polis 2 eRe Uae a eee eee 89.01 | 10.99 |__| | D0 a ee ae eee RSE! pe Sh) pee | a By difference. Calorific value. [The figures give calories.] Of the residue from which the volatile matter has Of the pure fixed carbon. been lled. Source of the coal. be ae 1. 2. | Sh, 1. 2 | 3. | Cebu, near Carmen__ 7, 826 7, 830 7,815 8, 087 8,091 8, 076 Polillos=2--s2---==2—5 7, 233 7, 239 7, 249 8,122 8,128 8, 140 The fixed carbon from a powdered sample of most of the known coal of these Islands is somewhat similar to wood sawdust charcoal. It is very granular and it seldom manifests any tendency to sinter together.” The average of the six closely agreeing determinations given aboye of the calorific value of the pure fixed carbon is 8,107 calories. This is * Accurate; large mechanical loss by official method. “ These samples were obtained by expelling the moisture and volatile combus- tible matter as outlined in This Journal, See. A (1907), 2, 44, cooled in a desiccator and weighed directly from the crucible by difference, so that there was no opportunity for the absorption of moisture. “Recently 2 coking coals have been discovered. CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 183 an exceedingly close agreement with the generally accepted number of Berthelot,** of Petit ** or of Favre and Silberman * of 8,140, 8,103, and 8,080 calories, respectively, for pure carbon. The Philippine coals are known to be very low in heavy hydro-carbon compounds ** and naturally the fixed carbon would likewise be low, since it would be the more easily degasified. The above results indicate that they are entirely devoid of hydrocarbons that have high heats of combustion, or else that the pure fixed carbon is pure carbon. ‘Therefore, at present it is impossible to establish a generally applicable formula for calculating the heat of combustion of all types of coals from the results of proximate analysis and instead of using eighty-two times the per cent of fixed earbon for its calorific value, for our coals, we must use eighty-one. Bement says “moisture is the most variable” “ factor in Illinois coal and “it is a fact that the coal from a general locality has been analyzed over and over again, with always a more or less different result when presented in only the moist coal composition, so that after all of the multiplicity of work, a final conclusion or full understanding is still unattained.” * It is probable that the great variability in the moisture is accountable for the different results. I have shown *® that when coal is analyzed according to the official method, a variation of one and a half per cent in the volatile combustible matter, respectively fixed carbon, is produced if the percentage of loosely held water is varied five per cent; moreover, in the analysis of Philippine coal the official method gives large mechanical losses. The smoking off method which was devised and substituted for the official method gives no mechanical loss and also by its use no yariation in the fuel ratio is produced when the content of loosely held water is varied. In the hight of this research it seems proper to attribute the great discrepancies which were noted in Bement’s paper, to error in the method of analysis rather than to inherent properties of the coal. There are other errors in the proximate analysis of coal which, though recognized, are not often capable of calculation as they represent the sum of a number of variable chemical changes. It was pointed out above that the presence of carbonates in coal introduces the error of high carbon in the ultimate analysis. This is also true of the proximate analysis. Carbonates which give ‘off carbon dioxide, gypsum and silicates which give up their combined water, and pyrites which is converted to iron oxide, when the coal is burned to ash, are all sources of error. 4 Berthelot, loc. cit. 44 Petit, loc. cit. *® Havre, P. A., and Silbermann, J. T. Ann. chim. et phys. (1852), IIL, 34, 403. * Cox, A. J. This Journal (1906), 1, 877. “ Bement, A. Ill. Geol. Surv. (1906), Bull. 3, 23. 4# Bement, A. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1906), 28, 637. * Cox, A. J. This Journal, Sec. A (1907), 2, 60. As a small offset to this error, the conheneon of Ae ee de ; some heat, but this is an extremely small factor in Philippine co - Great spats in results are obtained with Ee coals wh smoking-off method of analysis is used. ; ‘The proximate analyses and calorific values of most of the Philippine coals are given in Table I. . » Journ. Ind. and Chem. Eng. (1909), 1, 67. 185 £10] B10GR] SIG} JO JOYTVM “S “H “JIN Aq aut 107 pazAyeuy > ; “OIGMISNGUIOD eT1BIOA "U0G1Bd PaXxl iy a £ “UOIPROYISSB[O JO 9NUSTUPATIOD LOZ | WIM SuTUULseq osoyi 10}7e poovyd oie YOM ‘q WIM Suluurseq osoy} jdeoxe AT[ROTjeqeyd[e peSuviie 91% SoulBU 9SeTL + NEO CR ersten | eames SI TG ° ) 11+ 6 a 9°6P MO Sed| see e= lcceeeaee e { \ Pekan eee ieee > T ‘ouns) s}jog ‘pussy usyu, T ; i? FO6P | OZ8F 6F 10 T Teen eran: | enamels 9 (106 f) $1]9@ ‘pusysy] usyug | 0 40°0E | 26°%8 | 46°98 | 69'8T 4 gLt+ 982 OCF T1¢ GG a0 nancial an aa eh an mg { } ar ge ae Gar iar Rane rag (L061 ‘ABIN) SJo_ ‘puUBIsy uUBEg | 6 a Soe ie Bon 866 | 94°Fe | cL'98 | Fo°ST z RD Pied PUeISUe el 1S) gIc+- cgi LPEOF 8'SP GOS bea 820 tll ss ae ee ae {) &6"9 8'8E | 08°98 | LETT YY ___________-_--__----- (L061 ‘Iudy) s}jog ‘puRysy wazR: 8 2 : oe \eaz | prise | ro'9e | 6o-er J 3 i Wel a 7, ts x f 1S ie oe) ee Seas Sea Ue { GLP | OOTP | 9F'6S | Gh'ST \ Dane a Sukie Panu as £ i : FOG LEPG | SL8p | O'GP 20°L | a0 (cO6L) SI}0M ‘puBIs, uByeg | Z a 5 Bs Se IL? | 20h | 9h°68 | TP ‘ST B oy 92°¢ | 68°28 | 90°28 | 64°6r i Lst+ 6ROS | GOs i 2c0 * RiGeeh lige oe eae reare ve { : \ Caer R RCE aT Se ad ea a Se ODnaaan 9 e POS =| GOS | P’6F ec0'L | Pir came obacene | eater all anian P PIES Ret Se |e RRR map all ef elite ey aah ier eto Sane seas { FOG =| 48°28 | PP'9S' | °c9 "06 \ (Coen niente ; T84-+ T20¢ 6LP 0'6F 0" 10 Ue UL9ISBA JO APIS YJNOS *puBis] UB}Rg | iol Coe hl egeee See oe | ssze | ep‘9e | 69°0c W 5 & €PS | 20°68 | PL'6e | OTT Gp + 99%& Taae 6°6F £00°T Sita tna capt ay ae ‘ \ Feiss Regia kaa Pua Udo}Sve JO apis YOM “puvysy UBU_ | F © . = Bb egg | 00°68 | 90°68 | 6E’sT & ; ; is i PS PL | F6°9S | 69's | Eo 'cr r Peet Gl6F | 84Gb | L*6r 880° | 680 | WAroaq 09 mwa} x Vee Pa aM od aS seit ar Pat at ae Tein O Damas & 5 3 i : a OL FL | CD28 | 89°¢s | OS" mK gz'¢ | 6°98 | se-ze | OF'0c ) : FOa+ 9L6F GLLE T0¢ | 766° (QU ie keke Sena { ape ee alfa Seg Rl nipie ot wer tate aa Sra he TL ESE ae (oy Zz s ees 2 alee zee | 9x98 | onze | 2802 J = 89) ++ O98F | Gb4r | 60c COG OI NPCS ume | a aes Sat aera as { Sohail exe age awe } Das aaa oe Dee PE ER Pues Wia}Sko “pPuB[s[ uLjw_ | T = 0L°9 LEG | 6°98 | 18°06 I 3 (2) : ; = ian =| *SOTLO[BO ; : 4 pouluL “poyey | 1ojout a Pec oO ee no[Bp | -10[RD i Pa Pad ul ‘OMI OA) (01782 | anydyns 3 a “MOGIBO) = . +901 9 pe} [nd “W'O'A oor | Ud [B10 YSv JO L0[OD, sv POX ae 19}. B AA v OOINOS ON wy -[89 ot} ' -BIOA ; Jo wory Z -BILBA “SOTIO[BD ‘sypo0 auddyyyg fo sanyoa ayriojno pun sashypun ajnunno.1g— TT Wav, COX. 186 . 16% SP'cc | 90 Ob Shh L889 seo ‘Sh Cie ‘1 80°0 Sis ceaka S| SS eae ae ha, SR ne Oy eer eR ae) Lr games F 88 C88 I 8h 18 ¥6'% 8P'2G | TL‘68 Pp 1% OP'S To'a¢ =| 80 °0F 19 1989 GL89 3 Sh 008° CON n a= meee eee Sy Foose ces eee age ae cee aie (ig gS eet Op res GIs 898! ¢ G'Sh is T q ez's 60°24 | 80‘0F i 9% 086 FSGS | 38°68 18T— 9gs9 the (rag ecg *T fo gear aa sare eh oe { Pigatcetrsg a Site atc geants RACES oa ana a ane >" OTTTTO. i T 88 &4¢9 Cah CE £80 6g'z ziga | Fe"88 TIELOd | &@ ‘ 9% 08 ‘0g LO“LP cg— ! 999 ‘¢ 10G DER aN ee ea ener aes { ase ee Sars Se Penge iT SourlU WeNnqByT ‘oourO Seg 1189 Pp O°cP G2a'T | PLO 99°o 1e0¢ | 80°tF Pp GBT ad | #6 6ce-- cero P6LO Lar OPS Tee | OcuO Wie tea paonene ace cerca] PC 'T SUS Cie CORO Sie GCinGeme| ieee (fF ‘ON UlBOS) UOIBAIOSOY AIT ‘PUBIST UBJE_ | £z 878 6829 1969 rg OST bao TOs Mili omen ~ MOTIAR | 96°% 89°Sh | PS°GP (con umes toddn) uoBAdosay ALB ‘PUBS. UBJE_ | 7 FOP SIs9 GGL b’Sh QOS Bea SST Oia \ (say care sees USIT | 8° 9L°IG | $968 (G‘ON UlBAS JAMOT) UOIVBAIOSOY ArBzIW ‘puBysy uByeg | 1Z ase FPLS 9619 C'Sg¢ QZ 0 he see eater cng a sat “ABID | SLL 82 'OP | 0& 9P 108 — FCTO cro 9 FP 686 °T | O10 ie ate ei 40) aa bh FP €¢ 6h | 9668 00% PLIO PLe9 PPP COG ted PTR OF o> | eran ne Op” "| cP 98 "6h | &8 68 S6l— FOTO 6¢§9 L°SF 066 °T GOR Og | ani cae ODisrers FSP 08 0G | 66°8E PPG Fc09 8629 9°SP Gis en COA Mae | oon pert YOM | &F'9 IF 6h | 86 °8s i 802— TL8¢ 6409 GLP “TL TL GONO Kees | sear gee “~~ yng | 4o’s ) OSL) RR VS) AO) Ame tS a i areca a ae UO BALOSOY ATS} ‘PUBIS] UBIB_ | CT 0g °% L9°7G | 9E°LE | LPL | 5 61 + PLEO ICG) H TLZ" G20 > uMOIq 0} MO ont ac ‘ON UlBaS [BOD) ‘UOI}BAIOSOY AIBIITIY ‘puB[sy wBzB: hae cc OPP LOT. | OF Tex BG 96:z¢ | ercze | apn S| N [809) WU ALB “puBysy ts OFS 890 | PSIr | 29° 848—- L089 E89! 7 C66" OTS Oe sea es ce } Fin Jat aN «ee ah ee oe nig 0 Dasara €L aay mu? ge 8h'G ec0c | IG th | 92° B chs Le"§G | SOLE | Sh'g S6T— ' itt) : | GSP’ LEO eal Seesaw pre aecea aes { y aa ER RTs aig ee ea eae Bee ORR rE © beh ear elas OD mama ral 6 PRE9 GF LIF CéP'T | $10 oF's eg'ec | etcze | o2-¢ S! 1) LES 86°Sh | S168 | Gb’9 )) 20a 2909 97: Bie ioe Te Ohatell sae ee sce ey { fe y Rear re eee ee UONBAIOSeYyY ALIBI ‘puURIS] UFzR: G0G 690 #929 PP 696 T 10 ze"¢ zer | #8"se | ze9 Si 9 a YY ALI “puvlsy uByeq | IT _| Ree ee to x | ees eat *SoT10[BO i | poeulm | “pazey, /oyout *10}] BUT | -I9jap | -NOTRBO | -10TBD “mydyns aq | oY} UloIy | “A'W'O'A| a OuR1! [R07 3 sev | UOGIBd] -4Snq | . 3 = ‘ON pare[no STERGANTT ‘ona ysB JO 10[OD sy paxta | -woo 19}B AY va01INOS ‘ =[80/31}')| eae nen i Eyal 0 WOT} -B[OA | ata *SOMOTBO Be | 1 t *ponutyuoj—sppo0o9 auiddayyryg fo sonjpa aipfr.oppa pun sosh)pun oppWxoig— TT) ATAY I, 137 CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. *|B0) “Ojo ‘O[[T]Od ‘puR[S]T URJeg JSOAA S¥ apes puUe JOJOBIBYO sUIeS 94} JO SI [BOD oy, ‘HOLPBOYISSP[O JO BDUBIUBAUOD 1OJ | YIM Sulaurseq ssoq} 10}Je paovid o1e YOIGM ‘q YIM ZBuluurseq to) 900— c6cG 61e¢ 686 608¢ 6GL¢ Cedi) 6¢09 OPP 066 "T GLE T PCO 8c LPT POG 'T LETT Loa G61 G&L T OLE T cee T Poe T 1661. O9L TL 780 666 T 166 'T €ha TL trent &'S 6¢°9 Gh 9 POL Te Lo qo 09°S 91°§ PPS: 69% 099 118 6¢ TL 01° 06S 88 FP Go P 96°S #09 GLCP 8¢ "CP SL GP 6P FP 83 ‘OF 96 “6 66 8P OL SP Ch OF OL ‘OF Gc "cP CO'SP 60 0S 00 °8F 1g Te 08 "Sé 8h cs 06 F& 8e"cs CL LS cE 8s SP cs 8G 'C& PG LE 02°88 9f 85 F688 GO GP IP GP ¢9 "CT TL ST 88 ET To &L &8 FL 88 PL TL FE 1s) A! TL OL 82 TL coy G0 LL 66 °T GPT 0g "4 8h 6 92°9 STL 06 °9 198 G9 'S ‘O10 eeu ynq uUMOUYUN sdInos joRXG ; *SUINOO JUSTdIOUT » 0D F JeA0W ‘uyag Aq poqyiodmy p “I8NIVM “S “H “AW Aq our 10] pezATeuy » ‘PIGNSNGMIOD eT1}eIOA “moqieo pox q 98S0q} Jdeoxo Aj[Rooqeyd[e pesuviaie sie SemieU OSeyy uv Re See Se Da ee UdsMIRD 1Beu ‘Nqap Sens Tea Shas Sposa ances (g§ ‘ON UIOA) IsuUBUTOD ‘nqeD ae A SE Sae 2 eee (J ‘ON UIOA) IsuBmTOH ‘ngaD SUS SERRE Ga eee a AP Bae. ([ ‘ON UleA) IsuBIOD ‘ngap Sages epee ES eS a Nae oe aoe ISUBLLOD ‘Nqap eae PUSS oe ree pane meena OTTO Se ee eee sSNdpING Ip BIISLA ‘OT[L[Od OF cP PF &P GP TF OF 68 8& Le 98 cE ing tte GE Tg 0s 6G 85320——2 08 + ere ppart re f . eis oe ess X 0" i hall [= UBER 5” at J) Eee we aa Tee op | exe | p9'eD Y ee ; ey hee zone gaat S 78°28 | 28 "PT Yl 86°08 SPT J 6t't | og‘er | cane | 92°er \ Wet | Lp'6p | st"pe | 80ST Ra: | Lae : BI Cia a or (ec Rak 1g — | seog | 6Lzs © | a'r so8'T | 910 SoMoI aio een | ll ee-ap | eccre: |on-er 4g yoe “UM OLE 4 i¢ ie op-—-feg | - LF PESe eee | 6'0F TPAD ase Oe el loea= sees USIppoy peeo Dae ealarc ® h 99°oF | co"Pe | 09 FT Ce'ep | OBE | F2 ‘PL 06"2r | 8hbS | GaST \ | s& — | sre | tece | scar i : Pe COLS G08G R°1F S887 PFO. s ikea gears mea lated eo | ce‘pe | PL ‘GE REPRE LPR eek San Corp coe Ne Op ---~"| 6 r bs ; : coupe acon ce Mn ne/:Git) | Caen aes ; ‘ i : y . C) | Oi 8946 PLE Gr SPELT | 660 7 =~ UsIppoy 69'2b | OF es | 98°GT fated OP hee yf Mee ee oe, SUR remo neuen LG ®t bts) es } nn |hi | us‘or | cess | e0*2t EA ae 7 +h 9 = | cT9g | T999. | Tar FLET | 6¢°0 aie bene, | Maeien Seep OU a0 5 ee - nea of ieeemmen COR LS Gaet || eee pe. SV Aas A Se Sn a er) t ‘ ¥oI— CCES 6LPS 9°CP Sh&T | 60°0 op 08°¢ OL ‘bP os'ce | 08 ZT ae op 6h ae : . : Se alts enh aoe ees fea ig [808/41 OCCUR) tate nemae a nee ee lL. ed eo bee et Mee: “ 19° 9G9¢ GOL 6°1P 886°L | PL 0 yug $0'e FO'Zp | 06" | 86°GT ; op ; SF | 1¢ + FPSS £669 GP S96. | Ir 0 ite aaa a, Hse span ba aes Tr FP | 62°CS | 9GZT | ~~~ Ploy [Bod vjojscdiu05-oruRq pus UseyjtoU NGA) | Lr a Wi *solo[Bo \* : = pour | ‘pazey |10.0UnL y 2 /roqyeut i , * =1ajap | -No[RO | -oTBO | ae ard ; 3 7 ayy mory | ‘Oa NOTA} ont “nydus| : uoqaRd) -4SN «41, ; . SATS SE GEATOTS aH | ae Ysu Jo 10]05 USY | poxtr| coo. | 2o}BAL ; v'aa1N0S é -[R0 91 ; Sty} a x get ‘0 U0 ; . | -Blo $0 ’ sal *SOLO[BD BA . a Ws | é C - a) *penutyu0j—s7po09 auiddyryg fo sanjna oifr.oypo pun sashjpun aDUeOLg— TT ALAVL - OST ‘AplAvis oyroeds q FEL ‘AyiAvis oyroeds a ‘I9DNIVM “S “Ht AW Aq OU Toy pozATeUyY > ‘aTGISNGUIOD V[1yBIOA -uoqaes PEXIE — q “HOTPBOYISSBIO JO 9dUeTMAAMOD TOF || YIM SUTUUTdeq 9Soy} 19j7v poovid oie YoIyM ‘q WIM Buruurseq esoy} Jdeoxe Apiwoljeqeydie pesuvaiy o1R SomIeU OSOT,L » 189 : 68 + | soee | core |e CT ee eee { OGe ere Alpes vag ie ene ie a ree eee (2061) pexomwE ‘owowraing ‘oropuryy | 17 a | 6r'% | ce-2e | povap | eB “uT A tre | o60¢ 6'8¢ yggiq. |----2====|-o2oe= ao oe===2o= === { aie Sacre Sao ae | siceinar nips ear ase (4061) OwRTeINg ‘oroputy | 91 S | PL) | o¢'ze | co‘9p | p8°er ie) SOM LobP G66P POLO teal ies eerie >> Oy LA USIP G8rA 6B) Te LOSS | EES aoa ae eRe eee See OIOPUT | GL B | 70's | eye | ss‘er | pe-or J x Fsg— 91z9 oee9 cep GGzislne l mamseencne cts ae oo aaa Wor |\79'0G | ples |cn¢ | TOATY AOUSNAIS ‘B[NSUIUAd VsUBOqMUBZ ‘OBUBPUTIY | FL | alee cases i eee a eee agcoo liga HE: eee NIE Ses ee YB (wou ‘ovurpury | ¢/ =| Fie+ | szgp | por. | ¢ ‘er Au Ge ee { Lh'6 | GELE | SLE Sern SsReSenRe re GanriassassemssSas % SonvuBg ‘s0ju0g-oywedery | gy ja 68°6 | OL'ze | PAPE | L0°ST al 98 + | Forr | eter | ¢'6F Gnas JF RP lpeoaraereecae ung G9"L" | GO"8E | Phe | 98°96 \ Seog cae ees rh aang eae ee a PUBISE wstUTE | TL ia 66°2 | 28°26 | 92°28 | 88°92 Clk ate ak SSGP SIGs ieeuer OFS SG sliei ae apis | Tan eae NED) | agate liane |bepte aye [ec (Suryoo) puv[sy sousnpurye | oL g 6eg+ PScr GLOR G'9e OSU0% | ete sigaeem |G ck ea ea UMOIG | 99-Tr | 6z-0e | esse | ga'GE | BIVOTY JO SBaY}LOU SLoJOUMLO[Iy G ‘QOUTAOIG UBABSED | 69 =) ee ‘ 2 oe g get | ze6p | tosh .| T'ep Gen Wey — |= Ava srr BORE NCD (OE Lanes CORDT 4 Peer | p8'6e | 94°ce | OL PT fe str+ | cece | xIgr | oor meio Wa | uUMOIG arn URES sean | AEE [SI oS 68'S | Th Th | 028 | 00°04 & ecg ChEG O66F PSP 490 °T Poa, swallow Se UMOIE | p71 7¢ 81, 0F 10'88 | G8 °LT B eis | Leg | GheR | Leh TSDsE CSO) teen MOTOS IUSIT | Tee | ga'tp | eaves | 22 6r S| eoat | 18I¢ | ster | er CINE | 09°E | --uMorq ystppewt | ig; | pr-op | to-9e | FO‘6r le eel paw tiers tb Og) bye alice arse A INTs pelt ae Scale eras ee hgta seu Sal Ree es i sate 3) orat | eore | eosr | ¢'9F ee Gie@ see AOTTOAY LOPE | CaTS zoe | so‘or | sc.ne | 24°12 sect | ore | Ler | 8 LP gave spe [Pe uMOIq mara er Sines Get O09: sar | 20'0P | 69°98 | 96ST | eer | ere | ccee | OP en |e. | eee pou OS TAD aa | OE TS IP GIVE co's | su'FP | Frcs | G0'8T 9, + | gete | zy0¢ | 6'9F tert 1960 |-- suas war Die: | cranes io ireaapeat 86ST } ee°9 | enor | sFGe | 90°ST ee ee PN Tee *Sutyoo yuordiouy » “mOqied PaXxIy q “HONJBOYISSB[O JO soUeTUAeAUOD 1OJ { YIM Suluuyseq esoq} Joye peodeid ore YoryM ‘gq YIM SBuluuyseq asoq} ydeoxe A[[Boljeqeyd|e posuviie 918 selueu OSeqL v 6sF— | O42 «| EID. | L'Sh LSGnEse M90 LO beat prtasr ine 5 POW | 84° | ZL0S | 2a6e | 849 | SSC suee ee See be ge ~ sBsuBoqUIBZ | 1g Bee Eh GOse eH RSTO) OB sri | cGee Cl | lees eee ee erie Seer mere nae aT ra eeaee al SoQun| Fosse a aaleGgred 648 0 Aor Par agar AN) ox } UBUOUIIVY ‘suqRABy, | 98 i oe: MM one | epee | 99° | To-ar aIst | o¢9e¢ | 88g | 6"0¢ SOGNO Se avpacedtceate ame vom pa | OL | Sth | 6°ch | 2o'sE jo ie. oS poxord ‘reynjuoW rou “uososi0g | 8 “gp+ | S61 | TIAh | 408 SLOSO Grogs HL Saree ae wee TS POO ee I CGHER | CRBS pul RC Ty |e tennant near IBN UOW Bau “UOsos10$ | 78 coe | OF'98 | Gash | 92°er BOT 118 S10¢ CORK ON lamas aa |= O2NT\ YStppo’ { z i ioe Sis ae as RES bias Ace cae TBUIBS | £8 ee e Ti Mere ove | 98° | se’sr | raver J| oid ees Nona OG ergs LE NLP 31/90): O Fra ESTs Gig) ees oe eee ates ee ene ee em te ; | “cs1— 5g z19 | 9°¢ TOLD. Spee es pace ae E) { \ SBUVIB “IBUIBS | 78 K = Seal ze Pee gre | curr | gx’ | 10'6 J| ‘ o 9TI— | ouge | 986¢ | o'er AGC es 9k Oe ea Saas, Gra GorGxe |NGGeAPs | (00) Leon GONG pe vanes = aerate tara Fair atin aan inaae emma ~~ [Bare | 18 | CA 9) Coes age OA ea ee ee f ecg 8Gc¢ S06P Teg PISO | 149° { \ O}JUBlBOST ‘SOIDAN | 08 | 8¢°6 | ce OP | Ske | 26°21 | oget+ | gscr | 800r | aoe GM) |) Cp en aura] See eae ORL eo Pes es eee ree Saaeos oat Zipug rwou ‘sors0N | 62 | FO'BE | PLS | £0'%e | GL'SL | srr + | cr09 @ oF CG coangal se ea --- pai USFALOTIONY Se sc ae Le Lag Wey ouinarnc nese SIE (co6r) ovowreing ‘oropuryy | 92 2O'T | BLP | OL'6E | 8 °0T | == = “ | ‘soMoyBo | ‘ | | paurur | *pazey |1ej0 Ur | | *19]) BUI | -1aJ9pP | -NdT[RD | -1OTRO | i aq oy} WLoIy ‘OA 'W'O'A |g OVI |-Inydins ? Z “mOqiHd) -4Ssnq |. ‘ ¥ | payena : fe (Re aame | eu [R10 YSB JO 10[OD USV | paxtgq | -moo | YO?8A\| v'd0IN0S ON FIO ST Sur | arn | uor | -B[O Ren ‘samorRp | BA | | i 190 *ponurju0j—s)n00 auiddywyg fo sanjna oifi.cojpo pun sashjpun ojnuaco1g— JI ATA {, In the Goutal formula the second factor of the equation is a function of the ratio between the volatile and the fixed combustible matter. The analytical data given in the preceding table have been recalculated to the ash and water free (pure coal) basis, which shows this ratio, and CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. the results are given in the following table: No. | TasxeE III. mine Volanle : ixe combus- pOUcE carbon. | tible | matter, | Percent. | Per cent. 49.07 | 50. 93 49. 87 | 50.13 50. 92 49.08 50. 06 49. 94 Batan Island, south side of eastern end________ ._______ 50.96 | 49. 04 eee, CUD a See ees We) sy po baa CRY) Batan Island, Betts’ (1905) -----------_--_----------_-__ 50.96 | 49. 04 Batan Island, Betts’ (April, 1907) 51. 22: 48.78 Batan Island, Betts’ (May, 1907) — 48.85 | 51.15 Batan Island, Betts’ (June, 1907) 50. 43 49.57 ~ Batan Island, Military Reservation ____-_____-_-_______ 55. 72 44.28 pees GO See eh en Set cee ne ae oe ON ea 58, 93 41.07 ees (5 Ko ea oe ee ee 55. 06 | 44.94 Batan Island, Military Reservation (seam No, 5) --____ 58. 64 41.36 | Batan Island, Military Reservation ______-_____________ 52.75 | 47.25 | 56. 35 | 43.65 | 56. 33 | 43. 67 55. 59 | 44.41 5d. 35 | 44,65 | 46, 52 53.48 | Batan Island, Military Reservation (lower seam No. 5)_ 56. 63 43.37 | Batan Island, Military Reservation (upperseam No. 5)_ 47.45 52. 55 Batan Island, Military Reservation (seam No, 4) ----__ 57. 26 42.74 | Borneo, Labauan mines 55. 01 44,99 | Polillo 57.54 42,46 | 56.51 | 43.49 | 56. 91 | 43.09 | 55. 42 | 44.58 | Texop hilly, Waters Glo) TEAwe CONSTI Se 56. 47 43.53 | EO LTE OF eae ee aes oes ae TUN See ek Nie 57.06 42.94 Be (OC se ate i Tice ee 54, 27 | 45.73 | Beer Coenen neh sare ee eRe See eee Be ae IE 158570" 46.30 | (PUD pies San oe ae ene Me ee eR en 56, 46 43. 54 oer aa eee eee nee See nee eet Oe eg tool 106,98 43.02 | Geburnenn Compostelawss =e 57.16 42,84 | ee doa 57. 82. 42.18 | Cebu, near Cebu -__-- 53.09 46.91 | eee (GG), Sas eee nips 54. 38 45. 62 Cebu, Camansi 5d. 68 44.32 | CepusCamansil(yeineNonh)eo-s ses onsee oe 54.28 45.72 | CebusCamansiy(velmyNo: 2) =a. 2-- e 59. 04 44,96 | Cebu, Camansi (vein No. 3) --------------------- == 55.50 44.50 | GCebuvnearm Carm enee st ies se ae hee ese 57.60 42.40 | aeee LO ema ree ie rats eee nny Ne eR Se a SE 51.32 48. 68 192 COX. TasiLe I1I1—Continued. laa Tie | | ieee Uoleile | : a ixe combus- No. | Source. carbon. tible matter. | Per cent. Per cent. 44,02 43. 67 | 42.32 | 41.88 | 42,58 42.12 42.58 41. 80 42.83 Sie 1 = - a i R oy oo 0 nm or i—) > =I o i—) oh eB a ty oO os ao an go s1 os o = & x) ro So RNG PARSBSSE 54.00 | 46. | | 45. | 69 | Cagayan Province, northeast of Alcala --__________-___ 43, 82 | 56. Catan quanesiislan dies= ee ~ os =e ene ee ae eee eee | (a) DinagatIsland So s--- 2 2 ee ae eee 50. 49.53 | Lepanto—Bontoe banaue e = ssn ae ee ~ 12,4 48.28 | Mindanao; nearsMatines = = eee (#) Mindanao, Zamboanga peninsula bs 43.50 [MN Org wl ek oa Sa ee Se re | s 58.01 | | | | oi pe) on See DO Ww NH He SO | Mindoro, Bulalacao (1907) —.----------------------- 58. 93 Mindoro (1907), weathered -----------_ -=_---__--_-- == | 53.33 Mindoro (908) 45.15 Negros, near Cadiz 50.20 48.01 | 43.53 45.64 | 55.48 50. 68 I ISI aa SH x o T=) fe) p= 2 N ry = | 84 | Sorsogon, near Monttifar 85 | Sorsogon, near Monttifar (selected) ~-_-___---__--____- 49. 06 50. 94 | 86 Tayabas, cA tiMOn a ane re ee es 16.77 | 53. 23 Zamboanga. 25 oe ae eee ee Se See 56. 28 43.72 ao I a On account of very high ash, are probably not normal samples. These results, which express the ratio of the volatile combustible matter to the fixed carbon are represented graphically by fig. 2. CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 193 PERCENTAGE OF VOLATILE COMBUSTIBLE MATTER 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 CI LMM AW. VLE YE i] [ WH te, f OM: LLL. fs CMLL 3 LLL LLL LLL LL LLL 6 CEE : CLM LELLEL LL 5 MELEE: ic MLE LLELEEELEEEEEEE™ i WML ELE EEE? i2 Ce. 13 LM EEE EEE EEELEEEEEEE_ 14 EEE ELLE. is WMEELEEEEZEEE™_ te CME ELLIE ine MEL LEE iG OMEEEELEELLELEEEEII I9 Bo jeFH,/[jH)/7; Le ites 20 CLL LLL LLL LLL, YG lia LLLLLLA 21 MIELILE!I Lg Ee ais eee YLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL: MLL VLE 23 Cy LEE a MM LMAO. Fa CML CY yy. oe LLL LLL LLL tity MLL LLL 127 CMM 38 WH LLL LLLLLLL LLL 29 EE EEELEEELEELKEEEEZ fo MN LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL ae ZA | VILL LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL 32 LEEEEELEEELEELEEELELEFEE@™_ 33 VLLILLLLLILLLLLLLLLLLL LLL LLL LL LLL LLL lL 34 VLLMLLLLLLLL LL LLL LLL LLL Leb VLLLMLLLLLLLLLLLLL 35, MEE EEEEEZZEEEELEEELZEEEE™_ 30 LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL LL LLL 37 CMLL LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL LL LLL LLL LLL LD 38 MILL LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL 39 CMM MYIYYuqGZ_ 40 YU JMywhypjYYYEZB “1 CHI tz, Saeed eaeeaneeeeeeeene tl VILL LLL LL LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL LLL LLL LL LLL Ys 43 QI MMX_X-M@@xG 44 LEE LEE? is MMMM. 4 LLL LL CO ie WMLLLELLL LA 47 LLL: SL EAL ip Siig LLL EEL DATEL SAAB LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL 49 MLE 50 — LLL LLL Lee LLL LLL Lh iL LLLLLLLA LLL LLL LLL LLL se 53 ee eee 4 LLL LLL hb ee LLL ke) ; eee ens LLL LLL LLL La 56 LLL LLL bh he LLL LLL LL LLL LLL D7 GMM. VLE. 58 LLIILILILZ&iLLiibil hn eeioee LLL LLL 59 Fo aa nf A pip 60 MALL LLL LLL LLL lll 6! COMM LLL LLL LL Lihissl 62 KALLA LLL LLL lle 63 ae MMA 164 CALL LLL LLL LLL LL 65 LLL aa : Zi MLL eee Lig ig LUE LLLLA ae QL LLL LLL 69 LLL 7! MM MLAILILLEIII_E 72 LLL LL LLLLLLA 74 OY 75 CLL LLL Lille 76 jj} j Hi 122 “LEV : LLL ll es Ke LI YI ffPFORNr ‘ >&- ;)Hr/[{HH; 83 \LLLLLLA tig Yi Lesesiisie Gi Ye 84 CULMS LLL LLL dd be YYyppyy7n, {82 Co epnpsgebiat alas try Be CMLL ML dh VIL LLUL LAAs i Mg Hie rise HG 60 70 80 90 PERCENTAGE OF FIXED CARBON Fic. 2.—Chart showing the ratio of the volatile combustible matter to the fixed carbon in Philippine coals when calculated free from water and ash (pure coal). SYISWNAN JIdWYS 194 COX. The relative amounts of fixed carbon and volatile combustible matter vary very little as is shown by the figure. The coals given are repre- sentative of all the Islands and we can assume the ayerage as a fair representation of Philippine coals. Not only the amount, but also the calorific power of the gaseous portion of these coals is approximately the same in all varieties. The following results (Table IV) regarding the calorific value of the volatile combustible matter of coals from this Archipelago have been calculated from work already published. Tasie LV. = = Yield of gas Per er kilo of total | cent of é D COmpORHDLE vola- | yieiq Calorific | matter— | tile value of | com- Raa the gas | | Tey ere eg) ESE heii rore Poe Source of coal ble |" tile | Pet kilo | : . matter} (oi. | Of vola- | 4 4 in the | pusti- | tle com- | m_ | Calorific) total | 0% | bustible liters, | Y@lue iD | com- |. vifor,| matter in| | calories. | pusti- |™®"'€) calories. | ble matter. 335) 1.47108 | 50.45 665 | 2.87105 | 307 | 1.57108 51.45 597 | 3.07105 | N@S TOS: 22-25202255o Soe 297 | 1.6°106| 51.1 581 | 3.17108 | | ZATODOAD EA yaaa ese ee eee 309 1.8°105 | 45.4 680 | 3.8°10° | PON U0 Sota as a tree ee 333 | 1.9°108 | 46.6 714 | 4.0°10° The numbers representing the calorific value of the gas produced per kilo of combustible matter and also of volatile combustible matter in calories are nearly, though not absolutely, constant.*t The coals from the Military Reservation in Batan Island, from Polillo, and from the Compostela region in Cebu have a somewhat higher value, while that for all others thus far investigated is practically constant. The samples are arranged in the order of the slightly increasing value of the calorific power, and it will be seen from Table IV that the numbers representing the percentage of volatile combustible matter arrange them- selves almost in the reverse order. I have calculated the values of in Philippme coals from the proximate analyses and determined calorific values given in Table II and using as the calorific power of the fixed carbon the value 81X the percentage, the results are as follows: Gy) a \The gas from Australian coal has a somewhat higher calorific value than any of the above. CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 195) TABLE Y. | | Bee | Islan | Military | Polillo,8| COmPos-) All | Reserva-| samples. | ..~ 1 ’ pe Homes Samples. | samples. samples. | { 58.8 | 58.9 62.8 | 53.1 58. 7 bene Walinerofi ai a= 58. 6 ce 58.6 61.1 61.8 63.8 61.3 62.6 Average ___ ieercoto 0 The above averages confirm the facts brought out by actual comparison of the calorific yalue of the gas. The volatile combustible matter in the coal from the Military Reservation on Batan Island, from Polillo, and from the Compostela region in Cebu has a somewhat higher calo- rific value than from the others. For the following percentages of volatile combustible matter in the pure coal the results are as follows: TasLe VI. | | 40-42 42-43 43-44 44-45 | 45-46 46-48 48-50 50-52 52-58 per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. i No. | “‘a’’ |No.} ‘*a”’ |No.| “a? |No.| “a’” |No.} “a?” |No.| ‘‘a’ |No.| ‘a?’ |No.| “a? |No.| ‘‘a?” | z | | | ; | 16 | 60.0 | 11 | 58.8 | 31 | 59.4 | 15 | 58.7 | 3) 44.2) 1 20 | 61.8 17 | 58.6 | 138 62.8 | 40 | 58.7 2) 62.0} 4) 51.1) 2 22, | 61.2 21 | 63.8 | 18 | 58.6 | 65 | 44.7 | 58 | 49.3] 5] 47.8) 9 69 | 46.9 | 26 | 66.4 | 19 | 61. 6 | 48.5 | 79 75 | 55.1 | 27 | 64.8 | 24 | 62. 7 | 39.3 | 80 76 | 61.0 | 29 | 59.0 | 28 | 59. | 42.2 | 84 77 | 52.10 | 33 | 57.6 | 39 | 62. 48.9 | 85 83 | 50.0 34 | 58.7 | 41 | 63. O2s0))| sane 86 | 32.2 | 46 | 51.9 | 42 | 63. ol. 4 |__-- pees | eas 74 81 ORO Rama | eon | 87 44763)|222-|2o== 2 Bees Pecos =--=|854. 0 |_=--|857. 1 |----]"59. 4°)____/"59.5 |_--_/956.0 |____]850. 2 |__-_|"47.1 |_-_-|"45.6 |_-__/#52.6 a Average. 196 Cox. The above figures perhaps show that there is an increase in the calorific value of the volatile combustible matter with a decrease in the percentage, but the difference in any event is very slight and there are many weak points in such a deduction. I believe the assumption that it is constant for all known Philippine coals to be equally accurate. When a technical problem is concerned and it is the desire to draw a general conclusion, it is always necessary to attempt to determine a middle value which will serve all samples equally well. If sufficient data were at hand we probably would derive a slightly smaller yalue for “a” for the larger percentages of volatile combustible matter in the above table. This would give the highest degree of accuracy.** However, after considering the remarkable regularity and similarity of the Philippine coal,** the data regarding which have been brought out in this paper, and which also have been continually observed in the researches of this laboratory, and using the data given by Table VI, an average value for “a” has been derived for our coals, namely 53.6; that is, the-variable factor “a” becomes a constant for coals of this Archipelago and is expressed by the value 53.6. It is somewhat less than that applicable to coking coals of the same grade. Be We now have all the factors for the development of an equation for the calculation of the fuel value of a Philippine coal from its proximate analysis. This formula is as follows: P=81C-++53.6V, where P=—The calorific value in calories, C=The percentage of fixed carbon, V=The percentage of volatile combustible matter. The coals must be analyzed by the “smoking-off method” ** which is the only one giving reliable results with Philippine coals. Im most cases there is fairly close agreement between results calculated by the use of the formula and those actually determined in the calorimeter ; this is shown by Table II, where they are given side by side. It is possible to point out the limits of error by using the foregoing results obtained directly by the calorimeter and calculated by the use of the formula. The average discrepancy between the determined and the calculated heat of combustion of the coals is about 200 calories or nearly four per cent, while the maximum deviation in the case of three or four @ Results already published (Cox, A. J. This Journal (1906), 1, 892 et seq.) show that the volatile matter of Philippine outcrop coals contains variable propor- tions of noncombustible matter other than water which probably accounts for the observed irregularities. “The results sometimes suggest the possibility of these beds all having been continuous at one time, the differences in them as we now find them haying been produced by metamorphism and other conditions since the breaking up. "This Journal, Sec. A. (1907), 2, 41. a See CALORIFIC VALUE OF PHILIPPINE COALS. 197 highly weathered outcrop samples is about 500 calories. When it is definitely known that a sample is from one of the regions enumerated in Table V, then it would be more accurate to use the average value for “a” there given, and the discrepancies between the calorimeter and the calculated calories would be greatly reduced.*® Such a degree of accuracy gives a good working formula and is as close an agreement as is to be found between many of the calorimeters in actual use to-day. Should future development and deeper boring prove that better coal exists im these Islands and that this formula is no longer applicable, let it be remembered that the data from which this formula is derived are not changed one iota. In a recent publication Constam and Rou- geot °° conclude that a variation for the same coal of over three per cent may be expected. They used a Parr calorimeter, which is in wide use in America for this work. Lunge and Grossmann ** discuss the paper of Constam and Rougeot and state that an apparatus which varies 100 calories is sufficiently accurate for technical purposes. The results of my formula do not greatly exceed these limits and are fairly satis- factory when we consider that two independent samples of the same coal show as great variation as this. The heating value of the upper bed Philippine coals may be easily determined by the chart given in fig. 3, when the results of the proximate analyses are known. ‘The intersection of that ordinate, which corresponds to the proper percentage of fixed carbon (respectively volatile com- bustible matter) im the total combustible matter read on the abscissa, with the curve representing the percentage of water and ash in the coal, designates the abscissa which in turn indicates the calorific value given on the ordinate. Authors °° sometimes recommend corrections or modifications of the present analytical methods used in the determination of the composition of coal, such as that the chemical tests be limited to the determination of the ash and the heating power of the pure coal, abandoning in the future the determination of the moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, sulphur and evaporating power of the coal.*® hese, when sifted down %* The physical and chemical properties, the character, the water content (Kohr, O. Chem. Ztg. (1908), 32, 580, Céthen) and the color of the ash (Knappe, G. ibid., 657) may be of assistance in verifying the locality from which a coal - comes. Such observations are especially valuable on samples purporting to be from well established coal fields. = Constam, H. J. and Rougeot, R. Ztschr. f. angew. Chem. 1906, 19, 1805. *"Lunge, G. and Grossmann, H. Jbid., 1963. Bement, A. Lng. Record (1906), Oct. 27, 473. “Our present methods for the proximate analysis of coal probably had their origin in the “immediatanalyse” of L. Gruner (Ann. Mines (1873), III, 2, 511; 4, 169; Polytech. Journ., (Dingler) (1874), 213, 73.) who believed that the simplest and safest method of ascertaining the real value of a coal was the determination of the water, coke, and ash. 198 COX. 3)o 35 4Jo 45 AG) 515 6)0 é[5 PERCENTAGE OF FIXED CARBON IN TOTAL COMBUSTIBLE MATTER T I rad i] | 7000 War, e = Shy 6500 Org £2 0 2. & 2 4> Fg 5 6 > e 9 6000 16 4] 2 43 eG 15 16 e 'g 5500 19 <0 2/ 22 <3 25 <5 <6 2 5500 25 <9 So) 3 92 =) 4 5 4500 36 ? Sg w 9 « 0 fo) =) 1. He says “‘the substitution of Al,O;, or Fe.O; for Si0., that is, the use of a rich clay, lowers the overburning temperature” that with lean clays heavily limed there is a wide margin between the proper clinkering temperature and the overburning tem- perature, while with rich clays great care must be exercised in order to prevent overburning. Bleininger,* says, “The clay must have a percentage ratio of silica to alumina of from 3 to 1 to 4 to 1” and in drawing conclusions from his own work, continues * “The ratios of silica to alumina given on several occasions seems to be correct, for the safest cements in the boiling test, though not the highest in the tensile test are those with a silica-alumina ratio of from 3 to 1 to 4 to 1. Aluminous cements are to be condemned.” Experiments of this Bureau® lead to the conclusion that the composition of Portland cement best adapted for use in a tropical climate should have a high silica-alumina ratio; that is, at least 3 parts of silica to 1 part of alumina. R. K. Meade* places the limits for a freshly made American Portland cement as follows: Per cent. Silica 20-24 Alumina : 5- 9 Tron oxide 2- 4 Lime 60-63.5 Sulphur trioxide I= 2 Le Chatelier** places the limits of the amount of individual constituents usually present in good commercial Portland cement as follows: Per cent. Silica 21-24 Alumina 6— 8 Tron oxide 2-4 Lime : 60-65 Magnesia 0.5— 2 The above calculations show that cements agreeing nicely with the theoretical analysis for Lehigh district cement could be produced from materials such as those taken from the drill hole on Batan Island. On the other hand, the silica-alumina ratio is low and the composition of the burned product shows that this would barely come within the highest limits proposed by Meade and Le Chatelier. I am of the opinion that it would be found necessary to add silica to the materials in some shape to produce a wholly satisfactory cement. 2 Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1902) 24, 969. %The manufacture of Hydraulic Cements, Bull. Geol. Sur., Ohio 4th Ser. (1904), 3, 223. * Tbid., 237. * Reibling, and Salinger, L. A. This Journal, Sec. A. (1908), 3, 185. * Chem. Hng. (1907), 5, 349. “Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. (1893), 32, 16. 218 COX. Attention might also be called to the fact that owing to a relatively large amount of calcium oxide contained in these shales themselves, only a comparatively small amount of limestone would haye to be com- bined with them and therefore a much larger deposit than is usual for ordinary siliceous shales, would be necessary for a given output. THE RAW MATERIALS OF MOUNT LICOS REGION, NEAR DANAO, CEBU. Although a few borings have been made, there is little doubt but that there is a large supply of raw materials in the Mount Licos region the quality can be ascertained from the following pages. The map of the Danao-Compostela coal district ** shows the extent of the limestone. Mount Licos is capped with a white, orbitoidal limestone, 30 to 150 meters thick. Limestone occurs abundantly in more or less detached areas over the whole region as remnants of what was most probably originally a continuous blanket. The shales and sandstone are mapped under one color (blue). Dr. Smith has estimated that the total thick- ness of the coarse, gray sandstone and the coal measure shales, including five coal seams, is 90 to 150 meters?®; this also includes the shales which have locally been weathered to clay. The lower part of the coal meas- ures consists of gray shales and the upper portion of the coarse, gray sandstone. he dip of the beds is naturally with the coal, which varies upward from 20°. Some of the outcrops of the siliceous materials are obliterated by covers of talus, others may be followed all the way up the mountain side, whereas still others have been uncovered or more exposed by railway cuts and mine drifts. The samples here discussed represent large quantities, but were chosen rather to indicate what is known of the character of the materials of the region than to represent any particular bed. A knowledge of its chemical composition is of first importance in the investigation of the suitability of a material for the manufacture of a hydraulic cement and the data for the clays, shales and limestone given in Table V will give the information required. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES. No. 1. Clay from a short distance beyond the upper terminus of the railway of the Insular Coal Company. No. 2. Clay found under the Danao coal. No. 3. Shale dried at 105° C. No. 4. Caleareous shale from railway cut about 300 meters east of the terminus. No. 5. Shaly limestone. : No. 6. Shaly limestone from the cut of the railway about 500 meters east of the terminus. No.7. Upper limestone from Mount Licos. Especial attention is called to the absence of magnesium. Smith, W. D. This Jowrnal, Sec. A. (1907), 2, 405. *® Ibid, 390. —— . . . d 4 7 PHILIPPINE RAW CEMENT MATERIALS. 219 Taste V.—Analyses. [The numbers give percentages.] : Constituent. il 2, 3. 4. 5 Gee ea | | Silical(Si@s) eee 60.17| 43.38| 53.35| 44.35| 29.00| 2402] 0.38 | Alumina (AlsO,)a_----- 22.65 | 29.44] 24.11] 20.96] 11.38] 7.49 : | Tron oxide (FesO3)b__| 4.66] 0.48| 9.03] 4.64] 5.35 ool oe Calcium oxide (CaO)_-| 0.31] 9.50] 0.80] 11.37] 26.25) 33.88] 55.62 | Magnesia (MgQ) ------ 1. 85 0. 61 2.22 2.59 0. 65 2,12 0.00 | Alkalies (KyO-+-Na,O)_|_--2----] 1.56 |--------|_--_____ OB Gleeaee aera Lee eee | | Loss on ignition_______ 6.35 | 10.75] 8.72! 14.30] 23.00] 28.25] 43.50 | Water (H.O) below | | | TOC S Laas (e) 5.80 | (e) (°) 8.84 || (sc) | o.17 | ‘2 Includes possible titanium oxide (TiO.). » Total iron determined as ferric oxide. ¢ Included under loss on ignition. These materials may be combined, according to the method of eal- culation outlined under the preceding head. If clay number 1 is com- bined with limestone number 7, the formula would require 3.28 parts of limestone to every part of clay and the results would be as follows: Tasie VI. [The numbers give parts of the materials by weight.] | Individual constituents. Total. Cal- Volatile | i ens - z - Sitice | mina | oxide | CIM | nesta | (Cn | 21" |(AlzOs)|(Fee0s)| (Gao), |(MEO)-| ety’ Claye (Nose) 100 60.17 22. 65 4, 66 0.30 1.85 6.35 Limestone (No. 7) ----- 333.5 1.27 OL@D) |jpassoe 185549) See 148. 25 SSS SSS SSS SS = = 1 Unburned _-_-_------_- 433.5 | 61.44 | 23.25] 4.66) 185.80] 1.85 | 151.99 Volatile | | | ae ee ee ee ee Sa | i Bure dees eee! 981.5] 21.88] 8.26] 1.65] 66.00] 0.66 |_______ t | It will be noticed from the parts by weight (percentage composition) of the burned product that the content of lime is higher than that of the average Portland cement. ‘The results of the formula represent the maximum of lime which a cement can carry, if it were manufactured under ideal conditions. In actual practice these are seldom met with and it is therefore necessary to carry the lime lower than that indicated by the formula. Furthermore, a cement which has a comparatively low overburning temperature is always burned at the lowest possible point and at this temperature will usually not carry the maximum quan- 85320——4 220 cox. tity of lime. A mixture which would more nearly correspond to the theoretical analysis of Lehigh Portland cement given above is as follows: Tasie VII. : . [The numbers give parts of the materials by weight.] | | Individual constituents. Total. Cal- Volatile Silica | AlU- | Irom | Ginm | Mag- (COs, (SiOa) mina | oxide oxide | mesia HO | * |(Alz Os) |(Fe203) (CaO). |(MgO). ete.). | AUS we is = Clay (No. 1)----- -| 100 | 60.17] 22.65] 4.66] 0.8] 1.85| 6.35 Limestone (No. 7) ----- 292 1.05 Oa eee 16256) |e | 127.65: Unburned --___-_--_-__ 392 61.22 | 23,15 4.66 | 162.9 1,85 | 134, Volatile .---==-2--4-= 134 | Burned sees eeeeenan 258 | 93.7 | 8.97] 1.80] 63.1) 0.72 | Lee While the limiting formula is of great assistance in the proportioning of cements, it leaves undetermined the silica-alumina ratio, which is of utmost importance. There is every reason to believe that clay number 1 would produce a better cement if silica in some shape were added to the clay base. With the substitution of a certain amount of silica for alumina or iron oxide, molecule for molecule, in the limiting formula a safer cement would be produced in that the overburning temperature would be increased.?° The state of subdivision of the free silica in the raw materials used for this purpose is an extremely important considera- tion. ‘The sandstones of the region, although high in silica, are probably not suited for this purpose in that they are composed of oxides of iron and alumina and quartz grains so large as to be unsuited to cement manu- facture. This sandstone, which contains approximately 73 per cent silica, when pulverized to the degree necessary for rock analysis and one gram digested in 200 cubic centimeters of 5 per cent sodium hydroxide for 45 minutes on a water bath, allowed 7.6 per cent of the silica to pass into solution.** It is unnecessary to resort to physical means to determine that the greater part of the silica is crystalline, for the quartz grains are visible to the naked eye and yery distinct with a lens. The grains are yery loosely held together and can be broken apart by rubbing be- * The ideal mixture can not be overburned. **Quartz is not absolutely insoluble in caustic alkalies (Lunge, G. and Mill- berg, C.: Ztsehr. f. angew. Chem. (1897), 10, 393, 425), as is sometimes supposed to be the case and the use of a dilute solution of the latter does not give a correct separation of quartz and amorphous silica, however the error can generally be neglected. Hillebrand (Bull. U. S. Geol. Sur. (1907), 305, 166),, recommends as the most satisfactory the use of a dilute solution of sodium hydrate in which the solution of the amorphus silica is almost immediate. PHILIPPINE RAW CEMENT MATERIALS. 221 tween the fingers, or gently in a mortar. The state of subdivision will be seen from the following numbers: Sieve. Per cent. Meshes Not Size. | ,Bcf, | Passed.| passed. meter. 100 40 45 55 80 32 57 43 60 24 76 24 50 20 94 6 40 16 987 1 A large formation of schist occurs on the Island of Romblon; this is so high in silica that it is doubtful if it could be used alone for the manufacture of cement, but a small amount of material of this nature could successfully be employed for recomposing the ordinary clay or shale base. It is not improbable that highly siliceous materials similar to those in Romblon occur along tectonic lines and if so, then possibly a similar schist more available to Cebu, might be found on some of the smaller islands lying nearer to it. Im fact, schists have been found on Cebu itself. These occur and outcrop only in a few places along the Cordi- Uera under the capping. One such schist has been described as rhyolite by H. G. Ferguson.”? Analyses of these materials rich in silica are given in Table VIII. Sample No. 8. Sandstone which outcrops above the coal at the Compostela mine. Sample No. 9. Average of two analyses, agreeing fairly well, of independent samples taken from the schist formation near Romblon, Romblon. Sample No. 10. Cebu rhyolite. Taste VIII.—Analyses of materials rich in silica. [The numbers give percentages. ] Constituent. 8. o 10. Biltcan(S1On) Meenas sansa a Seba a as Pe es 72.76 | 80.12 | 67.25 Alumina (A1,03)4 —-_ Iron oxide (FeO) - Lime (CaO) --_______ 0.62! 0.12) 1.28 Magnesia (MgO) - [ERE EVAN (S(O) SN a ee ee ee |e ee 2,38} 4.38 (Sool aan (Nas ©) im este roe nate tes Sa a Moet SSD Ne 1.31] 0.59 | IBOSSVOMPISMihl OMe se eee ee ee oe Sas 3.53 1,94 6.11 Water (HO) below 110°@________-_______-__-_-_-_______ 1.84] 0.21] 6.15 4 Includes possible titanium oxide (TiO»). » Total iron determined as ferric oxide. = This Journal, Sec. A. (1907), 2, 408. 222 Cox. Suppose that we recompcse clay number 1 with schist number 9 so that, alumina (resp. iron oxide) 1 rae = The calculation is as follows: silica 3 < a , 102.2 z é Clay number 1.—22.65+ (4.66 Gas) =25.63 parts alumina equivalent to alumina and iron oxide in 100 parts clay. 60.17 silica 5.63 oe or alumina 34° Schist number 9.—12.56+ (1.157555) =13.80 parts alumina equivalent to alumina and iron oxide in 100 parts schist. 80.12 silica an One Se SY DA. 13.30 Speer alumina eee For any given intermediate ratio, parts of each must be combined, inversely in proportion as the found ratio varies from that given. For a ratio of 3 to 1 therefore, 0.654. (7%. e., 3—2.346) part of schist would need to be combined with 5 ; 3.025 3.025 (4. @., 6.025— arts slay. x Pe. —_—_____— _— 3.025 (7. ¢., 6.025—3) parts of clay, or a mixture of 82.25 per cent ( Campbell, E. D.: Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1902), 24, 991. 227 PHILIPPINE RAW CEMENT MATERIALS. AIAVITBAR ST SSBIO SIT} JO [BOD “-sosA[VUv os8ey} SUINVUL UL ddDURISISSY SI IoZ ATOZBIOGR] SITY} JO JOsUT[VG “W “T “AJL OF pojqapur ue T “spivA puv speys sjt “GORL) epyxo ofue713 sepn[ouy p ‘[]B@ ye JOU IO Sse0v1} UI JUeSeId 910M oplipAque olsoydsoyd pus esoursuvy > zo ‘@ ‘(S06T) ‘Sum “wayp 2YTq ‘qOH1BO BllUBY 94} uO UL patid ‘spunod Opz‘g JO u O} Jed G)'OTag 3% YUeMIMIBAOH Iv[MSUT oy} Aq posByoInd sem [vO SIT v Sa ay F199 68% ‘9 096 ‘F 6G§ ‘9 $90 9 082 ‘9 ra nis mimeo (12) 6-(9) (19) VAN GD) 14 60) (70) DITA’ BOOK SF centr ceproatc tants 12‘ GOON Ale A ay ioe SEOs etn asa Seteas = pec oot. a ae Re aaa ae (peutuiajap Ajeyeisdes) anydins 00 00T 00 00T 00 00T 00 001 00°00 00 00r IMOOMO0T = Lia Sie ee a ppc ee sgn or irae ee eas M101, CPA} $=} NAL = (1)'2) £00 PSP 69% 23 = #90 000 £60 &o'T 80'0 00 100 |~(*0S) oprepéyue opinydms 9r'0 60°0 £00 00 200 100 TLOWO | eens = oe tere a (O39) | 0r‘0 IL‘0 #00 aL'0 ¢00 £00 RO Oia) are aoenere oer, (O78N) Bpog £00 #10 220 6P'0 #50 $00 SS Olt aaa ccs (QOS) Bsousey | ________ SEAS oie ge US 610 260 280 90°T a0 OF ‘0 Ae eee (ovo) eumrT AEN Rene { 760 8¢0 1'T 0 'T 090 TE Oba | ennnaeaa (80%q) @apIxo uoIT #9'S 80°T 84°0 82 °T 480 OG I pas eran (O*TV) pBurmmnypy 65° 189 00°¢ OL'F OFT 190 UE mee asa a (701s) BorTIs J £0 "FS #6 0 8 SF 98 FE 08 0G GO 8h (0/2) ee = ee RET u0q1B) pextT 88 cs &6 PE 66 68 0G 98 66 88 Fa 88 OGRE Toh olla pecs ate gent 8 tartar or ane rg ota 10}} BU B[QTISNGUIOD aTIyBlOA. #8 'T 08° 68'S 198 18° 00 TL QOS oe el ages: Ge see We ae ek SO CO ne Sen ea AINgstoW 4" [800 sBa 4 ‘DUBIST UIE *(o,dures _ngeo OEE vBITBISNy OU Od TeInaeeen Tuomwaroseet ear Cane) ‘{aOULILB YT FIA IsuUBUIeD ISUBULBD *S[B00 USTOIOW ‘s[Boo ourddriyd "7000 ubiawof auos fo pun sypoo suiddywyg 2a1qn~nan duos fo sashjpupy—]IIX AIaAVL 228 COX. DISCUSSION. Meade*® has shown by three experiments that the changes between the clinker as analyzed, when calculated without its water and carbon dioxide, and the raw material calculated to a clinker are as follows: TABLE XIV.—Loss or gain. (The numbers give percentages. ] == SE et Saray ; ry Le 4 Constituent. | sata |= by | 3. | Average. 2 aa epee a | 40,46 | 40.72 | +0.67 | 4.0.62 2 | —0.03 | —0.03 | —0.03 +0. 32 | 4-0.39 | +-0.37 / | -+0.30 | +0.32 | +0.29 —All. | AN. |. 22 eee 0.00} 0.00 40.09 | +-0.08 0.00 — — 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.00 | —0.12 | —0.09 | —0.09 | —0.51 | 0.51) —0.49 | +0.01 | —0.00 | 0.00 —0. 72 | —0, 87 / —0. 67 The results show that there is almost complete oxidation of the iron present in the raw state, that over one-half of the alkalies are expelled in the kiln, and especially that there is a large loss of sulphur and almost complete oxidation of the remainder. ‘The greater part of the sulphur is present as iron sulphide in the coal and the original rock which, when heated to the temperature of the kiln, burns to sulphur dioxide and ferric oxide. It is quite probable that in the coal ash as obtained in the laboratory all of the sulphur is fixed by being roasted to sulphates which do not give off sulphuric anhydride at a gentle heat. At laln temperatures sulphuric anhydride would be partially expelled from these and for this reason we would expect a loss of sulphur. As regards sulphur, then, even the Philippine coals containing the highest percentage that I have found would be available for burning cement. Meade shows that the silica, ferric oxide and alumina of the clinker have been increased by approximately one-half of the coal ash. On the other hand, he finds a marked loss of material in the dust, which the analyses indicates to be a mixture of coal ash, partially burned raw material and the volatile constituents of the latter. The figures show that theoretically 254 kilos of rock should make a barrel of cement (172 alos), but that few manufacturers use less than 276 kilos, showing a loss of 12 kilos as dust, ete., per barrel of cement produced. Mr. Meade further says: “Undoubtedly in the rotary kiln much of the ash is carried out with the gases by the strong draft of the kiln. This we would expect to be the case when we * Chem. Eng. (1905), 2, 222-223. a 1 By PHILIPPINE RAW CEMENT MATERIALS. 229 consider that the particles of ash are of the same volume as the particles of coal, and yet only one-tenth their weight, for when the coal burns it leaves its ash in the form of a skeleton. These particles of ash are already in motion and are in the full draft. The gases have a velocity of at least 600 meters per “minute, which is quite sufficient to carry the particles up the chimney. It seems probable in view of these facts that what ash does contaminate the clinker comes from the impinging of the flame upon the material in the kiln.” The sulphur content in nearly all of the Philippine coals which have been analyzed by the Bureau of Science would not be injurious were it accepted as a fact that all of it is absorbed by the cement clinker. The other constituents of the ash may be incorporated into the cement clinker by proper fluxing. When one-half of these are lost to the staci, the additional amount of raw material which must be added is small. It is probable that if the coal is ground to a sufficient degree of fineness the ash particles will be almost entirely swept out of the kiln by the draft and the factor of the ash will become very small. There remains the question of the heating value of the coal. ‘The average of 51 samples of Fairmont coal?‘ which has been considered above as a fuel for burning cement, shows the following analysis and calorific value : Water : 1.43 Volatile combustible matter 37.47 Fixed carbon 53.83 Ash 7.27 Sulphur 2.59 Calories 7,785 This analysis, which represents a vast territory and perhaps the best American fuel for cement kilns, when calculated to the dry coal would have a calorific value of about 7,900 calories. Other coals of less calo- rifie value have been satisfactorily used as a fuel for burning cement. The Philippine coals, the analyses of which are given in the table on page 227 when calculated to the dry coal would have a calorific value of about 7,090, 7,110, 6,800, 5,715 and 6,715, respectively, while that of the Australian coal would be 6,775 calories. While the fuel value of the Philippine coals is not as great as the well-known gas coal of Fairmont, West Virginia, our coals appear to be as good under these conditions as any at present available in the Philippines and neighboring countries and I am of the opinion that they will be very useful as a fuel for burning cement. 7 Report of the Geol. Sur. W. Va. (1903), 2, 231. EDITORIAL. PHILIPPINE TURPENTINE. Considerable local interest has been aroused recently in the industrial possibilities of turpentine products from the pine forests of Benguet Province, Luzon. The Benguet pine, “Saleng,” Pinus insularis Endl., is found distrib- uted from Zambales Province to the extreme north end of Luzon. The Bureau of Science herbarium shows collections of this species from the Provinces of Zambales, Benguet, Ilocos Sur, Abra, Lepanto, and Bontoe. The tree, in its leaf, fruit, and wood characters, shows a close resem- blance to the western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa Dougl., of the United States and to the Khasya pine, Pinus khasya Royle, of British India. Neither of the above-mentioned species to my kmowledge are tapped for the commercial production of turpentine at the present time, although the latter is reported to produce a good grade of resin. Some Benguet pine trees were boxed and the turpentine collected by Mr. B. T. Brooks of the chemical staff of the Bureau of Science, who reported in substance as follows: “On March 13, fourteen trees situated in the forest adjoining the claim of the Headwaters Mining Company were boxed. The trees were selected at random and included several trees of the variety known to lumbermen and turpentine collectors as ‘scrub pine.’ Six hours later thirteen of the trees showed an abundant flow of resin, while one was hard and did not flow. The collected resin weighed 1,761.5 grams. “On March 14, thirty trees were boxed in another locality about 2 miles distant from Baguio. They were selected with the idea of including both healthy and unhealthy looking trees and some which had been damaged by ground fires. On the following day these trees were again visited and all but three, which were hard and did not flow, were still running slowly. The collected resin weighed 4,400 grams. “Method of boxing.—The boxes were cut about 30 to 40 centimeters wide, 12 to 18 centimeters deep, and 6 to 8 centimeters from front to back, varying with the size of the trees. They were made by inexperienced laborers and were so badly split and bruised that much of the fresh resin was lost, hence the yields obtained do not accurately represent the total flow of resin. “One of the best flowing trees had a diameter of about 85 centimeters and produced 857 grams of resin in thirty-two hours, although a portion was lost by overflowing the box. “These samples being taken during the dry season probably represent a smaller yield than would be ohtained during the rainy season when the trees have more life and the loss by evaporation is less, “The cup and gutter system of collection would also give large yields by mini- mizing the loss.” : j 231 232 EDITORIAL. A sample of the crude turpentine collected under the above conditions was submitted for an examination and for an opinion as to its commercial value. It had much the appearance and consistency of crystallized honey and possessed a mild, pleasant odor. 1,961.5 grams were subjected to steam distillation as received without any previous filtering for the removal of an appreciable quantity of foreign matter in the form of chips, bark, etc. Exhaustive distillation gave 412.2 grams (23.4 per cent) of oil of turpen- tine which was water-white in color and after drying over calcium chloride it possessed the following constants: Specific gravity =0.8593; 30° 2 B02 30° 30° : ; #9, Nj =1. 4656; Ay = t 26.5. Ninety-six per cent distilled between 154° and 165°.5 C. The residue from the steam distillation, amounting to 76.6 per cent of the original resin by difference, was freed from approximately 15 grams of foreign material by hot filtration. It consisted of prime colo- phony of a clear, pale amber color. ; Guorce F. RicHMonp. INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL AND ITS POSSIBILITY AS A SOURCE OF POWER IN THE PHILIPPINES. Alcohol can be used as a motor fuel for all purposes for which gas- oline is at present employed. Exhaustive tests made by the United States Government* have demonstrated that any gasoline or kerosene engine of ordinary type can with proper manipulation operate with alcohol without material change in its construction. The engine will give slightly more power (about 10 per cent) when alcohol is used but this increase is at the expense of greater consumption of fuel. Hxperi- ments of the United States Geological Survey? have shown that when denatured alcohol is employed the lowest fuel consumption is obtained with the highest practical degree of compression (11.6 to 13.7 kalograms per square centimeter), but since the vaporization temperature of alcohol is higher than that of gasoline a modified combustion chamber and car- buretor is to be preferred. Some gasoline engines are not sufficiently heavy to stand the desired high explosion pressure when alcohol is used and therefore a machine especially designed for alcohol is preferable to one planned to operate with gasoline or kerosene. The United States Geological Survey made a series of over 2,000 in- dividual tests, comparing gasoline of about 0.699 specific gravity (73° Baumé) and commercial fully denatured alcohol.* Tests which corre- 1TLucke, C. E. and Woodward, 8. M.: Farm. Bull. U. 8. Dept. Agr. (1907), 277; Holmes, J. A.: Eng. News (1908), 59, 424. '*Holmes, J. A.: Ibid; C. A. (1908), 2, 2147. *Holmes, J. A.: Ibid. EDITORIAL. 233 sponded in the method of manipulation showed that alcohol was more efficient than gasoline and they also proved that equal volumes of gasoline and alcohol produced about the same power. This result is not usually achieved in practice. Ordinary commercial gasoline engines of station- ary or marine type will consume from 1.5 to 2 times as much alcohol as gasoline when operated under the same conditions. Alcohol is especially suited to air-cooled automobile engines, as the exhaust is not so hot as when gasoline or kerosene is used, while on the other hand the temperature of the cylinder may be hotter without danger of backfiring. The storage and use of alcohol in engines is much less dangerous than that of gasoline or petrol and the engines operating on the former run more quietly and produce a less offensive odor. No more skill is required to operate an alcohol engine than one arranged for gasoline or kerosene. The relative heat values of gasoline, alcohol and coal are shown by the following approximate numbers: Calories. Gasoline 11,100 Alcohol (100 per cent) 7,183 Pennsylvania anthracite 7,500 The calorific value of alcohol is of course lower by impurities, so that commercial (90 per cent) alcohol has a calorific value of about 60 per cent of that of gasoline, or a comparative heat value of over 70 per cent by volume. Alcohol of 85 per cent is the common grade of industrial alcohol used in Hurope. The United States Geological Survey found difficulties in starting and regulating when the experi- menters employed 80 per cent alcohol and the fuel consumption increased more rapidly than the percentage of alcohol decreased. The effect upon motors, lamps, ete., of using denatured alcohol has been discussed and deterioration has usually been attributed to the denaturant.* It may be possible that all of the evils coming from the latter may be remedied in the future. Lucke and Woodward found that the interior of an alcohol engine had no tendency to become sooty, as is the case with gasoline and kerosene and there was no undue corro- sion of the interior due to the use of alcohol. The raw materials from which industrial alcohol comes consist of those substances which contain starch, sugar and other fermentable bodies, named in the order of their importance, capable of easily being converted into a fermentable sugar. The cereals, rice, wheat, oats, rye, maize and harley, the potato, cassava or manioc and some other roots contain large percentages of starch. From all of these as well as from sugar cane and sugar-cane molasses, sorghum and fruit juices which contain large percentages of sugars, alcohol is made. Thé artichoke ‘Suchemin, R.: Rev. gén. chim. (1906), 9, 437 to 443; Lucke, C. E. and Woodward, 8. M.: loc. cit. 234 EDITORIAL. which contains neither starch nor sugar but a number of other ferment- able carbohydrates of which inulin and levulin are the principal con- stituents has been highly recommended and rather extensively used in Germany for the manufacture of alcohol. At the present time alcohol is made on a large commercial scale from corn, rye, potatoes, sugar beets, sugar cane, and sugar-cane molasses. Rice has the largest percentage of starch among the cereals, but it is not the cheapest source of alcohol. Indian corn, which hitherto has formed the chief raw material for fermentation and distillation, contains approximately 70 per cent of fermentable bodies and under the best conditions a kilo of corn will usually yield about 340 grams of alcohol (420 cubic centimeters of 95 per cent alcohol by volume at 15° C.). If the average price of corn be placed at 3 centavos per kilo and the cost of manufacture, storage, profit, ete., be taken as an equal amount, industrial alcohol (95 per cent) from this source, untaxed, would sell wholesale for about 14 centavos a liter.° Retail price Annual per liter, consumption in centavos. (million liters). Germany 16 140 Cuba 21 a3 France 23 40 England aN 15 United States 32 13 Besides rice, Indian corn, and sugar cane, the available sources from which alcohol can be manufactured in this Archipelago are the sap of many palms and the cassava. At present nearly all of the alcohol produced comes from the bled sap of the nipa and other palms.’ Alcohol from the nipa has a disagreeable odor which is somewhat difficult to remove, but for industrial purposes this would be of no consequence. A description of this palm (Nipa fruticans Wurmb.) may be found in many places.* It is a species widely distributed all the way from India to Malaya, in northern Australia and Polynesia. A very detailed study of the culture and bleeding of this palm has been published by Ayala & Co? The nipa grows in low, salt-water tidal swamps and the plant is completely developed in about four years after planting the seed. The palms, fruit about every two years, at no particular season. When the tree is ready to bleed, the * Wiley, H. W.: Farm. Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr. (1906), 268, 14. *The following retail prices and annual consumption of denatured alcohol (approximately 95 per cent) are calculated from data given by R, F. Herrick (Lechnol. Quart. (1908), 21, 7 to 9): * During the fiscal year 1907-8, the figures of the Bureau of Internal Revenue show that the production from all sources was equivalent to about 43 million liters of 95 per cent alcohol. There were practically no exports. ® Hooker, Fl. Brit. Ind. (1892), 6, 424; Blanco, Fl. Filip. (1837), 662; Ed. 2 (1845), 461. ’ Conrado, A., and Zobel, E., Estudio de la Planta Nipa, Manila (1906). EDITORIAL. DED) fruiting stem is cut as close to the young fruit as possible and the emerging liquid (tuba) caught in a joint of bamboo. Every day a very thin slice is cut from the stem to prevent the pores from becoming clogged. The removal of thick slices will destroy the stem before all the tuba can be drawn. The production of tuba from a mature tree usually increases during the first fifty to sixty days after tapping and decreases during twenty-five to thirty days more. Jf tuba is drawn for a longer period the tree will die. The tuba from mature stems is white, has an aromatic odor and is sweet. That from palms having-less mature fruit is bluish and less sweet and, therefore, has less fermentative value. The average yield per tree fluctuates from one-half to 3 liters per day, with a total of from 30 to 40 liters (sp. gr. 1.07 to 1.08 at 15°. The juice contains approximately 12 per cent of fermentable material which is largely saccharose. Thirty-two to 34 liters of tuba will usually produce one liter of pure alcohol. In the Provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga, where the price of the molasses residues from sugar cane is low, the latter is mixed with the tuba before fermentation and is said to give a larger yield of alcohol than would the two if fermented separately. Alcohol is removed from the fermented tuba by distillation. The method used in the provinces produces a distillate containing about 50 per cent of alcohol. By redistilling a sufficient number of times a 95 per cent alcohol might be produced, but the process would be very expensive; therefore, the crude alcohol is shipped to the large distilleries in Manila, where it can be refined more economically. In the latter, the process is continuous; the vapors pass through several stills and are cooled just sufficiently to condense them in each one until the proper purity is reached. It will, therefore, be seen that after an alcohol once. passes the crude 50 per cent stage a purity of 95 per cent can be produced with very little more expense per proof liter than one of lower grade. The economy of the purer form is obvious. The manufacture of alcohol from tuba is rather expensive and it is doubtful if the process could be greatly cheapened. Denatured alcohol (95 per cent) from this source is sold wholesale at 2.40 pesos, Philip- pime currency (1.20 dollars, United States currency) per 15 liters, while the above estimated price for the product from corn would be 2.30 pesos per 15 liters. If a market for alcohol as a fuel were opened it could undoubtedly be produced from tuba for 2 pesos per 15 liters, but with the present spasmodic usage it can not be sold at that figure. Cassava is grown in the United States over a large area of the South Atlantic and Gulf States and numerous analyses made by the Division of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture #° have shown that the roots contain about 30 per cent of starch. With the exception of cereals it contains the largest amount of fermentable matter. “An average crop of cassava in the United States may be placed at 5 tons of roots per acre on the ordinary lands of Florida, with proper preparation and “Farm. Bull. U. 8. Dept. Agr. (1903), 167, 23; 268, 17; Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. of Chem. (1900), 58, 36. 85320——5 236 EDITORIAL. y cultivation and appropriate fertilization, a yield of from 4 to 7 or perhaps 8 tons per acre may be reasonably expected.”** At present there are no reliable figures on the amount that can be produced on a given area of land in the Philippines. R. F. Bacon,” thinks that it is perfectly safe to figure on a produc- tion of 224 metric tons per hectare (10 tons per acre). “With this yield,” he says, “there is only one other substance which seems able to compete with it as a source of alcohol, namely, the molasses residue from the crystallization of cane sugar.” E, B. Copeland,” estimates that when starch made from cassava sells at its present local price (15 centavos per kilo), aleohol from the same source would be worth about 174 centavos per liter or 2.60 pesos per 15 liters. At present prices, it would be more profitable to produce starch than alcohol at a price below the latter figure. If at any time the production of cassava becomes more abundant and the utilization for other purposes less remunerative, alcohol from this source may be placed on the market very cheaply. Some experiments with alcohol were carried out in Manila a few months ago with the 25-horsepower motor road roller purchased by the city of Manila. Im all cases the machine was operated on a leyel road and at a standard speed. A crude alcohol such as is shipped to Manila by provincial distillers was used. The motor was first heated to a slight extent by being run for about ten minutes with gasoline; it ran for twelve minutes on the alcohol and then stopped. An examination showed that the explosions of the alcohol did not furnish enough heat to evaporate all of the water present and that a quantity had collected >in the combustion chamber. When 90 and 94.5 per cent alcohol were employed the motor ran smoothly, with a consumption of 1.8 and 1.6 times, respectively, the quantity of gasoline used for the same time. Lucke and Woodward ** say that a small engine required 1.8 times as much alcohol (probably 85 per cent) as gasoline per horsepower hour. The utilization of alcohol as a fuel is an established fact. ‘The econ- omy is the only open question. Gasoline (73°) is now sold in Manila at 2.38 pesos per 15 liters (about 16 centavos per liter). On the basis of an engine consuming 1.5 times as much 95 per cent alcohol as gasoline the former would need to be sold at 1.60 pesos per 15 liters in order to compete with the latter. Im localities where alcohol can be produced cheaply and which are remote from gasoline supply, alcohol may imme- diately compete with gasoline as a power fuel, otherwise it is not probable that it will be as economical a fuel as gasoline in these Islands for some time to come and I do not anticipate an immediate change in our motor fuel. Anvin J. Cox. 4 Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Chem. (1900), 58, 36, 42. “This Journ. Sec. A. (1907), 2, 98. Phil, Agr. Rev. (1908), 1, 145. ST OCHNCUtemOO, je PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS—Continued. pee es . Bureau of Science—Annual Reports, “ 201. Fifth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending " August 1, 1906. erage 202. Sixth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending iad August 1, 1907. ya hs r 203. Seyenth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending ys August 1, 1908. a3 Philippine Museum, i (Now Section of Ornithology.) a * Wo. 1, 1903.—On Birds from Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Cuyo, Culion, Caga- i yan Sulu and Palawan. By Richard ©. McGregor. ‘ - * No. 2, 1903.—List of Bird Skins Offered in Exchange. a is ; 43. No. 3, 1904.—Birds from Benguet Province, Luzon, and from the Islands of Lubang, Mindoro, Cuyo, and Cagayancillo. By Richard C. McGregor. *No. 4, 1904.—The Birds of Calayan and Fuga, Babuyan Group. By Richard C. ‘McGregor. Mining. Bureau. (Now Division of Mines.) ‘ : 45. 1890.—Descripci6n fisica, geol6gica y minera en bosquejo de la Isla de Panay por er D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del Archipiélago. * 1890.—Memoria descriptiva. de los manantiales minéro-medicinales de la Isla de Luzon, estudiados por la comisién compuesta de los Sefores D. José Centeno, Inge- niero de Minas y Vocal Presidente, D. Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Vocal Far- i macéutico, y D. José de Vera y G6mez, Vocal Médico. * } 47. 1893.—HEstudio descriptivo de algunos manantiales minerales de Filipinas ejecutado por la comisién formada por D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas, D. José de Vera y G6mez, Médico, y D. Anacleto del Resario y Sales, Far- macéutico ; precedido de un prélogo escrito por el Excmo. Sr. D. Angel de Avilés, © Director General de Administracion Civil. 48. 1893.—Terremotos experimentados en la Isla de Luz6n durante los meses de Marzo y \ Abril de 1892, especialmente desastrosos en Pangasinan, Unién y Benguet. Estudio ts Bs ejecutado por D. HEnrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del Ss Archipiélago. . 49. 1901.—The Coal Measures of the Philippines. Charles H. Burritt. < 50. 1902.—Abstract of the Mining Laws (in force in the Philippines, 1902). Charles H. yee : Burritt. J 51. 1902., Bulletin No. 1.—Platinum and Associated Rare Metals in Placer Formations, “2 H. D. Mc@askey, B. 8. 52. 1993.—Report of the Chief of the Mining Bureau of the Philippine Islands. Charles i e H.- Burritt. ‘ 53. 1903, Bulletin No. 2.—Complete List of Spanish Mining Claims ‘Recorded in the Mining Bureau. .Charles H. Burritt. 24 54. 1903, Bulletin No. 3.—Report on a Geological Reconnoissance of the Iron Region of Angat, Bulacan. H, D. McCaskey, B. S. < 55. 1904.—Fifth Annual Report of the Mining Bureau. H. D. McCaskey. ? 56. 1905.—Sixth Annual Report of the Chief of the Mining Bureau. H. D. McCaskey. Z - 57. 1905, Bulletin No. 4.—A Preliminary Reconnoissance of the Mancayan-Suyoc Mineral Region, Lepanto, P. I. A. J. Eveland, Geologist. 58. 1905, Builletin No. 5.—The Ce Deposits. of Batan Island. Warren D. Smith, B. S), M. A., Geologist. Division of Mines: 301. 1908.—The Mineral Resources, of the Philippine Islands, with a Statement of the Production of Commercial Mineral Products during the year 1907, issued by Warren D.-Smith, Chief of the Division of Mines. ® = Ethnological Survey. (Now Division of Ethnology.) A401. Vel. I, 1905.—The Bontoc Igorot, by Albert Ernest Jenks. Paper, ®2; half morocco, F3. 402. Vol. II, Part 1, 1904.—Negritos of Zambales, by William Allen Reed. Paper, ?0.50; half morocco, P1.50. 403. Vol. II, Part 2 and Part 3, 1905.—The Nabaloi Dialect, by Otto Scheerer. The Bataks of Palawan, by Edward Y. Miller. (Bound also in one volume with Part 1, Negritos of Zambales.) Paper, £0.50; half morocco, #1.50. Combined, half , morocco, #3. 404. Vol. IIT, 1904.—Relaciones Agustinianas de las razas del Norte de Luzon, by Perez. Paper, £0.75 ; half morocco, P2. 405. Vol. IV, Part a4 1905.—Studies in-Moro History, Law, and Religion, by Najeeb M. Saleeby. Paper, 0.50; half morocco, #1.50. ‘ Division of Ethnology. i ‘ 406. Vol. IV, Part 2, 1908.—History of Sulu, by Najeeb M. Saleeby. Paper, P1.50. : 407. Vol. V, ‘Part 1 and Part 2, 1908.—The Batan Dialect as'a Member of the Philippine > ; Group of Languages, by ‘Otto Scheerer. “EF” and “V” in Philippine Languages, by = C. BE. Conant. Paper, P1.60. : 408. Vol. V, Part 3A Vocabulary of the Igorot Language as spoken by the Bontok i Tgorots, by the Rev. Walter Clayton Clapp. Igorot-English, English-Igorot. ss = Paper, P1.50. 409. Directions for Ethnographic Observations and Collections, 1908. For free dis- " - tribution. wore ; Those of the above-listed publications which are for sale may be obtained from the if : Director of Printing, Manila, P. I. Publications for free distribution, listed above, may ‘ be had by writing to the Business Manager, Philippine Journal of Science, Manila, P. TI. rita Please give order number. j * Out of print. itor CONTENTS. COX, ALVIN J. Calorimetry, and the Determination of _the Calorific Value of Philippine and Other Coals . from the Results of Proximate Andlysis*222 se = 171 BACON, RAYMOND F., and GANA, VICENTE Q. _ The Economic Possibilities of the Mangrove Swamps : of the Philappines/swea a2 See 0s NE es eee 205 3 COX, ALVIN J. Philippine Raw Cement Materials__ 211 EDITORIAL foo Gilie oN iris 2 Ne ere 231 The ‘‘Philippine Journal of Science” is issued as follows: Section A. General Science, $2, United States currency, per year. Section B. Medical Sciences, $3, United States currency, per year. Section C. Botany, $2, United States currency, per year. The entire ‘‘Journal’”’ $5, United States currency, per year. Single numbers, 50 cents, United States currency. Authors receive 100 copies of their papers free. The numbers.of each section will appear as rapidly as material is available. Each sec- tion will be separately paged and indexed. Subscriptions may be sent to the DIRECTOR OF PRINTING, Manila, P.I. Correspond- ence should be addressed to the Business Manager, Philippine Journal of Science, — Manila, P. I. FOREIGN AGENTS. : ek ; THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York. Messrs. WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W.C. _ fe MARTINUS NIJHOFF, Nobelstraat 18, ’s Gravenhage, Holland. Be: Messrs. MAYER & MULLER, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berliz, N. W. ey Messrs. KELLY & WALSH, LIMITED, 32 Rafiles Place, Singapore, 8.8. Nea Messrs. A. M. & J. FERGUSON, 19 Baillie Street, Colombo, Ceylon. ee q = =} (Entered at the post-office at Manila, P. I.,as second-class matter.) A limited. number of unbound copies of previous voles a ‘are available which may be secured from the Director of — Printing at the following rates: Volume I, 1906 (not divided — into sections), $5, United States currency; Supplement to Vol- | ume I, $2.50, United States currency; Volume I (without ~— supplement), $3, United States currency; all later volumes x at current subscription prices. fil gve Vor. IV JULY, 1909 No. 4 THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDITED BY PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Px. D. @a ht i Ze CO-EDITOR, RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D. WITH THE COOPERATION OF MERTON L. MILLER, Pu. D.; GEORGE F. RICHMOND, M. S. W. D:. SMITH, Pu. D.; ALVIN J. COX, Pu. D. RAYMOND F. BACON, Px. D.; CHARLES S, BANKS, M. S. H. D. GIBBS. B. S.; R. C. McGREGOR, A. B. PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS A. GENERAL SCIENCE MANILA BUREAU OF PRINTING 1909 ORDE No. 15. 17. 19. 20. 21. 22. 24, 25. 26. 27. 28, 29, 30. 31, 32. 33. 35. 36. 39. 40. 101. 102. £03. PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS, Bureau of Government Laboratories, *Wo, 1, 1902, to No. 14, 1904. No. 15, 1904, Bialogical and Serum Laboratories.—Report on Bacillus Violacevus Ma- nile: A Pathogenic Micro-Organism. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. * No. 16, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Protective Inoculation against Asiatic Cholera: An Experimental Study. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. aie tae Fae ae or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, II. By Elmer D. Merrill, otanist, * No. 18, 190}, Biological Laboratory—i. Amebas: Their Cultivation and Etiologic Significance. By W. E. Musgrave, M. D., and Moses T. Clegg. II. The Treatment of ee Amebiasis (Amcebic Dysentery) in the Tropics. By W. HE. Mus- grave, M. D. No. 19, 1904, Biological Laborator1.—Some Observations on the Biology of the Chol- era Spirillum. By W. B. Wherry, M. D. Wo. 20, 1904.—Biological Laboratory: I. Does Latent or Dormant Plague Bxist Where the Disease is Hndemic? By Maximilian Herzog, M. D., and Charles B. Hare. Serum Laboratory: Il. Broncho-Pneumonia of Cattle: Its Association with B. Bovisepticus. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and Walter Sorrell, D, V. S. III. Pinto (Pafio Blanco). By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. Chemical Laboratory: IV. Notes on Analysis of the Water from the Manila Water Supply. By Charles L. Bliss, M. S. Serum Laboratory: V. Frambesia: Its Occurrence in Natiyes in the Philippine Islands. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D. No. 21, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Some Questions Relating to the Virulence of Micro-Organisms with Particular Reference to Their Immunizing Powers. By Richard P, Strong, M. D. , No. 22, 1904, Bureaw of Government, Laboratories—I. A Description of the New Buildings of the Bureau of Goyernment Laboratories, By Paul GC, Freer, M. D., Ph. D. II. A Catalogue of the Library of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. By Mary Polk, Librarian. * No. 23, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—Plague: Bacteriology, Morbid Anatomy, and iB Histopathology (Including a Consideration of Insects as Plague Carriers). By ‘Maximilian Herzog, M. D. No. 24, £904, Biological Laboratory.—Glanders: Its Diagnosis and Prevention (To- gether with a Report on Two Cases of Human Glanders Occurring in Manila and Some Notes on the Bacteriology and Polymorphism of Bacterium Mallei). By William B. Wherry, M. D. , No. 25, 1904.—Birds from the Islands of Remblon, Sibuyan, and Cresta de Gallo. By Richard C; McGregor. (For first four bulletins of the ornithological series, see Philippine Museum below.) No. 26, 1904, Biological Laboratory.—The Clinical and Pathological Significance of Balantidium Coli. By Richard P. Strong, M. D. No. 27, 1904.—A Review of the Identification of the Species Described in Blanco’s Flora de Filipinas. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 28, 1904.—I. The Polypodiaceew of the Philippine Islands. II. Edible Philip- pine Fungi. By Edwin B. Copeland, Ph. D. No. 29, 1904.—I. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, IiI. II. The Source of Manila Elemi. By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 30, 1905, Chemical Laboratory.—l. Autocatalytic Decomposition of Silver Oxide. Il. Hydration in Solution. By Gilbert N. Lewis, Ph. D, No. 31, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—l. Notes on a Case of Hwematochyluria (To- gether with Some Observations on the Morphology of the Embryo Nematode, Filaria Nocturna). By William B. Wherry, M. D., and John R. McDill, M. D., Manila, P. I. II. A Search into the Nitrate and Nitrite Content of Witte’s ‘“‘Peptone,” with Special Reference to Its Influence on the Demonstration of the Indol and Cholera- Red Reactions. By William B. Wherry M. D. No. 22, 1905.—Biological Laboratory: I. Intestinal Hemorrhage as a Fatal Com- plication in Amebic Dysentery and Its Assoviation with Liver Abscess. By Richard P. Strong, M. D._ II. The Action of Various Chemical Substances upon Cultures of Amebe. By J. B. Thomas, M. D., Baguio, Benguet. Biological and Serum Laboratories: III. The Pathology of Intestinal Amebiasis. By Paul G. Woolley, M. D., and W. BE. Musgrave, M. D. : i No. 38, 1905, Biological Laboratory.—Further Observations on Fibrin Thrombosis in the Glomerular and in Other Renal Vessels in Bubonic Plague. By Maximilian Herzog, M. D. 2 * No. 34, 1905.—I. Birds from Mindoro and Small Adjacent Islands. II. Notes on Three Rare Luzon Birds. By Richard C. McGregor. \ No. 35, 1905.—I. New or Noteworthy Philippine Plants, IV. II. Notes on Cuming’s Philippine Plants in the Herbarium of the Bureau of Government Laboratories. III. Hackel, “‘Notes on Philippine Grasses.” IV. Ridley, ‘‘Scitamines Philippinen- ses. V. Clarke, “‘Philippine Acanthacere.” By Elmer D. Merrill, Botanist. No. 36, 1905.—A Hand-List of the Birds of the Philippine Islands, By Richard C. McGregor and Dean C. Worcester. ” r * Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1902. (Appendix M of Third Annual Report of the Philippine Commission.) F Ne * Report of the Superintendent of Government Laboratories in the Philippine Islands for the Year Ending September 1, 1903. (Appendix G of the Fourth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission.) ‘ Third Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1904. ; Fourth Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Bureau of Government Laboratories for the Year Ending August 31, 1905. Bureau of Science—Publications, Price and Exchange List of Philippine Bird Skins in the Collection of the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. (Effective January 1, 1908.) No. 1, 1909.—A Check-List of Philippine Fishes. By David Starr Jordan and Robert Earl Richardson. In press. y No. 2, 1909.—A Manual of Philippine Birds. By Richard C. McGregor, Parts I and II. A systematic index to the orders, families, and genera. Paper, #8 for the two parts. : * Out of print. (Concluded on third page of cover.) THE PHIEVePINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. GENERAL SCIENCE Wow LV JULY, 1909 No. 4 THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN AND VICINITY. By Fr. JUAN VILLAVERDE. * (Translated, Hdited and Illustrated by Dean C. Worcester. With Notes and an Addendum by L. E. Case.) The Spanish missionary priests who played such an important part in the civilizing of the wild tribes of the Philippines had a wonderfully favorable opportunity for ethnological work. It is greatly to be regretted that most of them did not deem their observations relative to the manner of life of these peoples to be of sufficient importance to be recorded and perpetuated, but, as a matter of fact, they did not. ‘However, every rule has its exceptions. Fr. Juan Villaverde was born im the Spanish Province of Navarra on June 23, 1841, was sent as a missionary among the Ifugaos on February 3, 1868, and remained in or near the Ifugao country until the early part of 1897, when he contracted the illness which resulted in his death on July 8 of the same year. He has written a very interesting and valuable account of the Ifugaos of which a translation follows. In referring to these people, Fr. Villayerde almost invariably employs the word “Igorrotes.” As this is the name applied generally to the hill people of northern Luzon by Spanish writers, I have invariably substituted for it the word “Ifugaos” now ordinarily employed to des- ignate the “Igorrotes” of this particular region. Fr. Villaverde’s account of the Ifugaos forms a part of his “Informe Sobre la Reduccién de los Infieles de Luzén,” written in response to a request for information as to practical means for subjecting the non- - Christian tribes of northern Luzon and organizing them into Christian towns, sent out by the Superior Government of the Philippine Islands. 87002 : 237 238 VILLAVERDE. It is worthy of more than passing note that the suggestions made by Fr. Villaverde relative to the means which might be employed to civilize the Ifugaos were of a highly practical and most sensible nature, and that many of them were directly in line with the policy looking to this end which has since been so successfully carried out. Captain L. KH. Case, of the Philippines Constabulary, was stationed in the Ifugao country for a period of four years, haying his head- quarters at Banaue during the greater part of this period. I have submitted the translation of Fr. Villaverde’s article to him for com- ment, and his observations thereon, as well as a few of my own, haye been added in the form of footnotes. Since the American occupation, work for the civilizing of the Ifugaos has progressed with a rapidity which is remarkable, considermg the difficulties to be overcome. It is believed that there are fully 101,000 of these naturally wild and war-like people, and they occupy one of the most inaccessible and rugged mountain regions in the entire Philippine Archipelago. Captain Case was himself remarkably fortunate in win- ning their good-will and respect, and gaye a very strong impulse to the work looking for their betterment. His successor, Lieutenant Jeff. D. Gallman, of the Philippines Constabulary, has been extraordinarily successful in forwarding the work thus auspiciously begun, and in recognition of his very valuable services has recently been appointed heutenant-governor of the subprovince of Ifugao which has now been segregated from Nueva Vizcaya and added to the recently established Mountain Province. Within the past few years an extensive system of trails has made the territory occupied by the Ifugaos comparatively accessible, and the friendliest relations have heen established with them. At this time (May 14, 1909) there has not been a human head taken in the entire subprovince of Ifugao for a year and a half. With two exceptions the photographs with which this article is illustrated were taken either by the Government photographer, Mr. Charles Martin, or by myself. The translation of Fr. Juan Villaverde’s article follows. DrEan C. WorcESTER. OCCUPATIONS OF THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN AND THE NEIGHBORING REGIONS. The Ifugaos live without forming any society which is worthy of the name, grouped in settlements for the most part subdued. In the less rugged mountains, where they cultivate rice, these settlements are fre- quently large; and according to the testimony of eyewitnesses there are numerous other settlements in the main part of the cordillera. As THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 239 Jn Quiangan,* which is one of the large and less rugged valleys, some of the settlements have 90 to 100 houses, others 30 to 70, and others less. (Plate I, fig. 2.) The houses all have the same architectural plan, not beautiful to be sure, but with sufficient solidity to prevent the entrance of wind and rain. They are rectangular, of about three meters on a side. ‘They are sustained by four posts, a meter high, or a little more, which, while hardly put into the earth, support the house firmly in spite of the strength of the winds. The greater part are of rough boards. Some of them are made of bamboo, but with the floor of boards. (Plate IIL, fig. 1.) . The Ifugaos of Quiangan and other neighboring regions prefer to cultivate rice where the ground permits, that is to say, wherever they can get spring water for it. As the land is never, or almost never, level, they build various terraces, more or less high, called “pilapiles,” in order to make small level surfaces where they can sow rice and keep the water standing, as the culture of this plant demands. They sow it in January or February, or when the rainy season is over. It is of a special quality, very good and with large grains, and it does not give a good crop if planted at the time the Christians of the valley plant their rice. The Ifugaos accordingly let the heavy rains pass, and take advantage of the water of high springs, brought to their fields with much work and no little skill. For this reason, they lose their harvest, or get very little, in the years of drought, without taking account of the plagues of rats which exist in the mountains, eating great quantities of the grain in ‘spite of the beautiful precautions which they take to exterminate them. Returning to the pilapiles, which are the only means of controlling the inclined slopes of the mountains, it is not easy to appreciate the work which they necessitate. On the gentler slopes of the mountains they are of earth, in the shape of sloping banks whose height varies from a meter to a meter and a half. (Plate VI, fig. 2.) When the land allows this class of pi/apiles, which happens only rarely, it is considered excellent and easy to work. More usually there is need of pilapiles made of stone, after the fashion of dykes slightly inclined inward, these having to be higher and more numerous as the slope of the mountain becomes more steep. Sometimes they are more than 4 meters high, although in Quiangan I have not seen them so high as this. Often their height is greater than the breadth of the space which they inclose, and the Ifugaos do not hesitate at the tremendous work involved. (Plates IV and V, and Plate IX, fig. 2.) The trouble is that they do not even find such ground with water above it, except by buying it at fabulous prices, on account of its being all occupied and private property. Ownership in it is never lost, although the land remains un- cultivated for many generations. *Now usually spelled “iangan.” (Dean C. Worcester.) 240 VILLAVERDE. The Ifugaos never make use of the plow in cultivating the soil. They do all their work by hand with large wooden shovels. (Plate VI, figs. 1 and 2.) Their hard work begins in Quiangan about September and ends in January and February which is the time of sowing. This leaves out of account the fact that they have first to clear the ground of the strong underbrush which grows in the four months of rest, and which, after the sowing of the rice, must be continually removed down to the smallest shoots, which otherwise serve to cause the rats to dig holes. How dearly the small amount of rice that they eat costs them! Yet after spending the greater part of the year at this work, still they do not get enough to maintain them, having to supply this lack by borrowing at a horribly usurious rate. The poorest settlements of other mountains which are very rugged maintain themselves on sweet potatoes, but on the other hand their labor is Incomparably less, and the women ordinarily perform it. Sweet pota- toes, which grow everywhere, eyen in mountains which are extremely rugged, are the reliance of the lazy. The latter are at the same time the ones who are accustomed to steal from the granaries of others rice, as well as the quadrupeds and domestic fowls which others raise with great care. They are the bad people of the country as the Ifugaos say. It surprises me that when they might maintain themselves so easily on sweet potatoes, gabi, or Indian corn, they should carry on such hard and difficult work for a little rice. Jn contrast with their more than, bar- barous and vicious customs stands out the habit of industry, it being a shameful matter among them not to eat rice, and he who has it con- siders that he has lowered himself if he plants sweet potatoes. MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AMONG THE IFUGAOS. There are among them smiths (Plate VII, fig. 1), who know how to temper and work iron, making axes, yery rude indeed, but which serve them at the same time for adzes and chisels; also bolos or campilanes which are very sharp but dull easily on account of not being made of steel. Finally they make lances (Plate VIII, fig. 2), as well as small knives to harvest rice. They use musical instruments called gansas, which are similar to timbrels, and are ordinarily made of iron. ‘These gansas are much used, and they as well as the better lances are, I believe, made at a very large settlement in the valley of Japao (Sapao) to the north of Quiangan.* In addition to the gansa they are accustomed to use a sort of flute of bamboo which they play with the nose. From the cotton which they gather the women weave certain coarse and narrow * Padre Juan was mistaken in believing that gamsas are made at Sapao. So far as is known they are not made anywhere in the Philippines, all those that exist having been imported from China or the Straits Settlements. They are invariably made of brass or bronze. (Dean C. Worcester.) THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 241 pieces of cloth from which they make their skirts and a sort of jacket without sleeves which they wear in the cold season. (Plate IX, fig. 1.) The Ifugaos eat with the spoon in distinction from the natives of the plain who eat with their fingers. They carve the spoons sometimes with very objectionable figures in relief (Plate X); so also they carve roughly the images of their false divinities (Plate X). For their work in the fields they are accustomed to gather in groups of six, ten, or even twenty individuals, all relatives or friends, who work one day for one and the next for another; the one for whom they work furnishing food for all. The most influential get laborers by paying them im hens, chickens and rice, the food being at the expense of the one who manages them. ‘They exchange, also in the same way, in their small buyings, sellings and other operations indispensable for life. I must not omit to state that the Ifugaos of Quiangan even buy wood, because all the little neighboring forests are private property. On the occasion of marriages and deaths, and at various other times, they hold frequent reunions in which they eat the flesh of fowls, hogs and cara=- baos (the latter old and coming from the Christian towns) with the indispensable accompaniment of drunkenness caused by a drink made of water and rice boiled a little, and left to ferment; a very bad drink because it causes a rabid drunkenness, a source of very many mis- fortunes.® NOBLES AND PLEBEIANS. I have already said that the Ifugaos have no king, nor ruler. They pay tribute to no one. ach one is the absolute monarch of his house and person, and although this individual liberty is one of the principal causes of their miserable and almost anarchical state, it is certain that it is one of their most dominant passions. But although this is so, nevertheless there is among them a certain class of nobles who exercise in greater or less degree prestige and moral authority over those re- garded as plebeians. This class is founded on the power of riches, recelying greater respect if the rich man has acquired a reputation for bravery by killing people and cutting off heads. It makes no difference if he has employed treachery to this end, for dishonesty and meanness, * Curiously enough, Padre Juan has failed to make any mention of the dancing which is so important a part of all these celebrations. The music is supplied by gansa players, usually three in number who may stand close to the dancers but more frequently are half hidden among the spectators who gather in a dense circle about the performers. (Plate XI.) The dancers usually move in a circle, in single file. Several men or several women commonly dance at one time, although mixed groups of dancers are by no means uncommon. Ifugao dancers not only keep perfect time to the music with their feet, moving forward as well, but spread the arms, indulging in much flexing of the arms and wrists and moving of the hands. (Plate VIII, fig. 1.) (Dean C. Worcester.) 242 VILLAVERDE. so repugnant to the heart of civilized society, are not recognized among the Ifugaos; on the contrary they are accustomed always to attack from behind, not doing otherwise unless by virtue of necessity. The Ifugaos can ascend from the plebeian to the noble class by acquir- ing riches and making an ostentatious display of them before others in the following fashion: The candidate for noble rank announces his intention beforehand to those of his settlement as well as to his im- mediate neighbors, and at once they all come forth with great satis- faction and enthusiasm for the dinners that they expect. They go to rather distant forests, and, selecting a very large tree of good wood, make from its trunk a ridiculous figure, similar to a large quadruped, stretching upward with its extremities cut off. While they are making this sign of nobility they continually kill and eat hogs and carabaos which the future nobleman pays for with great evidence of generosity. When the work of art is concluded they leave it in the forest and return to their settlements with great glee, eating the flesh of hogs or carabaos always at the cost of the one who wishes to become a noble. When the work in the fields is concluded they return again to the forest in order to carry to the settlement the image previously prepared, which they call tagabt. (Plate VII, fig. 2.) Then it is that the candidate turns his house inside out in order to acquire a reputation for magnificence among his future inferiors. After eating to excess, and going through with a thousand ridiculous ceremonies, they load the tagabi upon the backs of men and begin to walk very slowly to the sound of the gansa with great shouting, and as a further proof of riches the future noble goes scattering rice in the path. They leave the tagabi in the forest, returning to their houses a third or even a fourth time, finally arriving at the settlement in the midst of an indescribable enthusiasm. When the tagabi has been placed under the house of the noble there begins another feast much greater than those which preceded it, during which many hogs and buf- faloes * are consumed, until the people take their departure drunk and full of meat to their throats. Nobility therefore among the Ifugaos costs them dear, and they spend their fortunes in acquirimg it, although they come back to them afterwards with interest. In order to maintain their prestige over the plebeians or poor people they repeat from time to time some little celebration, always enveloped in gross superstition, and without forgetting the inevitable drunkenness which is an honor among them. When for this or other reasons they kill a carabao, the mode of doing it is horrible and is as follows: The animal is tied in front of the house of the man who gives the feast. The guests are arranged (and every- one comes who wishes to take part); they have knives in their hands, The word “buffalo” throughout this article refers to the carabao. (Dean C. Worcester. ) THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 243 and await impatiently the first blow by the owner on the head of the victim. When this has been given, they all rush up like carniverous animals in order to cut off good pieces, which they carry to their houses. (Plate XII.) Im the wink of an eye they cut to pieces the carabao, which, kicking and bellowing passes instantly into the hands of his yoracious enemies in the midst of horrible confusion and tremendous outery. They get very angry when they can not obtain any meat. Some of them take away from others, if they can, what the latter have obtained. (Plate XIII.) The most audacious threaten the more timid with the knife in order to make them abandon the prize, and almost always some of them get wounded in order to eat a little meat. But it is the custom that he who is wounded shall bear it, because the action is considered involuntary. ‘They carry away even the contents of the intestines as a thing which pleases them greatly. The nobility acquired and preserved in this manner endures only while the riches last. ‘These for the most part are not handed down to the descendants, although the latter are called always “sons of nobles,” a fact which they appreciate highly. VENERATION FOR THE OLD, CONSIDERATION FOR WOMEN, AND RESPECT OR LACK OF CONFIDENCE AMONG THEMSELVES. They have great respect for the aged, even regarding them with superstitious fear, the reason being that they are their priests and diviners, and the interpreters of their idolatrous customs to which they are very closely wedded. ‘This is the circle by which is lmited the authority of these old people without its reaching even indirectly in- dividual liberty, and the usages of life. In case of invasion by enemies, they exert a moral influence, the Ifugaos following the bravest and those of the strongest character; guided in this rather by the spirit of self- preservation than by respect and veneration. For the rest, if one did not wish to do his share for fear or other motives, nothing would happen to him except blushes and shame, of which they make much account. Women are held in high respect, so much so that in case of a war between family and family, settlement and settlement, or those inhabiting contiguous territories, the Ifugaos of Quiangan do not attack women or children, avenging themselves only on the men of adult age.*. The women and children can go where they like without any fear. 5 The Ifugaos of Quiangan haye no more respect for women and children than do those of other regions. They will all kill women and children of their enemies and take their heads whenever they get the opportunity. All through the Quian- gan Valley the people of the different rancherias are intermarried. The Ifugao does not hesitate, in a spirit of revenge, to kill a male relative, but I have never known him to kill a female relative. This fact possibly accounts for the theory that the Quiangan Ifugaos do not molest women and children. (lL. EH. Case.) 244 VILLAVERDE. It is the custom of the Ifugaos to regard as unendurable the slightest bodily punishment. Not only this, but they can hardly endure a word which among the Christians passes almost unnoticed, and it is extremely dangerous for them even to get to joking with each other, especially if they are strangers or not related. The Ifugao is, and believes himself, an absolute king, avenging with his ever ready lance the smallest offense not only against his person, but also against his house and his estate. In the intercourse which they must necessarily have with others they are very circumspect and reserved, especially with strangers. I do not mean to say by this that their manners are fine, for they do not even know words and salutations, and comport themselves like wild beasts when they meet each other, but I do mean that in their extreme barbarism they fear to compromise themselves in matters which do not concern them, and they know that if they do not know how to endure, the same thing is true of their fellows. For example: When a military expedition was encamped in one of these mountains, various Ifugaos of influence came down to present themselves to the leader, bringing him presents. It occurred to one of the expeditionary force to play a joke on an old man, pulling out some of the few hairs which he had in his beard. This was enough to make him furious, although he was in the midst of the encampment, and he gave the war cry to the others, although, coming in friendly spirit, they did not carry lances. The result was tremendous confusion. More Ifugaos came up and the forces had to deploy and fire until they drove them away. All this was the result of an unimportant joke. I heard this from a person who saw it. On another occasion, in a settlement somewhat removed from Quian- gan, individuals did not wish to pay homage nor to aid in certain public works that were being constructed. As a result a few soldiers were sent from the fort to compel them to obey, but when they reached the settle- ment they found only an old man; all the rest had fled. It occurred to a soldier to make fun of certain idols, and furthermore to catch a few hens in punishment for their rebellion, whereupon the old man with fire in his eyes, attempted to sheath his dagger in the breast of the soldier, without fear of the rifles and bayonets. Other similar instances might be enumerated, as well as accidents which have occurred on expeditions for insignificant causes of this sort, especially when women were insulted in the smallest degree. J think I have said enough to show that it is not easy to have to do with these Ifugaos without knowing thoroughly their- instincts and character, and it can be understood why the missionary priests are almost afraid to have detachments of troops in the missions, especially since in other ways, and working with wisdom, their submission might be brought about gradually. THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 245 EDUCATION OF CHILDREN. : Im order to make more clear what 1 have said concerning the ferocity of character of these Ifugaos, it is well to indicate the difference which exists between those who live on sweet potatoes in the more rugged and distant mountains, and those who are accustomed to work in the fields in the cultivation of rice. Nevertheless, even these differences are difficult to detect. Speaking of those to the north and east of the Cordillera, those of the southwest, although they only give themselves to their gardens of gabi and sweet potatoes, are more timid and docile as I was able to observe in the journeys that I made through their mountains. From birth they are accustomed to do as they please in every thing on account of the extremely bad education which they receive from their parents, who, although they hate like death the least domination on the part of strangers, submit like slaves to the caprice and insolence of their children. The children give orders in the house, and if at some time their parents do not yield to their stupid caprices they begin to cry furiously, and immediately their parents hasten to quiet them, giving them a thousand caresses, and in addition allowing them what they ask. They do not whip-or punish them as do the Christian natives. The lightest slap is not employed among the Ifugaos, and would be received yery badly and criticised among the others if it should be observed at any time. The most that happens, especially with the women—the mothers—is to shout at them, when their caprices are too repugnant and prejudicial to the interests of the house, but they gain nothing by this, because if they (the children) are small they only weep the harder, and if they are larger they pick up stones or lances, and attack their parents, driving them out of the house, to which they do not return until they see the children pacified and quiet. It seems incredible that people so hard and cruel with strangers should be so sensitive and affectionate with their own. Nevertheless, so it is, as is proved by experience. Wild beasts, also, in spite of their bloody instincts, love their offspring tenderly and risk their lives for them. MARRIAGES. The relations which these Ifugaos maintain hardly deserve this name. They divorce themselves as readily as they marry, the men seeking other wives and the women other husbands. The Ifugaos seldom grow old without having changed” ‘elt wives one or more times. The slightest annoynace the least capri e, a single word, is frequently enough to dissolve the contract, but the most inertial and common reason on the part of the man for divorcing his wife is barrenness, and the com- monest reason on the part of the wife for divorcing her husband is laziness. 246 VILLAVERDE. In order to get married a man must make presents of considerable value in cloth or similar articles to the uncles of the women, and in lack of these to the brothers or cousins. When he wants to marry another wife because the first has died, or because he is obliged to abandon her, he must again make the same presents to the same people, adding a carabao in compensation for lack of respect to the departed one or for the abandonment, if she still lives. He has also to make the same presents to the uncles, brothers or cousins of the second, and so on successively. The expenses and feasts which occur on such occasions are also at the cost of the man. It seems that they ought to cut down expenses, on account of changing wives so frequently. But it makes little impression on them, because they are very obstinate and capricious. _ JUSTICE, DEFENSE AND VENGEANCE AMONG THE IFUGAOS. There does not exist among them any superior authority to defend them or to punish their mutual aggressions. Hach one supplies this deficiency after a fashion with his lance, and this in the hands of so fierce a people is the cause, in turn, of an infinite number of misfortunes and cruelties. For every murder committed, although it be involuntary, inexorable vengeance follows, carried out by the relatives of the dead person, on the author or some one of his nearest relatives. Among the Ifugaos vengeance is a rigorous precept which must be fulfilled. When a ple- beian or a rustic, as they say, kills another rustic, justice is satisfied by the death of another of the same rank. In case the murdered man is an important person or a noble his relatives are not satisfied by killing the aggressor if he is rustic, or by killing some relative of the same rank, for they say how will there be equality if we only Jall this fellow who is like a dog? Therefore they look to see if there is among the relatives of the rustic some important person in order to wreak their vengeance on him, and, if not, thinking it beneath them to lull those whom they regard as dogs, they wait until some of them ascend to the rank of headmen. It results that an act which is originally individual becomes always a question of family, even if it does not involve the whole settlement, as often happens. When the death, or deaths have been avenged, by others equal in number and rank, the dividuals of one and the same family and even of the same settlement are wont to quiet down and become friends, either in the desire of self-preservation or because they weary of perpetual ambushes and surprises, with the consequent harmful results to their crops and their interests. For the rest, between those of different mountains or districts, and especially between those who give themselves on the one side to the cultivation of rice and on the other to that of sweet potatoes, there exist inter- minable hatred and wars ever more bloody, the men going forth to lull THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 247 their fellows as if they were going to hunt deer or hogs, and afterwards carrying the heads of the victims to their settlements, making great feasts, honoring themselves with the name of “the brave,” and decorat- ing the fronts of their houses with the skulls of their victims.® (Plate III, figs. 1 and 2.) If it is a matter of wounds which are not fatal, or of other assaults, the matter is arranged readily with the healing of the injuries caused. The frequency of deaths and wars even among the families of a settle- ment, may be imagined when one takes into account the egotism and independence of this barbarous people, their brutal manner of living, the commonness of drunkenness, and the fact that they hold as honorable their gross errors, their idolatry and their superstition. IDOLATRY AMONG THE IFUGAOS. I have proposed at various times to follow the course of the stories and narratives of these Ifugaos, and noting at every step monstrous contradictions and violent transitions, I questioned them to see if they could follow the thread of the discourse, but always in vain, for they answered me that they did not know the reasons of these transitions and contradictions. It is to be noted in some of these narratives that this race has possessed in very remote times remarkable astronomical knowledge, especially of the signs of the zodiac, and I believe that even now, if one were to go deeply into the meaning of their little stories which are handed on from generation to generation by means of a sort of traditional verse, which they yery often sing, he might perhaps determine with considerable accuracy the epoch of the arrival of the Malayan race in these Islands. They pay great attention to the spots and the phases of the moon. They believe that certain planets influence more or less the affairs of * As for taking heads, this is only done between rancherias which have a feud or are strangers. If an Ifugao from one rancheria kills another from a friendly rancheria in a dispute it is only a family affair; but if he should cut off his ' head it would then become a rancheria affair and the feud would begin. An ordinary killing is generally fixed up by the exchange of a few hogs or of other property, but when a head is taken the rancheria from which it was taken must get a head in return. It makes no difference whose head it is so long as it comes from the rancheria which took the first head. Of course the more im- portant the victim whose head is taken the better pleased are the avengers; still they will lose no time in waiting for an important person, but will take the first opportunity that presents itself to secure a head, whether it be that of a man, a woman, or a child, and if the party is large and its members wish to secure more than one souvenir over which to hold their cafaos they will cut off feet, legs, arms, or hands, and carry them home. I have had Ifugaos urge with tears in their eyes that if I objected to their cutting off the head of a man who had been killed in a fight I let them cut off only a finger so that they would have something to take home and give a caviao over. (L. EB. Case.) 248 VILLAVERDE. man. Observing the different phases of the moon, they suppose them to be two distinct entities, husband and wife, whose older children are the various planets which appear larger to our sight, the younger children being the remaining stars of the firmament. For the same reason they ought to imagine that there are two suns. These Ifugaos establish very easily relations among things, taking as a base the male and a female which they call husband and wife, for to everything which appears large and important it appears that they attribute intelligence. Eyen when they see two conspicuous rocks or mountains which are similar and near’ together, they believe thus in mutual marriage. There is no notable phenomenon in nature which does not arouse in them serious fears which hold them enslaved in all their movements and operations, although they find a universal remedy in the sacrifice of birds, hogs and buffaloes, whose entrails they study uselessly before introducing them into their own yoracious stomachs. They believe in two places to which they go after death. For those who die a natural and ordinary death they believe the abiding place to be in the earth and toward the north, calling it Kadungayan, the word by which they designate the northern region. They say that the dead live there reunited in a forest of special trees, which, although they appear by day as such, become converted into houses similar to those of living Ifugaos when the obscurity of night arrives. They are positive that they have gardens of sweet potatoes and other vegetables and that the spirits eat the invisible substance of the animals, rice and other things which their living relatives offer them. Thus, they say that the wine which the living drink serves as a drink for the dead, each getting what belongs to him according to his state. They affirm that those who rob or kill without reason receive here their deserts, and if one dies without paying the penalty the same conditions will continue in the towns of the dead as in the living. He will pay there for his fault with some lance thrust which one of the dead will give him. When the story has come to this point, to which only some old and wise man is able to bring it, they do not answer further. If one attempts to go on they only destroy what they have said with monstrous contradictions. They say that some of the spirits from that region come back to visit the place and settlements of the living Ifugaos. One of them, according to the story, came with his wife to visit his relatives who maintained them with the most excellent rice flour. When the relatives got tired of such heavy expense they sent them away, it is not known where, and they finally came to rest on one of the mountains of the Mayoyaos to the east of Cauayan in Isabela. While the man was sitting on a rock in the shade of a tree there fell upon his head the droppings of a bird which was — perching there, from which it resulted that while he remained seated there burst forth from his very head a tree that they call basisi, from the THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 249 bark of which the poor Ifugaos make their skirts. This tree grew very large and still exists over the sitting Ifugao. Two ladders represent them; the one this man, and the other, I believe, his wife. The Ifugaos are wont to have them at the entrance of their granaries as guardians _and protectors of the rice. They offer or place before them a little rice flour during the feast which they make at the end of the harvest, while they are filling up on the flesh of hogs and buffaloes and are getting as drunk as possible. Those who die from lance thrusts or who die any other violent or sudden death, as well as women who die in childbirth, they assign to heaven, or the abode of the gods which they worship, and they mean by heaven, or the abode of the gods, the stars and planets, - especially the sun. They give the following account of the origin of the sun. The Lord of the Sun, whom they call Mananahagut, gave orders that certain Ifugaos should go and kill another one for some fault or other, the Ifugao in question being left, as a result, dead and headless. Lord Mananahagut, moved, it would appear, by compassion, sent his wife, Bugan, charged to invite him and persuade him with gifts and caresses to ascend into heaven, but the spirit of the Ifugao refused the caresses, and refused to go to heaven, in spite of the beetle nuts, tobacco, and vio which were given him, because the woman was peculiarly dressed and looked very strange. ‘The wife of Mananahagut, noting this, disposed of the greater part of her clothing, remaining half naked, as is the custom with the Ifugaos, caressing further the dead Ifugao, and offering him endless pleasures in heaven. Satisfied with this, the Ifugao accompanied her immediately to heaven being received with the greatest joy by Lord Mananahagut, who gave him splendid feasts and dances. For this reason, and I know not for what other, the Ifugaos believe that people who are killed by lance thrusts go to the abode of the gods, but although in said place they are happy, their happiness consists in filling themselves with the flesh of hogs and carabaos and in drinking, and getting drunk on the vino which they make. Neither for their gods nor for the souls of the dead, nor for those who live in mortal flesh is there any greater happiness than the satisfaction of the carnal appetites. The practices and ceremonies which they employ with the dead vary, according to whether the deceased died a natural or a violent death. For the first they spend all and more than they have, ransacking the neighborhood, gathering hogs, carabaos and vino, which they give to eat and drink to all their relatives, because they believe that the souls or the spirits of the animals which they eat are the food of those who go to Kadungayan. They keep the body four, six, ten and even_fifteen days without burial, placed below the house. All depends on the rank of the deceased; the more important he was the longer he is left without burial. But when they bury those who go to heaven, especially the trunks of the corpses the heads of which have been carried away by the enemies who have killed I5O VILLAVERDE. them, they only kill the hog, which is eaten by some of the oldest and most experienced in the rites which they have practiced, because, they say, those who go to heaven get no good from the spirits of the animals which their relatives eat, but, on the other hand, the animals which the assassins kill and eat in the great feasts which they celebrate, when the brave are crowned, serve for the spirits of those whom they have decapitated. They say that the Ifugaos die twice, understanding by one of the times their falling sick. hey affirm also that the spirits do not go immediately to their final destinations, but that they remain for a longer or shorter time near by, leaping from rock to rock, and from tree to tree, maintaining themselves on the remnants which they can obtain by entering the houses at night. The object of remaining in this way is to see if they can take with them the spirits of their relatives, in order that husband and wife may live together, and that children may live with their parents. In consequence, they believe also that sickness consists in the departure of the spirit of the sick man from the body, attracted or violently carried away by the spirit of the deceased relative; wherefore, when they become somewhat seriously sick they call the charm- healer that he may make the spirit return and give health to the body. These charm-healers, who are a pack of frauds and deceivers, cure in the following manner: Hardly has the healer entered the house of the sick person when they give him a fowl, which he kills in the name and honor of the old woman and wife of Kadwngayan. He obseryes the state of the gall immediately, and after having looked very intently at the sick man, states his diagnosis in the following terms, or others somewhat similar: “The spirit of this sick person is in such or such a place, haying gone to visit the spirit of his grandfather, wife, son, father, ete. In order to bring it about that it may return, there is need of so mamy hogs and a carabao or two, because in that way the soul will decide to return with great pleasure.” The family then diligently prepares what has been indicated, procuring it by some means if they do not have it at hand. When the animals indicated have been killed, or while they are killing them, the healer calls the spirit with the point of a lance, in order that it may come down by the lance to the sick person. He invites it to come down, saying that there are so many hogs prepared, so many carabaos, and so much vino; sometimes he seizes a gansa and produces upon it a tremendous noise. I do not know why it does not break the head of the sick man. At other times he announces that he sees the spirit in such and such a place; that now it is coming down; that it now has left the spirit of its grandmother, and that now the sick man will get well. More, since the sick man dies or is cured according to the will of God, he often remains as sick as he was before, or becomes sicker; his friends then call the healer again, or summon some other healer with a greater reputation, if there is one, and the same performance is repeated. The healer says: “The soul of this person has gone away again; such and _—- coy” a ~ THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 251 such a spirit detains 1t in such and such a place. It would seem that it has become accustomed to the other life, or wishes to live with its dead wife; there is need of more hogs and more buffaloes to make it come down.” Finally the sick man dies, if it is the will of God, after those of his household have spent everything they have. ‘This is the way of euring the sick, at whose expense the well eat and drink, the healer carrying away meat enough to last for many days in addition to his pay. As a result, the family often is completely ruined, the usurers getting away from them their estates or fields. BELIEF OR FAITH OF THE IFUGAOS IN SIGNS. I asked a certain Ifugao, who narrated to me with the utmost sim- plicity many of the things that I have just set forth, “Do you believe in these necessities which serve only to ruin you?” to which he re- plied: “I do not know, father, how much truth there may be in what other persons relate, because I have not seen it. I do believe what I saw very plainly on one occasion when I was sick for a whole year. It seemed that my spirit had gone up imto heaven. There I ate and drank very well; I saw other Ifugaos who did the same, eating and drinking until they got drunk; their houses were like ours, and those who go about there without their heads on account of having had them cut off by the Mayoyaos, had others, although very small. When I awoke, after haying dreamed all of these things, I hardly wished to eat, and desired to die.” Here is the principal reason for the persistency of the Ifugaos in their gross and stupid idolatrous practices. Dreams which they look upon as supernatural things, hold them all fascinated, especially the more simple of them. By this means, in which the devil may exercise so much influence, they are perfectly filled with the most stupid and absurd errors; they act upon impulse, and do or leave undone what vanity dictates or what is suggested by their insane imaginations, excited by the father of lies. I ascribe the tenacity with which they adhere to their idolatrous practices to the fact that these things are quite in accord with their passions and their stomachs; and especially because they are confirmed as true and good by the apparent evidence, and the sort of vision, which more or less vivid dreams produce, in which they trust as facts revealed by hell or their hellish divinities. They dream what they do, and are going to do, and they believe what they dream. Thus it is that it is well-nigh useless to attempt to reason with the Ifugaos as to the evil course which they follow, and there is no other human means of making them abandon gradually their infidelity than by educating their children and their young. Thus, and in no other manner, speaking in general terms, have Christianity, the truth, .and civilization been introduced among the other wild tribes that have been subdued. eD, VILLAVERDE. DRUNKENNESS AMONG THE IFUGAOS. Since they believe that the happiness and prosperity of their gods and ancestors consists in filling their bellies with the abstract and spiri- tual substance of the fowls, the hogs, and the old buffaloes whose flesh they themselves eat, and believing also that an important part of the happiness of the same beings consists in drinking to excess the same abstract principle of a vino which they call bubud, it is plain that they will be very diligent and fervid in drinking the concrete article until they get drunk, if possible, in honor of those whom they venerate as drunkards and gluttons of the first order. It is, therefore, easily seen that far from regarding drunkenness as a vice, they regard it, on the contrary, as a virtue, and an efficacious means of appeasing their pre- tended divinities, and in their vanity they regard it as a great honor to appear drunk eyen when they are not so. Thus, for example, to free themselves from the danger of being struck by lightning they have no better means than that of offering it the abstract vino, which they, of course, drink in its natural state; because they say that the lightning enjoys it greatly and after drinking bubud will not eat man. This vino, or bubud, which is such a delicacy among the Ifugaos and their gods, they make in the following way: First they add to a small quantity of rice flour a very acrid and strong juice which they extract from a creeping plant. When this is made and dried in the sun, they have what may be called yeast, which they preserve very carefully. When they wish to make vino they cook a considerable quantity of rice with water alone, making the ordinary boiled rice. After drying this in the sun also, they mix it with some of the above-described yeast and introduce it into an earthen jar of suitable dimensions, which they cover perfectly tight, leaving it so eight or more days. Meanwhile it ferments, changing into a liquid of a very disagreeable taste, both acid and biting, which is called bubud, which serves them for food and drink; for,-as they say, “it has food and it has drink.” ‘This liquid does not cause drunkenness, properly speaking, but rather a rabid fury which nothing will placate." They make it and use it whenever they can, in all of their sacrifices, but especially and without fail in the following cases: First, when they begin their work in the fields, at which time each one kills and eats as many hogs and carabaos as is possible for him, and as conforms to his estate. Second, in the cases of severe infirmity and its cure, as has been explained. Third, when they commit some murder, in which case they have 7 My own observations do not confirm this statement as to the effect of bubud. (Dean C. Worcester.) = THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 253 great feasts and ceremonies for the crowning of the brave, killing and eating the best that they have or can borrow, offering all of this, to- gether with the dances and the great drunkenness, to the soul of the murdered person, whose head, placed on the point of a pike, is the principal trophy and the central point of the shameless orgy. For this reason, even the relatives of the deceased person, who seek an inexorable vengeance, seem to respect these ferocious feasts, not exacting their due until the feasts have ceased. Fourth, betore beginning the rice harvest, when they do the same as at the beginning of their labors im the fields. Ifth, when the rice has been harvested and put into the granaries, in which case, on account of the satisfaction they find in entering upon a period of rest, and in order to obtain from their gods the preserva- tion, and even the increase of what they have harvested, they leap and dance, eat and drink, which is a pleasure for them and a horror and alarm for anyone who is looking on. Siath, and last; im a sort of Lent, which they observe in honor of the god Baco, at which time their eating and their drunkenness reaches the highest grade, causing the origin of innumerable enmities, many deaths, and a thousand misfortunes, which oceur for the most part be- tween relatives and friends. In all that I have narrated, I refer to the Ifugaos in the mountains. Those of the mission of Ibung, situated in the plain, do not do so much as the shadow of what the others do. They are gradually becoming accustomed to live submissively after the fashion of the Christians. DIVINATIONS AND IDLE OBSERVANCES OF THE IFUGAOS. In order to free themselves from the fears which beset, them, they have a book which every Ifugao knows how to read. If at the first, second, or third reading, it does not appease the anger of their divin- ities they read it a fourth, fifth, or even more times, but it should be noted that each time it is read costs money, often equal to the value of a carabao or of an Ifugao soul; this book, and this reading, are the entrails of every fowl or animal that is eaten and the observation of the same. ‘Their auguries are reduced ordinarily to the observation of the state of the gall of the animal which they lull. If it appears to them that the gall indicates good or fortunate results in the enterprises which they are about to undertake, they do not kill more fowls or hogs. But if the business turns out badly they repeat the killing of animals until they attain their end, although at the cost of their interests; for the fowls and the hogs which they are wont to borrow they have to pay their weight in gold according to the fearfully usurious rates which prevail among them. Who can ealeulate the numberless times and occasions on which they 87002——2 254 VILLAVERDE. believe it necessary to make use of this augury to free themselves from the thousand stupidities which cause them fear of death, of sickness, or of some other harm to their fortunes? Who could enumerate the fowls and other animals which they kill on account of their journeys to some- what distant places, on which they fear the lances of their enemies; or by reason of their troubles, or those of their families; or when they are surprised in their labors in the fields by the song of some innocent bird, by the rainbow, or by other natural phenomena? For all of these imagi- nary evils they seek a remedy in what, on the other hand, causes them an interminable series of debts. EXORBITANT USURY AMONG TITE IFUGAOS. It is an immemorable custom among the Ifugaos, received and prac- ticed by all, that a pullet borrowed but not returned within a certain time, produces a-hen or the equivalent of a hen; so it is that a hen must be given in payment for it if a sufficient time has passed since it was borrowed for it to grow into a hen. If a still longer time has passed, so that it is calculated that if it had lived it might have laid eggs and raised chickens, the price ascends to a hog of moderate size. If another year passes it is converted into a hog of the largest dimensions. And finally when the third year since the borrowing has passed, it makes itself into a carabao. It makes no difference whether it was a male or a female; in any event, it makes a hen a hog or a buffalo. In an anal- ogous manner they return payment for other small things borrowed. According to the Ifugao principle of interchangeable justice, the debts of parents descend to their sons, and if they have none, to their nearest relatives and their sons, although they did not enjoy any benefit from what was borrowed, nor inherit any estate from their elders. All of this is constantly carried out without anyone finding fault with anyone else. At the most, the only complaint is bad luck. ‘They say it is a custom among them, and the fact that it is a custom is reason enough for its being venerated and carried out without complaint. Furthermore, everyone who borrows does the same, and it often happens that he who is the debtor to some, is the creditor of others. The most unfortunate are the orphans whose parents were sick for a long time and who incurred heavy debts for the many pullets which they were obliged to lull. This iniquity has an attendant circumstance which perennially aug- ments it. The rich men, who are the nobles and the headmen, are always seeking opportunity to lend these things to everyone who asks. The poor are always ready to ask for loans, both because they can get them without difficulty, and because their creditors do not compel them to pay promptly, while the latter usurers, who do nothing but fill them- selves with meat, get drunk, and pass an idle life. desire that they may THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 255 delay to pay their debts. The whole load, therefore, goes to the orphans, who have to pass nearly all their lives sweating blood in the Christian towns to pay for the numberless buffaloes which are demanded of them, as well as the pullets and hogs which their parents spent on their stupid practices. When I was at the mission of Quiangan a young fellow came to tell me that he was going down to the towns. “What do you go to seek there?” JI asked. “I go to work in order to pay my debts, because if I do not do it I fear that they may kill me or sell me.” “What debts are these?” “The debts that my father contracted when he was sick, for the fowls and the hogs which he spent in order to be cured.” “It is a hard matter that you should have to pay for the caprice of your father.” “It is our custom.” “And how much do you have to pay?” “T do not know exactly; every one is after me and I reckon that it will be a matter of 40 carabaos.” Many years ago this young fellow went down to the town. He has worked harder than a negro, he has paid many of his debts; at the same time incurring others as the result of following the customs and practices of his people. Although he should die an old man, he could never pay them all. So it is that the rich hold the poor enslaved. In other districts further in the interior of the mountains, and extend- ing to Japao,® in which, on account of the distance, the Ifugaos can not or dare not go to the towns and earn money for paying their debts, a few sweet potatoes, a quart of rice, or a fowl are frequently the cause of the selling of the debtor or his children as slaves. A hundred of them go to Isabela every year, and there they are bought or sold secretly for a hundred dollars, or a carabao or two, each. Therefore, the value of a few sweet potatoes, a handful of rice, or a pullet, ascends to a hun- dred dollars plus a carabao, and, what is more, to the value of a man. The usurers, who, in order to count a dozen have to make use of their fingers and, when the number passes ten, to sit down in order to count their toes, do not lose the count of the chickens which they lend, nor of a single sweet potato. Ibung, January 31, 1879. Fr. JUAN VILLAVERDE. ADDENDUM. Captain L. E. Case, of the Philippines Constabulary, who was stationed for a number of years at Banaue, furnishes the following interesting account of the story told him by an old Ifugao to explain the prevalence of the custom of head-hunting among his people: * Sapao. 256 VILLAVERDE. WHY THE IFUGAOS TAKE THE HEADS OF THEIR ENEMIES. When I was seeking to ascertain the reason for head-taking, the following was related to me by one of the aged inhabitants of Banaue. The tale is told throughout the Ifugao district of Nueva Vizcaya; also in Bontoe Province, except that different settlements almost all disagree as regards places and the duration of the flood. “A long time ago all the country round about was level and had no woods growing on it, with the exception of two mountains; one in the north called “Amuyao,”’ and one in the southwest called “A/lawitan.” “The people grew a smal] quantity of rice and caught fish in the riyer. They also hunted deer and wild hogs among the tall cogon grass on the banks of the river. “One chupa of rice at that time was equal to two gantas at the present time, for a tablespoonful of rice after being cooked made a good meal for one person. : “Once when the wet season should have come it did not, and a dry season followed a dry season. “The rice would not grow but burned up, and the cogon grass burned up; then the river began to get smaller and smaller until at last it sank out of sight in the ground. ‘Then the people began to die and the Apos said: “If we do not get water soon we shall all die. Let us dig down into the grave of the river, for the river is dead and has sunk into his grave, and perhaps we shall find the spirit of the river and it will save us from dying.’ “So they began to dig. At the end of three days the water rushed up, and it came so fast that some of them were drowned before they could get out of the way of it. Then there was plenty of water and the people were happy. “They brought a dog and a wild cat and turned them loose in a vacant rice field to fight, that the people might be amused; and while the dog and cat were fighting, it became very dark and rain began to fall, and the people became afraid because it got dark while it was yet morning, and one old Apo began lamenting and saying ‘the river God is angry with us for disturbing the grave of the river, now we shall all find our graves in the water; and the water poured down from the sky faster than it came out of the river. “Bugan and her brother Uigan had brought out their two dogs to take part in the fighting with the cat, but when it got so dark that they could not see they took hold of the dogs’ tails thinking thereby to be guided back home, and thus they followed on after the dogs until they became exhausted and lay down and slept, and when they awoke they found they were on the top of Mount Amuyao. It was still raining and it rained for fifteen days. After the rain stopped the water began to go down, = —~<« ae ge eee ee ‘ ‘ ‘ THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. DST and as it slowly got lower, here and there they could see the tops of mountains sticking out; and after the water had all gone down they saw that in place of the level ground that they had known before the rain, all round about them were mountains with rivers running here and there. “One day while Uigan slept Bugan set out to see if she could find some other people, for she thought that there must have been others who escaped up into the mountains; so she traveled till she came to Mount Alauitan, without finding anyone. Uigan on awakening and finding his sister gone started out to look for her and trailed her with his dog. On coming near Alauitan, he saw a large smoke rising from the top of the mountains and concluded that there were some other people saved beside himself and his sister, but, on arriving where the fire was, he found only his sister. “Tt was then for the first time that they realized that they were the only people left alive after the rain, so taking his sister with him Uigan returned to Amwyao where they lived on an open spot cleared by them on the top of the mountain. “To this day nothing grows on this spot, and the print of Bugan’s foot is still to be seen. “In due course of time there were born to them five sons and four daughters, Balangao, Honanga, Banol and Etnig, each taking a sister for his wite. “There being only four sisters and five brothers, Igon, the youngest of the brothers, had no one for his wife, and the other four brothers con- cluded that as Igon had no wife it would be better for them to kill him and thus possibly save themselves future trouble. So they killed Igon. “Then Bugan and Uigan said, ‘Now that-you have killed Igon, you moust Jall some animals and have a feast to make peace with his spirit, so the brothers caught a deer, but Uigan said, ‘No, that did not cause you any sweat, your dog caught that. What you have for this feast must have cost you work. So, leaving their dogs at home they went and caught deer and wild hogs while their wives prepared the rice and bubud. “Then Uigan said, ‘You must take the head of Igon and put it on a pole and you must dance around it that the linaoua (spirit) of Igon may be pleased.’ i “After the feast was ended Uigan commanded that they boil the head of Igon till the flesh all came off the bones, and then fasten it up on the side of the house so that they might always be reminded that they had killed their brother. “Finally the brothers began to get jealous of one another, and each one decided that he would like to have the heads of his other three brothers to fasten up on his house; but Uigan and Bugan, knowing how things stood, told them to separate, each man taking his wife and going to a 258 VILLAVERDE. new place and that then they should people the earth as it was before the rain. “So Balangao took his wife and traveled to a place which was named after him, but is now known as Lepanto, Hananga went to what is now called Mayoyao, Banol went to what is now called Banaue, and Htnig ® traveled to Ilocos; and the offspring of these four brothers multiplied until they peopled the whole of northern Luzon. “Uigan, on parting from his four sons and daughters, told them that they must remember at all times, whether good or bad, the brother whom they had killed.” Thus it is that up to the present time the Ifugao custom of taking heads and having cafiaos in commemoration of the head of Igon taken by their forefathers continues, and the word Bunijon, which is commonly supposed to be the name of their God, is simply a word meant to include the three names Uigan, Bugan and Igon to whom they make their canaos. On the top of Mount Amuyao where Bugan lived, no one can pass, as people going up there have never been heard from again; and on Mount Alawtan where Bugan made the fire, fire is seen up to the present time, but when one draws near it disappears. The Ifugao has an idea that bad crops, sickness and the like are caused by the spirits of the departed. Tangana, an Ifugao of Banaue, had a son who was sick and remained sick some weeks. He came and informed me that his father’s head had been taken some years past by the people of Guinijon and that his death had never been avenged. Consequently, he was causing the boy to be sick as a sort of a reminder to the head of the family, so he requested that an expedition be made for the purpose of avenging his father’s death. I suggested that probably the old man did not like the place where he was buried. Later on he took the body up and reburied it on a side hill behind his house. The sick boy improved somewhat, but still remained ill. The body was then taken up and with the usual canao reburied beneath the house in a vault with the bodies of his ancestors. The boy recovered his health within a week and Tangana has decided that his father’s spirit is satisfied. I attended the burial of an old woman. It took place one evening just as the sun went down. A hole had been dug in the ground tapping a tunnel which ran to a vault under the house. Lighted torches were thrust into the tunnel after which the body, tied in a sitting posture and wrapped in a blanket, was carried in. On inquiry they told me that it was leaned up against the wall; then they all indulged in a good deal of shouting and informed me that they had told the old woman that they had used her well, given her a good cafao, kept a fire going constantly and done all that could be expected of them and asked her not to stay around but to go to the rancherias of their enemies. *The Tingians commonly call themselves “Htnig.” (Dean C. Worcester.) THE IFUGAOS OF QUINGAN AND VICINITY. 259 When an Ifugao dies, all those in the immediate vicinity set up a shouting to scare the spirit away. When an Ifugao’s wife dies he lets his hair grow. Until he cuts his hair he can not take another wife, and before cutting his hair he must take part in an expedition during which some of the enemy are killed, or a house is burned at least. He then goes home and kills a hog at the same time getting his hair cut and having a canao. He may then take another wife. The custom of smoking people after death does not hold among the Tfugaos of Nueva Vizcaya. The fact that a small fire is kept burning in front of the corpse evidently gives rise to this theory. On asking Ifugaos why they kept this fire burning I have been told: “Yes, when she goes up where the rest of the dead Ifugaos are and draws near the fire to cook her rice, and ‘some one pushes her away and says ‘Get away from here, you have no fire,’ then she can say, ‘Yes, I have a fire; look down there and see; there is my fire!’ ” The Ifugaos, in order to keep their dead a number of days, will take a body after it has been dead about three days, and, with a cloth or some fiber, rub and press the flesh, squeezing out the blood. They also resort to salting the body. I once heard two Lfugaos disputing as to which was the richer- One said to the other “Oh yes, you are rich, you are, but when your mother died you did not put any salt on her as I did when mine died.” - These customs differ greatly im the different rancherias. Especially do those on the Alimit River and its tributaries differ from those on the Ibilao and its tributaries. There is generally much speculation as to the difference between the Banaue, Silipan and Quiangan Ifugaos. The people living on the Ibilao River from the Lagaue gap through Lingay, Sapao and on up to its headwaters near Polis Pass and up to the heads of all its tributaries have the same customs and speech as those of Quiangan, as also haye the people of Madanum, Ilamut and Antipolo. Traveling from Banaue direct to the rancherias near Payauan (Silipan Ifugaos) the dialect seems to be altogether different, as do the people; but if one starts from Banaue and follows down the Alimit River grad- ually, or branches off at Dukligan, and travels through the rancherias over the mountains to Payauan he will not be aware of any difference whatever. Now while there is a difference between the Quiangan and other Ifu- gaos, it is not great enough to justify their being considered as distinct from one another. Differences also exist between all of the various groups of Silipan Ifugaos (Banaue, Ayangan, Alimit, Mayoyao and Ilap) ; the farther apart they live the greater the difference. This would tend to show that the Igorots who inhabit the northern 260 — VILLAVERDE. part of Nueva Vizcaya are the same people; that in entering © mountains a party of them passed up through the Lagaue gap, settling at Lagaue; from which place, as they increased in numbers, they spread fs out peopling the valley of the Thilao River be to its source, as pel mouth of the Alimit; then on as far as the junction of the Alimit Mayoyao Rivers and ever farther up, peopling all the land drai these streams. a ILLUSTRATIONS. Prate I. Fig. 1. The distant high peak at the extreme right is Mount Amuyao. The double peak at the left is Mount Alauitan, according to the Ifugaos of Banaue, and the country to the east and north of that place. The Ifugaos of Sapao, Asin and the neighboring country maintain that the mountains shown in Plate I, fig. 3, is Alauitan. (Photo. by Martin.) 2. One of the numerous settlements which collectively form Quiangan. (Photo. by Martin.) 3. The highest peak of the Mount Polis Range, said by the Ifugaos of Sapao, Asin and vicinity, to be Alauitan. (Photo. by Martin.) Pram II. The country of the Ifugaos. View booking east across Nueva Vizcaya from the top of Mount Polis. (Photo. by Worcester. ) Puate Il. Fie. 1. A typical Ifugao house. Note the five human skulls at the left of the ladder. (Photo. by Martin.) 2. Part of an Ifugao house ornamented with human skulls, and with the skulls of carabaos which have been eaten at feasts. Banaue. (Photo. by Worcester.) PriateE LY. Ifugao rice terraces with stone retaining walls. Banaue. (Photo. by Worcester.) PLATE V. Ifugao rice terraces with stone retaining walls. (Photo. by Murphy.) PiatTeE VI. A group of Ifugao men with wooden shovels. Banaue. (Photo. by Hamilton Wright.) . Ifugao men working with wooden shovels in their rice terraces. Quiangan. (Photo. by Worcester. ) Pirate VII. Ifugao blacksmiths. Sapao. (Photo. by Murphy.) . A tagdabi, or carved seat with anito image in front. Quiangan. (Photo. by Martin.) ; PratEe VIII. An Ifugao man and woman dancing. Quiangan. (Photo. by Martin.) . Ifugao lances and hats. Banaue. (Photo. by Worcester.) 261 262 - -VILLAVERDE. | ; PrarEe IX. 2 Rha - +s Fic. 1. An Ifugao woman weaving. Quiangan. (Photo. by Martin. iss 2. A stone “pilapil” or retaining wall showing projecting steps. ‘The I u are particularly skillful in building these retaining walls of a (Photo. by Miller.) - PrLaTe X. Wooden spoons. Also front and side views of an image of the goddess Sa plen nty Carved by Ifugaos of Banaue. Photos. by Worcester. Ms . 72 a Puate XI. ; Part of a circle of Ifugaos watching a dance. Quiangan. (Photo by \ . Prats XIT- Hfugaos at Quiangan cutting down a carabao with their war knives. Worcester. ) Puate XIII. Hfugaos struggling for carabao meat. Magok. (Photo. by Martin.) Puare XIV. A typical Ifugao man, sions war lance and shield; and a typical Trugao om . showing the dress of Ifugao women of the better class. front views. (Photos. by Tana ) PLATE XV. Fic. 1. A typical Ifugao man, half length profile view, showing peculiar of cutting hair which prevails generally atone, the Ifugaos. ( by Martin.) ~ 2. Young Ifugao woman ‘of Quiangan, half front view. showan me! dressing the hair. (Photo. Bs Martin.) — VILLAVERDE : THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN.] Fic. 1. MOUNT ALAUITAN TO THE LEFT, AND MOUNT AMUYAO TO THE RIGHT. Fic. 8. THE HIGHEST PEAK OF THE MOUN P (PHI. Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. Fic. 2. IFUGAO SETTLEMENT, PART OF QUIANGAN. RANGE, CALLED ALAUITAN BY SOME IFUGAOS. — BETO TOUEN SOR RUMI THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN.] | ee VILLAVERDE ¢ Fic. 1. MOUNT ALAUITAN TO THE LEFT, AND MOUNT AMUYAO TO THE RIGHT. mE ee ae Fic. 3. THE HIGHEST PEAK OF THE MOUNT POLIS RANGE, CALLED ALAUITAN BY SOME IFUGAOS, PLATE |. eee eae Tl Saltvid "110d LNNOW WOYS LSV3 DNINOOT ‘SOVONS! SHL JO AYLNNOO ‘b ‘ON ‘AT “IOA “IOS “NUMOL ‘ITH ([-NVDNVIN® JO SOVORAT TH : TauTAVIITA VILLAVERDE: THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN. ] [PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. Fic. 2. PART OF AN IFUGAO HOUSE ORNAMENTED WITH SKULLS. PLATE Ill. e ae ‘ 1 as : 2 , ane = = 5 - a . =~ : i a - ; 2 = re . ‘ ef : : in 8 5 Ge e - Ee wan ae VILLAVERDE : THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN.] [PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. IFUGAO RICE TERRACES WITH STONE RETAINING WALLS, BANAUE. PLATE Iv. 1 “A S41tv1id “STIVM ONINIVLSY ANOLS HLIM SAO0VYNSL 301 OVONSl "FON ‘AT “IOA “10S ‘Nunor “ITH [-NVDNvIOn® 40 SOVDNAT SHE : TauMAVTITA VILLAVERDE: THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN. ] [PHiu. Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. Fic. 1. IFUGAOS WITH WOODEN SHOVELS, BANAUE. Fic. 2. IFUGAOS WORKING IN RICE TERRACES WITH WOODEN SHOVELS. PLATE VI. VILLAVERDE : THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN. | [Puin. Journ. Scr., Vou. 1V, No. 4. Fic. 1. IFUGAO BLACKSMITH’S SHOP, SAPAO. Fic. 2. TYPICAL IMAGE, AND TAGABI'' OR CARVED SEAT. PLATE VII. ‘HIA Stvw1d “3NVNV ‘SLVH GNV S3ONV1 OVONSI “2 ‘old "NVONVIND ‘ONIONVG SOVONSI “1 “94 ‘p ON ‘AT “I0A “IOS “NuOOr ‘I1tHq] [-NVONVIOn® fO SOVOOAT AML : AGNTAVTITA VILLAVERDE: THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN. ] [PuHIn. Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. Fic. 1. IFUGAO WOMAN WEAVING. Fic. 2. STONE. RETAINING WALL OR “ PILAPIL’? WITH PROJECTING STEPS. PLATE IX. VILLAVERDE : THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN. ] [PHIt. Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. WOODEN SPOONS AND IMAGES. PLATE X. 2 ae = Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. [PHIL. JouRN. THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN. ] VILLAVERDE : 4) LOY Wp. PART OF A CIRCLE OF IFUGAOS WATCHING A DANCE, QUIANGAN. PLATE Xl. "Ix S41v41d “SSAINM YWM HLIM OVEVEVO VY NMO”G DNILLNO Sovons! ‘FON “ATI “IOA “109 ‘NuNnOr “IrHq] [NVPNVIN® HO SOvVDOaAT AH : MaNaAVTITA Tx Stvdid “LVAW OVEVYVO YOs DNIISONYLS SOVONS! 7 ON ‘AI “TOA “IOS “NHNO ‘IIH g) [NVDNVIN® dO SOVYDOaT AHL : TaNTAVITTA - - } - Miter ; as j ; Bs = 4 » i - ’ = | 4 \ ; ‘ i - a Ge ie ‘ . s a) : . «@ VILLAVERDE : THE IFUGAOS OF QUIANGAN. ] [PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. | | | TYPICAL IFUGAO MAN AND WOMAN. PLATE XIv. v . “AX SB4tVv1id “NVWOM CNV NVW OVONS!I IVOIDAL i6 (ld "L ‘9ld "p ‘ON ‘AT “IOA “10S “NUOOL “TIHq) [-NVDNVIN® FO SOVONAT AHL + AauaAVTITA \ 1 ci . r t D te 1% ry LG ]. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. AN ATTEMPT TO CLASSIFY THE LITTORAL POPULATION OF LUZON AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. By Rosert BENNETT BEAN. (From the Anatomical Laboratory, Philippine Medical School, Manila, P. I.) INTRODUCTION. Previous attempts have been made to classify the Filipino peoples, but each has included only an incomplete survey of the population. It is hoped that by making a consecutive series of observations such as I have carried on covering the mountain districts, the lowlands, and the littoral population, and by taking a random sample from all the culture levels, a more complete analysis of the physical types that make up the popula- tion of the Philippine Islands may be made, the origin of the people discovered, present tendencies of amalgamation revealed, and future con- ditions predicted. I shall classify types by physical characteristics, and not alone by locality. The littoral population of the Philippines is one of the most mixed in the world, and the physical types are complex, but it is by means of this very complexity that obscure problems of heredity may be made clear. The types of man that have crossed are so dissimilar that characters may be traced more readily than if they were similar. Worcester(30) writes with full knowledge at first hand of the non- Christian tribes of northern Luzon, and gives a classification that is valuable ethnologically and sociologically. Virchow(28) and Blumen- tritt(7) have written of the Filipinos from a distant point of view, in _ an attempt to classify the people physically, and A. B. Meyer(18,19,20) measured the Igorots and Negritos. Montano(21) and Folkmar(12) measured the living Filipinos and classified them in local groups. Montano classifies the Filipinos by physical characters and locality into Negrito, Indonesian, and Malay: the Negrito occupying ithe mountain wilds of the Islands, the Indonesian the fertile interior, especially of Luzon and Mindanao, and the Malay occupying the coast lands. It is to be supposed that the littoral population is at present largely Malay, to which haye been added Chinese and European elements, and in which still remains a remnant of Negrito and Indonesian. At present, Amer- ican and Negro mestizos are springing up in almost every part of the Islands, making a rich field for the racial anatomist. 263 264 . BRAN, The Malays, according to Montano, are divided into local groups, such as Bicols, Visayans, Tagalogs, [locanos, etc., and as this classification is followed by Folkmar and others, I shall compare their measurements with mine in similar groups, by means of tables, at the end of this paper. (Tables 2, 3 and 4.) Montano and Folkmar confined their obseryva- tions to types selected to represent the locality from which they came. whereas I have measured students as I could get them in the Philippine Normal School and the School of Arts and Trades; both of these institu- tions are located in Manila but receive students from all parts of the Archipelago.t Montano’s and Folkmar’s measurements were of the com- mon people whereas mine are of students, presumably from the better classes, and some of them are mestizos; therefore foreign blood and nurture must be considered in a comparison of the measurements. Only individuals 18 years old and upwards are included in this study and only the anthropomorphic characters are utilized here, the remainder being reserved for future publication as a comparative study of school children. My thanks are due to Mr. Beattie, principal of the Philippine Normal School, for his kindly coéperation in the work. It was under- taken primarily as a study of school children, hoping that a knowledge of the teeth, the physical condition, and other data would be of assistance in guiding those who are interested in the fundamental principles of sociology. CARDINAL ANTHROPOMORPHIC CHARACTERS. DISCUSSION OF TH® OBSERVATIONS ON 377 STUDENTS. The average stature of 377 students is 163.3 centimeters, the cephalic index 82.1 centimeters, the nasal index 82.55 centimeters, the head length 18.4 centimeters, the head width 15.1 centimeters, the nose length 4.56 centimeters, and the nose width 3.76 centimeters. The nose is wider, the head longer, and the stature greater than that of the Bilibid prisoners measured by Folkmar(12). The stature is greater, the nose is narrower, and the head is wider than that of the Igorots(2). The stature and cephalic index are about the same as the middle European or Alpine stock as represented by the people of central France (10,24). The mestizos are separated from the Filipinos and curves of stature, cephalic index, and nasal index are constructed to represent the indiyidual in the mass and to show the mode and the extremes. (Charts I, II, and III.) The curves may be interpreted to indicate by their summits the ‘The measurements of a few natives of the littoral population made at Baguio and elsewhere are included in this study. For details as to method of measure- ments, see “The Benguet Igorots,” This Journal, Sec. A (1908), 3, No. 6, 413. The circumferences of the forehead, parietal, occipital, and frontal regions are all taken from the root of the zygomatie process and extend over the most prominent part of each region, that of the forehead passing above the brow ridges. I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 265 types that have mingled in the formation of the present population of the Islands. The curves for cephalic index show the majority of mestizos to be below 80 and the majority of the Filipimos to be above that number. The curves for stature show great homogeneity, especially for the Fili- pinos, but less for the mestizos, which is due to greater diversity of type among the mestizos, and to the fact that stature is more plastic than head form, more subject to selection and environment. The curve for nasal index with its Gothic spires and cathedral form has summits that are more distinct than those of the cephalic index. The majority of the Filipinos have a high index (wide noses), and the majority of the mestizos have a lower index. Recent observations in the study of heredity indicate that, in some cases at least, heredity is neither exclusively alternate (Mendelian) nor ex- clusively blended, but may be neither(9) or both(2,16). In any study of heredity, at least two kinds of variation must be considered: The variation due to environment, and that due to crossing opposite extremes of the same character such as black and white color. When these two varieties of variation do not overlap there is no confusion, but when they do, endless confusion may result. With this in mind, we may consider the physical characteristics of the Filipinos in the light of the recent work of Spillman(27). Schull, in hybridizing corn, “looks upon:-a cornfield as simply a heterogeneous collection of elementary species and hybrids between them,” and Spillman accounts for these elementary species on the “old Darwinian idea of gradual evolution” by a simple scheme shown by I, IJ, and IIT: 1 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) B _ BS — B B Bs BS B B BS Bs II. (1)+ (QQ Ae A} BB: i2 2 (2)+ (2) =A AL BS Be Ooms (3)-+ (3) =A* Al BS BS pe Cc (4)+(4)=a7 A? Be BSC Cl (5)+ (5 =A® AS B® B 2 2 (G)-= (6) AS SAS BS Be Cs C* (YEAH) AS: EBS S BEB CRG: (S)E5(8) AS SASS BS) Ba Gl ac ———- 266 BEAN. All types in III are derived from two types or elementary species, A* B* C* and A® B® C®, A, B, and C being separable unit characters that obey Mendel’s laws in cross mating. Let A represent a Mendelian character that is variable and the differ- ences of which are hereditary. Let B and C represent similar characters. The exponents represent the degree of difference between the characters, any two adjacent ones being so slightly different from each other as to appear to be exactly alike, but the difference between alternates is sufficient to be recognized and those that are far apart, as A* and A*®, are extremely different. Some of the intermediates may have disappeared leaving gaps not bridged over by living forms. The differences may have accumulated gradually throughout the time of the evolution of the structure and each one of the series now existing is fixed within the limits of environmental variation. In order to illustrate the application of this scheme to the Filipinos under consideration, suppose that the three characters, stature, cephalic index, and nasal index are represented by A, B, and C, respectively. Let A’ be a stature of 145 centimeters, and A’ a stature of 190 centimeters, with the other powers of A equivalent to the intervening statures at intervals of 5 centimeters for each power. Let B* represent a cephalic index of 72.5 and B*° one of 95.0, and C* represent a nasal index of 55 and C° one of 100 with intervening indices accordingly, represented by the intervening powers of B and C. It will be seen that the exponents represent fairly well the summits of the curves of stature, cephalic index, and nasal index, therefore it may be inferred that the choice of values represented by the exponents is good, because they are actual points about which the characters fluctuate presumably by reason of enviroment. A hypothetical individual in which the gametic constitution is At A®* B® B® C? C%, (the result of the marriage of two individuals with a gametic constitution of 2A* B* C? and 2A® B® C®, respectively) when married to an individual of like gametic constitution, has the possibility of producing eight types that breed true and may be called elementary species (II and III). What really takes place among men remains to be determined, but if Mendelian characters in man follow the same course that they do among animals and plants in cross breeding, the above possibility becomes a strong probability. We may now proceed to find what combinations of stature, cephalic index, and nasal index are found among the 377 Filipinos under con- sideration, and in this way select types that represent more or less homoge- neous entities from. which inferences may be drawn in confirmation of, or opposition to, Spillman’s ideas regarding elementary species, especially in reference to man. These inferences can be firmly established only by measuring three or more generations in many families. _. — I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 267 TYPES—INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERS. The cephalic index is selected as the basis for the classification of types . by individual characteristics, the nasal index is correlated with this and the stature is subordinated to the two in the following manner: The group of cephalic indices as denoted by the curve (Chart IL) at 74+ to 78, 79 to 81, 82 to 84, 85 to 89, and 90 to 100, are segregated. It is found that the group at 74 to 78 may be subdivided by the nasal index into wide and narrow nosed types, and that the wide nosed type has a smaller stature than the narrow nosed type. The latter will be desig- nated as modified Iberian because many mestizos are in the group, and the characteristics are similar to the Iberian type of Hurope(10,25,26). The former will be designated as Australoid because it resembles a type similar to the Australian found among the Igorots(2). To this group also belong those individuals with cephalic mdex less than 83 and nasal index more than 12 above or below it. The group 90 to 100 may also be subdivided acu the nasal index into wide and narrow nosed types, and each of these may be divided into tall and small stature, the tall being largely mestizo and the small largely Filipino. The small are designated as Primitive, Modified Primitive, and Modified Alpine, the tall as Modified B. B. B. and Modified Adriatic. To this group also belong those individuals with cephalic index 83 and over and nasal index more than 12 greater or 12 less than the cephalic index. The remainder with cephalic indices from 79 to 89 may be divided into three groups with mean cephalic indices of 80, 83, and 86 respectively and the nasal index of any individual less than 12 points above or below the cephalic index. The three groups are united to represent the fusing product of all types, or the average Filipino of the present, because of the homogeneity of the individuals and the large number in these groups. MODIFIED IBERIAN TYPE. There are 25 students of this type, of whom 16 are mestizos, and they come from the Provinces of Batangas, Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, Mindoro, Zambales, Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Laguna, and the city of Manila. They are differentiated from other students primarily by stature, cephalic index, and nasal index, but a list of characteristics is presented that may also show differences. (Table I.) This is one of the most distinct types and corresponds to the Mediterra- nean Race of Sergi(26), therefore it is taken as a standard with which to compare the remaining types. It is unlike the prehistoric Cro-Magnon of Hurope(8) because of its smaller size and harmonic face, but the large occipital region and the relatively large face compared with the other 268 BEAN. types may indicate Cro-Magnon affinities. The Iberian and Cro-Magnon of Europe are related types, but the evidence here is very slight in con- firmation of this relationship. ; The stature is 1 centimeter more than that for the whole number of students, and the cephalic index and nasal index are each about 10 less. The morphologic face index is greater than that of the Igorots by 7, and the physiognomice face index is less by 2. The distance from chin to nasion is 8 millimeters more than for the Igorots, the distance from chin to hair line is 4 millimeters more, and the width of the face is 2 millimeters less. The head length is 4 millimeters more than for the Igorots, the head width is 1 millitemer less and the head height is 1 millimeter more. The average age is 7 years less than that of the Igorots. Jn brief, this type is of medium height, with narrow head, nose, and face. The head and face are small and the individuals are thin. They are young and have bad teeth. Only one has hair that is not straight, and all have coarse, black hair except one that has fine brown hair. AUSTRALOID TYPE. Thirty students are of this type, and only 7 are mestizos. They are differentiated from other students in the same way as the Iberian type, and all the other types are differentiated in the same manner. The stature is below the medium height, the head is narrow, the nose and face are wide. Only one has wavy hair, the others have straight. The individuals are all young and thin. They come from Laguna, Samar, Bulacan, Rizal, Leyte, Pampanga, Albay, Cavite, Tayabas, and the city of Manila. The characteristics of this type may be emphasized by contrast with the Iberian which it resembles in head shape and stature, although it is not quite so tall and dolichocephalic. (Table 1.) The nasal index of the Australoid is almost 20 higher than that of the Iberian, the mor- phologic face index is 5.3 higher, and the number of decayed teeth is 20 per cent less than with the Iberian type, and there are twice the number of individuals who have no decayed teeth; in other character- istics the two resemble each other closely. Were it not that a type almost exactly the same as the Australoid was found among the Igorots and in about the same proportion to the whole number examined, it would seem that this is the result of the crossed Iberian and Primitive type of the Spanish and Filipmo people, respectively, but among the Igorots there are no recent Iberians nor is there evidence of any that have recently come into contact with the Igorots. Therefore, I believe as stated in my recent work on the Igorots(2), that this type forms one of the primitive elements of the Filipinos. A comparison of the students of this type with the Igorots I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 269 of the same type and with the Iberian as given in the following table may be of interest: Cephalic} Nasal | index, | index. SHEL 79.1 Sis 7 146.6 76.8 | 92.7 161.0 lio: 2 | 73.9 164.3 | The stature of the Igorot is less than that of the student, but the cephalic index and nasal index are almost the same. The cephalic index of the student is slightly greater than either that of the I[gorot or of the Iberian, which may be due to the influence of the Primitive type. The nasal index is less than the others, and may be due to the same influence coupled with that of the Iberian, and like influences may have altered the stature. The disharmonie physiognomy suggests the Cro-Magnon of prehistoric Hurope(8), but the small size of the individuals in every dimension almost precludes any relationship, unless environment accounts for the differ- ences. The Cro-Magnon of Europe was noted for great height; long, high, narrow head; prominent occipital region; and large, square face. Tf the Australoid type is a remnant of the Cro-Magnon, great changes have taken place. Tm conclusion then, the Australoid type among the students resembles the same type among the Igorots in cephalic index, nasal index, and physiognomic face index, and it differs from the Iberian in nasal index, morphologic face index, and number of decayed teeth, in which characters it resembles the following type. PRIMITIVE TYPE. Only nine students of this type occur in 377, a comparatively small number, but the type justifies itself because of its distinctive characters. (Table 1.) The head is wide, the nose and face are wide, and the stature is small. Two of the nine have wavy hair; 40 per cent have no decayed teeth and the average number of decayed teeth is 3 less than the Therian and 2 less than the Australoid; there are no mestizos among them; they come from the Provinces of Rizal, Bulacan, Ilocos Sur. Cayite, Pangasinan, Leyte, and Union. The cephalic index of this type is about 10 higher than the Iberian, the nasal index is 12.6 higher, and the stature is 13.5 centimeters lower. The head length is 1.3 centimeters less than the Iberian, the head width is 8 millimeters greater, the nose is 9 millimeters shorter, and 1 millimeter wider, and the face is 1 centimeter shorter and 3 millimeters wider. The parietal circumference is 1.2 centimeters more than the Iberian, the 870023 270 BEAN. occipital circumference is 9 millimeters less, but the other cireumferences are not so different. However, the fronto-parietal index is 2 less than the Iberian, the forehead-occipital is 1.4 more, the forehead-parietal is 3.5 less and the occipito-parietal is 1.7 less. This means that the parietal _ region is. well developed and the occipital region is poorly developed in relation to the Iberian type, or the converse, the parietal, region is poorly developed and the occipital region is well developed in the Iberian in relation to this type. The teeth are notably free from cavities or any irregularities, and are the best teeth of all examined among the 377 students. The age is a little more than that of the Iberian, therefore the differences are not due to less maturity. This type is beleved to be a primitive precursor of the Filipino, but whether Negrito or some other it is difficult to decide. MODIFIED PRIMITIVE TYPE. Forty-six individuals of this type appear of whom none are mestizos and 7 have wavy or curly hair. They come from Laguna, Ilocos Sur, Bulacan, Pangasinan, Nueva Viscaya, Cavite, Cagayan, Pampanga, Nueva Keija, Ilocos Norte, Batangas, Union, Negros, Rizal, Capiz, Masbate, Tayabas, Iloilo, Romblon, Zambales, Bataan, and two from the city of Manila. This type is below the average stature, very broad headed and broad nosed, and has a short, wide face. The frontal and parietal regions are relatively well developed, and the occipital region is poorly developed. In addition, the teeth are sound, the individuals are further advanced in age, and the weight is a little greater in proportion to stature than the average. (Table 1.) Compared with the Iberian type the cephalic index is 10.4 greater, the nasal index is 19 greater, the stature is 4.2 centimeters less, the morpho- logic face index is 6.9 less, and the physiognomic face index is 3.9 greater. The head length is 1.2 centimeters less, the head width is 9 millimeters more, and the head height is 1 millimeter more. The nose length is 7 millimeters less and the nose width is 3 millimeters more. The lower face height is 6 millimeters less, the upper face height is 4 millimeters less, and the bizygomatic width is 4 millimeters more. The frontal circumference is 8 millimeters more, the parietal circumference is 4.5 millimeters more, the forehead circumference is 1 millimeter more, and the occipital circumference is 15 millimeters less. This type is similar to the Primitive except in stature, in which it is not only about 10 centimeters greater, but in which there is no overlapping of the extremes between the two. The wavy hair and the broad nose indicate Negrito affinities. The type is probably the Primitive modified by European types and mixed with some Negrito blood. The head, nose, and face are wider than the people of the Malay peninsula (17) and the stature is higher. a Bc ... * I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. Piel MODIFIED ALPINE TYPE. There are 30 students of this type of whom 8 are mestizos. They come from Ilocos Sur, Rizal, Union, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Leyte, Iloilo, Iaguna, Tayabas, Batangas, Mindanao, Zambales, Ilocos Norte, Cavite, ' Marinduque, Lubang Islands, Capiz, Pampanga, Batangas, Isabela, Ne- gros, Pangasinan, the city of Manila, and the father of one is from Spain. This type is below the average stature, very broad headed, very narrow nosed, and it has a face intermediate between the Iberian and Primitive. The head size is like that of the Iberian except in the occipital region where it is like the Primitive. In addition, this type has very good teeth and is not fat. No wavy hair is found. (Table 1.) Compared with the Iberian, this type has the cephalic index 11.7 greater, the nasal index 1 less, the stature.4.1 centimeters less, the morpho- logic face index 3.6 less, and the physiognomic face index 2.9 greater. The head length is 1.5 centimeters less, the head width is 8 millimeters more, and the head height is 0.6 millimeter less. The nose length is 0.7 millimeter less, that nose width is 0.8 millimeter less. The lower face height is 2.5 millimeters less, the total face height is 3.3 millimeters less, and the bizygomatic width is 2.8 millimeters more. The frontal and parietal circumferences are the same, the forehead circumference is 3 millimeters less, and the occipital circumference is 1.3 centimeters less. The nearest living related people are the Alpine of middle Hurope(10, 25) who are represented to some extent among the Spaniards. The type is therefore called modified Alpine, and represents a blend of Spanish and Filipino. Some Chinese may be present because three individuals are noted as resembling Chinese, and the Alpine Chinaman is a type often seen in Manila(4). MODIFIED B. B. B. TYPE. The 21 students of this type have indications of both Spanish and Chinese characteristics. Five are mestizos, 10 resemble Chinese, and 1 has wavy hair. They come from the Provinces of Pampanga, Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite, Nueva Viscaya, Nueva Ecija, Rizal, Zambales, and the city of Manila, all from the Island of Luzon. The chief characteristics of this type are stature above the average, yery wide head, but comparatively narrow face and very narrow nose. The number of decayed teeth is large and the age is above the average. (Table 1.) Compared with the Iberian this type has the cephalic index 11 greater, the nasal index 1.9 less, the stature 4.5 centimeters greater, the morpho- logic face index 3.7 less, and the physiognomic face index 2.9 greater. The head length is 1.1 centimeters less, the head width is 1.1 centimeters more, and the head height is 1 millimeter more. The nose length is 1 millimeter more, and the nose width is exactly the same. The lower face height is the same, the total face height is 1 millimeter more, and Die BEAN. the bizygomatic width is 6 millimeters more. The frontal circumference is 8 millimeters more, the parietal circumference is 5 millimeters more, the forehead circumference is 4 millimeters more, and the occipital cir- cumference is 9 millimeters less. The size of the regions of the head is almost identical with the Primitive type, but the stature is 8.7 centi- meters more, and the nasal index is 20.9 less. This type represents the blending B. B. B. of the Spanish and Chinese population with the Primitive type of the Filipino people. The B. B. B. is the big cerebellumed, box-headed Bavarian of Ranke, so-called by Beddoe(5), and the type is a prevailing one among the Spaniards of the Philippines. I believe the B. B. B. type is a blend of the Alpine and Iberian of middle and southern Europe, with possibly an infusion of Cro-Magnon and Adriatic, the last two probably related to the Iberian and Alpine respectively as progenitors or offshoots. The broad head of the Primitive type is combined with the narrow nose of the B. B. B. and the face is a blend of the two types. This is the reverse of the condition found in the Australoid type, where the long head of the Iberian has combined with the broad nose of the Primitive. These two types may, however, represent a recombination in different ways of characters belonging to only two types, one European, the other Eastern ; one with long head, long nose, long face, and tal] stature, the other with broad head, broad nose, broad face, and small stature. If this be true, it indicates Mendelian tendencies for the four characters men- tioned, and there should be found in the total population as many types as the possible combinations of four characters in unit pairs permit, which is 16. There are, however, only 8 types, which is the proper num- ber for three Mendelian characters, stature, cephalic index, and nasal index, by which these types are selected. There is evidence of blending in all, as well as the evidence of Mendelian tendencies, therefore my supplementary theory of heredity fits the conditions(2). The students are probably in an earlier stage of blending than the Igorots, and may be represented by Spurious Mendelism at B* and nearer 2 than 3, whereas the Igorots are in the stage of No Mendelism at B 2 near 3. MODIFIED ADRIATIC TYPE. There are 24 individuals of this type, of whom 6 show evidences of European characters, 1 is a Chinese mestizo, and 3 others resemble the Chinese. Two have curly hair. The characteristics of the type are stature above the average, very wide head, wide nose, moderately wide face, and well developed frontal region, but poorly developed parietal and occipital regions. A large number have no decayed teeth, but as many have bad teeth, which accounts for the high average number of decayed teeth. The age is above the average. (Table 1.) The individuals come from Union, Bohol, Bulacan, Pampanga, Capiz, Pangasinan, Tayabas. lloilo, Negros, Rizal, Zambales, Bataan, Laguna, and the city of Manila. . oe I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 273 Compared with the Iberian, this type has the cephalic index 12.8 greater, the nasal index 19 greater, the stature 4.3 centimeters greater, the morphologic face index 8.4 less, and the physiognomic face index 4.3 centimeters greater, the head length is 1.4 centimeters less, the head width is 1.1 centimeters more, and the head height is exactly the same. The nose length is 7 millimeters less, and the nose width is 3 millimeters more. The lower face height is 7 millimeters less, the total face height is 4 millimeters less, and the bizygomatie width is 5 millimeters more. The frontal circumference is 5 millimeters more, the parietal circumfer- ence is 1 millimeter less, the forehead circumference is 2 millimeters less, and the occipital circumference is 3 millimeters less. The notable characteristics of this type are the great height, 2 centi- meters less than the average for the white race in Europe and Amer- ica(10), the wide, short head, the wide nose, the short, narrow face, and the well developed frontal region of the head. The nearest related living people are the Adriatic described by Deniker(10) and located on the northern shores of the Adriatic Sea. Except for the stature and the nasal index, both of which are too high, it resembles the Alpine or middle Huropean. ‘The stature is not so great as that of the Adriatic and the nasal index is greater, these differences bemg caused by the Filipino element. “The Chinese influence is evident in the stature, nasal index, and cephalic index. BLENDING TYPE. This group of Filipinos with cephalic index ranging from 79 to 89, nasal index from 72 to 93, and stature from 146 centimeters to 180 centimeters, is composed’ of characters belonging to several types, and an effert will be made to discover what may have been the characteristics of these types. The European, the Primitive, and the Negrito undoubtedly enter into the composition of the Filipino people, but to what extent is each a factor and are the three represented in this group of average Filipino students? In order to answer these questions the group is analyzed as follows: The cephalic index is first divided into three groups about 80, 83, and 86. Cephalic index by groups—males—blending type. (Gaoanie index.| 77. | 78. | 79. | 80. | 81. | 82, | 83 | 8d. | 85 | 86. || 87 | 88. total, | | | | | | About 80___---- | gl) ali) 28) Soy ey [essa ncn eae eco 90 Pipouties to reta mares Eee lees elite | 16 | 22| 19 | lie ae | sate 61 About 86------_|_----_|_-___- NAMIE ama Te [2a a Nemec) eee | coleGa se 19 | 24 | | 22 | 19 | a vuln — The divisions between the groups are made by using the nasal index as a differentiating factor. Those with a cephalic index of 82 and a nasal index below 80 are put into the group “about 80,” whereas those 274 BEAN. with a cephalic index of 82 and a nasal index above 80 are put into the group “about 83.” Likewise those with a cephalic index of 85 and a nasal index below 80 are put into the group “about 83,” whereas those with a cephalic index of 85 and a nasal index above 80 are put into the group “about 86.” This is a somewhat arbitrary method but I believe it represents a real natural grouping. Using the cephalic index as grouped, the nasal index is compared with it. Nasal index by groups—males—blending type. Nasal index. Cephalic index about 80 _____|_----. | In this table four groups of nasal indices are apparent but to show the relation of nasal index to the three groups of cephalic index the table may be simplified by condensed grouping in percentages. Nasal index by groups—males—blending type—percentages. Nasal index. Cephalic index. 2 = 72 to77. | 78 to 83. | 84 to 89. | 90 to 93. | area ub | | | About 80. 27 42 22 9 About 83 21 51 23 | 5 | | About 86 6 50 | 41 | 3 TOE te ane Oar a ae Sea eed 54| 148 | a6 | Siar A glance at this table will show that the nasal index varies slightly with the three groups of cephalic index, the percentage of extremes constantly decreasing with increase of cephalic index, whereas the per- centage of intermediate nasal indices increases with increase of cephalic index. The correlation of nasal index and cephalic index is closer in the group with cephalic index “about 86” than in the other groups, there is less “spread” of nasal index, and the average or mean is higher. This indicates that the group about 86 is more homogeneous than the other two in the relation of cephalic index to nasal index, and this group may be segregated as a type whereas the other two are so heterogenous as to be considered only a group: of blends. The stature adds confirmation to the justice of this separation and approves the type as a reality. I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. Pile) Stature by groups—males—blending type. Stature. Cephalic bere on x ee index. | | | | | | | | | | | ae LB 15210815, 158.) 160, 162,|164.| 166.] 168,|170.|172.| 174.) 176.|178.| 180. Total. | | | =| | | eNOUtASO SSeS | eens ee |e | 2) 4] 5/16/17] 13|10] 9] 6 2 2) 3} 0) 1) 90 About 83---| 1] 0) 0} 3} 2| 2] 5| 8] 8) 6] 7] 8] 6) 3} 2 | ae oe | 61 About 86___ fain 1 | PP Bil Bile Wl) Bj 2) BY, IO | 2] 0 ie wee | | all Peet This table may be simplified by condensed grouping in percentages. Stature by growps—males—blending types—percentages. Stature, (Cleplnalte ages. Ipelow 160] 160 to 165 | Above 165) centi- centi- centi- meters. | meters. | meters. | _| About 80 12 41 37 About 83 PAL 37 42 About 86 25 33 42 A glance at this table shows that the number of individuals with both small and large stature increases with increase of the cephalic index, and the group with a cephalic index about 86 has a greater percentage of large than of small stature. In the latter respect the group about 83 is similar, whereas the group about 80 is different, and it is also more homogeneous than the other groups. When the ratio of nasal index to cephalic index is compared with the stature above 165 centimeters and the stature below 165 centimeters, the difference in stature bears a constant relation to this ratio in the group “about 86,” whereas it is different in the other groups as the following table indicates: Relation of the ratio of cephalic index and nasal index to statwre—blending type—percentages. Stature below 16 centimeters. Stature above 165 centimeters. Retioe==2=--- oe —2 to —12 1to—1 2to12) --2 to—12 1 to —1 2 to 12 Cephalic index: About 80_-_-- 13 20 27 12 14 12 About 83____- 24 16 13 33 10 5 About 86____- 31 | 28 0 25 14 3 The ratio of the nasal index to the cephalic index is the difference between the two in any individual and it is represented by the number of points that the nasal index is above (+) or below (—) the cephalic index. For instance, if the cephalic index is 81 and the nasal index is 276 BEAN. 78, the imdividual is in the group about 80 under “—2 to —12” and depending upon stature is above 165 centimeters or below 165 centimeters. One notable fact presented by this table is that, regardless of stature, the group about 86 has nasal indices less than the cephalic, whereas the group about 80 has nasal indices more than the cephalic indices. The group “about 83” is intermediate, especially those with stature below 165 centimeters. The group about 80 is the only one in which the stature apparently alters the ratio. Here those with tall stature have an equal number of nasal indices above and below the cephalic, whereas those with small stature have a greater number with nasal indices aboye than below the cephalic indices. his represents a tall element with mesoce- phalic heads and relatively narrow noses, which is probably the Iberian and Cro-Magnon mixed with the Filipino. At the other extreme an element is found with small stature, brachycephalic heads and relatively narrow noses, which is probably the Alpine mixed with the Filipino. There is also an element with low stature, mesocephalic heads, and broad noses which is not of Kuropean origin, but mixed Australoid and Primi- tive, and another element with tall stature, moderately brachycephalic heads, and relatively narrow noses, which is probably the B. B. B. and Adriatic mixed with the Filipmo. There is also a large element with intermediate: stature, moderately brachycephalic heads and relatively small noses which is probably the ultimate blend of the other types and represents the Filipino of the. future. Chinese elements which are similar to the Filipmo and European types previously described enter into this blending type(4). Negrito elements are present as indicated by the curly hair, of which 2 per cent are found in the group with cephalic index about 80, 10 per cent in the group with cephalic index about 83, and 9 per cent in the group with cephalic index about 86. ‘The increased percentage of curly hair with increase of cephalic index points to Negrito rather than European influence, although the latter can not be excluded in accounting for the curly hair or broad head. The remaining characteristics of the blending type are presented in detail in Table 1. Only 30 mestizos belong to this type and of these 13 are found among the 35 tall, mesocephalic individuals with narrow noses that belong to the Iberian-Cro-Magnon group mentioned above on this page. Other indications that the Cro-Magnon influence is expressed in this group are that the sitting height is 1 centimeter more than the total of the blending type, the head length is 5 millimeters more, the total face height is 5 millimeters more, the bizygomatic width is 2 millimeters more, and each head circumference is + millimeters more, all of which brings this group nearer to the dimensions of the prehistoric Cro-Magnon than is any other type of Filipino(8). Compared with the Iberian the blending type has the morphologie face index 4.2 less, and the physiognomic face index 2.4 greater. The head I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. DAT length is 1 centimeter less, the head width is 5 millimeters more, the head height is 1 millimeter more. The nose length is 3 millimeters less, and the nose width is 3 millimeters more. The lower face height is 4 millimeters less, the total face height is 3 millimeters less, and the bizygomatic width is 2 millimeters more. ‘The frontal circumference is 2 millimeters more, the parietal circumference is 1 millimeter more, the forehead circumference is 2 millimeters less, and the occipital cireumfer- : ence is 9 millimeters less. ‘The number of decayed teeth is 2.1 less, and the age is 1.3 years more. ‘The cephalic index is 7.2 more, the nasal index is 10.9 more, and the stature is 5 millimeters less. z The blending type is below the average European stature(10), and would be considered small in comparison, the head is moderately brachy- cephalic, and the nose is mesorhinian. ‘The face is wide and short. ‘The type which is nearest this one in all dimensions should be the one which has exerted the greatest influence in molding the blend. A survey of the - types in the following table reveals the differences : Differences between the blending type and the other types. | | : | Mor- | Phy- Stand-| | sa Cepha 4) | pholo-| siog- |a 2 De- Type. aan lic Bie | gie | nomic etatnte Weight.| cayed THe index. SaleetaAce face Ss. teeth. index. | index. MEM ok", | | | Modified Iberian 0.5 Ws2) 10. 9 | 4.2 2.4 0.6 0.3 2.1 Australoid_____ 16.8 5.6 7.9 | ee! 0.7 1.8 | 1.3 deal Primitive__ 13.0 3.1 | Ua’ 3.6 3.6 4.6 5.2 0.8 Modified Primitiv 3.7 3.2 | 8.1 D7 1.5 2.5 } 1.3 0.3 Modified Alpine_ 3.6 4.5 | 11.9 | 0.6 0.5 2.0 | 3.1 0.3 Modified B. B. B. 50| 3.8) 128] 05) 0.5) 1.9 | 26) a8 Modified Adriatie ___ 4.8 | 5.6 8.1 4.0 il.) ilgal 2.5 0.0 i } The blending type is nearer the modified Iberian in standing stature, sitting stature, and weight; it is nearer the Primitive in cephalic index and nasal index; it is nearer the modified B. B. B. in morphologic face index and physiognomic face index; it is nearer the modified Adriatic in the number of decayed teeth, but the modified Alpine is as near as the modied B. B. B. in physiognomic face index. The Australoid is very near in the two facial indices, the modified Alpine is near in standing stature and the modified B. B. B. is near in sitting stature. The Blend- ing type seems to be molded in body more by the Huropean types, and in head form and nose form by the Hastern types. ‘The face form is also probably molded more by the Hastern types, because it is similar to the Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic, and the Alpine is believed to be Asiatic - in origin and the Adriatic and B. B. B. are related to the Alpine. The Tberian, then, is the only distinct European type, and the notable differ- ences between this type and the others le in head form, nose form, face form, and number of decayed teeth. : 278 BEAN. DISCUSSION. The Iberian, Alpine, and Adriatic of Europe(10) should be compared with modified types of like nature in the United States(3) and with similar types among the Filipinos in order to establish relationships and differences and, if possible, to determine the trend of development. ; = : : —— | Iberian. ag Alpine. | Adriatic. | | mone! | unitea| Fili- tis Aa es United P eae | pino. | P | States. IF ee United! Fili- “Burope. pe pino. | =| = — j | 164.3 | 161-162 | 170.8 | 160.2 | 163-164 | 169.4 | 168.6 | 168-172 | 175.0 75,2 | 73-76 76.8 | 86.9 85-87 | 81.4 | 85.0 85-86 | 81.6 ) | "ie sel pee aes | sea | Fili- | pino. STSnte eer e eee Cephalic index_____ | The stature of each type is greater in America than in Europe, and greater in Europe than in the Philippines, except the Iberian, which is greater in the Philippines. The Filipino Iberian has Cro-Magnon ele- ments which may account for his greater stature. ‘The cephalic index is more mesocephalic in America and more brachycephalic in the Philip- pines, except again in the Filipino-Iberian type, which is more dolicho- cephalic than the American Iberian, but more mesocephalic than the European Iberian. Here again, the influence of the long headed Cro- Magnon as well as the broad headed Primitive explains the difference. -The nose of the Filipino is notably wider than that of the Huropean. The tendency in the Philippines seems to be toward reduced stature, wide heads and noses in so far as the European types are concerned, although the Iberian is only slightly modified. This may be because the Iberian is a purer or an older type than the Alpine, Adriatic, B. B. B. or Cro-Magnon, or because it is more unlike the Filipino types than are the other European ones, and, in spite of crossing with the Filipino, it does not blend. The Iberians may be dominant and the other types recessive or vice versa in cross breeding. On the other hand, the Filipino types are themselves becoming altered through the influence of the European and in the opposite direction; they are becoming taller, more mesocephalic and less wide nosed. ‘This is evident in the Modified Primitive type, and in the Australoid as com- pared with the Australoid of the Igorots, as well as in the Blending type as compared with the Primitive and Australoid. The American white and the American negro will in time intensify the increasing stature and decreasing cephalic index, but the nose may continue to be as wide as at present. : It can not be overlooked that the Primitive, the Alpine, and the Adriatic as well as the B. B. B., are related to each other, and are sepa- rated only by relative factors such as slight differences in stature, cephalic, nasal, and face indices. ‘This may lead to one of two conclusions: Hither i — ee I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 279 the Primitive type represents the fundamental one and the others are pro- duets of evolution from it, or the Primitive is a product of the other types as a result of nurture, degeneration, etc., or otherwise the types are differ- ent in origin and formation. It is more than probable that the Primitive represents one of the elements of the ground work of the Hast, and it may be that modified representatives of this type have influenced western Asia and Hurope, and it is also more than probable that Huropean ele- ments have migrated eastward and formed the modified types. The question arises, are the modified Huropean types the result of recent or remote amalgamation? Are they the product of prehistoric or recent Huropean mixtures ? A recent cross will not be so much blended as a remote one in which amalgamation has been continuous(2), unless the types that cross re- semble each other closely, in which case amalgamation takes place rapidly. Therefore the Iberian, at least, represents a recent cross, as is probably true of the Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic as well. The Cro-Magnon, however, represents an ancient element and belongs to pre-Spanish as well as Spanish times. If the Australoid type is the product of Iberian and Negrito, or Iberian and Primitive, then the Iberian must have been an ancient as well as a modern type to have become blended even in a disharmonic manner, as is the case among the Igorots. The ancient type must have come at an early period in world-time in order to have amalga- mated so completely with the others, or else our ideas of the time neces- sary for complete amalgamation need revision; 1t must be shorter than has been supposed, and new types are produced in man.in a few hundreds of years instead of thousands. It may be that amalgamation is more rapid where early marriages are contracted, promiscuity is practiced, and under certain climatic conditions, where rapid development is the rule. If these three conditions have prevailed in the Philippines, it is possible that diverse types have become blended or amalgamated in short periods of time. However, it is probable that European types entered into the composition of the Filipino people before the Igorots reached the Islands, and it may be that these were the early prehistoric types of Burope, or products of such types as the Cro-Magnon, Laugerie-Chance- lede, and Iberian, with also those resembling the Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic, such as have entered into the population of the Pacific Islands as far east as Hawaii, and to-day are represented by a remnant in Japan, namely the Aino(1,21,22,28). It is probable that the European types had become diversified before leaving their homes in Hurope, or else those represented in the East would all be alike, whereas there are at least two diverse elements, one of which is long headed, long faced, and narrow nosed, and the other wide headed, with moderately narrow face and nose. Further inyestigations are necessary to determine these ques- tions. At present we can say that at least traces of the Cro-Magnon are 280 BEAN. found among the Filipinos, the Iberian is present in comparative purity, and the Alpine with its affiliated types, the B. B. B. and Adriatic, are represented to some extent. The blending of all types except the Iberian has progressed a long way toward complete amalgamation, and the re- sulting product is below the average stature, slightly brachycephalic and moderately wide nosed. Of course this applies mainly to the better classes of the littoral population, and not to the Filipino of the rural districts, or to the non-Christian tribes of the interior of the Islands. At least two types, the Australoid and the Primitive, and probably a third, the Modified Primitive, constitute elements of the littoral popula- tion which are other than European in origin, although primitive Buro- pean elements can not be excluded from the Australoid and the Modified Primitive types. I have purposely avoided the use of the word Malay because I haye been unable to decide to my own satisfaction what type is Malay, if there be such a type. For the same reason I have used the word Negrito sparingly. Judging by the usually accepted knowledge of these two races, the Negrito and the Primitive are alike except in hair texture, and the Malay and the Modified Primitive are alike throughout. The Primitive type is almost identical with the type N of the Igorots. The following differences are found: If a | ‘| : Cephalic} Nasal | | Stature. GaGlice || ata | Number. | Primitive = =82- eee 150.8 85.5 86.5 9 in 377 | Tgorot|typeiNe==*-s2.ssee = eer eee | 1 150.3 84.3 89.4 | 8 in 104 | It is evident that these are the same type, and that it is rarer among the students than among the Igorots. The finding of two types, the Australoid and the Primitive, among the Igorots and among the littoral people of the Philippines is indicative of a similar origin for a part of the two peoples. However, there is a difference between the two peoples in the remainder of the population. No type among the littorals cor- responds to type M of the Igorots unless it be the Cro-Magnon, although the B. B. B. is similar in stature and nasal index, but not in cephalic index. The above corroborates my supposition stated in the discussion in the Igorots. The Australoid and Primitive had been mixed with type M before the entrance of the Igorots into the Philippines. These three types constitute the so-called Proto-Malays or Primitive Malays. That two of the types of the Proto-Malays remain in the littoral population may be due to a residue of these people who remained when the Neo- Malays took possession of the lowlands, or it may be because of the fact that the Neo-Malays contained these two types in their composition. The nonappearance of type M in the littoral population may be explained by I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 281 its absorption or modification by the Neo-Malays, the type not having constituted a part of the latter, which is most probable. The distinctive difference between the Igorots and the littoral population is in the pres- ence of type M among the Igorots and its absence among the littoral population, as well as the presence in the latter of recent European types with greater stature and greater brachycephaly. M. Moszkowski(22) investigated the natives of east Sumatra (not Malays) and reports two peoples, the Orang Akett and the Orang Sakei, who correspond in physical measurements with the Primitive and the Australoid, as may be seen in the following table: - ,| Morpholo- = Cephalic ae | | Number.} Stature. | ~ e gic face index. lene Orang Akett (Moszkowski) 13 151. 88 84.3 193. 7? Primitive (Bean) 9 150. 80 85.5 78.8 | z = | | 54. 7: 3. 4. Orang Sakei (Moszkowski) ---------_- 117 { fee 8 sent 4 to 156.17 | to 75.9 to 99 . Orang Sakei (Pinger) 19 156.16 75.45 96. 6 | Australoid (Bean) 30 161.00 76.8 89.3 Except for differences in the face index the types are practically the same. The Orang Akett have wooly hair and resemble the Negritos, and the Orang Sakei have wavy hair and resemble the Veddahs and the Senoi of Martin. In spite of the lack of wooly or wavy hair among the Aus- traloid and Primitive, I am conyinced that these types are of the same stock as those of the Malay Peninsula(17), of east Sumatra(21), and of Ceylon (Sarasin), as well as other parts of the Hast(6,15) (Negrito). In the last named places the Negrito element has remained more or less predominant, whereas in the Philippines it has become swamped in the wayes of immigration, with consequent loss of the Ghemeonentsinle curly or kinky hair which occurs only rarely. FORECAST. If the Australoid and the Primitive types represent the original ele- ments of the Filipinos, and the other types represent modifications caused by Europeans and Chinese, recent and remote, then the individuals of the present population are larger than the original in all physical measurements. Continued immigration of Americans and Chinese will result by interbreeding in further increase of size. With imerease of size go increase in bodily and mental vigor. Advance on the part of the Filipinos will be coincident with and incident to the continuation of the amalgamation of the races, although better nutrition, fewer animal para- sites, and altered hygiene may assist in the advance. 282 BEAN. In future papers I hope to be able to demonstrate the prevalence of certain diseases in definite morphologic types of men in the Philippines, which may indicate the types that fare well in the Tropics, as well as those that do not. Mention was made in the beginning of the present work, of the summits of the curves of stature, cephalic index, and nasal index which suggested the cornfield of Schull with its “heterogeneous collection of elementary species and hybrids between them,” and Spillman’s explanation of the elementary species on the “old-Darwinian idea of gradual evolution” as represented by a simple scheme which was delineated. The aboye selec- tion of types is not an attempt to prove or disprove the application of this scheme to man, but is an earnest effort to find the exact composition of a mixed population. That the types fall somewhat into Spillman’s scheme goes without saying, and that the summits of the curves correspond to different elements of the character represented by them is also true to some extent. The summit of the cephalic index (Chart II) at 76, represents the Iberian; at 78, the Australoid; at 80 and 83, as well as part of 86, the Blending type; at 86, the Primitive, Modified Primitive, and the B. B. B.; at 88, the Alpine and Adriatic; and at 92 some indi- viduals of the Primitive, Modified Primitive, Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic. The summits of nasal index and stature are less exact than those of the cephalic dex. The gametic constitution of the types is as follows, in fulfilment of Spillman’s scheme: Iberian ASS TB? SIGs Australoid At, BE sG? Primitive Az: Bin Ge Modified Primitive Ae Bae Ge Modified Alpine AS Be £Gs Modified B. B. B. AES BE Gs Modified Adriatic AS is BOC Blending type HAC Ben Ce A, in this scheme, represents stature, B, cephalic index, and C, nasal index, with equivalents as mentioned on page 266. Many possible forms are missing and those present are near the median or below, except in the nasal index, where the highest extreme is almost reached. Individual forms probably bridge the majority of the gaps, and a perfect series could be constructed from them. If plants and animals may be designated as elementary species by Spillman’s scheme, on the “old Darwinian idea of gradual evolution,” with equal propriety and verity that scheme may apply to man, and types selected above represent elementary species of men who haye heen formed by the blending of diverse types, as well as by gradual evolution.- = 4 I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 283 MENDELISM AND STUDENT TYPES. When the types of Manila Students are compared with the polyhybrids resulting from the crossing of two unlike tomato plants, great similarity in the number of polyhybrids and in their relative proportions is found. Price and Drinkard(24) obtained eight forms of tomato plants upon erossing the Yellow Pear which is “characterized by pyriform shape and yellow color of fruit and green foliage” with the Honor Bright which “Nossesses the three opposite attributes of round or spherical fruit shape, red fruit color, and yellow foliage color.” “In this cross there was noted complete dominance of green foliage color, red fruit color, and round fruit shape.” Suppose the green foliage color represents small stature, the red fruit color represents the round head, and the round fruit shape represents the broad nose; then the three characters combined represent the Primitive and Modified Primitive types. ‘The three opposite characters, tall stature, long head, and narrow nose, represent a hypothetical type not present among the Filipino Students, but which conforms to the Nordic type of Deniker in Europe. Tf two such types have crossed to produce the Filipino, then all pos- sible combinations of the characters constituting the two types should be found according to Mendel’s law of polyhybrids as formulated by Price and Drinkard: “When parents differing with respect to more than one pair of char- acters are crossed all possible combinations of these characters will be found in the F ? generation and these combinations will occur in a definite numerical proportion.” The following table shows the theoretical re- quirements for a Mendelian trihybrid, the actual proportions secured from 40 plants of the tomato as a result of the cross of the Yellow Pear and Honor Bright by Price and Drinkard, and the proportion of each type found among 377 students of the Trade and Normal Schools at Manila. Mendelism and Student Types. Theoretical Cae | Tomato hybrids, 40 plants. | uals. | Per cent. Per cent. 42 | Green foliage, red and round fruit________________-__-_______ 37.5 14 | Green foliage, red and pear fruit ---_____ 7.5 14 | Green foliage, yellow and round fruit _-___-______--__.__-___ 25.0 14 | Yellow foliage, red and pear fruit _--_____-__________________ 17.5 5 | Green foliage, yellow and pear fruit__ 2.5 5 | Yellow foliage, red and pear fruit -___-__-__-__-____-________ 2.5 | | 5 | Yellow foliage, yellow and round fruit -__-----______________ 5.0) | | 1 | Yellow foliage, yellow and pear fruit_______----____________- 28) | if ~~ -. a o 284 BEAN. 377 individuals—Filipino types—Manila Students. * Per cent. Small stature, round head. broad nose. Primitive and Modified Primitive 14.6 Small stature, round head, narrow nose Alpine 8.0 Small stature, long head, broad nose Australoid 8.0 Tall stature, round head, narrow nose Adriatic 6.4 Small stature. long head, narrow nose _—— Iberian 6.6 Tall stature, round head, narrow nose iB. B. B. 5.6 ; Tall stature, long head, broad nose Cro-Magnon ? ’ Tall stature, long head, narrow nose ? According to this classification the two types corresponding to the Yellow Pear and Honor Bright tomato are the Adriatic and Iberian, but no doubt the crossing of two other varieties of tomato among the eight would produce a similar series to that in the table, therefore the Adriatic and Iberian were not necessarily the progenitors of the Filipino although they may have been. We can conceive that the pure dominant, the Primitive, and the pure recessive, the Nordic, may have crossed to produce the eight types. The Primitive, beg dominant, has persisted, and appears in a greater per- centage than the other types: the Nordic, being recessive, has disappeared. The other types appear in proportions not unlike the theoretical ex- pectancy, although the percentage is low except that of the Iberian and B. B. B. The high percentage of these may be due to recent Spanish infusion of the two types, which are characteristic of the Spanish popu- | lation of the Philippines (Ears). The low percentage of the other types is due to the progressive increase of blends, which now amount to one- half the population. The scheme for heredity which explains the amal- gamated condition of the Igorots(2) will assist in the understanding of the student types. If the Nordic type represents the European and the Primitive represents the Eastern, then the existing types may be readily accounted for by the action of Mendelism as indicated above, but there have been many types of Europeans and probably more than one type of the Eastern which have fused to form the present Filipino population. However, if we may suppose that two types similar to the Nordic and Primitive united to form the European populations (a fact that is not improbable), resulting in eight forms similar to the eight Filipino types presented in the table above, and if these eight forms have projected themselves through the East, unitmmg with the Primitive wherever en- countered, then the eight types of Filipinos represent the remains of a departing Mendelism which is being swallowed up by amalgamation in ; the blend—the Filipino of the future. The eight European forms may not all have penetrated the East, but, having been segregated in Europe. only a few of the forms need have come into contact with the Primitive to produce the eight Filipino types. because the eight forms could be present in two types. I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 285 The scheme used as a supplementary theory of heredity(2) may be used to present the conditions found among the Filipino students. The process of amalgamation is more complex than among the Igorots because there are more types, the types show greater differences, and the ming- lings have been more frequent. ‘The littoral people have recent European and Chinese elements besides the primary types, which make recent as well as remote blends. The recent blends probably exhibit Mendelian effects In crossing, especially the European with the primary types. The Chinese having reached a condition of Spurious Mendelism at least, as indicated by a study of their ears(4+), are blending with the primary types on the one hand and the European on the other, each of which is im a condition of No Mendelism or Spurious Mendelism, thus producing a variable blend without True Mendelian effects. The total population is thus thrown into a condition of Spurious Mendelism. Some elements which are already perfect blends, such as the Primitive, Australoid, and Iberian, when crossed with their own kind, should reproduce true to type, whereas others, which are extremely opposite, such as the Iberian and Primitive, probably exhibit True Mendelism, at least im some char- acters, when crossed. Finally, it is evident that the presence of the types described in this paper corroborates to some extent the existence of similar types delineated in a study of Filipino ears(+). The definiteness of a few types and the blended condition of others, upholds the theory of heredity and the supplementary theory of heredity presented in previous papers. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) Barxz, E. Zur Vor- und Urgeschiehte Japans. Ztschr. f. Ethnol. (1907), 39, 281-310. (2) Bean, Ropert BENNETT. The Benguet Igorots. This Journal, Sec. A. (1908). 3, 413. (3) Idem. A Preliminary Report on the Measurements of about 1,000 Students at Ann Arbor, Michigan. The Anatomical Record (1908), 1, No. 3, 67-68. (4) Idem. Filipmo Ears. This Journal, Sec. A. (1909), 4, 27. (5) Beppor, J. A Method of Estimating- Skull-Capacity from Peripheral Measures. Journ. of Anthrop. Inst. of Great Britain and Ireland (1904), 34, 268. (6) Brocu. A quelques remarques d’ anthropologie sur les Cambodgiens ac- tuellement a Paris. Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris (1906), 7, 354-365. (7) Bruwentritr, F. Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der Eingeborenen Stiimme der Philippinen.und der von ihren gesprochenen Sprachen (1890), 20. (8) Broca, Pavux. Sur les cranes et ossements des Eyzies. Bull. Soc. An- throp. Paris (1868) 3, No. 2, 350-392. (9) CastLE. Carnegie Publications (1906), No. 49. (10) Denixer, J. The Races of Man. London and New York (1906), 325-334. (11) Idem. . Bull. Soc. Anthrop. (1897), 189-291. (12) Forxawar. Danren. Album of Philippine Types: Christians and Moros. Manila (1904). $7002——-4 286 BHAN. (13) Frirscu, G. Ueber die Verbreitung der dstlichen Urbevolkerungen und ihre Beziehung zu den Wandervolkern, Globus, Braunschweig. (1907), 91, 8-14, 21-26, and 37-44. (14) Jacor, F. Reisen in den Philippinen. Berlin (1875), xvi1+381. (15) Keane, A. H. ‘The Cochin tribes and castes, Wan. London (1907). 7, 4]-42. (16) Lutz, Frank E. Science, N. 8. (1908), 27, No. 714. (17) Marrin, Rupoty. Die Inlandstimme der Malayischen Halbinsel. (1905), 1-1062. : (18) Mryrr, AporpH Bernarp. Ueber die Negritos oder Aetas der Philip- pinen. (19) Idem and ScHApENBERG, A. Die Philippinen. I Nord Luzon: Tingianen, Banaos, Gianganen, Igorotten, Irayas und Ilocanen. Dresden, (1890). Publica- tionen aus dem Kéniglichen-ethnographischen Museum zu Dresden, VIII. (20) Mryrr, ApotpH Brrnarp. Die Philippinen, Il: Negritos. Dresden, 1893. Ibid, I. (21) Montano, J. Rapport a M. le ministre de l’instruction publique sur une Mission aux Iles Philippines et en Malaisie. (1879-1881), Paris. Impri- merie National, 1885. (22) Moszxowski, M. Ueber zwei nicht-malayische Stimme von Ost-Sumatra. Ztschr. f. Hthnol. (1908), 40, 229-239. (23) Mutnsrrrperc, O. LEinflus Westasiens auf Ostasiatische Itunst in yor- ehristlicher Zeit. Ibid, 257-262. (24) Prick, H. L. and Drinkarp, A, W., Jr. Bull. Virg. Expr. Sta. (1908), 177, 47. (25) Riprey. The Races of Europe with Bibliography. New York (1899), XXXI-624. (26) Serer, G. The Mediterranean Race: A study of the Origin of European Peoples. London (1901), 1-320. (27) Spiruman, W. J. Science, N. S. (1908), 27, No. 701. (28) VircHow, R. Ueber Negrito-und Igorroten-Schadel von den Philippinen. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Verhandlungen. (29) Voxrz, W. Beitriige zur Anthropologie und Ethnographie von Indone- sien. Arch. f. Anthrop. (1908), 7, 89. (30) Worcester, Drax C. The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon. This Journal (1906), 8, 791. ILLUSTRATIONS. Cuart I. Stature. The small solid line represents the mestizos, the broken line the Filipinos, and the large solid line represents the total number of students. II. Cephalic index. The lines are the same as in Chart I. III. Nasal index. The lines are the same as in Chart I. a * or [PHin. JourN. Sci., Vou. IV, No. 4. MANILA STUDENTS. ] Bean: I. Fiviprno Types Cuarr I, (PHIL. Journ. Sct., Vou. IV, No. 4. Cuart II. MANILA STUDENTS. ] 56 713 1S Th 72 I. Finieino Types Eth Ts (PHL. Journ. Sci., Vou. IV, No. 4. Cuarr III. 72 74 76 78 80 82 8% BG 8B 90 92 9% 96 98100 102104 106 108 110 I. Pruipino TYPES: MANILA SYUDENTS.] BEAN z Ss ‘pdIqj-ou0 A[joOvxe ‘G}00} paAvOap OU 9AvY JST 2eqQISssod v Jo sjuapnys 6G +4499 peAeoap ou aA 9A} SIIT} JO SyUEpNyS OZ o NI W399} pakvoop Ou oABY BGA} SIG} JO S[ENPIAIPUT 6 o "yJo0} poAvoep Ou oAvT 2d} SIq} JO SJUSpN}S 8 q yj99} peAvoep Ou eABY OMA} SY} JO S}UOpNjS FT p . W480} pakevoop ou savy odd} Sty} JO S}UOpNys Fx ? ‘ OTS | &'06 | O'8T | 0°82 | F 0G | O'BT | 0°66 | 906 | OST | 0'GS | 9°6L | OST | 0°96 | E'TZ | O'8L | 0°92 | 4 6T | O'8T | 0'Gz | O'6T OAL | eis WBE ADRES ony ! 0°02 | 24°% | 0°03 | 0'0L} 2% | 0°02) 0ST] 0F | 00%) 08 [0F'% | 00P | 0'SL}0°% | 0'0°)/0'¢ |} 6T | 00%) 061) 8S | 0'0q) 0°36) 8h | 00n | 4300} podvood OTL | 0S | 9°88 | 0'F9 | 8's | OOF | 9°69 | 6°ZE | 8'6F | G*SG JOT Lh | 98S | 8°09 | O'GF | GIF | GIG | L'Gh | a'8E | £89 | O'HF | GOP | G'S9 | 00S | 6S | qUsTO MA ; Gaps | nessa llc aan Stel aaa ae |e el aan eg | Ses | ae eT L°8h => XOput [Bjored-071d1090 Seapets aes eee Slcaa aa ocskg | pass oi cgecs =| peasieal| sae al ean sacleor oe wl cee ee Geese SO PLE - xoput [ejoed prayaioy smo Eee | rece ema| eicura | men |e | ume ieee | atu aeeeien lima MCE TETIRORCOT ~~ Xapur [Byidro90-07 001 Seoiigs | seh owed eee ered neg agen lenee lene tome sal a onal aay 1'¢6 |---| 0°26 | #16 | 8°48 | 0°00T| 6°88 | 6's8 | OFOT| 0°06 | 0-08 | XepUrTB}TdroO00 pyorjoroy ee a a red ere ator romaas|sas=1======1 9°%6 | 0°S8 | 0°08 | 8'06 | 0'28 | L°FL | SFG | B'ES | BLL | 0°26 | 0'F8 | 0'6L | ~~ XapUr [wiofAud-oj UOT Gee | 2°62 | O'La | OTE | L'6a | 9a | G'Te | 8'6z | O'Zz | G'TE lo6'8z | O'92 | S'ze | 4°82 | b*La | O'TE | S°6s | O'LG | OE | 4°60 | Z'Lz | Ges | G08 | 9°20 | ~eouETOFEANOATO [uyTdyODO 1°82 | O7LG | LF | 0°66 | 02% | BG | 4°62 | 9°22 | O°Gs | €°6z |06"92 | "Gs | O'0E | E°Lz | G°Gz | B-Lz | B°9Z | 0°9G | 0°64 | 93 | "Gs | G62 | G°Le | Fes | POUSTOFUINO.LTO PBoYoTOUT 8°68 | 1°98 | G6 | O'8E | 6'GE | Ges | O'8E | G98 | O'GS | GSE [00'9E | 0'ZE | L'8E |ch"9E | BFE | FSS | BLE | 6S | O'8E | BCE | Ses | OSE | 0°98 | O's | “SOUOTEFTANOTTO [BOMB 9°86 | 08 | Sika | GPs | 4°08 | 8°8z | Ges | OLE | 9'8a | PE [040s | 8"La | LE | O'TE | G62 | G-ce | GOs | 4°82 | TeS | GOs | G Zo | O's | B08 | E22 | POUeLEFUIMOLIO [BUOY MANILA STUDENTS. gr | 9°er | Gar | SFL | 6'eC | s'2r | 8"FE | O'FE | Pet | 8'FL lgo-eE | et | IGT | B*er | Lat | tyr | 2cet | o-ec | spr | Pet | Zor | EPL | F’et | Deon | WIDIM oNBUMOS Aare ; 9°14 | OSE | 4:et | p'6E | 6°LE | O'zT | yror | FS \20'GT | F'6E [L6"ZE | 4°9T | O'oz | Gz | Gor | 8st | g-zt | ¢:9r | ger | 6'zt | Zor | Goa | Sst | For | UT] ApBY 0} UTTO 9°er | o1L|24°6 | 0't | 6°0r | oor | e-2t | 9'Et | or log‘at \es-tr | gor | o'zt | o-1L | oor | ate | sor | oor | et | 6'0r | oor | Z'2t | 9'1L | LoL) WOISBE 07 UID +. |p jos |ae |o> joe |re lor |9e los los fos jos |rr los [oe Jor feos |r |oy |s'e lee lor joe | oe | U}DIM esON BZ ine jor jor jor jar jes lpg joe |e% loss feo lor luv |r |8 [o> leor |u'e jor lore joe |e [6% [ty | W}Su9] esON i | Ser | T'eL | cet | Ger | o'er | eer | ger | Ler | ear | eer freee | oct | Ger | Ter | eer | p'sk| Let | Zar | 2'et | Ter | got | Ger | O's | Set | qUSIoN peaH A | or | over | o'FE | 8°9L | 9°ST | FFL | 6-9r | 9'GT | BFE | FOE \pget | art | gor | FSC | SFT | O'oL| ec | O'GT | 2ccr | OFT | cet | Set | GPE] Bet | UIDIA pLoH 961 | 2'8E | 49r | o'er | 84 | e-9r | F:6r | E'8E | gor | 8'8t l99-zt | For | eer | O'S | LOE | Tor | 6-zT | O-zT | O-6r | 6'8T | g-zx | Gz | 36 | OBE | yi Sue] pveH 2 9°28 | 9°G2 | 6°89 | G28 | 722 | L'8u lag‘e6 | L'94 | 0702 | 8°18 | 1°94 | 0°99 | G48 | TLL | e-z9 | 878 | Z'6L | 8'eL | G°e8 | OFA | 60x | 2°78 | G'8L | 0°69 | XopUreoey OTMOUROISAY & | 2-96 | +28 | 0°69 | 0706 | ¥'84 | 602 | 06 | 6°28 | 0'9z | 0°86 | 0-88 | OSL | 0-68 | 4°6L | zzz | 9708 | 8°82 | FL | 0°68 | ete | Tz | 0'F6 | 9°98 | 0°18 | ~xopur dows o1So;oydr0y Bi | 0-6 | o-eg | 482 | 9°26 | 9-98 | ¢t8 | o-ze | ¥ 28 | ees | 2°96 | Ges | T'8z | 9°98 | 0°88 | 0-62 | 0'88 | 6°08 | G°ZL | 0°06 | 1-28 | 0'gs | 0°26 | 1°98 | O18 Bugs oyuyg J | 0°081| 8"g9t| 0’9FT] 0°421] 9-89T] O'coT| 6zAT| 8°89T| 9°Gor| @'POT] @'09T| O'ZGT| GFT] T'09T| O-9eT| 9°FS1| 80ST) &'8PT| O-ELT| O-TOT| O'zPI| O'GLT| 8°F9T] O°FST|-——————— BuypuRys ornqeys = | 0:26| 88 | 0'z | o'cor] 6-26 | o-F8 | 0-18 | O°eL | 0's | 0'68 | 62x | 0°09 | ocr] 6’z6 | o-1g | O'00T| ¢'98 | 0's8 | o-zor| 2:26 | o*es | 0°08 | 6S | 0°09 |= XODUF [8SBN | 0°88 | P28 | 0°24 | 0°26 | 0°88 | 0°08 | 0°26 | a'98 | 0°82 | 0°86 | 6°98 | 0°08 | 0°26 | 9°68 | o-og | 0°86 | G'e8 | 0°08 | o-ze | S91 | a'FL | OSL | B'S | OGL | ——————— xeput oreydeo to a i ia is ia BE) 5 |Be)| BS) 5 | Be ee) 6S | Be Be) Bb Be) BR) 6 Be Be BG | Be) Be) BS Be) Be) Be | Be ReERPRNATTS) 481 ‘Surpucrg a9 alg ‘08 “op a0) ‘6 OATIUIg | “0g ‘pIOTerIsHY a6 “UBI1eq] POYIPOW : . ‘OUBMDV PeYIPOW| “A ' A A PeYIPON | ‘ould, y peyIpow | -THIg poyrpoW ; ‘soudyyy a7pu ynpp—sadhy—y] aIav{, ; BAN: TABLE 2.— Measurements classified by locality. Locality. Rad Stature. Cones | | é City of Manila: | Filipinos— | Average__--| 40 | 163.8 82.3 Maximum__|_----- 179.3 90.0 Minimum __}__-_-_- 151.8 76.0 Mestizos— Average___-| 23 163.1 77.2 Maximum__|__---- 176.5 72.0 Minimum _-_|___-_- 146.1 84.0 Rizal Province: Filipinos— Average__--| 31 162.8 83.4 Maximum_-|_--_-- 172.0 92.0 Minimum -_|--_--- 148.8 74.0 Mestizos— Average ____ 7 166.3 78.4 Maximum__|______ 169. 5 84.0 Minimum -__}-----_ 160.5 75.0 Laguna Province: Filipinos— Average_-_-| 14 162.6 81.3 Maximum__}-_--_- 173.5 91.0 Minimum _-_|_---_- 153.7 75.0 Mestizos— Average ___- 6 162.7 78.5 Maximum _-_}_____- 167.0 82.0 Minimum --}------ 156.6 74.0 Cavite Province: Filipinos— Average__--| 10 166.7 82.9 Maximum __|__-___ 175.8 93.0 Minimum __|_----- 154.6 75.0 ADULT MALES—NO MESTIZOS. Batangas Province: AVeTrage= === == 12 164.2 83.7 Maximum__-__-_|------ 170.6 92.5 Minimum --_-___|--..-- 156.6 76.9 Bulacan Province: Average -__---_- 26 163.6 84.2 Maximum_-_-_-___|------ 173.5 90.1 Minimum ~__---|------ 152.9 77.3 Tayabas Province: Average_+.----- 15 160.6 83.3 Maximum _-_____|_---_- 171.5 90.9 Minimum ___-__|------ 149.7 77.0 Zambales Pro y- ince: ANVCT Ap Geen | 9 165.1 84.1 Maximum___-_-__|------ 173.4 91.2 Minimum --__--|-----_ 159.5 80,0 Pampanga Proy- | e ince: | Average ____-___ jee 163.5 81.3 Maximum,-—_-_-|------ 172.2 90.5 Minimum -__-_- 158.7 76.5 Nasal index. 68.0 | ~1 eae ue Head | length. Head breadth. TIN om wor te Nose length. sos Ss Boe $sez oof wo oo mwou Nose breadth. 38.69 4.30 3.20 3. 67 4.30 3.20 3.72 4.20 3.30 3.76 4.20 3.30 3.70 4.40 3.20 3. 66 3.90 3.30 3.76 4.20 3.40 3.8 4.0 3.4 3.7 4.1 3.0 3.8 4.1 29 3.8 4.3 3.5 3.8 4.5 3.3 4 I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 291 TABLE 2.—Measurements classified by locality—Continued. | secants. NUR stature [Saphalle] Neuel | ead |, Heed] Nowe | Nowe, Pangasinan Proy- | | ince: | | | Average ___---__ 18 161.0 | 84.7 85.0 18.1 15.3 4.5 | 3.8 NiPpahraybyrnl se 170.0 93.1 100.0 19,2 16.1 5.4 | 4.1 Minimise os |e 151.3 | 80.0 74.1 16.9 14.5 3.7 | 3.3 Nueya Ecija and | | Nueva Vizcaya | Provinces: | rAVErage —-_-=—-_ 17 166.1 83.6 | 80.0 18.3 15.3 | 4.8 | 3.9 Maximum______|______ 175.7 95.3 | 90.9 19.5 16.4 | 5.3 4.2 Minimum _-_---|______ 158.1 79.0 69.8 | 17.2 14.4 4.2 3.6 TABLE 3.—Comparison of measurements by groups. /sumnorty Ther, | Stature. |Caex''| index. | length, | width, | leageh, | worn — } } Tagologs—Adult | | | | male—ayerages: | | | | ! | Montano _______ 4 158.0 83. 69 EPG (oe abuts Eee sans | eee aaa se NES) Holkmar 222-4) 169 159.6 83. 09 79. 69 | 18.0 | 15.0 | 5.1 4.1 Bean— | | | | A | Filipinos-_| 219] 163.4) 83.80| 82.80/ 18.2) 15.1 | 4.58| 3.75 164.9 | 78.70 77.9 18.8 | 14.8 | 4.75 3.70 163.8 | $2. 20 Slo) 18,3 | 15.1 || 4.58 3.75. | Averages—adult | rs | | males—no mes- | tizos: | | Tocanos— : | | Montano__| 3| 161.9) 86.8 Cail ese wee ides Dae peo, wipe lester Folkmar ___| 193 160.2 84.8 75.4 17.8 15,1 5. 20 4.00 Beanies 48 161.5 83.5 81.8 18.2 15. 4,30 3. 65 Bicols— | | | Montano-- 6} 158.3) 86.6 8645 lee costo steers | Be secs |Past Folkmar ___| 638 159. 2 | 83.2 81.5 18.0 15.0 5.0 4.1 Beant = | 14 163.2 83.5 86.3 18.2 15. 2 4.5 3.9 Bisayans or | H Visayans— | | | | Montano___| 2 160.1) eS ALISON | leet ee pa Se oe Folkmar___| 259 158.7 84.4 81.7 17.9 15.1 4.9 4.0 Beane=22ns5 | 23 160.7 | 84.3 87.3 | 18.2 15.4 | 4.4 | 3.8 Moros of Min- | | | danao— | | Montano __-| . 5 157.4 81.9 84.6 [psasaa=—— = Jnona=-==-- eee J---==-===- Folkmar ___ 6 161.3 80.8 81.0 | 18.7 | 15.1 | 5.00 | 4.10 Bean _______ 2 163.0 88.5 87.4 | 17.9}; 15.85 | 4.75 4.25 Cagayanes— | | Folkmar -__| 1d 162.2 80.8 80.4 | 18.4 14.9 5.1 4.1 Bean ______- 3 165. 6 83.6 80.9 | 17.7 14.8 4.7 3.8 1 The Tagalogs include all those enumerated in Table 2; the Ilocanos are those from Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Union; the Bicols are from Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Romblon, and Masbate; the Visayans are from Iloilo, Capiz, Antique, Negros, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar. 292 [Montano, J. BEAN. TABLE 4. Rapport a M. le ministre de l’instruction publique sur une mission aux isles Philippines et en Malaisie 1879-1881 p. 354-360.] | Indices. 4 l atseotate Cephalic.| Facial. | Frontal.| Nasal. | Stature. ee: =} oe Negritos—18 males—Mariveles and Batan: | | 84.66| 56.24| 69.31] 94.67 | 148.58 89.19 | 61. 64 74. 65 122.80 | 157,50 77.09 51.43 61.31 82.00) 142.50 | 86. 95 55. 93 72.64 96. 62 | 143.16 96.86 | 60.92 | 95.07] 105.40) 148,50 80. 56 58.03 66.90 88.09 135.00 Mean 45.5 2s eo 8 Sane ee ee aoe 80. 01 148, 87 Maximum_ 82.38 158. 00 Minimum 76. 66 139. 00 Manthus—5 females—Malacca: | Mean ps2 a. 20) Se eee ees Nic. Q1,14D) | CoS cows | see eee | 142.38 fea piay4 Ere ee 8) 5 ee ae | 149.00 Gy) eee ee | eg | eed ) 133. 00 §1. 29 60.73 71.39 93.97 155.00 | Mean 2a 2<22 530 sate el ee eee 86. 63 56. 79 71. 96 86.51 158.33 Maximum 22 ee ed eee ey 92. 94 62.31 73.94 100.00 165.50 Minimums =) << Sch 2 ee ee 81.14 56. 03 7.74 79.59 147.20 ” Bicols—i0 females; Meany 22255 ~ 2 2228 sae ee | 86. 60 60. 09 69. 89 86.38 | 150.58 Maximum 91.18} 66.67) 72.41] 94.74 | 161.00 Minimum 82. 35 55. 00 67.74 77.55 | 141,30 Tagalogs—4 males: : Mean o2nt2 ot Ce eS ee ee ee 83. 69 59.7 68. 06 82.52 158.00 Maximum_._ 89. 63 64. 88 74, 28 88.37 165.50 Minimum ___ 80.55 57.04 61.29 60.00 | 150.50 Visayans—2 males: 1 | 71.30 | 150,10 - 82.61 | 151.26 Minimum ©2242-2223) SP eee 85. 46 59. 84 65. 30 60.00 | 149.00 1 18 years old ___ 82.35 62, 40 74.28 85.00 | 133.80 1 male—Pangasinan ___-__-----_~-_.--------_- 83.78 60. 69 67.74 75.00 | 165.00 imale—Pam pam pasos ee ee 77.29 59. 44 76, 92 82.22 | 163.90 llocanos—3 males: 86. 78 63. 95 71.26 86.71 | 161.90 89, 41 65. 38 76. 66 91.10 | 168.50 85. 22 61.31 65.79 80.42 | 158.20 84.67} 62.47) 73.65 86.60] 152. 60 87.88 74.59 78.77 95.24 | 159.20 78.89 | 56.64 71.28 76.60 148.80 86. 72 4.31 69.96 | 85.05 143.03 — 93. 83 58.33 77.93 91.43 | 146.50 — 77.14 50. 41 60.53 | 73.91 | 139.80 | Davao Moros—5 males: . | MC ONs S 2 Seo CR a Se cee | 81.94 56.11 73.45 84.56 | 157.36 | Maxim tn 222 elena eee | 87.11 62.96 | 78.57 95.35 | 162.50 Minimum, 222 Soa Se scene eee | 75.27 55. 86 63. 02 75.47 | 150.90 Halagin—iimaleseke! 22 ee eee | 79.46 54.80 76.19 102.50 | 166.50 I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 293 APPENDIX. STUDENTS’ CLASS STANDING BY TYPE. Since compiling the present work, the class standing of the students measured has been obtained from the Philippine Normal School and the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, through the kindness of Mr. Beattie, and with the assistance of Teodorico Planta, a student in the Philippine Medical School who copied the grades from the records of the two schools. Only the class standing for the year in which the students were measured was obtained. This is classified according to the type of student into three groups: literature, mathematics, and science. Literature includes history, geography, languages and such general sub- jects ; mathematics includes of course arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc. ; and science includes physics, chemistry, botany, zodlogy, and practical courses necessitating handiwork. The grades under each of the three classes are treated in three ways: first, the average 1s obtained, then the high grade and low grade students of each type are contrasted, afterwards the extremely good and the extremely bad students are discussed. The class standing is relative and for obvious reasons should not be taken for comparison with other schools or other peoples, but I believe it is a satisfactory basis for the comparison of the students among them- selves. Average class standing of the students according to type. i} | = Number nee Litera- | Mathe- ; | Type. Paes FANS, Science. | Total. ene eit Iberian ___-___-__- ah 75.0 77.6 77.8 76.8 18 Modified Primitive| 77.2| 77.8 75.5 76.9 29 Australoid _________- | 78.4 75.7 74.3 74.5 20 PNIpin c= ees Jee iee7G59)}om) 7952 76.0| 77.8 23 BSBA te 76.9 | 77.5 78.4 77.6 20 Adriatic----|__76.2| 79.2 77.6 Tet W7 Tope a 76.1 77.4 76.5 76.8 126 WIONGS, 2k ee ees teem 7650) 75.3 77.1 76.1 144 i The Australoid is the only type that has an average class standing appreciably different from that of the other types. It is lower than the others, and is approached most closely by the Blends. The average of the first three types given is less than that of the hext three types, and the Adriatic average is the highest of all. The total average of all the types is greater than that of the Blends and the difference is due to the high mark of the types, and the low mark of the Blends, in mathematics. In the practical work of science the Blends are slightly better m class standing than the types and in the common branches of literature they are about the same. 294 BEAN. In literature alone, the Modified Primitive excels and is closely fol- lowed by the Alpine and B. B. B. ‘The Australoid has the lowest grade in literature received by any type for any subject. In mathematics alone the highest grade received by any type for any subject is attained by the Alpine and Adriatic. The Modified Primitive comes third in mathematics, closely followed by the Iberian and B. B. B., whereas the Australoid ranks last except the Blends. In the practical sciences, the B. B. B. stands easily first with the Iberian second and the Adriatic third. The Australoid is last in this as in all the subjects. The absence of the Primitive may be noticed, and is due to the fact that the class standing of only three individuals is given. hese are as follows: Class standing of the Primitive Type. Literature. Mathematics. Sciences. Total. 76 75 7d 75.3 76 84 68 76.0 80 85 78 81.0 a77.1 481.3 a7 4.0 ATTA p * Total. The average is greater than any type except the B. B. B. and Adriatic: the average in mathematics is the greatest of all and only in the sciences is the average low. Disregarding the average and considering the indi- viduals only, there is evident high class standing of at least two students of the Primitive type in mathematics, and one student has a high mark in all three departments. Whatever the physical condition of the Primi- tive type, there is no evidence of mental deficiency, at least in the three students whose grades are presented above. The average class standing indicates only slight differences between the types, therefore we turn to the constrast of high and low grade students. The relation of the low grade to the high grade students by types. f Eaten: Me tne Science. | Total. Ratio of 69 to 80. fe ae | | | Lit- Math F Sud 69. | 80. | 69. | 80. | 69. | 80. | 69. | 80. ane lemat| Beka prekahs | | | | ture. | ies. | Te By eres Hu poet (aaa BASS | ja 8 | eas Iberian eee 2! 2] 1] 8] 4| 8] 2 | 18] 10 | g0/ 20] 26] 18 Modified Primitive_| 2/ u| 4) u| 4 | 9] 10) a1] 55]. 28) 28] s1] 99 Australoid __________ Se le 2 Oil 5] = Fel ON 23 Os gS alee or AN pine eek oe HE 3| 10| 2| | 4} 8} “91 30] 33) 60] 20) SsioR BBB eke Se 2} 9] 2} 9]. 1] 9] 5| 27] 45} 45] 907M 54} 20 INGUIN oe ese 3} 7+ 2] 9] 2] 8] 6] 24] 28] 45) 80) 40} eam To hall meee 15| 46| 13/58] 19| 49| 47/358] 31] 45°! 27] 33/496 Blends __.--.-------- 24| 61| 33] 583] 17 | a8 | 74|172| 25) 16| 34! 28) 144 1 1 , ee ~ *.! atte I. FILIPINO TYPES: MANILA STUDENTS. 295 In this table only students who received grades which do not fall between 70 and 79 are included. This gives three classes of which the low grade received an average of 69 or less, the high grade an average of 80 or more, and the others intermediate grades called mediocre. The ratio is the number of students with grades above 80 divided by the number with grades below 69, and indicates the relative class standing. The Iberian type has a large number of mediocre students in literature, and a small number in science, in both of which the ratio is low, but in mathematics, where there are an equal number of mediocre and extreme students, the ratio is high and it is exceeded only by the ratio of the B. B. B. in science. The total ratio of the Iberian type is low, however, lower than any except the Australoid and the Blends. The ratio in literature is lower than that of any other type in any subject. The Modified Primitive type has a larger number of mediocre students than extremes in all departments. The ratio is high for literature but low for mathematics and science. The total ratio is low, a trifle lower than the average for the types, but not so low as the Blends. The Australoid has more extremes than mediocre students but the extremes are low grade to a greater extent than the other types which makes the ratio low in every department. The total ratio is the lowest of all the types and exactly the same as the Blends with a particularly low grade in science. The Alpine has more extreme than mediocre students, and in science the extremes are low grade, whereas in mathematics they are high grade. The ratio in literature and the total ratio are the same and equal exactly the total average ratio of all the types. The B. B. B. type has about equal numbers of mediocre and extreme students, and the extremes are largely high grade. The ratio is mediocre for literature and mathematics but high for science, yet the difference is due to one student less in low grade science than in low grade literature and mathematics. The ratio is on this account greater than that of any other type, and more than twice as great as that of the Australoid and the Blends. The Adriatic has a greater number of extremes than of mediocre stu- dents and the ratio of literature is low, that of mathematics mediocre, whereas that of science is high. The total ratio of the Adriatic is the second of all types being exceeded only by the B. B. B. The types have a higher total ratio than the Blends, and the ratio of literature and mivhemanics is also higher, whereas that of science is slightly lower. The extremely bad and the extremely good students, those with marks below 60 and above 89 respectively, are called Failed and Honor students. There are none of these among the Iberians except 1 with a grade of 56 in mathematics. 87002——5 296 » BEAN. The Modified Primitive has 1 Failed in each department, and 1 Honor in mathematics and science respectively. The Australoid has 2 Failed in literature, 1 in mathematics, 2 in science, and 2 Honor men in mathematics. The Alpine has 1 Failed in mathematics and 1 in science, and 2 Honor men in mathematics. The B. B. B. has 1 Failed in mathematics, and 1 Honor man in mathe- matics. The Adriatic has no Failed in any subject, but has 1 Honor man in literature and 1 in mathematics. ° The Blends have 4 Failed in literature and 2 Honor men, 10 Failed in mathematics and 7 Honor men, and 1 Failed in science and 3 Honor men. In contrast with this the types have 3 Failed in literature and 1 Honor man, 5 Failed in mathematics and 7 Honor men, 4+ Failed in science and 1 Honor man. The Blends have 15 Failed and 12 Honor men, and the types have 12 Failed and 9 Honor men. The greatest difference between the Blends and the types is in mathematics and science. The types excel in mathematics and the Blends in science. It would be unjust to draw conclusions from so small a number of students when the differences are so slight, therefore only a summary will be given. SUMMARY. The Adriatic, B. B. B., and Alpine types which are each composed of Filipino, Chinese, and Spanish elements have the highest class standing. The Primitive and Modified Primitive, which are probably pure Fili- pino types have a better class standing than the Iberian and Australoid types which are probably composed of Spanish and Filipino elements alone. However, the Iberian has a high class standing in mathematics. The Adriatic has the best class standing, the Australoid the worst. The class standing of the types is better than that of the Blends, especially in mathematics. The total class standing of all the students, considering the average, the low and high grade students, and the Failed and Honor men, is better in the sciences where practical handiwork is important, than it is in literature and mathematics where memory and imagination are im- portant. There are, however, a relatively greater number of Honor men than Failed men in literature than in either science or mathematics, and there are more than double as many of both Failed and Honor men in mathematics as in either science or literature. Many students are either very good or very bad in mathematics. =a ae Il. FILIPINO TYPES: FOUND IN MALECON MORGUE. By Rosert BENNETT BEAN. (From the Anatomical Laboratory of the Philippine Medical School, Manila, P. I.) The bodies of the unclaimed dead in the city of Manila are brought to the Malecon Morgue of the Philippine Medical School where they are retained for forty-eight hours before final disposal. About 100 of such bodies were measured by me during the school year 1907-8, and the 70 adults—48 male and 22 female—so utilized are represented by detailed dimensions in Table V. Two Tagalogs, 2 Chinese and 10 Japanese, all living, who were measured at Baguio in 1908 at the same time that I measured the Benguet Igorots, are also included in this study. The Filipinos whose bodies reach the Malecon Morgue usually belong to the submerged tenth, and should be so considered in any discussion or conclusions. However, they form an integral part of the population of the Philippine Islands, and belong to the series of investigations which I have undertaken of the Filipinos in different culture levels. I have already indicated differences in three culture levels in a study of Filipino Hars, a higher level than the three is given in a study of Filipino Types, I, and in the present study a lower level than the three is presented. The Japanese are probably from the lower middle class, if we may use the ordinary expression, because they are all day laborers—carpenters, etce.— who came to the Philippines after being dismissed from the Japanese army following the war with Russia. The methods of measuring the body are the same as those used for the Benguet Igorots. The head measurements conform to the methods adopted by the commission of the continental (Huropean) anthropo- logical societies in 1906. No conscious selection was made, except that bodies which were distorted by the gas bacillus (Bacillus aérogenes capsulatus Welch) were not measured. The brain weight is not exact except in a few instances where | myself did the weighing, because it was taken on untested scales by the morgue attendant; some of the brains are now preserved in the Wistar Institute of Anatomy, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia, where they may be examined. They should be carefully studied in relation to the types of men from whom derived, which are delineated in detail in the following pages. 297 298 BEAN. A series of tables covering the physical measurements of the groups of Japanese, Igorots, Manila Students, and the Malecon Morgue inmates, is presented at the end of this study. The present work is divided into six sections, each of which is complete in itself but forms a part of the composite whole. A summary is given at the end of each section. The sections are as follows: I, Individual Types; II, Remaining Types; III, Head Outlines; IV, Amplified Scheme for Heredity; V, Group Averages; VI, The Relation of Morphology to Disease. I. INDIVIDUAL TYPES. The Japanese and the Morgue subjects will be compared with the Igo- rots and the Manila students comprising previous studies. Preceding this, the types of Japanese and of Filipinos will be selected and shown to coincide to some extent, and to resemble certain types of the students and of the Igorots. The types have been selected in precisely the same way that the types of Manila Students were selected, and they will be presented in the following order: Iberian, Primitive, Australoid, Cro-Magnon, Alpine, B. B. B., Adriatic, and Blend, because this is probably the order of precedence in the appearance of the types, or their relative age in world time, the oldest being put first. The Iberian may be out of place, but it is used as the standard of comparison ; therefore its position is logical. THE MODIFIED IBERIAN TYPE. The characteristics of this type were presented in a previous study of Filipino types among Manila students, and the average measurements are given in tables further on in this paper; therefore, only the principal characters that differentiate this type from the other types will be con- sidered here. Stature of the Iberian Type. ] a] No. Group. Sex. Stature. 5. | Malecon More west ts oe eee ee ge ee eee 163.4 | Sa eeaee Oo a ee a ee ry ce) 1651.8 | 5) Japanese 22 222 2 xii 2 eee oe ee ee g 161.0 25) Manila ‘students 22 =. 253s Ae See | fof | 164.3 The stature of the three groups—Japanese, Morgue and Students—is so nearly the same as to indicate the homogeneity of the type. The Japanese Iberians are not so tall as the others, although the average stature of the 10 Japanese is greater than that of the 48 Morgue subjects. From this we may infer that the Filipino Iberian is taller than the Japanese Iberian, and, to account for it, the recent infusion of Spanish in the Filipino during the past few hundred years may be suggested. The Japanese Iberian probably came to Japan at a much earlier date than II. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 299 the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, and the Iberian is more completely amalgamated with the other Japanese types than is the Filipino Iberian with the other Filipino types, because in the latter the Iberian is more recent and is also found unmixed and pure in type, as among the Castilian Spanish. The Iberian probably predominates in the Japanese but it does not in the Filipino. The stature of the women is less (7.2 per cent) than that of the men, but it is about the usual percentage less, and is not greater than it should be as it is among the Igorots. This again is an argument for the homo- geneity of the types in the four groups. The difference between the ‘Students and the Morgue subjects may be due to nurture, the former being well nourished and the latter poorly nourished. All of the differ- ences in stature could be accounted for by modifications due to environ- ment, but it is better to find the true explanation than to ascribe the differences to unknown causes. The type is justified also if the group differences can be explained. Cephalic index of the Iberian type. No. | Group. Sex. Index. | ee pilipMalecon: More iemes oan at eee ot Sani ee Ae eee go | 76.65 | iga|eae (Gly 2am e OE ee RE Ne ied Rr oe ee ea AQ. |) WGP | OR DRM CSC rae. ce erat Saas Soe Cee A aoe Se é 74,14 | Rae 2dr Mounilalstuidentsmeyesene 8o= ne 2 eee ene beens | 75.20 | the women, which are slightly mesocephalic. The morgue subjects have a higher index than the Japanese or the Students, and the women have the highest index. The Japanese have longer, narrower heads than any of the others, which indicates a condition nearly like the original Iberian type. The cephalic index is considered to be one of the best criteria of type, but this must be taken with reservations because of innate abnormal- ities of the skull and by reason of extraneous influences. The heads of many Filipinos are undoubtedly distorted in infancy by resting on hard substances covered only with the petate. This distortion may be coun- teracted by the later growth of the individual, but it is probably retained to some extent in the adult. Many heads show the dorsal flattening that has been supposed to be characteristic of the Hast, but it is probably only the retention of this infantile condition. Nasal index of the Iberian type. No. | Group. Sex. | Index. | Dalia Le Cone MOTE UC = anaes anaes (of 68. 14 | Bybee (XQ) he re ee eet ee Re ee ie ey ae Q 69. 80 BN] UREN BYE BOSS) a 3 76. 92 25 | Manilays tudents!o2=-5 se sone ee ee ee ee oo 73.90 300 BEAN. The nasal index is probably more reliable than the cephalic index as a differential factor in the racial anatomy of a people, although it is not so accurate on the living as on the skull, because of different methods of measurement used by different observers, and of greater liability to errors of technique. However, the nasal index, although slightly less for the Morgue subjects than for the Japanese and Students, is practically homogeneous for the four groups. The stature, the cephalic index and the nasal index establish the Iberian type as a homogeneous entity which is found among Filipinos of extremely different culture levels and among the Japanese. There are also other characters that are homogeneous and that differentiate the Iberian from the other types, which characters will now be given. Morphologic face index of the Iberian type (relative face height). No. Group. Sex. | Index. ces i | 5 _aatecon Morgue = Sot. eo eee ee ee eee g | 79.90 lies [esoe NGO joa- eae St Se a = ee ee ee Q | 81.53 | | 5 | Fear ewes Sse cee eee er eae eee rofl | 78.32 | Be Manila Students: se == =e te nee teem ee ¢ | 86.40 : This index represents the distance from chin to nasion divided by the greatest interzygomatic distance, and expresses the face height relatively ; therefore, it may be said that the face height of students of the Iberian type 1s greater than that of the other groups, and least in the Japanese. The Morgue males are practically the same as the Japanese. There is no great disharmony among the groups, and the face, although not so long and narrow as the original Iberian type of Europe, is longer and narrower than that of the other types to be considered. Brachial index of the Iberian type. No. Group. The brachial index, which represents the length of the forearm in terms of the upper arm as 100, is much less for the Japanese than for the Morgue subjects. The difference noted may be due to locality or nation- ality rather than to type. The Japanese measured have short forearms and long upper arms, which is characteristic of the Iberian in contrast with other types presently to be discussed. The men and women have nearly the same index. s 5 II. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 301 Crural index of the Iberian type. No. Group. | Sex. Index. | Am lpNialecontMorzue muses fe a Se a a 100. 00 (?) | ie ese Cl Oe eee rs ee oe ee ee 2 93.35 | DalRapanesemeewe en sean. Yet ee ac ee eu | a 97.53 | The crural index, which represents the length of the lower leg in terms of the upper leg as 100, is less than 100 for the Iberian type, and it is less for the women than for the men. Shoulder-hip index of the Iberian type. No. ; Group. Sex. Index. 5 | Malecon Morgue foil §3. 36 {3} ees Okra 2 ie) 89. 65 pled APN CSCe ee eee eee we hata hE ae fod 74. 05 The relative width of the hip in terms of the shoulder width as 100. which is represented in the table above, may not be so good a differential character as those mentioned before this, but it has its merits. By this index the Japanese Iberians have both relatively narrow hips and relatively wide shoulders. The hips of the women are relatively wider than those of the men. THE PRIMITIVE TYPE. This type has features in direct contrast with the Iberian. The latter has medium stature, long head, long nose, long face, long hands, and short forearms and lower legs; the former has small stature, wide head, _ wide nose, wide face, short hands and long forearms and lower legs. The cephalic index of the Primitive type. No. Group. Sex. | Index. | Sal eMalecone More tie masses = eral Sees. See enn enue 6s $9.10 | x iy |e (a) a Sree ae oe Ee 9 89.57 fa) |] VIXOWNOS) a se ee foe 84,30 OF aamila:s tudlents=— 5-222 22" 22 Se eae ee fof 85. 50 The cephalic index of the Igorots and Manila Students is less than that of the Morgue subjects, although the index of all is brachycephalic. The head of the Morgue women is exactly the same in cephalic index as that of the Morgue men. 302 BEAN. The stature of the Primitive type. | eae ; } No. L Group. | Sex. | Stature. | | 7 | pie MONE e322 Sees se ee eee eee ROS ee | oa |. 152.5: | Cf Reeser 8 (0p eee ead RE NS ae yee 7 SLR | tee Gf) 146.3 | is 8 a oN Se sa ee ASS Some a SE ee ees Pee S| d 150.3 ) i ManilaiStidents)-- 2 ce -2sea = eee ee ee ae an eel ¢ 150.8 | Stature is one of the most distinct characteristics of the Primitive, because it is so much less than that of any other type. The stature of the Primitive is relatively less for the Students and Igorots and greater for the Morgue subjects than is that of the Iberian; and the stature of the Primitive women, relative to the stature of the Primitive men, is 3.1 per cent greater than that of the Iberian women. The nasal index of the Primitive type. No. Group. Sex. | Index. | | | 8:{{MaleconuMoreue t= s8s ete: ee eee ee oe eee eee! as | 90.42 | 43| eee Go Se ei ee ee ee eee ee ee eee 101.08 | 3) Teorots 2220. ate ok a ae eee ee ee es | g 89. 40 9}: Mamilai Stud ents aee as ee= = ee eee ee | ¢@ | 86.50 | The Primitive is platyrrhine in all the groups, and the women are more platyrrhine than the men. This is not true of the Iberian, although the Morgue women are more platyrrhine than the Morgue men of that type. The relation of the Morgue to the School is the reverse for the Primitive as compared with the Iberian. The latter type among the Students has wider noses, whereas the former has narrower noses, relatively speaking. Is this an indication of the Galton-Pearson law of regression toward the mean, or does it indicate greater blending of nose types among the students? Probably the latter. The morphologic face index of the Primitive type. No. Group. Sex. | Index. ! | | | 7) AMalecom MOTE UC 2-2. == ee tee ee ee See | ¢ | 75.6 | foe ZS do 2st es ee eee Ce asst | Q) | NeratingipGlentee Se A Ss | 78.8 This index is almost 10 less than for the Iberian, and the same relative difference exists between the Morgue subjects and the Students for this type as for the Iberian, which is that the face of the student is relatively longer compared with the width, than is that of the Morgue subjects. The female Primitive is 3 less than the male, whereas the female Iberian a 7 £ , J “ { q J b ‘ E. II. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 3038 is about 2 greater; but with so few individuals a slight difference may not be significant. The brachial index of the Primitive type. | ] No. | Group. Sex | Index | = eon a NaleconeMorgueje= sae ee ee i @ 81.4 | 2h ea 6S a ES Re a Cm cca ty toes A a let) Seat i @ | 81.3 Beef tel BOLOUS =e teens oe eS BE OE eee ee ene | So | 80.0 | | The index for the Primitive Morgue male is 4 points higher than for the Iberian male, and for the Primitive Morgue female 5 points higher than for the Iberian female; and that of the Primitive type of the Igorots is 14.5 greater than'that of the Japanese Iberian. This indicates a longer forearm and shorter upper arm for the Primitive than for the Iberian. The difference in brachial index between the Iberian and Primitive types is not so great, however, as that of the crural index which follows, although this index can be presented only for the Morgue subjects. ; The crural index of the Primitive type. | No. Group. Sex. | Index al MM OCOMsNLOT EN Crome A es SE Es eee od 106.1 | sy [ena cl ese tome tence ee Nn a a ol Bn 5 Ee Q | 102.0 J The lower leg of the Primitive is longer than the upper leg, and the character is more marked among the men than among the women. This is one of the most characteristic features of the Primitive type and differ- entiates it from all others, except the Australoid, which is similar to the Primitive but has not quite so high an index. The shoulder-hip index of the Primitive type. | No. Group. Sex. | Index. | | Ha laNial ecompNlone cess ae ee ee Sere en et ee e | 79.3 | | fi eee eth Tar NN fea eek DE Ay ok | Q@ | 85.0 | | The hip breadth of the Primitive is less than that of the Iberian relative to shoulder breadth, and that of the women is greater than that of the men. The actual shoulder breadth of the Iberian and Primitive is the same; therefore the hip index expresses actual hip breadth in percentages. This indicates that the Primitive has a narrow pelvis, whereas the pelvis of the Iberian is broad. Is broad pelvis associated with long head, and narrow pelvis with round head? (Lapicque.) 304 BRAN. THE AUSTRALOID TYPE. The characteristics of this type, in contrast with the Iberian and Primitive, represent an intermediate condition, or a condition similar to one or the other of the two types, facts that will be disclosed as the study advances. The stature of the Australoid type—averages. No. Group. ; Sex. | Stature. 5 | MaleconMorg tle =e cess oe ee ee | a 158. 80 3) eee GO: sseeceden asses se ee ee 2 148. 30 94) Teorotsy2282r sa eee ee lates 146. 60 24" Ja PAM ese). 2S sas 33 ee Se ee | o& | 163.85 30,\| ‘Students. <22- 232-2 e 2 ee ee es fof 161.00 | The stature of the Australoid is practically uniform in all the groups except the Igorots, which has a stature less than the Morgue females. Only one student has a stature as low as that of the average Australoid Igorot. The Igorots, however, were selected by a method which differs from that used in the selection of the other Australoids, and by this method those with greater stature are admitted to the other groups, but not to the Igorots. If Igorot types are selected in the same way as are student types, the number of Igorot Australoids is brought from 9 up to 45; and the average stature of the group is also increased thereby. The smallest student is about 1 centimeter taller than the average of the 9 Australoid Igorots, however, and this indicates that the student Australoid is different in stature from the Igorot Australoid. The difference is probably due to recent Iberian in the students. The Igorots may represent a remote cross of the Primitive and Iberian, whereas the Students represent a recent cross, and a few of the remote cross still persist among the Students. The stature of the men is less throughout than that of the Iberian type, except the Japanese who are 2.5 centimeters greater for the Australoid than for the Iberian. Judged by the stature alone, the Australoid men are more like the Iberian, whereas the Australoid women are more like the Primitive. The cephalic index of the Australoid type. No. Group. Sex. | Index. | ! 5» | Mallecon. Morgue 2-22-23. 6 Sa = 2 ee eee fof 76.74 | Ch eee GO ees es ee ee ee ee 9 78.95 9) Al POTOTS 2 aoe. = nS er nee, ee ee fol 75.10 22 | faI EU BUT CSC oe ae cee So 77.32 | 30, | Students. 24s. 1S i Sa o 76. 80 | Li Ne . e SD ee ee er a ey eS in a oe de) a es a? DE th sd > oe i ee Si dek oe tek — AS Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 305 Differences of cephalic index that are so slight as in the above table, may be due to modifications by local influences, habit, ete. The TIgorots have the smallest index which may indicate greater purity of type than in the other groups. The index of the women, similar to that of the Therian, is greater than that of the men. The index is slightly greater than that of the Iberian type, but is practically the same. The head of the Japanese is the largest, that of the Morgue the smallest, and the Student is between the two in head size. This is true also of the Iberian type. The nasal index of the Australoid type. =3| 0. Group. | Sex Index. | L —— i 5 eas VOT CANICPE Soe SE ee Ae es ete ee | od 96.4 | & Nts) ae Dl athe Oe gO ale ace ame ele Oe . Q 22.0 | 9 ee pee Pe ROE ne ey Tee ENG he vol ree eS é | 97.7 | | 2 | Se] UDB CSC pe eee atta eee oe a Se ee ee J | 92.7 o | 92.7 OBIS CUCL Grats pres ante ets te oN eo SI Sa | The index is greater for the Igorots and Morgue than for the other groups, which are all alike. The Igorots and Morgue subjects are probably purer than the others as already indicated by the stature and cephalic index, particularly of the Igorots. The nasal index of the women, unlike that of the Iberian -and Primitive type, is less than that of the men, otherwise the nasal index of the Australoid is greater than that of the Primitive. There is not so much evidence of blending with the Iberian or Primitive in nose type as there is in stature and head form. The morphologic face index of the Australoid type. No. Group. | Sex. | Index. | 5uleMiale ConpMorgue 222s #ac2= tte es eee ood ee ee og 75.3 | | Bees (ia SE NE eh re OR a Sega Oe eB ) tis 2a UID AMCSC == snack eens eens en eee Cee sane ees (ot 79.5 SOME SCUG EM tS ak) = aoe es Poe een se noe ee een easeee o 81.1 This is practically identical for the Students and Japanese, but it is less for the Morgue subjects and in this way resembles the Iberian type. The brachial index of the Australoid type. No. | Group. Sex. Index. 5) || Wika eveoyat WO WEOS ree SS fot 80.0 | Silese =. CB ph er ee Hees On AN )2, TEDL) @) |) WE ORO IG ee ee tee Re ee See ae ee eee (ch 73.1 ® || UAORNNGSS —— ae - eee = se se cer seas SaaS Sees ofl 62.6 306 BEAN. The brachial index is discordant in the several groups and does not differentiate the Australoid from the other types so well as the crural index. The Japanese have a low index as in the other types. The index is less for the Igorots than for the Morgue subjects, as in the Primitive. The Igorot index is nearer the Iberian than the Primitive, whereas the Morgue subjects are nearer the Primitive than the Iberian. The brachial index may be a group differentiator rather than a differentiator of type. The crural index of the Australoid type. No. Group. °* Sex. Index. | oe aia 5: |"“Malecon Morgue =2c-- 2c ee 3} 011 | | Biles AG win ce oe SS ee Q | 106.0 2! || JAPSNeSC!2 2-2. -s tsa ee eee so | 106.0 | The crural index of the Morgue males of this type is not essentially different from that of the Iberian type, although it is 2 points nearer the Primitive than is the Iberian. The Japanese and the Morgue females have an identical relation to each other in the Australoid and Iberian types, and the Primitive Morgue male is intermediate between the two, in relation to both type and group. The shoulder-hip index of the Australoid type. : Sex. | Index. No. Group. 82.6 | 83.2 | 71.6 | | The index of the men is midway between that of the Iberian and Primitive. The small index of the Japanese and of the women is due to the wide shoulders. Differential factors of the Iberian, Primitive and Australoid types—adult males. Characters. Iberian. | Primitive. | Australoid. Stature o225 ss a Oe eee eae 163.8 151.1 158.1 Cephalic inde | 75.3 86.4 76.5 Nasaltind ex! <2 th 223 sheds a2 eee ee | 73.5 | 88.7 93.9 Morphologic face index _______---_------------ 84.3 77.7 80.2 Brachialind Cx 2 sane eee ee ee ee 71.6. 80.7 75.1 Cruvaliainde x22 2 een ene ee ee ee 98.6 107.1 102.5 Hip-shoulder index ___ 83.4 79.3 82.6 Intermem bral index =e eee 73.7 72.0 70.3 | 5 “ Morgue subjects only. Il FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 307 This table includes the Igorots, Japanese, Manila Students and Morgue males measured by me, and the numbers given are the averages for all the individuals of the groups that were measured. The Primitive type is not found among the 10 Japanese, but it would no doubt be found if a larger number were measured. The Filipino Iberian is not exactly the same as the Mediterranean Race of Sergi, but is really a Spanish-Filipino Mestizo. Two distinct color markings are noted: one is a dark skinned, almost black individual, much darker than the average Filipino; the other is almost white and 7 looks more like a European than a Filipino. The former may be the : Indian-Filipino mestizo, and the latter the Spanish-Filipino mestizo; | or, if this be not true, then the pigment of Iberian and Filipino react . according to Mendel’s laws, being intensified in the one and decreased in z the other. The Iberian is a remarkably pure type, and, in spite of crossing with the Filipino, remains almost pure especially in the characters given above. The Primitive type is also pure and probably remains so, but the evidence of crossing can not be positively known as it may be for the : Iberian. ‘The two types are extremely different, and more distinct than any other types as evinced by the differences. The origin of the Primitive can not be located with certainty although accumulated evidence points to the Negrito as at least a closely related type. However, either one or both may be only primitive forms due to retarded development. The stature of the Primitive is small, the head is small and round, the nose and face are broad, short and flat. These infantile characters and possibly others, may mean only stunted growth, but; whatever the cause, the type is none the less a true type. Its distribution among IJgorots, Students and Morgue subjects indicates that it forms a part of all the ; Filipino population. If it is the same as the Negrito, with straight instead of kinky hair, as it certainly is by physical measurements, then it is present in many of the Pacific Islands as well. The Australoid is nearly the same as the Iberian in stature, cephalic index, brachial index and shoulder index; it is nearly the same as the Primitive in nasal index and morphologic face index, and it is in- termediate between the two in crural index. ‘The nasal index is the only character that is not between the Iberian and Primitive, and this is the most characteristic trait of the Australoid.. The evidence so far ac- cumulated points directly to the Australoid as a cross between the Iberian and Primitive. The stature of the Igorot Australoid is, however, less than that of the other Australoids, and the nasal index is greater. This is probably the ultimate end result of the blending process. The others are more recent blends and, in time, would be like the Igorots under the same conditions. in S| 308 BEAN. OMPHALIC INDEX. This index can not be determined exactly because the height of the pubis was not measured, but the height of the trochanter may be substituted for it. This will not show such a distinctive difference, because the pubis is probably lower in the Primitive than in the Iberian type. However, there is a difference. The Iberian index, using the trochanter instead of the pubis, is 40, and the Primitive index is 43.1: This difference is similar to that between the Bontoc and Lowland Igorots, the Iberian and Bontoc being alike, and the Primitive and Lowland alike. It also places the Primitive nearer the women than is any other type. II. REMAINING TYPES. There are so few individuals to represent the remaining types that they are all discussed together. The Cro-Magnon, B. B. B., Alpine, and Adriatic are placed in the table which follows, and the Iberian and Blend alongside, in order that each may be compared with the other. A glance along the columns of this table will reveal very slight differences between the types of the Students and of the Morgue subjects, a fact that argues for the verity of the types. Taste I. r ] ] Iberian. Alpine. B.B.B. | Adriatic. | RS Blend. Character. 2 a9 5 ; 3 ; *] oO = 3) oO = S) = ) Foe (da =e rae et eal rel mec ecaie | iek |) S x bs) S bs] x Ls] Pe us} = S # us) eer Mela cuniees Sai Res) SF zi n 5 na a n | & na a Ra a R SLAtuye ese eeoees 163.4 |164.3 160.0 |160.2 /166.3 |168.8 165.0 /168.6 173.0 /170.0 159.8 163.8 Cephalic index___-___| 76.6 | 75,2 | 84.6 | 86.9 | 82.4 | 86.2 | 85.0 | 88.0 | 74.6 | 80.5 | 82.5 | 82.4 Nasal index ____---___ 68.1 | 73.9 | 65.4 | 72.9 | 65.7 | 72.0 |100.0 | 92.9 | 92.1 | 80.6 | 83.2 | 84.5 Morphologic face | ind 6x7 sss ase ee 79.9 | 86.4 | 83.3 | 88.0 | 84.0 86.4 | 82.6 | 80.0 | $2.4 Brachial index_-____-_- WAL Ose oeees ZOnO5|Reeeu 74.7 7Sx6r|eiesee (is ae = Crural index _-_______ 98.6 Bon Oi] eee 90.0 |. 99, 2 95. 2 Intermembral index _| 73.2 (HES) pee ane 68.1 70.6 71.3 Banind exseesrans as 58.3 63.3 |------ 61.3 58.9 } 59. 6 1 t THE ALPINE AND B. B. B. TYPES. The characteristics of the Alpine type are stature below the average, brachycepalic head, leptorhine nose, short lower legs, relatively wide ears and short upper extremities. It is more like the blend than any other type, and is almost identical with the B. B. B. except in stature, which was arbitrarily chosen. Both have the highest ear index of all types, the lowest intermembral index of all types, the lowest brachial index except that of the Iberian, and the lowest nasal index of all types It must be remembered, too, that there is only one Japanese Alpine. Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 309 and only three B. B. B. Morgue subjects; therefore, the close ap- proximation of these to the 30 Alpine students and 21 B. B. B. students is remarkable and emphasizes the types as real entities. The differences between the Alpine and B. B. B. types are not so great in the characters measured as in the characters observed, such as the square head of the B. B. B. and the round head of the Alpine, the square ear of the B. B. B. ‘and the round ear of the Alpine, and the general stocky build of the B. B. B. and the rotundity of the Alpine, although the head of the student B. B. B. is 5 millimeters longer and 3 millimeters wider than that of the Alpine, and the head circumferences of the B. B. B. are all larger. ‘The face of the Student B. B. B. is 4 millimeters longer and 3 millimeters wider than the face of the Alpine, and the nose is 2 millimeters longer and 1 millimeter wider. The cephalic index is less - for the B. B. B. than for the Alpine. The two types would be classed as one if it were not for the differences mentioned, all of which are slight, however, and the separation may prove to be an arbitrary one. I have already expressed an opinion that the B. B. B. is the result of the union of the Alpine and Iberian with possibly Cro-Magnon elements, and I still persist in holding that opinion. THE CRO-MAGNON TYPE. This type is the tallest thus far encountered in the Philippines, and the cephalic index is the least of all the types from the Morgue. The nasal index is high, the morphologic face index is also high, as well as the brachial, crural, and intermembral indices. In other words, the head is long and narrow, the nose is short and wide, the face is long and relatively narrow and the forearms, lower legs, and upper extremities are relatively longer than those of the other types. The Cro-Magnon students are largely blended with the other types and partake only to a slight extent of the Cro-Magnon characteristics, as may be seen by reference to the table above, and as expressed in the paper on Manila Students. The Cro-Magnon resembles the Australoid in cephalic index, nasal index and other characteristics, but is distinctly different in stature, the Australoid being the smallest of all types, and the Cro-Magnon the tallest. A relation between the two, similar to that which exists between the B. B. B. and Alpine, may be true, but the relationship is not so intimate. THE ADRIATIC TYPE. This type is tall and has broad head, face, and nose. The other characters are not distinctive, although the forearm and lower leg are rather long. The Adriatic is an enlarged reproduction of the Primitive type, but it is as far removed from the latter as the Cro-Magnon is from the Australoid. The Chinese element of the Adriatic may account in part for the difference. 310 BEAN. SUMMARY, I would suggest that the Adriatic and Primitive are derived from one source, and that the Cro-Magnon and Australoid are derived from one source, but the two sources are not the same. Transferred to Europe from the south of Asia or some other part of the Hast in prehistoric times, the Primitive and Australoid may have evolved there the Adriatic and Cro-Magnon in much the same way that Sergi accounts for the evolution of the Nordic type from the early Mediterranean Race, the Iberian type. The Sarasin brothers and Martin have found in Ceylon, in the Celebes and in the Malay Peninsula, and others have also found elsewhere, a type closely simulating the Australoid, and they look upon this type as one of the primary types of men from which have sprung many races. The work that I have done adds its mite toward that hypothesis, and illustrates in a more definite way some of the types that may have resulted from this primitive precursor. I believe, however, that my work also demonstrates another type which I call Primitive, that is antecedent to the Australoid and has helped to produce the Australoid by its blending in a disharmonious manner with the Iberian, the latter having probably disappeared in other parts of the East as it has from among the Igorots. The objection to the types selected may be that too few individuals were observed, and if 1,000 individuals had been meas- ured, at least some of the types would fuse by closing of gaps between them with intermediate forms that are necessarily absent when so few are considered. For instance, I have demonstrated the similarity of the Primitive, Modified Primitive and Adriatic, of the Alpine and B. B. B., and of the Australoid and the Cro-Magnon. ‘There are gaps between the types among the Students as well as among the Morgue subjects, but if a larger number were measured these gaps might be bridged over. If this be true, then the types selected represent cross sections of variable species, and this is additional proof that the types are elementary species, and probably represent the separation and segregation by variation and modification of new elementary species of man. Ill. HEAD OUTLINES. Lead fuse wire was used for making three contours of the head in the same way that similar contours were made of the Igorots and of the students of the University of Michigan. Representative outlines of each type are selected for comparison. None of the female Primitive or Australoid head outlines were taken, but the female Iberian and Alpine are presented. The head of the Alpine woman is almost identical in size and shape with the head of the Primitive man. Both show dorsal flattening and the woman’s forehead is characteristic of the female. The head of the P 4 . AE: Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECGON MORGUE. 311 woman is distorted behind, which gives a bulging appearance at one side of the horizontal outline. The similarity of the Alpine and Primitive head outlines indicates a close relationship between the two types. When these outlines are compared with those of the Iberian type a great contrast is observed. Whereas the Primitive is short and broad, the Iberian is long and narrow. The female Iberian outline is smaller than the male, and the Japanese is longer and not so high as the Filipino. The shape of the three Iberian head outlines is similar, each presenting the square yertical forehead and the projecting occiput, so characteristic of the Iberian. There is no appreciable flattening of the dorsum of the head except that of the woman, which may not really be flattened, but exhibits a sloping plane in the rear as noticed to some extent in the Japanese and Filipino male, but at a different angle. The Japanese-has a slight indication’ of scaphocephaly noted by the prominent sagittal eminence of the coronal outline. The Japanese and Filipino Australoid are almost identical except that the Japanese is longer and not so high, a characteristic that holds true for all the Japanese types. This is similar to the American student; and the Filipino resembles the Igorot by contrast with the Japanese. The Australoid is unlike the Iberian or the Primitive, but resembles the former more than the latter. The head is long, narrow and oval. The forehead is vertical but not square and the occiput does not bulge nor is it flat. The lines of the head look as if the Iberian had been changed only slightly in being rounded off by the Primitive. The Igorot Austra- loid (type A) head outline is almost identical with that of the outline of the Australoid herewith presented. The head outline of the Blend of both Japanese and Iberian represents a composite with characteristics resembling different types, and its blended appearance speaks for itself. The Cro-Magnon Filipino is placed with the Chinese Blend for comparison and contrast. The shape of the two is not greatly unlike except in the frontal region. ‘The Chinese has a sloping head, whereas the forehead of the Cro-Magnon is vertical or bulging. The other characteristics of the Huropean Cro-Magnon are present to some extent. The difference in size between the two individuals is a matter of no great significance, because a Chinaman with a large head and a Filipino with a small head could be found easily. Further comment on the head outlines is unnecessary, because they are graphic representations and words are inadequate to describe them. Outlines made in the manner of these should be taken with reservations, because they can not be made to conform exactly to the head, and they may be slightly distorted by handling before they are transferred to paper. However, I believe they represent in a fairly accurate way the 870026 312 BEAN. general contours of the head, and they can he easily taken. As the lead fuse wire is convenient for transportation, the method should be utilized by careful investigators. I have devised a head machine which will be perfected shortly, and with it exact outlines can be made in any direc- tion over any part of the head and face. A description of the head machine, with photographs, is soon to be published. IV. AMPLIFIED SCITEME FOR HEREDITY. The relative number of each type is given in the following table of percentages : Relative number of adult male individuals of the various types in the different groups. mS Fete vit oe ay j ce, ie. calle Sl cae ees bere | ad Cro- | Prim- | Aus- Ibe- | fie Al- | Adri- |. | Type. Swe |cneNasll| ROR. | primi-| pine. |B- B-B-) ‘atic, | Mag- | Blend. | | ti | non. — | jive. | | | lene iam | eae Malecon Morgue _____- | 16.6 10:4) 10.4 2.0 2.0 6.3 | 2.0 6.3 | 43.8 Manila Students -____- 254i $850,191 16:6) e127 810) (oan: n) me eGrt eee | 50.0 TE OLOLS ee eee! 8.0 | 9507| Sean eeieer eee eke | 5S Ble 2 eco] aes | 75.0 Japanese _______-_-___- 2 20,0)! $500 | 100s ees | ce es [ena | 20.0 Malecon Morgue receives a larger proportion of the Primitive, Austra- loid, Iberian and Cro-Magnon types than is found among the Igorots or the Students, and there are fewer Modified Primitive, Alpine, Adriatic and Blends than among the Students. The Japanese are too few to draw conclusions from, but it is of interest to note the Australoid, Iberian, and Alpine types among them. the large percentage of Iberians being especially significant. When the aboye table is taken in connection with the scheme for heredity herewith reproduced and amplified, one may calculate, somewhat inexactly, the relative condition of amalgamation represented by each group of measured individuals. The calculation is somewhat inexact because of many unknown factors. If only two pure types are concerned, the calculation would be almost exact in representation of the degree of amalgamation of the two types by interbreeding ; but more than two types have mingled in each group; the types have not been pure, i. e., perfect blends, or homozygotes of Mendelian characters; and the minglings, re-minglings, crosses and re-crosses have been many and varied. In spite of these disturbing factors, the degree of homogeneity of the popula- tion, or the condition of amalgamation, or the extent of the blending process, may be determined approximately. We will consider first the readjusted scheme for heredity, then calculate the degree of mixture of each group in relation to it. : Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 313 AMPLIFIED SCHEME FOR HEREDITY. In the scheme for heredity D and R represent the homozygotes of an allelomorphic pair that meet at 1 in sexual union, begin to blend at 2, present the picture of a variable blend at 3, and fuse completely into a perfect blend at 4. A horizontal cross section of the diagram at any poimt represents the relative number of individuals of the different kands present at that time in the process of amalgamation, provided procreation has been continuous and always with the same relative imerease in numbers. ‘The width of the diagram, exclusive of the spaces B®, also indicates the amount of variation at any time. D—=homozygous dominants; R=homozygous recessives; DR=heterozygotes; B* (inside. the solid lines)—=a variable blend ever increasing in number with each successive generation; while D, R, and DR decrease to disappear entirely at 3. B* (anside the solid lines) represents the continuation of the blend without either of the originals of the allelomorphic pair, but with all shades of intervening characters blending in various ways as in- fluenced by ancestry and by environment, until a homozygote is formed at 4. B® (inside the solid lines) represents the increasing purity of the blend until at 4 a perfect blend or an elementary species is formed. From 1 to 2 True Mendelism exists, Spurious Mendelism is found from 2 to 3, and from 3 to 4 No Mendelism is present, but two tendencies prevail: (a) the reversion to type, and (b) the tendency to blend. _ his scheme represents the individual characters but it may also apply to the type composite, although some characters may not follow the scheme but exhibit blending at once when crossed, without intervening Mendelism. Therefore some characters should be represented in one part of the scheme while others are represented in other parts. In types with extremely divergent characters, such as the black and white coat in guinea pigs, Mendelism may persist as indicated in the scheme; whereas if the types that cross are similar, the result may be a more or less perfect blend immediately. The Mendelism is overleaped and the types pass at once into the conditions represented between 3 and 4, or that of a variable blend with No Mendelism. The ultimate result of a process where many types are blending will depend upon many factors such as environment, natural and sexual selec- tion, the relative number of each type which enters into the amalgamated product, the dominance of one type over another, the time during which ‘amalgamation has taken place, etc.; and the elementary species formed may be unlike the original types, yet not a perfect blend. (For example, the Australoid, as a result of crossing the Iberian and the Primitive.) The calculation may now proceed. The relative number of blends in proportion to the number of types is to be considered, also the number of each type present, and finally the condition of the types as to purity. EDITY. FOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTING SCHEME ye i a te on el ue i g a Il. FILIPINO TYPES :- MALECON MORGUL. 315 The greatest number of blends is represented among the Igorots, the least among the Japanese, which would indicate: that the Igorots are more completely amalgamated than the Japanese, but there are too few Japanese from which to draw conclusions. A review of the blends of the Igorots, using the methods adopted for selecting the Student and Morgue types, reveals 8 that resemble the Iberian type, and 70 that resemble the Australoid, which would reduce the number of blends and increase the other types accordingly. ‘There are undoubtedly traces of the Iberian among the Igorots, and a careful inspection of the frontispiece of the work on the Benguet Igorots,* Plates I, IL and IJ, reveal Iberian characteristics. The ears of the Igorot portrayed there are Iberian type Dd. The Igorots evidently have more Australoids than previously desig- nated, and a few Iberians, but they are not so pure as those originally selected, and should he classed as blends. If we accept these additional Australoids and Iberians, the Igorots are not so completely amalgamated as the Students and Morgue subjects, but they should not be classed with the types because they are manifestly impure, and are only blends that resemble Australoid and Iberian more than any other types. The Student Australoid represents both recent and remote Iberian and Prim- itive amalgamated, whereas the Igorot Australoid represents only the remote Iberian and Primitive amalgamated. ‘The Igorots, therefore, are the most completely amalgamated of the three Philippine groups, and the Students are more amalgamated than the Morgue subjects. This is determined by the relative proportion of the blends without reference to the purity of the types. The latter will now be considered. The types selected from among the Igorots show resemblances to Huropean and Negrito, but they are not pure types, and one type, the Australoid (type A), is distinct and represents a new type, the result of the disharmonic union of the Iberian and the Primitive. This is addi- tional evidence in favor of the nearly complete amalgamation of the types that make the Igorot. The presence of the Australoid blends in so large a proportion among the Igorot blends necessitates an elaboration of the scheme for heredity to indicate that one-half of the blends are Australoid, the other half being divided among the individuals that resemble the Tberian, type M and type N, besides those that may be perfect blends. The. Australoid type is represented outside the broken lines a—a in the scheme for heredity, and a correct representation of the relative propor- tion of the Australoid comprises one-half of the population, which is probably true. ‘This complicates the scheme, but the following explana- tion may clarify it somewhat. The broken line I-I represents the posi- tion of the Igorots. Between I and a* are the Australoids which are 17This Journal Sec. A. (1908) 3. 413. 316 BEAN. relatively pure blends. Between a’ and a” are the other relatively pure blends. Between a’ and a” are the impure or variable blends (repre- sented by type M and A and the Iberian). If at any time, by reason of certain conditions, one type increases in numbers more rapidly than another, then the relative proportion which at present exists will be altered. The Australoid now predominates, and if it was not previously present in equal numbers with all the other types, then it is increasing more rapidly than the other types. Among the Japanese the types selected are not pure, but there is a general’ resemblance among them in such characters as face width, stature, upper arm length, and hip- shoulder index, in which they differ from the other groups. The small number of blends is therefore counterbalanced by the homogeneity of the individuals to such an extent that all the Japanese may be considered as blends, and the types merely resemble their prototypes of the other groups. In consideration of this and because of the small number of individuals who are all from the same culture level, the Japanese are omitted from the scheme for heredity. The Manila Students are composed of at least three comparatively pure types: Iberian, Primitive, and Australoid, and of several other types that are not so definite: the Alpine, B. B. B., Modified Primitive, Cro- Magnon, and Adriatic. The purest of types are the Iberian and Prim- itive, the Iberian the purest of all, the Australoid not so pure because it is a mixture of the two, a mixture that has had two successive stages: one remote in time and one recent; the former well represented by the Igorots, the latter better by the Students, which naturally makes the type more variable than the two of which it is composed, they haying remained constant in physical characteristics through time and space where not mixed with other types. However, if the types are considered in connection with the blends, there is an equal number of the two (types and blends), and the line S—S would represent the position of the Student in the scheme for heredity if we omit the Iberian, which must be placed above 3 because of its evident purity. It can not be located exactly, but I believe it will exhibit Spurious Mendelism between ~ 2 and 3, and probably in some characters it will exhibit True Mendelism which would place it between 1 and 2. If the Primitive is a pure type, and if it has not changed its form (does not represent the Negrito undergoing metamorphosis) throughout its existence, it must be placed in a position very near that of the Iberian ; but if it is a modified Negrito, the type is not so pure as the Iberian, the loss of kinky hair indicating metamorphosis, and it may be placed with the other types in B? between 3 and 4. The Morgue subjects are in a condition of amalgamation similar to that of the Students, although the actual number of blends which would place them at M—M is less. Here again, as among the Students, the Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. alg _[berian and Primitive types, if pure, would alter the position, placing the group in Spurious or Pure Mendelism instead of in No Mendelism. The real condition of both Students and Morgue subjects is probably this: the Iberian and the Primitive types, with the Australoid and their blends, are in a condition of Spurious or Pure Mendelism between 1 and 3, whereas the other types and their blends are in a condition of No Mendelism between 3 and 4, yet above the position of the Igorots. The ' Cro-Magnon and its blends are nearer the Igorot than any other, and may be more advanced toward complete amalgamation than any type, even beyond the condition of the Igorots. To summarize: The Japanese are too few in number to justify gener- alizations, although they are probably in a condition of No Mendelism. The Igorots are in.a condition of No Mendelism and by actual caleula- tion they are nearer 4 than 3, but by reason of the presence of certain . types that approach purity they may be nearer 3 than 4. The Manila Students and the Malecon Morgue subjects indicate at least three and probably four stages of blending present at the same time: first, the Tberian with its blend is in a condition of True and Spurious Men- delism ; second, the Primitive and the recent Australoid with their blends are In a similar condition or one of Spurious Mendelism; third, the remaining selected types with their blends, judging by their similarity to the Primitive and to each other, may never have passed through a condition of Mendelism, but entered immediately into an imperfectly blended condition of No Mendelism near 3; finally the Cro-Magnon and other elements are so firmly fused as to be almost perfect blends and are represented by No Mendelism near 4. The following inferences may be drawn from the previous representa- tions: The Cro-Magnon and earlier forms first entered into a fusion that started at a time remote from the present. This was followed by a union of the Primitive and Iberian which formed the Australoid, and the three types with their blends joined the Cro-Magnon and earlier forms with their blends. At a still later time, some of the other types and their blends with the Primitive and Australoid jomed the fusing types mentioned before, the result of this at present being the Igorots and other people of the interior. Continuous infusions of the other types and their blends with the Primitive and Australoid, and the minglings of all these elements in a disorderly way, resulted in the mixed population of the lowlands or the littoral Milipinos. The Chinese have been almost continuously entering the Philippines, and their types, the Iberian, Cro-Magnon, Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic, which are but modified Europeans, have fused with the others. The more recent oc- cupation of the Archipelago has brought the pure Iberian and its blends with the Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic, as well as some Cro-Magnon blends into contact with the littoral people, and the Manila Students and 318 BHAN. Morgue subjects represent random samples in two small selected strata of this composite population. Even though all European types origi- nated primarily by the union of two divergent forms similar to the Nordic type of Denniker and the Primitive type herein described, yet the above inferences need not be vitiated thereby because the types of Europe had become distinct by isolation, etc., before penetrating the Hast, and all of these may not have reached the Pacific in the successive waves of migra- tion eastward. IV. GROUP AVERAGES. Each measured character will now be examined by averages for the whole of each group, beginning with stature: Stature. | No. | Sex. Group. Lancer Mean. [utepsteninns eile See ee |__| | 47 lof Malecon Morgue _____-_--_______- | 148.0 160.5 174.0 10 ne Japanese! =_-==22- 153.5 | 161.7 | 171.0 | 8771 Manila Students 146.0 | 163.3 | 178.0 © P1058 Gisele orotsieeen === 135.0 154.0 170.0 | 92/ 9 Malecon Morgue 142.0, 151.0 161.0 | [s *10"| > sO!) si ovots; 8 ieee ee 142.0) 146.7 154.0 | | i | The stature of the Students exceeds that of any other group, which may be interpreted in terms of better nurture, or of mestizo blood, or of both, probably the last. The stature of the Igorots is less than that of any other group, and is probably due to the predominance of the Austral- oid and Primitive types, although nurture may play a part. The Japa- nese are taller than the Igorots, because they have a greater proportion of European blood (Iberian, Alpine, etc.), for here nurture could hardly — exert a different influence on the two groups, although it may have. The Malecon Morgue group has a greater stature than the Igorots for the same reason. ‘They are undoubtedly a poorly nourished group, yet their nurture has not reduced the stature to that of the Igorots. Generaliza- tions such as those just given may not be justified when so few individuals are under consideration, but the indications point strongly to the infer- ences stated. Cephalic index of the head—not the skull index. No. | Sex. | Group. | Minimuin. | Mean. Sao 46| ¢ | Malecon Morgue -_______----__- 72.19; 81.99] 92.85 10 | 3 | Japanese —__-_-__ 71.3 | 77.65 | $4.6 377 o | Manila Students 72,0 | $2.1 98.0 104, 7 Scheie orots) eeeas earn shee ee eee | TASTE NS SST 36.0 21 | ce) Maleécon Morgue == 7.0 aslo 90.6 10) | Igorots Ce Sx | | 74.0 | 77.5 | — 810 II. FILIPINO TYPES ; MALECON MORGUE. 319 The Igorots and the Japanese are so nearly identical in cephalic index that they must be related peoples if head form is a criterion of type, and at the present time it is one of the best criteria in use. The presence of the Iberian and Australoid types, which have similar head forms among both the Japanese and Igorots, readily accounts for the relationship. The Morgue and the Student groups have almost identical cephalic indices, and their heads are wider than the others. This is no doubt due to a great preponderance of the Primitive, Modified Primitive, Alpine, B. B. B., and Adriatic among the littoral Filipimos. Nurture could hardly exert an influence on head form, but distortion by the sleeping position ‘in infancy and childhood should be considered as a factor, especially in extreme brachycephaly. ‘There are, however, broad heads with no ap- parent distortion; therefore distortion will not account for all broad- headedness. Head length. No. |} Sex. Group. Minimum.) Mean. | Maximum. | 14 oeeaee | 46| o Malecon Morgue ____----..---.____ 15.8 17.9 20.5 10() Gg Cl wenmiesae Se 17.5 1951 ee e20NG BY aerots Manila Students ____ 16.3 18.4 20.5 104 fof WEXOTOUG) pa 16,9 18.8 20.1 21 2 Malecon Morgue __-- 16.3 17.5 18.6 10 Q Tgorots -_-____ Bee ene Seen 17.4 18.2 19.2 The head length conforms to the cephalic index in that the long headed Japanese and Igorots are mesocephalic, and the shorter headed Morgue and Students are brachycephalic. The Japanese have the longest heads, although they are not much longer than the Igorots. The range of variation is greater for the Morgue males than for any other group as indicated by the minimum and maximum head length. The shortest head occurs among the male Morgue subjects, the longest among the Japanese. Head breadth. No. | Sex. Group. Minimum,| Mean. |Maximum.,) = | 46 So WialeconmvMorg ue} asses sean 13.4 14.7 16.0 10 fol | Japaneses a2-- S25 ee eee 14.2 | 14.8 15.6 377 ofl Mami aistud ents = === seas aa ! 13.5 15.1 16.9 104 oil Te Orots eee See 13.4 14.6 | 15.9 21 2 Malecon Morgue -_-------_--_____ 13.2 14.3. 16.1 10 io) We oro tees = iis Se ae ee 18)7) 14.1 14.4 The broadest heads are found among the Students and the narrowest among the Igorots, although the Japanese and Morgue subjects are but little broader than the Igorots. 'The narrowest head occurs among the female Morgue subjects, and the broadest among the Students. The female Morgue subjects have the greatest relative range of variation in 320 BEAN. head breadth as indicated by the minimum and maximum, but the Stu- dents have absolutely the greatest range of variation, which they should have because of the greater number of individuals under consideration. Both the head length and the head breadth of the Students are greater than that of the Morgue subjects, therefore the Students have larger heads than the Morgue subjects. The Igorot head is about the size of the Students but is longer and not so broad. The Japanese head is a great deal longer than and almost as broad as the Students. The female head is smaller than that of the male in both dimensions. Nasal index. No. | Sex. Group. Minimum.| Mean. Maximum. | eal 46 | roe Malecon Morgue _____-__-________ Hy Il 84.4 110.0 10 (ofl Japanese! 222522. - 2 64.0 80.7 100.0 377 fot Manila Students -_-______________ 60.0 82.6 105.0 104 fof Tg Orots peaast2- === eS 72.0 | 92.7 115.0 22 2 Malecon Morgue _______.,_____--_- 66.0 — 83.1 133.0 10 ie) Tgorots'=: = = eS eee ee 88.0 | 95.5 100.0 The high nasal index is largely confined to the Igorots, although the Morgue has a higher index than the Students or the Japanese. Nurture can have practically no influence on the nasal index, hence this is a good criterion of type. The female Igorots have a ‘higher index than the male, whereas the female Morgue index is less than the male; therefore no conclusions are reached regarding the sexual relations of the nose. The Japanese have the least index, which indicates a greater proportion of European blood if we accept Risley’s conclusions following a study of the castes in India. However, it may be only a greater proportion of Iberian in the Japanese which causes the low index, because the Iberian nose 1s narrower than the other Huropean types, and the Iberian is present among the Japanese in a greater proportion than in the other groups, although the nose of the Japanese Iberian is wider than the Iberian type of the other groups. The greater proportion of Iberian among the female Morgue subjects may account for the nasal mdex being less with them than with the male Morgue subjects. The difference between the min- imum and maximum indicates greater diversity of nose type among the female Morgue subjects. Nose length. . No. | Sex. Group. Aine Mean. ‘Maximum, | 47 o Malecon Morgue —--------___-_-__ 3. 80 | 4. 66 | 5.30 10 fot} SUD AT CS Cha Sm ree eee eee 4.10 | 4.56 | 5.20 | 377| @ | Manila Students _________________ 3.60 | 4.56 | 5.80 | 104 fof Tgorotsi: =e Ss 3.20 | 4.10 | 4.80 22} 9 | Malecon Morgue —- 3.30] . 4.44 5.50 |) 30.|" “2 Teorotsy==-ctee es eae a es 3.60) 3.80 4.10 | | 1 I chee. Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. ail | The Morgue subjects have the longest noses, the Igorots the shortest, and the Japanese and Students are intermediate with noses of equal length. he noses of the women are not so long as those of the men. Nose breadth. Sex. Group. Minimum.| Mean. |Maximum, 47 ofl Malecon’ Morgue’ -=__2_-----=-- = 2.70 3.92 6.20 10 (et Japanese 3.40 3.66 4.10 SVG ret Manila Students 2.90 3. 76 4,50 104 o WENO NG) oak ee eae eee 3.20 3.80 4.60 |. 22 ie) Malecon Morgue =—- 222 2.80 3.60 4.10 | 10 2 3.30 3. 63 4.00 The Morgue subjects have the broadest noses, followed by the Igorots, the Students and the Japanese in order of breadth, the Japanese having the narrowest noses. The greatest extent of variation is in the Morgue subjects, among whom the broadest and the narrowest nose is found. The women have narrower noses than the men, and the nose is smaller through- out. The Igorot women have wider noses than the Morgue women. Head height. | Sex. Group. Minimum./ Mean. | Maximum. 45 fof Malecon’ Morgue —==- =" = = 12.3 13.1 14.8 10 (of J PAN Se sa =- he ee ee ho a ; 13.1 13.3 13.7 104 eh Te OLOIS eee eaten ao ee See 11.4 1259) 13.5 21 g Malecon Morgue 11.8 12.6 13.6 10 Q TWO WOU jes 11.9 12.3 13.1 372 (ei Manila Students 12.1 13.1 BEE) ‘The Japanese have the highest heads, and the Students and Morgue males come next with slightly less, the Igorots having the least height except the women. The highest head is that of a Morgue male, and the lowest that of an Igorot. Minimal frontal diameter. No. | Sex. Group. Minimum.;} Mean. | Maximum. 42 fou Malecon Morgue -- Chik 10.4 11.8 10 fol Japanese 2---=-- -- = 10.1 10.8 11.6 FOG Were amd lie orotate tee oe ee 88) 10.3 11.5 21 g | Malecon Morgue __--------------- 8.8 10.0 10.9 10 2 | TPforots 22 aE OMdi 10.3 11.0 ————t The Japanese have the widest foreheads, and the Igorots the narrowest, except that the forehead of the female Morgue subjects is narrower than the Igorots. If this is compared with the maximum interzygomatie breadth, practically the same relation is true. 322 ' BEAN. Interzygomatice breadth—(mazimum). No. | Sex. Group. eecerseae Mean. /Maximum.| peed ee | 41 fof | Malecon Morgue____--__-___.____ | 12.6 ) 13.8 | 14.6 P10) agin hfapa nese -sekeene Sane peer ne H 13.0 | 14.4 | 15.1 | 104M {einige Ox Obs sie mo alee tee Own Rt | 12.2 13.6 14.9 21 9 | Malecon Morgue -_-------_------- 12.3 13.1 | 15.6 OTN 2 Ohwel | eorots cass oe tee ee eae | 12.0] 18.11 13.6 B72) |) 1 du eMail Stiicle tse sees eeae 12.1 / 13.6 15.1 The face of the Japanese is considerably wider than that of the Igorots which is not so wide as the Morgue subjects, but the same as the Students. The face of the women is narrower than that of the men. Nasion hair line. No. | Sex. Group. Minimum.| Mean. rarer ? a y | | | 46 | ch Malecon Morgue ----_----________ 6 | 6.7 8.5 10 fof UD ANICSC ees ee er eee eee 5. 7.0 7.9 | 104 O.|\Wgorots|=-. 2 sec ee | 5.8 | 7.1 8.8 | 21 ie) Malecon’Moreue essa | | 6.1 8.0 | | 10 fe) TP OLOtS Se Se ee ne 6. | 6.3 6.6 : The Igorots have higher foreheads than the others, but they are almost equaled by the Japanese. The forehead height is less for the women than for the men. Chin-nasion. { | | No. | Sex. Group. Minimum. | Mean. |Maximum. | 46 | Co Malecon Morgue __---------_--___} 9.2 11.0 13.0 10 | (et Japanese 22202623 a ee eee 11.0 11.8 13.0 104! ¢ TeOrots= S23 22s aa 9.4 10.8 | 12.0 21 | 2 Mallecont Morgue Bane en = sae TED | 10.2 | 11.4 10! 9 | Igorots : 9.8| 10.3] 11.0 372 | ¢@ | Manila Students __-__--__________ 9.7 11.1 12.7 Morphologic face imdex. | No. | Sex. Group. Mean. -| Sa 79.7 41 foe Malecon Morgue __ 7 10; co | Japanese -._-_- 81.9 TOSS enc | Teorots ees ae 79.4 | 372 | ¢ | Manila Students __ 81.6 21' Q | Malecon Morgue __ 77.8 GLO} Op oe Le 1:0 tes ee ee meee ee ee 78.7 : : ¥ ———S a . 3 = f. II. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. Pee The absolute face height (chin-nasion) and the relative face height (morphologic face index) are greater for the Japanese than for any other, the Manila Students being second and the Morgue male third in this factor. The Igorot males have the shortest face, although the Igorot females have a longer face than the Morgue females, who have the shortest face of all. . Har length. | Aras | No. | Sex. Group. | Minimum. | Mean. Maximum. | ea 45 | o | Malecon Morgue -__.-__-___-____- 5.0 Gils) Fell 10 ch Japanese 5.3} ses 67 | 104 (of Te Orots\ See 5.0 5.8 7.0 22 2 Malecon Morgue 4.6 5.9 7.3) | IDI TORS NIKO vais See kee See 5.2 | 5.6 6.0 | | | i he PRs) 45 | | Malecon Morgue ______-___-___-__ | 3.1 | 3.6 | 4.3 10 foil WPAN CSC yas oe eee es ce 3.2 | 3.4 | 3.8 104 | g || Igorots —--_______ 2.7 | 3.2 3.8 22 2 Malecon Morgue 2.8 3.4 | 452 LO} PRE OREN ste orots ese dnt ek Ll 3.0 | 3.2 | 3.5. | | | The Igorots with the shortest ears have also the narrowest, but the Japanese with the longest ears have not such broad ears as the Malecon Morgue subjects. The longest ear and the shortest ear are found among the Morgue females, the widest ear is on a Morgue male, and the narrowest on an Igorot male. Mouth breadth. : j : - } No. | Sex. Group. Minimum.| Mean. | Maximum. 47| @ | Malecon Morgue -_-.------------- 3.0 4.9 6.0 10 iol Japaneses: +-222 25s 4.3 5.0 5.6 69 fof PE OLOtS ssa se saan 4.0 4,8 5.3 21 2 Malecon Morgue _ 4.0 4.7 6.0 10 2 Teorots! Sele. 2 232 es | 3.8 4.4 5.0 Upper lip breadth. | 49 o Malecon Morgue ____-----_______- 0.4 1.0 1.4 10 foe JRPANCSC=seas= seas = ss ee ee 0.6 ial 1.4 | 69 a Igorots 0.8 1.2 1.3 21 ©) Malecon Morgue ----------.---_-- 0.6 0.9 1.3 | 10 QSOS oS i ea 0.8 oil 1.3 The mouth of the Japanese is the widest, but the others are almost as wide, except the Igorot women, who have very narrow mouths. The lips of the Igorots are the thickest, and the lips of the female Morgue subjects 324 BEAN. the thinnest. However, it is not right to compare the lips of the living with those of the dead. There are, nevertheless, wide mouths and thick lips among the Morgue subjects. Inter-eye distance. No. | Sex. | Group. Minimum.| Mean. |Maximum. -| eae = ie J 40 o | Malecon Morgue -.---__--------- 2.6 3.3 4.3 10 ol Japanese __ ; 3.0 3.4 4.1 104 fot Igorots 2.7 3.4 4.1 22 2 Malecon Morgue 2.5 3.3 Reel 10 9 Igorots 3.0 3.3 | 3.7 G zl Sake ~ i | Eye breadth. roa Malecon Morgue 2.5 2.8 3.3 10 do | Japanese ____-__- 2.6 3.0) 3.3 104 Ch wv IT gorots): 22028 eee be eee 2.6 28) | 3.5 ee Oe | eitalecon Moree =e =a ereee 273) 2.7 Bat 10"; 39. | | Meorots' 2 ae a ee ee 2.5 2.3 2.9 | The distance between the eyes is so nearly the same that no comment is relevant, except to note.the fact. There is also little difference in eye width, although the Japanese have wider eyes than the Morgue subjects, and the men wider eyes than the women. The narrowest eye is in a Morgue female, the widest in an Igorot male. The narrowest inter-eye distance is in a Morgue female, the widest in a Morgue male. Trochanter height. No. | Sex. Group. ona Mean. “Maximum, 46| | Malecon Morgue -...___---------- | 72.0] 84.1 | 98.4 jo| go | Japanese _-___.______ ease | 75.4) 81.3 88,3 104 | QE OWT BOrO tS ones eae en ree a | 71.7 79.4 88.0 22 | ce) Malecon Morgue _____-_--_---___- | 76.4 11.7 91.0 10h). \O:+a| Mig okots i ac eee eee ee ee 68.3 | 74.1 $2.3 Ta saraca| 10 fof Japaneses a o ° a > | a Ss ° SI QO |n iS) n < 5 ey 10 ° =) Iberian or Mediterranean _ 9 Iberian or Mediterranean _| 70 Primitive®=—- =22-2-- 8 Australoid Sasso ae ae eee Blend!.s-<2 3222222 aco 56 Otherssoe ee esse esas eae 33 Motels en aaa 41 * Presented before the Manila Medical Society in May, 1909. Il. PILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. 351 The majority of deaths are caused by chronic affections. Tuberculosis heads the list with 41 per cent of deaths, beriberi follows with 14 per cent, and then, in the order given, come senile debility, 6 per cent, chronic enteritis, 5 per cent, septicemia, 5 per cent, accident, 5 per cent, carcinoma, 2 per cent, pyemia, 2 per cent, chronic nephritis, 2 per cent, and other diseases, 18 per cent. The other diseases include 1 case each of heart disease, uremia, diabetes, asthma, meningitis, chronic rheumatism, hemorrhagic purpura, typhoid fever, influenza, myocarditis, bronchitis, chronic cystitis, liver abscess, and insanity. ‘The clinical diagnosis was confirmed by autopsy in only 23 cases, and these are given at the end of this work. The most significant facts are that 70 per cent of the Iberians, 56 per cent of the Blends, and 33 per cent of the other types died of tuber- eulosis, whereas only one Primitive and not a single Australoid died of it. However, 33 per cent of the Primitive, 30 per cent of the Australoid, and but one Iberian died of beriberi. This would indicate that the Iberian is more susceptible to tuberculosis than the Blends and other types, and the Primitive and Australoid are comparatively free from the disease. On the other hand, the Primitive and Australoid are prone to ° contract beriberi, and the Iberian is not. I would not draw any far-reaching conclusions from this, but only suggest that the species to which any individual belongs should be taken into consideration in the etiology of such diseases as beriberi and tuberculosis. Other factors play a part: we know that the tubercle bacillus is supposed to be the cause of tuberculosis, but we also know that the soil must be ready or the tubercle bacillus is of no avail. Hating uncured rice is said to be the cause of beriberi, but the physical condition of the individual plays an important role. If it can be demonstrated that the Iberian is sedentary and a house worker, whereas the Primitive and Australoid are active open-air laborers; if the Iberian does not live largely on rice, whereas the Primitive and Australoid are heavy rice feeders; and if more extensive observations do not corroborate the present findings, then the suggestion fails. It is put forward simply as a plausible factor in the etiology of the two diseases, tuberculosis and beriberi. We have, in conclusion, the following inferences: The Filipinos were originally composed largely of two systematic species of man, which I have termed Primitive and Australoid. To these have been added Chinese and European elementary species, especially in the cities and along the littoral of the Islands. The elementary species represented by the Huropean and Chinese are now in greater abundance than the systematic species, and the blends constitute about one-half of the littoral population. 332 : BEAN. The European mestizos and the blends are apparently more liable to tuberculosis, whereas the original Filipinos are comparatively free from the disease, but succumb more frequently to beriberi. NECROPSY RECORDS* OF FOUR IBERIAN FILIPINOS—-MEDITERRANEAN RACE. Morgue No. 44.—Clinical diagnosis: chronic tuberculosis. Anatomie diagnosis: pulmonary tuberculosis; tuberculous enteritis; postural con- tractures ; tuberculous kidneys. Morgue No. 180.—Clinical diagnosis: pyaemia genital organs. Ana- tomic diagnosis: pneumonia of left lower lobe and part of left upper lobe ; chronic splenic tumor ; acute nephritis ; perineal and scrotal abscess ; gangrene of penis; peritoneal adhesions. Morgue No. 188—Clinical diagnosis: pulmonary tuberculosis. Ana- tomic diagnosis: chronic ulcerative tuberculosis of both lungs; chronic obliterative pleurisy right side; myocarditis and dilation of heart; fatty degeneration of kidneys; chronic splenic tumor; ameebic ulceration rectum. Morgue No. 200.—Clinical diagnosis: intestinal tuberculosis. Ana- tomic diagnosis: chronic pulmonary tuberculosis; acute nephritis; acute and chronic amoebic dysenteric ulcerations large bowel. NECROPSY RECORDS OF 5 PRIMITIVE FILIPINOS. Morgue No. 22.—Clinical diagnosis: meningitis. Anatomie diag- nosis: acute fibrinous and hemorrhagic pleurisy right side; small ab- scesses left lung; accessory spleens; ulcers over left elbow; retention cysts, kidneys. Morgue No. 48.—Clinical diagnosis: none. Anatomic diagnosis: broncho-pneumonia right lower lobe; cedema of lungs; healed ulceration of large bowel; chronic diffuse nephritis. Morgue No. 140.—Clinical diagnosis: beriberi. Anatomic diagnosis: beriberi; dilatation of and hypertrophy of all chambers of the heart; general anasarea. : Morgue No. 39.—Clinical diagnosis: typhoid fever and tuberculosis. Anatomic diagnosis: typhoid fever; acute splenic tumor; typhoid ulcera- tions ileum; general gas bacillus infection; post-mortem changes of all organs. Morgue No. 149.—Clinical diagnosis: beriberi; myocarditis. Ana- tomic diagnosis: broncho-pneumonia, both lower lobes; pleural adhesions, old, right side; acute splenic tumor; accessory spleen; acute diffuse nephritis. NECROPSY RECORDS OF 4 AUSTRALOID FILIPINOS. Morgue No. 29—Clinical diagnosis: chronic dysentery. Anatomic diagnosis: amcaebic dysentery: ulceration large bowel: chronic diffuse ° The records are from the pathological department of the Philippine Medical School. 4 i i ; : t : q Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE. Saxe nephritis ; cystic kidneys ; ulcerative tuberculosis of right lung ; obliterative pleurisy, right; edema of left lung. Morgue No. 125.—Clinical diagnosis: acute beriberi. Anatomic diag- nosis: dilatation and softening of the heart; fatty degeneration of the heart ; cedema of ankles; anasarca; large, hard spleen; fatty degeneration of liver. Morgue No. 143.—Clinical diagnosis: liver abscess and gall stones. Anatomic diagnosis: chronic fibro-pneumonia, left lower lobe; obliterative pleurisy, right lower lobe, with communication into large bronchus; chronic diffuse nephritis ; chronic endocarditis, mitral valve. Morgue No. 130.—Clinical diagnosis: carcinoma of left cheek. Ana- tomic diagnosis: carcinoma of left cheek, face and neck; cedema of lungs; healed tuberculosis of lungs; chronic myocarditis; chronic splenic hypo- plasia ; chronic cystitis ; healed ulcerations large bowel ; chronic obliterative appendicitis. NECROPSY RECORDS OF 8 FILIPINO BLENDS. Morgue No. 23.—Clinical’ diagnosis: general tuberculosis. Anatomic diagnosis: tuberculous pneumonia, left lower lobe; chronic ulcerative tuberculosis, left upper lobe; chronic gaseous tuberculosis, right lung; obliterative pleurisy, right side; miliary tubercles, ileum; tubercular ulceration, transverse colon; acute diffuse nephritis. Morgue No. 28.—Clinical diagnosis: tuberculosis and beriberi. Ana- tomic diagnosis ; tuberculosis; chronic ulcerative and gaseous, both lungs; pleural adhesions, right lung; obliterative pleurisy, left lung; cirrhosis of liver, early stage; ascaris infection. Morgue No. 45.—Clinical diagnosis: intermittent fever. Anatomic diagnosis: septicemia ; cellulitis arm; periostitis; pustular skin eruption (smallpox ?) ; post-mortem changes. Morgue No. 174.— Clinical diagnosis: acute enteritis. Anatomic diag- nosis: pneumonia lower left lobes; chronic tuberculosis both upper lobes ; acute enteritis; chronic diffuse nephritis. Morgue No. 194.—Clinical diagnosis: pulmonary tuberculosis. Ana- tomic diagnosis: acute dilatation of heart; cedema of lungs; ascites; chronic pulmonary tuberculosis; chronic diffuse nephritis; fatty degenera- tion of pancreas. Morgue No. 203.—Clinical diagnosis: pulmonary tuberculosis. Ana- tomic diagnosis: chronic ulcerative tuberculosis, lower right lobe; obliter- ative pleurisy, right side; myocarditis and dilatation of heart; acute diffuse nephritis ; acute splenic tumor. Morgue No. 204.—Clinical diagnosis: pulmonary tuberculosis. Ana- tomic diagnosis: chronic pulmonary tuberculosis; pleurisy, right side; chronic endocarditis ; chronic splenic tumor; acute and chronic nephritis; tuberculosis of lumbar vertebra; large psoas abscess, right side. Morgue No. 201.—Clinical diagnosis: pulmonary tuberculosis. Ana- tomic diagnosis: pulmonary tuberculosis; chronic pleurisy, right side; . lee ae. fj i « a (Te Rr 334 BEAN “Sede Hats chronic diffuse nephritis; hydrocele, left side; chronic amebie eration large bowel. NECROPSY RECORDS OF 2 B. B. B. FILIPINOS. are Morgue No. 31.—Clinical diagnosis : chronic enteritis. Anatomic nosis: tuberculous enteritis; tuberculous peritonitis; chronic tuber broncho-pneumonia, both ite! chronic diffuse peReaay: eee side. Morgue No. 57—Clinical diagnosis: sinoane inerenle tomic diagnosis : car cinoma of stomach ; TIEVASMLSPS of liver; em \ left tibia. Prate I. Il. Iii. CHart 1. Il. . Brachial Index. The relation of the forearm length to the upper arm ea) ks . ILLUSTRATIONS. Head outlines of Alpine and Primitive types. The solid line is a Primi- tive male Filipino, Morgue No. 205. The broken line is an Alpine _ female Filipino, Morgue No. 36. : Head outlines of three Iberian types. The broken line is a Filipino female, Morgue No. 113. The small solid line is a Filipino male, Morgue No. 76. The large solid line is a Japanese male, No. 65. Head outlines of two Australoid types. The solid line is a Filipino male, Morgue No. 49. The broken line is a Japanese male, Morgue No. 11. . Head outlines of two blended types. The broken line is a Japanese male, No. 64. The solid line is a Filipino male, Morgue No. 50. . Head outlines of a Cro-Magnon and a Blend. The large outline is a Filipino male Cro-Magnon, Morgue No. 137. The small outline is a Chinese male Blend, Morgue No. 15. Cephalic Index and Nasal Index. Crural Index. The relation of lower leg length to upper leg length. length. . Hip shoulder Index. The relation of the hip breadth to the shoulder breadth. 335 : i oct mf: c ( ag Biter fie fe Sata [Pum. Journ. Sct, Vou. IV, No. 4. BEAN ‘Il. Finipino TYPES: MALECON MorGue.] aaet Ei tie Sl 2 we el ete TORN « Prate I. te eee BEAN: II, FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MORGUE.] [PuHiu. Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. ; ir “yy a. 6 Ue ven ee Prave II. [Putm. Journ. Sci., Vor. IV, No, 4. J MALECON MORGUE. IPINO os TYPES Prats IIt. [Puiv. Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 4. ay BEAN: Il. FILIPINO TYPES: MALECON MoRGUE.] [PuHn. Journ. Sci., Vou. IV, No. 4. PLATE V. ‘T wavup ould;y @ © ‘onenpy @& O ‘urmeqy, @& © ‘aa @ O aR @ ‘pusjg @ O ‘mousey-o19 @ © ‘gga? ‘projeqsny @ OD ‘osouvder @ ‘ajema,, O X3GNI IVSWN Xx AON! O1TVWHd 39 ‘TI DuvHO ourdy @ Oo ‘oneLipy @ © ‘uemeqT @O- — ‘eAmiunmg @ O ‘7eN © ‘pusjg @ O ‘uousey-019 @ O -g-‘q-g¢ @ 0 ‘plojeyjsny @ OD ‘osounduy @ ‘ajeue,| O Temes teary T TH ; E29 C2 ae 2 Fe Sate eats MN (le? OO OS seh OG Ge OC ec ze te HLON3A1 939 8 3addn es stats arata roel Pee eis sheen Leis «te yg Sc HLON37 937 YaMOT 1} wee Bee} 2 eh AE Sale wt S Rasy, ‘TIL Laivip ouldpy @& O oneupy @& O- ‘uvjeqy & © “SATII @ O ‘2[RI @ ‘puslg & O ‘uousey-o19 @ © ‘qsqsq@0 ‘ploreysny @ OD ‘osourder @ ‘a[vueg O A) 9€ ve ce 6 Se HLONSTWaevV & addfh eo) BE + EOS Bra ARS \/ = Sree) “AT DavHO ‘ouldty ® © oneupy @ >: ‘ueyreqy @ O- ‘onyTUg @ O en @ ‘pug & ‘nousey-019 @ ‘qgaaqeo ‘propejsny @ O ‘esounder ® ‘gjemeg O Ov 6E 8¢ LE 9€ GE be ee Gs I€ O€ 62 BC Le 9¢ Gc o- = ie o + * hoe A, Ud Higv3ay¥a YaGINOHS bao) e (e) r) e eg Be ° “ 4 g e 4 ¢ - Soe ue nes 92 + Fatah. Site os + + ¢ * 4 + f+ l s ig i + ts > ie + + * , =) ‘s : ty Sesacae eras Soy raddg, P| te'se G9 “88 82 "8S LITF 0g 68 19°88 08 9 8 Fs 0g ag 0 'Fe-§ 0298 8828 O8S0h.* aieseaca i eaters #9] IOMOT o | 2G’ 029 0r'9 1z'9 99°9 209 99°¢ gic 0¢'¢ 9'F 09"¢ 20179 é greg a = aTtuy 2 ee Sane Be allies QT Be call” MER fv ta ae ee pian | Cai eae eed | Ce nee | acne D/P co a se aml cg S&L 06 “ISL GUSGRT: et Sons aaa UOTOIOIO y ia $8 °IdL 00'G2r | OF TSE | 99°TPL | 08 SEL G% TET 0¢ Ter LL ‘G2 00021 09 °@er PL O08 POSSI. cc Nn aaa aor ae WMU19}§ vA 11 ¥6 00°66 0266 9T'S0T | OL TOL | 88°96 00°46 £968 LL “26 0¢ 88 6986 20 #6 O0GEOs..\ on lca eens snorrqury ie) Fo 08 00'€8 OF 08 £6 88 0006 69°58 98 08 LL*LL LL PL EE, 8°18 PL ‘08 On ee ees 19jUBYOOI, iS 0¢ Zo OF gor | O8 8ST | OO'EAT | se'99T | O8Gcr | 00"EcT GL TST £ ‘SFL GZ ‘OFT Go "ZO #0 "TOT OGG 00 Th cnet | ts ret gee 91n}84S 4 eG &L% 00°¢ 00° 16°% 81% ard £9°% LLG 6L°% G6°% co's OG;0# terial ese ee Wpvoeiq aAq a e's GL'S gag 0g'¢ 1a'é 288 geé PL'é | 18's GL0"S 02° 88'E OShS eee Wilkes aduv]SIp e490 19707 = 08 € dian 99°§ LL& OL 09°§ 89° 928 ec" 80° OP'S 08's CEE OM OSs | fears nice YypRerq Voy a 0g °9 06°¢ 98°¢ OF 9 £0 °9 $09 #8 '¢ 16'S 18°C 8b 'S 089 19 O99 yates hae oe Yysuel Vg a OL F 06'F 91’ 08 06 'F 80°¢ CLG ce"p GLy G9o"'F 96 F 08 °¢ 7 waprerq GINO oy 160 980 90'T 00'T 86.0 080 e221 °0 cl T ¢6 0 Olt PLT aa rere yypworq dry addy a 90°F Vara 92 'F £8 'F 18 89° ces 18 CLS eL'g 09'¢ COIS Y A a |recaoaenns qypreiq asON 5 6P F 96°F Giga OL 8o'F isnig 08"F OL? 89'¢ Ge'F 89°F CLP Se aen | Eo ee ~ 4) 3u9T osoN z SF OL #0 TI 8 OT 161 eh IL 00 IL OF OL 9F 01 OL ‘OT 0¢°6 02 'IL Oaras GP IT == WOIsBu-ULYyO, i 0¢'9 *F'9 8I'L 18°9 @8"¢ 1L'9 02° 06°¢ 00% 83°9 099 824 CATT ae ES AUL[-ALBYy WOISeNy = 18°81 28 “ST GOTT 0 €T 09 1 91°81 OL ‘sr €8 31 OL ‘sr 00 ‘eT 08 FI PS PL Ore <2 7 Bu sN7Z, =| PP OL 001 9¢ ‘OT 16 “OL LZ'0L ‘|: 9201 966 £9°6 0L 0 90°01 OF ‘OL LOL CO"IL 7 pRoyarog Fe 18°OL ards $6 OL OL SL LEE —*|660°ET. laa’ 99°21 18 OI GL “aL 02 81 SF €L GINCT: = a ylearanoe aE qYysIey Pwo Ky OL ST 8 'PL 08 FL 1G "¥L €6 FL mae OL PI 16 ‘80 OL FL a1 ‘ST 00 ST 89 FL ON. PSS WypBeIg pw LS 6 ‘OT 0¢ "81 99°81 10°61 OL ‘81 §8 LT 6 LT G8"LT 18°21 88 "91 00 ‘ST 08 “61 ORSG lite. um lamers yyaue] prow Sens Reueat ae! LSS ‘¢ 4 ‘g a ‘(g) puetel eM iawn ony SNe (2) ucla ene acon ERRNO) *s][Npe—so[vur Oud ITT “sol BUloy OUTAITIA ‘so[BU J[NpR osouBdee | ‘sadhj—sahvioan—sajpu ynpo omdyrg pio sajpmal oumdyyy ‘sajypur ynpp asaundny— Ty] Wavy, 9 87002 E 2 g 4 B | & Paley er sales aloe ) , Ee sas) S aligeulmerel hs 2s hvue 8 ° q 0 3S a S S oe aa z Ls} | lesen eh Salis ewe Nes ics iS e hl eee I Pee Mee enV SIN alee ia a s a SMe S a Oe ie lee eset es bey | Slate | Za SW ey ey sy) Stet Stl tes OU iS) S) A 4.0} 3.5) 1.2 COLO) ere (eee Peel ec see ne 92. 85 87.50 4.6) 3.4] 0.8 4,3 85, 38 73. 91 4,8) 4.2] 1,2 5.4 82. 60 87.50 4.5) 3.6] 1.0 6.0 82. 08 80. 00 4.0} 3.0) 1.0 4,0 85, 54 75, 00 4.5] 4.0] 1.0 4.5 $2, 02 88. 83: 3.8) 4.0] 0.8 4.6 78.58 | 105,36 4,8] 3.1] 1.0 4.7 84. 86 64, 58 Anil e.On)) olegk 5.2 ‘ 79. 26 85.10 LF ees ee Se fee Ley OL ees Sole a7 6S) 9 5 BG) 7 FILIPINOS. elias: eee a|3 = 2a eae Ee 5 s = = cs ee 2 = = te = he | Ee = . = z Cause of death. ig | 3 = % ee & = £ z = 75 Tyne os Ee oe = ¢ | €= |e | Be = re 4 2 & 3 Be ese ules ere lee eal Sh Stay Bi hen etae mpeen tesa era all oe lh Sees ie Bal Saleelps S F (Oe ae Slisees cle ee: ts ae Netty anata Pela eetea mene tice BS ces Wace ae EE cael Pica Peete = s)/ & | 8 Seuleeehal ee: a[s eee | cae eo HS Ee Wares Mean ocean Teer li Bo es Be Sellers 2/3] 8/2 3 eee a a = 2 a = FE 5 =| = ) a a is = = ta A zlz|/s | E — Ry) 26 M. | Meningiti 5.6| 36.8|.. -—| 178] 254] 29,2) 95.62) 24.2) 1,190} Primitive. 16.8 12.7 |--==--— 4.0] 8.5} 1.2 28) 43 M. | Genera) tuberculosis 161 6.0} 39.0] 420) 184] 25.5) S45] 31.3 1,389 | Blend _ 17.1} M6] 13.5 j-—--——- | 26 M. | Pulmonary tuberculosis. 167 4a5| 39.0) 44.0) 185] 25.5) 841.5) 82.2 2) 1,361 it] 16.2) 13.7] 10.5 28190) M.. | Senile debility 155 6:5) 86.5 | £36.03 18.5) 25.5] 90.5] 30.0] 25.7) 1,275 17.8] 1.2) 18.8} 1 28] 50 M. | Tuberculosis and beriberi 6.2 80.07} 29.0 16.5 22.0 89.02] 27.07] 27.0) 1,077 16.6, M2 12.3 |------— 27/45 | M. } Asthma _ 168 6.9) 10.6 1,882 17.8] W.6} wear} 95 29| 45 M. | Chronic dysentery 158 5.1| 38.1 i.8} Wd] 18.0) 10.5 si} 59 | M, | Chron{c enteritis 168 7.5| 88.0 18.5] 15.7] 48.0} 10.0 38 Epilepsy, uremia 166 5.5 | 36.0 18.5| W.9}] 18.1] 10.5 40 Drowned 147 389.0 1.8} Wa} ) We . 43 Chronic nephritis -... 152 88.5 16.4) 16.0) 12.3] 105 265) 91.46 44 Chronic tuberculosis 169 = WS] WA} ws) 26 2.65 | 75.2 AB Intermittent fever __ 150 86.5 Blend _ 167} We2) 126 9.8 2.46 | 85.02) 78.47 56 Chronic rheumatism 152 36.0 Primitive. 17.8) 15.0) 18.8] 10.8 2.65 $1.26] 102.90 Pulmonary tuberculosis. 166 1.0 W8] M3) 13,7) 10.6 a0 | sagt} 6115 Murdered W4 94.5) 107 147 44.5 .| Cro-Magnon 18.5 14.6 13.7 1.5 20 | 78.92 100.00 69 Insane. 165 86.5) 100 | 188 89.5 B. BB 18.0| WS} 13.4) 101 2.70} $2.22] 67.92 76 Pulmonary tuberculosis_ 161 79.0} 93 181 86.0 Tberian 18.3] 18.9{ 185] 99), 8.15 | 75.95] 66.66 78 Organic heart disease ___ 10.0 Adriati 1.6) 16.0) 13,7] Wd $0) 62] 14 | 54] 70) 3.6) 3.6) 270) 86.02) 104.00 81 Pulmonary tuberculosis_ 41.5 Blend - 178} W.8| 18.0] 10.2 45] 3.4] 10] 40] 56] 3.0) 84] 255) 83.15 73.55 112 — 41.5 Therian__ 18.5] M5) 13.8 9.5 5.0) 40) 0.7 |) 47) 63) 83) 27) 265] 73871 80,00 15 39.0 Modified Primitive---| 17.5 M4 12.8 10.0 4.5) 49/24 1 a4) 60] 3.5! 31! 2.95] S228] 95.55 us 39.0, 83.02) 29.5 _-| Blend ___ 17.3) 14.3] 12:3] 10.0 i 4.3} 4.0{ 1.0 | 5.2] 6.0] 4.0) 3.2] 2.70] S206} 93,02 120 39.0 32.5 | 33.8 Cro-Magnon 15.2 18.4 12.6 10,1 12.8 44) 42] 10 | 44) 60) 38) 36) 285] 73.63) 95.45 121 Chironte eystitis — 83.0 28.0 Australoid 18.2] 13.9 122.3] 10.6) Ma 4.0} 44] 1.2 | 5.0] 6.0] 8.3) 8.6) 2.60) 76.37] 110,00 125 Beriberi 4 40.0) § 90.0 18.9} 4.1) 12.6 |-------- 2 4.6) 44] 12 | 54] 58] 40] 37) 8.25) W600) 95.65 129 Pulmonary tuberculosis_ 169 89.0] 103 138 42,0} 411.0 1952 81.4 Blend 18.4 15.6 18.3 1.1 188 4.3] 3.4 9 | 52] 56] 36) 31 8.25] Si.78| 79.06 187 Septicemin W1 85.5) 101 137 40.0} 39.0] 20.0 23.0 Cro-Magnon 20.5] W.8| 4.8] 11.3] 18.8 5.0] 41] 1.0 | 5.0] 7.0} 4.0) 3.2] 295) 7229) 82.00 140 Beriber! -. 157 75.0 | 995 129 87.0 432.0 18,5 83.0, 31.8 Wd 10.9 13,7 4,7) 3.8) 1.2 4.8| 6.0} 30) 3.6 2,90 | 88.20 $0.85 143 Liver absces 164 89.5 | 100 184 42,0} jW0} 19.8 $2.5] 982.2 18.5] 10.6} 142 63] 45] 12 | 58] 52) 4.0) 43) 295) 77.77] 84.90 145 Murdered . 157 $7.0) 94 125 41.0} 410.0) 19.8 80,0) 35.0 --| 10.7) 145 4.6} 41) 1.0 | 5.1) G4) 86) 3.5] 275 89.18 146 Beriberi —. 157 85.0] 95 126 38.0] 10.0] 18.5 30,0 | 92.4 18,3 | 10.6] 158 4.6] 3.5} 1.2 | 5.0] 63] 4.0| 34] 285 76.08 147 | 20 M, | Acute nephritis 166 5} 96 131 39.0) 87-0} 18.3 31.5) 38.5 1.2 5.3| 3.6] 1.0 | 5.0] 68) 33} 8.5] 285 67.92 148} 50 M, | Pulmonary tuberculosis. 158 96 128 87.6 42.0 17.5 80.0, 28.0 9.9 12.6 61] 38! Ld 4.2) 68] 3.6] 8.1 2.45 74.50 174} 90 M. | Acute enteritis, tuberculosis. 168 97.0] 102 139 48.0] 4.0] 20.0 31,0] 82.0] 27.0] 1,360 |--- 8, 18,1] 10.5) 45} 7, I.7] 5.1) 40) .8 | 50) 60) 37) 38] 260) Stat) 75.48 . 177} 20 M. | Beriberi --— a 165 76.0) 90 125 37.0] 133.0 17.5 28.0 33.5 Adriatic 12.6 11.0 13.8) 7, 1.0! 4.6] 44) 82 | 5.0] 6.0) 3.5) 4.0] 2.80] 83.88] 95,65 180! 34 M. | General organic pyemia, pulmonary__| 148 75.0 | 85 288 37.0] $2.0] 17.5 29,0] 30.7 Therian — = 18. 1.0} 13.8] 7, 10.9] 4.7] 86/12 | 4.8] 5.6] BG) 3.6) 2.50] 76.09] 71.47 181 | 47 M. | Beriberi; insave. 154 83.0] 90 128 38.0} 40.0] 19.0 30,0 | 31.0 Primitive. 18.6] 10.5) 18:8] 82) 1.8] 4.3] 42] 1.2 | 50) 68] 37) 27] 2.85) 91.76) 97.67 186 | 87 M. | Pulmonary tuberculosis. 162 88.0] 95 145 40.0) 42.0] 18.0 81.0] 30.7 Blend -__ 13.2] 10.4] 184] 71] 1.0} 44] 38] 11 | 4.8] G1] BL) 31) 285] SLA] 86.96 193 | 42 M. |/Beriberi--_—---—-—— 152 79.5) 90 96 89,0) 36.0 17,0 81.0) 33.0 Primitive. 12.8 10.0 18.4) 6.0 10.1} 4.6] 43 .8 | 6.0] 71] 3:7] 3.0] 2.80] 86.04] 99.46 Pulmonary tuberculosis_. 154 84.5 | 105 140 37.0 41.0) 18.0 80,0 87.5 12.5 9.5 18.8} 6.8| 10.2] 4.5] 4.1 AB aL 169 91.5 | 101 141 40.0 5.0) 19.5 82.0} 36.5 13. yo.3} 142] 7. 1.8} 51] 34] .8 66.66 Senile debility 161 88.0} 97 130 89.0 | 19.0 29.4] 92,2 33.5] 10.8} 141] 7. 13.0! 48] 44] 1.0 91.86 Pyemia — 156 82.0] 92 125 37.0 9.0] 19.0 30.0] 31,6 ital 82,90 Pulmonai 158 86.0] 94 180 40.0 0.0} 18.5 81.5] 34.7 8 87.28 157 128 5,5 |--------|---2---- 18.2 31,0 31,0 1.0 91.30 151 88 123 6.0] 87.0 .0} 18,0 80.0} 29.5 8 2,22 Hemorrhagic purpurea - 154 $2.4 89 125 4d 40.7 7.3 17.5 30,0 80.8 7 93,48 85.0} 93 131 15.4 29.0] 35.0 Australoid__ 1.0 90.91 90 | 19 | 16.8, 29.6] 34.4 Blonde eee ee 9 92.18 Average male ~~ $4.1] 96,7) 180.9} 6.09) 38.8 ®. 4) 18.3 81.1] 32.0 1.0 $130 | Minimum male 72.0 85.0] 288.0 44 30.0 #2. 0 15.4 25.0 27.0 O4 65.10 Maximum male --.. 98.4} 107.0) 147.0 7.5 | _ 48.0 | , Bae 39,0)} 87-5) 81-0)} 1, 780)|-----—- 14 110.00 Pulmonary gangrene, tuberculosis_-. 73.3 86 123 5.9 #1.8 17.0 28.0 80.0 Tberian — | B.D 0 76.08 | 80 Ff, | Uterine cancer, tuberculosis 153 72.5 | 90 113 5.0 $3.5) 17.2 | Alpine 8.8 6 76.08 19 F, | Dabercuiosis, typhoid -. 145 70.4) 83 abel 44 H.0) 17.4} Primitive. | 3.6] .8 109, 09 25 F. | Septiccemia 161 81,8} 105 142 5.8 37.0 17.0 Blend —_. Ll 6. $2.08 86.88 41 F. | Tuberculosis 157 83.8) 96 128 Tberian _ 8 4, 80,00] 70.00 60 F, | Senile debility 165 75.8 88 11 29,0 5 6 60 F. | Septiceemia 148 84.0 |------—| 26.0 Blend — 28 F. | Chronic enteritis 154 7.5| 91 Iberian — 20 F, 142 73.0| 86 Primitive 138.88 70 rr 7 76,0) 9 awe 35 1 | 92.0! 96 ane 68 F. | Senile debility - 148 75.5 ‘85 123} 20 F. | Bright's disease 83.5 9 180 | 45 F, | Inoperable cancer___- 145 74.5) 98 been 186 | Adult| F. | Diabetic ulcer; insane 150 79.0| 90 10.9 8.5 198 | 27 F, | Peritonitis; stab wound 152 71.0] 88 10.7 8.7 Wa) 75 F. | Capillary bronchitis... 161 79.0 | 101 133 10.0 41 149 | 28 F. | Beriberi; myocarditis 145 74.0 SS) 118 99 3.5 75 | 26 F. | Beriberi 14s 78.0) 92 125 10.7 4.0 60 F. | Bronchitis 153 91.0 | 100 130 10.6 3.8 30 F. | Pulmonary tuberculosis 146 78.0) 91 125 1,190 | Therian 13,8 12.7 9.9 8.0 80 F. | Intestinal tuberculosis -.——---------__. 146 76.0 | $4 7 ae Cy) do 18.8 11.8 9.5 3.3 Average female —- 151.0 | 77 | 91,6)| 128.8 5. 35.6 | 686.5] 17,8) 229) 28.6] eo ee 1.3] 126| 100) 181} 6.0) 10.2) 44] 3.6 6 i 81,85 | Minimum female- 142.0} 70.4 83,0 | 111.0 4.0 83.0. 30.0 16.0} 20,0) 25.0 24,0 907 18,2 11.8 8.8) 123) 3.8 7.2) 3.8) 2.8) 0.6 4.0} 4.6) 28 28 75.00 Maximum female - 161.0 | 91,0 | 101.0} 142.0 7.0 40.0 45.0 19.5 | a5 36.0 29.0 | 1,360 16.1 13.6 10.9 15.6) 8.0 M4} 55) 41) 18 6.0) 7.3] 4.2 3.1 90.96 t \ | JAPANESE AND CHINESE. | Body. : Head, = © : : 4 4 £ = é e s ae | 3 i © B/e)2]4 ae a|/8 | 2 Sea 6 | Bl) Seer Bae cS j + Number, Bu sels Sse lseales |e |B ey Bolg ios 8 | 2 \f2)S¢/ee)2] 8 | .|4/2]8 lessen lores ; Nation. 3 a = = % a E) = E $ Ct = | Pype of individuals, |g g uo |} «ae | Bela 2/e/el2lel/e/e ge] 3 eI 3 * Beale Al S| ce leeenee, || 8 E 2518 3 2 2 a | S35 (BE | ses] & | e1e)2141 213 |ea) 3 | = SiH wallets 2 elec sis] E rhe laa Wee = a 8 | Se) so) Sees he ad eg aise | eps lB lied 5S Slee lees steams | 2 ikl Sil Ba lt tenis #18 lee | See sole (ee Pee tele |e veg fog & = a a S 5 g = < 3s = = = — S < é = fe} = = & S = |e 7 5 = a & i=] a <= <= 8 5 i=) = 5 a i= a | 2 = 2 = z z SB |e 2 |)a)e a | as 8 8 Zz a we 36 1,416 | Alpine 175} 14.8} 13.3 12.0] 5.2] 3.4} 0.8 6.0] &8| 32 Cis SS eo) 48 Therian 20.5 M7 13,7 6.0] 3,3) 34 ee eeebe 104 30 Blend 17.8] U8] 13.3 6.4] 3.4] 3.0 3 80 Tberian— 18.7] W.2) 13.5 6.3] 8.2] 3.0 m2 30 -do 20.0) 15.0) 13.1 6.7) 3.2) 3.2 fee eee 83 19.5} W.5} 13.5 64] 3.6} 3.8 —_ ee} 00. 80 19,6 15.6 18.2 5 ja 8 35 192) WS} 18,1 } Le ee 7 380 18.2} 15.2 13,1 i SS 5 83 20.2) 16.0) 18.6 ee 5 28 15.0 14.6 13,0 1 Ee eer =| NC eu 19.0 a 12.5 ‘Avemge Japanese. 10] 83 11 | 1.8 [388 63| S4| 34 ORDE No. 201, 202. 203. 43. 45. 47. 48, 49, 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. BB. 56. 57. 58. 301. 401. 402. ' 403. 404, 405. 406. 407. 408, 409. Th PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS—Continued. R Bureau of Science—Annual Reports, Fifth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending August 1, 1906. f Sixth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending August 1, 1907. é Seventh Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Science for the Year Ending August 1, 1908. Philippine Museum, (Now Section of Ornithology.) * No, 1, 1903.—On Birds from Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Cuyo, Culion, Caga- yan Sulu and Palawan. By Richard C. McGregor.» F * No. 2, 1908.—List of Bird Skins Offered in Exchange. No. 3, 1904.—Birds from Benguet Province, Luzon, and from the Islands of Lubang, Mindoro, Cuyo, and Cagayancillo. By Richard C. McGregor. *Wo. 4, 1904.—The Birds of Calayan and Fuga, Babuyan Group. By Richard C. McGregor. x ‘ Mining Bureau, (Now Division of Mines.) 1890.—Descripci6n fisica, geolégica y minera en bosquejo de la Isla de Panay por D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del Archipiélago. * 1890.—Memoria descriptiyva de los manantiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luz6n, eStudiados por la comisién compuesta de los Sefiores D. José Centeno, Inge- niero de Minas -y Vocal Presidente, D. Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Vocal Far- macéutico, y D. José de Vera y Gdmez, Vocal Médico. 1893:—Estudio descriptivo de algunos manantiales minerales de Filipinas ejecutado por la comisién formada por D. Enrique Abella y\ Casariego, Inspector General de Minas, D. José de Vera y G6mez, Médico, y D. Anacleto del Rosario y Sales, Far- macéutico; precedido de un prélogo escrito por el Excmo. Sr. D. Angel de Avilés, Director General de Administracién Civil. ; 1893.—Terremotos experimentados en la Isla de Luz6én durante los meses de Marzo y Abril de 1892, especialmente desastrosos en Pangasinan, Unién y Benguet. Estudio ejecutado por D. Enrique Abella y Casariego, Inspector General de Minas del Archipiélago. « 1901.—The Coal Measures of the Philippines. Charles H. Burritt. 1902.—Abstract of the Mining Laws (in force in the Philippines, 1902). Charles H: Burritt. P 1902., Bulletin No. 1.—Platinum and Associated Rare Metals in Placer Formations, H. D. McCaskey, B.S. '1903.—Report of the Chief of the Mining Bureau of the Philippine Islands. Charles H. Burritt. 1908, Bulletin No. 2—Complete List of Spanish Mining Claims Recorded in the Mining Bureau. Charles H. Burritt. : 1908, Bulletin No. 3—Report on a Geological Reconnoissance of the Iron Region of Angat, Bulacan. H. D. McCaskey, B. S. 1904.—Fifth Annual Report of the Mining Bureau. H. D, McCaskey. 1905.—Sixth Annual Report of the Chief of the Mining Bureau. H. D. McCaskey. 1905, Bulletin No. 4.—A Preliminary Reconnoissance of the Mancayan-Suyoc Mineral Region, Lepanto, P. I. A. J. Eveland, Geologist. 1905, Bulletin No. 5.—The Coal Deposits of Batan Island. Warren D. Smith, B. S., M. A., Geologist. / Division of Mines, 1908.—The Mineral Resources of the Philippine Islands, with a Statement of the Production of Commercial Mineral Products during the year 1907, issued by Warren D. Smith, Chief of the) Division of Mines. Ethnological Survey, (Now Division of Ethnology.) ieee I, 1905.—The Bontoce Igorot, by Albert Ernest Jenks. Paper, ®2; half morocco, Vol. II, Part 1, 1904.—Negritos of Zambales, by William Allen Reed. Paper, #0.50; half morocco, P1.50. Vol. Il, Part 2 and Part 3, 1905.—The Nabaloi Dialect, by Otto Scheerer. The Bataks of. Palawan, by Edward Y. Miller. (Bound also in one yolume with Part 1, Negritos of Zambales.) Paper, £0.50; half morocco, $1.50. Combined, half morocco, #3. Vol. III, 1904.—Relaciones Agustinianas de las razas del Norte de Luzon, by Perez. Paper, £0.75; half morocco, #2. : : Vol. IV, Part 1, 1905.—Studies in Moro History, Law, and Religion, by Najeeb M. Saleeby. Paper, ®0.50; half morocco, #1,50. Division of Ethnology. Vol. IV, Part 2, 1908.—History of Sulu, by Najeeb M. Saleeby. Paper, P1.50. Vol. V, Part 1 and Part 2, 1908.—The Batan Dialect as a Member of the Philippine - Group of Languages, by Otto Scheerer. “F’’ and “V’’ in Philippine Languages, by C. E. Conant. Paper, $1.60. Vol. V, Part. 3—A Vocabulary of the Igorot Language as spoken by the Bontok Igorots, by. the Rev. Walter Clayton Clapp. Igorot-English, English-Igorot. Paper, #1.50. ) ‘ = Directions for Ethnographic Observations and Collections, 1908. ‘For free dis- tribution. NOTE, ose of the above-listed publications which are for sale may be obtained: from the Director of Printing, Manila, P. I. Publications for free distribution, listed above, may be had by writing to the Business Manager, Philippine Journal of Science, Manila, P.’ T. Please give order number. SS ———————E—E—E—EEEEEOEOEeEEeee—eEEEEEEEE———E ee YY * Out of print. CONTENTS. Page. ‘WVILLAVERDE, Fr. JUAN. The Ifugaos of Quingan and Vicinity. Translated, edited and illustrated by -. Dean.C. Worcester. With Notes and an Addendum oP by. L. E. Case’ --_. =.0--7- 2224-2 - 4 237 ‘BEAN, ROBERT BENNETT. I. Filipino Types: Ma- > ‘nila Students. An Attempt to Classify the Littoral ; Population of Luzon and Adjacent Islands ____--___- 263 BEAN, ROBERT BENNETT. II. Filipino Types: Found in Malecon Morgue____________---___-___ _--- 207 The ‘‘Philippine Journal of Science” is issued as follows: Section A. General Science, $2, United States currency, per year. Section B. Medical Sciences, $3, United States currency, per year. Section C. Botany, $2, United States currency, per year. The entire ‘‘Journal’’ $5, United States currency, per year. Single numbers, 50 cents, United States currency. Authors receive 100 copies of their papers free, The numbers of each section will appear as rapidly as material is available. Each seo- tion will be separately paged and indexed. Subscriptions may be sent to the DIRECTOR OF PRINTING, Manila, P.I. Correspond- ence should be addressed to the Business Manager, Philippine Journal of Science, Manila, P. I. FOREIGN AGENTS. Z THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York. Messrs. WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W. C. MARTINUS NIJHOFF, Nobelstraat 18, ’s Gravenhage, Holland. Messrs. MAYER & MULLER, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin, N. W. Messrs. KELLY & WALSH, LIMITED, 32 Raffles Place, Singapore, S. 8. Messrs. A. M. & J, FERGUSON, 19 Baillie Street, Colombo, Ceylon. (Entered at the post- office at Manila, P. I., as second-class matter.) A limited number of unbound copies of previous volumes are available which may be secured from the Director of Printing at the following rates: Volume I, 1906 (not divided into sections), $5, United States currency; Supplement to Vol- ume I, $2.50, United States currency; Volume I (without supplement), $3, United States currency; all later volumes at current subscription prices. _ SEPTEMBER, 1909 THE PHILIPPINE ee uiaty BY PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Pu. _ CO-EDITOR, — RICHARD P. STRONG, Pu. B., M. D. WITH THE COOPERATION OF W. D. SMITH, Pu. D.; ALVIN J. COX, Px. D. i HeeDs GIBBS. B.S.; R. C. McGREGOR, A. B. ee THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE OF THE ~. GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS “A, GENERAL SCIENCE BUREAU OF PRINTING 1909 2 “MERTON L. MILLER, Pu. D.; ; GEORGE F. RICHMOND, M. S. RAYMOND F, BACON, Pu. D.; CHARLES S. BANKS, M.S. =" THE HISTORY OF SULU. By Nasrrs M, Sarensy. 275 pages. A complete History of the Moro People in Sulu, with maps and ee ae Wath translations from the original documents. ‘ Price $0.75, United States currency. OF LANGUAGES. ‘ By Orro SCHEPRER. ‘ . é hake of AND Safe ced ee ; m > AND “V” IN PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES. we Pie = Cantos Evererr Conant. 141 pages eS i ; } Price eh 80, United States « currency. - \ ‘1 bh: F i er f a : ELAS) OF ZAMBALES. By Wer aiir ALLAN ‘Repo. ea 62 photos mente Mustrations. 91 pages. ty, Aes See Any of ie above-announced publications m ae be ord re Manager, Philippine Journal of Science, Manila, P. I., or fre listed on the cover of this Journal. Please give ee number, THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. GENERAL SCIENCE Wore JVs): SEPTEMBER, 1909 No.5 GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF THE ISLAND OF ce LEYTE—WITH NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS ON ie. THE ADJACENT SMALLER ISLANDS AND SOUTHWESTERN SAMAR, ay By Grorce I. ApAms. (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science.) Little has been published concerning the geology of the Islands dis- cussed in this report. Jagor, who visited the northeastern part of Leyte in 1860, noted the occurrence of a schist south of Tanauan, and described Bito Lake near Abuyog and the solfataras south of Burauen. His petrographic specimens were examined by Roth. A single specimen of igneous rock from the Island of Limasaua was described by Oebbeke who studied Semper’s collections. Abella visited and described the Island of Biliran in 1882, especially its sulphur deposits. Becker cites passages from a manuscript report made by Ashburner in 1883 on the gold mines of the Island of Panaon. All the publications above mentioned were made use of by Becker in his report on the geology of the Philippines. In treating of the tectonic features of the islands, he discusses the structural relations of the Island of Leyte as surmised by others and adds some observations from his study of the maps. Im the Atlas de Filipinas, prepared at the Jesuit Observatory in Manila, the conventional sign for an extinct volcano is shown on a general map of the islands near the name “Mount Amandiuing.” This symbol, as will be explained later, may have been intended to indicate the solfataras south of Burauen. ‘There is also a manuscript report by Maurice Goodman, formerly mining engineer of this division of the Bureau, which describes the sulphur deposits on Biliran Island and those near Burauen on Leyte visited by him in 1906. : : 90339 339 “pln, er so at) un < es 340 ADAMS. No previous attempt has been made to describe the physiographic and geologic districts of Leyte and so the present report, although meager, may serve as an introduction. The reconnaissance on which it is based was made during April and the first half of May, 1909, while studying the geologic conditions governing the drilling of deep and artesian wells for the Bureau of Public Works. The island was circumnavigated and fifteen coast towns and three interior towns in the northeastern part were visited. Maps.—The best map of Leyte is by d’Almonte, published on a scale of 1-200,000. It was evidently used in preparing the one published in the Atlas de Filipinas. On it the adjacent Islands of Biliran and Panaon are shown in some detail. The two most notable errors which it con- tains are in the representations of Lake Bito and the Leyte River. Jagor, who visited Lake Bito, has shown that it was drawn too large on Coello’s map, which may have been d’Almonte’s source of information. The description of the lake, translated from the Spanish edition of Jagor’s travels, 1s as follows: > “The rain having passed, we arrived at the Bito River in an hour (from Abuyog) by an agreeable road and in a banca ascended the river which follows through heavy vegetation. The margins are low, level and sandy, and are covered with tall bamboo and reeds. After having ascended ten minutes the way was found obstructed by fallen tree trunks, which obliged us to make a detour of half an hour on land in order to reach the river above the obstruction. Rafts of bamboo were constructed, on which we journeyed, very much crowded because of their small size, due to the little amount of material available. We arrived at the lake in ten minutes. To the north and south of the lake there are hills. Seen from the center, the lake is nearly circular and is surrounded by a forest. Coello represents it too large (4 sea miles instead of the one which it has). It is about 1 league distant from Abuyog. * * * We found the greatest breadth to be 585 brazas, equal to 977 meters (its greatest breadth must be a little more than 1 kilometer) and its length is about 1,007 brazas, equal to 1,680 meters, or less than a mile. Soundings showed the bottom to incline gradually toward the center where the depth is 8 brazas, equal to 13.3 meters.” ‘ . Lake Bito will be correctly shown on a Coast and Geodetic Survey chart now in preparation for publication. There is a general impression among those who have an opinion in regard to this lake, that it occupies a crater and that the hills which surround it are the remnants of a crater rim, but there is no information confirming this. The idea is suggested by the position and appearance of the hills in the plain, as seen from a steamer when leaying Abuyog for Dulag. The depth of the lake indicates a depression greater than would be expected from the grade of the stream. ‘The locality is worthy of geologic investigation. The Leyte River is much shorter than is indicated on published maps, and does not have its source in Lake Danao, nor is Danao the source of the Cancatoco River, as is shown on some maps. ‘The Iwaasan River is ' . 4 : a) ~ GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE, 341 the outlet of the lake, and it flows to the east to Amandiuing Lake which, in twin, is the source of the Binahaan. Lieut. Philip H. Rockstroh, of the Philippines Constabulary, kindly furnished this eriticism, together with other information concerning the hot and mineralized springs and — topographic features of the island, and his deseription of Lake Bito corresponds with the one by Jagor given aboye. On a manuscript atlas of the Philippines by d’Almonte, which is now the property of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, these features of the drainage near Lake Danao ave shown as here described. ‘he errors in the published map may be due to the lithographer. There are a number of sectional and route maps made by officers of the United States Army and Philippines Constabulary, but it is not possible at present to compile a satisfactory map. The Coast and Geo- detic surveys now in progress, as well as surveys by the Bureau of Lands, indicate that many details of the Spanish maps will be changed when the present surveys are concluded and combined. Accordingly, in this report only an outline map on a small scale is used, and the reader who may have a special interest im the island is advised for the present to consult d@’Almonte’s map or the one in the Atlas de Filipinas, which-was taken from-d’Almonte’s, and also the Coast and Geodetic Survey charts. Physiographic and geologic districts—No previous attempt has been made to describe the physiography of Leyte and the only suggestion as to its topographic features is in the disposition of the streams and the names of the mountains on the maps. The hachuring of d’Almonte’s is, to say the least, misleading, and in the absence of elevations accompany- ing the names of the mountains, an imperfect idea of the relief is presented. The physiographic districts distinguished im this report cor- respond closely with the geologic structure and are accordingly indicated by the geologic districts on. the accompanying outline map. The domi- nant feature of Leyte is the Central Cordillera which runs from Cabalan in a northwesterly direction through the island and is continued in Biliran and Maripipi Islands. In addition may be distinguished the southwestern semi-mountainous district, the northeastern semi-mountain- ous district and the northeastern plains. There are also some littoral lowlands of small extent which are not shown on the map. CENTRAL CORDILLERA. This district is for the most part rugged and is dominated by many high peaks. Its lowest portion is to the west of Carigara, where it is also narrowest. This is the most practicable place for a road to cross the district, and a trail now exists which can be developed into a road. The trail over the cordillera between Dolores to Jaro is very difficult, because of the steepness of the western slope, and it is impracticable for a wagon trail. here is an idea prevalent that a road should be estab- lished between Abuyog and Baybay following the river valley in so far 342 ADAMS. as possible. ‘This route has been surveyed by the division of roads, and some money has been spent in clearing a trail, but the route is not an easy one and the building and maintaining of a road in this section would be very costly. Similarly, from Abuyog to Sogod the foot trail is rugged and difficult, and the coast between Abuyog and Hinunangan affords no place for the construction of a road. With the exception of the route from Carigara westward, it is probable that the Cordillera forms a barrier to transporta- tion which will prove effective for a very long time. Mount Amandinung.—TVhe only peak of the Central Cordillera which appears to be indicated in the Philippine Atlas as an extinct volcano is Amandiuing. No explanation of the reason for this is given and it may be that the symbol was intended to show the solfataras of Burauen. However, several military officers who have ascended the flanks of Aman- diuing have stated that it has the appearance of an extinct volcano, and it may prove to be one since there is a hot sulphur mud spot on its flank, and there are hot springs at the source of a stream which heads in this peak and flows towards Jaro. Solfataras near Burauen.—The solfatara of Casiboy south of Burauen is indicated on d’Almonte’s map as situated in Mount Himalacagan. As will be seen from the succeeding quotations there is a second solftara near by. The following description of these solfataras by Jagor is translated from the Spanish edition of his travels in the Philippines: “South of Burauen rises the mountain ridge Manacagan,'’ on the further slope of which is a large solfatara from which sulphur is obtained for the powder factory established in Manila. From the gateway there is seen to the south, through the shade of the trees, a great white slope of Mount Danan.” “At 9 o’clock we reached the crater of Casiboi where there is much yegeta- tion and advancing to the south we saw some sheds in which sulphur is sublimated. A few hundred paces more to the south a stream flows 12 feet wide, the water of which is hot (30° Réaumur) and deposits siliceous sinter at its borders.” “Following from north to south along a ravine the walls of which haye a height of from 100 to 200 feet, the vegetation gradually diminishes and the rock is so white as to affect the eyes. In places it is of a yellow color due to the sublimated sulphur deposited on it. In many places there rises from the ground a penetrating, dense vapor with a pronounced odor of sulphur. Several hundred paces beyond, the valley turns to the left (east) and widens. Here numerous siliceous springs break through the clayey earth which is impregnated with sulphur. This solfatara must formerly have been more active. The depression formed by the decomposition of the rock has a floor covered with débris and measures about 1,000 feet wide and five times as long.” “In the eastern part there: are a number of small boiling mud spots. From holes made in their borders with a stick, water and steam ascend. In some *Mount Himalacagan on Abella’s map. GHOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE. : 343 deep places to the west beds of gray, white, red, and yellow clay lie deposited in layers and having the aspect of variegated marls.” “Exactly to the south in front of the gate-way on the trail from Burauen there is a cavern.in white decomposed rock, having an opening 25 feet wide from which much water which deposits siliceous incrustations flows. The roof of the cave is hung with. stalactites which are covered partially or completely, with sublimed sulphur.” “In the high part of the slope of Mount Danin near the summit so much sulphur is deposited from the vapors that it can be collected in coconut shells. In some crevices protected from the action of the cold air it accumulates in thick brown crusts.” 3 “The solfatara of Mount Dandn is situated exactly south of the other at the opposite side of the ridge of the Casiboi. The clay, which remains after the siliceous matter has been washed out, is carried by the rain to the valley where it forms a plain, the greater part of which is occupied by the Lake Malaksan. (Malaksan signifies sour.) It is limited by low ground, and its extent, which is subject to frequent variations according to the weather, was - found to be 500 paces long and 100 wide. From the elevation at the solfatara there is seen through an opening to the south a somewhat larger lake of fresh water surrounded by wooded mountains. Its name is Jarnanan. * * * Soundings gave the following results: Near the southern margin, which is * somewhat more steep than the north, 13 fathoms (equals 21.7 meters); the greatest length was found to be 800 varas (668 meters) and the width about half of this.” ’ Mr. Goodman described the same locality as follows; he introduced some names not contained in Jagor’s description, but the reader will be able to reconcile the two descriptions without difficulty : “The earliest indication of our proximity to solfataric activity was observed when we came to the crossing of the Mainit River, about a third of a mile south of ‘la puerta.’ The source of the heat and sulphur carried by the Mainit lies in the solfatara, which is only about a quarter of a mile east of where we crossed the river and about 100 feet above it. The To-od Grande, as this solfatara is called, is a large barren space about 800 feet long by 500 feet wide. Its surface consists of white kaolin resulting from the corrosion by acid fumes of some volcanic rock, probably andesite. A portion of this super- ficial layer has incrusted upon it a greenish yellow mixture of sulphur and clay, deposited from the sulphurous gases which still emanate from numerous fissures and crater-like openings in the surface of this barren area.” “These openings are of two kinds—dry vents from which gases escape into the atmosphere without the association of water, and wet holes which are like large earthern caldrons containing either boiling mud or water. Extending some distance around the orifice of the dry vents there is usually formed an incrustation of beautiful yellow crystals of sulphur. The bulk of the sulphur, however, lies in the impure clayey mixture distributed over the surface in irregular patches. An average sample of the crust to a depth of about nine inches yielded on analysis 66.1 per cent of free sulphur.” ‘ “The To-od Pequeno is a continuation of the same solfatara, situated to the south of and at a lower level than the To-od Grande. It exhibits the same phenomena as the upper solfatara, but is much smaller in area. In one portion of the To-od Pequeno is a*large cave from the bottom of which issue steam, sulphurous, chlorine, and other gases, corroding the sides and roof of the 344 ADAMS. vault and giving to it a vari-colored appearance, due to the secondary minerals formed.” “About half a mile southeast of the To-od and separated from it by a high ridge of andesite is another solfatara called the Pangujaan. It is situated on the southern slope of a slide, about 125 feet high and about 300 feet wide, from the sides of which four or five larger and several smaller vents give off steam and sulphurous gases in a continuous flow. As at the To-od, these vents are usually fringed with a sublimate of sulphur, close approach to which, however, is very difficult on account of the precipitousness of the slide, as well as on account of the heat and noxious gases given off. Occasionally the channel leading to one of these vents may become closed, and the flow of gases deflected in another direction, in which event the rich sublimate-which has formed in the neck and about the mouth of the vent becomes covered over with a subsequent layer of kaolin, forming a hidden deposit of almost pure sulphur.” “South and southwest of the two solfataras are two small lakes which drain that region. The smaller of these, called the Malaksan, has low and flat banks, is quite shallow, and is about 100 feet long by about 500 feet wice. Its waters are slightly acid, and apparently barren of all living matter. The larger and deeper of the two lakes, called the Pangi, is situated about half a mile south of lake Malaksan, has high, steep and wooded banks, and ‘contains fresh water with an abundance of large fish. The approximate altitudes of the two lakes are respectively 1,230 and 1,160 feet above sea level. With the exception of a few occasional fishermen who venture into this country, the entire neighbor- hood of the solfataras is uninhabited and uncultivated for miles around.” Mount Cabalian—Another topographical feature worthy of description is Mount Cabalian, which is situated in the extreme southeastern poimt of the island. Its lower slopes have the characteristics of a voleanic cone, but its summit is broken up into irregular peaks inclosing a lake which evidently occupies the crater. ‘To the south and east the lower slopes of the mountain descend gradually to the sea, and to the northeast they descend with the same regularity to a lowland. ‘To the north and west there are hills which destroy the outline of the cone. To the west and east of the mountain there are hot springs, and several of the streams which flow down its lower slope are slightly mineralized, so that fish do not live in them. In Bulletin III, Census of the Philippines, 1905, Rev. Saderra Maso, S. J., records that it is stated that near Cabalian there lies an active solfatara. This probably refers to Mount Cabalian which, however, does not exhibit solfataric action. In 1907 it was the center of a local earth- quake disturbance which continued from May 17 to 25 and caused several large landslides from the peaks of the mountains. The barren rock faces and the paths of the descending avalanches, as indicated by the absence of trees, were clearly distinguishable at the time this recon- naissance was made. In the Bulletin of the Weather Bureau for May, 1907, the reports of this earthquake from inhabitants of the locality state that the disturbance caused some nipa houses to fall, and that on ?Solfatara of Mount Danan of Jagor’s description. GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANGE OF LEYTE. 345 May 20 the shocks were so frequent that the people had difficulty in cooking their meals. In his report for May, 1907, Director Aleué, of the Weather Bureau, writes concerning the character of the disturbance: “Tt is certain that these earthquakes, besides having a very reduced meizoseismic area (about 10 kilometers in diameter) must have proceeded from a center at a small depth, since of more than sixty disturbances felt in the epicentrum between the 17th and 25th of May, only eight were perceptible in Maasin, 30 kilometers distant, and four in the extreme northeast of Mindanao, which is 60 kilometers distant.” ; : ° Solfataras on Biliran Island—According to Abella the central cor- dillera continues to the north in the islands of Biliran and Maripipi. He describes the Cordillera of Biliran as extending from the northwest to southeast and lying near the eastern sides of the island, and then curving to the south where it terminates in abrupt slopes at the narrow strait _ which separates the island from Leyte. The active solfataras of Biliran are described by Abella as follows (translation from the original in Spanish) : “The most important of all, the one in the drainage of the Caraycaray River, is situated in the place called Cajaco on the western slope of Mount Guinon on one of the spurs which gives rise to the Cailjiaén ravine. One sees at that place an elliptical space about 100 meters long entirely devoid of vegetation in which the rocks are whitened or of variegated colors produced by the deposits and concretions of various natures which are found there, and from some distance there is a noticeable sulphurous odor from the fumaroles at various points” The mine San Antonio was located on this deposit. “The solfataras of the Caibiran River occur principally in three: bare spots analogous to the one at Cajicao situated parallel to the Mapulaé ravine on the eastern side of Mount Guinén opposite those of Cajticao. * * * These three spots or bare places present phenomena and products similar to the others just described. * * * However, the disintegrating products of the rocks are here more extensive, which seems to indicate that these sulphur deposits are somewhat older than that of the other slope and are in their period of decline or extinction.” The mine Santa Rosalia was located on this deposit. A “The solfatara situated in the drainage of the Anas River on the western cy slope of Mount Guianasan is still more energetic and important than “the one in the Mapula ravine, but on the other hand possesses a much more ferruginous character than the others.” The extinct solfataras which Abella saw are situated at Guiso del Monte Panamao near Almeria and at Catmon near Naval. At the first he found clays, oxide of iron, and pyrite, the soluble substances and sulphur haying disappeared. The second, which is near the sea and away from any stream, has a circular crater-like depression 50 meters in diameter and contains some clay deposits, but no sulphur. Goodman, who visited the Island of Biliran to examine the sulphur deposits, gives a description of them similar to that of Abella. He also 346 ADAMS. noted a conglomerate on the beach about a half mile north of Almena, the boulders of which are encrusted with deposit of aluminous sulphate, probably alunogen, but of no commiercial importance. In addition he refers to a hot spring near Catmon with a temperature of 107 F. and containing a small amount of gas, but no sulphur. ; Springs: Besides the springs already mentioned as associated with the solfataras on Biliran Island and near Burauen in Leyte and those related to the extinct volcanoes, Mount Amandiuing and Mount Cabalian, there is a small hot spring on the west side of the point of land which projects from Leyte opposite Poro Island in the Biliran strait aud a hot sulphur spring on Mount Ogris south of Mount Nipga between Abuyog and Bay- bay. South of Abuyog in the barrio Buenayista there is a cold mineral spring. ‘To the west of Alangalang, on the west side of the Cabayong River, there are some small and apparently nearly buried hills which are probably outliers of the Cordillera and at the base of one of these there is a cold mineral spring. Igneous rocks.-—Vhe rocks from the Cordillera which were collected by Jagor, were studied by Roth who states that there is an amphibolitic andesite at the gateway of the mountain of Dagami. Evidently he refers to the gateway in the mountain Himalicagan which Jagor passed on his way to the solfataras south of Burauen, since on Coellos map the names Dagami and Burauen are transposed. Roth, in his comments, states that the rock is exacty like that of Isarog, a dormant volcano in Camarines Sur, and that to the north of it there is a lapilli formation. This would seem to he a proof that there was once an active volcano near by and would support Jagor’s statement that the solfataras are in a crater. In another portion of his article Roth writes that it is well known that Mount Dagami (Himalicagan) is an extinct volcano. Goodman found andesites at a locality near the solfatara. According to Becker’s opinion Abella’s descriptions of the rocks of Biliran Island make it substantially certain that they are hornblende - andesites. The rocks which the streams bring down to the vicinities of Alangalang, Dagami, and Cabalian and which were collected during the reconnaissance on which this report is based, were mostly hornblende andesites with a few basaltic boulders. One of Roth’s conclusions is as follows: “Among the numerous volcanic rocks which I have from the south of Luzon, Samar, and Leyte and in the related tuffs, there are represented with few exceptions only two types, closely related, both being characterized by the presence of triclinie feldspars and distinguished one by hornblende, and the other by augite; hornblende andesites and augitic andesites or dolerites.” ®'In this paper Kemp’s classification of igneous rocks is followed. The petrographic determinations are by Dr. W. D. Smith. ee Ses GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE. 347 Sedimentary rocks.—Thus far no sedimentary rocks have been reported as occurring in the cordillera in Leyte, and Abella did not mention any in his description of Biliran Island. However, according to a seemingly reliable report, there is an occurrence of petroleum on the east coast of Biliran, inland from the sitio Capalis, and it is quite probable that it is in sedimentary rocks, _ The eastern flank of the cordillera is buried for a long distance by the alluvial deposits of the northwestern plains. ‘The western flank from Ormoc to Baybay descends to the coast. The places where the relations of the sedimentaries may best be studied have not been visited; although it is certain from a few observations made during this reconnaissance that on the western flank of the Cordillera there is an extensive series of stratified deposits in which limestones are conspicuous. They are more fully discussed in’ describing the southwestern district. On the east side of the island similar limestones were seen at only one locality. At Patyucan point and extending inland to the road between Hinunangan and Hinundayan, there is a mountain called Patyucan which consists of massive and thinner bedded limestones which outcrop in conspicuous sea cliffs. They dip towards the south as if they had been given their inclina- tion through a subsidence peripheral to the volcanic center, Mount Cabalian. Origin of the Cordillera—The trend of the Cordillera, as shown on the accompanying sketch map, is about N. 30° W. Abella has expressed his opinion that Biliran Island is due to a vyoleanic action and that it is a part of a volcanic belt which continues to the southward through Leyte and Panaon and the Eastern Cordillera of Surigao (Mindanao) to point San Agustin with some similar voleanic manifestations, and to the north- ward in the island of Maripipi and others until it connects with the” active voleano Bulusan in Luzon, being thus situated on one of the vol- canic fractures of the Archipelago. Becker cites this opinion of Abella and also the rather untenable theory of volcanic belts by Koto in his “Geological Structure of the Malay Archipelago” in which is included a structural line from Masbate through Leyte and eastern Mindanao. Hs- pecially suggestive are the following remarks by Becker, “To my thinking too much effort has been made to show unbroken continuity of voleanic zones. Fissures occur far more often in parallel systems than singly and, just as dikes jump from one fissure of such a system to another, so, I think, do the greater volcanic phenomena.” Much more study will be necessary before the relations of the volcanic zone of Leyte are determined definitely and in the meantime it will be better not to try to extend it too far. In the accompanying map Panadn Island is not included in the trend of the Cordillera, since it is not known to contain any true volcanic phenomena and the rocks seen in the northern end indicate that it is more closely related to the southwestern semi-mountainous district. 348 ADAMS. SOUTHWESTERN SEMIMOUNTAINOUS DISTRICT. If the limits of this district, as shown on the accompanying sketch map, are studied, it will be noted that between Ormoe and Baybay the Central Cordillera descends to.the coast. Accordingly, the southwestern district is discontinuous and may be spoken of as consisting of a northern and a southern part. The northern part contains a number of hills and low mountains which are indicated on d’Almonte’s map, although no elevations are shown. They are situated in the western part of the area. ‘The landscape in gen- eral presents a broken appearance, and near San Isidro and Villaba is a cogon hill country which formerly contained many haciendas devoted to the cultivation of sugar. Communication is largely by sea. There is, however, a trail leading north from Ormoc to Valencia and thence con- tinuing northward to the head of the estuary into which the Leyte and Palapay Rivers flow. This trail passes through relatively low country and has a branch which turns to the eastward and crosses the Cordillera to Capoocan and Caragara. There are also branches from this trail which turn off at various points to Villaba and Polompon. The only improved road is one newly built from Ormoc to Dolores, which it will be im- practicable to extend eastward over the cordillera to Jaro. The country along the trail north from Ormoe will probably develop into an important agricultural district, inasmuch as it contains a large amount of valley land. At present it is very sparsely inhabited. The southern part of the southwestern district is more mountainous than the northern. ‘To the south of Baybay there is a high ridge which runs ina southeasterly direction to a point opposite Bato, where there is a break in the mountains which is taken advantage of for a trail across this peninsular part of Leyte, the remaining roads of this area being along the coast. ‘To the south of this route of travel there are mountain- ous ridges, one of which lies to the north of Maasin and the other to the west of Malitabog. Pananon Island, which is separated from Leyte by a narrow strait, appears to be a continuation of the mountains which parallel the coast south from Sogod. If we analyze the coast line of Leyte and judge of the trend of the mountains as shown by the position of the names on d’Almonte’s map, we might be led to the same conclusion which was expressed by Becker, who, in his remarks concerning the structural lines of the Philippine Islands. writes: “Near the center of our own Island of Leyte there is a fork in the mountain system, and the westerly branch is seemingly continued southward through Mount Apo and the southermost part of Mindanao by the way of Sanguir Island to — Celebes.” It is probable that this remark was based upon a study of the map of Leyte rather than its topographic features seen in the field. The coast GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE. 349 line of d’Almonte’s map is far from perfect. When the bay in the southern part of the island, which may have suggested the forking in the mountain systems, is properly mapped and the trend of the adjacent mountains is shown, it will be seen that the structure of the southwestern district is approximately parallel with that of the central cordillera. Sedimentary formations—At all of the places where the rocks of this district were examined, and in all of the landscapes which were studied while passing along the coast, conspicuous outcrops of coralline limestone were seen exposed on the flanks of the hills and even resting on the tops of some of the higher mountains. The relation of these outcrops to the topography and the apparent dip of the formations, as well as their attitudes when studied at close range, show that they have been elevated, faulted, and tilted. In some places masses were caught in between erup- tive igneous rocks. It is probable that they were deposited on a base- ment of older igneous rocks and that with the gradual elevation and emergence of the Island of Leyte igneous rocks were intruded along some lines of fracture, giving rise to the dominant mountain trends. The sedimentary formations include beds of shales and conglomerates, but these are far less conspicuous than the limestones. In the northern part, near Hulalia, which is now known as Port Calubian, outcrops of coal are reported. Becker states that Leyte possesses coal but the locality is unknown, although it is said to be in the southwestern part of the island. Tt may be that the locality near Calubian is the one which furnished the samples which, as noted by Becker, were analyzed by the Inspeccién de Minas and shown to be of the same class as the Cebu coal, having a fuel value of 5,800 calories. On d’Almonte’s map, the occurrence of petroleum is indicated at a point about 7 kilometers north of Villaba. It is reported that some prospectors have studied this part of Leyte and have found much to encourage them in the belief that petroleum exists there in paying quantities, but they have been deterred from developing the field because of the difficulty of enlisting capital. Igneous rocks——The igneous rocks of the southwestern district have been yery little studied. rom the island of Limasaua a specimen of hornblende andesite was determined by Oebbeke. During this recon- naissance some specimens of igneous rocks were collected to the west of Malitbog. ‘They have been classified as diorites and peridotite porphyries. The field relations of the igneous rocks to the west of Malitbog and on the northern end of Panadén Island, near Liloan, show clearly that erup- tive and intrusive rocks have broken through the sedimentaries and in- cluded masses of the limestone. On the eastern side of Panadén, near Pinutan Point, d’Almonte indicates the occurrence of gold mines. Becker states that the wall rock at these mines was called by Ashburner “ereen- stone porphyry,” and that this term, while it would not exclude prophylitic neo-voleanics, in all probability points to diorite or diabase. 350 ADAMS. Gold Mines on Panaon Island—These mines were examined by Ash- burner in 1883. From a manuscript report in the possession of Ashbur- ner’s.clients, we have the following information given by Becker: “Several veins of quartz outerop on the coast and extend in a westerly direction into the mountain. These veins are paralled. They strike east and dip south. The wall rock is ‘green-stone porphyry.’ There is some wall rock in the vein and the sulphurettes are generally pyrites and accompanied by galena and zine blende. One vein about six feet wide has been worked to a considerable extent, some 871 tons having been treated up to 1883. The yield was $6 or $7 per ton. Concessions for gold mining have been granted at Tigbuan, just south of Pinutan, and, according to the Compendio de Geografia, there was a productive mine at Inalinan.” Becker further says that Ashburner found nothing which he could recommend to his clients. However, a mine which at that time was not attractive to capitalists, may prove worthy of exploitation when the condi-— tions of the country are. fayorable to mining. NORTHEASTERN SEMIMOUNTAINOUS DISTRICT. There is an elongate mountainous area to the west of the straits which separate Leyte and Samar Islands, in which the highest elevations are toward the northern end. There are some broken ridges on the east and west of the mountains, and to the south are isolated hills forming a continuation of the district. The rugged portion is heavily timbered and but sparsely inhabited. i From Tacloban, the principal port of Leyte, the road to the interior makes a detour of this district, first running to the south along the coast to the town of Palo, where it branches to the northeastern plains. South of Palo there are a few scattered hills situated near the coast and having their flanks partly buried by the sediments which constitute the plaim. Geologic formation.—The only note concerning the rocks of this district is by Jagor, who reported that he found a cliff of grayish green quartzose chloritic schists on the sandy beach about a league from Tanauan. This locality is evidently to the south of Tanauan about half way to Tolosa where there is such an exposure. Inland, in a long hill which the road touches in two places, this schist is more fully represented and is cut by dikes and larger intrusions of an augite andesite porphyry which probably produced the schist by metamorphosing the sedimentaries with which it came im contact. Further south on the seashore, just to the northeast of Tolosa, there is a high subconical hill surmounted by an old tower built as an outlook and defense against the Moros. An exposure of rock in a sea cliff of a neighboring lower hill to the northeast shows an altered shale much squeezed and slickensided. Between Tolosa and Dulag there is a hill in which exposures near the road show a fine igneous rock which on microscopic examination proved to be felsitic andesite. An GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE. ool About 1 lclometer to the west of Tanauan the United States Army opened a quarry in an isolated hill, in order to obtain stone for repairing the road from Tanauan to Dagmi. ‘There is exposed in this quarry a squeezed, slickensided and very much altered rock which under the microscope showed only serpentine. In the falls of the Milarong River to the west of Palo, and also in the hill near by, there is exposed an augite andesite with gabbroic texture. It is similar to the rock which is found cutting the schist south of Ta- nauan. The road nearer Palo cuts into a hill of altered shales. At Palo, at the north end of the bridge, a quarry has been opened for road material in a high hill of hard and slickensided and somewhat altered shale. The abutments of the bridge rest on exposures of this rock which produces a small fall in the river. The main area of the northeastern district was not visited, but such gravels as were seen from its streams indicate that the rocks which constitute it are similar to those found in the hills which form its southern continuation. ‘The geologic history of the district, as may be interpretated from the data now available, indicates that the mountainous structure was due to the intrusion of igneous rocks into a series of sediments producing an uplift along an axis trending ap- proximately north 30° west. A peninsular part of Samar and the very irregular shaped Daram Island, as well as other lesser islands, lie to the northward, in strike with the northeastern district of Leyte, a fact which indicates that the structure continues to the northward. In traveling by steamer from Catbalogan, Samar, to Carigara, Leyte, and returning from Tacloban through the straits and interisland passages to Catbalogan, an opportunity was given _to see the islands at close range, but no landing was made. The islands consist of sedimentary rocks with some igneous rocks which appear to form the axis of the trend, and, if they are not a continuation of the igneous rocks of northeastern Leyte, they at least follow parallel structural lines. Without landing and making a close examination it can not be determined whether they are intrusive or not, but the sedimentary beds do not appear to be altered and probably represent a younger formation than those which are cut and metamorphosed by the intrusives of the northeastern district of Leyte. In fact, at Tacloban, in the point of the peninsula on which the town is built, there are some low hills around which the Army post is located and exposures made by cutting roads show that the formation of which these hills are composed is a series of variable sandstones, shales and conglomerates, dipping at a low angle to the eastward. In the con- glomerates there are pebbles and small boulders of igneous rocks which apparently had their origin in the northeastern district. Especially sig- nificant are the pebbles of schist. The hills in Tacloban were once islands, and they have been united to the mainland by a recent formation con- sisting of marine deposits and coral reefs which form the neck of the 352 ADAMS. peninsula. A second peninsula of apparently similar origin but without any hills, lies to the east of the town, forming the limits of Cancabato cove. To the west of Tacloban the first low ridge consists of a series of sedimentaries very little exposed, but giving evidence of containing sand- stones and some limestones. The direction of this ridge is about north 30° west. Looking across the straits to the north of Tacloban on the Island of Samar, there is a conspicuous hill showing a high escarpment, well toward its upper portion. ‘This escarpment is due to the weather- ing of a thick bed of variable sandstone and conglomerate. In passing through the straits between Samar and Leyte, in the portion which has approximately a north south direction, one may observe outcrops of sedi- mentary beds dipping at low angles to the eastward. These are imper- fect sandstones and nodular and coneretionary argillaceous beds. ‘The many changes in the direction of the channel in this part are due to the development of the channel by erosion along the strike of the least resistant beds which have an eastward dip and a strike of about north 30° west. The topography of the shores and the islands in the straits shows a series of hills or ridges and the channel occupies the lowest valleys be- tween them, passing in a zigzag direction. This series of sedimentary beds may best be studied on the Island of Samar where it contains some heavy limestones. Besides a number of sea cliffs which were seen in the small islands along its western shore, exposures were studied at Cathalogan and Calbayog. The formation is probably very extensive in Samar where its history may some day be worked out in detail. It is but slightly represented in the northeastern part of Leyte, and there is little certainty of correlating it with the sedimentary formation in the southwestern districts of the island because of the wide belts of the northeastern plains and the Central Cordillera which intervene. Nevertheless, the idea suggests itself that the sedi- mentaries of western Samar and southeastern Leyte belong to the same series which at present are not classified closely as to age, but which are now called late Tertiary. : NORTHEASTERN PLAINS. This district is the part of Leyte best adapted to agriculture because of the character of its soil and the general level surface of the land. It lies between the northeastern semimountainous district and the Central Cordillera, having considerable seacoast on Carigara Bay, and a longer coast line on the Pacific Ocean between Palo and Abuyog. Roads are being built to connect Carigara and Tacloban by the way of Palo, and to extend from Palo through Tanauan and Dagami to Burauen; and grad- ually this system will extend along the coast as far south as Abuyog, and have branches to all the important centers of population. Carigara is oF rs are ee ee ee ee FS. r A eo ee ee ee Oe ee ee ee ee an D ; : a BS, q 5 4 ~ GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE. 303 a yery shallow port and ships must anchor well out in the bay. At low tide a broad beach is left bare, and the channel across it is too shallow for transporting cargo by lighters. On the east coast the towns are un- protected ports and open toward the Pacific. As a result, Tacloban, which has deep water and is well protected, will always receive a large amount of traffic from the plains district. Geologic formation.—With the exception of a few exposures in low river banks which reveal very soft sandstones and poorly cemented con- glomerates, little idea of the underlying formation of the northeastern plains can be obtained. Its surface deposits are largely alluvial and haye been brought down by the streams from the Cordillera. Accordingly, near the foot of the Cordillera, coarser sediments are to be expected, and along the sea coast where the plains are low, little else is seen besides beach sand and silts deposited near river mouths. Reference has already been made to the partially buried hills, which are the southern continua- tion of the northeastern semi-mountainous district. The occurrence of some low hills near Alangalang which are probably outliers of the Cor- dillera district, has been noted in connection with the description of the - Cordillera. Also reference has been made to the hills which surround Iuake Bito. ‘These are all inliers in the plain and give very little informa- ~ tion as to the general formation. ‘The only place thus far at which a deep well has been drilled in this district is Carigara, where artesian water was encountered at a depth of 56 meters.. An examination of the samples of drillings which came from the well showed sands, detrital material from andesite rocks such as might have been brought in by rivers from the Cordillera, and mterbedded marine sands containing marine shells. While it is not possible from the present data to prove the emer- gence of ‘this plains district, it appears very reasonable to suppose that it was a strait at some period not very far removed, and that the elevation of the island has converted it into an alluvial plain, the surface of which has been ageraded by the streams. Marine sediments may be expected under the alluvial surface deposits. GEOLOGIC HISTORY. Our present knowledge of the geology of Leyte is very incomplete but it points to an interesting history of the island which may be tentatively outlined as follows: : The basal formations do not appear in any area thus far studied unless the dioritic rocks represent the igneous portion of the older forma- tions. ‘Thus far diorites have been found only near Malitbog, and, pos- sibly, as Becker has suggested, they are represented at the gold mines on Panaon Island. Im the northeastern district there is a series of sedimentaries, perhaps 354. ADAMS. older Tertiary, which have been metamorphosed into schists and altered shales by intrusive igneous rocks. Some stream gravels indicate that a similar series of more or less metamorphosed sedimentaries and accom- panying intrusives are present in the southwestern district. The erosion of these formations has contributed sediments to the later Tertiary. The most widely distributed formation is a series which contains besides conspicuous beds of limestone, some shales, sandstones, and conglomerates. It is the predominating formation in the sguthwestern district and is reported to contain coal near Port Calubian’ (Eulalia) and petroleum north of Villaba. There is a small area of limestone of this series in the hills at Patyacan point on the east side of the Cordillera in the southeastern part of the island, and it is represented in the northeastern part of the island near the strait of San Juanico, and extensively in southwestern Samar. ‘These sedimentaries are usually considered as later Tertiary. They- have been lifted, faulted, and intruded by igneous rocks which appear to be closely related to the igneous rocks of the Cordillera. The Central Cordillera of Leyte is a volcanic belt which extends in a direction north 30° west, through the island and continues in Biliran and Maripipi Islands. It contains the extinct volcano Cabalian, the solfataras south of Burauen, Mount Amandiuing, which is probably an extinct yoleano, and the solftaras in Biliran Island. The rocks of this district are largely hornblendic andesites. The northeastern plains, which are largely alluvial, represent the latest extensive formation. In addition there are some marginal littoral deposits formed in part of coralline limestone. The emergences and submergences of Leyte and the adjacent islands, including especially Samar, form a complicated history. The coal in Leyte (and it may be noted that coal is also reported in western Samar but not yet known to be of economic importance) and the wide distribution of coralline limestone, in what is called the later Tertiary series of sedi- mentaries, indicates an extensive area of low-lying lands, coral reefs and shallow seas in late Tertiary time. The emergence of this series, which formed the Island of Leyte, seems to have been brought about by the igneous intrusions and volcanic eruptions which took place in the zone of the Cordillera. During the first stages of this process a strait probably extended in what is now the northeastern plains district. By continued elevation and the contribution of sediments from the Cordillera this strait has been transformed into an aggraded alluvial area. The develop- ment of the San Juanico Strait apparently occurred later and may be attributed to a submergence along an axis parallel to the Cordillera of Leyte, and perhaps resulting concomitantly with the growth in elevation of the central portions of the Islands of Samar and Leyte. 2 GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE. 395) SUMMARY OF MINERAL RESOURCES. Gold—The mines in Panaon Island have been abandoned for several years. If the veins permit of favorable mining and a yield of from $6 or $7 per ton can be obtained, as reported by Ashburner, it may be worth while to reopen the mines. Coal.—The commercial value of the coal near Calubian probably depends more upon the character of the beds and facilities for delivering it at the sea coast, than upon the quality, since most Philippine coals are of about the same grade. Concerning the nature and location of the coal there are at present only hearsay reports. Sulphur—Goodman, from an examination of the surface estimated that there are about 3,000 tons of sulphur in sight at the To-od and Pangujan solfataras south of Burauen. At the mining claim San An- tonio on Biliran: Island there are 400 tons and at the Santa Rosalia claim the amount is appreciable. He suggests the deduction of 25 per. cent for loss in mining and treating. ‘The cost of transportation from the Burauen deposits he considered prohibitive and the Biliran deposits too small to warrant the cost of installmg machinery. However, trans- portation from Burauen to Tacloban will soon be improved by the com- pletion of a good road, and since the remaining distance is short it may be that the sulphur can be exploited at a profit. Petroleum.—No wells have been drilled and no study of the geologic structure near the cil showings has been made. There is some talk of prospecting at the showings near Villaba and on Biliran, but at present there is lack of capital for such an enterprise because of the attendant risk. ~ Stone—Thus far two quarries haye been opened for road material, one just west of Tanauan and the other at Palo. No doubt others will be developed in order to obtain stone of good quality for road building. Up to the present time gravel has been extensively used, but with better equipment crushed stone will be employed for road surfacing and a diligent search will probably reveal that it can be made available at many places. Clay.—At present, ordinary pottery is manufactured at Tanauan and probably at some other towns which were not visited. Formerly brick kins were operated for burning soft brick at Baybay, but after supplying the local demand they were allowed to fall into disuse. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Jacor, F. Reisen in den Philippinen. Btrlin, Wiedmannsche Buchhandlung (1873) XVI-381; 1 map. This work contains the paper by Roth catalogued separately. A Spanish edition, “Viajes por Filipinas,” translated from the German, was published in Madrid in 1875; and an English edition, “Travels in the Philippines,” was published in London in 1875. The English transla- tion is very poor and omits Roth’s paper. 90339. 2 356 ADAMS. Roru, Jusrus. Ueber die ater Beschaffenheit der 331-354. Orppexn, Dr. K. Bertare zur Petrographie der Philippinen tind: der Pala : Neues Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie, ete. (1881), Bale 451-501. emanaciones yolednicas. Belen de la ‘Gomis del Mapa Geolégico Espana (1884), V, 11. ee aes separately in ees in bree Bei., Tokyo (1899), V, 11. Brucker, GrorcE F. Report on the Geology tot the Philippine Tslands, Rep. U. 8. Geol. Survey (1899-1900), Part IIT. - col {er ee Se ge Gn Reconnaissance map of the geologic districts of Leyte. : Joa ares « ADAMS: GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF LEYTE.] [PHIL. JOURN. Sci., Vou. IV, No. 5. CQ manieien 1. A PETROLEUM \\ . | & Fe a TACLOS.AN a LEGEND Igneous and metamorphic - > Late Tertiary : sedimentaries ete CAMOTE IS. a MQ 2 ? \ \ Voleanics : ; \ . lentes srl - Faas Tee : 4 » ed Alluvial HiIBUSON oS % Hinonangan Sabalian. q@ialitbog oe BINJAGAT 35 Lilear A, A (Ceoy, EN op DAM ACN It, 7 °; f 2 BOHOL |. ze KILOMETERS, M | N DA 40 50 MILES JuFALCON DEL. RECONNAISSANCE MAP OF THE GEOLOGIC DISTRICTS OF LEYTE. PLATE I. Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY.! A. THE MEN. zy By Ropert BENNETT BEAN, assisted by Frpmrtco 8. PLANTA. (From the Anatomical Laboratory, Philippine Medical School, Manila, P. I.) A study of the physical characteristics of the people of Taytay was suggested by Doctor Freer in conjunction with the medical investiga- tions to be made there in 1909. ‘This study throughout the season of inyestigation was greatly facilitated by the kind codperation of Doctors Clements and Nichols. A series of observations was conducted on about 500 individuals, forty measurements of each individual being made by Doctor Bean, and transcribed by Mr. Planta. The head measurements were performed in accordance with the prescribed regulations of the International Con- gress of Anthropologists assembled at Monaco in 1906(10,14), and the body measurements in accordance with the personal instructions of Professor Monouyrier(3). Additional observations on the ear type, color of eyes, structure of hair, etc., were carried on, and sagittal outlines of the head from inion to nasion were produced with the cephalograph(7). The statistical part of the work was done by Mr. Planta, who alone is responsible for the averages, although every calculation has been verified until its accuracy is assured. Doctor Bean alone is responsible for the interpretation of the results and the writing of the paper. This study is divided into six parts: I, Physical Measurements; II, Descriptive Characters; III, The Segregation of Types; IV, Ear Type and Species; V, Diseases and Species; and VI, Conclusions, The Separa- tion of the Types into Systematic and Elementary Species. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The town of Taytay probably contains a more mixed population than the average Filipino town at the same distance from the coast (20 kilo- meters), for the following reasons: It is near enough to Manila (15 Ialometers) to receive’ some of the overflow of the population from that city, and perhaps for this reason and because of its pleasant location on an elevated knoll at the base of the foothills of adjacent mountains, it is 1 These studies form a part of those carried on during the medical survey of the town of Taytay, the remaining papers on which have already been published in Sec. B. 4 (1909) of this Journal—Co-Eprror. 359 360 BEAN. the country residence of some of the Goyernment’s high Filipino officials. The proximity to the town of the hills and mountains is sufficient to attract the hill people, and its situation on the borders of Bay Lake (Laguna de Bay) attracts the fisher folk. It is only a few ldlometers from Pasig, the capital of Rizal Proyince, where a mixed population of Filipinos, Americans, Spaniards and Chinamen reside. The pilgrims to Antipolo, situated in the hills, pass through ‘Taytay, and one of the most important industries of the place is the transportation by cart and hammock of many thousands of passengers on this pilgrimage during the month of May each year. Finally, the town of Cainta, where a garrison of British soldiers, natives of India, are reported to have been left when the British evacuated Manila one hundred and fifty years ago, is little more than a stone’s throw from Taytay, and there has probably been an infiltration of the Indian element into the latter place. The individuals measured were those who came to the dispensary and they should be considered in part as a hospital population, but the major- ity showed no other affliction than infestation with intestinal parasites and many were only friends of the sick who came with them as companions. The resulting components of this randon sample represent more nearly the normal average of the population than if a selected group such as recruits, students or other homogenous bodies of people had been taken. Therefore it may be assumed fairly that the individuals herein pre- sented are typical of the littoral population of the Philippines, although a larger percentage than usual belongs to the hospital population, and the Indian element may exert a small influence. I. PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS. STATURE. Topinard(31) classified the races of men by stature as follows: Men. Women._ Small below 160 cm. below 140 cm. Below medium 160-165 (inclusive) 140-153 (inclusive) Above medium 165-169 (inclusive) 153-157 (inclusive) Tall above 170 above 158 The Taytayans, according to this classification, are on the border line between the small races and the races below medium height. The average of 183 adult males is 159.47 centimeters. The minimum is 145.7 centimeters and the maximum is 171.0 centimeters. The stature is 5.47 centimeters greater than that of 104 adult male Igorots(3), but the distance between the extremes is not so great. The extremes should be separated more in 183 individuals than in 104, if the compo- sition is the same. However, this is not true of the two groups, Igorots and Taytayans, from which the inference is that the stature of the component elements forming the Igorots was more diverse than that forming the 'Taytayans. Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAyTAy. 361 The Igorots are apparently derived from a tall stock (170 centimeters), a small stock (148 centimeters), and a stock below medium height. The Taytayans are probably derived from both the latter stocks, and, in addition, their stature has been influenced by Spanish and Chinese elements. The Spanish are slightly below medium stature and the Chinese are slightly above, although the Northern Chinese (Manchus) are tall (8,10,14,17,22,35) ; the two original stocks were small. A com- bination of these elements with a greater proportion of the original stocks could easily produce an average stature of 159.47 centimeters. ‘The curve of stature illustrates how this might result. here is a al . Q 216 = 25) + aE IL : Ne S Alp 0 gq ii = \ ~ \ $ 1 4 & \ \ Q : 5 x 12 = 1S If 4 PSS | 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172. STATURE IN CENTIMETERS + Fic. 1—CuRvVE oF STATURE oF 183 ADULT MALE TAYTAYANS, summit at 156 centimeters where the mode is found, there is another summit at 162 centimeters, and a break of the curve at 168. The first summit includes the greatest number of individuals with the same stature, a small stature, that would represent the primary stocks; the second summit has fewer individuals and a stature below medium, which represents the Spanish; and the break above medium stature, with still fewer individuals, represents the Chinese. The Spanish element is apparently in excess of the Chinese but is not present in so great a number as the primary stocks. The presentation of types in a subsequent part of this. paper corroborates the inferences stated here. _ The stature of the Taytayans exceeds that of the inhabitants of the inland part of the Malay Peninsula(18), that of the Veddahs of Cey- lon (24), the Dyaks of Borneo(18), the Dravidians of Bengal(18), the Annamites in general(10), the Igorots(3), the Ainos and the Japa- nese(18) ; it is practically the same as the Malays of South Perak(18). and the Menangkabau-Malayan of Hagen (12) ; and it is less than that of the Chinese(12,18), Coreans(18), Javanese (12,17,30), Sumatrans(39), North American Indian(13), the African and North American Negro (31), and practically the whole body of European and American whites (10,23,31,36). 362 BEAN. | AMMA GEA NUMBERS INDICATE c HOW MANY IN. EACH 4 GROUP 163) > nO J ~ g ~— S & } rs EY STATURE /N CENTIMETERS > 3 g S ea Es 156) 1! 15-17 18°22 23-27 2832 3337 3842 4347 48-50 5/60 6/-70 7/-80 AGE GROUPS Fic. 2.—STATURE AND AGE. STATURE AND AGE. This array presents a bizarre effect, and no deductions may safely be drawn from the correlation of stature and age. However, the facts speak for themselves. The age is only approximate as indicated by the manner of grouping. For instance, there are 6 men at the age 20, but only 4 at 19 and 1 at 21; there are 7 at 25, but only 2 at 24 and 2 at 26; there are 15 at 30, but 4 at 29 and 2 at 31; there are 9 at 35, but 2 at 34 and 1 at 36; there are 13 at 40, but 3 at 39 and 2 at 41; and there are 7 at 45, and but 1 at 44 and 1 at 46. Therefore, it seems justifiable to group the ages in series of 5 except that the ages 15 to 17 form one group and the age groups above 50 are in series of 10. Accordingly, the stature appears to increase from 15 to 20, to decrease from 20 to 25, to increase from 25 to 40, to drop considerably at 45 and 50, to imcrease again at 60 and 70, and finally to reach a stature at 80 that is less than that below 20. There is a fastigium at 40, the stature increasing up to that age and decreasing thereafter. The in- dividual with the smallest stature is aged 38, and the one with the tallest, aged 383. There are 58 individuals aboye the age of 20 who have a stature less than the average of the group aged 15 to 17. For this and other reasons the few individuals below the age of 20 are included as adults in this study. The conclusion reached is that stature in age groups is a matter of the chance types that were measured at each age rather than altered stature due to age. If the stature increases ‘Sa aes II. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 363 to the age of 40, this would indicate that the Filipino reaches maturity in stature late in life, and if the stature at age 15 is equal to that in adult life the Filipino reaches maturity at an early age. Both may be true. There may be an early rapid maturity that is premature, and a late ripening that is real maturity, or some types may mature early and others late, or there may be waves of progression superceded by reeression, although the last is very improbable. There is no such regularity in the increase of stature as found among. the Igorots, and the fastigium for the latter was between 20 and 30 instead of about 40. The fastigium for stature of the following peoples from records of more than a million individuals(31) is given for comparison with the people of Taytay: North American) Years, Trish : s 31-34 English 29 Scotch 28 French 27 Scandinavian 25 German 23 Igorot 20-30 Taytay 40 Liharzig gives the twenty-fifth year, Villermi the twenty-third. SITTING HEIGHT. This linear dimension is the distance between the ischial tuberosity and the yertex of the head when the person is sitting erect. It may be divided into three parts, the total head height, from the chin to the vertex; the neck length, from the chin to the suprasternal notch; and the body length, from the suprasternal notch to the pubic spine; although the three dimensions do not quite equal the sitting height because the pubis is several centimeters higher than the ischial tuberosities. The ayerage sitting height of 181 adult males is 83.99 centimeters with minimum and maximum of 74.3 and 91.7, respectively. It is 7.6 centimeters more than the distance from the trochanter to the vertex, 6.9 centimeters more than the distance from the pubic spine to the vertex, and 0.9 centimeter more than the total leg length. It is 53.3 per cent of the stature which is 0.8 more than the European according to Topinard, and 3.9 less than the length “Scheitel bis Damm” of 130 Huropeans (Swiss?) measured by Hoffmann and given in Vierordt’s tables(36). he sitting height of 60 Apache and 53 Pima Indians of the southwestern United States measured by Hrdlicka(13) is 53.2 and 52.9 per cent respectively, which is practically the same as my figures for Taytay. Soularue (29) approximates the relative body length by comparing the length of the vertebral column of 174 skeletons to the calculated stature, and concludes that the white and yellow races have relatively long bodies and short legs compared 364 BEAN. with the black and other races. The North American Indian is intermediate between the yellow and the black races which are less than the white in body length. The length of the body is measured in so many ways by different men that one is at a loss to know which method to select. The distance from the swprasternal notch to the symphysis pubis is the easiest and most direct method and lends itself to photometry as well as antnropo- metry. Although it is variable on account of the movable points from which it is measured, it is probably as exact as any other. The acromion to the symphysis is probably more variable, and the suprasternal notch to the trochanter is scarcely less so. The length of the vertebral column is the actual body length, and can be measured from the nasal spine to the pubis, but these are also variable points. The average body length of the Taytayans from the suprasternal notch to the symphysis pubis is 47.1 centimeters, from the suprasternal notch to the trochanter it is 45.8 centimeters, and from the acromion to the symphysis pubis it is 47.8 centimeters. The body length of the inhabitants of the inland part of the Malay Penin- sula(18), (p. 283), measured from the suprasternal notch to the trochanter( 7), averages from 43.5 centimeters in the Senoi I, to 47.2 centimeters in the Western Senoi. .The body length of the inhabitants of central Sumatra(39), measured from the acromion to the symphysis pubis, averages 45.2 centimeters. The body length of the Igorots{3) (p. 431) from the suprasternal notch to the pubis in 47.7 centimeters. Topinard(31) (p. 1068) gives the body length “de la fourchette du sternum au siege” in relation to the stature which may be compared with that of the Taytayans in the following table: Body length in relation to stature. - | Relative Number of | | Group. | _ body Author. | individ- | | length. | uals, | —— ) Huropeans) = ee ee | 33.5 280 | Kabyles ____ oe 32.5 163 | Annamites =| 30. 2 27 | Weallmucks sae2. 206 see een eee | 34.6 : 6 Tavtgy as seats see eee eS cee ae | 33.6 | i This places the relative body length of the Taytayans in the same class as the Huropeans and it is different from the Annamites. Differences of body length can not mean a great deal until the methods of measuring the body have been unified, and the basis for the body length should be the distance from the suprasternal notch to the sym- physis pubis. At least this measurement should be made and utilized in a comparison of different people. ee i: Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 365 The total head height (chin to vertex) is 23.2 centimeters for Taytay, which is 14.5 per cent of the stature or nearly that of the Chinese. Topinard(31) (p. 1071) assigns the greatest total head height to the Chinese, the least to the European, and places the Negroes of Africa near the latter and the Negroes of Oceania near the former. The Huropean has 7.5 heads of stature, the Negro, 7 heads of stature, and the yellow people, 6.5 heads of stature. ‘The Taytayans are therefore like the Negro in total head height, because this is */, of the stature. The total head height of the Igorots(3) (p. 487) is 21.6 centimeters and their stature is exactly the same as the Taytayans in.relation to it. The neck length of the Igorots is 0.3 centimeter less than the Tay- tayans, which is 7.39 centimeters. ‘This is the same as that of the Besisi of the Malay Peninsula, (Martin) (us)euts of the Japanese, but it is greater than that of the Senoi. Jt has: been demonstrated that the Filipinos of Taytay resemble the Negroes, the Huropeans, the Chinese, the North American Indians, and the Hast Indian peoples; therefore it can not be doubted that they represent a much mixed population and that many diverse types are to be found among them. ‘This becomes more eyident as we proceed, and finally an attempt will be made to select some of the types and to relate them to the people from whom they were derived. LOWER EXTREMITY. The total length of the lower extremity, as determined by the height of the trochanter from the sole of the foot when the person stands erect, 1s 83.08 centimeters for 170 adult males, with a minimum of 72.8 centimeters and a maximum of 93.5 centimeters. The height of the trochanter is 1.3 centimeters greater than that of the pubic spine. Tt is 3.92 centimeters higher than the Igorots which is 1.8 centimeters greater than their pubic spine. ‘The relatively greater trochanter height of the Igorots is probably due to the heavy fascia and muscles that cover the trochanter in these hardy mountain climbers, thus projecting upward its palpable part. However, the trochanter height of the Igorots in relation to stature is but 51.6, whereas that of the Taytayans is 52.1; therefore the lower extremity of the latter is both absolutely and relatively longer than the Igorots. Hoffmann (36) gives the trochanter height of 130 Huropean males as 89.8 centimeters. Topinard(31) (p. 1074) gives the relative trochanter height as * follows: 30 Belgians 52.0 12 Arabs 52.6 13 Berbers 53.6 27 Annamites ‘ 50.2 3 Hsquimaux 50.7 10 Negroes 53.1 366 BEAN. This places the Taytayans intermediate between the Annamites and Negroes and almost the same as the Belgians and Arabs. The relative public height by Topinard(31) (p. 1074) is somewhat different: 1,061 Whites 50.3 27 Annamités 51.2 2,020 Negroes . 51.8 That of the Taytayans is 51.3 which approximates the Annamites and is between the white and the Negro, although nearer the latter than the former. Martin’s(18) Malays (p. 260) present a variable average length of the inferior extremity from 76.3 centimenters to 83.2, and the relative length varies from 51.2 to 53.3. This length is estimated by subtracting 4 centimeters from the height of the anterior superior iliac spine, therefore it is comparable neither with the trochanter nor with the pubic height. However, Martin gives a long list of trochanter heights of other peoples from which we extract a few: Group. | Absolute. | Relative. Japanese studentssi22< 2-7 842500. t cos eel sae ee | 78,1 48.5 | Japanese workmen_ | 81.2 50.0 North Chinese______ -| §3.8 50.0 | KSYoyby Any (Cau aVee(eh = -| 83.9 | 51.9 | ANMORR = - 81.8 | Gita) | WUTOPeaNS=2-22_ eae oa sao See ae eae ae | 52,0 (Sr usN GS Toes soe en ae ee ee ee = CON 50 Taytayans. 2 = 2 2002 Wes os Sse ee eee eee eee 83.08 | 52.1 The trochanter height makes the Taytayan resemble a Huropean similar to the Ainos and Southern Chinese. The lower extremity offers three parts for examination, the upper leg from the trochanter to the knee, the lower leg from the knee to the ankle, and the ankle height from the ankle to the sole, to which may be added another, the leg minus foot equal to the length of the lower leg plus that of the upper leg. LEG MINUS FOOT, This may be given best in three groups recently measured. | Group. Absolute. Relative. | Number. | | |) sMiamting SaWallarysa((ps.260)) seen ee | 70.9-76.8 | 47,2-49,7 100 ? | Teorots< esen shes a oe es ee 74.0 | 48.1 104 Taviayan sss Ssh ke eee eee eee | 76.5 | 48.0 175 The relative length does not vary greatly in the three groups, but the absolute length is greater for the Taytayans than for the Igorots or for the majority of Martin’s Malays. Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL, ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 367 UPPER LEG. The absolute upper leg length from the trochanter to the skin line of the knee of 176 men of Taytay is 39.2 centimeters and the relative length is 24.6. The Huropeans of Hoffmann(36) (p. 15) have an absolute length of 41.9 centimeters and a relative length of 20 (Top- inard) (31). Martin(18), however, gives the relative length for Hu- ropeans as 24 to 28. The Igorots have an absolute length of 38.0 centimeters and a relative length of 24.7, whereas the Malays of Martin(18) (p. 265) have an absolute length of 38.5 to 42.2 centimeters and a relative length of 23.6 to 26.5, which is greater than that of the Tgorots and Taytayans absolutely and relatively. The upper leg length (Topinard(31), p. 1041, Martin(17), p. 265) increases absolutely and relatively from the Asiatic through the African to the European. Soularue (29) gives the following length of the femur in different groups of men: 4 Group. Absolute. | Relative, | toe | _| D | | RRPAUUL GD] Conese ete eee earn eee ee eee eee ES | 41.6 | 29.4 | iNeearoe oae e ee e | 42.3} 28.8 | ASiatie 22=== == 43.1 | 2009 Polynesian ___ 44,1 29.3 European ______--------__- 443) 20,4 The absolute length varies considerably but there is no great difference in the relative length. We may conclude from the foregoing facts that the length of the femur and of the upper leg is a matter of stature rather than of race. . LOWER LEG. The length of the lower leg from the knee to the ankle for 175 men of Taytay is 37.29 centimeters absolutely, and 23.37 relatively; that of the Igorots is 36 and 23.4 respectively. Martin’s Malays vary from 31.4 to 35.4 centimeters absolutely and from 20.8 to 22.7 relatively. For Hoffmann’s Europeans, Vierordt(36) gives 39.6 and 23 centimeters respectively, and Martin(18) gives 22 to 24 centimeters for the relative length of the Europeans. The lower leg length (Martin(18), Topinard) (31) increases relatively and absolutely through the Asiatic and European to the African. Soularue(29) gives the following: | Group. | Absolute. | Relative. Asiatic 2 SES SUE Oe SSE eee 34,6 | 23.2 PAST CT C A eee oe ee oe ee eS ns asses 35.2 | 24,9 eNco ropes aterm net at Ce 35:8)| 24.5) | European __.------- 35.8| 23.9 VeRO) Ka SSN Fi 0 Se I a a a 36.8 | 24.4 368 BEAN. The Taytayan Suenite the Polynesian and is more like the European : than like any other group, although resembling more the Asiatic than the = ; Negro or American Indian. ; # THE TIBIO-FEMORAL INDEX OR CRURAL INDEX. The length of the tibia multiplied by 100 and divided by the lengt of the femur, or, on the living, the length of the lower leg multi by 100 and divided by the length of the upper leg, gives the femoral index, which represents the length of the ae leg in ug of the upper leg equal to 100. The tibio-femoral index of the Taytayan men is 95.1. For pu of comparison, a table is given with the tibio-femoral indices of var' groups by different authors. Tibio-femoral index on the living. Number Group. Index. of indi- Author. — viduals. i “4 Ved ahs nao 8 es See Se eee | Chap eae aeeaee Malays) 222-2222 = 3 ese ee Sumatrans, — 2-2 a Alas p= Sens t= seco a nse) =| Neu Mechlenburger-__. | | Te oro tsaeseesns eee, x la Buropeansi=s-.-s-eassa eee aoe ee 94.3 _ 130 | Hoffmann. To this may be added a few records on the skeleton. Tibio-femoral index on the skeleton. | . f Neer Group. Index. of indi- Author. ; x viduals. HUTOPCRDS22se = == ee TO Wise oh ete Broca. INGETOCS 22 Sees eee ee pike) Do. (BUrOpeRNSse=- =: ae ee 81.1 77 | Topinard. INGENOES saseescesreee cesses 82.9 32 Do. Guimel di = eee 83.8 2| Verneau. Cro-Magnon_ 81. 2-86 4 Do. UWS) ae Soa oro soc eeeectos, 80.6 4 | Soularne. Malayo-Polynesia =] 8211) 13)|) 9 + Do: Chinese and Annamese 83.6 22 Do. Europeans___ 1 Negroes ___ Nepritoss...d-- 2-22) ee ee ’ : Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAyTAy. 369 Tt is evident from the above that the tibio-femoral index differs in the different groups of individuals, and there is a transition through the Asiatic and European to the African. The Taytayans have a higher index than the Asiatic or European, and I believe we can safely say a lower index than the Negro or Negrito. THE ANKLE HEIGHT. This is 6.5 centimeters for the Taytayans, 5.4 centimeters for the Igorots and 7.8 for the Europeans according to Hoffmann. ‘The Tay- tayans are almost exactly intermediate between the Igorots and the Europeans, which may be significant and can be taken to mean that the Taytayans represent a cross of the early Malay and the later European peoples. THE UPPER EXTREMITY. The total length of the upper extremity is the distance from the acromion process to the tip of the middle finger with the arm hanging straight by the side. ‘This may be divided into three parts, the upper arm from the acromion to the head of the radius, the forearm from the head of the radius to its styloid process, the hand from this point to the tip of the middle fingers, to which may be added a fourth part, the arm minus hand by combining the length of the upper arm and forearm. The absolute length of the upper extremity of 176 Taytayans is 72.97 centimeters and the relative length is 45.8, which is greater than that of the Igorots(5) (absolute,- 67.82 centimeters, relative, 44.0 centi- meters), of the Malays(18) (absolute, 64.5 to 71.8 centimeters, relative, 43.1 to 45.9 centimeters), of the Sumatrans(39) (absolute, 70.34 centi- meters, relative, 44.62 centimeters),-is the same as the Battaks(12) (absolute, 73.4 centimeters, relative, 45.8 centimeters) ; and it ig less than the Ainos(18) (velative, 46.0 centimeters) and the Veddahs(15) (absolute, 73.9 centimeters, relative, 47.0 centimeters). It is about the same as the Huropean(18) (relative(18), 45.5; relative(31), 45.0, absolute(36), 74.2). The upper extremity of the Negro is not longer relatively than that of the European according to Topinard(31) (Negro, 45.2, European, 43.2 to 45.5 cen- timeters) although Keane(14) (p. 36) gives the long upper extremity of the Negro as an important differential character. Soularue(29) (p. 375) finds little difference between the two in the combined length of the humerus and radius _ in relation to stature, which is 37.3 for the Negro and 36.8 for the Europeans. Topinard(31) (p..1036) gives the relative length as 35.5 for the Negro and 35.0 for the European. The upper extremity of the Negro may be a trifle longer relative to stature than is the Huropean, but whatever the difference, it is slight and the Taytayan is not so greatly unlike either one. 370 BEAN. THE ARM MINUS HAND. This linear dimension is 55.42 centimeters absolutely, and 34.7 in relation to stature in 175 Taytayans. The same dimension of the Igorots varies from 50.5 to 53.9 centimeters absolutely and from 33.3 to 33.6 relatively. Among the Malays(18) (p. 247), it varies from 48.5 to 53.1 centimeters absolutely and from 51.6 to 34 relatively. Referring to the length of the humerus plus the radius as given above, it is clear that the Taytayan is more like the Negro and the European than like the Igorot or the inhabitants of the Malay peninsula. THE UPPER ARM. The absolute upper arm length of 175 Taytayans is 32.37 centimeters and the relative arm length is 20.3. That of the Igorots is from 28.6 to 30.6 centimeters absolutely and from 18.7 to 19.8 relatively, and that of the Malays(18) from 27.6 to 30.7 centimeters absolutely and from 17.9 to 19.8 relatively. The 130 Europeans of Hoffmann have an absolute length of 31.2 centimeters and a relative length of 18.5. Topinard(31) gives the European’s relative length 19.5. The following figures are taken from Martin(18) for comparison: The upper arm lengths of various peoples. j Group. | Absolute. | Relative. | ‘ | Japanese Stud ents a.2 ee ee ere ee 26.2 16.9 | 9.7 18.3 | 18.0 | 18.9 19.0 GOrmi aN Sea Se ee Se ae SE RP cee ee cae | Meee eres 19.0 | South Chinese__ 31.1 19,2 °F |, PAR OS¢ de ate eaten ST ee eo te een eee eee eee eee 30.3 19.3 |reiiVied Gains 2 iS 25 Slee aati re ea ae ee 31.0 19.4 | | 31.1 19.4 } Teal ey stm SC ate atk te Ae a oe ee Se ae Tis Bessa? 19.6 | | MUTOPeCANS $23.55 a= Oe es eh ee eee ae ee ee eee 19.8 |} Sikhs | 34.2 20517} Taytayanss = pees eee a eee | 32. 37 20.3 | Mishlandileorots 22a. ses ee ee eee 29.8 19.8 | The relative length of the humerus as given by Soularue in several groups follows: Malayo-Polynesian 20.1 Negroes 20.2 Europeans 21.3 Yellows 21.5 Arabs and Berbers 22.0 -f - ; % i. 4 —, Ce Tae ee ee Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 371 From the foregoing it may be inferred that the Taytayans resemble in the upper arm length the Europeans, Sikhs, American Indians, Chinese, Arabs and Berbers more than they do the Japanese, Senoi and Negroes, and they are not greatly different from the Highland Igorots. THE FOREARM. The length of this part is 23.05 centimeters absolutely in 176 Tay- tayans and 14.45 relatively. Among the Igorots(3) (p. 42+) it varies from 22.0 to 23.5 centimeters absolutely and from 14.4 to 14.8 relatively, and among the Malays(18) (p. 250) from 20.1 to 23.6 absolutely and from 13.3 to 15.2 relatively. ' For Europeans, Hoffmann(36) (p. 15) gives 24.6 centimeters absolute and Topinard (31) gives 14 relative. The following list is taken from(18) Martin (p. 255) for comparison: Group. | Absolute. | Relative. = = } _ 13.8 Japanese — 14.1 AVE LCT nS rete ee rer cee eS GU Cee, AE ae EU Aa Ds 2. 14.3 Europeans 14.4 VCS Ss eee ene aS eee a Men eee Ene eves eehewe Ae Ue 25 14.8 Souths Chin esemes sae seen oe ee eee ee eS 25.0 14.8 Sn & ese rine ata ts Bel ce AV Ll ee ee Se STL | 27.5 15,2 PANITNOS one serene a see eee | 23.9 15.3 PB LK Sa eae a Be ee eee Ens bee wl 24,1 15.5 Genm aniShen see an was he ten, er oe Ae. Shae 1 ate ae 9 Je@WS. ===. g | Negroes —_-- | fei COME Os NeoTOGS peretee meee meats ts = eee See oe ee 18.6 Topinard(31) (p. 1087) places the relative length of the forearm in the Negro above that of any other people, although three Kaffir Negroes were less than some Europeans and Asiaties. The Taytayans are intermediate between the Negro and the Japanese or Senoi, and almost exactly the same as the European. The length of-the radius as given by Soularue and Topinard may be compared with the length of the forearm as already given. Group. Relative. | Author. | PET OP CAINS ex eee ween hE Aes a Aa ake 3 | 15.5 | Soularue. | Asiaties__ 15.7 Do. | PAUTADSEB CDOTS pees = see ee ee a ee eS | 15.9 Do. | BYE ety S720 yn G21 1s meee ne EN 16.0 Do. | PACT CANS ese Ss ae a senna aus eens } 16,2 Do. | NPP TOES SeNeraeess ase See ee noe ee ene 17.1 Do. | Europeans .9 | Topinard. | PAIS oul CS Seen a ee eee ene A ee u 5.6 Do. | Negroes in general | 5.7 Dow ul i) 90339——_3 372 BEAN. The length of the radius separates the Huropean and Negro still further than does the length of the forearm, which indicates that this dimension is a good differential factor for large groups of individuals. The length of this part in relation to the upper arm may also help to differentiate the world’s groups of people. THE RADIO-HUMERAL INDEX OR BRACHIAL INDEX. This is equal to the radius times 100 divided by the humerus, or, in the living, it is the forearm times 100 divided by the upper arm. For 175 Taytayans it is 71.2, for 104 Igorots(3) (p. 425) it is 76.2, and for the Malays(18) (p. 252) 73.2 (Senoi 76.0). Topinard gives the European 82.2 to 86.8 and the Negrogs 87.9 to 93.4. Martin found the brachial index unsatisfactory as a differential factor because of the varied results of different authors, due no doubt to lack of a uniform standard for taking the measurements. However, Hoffmann(36!} makes the European index 78.8 on the living, and Annandale(18) (p. 147) gives that of the Semang as 98.7. The radio-humeral index (skeleton) given by Soularue(29) follows: 19 HEuropeans es 73 12 Chinese and Annamese 73.4 22 Americans 76.3 13 Malayo-Polynesians 76.8 21 Negroes of Africa 78.0 6 Negritos 78.3 There is a gradual transition from the European to the African. Hyi- dently the Taytayans are more like the Huropean than like the Negro or Negrito. THE HAND LENGTH. The absolute hand length of 176 Taytayans is 17.55 centimeters and the relative is 11.05, that of the Igorots(3) (p. 424) is 16.0 to 17.8 centi- meters absolutely and 10.6 to 11.3 relatively, and of the Malays(18) (p. 250) is 16.0 to 18.7 centimeters absolutely, and 10.5 to 12.5 relatively. Martin gives the following for other peoples. Group. | Absolute. Relative. South Chinese_____..___- a 16.3 |" 10.1 | | Javanese ____ at 16.8 | 10.2 Malay 22°22. 28 sso s oo se ee eee | 16.9 10.5 | (BENS ego eee |x e740) een | Sikhs_--- 17.8 | 10.7 | Senofice 227k. Nie ee Se ee eel | 16.8} 10.9 [he ewrst eet sae atee BS RS Fe oi i eee 18.5] 11.2 Turopeane 22-2. e es ae ee ee | eee ane | 11.3 ’ | Japanese students .---.---_.-_--_- ted ao oe ahaa 18.7 | 11.5 Weddahs =--2-=--_ SRY 18.4 11.5 AITIOSCS HE. oe a ee ee | 18.4) 11.7 ' P L : : ; ; j Ti. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 373 The Europeans (Hoffmann(36) and Topinard (31) ) have an absolute hand length of 18.4 centimeters and a relative hand length of 11.5. From these measurements the T’aytayans would be placed in the midst -of the groups given above and in hand length they are not a great deal Jess than the Europeans. Kvause(36) gives the distance from the knee to the middle finger with the arm straight at the side as 14 centimeters in Huropeans and only 5 to 8 centi- meters in Negroes. In the Taytayans the same distance is 13.83 centimeters, which is practically equal to that in the Europeans. THE INTERMEMBRAL INDEX, - This may be represented best by the four long parts of the extremities : upper arm, forearm,.upper leg and lower leg, on the living, and by the corresponding bones: humerus, radius, femur and tibia on the skeleton. The index is the length of the upper extremity, or upper arm plus fore- arm, in terms of the lower extremity, upper leg plus lower leg, when the latter equals 100. For the Taytayans it is 72.4, for the Igorots(3) (p. 457) it is 69.2 to 70.6, and for the Malays(18) (p. 267) it is from 63.7 to 71.4. Soularue (29) gives the following on the skeleton: Europeans 69.1 _ Chinese and Annamese 68.5 Americans 69.0 Negroes 68.3 Negritos 69.0 Australians 69.1 Apparently the lower extremity of the Negro is relatively long and the upper is relatively short. The difference is slight and this factor is” not so good a differentiator as others. The facts hereinbefore presented are given in the usual manner with a system of ayerages which may be of assistance in establishing differences and resemblances of various groups of men, but it is not of much as- sistance in fathoming the complex consistency of the group under con- sideration. This must be done in a different way, and the only way that presents itself as feasible is to study the individuals(38). This we will do presently by grouping them so that the individuals of each group resemble one another. ‘The object in view in giving the measurements that have gone before was to convince anyone that very little could be derived from such a study except what was known before. We have already demonstrated that the stature of the ‘laytayan is similar to the other eastern Asiatic and Pacific peoples; the sitting height is the same as that of the North American Indian; the body length is the same as the Huropean’s; the total head height resembles that of the 374 BEAN. Negro; the length of the lower extremity is the same as that of the European; the tibio-femoral index is intermediate between that of the Asiatic-European and the Negro-Negrito; and the total length of the upper extremity is like both Negro and European. The upper arm length resembles that of the European and the Sikh, and the forearm length is exactly that of the European, but different from either the Japanese on the one hand or the Negro on the other; and lastly, the Taytayan is more like the European than the Negro or Negrito in the brachial index and the hand length. At the beginning of this paper it was stated that the Tay- tayans are probably derived from mixtures of Filipinos, Chinese, Spanish, and Hast Indian elements. This has been established by body measure- ments. There is also evidence of some relationship with the Negro although there is considerable evidence that the greatest amount of resemblance is for the European. When the types are established it will be seen that a majority of them are Huropean, and that a majority of the individuals pertain to the European types. THE AVERAGE TAYTAYAN—A TYPICAL FILIPINO? The individual represented by serial number 99, clinical number 176, is almost exactly equal in every dimension to the average of the first 100 measured, and to the total average; therefore he may be taken to represent the type of the Taytay population, if this constitutes a type. This man is an Australoid with a cephalic index higher than usual, indicating some Primitive influence or a slight dorsal flattening of the head. The head outline is low in front but the front bombe is seen (fig. 3). ‘The oceiput neither bulges nor is it much flattened, the vertex is high, the glabella prominent. Australoid and Primitive are both represented, but Iberian can not be excluded. The radio-humeral index is 67.8, the tibio-femoral is 94.2 and the intermembral is 74, Negroid characteristics are lacking, but European _ characteristics are m evidence. One can safely say that a typical Filipino (?) of to-day is Huropean rather than Negroid but retains Primitive characteristics. THE TAYTAYAN, THE EUROPEAN AND THE NILOTIC NEGRO. It may be of interest to compare the average linear dimensions of these three groups of individuals to determine similarities and differences. The Nilotic Negroes were recently measured by the late Dr. Alexander MacTier Pirrie, and reported by Dr. David Waterston(38) from the Anthrop- ological Laboratory of Edinburgh University in 1908. The Nilotie Negroes include the whole native population “extending from the western frontier of Abyssinia across the Nile Valley, through the Barh-El-Ghazal region westwards to the Central Niger, and from about 200 miles south of Khartoum, to the northeastern shores of Lake Nyanza.” APINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAyTAY. 375 CLINICAL No. 176. SERIAL No, 99. Fig. 3.—AVpRAGH TAYTAYAN. 316 BEAN. The individuals measured are distributed among 12 different tribes, the Dinkas (60 males) and the Buruns (43 males) making more than half the number. ; ; The Dinkas are the tallest and have relatively the shortest limb parts of all the groups. The averages and indices of the measurements of 187 adult males are given in a table at the end of Waterston’s paper from which we extract the following: 187 Nilotie Negroes. 183 Taytayans.* 130 Europeans.* | Character, SRA, I - Reece Tis ee) a ee | lt ipaisiste Abso- | Rela- | Abso- | p.j4-.,] Absolute, Relative. Tite! tive. | lute. Relative.) | | oo aS 8 ee Ee ee et | eee 5 - Statues 5st eee 168. 25-150.16 | 100, 00-100,00 159.47 100. 00 167. 80 100. 00 Upper leg length--------- 40,70- 47. 00 | 25.S80- 28.00 24, 60 41.90 25. 00 Lower leg length_--_-----| 39.60- 44.42 | 24.40- 24.80 23.37 39. 60 23. 60 | Upper arm length__-.___- 34.79 | 18.60- 19.30, y 20.30 31.20 18.60 | Forearm length ceeeeaees| 31.08 | 17.10-17.70 |) 23.05 14.45 24. 60 14.70 | Tibio-femoral index ___..__ O86 Qlensaa=n naa Chaylee ceie ssa 94.3." | | Radio-humeral inde O49)" | ee Se ee eee ACY taal es Se 73:3) | ae Intermembral index _____ CTA SoS ee resale ee Wk Me zaeee 66.47 Ee | | Settee hie A ae ee (Ey, if a Hoffmann in Vierordt’s tables (Swiss men?). The black faced type represents the figures for the group of Dinkas (60 males). The stature of the groups of Negroes ranges from above medium to tall, the European is above medium, and the Taytayan is small. The limb parts of the Negro are longer individually and collectively, absolutely and relatively, than those of the European or Taytayan, except the relative upper arm length which is the same for the European as for the group of Negroes that has the smallest relative length, and is greater for the Taytayan than for either the Negro or the European. The absolute upper arm length of the Taytayan is measured from the upper edge instead of the lower edge cf the acromion process to the elbow, and this may make it about 1 centimeter longer than it should be, there- fore it is probably the same as the Huropean, and less than the Negro. However, even a greater reduction than 1 centimeter would not reduce the relative length as low as either of the other two peoples. The relative length of the upper arm is therefore a distinctive feature of the Tay- tayan, is different from the Huropean, and eyen surpasses the Negro (cf. Japanese (3) ). The absolute and relative forearm length of the Negro is so much greater than that of the other two peoples that it may be at once desig- nated as the most characteristic limb quality of the Nilotic Negro. The tibio-femoral index of the various groups of Negroes gives both lower and higher figures than those of 'Taytay and of the Huropeans, and if all the groups of Negroes are averaged the index would not be different from the other two. It may be significant, however, that some groups of Negroes have a high index and others have a low one; the ; . 4 j “ / ' = oo ee eee, ll. FILIPINO TYPHS: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAyTAYy. 377 ‘same condition is found among the 'Taytayans where a low index pertains to some types and a high index to others. One Negro had an index of more than 100, and one or more among the Taytayans have like indices. The radio-humeral index is greater for the Negroes than for the others, because of their great forearm length. The Taytayan, because of the great upper arm length, is more distantly removed from the Negro by this index than by any other factor of the limb measurements. The intermembral index puts the Taytayan intermediate between the extremes of the Negroes and separates them from the Huropeans. The Negroes, except one group, have longer arms in relation to their leg length than the European. After all is said, one must admit that im the limb parts the differences that separate the three peoples are not great except in the long forearm of the Negro and the long upper arm of the Taytayan. We now arrive at a consideration of the artistic canon of the Taytayan from the measurements that already have been discussed. ARTISTIC CANON. For the purpose of comparing the Taytayan with the Huropean from the standpoint of the artist, the canon of Fritsch(30) (p. 197) is used im the same way in which it was used for the Igorots(3) (p. 451). The length of the vertebral column as represented by the distance from the symphysis pubis to the nasal spine is taken as the base line, and all other linear dimensions are given in relation to that. A glance at the chart (fig. 4) will show that the total head height, the length of the upper and the length of the lower extremities are greater in the ’aytayan than in the Kuropean. Compared with the Normal Benguet Igorot, and the Igorot from Bontoe(3) (p. 452), the Taytayan is similar to both, and the pro- tomorphie characters are evident in the long arms and the long total head height. According to Stratz (p. 204), the total head height varies with the stature, and a stature of 160 centimeters corresponds to a total head height of 23 centimeters. ‘The stature of the Taytayans is 159.47 centimeters and the total head height is 23 centimeters. HEAD FORM AND PHYSIOGNOMY. The mean head length of 182 Taytayans is 18.30 centimeters and the mean head breadth is 14.96 centimeters with the resulting cephalic index of 81.79. This would be altered if the diameters of the head are reduced by 1 centimeter each as an allowance for the thickness of the extra- cranial tissues. The cephalic index of the skull would thereby be 80.7, a frankly brachycephalic skull, but very close to mesocephaly. The cephalic mdex of the head is 4.19 points greater than that of the Igorots, and about as great as the greatest of Martin’s Malays(18) (p. 844), which vary from 76.4 to 82.4. 278). oe BEAN. SENT THE AVERAGE TAYTAYAN ACCORDING TO THE SAME- CANoNn. THE E STATURE IS EQUAL TO 8 ToTAL HEAD HEIGHTS. THE TAYTAYAN SHARE Is to 7 ToraAL Hnap HEeiIcHTs. A AND B POINT TO THE CHIN. part of the head. his difference is only 43.0 millimeters for the and from 38 to 46 for the Malays(18) (p. 847). vy; The nose length, from the skin line at the greatest depres ior nose bridge between the eyes, to the nasal point or spine, meters, and the nose width from tip to tip of ae ae . FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 379 s orphologic face index is 82. 1, that of the Igorots is 79.4, whereas 3 Malays vary from 80.5 to 85.8 which is greater than it would vere the methods of ineasuring the sane. be "The following facial Sut are taken from Martin(18) for comparison: Battaks cen 82.0 ~ Javanese 82.1 sic} Malays: $3.0-83.8 - South Chinese 85.3 iS _ Ainos 86.9 2 North Chinese ; ; 87.0 Sikhs or E 88.3 Phi e foe ee height (chin to nasal spine 6.6 centimeters) compared th the upper face height (nasal spine to vertex, 16.4 centimeters) is t 80 aoe as that of the ee ee 7 centimeters lower, 14.9 centimeters ate fiat - aes Ain ae te Aad Poe — & = 380 BEAN. : Taste I.—Men of Taytay— Body " S ; a | | | | | 23 | } | he ‘Type of individual {Pesan ees m | ss | Ale Type of individual. irks Beeatese less i : | = ie Re ; | 6 | wie | 4 Bo a $5 oie eS Aan ees! Be) | 2il3s|\e)/a)2 4 (3/22 1218 Bi) Fag Pog |g | eS eB ieee | Ses rag | SAN es | ice ee eet era cea cai) (aTSian| Loe [espa tase tal lester ig) bees Fan i ee erate [bsay) || <= o/s |}; 3 = = 5 ay =! I A, Ss =, Bape hi a)/oO\ltl a |e) |S | a |S |e |4]/4/a)ea te UNue\ vas Koptal — 1 | VANpINe\Ss eaeeects anal 2 Cro-Magnon _-------- 3 | Blend 4! ; AIStraLOLG eens fee 18 (LG Bs OS eo) a ee a ee pare Blend ___ Sey Blend _ Shes B. B. B- = ger8 ANoeinEMo dl 9 PR Nee ee cel ee) aa (eos = ea Blend ___ __..-_] 10} 398) 80) 168.2 | 90.7 | 84.0 | 101.0 | 136.0 | 144.5 | 153.4 16.3 | 45.3 | 86.0! 62.0 8 Primitive Australoid_| 11] 384) 45| 150.5) 78.9) 76.5] 89.0 | 121.6 126.0 187.5 6.7 42.0 | 76.0 | 55.5 | 7. pe Blend) 2 eee 12 eee |70| 169.2 89.2 | 85.5 | 104.2 | 187.5 141.0 | 153.5 | 7.6 44.5 87.5 | 63.3 i | ‘| \ Blends ee eee 13} 385) 45] 153.8 | 83.3 | 79.0! 92.0) 128.0 | 128.0 | 189.7 | (2) | 42.3 | $0.0 | 54.0 | 70. Blend _ 14| 419) 20| 161.7 | $1.5 | 87.0 | 100.0 | 182.8 | 138.7 | 148.2 | 6.1 | 46.7 | 88.0 | 60.2 | 78.0 Blend = 15| 405} 46] 152.1 | 81.5 | 76.8] 90.0 | 124.0 | 128.0 | 139.6 | 6.2 | 40.4 | 79.5 | 56.6 | 72.7 Blends asa 16| 380) 70) 153.6 | 77.2 | 83.6} 90.4 128.8 | 129.3 140.0) 6.5 | 45.0 | 82.2 | 52.5 : Australoid 17| 390) 41) 168.2 | 89.9 | 81.5] 95.0 | 182.5 | 140.5 | 151.0 | 7.4 | 43.0 | 79.2 | 60.5. Blends 18] 376/23} 152.7 | 82.0 | 69.0] 88.0! 121.0] 127.3 | 138.2 | 7.6 | 42.3 | 75.5 | 54.0 Alpine __------------.] 19} 404] 80) 151.5 | 79.2) 80.5) 91.6 121.5 | 126.7 | 137.5 | 6.5 | 41.0 | 81.3 | 53.0 Blend see ee 20} 315) 42] 168.4 | 88.1 | 89.0} 101.8 | 184.6 | 144.4 | 153.8 | 7.1 | 46.6 | 88.0 | 60.0 Asti oid === eee 21) 158) 41] 159.4 | $4.5] 83.5! 94.5] 129.0] 134.6 146.3 | 7.0! 40.0 | 88.0 56.0 Blondtaetessacew 22) 373} 70} 160.8 | 88.5] 82.8) 97.6 | 181.2 | 188.0 | 147.0 | 7.5 | 45.2 | $4.9 58.8 Bi BiB keaee ee 23! 287] 62] 165.0] 87.0] 85.0] 98.4 | 184.5 | 142.4 | 153.0] 6.0 | 44.5 | 87.0 | 66.8} § Primitive _____--.--_.| 24] 3803/25] 147.1} 78.8 | 78.0] 85.5 | 119.3 | 127.0 | 135.0 | 6.3 | 37.0) 76.2 | 53.0 | igen ee 25| 421) 17) 160.7 | 82.7 | 87.8 | 101.2 | 130.6 129.5 149.8 5.7 | 44.8 | 87.4 | 57.7 Tpleraal 2 26| 22)42/ 153.2 | 81.5] 76.5] 91.0 | 128.5 | 130.3 | 138.0 | 6.2 417 79.5 58.5 | 7 Australoid ----------- 27} 288) 380} 163.4 | 86.8 | 85,7] 97.8 | 131.8 | 138.6 148.8 | 7.4 45.6 | 86.3 59.7 Modified Primitive __| 28 |----_) 29] 158.9 | 86.5] 78.3] 93.3 | 128.4 | 135.5 146.0| 7.0 | 43.5 | 81.0 | 59.7) 77 Australoid = --=-==2 29 |---| 23] 155.7 | 84.5) 78.5) 95.0 | 124.5 | 135.0 | 141.6 | 6.0 | 41.0 (Blend ses Sees 30)|--——— 20} 150.4 | 82.5) 71.0] $5.0 | 119.3 | 126.0 | 187.8 | 5.8 | 40.4 | 77 i PRimMivliye eee 81] 482) 39} 153.6 82.1 78.7 | 91.8 | 125.6 | 182.4 | 141.4 | 6.7 | 41.4} 80.0 | 53.0 Blends eee ee 32] 488/50] 159.3 | 82.3] 85.4] 96.5 | 129.8 | 187.3 | 145.3 | 6.2 44.0) 85. ( Therap eee 33| 431 22} 169.3 | 86.8 | 90.5 | 105.0 | 189.0 | 147.0 156.6 | 8.0 | 48.6 | 92.2 59. ’ Australoid —---------_ 34) - 32/ 160.1 | 85.5 | 82.8) 96.0 | 129.0 | 137.2 146.0 7.0 44.9 D Wooo Soe 85] 430) 35] 163.5 | 88.0 | 82.3) 96.0 | 134.0 | 139.7 | 148.6 | 6.8 | 43.8 84.8 62 I Nolet pOY? meas eo 0}| eee 17| 164.5 | 86.2 | 84.5 | 100.0 | 134.0] 140.0 | 149.4 | 6.7 | 44.8) 87.6 | 60.0 PANIS Era) OLG! sae eema nee 87, 169) 35) 156.3 | $2.4 | 83.0 96.2 128.0 | 184.2 | 145.2 | 5.5 | 44.2 | $3.0 | 56. Blendee snug ee 88! 448/70} 158.4 | 80.9 | 85.4) 96.4 | 127.0 | 138.0 | 146.4 | 5.6 | 44.8 | 85.7 | 53. PACUIS (USN OLG pases 39 |---_- 19 | 157.1 | 88.5 | 80.0} 94.6 | 128.0 | 185.8 | 144.2 | 5.1 | 43.2° Blends 40 |_---- 24 | 156.1! 838.3 78.7} 94.8 | 127.4 | 184.0 | 143.8 | 6.4 | 43.7 | 81. It. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 381 Head. | Cy Circumference, 3 : a E ales 2 leet (ts pees jometes | eilrcia| eles | a tale ies [ace | a Spee els(elale|2lSieleleielele)e\8)2)2/ 81g Pe eee elses (Slee |e) 2\sis | Sia Sie lalalazlzlz\424\Slazlzlelisisiael#lalaleig/aels 14.1/12.9| 12.0| 6.3/5.6|2.0/6.2| 9.5/4.1/4.0 2.0 5.0/3.2) 5.8/3.7/3.15 | 2.0| 30.0) 35.2) 27.0| 28.6 14.8] 14.1] 11.0] |---|} -_] 8.2] 11.5 /3.5)5.2| 2.0) 4.0/3.0] 6.0/3.5) 3.10] 3.0| 31.3} 36.4| 29.1] 29.6 14.4) 13.4|11.2] 7.0) 6.4) 2.3) 7.2) 11.6) 4.5} 4.3} 2.5) 5.2/3.5! 5.8/4.213.00] 4.0| 81.7) 37.4] 28.0] 31.0 12.9|11.6| 9.7/6.4|6.0)2.6}--|____ 4.0/4.3] 2.715.1|3.5/ 6.0 /3.3/ 2.90| 2:0| 29.7 | 35,2] 26.4 | 27.5 | | | 18.3|12.5|11.0|6.4|6.3|1.8|7.7|11.0|4.5/4.3|1.7/5.0)3.5/6.6/3.0/3.10/3.0/31.5|34.3|27.2/ 28 13.3 | 13.3] 10.8 | 7.2) 6.4/3.0] 6.3] 10.7] 4.1| 4.9|1.7| 4.9) 3.7/5.8) 3.1/ 8.30} 3.5| 28.4 | 34.8 | 26.2 | 30, 13.7|12.8|10.7| 7.5 | 6.7| 2.3| 8.3 |11.6 | 4.0] 5.0/2.3 |5.213.9|6.8|3 2) 2.9012,3| 28.3! 36.4] 26.4! 31. 14.6 18.8] 11.7) 8.4] 7.5| 2.4] 7.4) 18.0/ 3.8] 5.7| 1.7/5.3) 3.6) 6.7 |8.5| 3.05 30.2 | 35.3} 28,5] 29.8 13.9 13.2} 10.8} 7.3| 6.7 | 2.5/8.0] 11.4) 4.3 4.7/1.8) 4.6 3.5 6.1 2.8 3.10 4 |30.0/ 36.8} 27.2) 31.6 14.0/ 13.1] 11.4| 7:3| 6.9 | 2.0/8.2! 10.6 0 4.5/3.0|6.1| 3.1 | 4 26.8 | 13.1| 12.2} 10.1| 6.4] (2) | 1.8/8.3] 9.8 5.5 3 264 14.2) 13.7/ 11.8) 8.1] 7.4! 3.1| 5.8] 12.0 3 29.0 12.7! 11.6 !10.4| 7.2! 6.7| 2.9) 6.3/ 10.9] 4.1 13.8] 12.8 | 10.5} 7.2} 6.4/ 3.1/8.0) 11.5 | 3.7 14.3|13.6| 10.7) 7.0) 6.6 | 2.5| 7.4 10.4 13.6 | 12.5 |11.3| 6.6) 6.4| 2.7/7.8] 20.6 14.0] 18.1} 11.1|7.7| 6.7] 2.7 | 8.0) 11.6 18.7 |12.8) 10.4) 7.5| 7.1} 3.0] 7.8| 11.8) 3. 13.7) 13.5/11.0 8.1/7.3 3.2| 7.3| 12.3 14.3 | 14.2} 19.0) 7.2|6.6| 3.0) 7.6) 11.1 i 13.5 | 12.8} 10.6 | 7.5| 6.7|2.7| 7.0) 11.4 14.3/11.4| 13.2] 6.8} 5.7/2.6) 8.1) 10.6 d 45 ; 14.0} 13.8) 11.0/ 8.0] 6.9/2.8} 7.5) 12.0/ 3.5) 5.1/1.3/4.0! 3.66. P 4 | 87.2| 28.2) 13.6} 12.1 10.3|7.0 6.2/3.0] 8.3/1.0] 4.0/4.2) 2.1) 4.4) 3.5/5.6 3.3/3.00/3 | 33.0) 35.2) 28.8) 30.2 18.3 12.6] 10.2] 6.8) 6.2|2.516.3/11.0)8.4/ 4.6/1.7 4.6/3.5)6.2/3.1)3.15 8 | 30.8! 86.0) 27.7/ 30.0 13.7 | 12.4| 11.2|7.6| 6.9| 2.8/6.9] 11.0|4.3|5.0/2.3/ 4.6/3.4) 6.2) 3.23.05 3 -!31.4) 36.0/27.5|29.4 13.3] 13.1/11.0) 7.2] 6.2/3.0) 8.0] 11.6] 4.2/4.6 2.0/4.6/3.7/6.4/3.4|3.10|2 |31.8)38.4|28.5|32.0 14.2 13,9) 11.4) 6.9] 6.2/3.2) 6.8) 11.1| 4.1/4.8 1.7/4.9]/3.5/6.3)3.4| 2,70 |2.5/31.6/ 38.0 27.0 29.8 13.6 | 12.3! 11.1] 7.4 6.6| 3.0] 7.0|11.4| 4.2) 4.6|2.2/4.813.7/5.9/3.5| 3.05 | 2.5| 29.6 | 35.7] 27.0/ 29.5 13.5) 12.7) 9.8] 7.2) 6.5| 2.6] 7.0|11.0/3.7] 4.6/1.9) 4.5/3.5/6.5/3.513.10/2 |31.0/33.6| 29.0] 29.2 18.8/12.8|10.0| 7.2/6.5] 2.2|7-4|11.1|3.9/ 4.7/1.8) 4.8/3.5/5.9/3.4)9.85/7 |30.1/36.4|96.7| 27.8 14.2/ 13.5) 11.0] 6.6| 6.6/3.0) 7.7| 9.4 /3.9/4.8/1.2|5.1/3.9|5.8/3.6/ 2.95) ___ 99,2 | 34.3 | 26.5 | 28.0 13.8) 13.4|10.3/ 7.7) 7.0| 3.2} 8.2|12.2|3.9|5.3|2.4|4.713.716.3'3.4/3.35/4 |32.1/35.6|29.5/ 30.1 13.7 12.9/10.7 | 6.8) 6.2) 2.8) 6.0) 11.2] 4.3) 4.5/1.6/4.8/3.6/6.8/3.2/3.15)2 29.4) 35.6) 25.7 | 29.6 18.5 13.0|10.4|7.5/ 7.0/3.1) 8.0) 12.0) 4.0 5.0 1.7/4.6 3.7) 6.0 3.3 3.00 3.5) 31.8) 38.0) 28.0 32.4 14.0) 18.0] 11.0) 6.3] 6.0/2.5) 7.6/11.0/4.1/ 4.0/1.9 4.2)3.4/5.4)3.0)2,00|2 | 31.2/ 36.3] 27.2/ 28.0 18.8} 12.7} 10.1) 6.5|5.9| 2.3) 7.1/10.6| 4.0/4.2} 1.7| 4.5/3.3} 5.3/3.2/3.00/3 | 30.2) 33.6] 27.7| 28.6 18.1) 12.5] 10.4] 7.3|6.2|2.8| 7.6) 10.6 |4.2|5.0/1.6/4.8/3.9|6.6)3.0]2.65|3 |29.8| 34.8] 27.3 | 28.6 18.1/12.3}10.1|6.4| 5.8] 2.6|8.0| 10.3|3.8|4.1|1.9]4.3|3.4/6.1/3.6/3.20/1 |31.2/36.7| 28.5) 29.6 13.9 | 12.4|10.8| 6.6 | 6.0) 2.8|7.7|11.113.7|4.412.2|5.0/3.315.9! 3.4/2.95| 3.5] 29.8 | 35.0| 27.6 | 29.2 © | Bar cartilage. rs Sh 382 BEAN. TasBLe [.—Men of Taytay— | | Body | j—-——-——_— oo eae Oa 4 | =] | + = | | raha later, el =e Type of individuals | | ese a apse a ROO | SAS Sana | is |S ; Taye Merce llecesaeevalliaas Pein leaxt 4 Seles Bi ape eim|/2)/3 | 4) 8 | le) s)e)m| = o| 4 rel spell = io a 1/3) 3) 2 |} lees Ala “i TA oe 2 =, 3 20} | BO 8” ce ees abei.ff (els le] 2 pal 2 lel 73 eee Bele) 8 (ete) ay) 8.) 2) a le | 8 | Sees ee Bee fend Se eA OS a) ee Sec ee eS! al) SO l4| im | Ga |B ja) Oo) 8 ba | en ee Sut == eae ee hen pore i | ! 1 om ¢ i ISIS OG ees 41) 467) 25) 164.5 | 86.1) 85.0) 96.4 134.8 | 142.7 | 151.5 | 6.6 | 44.5 88.3 | 61.2 | 79.3 | 104.2 Blend__- _-| 42] 469 | 45 | 155.5 | 82.9 | 82.7} 97.0 | 126.3 | 133.3 | 143.8 | 7.0 | 43.4 | 82.0 54.4 | 73.0) 94.9 Tberian __- AB ye oe 49 163.8 | 85.7 | 84.0 | 100.7 | 132.3 | 139.3 | 151.2 | 6.8 | 45.5 | 85.3 57.0 | 75.2 | 100.0 | Australoid ___-----.--| 44) 395/50 155.3 | 82.5] 78.6) 88.7 | 127.3 | 133.4] 141.5 | 7.5 | 44.0 79.8 53.4 72.6) 97.0 | | | | Modified Primitive __| 45| 1003 | 40) 154.4 | 78.9! 80.8 93.0 | 125.8 | 130.0 | 141.0 6.8 | 48.5 $1.2) 54.5 713) 93.0 Blendivs ot ee | 46)=a=== | 22) 152.0 | 81.7 | 75.2| 90.0 | 123.0 | 129.5 | 139.8 | 6.0 | 39.0 | 77.0 | 52.0; 70.0| 92.2 Iberian ___ ||| oe /85) 154.5 | 85.9 | 76.6 89.3 | 123.5 | 132.5 | 141.8 6.2 | 40.6 | 7.0 | 59.0 71.3) 95.7 Australoid ------- ___ | 48] 484/30! 154.0] 81.7| 79.0] 92.5 | 126.6 | 135.1| 142.1 6.4 | 40.8 | 79.4 #8 78.0 92.5 | | / | | 167.1 87.3 87.0 | 103.0 | 137.6 | 154.2 6.8 | 47.5 | 86.3 64.0 85.0 | 109.0 158.4 82.3 81.5} 95.5] 128.6 | 143.4 | 6.3 | 44.0 | 84.0 | 58.0| 71.0] 95.5 157.5 | 88.7 | 81.6] 94.3 | 128.5 | 143.0 | 5.8 | 41.5 | 82.2 | 57.4 74.1) 95.1 159.4 | 85.6 | 81.0} 94.5 | 130.0 | 138.0 | 147.5 | 7.3 | 44.2 | 83.0 | 61.3 | 78.2 | 101.2 | } | 53| 360) 35| 170.7 | 88.8 | 92.0 | 106.0 | 139.8 | 147.3 158.5 7.2 48.2 99.3 enalee 105.8 Cro-Magnon —_- Cro-Magnon ~ /35| 166.8 | 84.7 | 86.3 | 101.0 | 136.2 | 142.8 | 153.0 | 6.9 | 47.0 $7.0 HL.0 305 103.8 137.5) Cro-Magnon —_..----- 155 168.5 | 87.3 | 89.4 | 105.0 | 138.2 | 146.2 | 154.8 6.5 | 47.8 | 90.4) 58.7 76.7 | 103.2 | 185.7 | Teel | 56] 481) 40) 161.4 | 86.7 | 82.7) 96.7| 131.5 | 140.2 | 148.8 6.7 | 44.5 | 85.6 | 61.5 78.8 | 101.3 | Blend a2. Set reser! } 57 | 471 | 28 | 157.8 | 85.3 | 80.3 | 93.0 | 128.8 | 136.0 | 145.2 | 6.0 | 42.2 | 81.7) 56.8 | 74.8) 98.0) - Blend ess ase es | 58| 234) 24| 165.7 | 90.0 92.3] 98.2| 133.5 | 141.8 | 152.2 7.3 44.7 | 84.8 | 60.0 78.8 | 103.0 IBONG! saan 59| 489/36) 164.1 | 83.4] 78,7] 91.3 | 123.5 | 131.8 | 140.2 | 6.0 | 42.0 | 79.0 | 51.2) 69.3) 91.2 Bendy Nacsa ated 60) 488) 51) 168.3 | 90.7 | 83.7 | 101.0 | 134.8 | 145.5 | 158.5 | 6.2 | 47.2 | 87.0| 68.0 77.0 | 101.6 | | | 61| 485 a0 | 165.2 | 88.1 | g2.9 | 100.7 | 131.4 | 143.6 | 158.6 | 7.1 | 46.1 | 86.0 | 59.8 | 80.0 103.0 62} 482) 23 | 167.0 | -__ | 85.0 | 101.7 | 136.0 | 146.3 | 155.6 | 6.6 | 46.2 | 88.2" 61.2 78.6 105.0 63] 492) 40! 164.3 | 85.8 | g6.0 | 100.0 | 132.4 | 139.5 148.5!6.5 43.3) 85.7 58.4 77.0) 99.4 64] 466 | 43| 161.0) 85.3 81.6] 95.8 | 128.8 | 138.8 | 147.4 Sra fs? 57.2 75.0) 98.6 } é Woyesaya) ee 65) 514 60) 160.6 | 84.1 | 84.8} 97.0 | 180.0 | 184.3 | 146.2 | 5.8 | 42.8 83.5 | 59.6 76.8) 100.4 WSN a ees 66} 901/23) 164.0 | 86.5 | 84.0) 96.5 | 133.8 | 141.0 | 150.2 | 6.6 | 45.7 | 85.7 56.3 | 75.2 97.8 Blend) ss2-= paseo sees 67] 988/80 | 157.1 | 82.2 | 83.2) 95.2 | 126.5 | 135.0 | 144.4) 7.1 | 42.5 | 82.8 55.4 | 72.5) 93.7 Australoid 68| 462|17/ 157.2) 83.9 80.0] 94.2) 130.0 137.5 | 146.3 | 7.0 | 43.2 | 80.8 60.0) 76.7) 98.6 1: / / Blen ges \os asses 169]|earee S016 723) (S638) ee owe eee eee [eeeeen|eeey Smee Blendit=s: eee 1) oll ae 27| 155.2 | 88.7 | 78.0} 90.3 | 124.2 | 131.8 | 141.0] 6.5 | 40.6 Blend: eae | 71) 505) 49 | 159.4 | 84.7 | 82.8) 96.0 | 130.2 | 188.7 | 147.6 | 6.2 | 44.0 (BlGr Gees saeae eee | 72) 526 | 28) 151.8} 80.3 | 76.8} 90.2 | 121.2 | 129.2 | 189.0 | 5.8 | 42.7 7 68.0) 90.8 | | ‘ Blende=. eee [y73]| eee 37 | 168.3 | $7.2 | 82.7 | 100.0 | 182.2 | 140.5 | 130.3 | 6.3 | 44.3 | 84.5 | 59.5 | 77.6 102.0 Cro-Magnon —______-_ 74| 585/19 | 169.7 | 90.1 | 89.0 | 105.5 | 187.5 | 144.3 | 156.4 | 6.5 | 44.6 | 91.2 | 57.2 | 77.6 | 104.3 Blend _ 75| 521/32} 168.7 | 88.9 | 85.8 | 100.7 | 186.2 | 145.0 | 154.6 | 7.4 | 46.4 | 87.7 | 64.8 | 81.6 | 104.7 Bleu Gp aeeae ane 76| 528 28} 157.0 82.0 | $3.2 | 96.3 | 126.7 | 136.0 | 145.3 | 7.0 | 42.8 | 83.6 | 59.5 | 76.5 | Blend)-=s-e eee 77 | 508 | 50) 156.5 | §2.2) 80.3 | 94.0 | 127.3 | 184.7 | 143.8 | 6.0 | 43.5 | 83.2 | 60.5 | 7.2 Modified Primitive -_| 78| 836 23 | 107.0} 84.3 | 78.2} 90.0) 123.5 | 131.0 | 141.2 | 5.7 | 42.0 | 79.0 | 53.6 | 69.9) Australoid —--_-_----_ 79| 529) 23 | 151.8 | 85.1 | 75.0} 88.0 | 121.4 | 130.0 | 140.0 | 6.7 | 42.4 | 75.7 | 57.6 | 74.0 MWoewnepoye 2 ee 80| 52240) 157.4 '86.0 | 78.71 93.2 | 126.4 | 132.2 | 143.5 | 6.7 | 40.01 80.8 | 55.4 | 73.5 | Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL, ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 383 Head. | i o \ | al ; | g Cireumference. : 3 | a S|. llel 12 ise Z ; a1 9 a8 fa et | SES : Seve y ele lelalelal=lFieleia elelsig isis l2l2lsls Seas ails Wore Wel ailliolalss | eee Wiest Se tee [5 | Bale ES oIES | Mice lS ail a io Si) S| Sle alee tS |e | eB | S18 Bie} a} a uc ea neds ON Eee ies ees hoe SUN eae NEUE Oo) Saracens i } | | /14.8/ 11.8] 10.5} 14.0 13.3 / 11.0] 7.1 6.3/3.0) 6.8 11.2 4.0) 5.2| 2.2 4.7, 3.516.0'3.7/3.05/1 | 29.0) 36.5| 27.0 | 29.5/ 4.8 11.4/ 10.5 /13.6 | 12.6 /10.5|7.8) 7.0 2.3/8.2 11.2 4.0 5.2) 1.2/4.2) 3.8/6.0 /3.7/3.10/3.5|29.0 33.8 27.6 28.2/5.2 11.7) 10.7) 18.8} 12.7) 11.4) 7.0) 7.5/ 3.1|6.9| 11.8) 3.9/4.8) 2.0) 4.9/3.6) 7.0) 3.5|2.70}1 | 30.5/.33.7| 28.0/ 28.2| 5.0 12.7) 10:2) 14.4 | 12.9) 11.5 7.1) 6.2 2.6 6.2) 10.4 4.2) 4.3 14 |4.7|3.7)'74 3.4|2.75|4 |29.4| 34.9 27.2| 29.0) 5.7 | | eal 12.2| 10.3) 13.4) 12.8} 10.7| 7.0! 6.7/3.1| 7.8} 11.0] 4.2] 4.5| 2.0 5.2/ 3.3/5.3 3.3/2.90/4 |30.6 128.0) 4.7 12.5/ 11.2] 13.3) 12.7|10.5|7.0| 6.4 | 2.7/6.4) 11.3) 4.0/4.3 2.4| 4.4/3.4) 5.3 3.7|2.80/2 132.3 |96.7| 4.5 12.3/ 11,0] 14.5 | 13.2) 11.0/7.0| 6.0) 3.6) 7.0| 10.6 | 3.7) 5.1 0.8 44° 3.6) 5.9 | 4.0 | 2.90) 4.5 | 31.2 | 30.5 | 5.0 11.3) 9.8)18.1|11.6 | 10.2) 7.3/5.6) 2.8) 7.9) 9.3/4.0) 4.3|1.0/ 4.5/3.6] 6.1 3.5 | 2.65] 2.5 | 28.5): 27.3) 4.9 | | 72.6 | 10.8) 13.9! 13.9) 10.6/7.3|6.4 | 2.7) 7.4] 11.1) 4.1 4.6/1.0|5.4 4.0 6.6/3.6 |2.75|4 | 29.8 29.7 | 5.5 12.7/ 10.4 14.0,13 0/ 10.0! 7.3 6.7 | 2-8} 7.0] 12.0} 3.9 | 4.9| 2.014.7 | 4.0'6.6 13.4 | 3.00] 4 | 31.0 E 28.7 | 5.5 12.6) 10.5 | 14.0 | 12.7 | 10.6 | 6.2 5.6| 225 7.5| 10.3) 3.5}3.8)2.1/4.1/3.6 5.0 3.4/2.90/3 | 32.0 28.5 | 4.4 12.5 | 10.0) 14.1) 18.2|11.1| 8.1) 7.5) 3.0/6.9] 12.7) 4.6 |5.2/2.8|5.2 3.4 6.4/3.8] 3.10) 3.5) 31.3 29.41 5.0 i | } | 12,0! 10.3 18.2'13.6 10.8) 7.1/6.6/2-9|6.5/11.8/3.7/4.6)2.0/43/8.6 6.2 2.8/3.30/5 | 29.6): 28.1] 5.2 0 | 12.5 10.1 14.8 13.0 11.4)7.5 6.83.3 7.8] 12.0) 4.4 4.4/1.8) 5.0/3.8 6,2 4.0/3.10)1 | 32.0): |27.7| 5.8 12.7) 10.0 13.8)13.0 10.1) 7.1) 6.4)2-9 6.8/12.0)4.1/4.3/2.2/4.4)4.1 6.1/3.4/2.95/4 | 30.6 /28.0| 5.4 12.2 10.0) 13.2|12.4 10.8) 6.5/5.8] 2-6) 6.6) 10.4) 4.0/4.3] 2.0/4.213.6 6.1 2.9|8.05)2 | 28.3): 28.2) 5.2 11.7/10.1/ 13.0) 13.0 9.1/7.6 6.3|2-7/ 6.1] 12.0] 4.1/4.7/ 2.0) 4.5)8.5 5.8|3,2/3.00/ 2.5) 29.3) 35.7| 27.2 28.3/ 5.0 '2.4| 10.5, 18.7/12.8 11.1) 7.8] 6.9|3-1/8.0)19.2/ 4.1/5.1) 2.5|4.5/4.0 61/3.113.30/1 |31.5 38.2 | 28.3 29.0) 5.2 (1L8/10.2 13.4) 12.7 10.4 7.1/6.3 | 2-4) 7.6)10.9)4.5/ 4.5/1.4) 4.6/3.3 6.6/2.8) 3.10) 1 | 30.0 36.8| 26.5 27.0) 5.0) 12.3 | 10.8] 15.0) 14.3) 12.0! 8.0] 6.3 | 2:8| 8.0] 11.4) 4.5/5.0! 2.3) 5.0/3.7 7.3) 3.4|3.15/3.5|31.4| 36.6) 29.1) 29.7 | 5.9 | 45.0 12.3/19.0114.8]13.4 | 11.7! 7.1] 6.0 /2-8/8.2/11.2|4.3/5.1/0.8/ 5.7/3.5 6.2/3.5/3.05/2 |31.2/95.2/98.8| 28.4 | 4.8 12.4) 11.4) 14.2) 13.2/11.1/ 6.3] 6.2 |2-3|8.2| 10.5) 3.7/4.4 1.9/4.6 8.1) 5.5/3.5|3.30|4.5|31.2| 34.6 | 28.3] 25.8) 4.7 12.6 11.0) 14,8|18.2/ 10.1) 7.0] 6.9 }2.8 | 7.7/11.8/3.3/5.0/1.4 5.0) 3.5 6.6. 3.0 3.15|4 | 32.0/34.4/ 27.5) 28.6 | 5.3} 12.5/11.0/13.6| 12.6! 10.6 | 7.6] 6.8 | 2-4! 7.5] 11.8) 4.2/5.0 1.0/4.6) 3.6 5.7|3.4|3.05/2 | 31.8) 36.0) 28.2 30.0 | 5.0! 11.9] 10.2) 18,6/13.0| 9.7/7.0] 5.6/8-3/ 8.6 /11.313.7/4.7/1.8)4.6'8.5'6.5]3.4/2.95/4 |30.6/ 34. 99.0 | 5.1 12.5] 11.1} 14.2] 18.6 | 10.5) 7.2 6.6 |?-6 9:0} 11.5] 4. 4812.8) 4.6 3.5] 6.0) 3.7| 3.10 {1.5 | 31.3 2/ 30.0! 4.8) 14.8} 12.0 | 10.6 /13.9/12.9|10.9/ 6.9) 6.3/2.6 6.4) 9.9|4.0| 4.6/0.5) 5.0/3.9] 6.7/2.8 3.10) 4? 30.0 | 5, 13.9 /11.8! 10.0 13.0/11.7| 9.7 5.9/5.3 2.5/6.7 9.5| 3.8/3.8 | 2.2| 4.3/3.9 /5.3/3.2| 2.90] 2.5| 28.0/ 34. 12.2) 10.8) 14.3} 12.8/ 11.3) 8.0 7.1 | 2.6) 7.8 12.4) 10.8} 18.3 | 12.7) 11.1) 7.5 7.3} 11.61 4.1] 5.0! 1.8) 5.2/3.6 | 5, 15.1 12.4 10.0 12.8 12.3 10.0) 7.2 77) 11.4 | 4.2/5.1) 2.0) 4.8/3.3) 6, 14 3/11.7|10-1/ 18.4] 12.4 | 10.2) 6.4/5.9) 2.3) |__| 3.7) 4.3] 1.6) 4.113.717 12:0} 4.5]5.2'2.1/5.0)3.8/6. 4 |31.8136.2| 27.8) 30.7/5.3 1 |30.1/37.4/26.5| 30.0! 4.6 3.1)2.85/2 | 30.0) 36.8|26.7|287|5.1 3 28.4 | 33.2 | 25.8 | 27.0) 5.3 42,2) 10.3/13.8) 13.4 | 10.4|6.9|6.2|3.1| 6.5] 113/3.9|4.7/2.2/ 5.0/3.5) 6.0 3.0/2.10/5 13.6 | 11.1) 14.2} 18.2} 11.4] 7.4} 7.3| 3.0) 8.6] 12.5) 4.1) 4.6] 2.7) 5.0/3.8 5.9 | 3.7} 3.40) 3 13.3) 11.0) 15.0 | 14.7 | 12.4} 7.3 | 6.8) 2-7 | 6.6} 12.0] 4.3/5.0 1.8} 4.5) 3.7/5.9] 3.4/3.10! 4. 12.4) 9.6/14.1| 13.5) 10.5} 7.0) 6.5) 2.5) 7.6| 11.2 |3.4/ 4.7) 1.7) 4.8] 3.6 | 6.5| 3.0/ 3.00) 4 29.0} 37.3 | 27.0} 30.2 | 4.9 31.3 | 37.2} 28.2 | 29.6] 5.1 31.0) 36.8 | 28.5 | 29.5 | 5.1 30.0 | 35.2 | 27.8 | 28.5 | 5.4 or 12.3) 10.3) 18.8}12.9 9.8} 6.5) 5.4/3.1) 6.8| 10,7) 3.8| 5.0) 1.1] 5.0 12.7/ 11.0) 14.0} 13.0 | 10.6 | 6.6 | 5.8} 2.7| 7.8 | 11.0) 3.8| 4.0! 2.6 | 4.5 | 3.4) 5.7/3.9] 2.75 12.0] 10.2 | 12.9 | 12.3 | 10.2} 6.9) 6.7|3.1) 7.0) 12.0) 4.1} 4.8) 2.5/5.1) 3.4] 6.4] 3.4] 2.95 14.1 12.5} 10.2! 14.2 113.5 | 10.4] 6.9/6.0) 3.2! 9.0111.513.8'4.8/1.7| 4.7!3.916.6|3.2| 2.75 oo a or Cer) = o te fer) (=) i) 30.1 | 34.4] 28.2} 26.3) 4.9 30.7| 36.7 | 28.0] 26.6 | 4.6 30.2} 36.0) 27.2] 29.0) 4.9 130.6 | 88.7| 28.8! 29.0] 5.3 wor w 384 ‘Type of individual. | Serial No. | PACS GeO Clean eee : $5 Australoid __ =|) 80 Modified Primitive __ 87 AU DING Rees ae eee aes | 85 Austral Old) =s2a=— een | 89 Cro-Magnon ____-____ 90 Blends sees ) 91! Blend sao ss eee een 92 ‘Blenu\s tessa sae | 93 Blend =e 94 Australoid 95 Australoid 96) | Verdi eae eee 97 | FATISHTA OL sa 98 AUS tralOidsesee sae as 99 Bent esa= = ee 100 (Blends essen 101 Blend 2s ases= =e 102 Cro-Magnon --_--_-__ 103 Blend= 2 asti ats ek 104 Iberian - Blend BEAN. | Clinical No. 2) 159.7, Stature. 160.3 161.6 160.4 | 156.0 162.5 159.2 156.0 157.0 156.8 | 170.7 | 150.8 152.2 162.2 148.5 157.8 | 160.9 163.7 157.5 156.8 155.7 162.5 | § 164.3 167.0 156.8 155.9 152.8 159.5 162.3 149.8 159.3 151.6 155.3 166.8 157.1 146.9 162.4 163.0 156.4 153.2 Sitting height. Pubie height. Umbilical height. Sternal height. Chin height. Bar height. i Ankle height. * Tare I—Men of Taytay— r st height. Knee height, Trochanter height, Elbow height. Finger tip. | Wri | 131.0 | 128.0 | 128.5 | | 126.8 119.8 128.6 133.5 126.6 180.5 130.5 127.6 129.2 125.7 | 139.8 122.3 123.3 131.0 118.0 128.3 130.3 130.0 126.6 128.8 125.2 131.3 | 134.0 134.5 125.5 125.5 129. 125.5 127.0 130.8 119.5 126.0 136.0 131.0 133.0 128.5 122.8 135.7 131.0? 137.0 133.4 139.0 2) | 134.5 | 1385.8 134.6 148.8 129.0 129.5 138.5 125.4 139.3 136.3 140.5 133.8 137.0 133.0 140.2 141.5 141.6 133.2 132.5 138.8 131.4 135.4 139.3 126.5? 134.7 129.0 132.5 143.4 1343 126.0 139.0 141.8 134.0 130.5 146.8 148.2 | 6.0 44.7 | 83.7 5.7 144.2 | 7.5 41.0 148.5 148.4 (°) 142.6 145.6 142.5) 158.3 138.4 139.7 148.8 | 136.9 | 144.6) 146.2 151.0. 145.7 145.3 143.0 149.8 151.7 153.2 | 141.8 142.5 146.5 141.5 145.5 148.8 136.8 145.5 138.7 142.0 152.5 144.3 134.6 149.0 152.0 144.2 139.8 | 6.8 16.2 168 7.0 | 67 7A 64 6.3 | | 45.2 | 82.5 157 bel Oe 86.2 81.8 42.3 83.3 83.0 83.2 83.3 “58 43.8 44.8 44.5 44.0 49,3 40.2 40.2 80.1 | 54.0 91.7 78.4 79.8 or S ~ 86.4 74.0 82.8 80.0 45.0 38.4 43.8 44.4 $4.5 81.0 83.2 80.3 44.7 42.8 43.6 43.0 83.8 87.0 873 813 145.8 44.8 46.7 41.0 43.8 45,2 42.6 45.5 82.0 | 5: 85.0 80.3 85.0 84.5 72.8 83.8 78.8 45.6 ALT 45.5 42.7 ToS ee a a SI A a a a ee Sree re aie ee Se ee rt brs i id i is ae “ 1 e a an OO Dw. oS a — q ( % - r as rat ; ; E EREE EEE | nn ey eee or) a ; 80.0 90.5 78.1 | 775 42.8 48.0 41.6 a5 45.5 46.0 45.4 42.6 84.4 86.2 83.2 81.0 IU. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 385 Head. {> 7 Te y = pea ee a) aie Fils eal ae a [oie See a= | Maximum— | 3 | Circumference. ae | | a eA : 6 q | * s rae I | | Fy lire | 12} 3g os Bealls a : -talais } S| 3) Ele |. ale! |S) 8 |a)sia]%) =) 4) 8] 4 2 ay 4/5) iS foo | det || feu) ey est Sh eit ae Ei ie Sel pee) Be sale Si2el ers) 2 SS Fl2isiele/F /slalelsi2ls 3 2S Rh eS tee ee |) Sa ee es cee eI Wiley ee Ieee IEA) as) ci A a ee eps) Slee Sle 7 SE el Sse ea eas 2 BIS |S) 2 222/222 sleleialzel2/2/e2,2)8)/8)8/ 8 fq Bele ialazialalol4l4leiSlelals)a ale )/a)e)o|a | ; I | 10.4/13.8 | 14.0] 10.5) 7.2|6.6/ 3.4) 7.3| 11.0] 4.0/5.1] 1.5/5.0/3.6/7.1|3.612.70)4 |28.6| 34.2) 25.5) 28.8] 5.9 10.6 18.7 ]18.8) 10.5/8.5| 7.6/3.2) 7.1|12.5] 4.0]5.3|1.5/5.0/3.4|7.6/3.0/3.10/2 |29.4)37.6| 26.8| 31.0) 5.5) a UE CL 7.3) 6.6| 3.2) 7.2| 12.1) 3.8/4.3] 2.5) 4.5/3.5] 6.0/3.4/2.95/3 | 30.6) 35.4| 27.0) 27.8] 5.1 10.61 13.6) 12.8) 10.9] 7.4) 6.3/2.8/6.3)12.3|4.0]/4.9/2.3/4.7/3.3|6.7|8.412.95 3.5) 30.0) 34.6 | 28.2] 28.0 5.2 | leo | Nal 11.1} 13.6] 13.2|11.6| 7.7) 6.8|3.1] 8.2|12.5]4.5| 4.8/2.3 4.1/3.5/6.3/3.2/2.80/3 |30.6|37.0/ 29.0] 30.2] 4.9] 11.0/13.9) 13.2) 10.4) 6.7| 6.1/2.8) 5.8] 10.7) 4.4] 4.0/2.7) 5.4/8.5] 5.9) 3.9)3.05/1 | 30.4) 35.7| 27.8) 28.0/ 5.1, 10.0) 13.0) 12.0) 10.4| 6.7} 5.7/2.5|___ |___ ]3.8/ 4.5/2.5) 4.5/3.5 6.1 8.3/2.75/8 29.8 | 34,2 | 97.3 | 4.6| 11.0| 14.0) 13.1/10.6| 7.8 6.7/3.0 7.7| 12.0] 3.8] 6.1)1.9| 4.0] 3.6| 6.5) 3.4|3.05/2 | 32.1/ 35.0 / 27.3 26.6, 5.6} ' Neesarlitie lareiltes| 10.0} 14.1) 13.0) 10.2! 7.2) 5.8) 2.3)6.0) 10.6) 4.6) 4.5/1.8) 3.6) 6.2/3.5/3.10/3 | 29.6 | 34.6 | 27.0 20,0) 5.2) 10.2) 18,1] 13.6| 10.8 7.1/6.6 | 3.2/6.7) 11.3/36)4.4) 2.8/4.8 3.8/6.3)3.1)3.15|4 | 28.4) 35.5/26.8| 28.5 5.2 9.8/ 18.2] 12.3) 10.264) 5.819.9]7.4| 10.0) 3.7) 4.2|/2.0)4.4/3.8/5.2/3.1/2.75/5 | 28.7) 35.1] 27.0) 97.6) 4.4 10.5/18.5|12.7/ 10.0) 7.0| 6.6/3.3/8.4|11.0|4.0/4.8|1.8]5.3/8.2/5.4|3.1 8.10/3 |300/ 321 27.2) 95.3 | 4.6) | | 18 9.4/4,0/3.3/5.9/3.8 2.85/38 | 30.2)| 35.0} 27.6 | 27.1) 4.6 | 10.0) 13.5 12.6) 10.3) 7.3/6.6) 2.8) 7.4) 11.0) 4.1 5.1/9.2) 5.0/8.5 6.4/3.1/3.10)3 | 29.0) 35.0} 25 3) 28.0 5.0) 10.6} 13.5) 12.6} 9.6) 6.5/5.7 | 3.0) '7.9| 11.0) 4.0} 4.2 Pay ai O-aitoat | 2.95 4 | 31.1} 34.0 28.4 | 28.2) 9.2) 10.8} 13.8 | 12.8] 10.2! 7.1) 6.6) 3.0 SG) Aes 4,1} 4.2) 2.0 4.6) 3.9 D.9 | 4.9 } 2.65 | (Z) | 31.8) 36.4 | 27.2) 29.5 5.0 | | 11 2) 14.3) 13.3) 12.0} 7.21 6.6| 2.5! 7.01 11.9) 4.3 4,712.0} 413.3) 6.1/3.5 3.20)2 | 31.2)36.3| 28.5 | 29.5 46 | 10.8} 14.0) 13.1) 10.3] 7.0) 6.1} 2.2} 7.0) 11.3) 4.2) 4.3) 2.9/5.0) 3.5|6.2/3.7/2.90/2 | 30.3] 36.4 | 27.0) 29.4 48 | 10:1.) 13.6 | 12.7) 10.3} 6.9) 6.1) 2.6) 6.6) 11.1) 4.1) 4.319.8! 4.7) 3.3)5.6)3.5)3.00)4 | 29.6) 35.3 | 27.5 | 27.8) 5.0) 9.3} 18.7 | 12.9} 10.6) 7.8) 6.6) 3.1) 8.1 | 11.4) 3.9} 4.8/9.5 4.63.7 7.0) 3.2/2.90/3 {30.6} 36.4 | 26.8) 29.6) 5 | 5)! 9.6 | 11.2) 14.3) 13.3) 11.3] 7.21 6.6/3.2) 6.3) 11.3) 4.4/4.9! 7.4|5.3/3.6|6.1]/3.8| 2.7515 | 82.0) 37.2] 28.6 99.6 |5.4 10.0 13.8} 13.1} 10.6 | 7.0 | 6.4 2.8/6.7) 11.0) 3.7) 4.8/9.3) 4.7] 3.4) 6.0 3.0) 3.10)1 | 31.2 36.4 28.8 | 28.0 5.1} 101/140) 13.0/11.1)6.9|6.4|9,7|7.4|11.7/4.1/4.2/2,0/4.8|3.6/6.3/8.8/2.85|2 |31.6|35.3|27.7/29.0/ 4.8| 10.4 /18.7| 12.6 | 10.4) 6.7) 5.8| 2.8] 7.5/11.0)3.7 4.2) 9.6) 4.2/8.7) 5.2 3.5/2.80/3 | 29.4] 35.7) 28.0 28.5 4.6 : i | | | 9 | | 10.8 13.8] 13.2|11.1 7.6/6.8 2.8/8.0/11.6 4.3) 5.0| 1.5)5.2/ 8.5) 6.1/3.1) 3.05]3.5)32.0| 38.3 | 29.7| 27.7 4.9 10:4) 13.5) 12.0) 10.6) 6.8) 6.1) 2:7) __| ____13.41 4.6 | 1.9 | 4.0] 3.8 | 5.8/3.2 | 2.80] 3.5 | 29.5 | 35.6 | 27.8 26.8 | 4.8 10.5 | 13,7) 12.1} 10.0) 6.8 | 6.1) 3.0) 7.0} 10.7) 3.8 4/3) 22 . Is, 30.2'| 35.5 | 26.0 26.0 4.5 10.4/13.8| 12.71 10.3 | 7.5) 7.0) 2.818.5 11.9) 4.0 4.82.8 30.4 | 37.2 | 28.3 | 27.8) 5.1 7 4.5)3.4/5.8/2.7 3.2015 131.0) 37,5 | 27.0) 28.5) 4.9 6) 4.73.6] 6.3)3.4/2.80/3 |31.2|35.4/27.8/ 27.0) 4.8 D) 2 . 21 4.4)3.2) 6.3) 3.5) 3.00)3 | 31.2] 35.8) 27.3 | 28.0) 4.6 10.3 | 13.1] 12.9) 10.1) 6.5/5.3) 2.5) 7.1|10.5|3.8| 4.4) 2.2) 4.5/3.6) 6.0/3.1) 2.95/3 | 30.0) 35.3 | 26.8 | 29.3 / 4.9) ) 10.6} 13.8) 13.5) 10.2 7.3| 6.3) 2.8) _--| ____14.2} 4.4] 9.9/4.2) 3.415.9/3.1)3.25)4 | 30.0) 35.8 28.0 | 28.2 4.8 10.3 | 13.5) 13.4) 11.2) 6.8 | 6.2/3.0) 8.0) 11.3] 4.5] 4.5/2.4) 4.7} 8.3) 5.9] 4.0 | 2.70} 4.5 | 30.0) 35.2 | 28.0 | 29.6 | 4.5 10.3 | 13.6 | 12.5) 10.2) 6.8) 5.9) 2.6) 7.7 | 10.3) 3.7) 4.6) 1.8) 4.5] 3.0/5.7/2.9/2.85/8 | 29.8 | 35.6 | 27.2 | 28.6 | 4.7 10,1} 13.0 | 12,0} 10.2) 7.0) 6.5) 2.6) 5.5/1.1] 3.6/4.5!2.4)4.213.4/5.513.5)2.85|/2 | 29.2) 34.8/ 26.0 | 27.0) 4.3 10.5|13.5/ 18.3) 9.8) 7.8! 7.5|3.4|6.3|12.5' 4.3/5.4] 9,1|.5.2/3.8|6.3/3.4/3.05|/3 | 30.0) 34.8 | 28.0 | 27.6| 5.0 10.2 | 14.0) 14.0} 10.5} 6.6 | 6.3) 2.7) 6.7) 11.0) 3.6) 4.4) 2.4) 4.6/3.0) 5.6/3.3) 2.80/3 | 81.0) 36.5) 27.4 | 28.2 | 4.6 3 4 28.1] 34,6 | 25.4 | 27.5 | 4.8 -5 | 31.8 | 36.3 | 28.2 | 29.0] 5.5 /11.0/14.2|13.4110.4/ 7.6! 6.71 3.2/ 8.3/12.1/3.915.3'2.2| 5.2 3.6 | 6.8] 3.9 | 2.85 386 BRAN. TasLe I.—Men of Taytay- | | | Body. | — = = = = = | | ] lea | | / 4 sah | | lees 5 | | | | 3 = Noa: | lise a : } a Type of individual. | | +s : A = : a | oe ; | eal Tee cet |i Meals fs e=8| Bel ae 2 | 2 isi2@.| )} |S/8/o18 |S ole 2121s |S aeee Perla | ol gs Pe |e) SS) a Bet | eo 8 Hera leet see espe rl eaetiel fecal cst SB ) SS ore oe || oe (e|8 18) 8 18/2) 68 | 8) e142) 218 | Soe a/Oj|<|a |@)e|5 18 |G | a |4| 4 )e |e lee leer os ipa Kal at / | orale a=. Blondies eee (121) 662) 34 164.7 | $3.2 | 87.8 | 100.6 | 134.5 | 142.8 | 153.0) 7.0 47.4 | 89.7 | 54.3 73.6 100.3 | 134.0 Modified Primitive 122} 657 | 29) 161.2) 89.9 80.3) 96.4 | 130.4 | 138.0] 148.3 | 6.0 43.5) 80.0 58.5 72.6 97.6 Blend ates ee eas | 123) 651) 62} 163.5 | 84.3 | 84.2 | 100.0 | 132.5 | 140.0 | 149.0 | 6.5 | 45.6) 87.3 59.4 7.0 101.0 Australoid --------- 124) 650} 42) 156.0 | 86.1| 77.8) 92.2 | 195.4 | 132.8 | 142.6 | 6.7| 42.5 | 80.0 57.0 73.0) 944 Blend eee os Ree ae 125| 609) 17| 164. | 87.9 | 86.4 | 101.5 | 135.5 | 141.8 | 152.3 | 7.8 | 41.8 | 85.0 57.3 | 75.5 | 100.7 Blen (tessa 126] 692) 64) 166.5 | 85.2 | 87.8 | 101.5 | 131.8 | 141.0 | 152.0 | 6.4 | 46.5 | 89.0 57.8 76.8 | 102.5 127) aoe 30| 153.5 | 80.5 | 80.4] 95.8] 193.5 | 192.0 | 140.0 | 6.1] 44.0| 79.0 57.7! 72.5) 94.0 |128] 708} 70) 158.7 | 84.2 | 82.8) 96.7 | 130.0 | 137.5 | 145.5 | 7.4 | 49.0 | 84.0 | 55.3 72.6| 96.0 129] 686} 35) 155.7 | 82.3 / 80.3! 93,8 | 126.0] 131.5 | 143.0 | 6.1| 42.0 | 82.0 56.0 71.8) 95.0 130| 710) 28) 167.7 | 88.9 | 85.4 | 100.0 | 135.3 | 145.0 | 154.6 | 6.4] 46.8 | 86.8 64.5 82.5 | 106.0 |181} 780 25) 157.9 | 84.5 1 80.2 | 93.3 | 129.0 | 137.2 | 147.2 | 6.0 | 43.8 80.6 56.4 73.6) 95.5 | 182) 754/16) 156.5 | 81.7 | 79.0} 93.0 | 125.5 | 133.5 | 143.0 | 6.1 | 43.3 82.8534 71.0) 92.7 | | | | 1133] 726 16| 16010 80.7 | 86.5 | 98.0 | 130.5 | 136.8 | 146.7 | 6.8 | 46.0 sees 73.8) 97.2 134| 757/19| 168.6 | 89.5 | 88.0 | 102.5 | 137.8 | 144.4 | 153.8 | 7.7 | 48.6 | $9.8 56.3 74.6 | 102.0 135} 758} 63) 161.6 | 86.7 | 81.5| 97.5 | 131.7 | 188.0 | 150.0 | 6.0) 44.3 | 84.2 56.5 74.6) 97.8 136| 760) 27) 149.5 | 78.5 | 77.5] 90.5 | 119.0 | 126.7 | 134.2 | 5.8 | 41.4 | 77.2 | 50.2) 65.0} 87.6 | . Blend pian 144.7 | 78.1 | 76.2| 86.3 | 118.5 | 124.0 | 132.6 | 7.3 | 40.7 | 77.0 | 52.8 71.0) $9.6 Iberian 158.3 | 80.8 | 83.4] 98.3 | 180.0 | 138.5 | 148.7 | 6.5 | 45.2 | 84.0 | 56.0 | 74.0) 96.8 ko 2 ee ee 156.6 | $7.0 7.0 91.3) 127.0 | 135.5) 144.5'6.3/ 40.6 77.5 95.5 71.0) 94.3 Australoid 161.0 | 84.6 | 85.0) 96.5 | 128.5 | 187.3 | 146.8 | 6.6 47.0 | 85.7 | 54.2 724 94.0 { | | | | | | Tiberian eee Teeth) |e 45) 166.2 | 86.7 | 86.5 | 100.0 | 135.3 143.5 153.0 6.7 | 49.5 86.0 | 62.0 | 79.4 | Se coc Australoid —--__- 142| 784} 70} 164.0 | 86.7 | 83.0} 94.0) 131.4 pd trcadpolin 59.5 | 79.0 | Australoid ___________ 143| 775/30) 159.8 | 84.0 | 83:0} 96.6 | 131.0 127.0 | 147.8 | 6.2 | 46.5 | 85.6 | 58.7 | 76.2) Blends emcee 144) 800132] 160.9 | 84.8 83.0] 96.5 | 129.0 | 138.3 117.8 6.4 | 44.8 | 86.0 54.2 | 71.7 | } } Vey eseal see 145| 801) 33| 171.0 | 91.7 | 86.3 102.0 139.0 147.0 1576 6.8 | 46.0 $8.0 | 63.0 | 85.0 Blend ee ee ae 146| $16) 35] 156.4 | 82.2 | 81.0} 94.8 128.0 | 184.0 | 143.0) 6.6 | 48-4 | 82.8 | 60.5 | 77.5 Blom. 147} 825) 40/ 161.6 | 88.3! 83.6) 96.8 129.0 | 136.7 | 146.5| 6.0 | 44.3 85.5 | 54.5 | 73.0 Cro-Magnon —___-_._- 148) $83]58/ 166.8 | 90.3 84.5 | 99.0 134.0 |142.6| 158.5 | 6.5 44.0 | $8.0 58.0 | 76.5 Alpine 158.0] 81.6 | 79.6} 96.2 198.0 | 136.5 / 146.0 6.8 | 43.0 83.0 60.0 | 76. . Therian 163.2 | 86.1| 86.0} 99.2 131.3 | 139.0} 149.8 | 7.1 46.8) $3.8 | 54. Blen gies cea ao 156.4 | 82.9] 81.4] 94.3 | 126.0 183.0 | 142.4 | 6.8 42.8 | 82.8) S44 Blonde wwacne cess: 164.0 | 87.1 | 82.8 | 101.0 | 184.2 | 140.8 | 151.0 | 7.6 | 45.8 | 83.5 f Australoid 159.9 | 85.7 | $2.0| 93.5 | 128.5 | 136.2 | 146.3 | 6.8 | 44.0 | 83.0 Alpine 162.8 | 85.0 } 82.0| 97.0 | 132.5 | 139.5} 150.8 6.4 | 44.6 83.2 ; Blendetheswss eee 153.7 | 80.7) 79.4| 89.7 | 125.2 | 130.0| 198.8) 6.3 42.5 SL.0 i 5| 156.8 | 82.8) 81.6) 94.7 | 125.0 | 184.1 | 143.5 | 5.9 43.5 | 81.5 | = Teele yee ST 157| 915 40] 151.5 | 81.5| 76.6! 90.8 | 122.0 130.0! 138.6! 6.2 42.5 78.5 Blends aes 158 | 1085/33 / 149.0 | 79.2! 78.8 | 89.6 | 121.8 }-180.2 | 138.2 | 7.2 | 42.0 | 77.5 Alpine soe Cee See, 159] 921 | 42| 162.6 | 90.7] 77.6 | 94.0 | 181.5 | 186.5 | 148.5 | 7.2 | 44.6 | 79.3 i Australoid ----2---2- 160! 981/27! 158.5! 88.7!75.4! 91.3! 121.3 | 129.8! 140,01 5.7 | 40.4: 75.9 » as my Tl. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 387 lute measurements, in centimeters—Continued. Head. mum— oa Circumference. | 2 i | ce - Zz 2le| | |als =e |alal2| a is = = a a ell Sell Seles slelslelSlsisl2le lel ele! siaislelsle 22g Spa lalte;e ls pe| 2.2] es (Sela) 2] alse] elo] Sols) a) as | S/S Spe lols taleals|4lalelelSilalalelsiSisisieisisie)3 ajc | om | 2) a iS So Fea eat crete oes at ae RN | NN Sail ee eee ore | es es OT CO De ess nl mem | ON ORO: Nirmal Sel ee Qa || Siegy | | @ | a) S |e | Ste SPs ests lol aie | SIS) Ce) Olalal slp ie) 2) Ss] 6) 5) 8 Hla /A lA A I/4/4/4/4)o]4\4la) ele /e/S)/8 |e /elal;eioi\a ae - = { 12.5] 10,0] 18.8 | 13.0] 11.64 7.6] 6.9 | 3.2 | 8.4] 12.0) 4.0/5.3) 1.71 5.0 |3.8) 6.1) 3.2) 3.00)3 |31.0|36.8| 27.8 98.0|5.0 13.1} 10.0 | 13.8 | 13.6 nal7s 6.9} 3.4] 6.5) 11.3) 4.2) 4.8} 2.0] 5.0 | 3.6] 6.0! 3.3/2.80)/2 |29.4)37.0) 27.0) 26.0) 5.1 13.0} 10.5} 13.8 | 13.1} 10.1} 7.4) 6.8|3.3]8.1 | 11.6] 4.3) 5.2|1.7|5.1)3.6|5.9/3.6|2.70/3 | 32.0 36.6 | 28.3 27.0) 4.9 13.5| 10.0 | 14.0} 12,8} 10.2) 7.7) 7.3) 3.0)5.7| 11.7] 4.4] 4.7} 2.2 | 5,2 | 3.7| 6.8) 3.4) 3.05 | 3.5) 29.6 | 35.6 | 26.8 | 29.7 | 4.8 | 7} 12.8) 10.7} 14.1] 13.1] 11.3] 7.1] 6.5/3.0) 6.6 | 11.3 | 3.9} 4.5 | 2.6 | 4.6 | 3.7 BT 8.1 2.85 2 | 29.8) 37.2 97.8 | 27.5 4.7 12.7} 10.0! 14.0} 13.6} 10.5] 8.0) 6.8) 3.7| 7.8 | 12.2 | 3.8] 5.4/1.5 5.0| 4.0/7.3) 3.4) 2.85 4.5 | 28.8|35.5 | 26.6 | 27.7) 12.5) 10.0} 13.5 | 13.2] 11.0) 7.1) 6.8} 4.0) 7.4] 11.5) 4.0) 4.3 2.3/5.0) 3.4/5.9 3.3) 2.70 2 |30.7/ 35.0! 26.4 | 28.0) 5.1 12,8) 10.3 | 14.5) 13.8] 11.0) 7.7) 6.5] 2.8) 8.5) 11.5) 4.7/5.0) .8/5.5/3.7 6.4 BB ee --- | 30.6 | 36.2 | 27.0 | 30.0) 5. | ; | 12.5| 9.7] 13.8) 12.9) 10.6) 7.2] 6.3) 3.0) 6.7| 11.4) 3.9) 4.6) 1.0| 5.2/3.2) 6.4] 3.4 2.80/38 | 29.8) 34.6 | 28.0) 27:6 | 4.9 |} 13.5 | 10.6% 13.5 / 13.0 | 10.3 | 6.5 | 5.9 | 2.8] 8.0] 10.7 | 3.9) 4.0} 2.2) 4.5 | 3.4/6.1) 3.3) 2.95)2 | 31.0) 35.6 | 27.5 | 30.0! 5.0 }}12.4} 9.6) 13.0) 13.0) 10.4 | 7.0) 6.7) 2.6) 9.0| 11.0} 3.7] 4,7) 1.8 4.7/3.3 5.3 2.9 2.60 3 | 27.5) 36.0) 25 5) 2 4.5 2) 12.8] 10.8) 13.7 | 12.4 | 11.0) 6.0) 5.5) 2.4] 7.4) 10.0) 3.7 | 4.1 ele 3.3) 5.3 3.6 2.85 3 | 31.7) 35.0} 28.0) 26.0) 4.6 12.6 | 10.5 | 14.1} 13.2 | 10.6 | 7.0) 6.0) 3.1) 6.1}11.3| 3.6] 4.6] 2.1) 4.2 3.6|5.5/3.0)8-10)2 |30.6/37.8|26.5| 28.5) 4.5 13.0} 10.3 | 14.0} 12.7) 10.0; 7.0} 6.3 | 3.3 | 7,2 | 12.0| 4.0] 4.8/2.3!5.0|3.2|5.913.1]3.00)2 | 31.3) 36.8 26.2 28.5) 4.6 12.5) 10.7] 13.9} 12.7} 10.6) 7.1) 6.3} 2.8) 8.5] 11.0) 4.3) 4.4) 2.1|5.6/3.7/6.6/3.3]2.75/4 |32.0135.8] 28,5 | 27.51 5.3 12.8|10.7|13.0)12.7) 9.8) 6.8} 6.4) 2.7) 6.2) 11.3) 3.7) 4.3/2.1] 4.6/3.1) 5.313.3]3.1012 | 30.8} 34.5) 27.2|27.3) 4.4 | | ; 13.0) 10.4} 13.3 | 12.4) 10.0} 7.0/6.3 | 3.3] 6.0} 10.8 | 4.0) 5.0} 2.0) 5.0) 3.9|6.2|3.5|2.75/2 | 29.5|36.5| 96,0) 27.0) 5.0 12.8} 10.3} 13.0} 12.8) 10.7) 6.6) 6.1] 2.7/7.0) 11.0) 3.4] 4.4 | 2.5/4.5 2.7/5.6 8.5|2.95|3 | 80.2)35.11| 27.0] 27.8] 5.1 18,1} 10.7 | 18.7/| 13.0} 10.0) 7.0/6.5) 3.1) 8.0} 12.0) 3.7] 4.4 | 2.0) 5.4/3.4) 6.3) 3.4|3.15|2 131.0) 37.0) 28.0) 29.6 | 5.2 13.2) 11.2) 14.1] 13.2 | 10.7 | 7.0} 6.5) 2.8| 6.4) 12.3} 4.3) 4.5 |2.8/4.8/3.8) 5.9/3.8) 2.85/1 | 32.5)35.0)| 29.6 | 28.0) 5.3 2 | { 12.5] 10.4 | 18.7 | 12.7 | 10.7} 7.6 | 7.2] 3.3] '7.0|12.2| 4.2| 5.2} 2.5] 5.3] 4.0 6.0/3.3 3.10 30.4 | 34.6 29.0) 28.0 5.0 13.5 | 10.5 | 13.7 | 13.1 | 11.0} 8.3 | 7.5) 3.3 | 8.8 | 12.5| 4.8} 5.3]2.4| 5.9) 3.9) 9.5 3.5! 2.95 30.6 | 36.3 27.8 | 30.4 5.0 2 4 2.4) 5, 5 3) 12.2! 10.6 |13.5| 12.8) 10.3) 7.3 |6.5| 3.2/6.6 | 10.8 | 4.2) 4.7) 2.5) 4.7/3.2) 6.1 3.1|3.15/3 | 29.6|35.0/ 26.3 27.6 | 4.6 ')18.3|11.0 | 14.4) 13.6) 11.7! 7.2) 6.8; 3.7) 6.8) 11.8| 4.1) 5.1) 2.5/4.8) 3.3 | 6.1 87 3.15, 3 | 30.7) 36.6} 28.5 28.0) 4.8 | 42,7} 10.5 | 14.0) 12.9] 10.5) 7.3/6.9) 3.0} 7.8| 12.0) 4.3|4.9/2.4]5.0/ 3.5/6.0 3.2) 3.00\4 |30.8/36.6 28.0 28.0 5.2 13.2 | 10.6 | 14.1} 13.5} 10.5 | 7.4) 6.9 paella 11.6] 4.3) 5.3) 2.2) 4.8/3.5 6.0/3.3/3.00/3 |31.8| 38.2) 28.6) 30.3 | 4.7 12.4 | 10.3) 14.0/ 13.7) 10.8 8.0/6.9) 3.1) 6.8) 12.3) 4.1) 5.4) 1.6) 5.2 3.8 6.3 3.4] 2,95] 3.5 | 32.0) 37.2/ 98.6 | 29.0) 5.1 13.1) 10.5 14.4/13.8| 10.5 | 6.8 6.0) 3.2}8.5| 10.8) 4.4/4.4) 1.8 5.7/3.5 | 6.8/3.8 2,95 | 1.5} 81.0) 36.0 | 28.0/ 29.0) 5.5 12,8] 10.0 | 13.5|12.8)10.1| 7.2/6.8) 3.0) 7.0) 11.5) 3.1/5.0 24] 4.7 3.4 5.7 | 3.0) 3.10 2.5 | 30.6 36.3 | 27.4) 27.6) 4.8 12.6/10.0 13.8 | 13.2) 11.3) 7.4) 6.7/2.4) 7.0] 12.2) 4.0 4.8|1.8|4.8/ 3.0/5.8) 3.4)3.00/3 |80.5/35 6} 28.5) 28.5] 4.8 12.7| 10.1 13.5 13.0|11.4 | 7.2/6.5/2.7/7.8)11.3 3.8/4.5 2.3/4.9/3.9| 6.3) 3.6/2.85/3 | 30.7/34.6)26.8 96.8) 5.1 13.2|10,6 | 14.4 /13.1| 10.6) 7.5| 7.0) 2.7) 7.7| 12.8 4.1/4.8 2.3/4.8/3.776.3| 3.5) 2,90 / 2.5) 33.0) 36.5 | 29.8) 28.7 | 5.4 | i if 12.6 | 11.0|12.7/ 12.0/ 10.0| 6.4 |6.3/3.0/ 6.8) 11.4/3.914.3/2.5/5.0/3.5(5.5/8.0/3.10/4 |99.5\5.2/ 27.0 29.5 | 45 12.0] 9.9 |14.1/18.6| 11.0) 7.4] 6.4) 3.4/6.7) 11.4] 4.3|5.3/1.5/5.1|3.6 6.7/2.9) 2.80/4 | 29.3|36.0/ 26.5 | 27.6' 5.6 12.8] 10.6 | 14.1] 13.3| 11.0) 7.0 6.68.0 9.0/10.8| 4.3/5.0] .3/ 4.5/3.7 7.8] 3.1|3.30| 4.5! 31.6 | 36.0 | 28.0 [27.01 5.7 13.0| 10.0 | 13.4/12,4|10.0 | 7.1] 6.3 2.8/8.0] 11.0! 4.0] 4.5}2.114.2)3.1 5.2/3.4/3.15)2 | 298.3) 35.2| 27.0] 27.7) 4.3 [12.8 )10.6 14.3) 12.8) 10.7) 7.0) 6.0 2.3 )7.4/ 10.2) 4.0) 4.5) 2.0) 5.0/3.5 6.9 3.5/3.00/3 31.0) 35.6 28.0 27.5 4.9 12.5|10.0/12.5|11.7| 9.6 |6.4/5.8/2.3|8.0| 10.4)3.7|4.3|2.0/4.613.4|5.9|3.5/2.65|2 |29.4) 35.6) 26.7 | 27.2) 4.5 j 4 1 12.9) 11.0) 14.5 | 18.2] 12.0} 7.6 | 6.7) 3.0| 7.4) 12.3 | 2.8) 5.1) 2.5) 5.3) 3.3) 6.3) 3.3) 3,25 | 31.8 | 35.0 | 28.3 | 28.0} 4.3 12.8'10.2' 14.2'12.6'11.2! 7.3! 6.6) 3.1 6.0) 12.0!4.3 14.6! 2.0'5.5! 3.1] 6.3!3.0' 3.15! 1.5 | 30.0 35.7! 26.6) 30.0. 5.0 Moyea ah He aed, oy ea oe NE 7 . ‘ra ‘ 388 BEAN. . | Body. ne ci Seen at |™ ra : Type of individual. : | a s | 2 S 2 2 te sl 2 ly Wie |B | eae ee = | a |e e a = ape] a) Als | @ edict as! = 3 rage eget a etd fase | SSO ieaA eesian clin eee Settee eet ed an ctl edad me S\2leia |e (2,8 |/8)2)e)818 n|S |i w}oalhe yp a iS) A i418 ee Meee, |__| Blend se te Ses 161] 935/30) 157.2 | 88.8 | 80.6} 92.0 | 128.0 144.0 5.0 43.0 Blend __ 162) 934) 30) 148.2 | 80.7 | 73.6) 86.5 | 120.8 135.3 | 5.6 | 39.2 Iberian 163] 940) 38) 161.2 | $2.3 | 84.2) 97.6 | 129.0 145.8 6.0 43.2 Iberian __ 164] 129) 30) 159.5 | 85.9 | 82.0| 96.2 | 130.0 145.6) 7.5 Australoid _-.-_-___ 165| 941}25 154.7 | 84.2) 79.6) 91,0] 126.0 | 134.4 | 144.0 Alpine __- 166} 954) 30) 160.1 | 84.6 83.3) 96.0 | 131.0 147.8 Cro-Magnon _ 167} 471) 25! 165.3 | 90.6 | $5.5 | 98.6 | 132.5 154.0 AUstraloid) -- 2225-2} 1'68)|/= == 25) 158.4 | 84.0 | 81.4) 95.7 | 127.2 145.3 169] 543 | 42) 163.4 | 85.2 | 87.0 | 101.0 | 133.0 142.4 | 152.0 170 }----- 18} 157.1 | 84.2 | 79.0) 93.5 | 127.3 | 136.6 | 144.2 U7AY) eae 40) 162 4 | 86.9 | $2.6 | 95.6 | 132.0 | 141.3 | 151.0 | 6.7 aby) rar 18} 152.1) 81.7 | 77.0 89.4 | 122.2 | 129.5 140.5 | 5.3 83.0 | 82.6) 95,0} 127.0 | 185.0) 144.5 6.2 86.4 | 84.3? 97,7 | 131.0 | 139.0 150.0 | 6.1 84.8 | 86.2 | 100.0 | 133.0 | 141.4 151.5 | 6.2 82.8! 80.0) 94.0! 125.3) 183.0 | 141.2 | 7.0! | 79.7 | 74.5 127.5 84.6 | 88.5 |_ cone e oe (eee ee | Eas 181 |_____|(¥)| 159.9 | 83.8 © 81.8 | 99.0) 129.0; 185.5 145.4 | 7.0 Cro-Magnon ___ ~| 182) 1086 | 28) 167.2 | 89.4 86.6) 101.0 185 0} 145.0 154.6 §.2 8 AMISt ra Old eee A SS eee 80] 160.9 | 83.4 82.0 99.0 | 130.0 ae 148.2) 6.2 | 44.8 86 | fr » Adult. 5 . ; Sara % a if il. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 389 Head. | | | ! | ( 3 Circumference. eid | 5 3 | : = | H & | Eh 2 | | ls ele a2 lea lesa tele . : a elale) s/o) 2lel2i 28] =/elel4|ei4|4|s gale Eee lerss | ese lire | etcg ieee Palin|, O04) Sh AC lee | sl BS Oe ones een lea al a | et | ee Oe | el) Be BS ol eS eS |) 27 a 8 a |m|2 | 8 Ses Ste Se a Oo S| eh a ars Beh Be et Se A I aes ye ae eat aeeltoted 1h tent nicl peal Onifiecay, dfaxcsayl etsy pases ies tS Sa esodetalreita | Olea Horo | Ol) Orel! Sele |p oe | a |-o | o | 3 BA AR Ala a4) 5 | 4/4) 4 a8 Se els |e e/a |e oA i i | we | | | 18.0 10.4) 13.7 | 18.1 | 10.6 | 7.0) 6.7 | 2.8| 7.1 12.0 4.0 4.6 2.3/4.6 3.5] 5.6) 3.9/2.85|3 | 31.0} 35.2 | 26.7 | 28.0) 5.0 | 12.0| 9.8} 13.1|12.4| 9.8} 6.2) 5.3) 2.4) 7.3| 10.2) 3.6) 3.7) —-| ---|3.0) 6.03.2) 2.50/4 | 30.0) 34.6 26.4| 27.0) 4.8) 13.0| 10.9 14.4 | 12.9) 10.9) 7.6) 6.7) 3.1} 7.1) 11.6) 3.9) 4.9) 2.0 4.3)3.3|/6.6|3.4/3.35|2 |32.0/ 35.4 30.3 28.4) 5.0 13.0} 11.0) 13.9 13.3 | 11.3 7.7 | 6.7) 3.21 8.0| 12.3 3.9) 5.3 | 2.4) 4.7 | 3.4 | 6.2 | 3.2 | 3.25 | 3.5) 31.4 | 36.0 98.7 | 28.7 5.1 = 1 | | 12.3) 10.0/12.0/11.6| 9.7) 7.3) 6.8/3.0) 6.6|11.2| 4.1/4.6! 2.5/4.5| 3.3/5.8) 3.5| 2.75 29.1 | 33.0 | 25.6 | 27.0 5.0 12.6|10.7' 14.3 14.0) 10.8 7.4) 6.6) 3.1/5.6) 11.5} 4.0/5.1 | 2.1) 5.0/3.3 | 6.1} 2.9 | 3.15] 1.5) 31.2 | 36.3 27.4 28.5 | 9 12.5) 11.0| 18.8 13.6 |11.0|7.0|6.5|3.0| 7.1) 11.2) 4.1| 4.6) 2.4) 5.0) 3.4] 6.6) 3.7) 3.00|2 | 30.0} 33.0) 27.5 | 2 5.6 | 12.5) 11.1 14.3 13.3 11.3 6.8/6.2) 2.8 7.7| 11.4) 3.9} 4.6 | 2.4} 5.213.3| 5.7) 3.4) 3.15 | 4.5) 31.7 | 35.6] 29.0 | 29.0 7 | 4 12.4} 10.0} 13.1 | 12.8 | 10.3! 7.0) 6.4} 2.5) 7.5) 11.1| 4.0] 4.4/2.3) 4.7| 3.1/6.0) 3.4) 2.7014 | 30.0) 34.0 27.0) 29°9) 5.1 | 12.5 | 10.2} 13.1 12.7) 9.6 7.4} 6.8) 3.01 6.6/ 12.0} 3.9] 4.5) 2.5) 4.5) 3.2/6.6 /3.3/3.00/1 | 28.6) 34.0| 26.2 28.2) 5.1) 11.5) 9.2) 13.4 12.6 10.1 7.4/6.6) 3.0! 6.0) 11.0) 3.7) 4.8) 1.7) 4.8/3.7] 6.2) 3.3}2.85)4 | 27.4) 32.3 26.0 27.0) 5.3, 12.2} 10.1 | 13.0 12.8/ 10.1) 7.0) 6.3) 2.8) 7.4) 11.6| 3.8] 4.3} 2.4|3.813.0/5.6/3.4/2.95'4 | 30.5/ 34.6 97.0 | 28.3 4.3! 2 hoe 12.3) 9.8} 13.2!12.7| 10.3} 7.6) 7.4|3.2|5.8| 11.6] 4.2] 4.8) 2.0/4.3) 3.5/6.4) 3.0/3.25/4 | 29.4) 35.0) 25.8| 28.4! 5.4) 1272) 9.8) 13.7 14.0) 11.0 7.6| 6.3) 3.1] | | 4.1} 5.0) .5]4.7/3.2/6.5|3.3]2.75|4 | 29.3) 37.4|25.7| 29.5) 5.2 12.5| 11.0} 18.9 | 12.8 10.7 | 7.6 | 6.8| 2,4) 6.5 | 12.0] 4.1! 4.9) 3.0] 4.6) 3.3) 5.3 | 3.6|3.15) 3 B20 S10 Be. 27.5 | 4.7 13.0] 10.1 | 14:2} 13.0} 10.7! 7.5/6.9 | 3.016.9) 11.9! 3.7| 4.9121) 4.6) 3.2 5.6135 3.05; 4 | 31.0) 35.0 | 28.7 | 27,7) 4.9) : } | i | 11.5/10.3/13.8 18.0 11.1 7.0/6.3 3.1/6.8/11.4|4.0 46) 2.0] 4.8/3.3/ 4.8/3.8) 3.20) 1.5) 30.0) 32.8 26.5, 27.0 4.5) 12.4/ 10.0 Fe) MAUS 7.6 7.2/2.8 7.2'11.6)4.3| 9-0) 2.1] 5.5|3.2)6.2|3.3|3.00/4 | 31.2| 35.8 | 28.0] 29.5] 4.7 13.0} 11.3 | 14.3 | 13.7) 14.37) 6.8| 6.2 | 2.5/8.0! 11.6) 4.3) 4.7/1.8] 5.0/3.2] 6.2/4.0) 3.05) 4 | 33.5) 37.2) 29,8 | 30.4) 4.9} 12.3] 11.5] 14.5) 18.6} 11.5 |} 8.0] 7.2| 3.0} 7.6 | 12.0} 4.4] 9.2 |2.5)5.513.2/5.9|4.013.20|2 | 32.0) 36.8 | 28.7) 31.5] 4.7 oe) eel = | 12.8) 10.7 | 14.2 | 13.1) 11.1) 7.3) 6.5) 3.1) 7.5} 11.6 | 4.2 | 5.0) 1.9] 5.0/3.4] 6.3|3.5/3.35|3 | 30.3} 36.0 | 27.9) 29.4) 5.2 12.7 | 10.3 WS) eka 10.2) 7.0) 6.2/2.7) 6.2)11,2!4.2/5.0| .5/5.0/3.8| 7.0/3.2|2.95/3 | 30.7] 35.0 | 27.8] 28.8) 5.7 } : i 390 Species of individual. The true species is in parenthesis, except where no parenthesis is given. GS A ecieeraae Australoid =e =e u Alpine (Iberian) _--_---- 2 Cro-Magnon ---___-.---- 3 Blend Primitive _______ ea PATISHTR OTC lE = neeen es | ero, Blendiz2 ees ease | 6 Blend Aipine -_-_-----_- Jeo i BaIBiAB Ese ee ee eae } 8 Auasnabotoh 9 Blend (B. B. B.) ---- | 10 Primitive Australoid __. 11 Blend (Iberian) —--_-___ 12 Blend (Primitive) --____ 13 Blend (Iberian)_--_-_-_- }i, dé Blend Primitive? ______- 15 Blend (Primitive) -____- 16 Aistraloid? sessae eee 17 Blend (Iberian) —----.-__ 18 Alpine (Iberian) --______ 19 Blend (Adriatic)________ 20 AluStraloid/a-2se= =e ot Blend = sees BES peed B. B. B.? (Alpine) ___-_- | 23 Primitive === =a 24 berian 22° ek ee 25 Blend 2.5 eee 26 EDISON! eo 27 Modified Primitive -____ 28 FAIS tail Gia ees 29 Blends eee eee 30 Primitive (Alpine?)_____| 31 Blend (Iberian) -_._--__ 32 Iperian ease ase 33 Australgrd = 22 ee 34 Tiberian) 2224-508 eee 35 Adriatic (Modified, 36 Primitive). Australoid) === == ses 37 Blend (Iberian) —----___ 38 Austral oid Sa es 39 Blend 2222-2 see ae eee 40 Blend (Iberian) -----___| 41 Blend (Iberian?) -__---__ 42 Iberian?22-s<25) ae 43 INVERN eee ee ot 44 Modified Primitive __.__| 45 Blend (Primitive) --____ 46 Uiperi nese. ne eee Hie 247, | Clinical No. 373 Absolute lower leg length. Relative lower leg length. ot ~ Ba) Be = es) eS Shp Bie 25 £o So eo Sho | bo nao =o am o= 4 io Taytay— = us} ’ 2 ee =I iI eo ee hen SI @:.j/c5| ss | 2s eel od leel of lee Boi) BBO Ye a sae, a6) 28 |S “z = =o, B3o aa | es ad or eu So a 1S = Re oe De = 2 2a] oc | as) 4 |S |< [eels 33.2 | 21,74 40.3 | 26.61 41.4 | 24.59 43.0 | 26.97 39.7 | 24.68 42.5 | 25.75 39.2 | 26.65 42.6 | 26.51 37.8 | 24.67 40.7 | 24.98 37.5 | 23.59 39.4 | 25.30 36.6 | 24.33 38.6 | 25.18 41.3 | 25.92 43.6 | 25,75 38.5 | 24.04 28. 07 26.01 : 36.4 38.8 | 24,82 40.9 25.82 39.2 | 24.95 38.1 | 24.40 43.8 | 26.62 38.6 24.82 39.8 | 24,29 35.8 | 23.05 87.7 | 24.41 38.0 | 25.00 23.56 14,42 | 30.8 14.48 30.0 | 13.93 | 36. 14.16 | 3 20.6 | 15.71 | 23.8 17.1 | 10.94 | 23.8 18.0 | 11.36 | 25.4 18.0 | 11.45 | 23.7 17.6 | 11,27 | 20.4 18.1 | 11.00 18.6 | 11.96 18.2 11.11 19.2 | 12,36 16.8 | 10.88 18.0) 1.11 Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. - indices and relative factors-—Continued. 391 5 a 2 29) Sse ss ; 5) PE =e Eee 24 | Sy Sw | 5 af . bgt fas S é) Ea | oS of jes | 22/84 /"8|.8/ 8 | 2 ee Se Woe Po |P2)28 | e5 |ad|/os| 3 a wpe BO Nias See eAe et et Sel eet | os a ao | Ss soe ho Sf SIS fe fzl ot Sy ae te a Do Bee | eke I a =) ‘S) a id Ss) A a | A | Primitive, Iberian A __________ $9.8 67.3 | Iberian A, Iberian D_.-..--__| 75.1 | 77.7 Mixed, Primitive____.-_______- 76.5 | $0.5 Iberian A, Primitive -----___- | Sceects _—a | B. 8. B., Iberian) <_-_- 77s 8227 | Iberian B., mixed - | 78.2 | 80.4 | Odd type, mixed______________ | 68,8 | 84.6 SSeS cit) oad roa a a | 71.5 | 89.0 | Alpine, Primitive _____ 71.6 81.9 | Iberian A, Iberian D__________ 74.4 75.7 | Odd type, Primitive _—__- ____ 72.3 74.7 | Iberian D, B. B. B | .7 | 84.5 | Odd type, Primitive__.._______ | 73.8 | 85.8 | Tberian Band G_.---._._--____| 70.7 | 83.3 Alpine, B. B. B., mixed ______- | §0.3 | 72.7 Odd type, Iberian D, B. B.B., | 73.9 | 77.9 mixed. fs | | | Alpine, Primitive ----__ | 71.4 | 62.8 Iberian A 1 | Iberian D aT | Iberian D, odd type ----------- ia 6 Hin se [es ola | 4 | Oddutypeymi xed sa eeeaee pit Iberian D, odd type ---------__ 7 midi | | Iberian G, Primitive 70.4 | 80.8 { | Mixed, Alpine, Primitive, 76.8 82.7 2 | j i i Iberian C. | 92,58 | 14.5 | 32.5 | 44.61 | 22.9 | 11.9 | 79.03 | 86.00 | Primitive, B. B. B_------------ 76.5 | 80.2 19.46 | 12.1 | 34.0 | 35.58 | 24.8 | 13,2 | 78.75 | 91.30 | Mixed, B. B. B-_ -| 67.8 | 87.1 19.85 | 15.0 35.1 46.15 | 93.4 (12.8 92,48 } 85,41 | Mixed. 2 088 | 78.1 19.65 | 16.5 29.5 | 55.93 20.7) 9.3 | 77.41 | 91.30 Mixed, Iberian A, Primitive 73.9 | 83.8 19.95 | 14.0 | 34.3 40.82) 4 13.4 80.11 | 80.43 | Alpine, Primitive _-____-_--__- 75.0 | 81.4 19.58 | 13.1 | 33.8 | 38.75 | 21.2 | 10.1 | 98.87 | 82.97 | Mixed, Primitive ___________ 74.6 | 8024 90,71 | 11.1 | 33.3 | 33.33 | 22.0 | 12.6 | 87.57 | $1.25 | Iberian B-_-----.--_---_-_____ 83.0 | 66.1 20.08 | 14.5 | 84.0) 42.64 22.3 | 10.1 | 72.76 | 73.58 | Iberian, mixed A and C______- | 67.6 | 88.4 21,11 | 13.2 | 33.0 | 40.00 | 22.9 | 11.7 | 81.76 | 95.55 | Modified Iberian B, and ©, | 79.6 81.7 Se E | | oddtype. — | | 90,24] 14.3.) 37.4 | 38,23 | 23.8 11.8 | 77-43 | 80.00 | Iberian A, Primitive I | 88.8 21,27 | 15.5 | 34.0 | 45.58 | 24.5 13.5 | 88.30 /102,50 | Malay, Chinese_________-______ | | 78.5 | i | | | 29.45 | 13.2) 81.8 41,50 | 22.1 | 11.5 | 79.12 | 95.28 | Iberian B, mixed, Iberian C _ 77.9 76.8 20.39 | 11.0 | 30.6 | 35.94 | 20.4 | 9.8 | 82.58 | 84.00 | Iberian D_________________-___- | 71.9 | 80.9 19,92 | 14.6 | 33.4 43.71 | 21.3 | 11.0 .5 | 78.6 20.56 | 16.1 | 32.6 | 49.38 | 22.1 11.0) 4.03) 9 | 79.8 19,51 | 11.4 | 38.4 | 29.68 | 21.8 | 10.6 | 81.32 | 78.84 | Iberian C and B_____---------- | 77.7 | 80.0 99.44 | 14.3 | 29.3 | 48.80 | 22.2 | 11.0 | 79.55 78.84 | Odd type, B.B. B., Iberian D__| 70,1 82.3 90.14 | 16.7 | 81.6 | 52.84 | 24.5 | 12.7 | 78.33 | 81.25 | Modified Iberian C_____------- 177.9 | 85.5 | 20.09 | 10.1 | 38.6 | 26,16 | 21.9 | 11.5 | 78.88 | 97.67 | Iberian D, Iberian C —__-----_- | 86.7 | 72.2 91.37 | 12.2 | 32.8 | 37.19 | 24.4 | 13.4 | 90.64 | 93.33 | Odd type, Primitive__ .2 | 82.0 91.05 | 14,8 | 33.0 | 44.84 | 22.5 | 11,2 | 86.36 | 93.02 | Primitive, Iberian C___-------- | 75.1 | 84.9 18.64 | 12.7 | 34.2 | 37.13 | 22.0 | 11.4 | 76.16 | 72.54 | Iberian A ee eS es pat iP, ‘ 392 BEAN. Tasre Il.—Men of Taytay— r e's as ba ee ees ee ee Species of individual. | Bey 5a Ze Ba Ba | 2. ee es = ae The true species is 1n | Ama seal caine = Pi Raed g laces | a =) me Pa A bes parenthesis, except | = £5 2s 25 | gs | ge ee £2 Pa } 22 Beivens a. fares ceil © sl sae] oe ate Pel eal eee ea ene ann | RES) we) eta | comand Rete Be heed ie By 22 | D7 |S | 4 | o-|4 | < a |< a tau zee | 48 | 484 | 34.4 | 22.88 | 38.6 | 25.06 | 16.2 | 10.52 | 19.5 | 12.26 | 33 3] 49 | 486 | 40.7 | 24.35 | 38.8 | 23.22 | 21.0 | 12.57 | 24.0 | 14.36 | 30.8 | 50 | 17 | 37.7 | 28.80 | 40.0 | 25.25 | 18.0 | 11 36 | 24.5 | 15.46 | 33.5 | Blend (Modified Primi- | 51 | 465 | 35.7 | 22.66 | 40.7 | 25.84 | 16.7 10.60 | 21.0 | 13.33 34.4 tive). | | Blend (Iberian) —------- Ei}, eee | 36.9 | 28.14 | 38.8 | 24.34 | 16.9 } 10.60 | 23.0 | 14.42 | 28.8 | | Cro-Magnon -------2----] 53! |---=-- 41,0 | 24.07 | 47.1 | 27.59 | 20.3 | 11.89 | 24.3 | 14.23 33.9 | | Cro-Magnon? —---.=----- Pubes 04 Peete 40,1 | 24.04 | 40.0 | 23.98 | 19.5 | 11.68 | 23.3 | 13.96 | 34:7 | Cro-Magnon —_-------=-- / 55 / 477 | 41.3 | 24.51 | 42.6 | 25.22 | 18.0 | 10.68 | 26.5 | 15.72 | 33.5 Blondie ca eee ene | 56 | 481 | 37.8 | 28.42 | 41.1 | 25.46 | 17.3 ; 10.72 22,5 | 18.94 | 82.5 Blend (Iberian) —_----- 57 | 471 | 86.2 | 29.94 | 89.5 | 25.03 | 18.0 | 11.39 | 23.2 | 14.69 | 30.0 | Blend (Iberian) -------- 58 | 234 | 87.4 | 22.57 | 40.1 | 24.20 | 18,8 | 11.34 | 24.2 | 14.60 | 81.5 Blend (Modified Primi- | 59 | 489 | 36.0 | 28.98 | 87.0 | 24.10 | 18.1 | 11.74 21.9 | 14,21 | 82.6 tive). | | | | } Blend (Iberian) -_------| 60 | 488 | 41.0 | 24.36 | 39.8 | 23.64 | 19.0 | 11 29 | 24.6 | 14.61 | 35.9 | Blend (Iberian) -_.-----| 61} 489 |. 39.0 24,15 | 20.2 | 12.22 | 28.0 | 18.92 | 31.8 - | Blend ____---____----—- | 62} 482)) 39:6 | 25.14 17.4 14.19 | 26.4 | 15.80 | 32 oO. MPI se eaeee ee 63 | 492 | 36,8 | 25.80 | 18.6 | 11.32 | 22.4 | 13.63 | 34.6 TOME S| GEC eS Ieee 24.65 | 17.8 | 11.05 | 23.6 | 14.65 | 32.4 |) aitsterAton a ee 65 | 514 | 37.0 25.84 | 17.2 | 10.70 | 23.6 14.69 | 32.8 | Tjeonieiw eee | 66 | 501 | 39,1 | 23,84 | 40.0 | 24.39 | 18.9 | 11.52 | 22.6 | 18.78 33.6 | Blend (Iberian) —-—---- . 67 | 988 | 35,4 | 22,53 | 40.8 | 25.65 | 17.1 | 10.88 21.2 13.49 | 34.6 Australoid ---------- | 68 | 462 | 36.2 | 23.02 ) 37.6 | 28.98 | 16.7 | 10.62 21.9 13.93 | 31.4 em GO 4 eee seems [oxen II ae Se AR | Sr AG Cag |= open) Ae 10) |e 34.1 | 21.97 | 38.9 | 25.06 | 17.8 | 11.46 19.6 | 12.62 | 32.4 | 71 | 505 | 37.8 | 23,71 | 41.4 | 25.97 | 18.4 11.54 | 21.4 13.42 | 33.1 | 72:| 526 | 36.9 | 24.30 | 36.0 | 23.71) 14.0] 8.56 22.8 | 15.01 | 88.2 Blend (Iberian) -------- |B | 38.0 | 23.27 | 40.2 | 24.61 | 18.1 | 11.08 24.4 14.94 | 32.3 Cro-Magnon ____------__ 74 | 585 | 88/1 | 22.45 | 46.6 | 27.46 | 20.4 | 12.02 | 26.7 | 15.73 ) 34.1 Blend (Iberian) -_- 75 | 521 | 39.0 | 23.11 | 41.3 | 24.48 | 16.8| 9.60! 93.1 13.69 | 33.3 Blend (Alpine) --------- 76 | 528 | 35.8 | 22.80; 40.8 | 25.98 | 17.0 | 10.82 | 21.5 | 13.69 | 30.0 Blend (Alpine) -------_- . 77) 503 | 37.5 | 28.96 | 89.7 | 25.36 | 16.7 | 10.67 | 22.2 14.18 | 31.1 Modified Primitive ---__ 78 | 836 | 36.3 | 23,12 | 87.0 | 23.56| 16.3 | 10.38 | 21.6 | 18.75 | 34.1 Aatniloitel -o oe 79 | 529 | 35.7 | 28.51 | 38.3 | 21.98 | 16,4 | 10.80 | 21.7 | 14.29 | 30.3 Therian 80 | 522 | $8.3 | 21.15 | 40.8 | 25.92 | 18,1 | 11.49 | 22.7 | 14.42 | 31.5 Tpentan|assseesees 81 | 520) 37.7 | 23.45 | 37.8 | 23.26 | 16/6 | 10.35 | 21.7 | 13.58 | 33.9 ; Blend (Alpine) -- _| 82] 587 | 88.7 | 28.94 | 39.0 | 24.13 | 18.4 | 11.88 | 22.7 | 14.04 | 32.9 Ben de: eae eon ee | 88 | 225 | 36.6 | 22.81 43.9 | 27.36 | 16.2 | 10.09 | 23.3 14.52 | 31.4 iberianesseeeea ane eare | 84 | 703 | 33,5 | 21.47 | 40.8 | 26.15 | 20.2 | 12.94 | 20.9 | 13.39 | 81.6 Australoid ois Pees | 39.0 | 23.99 | 87.5 | 23.07 | 16,6 | 10.21 | 20.8 | 12.80 | 34.0 Australoid ——--_------__ 86 566 | 37.6 | 23.61 | 39.2 | 24.62 16.8 | 10.55 | 23.7 | 14.88 | 32.9 Modified Primitive -_-_- 87s 38.0 | 24.35 | 38.4 | 24.61 | 17.8 | 11.41 | 23.6 | 15.12 | 33.1 IMPINGE = esse 88 | 180 | 37.5 | 23.88 | 38.8 | 24.71 | 18.2 | 11.59 | 24.6 | 15.66 | 33.0 Australoid (‘Typical?)_-_| 89 | 564 | 37.3 | 23.81 | 36.1 | 23.02 19.4 | 12.37 | 21.6 13.77 | 30.6 @ro-Magnon?__---------- 90 | 560 | 42,2 | 24.72 | 42.4 | 24.83 | 21.5 | 12.59 | 29.5 | 18.18 | 36.5 Blend (Primitive) ------ 91 | 551 | 33.8 | 22,48 | 38.2 | 25.33 | 17.7 | 11.73 | 22.7 | 15.05 | 34.1 : Blend (Iberian) -------- 92 | 556 | 38,9 | 22.27 | 39.6 | 26.01 | 17.8 | 11.69 | 21.0 | 18.79 | 31.6 Blends. 2 Sas sane eee 93 | 558 | 87.9 | 28.86 | 41.4 | 25.52] 18.7 | 11.52 | 28.7 14.61] 31.4] © Sone eR OG Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 393 indices and relative factors—Continued. =) s ) A | & | 3. 2 = ig = 3 3 Aa | ari ae ae | 8 5 Ome euse | a ca Ba | o8 so } 5 ois - Ss |)He is| o Bo | od =] 4/35 | 24 oa Pel oo 3 Ss} us) Ve Tesi Sa | so |B | | oS iz Far type. Rel || seid! ‘3 ape So | aU [ao |] oo 3 ne alt Lo Ro BR (cae bee |e |e) es os ae 2S || SS Sa |'s A g 2 = Bt a { ae | of | (4 |p S a |p 5 4a /& | 4 | ; i ene 13.5 | 34.1 | 39.58] 18.9 | 9.6 | 79.77 | 93.02 | Primitive, Iberian C_____-_____ 76.1 | 70.9) | 16.0 | 34.6 | 46.24 | 21.8 | 10.7 | 87.77 | 89.13 | Odd type, Iberian C, B. B. B___} 75.1 | 79.8 | 14.0 | 33.1 | 42.29 | 26.9 | 14.9 | 78.60 | 79.59 | Iberian C, B. B. B., Iberian D | 73.6 | 85.7 | | | (Cro-Magon). - | | Ovi PotoMbOtalon 22 OMLata i SOn44: (nO2gLOn) Primi tiviels = een ee ene = 28 | 78.6 | 73.5 | } | | 13.5 | 35.5 | 38.03 | 21.4] 8,7 | 84.78 | 84.46 | Iberian C_---_______________--- | 71.9 | 90,0 14.0 | 33.8 | 41.42 | 23.4) 11.6 | 77.30 | 82.22 | Iberian C____ | 72-1 | 89.3 14.7 | 35.2 | 41.81 | 24.0 | 12.0 | 79.80 |100.00 | Mixed, Iberian D, Primitive, | 74.7 | 81.0 | Iberian A and C. 15,6 | 38.2 | 46.98 | 22.3 | 10.0 82.90 | 98.30 | Odd type, Primitive, Iberian D_| 78.4 | 86.9 14.0 | 34.8 | 40.46 | 21.2 | 10.8 | 83.38 | 93.00 | Therian AylOdG type === 77,6)) 78.7 ea | BBE) |) SH) |) BIRT BEEN BL ilby) GPP} |i Wofersvayn) Isje aos 2 ee 8 | 92.3 Lan9) | 3003) 48.04 | 23°99) 179) 87.29) 80.39!) Dberian C222 8 | 89.0 12.6 | 32.2 | 39.138 22.3 | 11.4 | 88.70 |100.00 | Iberian D, mixed 4 | 81.3 | | | | 17.3 | 38.8 | 51.18 | 22.8 | 11.4 | 81,53 | 90.00 | Iberian D, Iberian B__________ {77.3 | 76.0 | | 18.5 | 30.7 | 60.26 | 21.6 | 10.4 | 79.36 | 84.31 | Iberian B and C_________-_____ | 76.2 | 75.6 16.7 | 34.3 | 48.69 | 20.7 | 10.2 | 85.31 | 84.09 | Modified Primitive, Alpine____| 75.9 73.9 14.0 | 32.4 | 46.29 | 24.8 | 13.5 | $5.14 | 66.66 | Odd type, Iberian Band © ____| 77.9 | 76.3 14.2 | 33.0 | 43.03 | 22.2 | 10.4 | 80.42 | 84.00 | Iberian B, Primitive __________ | 70.4 | 86.7 12.2 | 33.0 | 36.96 | 26.8 | 15.0 | 76.21 | 78.72 | Iberian C, IberianD(Cro-Mag- | 68.3 | 83.0 \ non, (B.B.B.) } | 12.5 | 37.3 | 33.51 | 23.0 | 11.5 | 77.27 | 85.41 | Iberian, mixed -2 | 80.9 12,0 | 31.3 | 38.33 | 22.1 | 12.2 | 85.54 | 86.95 | Iberian D el file 14.2 | 35.8 | 39.66 | 19.7 | 10,2 | 78.08 |100.00 | Primitive Le | 73.0 ease | Poe tears eae ea ees el COKGLY || Tehataeh mletenobt nie 133913} 183 ee ee) 75 | 83.9 12.3 | 33.9 | 36.28) | 23.4 | 11.8 | 79.70 | 82.00 | Mixed, Primitive _____________ 70.3 | 87.1 12,3 | 33.9 | 36,28 | 20.7) 9.3 | 84.83 || 82.35 |: Iberian D_-_-_ 67,0 | 89.0 13.4 | 31.0 | 43.22 | 22.6 |______ 86.14 | 86.04 | Iberian C, Alpine, Primitive __|/------|------- 17.3 | 32.2 | 53.73 | 22.8°) 11.5 | 80.10 | 82.97 | Mixed, Iberian B and C____-__ | 77.5 | 81.9 5 16,5 | 32.0 | 51.56 | 25.4 | 12.9 | 76.16 | 89.13 | Modified Iberian A, Alpine ___] 67.3'| 88.0 14.9 | 35.5 | 41.97 | 23.7 | 11.7 | 85.10 | 86.00 | Iberian A__-_-----_________ 6 13.1 | 30.4 | 43.09 | 21.0 9.8 | 81.96 | 72.34 | Iberian C, Primitive 13.7 | 33:3 | 41.14 | 21.8 | 11.1 | 81.71 | 76.00 | Iberian A, Primitive, odd type_| 78.8 | 77.5 11.8 | 33,5 | 35:22 | 26.0 | 15.0 | 89.14 | 95.00)) Primitive---_--------____-_____ | 75.0 | 78.0 76.47 | 85.41 | Iberian B, Alpine, Primitive__| 67.9 | 93.0 14.5 | 33.2 | 43.67 | 25.2 | 13.7 | 70.50 | 79.19 | Iberian D, mixed, Iberian A__} 69.3 | 80.9 14,8 | 33.1 | 44.71 | 24.6 | 13.6 | 75.00 | 78.43 | Iberian B,Primitive,Iberian D_ 75.4 | 79.7 GNGH sot non ose RSOZGn hl 25) nS4e2onl 7ond Bw. Been ner eee ees | 69.8 | 91.2 14,8 | 33.0 | 44.84 | 23.4 | 11.3 | 80.11 | 88.37 | Iberian, mixed -_-___--_--_____ | 70.4 | 88.9 16.5 | 31.6 | 52.21 | 22.6 | 10.3 | 77.59 | 81.63 | Iberian D -1 | 90.4 18.0 | 38.1 | 39.27 | 23.5 | 11.0 | 76.14 | 93.75 | Iberian C, Primitive —__ 65.7 | 91.9 14.6 | 35.5 ) 41.12 |______ eee 76.59 |110.00 | Iberian C, Primitive - 84.2 | 76.9 TANS) SNe A713 205) |e eee 89,15 | 84.44 | Primitive, Alpime -__---_______ Poeaaee pn 14.1 | 83.7 | 41.83 | 21.2 | 9.2 | 86.85 | 74.50 | Primitive, Iberian © __--_____- 71.0 | 85.7 14,3 | 80,2) | 47.35 | 22/2); 11.6 | 73.68 |102.22 | Oddi type —------_-____._-___-__ 84.9 | 75,1 15.1 | 34.2 | 44,15 | 21.9 | 10.6 | 78.57 | 81.81 | Iberian C 72.7 | 86.2 18.8 | 30.3 | 48.89 | 21.8 | 11.8 | 85.00 | 88.09 | B. B. B., Iberian -A_____ 75.8 | 75.7 11.3 | 33.2 | 84.08 ! 23.7 | 12.4 | 83.99 ! 79.16 | Iberian B, Primitive ___ 179.8 ' 81.8 AS x ent Ee 4 be ake S- r BA ts *: ue fs ve ae ads 7 en OS v ‘ 394 BEAN. : TasLe Il.—Men of Taytay— [ | is. | 8.18.18, 12 12. lela. Te. speci indivi oa|t ire fe | i 13 3 csfies ; ; Sygeiey of sagivitaal.) | 5 | Be| Be | 2a) og 2212. |e | ee ee parenthesis, except = |S8 | 28 |28) 08 | Sw|om 185) od | 25 where no parenthesis — Fal iaeictal AHL lahat eter Wr aliezys (ioe, zie [Ss is given. 2 Ve WS Belg Bo) Spy) abo Wet ae ee Ze oH 6 re) art | et ort) aire oO 23|o0ea }4¢8 A Or ext i=} < =] aq in 4 7 <4 Blends twee cues 94 | 474 | 82.4 | 21.81 | 85.6 | 28.97 | 16.4 | 11.04 | 90.4 | 13.78 Australloid) s2s. === eee | 95 | 580 | 37.0 | 23.44 | 39.0 | 24.71 | 16.4 | 10.89 | 21.2 ANAS tral OUd esse ee Ber eeses— 37..6 | 23.36 | 35.6 | 22.12 | 17.8 | 11.06 | 21.9 | 13.61 Blend (Australoid) —--_- “97 | 581 | 87.9'| 28.52 39.8 24.31 {18.0 | 10.99 | 25.0 | 15.27 SANIStr aol eee 98 fase. 35.8 | 22.73 | 38.2 | 24 25 | 16.9 | 10,78 | 21.5 | 13.65 PANISHTS OC ns 99} 176") 37.3 | 23.78 | 39.6 | 25.25 | 18.7 | 11.92 | 23.0 | 14.66 | Blend [ee ae eS Blend (Iberian) ---- | 63 | 84.8) 22.9| 40.3) 25.7 | 16.3) 10.3 | 20.7 | Blend 5} 608} 37.0) 28:7) 38:2] 245 1/97.8] 11.4] 29,9 Ob eeeeees 39.1 | 24.5} 39.8) 24.9/18:3] 11.4 | 92.8 Blends ==-sa-ne os 107 | 104 | 87.2 | 24.3)) 37.7) 24.6 117.2} 11.2 | 20:5 Blendeesssteeenss berOSi eeeees 38.9 | 24.4 | 39.5] 24.7) 18.2] 11.4 | 22.6 | Alpine (Iberian)__ 109) 653 | 38.9 28.9 | 38.9] 23.9) 17.8) 10.9 | 22.7 Primitive! ---— Ceprbiy) eee = 39.5.) 23.74) 31.1 | 20:7 | 15.4 | 10.3 | 20.6 1 638 9.4 24.7 | 88.3} 24.0] 17.0} 10.7 | 28:9 1120 | 37.3} 24.6 | 86.1] 28.8] 17.3] 11.4] 19.9 118 | 628'| 36.5) 23,5 | 38.2] 24.6 | 18.3) 11.8] 21.8 ) 24.8 | 42.5] 95.4 | 20,2) 12.1 | 93.5 639 | 34.5 | 21.9) 36.5] 23.2 | 16.4) 10.4 | 22.6 | 23.8 | 38.0] 25,8 | 14.7 |. 10.0) 20.8 Blend (Primitive) Feikevingl Ls esti Led eee /59.8| 2451 38.9] 23.9] 18.8] 11.6 | 22.2 ns | 316 | 39.8] 24.4) 40.2) 246) 16.7) 10.2 | 24.7 TERY zee 39.1) 25.0] 37.8} 24.1 | 17.8) 11.3 | 23.3 | 120 | 654) 36,8] 98.7 | 384] 25.1 | 17.2) 11.2) 249 121 | 662 | 40.4 DBD EERE | Re | 122, 657 87.5 | 28.3 36.5 | 22.6 / 19.1) 11.8 25.0 | ee 23.9) 41.7 | 25.5) 17.6 | 10.7 | 24.0 ’ t Australoid —___ 650 | 35.8| 22.9 37.5] 24.0|16.0 10.2 21.4 Blend (Iberian) | G09 }'84.0) 20:7 | 43.2] 96.2 |'18.2 | 944.0)} 25.2 Blend (Iberian) ________ | 692} 40.1} 24.1 | 42.5] 25.5 19.0) 114 25.7 Australoid eee! 37.9 | 24.6 | 85.0] 22.8/14.8| 9.6} 21.5 Blend ___ ) 708 | 87.9} 23.8! 39.0} 24.61! 17.3| 10.9 | 93.4 Australoid __ | 686 | 35.9! 23.0 | 40.0! 25.6] 15.8| 10.1 | 98.2 Cro-Magnon___ 710 | 40.4 | 24.1} 40.0} 28.8) 18.0} 10.7 | 23.5 Alphine (Tberian?)_______ 730 | 37.8 | 23.9] 36.8| 23.3} 17.2| 10.9] 21.9 Blend (Modified Prim-| 132 744 | 87.2) 23.8 | 39.5 | 25.2 -17.6| 11.2 | 21.7 itive) . | E oe ee Blend (Iberian) _...-2--| 183) 726 | 39.2} 24.5. 40.0| 25.0/ 18.0) 11.2} 93.4 Blend (B. B. B.) -- 184 | 757 | 40.9 | 27.2] 41.2) 24.4118.3} 10.8] 27.4] Australoid 135 | 758) 38.3 23.7] 89.9 | 24.6) 18.1] 11.2| 23.2. Australoid —--_--_-----_- 136} 760 | 35.6 | 28.8 | 35.8] 28.9/14.8| 9.9 | 22.6 Blend (Primitiye) ____- 187 | 761 | 88.4 | 22.9] 86.3] 24.9) 182) 12.5] 18.6 TSM 2 oe ee 188 | 756 | $8.7} 24.4) 38.8| 24.5] 18.0) 11.3) 22.8) Blend ea ae eee eel 180) aoe 34.3 | 21.9 | 86.9] 23.5/15.5| 9.8 | 23.3 Australoid HA Oh eeeesers 40.4] 25.1 | 88.7 | 24.0] 18.2] 123] 216] 134) Ter) an ee eee ee 141 |---| 38.81 28.3 140.5 | 24.3 1174!) 10.4 | 247] 1 a nf ; hee ma oy bi aaa * Ln: ile Sie ue i Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 395 indices and relative factors—Continued. 5. lx. 18 - rs oe 4 2 Payee clecle | 2) oe ay | 83 Se | Sa) o8 | oo, | se oie 22 2 oo | So 28 es | & a =| B aoa!) BES & Ear type. | aon ak Be |e l|az|e |S8|e#| 8 | ¢ 32 22 oa s 3| i) 2 a e a ae p=) (ez) | & |P | iS) a Pp is) Zz By a | = | | 19.79 13.6 32.0 | 42.50 | 23.1 | 12.1 | 83.05 | 80.39 | Iberian ©, Primitive __-____- | 69.5 | 81.4 20.53 | 15.0 | 34.3 | 48.73 | 22.5 | 11.5 | 77.00 | 95.23 | Iberian B, Iberian © ____-_____ | 71.4 | 81.4 19.70 | 16.8 | 34.3 | 48.97 | 24.6 | 12.8 | 81.72 | 97.61 | Primitive, Alpine 67.6 | $5.5 20.15 | 15.8 | 30.7 | 51.46 | 23.2 | 11.3 | 81.28 | 91.48 | Therian ©, Alpine -____--______ | 75.6 | 83.2 21.01 | 17.4 | 32,2 | 54.31 | 23.7 12.4 | 82.60 | 97.67 | Primitive, odd type, mixed ___| 76.5 80.7 21.61 | 13-2 | 38.6 | 39.28 | 19.8} 8.7 | 81.50\| 95.30 | Mixed —-_-—___________________- | 76.8 | 81.5 90.23 | 12.8 | 31.7 | 40.37 | 22.7 | 11.3 | 79,67 | 81.25 | Iberian A, Iberian D, mixed __| 70.2 | 83.1 19.6 | 14.1) 34.8 40.5 | 22.8) 11.0 85.10 | 89.79 Mixed ___-___--_--_-_-_----_- | 81.2 | 78.9 | | } 21.6 15.0 | 33.0 | 45.4. | 92.8 | 11.8 | 83.88 | 7.08 | Mixed, subnothern ___________ 77.9 | 79.7 19.5: | 13.5 | 33,8 | 39.9 | 25.4 | 13.7 | 75.77 | 97.61 | Iberian C e 183.5 ‘} 21.7 | 15.6 | 30.3 | 51.4 | 28.6 | 12.6 | 79.14 | 88.09 | Iberian C | 80.2 21.2 | 16.1 31.0 51.8 | 23.4 11.8) 84.04 86.00 Primitive odd type__________- 70.4 | 84.0 20.8 | 14.2 |.32.8 | 43.2 | 20.9 )____ 83.14 | 73.91 Mixed, Iberian, B. B. B_______ ------ ae 91.5 | 13.7 | 88.3! 41.1 | 21.4 | 10.7 | $4.09 | 88.37 | Mixed, Iberian A__-_ (77.4 78.1 191 | 12.4) 30.6 | 40.5 | 24.1) 12.2 | 84.40 | 83.33 | Iberian A, B. B. B_________.__. | 67.6 | 86.2 91.4 | 14.2 | 31.4 45.2 | 22.0! 10.9 | 94.98 | 60.37) Iberian C | 76.9 | 75.5 20.9 16.0 | 28.3) 56.5 23.3 | 12.6 | 88.95 | 89.13 Alpine, Primitive -_____ 80.4 | 74.3 18.9 | 15.0| 30.8 48.7 | 24.6 12.8 | 82.41 | 86.95 | Iberian B, mixed, Alpine -____ | 74.1 | 85.5 19.7 | 13.0 | 82.3 40.2 | 22.6 | 12.1 | 78.02 | 86.36 | Primitive, subnothern ________ | 74.4 | 80.1. | 20/0) 1.12.2) 37.2 | BO) IR | Pb by | acne 80.32 | 95.45 | Odd type, Primitive.________ eae jesseed | 21.2 | 18.6 | 32.0 | 42.5 | 23.4 | 12.1 | 75.12 /100,00 | Mixed, subnothern__________- | 69.9 | 83.7 19.5 17.3) 81.2 55.4 | 22.8 | 12.5 | 81.76 | 80.43 | Modified Iberian A, Primitive. 75.5 | 75.7 Poser 12.6 30.0 | 42.0 | 20.9| 9.8 | 87.05 | 80.00 | Mixed, Primitive_____________| 78.3 | 85.3 20.8 | 13.8 | 33.0 | 41S | 23.4 | 10.9 | 83.88 | 79.62 Odd type, mixed, Primitive___ 71.8 | 92.5 19.0 | 14.2 31.6 44.9 | 21.2) 10.2 | 86.51 | $1.81 | Iberian C, mixed_____________. | 79.0 | 78.5 90.2 | 15.2 | 31.5 | 48.2 | 22.4 | 10.3 | 77.96 | 72.00 | Iberian A | 69.1 | 91.6 18.9 | 13.7 | 30.1) 440 | 22.7 | 10.6 | 81.48 | 73.58 | Iberian D, mixed______ | 69.6 | 85.2 2 | 13.3 | 33.9 | 39.2 | 21.9) 9,9 | 85.63 | 75.47 | Odd type Primitive _._._______ | 67.6 | 86.9 20.4 | 16.1 34.0 | 47.3 | 23.2 11.9 89.41 | 87.50 | Mixed, odd type, subnothern__ 77.5 | 81.8 19.8 | 15.8 32.5 | 48.6 | 23.5 | 11.9 | 88.57 | 82.69 | Mixed, Iberian A, (Iberian D,) | 70.1 | 84.0 > | | | BB. B: 19.6 | 14,4 | 33.2 | 43.3 | 23.7 | 12.0 | 79.89 | 93.61 | Odd type, mixed, Primitive___| 80.4 | 83.5 Bu fib. | 34.0)) 44.4 | 22.7 | 11.4 | 87.70} 86.66 | Iberian C___--s | 78.7 | 80.1 20.1 13.7 | 30.3 | 45.0 | 25.5 | 13.3 | 81.86 | 70.37 | Iberian C 70.0 | 87.1 21.1 | 15.4 | 27.7 | 55.6 | 21.5) 10.0 | 81.11 | 93.02 | Mixed, subnothern___ | 7.4 | 85.1 20.5 | | 33) (21.2) 9.7 | $6.40 | 94.00 Mixed, odd type, Primitive __| 72.5 | 79.3 20.5 by (22 12.8 75.50 | $4.70 | Iberian B and G, (Iberian D) _ 76.2 | 82.6 19.6 | | 22.7 | 12.0 | 77.60 | 97.50 | Iberian ©, mixed_________ = _.| 72.1 | 79:2 21.2 (20.7 9.7 | 89.28 | 78.72 | Iberian A and C 5.0 | 84.6 2a | 23.0 | 13.0 | 88.37 | 90.24 | Mixed, Alphine <1 | 72.9 : t | 20.6 | 1.5 | 32.5 |.35.3 | 28.2 | 11.9 | 87.77 78.26 d | 80.1 20:1 | 14.5 | 35,3 | 41.1 | 24.2 | 12.2) 88.63 | 83.33 72,9 | 85.7 29.5 | 16.0 | 34.2! 46.7 | 23.6 | 12.6 | 83.33 | 97.72 | B. B. B., mixed ___ 1.2 | 79.9 SOD || TER CAN ees | 22.8 | 11.5 | 77.89 | 86.04 Iberian C, B, mixed___ 74.2 | 86.9 20.1 | 10.1 | 32.2 | 31.3 | 21.7 | 10.9 | 86.04 | 80.00 | Odd type, mixed 20.8 | 14.9 31.7 | 47.0 | 19.8) 8.8 | 79.03 | 77.27 | Iberian C, odd type —. =| 72.2 | 84.6 21.3 | 14.3 | 35.7 | 40.0 | 21.1 | 9.1 | 79.27 | 84.09 | Iberian A, mixed, Primitive __ 68.5 | 87.6 21.7 | 11.5 | 32.0 | 30.9 | 23.7 | 11.4 | 78.95 | 95.55 | Iberian A, B, mixed __________ | 75.4 | 87.2 20.4 | 13.5 | 35.3 | 88.2 | 22.7 | 10.5 | 73.05 | 80.76 | Mixed, odd type, Iberian A___ 71.3 | 89.0 x 5 = ., =" aries aGe ‘a sidan BOS a 396 BEAN. TasLe [l.—Men of Taytay— isle ds a9] ie [tg ea ec Species of individual. BAAS ae) Ei) eI 2 s . a 5s) 54 |24 The true species is in | ho) ao. | an) en 4 “4 e ee | She parenthesis, except = | 868 25 | 25) 28 £& ge | 22) 96 | gs where no parenthesis 6 2 | eee Ba ee AB ae Wee | os = is given. Ole ee bp | cha oo) alee hee aod 6 = | a0 | o> | 45 | 37 | 3 BI 44a\32 |42 a Shans eas Fase ee set RS cei PS | = Australoid 142 | 784 | 39,9 | 24.3 | 39.7 | 24:2) 19.5) 11.8 Australoid _ 143] 775 | 40:3} 25.2) 39.1) 24.4 |-17.5 )- 10.9 Blends 144 | 800 | 38.4 | 23.8) 41.2 | 25.6 | 17.5} 10.8 Blend (Cro-Magnon) __| 145| 801 | 39.2| 22.9 | 42.0| 24.5 | 22.0) 12.8 Blendse esses M46 | 816 | 36.8 23.5 39.4) 25.1} 17,0} 10.8 Blend ____ 147} 825) 38.3) 28.6 (41.2 | 25:5) 185} 10:8 Cro-Magnon ___ 148 | 883 | 37.5 | 22.4 | 44.0] 26.3) 18,5) 11.1 Alpine (Iberian) - 149 | 875 | 36.2 | 22.9 | 40.0) 25.3| 16.7] 10.5 Woy ho) D0) seees 39.2 | 24.0) 39.5) 24.2) 17.0} 10.4 Blend ____ 151 870 | 36.0} 23.0 | 40.0) 25.5 17.1) 10.9 Blend (Iberian) - 152 | 877 | 38.2 | 23:3 | 37.7 | 22,9) 18.5] 11.2 Australoid ___ 153i Ren eas 37,2 | 23.2 | 39.0 | 24,3) 17.0) 10.6 Alpine (Iberian?) 154 | 885 | 38.2 | 23.4 | 38.6] 23.7) 17.6) 10.8 Blend (Iberian?) _ 165 | 886 | 36.2] 23.5) 38:5) 25.0)17.0) 11.7 Blends 156 | 222] 97.6] 23.9] 38.0| 24.2 | 16.0 | “10.2 Blend (Primitive) - 157 | 915 | 86.3) 23.9] 36.0] 23.7] 16.2 | 10.6 Blend (Primitive) - 158 |1,085 | 34.8 | 23.3 | 35.5} 23.8} 15.5) 10.4 Alpine __- 159 921 874 123400 S47 1 BAS teal he LOn7 Australoid ___ -| 160) 931 | 34.7] 22.6) 35.5 | 23.1) 17.6}) 11.4 Blend (Iberian) —----__- 161 | 985 | 38.0 |. 24.1} 38.0) 24.1 17.0) 10.8 Blend (Primitive) ----_- 162} 934 | 38.6) 22.6 | 36.5) 24.6] 17.3| 11.6 Tpenian ease een 163 | 940 | 37.2} 23.1) 41.5) 25.7) 16.8} 10.4 Mherigiia- see) 164 | 129] 35.9] 22. 5 | 40.2) 25.2) 17.8 | T1.1 INR UENO NG a ee 165 | 941 | 36.2) 23.4) 36.2; 23.4) 16.4] 10.6 Alpine (Iberian?) —_---- 166 | 954] 88:8] 24.2 | 37.4] 23.3 | 17.8} 11.1 Cro-Magnon___-...-__-_- 167 | 471 | 37.38 | 22.5 | 39.5} 23.9) 17.4! 10:5 ANODE ONG! oe N68) /2=ee 37.6 | 23.7 | 39.0} 24.6 | 19.9 12.5 Blend (Australoid) —---- 169} 543) 88.41 23.5) 42.3 | 25.8 | 18.2) D121 Blend’=23=*: bese seed Aled) |e 36.9) 23.4 | 36.8) 23.4 16.3) 10.3 Blend (Iberian) -----__- Lil See 36.9 | 22.7 | 40.7 | 25.1 | 16.8} 10.3 Blend:222 52 oe ee 1N725| Rese 86.7 | 24.1 | 37.0) 24.3 )17.2) 11.3 Blend 22. ee L8G peaeee 36.8 | 28.5 | 40.2} 25.6 | 18.0} 11.5 Blen dis-= Fee ees 174 {1,069 | 37.9 | 28.2'| 20:3) |----_-- 17.5 | 10:7 Bled ees puss WA 175 {1,048 | 39.4 | 23.9 | 42.4) 25.7) 18.6) 11.2 Alpines ss A cB A 19.5 | 11.0} 37.4 | 29.4 -| 25.0 | 12.5 | 76.21 | 90.57 | B. B. B., Alpine -___ -| 64.3 | 91.2 20.7 | 13.6 | 34.4 | 39,5 | 22.8) 12.0 | 77.29 | 89.36 | Primitve, Iberian A ____ 77.5 | 80.0 22,4 | 13.5 | 32.5 | 41.5 .| 22.6 | 10.8 | 79.89 | 81.96 | Primitive, odd type, Iberian A_| 77.4 | 81.9 17.8 | 15.7 | 37.0 | 42.4 |-24.0)) 12:0 | 81.10 |) 87.70 | Iberian, mixed _--______--_____ TO | BBY) 18:3 | 13.8 | 38.2 | 41.5 | 22.4 | 10.8 || 84.60 | 81.10 | Primitive, mixed______________ 76.6 | 82.2 18,3 | 13.2 | 32.2 | 40.9 | 24.9 | 12.6 | 79.80 | 75.91 | Iberian D, odd type ___________] 75.2 | 87.8 AON Sa| 4 yi Sos0) Ad 2452) 1354 8120 1100.00) } beriam -- = = 74.6 | 75.0 91.4 | 16.6)) 81.8 | 52,2 | 21.5 | 10.0} 85.87 | 62.00 | Iberiam A__-_-------__-_______ 71.9 | 85.1 OMOMM Sno oo eile eetom Nala OMNZ6eL6)l Go.se° | Mberian A Gass 220 Ses ee 71.8 | 88.4 20.9 | 12.9 | 31.7 | 40.7 | 23.4 | 12.1 | 87.20 | $4.44 | Primitive, mixed __ -| 70.6 | 83.7 91.1 , 18.2 | 33.2 | 54.5 | 23.2 | 10.4 | 78.46 | 85.41 | Primitive, mixed_____ _.-| 70.2 | 88.8 18.5 | 11.5 | 35.0 | 32.8 | 23.7 | 12.3 | 72.02 | 90.70 | Mixed, Primitive, Iberian A __| 69.7 | 89.7 TOMGH ROMP DED Mad ellb2otonl alin Qu O1. 9b RSL. dan|slberi snes ess ee 77.9 | 80.8 0), 1 |) TOL83 |) Bik a|) BEKO) || BBR || PBS) | ECTS) |) Gtais(OlOe |) Moreretenev ID yes a ee ee a 7a Pr) 19,7 | 18.1 | 30.3 | 43.2 | 22.7 | 11.7 | 78.91 | 88.88 | Iberian A, Primitive __-_______ 70.5 | 81.9 18.7 | 14.2'| 31.2} 45.5 | 21.5 | 11.3 | 87.57 | 88.88 | Alpine, Primitive _-___________ 81.2 | 71.3 17.7 | 10.8 | 32.2 | 33.5 | 18.8] §.4 | 83.60 | 86.00 | Mixed, Iberian A, Primitive __| 67.9 | 83.1 17.8 | 16.4 | 37.5 | 48.7 | 26.1 | 13.8 | 84,32 | 54.90 | B. B. B., Primitive ___-_-______ 75.1 | 84.8 91.3 | 15.9 | 30.0 | 53.0 | 24.2 | 12.2 | 77.54 | 93.48 | Odd type, Primitive__ 78.8 | 84.5 17.8 | 11.4 | 36.0 | 31.7 | 22.5 | 10.5 | 81.87 | 86.95 | Iberian B eo) TART EYAS 20.8 | 12.9 | 34.3 | 87.6 | 22.0 | 11.8 | 85.14 | 92.30 | Iberian A, mixed, Primitive, | 74.8 | 77.7 odd type. 21,7 | 13.4 | 81.4 | 42.6 | 26.2 | 14.6 | 79.47 | 79.59 | Mixed, Iberian A, odd type, | 77.0 | 80.5 Iberian D. 91,4 | 14.2 | 34.8 | 40.8 | 23.0 | 10.7 | 77.72 | 73.56 | Iberian A, Iberian D, odd | 68.4 | 88.8 type. 7 90,2) 1.4 |35.0)| 82:6 | 20:3) 9:1 | 75.70 | 89.13) Mixed, Iberian A -___________ 67.4 | 93.3 19,3 | 12.7 | 35.0 | 36.3 | 22.1 | 10.6.| 89.77 | 78.43 | Iberian D __- 83.6 | 80.4 9082 | 1351 33:9) 38:6 | 22:0} 10:8) 75.40) 89:13') Iberian © —-----___-----______ 75.4 | 81.1 20.0 | 14.3 | 81.5 |} 45.4 | 24.1 | 12.7 | 76.29 | 84.80 | Mixed, Iberian A —___________ 74.8 | 79.7 18/9 | 14.0) }'32.0)| 4357 | 21.0} 9.9 | 81.40 | 90.90) Mixed, Iberian C------__--__- 70.4 | 84.7 21.6 | 14.5 | 33.8 | 42.9 | 20.5 8.5 | 79.60 | 86.60 | Mixed, Primitive, Alpine, | 70.4 | 91.6 Iberian A. . 19,2 | 13.0 | 36.4 | 35.7 | 21.1 | 10.1 | 81.03 | 77.08 | Iberian C, Iberian D ___-_____ 78.8 | $2.0 19.3 | 12.4 | 32.8 | 37.8 | 22.6 | 11.0 | 79.67 | 88.87 | Iberian A, mixed —___________ 68, 4 | 89.2 18.5 | 12.4 | 32.0 | 38.7 | 21.0} 9.4 | 82.50 | 87.50 | Iberian B, C, mixed_____-_-___ 75.8 | 87.8 20.1 | 18.4 | 33.3} 40.24 | 24.1 |-----_ 87.50 | 82.00 | Iberian D, (Cro-Magnon) |_____-|------- a odd type. 20.3 | 18.8 | 33.0} 41.8 | 23.5 | 11.5 | 84.09 | 83.57 | Iberian C, Primitive —__---___ 74.0 | 86.3 BORON as OMeol om aa eae QTE Sit BOLO B8edsil 7osDie ll Mixed: = 25 2) 22s 2 ae | 75.5 | 83.8 1858) |) 13:01) 3225 | 4050) } 21-03) | 959} 80/79 | 86.95 | Dberiam B —-_---_-__s=-- 8 | 75.8 | 82.6 21,2) 7.2: 19;7 | 14.4 18.6 | 17.0 Mixed, Alpine, B. B. B., Prim- itive, Iberian A. Mb erian yD Aaa Sere ee ee 398 BEAN. Tare IIl.—Averages and extremes—physical characters. Taytay, 1909—body measurements. | Character, aay Mean. Hi pae aut tara as eee eee (2) 15.00; 36.82 | (3) 80.00 | Stature -_-___- 145,70| 159.47 171.00 | Sitting height - 74.30 $8.99 91.70 _ Pubic height —_ 71.00| 81.78 92. 00 Umbilical height__ 85.00| 95.75 105, 60 Sternal height___ 118.00 | 128.88 139. 80 Chin height __- 124.00 | 136.27 148. 80 136.40 Ear height____- 134.60 | 146.10 158.50 144, 40 Ankle height — 4.40 6.52. 8.20 5 6.60 | Knee height__-_ 1 38.40] 48.81 1 49:30) - 43.60 Trochanter height | 72,80 $3.05 99. 30 7 83.20 Finger-tip height 46.50! 57.04 66.80 57.50 Wrist height______- 63.80| 74.65 85.00 75.10 Elbow height______ 87.50| 97.69 110.50 | 98.00 Acromion height —_--_--_--___ | 117.40) 129.59 139.80 |: 129. 40 TAsie 1V.—Head measurements of adult male Pilipinos at Taytay, Rizal, Tao P. 1., 1909—averages and extremes. 1 Character. ae Mean. ok | | Maximum Venieth) ==22no5 Ea 16. 60 15.30 | Maximum breadth, | 13.40 a 96 | Maximum height _____ | 11.20 2.47 | | Minimal frontal breadth. 9.20 ae 4 | Bizygomatie breadth j 12:00) 18.4 i} Bimastoid breadth | 11.40{ 12.91 Bigoniac breadth __ 9,10 10.69 Naso-buceal distance __ 9. 90 7.15) Naso-alveolar distance 5.30 | 6.47 | Nose height (base) - 1.80 2.86 | Nose breadth _-___ 2.80 4.00 — Nose length __- 3.70 4,71 Chin-nasion distance___ 9.30 11.20 Nasion hair-line distance __ 5.50 ) 7.26 Mouth breadth (lips) 0.30 1.99 Mouth length __ 3. 80 4.50 | Har breadth __ at 3.00 3.51 Ear length -_____ a 4.80 6.15 Ear cartilage length __ } 4,20 4.96 Interocwar distance __ 5 | 2.60 3.38 _Bye length (tramsyerse)_ | 2,50 2.98 Bye color (Martin) _-- | 1.00 3.00 | Frontal circumference _ | 27.40 30.50 Parietal cireumference__ | 31. 80 55.69 Forehead circumference _ 24.70 27.50 Occipital cireumference_______ 25. 30 2S. AS UI. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 399 TaBLe V.—Indices and relative factors of adult male Filipinos at Taytay— averages and extremes. mi ji Number Factors. pees Mean. was of ae Absolute length: MOWCIALG pinata ge Seen 31.00. 37.29 42,20 175 Wer las ee ee 31.10 39.22 47,10 176 ISAT YG PE eR 14. 00 17.55 22.00 176 HQT ease eos ee ea wed 18. 36 - 23.05 | 27.90 176 Wig Or Onin Bas ae eee 26.50 32.37 38. 00 175 Pubis to umbilicus __-_____-___-___ 6.80. 13.96 19. 00 175 Umbilicus to sternum ___-_--_---_- 27.70 33.14 | 38. 60 175 Total head height..----__--_----_.- 18. 80 23.00 28.20 175 Upper face height_______----______ 8. 40 11.30 16. 20 169 Relative length; TOWER ee Sn a a 20.70) 23.37 27.20 175 ‘ (Uppenlerpessae- ef eet las ee. 20.70) 24.60 27. 46 176 5G) 0G she Ane oe ae are OREM 8.56 11.05 15.71 176 orem ees see ay Soe ee 11.50 14.45 16. 60 176 Uipperiarm ss sera see! Se 17.70 20,30 22.78 . 176 Indices: ° : (OTA NOW) a ee 20.36 42.25 60, 26 175 s Gep halichaes <2 eee aes see eens 72. 02 81.79 94.28 182 Nasal Peer zes so os Se MSPs eee 54. 90 $5.20 110. 00 182 TEV AOE OVOy TAG 5 ee 86. 70 73.20 64. 30 178 IMorpholopiciaces-s25=) = 2s. s 93. 30 $1.30 66.10 178 Il. DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERS. Time and exact appliances forbade the measurement of certain char- acteristics such as skin color and minor deformities, but notes were made of such occurrences and they are utilized im the following pages for purposes of description. SKIN COLOR. The Taytayan has a brown skin, the shade of which depends largely upon whether the individual is an outdoor or indoor worker. As the majority of men are fishermen or farmers, the skin is usually a darker shade than the average Filipino of Manila where so many men work indoors. ‘he skin color is somewhat relative for this reason. However, a few individuals were so dark in color as to appear almost black, and a few more individuals were so light in color as to appear almost white. Of these there were six of the former and eighteen of the latter. The light- colored individuals invariably exhibited evidences of recent Huropean extraction, whereas the dark colored were similar to the Indians of * Cainta from whom they were probably derived. 400 BEAN. HAIR, The color of the hair is almost uniformly black and straight, with an occasional fine brown, but no notes were made in reference to this factor. Only three individuals had wavy hair and these gave evidence of modified Iberian characteristics. No association with the Negrito can be established from the hair form, and there is no evidence of any recent — Negrito intermixture. EYE COLOR. The average eye color of 179 individuals determined with Martin’ s(17)_ i artificial eyes is that of the intermediate brown No. 3, which occurred _ 74 times, a greater number than any other color. Number 1 occurred — J 18 times: in 6 Australoids, 7 Blends, 2 Iberians, 2 Cro-Magnons and Alpine; and No. 5 occurred 16 times: in 8 Blends, 2 Alpines, 2 es Magnons, 2 Australoids, 1 Iberian and 1 B. B. B. It may be significant: that a greater number of Australoids and Iberians have dark eyes” than light eyes, signifyimg an intensification of pigment due probably to 3 Iberian. I have referred before (4) to an intensification of skin pigmen ae a : among Filipmo Iberians, and this is hereby confirmed. ie ies : The condition of arcus senilis is prevalent and is not confined to old men. Four blind individuals were noted among 183 men. THE MONGOLIAN EYBELID. marked fold at this point, whereas 63 were found without the fold, 43 had only a slight indication of it. If this fold is a sign of Asiatic blood as distinguished from arg and others, then almost half the individuals examined give indicaot Asiatic extraction. However, this proportion is probably not true, other blood as Asiatic. Therefore the relative proportion of Hur _ and others to Asiatic should be as the ratio of 63 to 10, or 63 plus 3 10 plus $ 43, which isa ratio: of 84.5 to 31.5, or somewhere between two ratios. ste bt When the types (species) are correlated with the three eraee » s * ‘ Cro- g E | Blend. Se Iberian,} pee Alpine. macs | ; i 7 Ju Straight bos Seas ee eee 36 12 8 3 4 Slight Mongolian--__-_____ 24 8 0 4 4 0 Mongolian —___-_-_____- mau 53) i) 2 1 4 » - 7 4 ee ee ee, eT ee eee Te eee ee ee Il. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAytAy. 401 Some types, however, haye a greater number of straight upper lids, whereas others have the fold in greater number. Thus the Australoid and the Iberian have a greater number of individuals with straight lids, whereas the Alpine, Modified Primitive, and Cro-Magnon have a greater number with Mongolian lids, and the Blend has almost an equal number of each. May it be inferred from this that the Australoid and Iberian are other than true Asiatic types, whereas the Cro-Magnon, Alpine, and Modified Primitive are true Asiatics, also that each type is represented among the Chinese? None of the Primitive or B. B. B. were examined for lid formation. HEAD OUTLINES. Composite outlines of the three groups, brachycephalic, 7+ individuals, mesocephalic, 69 individuals, and dolichocephalic, 22 imdividuals, are made in the same manner that similar outlines were made for the Igorots, negroes and white students described in former studies(3). There are two dolichocephalic outlines because so few individuals did not produce one composite, there being enough large outlines to make an additional composite outside of the one where the greatest number produced the small outline. A glance at the outlines (figs. 5, 6 and 7) will show the dorsal flatten- ing marked in the brachycephalic, which at once differentiates the Tay- tayans from the Igorots, negroes or white students. This flattening in the brachyeephahe (fig. 5) is accompanied by projection in the parietal region, prominence in the region of the bregma and bulging in the temporal region, which suggests artificial flattening by pressure from behind. Many of the heads were flattened toward one side rather than exactly in the middle, and when this condition existed the opposite side bulged in the parieto-temporal region more than the side on which the dorsal flattening was most marked. (See Plate XVIII.) Im several children this was more decided than in adults. One of these 1s given in fig. 8 where the two outlines are shown as taken with the cephalograph over the middle of the right and of the left eye respectively and parallel to the median line. Another is shown in fig. 9, with the median sagittal outline and one parallel to it 3 centimeters to the left. The first of these is of a boy, aged 4, whose father brought the child to me for consultation. The boy had slept invariably with his head on a hard board covered with only a thin matting, the petdte, with the head turned to the left at an angle of 45°, and I attributed the trouble to this cause. The head of the second boy, aged 10, was not so distorted but without doubt the condition was due to the same cause. These two cases illustrate a condition that is found frequently among the children and I believe it is nothing more nor less than the petate habit that produces it. The petate habit is what I named the Filipino custom of sleeping on 4 ai _ IIL. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAyTAy. 403 a EI : a a a 2) : oy 1) 3) (S) Q ist = eo) ie) ay ©) n is} & q iI > fo) ist is! a 2 : e) I Re) G 4 & Occipital BEAN. 404 Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 405 hard floors (bamboo or other material) with only the petate or a small hard pillow between the head and the floor. This is the coolest way to sleep in the tropics, the soft pillow being particularly hot and oppressive. When the baby is placed upon a petdte, in acquiring the habit it normally lies flat upon its back and the head is either straight or turned slightly to one side. After a few months a flat place is formed on that part of the head resting on the petdte, and the child then lies on this flat place until the head becomes misshapen and sometimes badly deformed. When my daughter was about one or two months old we kept her in a woven bed with only a sheet and a petdte beneath her until about the third month when I noticed a small flat place in the occipital region of the head, after which we used a small pillow and the head soon resumed its normal dorsal rotundity. This matter is a subject of great interest and may be one of vital im- portance because such deformities may result in impaired mental ability by undue pressure and distortion of the brain when it is developing most rapidly. We would therefore suggest that a study of the school children be made by the teachers in the public schools, using the cephalograph (7) originated by Doctor Bean, one of which is owned by the Bureau of | Hducation. The teachers are probably the only ones who can control the children sufficiently without the aid of the parents so that their head outlines can be made. Records should be kept showing the physical and mental condition of the child and from time to time the head outlines should be made, the parents having been instructed previously about the proper head rest for their children. The teachers may be able to induce the youngest children also to have their head outlines made in order that the study may begin in the cradle, or rather on the petdte, at which time the most good can be accomplished. If the deformed condition of infancy persists during the adult life of the individual, then otherwise dolichocephalic or mesocephalic heads be- come mesocephalic or brachycephalic, and a part at least of the brachy- cephally and mésocephally of the Orient is not natural. The vertical occiput and the front bombé may be only deformities and not racial or true morphologic characteristics. For this reason, I believe the cephalic index is not the best differential factor although it still may be of some service and should not be discarded entirely, but relegated to a subordinate position in racial anatomy. Forty-two heads of Taytayans give evidence of dorsal flattening to ~ a noticeable degree, and among these greatly distorted heads are in- cluded all those of the Primitives, 6 of the Australoid, 1 B. B. B., 1 Adriatic, 6 Iberian Blends (Alpine), 5 Primitive Blends (fig. 10), 3 Adriatic Blends, and the remainder are Blends of various sorts. In connection with the ear type, it is of interest to note that 13 of the 42 flat heads had ears of the odd type, although 16 odd type ears were not : G } aly : a fi Rt i=] . 3 z 4 3 A = v7 ‘ _ “ 48 - \ am Se 406 ‘NVId TVLGIvVS GH SM#alMoOsNAouTH . HNITELAO YNOT AHI, ‘“ANIIGI GHL JO Lay] AHL OL SUMLANIGNAD g§ SI ANITLOO LYONS FHL “Of Addy AVLAVL 40 AOG— 6 SIH 407 jeqidio99 RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. . . Ill. FILIPINO TYPHS jequou Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAyTAY. 409 associated with dorsal flattening of the head. The individuals previously noticed with this ear type were distinguished by the flat occipital region. The questions immediately arise: Is the flat occiput a type of head or is it a deformity? Is the odd type ear a true type or is it due to the deformed head? The two are evidently closely associated, but what do they represent? The occurrence of the flat head with the Primitive and related types may be urged in fayor of the odd type entity represented by the Primitive and its allied forms, and the absence of the flat heads among Cro-Magnon and Iberian favors this view. On the contrary, the flatten- ing of the head increases the cephalic index and thereby types are classified as Primitive or related forms that would be otherwise different types because the cephalic index is the basis of the classification. For the same reason, neither the Iberian nor the Cro-Magnon have any flat heads, be- cause if they did the cephalic index would be increased and they would be no longer Cro-Magnon or Iberian. The cephalic index should be replaced by some other factor in the differentiation of the types, or some other factor should be utilized in conjunction with it as the basis of the classification. “Therefore we haye utilized the ear form in connection with the cephalic index, nasal index, and stature in an additional classification which is to be given when the ears are studied. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. Bleven left-handed individuals occurred among 175 observed, and this in spite of the fact that it is considered unfortunate to be left- handed and some stigma is attached to the condition. One square, box- shaped head suggesting previous rachitis was observed, and one platyc- nemic tibia (saber shin) was seen. ‘T’'wo cases of wry face (unilateral _ facial paralysis) were noted. One case of scaphocephaly (Plates I and IV) and one hare lip were seen. The box-headed individual mentioned aboye, Serial No. 149, clinical No. 875, also had odd fingers. The lengths from the web to the tip of the fingers is given here: Right | Left hand hand em. em. 5. 6.0 9.0 7.0 8.7} 10.3 8.2 9.0 Tot 7.5 The right forefinger is long and the left is short; cel the middle finger and ring finger of the left hand are longer than the same fingers of the right hand. Apparently no bones are absent, and no history of similar deformities in the family could be obtained. 410 BEAN. A peculiarity of the bones of the skull in the form of a ridge on the bone about the size of the finger and extending from mastoid to mastoid around the occipital region, was noted frequently; in two persons, both of the Iberian type, it was well marked. This ridge apparently followed the superior curved line and crossed the external occipital protuberance, terminating on each side in the mastoid process. Jt occurred on 12 Tberians, 3 Blends, 2 Australoids, 2 Alpines, 1 Cro-Magnon and 1 B. B. B., 21 times in all. The accompanying head outline illustrates this pro- jection over the occipital protuberance, which itself was not large but seemed continuous with the ridge (fig. 11). Future studies of skulls may reveal the nature of this abnormality, because it was not superficial but appeared to be bony in character. III. THE SEGREGATION OF TYPES. In previous papers concerning the Filipino Types found among the Manila Students(4) and in Malecon Morgue(5), the suggestion was made that the types represent species, of which there are elementary or new, and systematic or old, present im both groups of individuals as well as among the Igorots and Japanese. The Primitive and Iberian are called systematic species, the Alpine, B. B. B., Modified Primitive, and Adriatic, elementary species, and the Australoid and Cro-Magnon, system- atic species also, but not so definite as the Primitive and Iberian. The reasons for this classification and for the use of the word species have already been giyen in relation to Schulls’(4) work on corn, and the work of Price and Drinkard on the tomato(4). The species of men at Taytay may be selected by the same method used to select those of the students and in the morgue. The species so selected are then differentiated as follows: The Primitive is brachycephalic, platyrrhine, and small in stature. . The Iberian is dolichocephalic, leptorrhine, and below medium size. The Australoid is dolichocephalic, platyrrhine, and small or below medium size. The Cro-Magnon is dolichocephalic, platyrrhine, and above medium stature. The Alpine is brachycephalic, leptorrhine, and below medium size. The B. B. B. is brachycephalic, leptorrhine, and aboye medium size. The Modified Primitive is brachycephalic, platyrrhine and below medium stature. The Adriatic is brachycepahlic, platyrrhine, and above medium stature. The Blend is moderately brachycephalic, moderately platyrrhine and small in stature, corresponding with the Primitive and Modified Primitive more nearly than with any other type. THE PRIMITIVE. Only three individuals of this type were observed among the men at Taytay, although a majority of the Blends conform to the Primitive. The three méh are characterized by a stature of 150.1 centimeters, a cephalic index of 88.5 and a nasal index of 89.1, in addition to which may be given the morphologic face index 78.5, the omphalic index 44.1, ‘INdI900 UHL LAOGyY GNY@ ANOG TVASON) NV DNIMOES ANITGAO GVaA— TL Si 411 a8jng ey} e40N jeqwuo4 jeridis09 RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY., ae FILIPINO TYPE Ill. AV? BEAN. the tibio-femoral index 92.6, the radio-humeral index 73.7, and the intermembral index 75.5. Other characters need not be mentioned be- cause they are neither distinctive nor differential in nature. Type N of the Igorots has a stature of 150.8, a cephalic index of 84.3, and a nasal index of 89.4 which indicates a close relationship to the Primitive of Taytay. They are practically identical with the Prim- itive of the Manila Students and of Malecon Morgue, although relatively fewer individuals of this species are found at Taytay. | : / Bua : me es ber | Character. ae, Mean. cee | SEG | | uals. | | sa) | Bal Starburst es sa an ee 153.6 150.1 | 147.1 | Sul Absolute lower leg length_---_------___- 39.9 33.6 | 30.7 | 3 Absolute upper leg length ____--------_- 39, 2 : 36.3 31.1! 3 Absolute forearm length ___-_______-____ 25.3 | 22.4, 20.6 | 3 Absolute upper arm length ~----___-____ 31.3 | 30.4 30.0 5 3 COhamjoN RMIT pVele>:c Ses 56.5 44,1 | 37.0 3 Oephalicindexs = =2 = = 93.4 88.5 | 83.3 | 3 |) WosallanGless < ._o. £2 \eRo!| gs I = 5 By is iS < O-= 10 Ss S o & a Stature maaan ane 177.0 Upper leg length _____- ay Lower leg length ____-___ Upper arm Jength __ Tota! face Jength____ Total face breadth __ Cephalic index ______ Face index -__-_-_ Preauricular cir- cumference —_-_-_- Post auricular cir- cumference —______ Nasal index _________ Tibio femoral index _ Radio humeral in- Intermembral index_ | Forearm length —_------- | Head: : | Maximum length____ BLO 2a eG 2 Eee hs | See ee Maximum breadth __ Loui Med Sa3h| = re | ee rea Total face length ___ UGS OPA © Ales (OR ee al re ee Total face breadth __ ELON? | (all rot| eee eles eras | Cephalic index______ (h(a) (3283) ee WaACeD IC Cx = CB. Bi) Gil Bye esa Preauricular cir- eumference -__-___ ee OM meocopl sy | emcee = ees See Post auricular cir- cummerence === —== One 20s 2a ae ee | eee Nasal index —__--___- GSNGn | Wyodada | Ree eee! aces oe Tibio femoral index_ 83.9 | 83.8 7| 81.3 Radio humeral in- exert oh es 80.1] 79.4] 78.9] 79.4 Intermembralindex_ 65.7 | 63.1] 69.7] 68.3 A dlonde Amer-| A Nilotic Negro | A Nilotic Negro | A blonde Amer- Body character. (A Nuer). ican No. 2. Abso- | Rela- | Abso- Rela- tive. lute. tive. SUN IURNS) 2k oo eee 165.0 100.0 100.0 Upper leg length ________ 46,0 27.8 27,2, Lower leg length -_____-- 40.0 24,2 23.8 Upper arm length _______ 32.0 19.3 19.5 Forearm length -__-----. 29.5 17.9 14.1 Head: 4 Maximum length ___ PANO een = AIR) ee Maximum breadth __ 14.0 422 BEAN. It is to be noted that the stature of the Taytayan Cro-Magnons is only 167.0 and 169.7 centimeters. The calculated stature of the Cro- Magnon from Grimaldi is from 175 to 189 centimeters, of the Amer- icans 182 and 189.2 centimeters, and of the Nilotic Negroes from 165 to 190, whereas the stature of the Grimaldi Negroes is only 156.0 to 159.5 centimeters. ‘The last two measurements, however, are of an old woman and a boy. ' : The absolute upper leg length of the two Taytayans is 40.6 and 46.6 centimeters, the length of femur of the Cro-Magnon of Grimaldi is from 47 to 52.6 centimeters, the upper leg length of the Americans is 47 and 51.5 centimeters, the Nilotic Negroes are from 43 to 51 centi- meters in upper leg length, and the Negroes of Grimaldi have a femur length of 41.9 and 43.4. The absolute lower leg length of the Taytayan Cro-Magnon is 38.1 and 40.6 centimeters, the tibia length of the Cro-Magnon of Grimaldi is from 40.4 to 45.0 centimeters, the lower leg length of the Americans is 42 and 45 centimeters, that of the Nilotic Negroes is from 39 to 51 centimeters, and of the Negroes of Grimaldi 35.1 and 36.4 centimeters in length of tibia. The absolute upper arm length of the Taytayans is 32.6 and 34.1 centimeters respectively, the length of the Cro-Magnon humerus is 34.2 to 37.9 centimeters, the upper arm of the American is 35.5 and 37.0 centimeters long, that of the Nilotic Negroes is 31 to 34 centi- meters long, and the humerus of the-Grimaldi Negroes is 27.1 and 29.1 centimeters in length. The absolute forearm length of the Taytayans is 24 and 26.7 centi- meters, the radius length of the Cro-Magnon is from 26.1 to 28.6 centi- meters, the forearm of the Americans is 26.7 and 27.5 centimeters long, that of the Nilotic Negroes is from 29.5 to 33.0 centimeters in length, and the radius of the Grimaldi Negroes is 21.5 and 23.3 centimeters long. Certain contrasts and parallels may be deduced from the foregoing: Whereas the stature of the Taytayan Cro-Magnon is less than that of any except the Grimaldi Negroes, yet the limb parts of the Taytayan are about as long as the Cro-Magnon of Europe or the Nilotiec Negro, except the forearm of the latter which exceeds that of any other. The upper arm of the Taytayan is also relatively long, but in spite of these differences the evidence is such that the Taytayans selected are considered to be modified Cro-Magnons, and the Nilotic Negroes are also modified Cro-Magnons; the first with decreased stature and in- creased relative upper arm length due to the union with a type of that nature pertaining to the Hast, the other with about the same stature but with increased relative forearm length due to mixture with African . types. eRe es ee ee EES ee Ee eS Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 423 Verneau(34) has demonstrated the presence of Cro-Magnon types in the lying population of Hurope, and the measurements of the two Amer- icans are given to show their relationship to the early Cro-Magnon of that country. Head and face measurements corroborate the limb measurements and, if anything, are more emphatic in associating the Cro-Magnon with the Taytayan, and with the Nilotic Negro. The head length and breadth are greater in the Cro-Magnon than in the others, and the cephalic index is less, the face dimensions of the Cro-Magnon are also greater than in the others, but the head is dolichocephalic and the face is large in all alike. The nose of the Negro and of the Taytayan are more platyrrhine than the Cro-Magnon but in all it is similar: large and straight. The head, nose and face of the Americans are smaller than of the Cro-Magnon and indicate affinities to the Mediterranean Race of Sergi, or Iberian, _as it is called in the present work. Dr. Pirrie(38) noted that the occiput of the Nilotic Negro is prom- inent—projects boldly backwards—and this is characteristic of the Cro- Magnon. The Taytayan is not so marked in this feature but the occiput of one American exceeds all others in this respect. Figures 161 and 168, pages 368 and 370, in the Third Report of the Wellcome Research Labora- tories, represent modified Cro-Magnon heads. Undoubtedly, the Cro-Magnon has become dissipated by fusion in Hurope and Africa, and I believe in Asia as well. Cro-Magnon char- acteristics may be noted among the Chinese of Manila(6), and among the Filipinos of many provinces. This may be accounted for through Spanish intermixture, but earlier infiltrations from Europe can not be excluded. Cro-Magnon characteristics may be seen by examining Plates I, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, and XY, although obscured by other types. Plate XV represents the nearest approach to the Cro-Magnon that could be photo- graphed at Taytay, although partly Australoid and recent Iberian. The dorsal flattening of the head in the latter is, I believe, a relic of infancy when the head rested a great deal on the petdte with a hard flat surface beneath. The sagittal head outlines from glabella to inion of the two Taytayan Cro-Magnons and of one American Cro-Magnon are given for comparison and contrasts. (Fig. 15.) The height of the two Taytayans is greater than the American, and, as a matter of fact, the auricular bregmatic height of the American is 12.4 centimeters whereas that of the Taytayans is 13 and 13.6 centimeters. The two Taytayan outlines were made with the cephalograph and are exact, but the outline of the American was made with electric fuse wire and is therefore not so exact, but it does not vary more than a few millimeters at any point and the general contour is a true representation of the head shape. BEAN, 24 4 UBIO WY Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 425 The same difference between the American and Filipino outlines is seen as that noted between the American students and Igorots(3). The Amer- ican is long and low, the Filipino is of equal length but high. Notwith- standing the differences, the three outlines resemble the outlines of the Cro-Magnon skulls of prehistoric Hurope. This is especially true of the American outline which has the vertical forehead, the long straight superior part of the fronto-parietal region, and especially the projecting occiput, that makes it identical with the masculine cranium of the Grotto des Enfants portrayed in Plate III of Verneau’s “Grottes de Grimaldi.” The heads of the Taytayans have probably been somewhat flattened dor- sally and thereby projected upward and pressed forward by the petdte habit of infancy; otherwise the shape may be due to crossing with the Primitive and-other types. Compare with these outlines the heads of-two Nilotic Negroes(38) (figs. 161 and 168) and a striking similarity is seen, although the Negro heads show the flat superior frontal region previously described by me (Negro brain) which differentiates them from other peoples. The Alpine. ies Num Character. Meat Mean. Ma on ina ‘ uals. Stature _____ Se a 164.3 159.384 151.5 11 Absolute lower leg length _-_--_---_-----.| 38. 9 37.16 34.5 10 Absolute upper leg length --__--_----___ 42,4 38.71 | - 34.7 10 Absolute forearm length ----_-------____ 25, 2 22.54 18.3 12 Absolute upper arm length _____=_______ 34.8 32.72 2950 10 (Ova NAMING Tho Ore = ee 52.2 42.59 36.3 10 Gephalicnnd ex 2s see eas | 94.3 S7.74 84.3 TLE) INR Sal bin Gl estes tee ee eet ee ss 81.1 70.08 54.9 iil Morphologic face index __-.__--. --_--__. 89.7 $2.21 75.5 11 | The characteristics of the Alpine may be emphasized by contrast with the Cro-Magnon. The difference is great. The Alpine is small, the Cro- ~ Magnon is almost tall; the Alpine is brachycephalic, the Cro-Magnon is dolichocephalic; the Alpine is leptorrhine, the Cro-Magnon is platyrrhine ; the Alpine is short, squat and fat, the Cro-Magnon is long, lanky and lean ; the lower leg of the Alpine is relatively long, that of the Cro-Magnon is not; the forearm of the Alpine is relatively shorter than that of the Cro-Magnon; and the face of the Cro-Magnon is relatively longer than that of the Alpine. The physiognomy and the ear are different as may be seen by an examination of the plates representing the Cro-Magnon characteristics, and of Plate XIII. 426 BRAN. The Alpine is probably a mixture of Primitive and Iberian in which the head form of the Primitive is retained with the physiognomy and stature of the Iberian. The nose is even more leptorrhine than the Iberian and the morphologic face index is between that of the Primitive and Iberian but nearer the latter. Further observations on the ear are convincing and will be discussed further on in the present work. The Alpine is therefore the complement of the Australoid which is supposed to represent the mixture of Primitive and Iberian in which the head form is Iberian and the physiognomy Primitive. This confirms in a measure the suggestion that human types conform to tomato hybrids — suggested in a previous paper on Manila Students. The B. B. B. peal ie ab ss ; : | | see c1- } = Character. Man | oetaa, | uals. az : ! Staturer cet: epee 5 166.8 | 2 Absolute lower leg length ~__-_.--2-----|_------_---- 1 Absolute upper leg length -----------__- | eae hee 1 Absolute forearm lens thes oa eee 1 Absolute upper arm length | 3 1 Omphalie index _____-_ = 1 Cephalic index__ 82,2 2 | Nasal andemes: fs. 202-2 e eee es | 68.6 a Morphologic face index_________________ 89.0 2 The evident characteristics of this species are stature slightly above the average, relatively short lower legs and short upper arms, low omphalic index, very narrow nose, and very long face with slightly brachycephalic © head. The species is fairly well illustrated in Plates XIV and XV, and in Plate I in the full figure on the right. It conforms in actual dimensions to the Students and Morgue subjects of the same species. The head outline is given in fig. 16 in contrast with the head outline of an Alpine. As previously noted, this species is a large edition of the Alpine, but the two are different in many ways. It seems to be a combination of Alpine and Iberian. If the Alpine is a result of Iberian and Primitive blending, the two species, Alpine and B. B. B., are derived from the Primitive and Therian by a process of crossing and re-crossing. Re-crossing the Primi- tive and Alpine.should produce a species similar to the Alpine but more like the Primitive, and such a species is the Blend—at least that part of © it that resembles the Primitive. ‘eae ‘ON TIVOINITID *9 ‘ON IVINGS SIG A A “OST “ON TVOINITD *83 ‘ON ‘IVINGS SI ANIdTy ‘d Gd G@-aGNy ANIdTy WO SUNITLNO avaH IVLLINVS—9T SIT 427 ea nos . : : jeridioag auidjy~ ares = RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY FILIPINO TYPES 428 BMAN. The Blend. = Cae, : i anys sms | Num Character. ae Mean Mini: ot ina id- uals. Staturect:: ate enn eee ee i) i710) 158-8 145.7) 94 Absolute lower leg length___----_--____- 41.0) 37.2 Boda rer Absolute upper leg length -___-__-_---_- 43.9 39,1 33.2 | 88 | | Absolute forearm length ___-_______-____ 27.9 26.5 | 18.6 88 | Absolute upper arm length -__.---_--___ | 34.9 | 83.2 | 26.5 87 (Omphalichint/ox. saan aee eee mea | 57.6 | 42.2 | 20.4 88 leGephalic indexes ene eeman | 88.71 88.8 | 78.0{ 91 | PP axyasiubstevalepe seo At | 100.0) 88.8 ) 70.4 | 1 | Morphologic face index __-_---.----_---- 92.5 | $2.05 | 66.1 | ® | The Primitive, Modified Primitive and Adriatic enter largely into the Blend and one is tempted to constitute this as a definite species, embody- ing the Primitive and Adriatic. ‘Two important differential characters that are Primitive in nature are noted: the high radio-humeral and tibio- femoral indices, the latter 95.1 and the former 79.8. he close relation- ship of the aytayan Blend and the Primitive Morgue subject and Primitive Student in these particulars is noteworthy. The intermembral index is also high, being 78.2, as against 71.2 for the Cro-Magnon of Taytay. These three characters are Negroid or Negritic, and the in- ference is that the Negrito forms a large part of the composition of the Blend. A review of the Blends reveals 55 of the 94 that resemble the Primitive. A similar review of the Igorots reveals 70 of the 104 that resemble the Australoid. The contrast needs no comment. Among the Blends there ‘are also 10 that resemble the Iberian, 7 the Australoid, 5 the Modified Primitive, and 5 the Adriatic; the remainder are Alpine and B. B. B., © and among these some Cro-Magnon that resemble the Iberian. It is true that the majority among the Igorot Blends resemble the Primitive so that a similarity exists between the two peoples in this res- pect, but the differences between the groups are otherwise considerable. The differences are slight when compared with the Blends of the Morgue subjects and the students. The stature of the student is greater, and the intermembral index of the morgue subject is less, but otherwise the Blends of all three form a somewhat stable composite that may be called a°species. This species would be characterized by small stature, and would be brachycephalic, messorrhian, mesoprosopic, mesomphalic, with Negritic limb parts. All the characteristics are more Primitive than otherwise, the indications point to a dominating influence for the Primi- tive, and the Blend truly represents a Modified Primitive. The Adriatic and Modified Primitive will not be treated because of the small number of each and the Blend may be taken in their place as having absorbed Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 429 them or modified them. However that may be, they are seldom seen in Taytay. The head form of the Alpine, B. B. B., and Blend, as determined by the sagittal outlines, may be seen in figs. 10 and 16. The Alpine and B. B. B. are almost identical, except that the Alpine is shorter and higher as if it had been flattened more in the occipital region. The Blends appear to be exaggerated Alpine outlines exhibiting greater occipital flat- tening. IV. EAR TYPE AND SPECIES. In a previous monograph on Filipino Ears(6), an attempt was made to classify types of ears with concomitant morphologic types by general observations in a casual manner. ‘The present work is an extension of the classification to a small number of individuals who are examined closely, in which more time is given, an exact study is made, and a more critical analysis of each individual’s ears is possible. The result is a more exact classification of the ear types and the association of these with more definite types of men. THE PRIMITIVE EAR. This ear was previously named Malay, but there is now sutlicient evidence of its association with the Primitive and allied forms to change the term Malay, which is an indefinite one at best, to that of Primitive, which represents not only the form of the individual but the charac- teristics of the ear as well. Both are infantile throughout. The descrip- tion of the ear is altered somewhat from that of the Malay as follows: The Primitive ear is small, round and somewhat flarmg, cup shaped, and with depressed concha, im contrast with the everted concha of the Iberian. It is intermediate in form between that of a four month foetus as described by Schwalbe(27), and the adult Huropean as exemplified by the Iberian. It is well illustrated in Plates I to V of the present work and m Plate IV of the monograph on Filipino ears(6). It may also be seen in Martin’s work on the inland stem of the Malay Peninsula(18), as In the Senoi boy of fig. 31, page 317, the Senoi boy of fig. 47, page 359, the Senoi maiden of fig. 48, page 360, the Senoi of fig. 54, page 391, and probably in fig. 57, page 397, and fig. 96, page 708, (although there it is not so clear), in fig. 98, page 712, figs. 100 and 101, pages 717 and 719, and in Tables XII and XVI, in all of whom there are Primitive char- acteristics of physiognomy with Australoid heads. Other Senoi men and women illustrated in the same work do not have the Primitive ear and their physiognomy and other characters indicate other than Primitive features. Martin’s Senoi and the Australoid herein described are of the same nature. Some forms partake of the Primitive except in head shape, whereas other forms are not Primitive, but Iberian or Negrito. The former are the primary Australoids, the latter the secondary Australoids. 430 BEAN. (See pp. 414 and 439.) The Primitive ear appears pure or mixed at Taytay (see Table on p. 433) on 35 Blends, 15 Australoids, 3 Primitives, 3 Modified Primitives, 5 Cro-Magnons, 2 Alpines, 2 Iberians, and 1 Adriatic. The types partake of the Primitive in ear form to the extent represented by the number given with each. All the Primitive, Modified Primitive and Adriatic have Primitive ear forms, and the form occurs often in the Australoids and Blends. There is no Adriatic or Modified Primitive ear, but these themselves are altered Primitives. There is no Australoid form, but it may be of interest to note the forms of ears that appear upon the Australoid. As already stated, there are 15 that resemble the Primitive, in addition to which 26 resemble the Iberian, 7 the Alpine, 6 the odd type, 5 the B. B. B., and 32 are mixtures of either two or more of those already mentioned or of unknown type. The Australoid ear is largely Iberian and Primitive, thus corroborating the supposition of its origin as a result of the crossing of these two. THE IBERIAN EAR. The types of this ear have been increased to include the Cro-Magnon and the Igorot, in addition to which another type has been added, making five in all, to which may possibly be added the B. B. B. and Alpine, ~ leaving all the ear forms thus far segregated either Iberian and Modified Iberian, or Primitive and Modified Primitive. The morphologic types become narrowed down to the European and the Eastern. But this is too simple, and the Alpine is more like the Primitive than like the Iberian, and the B. B. B. is distinct from either. The Igorot ear has resolved into the Iberian (C), a modified B. B. B., and the Subnorthern (Chinese), all three of which have similarities, but each of which is different from the other. The Igorot ears will be presented in a sub- sequent publication. Good photographs were secured of all the Iberian types except C._ THE IBERIAN A EAR. This ear is represented somewhat modified in Plate II and it may also be seen in Plate VIII of the Filipino ears(6), and in the Plates I, V, VI, and VII of the Theory of Heredity(2) in an Iberian from Madrid, Spain. It is a round or elliptical ear, usually flaring slightly and often standing out from the head. The helix and lobule are symmetrical, and _ the helix is inrolled until it almost touches the everted concha. This ear, or modifications of it, occurs on 25 Blends, 9 Iberians, 6 Australoids, 3 Cro-Magnons and 2 Alpines. It is found more often among the Blends than is any other except the Primitive, and it is in greater proportion among the Iberians than is any other ear form. Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 431 THE IBERIAN B BAR. The Iberian B is the most distinct of all the Iberian ears, and probably represents the true type. When it appears on an individual it is clear eut, as a rule, indicating a lack of blending, or it may be that the other Iberian ears are blends, whereas this is the original type. The ear is well illustrated in Plate VIII of the present work and in Plate 1X of the Filipino Hars(6). The description given in that paper can hardly be more exact. The eversion of the concha, the direct attachment of the lobule to the cheeks with the absence of the lobule, and the peculiar spiral twist as seen from any point are unmistakable and emphasize the ear as a most distinet type. It is found pure or impure on 12 Blends, 7 Australoids, 2 Iberians and 1 Alpine. Its numbers are relatively small compared with the other Iberians. he 4 individuals in which the ear is comparatively pure are all Blends with small stature; they are mesorrhinean and brachycephalic, but three of them haye the flat occiput that is probably due to distortion ; therefore the heads would probably have been dolichocephalic with the absence of the dorsal flattening, the Blends thus becoming Iberians. The ear is frequently associated with the Iberian C ear which is ap- pavently a modified form of the Iberian B. THE IBERIAN © EAR (IGOROT). This ear resembles the Igorot ear because it has a square inferior margin without lobule, but it is smaller, more slender, and the lower margin is narrow, whereas that of the Igorots is broad. Undoubtedly this form of ear is present among the Igorots and could readily be mistaken for the Igorot ear, but the above-mentioned qualities differen- tiate it. The Iberian C also resembles a form of Chinese ear, except that the latter stands almost at right angles to the head, whereas this form does not. The Iberian C ear is small, slender and delicately molded, and either stands close to the head or flares very little. The lobule is absent, and in its place the lower part of the ear is square, joing the cheek at right angles. It occurs more or less pure on 22 Blends, 7 Australoids, 6 Cro-Magnons, 5 Iberians, 4 Alpines and 1 Primitive: 45 times in all. The relatively pure Iberian C ear appears on 5 Cro-Magnons, 4 Blends, and 1 Alpine. Two of these individuals are small, 2 are below medium height, 4 are above medium height, and 2 are tall. Three heads are decidedly flat behind, which, were the flattening absent, would remove the individuals from the group of Blends to the Iberian. The middle figure in Plate III and in Plate VI of the monograph on the Igorots(3) shows Iberian C ears. 432 BEAN. THE IBERIAN D EAR (CRO-MAGNON). This ear is so well illustrated in Plates IX and X that it needs no description. It is the long ear previously portrayed and described as the Cro-Magnon(6). Its leading characteristics are the large pendant lobule, large open concha somewhat everted, and straight external margin of the helix. The ear appears pure or mixed on 20 Blends, 7 Iberians, 6 Australoids, 4 Alpine, 3 Cro-Magnons and 1 B. B. B. None of the individuals with relatively pure type ears are tall, and only two are above medium height, but 4 are below medium height and 7 are small. This is therefore not a Cro-Magnon physique, but an Iberian. The individuals with Iberian © ears resemble the Cro-Magnon in size more than those with Iberian D ears. The Cro-Magnon ear has become disseminated apparently among the Iberian types to such an extent as to lose its identity; and for this reason it can not be located and described. However, at rare interyals an ear appears that is similar to that shown in figure 12 of the monograph on Filipino Hars(6), and also to that in No. 3202 in Plate VII and No. 14964 in Plate X of the same paper, in which the ear is long and resembles the Iberian D; but its position is almost at right angles to the head, the lobule is not pendant, and the helix is much inrolled with everted concha. This was named the Cro-Magnon, but, as may be recognized, the char- acters are largely Iberian, and most frequently appear in association with one or another Iberian type. THE IBERIAN E EAR. This type is rare, and a doubtful entity, although a similar ear form has been seen on at least 3 men in Manila recently: one a German, one an Hnglishman, and one a Filipino. The ear stands straight from the upper part of the base, and the helix tends to roll over above, giving a drooping appearance. Otherwise, the ear is similar to the Iberian A in form. The individuals have very long heads, small stature, and their physiognomy is characteristic. ‘The nose is aquiline, the lips are full, the eyes are large and wide open. One hesitates to assign this ear to the Iberian or to designate it as a specific form, and future inyestigations may clear up its relationships. For the present it remains Iberian BH, and may be seen in modified form in Plate XII. THE ALPINE EAR. This ear, unfortunately, does not appear on a single individual of the Alpine species, and occurs only twice in relative purity, the two in- dividuals being Australoids. The ear is found on 9 Blends. 7 Australoids, and 1 each Cro-Magnon, Iberian, Primitive, and Modified Primitive. The ear in absolute purity was not seen once in Taytay, but was present only in modified form resembling the Primitive, as may be seen in Plate XIII. This confirms previous observations. However, as the study of this ear tan il. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAI, ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 433 continues, it looks more and more like a blend of Iberian and Primitive. The front view can with difficulty be differentiated from the Primitive. The lateral view shows the concha somewhat everted and the absence of lobule, suggesting the Iberian B. The Alpine ear and the Alpine species will be found purer and more often im conjunction wherever the Philip- pine population is not so mixed as it is at Taytay. THE B. B. B. BAR. This ear, like the Alpine, was not found in purity at Taytay. Modified forms may be seen, however, in Plates XIV and XV, where it resembles the pure type, but it is by no means pure. Oblong shape and almost flat surface characterize the ear when pure. ‘These characters are present in the two individuals portrayed, but only in a modified way. The ear appears more or less pure on 11 Blends, 5 Australoids, 2 Tberians, 1 B. B. B., 1 Cro-Magnon, and 1 Alpine. THE COMPARISON OF EAR TYPE AND MORPHOLOGIC TYPE. The table is presented showing the number of each kind of ears found on the individuals of the different species. Comparison of ear and morphologic types. Ear types. [ = | on H 2 gs 3 oe : & Ee 5 a 5 Morphologie types. 3 oS eS | a) oa | so 2| es aa il gee Rel ee hee) legen a=] = SI S o VO] a9 | ac Saar a Be | Bae | Be a] 8 i fe set ee eh er ae, a =| oa ma eS.) aye a ao i} | | Blenidyese = te E BH) TA | UPN BRR xa) ala QUENT 20) 74 | 161 | 94 os) 26) 6 it 7 6 5 tl 6 5 Bj) Be) |) Bi 2 | 23) 9 2 b) vi | 2 1 4 B) 12 Be le Cro-Magnon____-------- i if il 3 0 6 3 1 1 i 5 7 PAN) ] al | AU pine See a SB 2 iil 2 1 4 4 1 0 1 5 7 15} 12 IDSs s Bee ees Se 0 it 0 0 0 1 a 0 1 il 1 3 2 Perrot y coe 3 i} 0) O} 2 OP oO} al} ol) @ 3} 5] 8 Modified Primitive_____ 3 0 0 0 0 OR a0) i 2 1 3 6 4 ANGE GENO ieee ee ees 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 Total 153 45 | 22} 45] 41) 21} 20] 32) 42) 140] 302} 182 The last four columns of the table need some explanation. The pure ear forms are those in which the ears resemble only one type, and the mixed ear forms are those in which more than one type is combined. The two columns (pure and mixed ear forms) equal the total number of individuals. The total ear forms are obtained by adding the number a Primitive, Iberian, B. B. B., Alpine and odd Type ears. _ The Blend has more than Ges as many Iberian as Primitive forms, and a relatively large number of the odd type. The mixed ear forms and the total ear forms are in relatively greater abundance than among the pure types. : 434 BRAN, The Australoid has less than twice as many Iberian as Primitive ear forms, and a relatively large number of Alpine ears. The number of pure ear forms is small and the number of mixed ear forms is almost as great as the total number of individuals. The Australoid and the Blend are evidently impure types. The Iberian species has only two ears that resemble the Primitive form and 23 that are Iberian, whereas the Primitive species has only one resembling the Iberian, and 3 that are Primitive in form. ‘The Iberian has a relatively large number of pure ear forms, and few mixed ear forms, The Primitive and Iberian species are evidently purer than the Australoid and Blend in ear form. Hach Cro-Magnon individual has some Iberian ear form, although 5 resemble the Primitive. The pure ear forms are relatively great and the mixed are relatively small. The Alpine species also has a large number of Iberian ear forms and only two that resemble the Primitive. The pure forms are also relatively more frequent than the mixed. The Modified Primitive has Primitive ears, and the Adriatic has the same form. The B. B. B. species has B. B. B. and Iberian ears. There are seven ear forms that are called mixed because no resemblance to any recognized form could be seen. SUMMARY, The ear form is established beyond doubt as a differential factor in~ racial anatomy, and among the Filipinos of the littoral it should be placed above the cephalic index in importance, because of the apparent distor- tion of the head in many individuals. By the ear alone, the derivation of the majority of people may be determined, and in conjunction with the nasal index and stature, assisted by the cephalic index, more definite species can be segregated than by using the last three without the ear type. The table of ear types and morphologic species demonstrates that the species segregated by means of the three morphologic factors are not entirely homogeneous in ear form, and this lack of homogeneity is prob- ably due to the distorted heads. The Iberian species as segregated is relatively pure, although this is the Filipino-Iberian, a mixed species in reality. The Cro-Magnon is partly Iberian and partly Primitive, but the Cro-Magnon characters have been positively proved. ‘The Australoid is segregated as a mixed species in process of formation and the ear form substantiates this. The three species are dolichocephalic, and although their heads might be longer if no dorsal flattening appeared in any in- dividual, yet the flattening is a negligible factor. Not so, however, with the remaining species, except the Primitive, Modified Primitive and Adriatic, whose heads are so hyper-brachycephalic that if there were no dorsal flattening the heads would probably still be brachycephalic. The Blend, the Alpine and the B. B. B. are not so hyper-brachycephalic, and pe If. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAyTAy. 435 if the heads that are flattened dorsally could be made natural, some of the individuals of these types would be Iberians. This is indicated by the relatively large number that have Iberian ears. Therefore 1 would alter the terminology of the species of some indi- viduals where the ear type is significant. ‘This is done in the table of indices in the first column (Table Ll, pp. 390-397) by placing in parenthesis the alteration. The species, as selected by the three factors, cephalic index, nasal index, and stature, is placed first in this column, after which in parenthesis, come the true species as determined hy a con- sideration of the ear form and other characteristics. The number of individuals in each species becomes altered as shown in the following table: ] WT ] 1 | | | | | | Modi- | | Aus- Cro- ee | é | Ibe- | Al- | Prim-| fied | Adri- | Tian. Blend.| ae pine. Mags |B.B.B. itive. | Prim-| atic. | 2 = | itive. | ae a | | | | tae Original classification ______--__ 17 94 | 37 12 12 2 Sy med 1 Altered classification ---_-----__ 50 41 | 39 11 13 4 14 | 9 1 t | | In the original classification, the number of individuals constituting the Blend exceeds that of all the species combined, which was obviously too great a number in so mixed a population. The altered classification reduces the Blends more than one-half by placing a large number of them with the Iberian, Primitive and Modified Primitive. The other species remain practically unaltered except the B. B. B., which is increased by two individuals, thus doubling the former number. This is a more exact classification and represents real conditions. The Taytayans would therefore be placed in the scheme for heredity (2) between 2 and 3 under Spurious Mendelism, and they would be nearer 2 than 3 because the number of species greatly exceeds the number of Blends, and at least two species, the Iberian and the Primitive, are relatively pure. In concluding the discussion of the ear form, it may not be out of place to criticize the types selected by Folkmar and presented in his Album of Philippine Types(11). The majority of them are Blends with evident Iberian characteristics, but many of them are sufficiently pure in type to be classified as species exactly by their ear form. Plate 56 of Folkmar, represents a typical Primitive with a typical Primitive ear. This is a Visayan with a stature of 148.5 centimeters, a cephalic index of 92.17 and a nasal index of 91.49. The head has the flat occipital region said to be characteristic of the Malay, and this probably accounts for the high cephalic mdex. The ear presents the double roll aspect so often seen in the Primitive, caused by the helix and concha lying close together. The Negrito-Tagalog, in Plate 76 of Folkmar, has Modified Primitive 90339-—7 436 a‘ BEAN. ears but would be classed as Australoid by other characteristics. Like- wise the Negrito of Plate 78 of Folkmar, has Modified Primitive ears but is Australoid by the cephalic index of 78.45, nasal index of 102.38 and stature of 135.7 centimeters. Other Modified Primitive ears may be seen in Plates 14, 34, 66, and 67 of Folkmar. The Alpine ear may be seen in Plate 44: of Follanar, where the individual (a Tagalog of Laguna Province) is also of that species, with a stature of 163.5 centimeters and cephalic index and nasal index of 88.24 and 83.67 respectively. Other Alpine ears somewhat modified and resembling both Primitive and Iberian, may be seen in Plates 1, 17, 20, 21, 25, 37, and 66 of Follmar. Plate 60 of Folkmar, a Visayan of Masbate, represents a secondary or recent Australoid, with typical Iberian A ears. Plate 41 of Folkmar, a Tagalog of Bulacan Province, has Iberian C ears, and the physiognomy is mixed Iberian, the individual being a Blend. Other more or less pure Iberian ears may be seen in Plates 4, 5, 8, 12, 15, of Folkmar, many others throughout the Album have some Iberian characteristics, and only a few have no Iberian characters in ear form. Plate 59 and plates 50 and 75 of Folkmar represent modified B. B. B. ears, and types with oblong face and head resembling the B. B. B. species. A man simulating the Cro-Magnon and haying Iberian (Cro-Magnon ?) ears is seen in Plate 32 of Folkmar. Folkmar may have classified Filipinos to his own satisfaction, and others may see the Tagalog, or Ilokano or Visayan type, but I can not find sufficient uniformity of characteristics to justify the classification into such groups although there may be a slight superficial resemblance in facial expression, attitude, manner of action, ete. Follkmar’s divisions are therefore unjustified, whereas by the ear type and its associated physical type, much may be obtained from the plates of his Album. There can be no doubt of the two species, Primitive and Iberian, among the Filipinos, and it is possible that the various manifestations of these and the union of their different characters in many combinations result in the other species, although the B. B. B. when pure is unlike either the Primitive or Iberian. VY. DISEASE AND SPECIES. The association of tuberculosis and beviberi with the Iberian and Primitive species respectively, was previously determined in a study of the types found in Malecon Morgue(5). The present study corroborates the association of the Iberian species with tuberculosis, but adds nothing to substantiate the association of beriberi with the Primitive species, because only one case of beriberi is noted and that in a Cro-Magnon, although the ears of this individual showed Primitive markings. The afflictions of the Iberian were 9 with intestinai parasites, 4 with tuberculosis of the lungs and 1 with other lung or pleural affections, 1 Ul. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN Tayray. 437 with heart or arterial disease, 2 with fever and 1 with neurasthenia. Such few observations would mean little, but they corroborate previous findings in the morgue, therefore their meaning is significant. The Primitive, 3 subjects, have 2 with animal parasites, 1 with lung or pleural affections and 1 with some acute infection. The Australoid is affected in 18 cases with animal RSC, 6 with tuberculosis, 2 with other lung or pleural affections, 2 with heart or arterial disease, 1 with neurasthenia, and 3 with the kidneys or genito- urinary organs affected. The large number of cases of tuberculosis is probably due to Iberian influence. Among the Blends are 60 cases of animal parasites, 12 cases of tuber- culosis, 8 cases of lung or pleural affections other than tuberculosis, 18 alimentary affections other than animal parasites, 5 heart and arterial diseases, 4 cases of fever, 5 of acute infections, 3 with skin diseases in- eluding 1 case of leprosy, 3 with diseases of the kidneys and genito- urinary organs, 1 case of rheumatism, and 1 of splenic affection. The diseases group themselves in a similar manner when the ear type alone is the differential factor; as in the following table: ; | | Ali- | Fevers. |Urinary. | men- | Others. | tary. | | Intes- | tinal | Respir- | par- | atory. Cireu- | Nery- latory.| ous. | asites. | | Fass =} | | | | } | IMifbaeral Gwe Shs oe | 49 | 17 | 4 | 1| 1 6 | 8 4 Mbeniantears22 ee i 26 13 | 3 1} ) 0 | 5 | 3 Tberian-Primitive ears -____| iy 2] 1] 10 | 3 1] 1 1 | | The mixed ears include those that are not of any distinet type and ‘ whose affinites are obscure or of many kinds. Probably the majority of these have Iberian characteristics. The Iberian has a greater proportion of lung affections and fewer urinary troubles than the mixed. The Iberian-Primitive has fewer lung troubles and a greater number of intestinal parasites than either the Iberian or mixed. Other forms are not considered because there are too few for com- parative purposes. The Iberian and the Primitive are next compared by taking every individual in which either type of ear occurs, be it pure or not, there being 59 in the Iberian group and 29 in the Primitive. he diseases are then found to be as follows: } | | N final | | Pipes eal cece | nated Ber | 1 um- Ana | u ies s -)| Mala- eri- y | ber. | par- | 2 culosis. tage latory.| ria. | Others. beri. ‘Total asites. | MG | | | | | ik | ls \ } | | | | | | Iberian _________ 59 4 ob) 10 me al @)), ay | Primitive_______ 29 19 3 1 2 | 0 3 | 1 | 29 | | | | 438 BBAN. This again corroborates previous findings, and signifies that by the ear alone the susceptibility to tuberculosis may be indicated. There are also indications that malaria is more frequent among the Iberian Filipinos, and that the heart and arteries are affected more often than in the Primi- tive. ‘Indeed, all diseases are associated more frequently with the Iberian than the Primitive, except beriberi, and only one case of this disease is reported among the men measured, No absolute conclusions would be justified from the facts exposed, but the inference is strong that the Iberian is more susceptible to all diseases but more especially to tuberculosis than the Primitive.. This may be indicative that the European and Filipino blend, or its resulting off-spring of the Iberian type, is less resistant to disease in the tropics than is the aboriginal type on its own soil and in its natural environment. The records of disease may be found in the statistics of the Medical Survey of the town of Taytay in the Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science, from which the data are drawn. CONCLUSIONS.—THE SEPARATION OF THE TYPES INTO SYSTEMATIC AND ELEMENTARY SPECIES. The time has come when the types of men found in the Philippine Islands may be designated without doubt as elementary and systematic species. It is entirely without the province of anthropology to define these terms so that they will apply to all zoological forms, but the studies of the past few years among the Negroes, the students, and the school children in America, among the Igorots, the Manila students from all parts of the Philippine Islands, the morgue subjects and the people of Taytay, as well as a study of Filipino ears, justifies a classification of the types of man into two definite groups. One contains the types that are stable and have been stable for many hundreds if not thousands of years, and that do not blend readily when crossed with other stable types; these are called systematic species. ‘The other group contains the types that are unstable, that have not been in existence so great a time, and that blend readily, especially with nearly related types; these are called elemen- tary species. Hach species may have subspecies or varieties. The elementary species are cross sections of variable species which have been formed by the union of two diverse species, whereas subspecies or varieties are cross sections of systematic species that are variable through inherent changes not due to actual crossing but to the interplay of heredity and environment. LHle- mentary species and subspecies or varieties may sometimes be the same, and ultimately may prove to be synonymous terms. Varieties may become systematic species when they shall be sufficiently differentiated, and shall have become stable. Elementary species may become systematic species when the blending elements have reached a stage of slight variability and have become a pure blend. The difference between elementary species , Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 439 and yariety is that the first is the beginning formation of a systematic species by the blending of two others, whereas the second is the beginning formation of a systematic species by the differentiation and disintegra- tion of an old systematic species. The proper use of the terms, systematic species, elementary species and variety, may be illustrated by the Filipino types of this and previous studies. The Iberian type became isolated many hundreds of years ago and became a systematic species of man, and, in the course of time, developed varieties which Sergi(28), under the title of the Mediterranean Race, has differentiated and designated by their skull form. The varieties of this type spread over the face of the earth, and as they came to the Orient they encountered an entirely different type, another systematic species, the Primitiye with its varieties. The commingling of the varied forms resulted in several new types which are elementary species or variable blends of the varieties of the two original systematic species. This will probably account for every people of the Hast except the Negrito, and it may prove useful in unravelling thei varied forms, because the Negritos are not homogeneous, as will be evident from forthcoming studies, The present and previous studies reveal at least four types of Iberian ears, which differentiate the Iberian varieties, and to this extent the divi- sion of the Mediterranean Race by Sergi is corroborated. The Primitive may also be subdivided into at least three types; the Primitive proper, the Modified Primitive, and the Adriatic, and also the Blends, all of which have ears of similar form that have not yet been differentiated, but the three varieties of men are none the less evident. The union of the Iberian and Primitive species as constituted by their varieties, has produced in the Philippines the Australoid, Alpine, and B. B. B., if not the Cro-Magnon. Their union to form the Australoid had resulted in the type A of the Igorots—the primary Australoid—at the time the Spaniard’s came to the Islands, after which a new infusion of modified Iberians caused an alteration of the promary Australoid and the formation of the secondary Australoid. The primary Australoid is an elementary species, and the secondary Australoid is also an elemen- tary species but different from the primary. The Alpine represents the union of the Iberian and Primitive as a complementary form to the Australoid but without subdivision, although the B. B. B. probably stands in the same relation to the Alpine as the secondary Australoid to the primary. The Cro-Magnon has Iberian qualities and also Primitive, but not so definite as the Iberian. This form is probably the result of recent and remote Cro-Magnon elements which came with the Iberian from Europe. Its relation to the Australoid is similar to the relationship of the B. B. B. to the Alpine. 44() BEAN. : The question of race naturally suggests itself here and may be consid- ered in relation to the varied forms that constitute the Filipino people. The definitions of species, variely and race are given by Quatre- fages(21) as clearly as one may hope to have them: “Species is a collection of individuals more or less resembling each other, which may be regarded as having descended from a single primitive pair by an uninterrupted and natural succession of families.” Variety is “An individual or a number of individuals belonging to the same sexual generation, which is distinguished from the other representatives of the same species by one or several exceptional characters.” Race is “A number of individuals resembling each other, belonging to one species, having received and trasmitting, by means of sexual generation, the char- acters of a primitive variety.” There is nothing in the above definitions that is incompatible with the ideas formulated and expressed in the preceding pages as to systematic species and varieties, but Quatrefages gives no definition of a type that is formed by the union of two other types, therefore room is left for the term elementary species as defined above. The use of the word race may well apply as indicated by Quatrefages, except that such an entity becomes again a species as soon as it is estab- lished as a race. Derivatives of the primary races are termed secondary races, and derivatives of these tertiary races by Quatrefages, but when many of these become fused the term race is used no longer. Would it not be better to continue the terms species and variety, or to give the name type to the primary, secondary, tertiary, etc., races of Quatrefages, and to dignify each nationality that has developed characteristics that differentiate it from other nationalities by the term race, as the German race, the French race, the Filipmo race? Otherwise, the word race becomes lost or relegated to designate remnants of humanity such as the Hsquimo and the Negrito, which are only types or varieties. The term race should apply to any composite body of individuals who are becoming or may have become a distinct type by a natural or an artificial process. A race may contain systematic species, varieties and elementary species In profusion. A Filipino race at present exists under this terminology but not under that of Quatrefages, nor would more than a few of the world’s living peoples be races according to his definition. Race would apply also to the Cro-Magnon of early Europe, the Mediterranean of Sergi and to other forms that have become dis- persed and diffused or remain as fragments such as the Basque, the Esquimo and the Negrito. There would be a German race and an English race, a Dutch race and a Spanish race, but not a white race or a black race or a yellow race, because elements of each color are fusing in different ways in various places, and the color markings do not con- stitute a definite factor of differentiation, although color may be useful as an adjunct. Color markings have been of no value in the differen- Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 44] tiation of Filipino types. Hair form has been of little avail in the study of the Filipinos, because they all have straight black hair, with an occasional wave. The cephalic index has been found unreliable because of possible distortion of the head. Im the place of this, how- ever, the ear form has been found a better indicator, and by this alone much can be known as to the individuals’ component elements. In con- junction with the other physical factors, nasal index, facial index, stature, brachial and crural indices, etc., the ear form is of great service. By means of these factors the men of Taytay have been separated into groups that are called species and varieties in the following classification : Systematic species. Varieties. | Blementary species. | | ED OGLE TCA = ad eer UDA ae eee es peniam Be cess a5 ee kore oS | Tberian) © (Tgorot) === - == 22 = | | (Iberian D (Cro-Magnon) —---_____ | | ‘ (@iiberiamiz=2 = ssa ees = | eee (?) | : : B. B. B. (?) | | Australoid (2) eee JNU EONG | Secondary Australoid (Negrito)?_ eee | Alpine. | | Meer citiy chee anes \ | Ble ely (2) serene eee nema | WUAT I ahi Cate ete oc meee ee ea, | Two processes are supposed to have been active, a differentiation of the Iberian and Primitive into diverse forms, producing varieties, and a fusion of the varieties to make the elementary species. It can not be absolutely determined that the Primitive and Iberian did not arise by the fusion of other forms, but if so, they had so completely fused as to be true systematic species, unless the varieties represent the forms that previously fused. The Australoid furnishes an interesting example of the fusion of two forms, and at the same time the production of two different forms, although the secondary Australoid may represent Negrito elements. There seems to be in man a life cycle of the following nature: The crossing of diverse types induces a condition of Mendelism more or less pure, depending upon the amount of resemblance between the types, following which comes spurious Mendelism when the types begin to blend and later no Mendelism but a tendency to blend and a tendency to remain true to type until a perfect blend is formed. This is the first ' eycle, and the perfect blend becomes a systematic species when sufficiently stable. After this, the systematic species becomes diversified through inherent variation acted upon by the environment, until differentiation results in the formation of varieties with any one of which or all together the cycle may be repeated. 442 BRAN. There is first a period of alternate inheritance, then a period of blending followed by a period of stability, after which differentiation begins. The four periods are not clear-cut but overlap, and more than one may be going on at the same time. Fusion of the mass of Filipinos throughout is evident in the formation of a blend that will probably be largely Primitive, or between that and the Adriatic, because in the course of time the Iberian elements will be eliminated to a great extent by disease, especially tuberculosis. The Filipinos of Taytay are therefore in the blending period, but at the same time some of the types may exhibit alternate heredity, some are in a condition of stability, and others are undergoing differentiation. There is, no doubt, an exemplification of Galton and Pearson’s ancestral heredity and reversion to mediocrity, yet fusion of all the elements seems to be the ultimate goal. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) Bean, Roserr Bennerr. A Scheme for Type Heredity in Man. Science, N.S. (1909), No. 754, 942. (2) Iprm. A Theory of Heredity to Explain the Types of the White Race. This Journal, Sec. A, (1908), 3, No. 4, 215. (3) Ipem. The Benguet Igorots. A somatologic Study of the Live Folk of Benguet and Lepanto-Bontoc. This Journal, Sec. A, (1908), 3, No. 6, 413. (4) Ipem. I. Filipino Types: Manila Students. An Attempt to Classify the Littoral Population of Luzon and Adjacent Islands. his Journal, Sec. A, (1909), 4, No. 4, 263. (5) Ipem. II. Filipino Types: Found in Malecon Morgue. This Journal, See. A, (1909), 4, No. 4, 297. (6) Ipem. Filipino Ears. A Classification of Ear Types. Vhis Journal, See. A, (1909), 4, No. 1, 27. (7) Ipex. A Cephalograph. Ziis Journal, Sec. A, (1909), 4, No. 5, 447. (8) Brrxner, F. Beitriige zur Rassenanatomie der Chinesen. Part J]. Areh. f. Anthrop. Braunschweig (1906), 4, 1. (9) Broca, M. Sur les cranes et ossements des Eyzies. Bull. Soc. d’ Anthrop., Paris (1868), Series II, 3, 350-391. (10) Dentxer, J. The Races of Man. An Outline of Anthropology and _ Ethnography. New York (1906). (11) Forxmar, Danrer. Album of Philippine Types. Manila (1904). (12) Hacen, B. Hofrat: Kopf-und Gesichtstypen ostasiatischer und melane- sicher Vélker. Herausgegeben mit Unterstiitzung der Kdéniglich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Stuttgart (1906). (13) Hrprrexa, A. Physiological and Medical Observations among the In- dians of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. Washington (1908). (14) Keann, A. H. Man. Past and Present. Cambridge: At the University Press. (1900). (15) Knaarscn, Hermann. Die neuesten Ergebnisse der Paliiontologie des Menschen und ihre Bedeutung fiir das Abstammungsproblem. Ztschr. f. Hthnol. 41 Jahrgang (1909) Heft III u. LV. (16) Luscuan, Von V. Die Konferenz yon Monaco. Korresp.-Blatt d. deuts- chen Ges. f. Anthrop., Ethnol. u. Urgeschr. (1906), 38, 53-62. a Ill. FILIPINO TYPES: RACIAL ANATOMY IN TAYTAY. 443 (17) Margin, R. Augenfarbentafel, Versammlung der deutschen Anthropo- logischen Gesellschaft in Worms. (1903), 34. (18) IpEm. Die Islandstiimme der Malayischen Halbinsel. Wissenschaftliche, ergebnisse einer Reise durch Vereinigten Malayischen Staaten. Jena. (1905), 283. (19) MoszKowsxi, Max, (Berlin) Die Urstiimme Ostsumatras. Morresp.- Blatt d. deutschen Ges. f. Anthrop., Ethnol. wu. Urgesch. (1908) 39, Nos. 9 and 12. (20) PapitiauLr, G. Entente internationale pour Vunification des mesures eranometriques et cephalometriques. Anthrop. Paris (1907), February. (21) Pott, Hetxricu. Ueber Schiidel und Skeleteder Bewohner der Chatam- Inseln. Ztschr. f. Morphol. wu. Anthrop. (1903), 5, 1-134. 22) QUATREFAGES, A. pe, The Human Species. New York (1879). (23) Riptey, W. Z. The Races of Europe. New York (1899). 24) SARASIN, Fritz. Versuch einer Anthropologie den Insel Celebes. Zweiter Teil: Die Varietaten des Menschen auf Celebes. Materialen zur Naturgeschichte der Insel Celebes: V Band., II Teil. Wiesbaden (1906) Ian, London (1908). 8, No. 8. : (25) SeuLaGiInMAuren, Orro. Hin Beitrag zur Craniologie der Semang, nebst Allgemeinen Beitragen zur Craniologie. Leipzig (1907). (26) Scumipr, W. Ueber die entwickelungsgeschichtliche Stellung der Pyg- maenstiimme. Morresp.-Blatt d. deutschen Ges. f. Anthrop. Bthnol. w. Urgesch. (1908), 39, (27) Scnwarse. G. Das Darwinsche Spitzohr beim Menschlichen Embryo. Anat. Angeig. (1889), 4, No. 6, 176-189. (28) Sprer, G. The Mediterranean Race. All head outlines were made with the cephalograph (7 ) unless ot stated, . Stature and age. ‘ c . Average Taytayan head outline. Serial number 99, clinical number 176. . The solid lines on the left represent the average European according to ci eu . Composite head outlines of 69 mesocephalic individuals. . Composite head outlines of 22 dolichocephalie individuals. s . Boy of Taytay aged 4. The small outline is from the left side of the , : . Head outlines of two Primitive Blends with flattened occipital | r . Head outline illustrating the bony band about the occiput. . Primitive and Iberian head outlines. Iberian serial number 33, Pri . Australoid head outline. Serial number 89, clinical number 564. . Iberian head outlines. Serial numbers 25 and 47. . Three Cro-Magnon head outlines. Blonde American number 2; Ta; BEAN. TEXT FIGURES.” Curve of stature of 183 adult male Taytayans. The number of individuals ' with a given stature is placed over each point on the line. . ‘ the canon of Fritsch., The broken lines on the right represent the average Taytayan according to the same canon. The European stat is equal to 8 total head heights. The Taytayan stature is ee to total head heights. A and B point to the chin. p Composite head outlines of 74 brachycephalic individuals. head over the middle of the eye. The large outline is from the ri s] side of the head a little nearer the median line. : . Boy of Taytay aged 10. The short outline is 3 centimeters to ie le of the midline. The long outline circumscribes the sagittal pl Serial numbers 137 and 158. serial number 110. serial number 74; clinical number 535; serial number 103, clir number 616. ; : Sagittal head outlines of Alpine and B. B. B. Alpine is serial num clinical number 180; B. B. B. is serial number 8, clinical numb ! and they are all reproduced natural size. 1 A3tvidid “AVLAVL 40 NAW SHL "gd “9g “g aalsicow “gd “@ “G NONDVWj-O89D "3 Nviv39] “diolveisny "qd Nviv3ss| *G ‘ON ‘AT “TOA “TOS “NUOOLr “ITH G] [ AIWOLYNY IVIOVY :S&dA,L ONIdITIA ‘TIT : NVA A . ; , & ad - a ’ j a . ; a =) ’ i . “J ; : ia’ = - aa) : o t* 4 hy > Pm. i . ' ; ? ey 5 oe = 7 t + oy « ot ' . : "It Stvwdid *SSIOadS SAILINIYd GNV YV4 SAILININYd “OVNVGNIW ‘OvAva ‘osoD0a - < re i OF Bh as a ' m * u td | ie J i = - ~ 5 ‘ 1 ‘ hs, ‘ a uae On ‘ 1 \ : oP S er IA S1tv1d *S3103dS SAILININd G3XIW GNV YUVA SAILINIYd GSXIN "NOZN1 ‘SONIAOUd V1agvSI ‘NVOVTI NOYS VONITVy ‘ON ‘AI “I0OA “10S “NUoOr IH] [ AWODVNY IVIOVY :SUdAL ONIdITIY [II : NVA F ‘ ~~ oy a | ‘ 7 2 ; al - a = ‘ * vs 7 Ss y ‘ ‘ f PS. : a . ’ . ‘ ho = . iT) . : i IA SALtvdd ‘3dAL NVIGNI LSV4 G3ISIGOW “NVIHaa! ‘VLNIVO WONd NVW SNNOA ‘G ‘ON ‘AT “I0A “IOS “NUNOr “I1HG] [-ANOLYNY IVIOVY :SadX, ONIdIMA “ITI : NVOg “AdAL NVIGNI LSV3 TIA S4tv1d “G3IsIGOW @ NVI¥Sal ] “VLNIVO JO NYW G10 “g ‘ON ‘AI ‘TOA “IOS ‘NuOOr ‘TIHg] [/AWOLYNY IVIOVY :Sadk ONIdITY “IIT : NvO j “xl S1tvid “AdAL NVIGNI LSV3 “S3ILINISSY NONDSVW-ONO “G3ISIGOW Gd NVIN3aEI “VLINIVO WOY¥S NVW G10 L *G ‘ON ‘AI “IOA “IOS ‘NuoOor “ITH [-AWOLYNY IVIOVY :S@dAL ONIdITIA “TIT : NVA . [PHiIn. JourN. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 5. RACIAL ANATOMY. ] FILIPINO TYPES: IIl. BEAN: IBERIAN D. CRC-MAGNON AFFINITIES. OLD MAN FROM NEAR TAYTAY. PLATE X. wx 1x Stv1d “SSILINISSV NONDVW-ONO “G GNV 8 NVIHSE!l “AVLAVL JO 1VIOISSO NV \ *G ‘ON ‘AJ “IOA “10S ‘NuNOf “TIHW] [AINOLYNY TVIOVY ‘Sad’. ONIdITIA TI] : Nvag - % ‘ ‘ y : ; 28% ' " cy Lae - —< - 1 oi N ? * - t “ ‘ ok . . - . . ; - - ‘ * $ - 2 ‘ i ~ | 1 E , * Ix S4tv1d “SALLINISSV NONSVW-OHO “3 NVINadl *G ‘ON ‘AT “I0A “109 ‘Noor “ITH g] [-AWOLYNY TVIOVY :SAdAL ONIdITNY “JIL : Nvad a ae “y Thx S1twvw1d “ava SAILINIYd ANIGIV “3dAL ANIdIV “AVLAVL 40 YaINYVO HOOWNVH EE “G ‘ON ‘AI ‘I0A “IOS "NuNOr “ITH g] [AINOLYNY ‘IVIOVY :S4dX., ONIdITIA TI] : NVA \ — = [PHIn. JourRN. Sct., Vou. 1V, No. RACIAL ANATOMY. ] FILIPINO TYPES: TU, BEAN: MODIFIED B. B. B. PLATE XIv. “AX SB41tVv1Id “SSILINISSY NONSVW-OHO “8 “8 “8 G3alsSIGOW Loa ‘G ‘ON ‘AT I0OA “IOS ‘NuOoOr ‘TIHd] [-AWOLYNY TVIOVYU :S€d4.L ONIdITI “II : NVa Rye i. 7 1AX S1LV1d “SSILINISSAVY NVINSE!l “ALSINVA AYVGNOO3S—ONIdI1I4 GlOIVYLSNV “ON ‘AI “IOA “IOS “Nuno 1TH] [-AWOLYNY TVIOVU ‘1 S€dA ONTdHIIA “TIT :Nvag EAS Ax Stvdid “SSILINISSV NVIYSEl “ALAINVA AYVONOOSS—ONIdITI45 GlO1VYLSNY *G ‘ON ‘AT “TOA “IOS "NunOr ‘IIHg] [ AWOLYNY TIVIOVY :SddAL ONIdIIMWA “III : Nvag TAX Stvdid “STINAS ONIdI1Id OML NI SNISING IYLN3D L337 HLIM ONINSLLV14 1VSY¥YOG LHSIY yyy ¥ WM fal WW Wi yy ed “é ‘ 3 A [-AWOLVNY IVIOVU : Sadi. ONIdIITA “TIT : Nvad ‘ON ‘AI “TOA “IOS ‘NUMOP “IIHTg] Ne) 5 y J :: A CEPHALOGRAPH: THE DESCRIPTION OF AN INSTRUMENT FOR REPRODUCING THE OUTLINES OF THE HEAD AND FACE. By Ropvert BENNETT BEAN. (Prom the Anatomical Laboratory of the Philippine Medical School, Manila, P. I.) The value of an instrument that would accurately and easily produce the outlines of the head and face in any direction, through or over any plane, has long been recognized by anthropologists, and the instrument here described and pictured is presented with the hope that it will fulfill the requirements. The idea of the construction of a cephalograph oc- curred to me as early as 1905 when I used a machine for obtaining the outlines of the brain which would reproduce only the silhouette of the object but which could not be applied to the surface. At that time I spoke to Dr. Ales Hrdlicka who encouraged me to attempt the con- struction of such a machine, but the opportunity for its construction did not arise until I reached the Philippines in June, 1907. In 1906 I consulted Prof. L. Manouvrier who was at that time working on a machine designed for the purpose of obtaining outlines of the head on the living, and I am grateful to him for any suggestions that may have been utilized in the construction of the cephalograph. he principles involved in the cranial instruments of Prof. Rudolph Martin * have been utilized, especially the pantograph to reproduce the exact outlines, the use of which occurred to me after my acquaintance with Professor Martin’s instruments. The castings were made of alumi- num through the kindness of my brother, Mr. Wyndham Randolph Bean, superintendent of the plants of the T. H. Symington Company at Roches- ter, New York, for whose interest in and personal supervision of the work I am greatly thankful. The measuring arm of the machine was made by Filipino students at the Philippine School of Arts and Trades in Manila, under the direction of Mr. Hewitt. To Mr. Hewitt I am also indebted for codperation in constructing another cephalograph for the Bureau of Education of the Philippine Isalnds. The cephalograph consists essentially of an aluminum frame supported by two vertical steel bars 1 meter long and 2 centimeters in diameter, fastened by brackets at each end to a board screwed to a frame or to any wall or post. The aluminum frame supports, by two parallel rods of the same diameter but only half as long, a horizontal aluminum bar, 1Ueber einige neure Instrumenten und Hilfsmittel fur den Anthropologischen Unterricht. Gorrespondenz-Blatt der Deutscher anthropologischen Gesellschaft. (1903), No. 11, pp. 127-132. 447 448 BEAN. 1 meter long and 12.8 centimeters wide, on which a sliding brass piece supports the pantograph with the measuring arm. A smooth board on which drawing paper is held by thumb tacks is clamped to the end of the horizontal bar. The aluminum frame has a horizontal aluminum rod inserted at its middle, through the end of which another rod passes vertically to carry the head rest. At the upper end the vertical rod works in a cylindrical jot which allows rotation through 360 degrees, and at the lower end is a ratchet attachment by which the head rest may main- tain the head at any desired angle in the yertical plane. Four supports, only two of which are shown in Plate I, serve to fix the head so that it remains rigid while the outlines are being made. A unique feature of the cephalograph is the measuring arm of the pantograph (Plate IT), which has a semicircular brass bar with a radius of 25 centimeters interposed between its extremity and the adjacent joint in such a manner that the parts of the arm contiguous to the semi- circular bar may glide from one end to the other of the bar, or may be fixed at any point, the end of the measuring arm remaining at the same point regardless of the position of the other parts of the arm. On the end of the measuring arm is attached a small frame holding a wheel so that a rolling surface comes into contact at all times with the part bemg measured. The weight of the measuring arm and the rolling contact allow exactly the same pressure to be exerted continually without any appreciable effort on the part of the operator of the cephalograph. Coronal, sagittal and horizontal outlines of the head and face may be made easily and rapidly, and outlines in almost any direction are possible with a little manoeuvering. With the position shown in Plate I, only vertical longitudinal outlines can be made, but by rotating the head rest through an angle of 45° horizontally, coronal outlines are possible; then, by depressing the head rest until the face is prone and the horizontal posi- tion of the head assumes the vertical direction, horizontal outlines can be made. ; The weight of the machine packed im a portable case is about the average load for a native carrier, about 30 kilos (75 pounds.) It is to be hoped that the cephalograph will be used in schools and universities, as well as among the wild tribes and native peoples of the earth that are little known, and wherever the living may be measured. The cephalograph can also be used for measuring any solid body to which the attachment at the head of the measuring arm can be applied. For this reason it may be of service in measuring skulls and other bones as well as any objects of which the contour in any given plane is wanted, although slight alterations may be necessary if a complete cireuit of an object is desired. Criticisms and suggestions will be gladly received, for I realize the imperfections of the instrument, but I believe it represents a distinct advance in the application of mechanics to the reproduction of the outlines of the head and face. log ‘aph in operation at Taytay, Rizal Province, Luzon, in 1909. — eas) ring arm of the pantograph. — 449 BeAN: A CEPHALOGRAPH. | [PHIL. JOURN. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 5. VENTRO-LATERAL VIEW OF THE CEPHALOGRAPH AT WORK AT TAYTAY, PROVINCE OF RIZAL, ISLAND OF LUZON, IN 1909. PLATE I. Brean: A CEPHALOGRAPH. | [Pur. Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 5. Fic. 1. THE MEASURING ARM OF THE PANTOGRAPH. THE SIDE FACING THE OPERATOR OF THE CEPHALOGRAPH. Fia. 2. THE REVERSE SIDE, SHOWING THE DISTAL END OF THE ARM IN A DIFFERENT POSITION. PLATE Il. » a THE ACTION OF ORGANIC PEROXIDES ON THE ~PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE. By BrxzaMin T. Brooks. (From the Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) With the recent: development of our knowledge of radioactivity, the action of many substances on the photographic plate has been studied and in some cases this property has been taken as a test for radioactivity. This property alone is not sufficient to characterize a body as being radioactive, as is very generally recognized. Nevertheless papers still continue to find their way into the chemical literature ascribing radio- activity to certain substances which affect the photographic plate but which haye little or no semblance to the heavy metals. That the “pseudo-radioactive” substances are not radioactive in the same sense as the heavy metals has been shown by Russell, Saeland and Ebler. Russell* has described recently the action on the photographie plate of colophony and a number of substances which contain resin. He has shown that the shadows thrown by resin are not bounded by straight lines, but curve round a sereen; that the action is not capable of passing through glass, mica, or aluminium foil, even of extreme thinness, and does not affect an electrical field. The action can pass along a bent glass tube, and may be swept out of a tube by a slow current of gas. No action takes place in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide. Heat destroys the activity and previous exposure to sunlight accelerates it. Alkalies or sulphur — dioxide destroy the activity. When the activity of a specimen is destroyed by any of the above means, exposure to oxygen and light restores it. Russell also prepared crystalline abietic acid and found it to be active. Turpentine and specimens of pure pinene and limonene after exposure to air showed the same behavior. A similar behavior of linseed oil is described by him? in a previous communication. Russell states that the effect appears to be produced by a vapor rather than by any form of radioactivity. He had previously shown® that the vapors of hydrogen peroxide affect a photographic plate, even in dilutions of one part in a million. He suggests that this may be the active substance. Saeland * has recently shown that the action on the photographic plate of the alkali metals, magnesium, zine and other metals which have a high solution 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (1908), B, 80, 376. 2 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (1898), 63, 102. 3 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (1899), 64, 409. 44dnn. d. Phys. (1908), 26, 899. 903398 451 452 BROOKS. tension, is due to hydrogen peroxide formed by the oxidation of the metal in the presence of moisture. Ebler * has recently confirmed this view by exposing ¢ertain metallic peroxides in moist air to photographie plates. The effect produced was the same as that described by Russell and Saeland. Russell made no attempt to explain the formation of hydrogen peroxide by the organic substances studied by him or to call attention to the fact that they are capable of forming organie peroxides by autoxidation. The conditions under which the activity is destroyed or increased are strongly suggestive of an intimate connection with organie peroxides. That organic peroxides are slowly hydrolyzed by water with the formation of hydrogen peroxide has been shown by Freer and Novy" and by Clover and Richmond.’ This fact offers a plausible explanation of the formation of hydrogen peroxide and the consequent change in the photograaiie plate produced by the — substances studied by Russell. In order further to test this theory benzoperacid, acetyl peroxide and benzoylacetyl peroxide were tested and each substance was found to affect a photographic plate. The experiment was carried out by placing about 0.1 gram of the substance 6n a moist piece of filter paper in a shallow crystallizing dish and covering the dish with a photographic plate. In the case of acetyl peroxide a distinct dark spot was obtained on developing the plate after an exposure lasting twenty minutes. Benzoylacetyl peroxide gaye a distinct spot after about 45 minutes. If the plates were exposed too long a reversal, or positive, was obtained. \ In a study of Manila copal it was found that the substance rapidly absorbed oxygen from the air and that the powdered resin affected a photographic plate in the same way as colophony. Russell stated that amber was very feebly active compared with colophony. In order to ascertain if the older fossil resms could be differentiated in this way from the more recent ones, several samples of Manila and other eopal resins were exposed to eioines aphic plates. About 10 grams of each specimen of copal were pulverized and placed in a shallow crystallizing dish. A photographic plate was then placed with the film side down upon each dish. At the end of one week the plates were developed in the usual manner and in all cases a round dark spot sharply outlining the dish was obtained. Samples of recently — collected, semi fossil and partially distilled Manila copal gave very dark spots. A specimen of kauri copal gave a much blacker spot than Manila copal, which probably has some connection with the fact noted by | Worstall § that the oxidation of kauri is the faster of the two. Zanzibar copal gave a fainter spot than kauri or Manila and a specimen of hard brittle resin from Philippine coal showed the least activity of all. > Ztschr. f. angew. Chem. (1909), 22, 205. on ®Am. Chem. Jour. (1902), 27, 161. TAm, Chem. Jour. (1903), 29, 179. S Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1903), 25, 863. a ACTION OF ORGANIC PEROXIDES. 453 In order to determine whether or not the resin acids in Manila copal would, like abietic acid, affect the photographic plate in the absence of terpenes, the following experiment was tried. About 50 grams of powdered copal were dissolved in cold dilute alkah and the solution extracted four times with ether. The solution was then evaporated to one-half its volume on the steam bath to expel the ether. The solution was diluted and the resin acids precipitated by dilute hydrochloric acid. Ten grams of the dried acids were exposed to sunlight for one half day. A photographic plate was then placed over the sub- stance and on developing the plate four days later a distinct black spot was obtained. The above explanation of the action on the photographic plate of certain organic substances was suggested by a study of the autoxidation of Manila copal, but in view of the interest recently shown in this peculiar phenomenon it is published at the present time while the work on Manila copal will appear at a later date. or. TESTS OF PHILIPPINE ROAD MATERIALS. By Grorce I. ADAMS. (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science.) Sometime ago the engineer of the city of Manila requested that the division of mines of the Bureau of Science find a quarry site which would supply a superior quality of stone for macadamizing the streets. The im- portance of this problem will be seen when it is realized that the city uses each year in surfacing streets about 50,000 cubic meters of crushed stone, which costs delivered in Manila about ®2.50 per cubic meter. The quality is not satisfactory and any improvement in the quality of the material used would be evident in the better character of the streets and a saying in the cost of maintenance. Abrasion machine.—It is obyious that in recommending a change of the quarry site one should not trust simply to his judgment, but should be able to base his recommendations on reliable tests. When geologic work was begun for the purpose of finding a better stone, there were no appliances in the Islands for testing stone for use as road material, and it seemed undesirable to resort to the only remaining method of making a practical test by macadamizing certain streets with different materials available, and waiting for the results of actual wear to show which mate- rial is the most desirable. A properly equipped laboratory should be sup- plied with apparatus for submitting stone to the abrasion test and determining its cementing value, toughness, absorption, hardness, specific gravity, and strength. Most of this apparatus is relatively expensive, and some of it, being of special design, can not be constructed easily. For the abrasion test, however, which is the one which most closely corresponds to the conditions of actual wear, a machine that can be constructed readily is required and accordingly one was designed. Castings were made in Ma- nila, and the machine was completed and set up by the engineer of this Bureau. The Deyall type of machine first constructed in France and accepted and used by the Road Material Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, was selected, in order that tests might be carried on in conformity with accepted standards, 455 456 ADAMS. and comparisons made with the results obtained in the Washington Laboratory, which has been in operation for a number of years. The Devall abrasion machine consists essentially of two iron cylinders fastened to a shaft so that each cylinder is at an angle of 30° with an axis of rotation. Hach eylinder is 20 centimeters in diameter and 34 centimeters in depth, closed at one end and having a tightly fitting iron cover for the other. Jn testing stone with this machine it is broken into pieces of as nearly uniform size as possible, each of which will pass in all positions through a 6 centimeter ring. Five kilograms approximating as closely as possible to 50 pieces of rock previously cleaned by washing and subsequently dried in an oven and then cooled in a desiccator, is used as a charge for each cylinder. The machine is rotated at the rate of 2,000 revolutions per hour for five hours, the inclination of the eylinders causing it to be thrown from one end to the other twice at each revolution. When the abrasion of the material is completed, the contents of each cylinder is placed — on a sieve having openings of 0.16 centimeter, and the material which passes through this is caught on a sieve having openings of 0.025 centimeter. Both sieves with the rock held on them are placed under running water until all the — dust is washed off. These fragments are then dried in a hot air bath and conled in a desiccator and weighed. Percentage of wear.—The percentage of wear indicates the amount of __ the original sample which was worn to fines less than 0.16 centimeter in size during the test. Theoretically, this percentage of wear may vary from 0 to 100, but materials which show 20 per cent or more of wear are considered unfit for use. Some materials will show less than 2 per cent of wear. ae French coefficient.—The French coefticient, which is an arbitrary one, is determined by dividing 2,000 by the weight of the fragments under 0.16 centimeter in size, which are worn off during the test. According to this standard, the scale of excellence would vary from 0.to 20, with some material passing 20. . Umited States coefficient—In reports of the road material laboratory E at Washington, the United States coefficient is also given, which is found by dividing by 10 the weight of the material over 3 centimeters in size which remains after the test. By att Report of a series of tests Inasmuch as the French coefficient is as apna standard and the United States coefficient does not — ae e sary to record them, ainoth they ete oo computed in all the test made in this Bureau. The following table is a summary of the abrasi e P tests thus far made on road materials used in the Philippines. It ia pee for the information of those who are in charge of the con- in the character of the stone used and show that in many cases a siderable economy may he effected by carefully selecting the quarries. TESTS OF PHILIPPINE ROAD MATERIALS. 457 =i aries! Num-/| Per- | Rock varieties. Textures. y Localities. pert ae Ot | | ples. | wear. | a 3 2.57 Vesicular and sco- |_--_- (6 Ko) hae eae ea ee ee lee lersnas riaceous, | Road from Antipolo to Taytay, Rizal_! et) PC ers CG eS oP Ee ely eC A ST) Los Banos quarry, Laguna__-__-___- | 2 | 2. 66 Sisiman quarry, Bataan 2 | 4.08 Arayat quarry, Pangasinan___ | TY | 2.62 Eeeset (0 Kops eee eee af ee ee ee 1 3.54 (DO aE se ES er Crystalline, but | Sea beach below Batangas, used in 2 3.79 weathered, road from Batangas to San Juan. | | (CG) oho) aie oe ae el Dense, fine grained_| New Manila city quarry, Angono, 1 | 2.17 : Rizal. | Old Spanish quarry, Angono, Rizal_ il || GL Si | Wanemey temds. 222 | Seal = healg Gis) Diorite and andesite_|____- OSs 223 Sse | BS C0} a eee ee eee | 1 2.67 Pee DOVIbes = see | Crystalline ________ Sara-Ajuy road, Iloilo_______________ | 1 1.76 Montalban) Rize) 2senp eens ss | Bil REO Sibul Springs, Bulacan -----__-______ | 2 | 3.77 | San Esteban, Ilocos Sur _____________ 1 | 4.55 | IDFMa hE Molo S She ees ee 1 3.67 | San Fernando, La Union 2) 5.73 TJS SW WONG (ee 2)) 4.34 ©] bebe e 60) aneenaaseecosaseseececceeee] | | UD) | ! } Stone used for the streets of Manila—During the Spanish régime very few streets of Manila were macadamized, and these only imperfectly. The streets which were well improved were, for the most part, paved with granite blocks imported from Hongkong as ballast. Im addition, paving blocks were cut from an andesite near the present Sisiman quarry, which is situated near Mariveles at the entrance to Manila Bay. Also at several places near Angono, Binangonan and alim Island, basaltic and gabbroic paving blocks were made in a desultory way. Samples of these classes of block pavements can be seen in Manila to-day, and the mode of wear of the paving blocks is a fair index to the quality of the stone for macadam. At the beginning of the improvement of the streets by the American authorities, some crushed stone was obtained from the Binangonan quarry. This quarry has a very limited face, the stone varies in texture, and, accordingly, is unsuitable for large operations and was soon abandoned. The next place where quarrying was carried on exten- sively was on Malagi Island just southeast of Talim Island. The estab- lishing of quarries there came about through using the island as a prison and the effort to employ the conyicts at manual labor. The stone was not of superior quality and when the island was abandoned as a 458 | ADAMS. prison colony, the quarries were discontinued. The present plant oper- ated by the city is on the northwest part of Talim Island at Subay, where a crushing plant operated by steam and supplied with convenient tracks, bins, and facilities for dumping into scows, is still in operation, but shows the results of heavy usage. The stone at this quarry is of about the same character as at Binangonan and Malagi. The better qualities are a dense basalt, which has a conchoidal and splintery fracture and shows 2.57 per cent of wear. With it there is a variable vesicular and sometimes scoriaceous variety showing 8.66 per cent of wear, and the gradation into this quality is so irregular that in quarrying it is very difficult to separate the two. Moreover, the processes of weathering haye attacked the poorer and softer stone and the quarry at Talim contains considerable dirt, so that it is impossible to obtain continuously a clean, uniform crushed stone. A careful survey was made of the zone which embraces Talim Island and Binangonan Peninsula. No better material was found occurring m relations suitable for quarrying. The zone is characterized by flows of basaltic lava, varying from dense to vesicular and scoriaceous varieties, and a large part is covered with volcanic agglomerate and braccias, which grade into tufts. When the United States Army built the road between Los Batos and Calamba, they opened a quarry near Los Banos. ‘The rock is a crystalline andesite, usually quite dense in texture. There is a high face of rock which rendered quarrying easy and a small crusher was installed which gave a very satisfactory output. It shows 2.66 per cent of wear. Besides using the stone on the road near Los Banos, a considerable quantity of it was transported to Fort McKinley and used in macadamizing the streets — of that post. The city of Manila has been deterred from using this quarry because it was thought not to furnish the best quality of rock which could be obtained, and that the transportation which would include that by land - to the shore of the lake and a long towage across to the mouth of the Pasig River would make the cost too high. The quarry at Sisiman, near Mariveles, was opened for the purpose of supplying large stone for building the breakwater of Manila Harbor. The city was induced to try crushed stone from this quarry for macadam, and some streets were carefully prepared with it for the purpose of making a practical test, but 1t was found unsatisfactory since it is too — soft and wears rapidly under the action of wheels, disintegrating into rock flour. Although the quality of the stone was soon determined, some additional attempts were made to use the screenings from it as a top dressing over the Talim rock, with a hope that it would serve as a binder. | As it has a very low cementing value, this experiment was not successful, and the fact that the dressing consisted of fines containing a large amount — of rock flour rendered the streets muddy and necessitated the remoyal of — the dressing after the first heavy rains. ale ¢ - TESTS OF PHILIPPINE ROAD MATERIALS. 459 As soon as the abrasion machine was constructed, the Sisiman rock was tested and its percentage of water was found to be 4.08. This test demonstrated much more economically the unsuitability of the rock than did the practical test, and showed the value of using the abrasion machine. In looking for a quarry site, the shores of the Bay Lake (Laguna de Bay) and Manila Bay were carefully explored as well as all points from > which railway transportation appeared feasible. It was-soon discovered that it would be impossible to ship stone by rail at the present freight rate, or even at such reduced rates as the company might be willing to concede, since the railway rates are high and seemingly excessive. No ‘good quarry site was found on the immediate shore of the lake. The oceurrence of hard rock on the shores of Manila Bay are all near the entrance, and most of them at places where the conditions for quarrying and loading are not favorable. Transportation across the bay could not be depended upon during rough weather, and this would be a serious handicap to the city since continuous operations are necessary im order to supply the amount of stone required, and if the launches and lighters and employees were unable to carry on continually this work they could not be employed readily in other duties. The railroad to Antipolo passes an extensive outcrop of basalt in the vicinity of Antipolo Falls which is to the north of Binangonan Peninsula in the same zone of basaltic rocks. Samples of this stone were collected and tested for the sake of information. They showed 2.61 per cent of wear, or practically the same amount as the best grade of Talim rock; and although the fracture of this stone was somewhat better than that at the Talim quarry, it appeared that little could be gained by using it, and transportation, which would necessarily be by rail, would be too expensive. Between Antipolo and Taytay, in making a cut, a very hard stone was found and the railroad company called the attention of the division of mines to its occurrence. It was examined in the field and the exposures were found unsuitable for establishing a quarry. The rock was not tested, although a sample of it was obtained. Similarly, the limestone at the waterworks dam near Montalban was examined, since it was suggested that it might show better cementing values, and, being an unusually hard limestone, might prove suitable for macadam. The percentage of wear of this stone was found to be 3.97 per cent. Although it is superior limestone, it is not good enough to recommend for use on city streets; moreover, the color, which is nearly white, would be a serious disadvantage because of the strong reflection of light from it. Up to this pomt im the field work, investigations had been carried on with the hope of satisfying the desire of the city officials to be informed of a location which would necessitate only water transportation. It “was ascertained that a good quality of the rock could not be found situated under these conditions. Jt was believed that the hard stone 460 ADAMS. found on the railway between Taytay and Antipolo was of superior quality, and it was judged from the geological formation that it would continue in a southerly direction to Angono, which is on the shore of the lake. At Angono, however, there is a belt of alluvial land lying between the hills and the lake shore, across which it would be necessary to use land transportation for a distance of approximately 2 kilometers. Jt was reported informally to the city engineer that this location would — probably furnish the best rock ayailable near Manila, and when it was seen that land transportation could not be avoided if a good quality of stone was to be secured, instructions were received to examine the vicinity of Angono. 2a Xa 29 MILLIMETERS Ss MESHES TO INCH? ® 8% k S/ZE GF OPENINGS IN MILLIMETERS AND NUMBER OF MESHES TO THE INCH 40 47! 20 92 Fic. 6.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SANGLEY PoINT SAND. There is a considerable percentage of coarse material in the Sangley e Point sand which consists of decomposed pebbles and shells and shell — an be fragments. In fig. 6 it is seen that there is 16 per cent of this coarse material, 41 per cent held on a 20-mesh sieve, 54 per cent on a 30-mesh, and 7 per cent passing a 100-mesh sieve. Accordingly the sand contains — Re an. objectionable amount of coarse material, consisting of broken shells — and also considerable dirt. PERCENTAGE BY WE/GHT PASSING DIFFERENT SIEVES MILLIMETERS Ss s.698 MESHES TO INCH & oo ’ SIZE OF OPENINGS IN MILLIMETERS AND NUMBER OF MESHES TO THE INCH | Fic. 7.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ORANI SAND. 2 OS The analysis shown in fig. 7 indicates 12 per cent of fine gravel, 3¢ per cent held on a 20-mesh sieve, 56 per cent held on a 30-mesh 3 per cent passing a 100-mesh. The Orani sand contains coarse - grains and yery little fine material and practically no shell fragm £ MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IN MANILA. 469 PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT PASSING DIFFERENT S/EVES ~ MILLIMETERS s 101.85 RIE a4 MESHES TO INCHS 2 3.5 Ses 8 S/ZE OF QPENINGS IN MILLIMETERS AND NUMBER OF MESHES TO THE INCH Fic, 8.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ORANT SAND. Another analysis of Orani sand is given in fig. 8 which shows 4.1 per cent of fine gravel; 23.4 per cent held on a 20-mesh sieve, 67.6 per cent held on a 30-mesh sieve, and 0.5 per cent passing a 100-mesh sieve. It will be noted that from the 60-mesh sieve to the 20-mesh the line indi- cating the analysis is nearly straight. = PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT PASSING DIFFERENT SIEVES oo + Soyer! MILLIMETERS os so 9 204 JO_1.85 Ss S) MESHES TO INCHO © © 4 Ss S/ZE OF OPENINGS IN MILLIMETERS AND NUMBER QF MESHES TO THE INCH Fic. 9.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF TARLAC SAND. The analysis of a sample of Tarlac sand is introduced for the sake of comparison, although the sand is not available for use in Manila. The percentage of fime gravel is shown to be 1.5; 26 per cent is held on a 20-mesh sieve, 59 per cent is held on a 30-mesh and 1.5 per cent passes a 100-mesh. This sample had been sieved to take out coarse pebbles. 470 ADAMS. H Se ow Oe) =e oS Ge ly ors SIS Se ros va ig a MILLIMETERS MESHES TO INCH o 3 oe SIZE OF OPENINGS IN MILLIMETERS ANDO NUMBER OF MESHES TO THE INCH rr | ~ os) = Fic. 10.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF BEACH SAND FROM NEAR CORREGIDOR. In fig. 10 an analysis of a beach sand from near the entrance to Manila Bay is given. It shows 13 per cent fine gravel size, 20 per cent held on a 20-mesh sieve, 22 per cent held on a 30-mesh sieve and 3.3 per cent passing the 100-mesh. It is composed almost entirely of shell fragments. All of the sands which have been analyzed granularmetrically show a certain amount of variation. The analyses presented above, however, may be regarded as fairly typical. Pasig sand, as it is used at present, is not screened according to any uniform specifications. Eficiency—Samples of sands from various localities above mentioned were sieved on a 20-mesh sieve and the portions passing were then sieved on a 30-mesh. The sands retained on the 30-mesh were used for making = a series of tensile-strength briquettes in which a good quality of cement — was employed in the proportion of one part of cement and three parts of sand. These briquettes were broken after seven days and their tensile strengths compared with similar briquettes made with crushed quartz used asa standard sand. The results of these tests, which, however, should be regarded as incomplete, are shown in the following table: Comparative test of sands in tensile-strength briquettes. unig Percent of ‘all Sand screened through 20-mesh and os a a held on 30-mesh. ehiclenty ai at 7 days. : e a 55 eo. 66 ad * > 91 + 97 ee Quingtiass). ee ee 107 a, Crushed quartz=—-=-—-—— = 100 = 7 oS j ag MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IN MANILA. 471 The variation of the efficiency in the Sangley, Pasig and Quingua sands, all of which are pebble sands, is probably largely due to the difference in the character of the rock fragments which compose them. Andesitic and basaltic materials are conspicuous in the Pasig sands and basaltic grains constitute nearly all of the rock material in the Sangley sands, while the Quingua contains harder materials which do not so readily decompose and become spongy or porous, but under the action of water are gradually worn down to smaller sizes by attrition and abrasion. ‘The efficiency of the Sangley sand, which is the lowest, may be further accounted for by the presence of many minute shells which do not fill with cement. The fact that the Quingua sand is more efficient than the Orani and Tarlac, is probably due to the shape of the grains, which being rounded decreases the voids. Moreover, the vitreous surfaces of the crystal frag- ments in the Orani’and Tarlac sands may also cause them to wet less readily than the grains of the Quingua, which haye minutely pitted surfaces and capillary openings. A comparison of the efficiency of the Pasig and Orani sands was also made by crushing concrete blocks which were made in a uniform way, using the same cement and Pasig: gravel in each, but different sands. Im order to follow working conditions the sands were both screened through a 4-mesh sieve. The blocks were stored twenty-five days im moist air and afterwards exposed to the sun and-rain. ‘hey were crushed at the end of three months and gave the following results: Pasig sand, 1:2:5: mixture, average of three breaks; first crack, 912 pounds per square inch; ultimate, 1,542 pounds per square inch. Orani sand, 1: 2:5 mixture, average of three breaks; first crack, 1,568 pounds per square inch; ultimate, 1,951 pounds per square inch. Specific gravity, percentage of voids and weights per cubse meter.— Samples of the various sands were screened through a 10-mesh sieve and their specific gravities, percentage of voids and weights per cubic meter determined as shown in the following table: en Weight per Sand | pce fotvotds. | ae in | | | | kilograms. | [- [2.67] 35) del | 2.71 30.2 1,757 2.58 42.0 | 1,500 | 2.62 42.9 | 1, 500 277 41.7 | 1, 615 Photographs of these samples are shown in Plates I and II. A472 ADAMS. GRAVELS. Source of materials—The only gravel readily ayailable for use in Manila is that which is dredged from the Mariquina River. The gravel __ in the Pasig has already been largely dredged out in maintaining the channel of the river, and although it is partially renewed during the flood season when the Mariquina gravel is brought in, it does not furnish — ur. a satisfactory dredging ground. The Quingua gravel at Quingua is too fine. Toetien up nee near Baliuag, the same river contains a good quality of gravel but it is not eee ie in many ae similar to the Talim basalt which is used in mac amizing the streets of Manila, and which has proved rather unsatisfac on account of its ee different oe in seyeral samples has been determined. These ana are shown graphically by the plotted curves in 1 the ete figures” PERCENTAGE BY WE/GHT PASSING DIFFERENT SIEVES INCHES 01520 30 45 67 100 ; DIAMETER OF PARTICLES IN CENTIMETERS AND INCHES — MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IN MANILA. 473 The analysis in fig. 11 shows 2.2 per cent of oversize and 8.7 which passes the smallest sieve. The percentage of voids is 3 material under 0.1 inch screened out, 33.5 1.2, and with DIAMETER OF PARTICLES IN CENTIMETERS AND INCHES 4 ng eel ox $5 af ooo -sse es = ol ae SK I | | a8 ri 1 "t; egioges & ) | we a Seageca| 5p - ant S) xs a cy = eee eee rae | Gz t eee es eat eee eS i | Nw 1 i Ce + Ihe = fo = x ! | | ' u ieee aa Sees oa ' | } ie ul IJ ~ CENTIMETERS 9 NS iS o = S INCHES 101520 30 45 67.75 1.00 150 2.25 Fic. 12.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF MARIQUINA GRAVEL To PASS A 0.75-INCH OPENING. The analysis shown by fig. 12 indicates 27 per cent of oversize gravel and 6 per cent passing the smallest sieve. Voids 29.1, under 0.1 inch screened out, 32.9 per cent. with material PERCENTAGE BY WE/GHT PASSING DIFFERENT S/IEVES. ry + x CENTIMETERS % 25 5 3 i N te) INCHES (0/520 30 45 67 Loo 150 DIAMETER OF PARTICLES IN CENTIMETERS AND INCHES N 5:72) Fic, 13.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF MARIQUINA GRAVEL TO PASS A 1 The analysis in fig. 13 shows 12 per cent of oversize gra cent passing the smallest sieve. Voids, 31.2 per cent. .5-INCH OPENING. vel and 2 per 474 ADAMS. 4 90 F 7) s YL 40 GY 7 Soa 8 e = ~ 5 oe s wy WY so ee ee Oe S 8 40 Go Va © = 30) Wig V4 = 20) =| rot 14 “o> © cy o + ~ 6 CENTIMETERS 939 % = n 5 iS 3 > > N ° S INCHES 10/5 20 30 45 67 LOO 150 225 DIAMETER OF PARTICLES IN CENTIMETERS AND INCHES Fic. 14. GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF MARIQUINA GRAVEL TO PASS A 1.5-INCH OPENING. The analysis in fig. 14 shows 6 per cent of oversize and 3 per cent passing the smallest sieve. Voids, 31.5 per cent. The Maraquina gravel varies greatly in character since it is not care- fully screened as the analyses above will show. Lficiency.—There is no standard grayel with which gravels may be compared after the manner that sands are compared with standard sands. It might be well to select a superior gravel to use as a standard im testing the efficiency of gravels in concrete. Cubes could be made with a good — cement, a given sand or standard sand, and the standard gravel, and these could be used for comparing the crushing strength of cubes of Me. concrete in which the gravel to be tested is combined with the same cements and sand in the same proportions. This would be especially helpful when a gravel is found to break under a pressure which is less than that required to crush the mortar of the concrete. in most gravels the smaller sizes haye a lower crushing limit since they are in a more - advanced stage of decomposition. It would, therefore, seem desirable : that a standard gravel should be of small size. At Calapan, in Mindoro, — a gravel was seen which had been obtained from a beach west of the — ~ 1.14-centimeter circular opening and be retained on a sieve with 0.51- — centimeter circular openings. There are at present with the quartz peb- bles some rounded fragments of shells and corals, and a few schist pebbles, but these can easily be picked out because of their texture and color. is proposed to see what results can be obtained by using this material a standard gravel and if it is satisfactory to recommend it for use. Itis believed that quartz pebbles will be superior to crushed stone for the pur- . pose of comparative tests of gravels because of the similarity of the ee “ Arey AN ma; MATERIALS FOR CONCRETH CONSTRUCTION IN MANILA. 475 shapes of and the absence of partially developed fractures which are found in the small sizes of crushed stone. Thus far there has been accumulated only a small amount of data concerning the efficiency of Pasig gravel. In crushing concrete cubes, Mr. Reibling found that im several cases the gravel was weaker than the mortar. In one cube 40 per cent of the gravel broke. CRUSHED STONE. Sowrces.—Vhe only large commercial quarry near Manila is situated at Sisiman, near Mariveles, at the entrance to Manila Bay. ‘This point is so distant that considerable expense is required for transportation, never- theless a large amount of the stone has been used in Manila for concrete construction. There are other quarry sites near Sisiman, some of which show a better stone and there are places which are better protected from storms. Near Los Batos on Laguna de Bay-a quarry was formerly operated for road material. To obtain stone from this situation a long tow across Laguna de Bay is necessary, and in addition land transportation to the border of the lake is réquired. The city has for some time operated a quarry on Talim Island, but present indications are that the plant will be moved to a better site. Under the Spanish régime a quarry was opened in the hills to the southeast of Angono, and a road bed was constructed to the border of the lake and a stone pier built out into the water to enable the dumping of stone from tram cars into scows. ‘This quarry has not been operated recently. -'T'o the north of Angono the writer has found a superior grade of rock which the city is contemplating using for macadamizing Manila streets, and it is probable that a quarry will soon be opened there. Land transportation will be required for bringing the rock to the lake shore. Jt appears that there are no good quarry sites of hard rock nearer Manila than the vicinity of Angono. Crushed rock obtained at this place can be brought in small barges which can enter the esteros in Manila and permit of the landing of the material at many places; this is an advantage since it saves land transportation in Manila. Rock from the Sisiman quarry, or others which might be opened near it, could best be transported on large scows and these, while they could land conyeniently on the water front, could not ascend the Pasig River beyond the bridge of Spain nor enter the esteros. . Nature of the stone——The Sisiman stone is a gray andesite which in the quarry shows columnar structure. This structure favors the quarry- ing of large stone. Near by the andesite has a somewhat better texture and is a little harder, and at a few points there is a dark andesitic rock which is superior to the gray andesite, but it is doubtful whether it can 476 ADAMS. be obtained economically. The rock at Los Bafios is andesitic with a crystalline structure and is of good quality. The Talim quarry supplies a basaltic rock which is dense and shows practically no crystalline structure to the unaided eye. It is rather friable and breaks with a splintery fracture. Crushed stone from the quarry usually contains a considerable admixture of softer material and dirt, especially when operations are carried on during the rainy season. old eee eae near Angono show a dark green brecciated phe When the city quarry is aoe to the new location north of Angono, i will supply a clean, fine grammed, crushed stone of very even texture. This is me best rock which ae ue obtained for use in Manila. from gravels. Unless it contains a considerable amount of fines, it on be used just as it comes from the crusher. washed out by pouring water over the stone when it is measured up baskets for obtaining the proper proportions in mixing concrete. PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT PASSING DIFFERENT S/EVES wy on oO SIMU PETES GASES BUS S 5 5 3 INCHES 101520 30 45 O7 400 150 DIAMETER OF PARTICLES IN CENTIMETERS AND INCHES Fic, 15.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SISIMAN CRUSHED STONE CONTAINING as it was Abin from the crusher. Percentage of voids, 37.4; cent passed the smallest sieve and 98 per cent passed the 24-inch si Between these two-points as plotted the analysis runs in a nearly s line. In fig. 16 the granularmetric analysis of the same sample « MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IN MANILA. 477 the smallest sieve. In this diagram the analysis follows very closely the even grade line. The percentage of voids in a sample of washed Sisiman rock was found to be 43.4. PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT PASSING DIFFERENT S/IEVES w i=] IAT —- —f WOES TO S a * ~ <] CENTIMETERS™ 22 =~ 5 5 — is ~ ~ N b) o INCHES 1015.20 30 45 67 100 4.50 225 DIAMETER OF PARTICLES IN CENTIMETERS AND INCHES Fic. 16.—GRANULARMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SISIMAN CRUSHED STONE, FINES EXCLUDED. Lficiency.—No tests have been made to show the strength which may be obtained in concrete using the Sisiman stone. It appears to be very satisfactory when used as crusher run. It may, however, prove to show a higher percentage of efficiency when selected sizes are used. The fines from the rock if replotted as sand, show 23 per cent passing a 100-mesh sieve. ‘This is really a rock flour, and as has already been suggested above, should be excluded from concrete work by washing the stone. The crushing strength of Sisiman stone was determined by dressing a block to true edges and crushing it in a compression strength machine. Tt broke under a pressure of 1,115 tons to the square foot (1088. kilo- grams per square centimeter). At the writer’s suggestion, the United States Army engineers opened a quarry on Corregidor. ‘The stone is a white dacite, very much sheared and jointed so that it requires but little breaking up for feeding to a erusher. A block of this stone dressed to true edges crushed under a pressure of 1,009 tons to the square foot (985. kilograms per square centimeter) . A stone from the site of the new city quarry near Angono crushed under a pressure of 1,584. tons to the square foot (1547. Inlograms per square centimeter). It is proposed to make further tests of the crushed stone available for use in Manila and include in this work all the quarries which have been mentioned above. 478 ADAMS. AGGREGATES. Pasig sand and Mariquina gravel.—In most of the concrete work in Manila, Pasig sand and Mariquina grayel are used. In the tests recorded above the sand in tensile strength briquettes showed in a seven-day test but 65 per cent efficiency when compared with crushed quartz, and it has been demonstrated by crushing conerete blocks that a large percentage of the gravel breaks under a lower compressive force than the mortar will sustain. Concrete blocks of Pasig sand and Mariquina gravel in the proportions 1:2:4-1:2:5-1:2:6 showed but little difference in compression tests. This is explained by the fact that the grayel is weak and that the conerete crushed below the ultimate strength of the mortar. Sangley sand and Sisiman crushed stone-—This combination has been used extensively, as, for example, in the construction of the sewers. The stone is of good quality since a block of it crushed under a pressure of 1,115 tons per square foot. The Sangley Point sand has at seyen days an efficiency of: but 55 per cent. The crushing strength of conerete made with this aggregate has not been determined, but it is probably low, since the efficiency of the sand is low and the ultimate strength of the mortar will not approach that of the stone. Sangley sand and Mariquina gravel—This is the poorest aggregate which is used in Manila, and yet Mariquina gravel has been substituted for Sisiman stone in some cases where Sener sand was used. The crushing strength of concrete made from these materials is yet to be determined. Pasig sand and Sisiman stone—Vhis aggregate has not been much — employed. It should prove superior to those above mentioned but concrete made from it will probably fall far below the limit of the stone, since the sand has an efficiency of only 66 per cent in seven-day tensile- strength tests. y Orani sand and Pasig shane —This aggregate has been used in the base of concrete paving blocks where but little strength is required. — For constructions requiring great strength the combination is not desir- able, since the gravel is not efficient. The mortar used in the surface of the paying blocks was found to be superior in quality to those ote ¢ blocks made with Pasig sand. % Oran sand and crushed stone—Orani sand and Sisiman stone haye been used in reconstructing the shaft of the Magallanes Monument. This ‘aggregate should develop greater strength than any combination above — Rie mentioned. Other crushed stone ayailable for use in Manila may be © substituted for Sisiman stone and some of it may even proye better, as for exaple, the Angono rock. The Orani sand showed 97 per cent efficiency in seven-day tensile-strength tests, and the strength of eu a crushed stone is higher than mortar made with this sand. z MATERIALS KOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IN MANILA. 479 CONCLUSION. The field work necessary to make known the sources and nature of the sand, gravel and crushed stone available for use in Manila has been completed. An extensive deposit of a superior sand has been discovered in the Orani River and some of this sand is now being used. A new quarry site has been selected for the city near Angono, the stone from which is considerably better than what is now being used from the Talim quarries and is the best obtainable for macad- amizing the streets of Manila and is in every way suited for concrete work. The testing of the materials, while incomplete, is sufficient to show their relative efficiencies and to check the conclusions arrived at from the geologic examinations. Further tests extending oyer longer periods of time and embracing all the conditions which will be met with im practice will be made in the testing laboratory of the Bureau of Science as soon as the facilities will permit. The economic problems of the cost of quarrying, dredging and tran- sporting, and the more vital one of obtaiming the best results in the use of the materials is beyond the scope of this paper, but some data have been supplied to assist in their solution. For the tests of materials which are reported in this article the writer is indebted to Mr. W. C. Reibling, in charge of the cement-testing labora- tory of this Bureau, and to EF’. D. Reyes, assistant in the cement laboratory. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. TEXT FIGURES. Fic. 1. Index map of localities producing sand, gravel and crushed stone. 2. Granularmetric analysis of Pasig “banca” sand. 3. Granularmetric analysis of Pasig “dredge” sand. 4. Granularmetrie analysis of Pasig “dredge” sand. 5. Granularmetric analysis of Quingua sand. 6. Granularmetric analysis of Sangley Point sand. 7. Granularmetrie analysis of Orani sand. 8. Granularmetrice analysis of Orani sand. 9. Granularmetric analysis of Tarlac sand. 10. Granularmetrie analysis of Corregidor sand. 11. Granularmetric analysis of Mariquina gravel to pass 1.5-inch opening. 12. Granularmetric analysis of Mariquina gravel to pass a 0.75-inch opening. 13. Granularmetrie analysis of Mariquina gravel to pass a 1.5-inch opening. 14. Granularmetric analysis of Mariquina gravel to pass a 1.5-inch opening. 15. Granularmetric analysis of Sisiman crushed stone, containing fines. 16. Granularmetric analysis of Sisiman crushed stone, fines excluded. PLATES. Puate [. Fig. 1. Pasig sand. Fig. 2. Sangley sand. Fig. 3. Orani sand. II. Fig. 1. Quingua sand. Fig. 2. Corregidor sand. Fig. 3. Tarlac sand. 481 ADAMS: SAND, GRAVEL, AND CRUSHED STONW.] [PuHIn. JourN. Scrt., Vou. LV, No. 5. Fic. 1. PASIG SAND. Fic. 2. SANGLEY SAND. Fic. 3. ORANI SAND. PLATE Il. ADAMS: SAND, GRAVEL AND CRUSHED STONE. | [PHit, Journ. Scr., Vou. IV, No. 5. < Fic. 1. QUINGUA SAND. Fic. 2. CORREGIDOR SAND. ‘Me Sieg 2B," Fic. 3. TARLAC SAND. PLATE Il. os 2 A GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE FROM INFANTA, TAYABAS, TO TANAY, RIZAL. By H. M. Joxis.t (From the Division of Mines, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) _ During the hot season of 1907, the writer made a reconnaissance in the Camarines and examined the coal beds on the Islands of Polillo. ‘Returning to Manila from Polillo, he arrived in May at Infanta on the Pacific coast of Imzon. The nearest well-known route of travel overland from this coast to Manila is from Mauban, a port 60 lilometers south of Infanta, by the way of Luchan and Majayjay to Pagsanjan on Laguna .de Bay; at Pagsanjan a boat may be taken to Manila. There is, however, an unfrequented trail from Infanta to Sinaloan on the lake, and Lieut. mate George W. Wray, commanding the Thirty-second Company Philippine Scouts, informed me that the Negritos who inhabit the mountain country near Infanta sometimes travel up the Agos River and thence across a low range of hills to Tanay on Laguna de Bay. It was decided to attempt to travel by the latter route, and, with the aid of Lieut. Wray and Dr. B. B. Warriner, P. 8., the services of the Negrito presidente, David, the teniente of one of the barrios, two Negrito guides, four expert Neerito banqueros, and one Tagalog cargador were secured. Two light bancas were procured which were used to transport a small amount of baggage and food, and to ferry the party across the river when it was necessary to cross where the water was too deep for the men to wade. Only expert banqueros can manage a banca in this river; the two men stand up in the unsteady craft poling it against the current. and do not attempt to use paddles. Coming downstream, however, the Neeritos shoot the rapids like Indians, steering dexterously with a paddle to ayoid the many dangerous rocks. The bancas were left hidden a short distance above the junction of the Canaan with the Agos, since it was slow work moving them up the numerous rapids and as it was thought that the river above could be _ waded whenever it might be necessary to cross. The equipment carried by the party was very light: no tents were taken and the soldiers and cargadores carried no blankets or extra cloth- ing; the mess outfit consisted of an iron pot to be used in cooking rice * Posthumous publication. 9033910 483 We Ne LY Wo Ar Ca Rae sy) a ee ee ee Ce a ae a 484 ICKIS. and a skillet for frying bacon. At night the men constructed a shelter with palm leaves; the leaves of the anahao palm also served for buckets, cups and plates. The food consisted of rice, canned corned beef, a little bacon, and fish caught in the river. A rapid survey of the route was made with a pocket compass and an aneroid barometer, the distances being paced or estimated. Only two and one-half days were occupied in making the trip, so that the survey and the geologic notes were taken necessarily very hastily and there was little time available for collecting specimens. However, as the bed of the Agos affords an excellent cross-sectional view of the rock formations over a little-known portion of Luzon, and since published maps of the interior were found to be imecorrect, it is thought that these notes may be of both geologic and geographic interest. (See Plate I.) Petrographie sections of many of the rocks collected have been made since in this Bureau and have been examined microscopically by Warren D. Smith, chief of this division. The last habitation observed on the banks of the Agos River was estimated to be about 5 miles from its mouth, and the only people en- countered until we were within a few miles of Tanay were some Negrito fishermen and one family of Filipinos fishing along the headwaters of Alasasin Creek. ‘The Negritos fished in the large stream with spear and bow and arrow, while the Filipinos killed their fish by throwing into the small creeks a poison obtained from certain trees. Fish of excellent quality abound in the waters of the Agos, some that were speared by the guides being 20 inches in length. One crocodile, some 5 feet in length, was observed and crocodile trails were seen frequently in the sand. A short distance above the Macadata River Corporal Bromio shot a large eagle which was identified subsequently by Mr. R. C. McGregor, — of this Bureau, as the rare Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyt, which has heretofore been suspected but not positively known to inhabit Luzon. Published maps of this area show the Agos River as little more than a creek a few miles in length, while most of them indicate a much larger stream called the Tiauan or sometimes the Rio Grande de Lampon, draining the interior between Infanta and Montalon. As will be seen _ by a reference to the route map, the Agos was found to be one of the largest rivers on the east coast of Luzon, having an extensive watershed in the Hastern Cordillera. The Tiauan, therefore, does not extend as far north as the town of Infanta. In the office of the United States Coast and Geodetic Suryey in Manila, there is a tracing of a map which represents the Agos River as an im-— portant stream, but this map is far from correct. The tracing is from an unpublished map in Madrid, presumably by d’Almonte, and was ob- tained by Mr. Putnam, formerly in charge of the Manila office of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Sheet No. 32 of the Progres- GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE—INFANTA TO TANAY. 485 sive Military Map of the Philippines, issued from the office of the chief engineer officer, Philippines Division, United States Army, also ac- curately represents the position and size of the Agos but does not indicate the Canaan branch nor show the Alasasin correctly. My trip was made late in the dry season, but even at that time the Agos River below the entrance of the Canaan was found to be about 100 meters wide and from one-half to 1 meter deep at the rapids. The Canaan enters the Agos from the north at a point approximately 12 Inlometers in a direct line from the mouth of the Agos. Although the southern branch retains the name Agos above this point, the Canaan is the larger stream and is entirely unexplored. This conjunction point is called Pagsanjan by the Negritos, and the Agos River above this point is sometimes called the Calua, but usually simply the Agos. The main river was left at a point about half-way between Infanta and Tanay and a tributary called the Alasasin followed to within 7 or 8 miles of the latter place. The Macadata, flowing in from the north, is the only tributary of any considerable size between the Canaan and the Alasasin. From a low alluvial coastal plain at Infanta, not more than 3 miles broad, a range of heavily wooded mountains rises rapidly to a height of from 1,000 to 1,500 meters. This coast range is composed of andesitic rock ranging from pure augite andesite to andesite porphyry, diorite porphyry, and andesite tuff. The rock shows considerable variation in structure but is apparently all andesitic as far west as the Macadata River. In the river bed a large variety of rocks is exhibited, including limestone and hard siliceous shale as well as andesite and diorite bowlders. Some of the andesite bowlders contain a large amount of secondary white chaleedonie silica. The principal jointing planes in this igneous mass appear to strike about N. 75° H. and dip 75° to the southeast. ‘There are also joints that strike nearly at right angles to these and dip steeply to the northeast. A representative specimen from the eastern part of the coast range consists of firm, tough, dark colored rock which, when unaltered, re- sembles in outward appearance a basalt more than an andesite, the phenocrysts not being prominent; but when slightly weathered, the plagioclase phenocrysts are conspicuous. Under the microscope it is readily determined to be an augite andesite. A few hundred yards below the Macadata River a fine-grained, dark eray rock is present, the nature of which could not be determined mega- scopically. Under the microscope the specimen is seen to be badly altered as shown by magnetite in the midst of patches of red oxide of iron ~ and the uralitized pyroxene. The feldspars are all quite obscure and clouded, belonging probably to an andesite porphyry. One specimen of this rock contains white and green chalcedony. 486 ICKIS. At the mouth of the Macadata River a dark rock was observed, with a slight greenish tinge containing light colored phenocrysts and amygdules of white stilbite. Under the microscope the ground muss is seen to be typically andesitic but the feldspar phenocrysts can not be identified. Near the mouth of the Calua a tough, hard, dark colored rock was found in places, which has the appearance of a basalt and shows many red spots, probably oxidized iron of the ferromagnesium minerals. A few crystals of striated feldspar are visible in this rock. By microscopic examination it was determined to be of a tuff consisting of consolidated fragments of andesite as well as of some large individual crystals of hornblende. Feldspars in some of the rock fragments show almost com- plete alteration. The river valley below the Macadata is 200 to 600 meters wide. On both: sides, the hills are marked by high sharp ridges and deep narrow gullies, and are covered with a heavy forest growth. There are some sharp bends, but there would be no unusual difficulties to overcome in constructing either a wagon road or railway along the river banks. Sedimentaries, consisting of limestone and shale in yarious stages of metamorphism, appear a short distance above the Macadata and continue as far as the ridge north of Tanay which forms part of the main diyide of Luzon. A hot spring bubbles up in the river near the contact between the igneous and sedimentaries above the Macadata, from which the locality has received the name Maint (hot spring). The first sedi- mentaries are shale beds striking N. 30° W. and haying a dip of 80° W.; these are followed by vertical beds striking N. 10° E. The guides here left the river, taking the party over a heavily wooded ridge and down to the river again where the rock is bedded limestone having a strike of N. 10° W. and a dip of. 60° toward the east; a kilometer up the stream the dip of the beds is reversed to 45° to the west, the strike remaining — the same. This rock was determined microscopically by Doctor Smith to be foraminiferal limestone containing Orbitoides, Lepidocyclina in- sulae-natalis, Jones and Chapman. The rock is from light gray to cream color, hard and compact. Fossils are most numerous in the gray rock but are not distinguished in either without careful examination. A pebble picked up near the mouth of the Agos was found to be forami- niferal limestone containing Cycloclypeus, a common miocene fossil. The river bed is narrow and the walls precipitous through this lime- stone belt which is about half a mile in width. To the westward, shale beds and graywacke appear again, and an open and comparatively level country, the source of the Agos River, is seen to the northwest. One sample collected and classed as a graywacke is seen under the microscope to be composed of grains of silicates, some of which are rounded, others nat, but all are clastic and consist mostly of fragments of plagioclase’ feld'spar; megascopic examination showed a greenish gray rock some- what gritty to the touch. Some fractures have a greasy luster, GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE—INFANTA TO TANAY. 487 Following the Alasasin branch to the southwest a narrow limestone belt is first encountered, and this is fol- lowed by very hard shale or schist beds that strike north- west and dip 30° to the southwest. Hard shales and graywacke continue for some two miles where another limestone bed, having a strike of N. 30° W. and a dip of WINVANI 80° to the northeast, crossed. Under the microscope this limestone was found to contain many imperfect fragments of foraminifera, among which were recognized species of PACIFIC Sea level OCEAN CV 4 ER SH ee ar en ene Teatularia, Pulvinulina and Globigerina. S At Sungay Creek the trail leayes the valley, ascending ie a ridge the crest of which has an elevation of ap- c proximately 500 meters. As one ascends from the valley, y the sedimentary rocks gradually disappear. The exten- a he sion of this ridge forms Jalajala Peninsula and the rock $s it which is found here very much resembles that found near 3 us Jalajala. It is a light colored igneous rock, composed < jk largely of plagioclase and hornblende and classed as an if andesite, but no well-preserved specimens were obtained We for microscopic determination. This ridge is covered x Bb with an excellent forest growth as far as the sitio of 6 Balabasa. Between Balabasa and Laguna de Bay the meg 5 country is open and overgrown with cogon grass in which HN great numbers of wild deer and hogs exist. 2 2 N At the Creek of Hlog-na-batjala a tough, hard rock ae N which looks lke a typical basalt was observed; micro- ee, ») scopically it 1s seen to be closely related to the andesite. 5B On the crest of the ridge west of Comall Creek a coarse- s 6 grained olivine basalt was observed, which was distin- 8 Fic, 1.—GbNDRAL GHOLOGICAL SECTION, INFANTA TO TANAY. A Avruve guished by large phenocrysts of almost colorless plagio- Fa clase. These were the only good rock exposures to be mye » seen on the Laguna de Bay slope, but there is little doubt 2 ates that this entire section consists of andesitic and basaltic ae Ge igneous rocks and yoleanic tuff. A general geologic sec- < tion of the route is shown in fig. 1. a2 A few lumps of coal which had been collected and left 2e by Lieutenant Wray a few days before were observed at the Macadata River. Lieutenant Wray, acting under orders from department headquarters, examined some coal avyvi beds that were known to occur near the headwaters of the Macadata. They were found to be of doubtful economic = value, although very little prospecting work was at- 3 tempted. s No coal outcrops, quartz ledges, or bowlders of mineralized quartz were observed on this journey. ILLUSTRATIONS. Prats I. Route map, Infanta to Tanay. Fig. 1. (In text.) General geologic section, Infanta to Tanay. 489 "| S1v4d *AVNV.L OL VLNVANI ‘SONVSSIVNNOOSY 91D0104aD 4O dVW 3LNOY Zo6l-2i-6 Kew siiol- w Musey aaa . { ae { he, 3. ari e os a Ag . ns * : f M =o y Order No, 405, ; 7 Order No. 408. - BONTOC IGOROTS. By the ev Warrer CLayton CLAPP. Igorot-English and English- Igorot. - Price $0.75, United SUE currency. ; r Order No, 103, By Rrcuarp C. McGrucor. see ) je two VgUREEGS atu et \ ee Ph ypine . Journal of Science, Manila, P. I., or from any of the agents ited on cover of this Journal. Please give order number. “= CONTENTS ADAMS, GEORGE I. Geological Reconnaissance of the Island of Leyte_ BEAN, -ROBERT BENNETT. III. Filipino Types: Racial gare i 4 in Taytay. (A.): Dike’ Ween seo ee RS oe eee oe Pe a 359 “BEAN, ROBERT BENNETT. A Cephalograph: The Descnenee of an Instrument for Reproducing the Outlines of the Head and Face_____ 447 _— BROOKS, BENJAMIN T. The Action of Grease Peroxides on the ae Photographic, Plates 075: Wau: pass age ee Cr gees ese ens ee Ee 5 Ae ea ADAMS, GEORGE I. Tests of Philippine Road Materials _____ his 455 ADAMS, GEORGE I. Sand, Gravel and Crushed Stone Available for Concrete? Construction“in-Manilay 25s es ee ee ee : 463 ICKIS, H. M. A Geological Reconnaissance from Infanta, Tayabas, — i to Tanay, Rizal_______ RIS RL a 8 EES oe kA 483 The ‘Philippine Journal of Science” is issued as follows: Section A. General Science, $2, United States currency, per year. Section B. Medical Sciences, $8, United States currency, per year. Section C. Botany, $2, United States currency, per year. A, The entire ‘Journal’ $5, United States currency, per year. Single numbers, 50 cents, United States currenoy. > Authors receive 100 copies of their papers free. FOREIGN AGENTS. “A THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York. WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W. C. e MARTINUS NIJHOFF, Nobelstraat 18, ’s Gravenhage, Holland. : MAYER & MULLER, Pring Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin, N. W. OD ona KELLY & WALSH, LIMITED, 32 Raffles Place, Singapore, 8.5, <= Sog e A.M, & J. FERGUSON, 19 Baillie Street, Colombo, Ceylon. Re +S (Entered at the post- office at Manila, P. I., as second-class matter.) A limited number of unbound copies of previous volumes. are 8 available which may be secured from the Business Manager, — sf Philippine Journal of Science, Manila, P. I., at the fo owing rates: Volume I, 1906 (not divided into sections), $5, United States currency; Supplement to Volume I, $2.50, United States — 4 currency; Volume I (without supplement), $3, United States = currency; all later volumes at Cee subscription prices. ie < NOVEMBER, 1909 THE PHILIPPINE. aa NAL DP SCIENCE =. 3 EDITED BY PAUL C. FREER, M. D.; PH CO-EDITOR, : eine ' PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU ‘OF SCIENCE wi OF THE 2 = GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS = A, GENERAL SCIENCE oes MANILA : BUREAU OF PRINTING ee THE HISTORY OF SULU. By Nasnrs M. Savensy. 275 pages. A complete History of the Moro People in Sulu, with: maps and many i translations from the original documents. Price $0.75, United States currency. 1 Order No. 407. THE BATAN DIALECT AS A MEMBER OF THE PHILIPPINE GROUP OF LANGUAGES, By Ovro SCHEERER. AND “FE” AND “V” IN PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES. By Cartos Evrererr Conant. 141 pages Price $0.80, United States currency. NEGRITOS OF ZAMBALES. By Wirriam ALLAN Rexp. 62 photographie illustrations. 91 pages. An interesting ethnological sttidy of the pygmy blacks of Zambales. ‘ Price $0.25, United States currency. Any of the aboye-announced publications may be ordered from the Business. Manager, Philippine Journal of Science, Manila, P. I., or from any of thegieents listed on the cover of this Journal. BIE ASe. give order number. ; iE sPoietePINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE A. GENERAL SCIENCE Vou. lV NOVEMBER, 1909 No. 6 NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. . By ALVIN SEALE. (From the Section of Fisheries, Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) The present paper is based on the study of about ten thousand speci- mens of fishes collected in the Philippine Islands by the author and his native assistants, C. Canonizado and Datto Alli, during 1907 and 1908. The collections were made in almost all the important islands of the Archipelago. All of the specimens were taken to Stanford University and compared with the material in the collection of that institution which included a number of types. All types mentioned in this paper are in the ichthyological collection, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. I take this opportunity to thank President David Starr Jordan for. yaluable suggestions in regard to the work. : Family MURAINIDZE. The Morays. Gymnothorax indong* Seale, sp. nov. [Indong-indong.] ? Head 3.50 in body to anal pore; tail is longer than the body i. a distance equal to about two-thirds of head; eye 2 in snout; snout 5 in head ; interorbital space equal to eye. Mouth large, the jaws not closing cousypllenely, mandible 1.70 in head; gape 2. Teeth strong and saber-like, +Jndong is a Moro name for Morays. 2 All comparative measurements in this paper are taken in the length from tip of snout to end of last caudal vertebra, and the head is measured to posterior edge of hard operculum and excluding the membraneous opercular flap. Scale count is to end of caudal vertebra, the vertical series being counted at origin of anal, unless otherwise stated. 91701 49] 492 SEALE. in a single series in each jaw. Three large median canines anteriorly, no teeth on shafts of vomer except a few small ones at its extreme posterior end. Posterior nostrils consisting of a large round pore situated just above the anterior half of iris, anterior nostrils consisting of two tubes at extremity of snout, their length about two-thirds of eye. Between the nostrils, the skin on sides of snout has a loose fold capable of dilata- tion. Dorsal fin is low, beginning slightly anterior to gill opening, which is of moderate size, being about equal to eye. Origin of anal fin at anal pore, fins are low, the dorsal the highest, its longest rays being almost equal to snout. he fins are continuous around caudal. Color in life, brown with irregular-shaped black blotches, which assume the form of irregular, broken vertical bands slightly less than inter- spaces. Head has a distinct elongate white mark between eye and gape of mouth, this white stripe penetrates the lower portion of a large blackish blotch bordering the posterior portion of eye; another short white stripe from anterior border of eye to middle of maxillary. A black blotch in angle of jaws which is bordered anteriorly by an elongate white stripe on the mandible. A dusky area crossing near the posterior portion of lower jaws, this area with a white median line. Throat crossed with narrow white lines, pores of jaws white, the fins are barred with black. Color in alcohol similar but slightly faded. Type is No. 4445, a specimen from Zamboanga, Mindanao, P. I., 16 June, 1908. Length, 385 millimeters. Gymnothorax samalensis Seale, sp. noy. Head 3.80 in body; body is shorter than tail by a distance equal to under jaw; gape of mouth 2.70 in head; snout 6.75 in head; eye 1.25 in snout; interorbital space, measured to include soft portion, is equal to eye; posterior nostrils round, pore-like; openings of nostril just above eye; anterior nostrils consisting of two rather long tubes at end of snout, _ their length about two-thirds of eye. Teeth of upper jaw in a single series except in front where there are several enlarged canines, four enlarged depressible ones in the median line; vyomerine series single, about 10 in number, short and rounded. Teeth on lower jaw in a single series except in front, where there are about five or six enlarged depres- sible canines on each side. Origin of dorsal, a distance equal to length of snout in front of gill openings. Origin of anal directly back of anal pore, the fins of moderate length. Color in alcohol brownish with indistinct darker cross-bands, more ~ numerous and distinct on posterior of tail, almost obliterated anteriorly ; belly and throat yellowish. A distinct white blotch on lower jaw just in front of angle. A white spot on upper jaw below eye and another halfway between eye and tip of snout; these form rings around the mucous pores. Three similar white spots on lower jaw. Top of head and snout NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 493 brown, the color fusing gradually with the yellowish of the under jaw and throat. Type is No. 3781 from Samal Island, Gulf of Davao, Mindanao, P. L., 1 May, 1908. Length, 220 millimeters. Family OPHICHTHYIDA. Jenkinsella oliveri Seale, sp. noy. Head 5.10 in body; body 1.80 in tail; gape 1.75 in head; snout 5.75 in head ; eye 1.75 in snout; interorbital space about equal to eye; upper jaw projecting beyond lower by a distance equal to eye ; upper lip well fringed ; mouth large; mandible 2.50 in head. ‘Teeth in lower jaw in two rows, short sharp teeth, no canines. Teeth of upper jaw in two rows on sides, the inner row being larger and depressible; vomerine teeth in two series, uniting posteriorly into one; a patch of 8 or 10 sharp teeth at tip of upper jaw; no canines; posterior nostrils with an inflated membraneous opening more or less fringed. Their location midway between eye and anterior nostril; the anterior nostril is tube-shaped, near end of snout, length about two-thirds length of eye. Several distinct pores on head, one just above and in front of eye, another on middle posterior portion of interorbital space. Origin of dorsal fin about the length of pectorals in front of the gill openings and extending to tip of caudal, its longest rays slightly more than half depth of body, pectorals 3.30 in head. Origin of anal directly behind anal pore, it extends to tip of caudal, no caudal fin. Color, light yellowish brown above, yellow below median line, belly whitish, sides finely punctulate with minute black specks, throat white, top of head brown, these two colors uniting in a sharp line on the middle of side of head, extending from angle of fins to gill openings; tip of snout and anterior portion of dorsal darker. Type is No. 4299 from Zamboanga, Mindanao, P. 1., 2 June, 1908: Length, 360 millimeters. Moringua cagayana Seale, sp. noy. Head 8.75 in body to anal opening, the caudal being just one-third of total length from tip of snout to tip of caudal; angle of mouth 4.50 in head; snout 8; eye 2.25 in snout; interorbital 1.10 in snout; pectorals equal to distance from tip of snout to posterior of eye. Origin of dorsal fin posterior to vent by a distance equal to the length from tip of snout to tip of pectorals, its origin being over the anterior third of anal, the fin is then high and distinct for about this same distance when it becomes atrophied, reappearing again near tip of tail to form part of the paddle- shaped end of caudal. The anal fin is similar to dorsal but its origin is nearer the anal pore. Both the anal and dorsal widen at the end of tail and unite with caudal forming a wide paddle or fin-like end to the 494 SEALE. fish, the caudal is lunate, its length equal to upper jaw. A single row of rather short strong canine teeth in each jaw and irregular double row of the same kind down shaft of the vomer. Posterior nostril consisting of a large round open pore with a membrane on its anterior margin. Anterior nostril consisting of a small round pore with a membraneous cover formed something like lips to the small central opening, each nostril on a line in front of eye. Buccal cavity large and baggy. Color yellow brown, the posterior of tail and the head brown, a black line along the entire dorsal surface, angle of jaws white, fins brown except pectorals which are yellowish. Type is No. 1621 caught in the sea near Cagayan, Mindanao, 13 September, 1907. Probably the form most nearly related to this species is W. bicolor. Family CYPRINIDAS. The Minnows. Barbus ivis Seale, sp. noy. Plate I. [Ivis.] Head without opercular flap 3.75; depth 2.55; dorsal 10; anal LI, 6 (not counting branch on last ray) scales 4—23-3, the lateral line curves down to a little below median line of sides, then up again to middle of caudal peduncle; eye 4.70 in head; snout 3.50; interorbital space 2.39; maxillary 3.10 in head, its end under anterior margin of eye. Two maxillary barbules on each side, the lower one the longest, its tip reaching to angle of preopercle ; mandible 2.55; pectorals 1.15; ventrals 1.45. Body is oblong compressed, the upper outline between the spinous dorsal and head is distinctly gibbous; the lower outline from anal to tip of snout is a low even curve, the profile of head from nape to tip of snout is practically straight. ‘The greatest depth of the body is at origin of yentrals. Length of caudal peduncle 1.50 in head, its least depth 1.75; its median width 6.50. The upper portion of head is somewhat rounded, the interorbital space is very slightly convex. Snout is rounded at tip, its median width is slightly greater than its length; anterior nostril with a funnel-like membrane. Greatest depth of head 1.35 in its length, the greatest width 1.55. Hyes small, less than snout. Mouth small, the upper lip closing over the lower. No teeth except pharyngeals, which are 5-3-2, larger ones slightly hooked with a small shoulder. Gill openings restricted, ending on a line with angle of preopercle. Gill rakers rather short, shaped something like the pharyngeal teeth with the points exaggerated, 7 on lower limb, the longest 3 im pupil. Body entirely covered with large smooth scales which have five or six striate lines in the centers. Dorsal and anal with high scaly sheaths, base of caudal scaled, ventrals with a long axillary scale, pectorals without axillary scale. Head entirely naked. “a Vee Ae NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 495 Origin of spinous dorsal midway between end of last caudal vertebra and nostril, the third ray of which is large and modified, the longest being 1.14 in head, its hard portion is distinctly serrated except on its lower third; posterior ray 1.50 in modified ray; base of anal 1.55 in head. Origin of anal is slightly nearer origin of ventrals than to end of caudal vertebra; its longest ray 1.55 in head, its base 2.75, its last ray 3; ventral fins are midway between anal and origin of pectorals, their tip not reaching to anal pore; pectorals low on body. Caudal deeply emarginate, its length a fifth greater than head. Color in life is grayish above, the margins of the scales darker, shaded with greenish, yellowish on sides, shading into pinkish below. From 3 to 5 black spots along the median area of sides, all specimens haye at least an indication of a dusky stripe connecting these spots, some show the stripe very distinctly; a shght dusky blotch just below origin of dorsal, none at origin of anal. The head has some bronzy markings on opercles and in front of eye. Dorsal grayish with dusky tip, caudal pinkish with dusky tip, the lower lobe bright red, anal and ventrals bright red with slightly dusky tips. Pectorals bright red. Color in alcohol is similar except the dark markings show more distinctly. The lower half of fish is yellowish white, the fins are yellow- ish, dorsal, caudal, and anal with dusky tips. Ninety specimens from a small stream near the town of Balabac, Balabac Island. Type is No. 5233, Balabac Island, P. I., taken by the author 11 August, 1908. Length, 130 millimeters. Family BELONIDAl. The Gars. Oxyporhamphus brevis Seale, sp. noy. Plate IJ. (Bamban). Head 4.40; depth 8.50; dorsal 15; anal 15; scales are very deciduous, about 50 from axil of pectoral to end of caudal vertebra; eye 3.75 in head; snout 3.20, the width of the free triangular portion of upper jaw considerably greater than its length; maxillary equal to eye; mandible 1.75 in head, the beak on under jaw scarcely developed, its length beyond the end of upper jaw equal to pupil of eye; interorbital space equal to eye; pectorals 1.75 in head; ventrals 2.45. Body elongate, compressed, length of caudal peduncle 3 in head, its least depth 1.50 in its length, its width 3. Upper profile of head and snout a low even curye; interorbital space like nuchal region very slightly convex, a wide distinct ridge down the middle of interorbital space; greatest width of head 2.50 in its length, its greatest depth 2.10. The most characteristic thing about the head is the extremely short beak of under jaw which while it varies slightly, in most specimens and in type is nearly equal to width of pupil of eye or 2.50 in snout. Hyes of moderate size, impinging slightly on upper profile; mouth large, teeth in yilliform bands in jaws, none on vomer, 496 SEALH. palatine, or tongue. Guill openings carried forward to below anterior margin of eye. Gill rakers short, wide at base, sharp, pointed, and denticulate on their inner surface, about 20 on lower limb, the longest less than pupil. Entire body covered with large, smooth, thin deciduous scales; head ~ naked; vertical fins scaled. Origin of dorsal is just one-third distance between end of caudal vertebra and lower axil of pectorals, its longest ray 1.90 in head. Origin of anal is under third ray of dorsal, its longest ray 3.50 in head. Origin of anal is slightly nearer the origin of ventrals than to end of last caudal vertebra. - Origin of the ventrals is midway between end of last caudal vertebra and angle of preopercle. Caudal forked, upper lobe scarcely equal to head, lower lobe considerably longer. Color in life greenish above, silvery and white below, a distinct silvery band on side, bordered above by a narrow greenish band, fins white, the dorsal, anal, and caudal distinctly tipped with jet black. Color in alcohol dull yellowish, green aboye, margins of scales darker. Sides with silvery bands which have a bluish green upper margin, yellow- ish white below. Cheeks silvery; tip of under jaw, snout and top of head more or less dusky; eyes golden, with dusky blotch above; dorsal, caudal, and anal yellowish, broadly tipped with jet black; pectorals and yentrals yellowish, a black spot on upper base and axil of pectorals. Fourteen specimens, type is No. 5301 from Paawacan, Palawan Island, P. L., 14 August, 1908. Length, 145 millimeters. Family ATHERINIDA. Silversides. Atherina regina Seale, sp. noy. Plate III, fig. 1. (Gunoc.) Head 3.50; depth 4.95; dorsal VI—-I, 10; anal I, 10; scales 36, count- ing from the enlarged scale directly above axil of pectoral, 7 in vertical series ; eye 2.25 in head; snout 4; interorbital space 2.75, being less than eye; maxillary 2.50; mandible 2; pectoral 1.25; ventrals 1.60; depth of caudal peduncle 3.45. Body elongate, moderately compressed, greatest depth at origin of ventral fins. Caudal peduncle compressed, its least depth equal to twice its length. Head heavy and rather blunt, its greatest width equal to its greatest depth, the lower portion of head strongly compressed. Interorbital space “is slightly concave, caused by the prominence of the superocular ridges, these bones form distinct ridges on upper lateral part of snout. Top of snout flat except the small hump anteriorly caused by the processes of the maxillary, the anterior margin of the snout is an even concaye curye, with a point on each side of processes; width of snout considerably greater than its length. Hye large; mouth large, oblique, the lower jaw slightly protruding. Maxillary narrow, ending on a line with the front margin of iris. Mandible ending under anterior third of pupil. NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 497 Preorbital with two or more distinct pores. Teeth in villiform bands in jaws, a small patch of villiform teeth on yomer, back of tongue, and pterygoids ; the type specimen has the yomer broken but the two cotypes show teeth on the vomer; no teeth on palatine. Guill openings wide. Gill rakers long and slender, twenty-five or more on lower arch. Pseudo- branchia large. Scales large and smooth, their margins rounded and scarcely broken, the scaling not extending on the head except on the occiput, no scales on the fins except on base of caudal, but there is a distinct sheath of scales for the soft dorsal and anal. Top and sides of head well furnished with pores. A very large one just above opercles. There are sixteen scales in front of dorsal fin, ten scales between the origin of the two dorsals, and six scales along the base of the soft dorsal. The origin of the spinous dorsal is midway between end of caudal vertebra and the anterior margin of eye, its longest spine is equal to orbit, the spines are slender and pungent. Soft dorsal on a line with origin of anal, and much nearer tip of ventrals, or to spinous dorsal, than to caudal; the second ray is longest beimmg 1.85 in head; anal rays similar to soft dorsal, the longest being 2 in head. Origin of ventrals midway between end of maxillary and origin of anal. The anal pore is located’ between the posterior third of the ventral fins. Caudal rather large and deeply emarginate, the lower lobe being at least 1.40 in head. Pectorals are above the median line of body. Color in alcohol is straw-yellow all the scales on upper half of body more or less punctulate with fine black or bluish dots. These black dots very thick on the middle of the three rows of scales on. the back forming a median dark line on its either side. A distinct silvery band occupies the entire median row of scales on the side, the upper margin of this band is of a dull lead color, a double row of small black dots separating the two colors; there is an additional row of very minute black dots on the row of scales below the silvery stripe. The lower third of body is unmarked. Snout and rim of lower jaw washed with dusky, a distinct dusky spot at upper anterior margin of opercle directly behind eye, a dusky spot at upper axil of pectorals and a dusky bar across its inner base; a dusky area just over and impinging on eye. Dorsal, anal, and yentral fins uniform yellowish white. Pectoral with a distinct dusky blotch occupying an area slightly greater than eye at the beginning of the posterior third of fin; the tip of pectorals and the basal third of most of the rays white. Caudal slightly washed with dusky, two more or less distinct dusky blotches on its base. The type is No. 2082,-in the collection of the section of fisheries, Bureau of Science, Manila. It was secured by the writer at Culion Island, P. I., 7 October, 1907. Length of type, 80 millimeters. Two additional specimens No. 2083 were secured the following day at the neighboring island of Busuanga. 498 SEALE. This species is related to A. pinguwis Lacépéde, which is no doubt the A. lacunosa Forster from which it differs in the fewer scales, location of fins, size of eye and absence of teeth on the palatines. Jt somewhat resembles A. morrisi Jordan & Starks but their fish has 14 anal rays and scales 45 and the origin of the anal is in advance of the soft dorsal. : A. tsuruga Jordan & Snyder is a long panetela-shaped fish whose chief resemblance to the present species consists in its dusky spot on the pectorals; in other respects it is quite different. A. /acunosa Bleeker has no black spot on pectorals. A. insila Jordan & Seale has a large number of scales and is a quite differently shaped fish. I have compared this type with all of the above species now in the Stanford University museum and find it quite distinct. Atherina balabacensis Seale, sp. nov. Plate IIT, fig. 2. (Gunoc.) Head 3.75; depth 4.10; dorsal VI-I, 10; anal I, 12; scales 36; six in yertical series; eye 2.10 in head; snout 5; interorbital space 2.50, being less than eye; maxillary 2.50; mandible 2; pectorals 1.10; yentrals 1.80: depth of caudal peduncle 3. Body elongate, moderately compressed, rather heayy and deep, its greatest depth at origin of spinous dorsal; the back is slightly but evenly curved; caudal peduncle compressed, its least depth 1.50 in its length, measured from end of caudal vertebra to posterior axil of anal. Head rather heayy and deep, its depth beg considerably greater than its greatest width, the lower profile of head is an even rounded curve while the upper profile from the occiput is almost straight. The lower jaw is the longest, forming the anterior point of head. The interorbital space is almost flat and has three short low ridges. Width of snout equal to its depth at its median point. Top of snout flat except for the small hump caused by the processes of the maxillary. Mouth large, oblique, the lower jaw protruding. Maxillary narrow, ending on a line with anterior margin of orbit. Mandible ending under the anterior margin of pupil. Preorbital with about four large pores or mucous cavities which give this bone a sculptured appearance. Villiform teeth in jaws, vomer, pterygoids, and back of tongue; no teeth on palatine. Gull openings large and carried forward to below anterior margin of iris. Gull rakers long, slender, and numerous. Pseudobranchia large, longer than the longest gill filaments. Isthmus long and narrow, a distinct groove on its lower surface. Scales large and smooth, their margins not rough nor denticulate. Head without scales, fins unscaled, but with a scaly sheath to the soft dorsal and anal. Head is well furnished with numerous pores and canals. Fifteen scales in front of dorsal fin; nine scales between the margin of the two dorsals, and six scales along the base of the soft dorsal. The origin of the spinous dorsal is midway between end of caudal ie NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 499 yertebra and the posterior margin of pupil, its longest spine is equal to orbit, the spines are slender and pungent. Origin of soft dorsal on a line with the origin of the fourth ray of anal, and much nearer spinous dorsal and tip of ventrals than to base of caudal, the second ray is longest bemg 1.80 in head. Anal similar to soft dorsal, its longest ray 1.50 in head. Origin of ventrals midway between origin of anal and a line with anterior margin of pupil. Anal pore between and at beginning of posterior half of yentrals. Caudal deeply emarginate, its lower lobe at least 1.20 im head. Pectorals are above the median line of body. Color in alcohol straw-yellow, a slight greenish wash above. ‘The scales above lateral line with fine dark punctulations. A dusky line along the middle of back from head to caudal, some darker shadings at the origin of the two dorsal fins, a dusky line from origin of anal fin to caudal. A bright silvery stripe occupies the middle third of the median line of scales, a narrow lead-colored margin along the upper margin of this silvery stripe, the row of scales below this silvery stripe has a row of yery small black dots along its middle, there is also an indistinct incomplete row of dots on the next row of scales below. Base of pectorals with a dusky band and dusky spot in axil. A dusky blotch on upper part of eye. Lower jaw, top of head, and snout, shaded with dusky. No dusky spot on pectoral rays. Fins all grayish white, the caudal with a slight dusky wash, but without dusky spots at base. The type is No. 4983 from Balabac Island, P. 1. ‘Taken by the writer 1 August, 1908, near the mouth of a small stream. Length of type, 10 millimeters. Hight cotypes were secured from the same locality, Nos. 4983, 5308 and 5229. Additional specimens of this species were secured from the following places: 1241 Samar Island, 1295 Cebu, Cebu Island, 1370 Siquijor Island, 1447, 1457, 1495, 1658 and 1659 Cagayan, Min- danao Island, 1981 and 5475 Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, 2079 Culion Island, 4866 Samal Island, Mindanao. Thirty-two specimens in all including types. This species but slightly resembles A. forskalu (Rupp.) being a deeper, heavier fish with a caudal peduncle not nearly so deep and has fewer scales and anal rays. Hvermann and Seale® refer specimens from Bacon and Bulan to A. forskalii which probably belong to this species. This species somewhat resembles A. duwodecimalis Bleek., but the shape and color markings are different, the rows of black dots on the sides being always present in our specimens. This species somewhat resembles A. lineata Gunther but the latter species has teeth on the palatines, a smaller eye, and different location of fins. A. lineata also has the pectoral slightly washed with dusky over its entire surface and the rows of dots are larger and more distinct. ’ Bull. Bur. Pish. (1906). 5OO SEALE. Family MUGILIDAS. The Mullets. Mugil joloensis Seale, sp. noy. Plate IV.‘ (Banak.) Head 4.30; depth 3.60; dorsal IV, I, 7; amal J, 9; scales 33, 10 in vertical series; eye 3.30 in head; snout 4.10; interorbital space 1.95; maxillary exposed at tip; mandible 2.75; pectorals equal to head; yentrals 1.30; least depth of caudal peduncle 2. Body moderately elongate, compressed, the greatest depth being in middle of body, the depth of the caudal peduncle is scarcely less than its length (measured to axil of dorsal). ‘The profile from origin of spinous dorsal to snout is almost a straight line. Interorbital space is moderately convex. Top of snout almost flat. Greatest width of head 1.45 in its depth. Depth of head at middle of eye 1.75 in length. Snout short and blunt. The preorbital has a very deep notch, its depth being greater than width of pupil. The upper lip is very thick, with a fold, and fringed with a row of papille, an additional row of pipille on the lip just above the fold, an additional fringed fold at each corner of the mouth; under lip with moderately broad membrane. The nostrils are situated directly above the posterior margin of preorbital notch. Teeth on tongue, vomer, and palatine, none in jaws. Hye with but the slightest indication of adipose eyelid, which is present as a narrow rim to orbit. Snout is much broader than long, it is fully tipped by the broad maxillary. There are four soft differentiated areas between the scales on preopercle. Guill openings large being carried forward to under pupil. Gill rakers numerous slender, longest about equal to pupil. Pseudobranchia present. Body and head covered with large smooth scales which are slightly — ctenoid at margin. A single small ridge in center of each scale. About nineteen scales in front of dorsal fin; soft dorsal and anal sealed. Pectorals without axillary scale. An axillary scale at ventrals. Eleven rows of scales between the origin of the dorsals. The spinous dorsal is midway between end of caudal yertebra and middle of pupil, the longest spine 1.70 in head. Origin of soft dorsal midway between end of last caudal vertebra and origin of first dorsal being over the middle of anal, its longest ray equal to longest anal ray, 1.50 in head. Origin of anal is slightly nearer end of caudal vertebra than to origin of.ventrals. he yentrals are midway between anal and anterior margin of orbit. The upper portion of pectoral base is on a line with upper margin of eye. Caudal fin is rather deeply emarginate its length greater than head. Color in alcohol silvery with wash of yellowish, grayish above. Upper third of pectorals washed with dusky; soft dorsal, anterior rays of anal, and tip of caudal also slightly washed with dusky. No stripes on body, ‘Tn our figure the spinous dorsal and the ventrals are drawn too far forward. NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. a01 except those caused by the small ridge along center of scales. A distinct black dot at axil of pectorals. Type is No. 2379. Secured by the writer at Jolo, Jolo Island, P. I., February, 1908. Length, 125 millimeters. This species is related to M. labiosus C. & V., but M. labiosus has _ “apper lip without fringe.” Our species has fewer scales, and the upper third of dorsals dusky, our species has teeth on vomer and palatine. Mugil banksi Seale, sp. nov. Plate VY. (Banak.) Head 4.50; depth 3.50; dorsal IV, 9; anal III, 9; scales 37, 10 in vertical series; eye 3.10 in head, the exposed portion 4; snout 5; interorbital space 2; maxillary is entirely hidden; mandible 9 in head; preorbital with shallow notch, its end but slightly denticulate, its width at end 1.30 in pupil; pectorals equal to head; ventrals 1.30. Body moderately elongate and compressed, the upper and lower outlines being about evenly curyed to the short blunt snout. Tip of head formed by the deep upper lip. Caudal peduncle is thick and strong, its depth 1.25 in its length measured to vertical dorsal axil. The head from the blunt snout is rounded conical; interorbital space convex. Hye is large with the adipose lid developed as a narrow fringe to orbit and not covering more than a third of the iris before and behind. Greatest width of head 1.45 in its length being almost equal to its greatest depth, width of snout is equal to twice its length and is much more than its depth. An elongate shallow depression on upper sides of snout containing the two nostrils, the posterior one much the larger. Upper lip thick, with two distinct rows of papille, these becoming united into little folds near the corners of the mouth. Lower lip thin, without papille. No teeth in jaws or mouth. Gill openings extend forward to below posterior margin of pupil. Gull rakers are short slender and numerous. The two margins of the subopercles fitting closely below, the space between them being confined to a short narrow line anteriorly. The mandibles cover the entire chin. Head and body including soft fins scaled. The scales of body large, smooth, thin, margined with a thin soft membrane. A short narrow groove in the center of each scale, about 20 scales in front of dorsal fin and 13 series between the origins of the two dorsals. A distinct axillary seale at pectoral and yentral. Anal with scaly sheath. ive soft differentiated areas on the margin of the preopercle between the marginal seales. Origin of spinous dorsal midway between tip of snout and end of last caudal vertebra, length of first spine 1.50 in head; origin of soft dorsal very little nearer origin of spinous dorsal than to end of caudal vertebra, being on a line with the third anal ray, its longest ray 1.30 im head. Origin of anal slightly nearer end of caudal yertebra than to axil of ventrals. The longest ray equal to longest ray of soft dorsal, base of 502 SEALE. fin 1.70 in head. Origin of ventrals midway between origin of anal and notch of preorbital, caudal deeply emarginate, its length considerably greater than head. Color.in life silvery with a grayish wash above. The head with bronzy reflections. A distinct black spot at upper axil of pectorals and a rather broad and distinct white bar across the base of the fin below the dark spot. A white margin to anal pore. Fins whitish, soft dorsal and caudal slightly washed with dusky on posterior third. Color in alcohol similar to above, but the groove on middle of scale showing more distinctly above and giving the appearance of narrow stripes on center of rows of scales. : Type is No. 1412. Secured at Siquijor Island, E I., 7 September, i908. Length, 190 millimeters. This species is related to M. longimanus but is distinguished by the fringed lip, 9 anal rays, and smaller adipose eyelid, markings, and position of fins. Named for C. 8S. Banks, entomologist Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science, Manila. Family SPHYRASNIDA. ‘The Barracudas. Sphyrzena aureoflammea Seale, sp. noy. (Babayo.) Head 3.10; depth 6.35; dorsal V, 10; anal 11; scales 7-83-9 (count- ing to end of caudal yertebra) ; eye 5 in head (measured to tip of upper jaw); snout 2.25; imterorbital space 1.75 in eye; maxillary 2.75 In head; mandible 1. 16: ventrals 3.10; pectorals 2.75. Body elongate, cylindrical, the upper and lower outline about evenly curved, length of caudal peduncle 1.50 in head, its least depth 3 im its length. The head is elongate, conical, its greatest depth 2.75 in its length, greatest width 3. Upper profile of head is almost straight: the imter- orbital space is flat, with 4 distinct ridges. ‘The opercle ends in a single obtuse flat point. The lower angle of preopercle extends back as a large membraneous flap. The eyes are of moderate size. Snout is conical, its median width being somewhat greater than its median depth. Preorbital with a distinct oblique ridge in front of the eye. Maxillary falls short of the eye by a distance equal to pupil, the maxillary ends in a small but distinct spine. The lower jaw considerably the longer. ‘Teeth of upper jaw consist of a single rew of small teeth on sides of palatines with three enlarged canines a short distance from tip of jaw, and two enlarged canines on each side at tip of jaw, the maxillary also has a single row of small teeth. Teeth of lower jaw a single series of rather strong canines. A single large canine at symphysis. No teeth on yomer. Gill openings large, ending on a line with anterior margin of eye. Two gill rakers on lower limb, one being at the angle, these are distinct, sharp, pointed, their length 2 in pupil. NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 503 Body entirely covered with large smooth scales, about 23 in front of dorsal, and 31 between the origins of the two dorsals. The fins, except spinous dorsal, are more or less scaled. Head is naked except on nape, cheeks, and opercles; lower limb of preopercle naked, no scales on head in front of auterior margin of pupil. Origin of spinous dorsal midway between origin of second dorsal and posterior margin of pupil, being above the middle of the ventral rays, the anterior spines longest, being equal to postocular portion of head. Origin of second dorsal considerably nearer the first dorsal than to end of caudal vertebra. Origin of anal is under the second dorsal ray and is shghtly nearer end of caudal vertebra than to orgin of ventrals. Base of soft dorsal shghtly greater than base of anal which is 3.75 in head. The longest dorsal ray and longest anal ray about equal, 3.10 in head. Origins of ventrals midway between middle of maxillary and anal fin. Caudal deeply emarginate, the lobes 2 in head. Color in life, above lateral line lemon-yellow, a purplish stripe from - snout over interorbital space and nuchal region to near base of second dorsal, a short stripe with some yellow edgimgs in front of eye. A _brown stripe from origin of lateral line to middle of base of caudal, -another line from posterior margin of eye over base of pectorals to caudal, the area between these two lines rather a bright blue, ventral surface a pale blue. Some greenish scales with yellow margins on nuchal region, lips brown, soft dorsal with sight wash of brown, caudal yellowish brown, anal with a slight trace of pink, other fins white. Color im alcohol dull brownish above, silvery below; two brown lines on sides; top of head and snout darker; soft dorsal and caudal grayish, pectoral more or less grayish at axil. Five specimens. Type is No. 4138, from Zamboanga, Mindanao, 22 May, 1908. Length, 280 millimeters. Family SYNGNATHIDAL. Trachyrhamphus caba” Seale, sp. noy. Head 4 in body (measured from tip of snout to anal opening) ; greatest depth equal to postocular portion of head; dorsal 22, its base occupying 4 rings which are swollen, thus the base of the fin is consider- ably elevated above the level of the dorsal surface; body with 18 rings, tail with 33 rings. he dorsal is located on two of the tail rings and two of the body rings; anal 4; snout equal to distance from pupil of eye . to posterior margin of opercle; eye 4 in head; interorbital equal to eye; pectorals 1.75 in snout; caudal 1.50 in snout, its tip rounded; length of body and head equal to 21 rings of caudal; lateral line passes to lower caudal edge which is strongly scalloped; nuchal region. has a decided crest ; snout strongly depressed, being in line with lower margin of body, 5 Gaba is the native name for this fish. 504 SHALE. the forehead has an abrupt curye, formed by the pronounced ocular- ridges; interorbital space deeply concave; opercles with numerous fin- shaped striz, which radiate from a single larger longitudinal ridge; ten distinct ridges in the interorbital space which unite and form one on the snout, this ridge has a few small spines; the orbital ridge is also spinate; rings of body and tail without spines; length of dorsal rays ‘less than width of opercle. Color brown, the three anterior caudal rings lighter, the yentral surface of body rings and opercles brown, with the yellow cross lines on their under surface, these cross lines not extending on body rings; snout brown above and white below. A brown ring near the tip, fins grayish without markings. Type is No. 2324 from Balayan Bay, Luzon, 20 January, 1908. Length, 140 millimeters. Family HOLOCENTRIDAS. The Squirrel Fishes. Myripristis schultzei Seale, sp. nov. (Baga baga.) Head 3.10; depth 2.50; dorsal X, I, 15; anal III, 13; scales 28 to end of vertebra, 10 in vertical series; eye large, 2 in head; snout 7.50; interorbital space 3.30; maxillary 1.80, its posterior tip ending on a line with posterior margin of pupil, width of distal end 2 in eye; mandible 1.60 in head; pectorals 1.25; ventrals 1.45. Body oblong, compressed, greatest width at origin of dorsal. Upper and lower outlines of body about equal. Length of caudal peduncle 2.50 in head, its depth 3.10. Depth of head about equal to its length, its greatest width 1.50 in its length; interorbital space flat with 4 longi- tudinal ridges. ‘The anterior outline of head is bent rather abruptly down in front of eyes making a short blunt snout, the length of which is 2 in its width. The groove to receive the maxillary process ends on a line with anterior of eye. Preorbital is narrow and denticulate, its greatest width 3 in interorbital space; opercular bones are denticulate, the opercle has a single flat spine on its posterior margin, maxillary with small teeth on its lower posterior border. Mouth large, oblique, lower jaw slightly the longest. Four distinct pores on tip of lower jaw; bands of villiform teeth in jaws, vomer, palatin, and on hyoid portion of tongue. A few large exterior teeth on the outside o! each jaw, more abundant and larger on lower jaw. Gull openings very large being earried forward to below antericr margin of pupil. Gill rakers rather long, about 30 on lower arch, the longest 2 in eye. Pseudobranchia present. Scales are large and toothed; body fully scaled; head naked except about 3 rows of scales on cheeks; ventral with distinct axillary scale. Origin of dorsal fin midway between tip of snout and third anal ray. Fourth spine the longest, 1.85 in head. Anal and soft dorsal similar, NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. D05 the anal rays are slightly the longest, being 1.30 in head. Third dorsal spine is slightly the longest being 2.30 in head, both the soft dorsal and anal are sharp pointed. Origin of yentrals midway between anal and anterior margin of eye, caudal forked, 1.10 in head. Color in life pinkish, washed with violet above, the margins of scales on sides with brighter red, tip of lower jaw and snout red. Margin of spimous dorsal deep red, the body of fin pale red, anterior of soft dorsal and anal broadly margined with deep red. Tip of caudal deep red shading into lighter red at base. No opercular blotch, some deeper red on base of pectorals, inner axil of pectorals deep black. Color in alcohol yellowish white with some bronzy reflections, darker aboye; fins uniform yellowish white; no opercular blotch; inner axil of pectorals deep black. Type is No. 3899 taken at Samal Island, Gulf of Davao, P. L., 4 May, 1908. Length, 160 millimeters. This species is related to M. violescens. Family CARANGIDA&. The Pampanos. Caranx auriga Seale, sp. nov. Plate VI. (Talakitok.) Head 3.30 in length; depth 2.75; dorsal VII, I, 17; anal II, I 16; 35 armed scutes constituting the straight portion of the lateral line, about 70 scales in curved portion of line, curved portion 1.35 in straight, greatest depth of curve 4.25 in head, the line becomes straight under the third dorsal ray; eye 3.50, the adipose eyelid covering the posterior third of eye and a narrow margin anteriorly; snout 4.20; imterorbital space equal to eye; maxillary 2 in head, its end under posterior margin of ivis ; width of its distal end 1.50 in eye; ventral 2.10 in head; least depth of caudal peduncle 2.40 in eye, its width scarcely less than eye. Body oblong, moderately compressed, the depth at the origin of spinous dorsal and at soft dorsal equal; the lower outline from the origin of anal rays to mandible is a straight line, the mandibles being placed at a very low angle. ‘he upper outline from origin of soft dorsal to tip of snout is curved, the snout being at an angle much greater than 75°. The length of caudal peduncle (measured from upper origin of caudal rays to axil of dorsal) is but little more than its width, its depth is 2 in its length. Upper profile of head strongly rounded, a distinct ridge from occiput to nostrils, the snout is placed at a steep angle. Width of preorbital 1.60 in eye; greatest width of head 1.85 in its length; eye of moderate size, the adipose lid covering the posterior portion up to pupil, a very narrow anterior adipose lid. Lower jaw is slightly projecting, each jaw has rather wide membraneous lips; maxillary with strong supplemental _bone. Hach jaw with moderately strong curved canines, the upper jaw with an inner row of vyilliform teeth. Villiform teeth on vyomer, 5OG SEALE. palatines, and tongue. Gill opening wide, being carried forward to a line with the anterior margin of eye; gill rakers rather strong and saber- like, 14 on lower limb, the longest about 1.50 in eye. Pseudobranchia present. Seales small, rather smooth, breast fully scaled, head naked except on cheeks and nape. The scutes are graduated in size from middle of caudal peduncle, their greatest depth being slightly less than pupil, their size at beginning of straight portion of lateral line yery minute. Origin of spinous dorsal slightly posterior to axil of pectoral, the spines weak, the second spine the longest being 2.40 in head, the last dorsal spine is free. The soft dorsal and anal are quite similar the rays being of about equal length, the longest being 2 in head, base of anal slightly less than base of soft dorsal, the origin of the anal rays being under the frfth dorsal ray; the last anal ray is slightly prolonged. Anal spines are under origin of soft dorsal; yentrals are about midway between tip of snout and origin of anal rays; their tip reaching to anal pore. Pectorals long and falcate, their tip reaching to fifth anal ray. Caudal strongly forked, two narrow ridges on its base, one on each side of the scutes, length of fin slightly less than head. Color im life silvery with bronze wash and golden reflections, soft dorsal, anal and caudal yellow, a rather large, not very dark and somewhat diffused opercular spot at origin of lateral line, a black spot on inner axil of pectoral not showing on outer surface. Color in alcohol similar to above but dull silyery on upper half, yellowish white below. Head with bronze reflections, fins yellowish white, without dark markings except a slight trace of brownish on tip of spinous dorsal and on tip of upper half of caudal. Type is No. 30. Secured at Manila, P. I., 21 May, 1907. length, 230 millimeters. Caranx butuanensis Seale, sp. noy. Plate VII. Head 3.75; depth 2.50; dorsal VIII, I, 215; anal II, I, 17; scales small; 43 scutes in straight portion of lateral line, and about 70 scales in curved portion, the curved portion contained 1.50 in straight, the greatest depth of the curve about equal to eye. The lateral line becomes straight under the sixth dorsal ray; eye 3 in head; snout 4; interorbital space 3 in head; maxillary 2.1, ending slightly posterior to pupil, width of its distal end 1.50 in eye; mandible 1.85 in head; pectorals 3.30 in body; ventrals 1.85 in head; least depth of caudal peduncle 2 in eye. Body oblong compressed, its greatest depth at origin of soft dorsal, the lower outline from origin of anal rays to tip of lower jaw is a low eyen curve. ‘The upper outline from origin of soft dorsal to tip of snout is an irregular curve being deeply concave at the occiput, causing the head to be of considerable less depth than in most species of the genus. Length of the caudal peduncle is about a fourth greater than its width. Upper profile of head with a ridge from origin of dorsal to nostril. The snout NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 907 is at an angle of a little more than 45°. Greatest depth of head slightly less than its length, its width 2 in length. Mouth is of moderate size, the lower jaw slightly the longest, distinct membranous lips on each jaw, a large supplemental bone on maxillary. Width of preorbital about 2 in eye. ‘Teeth of lower jaw small, in two or more rows, with some large canines anteriorly. Teeth of lower jaw consisting of a single row of rather small canines, teeth on vomer, palatines, and tongue. Guill open- ings large, being carried forward to below anterior margin of eye. Gill rakers saber-like, 16 on lower limb, the longest about 1.50 in eye. Pseudo- branchia present. Scales are small, smooth, and fully cover the body, including breast. Head is naked except on cheeks and occiput. The scutes are graduated _ from the caudal peduncle, the deepest being 1.75 in eye, those at the beginning of straight portion of lateral line minute. Origin of spinous dorsal slightly posterior to axil of pectoral, the third spine longest, 2.45 in head; the last dorsal spine free. Soft dorsal and anal similar, their longest rays being about equal, 1.85 in head, the last ray of each fin slightly prolonged. Base of soft dorsal slightly the longest, the origin of ‘anal being under the sixth dorsal ray. Anal spines are below origin of soft dorsal. Origin of ventrals midway between tip of snout and origin of. first anal ray. Pectorals falcate, their tip scarcely reaching to anal rays. Caudal forked with the two ridges on base almost obsolete, length of fin slightly less ~ than head. Color in life silvery below, with about 7 wide dusky bands over the back and down on sides, these bands of much greater width than the interspaces, bands of equal width. Wins yellowish white, except spinous dorsal which has a slight wash of grayish. A dusky opereular spot. Color im alcohol silvery with slight bronzy reflections, 7 dusky bands on back, the first being on nuchal region and the last on caudal peduncle. A dusky opercular spot. Top of head with some grayish, fins yellowish white except spinous dorsal, which has a shght wash of gray, there is also a very slight trace of grayish on tip of soft dorsal. Inner axil of pectorals dusky, no dusky on their base. Iris golden with dusky blotch on upper margin. Type is No. 1896, taken at Butuan Bay, Mindanao Island, P. L., 25 September, 1907. Length, 120 millimeters. Family APOGONICHTHY ID As: Amia magnifica Seale, sp. nov. (Daugat.) Head 2.75; depth 3; dorsal VI, I, 8; anal II, 7; scales 24, lateral line complete; 7 scales im vertical series; eye 2.75 in head; snout 3.50; interorbital 1.50 in eye; preopercle distinctly denticulate; bands of yilliform teeth in jaws, vomer, and palatines. 91701—2 508 SEALE. Body oblong, compressed, the greatest depth at origin of dorsal; caudal peduncle rather long and slender, its depth 2.50 in lread, its length 1.45. Upper outline of body more strongly curved than lower. Head pointed, mouth large, lower jaw projecting: eye large, interorbital space slightly convex with two ridges, which unite into one midway between eyes. Tip of maxillary extends to a line with pupil, its distal margin concave, its length 2.10 in head. Gill openings large, extending forward to below pupil. Gill rakers rather slender not very pointed, about 19 on lower limb. Body covered with large smooth scales, cheeks and opercles scaled. Origin of dorsal midway between middle of caudal peduncle and tip of of snout, its second spine the longest, 1.80 in head, last dorsal spine almost as long as first ray, the longest ray 2.70 in head; caudal slightly lunate. Origin of ventrals midway between base of caudal and pupil, its second spine about two-thirds length of rays, its longest ray 1.75. Origin of ventrals midway between anal and a line with nostril, their tip reaching almost to anal, their length 1.50 in head. Pectorals 1.75 in head. Color in life. A bright cardinal red with five silvery longitudinal lines, the middle one heing composed of round silvery spots. These lines are arranged as follows: the first is from tip of snout through upper part of eye back to below anterior third of dorsal where it unites with the second line, the portion of this line on the snout is orange, the remainder is silvery: the second line is from posterior of eye to caudal, the portion on the opercle is margined above and below with dusky; the third line is from the lower posterior portion of eve to caudal, this line on the opercle is also margined with dusky, and posterior to opercle it is composed of round silvery dots: the fourth line is from maxillary below eye to lower margin of opercle, this line is margined with dusky; the fourth line extends from the lower posterior portion of opercle to the caudal; the fifth line is below this and forms the general white coloring of the belly, to anal fin. he fins are all uniformly red. Top of head with orange stripe from interorbital space along base of dorsals: chin orange, tip of jaws brownish. Color in spirits. The bright cardinal fades into dull brownish, the silver becomes pale yellow, the orange fades into dull yellow, the opercles show a beautiful, opalescent bluish reflection, the black on tip of jaw and a black line on snout fade into white: the dusky margins to the stripes on head show more distinctly, the lines on interorbital being bluish white ending on nuchal region. A slight black area on middle of caudal base, fins yellowish white. Numerous specimens. Type is No. 5192, from Balabac Island, 10 August, 1908. Length, 40 millimeters. NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 509 Amia cardinalis Seale. sp. nov. Head 3; depth 2.75; dorsal VI, 1, 9; anal IT, 8; scales 24, the lateral line complete, 7$ scales in vertical series: eye 2.75 in head; snout 4; interorbital 1.50 in eye; maxillary 2 in head, its distal end on a line with posterior margin of iris; mandible 1.55; posterior margin of preopercle strongly denticulate. Teeth in vilhform bands in jaws, vomer and palatines. Body oblong, compressed, the greatest depth at origin of dorsal, cand! pedunele rather long and thin, its depth equal to orbit, its length 1.20 in head. Upper outline of body more strongly curved than lower. Head rather bluntly pomted, mouth large, cheeks and opercles each with two rows of scales, opercle with a sharp flat spme. Gill openings wide, being carried forward to a line with the pupil. Gill rakers short and sharp pointed, about 13 on lower limb. Body fully covered with large smooth scales which have yery finely toothed borders, head without scales except on cheeks and opercles. Origin of dorsal fin is midway between tip of snout and middle of caudal peduncle, its second spine is the longest and strongest, its length 1.50 in head. The last dorsal spine scarcely more than half the length of the first ray which is 1.75 in head. Caudal shghtly bilobed, 1.25 in head; origin of anal midway between end of last caudal vertebra and distal end of mawillary, its longest spine about equal to orbit, its longest vay 1.75 in head. Origin of ventrals midway between anal and a line with middle of pupil, their length 1.50 in head; pectorals 1.40 in head. Color in life uniform bright cardinal, without stripes or bands; a slight tint of yellow on side of belly, and a brownish blotch on opercles just posterior to eye, fins all uniform red. Color in alcohol uniform yellowish white, some dusky marks at base of dorsals. A shght opalescent tint on opercle. A brown spot on nuchal region, fins uniform yellowish white. Type is No. 5463 from Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, P. 1., 21 August, 1908. Length, 40 millimeters. This species seems to differ in several respect from A. erythermus to which it is most nearly related. Family SERRANIDAS. Epinephelus albimuculatus Seale, sp. noy. Plate VIII. (Lapo lapo.) Head 2.65 (measured from tip of jaw to tip of opercular flap) ; depth 3.39; dorsal XI, 16; anal III, 8; scales about 120 in lateral series, 50 in vertical series, about 50 pores in lateral line; eye 5.80 in head; snout 4.45: interorbital 7.10: maxillary 2.14, extending posterior to eye; mandi- ble 1.80. Body oblong, compressed, rather slender and elongate for this genus, 510 SEALE. the upper outline considerably more curved than lower. Least depth of caudal peduncle 3.30 in head, caudal truncate. Anterior profile from origin of dorsal to tip of snout has a gradual even curve. Lower jaw rather strongly projecting. Mouth large. Each lip with a fold. Upper jaw without teeth directly in center of jaw, but with a patch of small sharp teeth on each side of symphysis. A single, small projecting canine on each side; extending back on the jaws from each anterior patch are several rows ot villiform teeth with an outer row of enlarged canines. Under jaw with bands of cardiform teeth anteriorly with a projecting canine on each side (broken in type) the side of lower jaw with two rows of enlarged teeth, the anterior row of larger depressible teeth. Bands of villiform teeth on vomer and palatine. Tongue spat- ulate, without teeth ; preopercle rounded and finely toothed, a slight notch near its angle below which the teeth are slightly enlarged. Soft portion of opercle ending in a single sharp point, the hard portion of opercle with three spines the middle one being much the largest in fact the only conspicuous one, the upper one being obtuse and hidden, and the lower one very small, the middle spine is the most posterior and its tip is nearer tip of lower than to upper spine. Gill openings large, being carried forward to below anterior portion of eye. Gill rakers large and strong, 16 on lower limb, the longest equal to two-thirds diameter of eye. Scales are minute and ctenoid; body, head, and fins, except jaws and posterior portion of mavillary, fmely scaled; the scales on under surface and on nuchal region smallest. Origin of dorsal midway between tip of snout and third ray of dorsal, the third to fourth spine longest, 2.40 in head, the first spme 1.90 in second, the longest ray 2.75. Origin of anal slightly nearer to last caudal vertebra than to angle of preopercle, its third spine the longest, 3.75 in head, its longest ray 2.10 in head. Ventrals 2 in head, their origin midway between anal and a vertical line with posterior nostril. Pectorals 1.75 im head. Color in life brownish with tint of green, about 30 rather large scattered round yellow spots on head, fins slightly darker, otherwise color uniform. Color in alcohol. Uniform brown with scattered round whitish spots on head, about 30 on each side and 4 or 5 showing indistinctly on shoulders, above lateral line, fins dark brown, uniform, the pectorals a shade less dusky. Type is No. 1908 from Butuan Bay, Windanag, P. L, 26 September, 1908. Length, 280 millimeters. This species is related to H. coromandelicus Day but differs in seyeral respects, being more elongate and having a longer maxillary, a slightly different arrangement of opercular spines, and a different color pattern. Se NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. yll i Family HASMULID A. Plectorhynchus doanei Seale, sp. nov. Head 3; depth 2.40; dorsal XI, 20; anal III, 8; scales about 75; 64 pores in lateral line; about 30 scales in vertical series; eye 3; snout 3; interorbital space 4; maxillary 3.75, scarcely reaching to anterior margin of eye; mandible 2.75. ; : Body is oblong, compressed, the upper outline with much stronger curye than lower, the greatest depth is at origin of ventrals. Depth of caudal peduncle 2.75 in head, its length 1.80. The anterior profile from origin of dorsal to end of snout is a strong curve, the snout however is almost straight and at an angle of more than 45°. Mouth small, lips thick, with fold. Teeth of upper jaw mostly anterior in several rows, small, sharp pointed. Teeth of lower jaw similar, except that those on sides of jaws are in single series. No teeth on yomer or palatine. Posterior margin of preopercle rather strongly denticulate. A rather deep notch on posterior margin of opercle. Gill openings wide, being carried forward to below anterior margin of eye. Gill rakers short, fine, almost hair-like, 26 on lower limb. Pseudobranchia present. Entire body and head, including also bases of all the soft fins covered with fine ctenoid scales. Origin of dorsal midway between tip of snout and base of sixth dorsal ray. The third or fourth spine longest, 1.75 in head, the eighth, ninth and tenth spines are shorter than the first spine, being less than length of snout. Longest dorsal ray 1.35 im head. Origin of anal midway between end of last caudal vertebra and the middle of base of pectorals, its base 2.50 in head, its second spine is much the longest and strongest, its length 1.75 in head, the longest ray 1.40 in head. Caudal forked, 1.1 in head, its lobes rounded: yentrals nearer to angle of mouth than to anal, their length 1.10 in head; pectorals equal to head. Color in life orange red with about 7 large white areas margined with black, the anterior one occupies the snout, the second the nuchal region, extending down to opercles on each side but not to base of dorsal, the third occupies a region from origin of gill openings to, and including base of yentrals and obliquely up to eye, there is a square red band in the middle of this area across the thorax. There is a dark ocular band about width of eye down from eye around base of lower jaw, the fourth white area is a round spot back of, and above, base of pectorals, the fifth is below seventh to ninth dorsal spines and includes these spines, the sixth just above and includes the origin of anal, the seventh is an oblique white ring occupying the outer two-thirds of caudal peduncle. The posterior two-thirds of caudal is white with an oblong dusky patch on each lobe, the sixth and seventh white areas have an indistinct round dusky spot in the center. ‘The soft dorsal is dusky with margins of Dl? SEALE. rays white and a white spot near middle of fin. Anal is dusky at base, broadly margined with white, with some dusky blotches at tip. Ventrals black, with a white spot on anterior ray. Pectorals black with white tips. Color in alcohol similar to aboye, except that the orange fades into a light brown, the black margins to the white areas remain very distinct. Type is No. 4760 from Stitanki Island, Jolo Archipelago, 15 July. 1908; length, 40 millimeters; also a specimen No. 1695 from Caga- yan, Mindanao. Family THERAPONIDAS. The Grunts. Dentex filiformis Seale, sp. noy. Plate IX. Head 3.75; depth 4.15; dorsal X, 9; anal III, 7; scales 3-47-16; eye 3 in head; snout 3.10; interorbital space equal to eye; maxillary 3: mandible 2.35: pectorals 1.25 in head; ventrals 1.30; depth of caudal peduncle 3. Body moderately elongate, oblong, compressed, of about equal depth at origin of pectorals and at anal pore; least depth of caudal peduncle 3 in head. : Head somewhat conical, the profile: from nape to snout evenly curved, the interorbital space is moderately convex. Greatest width of head 1.85 in its length. Snout rounded, its width at anterior nostril equal to its length; jaws equal, the upper moderately protractile, each jaw with a rather wide fold or lip. Maxillary fully hidden except at its tip, premaxillary scarcely reaching to eye, preorbital notched at angle of jaw, its width at this point equal to pupil, no spine on its posterior margin. Lower jaw with two distimet pores on each side, mouth wide, slightly oblique. Curved canines in each jaw, with patches of inner villiform teeth anteriorly, the fourth anterior canine of upper jaw largest. No teeth on yomer, palatine, or tongue. Preopercle fully serrated, opercle with a single rather distinct spine; five rows of large scales on cheeks. Head, except snout, preorbital, and under jaw, fully scaled. Gill opening wide, being carried forward to a line with middle of eye. Gull rakers consisting of short, thick asperites, about + on lower limb. Pseudobranchia present. Hyes quite large. Seales small and ctenoid, the rows running horizontally on upper third of fish and obliquely below, body fully scaled; five distinct rows of scales on. cheeks with the addition of a few scattered scales at margin of orbit. | Dorsal fin continuous, the spines weak, the fourth and fifth spines the longest, 2.50 in head, the longest ray 1.95 in head, the fin is provided with a distinct groove into which it fits, its origin is directly above the axil of pectoral. Origin of anal on a line with base of second dorsal ray and is midway between end of caudal vertebra and origin of yentrals, the anal spines are graduated, the third being 3.75 in head, longest ray 2.75, base of fin 1.90 in head. Origin of ventrals slightly nearer tip of NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. O13 snout than origin of anal, its length 1.30 in head. Pectorals 1.30 in head, caudal forked with the outer rays of upper lobe filliform, its length 2.35 of body, the lower lobe 1.30 in head. Color in alcohol yellowish, a wide brown band slightly less than width of eye, occupies the middle of sides from eye to caudal. A yellowish area above this band, the entire upper portion brown, a round dusky dot at posterior end of lateral line, snout dark brown. ‘There is a slight indication of an additional but very indistinct dusky band on upper sides of belly fading out posteriorly. Fins all uniform, yellowish white without markings. e Type is No. 1755 from Surigao, Mindanao, P. I. taken 17 September, 1907. Length, 130 millimeters. Family LUTIANIDA’. The Snappers. Lutianus orientalis Seale, sp. nov. (Mayamaya.) Head 2.75; depth 2.80; dorsal X, 14; anal ILI, 8; scales 8-51-14; eye 3.75; snout 3.10; interorbital 5.25; maxillary 2.30, ending under anterior third of pupil; mandible 1.75 ending on a line with posterior margin of pupil; pectorals 1.30; ventrals 1.55. Body oblong, compressed, the greatest depth at origi of spinous dorsal. ‘The upper outline from axil of dorsal to eye is an eyen curve; outline of head at eyes slightly concave. The lower profile from anal to chin is almost straight, the lower jaw being at a low angle. ‘The length of the caudal peduncle is 1.80 in head, its greatest depth 1.25 in its length. Interorbital space slightly convex, a median ridge along its center ; snout conical ; width of preorbital but shghtly greater than pupil. Jaws equal. Teeth consisting of villiform bands with outer row of curved canines, and a very long and strong anterior canine on each side of upper jaw. Teeth on vomer and palatine, none on tongue. A very shallow preopercular notch, no opercular knob, opercle ending in a flat spine. Guill openings wide, ending under anterior margin of eye. Gill rakers of moderate length, sharp-pointed, ten on lower limb, the longest about equal to pupil. Pseudobranchia present. Body fully sealed, cheeks, nape and opercles scaled, soft dorsal, caudal, anal and pectoral sealed at base. Origin of dorsal above axil of pectoral, the fourth spine the longest, 2.50 in length; longest dorsal ray 2.30 in head; second anal spine slightly the longest, 2.75 in head; longest anal ray 2.10 in head. Origin of anal under second dorsal ray; origin of yentrals, midway between tip of snout and fourth anal ray, thei spine only about half length of rays. Pectorals not reaching to anal. Ventrals extend to anal pore. Caudal scareely emarginate, its length 1.35 in head. Color in life yellow, darker above, four wide black longitudinal stripes of almost the width of pupil at their median point, the first from snout 514 SHALP. through interorbital space to posterior base of spinous dorsal. Second from posterior margin of eye to base of soft dorsal. ‘Third from tip of snout through eye to upper base of caudal, a large black ovate spot in this line and extending above it, below the anterior portion of soft dorsal. Fourth from suborbital to lower base of caudal through the upper axil of pectoral, there is a slight dusky wash on tips of spinous dorsal and caudal, otherwise fins yellowish white. Color in alcohol similar to above except the lines on top of head do not show, and the general color is dull yellowish white, brownish above with the black lines and black blotch showing very distinctly. Four specimens; type is No. 2201 from Limbones Coye, Island of Luzon, P. I. Length, 95 millimeters, 14 January, 1908. The three additional specimens are from Balabac Island, P. I. This fish was called L. russeli by Jordan & Seale and L. quingui- lineatus by Jordan & Richardson. Day gives it as the young of ZL. chrysotenia, but we have specimens of chrysotwnia and there is no doubt of it being a different fish. I have examined specimens of the two former species in the Stanford University Collection and find it can not be classed with either. Family SPARIDAS. The Porgies. Lethrinus cutambi® Seale sp. noy. Plate X. (Cutambak.) Head 3; depth, 2.75; dorsal X, 9; anal [11], 8; scales 6-45-13 ; eye 4; snout 2, width of maxillary at symphysis almost equal to pupil; its length 2.75 in head; mandible 2.45; width of preorbital 2.95; pectorals 1.20; ventrals 1.50; interorbital space 1.10 in eye. Body oblong compressed, the greatest depth being at origin of yentrals. The upper outline of body from occiput to axil of dorsal is an even curye, the forehead in front of eye is slightly convex while the snout is decidedly concave, the lower outline of body much less curved than upper; the lower jaw being very slightly oblique. The length of the caudal peduncle is 2 in head, its median width is 3.50 im its length, while its depth is 1.50 in its length. Greatest depth of head slightly less than its length, its greatest width 2.20 in its length; interorbital space convex. Snout is elongate, its median width being about 2 in its length, nostrils some distance apart, | the anterior one with membranous flap. Mouth large, the lips with thick membranous folds. The upper jaw strongly protractile. Teeth of upper jaw consisting of a single row of about six conical molars without cusps on each side, with small conical canine-like teeth anteriorly and with four enlarged outer canines in front. Lower jaw with about eight conical molars without cusps, and small canines, anteriorly, two enlarged outer canines on each side in front. No teeth on yomer, °From the native name of this fish. NEW SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES. 515 palatine or tongue. The jaws are equal, the maxillary ends on a line with anterior nostril, its. end is fully hidden by preorbital. The mandible ends on a line with posterior nostril. Gull openings are of moderate size being carried forward to a line with middle of eye. Gill rakers are thick and short 5 on lower limb, the longest about one-fourth of pupil. Psendobranchia present. Body fully covered with rather large smooth scales which are very slightly denticulate on margins. Fins are unscaled, except pectorals which are slightly scaled at base. Head is naked except on opercles, with a small patch of scales behind and posterior to the eye, another — small patch posterior to, and slightly above eye. Origin of dorsal is one spine anterior to a line with axil of pectorals; fourth dorsal spine the longest, 3 in head, the spines received into a sheath, longest dorsal ray 2.50 in head. The second anal spine is strongest, the third is the longest being 3.10 in head, longest anal ray 2.75, origin of anal is on a line with the second dorsal ray. Origin of ventrals midway between tip of snout and fifth anal ray. ‘Tip of yentrals reaching to anal pore. Pectorals extend to a line with origin of anal. Caudal deeply emarginate, its length 1.25 in head, its shortest ray 2.10 in head. Color. in life rather a dark greenish with 7 or 8 irregular darker yertical bars over back and down on sides. Vertical fins marked with bars of dark green. Color in alcohol yellowish, with slight shades of greenish, about 8 irregular darker greenish bars extending over back and down on sides to yentral surface, these bars much less than the interspaces, the bands are more or less broken at the lateral line but are continuous below it, there is on the second of these bands above middle of pectorals and below the lateral line an intensified dusky area or blotch, scarcely distinct from coloring of bands. Head is brownish with tint of green, there. is a darker band easily overlooked, from lower half of eye down to posterior end of mandible; posterior margin of opercle darker.