Vor. 1. | January 1827. No. 1.
MEA MEA MEA NEA MEA MEAMEAMEA MEA MEAMEA

= | Published the First Day of every Month.—Price 2s. 6d. es
BS ¢
ae >
7 PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE |G
s AND Cs
oF eee
~ ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY: >
sa 4 COMPREHENDING ‘ add
EY) THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL (es
pe AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, :
ie AND COMMERCE. | S
A S
<< NEW SERIES. >
cS Ee
ee) Ne. 1L—J ANUARY 1827, =
Ss 2
CF 7
eo BY
me &SS
={ RICHARD TAYLOR, F.S.A. F.L.S, M. Astr. S. &c.
—— AND

G

RICHARD PHILLIPS, F.R.S. L.& E. F.LS. &c.

/

TES SL SEES

AN

V,
a

London: «
PRINTED BY AND FOR RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOF-LANE:

And sold by Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy; Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and
Green; Cadell; Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper; Simpkin and Marshall; 5
Underwood; W. Phillips; Harding; Highley:—and by Adam Black, Edin-
burgh ; Smith and Son, Glasgow : and Hodges end M‘Arthur, Dublin.

FIN AEN AN TAY ALY ACY ACY AE \

Vaya
: *

MAMA MEAMEAMEAMEAME
TSS

+

Hie WEY AEE

n

)

De!

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

The Editors beg to return their thanks to their respective Corre-
spondents for the Communications which have enabled them to commence
their New Series with so many Original Papers on interesting and im-
portant subjects.

‘They have also to acknowledge the receipt of the following, to which
the earliest attention will be paid: ?

Mr. Grauam on the Finite Extent of the Atmosphere.

Dr. Reapz on the Nature of Light and Shadow.

Mr. Haworrtu on New Succulent Plants.

~*,* The Editors request that all Communications intended for immediate
insertion may be sent to the care of Mr. Richard Taylor, Printing Office,
Shoe-Lane, London, at furthest by the 15th day of the month, or they will
be too late to appear in the ensuing Number.

_PHARMACOPGIA LONDINENSIS,
Iterum recognita et retractata, 1824, p. 6.
“ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS,”

vel
“‘ Acidum Aceticum é Ligno destillatum.”

p° RE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID, agreeable to the Sample

furnished at the request of the Committee of the Royal College ot

Physicians, may be had of the Manufacturers, BEAUFOY & CO. South
Lambeth, London.

FT PXHENARD’S TREATISE ON CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, trans- ;

; lated by A. MeErRIcK, with Plates, numerous Tables, and Additions.
A few unsold Copies, price 10s. to be had of P. Watkins, Printer, Ciren-
cester. be
SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY, for the Use of Schools, Private Students
Artists, and Mechanics. a
This Day is published, price 4s. 6d.

A SYSTEM OF POPULAR GEOMETRY, containing in a few -

, Lessons so much of the Elements of Euclid as is necessary and suf-
ficient for a right understanding of every Art and Science, in its leading
Truths and general Principles. By Grorce Dartey, A.B. .

London: Published for John Taylor, by James Duncan, 37, Pater-

noster Row. Sold also by J. Hatchard and Son, Piccadilly ; and J. A. ~

Hessey, Fleet Street.

*,* The Second Volume of the Scrent1ric Lisrary, containing
pont Arithmetic, Algebra, Trigonometry, and Logarithms, is in the
ress, and will appear immediately. ;

ae 3

THE

. PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE,

OR

ANNALS

OF
CHEMISTRY, MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY,
NATURAL HISTORY, AND
GENERAL SCIENCE.

BY
RICHARD TAYLOR, F.S.A. F.L.S. M. Astr. S. &c.

AND

RICHARD PHILLIPS, F.R.S. L.& E. F.LS.&c.

> ,
ae A Oe
, al Sg

“ Necaranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster
vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.’ Just. Lips. Monit. Polit: lib. i. cap. 1.

VOL. I.

NEW AND UNITED SERIES OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
AND ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY.

JANUARY—JUNE, 1827.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE:

AND SOLD BY LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN; CADELL ; BALDWIN,
CRADOCK, AND JOY; SHERWOOD, GILBERT, AND PIPER ; SIMPKIN
AND MARSHALL; UNDERWOOD; W. PHILLIPS; HARDING ;
HIGHLEY, LONDON:—AND BY ADAM BLACK,
£DINBURGH}; SMITH AND SON, GLASGOW ;
AND HODGES AND M‘ARTHUR,

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

NUMBER I.—JANUARY.

Page

Mr. Ivory on the Elastic Force of Steam at different Tempera-
CUIGHS Wiest. sss OAc Pet ARLE IRROM tinea sis y's bya or 1
Mr. Levy on the Identity of Epistilbite and Heulandite...... 6

Capt. Parry’s and Lieut. Foster's Reply to Mr. Galbraith’s
Remarks on the Experiments for ascertaining the Velocity
of Sound at Port Bowen........---2+eesser een teeeee 12
Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Cohesion of Cast-Iron..... 14
Mr. Nixon’s Table and Formule for reducing Registers of the
Height of the Barometer to the Standard Temperature and
1 O73 PR ea sree. cei cholo mas trate aba hal ohn falas is 'sts ope 15
Further List of Errors in Piazzi’s Catalogue of Stars......-. 19
Mr. Sturgeon on the Infammation of Gunpowder and other
Substances by Electricity; with a Proposal to employ the
Term Momentum as expressive of a certain Condition of the

Bilectric Hiatt. 2 Se Sysco tee selina eer ee elena 20
Mr. Levy on some newly discovered Siberian Minerals...... 26
Rev. B. Powell's Observations on the Solar Eclipse,’ Novem-

Heri GON TUBAS or saciid} hy Sets Bows ele siynte melee et eee 98
The Bakerian Lecture. Sir Humphry Davy on the Relations

of Electrical and Chemical Changes (continued)......- J yenyttol

Mr. Tripe on a Mineral from near Hay Tor, in Devonshire.. 38
Mr. W. Phillips on the Crystalline Form of the Haytorite..... 40
Mr. Levy on the Origin of the Crystalline Forms of the Hay-

forte yore Soe aa es Ve apes Re sets teats IS 43
Lieut. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations 1826 .....----- 46
Mr. Baily’s List of Moon-culminating Stars Far S27) aol jss) = 47
Mr. Squire’s Observations on the late Solar Eclipse.....-.- 55
Mr. George on Fustic (Morus tinctorius) , and its Application

to the Dyeing of Yellow, Green, Olive, and Brown........ 55
Proceedings of the Royal Society ....----+---+++++rsreer> 60

Linnean Society... ..-.----+-eeeeee 65
eee Geological Society....-++--++++++++55 66

Astronomical Society......-++---e++-+5 69
Separation of Elaine from Oils—Sulphuret of Cerium—Oxide

a isGib sb. kicises oie emia oie sielaup heard bey acre Ses 71
Artificial Sulphuret of Zinc—Protoferrocyanate of lron—Cyanic

Acid—Separation of Iron from Manganese. .....---+-+-- 72
Acetates of Mercury—Pyrmont Heavy Spar .....-+.--+-+- 73
Discovery of a Substance that inflames upon contact with Water

Enormous Fossil Vertebra—African Expedition. ...... 74
Steam Navigation... ..-2--..----ccersensnesr rcs ed een 75
Scientific Books, 10... 02500. cee eter tee ee ee eeee ss 76
New Patents ..ciir-cetisscrrintieccc baje.e cic s-arerm m arere eevee weed las 7
Meteorological Observations .........----+erseereetters 78
— _____— by Mr. Howard near London,

Mr, Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr,

Wisnll at BOstOns .:..atweleloibacarsre ar one's) *\0ls MO ae ove: 80
VOL. I. a2 NUMBER

iy CONTENTS.
Page

NUMBER IJ —FEBRUARY.
Mr. Baily on some new auxiliary Tables for determining the

apparent Places of Greenwich Stars..........--+++++++- 81
Mr. Ivory’s Investigation of the Heat extricated from Air when

it undergoes a given Condensation .. ......---.++-+- BBs ele
The Bakerian Lecture. Sir Humphry Davy on the Relations

of Electrical and Chemical Changes (continued).....--+-- 94
Mr. Thomson’s Mode of Heating Water for a Bath......-. 104
Mr. Graham on the Finite Extent of the Atmosphere....... 107
Mr. R. Phillips on the Triple Prussiate of Potash.........-- 110
Rev. J. B. Emmett on Capillary Attraction ............-- 115
Rev. J. B. Emmett on bleaching and preparing Flax........ 119
Mr. Haworth’s Description of New Succulent Plants....... 120
Mr. John Taylor on the Accidents incident to Steam Boilers,. 126
Mr. Levy on the Crystalline Forms of Wagnerite.......... 133

Mr. Galbraith on Capt. Parry’s and Lieut. Foster’s Experi-
ments for ascertaining the Velocity of Sound at Port Bowen 136

Proceedings of the Geological Society .................-- 136
- Astronomical Society................4: 140
Chlorine in the Native Black Oxide of Manganese.......... 142

Phosphorus in Kelp—Decomposition of Oxalic Acid by Sul-
phuric Acid—Phosphorescent Fluor Spar—Perkins’s High-
Pressure Engines—Formation of Oleic and Margaric Acids

from; Fatrt cr je ae to i otiicn Seperate Sos ga! -- 143
Separation of the colouring Matter of Madder ............ 144
Bismuth Cobalt Ore—Iserine and Iron Sand in Cheshire—

Experiments on certain Oxalates..............-...-.-- 145
peidlitz: Powders Swati co cme.ctttes crete cic ane x fast dita es 146
Jet discovered in Wigtonshire—Origin of the Diamond...... 147
Barbour of Ko-si'Ghranry See oe oeionsa s paciapia'dl oe « 149
Eivers OF Assam! <\ (275718 OUP het Sab nat oh ele creer eta oo 151
New Patents—Scientific Books. ................-...22.-. 152
Dr. Burney’s Results of a Meteorological Journal for the Year

1826, kept at-Gosport, Hants) = 2 tye. oc hieiehes wine 153

Meteorological Observations by Mr. Howard near London,

Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr.
Veall at Boston 160

NUMBER IIJ.—MARCH.
Bidgraphical Notice of M..Piaaziv. yuu. fsa. Fo eee. ed 161
Mr. Ivory’s Continuation of the Subject relating to the Absorp-
tion and Extrication of Heat in a Mass of Air that changes

RN NIE a rads ae oj ovo fnie oo = vinta gee 165
Mr. Ivory’s Notice relating to the Seconds Pendulum at Port
aN 2S oy = Sin soy mph oda pry éccnnrdh on SPREE sare seiahene Osage 3 170
Mr. Graham’s Account of M. Longchamp’s Theory of Nitri-
fication; with an Extension of it................0.--5- 172
Mr. Swainson’s Sketch of the Natural Affinities of the Lepi-
doptera Diurna of Latreille ...... ccc ecsemelee Witte be oe 180

Mr. W. Phillips on the Crystalline Form of the Hyalosiderite,. 188

CONTENTS. v
Page
The Bakerian Lecture. Sir Humphry Davy on the Relations

of Electrical and Chemical Changes.................... 190
Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical Inquiry into the Na-

ture and Properties of the Blood; being the Substance of

three Lectures on that Subject delivered at the Gresham

Institution during Michaelmas Term. 1826 (continued).... 199
Mr. Squire on Contemporaneous Meteorological Observations,

as proposed by the Royal Society of Edinburgh.......... 208
Mr. Squire on the expected Occultation of Venus in February 212
Dr. Abel’s Account of an Orang Outang of remarkable Height

found on the Island of Sumatra; together with a Description

of certain Remains of this Animal, presented to the Asiatic

Society by Capt. Cornfoot, and at present contained in its

Se ios, 253. I POR MR. ae ay 213
Lieut. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations 1827 .......... 219
Mr, Levy on a New Mineral Species........... ma ser sEtS HT, 221

New Books :—Partington on the Steam-Engine—Robberds’s
Geological and Historical Observations on the Eastern Val-

Eee OS NTR 5 aiakas papancs catcher tics cir etihd 'g oid Sea LVI RAS 223
Proceedings of the Royal Society ..................000. 224
——_—__-——_———- Linnean Society .................... 228

Geological Society... 250.2400 Fee Uek 229

Horticultural) Society. «0.23 «2 8\liverd hp. 230

—_________— Royal Institution of Great Britain. ... .. 231

Promie 208. The eee) 3S (od oly DAP OR ERArieaeR DETER RAC 231
Compound Nature of Bromine—Action of the Alkaline Chlo-

rides as disinfecting Substances...................00.. 232

Mr. Leslie’s Instrument for ascertaining the Specific Gravity

of Powders—Produce of Copper Mines in Cornwall...... 233
Account of Steam-Engines in Cornwall .................. 235
POW ACME ooo cists ah ayat's igyors 8 PS | SO EER Be Pea - 237
Dileteorological Observattons oi oo (.64 3)<)-'ameierei no's minielaye » 238
——————_—_—_—_——_—__ by Mr. Howard near London,

Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr.

CAL SOOM... 2e 0b acta oki 2ky iAP aa th oad isael oe 240

NUMBER IV.—APRIL.

Mr. P. Taylor’s Description of a Horizontal Pumping Engine
erected on the Mine of Moran in Mexico. (With an En-
NN Bus ooo =) oes Bhim bith HEIEUG E Je WMG bea Wists laoss 241

Mr. George’s Analysis of a Sulphuretted Water from the
Northern Part of the Yorkshire Coal-field .............. 245

Mr. Ivory’s Application of the Variations of Temperature in
Air that changes its Volume to account for the Velocity of
Mound |; sade PMs BUCS POUL SL Nec ce 249

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level.................. 256

Mr. W. Phillips’s Observations on the Crystalline Form, &c. of
the’ Gaylussute! ae toh-3) 30 see yo white v'sls cated 263

Mr. Abraham on New Phenomena caused by the Effect of
Magnetic and Electric Influence, and Suggestions for ascer-
taining the Extent of the Terrestrial Magnetic Atmosphere 266

vi CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. Haworth’s Description of New Succulent Plants. ...... 271
Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk; with Remarks
upon the Hypothesis of Mr. Robberds, respecting the former
Level of the German Ocean. (With Engravings) continued 277

Lieut. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations !827.,........ 290
Notices respecting New Books. |. 2.0): G0ci. wis el) ee cleied 291
Proceedings of the Astronomical Society ................ 291
oe Bayal Society: us: dk seemed WU). bas te 202
eer | Linneegn. Society)» aiinsums ent ue othiane
ae - Horticultural Society .. .......4...... 307
—_____—_—__—— Royal Institution of Great Britain ...... 308
—_——— =+—. Mechanics’ Institution 7236.0 51 «ihe. 309
Description of a Planetarium, or Orrery, on a new Principle,

put in Motion by the State of the Atmosphere .......... 310
Crystallized Litharge—Composition of Nitric Acid......... $12

Phosphuretted Hydrogen Gas—Acids discovered in Castor
Oil—Supposed Chlorate of Manganese in the Native Peroxide 313
Arrival of Major Laing at Timbuctoo—Hybernation of the

Black JAnt. 00.5 Fie eeie a se. bcs. ous ioe oe ae BE oles 314
C. L. Rumker’s Observations on a Comet, made at Paramatta

== Scientiic DOOkSicfeicc.. 0: ete aot ee 315
News Patents oy) test Oe atk, 2. cetow utes DAS Ieee tenance Moet ices 316
Aurora, borealis. ii jic See oiees Sih cis ee UE biletone one Sane 317
Meteorological Observations. . .. - 0.2). 05.62 cj eee ve ee ene 318

oe — by Mr. Howard near London,
Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr.
Menllint Boston). ees ston abies 4 beatae ee bi SEAN 320

NUMBER V.—MAY.

Rev. W. V. Vernon on the Orange Phosphate of Lead...... 321
Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on a Memoir by M. Poisson, read to the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, Nov. 20, 1826, inserted in

the: Connsties Temes 462) scope a ce perce ote ea oid 324:
Rev. J. B. Emmett on Capillary Attraction................ 332
Mr. Galbraith on the Velocity of Sound.................. 336

Dr. Burney’s Results of the Meteorological Observations made
at Wick in the Northernmost Part of Scotland, published

in the Philosophical Magazine.................-.-..+- 339
Mr, Howldy’s Remarks on Mr. Sturgeon’s Paper “ On the In-

flammation of Gunpowder by Electricity” ............ 543

Mr. Teschemacher on Chromate of Silver................ 345

Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk; with Remarks
upon the Hypothesis of Mr. Robberds, respecting the former

Level of the German Ocean (continued) ...........20005 346
Corrections in Vlacq’s Tables of Logarithms .............. 353
Mr, Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level .................. 354

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds discovered in Mexico by
William Bullock, F.L.S. and H.S., and Mr. William Bul-
lock, Wm WepmrnMed) iio te 3 5 eet. 3d AR ee 364.

Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical Inquiry into the Na-
ture and Properties of the Blood; being the Substance of

CONTENTS. Vil

. Page
three Lectures on that Subject delivered at the Gresham In-
stitution during Michaelmas Term 1826 { continued) ...... 370

Mr. R. Phillips on the Chlorides of Lime and Soda ........ 376
New Books:—Dr. Turner’s Elements of Chemistry, including
the recent Discoveries and Doctrines of that Science...... 37
Proceedings of the Royal Society................-...... 385
———_—_-————- Linnean Society ..............00.... 386
Geological Society) He ey Seo eis 386
————— Astronomical Society ................ 390
———— Horticultural Society... .........0.... 391
eee ees Zeolgical society sce sire eee ee 391
—_—_—_____—— Royal Institution of Great Britain ...... 392
——_—___—__—— London Mechanics’ Institution. ........ 394
— — Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris.... 394
cb Slee SG 610) 1 1 ae aa el 395
Pe peANANNE Ds TMOG ohne. 0 ia) ye Sagan neh ol ale aden alas 396
New Theory of Crystallization--New Patents.......... ae ae re
Meteorological Observations... 0... eee ee ween es 398
acute eee —— by Mr. Howard near London,
Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr.
Weall at: Boston) io betas beets icele eect ele tae: 400
NUMBER VI.—JUNE.
Mr. W. Phillips on the Crystaliine Form of Sillimanite ...... 401
An Engineer’s Remarks oa Mr. J. Taylor’s Paper on the Ex-
Flesian’.of mteann Moilers Ue arene sasiaaee ceed: 403
Mr. Henwood’s Remarks on Mr. J. Taylor’s Paper on the Ac-
cidents incident to Steam-Boilers............ De Se ae 408
Rev. J. B. Emmett on the Physical Construction of Solids and
EINE Soe au) ini eee haba oh of cin ooh deter te yarate 41]

Mr. Smith on retaining Water in Rocks for Summer Use.... 415
Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical Inquiry into the Na-
ture and Properties of the Blood; being the Substance of
three Lectures on that Subject delivered at the Gresham
Institution during Michaelmas Term 1826 (continued) .... 418
Mr.R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk; with Remarks
upon the Hypothesis of Mr. Robberds, respecting the former
Bevel of the. German Oceano... - 45.0.0 i.0.0,0 105 0 010 +2 Beiot se 426
Mr. W. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds discovered in Mexico
by W. Bullock, F.L.S. and H.S., and Mr. Wm, Bullock, jun, 433
Mr. Airy on some Passages in Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on a Me-
moir by M. Poisson relating to the Attraction of Spheroids 442
Mr, A. Levy on a new Mineral Substance, proposed to be

PAO RMEENMNINI ES NS he eNO ees didn aletahl o> y 448
Proceedings of the Royal Society .................-+-.. 452
———_-—— Linnean Society! :.. i. .654... see. 454:
a Astronomical Society ...........-..-.. 455
—__—___-—_—_——— Horticultural Society ................ 466
Ss nee Zoological Society ..:......+-. 02.04. 466

Royal Institution of Great Britain,..... 467

vill CONTENTS.

Crystallized Carbonate of Potash.............-.2.. 200005 468
Action of thers on various Bodies—Chloride of Boron.... 469
Neutralizing the Magnetism of Watch-Works—New Achro-
matic Telescope, by M. Cauchoix—Chloride of Arsenic—
note respecting Mr. Babbage’s Logarithms..............- 470
Silica in Springs is dissolved by means of Carbonic Acid—
Notice regarding the common Star-Fish Asterias rubens ... 471
Sugar of Melons—Failure of the Suspension Bridge at Paris—
Living Condor at Paris—Scientific Books—New Patents... 473
Meteorological Observations. ... 0.05. L2..6. 1 eee ee eee es 474
——_—_—_—________———- by Mr. Howard near London,
Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr.
Weall: at Beste d:\-'i.. pe oe ie ere Sie. ea ATT

PLATES.

J. An Engraving of Mr. Puittir Taytor’s Horizontal Pumping Engine
erected on the Mine of Moran, in Mexico.

II. and IIf. Geological Sections of Norfolk and Suffolk, illustrative cf
Mr. R. €. Taytor’s Paper on the Geology of East Norfolk.

ERRATUM.

Page 260, for 200,000, read 206265; the number by which the length of
a division on the scale of a level answering to 1" must be multiplied to
obtain the length of the radius of its curvature.

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE

AND

ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY.

—>—

[NEW SERIES. ]

The ANNALS of PHILOSOPHY, being
now united with the PHILOSOPHICAL Maeazine, will
henceforward be published with the latter work. in

a New and United Series conducted by the Editors

of both Journals.

beyond the present range ot our experiments.

The best experiments on the expansive force of steam are
those of Dalton, comprehending all temperatures between the
freezing and the boiling points; and those of Dr. Ure, which .
extend from the freezing point to 312°. We have also, more
lately, a Table of results by Mr. Philip Taylor, trom 212° to
320°+, which added to Mr. Dalton’s Table completes the
same range of temperature as the experiments of Dr. Ure.
The three Tables we have mentioned are nearly on equal
footing in point of accuracy; but ina research like the pre-
sent, it seems better to adopt, as the foundation of our reason-
ing, the results obtained by one observer, and by the same
uniform processes. For this reason the experiments of Dr.
Ure are made the ground work of the following Table:

* Communicated by the Author. + Phil. Mag. Dec. 1822.
New Series. Vol. 1. No, 1. Jan. 1827. B

2 Mr. Ivory on the Elastic Force of Steam

e
Log. 30 |Difr,|Computed quantities.

| Index.
A

0°360)—1°29082|— 162|011857| ... |}011857} 0°360
0°726 —1°61618) — 142)011381\476/011403| 0°721
1°360|—1°34359| —122)"011013/368|010968} 1°378
2°4.56/— 1:08689| — 102|"010656/357/010553| 2°634
4°336|— 0°83704 —82 |:010208|448)010158} 4°408
7°530|—0°60032|—62 |'009682)526|:009783| '7°424
12:05 |—0°39613)—42 |:009432/250)'009428/ 12°05
19:00 |—0°19837/—22 |:009017|425|009092/ 18°93
28°88 |—0°01652/—2 |:008260) ... |}008777| 28°81
43°10 |+0°15736)+18 |008742) ... 008482) 42°63
61°90 |+0°31457| 4-38 |°008278|464|'008206) 61°50
86°30 |+0°45889)+ 58 |°007912)366|:007949| 86°70
290)120°15 |+0°60260) + 78 |°007726)186|:007714)119°9
+ 0°73051|+98 |:007454|272|:007497| L62°8

OBI DAPEPWNKY ©

In this Table the column marked + contains the temperature
beginning at 50°, and increasing continually by 20° as far as
Dr. Ure’s Table enables us to go. In the column on the left
are placed the indices which denote the number of intervals
of 20°. If + denote any temperature indefinitely, and x the

corresponding index, we have,
zr— 50

The next column, marked e, contains the elasticities, or the
tensions of the steam, in inches of mercury, taken from Dr.
Ure’s Table. Immediately after are placed the logarithms
of the elasticities estimated in parts of an atmosphere of 30
inches. Then follows the temperatures of the steam reckoned
from the boiling point, which are negative for all cases below
212°, and positive for all cases above it. In the next column
are placed the quotients of the numbers in the two last columns.
These quotients are irregular near 212°; because as or ap-
proaches to unit, its logarithm varying rapidly for any change
in e, the errors of observation have a great influence in this
part of the Table. It is remarkable however that the num-
bers in this column form a series continually decreasing.
Supposing the Table to be continued, would the numbers go
on decreasing to a fixed limit? Or, would they decrease to
a minimum, and then increase again? ‘The differences of the
quotients are placed in the next column. These differences
are extremely irregular, and, taken directly, seem to furnish

no

at different Temperatures. 3

no clue to guide us in our present research. But we may
gather in general that they decrease slowly; and hence we
may infer that the quotients, at least for a considerable range
of temperature, may be expressed with tolerable accuracy by
means of the first and second orders of differences. But as
these differences cannot be found directly, we must try to de-
duce them in the best way we can from the numbers in the
Table. Representing the first and second differences by A
and A®*, we have this general expression of the quotient cor-
responding to the index z, viz.

log. <—

——* = 011857 —2. A + ~S*. A’ (A)
Two values in the Table answering to given indices, are suf-
ficient for finding A and A*; but, on account of the irregu-
larities of observation, it will be better to proceed as follows.
Form the expressions of the seven quotients in the Table,
corresponding to the indices 1, 2, 3—7, and take a mean of
the whole; then,

010198 = 011857 —4A + 8 A®.

In like manner, form the expressions of the four last quo-
tients, and take a mean; then,
2

007842 = 011857 — = A + 61 A%

By means of these two equations we get,
A = 0004545
A? = ‘00001986.

Having now found A and A*, we must return upon our
steps and compute, by means of the formula (A), the several
values corresponding to the indices 1, 2, &c. The results of
these calculations are placed in the next column of the Table,
and it appears from inspection that they are surprisingly near
the real quotients. Using the computed quotients in place of
the real ones, the elasticities have been calculated and set down
in the last column of the Table. Thus, to find the elasticity
answering to the index 4, we have the equation,

log.
whence, log 5 = — 08329 = — 1 + ‘1671;
then, —1'1671

log. 30, 1°4771
log. ¢, 0°6442, e = 4°408.
In like manner have the other elasticities been calculated,
B2 and

4 Mr. Ivory on the Elastic Force of Steam

and the differences from the experimental quantities are in-
significant. It appears therefore that, taking the values of
A and A? which have been found, the formula (A) repre-
sents the elasticities as exactly as can be wished. In order
to reduce it to a proper form for use, I substitute the values
of A and A%, and arrange the terms according to the powers
ot x; then,

e

log: =~
= = ‘011857 —*00046443 .2 + *00000998 . 2”.
Now we have, _ 7-50 16248,
Ca aedoa. fm Cont?
wherefore, by substituting, Logarithms of coefficients.

log. = = O087166¢ .... . —3'9418393,

— 000015178 #2 ... —5:1812202, (B)
+ 000000024825 #. . —8*3871228.

At the freezing point, ¢ = — 180, and the elasticity by the
formula comes out 0°185, which is not sensibly different from
0-2 the experimental quantity. The formula (B) may there-
fore be considered as very nearly exact in the whole range of
Dr. Ure’s experiments.

Beyond Dr. Ure’s Table there are only two experiments
that I am acquainted with which deserve notice. The first is
by Mr. Southern, who makes the elasticity equal to 8 atmo-
spheres, or 240 inches of mercury, at 343°°6. In this in-
stance ¢ = 131°6, and the elasticity computed by the formula
is 264 inches, or 24 inches above the experiment. If this
appear a very great difference, it is to be observed that it cor-
responds to a variation of 6°°6 of the thermometer ; for, by the
formula, the elasticity is exactly 240 at 337°, when ¢,= 125.
It is to be observed too that Mr. Southern and Dr. Ure differ
from one another in the temperatures of the’ elasticities which
both have determined by their experiments, as will thus ap-
pear:

Elasticity. Mr. Southern. Dr. Ure.
inches, temp. temp.
60 250°°3 248
120 293 °4 290
Formula.
240 7 343 *6 | 337

We may therefore conjecture that the formula does not err
much at the great pressure of 8’atmospheres.

The other experiment is by M. Clement, who makes the
elasticity equal to 35 atmospheres at 419°. Now here ¢ = 207,
and as the computed elasticity amounts only to 23°8 atmo-

spheres,

at different Temperatures. 5

spheres, it follows that the formula does not reach such high
temperatures.
If we examine the formula (B) it will readily appear that

log. =

t

again. And that this is actually the case in nature, may be
proved by the experiments in our possession. ‘Thus, taking
the experiment of M. Clement, we have,

WE = 007459;

but in the Table we find -007454 in the column of quotients at
310°: wherefore while the temperature increased from 310°
to 419°, the quotient must have decreased to a minimum and
then increased again to its first magnitude. We learn, further,
that the minimum takes place at 364°, or about 152° or 153°
beyond the boiling point. Now, by the formula, the minimum
is 311° beyond the boiling point, or at double the distance it
ought to be; and the experiment of M. Clement is placed
before the minimum, instead of after it. The formula, there-
fore, although it is very accurate for a long range of tempera-"
tures, finally digresses altogether from the truth, furnishing
another instance of the great difficulty of detecting general
properties or laws by means of a comparison of particular re-
sults,

It is evident, however, that the formula deviates from the
truth, not because the form of the expression has been erro-
neously assigned, but because the experiments do not enable
us to determine the coefficients with sufficient accuracy. For
this purpose it is requisite to know the exact relation be-
tween A and A2, which we shall seek in vain to deduce from
the quantities furnished by observation. We have in reality
groped out the numerical values in the formula by consider-
ing the general features of the numbers, rather than by fol-
lowing any direct or accurate procedure. ‘The experiment of
M. Clement’ has shown us in what respects the formula is
faulty; and, perhaps, it might be possible so to rectify it, as
to make it represent all the experiments with some degree of
approximation. This, however, could not be accomplished
without long calculations, serving little other purpose than to
gratify curiosity; for it cannot be supposed that a single ex-
periment beyond the minimum is sufficient for fixing that
point with any tolerable precision.

But, setting aside the consideration of numerical formule,
it has been proved that the quotient of the elasticity divided
by the temperature is a quantity that decreases to a wae

anc

the quotient decreases to a minimum and then increases

6 Mr. Levy on the Identity

and then increases again. The general form of the expression
has likewise been assigned; and it will readily appear that
the quotient is represented -by the square of the ordinate to
the conjugate axis of a hyperbola, the square of the semitrans-
verse axis being the minimum. ‘To show this we need only
put the expression (B) in this form, viz.

e
log. 59”

=A + B(n—?),

A and B being known numbers, and x the distance of the
minimum from the boiling point. But it is sufficient to have
mentioned these things, the length of this paper warning me
that it is time to stop writing.

Noy. 5, 1826. J. Ivory.

II. On the Identity of Epistilbite and Heulandite. By A. Levy,
Esq. M.A. F.G.S.*

De®: GUSTAVUS ROSE, of Berlin, in the eighth num-

ber of the Edinburgh Journal of Science, has given the
description of a mineral species which he has considered as
new, and named Epistilbite. He states that the most consi-
derable differences between this species and Heulandite are
those in their regular forms, the physical characters and che-
mical compositions of both species being nearly exactly the
same}. When I read his paper it struck me, however, that
the forms and angles of Epistilbite might be derived by simple
and frequently occurring decrements from the primitive form
I had adopted for Heulandite, and that the easy, nacreous, and
only cleavage of Epistilbite was parallel to the same modifi-
cation of this primitive form, as is the easy, nacreous, and only
cleavage of Heulandite. It appears to me, therefore, that if
this mode of viewing the crystals of the newly described sub-
stance should be found correct, there is no sufficient ground
to consider it as forming a distinct species from Heulandite ;
since the forms of these twosubstances, which had been thought
to constitute their principal difference, may easily be made to

agree. F
* Communicated by the Author.

t Heulandite. Epistilbite.
Specific gravity...... 2211 2:249
ELRtUeHEee ome Sars cos) eohet ees A little greater than Heulandite.
Blowpipe' --. +. eee eese es The same indications as in Heulandite.
(MDIICAy i. 00590! . Seeelegee 58°59
PAU INA 5 WCB Zio cetera de.» abe G24
Analysis <uWeere. 1 Id. ee 7°56
PaNViatet eres. POSTON Sache. 14°48
USGda As ei a ol ees 1°78

Fig.

of Epistilbite and Heulandite. 7

Fig. 2.

Fig. 4. represents the form of the crystals of Epistilbite,
and is a copy of the figure given in the Edinburgh Journal of
Science. The cleavage is parallel to a plane bisecting the
obtuse angle formed by the two planes M. The incidences of

the different planes of this figure given by Dr. Gustavus Rose
are the following:

M onM = 135° 10!
Mont =122 9
# ont =109 46
# onu = 154 51

S$. on;s 147 40

The primitive form I have adopted for Heulandite, in the
description of Mr. Turner’s collection, is an oblique rhombic
prism represented fig. 1; the angles and dimensions -of
which are,

m,m = 97° 391 P,m = 108°1' b:h::1000: 588

the plane angle of the base is 92° 22! 40", and that of the la-
teral faces 106° 24! 30".

The

8 Mr. Levy on the Identity

The ordinary form of the crystals of Heulandite drawn in
parallel position with fig. 1, is represented by fig. 2, each
plane bearing the sign which indicates the decrement by which
it is conceived to be derived of the primitive. The following
are the measurements of the angles.

P, At =114° 5! m, ht =138° 49! 30" m, g! =131° 10! 30"
P, a! =130° 19! 50" a!, ht = 64° 24! 40" al, b =147° 29!

P, b! =147° 8! mb = 75° 9! bl, B = 135° 52!
b', g! = 112° 4,

P, d! = 155° 25!'10" m, d' = 132° 36’ =’, d' = 146° 31! 20"
@, g' = 106° 44!,

The dimensions assigned to the primitive form of Heulandite,
which have been determined so as to make the results of
calculation agree as nearly as possible with those of obser-
vation, are such, that the line joining the angle o, (fig. 1.)
with its opposite, does not make a right angle with the edge /.
It is well known, that Haiiy had erroneously supposed that
in every primitive oblique rhombic prism this angle was right.
In the present case, however, as in many others, this angle
differs but very little from 90°, being equal to 89° 5'._ If the
property here alluded to, and assumed by Haiiy, did really
exist, it would result from it, that every modification pro-
duced by simple or intermediary decrement on the edges or
angles of an oblique rhombic prism might be supposed to
be composed of half the number of planes of a modification
derived by some decrement on the edges or angles of a right
rhombic prism; and consequently that to every such modifi-
cation there would correspond another produced by a dif-
ferent decrement, the planes of which would be situated with
respect to one pair of the lateral faces of the primitive precisely
as those of the first were with respect to the other pair; the
planes of one modification measuring with each other, or with
the lateral faces of the primitive, exactly the same angles as
the planes of the other. It is easy to see that if
1 1

1
(a= dy n=)

represents generally the sign of one of the modifications, the
sign of the other will be
1 1 1

¢ s+: pyte 2)

And without entering into any discussion with respect to the
results offered by these formule in particular cases, I shall
only

of Epistilbite and Heulandite. 9

only observe that the two modifications which they represent
will coincide when
z2=0,0orr7+y+2z2=0.

A crystal derived from such an oblique rhombic prism, and
composed only of planes belonging to pairs of such modifica-
tions, would appear therefore more easily derivable from a
right rhombic prism, than from an oblique one.

If we consider now an oblique rhombic prism in which the
line joining the angle o with its opposite is not perpendicular
to the edge /, but very nearly so, the planes of the modifica-

naval
tion ¢ ae Te ) will not then measure with each other,
or with the lateral faces of the primitive exactly the same an-
1 1

i
gles, as the planes of the modification (3 ee Do) des ),

but, however, the differences between the corresponding inci-
dences of these two modifications will be very small. Conse-
quently a crystal derived from such an oblique rhombic prism,
and composed only of pairs of such modifications, would also
appear more easily derivable from a right rhombic prism than
from an oblique one, and especially if the measures of angles
obtained by observation could not be sufficiently depended
upon, owing to the want of brilliancy of the faces, or the im-
perfection of the crystal, to establish any difference between
the incidences of the planes of one modification, and the inci-
dences of the planes of the corresponding one.

It is doubtful whether among the substances, whose crystals
may be derived from an oblique rhombic prism, there is any,
in which the property assumed by Haiiy does really exist.
But it is certain that there are many in which it very nearly
obtains; and it is not less certain, and perhaps still more re-
markable, that in many of these, the pairs of modifications whose

1 l 1 1

1 1
general signs are (a eq@y n® and (5 r+z Zyts fp *

occur often on the same crystal. Pyroxene and amphibole
present several instances of what has just been stated.

This being well understood, it will not be difficult to show
in what manner the crystals of Epistilbite may be derived
from the primitive form of Heulandite. The symmetry of
fig. 4. which represents the form of these crystals, suggests
at first the idea that they are derived from a right rhombic
prism, but from the above considerations, does not exclude
the possibility of their being derived from the primitive form

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1827. C of

10 Mr. Levy on the Identity

of Heulandite ; since in that form the line joining the angle
o with its opposite, makes with the edge / an angle of 89° 5',
and also since the faces of the crystals, according to Dr. Rose’s
statement, are most of them uneven and dull, and do not ad-
mit of measurement by the reflective goniometer. If we now
compare the measures of the angles of the two substances, we
find in Epistilbite M on M (fig. 4) = 135° 10', and in Heu-
landite 6! on b' = 135° 52!. The cleavage of the first substance
being parallel to a plane, bisecting the angle formed by the
planes M, and the cleavage in the second being parallel to a
plane bisecting the angle formed by the planes 6'. The faces
M (fig. 4) may therefore be considered as corresponding to
the planes of the modification 6! of Heulandite. The difference
of 42! between the two angles which we suppose thus to be
equal, may very well be accounted for by the imperfection of
the crystals of Epistilbite. But I may even add, that having
found in Sir Abraham Hume’s collection a specimen from
Faroe, covered with crystals, answering perfectly the descrip-
tion given of Epistilbite, I was allowed to detach a few of
them, and by cleaving them deeply so as to leave only a very
narrow part of the planes M, I could measure the incidence
of M on M by means of the reflective goniometer, and found
it constantly from 5 to 10 minutes less than 136°. It still re-
mains to show the correspondence of the other planes s, 7, “
(fig. 4) with some simple modification of Heulandite. This
is the object of the following comparative table; and the near
agreement between the angles of the planes of Epistilbite, and
the calculated angles of the modifications of Heulandite, prove
I believe satisfactorily, that the planes s, (fig. 4) may be con-
sidered as the result of a decrement by two rows along the
lateral edges / of the primitive of Heulandite; two of the faces
¢ as the result of a decrement by one row on the angle 0; and
the two others of a decrement by two rows in height on the
angle a; two of the faces w as the result of a decrement by two
rows in height on the edges d; and the two others as the re-

sult of a decrement by three rows in breadth on the lateral.
angles a.

Caleulated angles of the modifications Angles of Epistilbite
of Heulandite. according to Dr. Rose.
Fi TE BFS) AD! AO! sie 9 ol sehen ery: Sy 8 LAT BR
Be BU 1 S552) 456) Te obi covas My Mi ISS
Ghie: Iee° 15! ;
— °
a’, b — 123° atts . UP M — 122 9
OB ee Sb Be TOS ae"
d?,o' = 154° 31)
_ °
aya* = 154° 11" Sec isphe '» epdjer eatee Re ol Oe ae

Fig.

of Epistilbite and Heulandite. 11

Fig. 3. represents the same form as fig. 4, but drawn in a
parallel position with fig. 1, and with regard to the decre-
ments by which the planes are conceived to be derived from it.

It appears to me, therefore, that the crystals of Epistilbite
present only a simple variety of Heulandite, the crystallogra-
phical sign of which referred to the primitive form assumed
for that substance is

i? a? a, 0' b d?.

The difference of their general appearance with that of the
ordinary crystals of Heulandite, can be no reasonable objec-
tion to their re-union with that substance; since it is well
known that some of the varieties of sphene differ quite as much
in their forms.

The crystals of Epistilbite are generally found in twins and
joined parallel to one of the planes M (fig. 4), or b' (fig. 3).
This circumstance may induce to take for the primitive form
of Heulandite an oblique rhombic prism, the lateral planes of
which would be the planes now designated by 0’, and for its

base either of the planes P, /', a', 0° or a®,

It might be objected to the reasons given above to consider
Epistilbite as a simple variety of Heulandite, that similar argu-
ments might perhaps be used to show that Stilbite may also be
considered as a variety of the same species. The hardness and
specific gravity of Heulandite and Stilbite are nearly the same ;
they have the same cleavage, even their chemical compositions
do not widely differ; and though the forms of Stilbite are ge-
nerally referred to a right rhombic prism, they might still, as
in the case of Epistilbite, be derived from the primitive of
Heulandite. If that were really possible, it would undoubt-
edly tend to throw some doubt upon the accuracy of the rea-
soning used with respect to Epistilbite ; because, besides the
difference between the chemical compositions of Heulandite
and Stilbite, and that of their optical characters, there are still
other reasons to regard them as two distinct species.

But if, on the contrary, it is shown that, consistently with
the simplicity of the structure of crystals, it is impossible to
refer both the forms of Stilbite and Heulandite to the same
primitive form, it will be a strong argument in favour of the
union of Epistilbite with the last-mentioned substance.

The form of the crystals of Stilbite is represented by fig. 5;
and the mean of various measurements gives 119° 5! for the
most obtuse incidence of the faces of the pyramid formed by
the planes marked 6', and 114° for the other. ‘Then, by as-
suming the primitive form to be a right rhombic prism of such
dimensions that the planes b' should result of a decrement by
one row on the edges of its base, it follows that the oa

C2 0

12 Capt. Parry and Lieut. Foster

of the lateral planes of this prism is 94° 6', and also that the
angle of the two oblique edges of the pyramid 6', which are in
a plane parallel to the modification h! is equal to 105° 37.
Now considering that the plane of cleavage of Stilbite, which
is the face g' of fig. 5, ought to be in position parallel to
the plane of cleavage of Heulandite, there are only two ways
in which it may be tried to derive the form fig. 5. from the
primitive adopted for Heulandite. The first is when the crystal
of Stilbite is placed, with respect to the primitive of Heulandite,
in the relative position represented by fig. 1. and 5; that is to
say, when the intersection of h' and g' (fig. 5) is parallel to the
lateral edge of fig. 1. The second, when the crystal of Stilbite
is placed so, that the line of intersection of the planes h},
g' (fig. 5) is parallel to the intersection of 1 and g' (fig. 2).
But in both cases it will be found that the faces 6! could mac be
derived from fig. 1. by complicated intermediary decrements.
They might be made to correspond in the first case to the
planes of the two modifications the crystallographical signs

of which are

(a b5 g®), (a? 78 h®)
and in the second to the planes of the modifications whose
signs are ; P
- (a 513 gt) (25 Bis 479).
And even then the angles calculated.from these indices would
not exactly correspond to the angles measured; and to obtain
a nearer equality between the results of observation and cal-
culation, higher numbers still should be used for the indices.
There can remain therefore no doubt respecting the incom-
patibility of the forms of Stilbite and Heulandite.

III. Reply to Mr. Galbraith’s Remarks on the Experiments
Jor ascertaining the Velocity of Sound at Port Bowen. By
Capt. W. E. Parry, R.N. F.RS., and Lieut. H. Foster,
RN. ERS.
To Richard Taylor, Esq.
Dear Sir, H. M. S. Hecla, Deptford, Dec. 11, 1826.
| your valuable Magazine*, No. 341, is a communication
from Mr. Galbraith of Edinburgh, making some remarks
on our experiments for ascertaining the Velocity of Sound at
Port Bowen; to which we should have replied earlier, had
not circumstances connected with our present engagements
interfered at the time of our becoming acquainted with the
remarks in question.
In the first place, Mr. Galbraith seems to regret that in such
* Phil. Mag, vol. Ixviii. p. 214.
a climate

on the Velocity of Sound at Port Bowen. 13

a climate we should not have recorded more particularly the
several circumstances which are required in such experiments.
It does not appear, however, that we have neglected any cir-
cumstance which he has pointed out as necessary, except the
precise velocity of the wind,—for which purpose unfortunately
we had no anemometer : nevertheless the velocity of the wind
during our experiments must, we conceive, be of little impor-
tance; as in all cases, save two, the observations were made
in calm weather, or when very light airs prevailed, as stated
in the table. With respect to “the angle between the di-
rection of the sound and that of the wind,” we beg to ob-
serve that, as the exact bearing of the gun is given, and like- -
wise the direction of the wind to the nearest point, we do not
comprehend what reason Mr. Galbraith has for regretting
that ‘the direction of the wind relative to that of the sound
was not ascertained.”

The circumstance of our not having noted the state of the
hygrometer, cannot properly be considered an omission, since
its indications were always those of perfect dryness in very
low temperatures, as stated in the body of the narrative.

It is not therefore to the omission of the velocity of the
wind, that the want of coincidence between Mr. Galbraith’s
theoretical deductions, and our practical results, is to be attri-
buted; nor is the mistake we have fallen into ascribable to
the same cause, but solely from our having inadvertently
spoken of an increased density, where we ought to have said
a diminished elasticity. At the same time we think Mr. Gal-
braith has by no means fairly stated our remark, having
omitted that part which applies to temperature: for we did
not speak of the increased density of the atmosphere, uncon-
nected with temperature; whereas, as Mr. Galbraith has
quoted our remark, it appears that density as measured by the
barometer alone was contemplated. However, Mr. Galbraith
will perhaps do us the justice to believe, that it was certainly
far from our intention to oppose our opinions on these points
to those of Newton or Laplace. We considered our remark
at the time, as a fair deduction from our own experiments,
without at all considering with what theory it might be at va-
riance: our only wish being, to furnish data for philosophers
to arrive at such laws as will make the computed and observed
velocities of sound agree more exactly with each other, than
appears to be the case, in the present state of our information
of all the modifying circumstances to which the motion of
sound is subjected. We are, Sir, yours, &c.

Wit. Epw. Parry, a R
Henry Foster, Lieut. vies
IV. Ez-

[ 4]

IV. Experiments on the Cohesion of Cast-Iron. By B. Bevan,
Esq.

To Richard Taylor, Esq.
Sir, -
AN erratum, of a single figure in the third formula in the
last Number of the Philosophical Magazine, page 343,
may have a tendency to mislead some of your readers. It will
be noticed that the third as printed, is the same as the second,

l
but should have been a= C.

Experiments on the cohesion of cast-iron lead to very irre-
gular results, depending in some degree upon the quality of
the metal; but in a greater degree upon the improper mode
of applying the force. During the present year I had some
cylinders and prisms cast of gray soft metal; I then reduced
the middle part of one of the cylinders to ‘425 inches diameter
and fixed it in my experimental press, with the resultant of
the straining force, nearly in the axis of the cylinder, the
weight required to break it was 2550 pounds; at the place of
fracture was a visible fault in the casting, so that the proper
sce a must be more than 17,900 pounds to the square
inch.

I then took another cylinder and reduced it, by turning, to
exactly °5 or 3 an inch in diameter, and submitted it to the
like process. The breaking weight was 6430 pounds, showing
a strength of cohesion of 32,700 pounds per square inch.

This last specimen sustained a load of 5988 pounds for
five minutes, before the last motion or addition of the weight:
so that we cannot be wrong in estimating iron of this quality
to have a cohesion of more than 30,000 pounds to the square
inch. The specific gravity of the iron was 7°716. I also tried
the transverse strength of some of the same iron cast into
prismatic bars: these bars were placed horizontally upon two
supports, twelve inches asunder, and the weight applied on
the middle of the bar; the depth being ‘65, and breadth *49
inches respectively. ‘The gradual application of the load oc-
cupied three hours; and this bar sustained a load of 700
pounds for ten minutes without signs of fracture: an addition
of 10 pounds broke it. If we therefore take the formula
15lw

bd2
the square inch, ?

Another bar of the same metal, and of nearly the same di-
mensions, was tried with the least thickness vertical, z.¢. in
the manner of using it, the depth and breadth being 487 and
‘64, having had a part of the hardened surface removed by a

fine file. Being

=c, the cohesion appears equal to 61,000 pounds to

Mr. Nixon on Barometrical Registers. 15

Being partly aware of the transverse strength from the for-
mer experiment, the time used for applying the first part of
the load was shortened; but towards the conclusion the ad-
ditions were cautious and slow, and the whole time occupied
in the experiment was 57} minutes; the breaking weight was
506 pounds, which gives 59,950 pounds per square inch, for
the cohesion, or in round numbers 60,000 pounds, and the
mean of both 60,500 pounds. Yours truly,

Leighton, Dec. 11, 1826. B. Bevan.

P.S. I have lately seen in the public papers, under the title
of Curious Weather-gauge, an account of a machine invented
by Mr. Donovan, capable of showing the commencement and
termination of every shower, and the rate of raining, with the
quantity fallen.

I beg leave to say, that I have several rain-gauges of such
a nature as to exhibit all these particulars; one of which has
been in constant use for fifteen years.—Further particulars I
perhaps may give at another time.

V. Table and Formule for reducing Registers of the Height

of the Barometer to the Standard Temperature and Level.
By Mr. J. Nixon.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals.

Gentlemen,

ONE of the many obstacles to the advancement of the de-

graded science of Meteorology, is confessedly the difficul-
ty of an immediate comparison of the pressure of the atmo-
sphere, as registered at places differing in elevation and tem-
perature. So intolerably irksome to the man of genius, anxious
to devote his talents to this obscure branch of philosophy,
must be the unintellectual toil of rendering a vast number of
similar registers comparable with each other, that the true
lover of the science cannot but indulge in the wish, that the
editors of scientific journals would invariably decline the in-
sertion of meteorological registers unreduced to the standard
level and temperature.

To render the task thus imposed on the observer as easy
and brief as is compatible with the requisite accuracy, I have
taken the liberty of transmitting you the annexed Table, de-
rived from the following formula: in which / denotes the
observed height of the barometer corrected for the varying
height of the surface of the mercury in the cistern, and for
the effect of capillary attraction; T the height of the detached
thermometer (or temperature of the mercury) ; @ the elevation

of

16 Mr. Nixon on reducing Barometrical Registers to the

of the barometer in ,feet above the level of the sea; and ¢ the

observed temperature of the air.
Formula No. 1.—Reduction of the pressure / to its value

at the standard temperature of 32° Fahr. = /'.
fae Tow 32\~x h.
fi = lock 11121 + T ”
additive or subtractive as T is below or above 32° Fahr.
No. 2.—Reduction of the pressure at 32° Fahr. = /! to its
value at the level of the sea — H.
log. H = log. h! +

a

Pk Se
56058.( 1 ats =)

418

No. 3.—Reduction of the observed pressure / to its value at
the level of the sea, and standard temperature of 32° Fahr. = Fi.

t
500
56054. € 1

the upper or lower sign to be used as 69°8 &c. + a is greater
or less than 2°2 &c. x T*.

Explanation of the Use of the Table.

For formula No. 3.—1°. To the observed temp. of the air
add =i, part of the alt. which term the mean temp.

2°. With the mean temp. enter’ the col. A, and take out the
corresponding quantity in col. B, which add to the altitude.

3°. With the mean temperature for the first column take
out the corresponding quantity in column C, which multiply
by the height of the detached thermometer.

4°, Note the difference of this product and the sum last
found, marking it positive or negative as the sum is greater or
less than the product.

5°. Multiply this difference by the quantity given in the co-
lumn D corresponding to the mean temperature found in the
first column, and divide the product by 1000.

6°. To the logarithm of the observed pressure, (corrected
for capacity and capillarity,) add or subtract, according to the
sign prefixed to the difference, the quotient just found, which

78\~No 2°4 x T\
* Approximatiyely, Jog. H= log. h + eed belch

t+ s
56054. (: ft a).
will

Standard Temperature and Level. 17

will be the logarithm of the pressure required, at the standard
temperature of 82° Fahr.—Example:
hk = 29°500 inches; 'T = 60°; ¢ = 59°; a = 500 feet.

595)500 79°9 (See column B.)
1 + 500:0
+ 59 579°9 Sum

mean temp. 60° 2-5 x60 = 150°0 Product
+ 429°9 Difference
x 015601 (See column C.)
T0005 )6"7069
+ :0067069
log. of 29:500 = 1:4698220
log. of 29°959 = 1:4765289
For formule Nos, 1 and 2.—If we prefer to reduce the ob-
served pressure in the first instance to its value at 32° Fahr.
the process of calculation will be as follows :
60 — 32 x 295 826

By Formula No. 1. Ta rs 60 — 11181 = — °*0739
h = 29°5000
i= 29°4261

Entering the first column of the table with the mean tem-
perature, take the corresponding number in the last column,
which multiply by the altitude. Divide the product by 1000,
and add the quotient to the logarithm of the pressure at 32°
Fahr.—Example : 015601

x 500

to00) 7°8005
+ 0°0078005
log. of 29°4261 = 1:4687327
log. of 29°959 = 1°4765332

The elevation of the barometer, when placed in the vicinity
of the sea, may be readily ascertained by levelling, trigonome-
trically, or by the portable barometer. When the situation is
inland, its height relative to the nearest canal, mountain, or
other object of which the absolute elevation has been well de-
termined, may be obtained by one or other of the methods
above mentioned. As a last resource,—extract from the diffe-
rent scientific journals the annual mean pressures furnished by
barometers placed at given elevations above the sea in the vi-
cinity of the observer, which data, in addition to the annual
mean height of his own instrument, will enable him to ascer-
tain on calculation the required difference of level.

I have the honour to be, &c.

Leeds, Dec, 5, 1826. J. Nixon.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1827. D Table.

18 Table for reducing Barometrical Registers.
TABLE.

A |Bi|c| p | a | Bic} oD
3° F.|'70°3 | 2-2 |0°017718 || 43° F.| 77-0 | 2:4 | 0°016176
4 70°5|2°2| -017671 || 44 77°2) 2-4] °016141
5 70°7|2°2| *017629 || 45 77°4| 24] °016106
6 70°8|2°2| :017587 || 46 77°5 | 2°4| °016071
7 71°0|2°2| -017546 || 47 77°7| 2°4| °016037
8° 71°2| 2:2) *017505 || 48 » 77°9 | 24) 016002
9 71°3|2°2| *017464 || 49 78°0 | 2°4| °015968
10 71°5|2°2| °017423 || 50 78°2|2°4| °015934
11 71°7|2°2| :017383 || 51 78°4:| 2°4 | °015900
12 71°8|2°2| °017342 || 52 78°5|2°5| °015866
13 72°0|2°3| °017302 || 53 78°7 | 2°5| *015832
14 72°2|2°3| °017262 || 54 78°9 | 2°5| °015799
15 72°3|2°3| 017222 || 55 79°0|2°5} °015765
16 72°5|2°3| °017182 || 56 79°2| 2°5| °015732
17 72°7|2°3| °01'7143 || 57 79°4|2°5| 015699
18 72°8| 2°3| °017103 || 58 79°5|2°5| *015666
19 73°0| 2°3| *01'7064 || 59 79°7 | 2°5 | °015633
20 73°2|2°3| °01'7025 || 60 79°9| 2°5| ‘015601
21 73°4|2°3| -016987 || 61 80:0 | 2°5 | 015568
22 73°5|2°3| 016948 || 62 80°2| 2°5| 015536
23 73°7|2°3| 016910 || 63 80°4 | 2°5 | *015503
24 73°9|2°3| .016871 || 64 80°5 | 2°5| °015471
25 74°0| 2°3| *016833 || 65 80°7 | 2°5 | °015439
26 74-2|2°3| *016795 || 66 80°9 | 2°5| °015407
27 74°4| 2°3| °016758 || 67 81:0} 2°5| °015375
28 74°5|2°3| 016720 || 68 81°2|2°5| °015344
29 74°7|2°3| °016683 || 69 ‘81°4|2°5 | °015312
30 74°9|2°3| *016645 || 70 81°5|2°5| °015281
31 75°0|2°3| °016609 || 71 81°7 | 2°6 | *015250
32 75°2|2°3| -016571 || 72 81°9| 2°6 | °015219
33 75°4|2°4| *016535 || 73 82°0|2°6 | °015187
34 75°5|2°4) 016498 || 74 82°2|2°6| °015157
35 75°7|2°4} *016462 || 75 82°4| 2°6 | -015126
36 75°9|2°4| 016425 || 76 82°5|2°6| °015095
37 76°0|2°4} °016389 || 77 82°7|2°6| °015065
38 76°2|2°4| °016353 || 78 82°9 | 2°6 | °015034
39 76°4|2°4) °016318 || 79 83°0 | 2°6| °015004
40 76°5|2°4| *016282 || 80 83°2|2°6| 014974
Al 76°7 |2°4| °016246 || 81 83°4 | Z°6 | °014944
42 76°9 )2°4| °016211 || 82 83°5 | 2°6| °014915

VI. Further

[ 19]
VI. Further List of Errors in Ptazzi’s Catalogue of Stars.
| vol. Ixvi. p. 261, of the Philosophical Magazine, a list of

- certain errata in Piazzi’s celebrated Catalogue of stars was
given, which had either been pointed out by himself, or disco-
vered by subsequent observations. We are indebted to the
same correspondent for the communication of the following list
of additional errors, which he has discovered, on a careful com-
parison of the catalogue of Piazzi, with those of Flamsteed,
Bradley and Mayer. ‘These errors are principally in the names

of the stars, and do not affect the general accuracy of that in-

valuable work.

Hora et

Columna.
Numerus. 3

Errata.

Corrige.

1. 151| Nomen |54 ¢ Androm. 54 Androm. (¢ Persei)

210 28 e Cassiopewe {48 Cass. (e Cus. Mes.)
Iv. 181 6 Sculptoris 8 Coeli Scalp.
278 &c.| Numerus |178.179.180 278.279 .280
Vv. 40| Nomen |40 + Orionis 20 + Orionis
76 27 p 2 Orionis 27 p Orionis
78| ——— (25 w 2 Orionis 25 v' Orionis
133} ——— |11 Leporis 10 Leporis
262) ——— |35 6 Aurige 33 8 Aurigze
265| ——— |645 4 Orionis [57 x° Orionis
I 7, ——— |F 1 Orionis f! Orionis
29| ——— |F 2 Orionis f? Orionis
37| ——— |74 x 2 Orionis 74 k? Orionis
205| ———— |v Navis v Navis
247| ——— |36 D Geminorum |36 d Geminorum
253} ———_ |X Navis x Navis
266| ——— |38 E Geminorum |38 e Geminorum
VII. 3| ——— |48 M Geminorum |48 m Geminorum
21; ——— |52 N Geminorum |52 n Geminorum
45| ——— |27 E 1 Canis 27 e Canis
59| ——— |Navis 618 C. A. |Canis 618 C. A.
69| —— |56 Q Geminorum |56 q Geminorum
72) ——— |30 D Canis 30 d Canis
101} ——— |63 P Geminorum |63 p Geminorum
105| ——— |62 S Geminorum |62 p Geminorum
111] —— {65 B2 Geminorum|65 b? Geminorum
131} ——— |68 K Geminorum |68 k Geminorum
147) ———— |N 1 Navis n' Navis
163) avis p Navis
166) —— |74 F Geminorum |74 f Geminorum
173} —— |M Navis m Navis
194) ——— |81 G Geminorum {81 g Geminorum

D2

20 Mr. Sturgeon on the Inflammation of Gunpowder

Hora et

Numerus | Columna. Errata Corrige.
vit. 214, Nomen |C Navis
246 85 L Geminorum |85 1 Geminorum
vii. 77] ———— |29 Geminorum
158} —— {48 v Cancri
- 1183) ——— /|1¢1 Hydre 1 9? Hydree
227, ——— |62 g Leonis 62 p Leonis_.
KI, 62) -——— 15x Crateris 15 y Hydre et Crat.
WI. 92} ———— |u Centauri u Centauri
119 22 q Virginis 21 q Virginis

126|Motus Prop. |— 0",02
177|Ascen. Recta |189° 6! 43" 8
xi. 1} Nomen _— |w Centauri

— 1",02
189° 9! 43" 8

Iv. 117 24 y Bootis
198} ——— _ (|32h 2 Bootis
266} —M—— |Aa Centauri
xv. 135} M—— _ [6 v Corone bor.
xvi. 71) e045 o Scorpii
vil. 286 ~——— {511 Draconis
RIX. 57| de i 121 & ThA quile
135) 0 ==. 0135\0 Aquilz
187, —— (39k Antinoi
2A |S
OARS Dida
289) == 8 ¢ Sagittee
Xx. 233 15 v Capricorni {15 v Capricorni
433 Hora 99.53 20. 53

51 ¢ Aquarii 55 § Aquarii

VII. On the Inflammation of Gunpowder and other Substances by
Electricity ; with a Proposal to employ the Term Momentum
as expressive of a certain Condition of the Electric Fluid. By
Mr. W. Sturceon.

To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal.
Sir.
SIN CE the publication of my paper on the ignition of gun-
powder by the electric fluid, I have had an opportunity of
perusing Mr. Woodward’s paper * on the same subject. But
I find that, like all other authors I have yet read, Mr. W.

* This paper is one of those you so obligingly pointed out to me for
perusal ; and appears at page 283. vol. vii. of the new series of the Annals
of Philosophy. The two papers in vol. viii. contain nothing material on
the subject.

has

and other Substances by Electricity. 21

has left us entirely in the dark with respect to the Jaw that is
necessary to be observed in varying the experiment. For al-
though the dimensions of his jar and tube are given, no men-
tion whatever is made, why it is necessary to observe those
dimensions, or why other jars and tubes of various other di-
mensions may not answer as well. Indeed, so little does Mr.
W.’s hypothesis concur with the conclusions deduced from
my experiments, that he supposes the water derives its retard-
ing property solely from its confinement in tubes. For it is
stated in Mr. W.’s paper, ‘If the tube be filled with ether
or alcohol, and placed in the circuit, the powder will be in-
flamed. If it be filled with sulphuric acid, which is a better con-
ductor, the powder will be scattered and not inflamed: but
the dispersion will not be so great as when metals only form
the circuit.”

“The same effect will be produced by transmitting the
charge through the animal ceconomy, or through water not
inclosed in tubes, in which case the water does not appear to
oppose a sufficient resistance to the passage of the fluid.”

It is evident from this statement of Mr. Woodward’s, that
he never varied the experiment by employing tubes of various
diameters; his experiments being with different fluids in the
same tube. Had Mr. W. taken into consideration the ne-
cessity of varying the diameter of the tube with the nature of
the charge, I suspect he would have found little difficulty in
igniting gunpowder by transmitting the electric fluid through
sulphuric acid, it being necessary to observe nothing more
than to augment the charge, or reduce the diameter of the
tube.

That the retarding property of water does not depend on
its confinement, is evident from the success of my experiments
with a moistened thread exposed to the open air. Indeed, so
certain it is, that confinement does not impart to water this
property, that gunpowder may be ignited in the electrical cir-
cuit, by transmitting the fluid through a sufficiently narrow
streak of water, drawn on the surface of a piece of flat glass.

I should, however, be extremely sorry to detract any thing
from the merits of any man; and although Mr. Woodward’s
explanation of igniting gunpowder by the electric fluid, when
transmitted through water, does not exactly agree with the
principles on which I suppose the action to depend ; I never-
theless should be wanting in candour, were | not to express
my sentiments on the highly interesting nature of his experi-
ments: and I feel a pleasure in acknowledging that Mr. W.
has preceded me in some that are detailed in my paper (al-
. though I did not know it at the time) ; viz. those wherein gun-
powder

22 Mr. Sturgeon on the Inflammation of Gunpowder

powder was ignited on both the positive and negative side of
a long conducting wire.

Mr. Leuthwaite has likewise conducted a number of in-
teresting experiments on this subject ; but I believe they were
intended chiefly to ascertain the conducting power of different
fluids, in order to make choice of the most eligible for the
purpose of igniting gunpowder by the electric fluid.

Hence, so far it appears that the idea had not been enter-
tained, (prior to the institution of my experiments,) that the
diameter of the tube, and the nature of the charge, would any
way affect the result of the experiment. Neither does it ap-
pear that the ignition of gunpowder, by means of transmitting
the electric fluid through wnconfined water, was ever attempted
prior to those experiments detailed in my former paper on
this subject. The most extraordinary method of effecting the
ignition of gunpowder by the electric fluid, that I have yet
heard of, is that stated by Mr. Howldy in the Philosophical
Magazine, vol. lxviii. p.173. Ihave been induced to pay some
attention to this method, “ especially as it saves the experimen-
ter time, labour, and power,” circumstances highly import-
ant and necessary to be understood.

I think, however, it. is to be regretted, that Mr. Howldy
has not mentioned the hygrometrical state of that part of the
table (“ four inches”) between the extremity of the chain and
the outside of the jar: as it is possible, that a variation in that
particular may vary the result of the experiment. But as
Mr. H. has practised this method for several years, and with
uniform success, it is to be expected that such a circumstance
could hardly escape the notice of so accurate an experimenter.
Considering, however, that four inches is a long striking di-
stance through dry air, and not happening te be successful
when attempting to repeat the experiment according to Mr.
H.’s directions, I have been induced to suggest to that gen-
tleman, the necessity of his repeating the experiment, under
the following circumstances.

First. Let the table on which the jar and chain are placed
be perfectly dry, and of hard wood, (say an old mahogany
table that has frequently been rubbed with bees-wax, or with
any thing else to render it a nonconductor.) Let this jar of
160 square inches of (interior) coated surface, be charged to
the intensity of 80° per quadrant electrometer; every other
part of the circuit being as he has described it. Discharge
the jar through this circuit.

Secondly. Let the same arrangement again be made, only
with this difference: draw on the table a narrow line of em

(four .

and other Substances by Electricity. 23

a

(four inches long,) from the outside of the jar to the extremity
ofthe chain. Discharge the jar through this circuit.

Should there occur different results in those experiments,
(as I am persuaded there will,) why did Mr. Howldy not men-
tion such essential particulars? Or are we to conclude from
his silence, that he entertained just notions of the nature of
the experiment, and that this circumstance was too trivial to
notice ?

With respect to the method in which the wooden peg is
used, I am aware that it will answer very well if regulated
upon the principles stated in my paper :—that is, when the
moisture it contains in a transverse section is proportioned
to the charge transmitted; and that, whether the point be
sharp or blunt; and in whatever part of the circuit it may be
placed. If its being “very dry” were essential to the success
of the experiment, it appears strange, that when it possessed
that quality in a superior degree, by “two or three experi-
ments,” it should be “ rendered useless.” Its having a sharp
point too, may possibly be the means of its possessing pro-
perties which [have not seen; especially as it appears to have
been used in that shape by the celebrated electricians Dr.
Watson and Mr. Wilson more than fifty years ago.

I should however recommend those persons who use a
piece of wood, to have it somewhat longer than that described
by Mr. Howldy, for fear of meeting similar disappointments
to those which he met with when varying the distance between
the outside of the jar and the extremity. of the chain with high
intensities ; as it is possible that the peg may be shorter than
the striking distance.

Whenever an electrical discharge is transmitted through
water, for the purpose of igniting gunpowder, the length of
the aqueous column ought always to exceed the striking di-
stance; for if the wires which enter the extremities of the
column are brought too near each other, the electric fluid
will dart from one to the other with very little interruption
and in all probability will scatter rather than ignite the gun-
powder.

To insure success, the column or train of water, or any
substance containing it, such as wood, twine, silk, paper, &c.,
should never be shorter than six inches; and the thickness or
quantity of water contained in a transverse section must al-
ways be regulated according to the nature of the charge ; that
is, to the quantity and intensity of the electric fluid employed.
When a small jar is used for this purpose, then the strip of
water must be very thin, or narrow: ifa larger jar be used,

the

’

24: Mr. Sturgeon on the Inflammation of Gunpowder

the thickness of the aqueous column may be increased. When
the same jar is used with different intensities, then the lowest
intensity requires the thinnest strip of water ; not because the
intensity is lower, but because the quantity of fluid is less:
and although a column of water that answers for a low inten-
sity will answer for every intensity that is higher; neverthe-
less, a column that would answer very well for a high inten-
sity, might be far too large, to insure success, with an inten-
sity that is very low.

‘As glass tubes are both convenient and elegant for regu-
lating the diameter of a column of water ; about seven or eight
inches of barometer tube, ;4, of an inch diameter, answers the
purpose very well, with any jar containing more than half a
square foot of coated surface on each side; with any intensity
of charge above 50° per quadrant electrometer *.

By employing a glass tube of the above dimensions filled
with water, and a jar containing 120 square inches of coated
surface on each side of the glass, gunpowder was ignited in
the circuit at every trial, with any intensity above 20°. When
two such jars were employed at the same time, gunpowder
ignited with every intensity above 10°; sometimes with an
intensity as low as 7° or 8°. The gunpowder was fine grained,
and of the best quality. If the gunpowder is bruised to a fine
powder, it will answer still better.

When moistened thread, twine, or wood is used, any of
them may be cut in two, and separated a little, and the gun-
powder will take fire at this interruption of the watery part of
the circuit. Thus we learn that it is not necessary for me-
tallic conductors to be in contact with the gunpowder, to in-
sure its ignition by the electric fluid.

A chain may be made of alternate links of copper wire and
tailor’s thread, in such a manner as not to be easily distin-
guished from one that is all of metal. Ifsuch a chain be dipped
in water, and made a part of the electrical circuit, gunpowder
may be ignited in any part of that circuit, as though the
thread were one continued piece.

When one of the above-mentioned jars was employed, and
a copper conductor formed the circuit, ather was fired at an
interruption, with every intensity above 20°. When the water
tube formed a part of the circuit, ether could not be fired,
though both jars were employed together, with an intensity
of 90°.

* As quadrant electrometers do not afford uniform measures of electri-
cal intensity, but differ from one another according to the weight of the ball,
delicacy of suspension, &c. an intensity is here given, which, it is expected,
will answer with the generality of them.

When

and other Substances by Electricity. 25

When four such jars were charged to the highest possible
intensity, and discharged through the water tube,—gold leaf
placed in the circuit was powerfully attracted, but not defla~
grated.

One jar with an intensity of 60°, powerfully magnetized a
sewing needle, placed in a spiral forming part of a complete
metallic circuit. With twojars charged to the highest possible
intensity, no magnetic effect was produced, when the tube of
water formed a part cf the circuit.

How do these experiments accord with the doctrine of guan-
tity and intensity? In the galvanic process, a needle may be
powerfully magnetized by a single pair of small copper and
zinc plates; by which process, it is said, we have quantity,
but not intensity. But by the experiments I have just now
mentioned, it appears that guantity has not the power of mag-
netizing needles, without intensity. For when the electric fluid
was not retarded by inferior conductors, a very small quantity
produced the effect; but when the intenséty of the discharge
was reduced, although three times the former quantity, at
least, was employed, not the slightest magnetic effect was pro-
duced. The truth is, we want another and a more appro-
priate term in electricity ;—that term is Momentum. Intensity
answers very well to express the relative degrees of concen-
tration on the surface of jars, &c., but momentum is the proper
term when the fluid is in motion. Hence then, although the
less quantity of fluid produced on the needle an effect which
the greater was unable to accomplish ; this effect was proba-
bly owing to the momentum of the former exceeding that of
the latter. .

When tow or cotton is moistened with spirit of turpentine,
or mixed with powdered resin, it will ignite by a very small
electrical discharge when the whole circuit is of metal. But if
the tube of water form a part of the circuit, the tow, or cotton,
prepared as above, will not ignite, although two of the betore-
mentioned jars charged to the highest possible intensity be dis-
charged through the circuit.

When a narrow slip of gold leaf was placed between two
pieces of glass, and made to form a part of a complete metal-
lic circuit; one jar with an intensity of 80° discharged through
that circuit, completely exploded the gold leaf. When two jars
were employed at the same time, and charged to a still higher
intensity than the former, and the water tube entered into
the circuit; a similar slip of gold leaf subjected to the dis-
charge, remained uninjured.

hen gold leaf and gunpowder were subjected at the same
time to a discharge similar to the above, and the whole cir-

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1827. EK cuit

%6 Mr. Lévy on some newly-discovered

cuit of metal; the former was completely exploded, but the
latter substance was scattered only. When the water tube
formed a part of the circuit, every other part arranged as be-
fore, the gunpowder ignited, but the gold leaf was undisturbed
by the discharge of the jars.

Similar experiments were made with gunpowder and needles,
gunpowder and zether, gunpowder and tow, prepared as above.
When the circuit was completely metallic, the needles were
magnetized, or the zther, the tow, &c. were fired: but the
gunpowder was in no instance ignited. When the water tube
formed a part of the circuit, the gunpowder was, in every case,
ignited ; but the other substances remained unaffected.

. Hence we may conclude, that in order to magnetize pieces
of steel, to explode metals, to ignite zther, or tow, with resin,
&e. by electricity ; quantity and velocity, or momentum of the
fluid is required. But to ignite gunpowder, quantity and time
are indispensable. That is, when the quantity is constant: to
produce the former effects requires velocity, to produce the

latter effect, ¢zme. I remain Sir,
Your obedient servant,
Artillery Place, Woolwich, W. STuRGEON.

Noy. 24th, 1826.

VIII. On some newly discovered Siberian Minerals. By
A. Lévy, Esq., M.A. F.G.S.

ME: MENGE has lately discovered in Siberia several rare

species of minerals, which hitherto had not been found
in that country, already so rich in that department of natural
history. Among the newly discovered species are mentioned
Tantalite, Gadolinite, and Zircon. However, from the charac-
ters of the specimens of these, which Mr. Heuland has just
received and added to his private collection, it appears that
the uncommonly well defined and detached crystals, which
had been thought to belong to the first, present a form quite
incompatible with those of that species, but agree perfectly
with the description given by Professor Mohs of the substance
he has called Axotomous iron ore, which is isomorphous with
specular iron*. ‘The form of the crystals from Siberia, in
Mr. Heuland’s collection, offer only two varieties; one of them
is represented. by fig. 1, and the other differs only from it by
the absence of the faces marked e;.

* T believe that the suggestion of Professor Mohs, that Crichtonite and
Axotomous iron ore belong to the same species, will prove to be the truth ;
and I hope soon to be able to give the results of the comparative exami-
nation J have made of the two minerals.

This

Siberian Minerals. 27

This form, from the relative po-
sition of its planes, and the angles
they measure, may be derived from
an acute rhomboid, the planes of
which would be the planes P of the
figure, and measuring the same an-
gle, or very nearly the same angle,
as the primitive rhomboid of spe-
cular iron. The faces e,, as shown
by the figure, are not repeated sym-
metrically on each side of the faces
P; so that there are only six of them, and they are disposed in
such a manner that each of the three planes é; of the upper
part of the crystal is parallel to one of the planes e; of the lower
part. This regular want of symmetry is precisely the charac-
ter offered by the crystals of axotomous iron ore. It is what
Professor Mohs has expressed in saying that the regular forms
of this substance are hemi-rhombohedral with parallel faces.

The crystals represented by fig. 1. are of a dark iron black
colour; their planes are sufficiently brilliant for the use of the
reflective goniometer, but however do not afford very good
reflections. There are on some of them indices of cleavage in
a direction perpendicular to the axis. They act upon the mag-
netic needle, but not so powerfully as specular iron. Their
size vary from more than an inch in diameter to about one-
fourth of an inch, their thickness is generally less than their
breadth. Sometimes are found adherent to them small cry-
stals or fragments of white felspar. Their exact locality, as
well as that of the other minerals above mentioned, is the
neighbourhood of Lac Ilmen, west of Miask, in the govern-
ment of Ecatherinebourg in Siberia.

The specimen sent as Gadolinite presents a very large cry-
stal said to belong to that species, placed on flesh-coloured
cleavelandite, or perhaps rather labradorite, as one of the two
faces of cleavage, inclined to each other at an angle of about
93° 30/, is striated parallel to its intersection with the other; a
character which I believe belongs to the last-mentioned sub-
stance. ‘The form of the crystal is that of an obtuse rhombic
prism, the acute lateral edges of which are emarginated by
narrow planes, without any distinct termination. The faces
of the prism are rough, and small crystals of light brown zircon
are disseminated on them as well as in the matrix. The crystal
is so engaged, that the incidence of the faces cannot be mea-
sured even with the common goniometer. The fracture is of
a deep black with a resinous lustre.

The zircuns have come in crystals, detached and also disse-
E2 minated

28 Rev. B. Powell’s Observations

minated on groups of milky white opaque felspar, most of the
crystals of which are covered with a thin dark iron black coat-
ing, and mica in large lamine. These crystals offer only two
varieties; one of which is represented by fig. 2, and the other
differs from it by the absence of the planes 6: *.

They generally present both
summits. The planes mand b! are
very brilliant, the planes 53 and b;
dull, and the planes g' slightly un-
dulated and of a highly vitreous
lustre. Their colour varies from
grayish white to a deep brown.
Some are transparent; others only
transluscent or opaque. Some of the
crystals are as large as a wallnut, ge-
nerally much smaller, but very well
defined.

Fig. 2.

IX. Observations on the Solar Eclipse, November 29th, 1826.
By the Rev. BavEN Power, M.A. ELR.S.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Philosophy.
HE curious observations of Mr. Wiseman during the
solar eclipse of September 1820, recorded in the Memoirs
of the Astronomical Society (Part I. p. 140.) tend to show
that during the eclipse there was a deficiency of the red rays
of the sun and the heating power accompanying them. ‘This
conclusion is considered to be corroborated by the further
observation of a diminution in the space occupied by the red
rays in the prismatic spectrum formed at the same time. ‘The
facts are stated to have been anticipated by Mr. Wiseman; but
the principle on which he anticipated them is not mentioned.
As there is nothing said in the paper alluded to, which can
lead us to determine how far the effects may depend upon the
magnitude of the eclipse, it will be doubtiess a point of in-
terest, not only on the occurrence of an eclipse of equal mag-
nitude to verily the facts; but also in other cases to ascertain
whether, or in what degree, similar effects are produced.
With this object in view, I made a few observations during
the eclipse of November 29th. The weather was favourable
only for one short interval in the early part of the eclipse,

* Since writing the above, [ have observed another variety which be-
sides the modifications of fig. 2. presents the planes, which Hatiy has desig-
nated by a.

and

on the Solar Eclipse, November 29th, 1826. 29

and again for a longer period towards its termination. My
observations were made on the top of a house in the city :—un-
favourable, however, as the circumstances were, I believe the
results, as far ‘as they go, can be relied on.

I adopted a somewhat different method from that used by
Mr. W.; and one which appears to me capable of giving more
accurate results. It consists in having two thermometers, the
bulb of one painted red, the other black: these being fixed
on one mounting with their bulbs detached, and exposed to-
gether to the influence of the sun’s rays when eclipsed, and
when in its ordinary state, any difference in the quantity of
red rays and of their heating power, in the two cases, would
be shown by a difference in the ratio of the risings of the two
thermometers in a given time upon exposure to the sun. The
thermometers were graduated to quarters of centigrade de-
grees, and the diameters of their bulbs were, red 0°6 inch ;
black 0°55 inch.

The following is a statement of the results I was enabled to
obtain. The thermometers were held at a distance from sur-
rounding objects, and were as much as possible screened from
the wind, but not perfectly.

Nov. 29.
A.M. 10" 25™. Clouds cleared off. Eclipse considerable.

Rise upon exposure tO} Ratio

Minutes.
the Sun.

(L.)

Red therm.|Blacktherm.| red. :black.

——_

1 centigr. —

4 0°25 0°°5 tie 2

6 5 ae 1A
Mean 1: 2

———

10° 45". Thick clouds.
11" 20". Clouds cleared off. Eclipse considerable.

A.M. 115 40".

30 Rev. B. Powell on the Solar Eclipse, Nov. 29th, 1826.
A.M. 115 40". Eclipse diminished.

: Rise upon exposure to pes
(III). | Minutes. The Sint Ratio,

Red therm.|Biacktherm.| red. : black.

11" 50". Eclipse very small.

128 5™, After eclipse ended.

The results of these different observations exhibit some dis-
crepancy, which may probably be attributed to the varying
influence of wind, occasional haziness, &c.; but if those ob-
tained during the eclipse be compared with those when there
was none, I conceive no such difference will appear as can be
supposed connected with the circumstance of the eclipse.

From these results we may infer, that during the present
eclipse, (viz. one of about 6} digits,) the rays underwent no
such modification as was sufficient to produce a perceptible
difference in the ratio of the effects on a red and a black ther-
mometer. :

From Mr. Wiseman’s statement respecting the alteration
which took place in the spectrum, I conceive it will be de-
sirable to verify by the more perfect methods now known, of
insulating homogeneous rays, whether in such an eclipse any
given ray is either entirely wanting, or very much weakened.

So

Sir H. Davy on Electrical and Chemical Changes. 31

So far as the case of the present eclipse bears upon the ques-
tion, I tried this with respect to the extreme red rays dis-
covered by Mr. Herschel, to which the greatest heating power
belongs; and looking at the sun during the eclipse through a
good prism of flint glass, interposing before the eye three
thicknesses of the purple glass, described by that gentleman,
I saw the ray in question perfectly distinct, and unaltered as
compared with its appearance when there was no eclipse.

The deep red image of the sun thus forming the end of the
spectrum, of course exhibited the eclipse; and in a spectrum
formed in a darkened room, if the superposition was but
small, the same deficiency at the red end might be apparent ;
but this obviously would not explain a deficiency of heat as
compared with that of the compound rays; nor would it ac-
count for the increased brilliancy which Mr. Wiseman ob-
served in the yellow and blue.

I am not aware what was the cause reasoned upon by Mr.
W. as capable of producing any actual relative deficiency of
red rays: if it were any such cause as inflexion of the sun’s
light in passing the body of the moon, which should affect
the red rays most, and thus the light reaching the earth
should be deprived of a portion of red, a less portion of
green, blue, &c. this would produce a diminution in intensity,
though not a deficiency in space, in the red part of the spec-
trum. Hence, however, would result a greater relative bright-
ness in the blue, &c.; and such a difference in the heating
effects as has been described. Such a cause would act more
sensibly in porportion to the magnitude of the eclipse; and its
ore might be quite insensible, except in a very considerable
eclipse.

X. The Bakerian Lecture. On the Relations of Electrical
and Chemical Changes. By Sir Humeury Davy, Bart.
Pres. R.S.*

J. Introduction.

A LONG time has elapsed since I read before this Society

the Bakerian Lecture on the Chemical Agencies of Elec-
tricity. The general laws of decomposition developed in that
paper were immediately illustrated by some practical results,
which the Society did me the honour to receive in a very fa-
vourable manner; and which, by offering a class of new and
powerful agents, led me away for many years into a field of

* From the Philosophical Transactions for 1826. Part III.
pure

32 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

pure chemical inquiry: and it is only lately, and on an occa-
sion which is well known, that I have again taken up the
subject of the general principles of electro-chemical action.
After a number of new experiments, which I shall have the
pleasure of laying before the Society, and notwithstanding
the various novel views which have been brought forward in
this and in other countries, and the great activity and exten-
sion of science, it is peculiarly satisfactory to me to find that
I have nothing to alter in the fundamental theory laid down
in my original communication; and which, after a lapse of
twenty years, has continued, as it was in the beginning, the
guide and foundation of all my researches.

I am the more inclined to bring forward these new labours
at the present moment, though they are far from being in a
finished state, because the discovery of Oersted and that of
Morichini, illustrated by some late ingenious inquiries, con-
nect the electro-chemical changes with entirely new classes of
facts, and induce a hope that many of the complicated phe-
nomena of corpuscular changes, now obscure, will ultimately
be found to depend upon the same causes, and to be governed
by the same laws; and that the simplicity of our scientific ar-
rangements will increase with every advance in the true know-
ledge of nature.

Il. Some historical details. |

As I am not acquainted with any work in which full and
accurate statements on the origin and progress of electro-
chemical science are to be found, and as some very erroneous
statements have been published abroad, and repeated in this
country, I shall take the liberty of laying before the Society
a short historical sketch on this subject; which is the more
wanted, as the journal in which the early discoveries were re-
gistered has long been discontinued, and is now little known
or referred to.

As there are historians of chemistry and astronomy who
date the origin of these sciences from antediluvian times, so
there are not wanting persons who imagine the origin of
electro-chemical science before the discovery of the pile of
Volta; and Ritter and Winterl have been quoted * amongst
other persons as having imagined, or anticipated the relation
between electrical powers and chemical affinities, before the
period of this great invention. But whoever will read with
attention Ritter’s ‘ Evidence that the galvanic action exists
in organized Nature+,” and Winterl’s “ Proluszones ad Che-
miam Seculi decimi noni,” will find nothing to justify this

* Oersted, translated by Marcel, 1813. + Jena, 1800.
opinion.

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 33

opinion. Ritter’s work contains some very ingenious and
original experiments on the formation and powers of single
galvanic circles; and Winterl’s some bold, though loose spe-
culative views * upon the primary causes of chemical phzeno-
mena: and in the obscurity of the language and metaphysics
of both these gentlemen, it is difficult to say what may not be
found. In the ingenious, though wild views, and often inex-
act experiments of Ritter, there are more hints which may be
considered as applying to électro-magnetism than to electro-
chemistry ; and Winterl’s miraculous Andronia might, with as
much propriety, be considered as a type of all the chemical
substances that have been since discovered, as his view of the
antagonist powers, the acid and basic, can be regarded as an
anticipation of the electro-chemical theory. The queries of
Newton at the end of his “ Optics” contain more grand and
speculative views that might be brought to bear upon this
question than any found in the works of modern electricians+;
but it is very unjust to the experimentalists who, by the la-
borious application of new instruments, have discovered novel
facts and analogies, to refer them to any such suppositions as,
“ that all attractions, chemical +, electrical, magnetic, and gra-
vitative, may depend upon the same cause;” or to still looser

* As a specimen of the Prolusiones, I shall give a few articles from the
index, which will show the character of the work. Prolusiones, pag, 256,
et seq.

256. ‘*Adamas est Andronia.

260. “ Andronia cum Plumbo creat Barytam, cum Ferro Chalybem.

262. “Carbo est acidus cum Atmospheera basica.

263. “ Chromium non est nisi Calx Magnesii acida.

——. “ Cuprum cum Andronia coalescit in Moybdenum.

268. “ Scintilla electrica formatur 4 Principiis Conductorem primum et
secundum animantibus, ac inter se concurrentibus ; est gravis, habet effec-
tum electricitati contrarium.”

See the eloquent observations of M. Chenevix on the subject of
Winterl’s Theory, Annales de Chimie, vol. 50, 2 cap. 175.

f Inthe Systéme Universelle of M. Azais, not only are all the phenomena
of nature referred to the same cause, but specific reasonings upon the mode
of its operation given. In this work, published in 1810, not only is the
identity of magnetism and electricity insisted on, but an attempt is made
to explain the manner in which the two electrical fluids produce the mag-
netic phenomena, pag. 239, vol. i. “ Ainsi ces deux ordres de phénomenes
sont tres resemblans. Repetons que toutes leurs différences résultent uni-
quement de ce que les deux fluides sont moins intenses lorsqu’ils produisent
les phénoménes du Magnétisme que lorsqu’ils produisent les phénoménes
du Galvanisme, &c.” It requires only the same principle as that censured
in the text to refer to this author the discovery of Oersted and the specu-
lations of Ampére. M. Azais, in his “ fluides mineure et majeure,” finds all
the causes of the acid and alkaline properties of bodies:—slow combinations,
the heat produced, and all the phanomena of chemical change; and his
reasonings are often very ingenious.

New Series Vol. 1. No.1. Jan. 1827. F expres-

34 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

expressions, in which different words are used and applied to
the same ideas, and in which all the phenomena of nature are
supposed to depend on the Dynamic system, or the equili-
brium and opposition of antagonist powers.

The true origin of all that has been done in electro-che-
mical science was the accidental discovery of MM. Nicholson
and Carlisle, of the decomposition of water by the pile of
Volta, April 30, 1800*. These gentlemen immediately added
to this capital fact, the knowledge of the decomposition of
‘certain metallic solutions, and the circumstance of the se-
paration of alkali on the negative plates of the apparatus.
Mr. Cruickshank, in pursuing their experiments, added to
them many important new results, such as the decompositions
of muriates of magnesia, soda and ammonia, by the pile; and
that alkaline matter always appeared at the negative, and acid
at the positive pole +: and Dr. Henry about the same time
made some unsuccessful attempts to decompose potassa in so-
lution by the pile, and confirmed the general conclusions of
MM. Nicholson, Carlisle, and Cruickshank. In the month of
September in this year, I published my first paper on the sub-
ject of Galvanic Electricity, in Nicholson’s Journal, which
was followed by six otherst{: the last of which appeared in
January 1801. In these papers I showed that oxygen and
hydrogen were evolved from separate portions of water,
though vegetable and even animal substances intervened; and
conceiving that all decompositions might be polar §, I elec-
trised different compounds at the different extremities, and
found that sulphur and metallic substances appeared at the
negative pole, and oxygen and azote at the positive pole,
though the bodies furnishing them were separate from each
other. In the same series of papers I established the intimate
connexion between the electrical effects and the chemical
changes going on in the pile, and drew the conclusion of the
dependence of one upon the other. In 1802 I proved that
galvanic combinations might be formed from single metals, or
charcoal and different fluids chiefly acid and alkaline, and that
the side or pole of the conducting substance in contact with
the alkali was positive, and that in contact with the acid, ne-
gative; and in the same year I published, that when two
separate portions of water, connected by moist bladder or
muscular fibre, were electrised, nitro-muriatic acid appeared at
the positive, and fixed alkali at the negative pole§. In the
same year Dr. Wollaston placed the identity of the cause of

* Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xlii. p. 183. + Ibid. vol. iv. p. 190.

{ Ibid. pp. 275, 326, 337, 394, 380.

§ Journal of the Royal Institution, 1802. First Series.
galvanism

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 35

galvanism and electricity, which had been always maintained
by Volta, out of all doubt, by some very decisive experiments.

In 1804, MM. Hisinger and Berzelius stated that neutro-
saline solutions were decomposed by electricity, and the acid
matter separated at the positive, and the alkaline matter at the
negative poles; and they asserted that in this way muriate of
lime might be decomposed; and drew the conclusion that nascent
hydrogen was not, as had been generally believed, the cause
of the appearance of metals from metallic solutions. These
valuable observations ought to have explained distinctly the
source of the appearance of acid and alkaline substances at
the two extremities of the pile; yet the paper was never trans-
lated into English, nor at all attended to; and one of their
facts was contradicted by the assertion of, generally, a very
accurate observer, Mr. Cruickshank, who in his early experi-
ments mentioned that he had not been able to decompose
muriate of lime in the circuit.

In 1805 various statements were made, both in Italy and
England, respecting the generation of muriatic acid and fixed
alkali from pure water. The fact was asserted by MM. Pac-
chioni and Peele, and denied by Dr. Wollaston, M. Biot,
and the Galvanic Society at Paris*. Mr. Sylvester, who con-
ducted his experiments with some care, stated, that if two
separate portions of water were electrised out of the contact
of substances containing alkaline or acid matter, acid and al-
kali were generated; so that up to this time the question,
whether these substances were liberated from their combina-
tions, or formed from their elements by electricity, could not
be considered as decided: a circumstance not so much to be
wondered at, when the novel and extraordinary nature of the
whole class of galvanic phzenomena is considered.

It was in the beginning of 1806 + that I attempted the solu-
tion of this question; and after some months’ labour I pre-
sented to the Society the Dissertation, to which I have re-

* Some writers have very incorrectly referred the origin of these re-
searches to the observations of Hisinger and Berzelius; Annales de Chim.
vol. Ji. 1 cap. pag. 167; but these observations were never quoted by any
writer of the day on the pretended production of muriatic acid and alkali ;
and I was not acquainted with them till after my fundamental experiments
were finished; and, when in drawing up an account of them, I looked
back through the whole series of periodical publications to find accounts
of experiments bearing upon the same question, and I believe I first di-
rected the public attention to the value of those researches. Whoever
will take the trouble to read the Bakerian Lecture for 1806, will be con-
vinced of the gradual development of the whole subject from the investiga-
tion respecting the pretended formation of muriatic acid and fixed alkali.

+ Phil. Trans. 1507.

F2 ferred,

36 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

ferred in the beginning of this Lecture. Finding that acid
and alkaline substances, even when existing in the most solid
combinations, or in the smallest proportion in the hardest
bodies, were elicited by voltaic electricity, I established that
they were the results of decomposition, and not of composi-
tion or generation; and referring to my experiments of 1860
and 1801 and 1802, and to a.number of new facts, which
showed that inflammable substances and oxygen, alkalies and
acids, and oxidable and noble metals, were in electrical re-
lations of positive and negative, I drew the conclusion, that
the combinations and decompositions by electricity were refer-
rible to the law of electrical attractions and repulsions, and ad-
vanced the hypothesis, * that chemical and electrical attraction
were produced by the same cause, acting in one case on parti-
cles, in the other on masses ;” and that the same property, under
different modifications, was the cause of all the phenomena exhi-
bited by different voltaic combinations.

Believing that our philosophical systems are exceedingly
imperfect, I never attached much importance to this hypo-
thesis; but having formed it after a copious induction of
facts, and having gained immediately by the application of it
a number of practical results, and considering myself as much
the author of it as I was of the decomposition of the alkalies,
and having developed it in an elementary work, as far as the
present state of chemistry seemed to allow, I have never cri-
ticized or examined the manner in which different authors
have adopted or explained it,—contented, if in the hands of
others it assisted the arrangements of chemistry or minera-~
logy, or became an instrument of discovery. And having
now given what I believe to be a faithful sketch of its origin,
I shall not enter into an examination of those works which
have induced me to make this sketch, and which contain par-
tial or loose statements on the subject, and which refer the
origin of electro-chemistry to Germany, Sweden and France,
rather than to Italy and England, and which attribute some
of the views of the science, which I first developed, to philo-
sophers who have never made any claim of the kind, and who
never could have made any, as their works on the subject
were published many years after 1806.

III. On the modes adopted for detecting the electrical states of
bodies, and definitions of terms.

That the statements made in the following sections may be
more distinct, I shall say a few words of the mode in which
the different conditions of electrical action were ascertained,

and

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 37

and describe the manner in which I have used the terms which
haye been adopted in electro-chemical science.

In determining the nature of the electrical action in what
may be called the closed circle, or the combinations in which,
according to the language used on the continent, electrical
currents exist, I have employed instruments constructed upon
the same principles as the galvanometer of Professor Cum,
ming, or the multiplier of Professor Schweigger. Silver wire,
covered with silk, about 1-70th of an inch in diameter, was
folded round ‘a small wooden frame, so as to fill a narrow
deep groove: the two extreme wires were parallel, and the
conyolutions as nearly as possible in the same perpendicular :
a small tube containing a filament of silk was passed through
the centre of the convolutions of wires, to which a delicate
magnetised needle was suspended ; which, when the apparatus
was properly disposed, rested with its north pole between the
two extremities of the wires. This instrument, which con-
tained 60 circumvolutions of wire, was found sufficiently de-
licate for most purposes of experiment; but in a few instances,
in which very weak electricities were to be determined, I
used another apparatus, in which the same kind of wire was
fastened, in concentric circles, round two portions of glass
tube, in such a manner that radii from the inner circle would
have passed through all the wires, and in which increased
mobility was given to the system by two needles exterior to
it and connected with it, placed one above, the other below
the central needle, with their poles in the same directions, but
opposite to those of the central needle, which was so mag-
netised that its directive power was neutralised by the power
of the other two needles *.

To illustrate the operation of these apparatus, I shall state,
that when the lower terminating wire, which was to the left,
or east of the north pole, was connected with a piece of zinc,
and the upper one with a piece of piatinum, both being in
common water, the deviation of the central needle was eight
or ten degrees, the south pole turning to the east or left
hand; which may be considered as indicating that the current
of electricity was from the platinum to the zinc through the
wire, and that the surface of the zinc in the fluid was positive
with respect to the opposite surface of platinum; and in using
the terms positive and negative, I beg to be understood as
applying them to the metallic surfaces in contact with the
fluid.

* This arrangement differs from that of M. Nobile only by a duplica-
tion of effect. *

For

38 Mr. Tripe’s Observations -

For determining weak electricities of charge, or as it is
sometimes called, of tension, I used Volta’s condenser con-
nected with Bennet’s electrometer, and sometimes with one
constructed on the principle of Behrens, consisting of an in-
sulated gold leaf, or what I found better, a silk filament, made
conducting by impalpable charcoal powder, to receive the
charge, placed between the poles of a dry pile consisting of
400 circles of silver and gold foil, of the third of an inch in
diameter, or 50 of zinc and silver of the same size, with paper
intervening; the attraction of the gold leaf or the filament,
either to the positive or negative pole, indicates the nature of
the charge: and, as in cases of electro-chemical action there
are always two corresponding opposite states, I considered
the part of the system which touched the conductor as pos-
sessing the same electrical state with that exhibited by the
leaf. I have never however put much dependence upon in-
dications given by this instrument, unless they were confirmed
by other results; having found them very uncertain, and in-
fluenced by the state of the condenser and the atmosphere.

[To be continued.]

XI. Observations on a Mineral from near Hay Tor, in Devon-
shire. By Corne.ius Tripe, Lsg.*

HILE mineralogical science is so extensively cultivated,

and rapidly increasing in interest and importance, the

following brief description of a newly discovered mineral sub-

stance may not be unacceptable to the readers of the Philo-
sophical Magazine.

The mineral alluded to was found in detached pieces, ac-
companied by smali masses of chalcedony, garnet, actynolite,
talc, and very splendent octohedral oxidulated iron. These
substances, altogether, formed a single bunch of inconsiderable
size enveloped by a ferruginous clay, in a large lode of very
pure oxidulated iron, in an iron mine adjacent to the Hay Tor
granite quarries, Devonshire.

Mr. Kennard, a respectable mineral dealer of Devonport,
personally assisted in removing the mineral from its situation,
and possesses the greater part which has been raised. I have
myself examined the mine since; but with the most attentive
observation could not detect any further trace of the substance,
nor of the massive chalcedony, actynolite, or garnet, which,
as already stated, was found associated with it.

The crystals, which are generally large and well defined,

* Communicated by the Author.
are

on a Mineral from near Hay Tor in Devonshire. 39

are of a brownish red, ferruginous yellow, and delicate white
colour. Every crystal has certain planes smooth and splen-
dent, while the others are rough and dull, and is either semi-
transparent or translucent. The substance scratches rock
crystal, and in lustre, colour, fracture, and general appearance
closely resembles chalcedony.

Mr. Robert Cole, a gentleman resident here, who is pas-
sionately devoted to the science, has been associated with us
in examining the mineral; and after giving it our best consi-
deration, we have been led to conclude that it is crystallized
chalcedony. Its hardness, fracture, colour, and close affinity
in appearance to that substance, warrant such opinion; whilst
the uniformity of character observable throughout the whole
series of specimens, with the perfection and brilliancy of many
of the crystals, induce us to believe that the crystallization is
original. We are aware that chalcedony has not hitherto
been found regularly crystallized; but this we submit does not
present an insuperable barrier to the opinion just expressed,
unless a boundary or limit be set up to the operations of na-
ture. Chemical analysis, however, might detect some varia-
tion from the common constituents of chalcedony, and which
might entitle this mineral to be ranged in the catalogue of
new substances. And with these considerations we contem-
plated calling it Haytorite, in honour of its birth-place.

Some specimens have been presented to Mr. Wm. Phillips,
who, with a candour characteristic of true philosophy, imme-
diately furnished us with the drawings and measurements form-
ing the subject of the ensuing communication, together with
some observations of his own. We think it right, however, to
state that we have been favoured with an opinion, that the cry-
stals are pseudomorphous crystals of chalcedony, since no
cleavage can be obtained ; and that, as their figure very nearly
approximates that of sphene, it has been conjectured they
have derived their form from that substance. In reply to this
opinion it may be stated, that no trace of sphene has hitherto
been discovered in the mine; neither have the individual
substances of which sphene is compounded, except silex,—
unless we take into account the small quantity of lime which
is in the garnet. And although no regular cleavage has been
obtained,—the brilliancy, uniformity and perfection of the cry-
stals, might incline to the opinion that they are possessed of
regular structure, but so constituted as to render it more then
ordinarily difficult to discover.

We submit these observations with much deference: but as
they appear to us to stand in the way of the opinion just al.
Juded to, and to conyey a doubt whether the interesting sub-

stance

40 Mr. W. Phillips’s Remarks

stance which we have been considering should be ranked as
a pseudomorphous production, a regularly crystallized chalce-
dony, or a zew substance,—we therefore deemed it right to
state them.

Devonport, Noy. 25, 1826.

XII. Remarks on the Crystalline Form of the Haytorite. By
W. Puiturs, F.G.S. §c.* !

J HAVE received from the writer of the foregoing commu-
nication, and from the other gentlemen who are therein
mentioned, several crystals of the substance to which they haye
given the appropriate name of Haytorite.

It has only been found in regular crystals, which in general
are well defined, the edges being sharp, and the planes for the
most part brilliant. In dimension they vary from the size of
a pin’s head to an inch in diameter: three or four minute cry-
stals are colourless and almost perfectly transparent; but in
general their colour passes from pale brownish yellow, (in
which case they are translucent,) to deep brown and opaque.

The crystals, however, have rarely been found isolated,
being commonly grouped together in such a manner as to
show only about one half of the crystal, but they are easily
separable; the planes of separation are bright and frequently
somewhat iridescent on the surface.

I have in vain attempted to discover a regular cleavage,
which rarely is absent in crystallized minerals; and it is re-
markable that the surface produced by breaking a crystal in
any direction, is almost totally devoid of lustre, having com-
pletely the aspect and fracture of chalcedony: and this takes
place even in the almost perfectly transparent crystals, which
lose immediately that character, assuming the same degree of
translucency as is commonly possessed by chalcedony, when
viewed on the fractured surface. Specific gravity of two
translucent crystals taken by my friend S. L. Kent, F.G.S,
2:5628 .2°5862. It scratches quartz.

The characters detailed in the preceding sentence induced
the suspicion,—and which I communicated to Messrs. ‘Tripe
and Cole in my first letter to them on the subject,—that it is
only a pseudomorphous mineral.

Whether such be its real character, or whether it is to be
considered a new mineral, its primary form (assuming the
planes P and /<' as primary) is an oblique rhombic prism,
differing less than one degree from the proportions of a right
rhombic prism, and of which the lateral planes meet at the

* Communicated by the Author.
angles

on the Crystalline Forms of the Haytorite. 41

angles of 77° and 103°: the terminal plane declining from one
acute angle to the other. Some of the crystals forming one
large group in my possession, are opaque, in others trans-
lucency exists; and others again seem to have suffered a par-
tial decomposition, having the appearance of being carious
internally; but to what extent soever that appearance has
taken place, it is remarkable that the portion remaining of
the external plane, however small, is not deprived of its or-
dinary lustre, and often is even brilliant. _

Now if this apparent injury had been the real effect of de-
composition, we might expect that the agent producing it
would in the first place have acted externally, and thus have
deprived the external planes of their natural brilliancy; and
this consideration again tempted the further examination as
to whether there existed in the crystals, thus partially hol-
low, any stalactitical appearance of chalcedonic matter: this
certainly does appear on a close examination by the help of
a glass; a circumstance amounting almost to proof that the
crystals are in reality pseudomorphous, and that their sub-
stance is chalcedony: the smaller crystals were sometimes en-
veloped by it.

But if pseudomorphous, the next question that arose was,
What was the original substance of which the chalcedony had
taken the form: and being on this point completely at fault,
I showed a crystal to my friend H. J. Brooke, Esq. which he
submitted to the examination of Mr. Lévy, who suggested
that the original substance might have been sphene; and
hence the suspicion already alluded to by Mr. Tripe.

The primary form of sphene is likewise an oblique rhombic
prism ; but that which has hitherto been so considered, differs
greatly in measurement from the apparent primary form of
Haytorite. M. Lévy will, perhaps, add his opinions on the
subject.

Of the following figures, fig. 1. represents the ordinary
form of the large crystals, the planes r and c being always
striated, s always convex, d mostly rough and dull, & always
smooth, but dull. Fig. 2. represents a smallish crystal, with
bright planes except 4, which is striated as in the figure.
Figs. 3. and 4. represent two transparent crystals scarcely
larger than flattened pins’ heads, of which the planes are all
bright, except /. In the present uncertain origin of this mi-
neral, I have thought it better to give arbitrary signs to the
several planes, than to adopt the notation of Mr. Brooke.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1827. G Haytorite.

42 Mr. W. Phillips on the Crystalline Forms of the Haytorite.

Haytorite.—Measurements by the reflective Goniometer.

P ond . 135° -5' J “gong? 2... Fe0°338"
e€ - - 194-55 gion hk .... 157 30
Js Lime ata tg8 yoo boa 156 50
— g?.... 128 22 SS Tg E's | ESO
_settipappe ies 16149) 90 fe? 2onia YS. 150 8
eee cree OUTS Rion eye Gk. 77-00
——"k sr. 90°20 ie tonne ete. 128 30
eee cts) 1 A ee Mons ol Ske. 162 25
———m .... 90 14 oO Onto" Ete ene 130 22
— 2 .- 116 42 mon oO LY lib 7420
7) - 130 5 gee, ee. 147 40

ad ion Wee PS 140 -52

The vein in which this substance was found, as already
mentioned by Mr. Tripe, is of oxidulated iron; and having
lately had an opportunity of seeing that vein, I may add that
itis about 6 feet wide, runs nearly east and west, and under-
lies to the north about 45°, or 6 feet in a fathom. The iron
is occasionally free from admixture, and crystallized in octo-
hedrons; but, as was perceptible in the cavity made in the vein
from the surface by the miner, and which is about 30 feet
long by 12 to 15 in depth, the mass of ironstone is commonly
mixed with what appears by the help of the glass to bea
species of actynolite, of a greenish colour, and thus aforde

that

Mr. Lévy on the Crystalline Forms of the Haytorite. 43

that tint to the mass. It is shipped at Teignmouth, but for
what place I could not learn. ‘This vein appeared to me the
more worthy of notice, as being the only one I ever met with
of that substance. It is only about two miles from the vast
and extraordinary deposition of wood coal near Bovey, which
possibly might be advantageously employed in smelting it.
The vein of ironstone lies in slates, the killas of the Cornish
miner, but immediately reposes on a stratum of a substance
termed provincially Irestone (ironstone) from its excessive
hardness. It appears to be siliceous schist, and abounds so
greatly in some mines east of Truro in Cornwall, as to prove
greatly injurious to the miner.

XIII. On the Origin of the Crystalline Forms of the Haytorite.
By A. Livy, Esq. M.A. F.G.S.*

Me: W. PHILLIPS having been so good as to commu-

nicate to me the drawings and measurements of the cry-
stals of Haytorite he has given in the preceding paper, I first
examined whether by taking. a sufficient number of the ob-
served angles as data to determine the dimensions of the sim-
plest form which may be assumed as the primitive, the other
observed incidences did agree with the results of calculation of
simple decrements.. Because if that was not the case (as no
doubt can be entertained on the accuracy of the observations)
it would follow, in the supposition of these crystals being
pseudomorphic, that they had not preserved exactly the
angles of the substance upon which they had been modelled.
Consequently no perfect agreement could be expected be-
tween the incidences they afford, and those of any mineral ;
and at the same time that it would make it difficult to decide
which was the substance they had replaced, a similarity of
their forms, and not too wide a difference of their angles, with
those of a crystallized species, would be sufficient to make it
probable that they were pseudomorphic crystals of it. In-
ferences entirely opposite to the preceding would be drawn,
if the equality between the observed and calculated angles
should obtain.

Now the forms, and mere inspection of the ensemble of the
measurements of Haytorite prove, that we may assume for the
primitive form an oblique rhombic prism, the lateral planes
of which would correspond to the planes g', and the base to
the plane m (See the figures in the preceding paper); this
base being inclined upon the lateral planes at an angle very

* Communicated by the Author. :
x 2 little

44 _. Mr. Lévy on the Origin of the

little greater than a right angle.*, I have determined the di-
mensions of this primitive form by means of the observed an-
gles P on g', P ond, and P one. Supposing besides that the

aces d and e are both the result of a decrement by two rows
in breadth, the one on the angleo and the other on the angle
of the primitive; I find then that the planes Mr. Phillips
has designated by m, g', g*, P, e, n, d, k, t, 0, 1, v, hy which
are the only ones for which he has given measurements, may
be represented respectively by the following simple crystallo-
graphical signs, P,m, g°, 1', a*, 0°, 0*,e', e°, e%, b',b2,d. Their
calculated incidences are. written below, and by the side of
them their differences with the observations.

Diff. with Diff. with
m, m= 115° 16! Observations. Observations.
P,m = 90° 8'30" P, e' = 128° 39’ 30” . . 9! 30!
m AY = 147° $38)... 0 | Be=— 147 sn 2 —10'
P,h'= 90°10’ .. —4!'|) P)@ = 157° 29'40". . 2! 40"
My G25 1GOP BBO)... 0-00 | my bh S808 4B. 2. BE
A',o§ = 135% Sb 2. Oil my Ghee kT Be 2. 15"
h',a® = 134° 55! «2. 0 |] md?= 157° 730. —22! 30"

Bh, of = 1169) 4B) eos is _ h'jds= 141° 7' 30" — 12! gol

The above differences. are.so small that it may be inferred
at once that the, crystals of Haytorite are perfectly regular,
and that one of the forms which may be taken as their primitive
can differ but very little from that above assumed; that is to say,
from an oblique rhombic prism the incidence of the lateral
planes of which is 115° 16', the incidence of the base on each of
them 90° 8! 30", and the lateral edge equal to the oblique dia-
gonal of the base. It is also obvious that if the primitive was
supposed to be a right rhombic prism, preserving still: the
same incidence for the lateral planes, the differences: between
the observations and the results of calculation would not be
much greater than above. But I think, however, that: it is
better to consider the primitive as a slightly. oblique rhombic
prism, because all the measurements of Mr.. Phillips indicate
an inclination of the base in the same direction, and also be-
cause the symmetry of the crystals agrees better with it.

When I first saw the drawings and measurements of Hay-
torite, I thought they might be considered as pseudomorphic
crystals of sphene, because some of the angles are not: very
far from those of that substance. But the preceding investi+
gation proves, that. an almost. perfect. equality must. be esta-
blished between the angles of Haytorite and those: of any
other mineral, before it can be reasonably suspected: that the

* The drawings to be put in position with respect to this primitive form
should be inverted.
crystals

Crystalline Forms: of the Haytorite. 45

erystals of the first have only borrowed the forms of the other;
and therefore the above suggestion must be abandoned. The
only substance between the angles of which and those of
Haytorite there seems to be a great analogy is Humboldtite.
First, by inverting the drawings of Mr. Phillips, the similitude
of the forms of Haytorite with that of Humboldtite repre-
sented by Mr. Phillips, (see the Elementary Introduction
to Mineralogy, p. 380; ) or the one I have given in the number
of the Annals of Philosophy for February 1823, becomes
apparent. The planes P, ¢",. d,. h, ky, i, 2, 0 of Haytorite cor-
responding to the planes of Humboldtite, Mr. Phillips has de-
signated in the work above referred to, by h,m, dy fy ey @a', g!:
the incidences of these different planes measured by Mr. Phil-
lips are,

Haytorite. Humboldtite.
P, gi = 147° 38! My, h, = 147° 50!
Pig = 185° F h, a? = 133° 56!
=, a= 15730! m, f = 156° 50!
key le = TT et mee 5
Ee. = 560° ~~ = es = Ter” 20!
Pim = 116° 42 , a* = TLE? 20°
gi, v = 139° 42! miele") 5!
P, kh = 141° 20! h, f = 140° 50!

The agreement between these several angles is not perfect:
but it must be observed that some doubt may still be enter-
tained with respect to the angles of Humboldtite.. Some of the
measurements of that substance given by Mr. Phillips, indi-
cate that the base of the primitive makes. an. angle less, than
90° with the plane 4; whilst.from. the observations. I took as
data, I found that angle equal to 91° 41/ 30” *,. There is not

therefore

* Professor Mohs and. Mr. Haidinger consider Humboldtite:as a variety
of Datholite ; and their opinion is supported by a great analogy between the
two substances. However, I think there can be no inconvenience to pre-
serve the distinction till some better measurements of Humboldtite can be
obtained, especially as.it appears to me there are still some reasons to make
doubtful the propriety of the re-union. In order to refer. the. crystals of
Datholite and Humboldtite to the same primitive form, the incidences. of
the planes of Humboldtite I have designated by e!, and Mr. Phillips: by.
e*, should be the same as the incidence of the planes M of Datholite. The
first incidence I state in the paper inserted in the Annals of Philosophy for
February 1823, was one I could obtain most accurately, and I found it equal
to 102° 30": the second I found 103° 25’. Mr. Phillips in his elementary
work on Mineralogy gives the result of his. own observations of these two
angles 102° 35', and 103° 40’. At my request he was so gocd as to take
again some measurements of Datholite, and found M on M 103° 40’, 103° 38',
103° 35’. The agreement in the amount of the difference of these two an-
gles, by two different cbservers, is perhaps sufficient to throw some doubt
upon the accuracy of the opinion founded on their equality. To a certain

extent

46 Lieut. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, 1826.

therefore, sufficient evidence perhaps to say that the crystals
of Haytorite are pseudomorphic of Humboldtite. The repo=
sitories of the two substances seem to be different: for besides
the already known localities of Humboldtite,—the Seiser alp in
the Tyrol, and Salisbury-craig near Edinburgh,—I know only
of another, which is Utoé in Sweden, where, to judge by the
specimen in Mr. Heuland’s collection, it occurs in macled cry-
stals, and accompanied by apophyllite, carbonate of lime, sul-
phate of barytes, and bitumen.

In conclusion it may be said, that ifthe reasons for supposing
the crystals of Haytorite to be pseudomorphic appear conclu-
sive, there is some not unreasonable ground tothink they may
owe their form to Humboldtite, but have been modelled upon
crystals of that substance larger and of a different variety than
those which have been met with hitherto; or otherwise they
must be considered as pseudomorphic crystals of an unknown
species.

XIV. Astronomical Observations, 1826. By Lieut. BEavroy,
R. Nw

Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. —

ATITUDE 51° 37! 44"3 North. Longitude West in
time 1! 20" 93.

Nov. 29, Solar Eclipse. Beginning 21° 46! 04” M. 'T. Bushey.

End. .'. 235 58/19" M.'T. Bushey.

No spots were visible on the sun’s disc. ‘The edge of the

moon uneven, and her horns blunted.

Deéer' 3: An occultation of a 99h 44! 40" 6 Sid. Time.
small star by the moon. . .

extent it may be said, that the smaller the difference between the mea-
surements of two crystals, if well established, the greater is the difficulty to
refer them to the same primitive form. If therefore the difference which
Mr. Phillips and myself have found should prove to be correct, it would be
most likely an insurmountable objection to the re-union of Humboldtite
with Datholite. There is not a much greater difference between the cry-
stals of Cleavelandite and Felspar, than there would be between those of
these two substances. There Is still another way to compare the crystals
of Humboldtite with those of Datholite : it is by supposing thut the planes M
of the first correspond to the planes 7 of the second (see Phillips’s figures) ;
for according to Mr. Phillips they measure exactly the same angles; but
then a difficulty of the same order as the one above would be raised, with
respect to the identity of the faces e? of Humboldtite and a? of Datholite.

XV. A List

Pesto
XV. A List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827".

Dear Sir, London, 25 Aug. 1826.
I SEND you inclosed the list of moon-culminating stars for
the first six months of the ensuing year 1827. The method
I adopt is to look out for two stars to precede, and two to fol-
low the moon’s transit: one of each of these is to be as near as
possible to the moon in right ascension; and the others at not
more than 30 or 40 minutes distance.—The former are for the
use of those observatories that are situated near each other ;
such as the principal European ones 5 and the others are for
observatories situated at a considerable distance from each
other, and for travellers in various parts of the world.—I have
also selected stars of greater magnitude than have generally
been adopted : for I have found by experience that the smaller
stars are apt to be mistaken; and several erroneous observa-
tions have consequently been recorded. For that purpose I
have taken a greater range in declination (still however limiting
that range to a difference of 2° or 3° only); for I find that
unless a transit instrument is very much out of level, no great
error can arise. In these latitudes an inclination of the axis,
of 10", would make a difference of only 0",01 in time, when
the star is situated 1° from the moon: and as we approach
towards the equator, these differences vanish altogether.

You will observe that I have inserted Jupiter and Saturn,
when they are near the moon, and when their motion is retro-
grade: and also Venus on the day of her occultation in Fe-
bruary. I have also inserted the moon’s declination as well
as her right ascension : both of which relate to the time of her
culmination at Greenwich. Opposite to the moon I have also
placed (in a parenthesis) the number of days, from the time of
new moon; which may be occasionally useful.

Those stars to which an asterisk 1s annexed, are such as
will pass through the field of the telescope (in these latitudes)
on the same apparent parallel as the moon: without any alte-
ration in the position of the telescope: and such stars will
probably undergo an occultation in the course of the evening.
They are pointed out as more worthy of observation for fixed
observatories in this part of Europe. I am, &e.

Francis Baity.

[* From Schumacher’s Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 106. Most of the
stars, after the 17th day of the Moon’sage, have been added by M. Clau-
sen: as Mr. Baily considered it useless to select any stars for those days
unless they were of the Ist or 2nd magnitude: and had not selected any
stars differing more than 3° from the Moon, in declination. ‘The numbers
within parentheses are from Piazzi’s Catalogue.—En1t.]

48

1827.

Mr. Baily’s List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827.

10

11

12

13

14

Stars,

18 A Piscium
19 Piscium

22 Piscium

28 w Piscium....
51 Piscium
Mpa 21 «sols
63 $Piscium..,.
71 ¢ Piscium....
(8) Piscium

Moon

102 @ Piscium ..
19 Arietis

27 Arietis ...
42 om Arietis ....
46 93 Arietis ....
Moons. 10.10. -
57 dArietis ....
13 F' Tauri ....
Meon <4 .'5+s'<- Fe
Vig be
43 w! Tauri ....
50 w? Tauri ....
87 a Tauri

94 ¢ Tauri

1114 oTauri ....
123 @ Tauri 4
Moon
54 xy! Orionis ..
Saturn ae
13 » Gemin....
18 yGemin. ....

26 u Gemin.....
54 x Gemin

68. k Gemin. ....
1 Cancri
12 sCancri

27 eCancri ...
65 a? Cancri ....
65 a? Cancri....
76 x Cancri .

o

AMUIA GH WW Sy

Mr. Baily’s List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827. 49

5 ¢Leonis......
14 oLeonis ..

7 6Corvi

67 a Virginis....
Moon

67 a Virginis....
Moon

9 a? Libre

9 ao? Libre :
20 y Scorpii..
Moon

7 0 Scorpii

8 6' Scorpii...

19 Arietis ......
27 Ww Arietis .

(203) Arietis

53 Arietis

57 OArietis .

57 od Arietis ....
(60) Tauri ....
Moon
(215)-Tauri....
43 w! Tauri ....
7A ¢ Tauri

87 a Tauri

94 +r Tauri
102 : Tauri ..
102 4 Tauri ..
109 n Tauri .

1140 Tauri ,.
123 2 Tauri ..
54 x! Orionis

Saturn

Moon

24 yGemin.....| 3 27 43 16 32
8 | 24 y Gemin..... 3 6 27 43 +16 32

43 ?Gemin..... 4 53. 51 20 49

Moon's. vsivawc ee (13) 58 18 36

54 A Gemin..... 4°5 | a) 16° 51

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1827. H

50

Stars. Mag.
74 fGemin. ....| 6
Invent il...) 6
2 yeild)
25 d? Cancri 6
29 Cancri ...... 6
50 A? Cancri.... 6
WUTC DTI vaverehe»: t= (15)

65 a?Cancri.... 5
76 xCancri ....| 5:6
5 £ Leonis...... 5
14 o Leonis .... 4
Mobis. « Asis’ sink (16)
29 wLeonis ...-| 4:5
32 a Leonis .... 1
16 Sextantis ..--| 6
i
]

32 x Sextantis ..

Moon......++*: (17)
36 n Sextantis..| 6
55 Leonis....-- 6
62 gLeonis...-| 6
69 Leonis.....-. 5:6
Moon... .9. -<-- (18)
91 vuLeonis ....} 4:5
IVI GOT sragxt >»: = (5° (20)
67 a Virginis ..| 1
7.5 SCOMpilie, . --.- 3
Sw UST O14 ape ane”
IVIGOT Norton -[2)- (23)
21 ai eenrpll -.}..|' 1
23 rScorpii ....| 34
DTC Gites sot sh = > = (24)
a fc en See (25)
22 a Sagitt. ....| 3:4
34 o Sagitt. .... 3
22 aASagitt. ....| 3:4
34 oSagitt. ....| 3
Vemniay ams .. 2 «

Moonn. .. ei.» (26)
94 ¢ Tauri “

O7su Vanrip..... 56
17h): ea (8)

MO ltaeauarite 2. silt og,
109 n Tauri ....| 5°6
119 Tauri...... 56
123 ¢Tauri....| 3:4
57 x? Orionis ..| 6
Moonaestaictesi (9)

lo ole.)

10

[+)++

10

Mr. Baily’s List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827.

Mr. Baily’s List 9 Moon-culminating Stars for 1827. 51

1827. Stars. Mag. AR D.

|

Mar. 6'| 64 x*Orionis ..| 5-6 5 53 13 +19 41*
18 yGemin. . 5 6451'8- 4] 20 19
7 | 18 yGemin. .... 5 6y 188" 41 +20 19
26 uGemin... .| 5:6 32 20 17 48
NEDO Ge. (10) 36 19 a
(281) Gemin.,... 7 47 38 Sige
43 2 Gemin aA Ae 4 yay | 20 49.
8 | 54 A Gemin..... 4:5 EP nto) +16 51
| 68 kGemin..... 5 23 44 16 ll
Moonteekt . 3 (11) 28 ita
81 gGemin..... 6 36 6 18 55
5 rCancri .... 6 51 38 16 55
9) 16.2 Caner... 6 ee eae ah 7 +18. 9
99) Ganerts.. 52 6 18 57 14 46
Moanin 2.2. (12) 20 14 21
45 A!Cancri....| 6°7 33 39 Tie b7
65 a*Cancri.... 5 49 1 12 31
10 | 65 @Cancri.. 5 8 49 1 +12 31
| 76 xCancri ....| 5:6 5Sxe23 Wale 221
[> Mosk 1... 5... (13) | 9-12 10 45
14 oLeonis .... 4 31 54 10 40
Bi 4410) Beonis? ..... 56 9. 280573t) i+: 7 , 36
32 aLeonis .... 1 59. 12 12 48
Magi Ps. (1:4) {1-20.54 6 31
23 h Sextantis .. 6 12 6 Sieg
12 | 55 Leonis:..... 6 16 46 48 + i 39
Moonkia.C8s...:.- (15) 58 1 59
69 Leonis ......| 5:6 11 4 54 0 52
91 vLeonis ....| 4:5 28 «Ob 0 8
13} 91 vLeonis ....} 4:5 Lk a28 5 + 0 8
Mocnee dt... « (16) 51 — 3 4
26 x Virginis .. 6 | 12 30 19 — 7 2
14 | 26 y Virginis ..| 6 12 30 19 — 7 2
40 Virginis ..| 56 ‘45. QI 8 36%
1 ee (17) 46 7 53
49 g Virginis....| 56 | 58 50 9 49
67 a Virginis.... 1 13) VETAS 10 15
19.| Moon.......... (22) | 17 50 —19 56
19 6 Sagittarii vel Oo 18 9 55 2 53
22 ASagittarii ..| 3°4 17 18 25 30
20 | 22 aSagittarii ..| 34 | 18 17 18| —25 30
34 o Sagittarii ..| 3 44. 32 26 30
Moons. £4 :

52 Mr. Baily’s List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827.

10

11

12

13

18

27\e Cancri .
65 a? Cancri....
50 A®Cancri. .
65 a? Cancri....
76 xCancri .

5 £Leonis......
14 o Leonis ....
29 w Leonis ...
32 a Leonis....
16 Sextantis ....
32 x Sextantis ..
36 n Sextantis ..
55 Leonis ......
69 Leonis ......
87 eLeonis ...
91 uLeonis ....
(126) Virginis ..
Moonk. Re. 86%
26 x Virginis ..
Jupiter
40 Y Virginis ..
Moon... £6.

ec ee ee ee

.67 « Virginis....

86 Virginis t.
100 A Virginis ..
Moone 522 iscis |:
9 «? Libre

24 4) Libre ....
24 4\ Libre ....
(19) Scorpii....
28 Libra

eee eee

6 a* Capric. ....
9 6 Capric.
2 a@Capric. ...
AB Capric.® .. 2.
IVECO va sieve

(21)

3, | 20
3-4

3, | 20
3-4

Mr. Baily’s List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827. 53

1827. | Stars. Mag. R. Ds:
h m s ° r
April19 | Moon..-.-..--- (23) | 21 27 — OF 35
49 § Capric..... 3 o7142 16 54
34 w@Aquarii....| 3 56 53 1g
20 | 34 aAquarii....| 3 21. Bepaas |The 9
48 y Aquarili....| 3°4 22. 20243 2 15
IT Re Ae (24) 19 5 14
May 6 | 62 g Leonis 6 10 54 45 | + 0 55
MIGOn «3, t2 bret-te.,- (11) 59 1 32
69 Leonis ...... 5°6 1] 4 54 0 52*
91 vLeonis ....| 4:5 28°O«#5 Om Ss
7 | 91 vLeonis ....| 4:5 11 28 5 Le (| alate:
Moon Ges) &: (12) 51 — 3 15
Jupiter Us. 3. came PLZ )Y 22 — 0 44
26 x Virginis .. 6 30 19 — Fl g
8 | 26 yVirginis ..| 6 |12 30 19| —7 2
40 py Virginis ..| 5°6 45° 2) 8 36*
Maen att 4 o5« (13) 47 Sil
49 g Virginis....| 5°6 58 50 9 49
67 aVirginis....| 1 13 16 58 10 15
9 | 67 a Virginis.... 1 Neen 5 ay Ali ale
86 Virginis ....| 6 36 44 IY" 33
Moon; . 81... (14) 41 12 26
100 A Virginis .. 4 14 Q 46 12 34
10 | 100 A Virginis ..| 4 14 9 46} —12 34
9 a? Libre...... 3 41 23 15 19
Mootinss 28:5. #2: (15) 47 16 10
24 ¢' Libre ....| 5:6 15 2 19 HO 8
Al) | 43, MLibee Ci... S | SreBQeetO \oi—19 .7
45 ALibre .... 5 43 18 19 38*
Moon. . 20 30... (16) 54 18 46
8 B'Scorpii ....| 2 55 24 19 19
-14 yScorpii ....| 4 16." de Sh 9
4 YOphiuchi ..| 5 14. 0 LC SY feo
12 | 18 Ophiuchi ....|; 6 16 39 14| —24 20
(214) Scorpii ..| 6-7 43 13 |
(251) Ophiuchi..| 7 49 40 17 58
Moom. . #1... 2. (17) 59 19 56
Mb Moon... 2.24... (21) |21 8 —10 55
22, B Aquarii...,| 3 22. 27 6 20
40 yCapricorni | 34 30 29 17 26
17 | 34 a Aquarii.... 3 21.- 56) 53 —.l 9
Moon...)...... (22) |22 3 40

48 y Aquarii....| 3:4 12 43

18 | 34 a Aquarii.... 3 21 56:27:58 —
48 y Aquarii....| 3:4 22 12 48
Moon... hese. - (23) 55

wwe wn
©

54 Myr. Baily’s List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827.

1827. Stars. Mag. AR. D.

h m s ° P}

May 19 | 54 aPegasi....) 1 22 56 9| 414 17

Moone s)..202.... (24) | 23 45 2 30

88 y Pegasi ....| 23 | 0 4 20 14 13

20 | 57 a Pegasi .... 1 22 56 9g +14 17

88 y Pegasi ....| 23 04 20 14 13

IY Se aera ihenerors (25) 34 6 49

June 5 | 40 W Virginis ..| 5°6 12. 45 21 — 8 436

Wagon’ 62s... 3.x (12) |. 13846 10 16

67 « Virginis.... 1 16 8 10) 1b

86 Virginis...... 6 36 44 i fc

6 | 100 a Virginis..| 4 | 14 9 46| —12 34

Mga. Te ccs (12 15 14 19
Ora ibriet ot 3 Al 23 15 19*

7 | 24 ,\ Libre .... 5°6 15 2-19 TOS

IN (QELS gay Oe oe (13) 17 Wiese

43 xLabre. .... 5 32 260 194 7

45 a Libre oa 5 43. 18 19 38

818 6'Scorpii....| 2. | 15 55.24) —19 19

4 pOphiuchi ..| 5 16 14 19: 53%

UMGOT Ss, tease faye (14) 23 19 31

29 Ophiuchi ....| 6 51 45 18 35

9 | 40 e Ophiuchi ..| 4:5 1710s 38 —20 55

Moonee... EL: (15) 33 19 59

13 p! Sagittarii..| 3°4 18 3 25 21 6

10 | 13 w' Sagittarii..| 3-4 |.18. 3°25 | —21 6

29 Sagittarii....} 6 39. 24 20 32

DVI GOR EAL «hak (16) 40 18 51

43 dSagittarii..| 5 19, | fits 30 19 18

14 | 34 a Aquarii ..| 3 21) 66ch.3stl— i 8

48 y Aquarii ..| 34 | 22 12 43 2 15

Macnee. tone... - : (20) _ 37 3 46

ip | 54 aPegasi .2..|' a 925 bone +14 17

| DERG oe eres os. (21) | 23. 28 0 54

| 88 y Pegasi ....| 23 0 4 20 14° 13

16 | 54 aPegasi .... 1 22a 5694 9) +14 17

88 y Pegasi ....| 2:3 0 4° 20 14 13

MVEGOT are gene 3) ote isis (22) 18 5 22

Mie iMfoon... 2s. kee (23) Ue pt: + 9 29

6 BArietis ....| 3 45°! 5 19 58

13 a Arietis ... 3 57 26 22 39

18 | 6 GBArietis ....| 3 1 45 5 +19 58

Monee 2: 28: (24) 57 13?

86 Ceti ...... 3 2 34 2) 2 30

19 | 6 BArietis. .... 3 1 45 5 +19 58

13 aArietis ....} 3 57 26 22 30

25) 47 16 2

1 1 SA Oe (
XVI. Obser-

[ 55 -]

XVI. Observations on the late Solar Eclipse. By Tuomas
SourrE, Esq.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals.
Gentlemen,

‘THE day with us was rather unfavourable for observing

the late solar eclipse; I could not see the beginning, as
the sun was obscured by clouds ( ‘- and ~) at the time. “But
at about two minutes after 10 M.S. T. the sun became visible
through the passing nascent cumulz, when the obscuration
was very considerable on the north-west part of the sun’s disc.
The eclipse continued to be visible at intervals till near the
middle, when a dense cumulostratus again obscured the sun,
but towards the end the air became clear, and continued so
till the termination of the eclipse; and which took place
here at 12" 0" 545 mean solar time. Latitude of the place
51° 41! 41"-6 north. Longitude 27 seconds in time east of
Greenwich. The above time reduced to that at the Royal
Observatory gives 12" 0" 27s. Probably the end here was
absolutely rather later than at Greenwich, owing to the effects
of the lunar parallax, the moon being a little more depressed
from our northern situation. .

The above observations were made with one of Dollond’s
achromatic telescopes, and power of 80. The time was de-
duced from correct altitudes of the sun, taken with an excel-
lent reflecting circle made by Troughton, having at the same
time the latitude of the place and sun’s declination yiven.

I remain, Gentlemen, yours truly,
Epping, Dec. 15, 1826. THomas Sourre.

XVII. On Fustic (Morus tinctorius), and its Application to
the Dyeing of Yellow, Green, Olive, and Brown. By
E. S. Groree, Esq. F.L.S.*

HE wood of the Morus tinctorius is employed in dyeing

those shades of yellow in which intensity of colour is of

more importance than brilliancy, and in all the range of co-
lours formed by the mixture of yellow, blue, and red.

For those colours in which the sulphate of indigo is em-
ployed to give the blue, it is of great value, resisting the ac-
tion of free sulphuric acid in a higher degree than any other
yellow colouring matter.

* Communicated by the Author.
Having

56 Mr. George on Fustic and its

Having ascertained the chemical composition of this wood
by some preliminary experiments upon 200 grains of fustic
reduced to a fine powder and dried at 212° Fahr., poured 16
ounces of boiling water, left to digest till cool, decanted off
the clear infusion, and repeated the digestions in 16 ounces of
boiling water three times, poured the whole together and fil-
tered, washed the filter with 16 ounces of water at 150° Fahr.
added the washings to the filtered liquid, and evaporated the
whole to dryness at a temperature not exceeding 160° Fahr.
The dry mass weighed 30°10 grains. The insoluble part re-
maining upon the filter weighed 168°75 grains.

Upon the residual 168°75 grains after the action of water
poured 6 ounces of boiling alcohol, and digested 24 hours; di-
‘ gested a second time in 6 ounces of alcohol, filtered, washed
the filter with 2 ounces of alcohol, evaporated the alcoholic so-
lutions (which were ofa dark orange colour) to dryness, the re-
sidue, weighing 18 grains, had a shining resinous appearance,
its colour black when seen in mass, and of a deep orange when
finely divided: at a temperature of 300° Fahr. it melted.

Upon 100 grains of fustic in powder, and dried at 212° Fahr.
were boiled 6 ounces of alcohol in a covered vessel one hour,
poured off the solution which was of a dark orange colour, and
again digested in 4 ounces of boiling alcohol half an hour, fil-
tered both solutions and washed the filter with alcohol, evapo-.
rated the solution to dryness; the dry mass weighed 24 grains;
digested the part remaining upon the filter in boiling water and
evaporated the clear solution to dryness: a substance agreeing
in all its characters with gum remained, it weighed 2 grains.

The residual woody fibre after the action of alcohol and
water, weighed when dried at 212° Fahr. 74 grains.

To estimate the amount of tannin in the aqueous solutions,
I first made some experiments to ascertain the proportions in
which the peculiar tannin of fustic and gelatine combined.
Having made a clear infusion of fustic containing 52 grains of
aqueous extract, solution of isinglass was added gradually, as
long as any precipitate fell down, the tannate was precipitated in
large brown coloured flakes ; found that 11 grains isinglass
were required to throw down the whole, and that the tannate
of gelatine formed weighed 25°30 grains; hence, it is composed
of tannin 14°30, gelatine 11; or in 100,—tannin 56°53, ge-
latine 43°47.

To ascertain the amount of tannin, made an aqueous ex-
tract of the soluble matter contained in 200 grains of fustic,
added solution of isinglass as long as any precipitate fell down.
After being dried at 212° the tannate formed weighed 14
grains, containing 7°91 grains of tannin, or 3°95 per cent on

the

Application in Dyeing. 57

the fustic examined. The solution from which the tannin
had been separated gave a dark olive precipitate with solutions
of the salts of iron, and a copious yellow one with the solutions
of tin ;—it consisted of colouring matter and’gallic acid. Ina
.former experiment the amount of aqueous extract was 15°05
per cent: after deducting 5:95 grains of tannin and gum, there
remains 9°10 grains of gallic acid and colouring matter.
100 grains of fustic are composed of

Woodysfibtes: Al corte h las reorient 7e

Peesinios) 21 sRUGL0 1a. ee9ae 5118. wie O
Gain kear es inolos wofayans eigazsig +2
Vanmimiog omalelue to edie bowgldvad [3°96
Colouring matter and gallicacid . . 9°10
hess ord 2h, iiesog (x edie bo sarloy los
100:00

The large amount of loss is probably occasioned by the great
difficulty in bringing substances, which attract moisture so
rapidly as woody fibre, to the same hygrometric state.

On the applications of Fustic.

The colouring matter of fustic is seldom employed in the
dyeing of yellow: the only case in which it is so applied is as
a cheap substitute for weld or quercitron; but for woollen
goods intended to be dyed.a true green in the indigo vat, the
required shade of yellow is first given by means of fustic.

The dyeing vessel may be of iron; and for 120 yards of
woollen cloth, weighing 1lb. 40z. to the yard, 45lbs. of fustic
in chips with 6lbs. of alum will be found sufficient for ordinary
shades of green. If the shade required be bright, 4lbs. of
solution of tin may be added with advantage, but for. bottle-
green an additional proportion of fustic will be required: some
dyers use the fustic alone without any mordant, and the affinity
of woollen fibre for the colouring matter of fustic is sufficiently
powerful to fix the whole; the addition of a mordant, however,
gives much greater durability. After the fustic and alum have
been boiled a few minutes in a dyeing vessel containing from
300 to 400 gallons of water, 20 gallons of cold water are added
and the cloths entered, turning quickly a few minutes and
afterwards more slowly, and boiled from fifty minutes to an
hour. They are afterwards well washed, and the requisite
shade of blue given in the indigo vat.

Fustic is employed in all the shades known as Saxon green.
In this class of colours the blue is obtained from indigo, but
by means of its solution in sulphuric acid known by dyers as

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1827. I Chemic.

58 Mr. George on Fustic and its

Chemic. The Annals of Philosophy contain an interesting
set of experiments made upon this combination by Mr, Crum.
I shall only state that the long list of substances employed by
the old dyers and chemists in making this solution are almost
entirely discarded, and sulphuric acid and indigo are the only
- substances now employed. It is of great importance that the
sulphuric acid should be free from nitrous gas, which by its
action upon the indigo (deoxidizing) deprives the colour
produced of brightness and lustre. In making the solution of
indigo for greens an excess of sulphuric acid should be
avoided, as it prevents the yellow colouring matter fixing upon
the cloth. I have found 9lbs of sulphuric acid to 1b. of in-
digo of good quality the best proportion. ;

For the dyeing of 100lbs. of worsted goods, known as Wild-
bores, a bright green. Ina leaden vessel containing 300 gallons
of water—when at the temperature of 150° Fahrenheit, threw
in 25lbs of alum and 2 quarts of bran—carefully removed
the impurities that rose to the surface until the water boiled,
then added 24 pints of sulphate of indigo; 12lbs. of fustic in
chips, and 10lbs. of white Florence argol (super-tartrate of
potash); boiled the whole five minutes, added 20 gallons of
cold water, and entered the goods, turning quickly for ten
minutes and then more slowly, at the same time raising the
temperature. to ebullition. After boiling forty-five minutes
found the colour scarcely so full as required, and took out the
goods, adding half a pint of sulphate of indigo and 4\bs. of
fustic, again entered and boiled half an hour. Fresh goods
may be dyed in the same liquid; indeed, in conducting a dye-
house ceconomically, it is of great consequence so to arrange
the colours that they shall follow each other without emptying
the dyeing vessels, as thus a great saving of dyeing wares is
achieved. For 100lbs. of the same description of goods, and
the same shade of colour,—added 15lbs. of alum, 23 pints of
sulphate of indigo, and 7lbs. of argol: after entering and boil-
ing as before 45 minutes, took out the goods, added half a
pint of sulphate of indigo ; entered and boiled twenty minutes.
It is of importance that the whole of the indigo shouid not be
given at first, since from the boiling necessary to give even-
ness to the colour the lustre is considerably impaired: by
adding a part towards the close of the process both evenness
and beauty of colour are insured. For a third quantity, the
same colour, 12lbs. of alum were added, and the amount of
alum in afourth and fifth quantity must gradually diminish to
6lbs. ‘The amount of fustic and argol are to be gradually
reduced, the proportions depend, however, upon the discretion
of the dyer; the proportion of sulphate of indigo remains the

same,

Application in Dyeing. 59

same, the whole of the blue colouring matter being removed
from the dyeing vessel at each operation.

It is not advisable to continue more than six parcels of
goods without emptying at least half the contents of the dye-
ing vessel, and filling with fresh water ; but shades of olive or
brown must succeed without any addition of water.

_ For all shades of olive and brown which may be considered
as the same colour, only varying in the proportions of red,
yellow or blue, entering into their composition; fustic is em-
ployed for the yellow, the blue is given by the sulphate of in-
digo, and for the red, madder is used for ali the light shades
of bronze approaching to green, and camwood for the darker
shades of olive and brown.—I shall without further observa-
tion state some processes.

The light and green shades of bronze are generally dyed
after green in the same liquor. For 126lbs. of worsted stufts
after light green, added 241bs. of mull madder, 141bs. of fustic
in chips, 4lbs. of alum, 3lbs. of red argol, Zlbs. of sulphuric
acid, and 1 pint of sulphate of indigo ; boiled the whole toge-
ther ten minutes, added 20 gallons of water, entered the goods
turning quickly and afterwards more slowly, boiled one hour
and thirty minutes, took out the goods and added 3 mea-
sured ounces of sulphate of indigo, entered and boiled thirty
minutes. With olives, and indeed all the colours in which
sulphate of indigo is employed except the very red browns, it
is of consequence that a portion should be added towards the
close of the operation, thus increasing the brilliancy of the
blue part of the colour, which is impaired by the long boiling
required to fix the yellow and red.

In the same manner are dyed all the shades of olive, the
proportions varying with the colour required; the amount of
mordant (alum) and acid employed, must diminish with the
number of operations that have been conducted without emp-
tying the dyeing vessel.

In dyeing the red shades of brown for which camwood is
used, a different process is employed, the insoluble combina-
tion formed between its colouring matter and the base of alum
prevents their being employed together.

Vor 90lbs. of worsted goods in fresh water dyed in a leaden
vessel containing 300 gallons of water, added 15lbs of rasped
camwood, 9lbs. of rasped fustic, 12 measured ounces of sul-
phate of indigo, 5lbs. of red argol, and 3lbs. of sulphuric acid ;
after boiling the whole together a few minutes, added 20 gal-
Jons of cold water, and entered and boiled 1 hour; the goods
had acquired a dull red brown colour, took up, added 6lbs.
of alum, and 8 measured ounces of sulphate of indigo, en-

12 tered,

60 Royal Society.

tered, and again boiled 1 hour; the colour thus obtained was
a bright full red brown. In the same manner a similar shade

of red brown, or others yellower, may be dyed in the same .

dyeing liquor, adding the alum after the red part of the colour
has become fixed. After the above a yellow brown approach-
ing toa snuff colour was dyed ;—for 100lbs. of worsted goods
added 2lbs. of camwood, 10lbs. of mull madder, 9lbs. of rasped
fustic, $lbs. of red argol, 14 measured ounces of sulphate of
indigo, and 2lbs. of sulphuric acid,—boiled 1 hour. ‘Took up,
added 4ilbs. of alum, 11b. of sulphate of copper, 2lbs of rasped
fustic, and 4 measured ounces of sulphate of indigo; entered
and boiled 1 hour. A small portion of sulphate of copper in-
creases the brilliancy and adds much to the intensity of the
yellow browns.

The mode of dyeing olive and brown now described, has
only been introduced to the dyeing establishments of this coun-
try since the last 20 years: it is called by dyers the sour way.
The same colours, possessing however little brilliancy, were
dyed with camwood, fustic, and logwood ; the mordant em-
ployed was‘sulphate of iron.

For 59lbs. of a coarse woollen cloth called Calmuck, a full
olive brown. Dyed in an iron pan containing 400 gallons of
water; added 20lbs. of rasped fustic, 8lbs. of rasped camwood,
6lbs. of chipped logwood ; boiled 14 hour: took up, emptied
the dyeing vessel half-way, filled with fresh water, and added
albs. of sulphate of iron, entered the cloths turning quickly
10 minutes, raised gradually to ebullition, and boiled 10 mi-
nutes.

In the same manner may be dyed all the shades of copper,
brown, and olive.

St. Peter’s Hill, Leeds, Dec. 20th, 1826.

XVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.
HURSDAY, being St. Andrew’s day, the Royal Society held
their Anniversary Meeting, at their apartments in Somerset
House, for the election of Council, and Officers. As the award of
the New Royal Medals and the Copley Medal was to be announced
on this occasion, a great number of the Fellows were in early at-
tendance.
The President took the chair at eleven o'clock, and began the
business by reading the list of the Fellows who had been admitted,

and those they had lost by death since the last anniversary. Among -

the foreign deceased members he mentioned, with particular notice,
Scarpa, the celebrated anatomist of Pavia; and Piazzi, the dis-
coverer

_
ma

iJ

Royal Society. 61

coverer of the planet Ceres. These‘ gentlemen, said the President,
died according to the ordinary course of nature in old age, having
enjoyed a glory which in no respect disturbed their repose. Among
the home members, he dwelt at some length on the loss of Mr. Taylor
Combe and Sir Stamford Raffles; the last of whom he eulogized as
a most disinterested and liberal contributor to the Natural History
of this country. “ Occupying high situations,” said the president,
in our empire in the East, he employed his talents and his exten-
sive resources, not in the exercise of power or the accumulation of
wealth, but in endeavouring to benefit and to improve the condition
of the natives, to fix liberal institutions, and to establish a perma-
nent commercial intercourse between the colonies in which he pre-
sided and the mother country; which, while it brought new trea-
sures to Europe, tended to civilize and to improve the condition of
the inhabitants of some of the most important islands of the East.
Neither misfortune nor pecuniary losses damped the ardour of his
mind in the pursuit of knowledge. Having lost one splendid col-
lection by fire, he instantly commenced the formation of another :
and having brought this to Europe, he made it not private, but
public property, and placed it entirely at the disposition of a new
Association for the promotion of zoology, of which he had been
chosen president by acclamation. Many of the Fellows of this
Society can bear testimony to his enlightened understanding, acute
judgement, and accurate and multifarious information ; and all of
them must, I am sure, regret the premature loss of a man who had
done so much, and from whom so much more was to be expected,
and who was so truly estimable iniall the relations of life.”

After stating the foundation of the Royal Medals, which had
been announced to the Society at their anniversary dinner last
year by the Right Honourable the Secretary of State for the
Home Department; and which, said the President, having been:
offered in the true spirit of Royal munificence, had been completed
with an exalted liberality worthy of the august patron of the Royal
Society—being intended to promote the objects and progress of
science, by awakening honourable competition among the philoso-
phers of all countries; he proceeded to state, that the council had
awarded the first prize to Mr. John Dalton, of Manchester, for the
development of the chemical theory of definite proportions, usually |
called the Atomic Theory, and for his various other labours in
chemical and physical science. He mentioned the names of Dr.
Bryan Higgins, Mr. William Higgins, and Richter, as having con-
tributed something towards the foundations of this part of science ;
but, he said, as far as can be ascertained, Mr. Dalton was not
acquainted with any of their publications; and whoever considers
the original tone prevailing in all his views and speculations, will
hardly accuse him of wilful plagiarism. But, iet the merit of dis-

covery be bestowed wherever it is due, and Mr. Dalton will be still

pre-eminent in the History of the Theory of Definite Proportions.
He first laid down clearly and numerically the doctrine of multiples,
and endeavoured to express by simple numbers the weights of the
bodies believed to be e ementary. ‘The first views, from their bold-

ness

62 Royal Society.

ness and peculiarity, met with but little attention; but they were
discussed and supported by Drs. Thomson and Wollaston, and the
scale of chemical equivalents of the latter gentleman separates the
practical part of the doctrine from the atomic or hypothetical part,
and is worthy of the celebrated author. Gay-Lussac, Berzelius,
Prout, and other chemists, have added to the evidence in favour of
the essential part of Mr. Dalton’s doctrine; and for the last ten
years it has acquired, almost every month, additional weight and
solidity. grt

The President begged to be understood, that it was the funda-
mental principle that he was contending for, and not Mr. Dalton’s
particular statement of the nature of bodies, and the numbers re-
presenting them, given in Mr. Dalton’s New System of Chemical
Philosophy. In this, he said, as a first sketch, many of the opinions
are erroneous, andthe results incorrect, and they are given with
much more precision in later authors. It is in the nature of physical
science that its methods offer only approximations to truth, and
the first and most glorious inventors were often left behind by very
inferior minds in the minutiz of manipulation, and their errors
enabled others to discover truth.

Mr. Dalton’s permanent reputation, continued the President,
will rest upon his having discovered a simple principle universally
applicable to the facts of chemistry, in fixing the proportions in
which bodies combine, and laying the foundation for future labours
respecting the sublime and transcendental part of the science of
corpuscular motion. His merits in this respect resemble those of
Kepler in Astronomy. The causes of chemical change are as yet
unknown, and the laws by which they are governed; but in their
connection with electrical and magnetic phenomena, there is a
gleam of light pointing to a new dawn in science. And may we
not hope, said the President, that in another century, Chemistry
having, as it were, passed under the dominion of the mathematical
sciences, may find some happy genius, similar in intellectual power
to the highest and immortal ornament of this Society, capable of
unfolding its wonderful and mysterious laws. I trust, said the Pre-
sident, you will allow the justice of the decision of your council,
which has claimed for our countryman the first testimony of Royal
benevolence. There is, he said, another motive which influenced
them, and which, I am sure, will command your sympathy.
Mr. Dalton has been labouring for more than a quarter of a century
with the most disinterested views. With the greatest modesty and
simplicity of character, he has remained in the obscurity of the
country, neither asking for approbation nor offering himself as an
object of applause. He has but lately become a Fellow of this So-
ciety; andthe only communication he has given to you is one, com-
pared with his other works, of comparatively small interest. Their
feeling, therefore, on the subject is perfectly pure. I am sure he’
will be gratified by this mark of your approbation of his long and
painful labours. It will give a lustre to his character which it fully
deserves. It will anticipate that opinion which posterity must form
of his discoveries, and it may make his example more exciting to

others

Royal Society. 63

others in their’search after useful knowledge and true glory.. The
president then announced, that the second medal on the Royal
foundation was awarded to James Ivory, M.A., for his papers on
the laws regulating the forms of the planets, on astronomical re-
fractions, and on other mathematical illustrations of important parts
of astronomy. He then entered into a particular view of the me-
rits of the papers communicated by Mr. Ivory to the Royal Society,
being seven in number, on the most difficult and abstruse points of
science; and quoted M. de Laplace as having borne testimony to
some of their merits. After paying some high compliments to
Mr. Ivory for his disinterested pursuit of objects of science which
have no immediate popularity, and which are intelligible only toa
few superior minds, and stating that all the mathematicians of the
council were unanimous in claiming this reward for him ; he said
he felt satisfaction in the hope that this reward might, as an ex-
ample, renovate the activity of the Society, which for so many years
was pre-eminent in this department of science, and that it might
return, veteris vestigia flamme, with new ardour to its long negiected
fields of glory.

Whether, said the President, we consider the nature of the
mathematical science or its results, it appears equally among the
noblest objects of human pursuit and ambition. Arising a work of
intellectual creation, from a few self-evident propositions on the
nature of magnitudes and numbers, it is gradually formed iato
an instrument of pure reason, of the most refined logic, applying to
and illustrating all the phenomena of nature and art, and embracing
the whole system of the visible universe, And the same calculus
measures and points out the application of labour, whether by
animals or machines—determines the force of vapour, and confines
the power of the most explosive agents in the steam engine—re-
gulates the forms of structures best fitted to move through the
waves—ascertains the strength of the chain bridge necessary to
pass across arms of the ocean—fixes the principles of permanent
foundations in the most rapid torrents ; and, leaving the earth filled
with monuments of its power, ascends to the stars, measures and
weighs the sun and the planets, and determines the laws of their
motions ; and even brings under its dominion those cometary masses
that are, as it were, strangers to us, wanderers in the immensity of
Space; and applies data gained from the contemplation of the
sidereal heavens to measure and establish time, and movement, and
magnitudes below.

In announcing the award of the medal on Sir Godfrey Copley’s
foundation, for this year, the President stated, that it had been
given to James South, Esq. for his paper on the observations of
the apparent distances and positions of 458 double and triple stars,

published in the present volume of the Transactions,

The researches and observations of double stars, said the Presi-
dent, recommended by Mr. Mitchell, were pursued at first by Sir
William Herschel, in the hope of discovering the parallax of the
fixed stars; and, afterwards, when his discoveries opened new views
of the nature of the sidereal heavens, with the hope of aac poeta

whether

64 Royal Soczety.

whether systems did not exist among the fixed stars bearing rela-
tion to the planetary world, and demonstrative of the laws of
gravity. These researches, pursued for many years by Sir William
Herschel, were after his death continued by his son, Mr. Herschel,
and Mr, South, with an instrument adapted for the purpose by
Mr. Troughton, The combined observations, according to Mr. South,
establish several important points—such as occultations of fixed
stars by each other, proper motions of fixed stars, and revolving
systems, in which two stars perform to each other the office of sun
and planet, several of them having revolutions which may be
assigned from 53 to 1400 years. After giving a pretty extensive
account of Mr. South’s conclusions, the President said:. When the
importance of an acquaintance with the position of the fixed stars
in the heavens is considered, on the accurate knowledge of which
all our data in refined astronomy, and many of those in practical
navigation depend; and when the new and sublime views of the
arrangements of Infinite Wisdom, in the starry heavens, resulting
from these inquiries, are considered, the Society will, I am sure,
approve of this vote of the council. Mr. South procured his in-
struments at a great expense, and employed them at, home, and
carried them abroad, trusting entirely to his own resources. He
has pursued his favourite science in the most disinterested and
liberal manner, and has communicated all his results to this Society.
There is another reason which may almost be considered as per-
sonal. Whoever has seen the methods in which observations of
this kind are conducted, must be aware of the extreme fatigue con-
nected with them—of the watchful and sleepless nights that must
be devoted to them—of the delicacy of manipulation they require
—and of the sacrifices of ease and comfort they demand.

In presenting the medal to Mr. South, the President referred to

it as the oldest mark of distinction which the Society had to
offer, and which was more valuable from the illustrious names to
which it had done honour, and the great and extraordinary ad-
vances in natural knowledge with which it had been connected. _
Receive it, he said (to use a metaphor taken from the Olympic
games), as the honorary olive crown of this Society; and may it
be a stimulus to induce you to pursue and persevere in these highly
interesting astronomical researches, and to steadily apply your
undivided attention to them, secure that posterity will confirm their
utility, and that the glory resulting from them will be exalted by:
time.
The Society then proceeded. to the election of the council and
officers, when on examination, the following was found to be the
state of the lists. Eleven members of .the old council, to remain
-members of the new council ;—

Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. Pres.; John Barrow, Esq.; The Lord
Bishop of Carlisle; D. Gilbert, Esq. V.P. Treasurer; John EF. W.
Herschel, Esq. M.A. Secretary ; Sir Everard Home, Bart. V:P.3
Captain Henry Kater ; John Pond, Esq. A-R.; James South, Esq. ;
W. Hyde Wollaston, M.D. V.P.; T. Young, M.D. Foreign Se-
cretary.

The

Linnean Society. 65

The members elected into the council :—

John Abernethy, Esq. ; Charles Babbage, Esq. M.A.; Capt.
Francis Beaufort, R.N. ; Robert Brown, Esq.; John George Chil-
dren, Esq.; Charles Hatchett, Esq.;_ A. B, Lambert, Esq: ;
William Viscount Lowther ; George Pearson, M.D ; William
Prout, M.D.

The following were elected officers of the Society :—

President, Sir Humphry Davy, Bart.; 7; reasurer, D. Gilbert,
Esq. V.P.; Secretaries, J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. M.A., John G,
Children, Esq.

The Society then adjourned to dine together at the Crown and
Anchor Tavern.

Dec, ’7.—A paper was read On the composition of James’s
Powder and of Pulvis Antimonialis ; by J. Davy, M.D. F.R.S.

Dec. 14.—On the relative powers of various ‘metallic substances
regarded as conductors of electricity ; by W. S. Harris, Esq.:
communicated by John Knowles, Esq. F.R.S.

Dec. 21.—On an improved differential thermometer ; by
A, Ritchie, M.A., Rector of the Academy of Tain: communicated
by Sir H. Davy, P.R.S.

The Society then adjourned over the Christmas vacation, to
meet again on Thursday, Jan. 11, 1827.

LINNEAN SOCIETY.

Dec. 19.—A. B. Lambert, Esq. in the Chair :—A vacancy for
ten Foreign Members was declared ; and a certificate was presented
recommending Charles Lucien Buonaparté, Prince of M usignano,
author of several valuable works on American Ornithology, to fill
one of the vacancies.

The continuation was read of Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s “ Remarks
on the comparative anatomy of certain Birds of Cuba, with a view to
their respective places in the system of Nature, or to their relations
with other animals.”

After insisting on the importance of studying Natural Arrange-
ment and Comparative Anatomy in connexion with each other, in
order to investigate, whilst examining particular organs, the place
held in nature by the animals to which they belong, Mr. MacLeay
proceeds to examine the principles of arrangement laid down by
Aristotle, with reference to the plan of studying the variation of
structure in different animals, in preference to classing them to- .
gether according to an arbitrary division of organs. He then states,
that on the appearance of Mr. Vigors’s View of Ornithology, he na-
turally became anxious to know whether the affinities therein stated
held good throughout, and on his arrival in Cuba he resolved to ex-
amine anatomically those forms, which from being Extra.European

_had hitherto been little studied. He prefaces his observations upon
them with some remarks on the affinities of Vertebrata, and the Com-
parative Anatomy of Birds in general.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 1. Jan. 1827. K GEOLOGICAL

66 Geological Society.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Nov. 17th.—“ A notice was read On some beds associated with
the magnesian limestone, and on some fossil fish found in them,” by
the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, Woodwardian Professor, F.G.S.

This notice professes to be an abstract of a longer paper hereafter
to be presented to the Society. (1.) It first describes a deposit
which extends through Yorkshire and Durham and separates the
magnesian limestone from the coal measures. It is principally com-
posed of sand and sandstone : but in one or two instances red marl
and gypsum have been found associated with it. Its general cha-
racter in Yorkshire is intermediate between the gritstone of the car-
boniferous order, and the harder beds of the new-red-sandstone.

In the county of Durham it is said to appear in the form of a
yellow incoherent sand of very variable thickness, which throws very
great difficulties in the way of all mining operations within the limits
of the magnesian limestone. On a great scale it is considered un-
conformable to the coal strata, and nearly co-extensive with the
magnesian limestone; on which account it is classed with the latter
formation, (2.) Next described is a deposit in some places of shell-
limestone, alternating with variously coloured mar],—and in other
places of thin-bedded, nearly compact limestone alternating with
bituminous marls. In the county of Durham this deposit is asso-
ciated with an extensive formation of marl-slate. In this marl-
slate many specimens. of fish have been discovered; some of
which appear to be identical in species with the fish in the marl.
slate of Thuringia, Inthe same deposit have also been found many
vegetable impressions. (3.) The great deposit of yellow mag-
nesian limestone is briefly noticed; and it is said not uncommonly
to exhibit traces of the muriates of lime and magnesia, a fact which
is supposed to connect it with the new-red-sandstone. (4.) The
deposit of red marl and gypsum imbedded in the formation of the
magnesian limestone is briefly described. (5.) Lastly is noticed the
deposit of thin-bedded limestone which surmounts the gypsum, and
in which magnesia is not so uniformly diffused as in the inferior mem-
ber of the formation. Traces of this deposit are said to have been
discovered in the county of Durham. And in Yorkshire beds of ga-
Jena have been found subordinate to it, and worked with advantage.
(6.) Over these deposits comes the great formation of red mar] and
new-red-sandstone, which appears to be so intimately interlaced
with the preceding subdivisions of the magnesian limestone, that
the two formations cannot in any natural classification be separated
from each other. The fossils found in various parts of the magne-
sian limestone are noticed, and are supposed to form a suite which
more nearly resembles that of the carboniferous limestone than has
generally been imagined.

A paper was read entitled ‘‘ Observations on the bones of hyzenas
and other animals in the cavern of Lunel near Montpelier, and in
the adjacent strata of marine formation,” by the Rev. W. Buckland,
D.D. Professor of Mineralogy and Geology, University of Oxford.

In a recent journey through France in the month of March 1826,
the author visited the cave of Lunel near Montpelier, (to which his

attention

Geological Society. 67

attention had been drawn by the description of M. Marcel de Ser-
res,) for the purpose of instituting a comparison between it and the
caves in England previously described by himself; and the result
has established nearly a perfect identity both in their animal and
mineral contents, as well as in the history of their introduction.

The cave of Lunel is situated in compact calcaire grossier, with
subordinate beds of globular calcareous concretions, and the whole
of the rock having something of an oolitic structure. In working a
free-stone quarry of this calcaire grossier, the side of the present
cavern was accidentally laid open, and considerable excavations
have since been made in it, at the expense of the French Govern-
ment, for the purpose of extracting its animal remains that lie bu-
ried in mud and gravel, and of searching for the aperture through
which all these extraneous substances have been introduced. These
operations have exposed a long rectilinear vault of nearly 100 yards
in length and of from ten to twelve feet in width and height. The
floor is covered with a thick bed of diluvial mud and pebbles, occa-
sionally reaching almost to the roof, and composed at one extremity
chiefly of mud, whilst at the other end, pebbles predominate.

Some vertical fissures in another quarry of calcaire grossier a
few miles distant, are filled with similar materials to those within the
cavern, and containing occasional] y a few bones, sometimes cemented
by calcareous infiltrations to a breccia like that of Gibraltar, Cette,
and Nice. These materials are similar in substance to, and are
uninterruptedly connected with, a superficial bed of diluvium that
covers the surface of these quarries, and are identical with the ge-
neral mass of diluvial detritus of the neighbourhood.

Stalactite and stalagmite are of rare occurrence in the cavern of
Lunel; hence neither its bones nor earthy contents are cemented
into a breccia,

On examining the bones collected in the cavern by M. Marcel de
Serres and his associate M. Cristol, Dr. Buckland found many of
them to bear the marks of gnawing by the teeth of ossivorous ani-
mals; he also discovered in the cave an extraordinary abundance
of balls of album grecum in the highest state of preservation. Both
these circumstances, so important to establish the fact of the cave
of Lunel having been inhabited, like that of Kirkdale, as a den of
hyenas, had been overlooked by the gentlemen above mentioned.
The more scanty occurrence of stalactite, and the greater supply
of album grecum in this cavern than in those of England, (See
Reliquie Diluviane, vol. i.) are referred to one and the same cause,
viz. the introduction of less rain water by infiltration into this cave,
than into that of Kirkdale; in the latter case a large proportion of
the fecal balls of the hyznas appear to have been trod upon and
crushed at the bottom of a wet and narrow cave, whilst at Lunel
they have been preserved in consequence of the greater size and
dryness of the chamber in which they were deposited.

M. Marcel de Serres has published a list of the animal remains
contained in this cavern, which differ but little from those of Kirk-
dale: the most remarkable addition is that of the Beaver and the
Badger, together with the smaller striped, or Abyssinian Hyena,

K 2 For

68 Geological Society.

For these discoveries we are indebted to the exertions of M. Cristol,
a young naturalist of Montpelier, whose observations on the geology
of that district the author found to be in perfect accordance with
his own.

With respect to the bones of Camels said to have been discovered
in this cavern, Dr. Buckland found on comparing rigidly the only
bone which was supposed to be of this animal with the proportions
given in Cuvier, that it certainly does not belong to the Camel. In
some few parts of the diluvial mud there occur the bones of Rabbits
and Rats; and M. Cristol has also discovered the leg of a Domestic
Cock. All these Dr. B. found on examination to be of recent origin
(not adhering tothe tongue when dry, as do the antediluvian bones).
The Rats and Rabbits are supposed to have entered the cave spon-
taneously, and died in the holes which they had burrowed in the
soft diluvial mud, and the Cock’s bone to have been introduced by
a Fox through a small hole in the side of the cavern, which had been
long known as a retreat of Foxes, in the bottom of an ancient
quarry.

Land shells, similar to those which hybernate in the soil, or fis-
sures of the neighbouring rocks, are also found in the mud that filled
the cave. The author considers that these may either be the shells
of animals that in modern times have entered some small crevices
in the side of the cavern to hybernate there, and have buried them-
selves in the mud; or that they entered in more ancient times, and
died whilst the cave was inhabited ky hyenas, and Jay mixed with
the bones before the introduction of the mud and pebbles, or that
they were washed in by the same diluvial water which imported
there the diluvial detritus in which they are now imbedded.

Dr. Buckland draws a strong line of distinction between the mud
and gravel of the caves and fissures, which he considers to be part
of the general diluvium so widely spread over the adjacent country,
and the local freshwater formations occurring also in the same
neighbourhood of Montpelier ; and which differ as decidedly from
them, and bear to them the same relation that the gravel on the
summit of Headen Hill in the Isle of Wight, bears to the strata of
freshwater limestone that lie beneath it.

The author next proceeds to consider the epoch of the deposi-
tion of the remains of quadrupeds that have been found in some
extensive quarries of stone and sand in the Fauxbourg St. Domi-
nique at Montpelier, imbedded in a very recent marine formation
which has been described by M. Marcel de Serres, in the 4th
volume of the Linn. Trans. of Paris,

In the central beds of this deposit, the remains of the Elephant,
Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Mastodon, Ox and Stag, are found
intermingled with those of Cetacea, Dugong, or Lamantin; they are
more or less rolled, and are occasionally covered with marine shells.
Beds of oysters also (the Ostrea crassissima of Lamarck,) and
barnacles, occur in horizontal and nearly parallel strata amid the
marine sand, and show this deposition to have taken place gradually
and at successive though perhaps short intervals, rather than to
have resulted from a sudden marine irruption, The period of this

deposition

Geological Society.—Astronomical Society. 69

deposition is supposed by the author to have been that which im-
mediately preceded, and was terminated by the last grand aqueous
revolution which formed the diluvium.

Toa similar and contemporaneous period with this upper marine
formation of Montpelier, he refers the bones of the Elephant, Rhino-
ceros, &c. with marine shells, (oysters and barnacles adhering to
them, ) that have been found in certain parts of the Sub-apennine
hills, and also the bones of similar quadrupeds and shells that occur
in the Crag of Norfolk and Suffolk.

To the same period also he assigns the bones of the osseous breccia
of Gibraltar, Cette, and other fissures and caves along the north
coast of the Mediterranean; and the accumulation of the remains
of bears, hyzenas, &c. in the caves of Germany, England and France:
he also attributes the same date to the bones of similar animals
that are found buried in the sediments of the antediluvian fresh-
water lake of the Upper Val d’Arno.

Dec. 1.—An extract of a letter from B, de Basterol, Esq. to

Dr. Fitton, V.P.G.S. was read.
_ The author gives a short account of the succession of the strata
in the vicinity of Folkstone, about which there had existed some
uncertainty ; from whence it appears that the Folkstone marl (or
Gault) is separated from the lowest beds of the chalk by a stratum
of green-sand, and is itself succeeded by sand and stone also abound-
ing in green particles. The order being as follows: 1st, white chalk;
2nd, gray chalk ; 3d a) sand containing green particles, and indi-
stinct organic remains. b) marl of a dirty white colour mixed
with the sand, and containing compact nodules ; 4th, the blue marl
of Folkstone (Gault) with Hamites, Inocerami, Ammonites, and a
small Belemnite. 5th, thick beds of sand and sandstone full of green
particles, but void of organic remains.

The reading of a paper was commenced, entitled ‘ Additional
notes on part of the opposite coasts of France and England, in-
cluding some account of the Lower Boulonnois, by Dr. Fitton,

V.P.G,5.”

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Nov. 10.—There was read a letter addressed to the President by
Lieut. Henry Foster, R.N., On the method of determining the
longitude by moon-culminating stars. The method was employed
in finding the longitude of Port Bowen, the station where the ex-
pedition for the discovery of a North-west passage, under the com-
mand of Capt. W. E. Parry, passed the winter of 1824-5. The ob-
servations were made with an excellent portable transit instrument
by Dollond, of thirty inches focal length, and two inches aperture ;
and made as often as circumstances would admit, between Dec. 5,
1824, and April 1, 1825. The resulting longitude is 5" 55" 39%2
west of Greenwich; the latitude being 73° 1%! 39!-4 north.

During a residence of nine months at Port Bowen, Lieut. Foster
had opportunities of trying most of the known methods for deter-
mining the longitude : that, by measuring the distance of the ace

imb

70 Astronomical Society.

limb from a fixed star, he found from the peculiarities of the cli-
mate, to be subject to these inconveniencies: viz. The uncertainty
in the amount of atmospherical refractions at moderate altitudes in
extreme low temperatures :—The alteration of the index error from
a change in figure of the instrument, caused by temperature during
an observation, and the painful sensation of burning (denominated
long ago by Virgil, the scalding cold) on touching intensely cold
metal with the naked hand. In addition to which, the condensa-
tion of the vapour from the eye, in a thin film of ice on the eye-
piece of the telescope, rendering the star and the moon’s limb ob-
scure:—and further, the absolute necessity of holding the breath
during an observation, as well as when reading off the measured
arc :—all of which are, evidently, serious obstacles to correct ob-
servation.

There was also read a communication from Dr. Rumker, of Star-
gard, Paramatta, to Dr. Gregory, containing an account of some
observations made at the observatory there. This paper contains,
lst, Observations of the great comet in 1825, from October 18 to
December 20, and the elliptic elements thence deduced, as follows :

Passage of perihelion Dec. . 10! 18" 41™ 7", M.T. Greenwich.

Long. of perihelion . . . 818° 28! 54!"

of node. . ... . 215 44 58
Semiaxis major . . . . 27789937
minor...’ 2... 8:227477
Sidereal revolution . . . 53509°3 days
Inclination . . . 33° 31! 3": motion retrograde.

2dly, Observations on the comet in Leo, 1825, from July 9 to
15th, and the resulting parabolic elements, viz.
Passage of perihelion May . 30°77265

Long. of perihelion. 273° 4! 37"
of node'y) 0... °200°17°S4
Log. perihel. dist. . . . 99552155
Inclination . . - . . 58° 35! 58': motion retrograde.

3dly, Observations of the lunar eclipse, May 21, 1826, at Para-
matta. Dr Rumker observed the immersions and emersions of
about 30 spots, as well as the time of the beginning and the end,
under very favourable circumstances. The darkness of the moon
during its total obscuration was such, that the occultations of stars
of the 8th and 9th magnitudes could distinctly be observed. Dr. R.
only observed the occultation of a star of the 7th magnitude. Im-
mersion 12" 34" 38°: Emersion 12" 48" 41* mean time. The de-
clination of this star is 19° 46’ S. near AX, which passed 7! N. of
the moon’s limb. The star described a very small chord, immerging
and emerging repeatedly behind the inequalities of the )’s disk
before it finally disappeared.

Lastly, Observations of Mars, near his opposition, from May 5th
to May 12, 1826, and the south polar distances of the planet, and
his distances from a* = in A and declination.

XIX. Jn-

yk.

XIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

SEPARATION OF ELAINE FROM OILS.

M PECHET has proposed a new process for the above purpose,
4° « which is founded upon the property possessed by a strong
solution of soda of saponifying stearine in the cold, without acting
upon elaine. Shake the alkaline solution with the oil, then warm it
slightly to separate the elaine from the soap of stearine; it is then
passed through a cloth, and the elaine is then separated by decan-
tation from the alkaline solution. This process always succeeds,
except with rancid oils or such as have been heated.— Ann. de Chim.

SULPHURET OF CERIUM.

Dr. Mosander has succeeded in forming this compound by two
different processes. 1st, When the vapour of sulphuret of carbon
is passed over carbonate of cerium heated to redness, a sulphuret
of cerium is obtained which resembles minium in appearance, but
it is porous and light, and suffers no change either by exposure to air
or water. 2dly, By fusing oxide of cerium with sulphuret of po-
tassium (de l’hépar) in large proportion, at a white heat, and
afterwards separating the hepar by water. The sulphuret of cerium
remains in the form of small brilliant scales, resembling aurum mu-
sivum in powder; when examined with a lens they appear trans-
parent and of a yellow colour,

These two kinds of sulphuret of cerium, differing in appearance,
are readily dissolved by acids with the evolution of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas, without any residuum of sulphur. The sulphuret of
cerium is composed of 74 cerium, and 26 sulphur.—Jdid. Sept. 1826.

OXIDE OF CARBON.

M. Dumas has proposed the following method of preparing this
gas: he mixes salt of sorrel with five or six times its weight of con-
centrated sulphuric acid; the mixture when heated in a proper ap-
paratus yielded a considerable quantity of a gas composed of equal
parts of carbonic acid gas and oxide of carbon; after absorbing the
carbonic acid gas by potash, the oxide of carbon remains in a state
of purity.

This result will be easily comprehended by supposing that the
sulphuric acid seizes the potash and the water, and that the oxalic
acid being incapable of existing under these circumstances, is re-
solved into carbonic acid and carbonic oxide.

This process may be successfully employed for examining the
salt of sorrel of commerce, Bitartrate of potash treated in the same
manner gives oxide of carbon, carbonic acid and sulphurous acid,
and the liquor becomes black by the deposition of carbon. The
salt of sorrel on the contrary, never yields sulphurous acid, and the
sulphuric acid employed remains perfectly limpid and colourless —
Ibid, Sept. 1826.

ARTIFICIAL

72 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

ARTIFICIAL SULPHURET OF ZINC.

M. Berthier prepares this sulphuret as follows:—Dissolve zinc
foil in sulphuric acid, and separate the small quantity of charcoal
and lead which remains undissolved; evaporate the solution to
dryness, and add a few drops of nitric acid to peroxidize the iron;
calcine slightly to decompose a part of the sulphates, and redissolve
in water. If the solution still contains iron, which may be determined
by a prussiate, repeat the operation; when there is no iron remain-
ing, add a few drops of hydrosulphuret of ammonia to separate any
trace of lead which may be dissolved. By slowly heating the sul-
phuret in an earthenware crucible to whiteness, either alone or mixed
with 15 per cent of charcoal, it is reduced to a sulphuret ; but as it
almost always happens that a portion of the sulphate is decomposed
by the heat before charcoal can reduce it, the sulphuret is mixed
with a little oxide; this may be separated by pure dilute muriatic
acid, which readily dissolves the oxide, and acts but feebly upon
the sulphuret ; it is then to be washed and dried. The pure sulphuret
of zinc is pulverulent, and as white as the oxide.— Ann. de Chim.

PROTOFERROCYANATE OF IRON.

It is not I believe generally known, that a solution of protoxide
of iron without any admixture of peroxide, may be obtained by
putting the metal into an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, and
suffering the mixture to remain for a short time without the contact
of atmospheric air. When a solution of ferrocyanate of potash is
added, a perfectly white precipitate is formed, which is the proto-
ferrocyanate of iron, The action of sulphurous acid upon iron is
also remarkable on another account, viz. that no gas is evolved
during the solution of the metal, if made to take place in closely
stopped bottles. It appears that a part of the sulphurous acid is
decomposed by the nascent hydrogen of the water, and the sulphu-
retted hydrogen which results remains in solution.—R. P.

CYANIC ACID.

M. Liebig states that cyanic acid may be obtained in a separate
state, by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through
water in which cyanate of silver is suspended. This acid reddens
litmus strongly, its taste is acid; it possesses the smell which is
always perceived when any of its salts are decomposed by an acid:
it neutralizes bases perfectly, but when in contact with water it suf-
fers decomposition ina few hours, and is converted into carbonic acid
gas and ammonia. The sulphuretted hydrogen must not be passed
so as to decompose all the cyanate of silver; for then the cyanic acid
is converted into other products by the excess of sulphuretted hy-
drogen.— Ann. de Chim. Oct. 1826.

SEPARATION OF IRON FROM MANGANESE.
M. Quesneville, jun. proposes the following process for separating
these metals :—Dissolve both oxides in muriatic acid and boil the so-
lution for some time to expel all excess of acid, in order to render the

solution as neutral as possible. Dilute the solution with.a large
quantity

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 73

quantity of water, and pass chlorine gas through it to peroxidize
the iron entirely ; then precipitate the liquor by arseniate of potash;
the precipitate is of a greenish white colour, and consists entirely of
arseniate of iron, After some hours filter the liquor and wash the
precipitate with a large quantity of boiling water ; dry it and calcine
It strongly to obtain the oxide of iron; evaporate the solution which
contains the arseniate of manganese almost to dryness, and add
water to it; if there remain by accident any traces of arseniate
of iron it separates. Then filter and decompose the solution by
caustic potash, and the oxide of manganese when well washed is
then perfectly pure.—Journ. de Pharm, Sept. 1826.

ACETATES OF MERCURY.
This salt, according to the experiments of M. Garot, consists of

AceuC aGid | oi )15! 12:\hena cha O-B
Protoxide of mercury . . 79:7
100

Its theoretic composition, supposing it to be a neutral salt, he
considers to be

Acetic acid), i204. '99 69°69
Protoxide of mercury. . 80°41
100
The peracetate by experiment was found to consist of
Ace arid 2 eee aS
Peroxide of mercury . . 67
100
And its theoretic composition is stated to be
PRCEUNAENE eso tcc on hele
Peroxide of mercury . . 68
100

Ibid. Sept. 1826.

PYRMONT HEAVY SPAR.
The heavy spar of Pyrmont has lately been analysed by Brandes
and Gruner, with the following results: sp. gr. 3°942.
Sulphate of barytes =... 54,2...» 922
Sulphate ofstrontian . . . .. . 80
Spare OF MGCL; eee civ nbbied J, sisid) 129i
PEE ak ay siecoiscient babar cinta aiBASe «stig alone
Oxide of iron, with a trace of manganese 0°2
Ferruginous silica and alumina 0°8
99-1
Another variety :

Sulphate of barytes sae O HT VEN OS9

Sulphate of strontian . . . . . .) Stl

Sulphate of lime APS BR he OND

WY ater! aaah ai\iciete beh fod 1) BS
100

Schweigger’s Journal.
New Series. Vol. 1. No.1. Jan. 1827. |W DIS-

74 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

DISCOVERY OF A SUBSTANCE THAT INFLAMES UPON CONTACT
WITH WATER.

The following details have been communicated to us, which it
would be desirable to have verified. At Doulens, near Amiens, is
a large manufactory for spinning cotton, which is lighted by oil-gas.
This gas upon its return from the cast-iron cylinder, filled with red-
hot coal, where it is formed, traverses a reservoir of oil in which it
deposits a white liquid matter, which can be taken away by means
of a spigot situated at the lower part of the reservoir. The workmen
employed in this duty having dropped some of it to the ground upon
water, the matter took fire spontaneously, and having run into a
neighbouring rivulet, it spread itself upon the surface of the water,
which appeared to be all on fire. The proprietor of the factory
intends to send a bottle of this singular substance to M. Gay-Lussac,
to have it chemically analysed.— Bull. Univ,

ENORMOUS FOSSIL VERTEBRA.

In the neighbourhood of Bridport, in Dorsetshire, a short time
ago a labourer digging for an ingredient used in mortar, found a
vertebra of an enormous animal, larger than that of the whale, and
supposed to belong to a land animal. This curiosity is in the pes-
session of a gentleman at Bridport, who generously rewarded the
finder with ten guineas. Search has been made after the other
parts of the same animal, but hitherto without success. The per-
foration for the spinal marrow is stated to be nearly equal in cir-
cumference to the body of a man.

AFRICAN EXPEDITION.

By the kindness of a friend we are enabled to lay before our
readers the copy of a letter, addressed by the well known Captain
Clapperton to one of his connexions in this quarter. It is dated
from Hio, or Eyo, the capital of Youriba, 22d February 1826, and
is highly interesting on many accounts :

‘*« No doubt you, and all my other kind friends in our dear native
land, would be much alarmed for my safety, when the sad news of
the deaths of the rest of my party reached you, as bad news always
travel fastest. I certainly was very ill when poor Pearce died ; but
the circumstance of having to act as my own doctor, and the pow-
erful medicine I took, I believe saved me, not forgetting that Divine
Power, which ever, when a man is plunged in deep distress, gives
him new courage to exert himself, and bear up against all misfor-
tunes. You may in some measure guess my feelings, when so many
deaths occurred so rapidly in so small. a party. It is impossible for
me to express them. I may tell you how I acted when poor Pearce
died, whose death affected me most. After closing his eyes, I sat
before the corpse with my head between my knees for nearly an
hour, without saying’a word, I then ordered a light and a watch to
be kept over the body, and crawled to the place where I had to pass
the night, and next day saw him buried, and read the Church of En-
gland service over him, This was the most trying duty of all. It is
little to see aman die; but to see the earth thrown on one whom you

knew,

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 75

knew, loved, and revered when living,—the last, and best, and kind-
est of your companions,—that is indeed a burden. You may think it
strange that I, a Presbyterian, should have read the service over the
dead, but it is a good thing for the living. All my servants attend.
ed, as also the most respectable of the town’s-people through
Poyens. [have been well used here; and depart in two days forYouri,
where poor Park was killed. I will get all his papers, if not sent
home by Bello, and hear every circumstance connected with his
death. {f have made important discoveries here, as every foot is
new ground. I have passed over a range of hills which were not
known to exist before, and traversed one of the most extensive
kingdoms in Africa, the very name of which was unknown to Eu-
ropeans. In the capital of this kingdom ! have remained upwards
of two months. The celebrated Niger is only two days’ journey to
the eastward of me ; its course to the seain the Bight of Benin can
be no Jonger doubtful. I would say much more in this letter, but
copies of my journals, with all my observations, have to be sent
home. ltrust you will write by the way of Tripoli, as the western
route is doubtful.”—Dumfries Courier.
STEAM NAVIGATION.

Whatever may be the result of the attempts now making to
establish a communication between this country and Great Britain
by steam-vessels, we congratulate our readers on the rapid progress
made in the establishment of steam-navigation in this country.
Besides the government vessel Enterprize, employed between this
and Rangoon, we have the Diana in Rangoon river ; and the Comet,
one of the two small vessels here, of twenty-four horse power, fitted
up as packets to proceed up or down the river with passengers, is
found to answer extremely well. The other vessel of this descrip-
tion will also be ready in a few weeks, and both are, by their light
draft of water, we understand, admirably adapted for carrying pas-
sengers to the Upper Provinces during the rains, when the rivers
are full: they are elegant models, and their accommodations most
spacious and well laid out, as they have poops, and thus have a
complete suite of cabins above and below, so that two families can
be accommodated with every convenience. Besides these vessels,
for which we are indebted to the enterprizing spirit of private in-
dividuals, the two armed steam-vessels of government will be ready
in August next, Singapore too will soon boast of a steam-vessel
for the Cape, and ere long, doubtless, each of the presidencies will
have one or two in the service of the Company; meanwhile we
learn that depéts of coals are about to be provided at Madras,
Ceylon, and Penang. There is yet another vessel in progress here
to be worked by steam, to which we have not yet alluded: we
mean the one to be employed to clear away the impediments which,
during the dry season, choke the navigation of the small rivers
communicating with the Hoogly. By this vessel it is hoped that
the water communication with the Upper Provinces will be kept
open at all seasons of the year, and then a trip up to the most di-
stant stations, which has been hitherto a most formidable under-

L2 taking,

76 Scientific Books.

taking, and a voyage of four months, perhaps may, by the aid of
such light steam-vessels as these we have been alluding tv, be per-
formed in two or three weeks. Surely, when we consider that it
is not more than three years since the first steam-vessel was seen
in the river Hoogly, and when we consider that nothing was done
for a considerable time after her appearance towards the accelera-
tion of steam-navigation in India, the actual state of it at present is
a just subject for congratulation.— Col. Press Gaz. June 9.

SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
Just Published.

General Directions for Collecting and Preserving Exotic Insects
and Crustacea : designed for the use of residents in foreign countries,
travellers, and gentlemen going abroad. With illustrative plates. By
George Samouelle, A.L.S.

Preparing for Publication.

A New Edition of Meteorological Essays, by James Frederick
Daniell, Esq. F.R.S. This edition,—besides the former Essays upon,
I. The constitution of the atmosphere. II. The construction and
uses of a new hygrometer. III. The radjation of heat in the at-
mosphere. IV. The horary oscillation of the barometer. V. The
climate of London, with corrections and additions,—will comprise
Essays upon the following subjects: V1. Evaporation as connected
with atmospheric phenomena. VII. Artificial climate considered
with regard to horticulture. VIII. The connexion between the
oscillation of the barometer at distant places, IX. The insinua-
tion of air into the Torricellian vacuum, and the means of preventing
the gradual deterioration of barometers. It will also contain various
meteorological observations and remarks, and numerous tables,
plates, and diagrams.

On the Ist of February, with numerous engravings on wood,
Dr. Arnott’s Work on General and Medical Physics. It is a
system of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, with strictly
scientific arrangement, but made easily intelligible to those who
have never learned, or who have forgotten the mathematics. In
addition to a great mass of illustrations from general nature and
the arts, adapted to the present more comprehensive scale of a li-
beral education, it comprises many very interesting particulars
furnished by examination of the animal body under health, disease,
and medical treatment ; and among these are disquisitions and sug-
gestions.

FOREIGN BOOKS OF SCIENCE LATELY PUBLISHED.

Memoire sur l'Impossibilité de quelques Equations indeterminées
du 5° degré; par G. Lejeune Dirichlet.

Journal fur die reine und angewandte Mathematik, von M. A. L.
Crelle.

Observations Astronomiques publiées par le Bureau des Longi-
tudes de Paris.

Correspondence Mathematique et Physique; par MM. Garnier
et Quetelet.

Sull’ Applicazione de’ Principii della Mecanica Analitica, &c; di
Gabrio Piola. A Geolo-

New Patents. ae,

A Geological Survey of the Environs of Philadelphia. By
M. Froost.

Su i valori delle Misure e dei Pesi degli antichi Romani, désunti
dagli originali esistenti nel real Museo Borbonico di Napoli, &c.

Considérations sur la diversité des Bassins de differentes Races
Humaines, par M. G. Vrolik, D.M.

Nouvelles Régles sur l’art de Formuler; par H. Briand, D. M. &c.

Considérations chimiques et médicales sur ]’Eau de Selters ou de
Seltz naturelle; par M.M. Caventou, Frangois, Gasc, et Marc.

NEW PATENTS.

To Thomas Machell, of Berners-street, Oxford-street, surgeon,
for improvements on apparatus applicable to the burning of oil, &c.
—Dated the 8th of December 1826.—6 months allowed to enrol
specification.

To Robert Dickinson, of New Park-street, Southwark, for an in-
vention for the formation, coating and covering of vessels or pack-
ages for containing, preserving, or conveying goods, whether liquid
or solid, &c.—8th of December.—6 months.

To Charles Pearson, of Greenwich, esquire, Richard Witty, of
Hanley, Staffordshire, engineer, and William Gillman, of White-
chapel, engineer, for a method of applying heat to certain useful
purposes —13th of December.—6 months.

To Charles Harsleben, of Great Ormond-street, esquire, for his
machinery for facilitating the working of mines and extraction of
diamonds, &c, gold, silver, &c. from the ore, the earth, or the sand;
applicable likewise to other purposes.—13th of Dec.—6 months.

To John Costigin, of Collon, in the county of Louth, civil en-
gineer, for improvements in steam machinery or apparatus.—13th
of December.—6 months.

To Peter Mackay, of Great Union-street, Borough Road, for
improvements by which the names of streets and other inscriptions
will be rendered more durable and conspicuous.—13th of Decem-
ber.—6 months.

To William Johnson, of Droitwich, for improvements in the mode
of process and form of apparatus for the manufacturing of salt and
other purposes.—18th of December.—6 months,

To Maurice De Jough, of Warrington, cotton-spinner, for im-
provements in machinery or apparatus for preparing rovings, and
for spinning and winding fibrous substances.—18th of December.—
6 months.

To Charles Harsleben, of Great Ormond-street, esquire, for im-
provements in building ships and other vessels, applicable to various
purposes for propelling the same.—20th of December.—6 months.

To Thomas Quarrill, of Peter’s Hill, London, for improvements
in the manufacture of lamps.—20ta of December.—6 months.

To William Kingston, master millwright of Portsmouth Dock-
yard, and George Stebbing, mathematical instrument-maker, of
High-street, Portsmouth, for improvements on instruments or ap-
paratus for the more readily or certainly ascertaining the time and
stability of ships or other vessels —20th of December.—6 months.

To

78 Meteorological Observations for November.

To Melvil Wilson, of Warnford-court, Throgmorton-street, for
improvements in machinery for cleaning rice.--20th of Dec.—6 mo.

To’ Charles Scidler, of No. 1, Crawford-street, Portman-square,
for a method of drawing water out of mines, wells, pits, and other
places.—20th of December.—6 months.

To Frederick Andrews, of Stanford Rivers, Essex, for improve-
ments in the construction of carriages and in the engines or ma-

_chinery to propel the same, to be operated upon by steam or other
suitable power.—20th of December.—6 months.

To Charles Random Baron de Barenza, of Target Cottage,
Kentish Town, for improvements in gunpowder-flasks, powder-
horns, or other utensils of different shapes, such as are used for car-
rying gunpowder, in order to load therefrom guns, pistols, and
other fire-arms.—20th of December.—6 months.

To Valentine Bartholomew, of Great Marlborough-street, for
his improvement in shades for lamps, &c.—21st of Dec.—2 months.

To John Gregory Hancock, of Birmingham, plated beading and
canister hinge manufacturer, for a new elastic rod for umbrellas
and other the like purposes.—2I1st of December.—2 months.

METEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR NOVEMBER 1826.

Gosport.—Numerical Results for the Month.

Barom. Max. 30-40 Noy. 21. Wind N.E.—Min. 28-60 Noy. 13. Wind N.

Range of the mercury 1-80.

Mean barometrical pressure forthe month. . . . . . . . 29-776

for the lunar period ending the 28th instant . . . . 29-811

for 15 days with the Moon in North declination . . 29-894

— for 14 days with the Moon in South declination , . 29-728

Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury . . . 7-980

Greatest variation in 24 hours 0:900.—Number of changes 17:

Therm. Max. 59° Nov. 11. Wind S.W.—Min. 29° Noy. 26. Wind N.W.
Range30°.— Mean temp. of exter. air 44-88°. For 30 days with © in«.47-02.
Max. var. in 24 hours 20°-00—- Mean temp. of spring water at 8 A.M.549-30.

De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer.
Greatest humidity of the air in the evening ofthe 13th . . . 98-00°
Greatest dryness of the air in the afternoon of the 8th. . . . 49:00
Franses Of theAUdex) SNe ol Gund eal teed eon bese
Mean at 2 P.M. 65:-7—Mean at 8 A.M. 73-2—Mean at 8 P.M. 75:2
of three observations each day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock . 71-4
_ Evaporation for the month 1-15 inch.
Rain near ground 3-640 inches.—Rain 23 feet high 3-410 inches.
Prevailing wind, North.

Summary of the Weather.
A clear sky, 5; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 103 ; an overcast
sky without rain, 74; foggy, 3; rain, 6}.—Total 30 days.

Clouds.
Cirrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus.
17 7 29 0 17 16 17

Scale of the prevailing Winds,
N. NEI abn S.E. 0S.) 8.W. W. N.W. Days.
8 5 1 1 1 4 3 7 30
General

Metcorological Observations for November. 79

General Observations.—Considering that November is, in general, the
most wet and gloomy month in the year, we may term the present a fine
month ; but the prevailing northerly and easterly winds made it cold. It
seldom happens in November that we can see the ceerulean hue of the sky
five days without clouds, which was the case this month. But during one-
third of the month much low haze and yapours prevailed, which, from the
obliquity of the sun’s rays, had rather a gravitating than an ascending
power. Their floating so near the earth’s surface was the cause of exces-
sive dampness for several days, which seemed to have a mure powerful
effect on the human constitution, than the cold weather with brisk drying
winds had. On the penetrating effects of sudden vicissitudes of the
weather in autumn, we may draw some inference from the discoloured
or rusty state of the standing leaves of trees, plants, and polished metals,
which is communicated to them by the superabundant quantity of oxygen
in the atmosphere near the earth. Nearly two-thirds of the month we
have had hoar frost on the ground in the mornings, scmetimes accom-
panied by ice, which breught on the appearance of an early winter. So
early as the middle of the month the hills in the northern districts were
said to have been covered with snow.

On the 13th instant, there was a very sudden depression of the quick-
silver in the Barometer, and more than an inch ofrain fell in the 24 hours:
after the quicksilver had attained a pretty high altitude, the dense clouds
on the 19th, 20th, and 21st, presented a snowy appearance. The 26th
was the coldest day here, when the Thermometer sank three degrees be-
low the freezing point, and icy efflorescences appeared on the inside of
the windows the first time this autumn, which indicated that it had frozen
within doors.

The mean temperature of the external air this month is nearly three
degrees lower than the mean of November for the last ten years.

In the morning of the 11th between 8 and 9 o’clock, three parhelia ap-
peared in the South-east quarter ; one on each side of, and the third above
the sun, which latter was formed by the intersection of am inverted co-
loured arch with the solar halo that accompanied it, and each parhelicn
was 22° 35! distant from the sun’s centre.

The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our
observations this month, are three parhelia, one solar and one lunar halo,
five meteors, two rainbows, sheet-lightning in the night cf the 26th, and
two gales of wind, namely, one from the North, the other from the S. W.

London.—Nov. 1. Fine. 2.Fine. 3, Fine day: rainy evening and night.
4, 5. Rainy. 6.Fine. 7. Fine: white frost. 8, White frost this morning :
fine day. 9. White frost this morning: fineday. 10—12. Fine. 13. Cloudy
day: rainy night. 14—16. Fine. 17. Cloudy. 18,19. Rainy. 20. Fine.
21, 22. Cloudy. 23—25. Fine. 26. Hoar frost with dense fog: afternoon
clear: some snow in the evening. 27. Fogey morning: afternoon fine:
a little suow in the night. 28, Rainy. 29. Fine during the eclipse of the
sun: rain in the afternoon. 30. Cloudy.

Penzance.—-Nov.1.Showers. 2,3. Fair. 4—6.Fair : showers. 7.Showers.
8.Fair. 9,10. Fair: showers. 11. Rain. 12. Showers. 13. Rain. 14. Hail
showers. 15. Showers. 16.Rain, 17, 18. Showers. 19. Clear: fair.
20—25. Fair. 24. Showers. 25. Showers: hail and snow. 26. Fair.
27. Clear: hail shower. 28. Rain. 29, 30. Showers: rain at night.

Boston.—Nov. 1. Cloudy. 2,3.Fine. 4.Rain. 5. Cloudy: rain a.m.
and p.m. 6. Cloudy. 7,8.Kine. 9.Cloudy. 10.Rain. 11, Cloudy. 12. Fine.
13. Fine: rain at night. 14. Rain. 15, 16. Fine. 17. Rain. 18. Cloudy.
19. Cloudy: raina.M, 20—24,Cloudy. 25.Stormy. 26. Fine: snow p.m.
27. Fine, 28, Cloudy: rain p.m. 29, Cloudy. 30, Cloudy: rain a.m.

Meteor-

L.oV _|€0-EP £5-66 |S8-6z SZ-6¢ | 79-08

£0- | ‘** jOOL-1] LO. Of. jg |myes, *s j*MN| ‘s | G8 | OF! LF| Sh | oS | LE | SP | ST-6Z| €€-6% | gz-6% | O€-62z | 09-62 | 89-6 |OS
9. |0P6- |°** | 60. |*** | * me), ‘ms | ‘a | “A | 98 |G-LP7| Of) oF | FS | oF | 1S | O1-6%| 8-62 | 91-62 | 81-62 | 65-60 | 09-62 [62 @
Ses Gon ie lo Goulees es jue ms} “a | MS) 08 | PE) 17] Of | PS | gf | 1S | Z9-6%} 89-62 | OS-6% | 09-62 | 09-62% | 00-08 |gz
wee poses jose josee (GQ. | cee [MAN | MN CMAN] cA | PL 1G.2Z| OF] O€ | OS | Of | LE | OF-62| £9-62 | 09-62 | 09-62 | 26-62 | 66:60 |Le
see poses |eee [see jose | eee |urye@d) “N | “MN/NA QO] 6G) ZE| OF | OF | Sz | SE | 01-62] 92-62 | 91-6 | O£-6% | €S-62% | Z6-6% 9%
de IS 0 Pe | ii’ ner | tm | tA PMAN | “MA | 09 | G-98| 6E} FE | OV | 0%! IV | OL.SZ| 61-6 | 30-62 | O1-6% | 9£-6% | €9-6% |S%
see [ore [ese fees lop. | ees june) *m |*mn |MNM) 71 1 C.27) PP! ob | VE | of | OF | 02-62] VS-6% | 8&-6z | gF-6z | 6-62 | £L-6z |F
ees |OnOr [aos ea? a Se vel eMN | CN [MN] AN) OL | PP! OF| OF | OF | EF | 6F | 08-6%| 80-08 | F8-6z | 06-62 | 2-62 | gz-08 |€%
cee poses [ese poses jece |oeee | eHN | °N ] EN] “N | OG | IP] PP) SE | SV | IV | SP | S1-0€| O£.0€ | Gi-0€ | 02-0 | gz-0€ | 8G9-0€ zo D
cre ]ocee fore pores Gy. [cee | ca | HN] aN] “aN | OL | EF] PP) CP | BF | LE | SP | Sz-0€| OV.O€ | 02-08 | BZ-0€ | 8S-0£F | F9-0F |1z
see jocee fess poste jess jets | ox | “HN | EN | “aN | 89 | PP) OF] CF | 6V | OF | GV | E1-08 | LZ.0€ | F1-O€ | ST-O€ | HS-0€ | F9-0€ 10%
gO- jOTO. |*** | Sl. jee | ce | cH | EN | aN] ‘aN | 64 | LP] LE! oP | oS | PF | SF -O€ | 80-0€ | 26-62 | 00-08 | €€-0£ | VS-0€ |6L
*** (0G0. 180-0] ** jor. | °° | “# | HN] “| an | GL | CF] SP] g& | oF | Pr | LV | 06-62/ 90.08 | 16-62 | Z6-6%-| €€-0€ | €€-08 |gt
gl. |GZO. |*** |“ rej ctt | te fms] cm [cas | OL | Fh) LP} PH | oS | LE | LP | Lo.6z| 79-62 | €L-6% | PL-6z | 80-0€ | €€-08 {LT
*** 1063. | °°" | GO: js | LP. |*MN | “N [MS] “mm | 98 | C-PE|} OF] Be | 1S | ze | SV | O16] 26.62 | 99-62 | 89-62 | 80-0€ | 8L-0€ |9T
ree tes 10G:0] °° GT. | *t* [MN | CMAN |*MN J oMN | 69 | GE] ZH! OF | ZS | gz | SP | 9z-6z| 99.62 | 29-62 | OL-6z | LL-6% | 81-08 |ST
ee ee eet jece | eee Sem | TMAN | CN 1 mn] OL 1G.66/ Ih) PP | oS | SE | PH | 08-82] 01-62 | O1-6z | 0G-62 | Sz-6z | LL.63 |F1 O

“1010-1; °° | GG. |v | ttt jtMN | tas | as | oms) 6/ | gf! gh! of | SS | gf | SP | 90.6z| 0.62 | 04-82 | 01-62 | SZ-6 | 99-62% |ET
*** 1010. |ST-0| TO. lor. | *** | “man | “S| “Mm |ems | BL | Th) LP] LP | PS | €€ | HS | 0.62 | 99.6% | 1P-62 | 67-62 | S9-6% | 78-62% |Z1
0@- |O€o- |*"* wee frre josee Pen] “MS | “MAS! 18} SV} OS! oF | VS | th | VS | 09-62] £8.62 | 99-62 | 02-62 | 78-6% | 00-08 |TT

es 10M. jot [Te fees fete | tsa] AA | “ANT cs | OL |G.906) of | gf | PS | oF | LV | gZ-6z]| 80-08 | 96-62% | 00-0 | 00-0€ | SZ-0€ jor
rer fore Jere Loses gg, | eee [emu | x | MN an! PQ] Of] GE] gf | Zo | 62 | Zh | 26-60| £1.08 | 36-62 | 66-62 | GZ-0F | PE-0F |6
see fsen fore [over fee fo see taunt | “AA catalyse) OL | GE) 9€| OF | 19 | gz | OP | 08-6 | 90.0€ | F6-6z | 96-62 | L2-0€ | PE-0€ |g
99-62 | 06.62 | 08-62 | 26-62% | O1-0€ | 4z-0€ |L

OF-62 | 8L-6% | 0L.6z | ZL-6% | L6-6% | OT-0€ 19

£9-0|0G0- |*** [9G [rs | tet | can | “XN | an] -w | BZ | 1G] gP] gh | PS | EF | OF | 09-62 | L8-6z | OL-6z | 1L-6z | L6-6z ROOF |S
¢

=
a
=
Z
a
Fa
a
2
wD
ne
+
roa
©
roe)
Te)
Sa)
ea)
=
°
ro)
a

Q
3
wo
Q
°
S)
Ld
S|
a
=
%
z
E
z
~
~
wo
=
2
=
re)
=
+
Te)
~
a
re)
=

** 100T. | °"" | GE. fers | St" | a | CAN) AN) *N | 8] OS) 67] Bh | FS | 6€ | LU | GS.6z | €L.6 | 99-62 | 9L-6% | $6.62 | $0-02
ses 10Gg. | °°" | G6. 1GT.0| °° |*MN | CN | EN | NO) OL | PP] S| PP | SS | LY | 2 | oL-6z | L8-6% | 91-62 | 9L-6z | $6-62 | 90-0€ |

ASS pe pS Fo eles g.) | “SAN ‘N | ‘N | 89 /S-17| ah] LP | ZS | ZF | OS | 79-62 | 6L-6% | PL-6z | 8L-62 96-6Z | 90-0L |%
ore COTO) = Saesie ee), AB | AN SAAN L9 _9F| 67] LG | OG | gE | 0G | Ge.6z | 08.62 | OL-6z | 12-62 | 76-63 | 96.6% |T_ “AON
a oo ee y PSE ; IT oer recive ae 5 “x
BIO le |e] She | w]e] PB) Se Bes (one xem mn Nl acy $9] mv 9g em | EW | COO | OMe
S rg N a s | G a a a wale S oneanest ‘uopuoT | ‘ysogq | ‘dsog *o0uUBZUAg ‘uopuo'T ‘quo
= : Z = o skt
eR “rodevay “PUTA 3 *I9JOULOULIOY J, 1a} WOE, Z 5

ee
"Uopsog 70 TIFIA “Py puv ‘j40ds0yH yw AINUN “4qy ‘aounxuag qo ACAID “py ‘uopuo'T nau aurmoy py 49 suorvasasqo qonsoj0.L0aja Ar

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE

AND

ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY.

—>—_

[NEW SERIES. ]

FEBRUARY 1827.

XX. On some new auxiliary Tables for determining the ap-
parent Places of the Greenwich Stars. By Francis Batty,
Esq. F.R.S. LS. and G.S. and M.R.L_A.

To Mr. Taylor.

1. i a late Number of your valuable Journal*, you have

noticed the New Tables for facilitating the computation of
Precession, Aberration and Nutation recently published by the
Astronomical Society of London. ‘These tables certainly pre-
sent the most convenient mode of computing those quantities,
when occasionally required: but they, by no means, supersede
the utility and (in the present state of astronomy, I may say)
the necessity of those Special Tables for the daily corrections
of the Greenwich stars, which were computed also at the ex-
pense of the Astronomical Society, at the suggestion (I believe)
of Mr. Herschel; and who has written an excellent Introduc-
tion to the same.

2. It is well known that Mr. Herschel’s tables are intended
only to be subsidiary to the formation of other tables of the
corrections which are daily required in an active observatory :
and to save the time and labour which must otherwise be em-
ployed in determining those quantities. And, in the compu-
tation of those daily values, it will be evident to the experi-
enced calculator that a still greater saving of time and labour
might be effected if the computations of one year could be
made subservient to those of the following years. ‘This may
be readily done with respect to the aberration: since the place
of the sun on any given day will never differ more than 15 or
16 minutes from its place on the same day in any contiguous
year: and by a previous arrangement of the tables, the cor-

* Phil. Mag. Nov. 1826.
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 2. Feb. 1827. M rection

82 Mr. Baily’s proposed Tables for the

rection for such difference may be easily applied. The solar-
nutation likewise, depending on twice the same argument as
the aberration, may be conveniently added thereto: and the
precession, being a constant quantity, and proportional to the
time elapsed, may also be easily united to the aberration. It
follows therefore that tables of precession, aberration and
solar-nutation for each Greenwich star may be so formed, for
every tenth day of the year, as to last for many years to come,
without the necessity of any other correction than such as
arises from the position of the sun on the given day: and the
practical astronomer may at any time take out, almost by
inspection, the proper quantities required. With respect to
the Junar-nutation, (to which I shall presently refer,) its value
will differ from year to year so considerably, that annual com-
putations must be made for each year, and for each star. But,
since four computations for each star, in every year, will be
sufficient, they may be so arranged from year to year as to be
united with the daily values above alluded to. If Mr. Her-
schel’s tables, therefore, be considered as the first step to-
wards the formation of these daily corrections of the stars,
I think that Tables, constructed agreeably to the arrangement
here alluded to, may be fairly considered as the second step
towards that desirable object.

3. The subject of the present communication is to point
out the best mode of making this arrangement: and in doing
this, I must again advert (as I have so frequently done before)
to the valuable labours of M. Bessel, who has, in his Funda-
menta Astronomia, page 67, shown the principle upon which
this arrangement is made. But, as a more detailed explana-
tion of it may be acceptable to many of your readers, and
may probably lead to a more extensive adoption of it in this
country, I hope I need not apologize for the space which
I must necessarily occupy for this purpose in your interesting
Journal.

4. Special tables, for determining the apparent places of
the Greenwich stars, are generally so constructed as to show
the position of the given star at the moment of its culmina-
tion: that being the time at which these stars are more usually
observed. And this is the method which I shall adopt in the
subsequent investigation*. Now, in order to deduce the
values of the corrections from one year to another, a fictitious
year must be assumed, commencing at a given epoch; and
consisting of 3664 sidereal days. M. Bessel has assumed the
epoch of the sun’s mean longitude at mean noon at Paris, on

* In the Nautical Almanac, however, the apparent places are given for
2100N,
January

apparent Places of the Greenwich Stars. 83

January 0, 1800, being exactly 280°: but, in order to pre-
serve uniformity in the arrangement of the tables published
by the Astronomical Society, I shall assume the epoch of the
sun’s mean longitude at mean noon at Greenwich on January
1, 1800, being exactly 281°: which, in fact, differs very little
from the preceding assumption. The mean motion of the
sun in a sidereal day is 58' 58",6417; which, in 10 such days,
amounts to 9° 49! 46,417: and it will be seen that the inter-
vals of computation may be extended to 10 days, without any
risk of error.

5. This being premised, we shall find that the mean longi-
tude of the sun, when any given star culminates, on any given
day of the fictitious year, will be equal to

280° 13' 57",88 + (d + «) 58! 58",6417
where « denotes the right ascension of the given star (in time),
expressed in the fractional part of a day (or 24"): and d the
number of sidereal days, reckoned from the given epoch to
the given day*. Consequently the mean longitude of the sun
for the moment of culmination of any given star for every
10th day of the fictitious year will be +

280° 13' 57",88 + a 58! 58",64+

for January 1 = 0° 0! O"O
ll = 9 49 46,4
ZA =i; 39: 32)58

SL ¢=8.29'" 29) 1952
February 10 = 39 19 5,6
&e. &c. &e. &e.

The sun’s mean longitude for each star, being found in the
manner thus described for every tenth sidereal day, we must
apply the equation of the centre, in order to determine the
corresponding ¢rwe longitude of the sun at the same periods ;
which will be the Argument for finding the aberration. And
twice this quantity will be the Argument for finding the solar-
nutation.

6. But we may readily form a table o the ¢rue longitude
of the sun corresponding to every degree of his mean longi-
tude in the fictitious year; which will last for many years to

* For those stars, therefore, whose right ascension is between 0® and
18" 44™, the time of culmination, will refer to the preceding day.

+ As an example, take the case of a Aquile, the mean right ascension
of which star, for January 1, 1830, is 19" 42™ 29° = °821]: and the mean
longitude of the sun at the time of its culmination on that day is conse-
quently 280° 13! 58" +. 48! 26" = 281° 2! 24". This value being added
to 9° 49! 46”, and its multiples, will give the mean longitude of the sun at
the time of its culmination on every subsequent tenth siderea/ day of the
year,

M 2 come.

84 Mr. Baily’s proposed Tables for the

come. For, since the place of the sun’s perigee in 1830 will
be exactly 280°, and since it varies only 62" from year to
year, a table of the equation of the centre computed for the
first 90° of the sun’s mean anomaly will answer for the whole
circle: attention being paid to the signs. Let z denote the
mean anomaly of the sun for the year 1830, then will the
equation of the centre be

+ 1° 55! 22",81 sin z + 72",61 sin 2z + 1",06 sin 3z

7. Having thus determined the érve longitude of the sun,
for each star, on every ¢enth sidereal day of the fictitious year,
we much enter Mr. Herschel’s tables with the Arguments

(© + N) and (2© + N")
and find the respective values of the quantities required. The
values of N and N" are given by Mr. Herschel*.

8. With respect to the precession, or rather the annual
variation, its amount at any given moment of time will be ex-
pressed by Vy bose

360°
where V denotes the annual variation, and L the mean longi-
tude of the sun as above determinedt. If we substitute the

value of L for each star, and make the proper reductions,
this formula will becomet

V x (00273 « — :00213) +
for January 1 = ‘00000 V
“fl = 00273 Vx 10
21 = 00278 V x 20
31 = ‘00273 V x 30
February 10 = :00273 V x 40
&e. &e. de.

« being, as before, the right ascension of the star, converted
into the decimal part of 24". These values being added to

* As an example, take the case of # Aguile on the tabular April 11th.
The true longitude of the sun on that day, at the time of the culmination
of the star, will be 19° 20’ 6!’ + 1° 53! 27" = 21° 13! 33’. Consequently
by Mr. Herschel’s tables the amount of the aberration in right ascension
will be — 00600; and of the solar-nutation — 050536.

+ Mr. Herschel’s Table I. gives the annual variations for mean solar
days, and not for sidereal days.

{ Asan example, take the case of « Aquile, whose annual variation
(in right ascension) is equal to 2924; the proportional part of which, on
January 1, at the time of its culmination, will be + 2°924 (-00224—
00213) = +0°:00032: which being added to 0°:0798, and its multiples,
will give the amount of the annual variation at the time of its culmination
on every subsequent tenth sidereal day of the year. Thus, on the tabudar
April 11th, it will be +0°:7983. -

the

apparent Places of the Greenwich Stars. 85

the respective values of the aberration and solar-nutation for
each star, on those days, will give the total amount of the
correction, depending on those quantities, for each star at the
moment of its culmination on every tenth day of the fictitious
year, commencing from that moment of time when the sun’s
mean longitude at mean noon at Greenwich is assumed as
exactly 281°.

9. Having thus deduced the sum of the values of annual
variation, aberration and solar-nutation for each star, and for
every tenth day of the fictitious year, from January 1 to De-
cember 37*; they must be arranged into tables, with their
differences annexed, and are then ready for use. It is in this
manner that M. Bessel has computed and arranged his sub-
sidiary tables for the corrections (in right ascension) of 36
Greenwich stars, inserted in the Konigsberg Observations for
1818; and which may be found in Dr. Pearson’s valuable
Astronomical Tables, pages 149—152. And it is from those
subsidiary tables that M. Schumacher annually computes and
publishes his apparent places of the Greenwich stars. It is
in this manner also that M. Bessel has computed and ar-
ranged the Tables in his Fundamenta Astronomia, page 72,
for determining the corrections (in right ascension) of 14 prin-
cipal Greenwich stars, for the reduction of Bradley’s obser-
vations.

10. All these tabular values are computed, as I have al-
ready observed, for a fictitious year (of 3664 sédereal days)
which commences from an assumed epoch, depending on a
given mean longitude of the sun. But, since the mean lengi-
tude of the sun at mean noon at Greenwich on January 1,
1800, is not exactly 281°; and since it is never the same at
the commencement of each civil year, a correction is required
for reducing the values, in the proposed tables, to the true
epoch, according to the civil mode of reckoning time. And
a further correction is likewise required for the longztude of
the place of observation; on the presumption that the pro-
posed tables may be used on a different meridian from that
of Greenwich. These two corrections are precisely similar
to those which I have pointed out in the Introduction to the
New Tables for facilitating the computation of Precession, Ab-
erration and Nutation, alluded to at the commencement of this
communication: and therefore it will be unnecessary to dwell
further upon them in this place.

* The year is continued to the fictitious date of December 37, in order
to complete the decades, and thus facilitate the computation of the dif-
ferences. For a similar reason the computation of the lunar-nutation is
extended to December 67.

11. There

86 Mr. Baily’s proposed Tables for the

11. There is, however, another correction necessary in the
application of these tables, to which I have not yet alluded.
It is well known to all practical astronomers that every star
will once in every year culminate ¢w7ice in a mean solar day,
when the sun has the same right ascension as the star: and
the fictitious day will then have gained a day on the civil
mode of reckoning astronomical time. This correction is
common to all the stars: and when the annual values are
computed it is usual to annex an asterisk to the interval which
includes the day above alluded to; and the intervals, so
marked, will comprehend eleven culminations of the star. For
those stars also whose right ascension is between 0" and
18" 44™ we must make a further addition of unity to the given
date from the commencement of the year to the day on which
it is in conjunction with the sun. These corrections M. Bessel
denotes by the letter 7: so that the Argument for entering the
tables will be

Tae=Trt+i-2ve— l,
where T denotes the given day, according to the civil mode of
reckoning astronomical time, from noon to noon: + the same
nominal date in the tables; 7 a number which must be taken
equal to 0, 1 or 2, according to the circumstances of the case* ;
and 2 and / the same as in my Introduction to the New Tables
of Precession, Aberration, &c. already alluded to.

12. These three corrections,—viz. 1° for the commence-
ment of the year; 2° for the day of culmination with the sun;
and 3° for the longitude,—are all that are required in the
use of these tables. The argument being once found for the
given year, the requisite differences for the computation of
the annual tables are easily deduced, in most cases by in-
spection, and always very readily by the assistance of a small
auxiliary table of proportional parts.

13. The lunar-nutation may be computed for intervals of
100 days only: for, the motion of the moon’s node is so slow
that it will be unnecessary to compute for any smaller inter-
vals. The mean longitude of the moon’s node on January 1,
1800, when the mean longitude of the sun was 281°, was, by
the recent tables of M. Damoiseau, equal to 33°*2107: and the

* If the right ascension of the star is greater than 18" 44™, 2 is equal to
0, from January 1 to the day on which the sun’s right ascension is the
same as that of the star; and, after that period, it is equal to 1, to the
end of the year. If the right ascension of the star is less than 18" 44™,
i is equal to 1 from January 1 to the day on which the sun’s true right
ascension is the same as that of the star; and, after that period, it is equal
to 2, to the end of the year. Thus, for « Aquile, April 10th, according
to the civil mode of reckoning astronomical time, will be equal to the ¢a-
bular April 11th, because in this case é is equal to 1.

meah

apparent Places of the Greenwich Stars. 87

mean motion of the moon’s node in a tropical revolution of
the sun being —19°°3417, we may obtain, by simple addition,
the mean place of the moon’s node on January 1, of any sub-
sequent fictitious year, commencing when the sun’s mean
longitude at mean noon is 281°. ‘The mean motion of the
nodes, in 100 sidereal days, is —5°:281. But these days
should (for each star) be computed from the moment of time
when the sun’s mean longitude is equal to
280° 13! 57",88 + a x 58! 58,6417
= Jan’ 0921944 + «

a denoting, as before, the right ascension of the given star
expressed in the fractional part of a day. If therefore Q de-
note the mean place of the moon’s node, for any given star,
computed for the epoch January 0°:21944 + a, we shall have

the mean places of the moon’s node, for the respective periods
as under *: viz.

for Jan. 1 = &
April 11, = & —, 5-281
July 20 = Q — 10°562
Oct. 28 = Q — 15 °843
Derr Gir =) §e hea

The year in every case being supposed to commence when
the mean longitude of the sun at mean noon at Greenwich, on
January 1, 1800, is presumed to be exactly 281°. But, it will
be found that great accuracy in this respect is not essentially
necessary, when it concerns only the lunar-nutation.

14. The mean place of the moon’s node being computed
for those periods in any given year, we may readily deduce
the place of the node for the same days in any following
year, by merely adding —19°*3417 to each of such values:
this being (as I have already observed) the motion of the
moon’s node in a tropical revolution of the sun.

15. Having thus determined the mean longitude of the
moon’s node for every hundredth day of the year, we must
enter Mr. Herschel’s tables with the Arguments

(& + N') and. (22% + Ni¥)
and having deduced the /unar-nutation for those days, we may

* As an example, take the case of « Aquile, whose right ascension,
reduced to the fractional part of 24 hours, has been already deduced equal
to 82118; consequently we must compute the mean place of the moon’s
node for January 0:21944 + 82118 = January 1:04062. The position of
the moon’s node for that moment of time is 172°°955 ; which being added
to —5°-281, and its multiples, will give the position of the moon’s node,
at the time of the culmination of the star, on every subsequent hundredth
sidereal day of the year. Thus, on the tabular April 11th, it will be
167°674 = 167° 40! 26",

readily

88 Mr. Baily’s proposed Tables, &c.

readily determine the amount for every tenth day, when we
wish to apply it to the computation of the annual tables *.
The values of N’ and Niv are given by Mr. Herschel.
M. Bessel has, in the formation of his subsidiary tables, added
the mean place of the star, at the commencement of the year,
to the amount of the Junar-nutation: by which means he saves
the computer the trouble of one addition. But, with de-
ference to so great an authority, I would suggest the propriety
of keeping those quantities distinct.

16. Having thus given a sketch of the manner in which
auxiliary tables may be formed, so as to render Mr. Herschel’s
tables more generally applicable and useful, and at the same
time to enable us to obtain more easily the necessary correc-
tions for the Greenwich stars, I trust that some one will be
induced to pursue the subject still further, and endeavour to
procure the actual computation of such auxiliary tables for
the correction of ail the principal stars now observed at the
Observatory at Greenwich. The number of those stars was
formerly 36; and these are the stars whose corrections in
right ascension have been tabulated by M. Bessel: the cor-
rections in declination being still a desideratum. The num-
ber in Mr. Herschel’s tables is 46: and the whole of these
might be tabulated in the manner here proposed, without any
considerable trouble. But Mr. Pond has recently extended
his list to 60 stars, whose apparent places are now given an-_
nually in the Nautical Almanac: and at the end of the volume
for 1829, is given a Catalogue of one hundred principal fixed
stars. Whether it is intended to give the apparent places of
the whole of these, I know not; but it is evident that the
more the list is extended, the more desirable it will be to save
the time and labour of the computer: and in no way can this
be so effectually done as by the tabular arrangement here
proposed.

As your Journal appears to be very extensively circulated
on the continent, as well as in this country, I beg leave to take
this opportunity of correcting a slight typographical error in
my Introduction to the New Tables for facilitating the com-
putation of Precession, Aberration and Nutation, which may
probably mislead some persons who may employ those tables
for a different meridian to that of Greenwich. ‘The error oc-
curs in page xx, where the accent has been placed on the
wrong /: therefore in line 10 for () read (/’), and in line

* As an example, take the case of « Aquile on the tabular April 11th.
These values will be found equal to —0°2065 + 0°:0039 = — 0°:2026.

12, for

Mr. Ivory’s Investigation of condensed Heat. 89

12, for h' read h. The subsequent formula, in line 14, will
then be accurate: but the cases mentioned in page Xxv re-
quire a slight correction, and should be as follow:

Case 1. Arg. = Feb. 10 + (*500 — *378) = Feb. 10°122
Case 2. Arg. = Feb. 10 + (*750 — °378) = Feb. 10°372
Case 3. Arg. = Feb. 10 + (-250 — °378) = Feb. 9°872

Case 4. Arg. = Feb. 10 + (:125 — °378)+°018= Feb. 9-765

This error has likewise led to the inaccurate expression x — J
in pages xxii line 18, xxiii line 9, xxiv lines 1 and 5, and
xxv line 10; in each of which places it ought to be x + J.

It is evident that this error will not affect the argument of
the Tables, when they are used in this country, or at any of
the observatories in the neighbouring states. But, as it might
probably mislead a computer under a more distant meridian,
unless previously detected, I have taken the earliest oppor-
tunity of making the error known; although it is manifest
that the effect will seldom be of much importance.

Jan. 23, 1827. Francis Batty.

XXI. Investigation of the Heat extricated from Air when it
undergoes a given Condensation. By J. Ivory, Esq. M.A.
E.RS.*

ar ee a quantity of air confined in a close vessel,

and let heat be applied to it, the pressure remaining in-
variable, till it is expanded toa given volume. Again, taking
the same mass of air in its first state, let the dimensions of the
vessel be suddenly enlarged till the air has acquired the same
volume to which it was before expanded by heat: the air
within the vessel will become colder, and after a short mo-
ment of time will resume its first temperature. We must
therefore infer that air, when its volume is increased, absorbs
heat, which occasions the coldness; and that the coldness dis-
appears because the loss of temperature is supplied by the
communication of heat from the surrounding bodies. ‘That
this is a true account of the matter, and that no heat is lost,
it is easy to prove; for if the vessel containing the expanded
air be reduced to its original bulk, the heat before absorbed
will be extricated as the air contracts, producing a rise of
temperature which is soon dissipated. Now let heat be
applied to the expanded air, while its volume is kept from
changing, till the temperature is raised to the same degree as
in the first operation: it it evident that the air will now be in

* Communicated by the Author.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 2. Feb. 1827. N the

90 Mtr. Ivory’s Investigation of the Heat extricated

the same condition to which it was before brought by the
agency of heat alone. For, in both cases, there is the same
volume and the same temperature, and consequently there
must be the same density and pressure.

And, since the air is precisely in the same state, it must
have acquired the same quantity of heat in both processes.
It follows, therefore, that when air, under a constant pres-
sure, expands by the agency of heat, the absolute heat which
causes a given rise of temperature, or a given dilatation, is
resolvable into two distinct parts; of which one is capable of
producing the given rise of temperature, when the volume of
the air remains constant; and the other enters into the air,
and somehow unites with it while it is expanding. Of this
latter part there is no perceptible sign, except the cold, or
the heat, which appears at the instant of its entrance, or ezit.
The two heats have no mutual dependence on one another,
since either of them may be varied in any manner while the
other remains unchanged. It is necessary to distinguish them
by appropriate names. The first may be called the heat of
temperature; and the second might very properly be named
the heat of expansion; but I shall use the well known term,
latent heat, understanding by it the heat that accumulates in
a mass of air when the volume increases, and is again extri-
cated from it when the volume decreases.

We must next inquire according to what law the latent
heat accumulates when air expands. When a mass of air,
under a constant pressure, varies by the application of heat,
J assume it as an acknowledged principle that equal quanti-
ties of absolute heat produce equal increments of volume.
It is evident that this principle cannot be deduced by rea-
soning : it must be established by experiment. It is true, so
long as an air-thermometer can be reckoned an exact mea-
sure of heat; for, if it were not true, the indications of that

‘instrument would be irregular. But, what proof have we
that an air-thermometer measures heat exactly? To this it
must be answered, that we arrive at the conclusion indirectly,
and that there is no direct proof. If we suppose that a given
quantity of absolute heat applied to all bodies caused an incre-
ment of volume, always the same in the same body although
different in different bodies, it is evident that all bodies would
indicate by their dilatations the same progression of tempera-
tures. ‘Two thermometers, made of any materials, which
agreed in two points of their scales, would always mark the
same degrees of heat. Now if we compare two thermometers,
one of air and the other of mercury, which have their scales
adjusted to the fixt points at which water freezes and boils,

and

Jjrom Air when it undergoes a given Condensation. 91

and find that their indications agree for a long range of tem-
perature, we must infer that the supposed principle is true in
nature for the whole of the interval, and that equal quantities
of absolute heat have uniformly caused equal expansions on
both scales.

In an air-thermometer, or, which is the same thing, in a
mass of air under a constant pressure, the rise of temperature
is proportional to the increment of volume. Wherefore, since
both the absolute heat and the heat of temperature keep pace
with the increase of volume, it follows that their difference,
that is, the latent heat, must follow the same law of variation.

And, because it is proved that equal increments of latent
heat correspond to equal rises of temperature and to equal
increments of volume, we may employ the dilatation of a mass
of air to measure the accumulation of latent heat, just as we
employ it to measure the increase of temperature. Let vu! de-
note the volume of the fluid, at some fixt temperature, sup-
pose zero of the thermometrical scale; and, the pressure be-
ing constant, put v for the volume when the temperature has
been raised to r, and the latent heat 7 has combined with the
air: then, « and B being two constants, it is evident that we
shall have, y =v (1 + at) A)

v=v (1 + £2) (
When v! and »v are the same in the two formule, the two
factors 1 + a7 and 1 + 62 are equal: consequently,
z

. a
Bi=ar, and>-=-—.

The fraction a is therefore the proportion of the latent heat

to the rise of temperature for the same dilatation of the fluid ;
a proportion which, as has been shown, is constant so long
as the air-thermometer continues to be an exact measurer of
heat.

The first of the two formula necessarily supposes that the
air has varied under a constant pressure; but the second
is true in whatever manner the volume has changed from
u! to v.

Let ¢! and g denote the respective densities when the vo-

,
uv .
lumes are v' and v: then = = ae and hence we derive these

%,

other expressions, viz.

wa l+ar (B)
Ey eet Aad
™~ + Bi

N2 of

92 Mr. Ivory’s Investigation of the Heat extricated

Of the two constants « and £, the first is the well-known
expansion of elastic fluids for one degree of the thermometer.
The fraction =
certaining the heat disengaged from a given mass of air by
a given condensation; for the proportion of this heat to the
heat of temperature required to produce the same condensa-
tion, the pressure remaining constant, would be the fraction
sought.» I know not that any such experiment has been made
with sufficient precision. It appears difficult to perform it
with great accuracy, on account of the small quantity of mat-
ter in air when compared with the vessels that contain it and
with ‘the thermometer, bulk for bulk. But we may employ
for the same purpose a very curious and ingenious experi-
ment first made by MM. Clement and Desormes, and after-
wards repeated by MM. Gay-Lussac and Welter, which as-
certains by the variation of the barometer the heat absorbed
or extricated in the changes of volume.

Let p, e, r denote the barometric pressure, density, and
temperature of a mass of air: then

Pp =ce(l1+er),
c being a given number. Put go! = g(1 + 7); then ¢ will
be the density of the same mass of air cooled down to zero of
the thermometer, the pressure being constant ; and we shall
have, p=cd. (1)

In this formula we consider ¢! as a fixed density, and esti-
mate all the changes in the condition of the mass of air by
means of the variations of the latent heat and the heat of tem-
perature. The air being contained in a close vessel, let a small
additional portion of air be forced into the vessel: the conse-
quent condensation will cause an increase of pressure, an
evolution of latent heat, and an equal rise of temperature, all
which circumstances are easily expressed by proper changes
in equation (1), viz.

pt+tp=cex

» and consequently 8, may be found by as-

t+ adi

1—pdi-

After the condensation, the density being fixed, there will be
no change in the latent heat; but the heat of temperature
will be dissipated in a short moment of time, and the pressure
will decrease a little: let p! be the pressure when the con-
densed air has resumed the general temperature, then,

1
p = cé x Te ry (2)

A communication must now be opened between the confined
air

from Air when it undergoes a given Condensation. 93

air-and the atmosphere: the condensed air will rush out and
expand within the vessel, attended with a decrease of pressure,
an absorption of heat and an equal depression of temperature ;
and the last equation will now assume this form, viz.

1l1—adsi
1—Bdi+pai’
We must here conceive that @p! and Az vary together, and
in a very short space of time the pressure will have decreased
to its original quantity p: at the instant this is observed to
take place, the communication with the external air must be
shut, and then we shall have,

pi—tpl=ce x

L—adi
1—Bdi+BAi- (3)
But this state of the air will be momentary only; for the loss
of temperature will be supplied, and the pressure will increase
a little: let p” be the pressure when it is observed to be sta-
tionary, then finally,

1
pl — cpl x 5 Eli A (4)
Now by comparing (4) with (3) and (2), we get,

pace x

and hence, ON es et
B p eB Pp’ po

Taking the two experiments, one by MM. Clement and Des-
ormes, and the other by MM. Gay-Lussac and Welter, of
which the particulars are given in the Mécanique Céleste*, we

find at = 0°354 from the first, and a. = 0°3724 from the

second. By the two latter philosophers the experiment was
repeated in a great variety of circumstances, the pressure be-
ing varied from 144™™ to 1460™", and the temperature from
—20° to 40° of the centigrade thermometer ; and the results
were found nearly the same in every case, and upon the whole
equal to about 0°3748, or 0°375 = 3. ‘This experiment was
contrived expressly for solving the problem concerning the

velocity of sound; for A 1+ [ is the factor by which, ac-

cording to the suggestion of Laplace, the velocity determined

by Newton’s Theory must be multiplied, in order to get the

true velocity. When a method for finding the numerical
: * Liv, xii. chap. 3.

value

94 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

value of the quantity sought was known, it became a point of
great importance to ascertain, by varying the circumstances
of the experiment, whether that quantity always retained the
same value independently of the different states of the at-
mosphere; and all the trials that have been made favour the
conclusion that it is nearly constant. But the constancy of
the factor is now proved @ priori by the theory here laid
down, and is no longer merely an induction from experiments.

Taking os = 3, we are entitled to enunciate the following

proposition, which solves the proposed problem :

The heat extricated from air when it undergoes a given con-
densation, is equal to 3 of the diminution of temperature re-
quired to produce the same condensation, the pressure being
constant.

Air, under a constant pressure, diminishes ;1,th of its vo-
lume for every degree of depression on Fahrenheit’s scale;
and therefore one degree of heat will be extricated from eae
when it undergoes a condensation equal to $5 X § = ta
If a mass of air were supuenly reduced to half its ‘bulk, fa
heat evolved would be 4 + 71, = 90°.

Having now solved the proposed problem, I shall reserve
what further is important on this subject to a future occasion.

Jan. 8, 1827. J. Ivory.

XXII. The Bakerian Lecture. On the Relations of Electrical
and Chemical Changes. By Sir Humpury Davy, Bart.
Pres. B.S.

{Continued from p. 38.]

IV. On the electrical and chemical effects exhibited by com-
binations containing single metals and one fluid.

J KNOW of no class of phenomena more calculated to give
just views of the nature of electro-chemical action than those
presented by single metals and fluids; and as their results are,
with one or two exceptions, entirely new, I shall describe them
with some degree of minuteness.— When two pieces of the
same polished copper, connected with the platinum wires of
the multiplier, were introduced at the same time into the same
solution of hydro-sulphuret of potassa, there was no action ;
but if they were introduced in succession, there was a distinct
and often, if the interval of time was considerable, a violent
electrical effect—the piece of metal first plunged in being ne-

gative, and the other positive.
This result depends upon the circumstance of the produc-
tion

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 95

tion of a new combination, which is negative with respect to
the metal; for after the formation of the sulphuret of copper,
the plate of copper that has been first plunged into the solu-
tion exhibits the same negative state with respect to polished
copper, whether introduced into saline soiutions, or alkaline
or acid menstrua. ‘The electrical effect therefore does not de-
pend on so simple a condition as would at first appear, and it
may be in fact referred to the combinations containing two
metallic substances and one fluid.

The gray sulphuret of copper is negative, in solutions of
hydro-sulphuret, to clean copper, and the superficial coating
has apparently similar electrical powers to this substance.

Copper, in the state of protoxide, is negative, not only with
respect to metallic copper, but likewise with respect to the
sulphuret; a circumstance, which explains many singular and
apparently anomalous circumstances with respect to the action
of hydro-sulphuret on copper. I have often found the order
which I have mentioned, of metallic copper being positive
with respect to copper that had been a few seconds in solution
of hydro-sulphuret, reversed in a singular and capricious
way; but on investigating the cause, I found that the copper

was tarnished; and on heating any kind of polished copper
strongly, so as to produce a thin coating of oxide any where
on its surface, it became strongly negative to copper plunged
in solution of hydro-sulphuret: the same effect was produced
by the action of acids.

There are some singular circumstances connected with the
violent and intense chemical action of copper on solutions
of hydro-sulphurets, which are worthy of being described.
When a piece of copper connected with the multiplier has
been for a minute in strong solution of hydro-sulphuret of
potassa, on introducing a piece of polished copper connected
with the other wire, there is often a violent and momentary
negative charge communicated to it, which sends the needle
through a whole revolution: it then oscillates, and almost
immediately returns, and takes the direction which indicates
that the piece first plunged in is negative. ‘This effect con-
tinues for some minutes, then becomes weaker ; at last the two
sides are in equilibrium, and the piece which was first plunged
in now becomes positive with respect to the other. ‘The first
described of these effects seems to depend upon the discharge,
by the clean copper, of the negative electricity accumulated
by the contact of the plate first plunged in, before the rela-
tive states produced by the metallic contact and the regular
currents occur; and the second, to the detaching or peeling
off of the coat of sulphuret, which has the effect of exposing

a clean

96 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

a clean surface, and which effect:is probably occasioned by the
oxidation of the positive side of the plate.

There are few electrical actions more intense than those
produced by the operation of hydro-sulphurets on copper in
these different circumstances; so much so, that I have con-
structed a Voltaic battery which decomposed water, by six
combinations, consisting merely of thin slips of copper, of
which one half had been exposed to the solution about a mi-
nute before the other half: of course, the oxidating surface
was on the side of the clean or latest exposed metal.

With lead, and alloys of tin and lead and iron, there are
the same phenomena, but much feebler electrical action, the
metallic surface which is first introduced being the negative
surface; and the principles of this kind of action are precisely
the same as those of copper and hydro-sulphurets.

Zinc, platinum, and metals which have no chemical action
on solutions of hydro-sulphurets, produce no phenomena of
this kind; silver and palladium, which act powerfully with
these menstrua, produce very decided effects; but the com-
pounds they form in them being positive with respect to the
pure metals, the phenomena are the reverse of those offered
by the more oxidable metals; the surface plunged first into
the solution is the positive surface, and it retains this relation
in alkaline, acid, and saline solutions, presenting peculiarities
dependent upon the change of surface, which I shall refer to
again hereafter.

The production of electrical currents by single metals and
single fluids, though most distinct in the cases I have just
named, yet occurs generally whenever new substances which
can adhere to the metals are produced in chemical action.
Thus in acid solutions of a certain strength pieces of the same
zine, tin, iron, and copper, exhibit similar phenomena; the
surface first plunged into the acid being tarnished, or retain-
ing a slight coat of oxide, is negative to the metal plunged in
afterwards, and the relation is sustained in saline or alkaline
solutious. The same effect is caused by producing a coat of
oxide by heat on the surface, or even by applying it artificially.
The oxidated surface is negative with respect to the other.

Zinc, which dissolves in a strong solution of potassa, giving
off hydrogen copiously, exhibits exactly the same phaenomena
in this solution; the tarnished metal, or that first introduced,
being negative with respective to the other. Tin likewise in
solution of potassa, having been introduced long enough to
have.tarnished, is strongly negative with respect to polished
tin.

Even the noble metals obey the same law. Silver, that has

been

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 97

been tarnished by the action of nitric acid, is negative to po-
lished silver in diluted acid; and gold and platinum, that have
been acted on by aqua regia, are negative in that acid to the
clean metals.

The intimate connexion displayed in all these cases be~
tween the chemical and electrical phenomena, becomes still
more remarkable when the nature of the changes taking place
in circles of this kind is considered.

Oxygen, which may be considered as negative with respect
to all the metals, and sulphur, which is negative with respect
to the oxidable metals, by their combinations with metals re-
spectively positive to them, produce compounds negative with
regard to those metals. And in the chemical changes, the
results are such as must ultimately restore the equilibrium,
hydrogen or sulphuretted hydrogen passing to the negative
side, and oxygen to the positive side; so that the oxides are
revived; and not only is the equilibrium restored, but the
poles sometimes changed. Thus tin that has tarnished in
acid, remains for some time negative in solution of alkali, but
gradually as the oxide upon it is revived by the hydrogen de-
termined to this surface, it loses its negative power ; and the
other surface, now tarnished by the action of the alkali, gains
this power, whilst the opposite surface becomes positive.

V. Of electrical combinations, consisting of two imperfect, and
one perfect conductor ; or two fluids and a metal, or charcoal.

To understand clearly the nature of the action in this kind
of electrical combination, it is necessary to consider the na-
ture of imperfect conducting bodies, water, or saline solutions.
These bodies may be regarded as having the same relations
to electricities of very low intensity, that elastic fluids have to
the electricities of glass, sealing-wax, or the common machine.
They communicate the electrical polarities of the metals,
but do not appear capable of receiving such polarities, or at
least of retaining them; and the electrical equilibrium, when
broken in them, seems to be rapidly restored by a new ar-
rangement or attraction of certain of their elements. For in-
stance, if we introduce the positive and negative poles from
a very powerful voltaic battery into the extremities of a basin
filled with solution of muriate of lime, and place in the circuit
different wires of platinum, every wire will possess a positive
and negative pole, and there will be no division of the fluid
into two parts, one positive, the other negative ; and when the
two wires are withdrawn, they alone having been used, the
electrical appearances immediately cease; and metallic wires
unconnected with the battery made to occupy their places, ex-
hibit no electrical phenomena: and in-all experiments of this

New Series. Vol. 1. No.2. Feb. 1827. O kind,

98 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

kind, the well known phenomena of the development of
chlorine and oxygen and acid matter at the positive, and hy-
drogen, alkaline matter, &c. at the negative pole, takes place.

Acid and alkaline matters, when perfectly dry and non-
conducting, become on contact negative and positive; as I
have shown is the case with oxalic acid and lime; but this
effect is similar to that of glass and silk, and the result is a
common electricity of tension. And when acids and alkalies
combine, their union being apparently the result of the same
attractive powers acting on the particles which would pro-
duce their electrical relations as masses, they exhibit no phee-
nomena of electro-motion; and such phenomena, when they
occur in combinations in which acids and alkalies unite, al-
ways depend upon the contact of the metal with the acid and
alkaline matter, change of temperature, evaporation, &c. and
never on the combination of the acid and alkali.

As a different opinion has been lately started, on high au-
thority*, I shall give the proofs of the truth of this my early
view, which appear to me of the strictest demonsirative nature.

A solution of nitre, which is a substance neutral to the con-
tact of noble metals, was introduced into a glass cup contain-
ing a plate of platinum connected with the multiplier; pure
concentrated nitric acid was placed in another cup, in which
there was another plate of platinum joined to the other wire
of the multiplier, and the connexion was made by a piece of
asbestus wetted in a solution of nitre. At the moment of
contact, the needle indicated a strong electrical action, nega-
tive on the plate plunged in the acid, and which occasioned a
permanent deviation of about 60°.

This arrangement was removed from the multiplier, and
another substituted for it, in which strong solution of potassa
occupied the place of the nitric acid, being in contact with
platinum in one cup, and solution of nitre in the other, with
the same communications. The deviation was now much
weaker, about 10 degrees, and the platinum in the solution of
potassa was positive.

The nitric acid and the solution of potassa were now con-
nected in the arrangement by a piece of clean asbestus, mois-
tened in a concentrated solution of nitre; the deviation of the
needle was to about 65°. In this instance there was no che-
mical action of the fluids on each other; for they had no ten-
dency to mix rapidly with the solution of nitre, which being
of less specific gravity than either of the other solutions, re-
mained in the asbestus; and there was no effect beyond that
of the metallic contact of the platinum with acid and alkali.

* That of M. Becquerel.
A piece

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 99

A piece of asbestus, of nearly the same size with the other,
but dry, was now substituted for the moist asbestus, so that
the acid and alkali combined by capillary attraction producing
heat: at first, the deviation was rather less than in the former
instance; but as soon as the combination was complete, the
needle stood exactly at the same point, proving that no elec-
tricity was developed by the combination, any more than by
the indirect communication of the acid and the alkali.

After trying the effects of the contact of fluid acid upon
platinum by the arrangement with solution of nitre, and find-
ing that oxalic acid was the acid among the powerful ones
which produced the slightest deviation of the needle, or the
smallest negative effect, I employed this acid and solution of
potassa, exactly in the same manner as the nitric acid in the
experiment just detailed; as the joint action of the acid and
alkali on the platinum was only to produce a deviation of
7 or 8 degrees, it might be suspected that any electrical action
produced by combination might be more easily manifested ;
but no such effect occurred; and whether the communication
was made by combination through dry asbestus, or through
asbestus wetted in a saline solution, the effect was precisely
the same.

Again,—the two surfaces of platinum were placed in con-
tact with strong solutions of nitre, and the communication
made between them by solution of potassa and nitric acid ;
there was no electrical action, though the chemical combina-
tion was intense. But when the fluids were mixed, so that a
little acid touched one plate of platinum and a little alkali the
other, electro-motion immediately began; and in using muri-
atic acid and solution of ammonia, which, being lighter than
the saline solutions, very soon came in contact with the plati-
num, the effect commenced almost immediately, and continued
for some time to increase.

Again,—1 placed pieces of paper coloured with litmus and
turmeric, and moistened in solutions of nitre, upon two sur-
faces of platinum connected with the multiplier ; they were
covered with a stratum of porcelain clay wetted with the same
solution, a stratum of clay moistened with muriatic acid was
placed above on one plate, and a stratum moistened with so-
lution of ammonia above on the other, so as to make a con-
tact in which there should be action upon a large surface
without direct communication with the metals. In several
experiments of this kind there was no electro-motion ; and
whenever it was perceived, it was found that either the acid,
or the alkali, or both, had penetrated through the clay, and
touched the metals so as to change considerably the onl

O2 the

100 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

the papers, which were placed as indications of the correct-
ness of the experiment.

Having brought forward what appear to me decided proofs
on this subject, I shall now proceed to investigate the opera-
tion of the metals and fluids in combinations containing two
of the latter substances. At first I was surprised to find that
platinum acted so powerfully with nitric acid, which under-
goes no chemical change by contact with it, and suspecting
that it might arise from the presence of minute portions of
muriatic acid or muriatic salts, I took great pains to exclude
these substances by washing the platinum in distilled water,
not touching it with the hands, &c. but when the conditions
were those of perfectly clean and pure platinum and perfectly
pure nitric acid, the phenomena were the same. Similar
reasonings may be applied to solutions of potassa, soda, &c.
which do not chemically alter platinum by contact, and yet
render it positively electrical with respect to platinum in water
or saline solutions. It must however be called to mind that
the oxygen in nitric acid, and the metals in the alkalies, have
attractions of a very decided kind for platinum; and in taking
the scale of electro-negative bodies, solutions of chlorine, or
nitro-muriatic acid, produce a more powerful electrical effect
on platinum than nitric acid, nitric acid than muriatic, and
muriatic than sulphuric.

When platinum is brought in contact with an acid, the pole
touching the acid is negative, the opposite pole is positive, as
I have found by the condensing electrometer ; and the reverse
is the case when it touches an alkali; so that the circulation
of the electricity is from the metal to the alkali, and from the
acid to the metal.

Rhodium, iridium, and gold, act in combinations consisting
of acid and alkali, on which they have no chemical effect, ex-
actly like platinum; the surface of the metal in the solution
of alkali being positive, that in the solution of the acid, nega-
tive. With silver and palladium the electricity is greater,
particularly if nitric acid is used; and with charcoal and oxi-
dable metals, there is the same general result, the action being
in general exalted in proportion as the chemical attractions
are stronger, provided there are no interfering circumstances :
and in combinations of this kind nitro-muriatic acid is more
active than nitric, and the order is after, nitric, nitrous sul-
phuric, phosphoric, vegetable acids, sulphurous, prussic, sul-
phuretted hydrogen; and, with the alkalies, potassa, soda,
baryta, ammonia, and so on.

It is always to be understood that strong or concentrated
solutions of acids and alkalies are employed; for in cases

where

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 101

where the quantity of acid or alkaline matter is very small
and the chemical action of the metals strong, there is some-
times a different order. Thus zinc and tin tarnish immedi-
ately even in a weak solution of potassa, and, so tarnished,
they are negative to the same metals in weak solutions of
muriatic or sulphuric acid; but in experiments of this kind it
is easy to determine the true circumstances by changing the
poles; the negative side, when the energies of the alkali and
acid are weak, will be determined by the tarnish or coat of
oxide formed.

Solutions of sulphurets act in these combinations like alkali,
with circumstances depending upon the formation of new
compounds, according to the law explained in the last section.
In combinations, of which the elements are hydro-sulphuret
and acid, the metal in the hydro-sulpkuretted solution is po-
sitive, and that in the acid negative; but with alkalies and
hydro-sulphurets, and zinc and tin, the metal in the solution
of alkali is positive, and that in the solution of hydro-sul-
phuret, negative: with silver and palladium the opposite order
occurs, and with copper there is nearly a balance of powers,
or changes of power, dependent upon the circumstances de-
tailed in the last section.

When, in electrical combinations containing one metal,
water or a neutro-saline solution is in one of the cups, and
alkali or acid in another, the result is usually such as might
be anticipated,—the side of the metal in the alkali is positive,
that in the acid negative, and that in the neutro-saline solu-
tion in the opposite state. ‘There are however certain neutro-
saline solutions, which when they contain oxygen or com-
mon air, act upon the more oxidable metals, and such have a
power or energy of their own; thus zinc, and tin, and copper
in solution of common salt, are positive to the same metals in
distilled water; and the surfaces of the same metals in weak
muriatic acid are positive with respect to the surfaces in water
or saline solutions. In combinations, in which weak and
strong solutions of acids or of alkalies are the two fluids, both
being of the same kind, the electrical action is usually feeble ;
but the surface in the strongest alkali is most positive, and in
the acids the result usually depends upon the ‘nature of the
solution; if oxide is formed and deposited, the strongest acid
is negative with respect to the diluted one.

The chemical changes produced in combinations of this
kind, are best observed in cases where the metals undergo no
change; for instance, with platinum, diluted sulphuric acid,
and solution of potassa. In this combination, hydrogen soon
appears on the platinum in the acid, and a very small quantity

of

102 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

of gas, which is probably oxygen, on the platinum in contact
with the alkali; and that the acid tends to circulate towards
the negative surface, and the alkali towards the positive, is
shown by the circumstance of the rapid neutralization of the
two menstrua, though separated by asbestus moistened in
distilled water.

VI. Of combinations consisting of two conductors of the more
perfect class, and one fluid.

The order in which metallic bodies exhibit electricities on
contact, as is well known, is intimately connected with their
relative oxidability, the most oxidable metal being positive
with respect to all those below it. This law extends likewise
to the newly discovered bases of the alkalies and earths.
Potassium and sodium, as I have found by bringing them in
contact with zinc in'a concentrated solution of alkali, are ap-
parently as much positive with respect to this body, as zinc
is with respect to platinum and gold.

There is not however any inherent and specific property in
each metal which gives it the electrical character; it depends
upon its peculiar state—on that form of aggregation which
fits it for chemical change. ‘Thus, zinc in amalgamation with
mercury is positive with respect to pure zinc, and the amal-
gam of tin is in the same state with regard to tin; and the
metals of the fixed alkalies in amalgam give the highest po-
sitive energy to a mass of mercury some thousands of times
their weight.

In general, the electricities developed by metallic contact
are of a stronger kind than those resulting from the contact
of metals with fluids, so that they are not capable of being
changed by them. For instance: zinc in acid is positive with
respect to all other metals below it in degree of oxidability,
though they are placed in alkalies or solutions of sulphurets :
there are however exceptions; for instance, with regard to
tin, which, when in a strong solution of potassa, is positive to
zinc, in an acid solution; and with respect to iron, which,
though positive with regard to copper in all acid or neutro-
saline fluids, is negative to it in solution of sulphurets or of
alkalies. The electro-motion in these instances produced by
the contact of the fluids prevailing over that produced by the
contact of the metals,

And knowing the energies of the acid and alkaline fluids,
it is easy to apply them so as to diminish or enhance the elec-
trical effects developed by metallic contact.

If, for instance, in a combination containing zinc and pla-
tinum, we use two fluids, and place the acid in contact with

the

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 103

the zinc, and the alkali with the platinum, the effect will be
exceedingly feeble compared with that produced if the order
be reversed, and the zinc be in contact with the alkali, and
the platinum with the acid.

The chemical changes taking place in combinations of this
kind are always such as tend to restore the equilibrium; the
hydrogen and the alkaline body always passing to the nega-
tive, and oxygen and the acid to the positive metal. ‘

There is no instance of continued electro-motion except in
cases where chemical changes can take place, for even De
Luc’s or Zamboni’s columns do not act when quite dry, and
the silver in combinations of this kind, when the negative
metal is gold, is uniformly found tarnished: for the exhibition
of electricities of tension, however, a very slight chemical ac-
tion is sufficient, as the quantity of electricity required to give
repulsion to light bodies is exceedingly small; but to form
electro-magnetic combinations the chemical agents must be
of an energetic kind.

As most of the fluids which act powerfully in voltaic com-
binations contain water, or oxygen and hydrogen, it has been
suspected that these principles were essential to the effect:
this however does not seem to be the case, for I found zinc
and platinum formed powerful electro-motive circles in fused
litharge and fused oxy-chlorate of potassa, which are not
known to contain water; and I have little doubt that similar
effects would be produced by other fused salts containing only
acid and alkaline matter.

It may elucidate this part of the subject, which must at best
be obscure, to take a view of the changes occurring in one
of the simplest voltaic combinations,—that consisting of zinc
platinum, and solution of sulphate of soda. It is a fact that
zinc and platinum become electrical by contact, the zinc posi-
tive, the platinum negative; and the two kinds of electricity
are apparently most intense at the surfaces where they are in
contact with the fluid, which is too imperfect a conductor to
allow them to neutralize or destroy each other: they conse-
quently exert their attractive and repellent powers upon the
elements of the menstruum; acid and oxygen circulate to the
surface of zinc, which in consequence is dissolved, and alkali
and hydrogen to the surface of platinum, of which the hydro-
gen is disengaged, and the equiibrium broken by the contact
of the metals is restored by the chemical changes; so that a
constant circulation, or a current of electricity, takes place,
the power of the combination becoming feebler in proportion
as the solution is decomposed, and acid accumulated round
its positive, and alkali round its negative surface.

In

104 Mr. E. D. Thomson’s Mode of heating Water for a Bath.

In cases where acids or acid solutions alone are used, the
destruction of one or both surfaces, with the transfer of hydro-
gen or oxygen, seems to produce the same effect; and the
inactivity of single circles or voltaic piles, in which pure water
is used, or saline solutions freed from air, seems to show that
the destruction of the surface of the oxidable meta: is one of
the conditions of continued electrical action; and the cessa-
tion of the power of De Luc’s or Zamboni’s piles, is always
connected with the tarnish of the imperfect metal employed in
them.

Having published many years ago tables of the electro-che-
mical relations of metals, which have been copied into many
elementary books, I think it proper to give them here in a cor-
rected form with some additions, and the differences depen-
dent upon the nature of the menstruum. The metal men-
tioned first is positive to all those below it in the scale.

With common acids.

Potassium and its amalgams; barium and its amalgams;
amalgam of zinc; zinc; amalgam of ammonium (?); cadmium,
tin, iron, bismuth, antimony (?), lead, copper, silver, palla-
dium, tellurium, gold, charcoal, platinum, iridium, rhodium.

With alkaline solutions.
The alkaline metals and their amalgams: zinc, tin, lead,
copper, iron, silver, palladium, gold, platinum, &Xc.

With solutions of hydro-sulphurets.
Zinc, tin, copper, iron, bismuth, silver, platinum, palladium,
gold, charcoal.
|To be continued.]

XXIII. A Mode of Heating Water for a Bath. By Evwarp
Deas Tuomson, Esq.*

ONVINCED of the great utility of the warm bath to
health, as well as the comfort of it, I have for some time
turned my attention to the best and most ceconomical mode of
heating a bath; and have endeavoured, as far as possible, to
obviate the inconvenience, delay and expense, which are inse-
parable from the greater number of the methods hitherto in use.
The result has been to exceed my sanguine hopes; having ob-
tained a bath containing 40 gallons of water at a temperature
of 98° Fahrenheit, in the space of half an hour from the time
of lighting the fire. The quantity of coals consumed was wnder
7 pounds, and the whole expense in London, including the

* Communicated by the Author.

faggot,

Mr. E. D. Thomson’s Mode of heating Water for a Bath. 105

faggot, did not amount to 23d. ; but as more than usual care
was taken in the experiment in question, it may be more fair
to estimate the expense on an average at 3d. ‘This does not
include the wear and tear of the apparatus, which is, however,
of a very durable nature.

I shall now proceed to describe the apparatus, and the mode
of using it. ran '

A cylinder 18 inches high and 9 inches in diameter, is sur-
rounded by a spiral pipe, as may be seen in the annexed
figure :—this pipe communicates with a cistern a, which of
course must be above the level of the apparatus;—the water
passes from the cistern through the pipe 66 into the cylinder
at c, and from thence through the pipe d into the bath. When

the cock f is opened, hot water will flow from the cylinder
through the pipe d into the bath, and its place will be imme-
diately supplied by cold water from the cistern through the
pipe 64, thus creating a continual current of water through
the boiler, which becomes heated in its passage. The degree
of heat may be regulated by partially opening or shutting the
cock f, by which means the water will flow more rapidly or
be longer subjected to the influence of the fire. In case of
the water boiling when the cock / is shut, the steam will pass
off by the open pipe ¢, which must of course be raised above
the level of the cistern. The pipe being always open provides
in the completest manner for the safety of the apparatus.
Various other forms of apparatus and modes of using them
have suggested themselves to me; but I have thought it bet-
ter first to describe the one which had stood the test of actual
experiment, and from which so satisfactory a result has been
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 2. Feb, 1827. P obtained.

106 Mr. E. D. Thomson’s Mode of heating Water for a Bath.

obtained. The one in question has been in use for nearly
three years, yet, though it was to be apprehended, no symptom
of furring has taken place in the pipes. This arises from the
formation of the apparatus causing the matter to be deposited
in those parts of the cylinder where there is no current. In
instances where boiling water or steam is required, and where
the liability to fur would be consequently greater, any deposit
might be easily drawn off at intervals, by placing a cock at
the bottom of the cylinder, which however does not seem to
be at all requisite in the apparatus for heating the bath. It
may be observed, that the spiral pipe should be at least an
inch from the cylinder, so as to allow a complete draught be-
tween them. 6 > i6

In instances that admit of the bath being above or on the
same level with the apparatus, the following will be found to
be a very simple mode, and obviates the inconvenience of at-
tention to the opening and shutting of the cock f as above
described, the fire being all that it is necessary to attend to

in this instance. Thepipes 6 and d are made to communicate
with the bath, which should be filled, previously to lighting
the fire, to a level above the pipe d.

From the tendency of heat to preserve an equilibrium, as
the water becomes heated in the cylinder it will immediately
flow into the bath, and its place is supplied by cold water ; thus
forming a continual current until the whole is heated to the
required temperature, when the cocks f and g may be shut.
In order to prevent any injury to the boiler from the evapo-
ration of the water after the cock g is shut; the pipe 6 may
be extended to the cistern as in the apparatus first described,
and by means of a double way cock at g, when the communi-
cation with the bath is cut off, it would be opened with the
cistern, and vice versd.

_In this arrangement the first-mentioned mode of heating
the bath might be adopted if desired. In both cases the safety-

pipe e is, of course, equally requisite,
eet XXIV. On

opie aelil

XXIV. Onthe Finite Extent of the Atmosphere. By THomas
Graunam, M.A, *

Edinburgh, Dec. 14, 1826.

O Dr. Wollaston we owe a satisfactory reason for a limit

to the atmosphere, even upon mechanical principles. The
idea, that the mere weight of the matter of gaseous substances
might afford, at a certain degree of rarefaction, a balancing re-
sistance to further expansion, is certainly beautiful,—a con-
ception worthy of that sagacious philosopher. Mr. Faraday,
with his usual felicity in experimental research, has endea-
voured to adduce instances of this equilibrium between the ex-
pansive power of gaseous matter and its clogging gravity—to
give an experimental demonstration of the hypothesis.

Admitting, as we do without hesitation, that the cause as-
signed would be fully adequate to produce the effect, the
question still remains,—but is it really the cause which does
produce the effect? The atmosphere may possess some well-
known property, which necessarily renders it limited, and the
proposal of any supposititious cause may be therefore unne-
cessary.

Such a property we believe the atmosphere does possess,
although we are not aware of its having been noticed with this
view previously. The law of the expansion of gaseous bodies
by heat and their contraction by cold involves a curious conse-
quence, which has attracted the attention of several philoso-
phers. Bodies cannot exist in that state below a certain tem-
perature. Let us direct our attention to a volume of air at
32° Fahr. It is a well-established law, that for every degree
Fahrenheit which the volume of air is heated above that tem-
perature, it increases 1-480th part; and also for every degree
which it is cooled. below 32° it is reduced 1-480th part of
what it was at that temperature. Hence if it should be cooled
down 480°, and reduced by so many parts, it would be re-
duced into a volume infinitely small :—it would really be an-
nihilated. To avoid this absurdity, we are constrained to be-
lieve, that all gases would be reduced into the liquid or solid
state, by a fall of temperature which does not amount to 480°
below the freezing point of water. The proposition, therefore,
that the earth’s atmosphere cannot exist in the gaseous state
at a temperature below —480° + 32° = —448° Fahrenheit,
is susceptible of demonstration ad absurdum.

Now meteorologists have discovered a lawin the atmospheric
temperature, which makes this fact available in elucidation
of our subject. Ithas been found that the temperature of the

* Communicated by the Author.
atmosphere

108 Mr. Graham on the Finite Extent of the Atmosphere.

atmosphere decreases as we ascend, and that with consider-
able regularity. The observations which we possess upon this
subject indicate a decrease of 1 degree, for every elevation of
about 300 feet. This brings us rapidly to a limit to the height
of the atmosphere. Supposing the temperature of the surface
of the earth 32°, the air would lose its elastic state at a height
which would be less than 480 times 300 feet, or under 27:27
miles. However, without questioning the continuance of this
decrease of temperature at great elevations, it is probable that
in the higher regions of the atmosphere it is by no means so
rapid as in the lower regions, where the law has been verified
by observation. For the great source of the heat of the atmo-
sphere is its contact with the surface of the earth, and not in
the calorific rays of the sun which it arrests in their progress.
Hence the lower strata of the atmosphere will possess a com-
paratively high and extraordinary temperature, and the fall
of temperature as we ascend will appear for some time rapid.
But at a certain elevation, the effect of this adventitious sup-
ply of heat will be greatly diminished.

The increase of capacity for heat in gases, attendant upon
increase of bulk, accounts in a satisfactory manner for reduc-
tion of temperature in a mass of air as it is elevated and less
compressed. The superior stratum of the atmosphere we may
suppose to expand, from its unrestrained elasticity: its tem-
perature is thereby lowered, till at last it arrives at that point
which involves the loss of its elastic state. As the liquid state
is a physical state of bodies, which implies pressure and a
power to maintain the evolution of vapour (certainly in all non-
metallic bodies), the cooled and uncompressed superior air
will be at once reduced from the gaseous to the solid state. In
this way may temperature occasion a limit to the diffusion of
the atmosphere.

From the length of time during which the sun’s rays con-
tinue to be reflected back upon the earth by the superior
parts of the atmosphere, after he has sunk beneath the hori-
zon, there is reason to believe that the atmosphere extends in
a state of great tenuity to a very considerable height above
the surface of the earth, and therefore that the theatre of this
condensation is considerably removed. Let us suppose that
it is so, and inquire whether its existence would be indicated
by any notable effect.

We know well that in ordinary cases, the reduction of a
body from the gaseous to the liquid or solid state is attended
with a considerable extrication of heat. Light, too, has been
observed in condensation following sublimation, particularly
in the case of benzoic acid. Now, the superior and condensing

strata

Mr. Graham on the Finite Extent of the Atmosphere. 109

strata of the atmosphere are of a tenuity incomparably
greater than that of the vapours whose condensation we ge-
nerally witness. But this tenuity has been arrived at, at
the expense of the previous absorption of much more heat;
or in other words, the latent heat of vapours, which is emitted
upon their condensation, is in proportion to their tenuity.
Hence it is probable, that the condensation of the elastic air
into solid particles would be attended with the emission of
accumulated stores of light and heat. Would not air, too, it
might be asked, emit light upon its complete condensation and
loss of physical state, while it may be made to do so by mere
mechanical compression? Here, perhaps, we have the cause
of that degree of luminosity which is generally associated
with the upper regions of the atmosphere, and which has in-
duced Professor Leslie, with that daring originality which fre-
quently characterizes his beautiful speculations, to attribute to
them a phosphorescent property.

These luminous appearances will be more frequent and
striking at the polar regions, from the temperature, there, ap-
proaching more closely to the condensing point of the gaseous
substances constituting the atmosphere. Their proper sites will
be the thermal poles, or points on the earth’s surface of lowest
temperature. From late observations, the thermal poles of
the earth appear to coincide with its magnetic poles. Let us
suppose a determination to condensation to take place in the
superior regions of the atmosphere at the thermal pole. The
surrounding elastic air would rush in, and expand, to fill the
vacuity occasioned by the condensation. But this rarefaction,
with its attendant fall in temperature, would frequently be
productive of condensation and deposition in these masses of
air themselves. In this way, the tendency to condensation,
originating perhaps at the thermal pole, would be widely and
rapidly propagated ; and the attending streams of light would
appear to shoot from that point. Here we recognize the bril-
liant phenomena of the aurora borealis. .

It evidently follows from this theory that the atmosphere
will be of different altitudes over different parts of the earth,
according to their temperature. Within the tropics it will be
higher than over the polar regions. Hence the higher parts
of the equatorial atmosphere will tend to fall back upon the
poles,—a disposition which will cooperate with the inferior
current in an opposite direction, to produce a grand circula-
tion of the atmosphere, and to impress a general character
upon winds.

XXV. On

[ 110 ]

XXV. On the Triple Prussiate of Potash. By R. Putiirrs,
ERS. L. & E. §c.

FEW substances have more occupied the attention of che-
mists, than the salt called triple prussiate of potash: but
notwithstanding the repeated examinations to which it has
been subjected, it will appear on referring even to the latest
chemical works, that great difference of opinion still exists, not
only as to the mode in which the elements of the salt are com-
bined, but even as to their number, nature, and proportions. —

It is not my intention to give a history of the various ideas
which have been entertained respecting this substance. I shall
first notice the experiments of Mr. Porrett, to whom we are
indebted for an opinion now very generally admitted to be true,
or at least probable,—that iron, carbon, azote and hydrogen
form a peculiar acid, which he has called ferrochyazic acid, and
which he considers as the acid of the salt in question.

According to the latest experiments of Mr. Porrett* the
triple prussiate of potash is composed of

4,atoms carbon .. 24 ... 20°168
1 atom azote,.. .... 14..\« .« 11°765

1 hydrogen . 1... , *840
1 MOU Ti wa enpaydle ox) af soph le OD
1 potash... 48 .. . 40°336

2 atoms water, .... 18. ...« «.15°126
119 .. 100°

And he considers these elements to be combined as follows :
4.atoms carbon .. 24
1 atom azote. ... 14
1 hydrogen . 1
1 irony Pe V4
1 atom ferrochyazic acid 53
1 atom potash .. . 48
2 atoms water... 18
1 atom foe oy a G
zate of potash

' Berzelius’s analysis (Ann. de Chim. Sc. t. xv. p. 144.) gives;
6 atoms carbon . . 36 ... 16°902 | Cyanogen
3 —— azote.... 42 ... 19°718§ 36°620
I atom iron ..... 28... . 13°146
2 atoms potassium 80 ... 37°558
3 water ... 27 ... 12°676
gis. 100°

* Annals of Philosophy, vol. xiv. p. 298.
t It will be noticed that Mr. Porrett estimates the weight of an atom of
iron at only one half of what it is usually allowed to be. 1
t

Mr. R. Phillips on the Triple Prussiate of Potash. 111

It will be observed that the carbon and azote are equiva-
lent to three atoms of cyanogen ; and Berzelius considers the
salt as a double cyanide of iron and potassium, containing
water of crystallization, or as ’
1 atom cyanide of iron. ...26+4+:28 = 54
2 atoms cyanide of potassium 52 + 80 = 132
3 Watery os diosa dow leneire cei Lohr ey! s Bir

213

As the atomic weights of the salt given by these analyses
differ so greatly, and the quantities of the elements consti-
tuting it do not in any instance agree, it was evidently requi-
site to repeat the analysis, to a certain extent at least, be-
fore any probable theoretical views of its nature could be de-
veloped: I therefore made the following experiments. ‘Two
hundred grains of the crystallized triple prussiate were dis-
solved in a mixture of dilute nitric and muriatic acids; the so-
lution was evaporated to dryness, so as to dissipate the car-
bon and azote, and convert the iron into peroxide. The re-
siduum being dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution de-
composed by ammonia, gave 38°8 grains of peroxide of iron,
equivalent to 27°16 of iron or 13°58 per cent.

The solution from which the peroxide of iron had been pre-
cipitated, consisting, of course, of muriate of potash and mu-
riate of ammonia, was evaporated to dryness, and the residuum
was heated to redness in a platinum crucible, by which the am-
moniacal salt was expelled; and there was left chloride of po-
tassium weighing 139°7 grains, equivalent to 73-5 of potassium
or 36°75 per cent. -"

A portion of the triple prussiate reduced to powder was
dried in a moderately-hot sand-bath till it ceased to diminish
in weight; it lost 12°5 per cent of water.

‘ Assuming, according to the analysis of Berzelius, that the
salt is composed of cyanogen and the substances the quanti-
ties of which are above stated, it will appear to consist of

CRORE “at aie Ot op td aise 37°17
lA ee a - weet LOS
Povapana. 5 5 asses Go outs SOTO
RVMRACOT yas 3s rus Tinos helenae 12°50
100°

These results, it will be seen, agree very nearly with those of
Berzelius;—the greatest difference exists between the quan-
tities of potassium, amounting to about 0°8 per cent; while
the proportion of iron, which of all the results I obtained
comes nearest to any one stated by Mr. Porrett, is more than
he has given it by 1*8 per cent.

The

112 Mr. R. Phillips on the Triple Prussiate of Potash.

The only question which appears to me to remain unde-
cided, is that of the mode in which the elements that consti-
tute the salt are combined: the simplest view of the subject is
undoubtedly that taken by Berzelius, of its being a double
cyanide of iron and potassium containing water of crystalliza-
tion; but he has justly remarked, that the proportions of hy-
drogen and oxygen are precisely such as would convert the cy-
anogen into hydrocyanic acid, and the metals into oxides; and
according to this view, supposing the water to be formed, and
not merely expelled, when the salt is dried, it is a double hy-
drocyanate, containing no water of crystallization, and com-
posed of

3 atoms of hydrocyanic acid ..... 81

1 atom of protoxide of iron ...... 36

2 atoms ol potash ye) ahs.) «tisha, t) 1% 96

213

Or, 1 atom of hydrocyanate of iron ... 63

2 atoms of hydrocyanate of potash . 150

It may still further be regarded, according to Mr. Porrett’s
idea, as consisting of potash combined with a peculiar acid con-
stituted of iron, carbon, azote, and hydrogen. But even ad-
mitting these to be the elements of the acid, the proportions
must, I think, differ very considerably from those stated by
Mr. Porrett.

M. Gay Lussac * considers this acid, as Mr. Porrett does, to
consist of metallic iron and hydrogen; but the carbon and
azote are in such proportions as form cyanogen, to which Mr.
Porrett’s analysis is not reducible. According to the former,
ferrocyanic acid is composed of

3 atoms cyanogen ..... 78

2 hydnoren 1... sc" 2

TeatOMMIFOMs fo .0\c, ties sueaiee 28

i 108

Or, Giatoms carbon) ...52 5... 36
5 AZOLEL A ease ots 6 1% 42

2 hydrogen! ye) . tise. » 9

Te atom arom ei. Mekee ee eic a 28

108

* Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xxii. p. 322.
According

Mr. R. Phillips on the Triple Prussiate of Potash. 113

According to M. Robiquet *, ferrocyanic acid is equivalent
to hydrocyanic acid and cyanide of iron, which would give as
its composition

2 atoms cyanogen ..... 52
1 atom hydrogen ...-.-.- 1

1 One es 628

81

Or, 4 atoms carbon ....... 24
z4 AZOLE nes aoe ee ao

1 atom hydrogen ..-....- 1
1 ON ees et es ao

81
Dr. Ure + is, I believe, the chemist who last paid attention
to the composition of ferrocyanic acid: he states the compo-
sition to be
Cacborwe7 sis, 03!" 36°82
Azote! Jo.02.4. 1 Ia). SEZ
TOM, «) 9! = Scenes <1 2 oe

100°

This analysis differs considerably from all the preceding, not
only in the proportion of the elements, but also in the absence
of hydrogen: but Dr. Ure allows that he is unable to reduce
the results of his experiments to the atomic theory.

Although Berzelius does not admit the existence of such an
acid as the ferrocyanic in his paper, contained in the Annales
de Chimie et de Physique, already quoted, yet in a late work
entitled Chimie du Fer (p. 181.) he says that ferruginous hy-
drocyanic acid (Pacide hydrocyanique JSerruginé) is composed
either of 46°57 parts of prussic acid and 53°43 parts of prus-
siate of protoxide of iron, or of 46°57 of prussic acid, 45°77 of
cyanide of iron, and 7°66 of water. Adopting the former of
these views, let us examine whether it will not serve to clear
up the difficulty which exists not only as to the composition
of ferrocyanic acid, but also as to the nature of the triple
prussiate of potash.

I consider it as proved by Berzelius that the triple prus~
siate of potash after it has been moderately heated is in fact a
cyanide of iron and potassium; and it must I think in one case,
and perhaps in several instances, happen that the metals are
converted into oxides: this may be the case, as already no-
ticed by Berzelius, when the salt is in the state of crystals; the

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xii. p. 294.
+ Phil. Trans, 1822. p. 480.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 2. Feb. 1827. Q water

114 Mr. R. Phillips on the Triple Prussiate of Potash.

water separated by heating them, on this view, arising from
the decomposition of hydrocyanic acid and the metallic ox-
ides, and the union of their hydrogen and oxygen; or sup-
posing the crystallized salt to be a double cyanide containing
not merely the elements of water, but water of crystallization,
still water may be decomposed when the crystals are dissolved
in it, the hydrogen of the decomposed water uniting with the
cyanogen to form hydrocyanic acid, and the oxygen with the
metals giving rise to potash and protoxide of iron.

Lastly, When cyanide of iron and potassium is dissolved in
water, and tartaric acid is added to the solution, water must
be decomposed either previously to, or on adding the acid,
for bitartrate of potash is precipitated; and if the iron as well
as the potassium be also oxidized, we shall have oxygen as
well as hydrogen entering into the composition of ferrocyanic
acid; and supposing that the three atoms of water expelled
from the triple prussiate by heat, do not previously exist as
such, but are formed during its action, the salt may be re-
garded as anhydrous ferrocyanate of potash, consisting of

6 atoms carbon .... 36

3 azote “cere: + i. AZ

3 hydrogen ... 3

1 atom oxygen ..... 8

1 Gn VeR A as

117 = 1 atom ferrocyanic acid.
2 atoms potash. .... 96

213

Viewing this as the constitution of the substance in ques-
tion, it is a diferrocyanate of potash, or composed of one atom
of acid and two atoms of base.

I am perfectly aware of the difficulty which attends the sup-
position that water is formed during the exposure of the cry-
stals of ferrocyanate of potash to heat; but the question is one
of probabilities, and Berzelius* has well remarked, “ qu'il est
impossible de décider si cette eau s’y trouve dans letat qui
lui est propre, ou si ses principes constituans y étaient em-
ployés a la formation du prussiate d’oxidule de fer.” Iam
at present engaged in the prosecution of experiments, by
which I hope to throw additional light on this part of the sub-
ject, and which, as far as I have proceeded, are confirmatory
of the opinions now expressed.

* Chimie du Fer, p. 180.

XXVI. On

c 15 ]

XXVI. On Capillary Attraction. By the Rev. J.B. Emmerr.*

HE phznomena of capillary attraction are amongst the

most curious and obscure in nature. ‘The spontaneous
rise of liquids between solid surfaces placed very near to each
other, proves that corpuscular attraction does extend to a
distance equal to several diameters of the particles of the
suspended liquid, so as greatly to exceed their weight. Hence
the elevation is occasioned by the corpuscular torce acting
perpendicularly to the axis of the tube, on the same principles
as common hydraulic pressure: if the corpuscular force exist,
and extend its powers to the distance of several rows of par-
ticles of the liquid, all the observed phzenomena will result +.
Hence also, corpuscular attraction varies reciprocally as the
square of the distance from the centre of each particlet. Its

power

‘* Communicated by the Author.

+ A force acting perpendicularly to the axis of the capillary tube, and
exceeding in intensity the force of gravity of the particles at such, still in-
sensible, distances, will act thus. The most remote stratum of the liquid,
which is acted upon, tends to the side of the tube, with a certain force ;
with this force it presses upon all the nearer strata; each of which like-
wise tends to the tube, with a force which varies according to some func-
tion of the distance. Hence each stratum is pressed by the sum of all
the tendencies of the strata beyond it, which are sensibly acted upon ; the
liquid being supposed incompressible. The acting force being inversely as
the nth power of the distance from the tube; to a right line, erect perpen-
dicular ordinates, which shall vary in this ratio: draw a curve passing
through their extremities,and its area will represent the whole pressure upon
the solid: or if solids possess different forces of attraction for the same or
different liquids, describe more such curves, making one given ordinate in
one to the corresponding ordinate of another curve, as one force is to an-
other force ; and their areas will be proportional to these pressures. The
liquid cannot be at rest, until this force is balanced by an equal and oppo-
site force: this force can be no other than the weight of the elevated co-
lumn: and that such a column will be raised, is evident from the principles
of hydraulic pressure. The hypothesis of the attraction of an annulus of the
tube raising the liquid cannot explain the phenomena; and particularly
that of the rise of the liquid around a rod partly immersed: for ne annulus
can be found, which has not an equal and equidistant annulus, exerting
an equal force in an opposite direction.

t For ( Newtoni Princip. lib. i. prop. 87.) supposing a force of attraction
to vary reciprocally as the cube of the distance; if similar solids be taken,
of equally attracting matter, they will equally attract corpuscles, similarly
situated. Now from the specific gravities of a liquid and of the same mat-
ter in a solid state, the ratio between the diameter and distance of adjacent
particles in the liquid may be known. Now, the force of attraction be-
tween some solids, as glass, and some liquids, as water, so greatly exceeds the
weight of the liquid particles, at a distance equal to several of their diame-
ters, as not only to support themselves, but an indefinitely great number be-
sides them. Form an elementary cone, whose vertex shall be in the axis
of the capillary tube, and whose axis shall be perpendicular to the axis a4

Q2 the

116 Rey. J. B. Emmett on Capillary Attraction.

power is astonishingly great *; indeed, since it increases when
the aperture is diminished, no limit of its force can be assigned.
The laws which it obeys are imperfectly known: whilst mer-
cury is depressed by the immersion of glass, wood, and per-
haps all non-metallic bodies; it rises about a surface of gold,
silver, lead, tin, and most other metals, provided the surface
be clean; the thinnest film of oxide prevents the effect. Ifa
tube of glass be used, whilst water is elevated to a considera-
ble altitude, alcohol, which is lighter, is much less raised;
and mercury, the heaviest known liquid, is depressed.

The following are some of the results obtained :—Tube Ist.
Water was elevated 4 inches, 5°75 tenths; solution of sub-
carbonate of potash, nearly saturated, 4 inches, 4°5 tenths;
muriatic acid (concentrated) 3, 3°5; solution of loaf-sugar
(1 sugar, 4 water) 3, 2°5; alcohol diluted with 10 parts of
water 3, 2; sherry 2, 4; spirit 25 per cent under proof 1, 9°5;
alcohol 1, 9°5+. Tube 2d. Water 4 tenths of an inch; nitric
acid 3 tenths; refined whale oil 1°5 tenths; oil of lavender
1°5 tenths. So far as I can draw any conclusions from the
experiments which I have made, when glass is the solid made

the tube: divide this by planes perpendicular to its axis; making the thick-
ness of each slice proportional to the distance of its nearest surface from
the vertex; and a particle in the vertex will be equally attracted by each
slice. Hence if two tubes be taken, having different apertures, the glass in
each being proportional in thickness to its aperture, the water must be
equally elevated by each tube. Or form a sphere of glass, and at several
diameters place a drop of water : it will gravitate more to the sphere than
to the earth. Now since no such effect takes place, and since tubes of
equal apertures elevate equal columns, whatever be their thickness; and
since the most minute film of oil within the tube prevents its action; the
force is that of the surface only, or of particles at a distance below it, which
is less than any measurable distance; and the particles are not endowed
with a centripetal force varying inversely as the cube of the distance. If
any other law of force, as 4th, 5th, &c, be assumed, its action may be in-
vestigated in a similar manner, by the same proposition; which proves that
such a force cannot be purely corpuscular, as those commonly called cor-
puscular really are; that its effects on capillary attraction will be such as
are here named ; and besides, that its effects on the aphelia of the planetary
orbits must be very sensible, Since then none of the effects of a force
varying according to any power of the distance, but the square inversely ;
we conclude that matter possesses no power of attraction, but that deve-
loped by Newton.

* The method of cutting large pieces of stone from the quarry, for oil- |

mill-stones, which censist of a circle 7, 8 or 10 feet in diameter, and
4 thick; that of elevating immense weights by moistening a rope well
stretched, may be quoted as notable examples.

+ A capillary tube cannot be made to answer the purpese of the hydro-
meter: for if a yery minute quantity of alcohol be added to water, it is
depressed to nearly the level of spirit itself: and when spirit approaches
nearly to the strength of the Excise proof, a very considerable difference
in its strength produces little effect in the height of the column.

use

Rev. J. B. Emmett on Capillary Attraction. 117

use of, inflammable liquids, 7. e. those which tend to the nega-
tive pole, are least elevated: however, I dare not yet assert
this as a fact. I have been some time engaged in a series of
experiments on this subject, which have led to very curious
results, and which I am continuing at present: they will be
regularly communicated to the Philosophical Magazine ; and
will, I hope, develope the laws obeyed by this force. A full
examination of its phenomena will greatly tend to elucidate
those of chemical action.

It is stated, I believe, in all books of philosophy, that the
altitude of the column raised by the power of capillary attrac-
tion is not affected by changes of temperature. I find that it
is depressed by heat and elevated by cold. Ifa capillary tube
be immersed in boiling water, the column cools as it rises, and
consequently no effect can be expected. I therefore employ
the following method :

The capillary tube (about 7585 to rd00 of an inch in in-
ternal diameter) is placed in a test-tube, containing the liquid :
the tube is filled; and the fluid allowed to fall, till it becomes
stationary. When water is used, it is pure; it is also boiled,
to expel the air it contains, immediately before the experiment
is made. The following are some of the results :

Inches. Tenths.
Altitude of the column of cold water 2 4°5
Ditto boiling .. 2.5... 2 0:5 mean of 3 exp.

Depression caused by heating the water 4-0

Proof-spirit, cold ...+-+++++> 0) 95
Ditto, boiling ..-..+--: - 0 8°75 Ist exp.
Ditto, dittod a .2sierbl. , +. 0 8°75 2d ditto
Depression by heating. ..---- aS)

Altitude of column of water at 70° 2 1
Altitude by immersion in snow... 2 2°5 rise 1°5 tenth.
Altitude when boiling ....--+-+- 1 8

Difference between the extremes Ae5

been kept in a badly stopped
bottle for three years,—cold

Weak sulphuric acid, which had
ZOO'S

Heated nearly to ebullition . 1 9 d nanwee ‘
Cooled till it was rather warm 2 0 aaah
Boiling rapidly ....--- Ag

Quite cold ..... Paoh viel tits (ye)

The

118 Rey. J. B, Emmett on Capillary Attraction.

The quantity of the depression in the above experiments is
not to be regarded as rigidly accurate, since the apparatus
employed is imperfect: the future experiments (of which you
will receive an account in time for your next Number,) will be
made with an apparatus in which the index will be moved by
means of a fine micrometer-screw: the above, however, prove
unquestionably that heat depresses water, and some, probably
all, other liquids.*

It would be premature to assign the cause to which these
phzenomena are to be ascribed: yet since the diminution pro-
duced in the density of the liquid by heat, cannot give rise to
the effect+, it appears highly probable that the repulsive
force of caloric, acting between the solid and the particles of
the liquidt, being augmented by an increase of temperature,
the sensible force of attraction, 7. e. the excess of the attrac-
tion above the force of calorific repulsion is consequently di-
minished, and therefore the height of the suspended column
is reduced.

Should this be the case, the pheenomena of capillary attrac-
tion will afford a ready and accurate means of ascertaining the
relative intensity of the attraction of various bodies, and the
ratio between the force of attraction, and that of repulsion at
different temperatures, together with many other departments

of chemical science.
[To be continued.]

* If the conjectured be the true cause of the phenomenon, mercury also
will be depressed by heating the tube.

+ For, let A be the density of the liquid, when cold; a, that when
heated; H the altitude of the cold, and h that of the hot column. AH
will be the pressure upon a given area, when cold; and a, that when hot.
The attraction of the glass is equal to this pressure: this attraction is pro-
portional to the density of the liquid (the liquid being the same in dif-
ferent states of density); z.e.in the cold, to A, and in the hot to a; or
AH:ah::A:a; therefore whilst the density of the liquid is changed by
the application of heat, the altitude of the suspended column remains con-
stant. ;

{ That the particles both of liquids and gases attract those of solids,
and that the force of repulsion of caloric acts mutually between them, may
be proved in several ways. Oxides of manganese, iron, lead, silver, mercury,
and many other metals, are either wholly or in part reduced by the appli-
cation of heat; so are most carbonates, some muriates, all nitrates. Now
the fact of their combination proves that the particles of the solid attract
those of the gas; and that of the decomposition, that they mutually repel
each other by reason of their calorific atmospheres ; in like manner water
combined with subcarbonate of soda, sulphate of soda, borax, and many
similar bodies, even being equal in weight, in some cases, to the dry matter,
forms with them dry solid crystals: hence it is retained by a powerful force
of attraction: the application of heat first fuses the crystals, then evapo-
rates the water: hence the repulsive force of catoric is mutual between the
particles of a solid salt and the water of crystallization.

XXVII. 4 new

Pacll9J

XXVII. A new Method of bleaching and preparing Flax. By
the Rev. J. B. EMMETT.*

N account of the great distress which prevails in most of

the manufacturing districts, I have been induced to pre-

sent to the public the following means of bleaching and pre-

paring flax and tow, by a simple, easy and cheap process,

whereby it is reduced to a beautiful degree of whiteness, be-

comes possessed of a silky lustre, and is made sufficiently fine

to be manufactured into the finest goods; hoping that it may

become the means, in the hands of opulent manufacturers, of

giving employment to some of the workmen, who are unable
to meet with it.

The process is as follows: Steep or boil the flax or tow in
a weak solution of subcarbonate of potash or soda, in order to
extract the colouring matter, resin, &c. I prefer the subcar-
bonate to the pure or caustic alkali, because, however diluted
the latter may be, its powers of corrosion are so great that if
it extracts the extraneous matter perfectly, it will almost cer-
tainly diminish the strength of the fibre; whilst I find that it
may be thoroughly extracted by the former, without produ-
cing any such effect: this I have proved by experiments made
upon rather large quantities. Wash it thoroughly from the
alkali.

The bleaching-liquor is prepared in the following manner:
Reduce perfectly fresh burnt charcoal of soft porous wood, as
willow, or fir, to a very fine powder; tie up the powder in a
bag made of cloth of a close texture; immerse it into cold
soft-water, and work it by pressing it with the hands, until such
a quantity shall be diffused through the water, that on rinsing
a little flax through it for a few minutes, and then withdrawing
it, it shall be lightly blackened. Put into it the flax to be
bleached, taking care that each parcel shall imbibe it to its
middle. When all is put into the liquid, the water, on being
well agitated, ought to be clouded by the charcoal. I cannot
specify the exact proportion, as I observed it no further than
this,—that I always used more than was actually requisite: in
bleaching 6 or 7 pounds, I never used more than half an
ounce. Agitate the liquid, and press the flax under it several
times in the day, in order to bring as much charcoal as possi-
ble into contact with it. After about 20 or 24 hours, remove
it from the liquid, having it well wrung; put it into a second
which may contain less charcoal: agitate as before, and after
the same interval of time, examine a small parcel by washing

* Communicated by the Author. :
it

120 Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants.

it with soap and hot water: if the colour be good, remove it
from the charcoal-liquid; if not, allow it to remain another
day or until it becomes white: 2 or 3 days are amply suffi-
cient if the process be well conducted. It is advantageous to
spread it out thinly upon the grass, wet as it is, and having
the charcoal in it, taking care to turn it frequently for a few
days: the charcoal greatly disappears, and the surface acquires
a pearly appearance.

The flax is now to be rinsed in a large quantity of water:
then to be washed thoroughly with soap in hot water, till it is
quite clean; the soap must then be washed out by cold water,
and the flax dried; if on the grass, exposed to the sun and air,
the better.

Before washing out the charcoal with soap, the lustre of
the fibre will be improved by steeping it for 8 or 10 hours in
water just soured with sulphuric acid; if this process be con-
tinued too long, the fibre will be weakened. The acid-steeping
is not essential, except the flax be intended for some particular
uses.

The charcoal is easily washed out, and that perfectly, with
soap. ‘The ultimate fibres are perfectly separated: they are
so much finer than silk, that I use them in the quadrant,
transit and micrometers: the lustre is precisely that of silk;
the strength of the fibre is not at ail impaired. It takes such
colours as I have tried—blue, pink and yellow—perfectly.
The finest thread may be spun.

Having made public the process, and particularly on ac-
count of my reason for so doing, I hope that manufacturers
and others who can forward the introduction of the material,
will bestow some attention upon the subject.

Any persons shall be provided with samples perfectly pre-
pared, by addressing me (post-paid) at Great Ouseburn, near
Boroughbridge, Yorkshire.

P.S. It may probably be worthy the attention of the Irish ;
and particularly since the process may be performed by indi-
viduals at their own houses, and may give employment to
many paupers in the work-houses.

XXVIII. Description of New Succulent Plants. By
A. H. Haworvrn, Esq. FL.S. §c.

QO the new Succulent Plants described in this paper, one
half were sent to the royal gardens of Kew, from South
Africa, by Mr. Bowie; and one of these latter plants has
proved to be a new species of Bowica, whose flowers, as Mr. B.
assures us, are always in umbels, in the places of their natural

occurrence.

Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants. 121

occurrence. But for such assurance, we might have thought
the plant which very recently flowered at Kew, and which
is minutely described below, had not completely developed its
inflorescence. This, however, was not the case.

The remaining articles of the Decade have been communi-
cated from other collections and correspondents. One of
these, allied to Tetragonia, I have thought proper to erect into
anew genus; nor will this be wondered at, amongst the al-
most hundred novelties which I have described in the re-
cent volumes of the Philosophical Magazine.

Chelsea, Nov. 1826. A. H. Haworru.

Decas octava Plantarum Novarum Succulentarum.
Classis et Ordo. PrENtTANDRIA DiGynia.

Genus, Creropreia Auctorum.

stapelieformis. C. (lurid trailing) ramis prostratis carnosis
1. loreis luridis teretibus subaphyllis simplicibus fusco-
marmoratis.

Habitat C.B.S. ubi invenit Dom. Bowie. G.H. h.

Florebat in ditissimo regio horto Kewensi Julio, &c.
A.D. 1826.

Obs. Habitus Stapeliarum (preecipué Orbearum Nob.
earumque crassitudine.) Rami 3—4-pedales tertio
anno, subtus parcé tuberculatim asperiusculi. Folia
minutissima ternata remota feré invisibilia, é¢ locis s.
basibus tumentibus persistentibus progredientia, om-
nino sessilia seu quasi ad caules adnata sine petiolo,
subrefracta cordata cuspidata pallida. Flores ex alis
foliolorum Stapeliarum modo, feré sessiles, at inci-
pientes inapertos vix semunciales solum vidi.

Classis et Ordo. Hexanpria Monoeynia.

Buxsine. Willd. Enum. 372.—Nob. in Revis. Pl.
Succ. 32. Corolla patens decidua. Filamenta bar-
bata. Sprengel. Syst. Veg. 2.7.

bisulcata. B. (double-channelled bulbous) foliis pulposis
2. longé subulatis acuminatis, utraque canaliculatis, ra-
dice magno bulboso.

Habitat C. B.S. Gi Huy:

Florebat in aére aperto in terra prope murum cum
aspectu australi, in Novemb. A.D. 1825. Communi-
cavit amicus Dom. R. Sweet, Horti Britannici, Gera-
niaccarum, Cistinearum, &c. &c. utilissimus auctor.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 2. Feb. 1827. R Obs,

122 Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants.

Obs. Bulbus magnus secundim Dom. Sweet. Folia
(in aére aperto) pedalia erectiuscula valdé pulposa nec
fistulosa, viridia, utraque latissimé, sed interné altius
sulcata, obsoletéque sulcato-striatula. Scapus in no-
stro exemplo (an semper ?) foliis brevior, teres, erectus,
calamo tenuior. ores spicati lutei, ut in affinibus:
Jilamentis omnibus barbatis.

Obs. B. pugioniformi in magnitudine habituque
simillima, certéque in systemate proxima: sed di-
stincta. Distinguitur optimé foliorum sulcis profundis
utraque.

Bowira. Nob. in Phil. Mag. Oct. A.D. 1824.

Obs. 'The discovery of a second species of Bowiéa
requires the alteration of the generic character, as
follows :

Perigonium hexapetaloideum erectum s. patens, cy-
lindricum; laciniis subringenter bilabiatis. Stamina
inzequalia exserta, inclusave, et cum stylo flexuoso de-
clinato-adscendentia.

Herbe africane succulentee perennes, foliis, scapis,
bracteisque Aloium propriarum, floribus diversis.

myriocantha. B. (umbelled) foliorum marginalibus denticulis

3. numerosissimis ; floribus umbellatis.

Habitat C. B.S. ubi invenit Dom. Bowie. G. H. %.

Florebat in regio horto Kewensi, Oct. A.D. 1826.

Obs. Caudex senectus incrassato-subconicus, et in
nostro exemplo nativo biuncialis; in locis natalibus
forté semisubterraneus.

Folia multifarié effusa vix numerosa subsemipedalia,
4—5 lineas lata, arcuatim patenti-recurva lorato-linea-
ria crassiuscula attenuatim acuminata submucronata,
concavo-canaliculata sordidé viridia seu glaucescentia,
subtus convexa, raritisve obsoleté carinulata tubercu-
lato-spinulescentia, asperrima, spinulis minutis respi-
cientibus; supra levia; ordine seepé geminato, ma-
cularum oblongarum albarum (in medio folii) longi-
tudinaliter dispositarum, rarits tuberculatim subeleva-
tarum: marginibus ( foliorum) minute albo-cartilagineis,
denticulis numerosissimis minutissimis albis rectis vel
subrespicientibus. Scapus vix pedalis erecto-adscen-
dens subflexuosus gracilis teres levis, inferné nudus,
superné bracteis laté adpressis acuminatis plis minus
*membranaceis, et aristatis, superioribus magis magis-
que imbricanter approximantibus; supremis supra
flores, in capitulo denso conico sterili mortuo mem-

. branaceo

Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants. 128

branaceo finientibus. Flores 6—8 in spuria, umbella
erumpentes ex bractearum alis Aloiwm modo, (nec ut
in Haworthia) pedunculis semuncialibus erectis tereti-
bus lutescenté-viridibus. Perigonium pedunculo longius,
parim ringens si vidi perfectum, tribus exterioribus
laciniis acuminatis crassioribus, harum swprema incurva
longior erecta inferné sordidé rosea, superné virescens
viridibus nervis, zmferioribus (laciniis) conniventibus
nec patentibus. Lacénia tria interiora (perigonii) bre-
viora teneriora incurva (uti priores) sordide lutescentia
carinula viridi. Stamina; jfilamenta ineequalia inclusa
(in nostro exempl. an semper ?) basi perigonii inserta
lutescentia; tria ceteris longiora flexuosé declinato-
adscendentia, cum stylo ab ipso basi flexili. Stylus
niveus stamina superat, interiores lacinias perigonii
aequans, stigmate exiguo trilobo luteo. Anthere de-
florate solum vidi; polline aurantio. Germen ob-
longum obtuse sexcostatum.

Obs. I will avail myself of the present opportunity
of giving an improved specific character and descrip-
tion of Bowiéa africana, as follows : “ Foliorum margi-
nalibus denticulis numerosis; floribus spicatis.”

Obs.—Folia sublevia. Flores patuli, laciniis obso-
leté bilabiatis, apice subrevolutis, genitalibus exsertis.

Haworruia, Duval. in Cat. Pl. Succ. in Hort.
Alenc. A.D. 1809.—et Nob. in Synops. Succ. Sc.

Sectio, CAULESCENTES, rarils pedales, foliis rigidis
3—5-fariis densé imbricatis, seepé spiraliter tortis ;
et seepils saturate viridibus.

torquata. H. (long, twisted triangular) foliis trifariis sub-
4, patulo-recurvulis sordidé viridibus asperiusculis; caule
torquato.

Habitat C. B.S. G.H. kh.

Floret ut in affinibus.

Communicavit Illustr. Princeps De Salm Dyck, ut
var. ejus Aloe pseudo-tortuose. Sed magis approximat
Haworthiam pseudo-rigidam, Salm; foliis quam in ea
rectioribus, lavioribus pallidioribus. Etiam simulat
H. tortuosam Nob. at cum foliis minus rectis pallidiori-
bus tuberculis longé minoribus sineque lente invisibi-
libus, sed longissimé numerosioribus, inferiorem pa-
ginam (foliorum) creberrimé occupantibus.

R 2 Classis

12% Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants.

peruviana. P. ( Peruvian.)

5.

Classis et Ordo. Dopecanpria Monoeynta.

PHacosPpERMA. Genus novum.
Calyx diphyllus.
Corolla 5-petala.
Stamina; filamenta 13.
Capsula 1-locularis polysperma.
Semina lenticularia minuta.

Habitat in Peru?

Floret Jun. Jul. &c. GH iOrsi-d.

Obs. Herba radice subfusiformi fibroso. Caulis pe-
dalis erectiusculus debilis flexuosus obsoleté hexagonus.
Folia alterna lineari-lanceolata, carinulata subcar-
nosula viridia internodiis Jongiora, ad margines his-
pidiuscula, obsoleté decurrentula, inde caulis angu-
losus. Flores spicati pedunculati mane aperti. Spice
terminales longze. Pedunculi solitarii erecti, bractea
foliiformi breviores; imi geminati plisve, filiformes ;
superiores confertiores sensim breviores subangulati
clavati. Calyx diphyllus amplus foliolis 4-angularibus
rhombeisve erectis crispis, apice carinatis, acumine
producto, florem et capsulam amplectentibus. Petala
5, obovato-cuneata saturaté purpurea sive rubicunda,
basi imbricantia, calyce feré duplo elatiora. Stamina
(jilamenta) brevia lente ramentacea. <Anthere (in-
nupte) utraque obtuse aurantiace petalis 3—4-plo
humiliores. Stylus 1, validus brevissimus atropur-
pureus, staminibus humilior, stigmate sexlobulato mag-
no concolore. Capsula oblonga subacuta obtusé subtri-
quetra (rarius tetraquetra) unilocularis polysperma;
seminibus minutis lenticularibus nitentibus, é fundo
capsulze pedicellatis. Semina vix perfecta, solum vidi.

Obs. I found this plant in flower in Chelsea garden
in June 1825, under the name of Tetragonia peruviana ;
but find no published description of it. It is distinct
as a genus from Tetragonia, as sufficiently appears
above: and other genera will probably recede from
Tetragonia, as soon as I can procure and re-examine
living specimens of the different species in a proper
state of fructification.

Classis et Ordo. Doprcanpria DopecaGyNIA.
SEMPERVIVUM Auctorum.

Sectio, Granpiroiia Nob. Caules frutescentes suc-
culenti

Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants. 125

culenti erecti. Folia maxima in rosulas termina-
lia, cuneato-spatulata, &c.

urbicum. S. (great bicuneate) foliis decurrenter subpetiolatis
6. longissimé cuneiformibus, apicem versus latissimé ob-
cuneatis, cuspide parvo.

Habitat forté in Canariis. G. Huh.

Flores non vidi. ‘

Obs. Sub hoc nomine occurrit in Hort. Chels. in
tepidario: sed in libris nonduminveni. Suffrutex nunc
subbipedalis, duplé major quam S. arboreum ; simplex,
foliis magis petiolatis, magisque divergentibus sub-
quadri uncialibus viridibus cartilagineo-ciliatis, apicem
versus minus spathulatis, cuspide roseo.

retusum. S. (great retuse leaved) simplex: foliis alté cuneatis
7. expansis levibus ciliatis, apice subcuneatis truncatis
retusis.

Habitat in Insula Teneriffe, in muris, tectis, &c.
copiosé, ubi invenit amicus Dom. ‘Thom. Edwards,
succulentarum plantarum cultor; qui in Anglia bené
cultabat A. D. 1824. Preecedenti, simillimum at ma-
jus, et satis foliorum retusorum forma differt. In
ceteris convenit, nunc humilius feré duplo: sed in
natalibus locis bipedale magnum potiisve maximum,
secundum Dom. Edwards, foliorum capitibus, latitu-
dine plusquam pedalibus, Cauwlibus feré semper sim-

plicibus.
Flores non vidi; sed secundum Dom. Edwards lutei
et distantiores quam in S. arboreo. radi nkts

frutescens. S. (small tree) simplex: foliis capitatim incurvo-
8. congestis spatulato-cuneatis viridibus ciliatis.

Habitat in Insula Teneriffe.

Obs. Cum priore invenit amicus Dom. Thom. Ed-
wards, et cum eo cultabatur A.D. 1824.

S. arboreum, affine, at adhuc solum semipedale,
foliorum capitulis duplé minoribus magis compactis.
In ceteris adhuc quadrat.

Flores non vidi. Cioh:

Classis et Ordo. Icosanpria Monoeynta.
Crreus Miller.—Nob. &c.

tenuispinus. C. (long wool-spined) subtriangularis: spinis
9. crebrius fasciculatis elongatis tenuissimis, lana longiori-
bus et feré laniformibus.

Habitat .... Parvam incipientem plantam solam
nuper

126 Mr. J. Taylor on the Accidents

nuper vidi sub hoc nomine inter alias rarissimas plantas
in horto Dom. Tate, in vico Sloane-street.

Habitus forté ut in C. triquetro Nob.—J ores ignoti :
sed prope id locarem. St. k.

gracilis. C. (slender, long-spined) suberectus, teretiusculus :

10. spinis antiquis solitariis rectis uncialibus, incipientibus

geminatis plisve, albis.

Habitat in America calidiore. St. h.

Obs. Unam plantam 4-entalem virescentem simpli-
cem apud Dom. Loddiges solum vidi, cum duabus
incipientibus ramulis recentér pullulatis. Plantze facies
est feré ut in Euphorbia Hystrix Auctorum, at adhuc
minus spinosa, duplo brevioribus spinis. An rami in
zetate 3-angulares? Flores adhuc ignoti. Affinis
fortassé’ Cerei nani Kunz: (quod non vidi) et prope
id locarem; sed nihilominus forté longe major, et sine
areolis; ut in Cereo nano.

P.S. Having, since my last communication, detected an
error in my fourth Decade of New Succulent Plants, page 33,
line 13, (in the Philosophical Magazine for August 1823),
have the goodness to notice it as follows :

‘¢ For heemispherice, read orbiculari.”

XXIX. On the Accidents incident to Steam Boilers*. By
Joun Taytor, Esq. F.RS. F.G.S. FUELS.
T has been remarked by some practical men who have had
most opportunity of examining the circumstances under
which the bursting of boilers has taken place, that the causes
have sometimes appeared to be not of that simple character
which is commonly assigned to them; and that some such ac-
cidents have occurred where neither excessive expansive force
of steam, neglect of the usual precaution, weakness of material
or bad construction, existed to a degree equal to the effect.
Mr. Woolf in a conversation upon this subject some time since,
expressed to me his opinion of some case where, as he thought,
there was ground to suspect the operation of an explosion of
gas in the flues, or at least outside the boiler. Any inquiry
or discussion into the causes of circumstances which continue
to be a reproach to our mode of using steam, must, I conceive,
be useful; and my principal object will rather be to provoke
it, and to encourage a record of facts, than to propound any
particular theory of my own, though I admit that some re-
cent cases appear to countenance Mr. Woolf’s idea.
In the mines of Cornwall, and in those of North Wales, the

* Communicated by the Author.
use

zncident to Steam Boilers. 127

use of high-pressure steam has become general: in the former
district it is, I believe, universal, and is applied to condensing
engines not differing very much from Boulton and Watt’s
construction, among which engines are many of enormous
power, and the largest in the world. The steam is commonly
so as to balance from 15 to 40 pounds on each inch of the
safety-valve; and some difference of opinion exists among the
engineers as to the importance of using it ata higher or lower
degree of pressure.

It will be necessary to describe the boilers which have been
employed, in order to understand the subject, and to notice those
which have been subject to accidents; which indeed, as far as
I know, have been confined to one sort of boiler,—or at least
such accidents as have been attended with any fatal or dis-
tressing consequences.

This description of boiler, though appearing therefore to be
the most hazardous, is yet most generally adopted ; and as
it is believed to have some advantages over others in other
respects and under certain circumstances, it will probably
continue to be generally preferred, or at least until some con-
struction that shall unite these advantages with more perfect
security may be brought into use: this, indeed, it will not be
very easy to do, as the experiments on boilers have been mul-
tiplied to a great extent in Cornwall, and the expense in-
curred by many of the mines in this way has been so great, that
but few of the managers will probably be inclined to enter
upon them again without some very clear prospect of success.

The steam boilers which I mean to describe as the most
common, are those which are constructed by fixing one tube
within another: the interior one containing the fireplace,
and the space between it and the exterior containing water,
and in the upper part steam. This kind of boiler was, I be-
lieve, first introduced by Trevithic for his simple high-pres-
sure engines: he made the outer tube of cast iron, and the
inner one, which was often recurved so as to make a double
circuit within, of wrought iron. At present both the tubes are
made of wrought iron or rolled plates: the form is simply that
of one straight tube passing through the other; the ends of
the boiler fix the tubes together, so that the interior tube is
open at both ends; at one of which is placed the fire-grate,
and at the other the smoke and flame pass out, and are con-
veyed to the stack or chimney most commonly by flues passing
under and along the sides of the outer case.

The following sketch will show the cross sections: they are
commonly from 20 to 35 feet in length, the diameter of the
inner tube from 3 to 4 feet, and of the outer one from 54

to

128 Mr. J. Taylor on the Accidents

to 64 or 7 feet. The former are usually $ an inch thick, and
the outer case $ths.

The weakest parts of this construction have generally been
supposed to be, the outer tube, by having too great a diameter
for the strength of iron used, and the ends of the boiler, which,
by being square and riveted to angle iron, are more likely to
break than if aspherical form were adopted. It does not, ap-
pear, however, in practice, that these have been the first parts
to give way.

The advantages which this boiler seems to possess over
others may be shortly stated. It has been found, by comparing
the duty of the engines by means of the monthly reports, and
checking this by the observations of the agents, that the fuel
goes further in them than in any others yet tried. Circum-
stances, at first sight apparently trivial, may perhaps conduce
to this result. I suspect that the peculiarities of coal of different
districts influence more the success of different kinds of boilers
than has been generally supposed. In Cornwall all the coal is
from South Wales, and is brought from the neighbourhood of
Swansea; it is less bituminous than most other coal, is not easy
to inflame, but gives a strong and durable fire: it is subject to
the objection of producing a great deal of clinker, and this
unites with and adheres strongly to any brick-work which the
fire may come in contact with, so as to require frequent cleans-
ing of the fireplace. In the boilers I have been describing
there is no brick-work near the fire, the clinker does not ad-
here to the iron sides, and the process of cleansing is easy
and rapid ; the action of the fire is therefore regular and un-
interrupted.

The second kind of boiler used is a single tube made of
wrought iron plates of considerable length but of small dia-

meter,

incident to Steam Boilers. 129

meter, with ends of the same material generally of a hemi-
spherical form ; it is placed horizontally, the water occupying
by far the larger portion of the space within, and the fire is ap-
plied under the bottom part.

The section annexed shows the position of the boiler with
respect to the fire : the lengths which have been usually made
may be stated at from 20 to 40 feet, and the diameter from 4
to 5 feet. The plates generally employed for making these
boilers are §ths thick.

ork

——

This construction is common, I believe, in America, but
they were not much used in England until they were intro-
duced by Messrs. Taylor and Martineau, who have made
them in a very excellent manner ; and by placing the bar across
the centre, as shown in the drawing, and which is repeated at
intervals throughout the whole length, they have given them
the greatest strength, and rendered them easy to repair. I have
never heard of any one of these boilers having burst or caused
any disagreeable accident.

In our mines in North Wales I have used them with great
advantage, and our agents and engineers prefer them to any
other, and find that they generate steam rapidly, and appa-
rently with ceconomy; but, as there is no monthly report there
as in Cornwall, this point cannot be ascertained precisely.

I expected the same advantage by using them in Cornwall, .
with the further one of increased security. In this I have
been disappointed: the difference in the quality of the coal
appears to be the reason ;—in North Walesit is a free burning
and bituminous coal, and makes little or no clinker, and there-
fore essentially different from what I have described the coal
used in Cornwall tobe. With the latter these boilers do not
appear to afford steam freely; whilst the brick sides of the fire-

New Series. Vol. 1. No.2. Feb. 1827. S place

130 Mr. J. Taylor on the Accidents

place are so rapidly encrusted with clinker, and the door so
frequently kept open to cleanse them, that much of the effect
of the fire is destroyed.

The third class of boilers which have been used in the mines
is that which includes Mr. Woolf’s invention of a series of
tubes filled with water and exposed to the fire. These boilers
were the subject of one of his patents, and various descriptions
of them are to be found in works which treat on these sub-
jects. If one objection to them could be surmounted, they
would probably be the best description of boilers we know of,
but this has caused the use of them to be discontinued ;—the
tubes by expanding and contracting not only injure the joints,
which must necessarily be numerous, but by sudden influences
of the fire the water is displaced in some of them, and the
tubes are injured and burst. No other inconvenience has
occurred from this than what is occasioned by the frequent re-
pairs thus called for; but it amounts of itself to a serious evil.

Of four accidents by the bursting of steam boilers which have
come more under my notice as having occurred in mines where
I am interested, and in the last two or three years, I would
remark that the boilers were all of the first description. In
other respects the circumstances differed very much. They were
erected under the superintendence of different engineers,—
were made by different manufacturers in parts of the country
distant from each other, of materials from various sources ; they
were mostly nearly new or not apparently the worse for wear,
and were each furnished with a safety-valve and gauge cocks ;
though I admit that there is not so much attention to the care
of these matters in the boiler-houses of mines as could be
wished.

The first accident was at Wheal Fortune, to one of six boilers
which are employed to work the large engine there of 90-inch
cylinder. I do not recollect that any thing remarkable oc-
curred to observe upon with regard to this ; the injury was li-
mited to the boiler itself, and it occasioned no particular dis-
cussion. The engineer was Mr. Woolf.

The next was extraordinary from the circumstance of two
boilers blowing up at the same moment or nearly so. This hap-
pened at Polgooth Tin Mine, where three were employed in
the same house to work the engine (80-inch cylinder). The
engine had been stopped a short time for some repairs to the
pump-work in the shaft; but it seemed clear after the accident,
by the most accurate investigation that could be made, that
the steam had not acquired any formidable degree of pressure,
nor was the water so low as to endanger the tube being im-
properly heated. The engineer was Mr. Sims, and the boilers

as

zncident to Steam Boilers. 131

as well as the engine were nearly new. One man, unfortu-
nately, was killed, and the stack of the engine-house was much
shattered, as well as the building itself. The interior tubes of
the boilers were much contorted and rent. Captain Reed,
who was near the spot, remarked, that the one explosion was
heard a little before the other, but the noise had hardly ceased
when the second took place.

Some time after, one of the boilers of the 64-inch cylinder
engine at East Crennis Mine blew up. This engine was also
under the care of Mr. Sims, but had been much longer at
work than that at Polgooth. The inner tube was compressed
as if the fire had softened the part above it, though there
did not appear to be any other reason to think that the water
was too low. The ends were torn to pieces, and the tube was
projected out of the case and out of the house, while the case
itself remained in its place, and scarcely injured. No person
was materially hurt. é

The last accident, which has led more particularly to these
remarks, happened at the Mold Mines in Flintshire, to a boiler
of a similar construction; one of three working the Pen-y-fron
engine 66-inch cylinder, erected by Captain Francis the princi-
pal agent, but of late under the care of Mr. Bawden, engineer.

The outer case remained in its seat uninjured, as at East
Crennis, and even the weight on the lever of the safety-valve
was not disturbed; the inner tube was not moved out of its
place, although it was very much flattened or compressed for
a great part of its length, but in a contrary direction to that at
East Crennis; the sides as it were having come together, and
not the top and bottom, they approached so close to each
other as to hold a brick, which it is not easy to account for
being there. The part which contained the fireplace, and
for some length near it, remained in the original form. The
ends both here and at East Crennis presented an appearance as
if they had broken the angle iron rather by the contraction of
the tubes than by being pressed outwards.

Circumstances rendered it possible to get better evidence
of the state of the steam and water, &c. than happens in most
such instances; and it seemed certain that the former did not
exceed a pressure of 30lbs. an inch, and that the other was
_ at its proper height. There was a lead plug indeed above
the fire which would have been destroyed if it were not so.

The engine had been stopped a few minutes; the engine-
man had opened the fire-doors of the three boilers, and had
closed the dampers of the other two: he was on this boiler,
putting down the damper in the flue, which was no sooner
done than he observed a gust of flame rushing from the fire-

S2 place,

132 Mr. J. Taylor on the Accidents

place, and almost immediately after an explosion, which made
him jump from a door-way considerably above the level of
the ground below, as the engine stands on the side of a steep
hill:—this door was used to discharge the cinders from the
ashpits. He alighted on the heap, and escaped out of the
way just before the hot water gushed out. ‘Two other men
who were in the boiler-house were not so fortunate, and they
were killed instantly by the boiling water; no mark of any
other injury being to be found on their bodies.

In this case, had the rush of flame from the fireplace any
thing to do with the subsequent explosion ?

And admitting that the steam was so far within the pressure
that could by mere expansive force regularly exerted injure
such a boiler,—might not the rupture be occasioned by the aid
that a vacuum suddenly created might produce?

Does not the bursting of the one boiler after another as at
Polgooth, seem to indicate that exterior causes operated ?

Is it possible to conceive,—supposing the pressure equal in
two boilers as was the case at Polgooth, both being connected
to the same steam-pipe,—that the relative strength of the two
should be so exactly the same as that what would by mere
expansive force burst the one should have the same effect
upon the other ?

Have not ail calculation and reasoning with respect to the
strength of boilers hitherto had regard merely to such expan-
sive force uniformly exerted ; and if we suspect or admit the
action of concussion, or the effects that any thing like a blow
would exert, ought we not to make a very different estimate
in their construction ?

My intention was rather to state the facts than to attempt
an explanation of what is certainly at present very obscure;
but that I may do all in my power to direct attention to the
subject, I will venture on a supposition. At the Pen-}-fron
engine we see that the fire-door is thrown open, and then the
current of air up the flue is stopped by closing the damper ;
the interior is filled with atmospheric air mixed to a certain
extent with coal gas; the latter is increased by the distilla-
tory action of the fire until the proportion is attained which
is explosive; it takes fire, producing the rush of flame which
would be followed by a sudden vacuum in the tube; while the
other side, pressed by the steam, gives way to this sudden im-
pulse, and is destroyed by a force very much smaller than
would be required if uniformly exerted.

By some it has been suggested that hydrogen may have
been generated by the decomposition of water from leaks in
the boiler.

That

incident to Steam Boilers. 133

That sudden inflammations of gas in the chimneys of these
engines does take place is, I believe, sufficiently obvious. By night
it is observable that bursts of flame suddenly illuminating the
surrounding scene, and rising to a considerable height above
the summit of the stack, are seen to emerge, and after a blaze
of some minutes diminish and retire into the flue, leaving all
once more in perfect darkness. This effect I certainly do not
recollect to have noticed where the coal is less bituminous.
The fact is not, perhaps, of much importance; but it has been
remarked upon by some who have witnessed the accident I
have described, and has been discussed by them in reference
to it, and therefore it is right to mention it.

Though I have been led to describe the bursting of boilers
where what is called high-pressure steam has been used, I by
no means think that boilers are safer because the steam in
them is supposed to be limited to a lower degree of expansive
force. High-pressure boilers are or ought to be very strong,
and can only give way by a great increase of force beyond what
they are calculated to resist, which should happen but seldom.
Low-pressure boilers are from their construction very weak,
and a little carelessness raises the power of the steam within
them to the bursting point, and when they give way the con-
sequences are often very fatal. Not to mention other instances,
I may remark, that about twelve months since one of the old
spherical construction, which is still much used in some parts
of the kingdom, burst at a mine in Flintshire about 7 miles
from the Mold Mines, and occasioned the death of 16 per-
sons: it was replaced by two smaller boilers of the second
kind I have described, and high-pressure steam applied with -
good effect to the engine, and with perfect security.

XXX. On the Crystalline Forms of Wagnerite. By A. Levy,
Esq. M.A. F.G.S.*
NE of the rarest species in mineralogy is that which has

been named Wagnerite, the chemical composition of
which according to the analysis of Fuchs it as follows:

Ehosphoricvacid.. ota ets. 442. 41°73
MINOTIC ACIGI,, 6.0 sas.oon ears 6°90
DAR CSIA 0 sii5 2h0 po» . . - 46°66
Cees OF VON: <i.4 /jeu0,00,0 3 O°
Oxide of manganese ..... 0°50
100°39

A large and well-defined crystal of this substance is pre-
served in Mr. Heuland’s private collection, and it is the only
* Communicated by the Author.

one

134 Mr. Levy on the Crystalline

one he has ever seen. It was sent to him still adhering to the
matrix, but unfortunately by some accident has been detached
from it. As no determination has been hitherto given, as far
as I know, of the primitive form of this substance, the de-
scription of this crystal may not be uninteresting.

The form it presents is rather complicated, being the com-
bination of fourteen modifications, and containing when com-
plete fifty planes. Fig. 1. is a representation of it, but differs
in appearance from the crystal, which offers only one of its
summits, and in which the planes belonging to the same mo-
dification are of unequal extent. The simplest primitive form,
from which I find fig. 1. may be derived, is an oblique rhombic
prism, (fig. 2.), the lateral planes of which would correspond
to the faces m, and the base to the face p of fig. 1., the ratio
between one side of the base and the lateral edge being deter-
mined on the supposition that the planes e! result from a decre-
ment by one row on the angles e of the base. Referred to
such a primitive form the crystallographical sign of fig. 1. is

P mg? h' h’ e! ek at bt bt a, a, e, (b' dé g*).
All the planes of the crystal are sufficiently brilliant to al-
low the use of the reflective goniometer to measure their in-

cidences, but the most brilliant are those of the modification
g and of the modification (4' d3 g®); and it is from the mea-
sures of their incidences that the dimensions of the primitive
and the other angles have been calculated. ‘The agreement

between the observations and the calculation has been in every
instance

Forms of Wagnerite. 135

instance within half a degree. ‘The parallelisms of edges ex-
hibited by the figure, as well as those depending on the in-
dices of the planes, but which cannot be shown by the draw-
ing, have been verified with the reflective goniometer.

P, m = 109° 20! m,m = 95° 25!
6:h::1:0°264.
Plane angle of the base... . = Soe

Plane angle of the lateral faces = 108 37.
P, A= 116° 35! m, hi = 137° 42! 30"
h®jh®= 117 32 m,h®= 168 56 30.

,g = 102° 27! 3, g8= 57° 35!

Ww

e' =161 23 30" P,ei=146 3.
P, ai =135 18
P, 63 =150 30 m, 63=100 10 53, 64 == 138° 53.
P, 64 =125 18 30” m,b4=125 21 30" bs, b3=108 49.
P, a; =132 0 30” ma, =116 18 30 63,a,=164 6.
P, a, =112 45 M, d;=136 29 Qs @, =117 39.
P,e,=138 3 m, €s=110 39 ge, =119 31.

P,(b' di g*)=114 30. m,(b'd3g*)=133 6 g%,(b' di w= 14s 52.
#8,(b'dig?)=129 15. 6'(b' d g2)=160 32.
The perpendicular drawn from the angle o on the opposite
edge h meets it at a distance from a@ equal nearly to se

There is some indication of cleavage in a direction parallel
to the modification h'.

I took the specific gravity, and I found it, the water being
at a temperature of nearly 60°, equal to 3:01. Which agrees
very nearly with that obtained by Fuchs, which is 311.

The fracture in a direction transverse to the prism is un-
even and splintery.

It is easily scratched with a knife, and the streak is white.

The colour, transparence, and lustre of the crystal I have
described, are perfectly similar to those of a Brazilian topaz,
with which substance, Wagnerite has been formerly con-
founded.

The planes of the prism are strongly striated, with the ex-
ception of the planes g*. All the other planes are without
striae, and more or less brilliant.

The locality is the valley called Hollgraben, near Werfen
in Salzburg, where it is found in small veins of quartz in clay
slate. Beudant mentions the United States as another locality
of the same substance.

XXXI. On

f 136 ]

XXXI. On Captain Parry and Lieut. Foster’s Experiments
for ascertaining the Velocity of Sound at Port Bowen. By
Witiam Garpraitn, Esg. M.A.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of

Gentlemen, Philosophy.

{® the first Number of the New Series of the Philosophical

Magazine and Annals of Philosophy, there is a paper
(page 12), purporting to be a reply from Captain Parry and
Lieutenant Foster, to my remarks on the velocity of sound at
Port Bowen; the meaning of which I do not exactly compre-
hend, as I think they apparently controvert my remarks, while
at the same time they indirectly acknowledge the justice of
them. In fact, my formule were investigated long before
their experiments were made known. I cursorily noticed
them at the end of the paper, when it was just upon the point
of being transmitted to London, and I hope that my paper
upon comparison will be found to be characterized with as
much fairness and candour as theirs. Indeed, I spoke with
as much courtesy of them in that paper as I did of Newton,
and I do not think they deserve more.

However, if they will demonstrate the truth of the proposi-
tion which they have enunciated as following from their ob-
servations, under the Table of the velocity of sound at Port
Bowen, page 86 of the Appendix to the Third Voyage, with-
out any equivocation of language,—such as speaking of an in-
creased density, instead of a diminished elasticity, &c.—I shall
be most happy to correct any mistake or indelicacy of lan-
guage which I may have inadvertently employed.

I am, gentlemen, your most obedient servant,

Edinburgh, Jan. 21, 1827. Witiram GALBRAITH.

XXXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Dec. as Wages reading of a paper was concluded, entitled «« Ad-
ditional Notes on the Opposite Coasts of France
and England, including some Account of the Lower Boulonnois,”
by William Henry Fitton, V.P.G.S. &c.

Since the reading of a former communication of the author, the
correct identification of the beds beneath the chalk suggested by
Mr. Lyell, and an examination of the strata in the vicinity of
Weymouth, have enabled him to compare some portions of the
country on the opposite sides of the English Channel more accu-
rately than before was practicable: and he now, Ist, describes in
detail the strata which succeed the chalk in the vicinity of Folk-
stone; and 2dly, gives a general description of the Lower Bou-

lonnois.

Geological Society.

lonnois.
tracts just mentioned.

Names, chiefly

137

The following table exhibits the series of beds within the

Places of Occurrence.

derived from lo-

calityin England. In England.

Chall: . secsseee0e+.|Cliffs from Dover to Folk-
stone-hill—Beachy-headto
Brighton—I. of Wight—
I. of Purbeck, Dortsetshire,

&e.

Merstham Stone \Merstham, Reygate, and
(Greensand —| Godstone Firestone-pits
Fire-stone —Western Sussex (Malm
Upper-green- | Rock)—I.of Wight —Swa-
sand.—Twfau | nage Bay, I.cf Purbeck, &c.
of the French.)

Gault . ............|Copt-Point, N. of Folkstone.

(Folkstone- — Valley beneath the chalk
marl. — Dieve| in Kent, Surrey, and Sus-
ofthe French.)| sex.

Shanklin Sands |Coast Folkstone to Hythe.—
(lower Green-| vicinity of Maidstone, Kent.
sand. — Tour-| — Western Sussex. —
tia of the| Shanklin and Black-gang
French.) chines, I. of Wight.

Weald Clay ......|Wealds of Kent and Sussex.

—Cowleaze-chine, J. of
Wight. — N. of Swan-
age Bay, I. of Purbeck.

Hastings Sands...|Hastings, Sussex.—S. coast
of the I. of Wight—Swan-
age Bay.

[. of Purbeck—Summit o
the I. of Portland.

Purbeck Stone...

In the Lower Boulonnois.

Coast from Sangatte to Blanc-
nez,—and thence on the
boundary of the Lower
Boulonnois, to Mont St.
Frieux, &c. W. of Neuf-
chatel.

Coast between Blanc-nez and
Wissant.

Coast on the N. of Wissant.
—vicinity of Hardinghen,
—Lottinghen,—vicinity of
Samer:

Coast N. ‘of Wissant—vici-

nity of Wissant.— Wooded

hills parallel to the chalk,
from Desyres to Samer,

&e. &e.

—)

Not ascertained in the

Boulonnois.

Qu. traces in the upper part
of the cliffs from Gris-nez
to Equihen.

Portland Stone...\Shotover Hill, and Garsing-
ton, Oxfordshire —Brill-
hill, Bucks.

Coast near Weymouth, —

Kimmeridge, and
Hedington quarries, Ox-

Weymouth beds

fordshire.
PisoliteandCoral-\Coast near Weymouth.
TOG cicadess senses
Oxford Clay......\Coast near Weymouth. —
vicinity of Oxford.
Bath-oolite ...... Vicinity of Bath.
—(une-onformable)—
Coal-formation

Mountain-Lime- |Derbyshire.— Devon. —Vici-
stone. ss.e0e++.| nity of Bristol.— Dublin.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 2. Feb. 1827.

|

Upper part of the cliffs from
Gris-nez_ to Equihen.—
Mont Lambert quarries.

Coast from Gris-nez to Equi-
hen. — Mont Lambert
quarries,—Vicinity of Des-
vres—of Samer, &c. &c.

Basinghen, Hautenbert, A-
linctun,—Hesdin L’Abbé,
&c.; Vicinity of Samer.

Vicinity of Wast—Houlfort.
—Between Basinghen and
Marquise.

Vicinity of Marquise—Quar-
ries at Leubringhen—Ar-
dentun—Rety, &c.

Vicinity of Hardinghen, —
Lochinghen,—Cedur, &c.

Leulinghen, — Quarries at
Ferques, Haut-bane, &c.
T I. On

138 Geological Society.

I. On the N.E. of Folkstone, the chalk is succeeded by the equi-
valent of the Merstham Firestone, (or green sand,) which is there
however not more than fifteen or sixteen feet in thickness; and this’
is followed immediately by Gault. The Shanklin Sands, (or lower
green sand,) which come next in succession, are composed of three
groups, which may be recognized also in the interior of the country.—
The first and uppermost consisting of sand, abounding in irregular
concretions of limestone and chert, sometimes disposed in courses
oblique to the general direction of the strata. And the top of this
formation, in the vicinity of Folkstone and Hythe, forms an ex-
tensive plateau resembling that of the Blackdown range of hills in
Devonshire.—-The second number of the group likewise consists
chiefly of sand, but in some places so much mixed with clay, or
with oxide of iron, as to retain water ; and it is remarkable for the
great variation of its colour and consistency,—from the state of
loose bright yellow or ferruginous sand, to that of a dark greenish
tough mass, like that of the cliffs of Shanklin and Black Gang-
chines, which correspond to it in geological situation.—The third
and lowest group of the Shanklin Sands abounds, near Folkstone,
much more in stone, the concretional beds being closer together
and more nearly continuous; and the fossils of this group, which
are very numerous, agree with those of the corresponding beds in
Sussex, the Isle of Wight, and Devonshire. The sections of the
Weald Clay, and Hastings Sands, being imperfectly displayed on
the coasts of Kent and Sussex, the author gives detailed lists of
the beds at Cowleaze-chine, &c., on the south coast of the Isle of
Wight, and on the shore of Swanage Bay in the Isle of Purbeck,
where these formations are fully disclosed ; referring for an account
of the geological relations of those tracts, to a paper published by
himself in the Annals of Philosophy for November 1824*.

II. The Lower Boulonnois may be described as constituting a
flattened dome of unequal curvature, surrounded on three sides by
an amphitheatre of chalk, which has been removed by denudation
from the whole of the interior: the lower strata having a very
gentle inclination where they emerge from beneath the chalk, but
rising from the sea at a much more considerable angle. From the
chalk down to the Shanklin (or lower-green) sands, the strata of the
Opposite coasts near Calais and Folkstone, precisely correspond ;
and the same beds may be traced beneath the chalk, almost without
interruption, around the whole of the denudation: the gault
especially, being very distinctly disclosed in the vicinity of Har-
dinghen, where it is succeeded by the Bath oolite, and by the coal
formation. The next succeeding beds of the English coast, Weald-
clay and Hastings sands, (which it is remarkable, have not yet been.
found in the interior of Englaud,) appear to be wanting also in the
Boulonnois; or, if they do exist there, to occupy a very small space.
But some traces of the lowest members of the group to which these
two strata belong, and which is remarkable from its containing
throughout the remains of freshwater shells, are visible on the

* New Series, vol. viii. p. 365, &c. i
summit

Geological Society. 139

summit of the cliffs between Gris-nez and Equihen; where a thin
bed occurs of somewhat bituminous clay, abounding in silicified
wood, the cavities of which are coated with minute crystals of
quartz. This bed corresponds precisely to that which exists on
the top of the Isle of Portland, bearing there the name of ‘ Dirt,’
and abounding in similar wood; and on the French coast it is as-
sociated with beds of limestone, different from the stone beneath,
and containing shells in great numbers, apparently of the genera
Cyclas and Ampullaria. The next stratum of the Boulonnois is
the equivalent of that form of the Poriland limestone which occurs
at Garsington and Shotover Hill in Oxfordshire, and at Brill and
other places in the vicinity of Aylesbury in Buckingamshire:—
respecting its geological relations, however, some doubts still remain
to be cleared up; several of the fossils being the same with those
of the Isle of Portland, but the aspect of some of the beds a good
deal different. The formation in the Boulonnois consists, as in
Oxfordshire, of calcareous concretions of great size, abounding
in petrifactions, end imbedded in yellowish somewhat ferruginous
sand:—and the appearances of the stratum, especially between
Gris-nez and Audreselles, where the shore is covered with. these
enormous masses fallen from the sands above, is exceedingly striking
and remarkable. To this formation a series of beds succeeds, the
equivalent of the strata between the Portland limestone and the
coral rag ;—corresponding precisely to those of the shore near Wey-
mouth, and consist'ng of alternations of sand, limestone and clay,
in some instances bituminous and abounding in fossils.—These oc-
cupy the whole of the lower part of the cliffs from Gris-nez to
Equihen, and are visible in several places in the interior. The
pisolite and coral rag are not seen upon the coast, but come up at
a short distance within it; and their outcrop is conspicuous at Ba-
singhen, and along a line extending from that place, by Wierre and
Hautenbert, to Alinctun. On the north of that line this formation
is succeeded by a valley constituting a very remarkable feature of
the country, and occupied by beds of clay containing fossils iden-
tical with those of the Oxford clay, and including, especially at the
lower part, subordinate beds of sand and calcareous grit. These
are followed on the north, near Marquise, by the equivalent of
the Bath ooliie, (the upper members of the oolitic series, Cornbrash
and Forest marble, being indistinct or wanting) :—and this for-
mation seems to come in without any intervention, immediately
after the gault or subjacent sand, on the north of the denudation ;
where it occupies the surface, in nearly horizontal strata placed
unconformably over beds of the coal formation, or of mountain lime-
stone.—The former of these is disclosed in a small space only, in the
vicinity of Hardinghen: and the author refers for an account of it
to a Memoir now preparing for publication by M. Garnier of Arras.
—The mountain limestone, which is the lowest formation of the
Boulonnois, in some places comes in immediately after the lower
greensand, or the gault, without the intervention even of the oolite:
and near Landrethun the distance from the chalk to the limestone
beds is not more than a quarter of a mile. In some cases, when

T2 the

140 Astronomical Society.

the incumbent mass of oolite is removed, the surface of the lime-
stone beneath is found to be smooth, or slightly waved like the
sands of the shore after the tide has retired; and the rock is pierced
by tubular perforations evidently the work of marine animals; a
proof that the surface must have been exposed to their activity for
some time before the oolite was deposited. The beds of mountain
limestone of the ordinary character, in some places alternate with
dolomite, precisely resembling that which is found in the same geo-
logical situation near Dublin. And the fossils of this formation in
the Boulonnois are the same with those of Derbyshire, Gloucester-
shire, and Dublin.

On comparing in a general view the strata of the opposite
coasts, it will be seen that those of the Boulonnois do not occur
upon the English shore, except in the vicinity of Weymouth ; and
if the line of elevated strata which extends from that part of the
coast of Dorsetshire, through the Isle of Purbeck and the Isle of
Wight, were continued to the eastward, it would reach the French
coast near Gris-nez ;—just at the place where the same beds arise, and
where it is remarkable their position is likewise very highly inclined.

Jan. 5.—A notice was read, accompanying some specimens from
the Hastings Formation, with a copy of a work on the fossils of
Tilgate Forest ; by G. Mantell, Esq. F.R., L. and G.S.,—in a letter
to R. I. Murchison, Esq. Sec. G.S., F.R.S. &c.

The author states that his principal object in the present volume,
is to give a correct and extended view of that division of the
Hastings Sands, distinguished by him in the strata of Tilgate Forest,
the relations of which he illustrates by the section of a quarry at
Pounceford, where the Ashburnham limestone with bivalves, &c. is
seen overlying sandstone and calciferous grit (Tilgate stone).

A recapitulation of the animal and vegetable remains (in which
the author particularly notices that gigantic Saurian the Jguanodon)
shows the vast preponderance of land and freshwater exuvie in
the Hastings strata over these of marine origin; a circumstance in
strict accordance with what is now constantly occurring in all deltas
and estuaries of great rivers.A description is given in the con-
cluding chapter of the work, of the probable condition of the country
anterior to the epech of this deposit.

The reading of a paper was commenced, entitled “‘ On the coal-
field of Brora, in Sutherlandshire, North Britain, and upon some
other secondary deposits of the North of Scotland;” by R. I. Mur-
chison, Esq. Sec. G.S., F.R.S. &c.

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Dec. 8.—There was read a letter from Mons. Flaugergues, of
the observatory at Viviers, on a Comet discovered there March
29th, 1826. M. Gambart, of Marseilles, had informed M. Flau-
gergues, that he had discovered, on the 20th of March, a comet,
which shortly afterwards moved to the constellation Taurus,—
M. F. on looking for that comet, perceived under the left arm of
Orion, a white round nebulosity, scarcely visible, which he poe

pose

Astronomical Society. 141

posed was the comet announced by M. Gambart. Looking for the
same comet on subsequent evenings, the only one of his instru-
ments through which it was visible, was an achromatic telescope
whose double object-glass was of 40 inches and 6 lines focal di-
stance, and 30 lines and a half of aperture ;—this telescope has an
eye-glass of 2 inches focal distance, and is of admirable clearness.
It is mounted on a parallactic foot, but required the appropriation
of a micrometer, before it could be well applied to this class of ob-
servations. On the 4th, 5th and 6th of April, he made some good
observations on the comet with this apparatus : on the 7th he could
not find it, nor has he seen it since. He had no suspicion that this
was any other comet than the one observed by M. Gambart, until
he compared his own observations with those recorded in No. 4,
vol. xiv. of Zach’s Correspondance Astronomique, from which he at
once saw that his observations and M. Gambart’s related to two
different phenomena. M. Flaugergues has communicated his ob-
servations on the evenings of the 4th, 5th, and 6th of April; and
though they are nearer together than could be wished, he has de-
duced from the corresponding geocentric places, the following ele-
ments of the orbit, regarded as parabolic :

Inclination... 4.6 22 8 es 9° $2! 26!
Longitude of the ascending node 193 31 11 |
Longitude of perihelion ..... 222 53 32
Perihelion distance .....-..- 0646146

Passage of perihelion, April, 26:95973 ; or
26th of April, 23" 2™ 0* M.T. at Viviers,
Motion direct.

It is only in this last element, that this comet resembles the
comet announced by M. Gambart.

There was next read a letter from M. Gambart to the Foreign
Secretary, dated Marseilles, 29th of October 1826, announcing his
discovery, the preceding evening, of aComet having then 14" 38°,
and 36°-1 of Dec. North.

From a subsequent communication to different astronomers, dated
Marseilles 22d of November, which was also read, it appears that
M. Gambart from observations of the 7th, 8th, 9th, and ]0th of
November, computed the elements of the orbit, and thence deduced
a curious anticipatory result. He gives for

Passage of the perihelion Nov. 18-8085 M.T. from midn'.
Perihelion distance ..... - 0°02314
Longitude of perihelion... . 314° 57! 28"
Longitude of the ascending node 236 9 54
Hrichination: . 1:5. 2. %s)'s\'s o's" 89 59 24
Motion retrograde.

From these elements, it was anticipated that the comet would

transit the sun’s disc on the 18th of November, and that

The Immersion would take place at ..... at i ChE AM,
Passage through the node. ......+++-- Bol
Shortest distance of comet from ©'s centre 2! 40!

Emersion of comet from disc .......-.+- 8 38

The expected phenomenon was not observed in England.
There

142 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

There was next read a letter to the President from Professor
Santini, dated Padua, 6th November 1826, and containing various
astronomical observations. M. Santini commences by detailing
observations df a Comet discovered by M. Pons at Florence, the
7th of October. These observations extend from 29th of August
to 5th of November. From those of 30th of August, 28th of Sep-
tember, and 20th of October, M. Santini has computed the fol-
lowing elements, for a parabolic orbit; though the true orbit he
says would rather seem to be hyperbolic.

Passage of the perihelion October 942310 M.T, at Padua.

Log. perihelion distance ...... 9 -93028
Longitude of perihelion... . 57°35! 6!
Longitude of the node ..... 43 9 5
Inclination... 6. 2 60). © 2 25 30.7

Motion direct.

M. Santini communicates, 2dly, Observations of the planet Ceres
near its opposition to the Sun in 1826, viz. from 26th of June to Ist
of July inclusive. 3dly, Observations of tle planet Pallas near its
opposition in 1826, viz. from 26th of June to 29th inclusive. 4thly,
Observations of the planet Vesta near its opposition in 1826, viz.
from August 13th to 23d inclusive, M. Santini has compared these
observations with the geocentric positions of Pallas and Vesta, as
computed by Professor Encke, and published in Bode’s Jahrbuch
for 1828, pages 157, 160. The mean differences are, for Pallas in
AR + 3'-96, in decl. —0'54: for Vesta in MR + 11/43 in decl. |
—4!32.

In a postscript dated 7th of November, M. S. announces the dis-
covery of another Comet by M. Pons, in the constellation Bootis,
on the 22d of October.

Lastly, There was read a letter from Colonel Beaufoy to Lieut.
Stratford, R.N., containing Observations on the solar eclipse of
November 28th, made by Lieut. G. Beaufoy, R.N., Bushey Heath.

Nov. 28th. Solar eclipse, Began 21"46™ 4°; M.T., Bushey.

Ended 23 58 19, do. do.

No spot visible on the sun’s disc:—Edge of the moon uneven.

Her horns blunted.

XXXIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

CHLORINE IN THE NATIVE BLACK OXIDE OF MANGANESE,

R. J. MACMULLEN, in a paper contained in the last num-
a¥L ber of the Royal Institution Journal, has arrived at some very
extraordinary conclusions.—He considers not only that native
black oxide of manganese contains chlorine, “ but that it is in the
state of chloric acid, and that the native oxide is, at least in part,
and probably in proportions varying with the different specimens
of the ore, a native chlorate of manganese.”

I shall probably offer a few observations on the above paper in
the next number of the Phil. Mag. and Annals, R. P,

PHOS-

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 143

PHOSPHORUS IN KELP.

Repeated trials, we are told by Van Mons, have proved, that the
roundish and longish veins found in the varec-soda or kelp, after
the matter soluble in water has been removed, are principally com-
posed of phosphorus.—Jameson’s Edin. Journal, Jan. 1827.

How did the phosphorus escape combustion ?

DECOMPOSITION OF OXALIC ACID BY SULPHURIC ACID.

In our last number we noticed M. Dumas’s experiment of the de-
composition of oxalic acid into carbonic acid and oxide by means
of sulphuric acid and binoxalate of potash. I have repeated the ex-
periment successfully, and the same decomposition is effected when
oxalic acid is substituted for the binoxalate of potash.—R. P.

PHOSPHORESCENT FLUOR SPAR.

At a recent meeting of the Philomathic Society of Paris, a spe-
cimen of fluor spar was exhibited by M. Becquerel, which had been
found in granite, in Siberia, and sent by M. Leman: it shines in
the dark when warmed, with a remarkably strong phosphorescent
light, increasing as the temperature is raised. The light augments
when it is plunged in water ; and in boiling water the spar becomes
so luminous that the letters of a printed book could be seen near
the glass vessel containing it. On boiling mercury it emitted such
a light as to enable a person to read printing at a distance of five
inches. M. Eyries mentioned at the same meeting, the statement
of Sir John Mandeville, that at the entrance of a town in Great
Tartary were two columns surmounted by stones which shone
brightly in the dark.—Royal Institution Journal, Jan. i827.

In Phillips’s Mineralogy, p. 172, a fluor spar is mentioned as oc-
curring in Siberia which is of a pale violet coiour, and gives out,
according to Pallas, white light by the heat of the hand merely ;
when subjected to the temperature of boiling water, it gave a green
light. It would seem that this variety phosphoresces even at a
lower temperature than that exhibited by M. Becquerel—Compact
phosphorescent fluor has been found also in Cornwall.

PERKINS’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINES.

A Report has been made by M. Girard, on a memoir by Sir
William Rawson, on Perkins’s High Pressure Engines, read to the
Academy of Sciences at Paris. The report, after enumerating the
advantages stated in the memoir to be possessed by the apparatus,
observes, how desirable it would be that these assertions should be
supported by authentic experiments, which it would appear to them
they want at present, unless it be in the propulsion of balls, which
comprises the whole of the official proofs. —Bull. Univ—Royal In-
stitution Journal, Jan. 1827.

FORMATION OF OLEIC AND MARGARIC ACIDS FROM FAT.
MM. Bussy and Lecanu treated soft fat with four times its weight
of concentrated and boiling nitric acid: after an hour's action, the
mixture

144 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

mixture was allowed to cool, and the fatty matter which floated
upon the fluid was separated; it was of a canary yellow colour,
inodorous, and softer than the fat employed. It was perfectly wash-
ed with distilled water, so as to separate all matters soluble in it;
it was then treated with alcohol, which dissolved it almost entirely.
The undissolved portion appeared to be fat, probably a little altered.
The alcoholic solution reddened litmus paper strongly ; by evapo-
ration in a salt-water bath, it gave a yellowish residual mass, which
was pressed after having been placed between folds of blotting paper.
By pressure a very acid yellow liquid was obtained, which com-
bined with alcohol in all proportions, with solution of potash, and
was susceptible of forming with barytes a compound insoluble both
in alcohol] and water.

The solid matter which remained between the folds of paper, was
first shaken with hot barytes water, and the insoluble barytic salt
was treated with boiling alcohol, in order to separate the unacidi-
fied fatty matter which it might retain. The alcohol dissolved a
small portion of fatty matter, and left the barytic salt unacted upon:
this salt being decomposed by dilute muriatic acid, yielded a solid
fatty matter, which was washed with distilled water until the wash-
ings ceased to act upon solution of nitrate of silver or coloured
re-agents.

When thus separated from all excess of muriatic acid, it was dis-
solved in alcohol and crystallized; it was colourless, inodorous,
tasteless, and lighter than water; it melted at + 144° Fahr.; the
alcohol while boiling dissolved it readily, and on cooling, fine pearly
crystals were deposited. It reddened moistened litmus paper, com- —
bined readily with potash and barytes, forming with the first of these
bases a compound analogous to common soaps, and like them so-
luble in water and alcohol; the barytic salt was pulverulent and in-
soluble in these fluids.

It results from the preceding experiments that fat treated with
nitric acid is partly converted into oleic and margaric acids, As
analogy of composition admits extending these results to all bodies
formed of stearine and oleine, it will be observed that the property
of converting these bodies into oleic and margaric acids, which for
a long time was limited to the action of the alkalies only, then ob-
served in sulphuric acid, in oxygen and in heat, is also found to
exist in nitric acid. From these circumstances we are inclined to
suppose that analogous phznomena are produced whenever the ar-
rangement of the elements of oleine and stearine is disturbed.—
Journal de Pharmacie, Nov. 1826.

SEPARATION OF THE COLOURING MATTER OF MADDER.

The Société Industrielle of Mulhausen (Département du Haut

Rhin) have offered the following prizes :
Ist. A prize of three hundred francs for a ready and easy method
of determining the comparative values of different kinds of madder.
2d. A prize of six hundred francs, (to which a zealous member of
the Society will add six hundred more,) for a process for separating
the

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 145

the colouring matter of madder, and thus determining the quantity
which a given weight of madder contains.

Memoirs and specimens, accompanied with a sealed paper con-
taining the name of the author, to be addressed, (carriage paid) be-
fore the 25th of April next, to M. Isaac Schlumberger at Mulhausen,
President of the Society.

BISMUTH COBALT ORE.

This mineral has hitherto been found only at Schneeberg in Sax-
ony: for a knowledge of it we are indebted to M. Kersten of Git-
tingen.—Eaternal Characters: Colour intermediate between lead
gray and steel gray; lustre metallic, and glistening or glimmering ;
texture radiated, partly stellular partly parallel. It scratches fluor
spar, but this degree of hardness is occasioned by intermixed quartz.
Streak dull, colour not changed, but the powder soils. Specific gra-
vity = 4°5 — 4*°7.—Chemical Characters: Before the blowpipe on
charcoal gives out white vapours of arsenious acid ; deposits on it
a yellow crust, during which the ore becomes of a brown colour.
When well roasted before the blowpipe, and then mixed with glass
of borax and melted, it communicates to it a smalt blue colour.
If some small pieces of the ore are exposed to a low red heat in a
glass tube, it affords a considerable quantity of arsenious acid. It
is composed of

DAFOE Be ote: season 77-9602
Wobalie. obits tak 8 See 9°8866
TET 9 en ty Pe ees E 47695
BISON 62a 9s hd 3 dedetein Be 3°8866
MER Raa okt tb vagh etek « 1:3030
ER Shs ioe, ot oe Aah 1:1063
BURT ns Sivan a ahicarhty tise 1:0160

99-9282

The characteristic ingredients of this ore are arsenic-cobalt, and
arsenic-bismuth, a combination of these meta!s hitherto not met with
in the mineral kingdom.—Jameson’s, Edin. Journ. Jan. 1897.

ISERINE AND IRON SAND IN CHESHIRE.

Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, many years ago discovered the above
substances at Seacourse opposite to Liverpool, loose on the beach
and disseminated through a bed of crumbling sandstone which lies
below the thick bed of loam which forms the Cheshire soil at that
spot. He afterwards traced it along the shores of the Mersey for
several miles, and has very lately traced it quite across the hundred
of Wirral, in Cheshire, from the shores of the Mersey to those of
the Dee—Jameson’s Edinb. Journ. Jan. 1827.

EXPERIMENTS ON CERTAIN OXALATES.

M. Sérullas finds that when dry and pure oxalate of potash, either
acidulous or neutral, is finely powdered with an equal weight of
antimony and heated in a forge fire for eight or ten minutes in a co-

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 2. Feb. 1827. U vered

146 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

vered crucible, there is always procured a button which is an alloy
of potassium and antimony.

When well dried oxalate of lead mixed with very small portions
of potassium, perfectly freed from naphtha, is put into the bottom
of a glass tube, air being carefully excluded, by excess of the ox-
alate a violent detonation suddenly takes place, before the heat is
sufficiently great to effect the decomposition of the oxalate, when
no potassium is present. The tube is spotted with metallic lead,
the potassium is oxidized, and there is no carbon deposited. An
examination of the gas resulting from this instantaneous decomposi-
tion may elucidate the nature of the oxalates; but hitherto the ap-
paratus employed has always been broken by the explosion. Ox-
alate of copper treated in the same way also occasions strong de-
tonation, and metallic copper appears.—Journ,de Pharm, Nov.
1826.

SEIDLITZ POWDERS.

M. Planche, one of the editors of the Journal de Pharmacie, re-
marks that Dr. Paris in his Pharmacologia has given the composi-
tion of what are termed Patent Seidlitz Powders, as consisting of
Rochelle salt, bicarbonate of soda,and tartaric acid. And M. Planche,
after stating the surprise of M. Robinet that any powders so named
should contain no sulphate of magnesia, proposes the following for-
mula as an improvement :

Take of Sulphate of magnesia, in fine powder, 3ij
Bicarbonate of soda. ...,.... Sij
Mix carefully, and mark it Powder No. 1.
Tartaric acid in fine powder, gr. xl.
Mark it Powder No. 2.
There then follow the usual directions for mixing in water and taking
during effervescence.

Previously to giving this improved formula, M. Planche favours
us with the following tirade against the English Government, for
suffering Patent Seidlitz Powders to be sold without containing sul-
phate of magnesia: “‘ The English Government, which receives a
considerable duty from all secret remedies, takes but little trouble
to inquire whether the remedy is new, efficacious or dangerous; it
is sufficient that it be productive to the revenue, to allow of its
being authorized.” Does not M. Planche know that the spirit of
quackery is the same on both sides of theChannel! For whose be-
nefit, but that of the apothecaries, is the Codex medicamentarius au-
thorized _by the French Government, stuffed with such disgusting
preparations as frog, lizard, viper, and snail broth ?

One word more to M. Planche. In his short notice he has had
occasion to mention two English names, and he has made two ri-
diculous blunders. First we have “ la Pharmacologie du Dr. John
Ayrton, Paris, édition de 1820.” By thus using italic type for
Dr. John Ayrton, and roman type for Paris, with a comma between
them, M, Pianghi’s countrymen may suppose Dr. John Ayrton’s
work had been printed at Paris, instead of the author’s name being

John

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 147

John Ayrton Paris. The second blunder occurs in mentioning a
quack remedy, which is described as white head's essence of mus-
tard. ———
JET DISCOVERED IN WIGTONSHIRE.

Beautiful specimens of this mineral have been found between a bed
of peat and yellow clay, in the peninsula formed by Loch Ryan and
the Irish Channel, by SirAndrew Agnew.—Jameson’s Edinb. Journ.
Jan, 1827. kates

ORIGIN OF THE DIAMOND.

In the Philosophical Magazine for November 1826, is inserted an
article from the Asiatic Researches, vol. xv., “On the Diamond
Mines of Southern India,” by the late Mr. Voysey, Geologist to the
Trigonometrical Survey of India. The question, as to the proper ma-
trix of the diamond, being one of great interest in the inquiry con-
cerning the periods in the physical history of the earth, at which the
various forms of carbon were respectively first produced, and also
in that relating to the natural process by which this gem was form-
ed, and as the paper alluded to appears to be less decisive on the
subject than could be wished, it may be useful to future inquirers
to make a few remarks on Mr. Voysey’s statements.

The description given in this paper of the constitution of the
Nalla Malla mountains is somewhat indecisive and confused; and
does not afford the means of determining, with precision, to what
formation the sandstone-breccia belongs, which is stated to be the
matrix of the diamonds. But it would appear that this range consists
of transition strata, intersected or overlaid in some places, by trap-
rocks; the breccia, of course, belonging to the former class, The
imperfect nature of this description, however, is rather to be attri-
buted to the existing deficiency of correct general views on the ge-
ology of India, than to any want of accuracy or of knowledge in
the observer.

But an aggregate rock, consisting, it is stated, of jasper, quartz,
chalcedony, and hornstone, cemented together by a quartzose paste,
and passing into a pudding-stone composed of rounded pebbles of
the same substances, cemented by an argillo-calcareous earth, can-
not be the matrix of the diamond, as Mr. Voysey supposes. The
diamonds it contains, like the other minerals of which it is consti-
tuted, must have existed previous to its consolidation; and it is
possible, that, also like them, they were derived from the destruction
of some older rocks. The matrix of the Brazilian diamond, we have
some reason to believe, from a specimen not long since described
by Mr. Heuland, (Geol. Trans. 2d series, vol. i. p. 419, ) is a brown
iron-stone, which occurs in thick veins or beds resting on chlorite
slate ; and from the disintegration of which and the accompanying
rocks, the materials of the alluvial conglomerate called cascalhao,
from which the diamonds of Brazil are usually obtained, may be
supposed to have resulted. Ly

Professor Jameson, a few years since, expressed an opinion, that
the diamond, being a form of pure carbon, might have been origi-
nally secreted from the juices of some plant, in a manner ec to

U2 that

148 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

that in which silica is deposited in the joints of certain arundinaceous
vegetables. And Dr. Brewster, at a later period, (See Edin. Phil.
Journ. vol. iii. p. 100.) from the very compressible state which
certain optical characters of the diamond evince it to have once
possessed, and which, he states, could not arise from the action of
heat, nor exist ina mass formed by aqueous deposition, inferred,
that the diamond probably originates, like amber, from the conso-
lidation of perhaps vegetable matter, which gradually acquires a
crystalline form.

It is not intended, in the present remarks, to advocate the opi-
nion either of Professor Jameson or Dr. Brewster, though, under all
the circumstances of the case, both are deserving of attention ; but
Mr. Voysey quotes the observations of the latter writer, with the
intent to prove, that, as ‘diamonds have for two centuries at least
been found in a rock, generally supposed to owe its origin to depo-
sition from water,” his inference can apply, only, to the diamonds
found in alluvial soil. It is unnecessary to show, that if Mr. V. had
really discovered the matrix of the diamonds, the same origin must
have been attributed to those specimens which occur in alluvial
soils; but as the rock in which he states the diamonds of Southern
India are found, consists of the re-united debris of former rocks,
his observations throw no further light on the history of this
substance, than as indicating, perhaps, as the breccia is probably
one of great antiquity, that this form of carbon existed at an early
period in the formation of the present crust of the earth, This, in-
deed, we may likewise infer, perhaps, from the matrix of the diamond
mentioned by Mr. Heuland. It might also be concluded from that
specimen, that the diamond is an original production of the mine-
ral kingdom. Still, however, this cannot be decided from a single
instance of its occurrence in a mineral vein; and the remarkable
analogies between amber and the diamond, discovered by Dr.
Brewster, besides that already mentioned, certainly entitle his
opinion on its origin to philosophical examination. It must be re-
marked, at the same time, that when Dr. Brewster published his
observations, the diamond had been found only in alluvial deposits;
but the discovery of it in a matrix of ironstone, (if confirmed by
future discoveries, ) and also in a breccia of ancient formation, re-
moves Dr, B.’s objection to supposing the former compressible state
of the diamond to have arisen from the action of heat, which is de-
duced merely “from the nature and the recent formation of the soil”
in which only, at the time his paper appeared, it had been found.

Perhaps the opinions on this subject of Professor Jameson and
Dr. Brewster are not incompatible with each other; and if the
diamond were really produced in a manner resembling that in which
Tabasheer is formed, we might expect to find some analogies in the
physical structure of the two substances ; though, on the other hand,
the absence of such analogies would not negative the proposition, as
the chemical nature and functions in the vegetable world of carbon
and silica are so widely different. Dr. Brewster has examined the
structure of Tabasheer; but whether it exhibits any analogies to

that

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 149

that of the diamond the writer of this notice is not aware ; nor has
he, at present, the means of ascertaining.

It is worthy of remark, whilst considering this interesting ques-
tion, that the observation of Newton, which has usually been cited
merely as a sagacious conjecture of the combustible nature of the
diamond, is more precisely an anticipation of the conclusion, to
which the optical characters of this gem have led Dr. Brewster,
Sir Isaac infers, from the great refractive power of the diamond,
‘that it is probably an unctuous body coagulated.” (See Phil. Mag.
vol. xvii. p. 197.) Such an inference, derived from an optical cha-
racter entirely distinct from that on which Dr. Brewster founds his
opinion, affords a strong additional reason for examining this view of
the question.

The present state of the inquiry, then, respecting the origin of
the diamond, appears briefly to be as follows :

Argument in favour of the vegetable origin of the diamond :

This gem is a form of carbon: of that species of matter which
constitutes the solid basis of all vegetable productions.

It is certainly known to occur in nature, only in alluvial deposits,
and in a conglomerate rock containing fragments of older rocks ;
the evidence of its existence in mineral veins being confined to a
single specimen, and of course doubtful. Therefore we have no proof
that the diamond is originally a mineral substance.

Sir I. Newton inferred that it was an unctuous body coagulated :
—Professor Jameson suggests the probability of its vegetable ori-
gin :—Dr. Brewster has ascertained that it presents analogies with

‘amber, a substance which we have every reason to believe is of ve-

getable origin, and also, that, like amber, it must once have been in
an extremely soft and compressible state ; whence he is led to con-
clude, that it originates from the slow consolidation of perhaps ve-
getable matter.

Argument in favour of the mineral origin of the diamond :

The occurrence of carbon in the forms of anthracite and graphite
in mica-slate and other rocks believed to be of primary formation, ap-
pears to indicate that this species of matter is an original element of
the mineral kingdom, and existed anterior to the production of vege-
tables; and that, therefore, the carbon of the diamond is not neces-
sarily derived from vegetables.

A specimen of diamond has been obtained, having for its matrix
a species of ironstone, known to occur in veins or beds on chlo-
rite slate ; a rock of early transition or probably primitive forma-
tion; whence zt may be inferred that this substance is an original
product of the mineral kingdom.

The compressible state once possessed by the diamond, may (for
aught that has been advanced to the contrary,) have resulted from
the action of heat ; and, if so, the optical characters discovered by
Dr. Brewster, do not necessarily refer its origin to the vegetable
kingdom. ——_—. E. W.B.

HARBOUR OF KO-SI CHANG.

The geographical position of the cluster of islands which form
the harbour of Ko-si Chang renders them of some importance to
; navigators,

150 Intelligence and.Miscellaneous Articles.

navigators, and particularly to Europeans trading to Siam. Al-
though these islands possess a fine and convenient harbour, and lie
within four hours’ sail of the mouth of the Siam river, they are but
little known, and there is not even a correct chart of them extant.
We have therefore the pleasure of laying before our readers such
information regarding them as we have been able to collect.

The group is situated in latitude 13° 12’ North, and longitude 100°
55’ East, and about twenty-six miles from the mouth of the river of
Bankok, from which they bear about S.E. The nearest part of the
main is the high land of Bampesoi, which is only a few miles di-
stant. They are seven or eight in number, but with the exception
of the two largest, called by the Siamese Ko-si Chang and Ko Cram,
they are small and unimportant.

Ko-si Chang, the largest of the cluster, is about seven miles long
and three broad, and is composed of hills of considerable height,
clothed to the water’s edge with trees. The varieties uf wood are
numerous, and some of the descriptions, such as maple and sissoo,
are well suited for fine work. Thetrees are not, however, found of
sufficient height or dimensions for ships’ masts or yards. On this
island there is no cultivation, except a small spot which is inhabited
by a solitary Chinese. Ko Cram is about one-fourth the size of the
large island, and has a small village on one end of it, occupied by
Siamese fishermen, by whose industry a considerable portion of the
island has been cleared of wood and brought into cultivation, and
produces abundance of maize, and such vegetables as are common
on the continent.

These islands are famous for some rare and beautiful varieties of
the wild pigeon. ‘The most remarkable are a large white species
with the tips of the wing and tail black, found on most of the islands
in the Gulf, but unknown on the continent; a beautiful brown
and purple-coloured description, which is very rare ; and one or two
varieties of the small green pigeon. ‘There is a large root found
close to the sea, on the smaller islands, which appears to be a new
species in the list of plants. In appearance it has a close resem-
blance to the Dioscorea bulbifera, or common yam, but it has little
or no taste, and grows to an enormous size. We have seen a spe-
cimen of this root, which measured ten feet circumference, and
weighed 474lbs. The natives use it as a medicine, for which pur-
pose it is prepared by cutting it into thin slices and drying it in the
sun, when it is pounded or ground down into a powder of a light
brown colour. This powder is administered in cases of fever, agues,
&c. Land-crabs are numerous in several spots throughout the
islands, and are eaten by the natives.

The Cochin-Chinese who visit Ko-si Chang, on their voyages to
Siam, have erected a temple on the large island. This is a small
white building, and stands conspicuous on an eminence at the S.W.
end. Their traders touch here regularly for supplies of water and
fire-wood ; the latter of these articles is easily procured, and is taken
away in large quantities by them on their return to Cochin-China,
in some parts of which country wood is a scarce article.

The shores afford the edible birds’-nests, so much in request

amongst

Intelligence and Miscellanecus Articles. 151

amongst the Chinese; but they are of inferior quality, probably
owing to their being permitted to remain on the rocks from season
to season. Rock-oysters are also very abundant, and a few sea-
slugs, or beech-de-mer, are found, but not in sufficient quantity to
render them worth collecting. Stone ballast for the use of ships is
obtained with ease and without danger to the boats.

The harbour which is formed by the two large islands is well
sheltered, and affords anchorage for almost any number of vessels,
and protection from the wind and sea in every direction, except to
the northward ; but from this quarter the sea cannot affect it much,
on account of its vicinity to the shoals at the head of the Gulf.
The best entrance is from this quarter, but there is also a passage
to the southward between the islands. The holding ground is to-
lerably good, but it will always be necessary for ships to ride with
chain cables, owing to the roughness of the bottom, which is in
many parts covered with stones. The rise and fall of water is con-
siderable, being about ten feet at spring tides, and the tide runs
strong through the harbour. On the S.W. end of the large island
there is a fine stream of fresh water at which a hundred casks may
be filled in one day. The stream issues from the hill, and escapes
to the sea in a small sandy bay, finding its way under the bank of
sand which lines the beach. The Cochin-Chinese temple already
mentioned is erected on the hill from which the stream flows.— Singa-
pore Chron.—Asiat. Journ.

RIVERS OF ASSAM.

We learn from this quarter that a further attempt at geographical
investigation was lately made to the north-east, but wasstopped short
by want of supplies. It has been ascertained, however, that for
100 miles from Suddeya, the Brahmaputra pursues an easterly
course. The Braham Kund is now said to be, not the source of
the Brahmaputra, but of a small stream which falls into it. There
is great reason to think that the Dihong will prove to be the San-po;
it is a large stream, three times the size of the Brahmaputra,
although, at the same time, its depth of water is scarcely sufficient
for a river that has passed through so lengthened a course; and
Buchanan’s suggestion may not be altogether devoid of probability,
that the San-po falls into a lake, of which the Dihong is one of the
outlets. This would account for the tradition current amongst the
Assamese, that about ninety years ago the river came down with a
prodigious increase of its waters, and deluged the country. The
Dihong, in the cold season, discharges about 50,000 cubic feet of
water in a second.

The next inquiries, we understand, are to be made in the direc-
tion of the Bor Kampti country, which lies about the sources of the
Irawadi, about latitude 27° 28/.

The weather upon the Brahmaputra, before the junction of the
Dihong, was very cool, the thermometer being not unfrequently,
in the beginniug of last month, below 70°, and the temperature of
the river was 61° in the morning. he river rises and falls very sud.
denly : there is nothing but jungle on both banks.—Cal. Gov. Gaz.
May. 15.— Asiat, Journ.

NEW

152 New Patents.

NEW PATENTS.

To —— Thomas, of Vale Grove, Chelsea, esquire, for his process
of rendering boots, shoes, and other articles water-proof.—Dated
the 22d of December 1826.—6 months allowed to enrol specification.

To David Redmund, of Greek-street, Soho, engineer, for im-
provements in the construction and manufacture of hinges.—22d
of December.—6 months.

To Elijah Galloway, of the London Road, Surrey, engineer, for
a rotary steam-engine. —29th of December.—6 months.

To John Whiting, of Ipswich, architect, for his improvements in
window sashes and frames.—9th of January 1827.—2 months.

To James Frazer, of Houndsditch, engineer, for an improved
method of constructing capstans and windlasses.—11th of January.
—6 months.

To James Frazer, of Houndsditch, engineer, for an improved
method of constructing boilers for steam-engines,—11th of January.
—6 months,

To William Wilmot Hall, of Baltimore, America, at present re-
siding in Westminster, for an engine for mooring and propelling
ships, boats, carriages, mills and machinery of every kind.—15th of
January —2Z months.

To William Hobson, of Markfield, Stamford Hill, Middlesex,
for an improved method of paving streets, lanes, roads and carriage
ways in general.—15th of January.—2 months.

To James Neville, of New Walk, Shad-Thames, engineer, for an
improved carriage, to be worked or propelled by means of steam.—
15th of January.--6 months.

To William Mason, of Castle-street East, Oxford-market, West-
minster, patent axletree-maker, for improvements in the construc-
tion of those axletrees and boxes for carriages known by the names
of Mail-axletrees and boxes.—15th of January.—2 months.

To Robert Copland, of Wilmington-square, Middlesex, for im-
provements on a patent already obtained by him for combinations
of apparatus for gaining power.—16th of January.—15 months.

SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
Just Published.

The Miner’s Assistant, containing Instructions for surveying
Mines, and Works connected therewith: with Tables for facilitating
their various calculations. By R. Thomas, civil engineer, Falmouth,

Preparing for Publication.

A new Work, by G. Poulett Scrope, Esq. F.R. and G.S.S. On
the Geology of Central France, and particularly the Volcanic For-
mations of Auvergne, the Velay, and Vivaray,” in 4to. accompanied
by an Atlas, containing numerous coloured Plates, and two large
Maps, will be published in a few days.

Results

8:04} 0.89
9.1L) €-0L
2-48] P-F8
6.8L 1-08

153 |

L
‘Po 8RS'S

ye erIpefy

LPL
0-04
6-6S
€.9¢
£07
6-85

L.09} L-6£/82

“UTTAL

*rajOWOISAFT Sy oq

*xapuy oy} Jo
asury uray

183 ,b OW} UT

OOT} S8- 1S] 60-ZS| F9-ZS] Z9-8S| 8Z

89:25] 00-9F| £6-PP] 00-67
0€-PS] LP-FF| €0-€F| €6-8P
PE-SSI 9Z-PS| 90.95} SE-09
60-9¢} Lz-6S) €%-09} LE-99
Z0-VG] gv-Go| ZE.L9] 62-PL
LV 2G} 06-09] ZP-L9] oP-EL
€L-oG] OF-€9) €%-S9] €9-2L
OS-6Ff 91-€S| SE.7S| 78-19
G0-6f) £L-8h| LL-0S] 01-8
PV-66) SS-PE| 91-PP| SE-0S
PP-67) V9-SP| 8d-PP| oE-6V
01,09 £%.SE Lg;c€ 6-8

|
|
|

7-0€] GS-ES)L1

“IeA ‘1D

S| oR) oR) ws
BB | a] be) oe
Ee ;
5 we a ® mw
= |

ee alee SS
43

25

oO

bea)

2,

smMmoy $3 UL

95-SE\Lt6F}E
0 o; 0°

98]196-62|896-6z

EP-oF|zE|LSIES8-6z|078-6z
88-PF|6z|6S]992-62/692-6z
9@-95/8£|89|o16.6%
€£-19|8h|PL1868-62
L¥-L9| (S|€8|696-62
P8-99|1S|19}S26-62z
8-S9|0S|98]4e2-0€
SL-GS|ge|PLISo0-0€
06-1S/€€|89]6 10-08
9S.Sh|1£|6S]996-62
16-SP|EL|9S}E96-6%

168-62
768-62
786-62
986-62
6G-0€
110-08
£00-08
856.6%
196-62
£L6-62

‘uy

s

oF
ree
i}
&

096-62} L6.0

L¥8-62
SgL-6z
668-62
€88-62
886-66
886-6z
VEs-0€
1Z0-0€
F00-0€
646-63)
056.62
8L6:6z

saoedg

*sInoy $G UI
UOTeLIe A
qsoqvay
*paqiiosap
‘sasueyg
JO ‘ON,

1-85] 992 | L6-11| 196-62

Go
Lt
8%
8I
1G
£6
6
oc
ST
c%
9%
1d

‘aBuryy

678-62) 81-62
9OLL-62| 09-8%
GV-6%

06-62
068-62
646.62
786-62
0£3-0F
£10.08
010-08
856.62
196-62

086-62] 7S-6a

“uy

‘eIpeTAl

09-82 | 19-08

| saDeIvAy

| *quia2aqy

‘TOJOWOWIIYT, SULs9}s(Go1-J]aG

‘TTT SAINUNG WVITIIAMA
‘squngy ‘j40dsox Shuapvop ywhoy ayi so huozvasasgQ ay) yo day 9Z81 va ie ays Lof jouinoe 1p9150,0.L0a}2Fy vB Jo sypnsay

hg

*J}JOUIOIV

*YOIMUDILD JO ISAAK | oT OPNIWUOT—YMON 0G LF OF epuwweTy

“QZ8T 40J

*quIdAON
1340199
*quiaydag
ysnsny
ss | Ame
“* oune
wee Avy
wee qud Vv
*** YTB
Srenaqay
Arenue fj

X

*stpUOTY

“9781

‘029 ‘sayouy Ul UIE

154 Meteorological Summary for 1826.—Hampshire.
re
‘saqouy UL uoneiodeag

6LEPIIETILI Ze F IPL, €] SOS|zS| C|FS6 |F
eee Z eee if wecleeeleee one Ie L i EI 6 ty

slo led g a |z z
bl oulb lett ete led te-lee fot or bere
1/8 € : Ail eo bac a: fg rq ig ral ae
9| o8| 1 Zio d veole at |e
GACTU SPUN be | TS. (Fo leeGe Won |Z
e ra Tera Gasesioe I of I ae ES “OI 8
BST Teh Se Tey la Be een fee
leg) ee Poe TL Of? eEs 7 elb Oey el )S:
“TE LTOLSP sly Te [AS a yom AEH LS
eee t2 eee I T eee I aoe 8% zy ¢ 9 Il S
met Bealeton ake lene yy LE We ACS Or :S

re Pel ie
=a wel S| Be ¢ 3 S| bs
Bis) SIS/SIEEIS Sly Slel oe] 2ie
S(S)/SIS)S Bla 8le Zi Sio] a | fie
s\s|/ ele mele |S ES [8] & S| 8
BES IS Eislela Ci? Bl pe) 4 ¥
S| ZIS(PIElSlelsq sla ]- Q|n2
=o YIS|olsi° |F @| s R De a
a = Heels =) Oley
g g e
‘vusmOURyg deydsourry *TOYILI MA

81
LI
Ot
LI
€1

PI

i9ST| SS] 6Z1| VEZ! 9£z) 8

“snyeryg

VI | It
Ol | LI
LZ | 0G
gI | v%
SI | 9%
0% | Pa
0% | €%
02 | Vz
0% | Vo
€z | LI
gt | LI
02 | 6
Ss

81 ¢
=| 5
R | &
g | F
a

(‘panuyuos) A TAVL

Ie

“snyeaysomiy)

‘spno|g Jo SuOHPOYTPOY!

0Z1| 60z4 S9E| LS F9OE|tLo} 9%
€ 9 if Salk
L LE \eCol Valle
6 ELI Gi LI1
Ol P fe |f9 | €
LI #3 1%} o1| S
SI (me IT] @
91 LA Pals T

6 “2 (ae | Re

ai TL \f9 | 0 lr

S £V |to |_9 | °°
6 @ | |orrs
8 Git |fo | €
ae es,

ye B| Z S

S a Elm
EL SAEs Fle
=] lose o

‘ Bi

“SPULA\ Ot} JO 2[PIG

67

tpritez} 19
€ | 2 li¢
T ek | eS:
vit
LA ee AS
iv 0 ‘
9 |F {fe
e o|L

T [701
iS If |E1
€| 2] or
P za eee
V|¢} OL
e) | ¢
ac

ontaasa co |

en

Ke

“Q@8T OF
SoSUIOAY

Jaquiazeq:
TaquIaAON
** raqowo
raquiaydag
“* qsnsSny
se oe Ayn
"oun
re e'e Ae
"eee Tudy
“*) youeyy

Areniqa,t
** Arenuese

Meteorological Summary for 1826.—Hampshire. 155

ANNUAL RESULTS FOR 1826.

Barometer. Trichis:
Greatest pressure of the atmosphere, January 17th, Wind S. 30°510
Least ditto ditto Nov. 13, Wind N. 28°600
Range of the quicksilver ......--+-+-++2++screercctee 1:910
Annual mean pressure of the atmosphere .....-.--..- ++ 29°96 1
Mean pressure for 201 days with the moon in North decl. 29°953
—— for 183 days with the moon in South decl. 29°932

Annual mean pressure at 8 o’clock A.M. ......---++++- 29'960
aa ty Po Cpe wi. fia ue)is big tienes ial 29 958
ee oe at: Sto Glaclee Ea ag 5 cf 5.< 6/aj0)\ Be) <= 29°961
Greatest range of the quicksilver in November .......--- 1°800
Least range of ditto in May and June ...... 0°640
Greatest annual variation in 24 hours in April .......... 0:970
Least of the greatest variations in 24 hours in JUNE 5 oy eieyn' 0-240
Aggregate of the spaces described by the rising and falling
of the quicksilver......--.----seeeeee errr treet 58°410
Number of changes .......----+-eee seer eee r esses 266°
iP -VED °
Self-registering Day and Night Thermometer mee.
Greatest thermometrical heat, June 27th, Wind Wid. 13-440, 00
————- cold, January 14th, Wind E..... 17
Range of the thermometer between the extremes........ 69
Annual mean temperature of the external air ......--.- 53°55
- of do. at.8 A We. 0, »:ia.ciaie» 5264
pee OF EOI OP Whe ovina ohtntenes 52:09
OF G0, AG, By be opoicn tae leaatend 58°62
Greatest range in May and June ........-+++--+++++0° 36°00
Least of the monthly ranges in February ......+-----+- 23:00
Annual mean range .......---eeeeee es ee reer eee 30°20

Greatest monthly variation in 24 hours, in May and June.. 28-00

Least of the greatest variations in 24 hours, in December, . 15:00

Annual mean temperature of spring water at 8 o'clock A.M. 51°85
&

De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer.
Greatest humidity of the atmosphere, several times in Sep- Degrees.

tember, October and December ......-....---++-- 100
Greatest dryness of ditto, June 23rd ........-.-+----+- 28
Range of the index between the extremes... 0.....--6. 72

‘Annual mean state of the hygrometer at 8 o'clock A.M. .. 67°9
at 8 o’clock P.M. .. 69°7
at 2o’clock P.M. .. 60:7
aa _ at 8,2& 8 0'clock.. 661
Greatest mean monthly humidity of the atmosphere, in Feb. 81-5
—_— dryness of ditto in June ......-- 39°5

—

Posilton

X 2

165 Meteorological Summary for 1826.—Hampshire.

Position of the Winds. Days.
From North to North-east. .......5....--000. 49
Noxtieesst to Bast’ ...25. osc 22 slew eres 61
Ase OULD CREE. OEE ya. swe. > sisieimiere 235
South-east to South... ......0 2. eee 445
South to South-west ...........5.....6- 26
South-west to West..............008. 674
———, West to North-westsi7-aili. da ecadaiue Os 364
North-west to North..:........ aie ae 57
——365

Clouds, agreeably to the Nomenclature, or the Number of Days on
whioh each Modification has appeared.

Days. Days.
Cirruss soe: 209 Cumulus........ 236
Cirrocumulus .. 120 Cumulostratus... 234
Cirrostratus.... 321 Nimbus ........ 179
Stratus: yon sc,-< 8
General State of the Weather. Days.
A transparent atmosphere without clouds ..... 58
Fair, with various modifications of clouds... .. 1564
An overcast sky without rain. ...... shikwee dey 953
Re Bar: 5 eI OE OL Eee eit er 3
Rain, liatl‘and'slect's 33 288% eho PO 52
365
Atmospheric Phenomena. No.
Anthelia, or mock-suns opposite the true sun 3
Parhelia, or mock-suns on the sides of the true sun 14
Paraselene, or mock-moons.............--- 4
DOMN HAO OSS ies oT os hie dene ay tle Bs 22
RRMaH Ee ARE YEO STIs ea cele ccs a ata a's oe 17
Rainbows, solar and lunar..............-..- 13
Meteors of various. sizes .\...\......-.....-+- 00. 143
Lightning, days on which it happened........ 19
Thunder, ditto CCE Owe cferecie cre eee 6
Evaporation. Inches.
Greatest monthly quantity in June .......... 6:00
Least monthly quantity in December ........ 0°75
Total amount for the year .............-.... 34°62
Rain.
Greatest monthly depth in September ........ 4555
Least monthly depth in January ............. 0-890
Total amount near the ground for the year.... 28-015
Total amount near 23 feet high for ditto...... 25°770

N.B. The Barometer is hung up in the Observatory, 50 feet above
the low-water mark of Portsmouth Harbour; and the Self-registering
Horizontal Day and Night Thermometer, and De Luc’s Whalebone
Hygrometer, are placed in open-worked cases in a northern aspect
out of the rays of the sun, 10 feet above the garden ground. The

Pluviameter

Meteorological Summary for 1826.—Hampshire. 157

Pluyiameter and Evaporator have respectively the same square
area : the former is emptied every morning at 8 o’clock, after rain,
into a cylindrical glass-gauge accurately graduated to +4,dth of an
inch; and the quantity lost hy evaporation from the latter, is ascer-
tained at least every third day. ;'

BAROMETRICAL PRessuRE.— The mean altitude of the Barome-
ter this year very nearly coincides with that of last year, and in
these two years itis unprecedented in our register, arising from a
more settled state of the atmosphere in the summer and winter
months. The maximum pressure is not so high as that of last year
by .3,ths of an inch ; but the minimum pressure is exactly the same.

The aggregate of the spaces described by the alternate rising and
falling of the quicksilver, is 24°71 inches less than if 1824, and 8°82
inches less than that of last year. .

For 201 days in which the moon ranged in North declination, the
mean pressure was th of an inch higher than in the 183 days in
which she ranged in South declination.

TEMPERATURE——The annual mean temperature of the external
air is 54,ths of a degree higher than that of last year, and 1°42 de-
gree higher than the mean of the last ten years. As it respects
the temperature of the atmosphere there were two singular devia-
tions from the regular course of the seasons this year: namely, the
mean temperature of February was about one-third of a degree
higher than that of March; and the mean temperature of Decem-
ber was 14 degree higher than that of November. The mean tem-
perature of spring water at 8 o'clock A.M. this year, is 1-70 de-
gree lower than the mean temperature of the external air ten feet
from the ground; and for the last six years it is 1-09 degree lower.
With the exception of the genial year 1822, this year has been the
warmest that we have experienced for a great number of years past.

Winp.—During the first four months, and in September, we had
a long continuance of brisk and hard gales; the other part of the
year, particularly the last three months, very few gales prevailed.
The number of strong gales, or the days on which they have pre-
vailed this year, are as in the following scale.

N. | N.E.| E. [s=.| S. s.w.| W. | N.W. | Days.

Se ee. =

sjafef2{1|a|o 4 | 60

Those from the N.E. and S.W. points of the compass are equal;
and both together, more than two-thirds of the whole number ; and
they are diametrically opposite.

In comparing the scale of the ordinary winds, it appears to coin-
cide nearly with the scale for last year, except from the West points,
the loss on which seems to have gained upon the North wind, Here
the prevailing wind for many years past is decidedly from the South-
west and West points, as influenced by our local position with re-
spect to the Western Ocean.

WEATHER,

158 Meteorological Observations for December, 1826.

WeATHER.—The number of clear natural days, or days on which
no clouds have appeared, as stated in the table, is three more than
last year; and the number of rainy days three less: the number of
fair days with clouds is 94 less, and the number of overcast days
without rain, 105 more than last year. The year has been distin-
guished for a seasonable winter, a warm’ and healthy spring, a hot

and fruitful summer, and a humid and rather a sickly autumn .

from the great and rapid changes in the temperature and state of
the atmosphere. Even in the winter and autumn, only a sufficient
quantity of rain fell to keep the ground in a growing condition.
From the close of March to the end of August only 74 inches fell
here, which with the hot summer months, caused a drought, ma-
terially shortened the grass, stunted the barley generally, and on
high and light soils the wheat, but not the fruit crops: the produce
of the earth, therefore, met with advantages and disadvantages. So
dry a period we have not experienced since the year 18]8; and the
annual depth of rain at the ground coincides nearly with the dry
year 1820.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR DECEMBER 1826.

Gosport.—Numerical Results for the Month.

Barom. Max. 30:50 Dec. 28. Wind N.W.—Min. 29-18 Dec. 1. Wind W.
Range of the mercury 1-32.

Mean barometrical pressure for the month . ae Ow? Seite Ore ao
for the lunar period ending the 28th instant . . . . 29-781
for 15 days with the Moon in North declination . . 29-685
— for 15 days with the Moon in South declination . . 29-877
Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury . . . 5-560
Greatest variation in 24 hours 0-560.—Number of changes 25.

Therm. Max. 57° Dec. 10 & 11. Wind S.—Min. 32° Dec. 21. Wind N.

Range 25°.—Mean temp. of exter. air 46°-43. For 29 days with © in f 45°91
Max. var. in 24 hours 15°-00-- Mean temp. of spring water at 8 A.M.52°-68,

De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer.
Greatest humidity of the air in the morning of the 7th + Dera LOOP

Greatest dryness of the air in the afternoon of the 4th ytd LGD
Range of the index =~ veers are vo a em aren etenteney 40
Mean at 2 P.M. 72°-5—Mean at 8 A.M. 78:-4—Mean at 8 P.M. 80:9

of three observations each day at 8,2, and 8 o’clock . . 77:3

Evaporation for the month 0-75 inch.
Rain near ground 2-935 inches.—Rain 23 feet high 2-720 inches.

Summary of the Weather.

A clear sky, 1}; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 9; an overcast
sky without rain, 13; foggy, }; rain, 7.—Total 31 days.

Clouds.
Cirrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus.
ll 3 30 0 11 14 18

Scale of the prevailing Winds,

N. NE. E. SE. S. S.W. W. N.W. Days.
3 pee eure BP hN4 VOR ApIGG 31

General

Meteorological Observations for December, 1826. 159

General Observations.—The first part of this month was very wet, and
the latter part dry (excepting a day or two), with more healthy airs. It
has been remarkably mild for the season, the greatest difference in the
state of the thermometer between the days and nights being only 15 de-
grees, and in three of the nights it rose higher than in the days.

The mean temperature of the external air this month, is upwards of four
degrees higher than the mean of December for the last ten years; nor
have we had so mild a December since that in 1821: indeed, it is one and
a half degree higher than that of last month (November), which in this
place is unprecedented. The Barometer too, has been tolerably steady ;
and it appears from the scale of the winds that they were nearly equal in
duration from the eight points of the compass.

There having been but a few frosty mornings this month, the tempera-
ture of spring water is therefore nearly three-quarters of a degree higher
than at this time last year.

In the nights of the 10th and 11th, several small rings of colours, and
a close corona within a yellow discus halo, appeared round the moon,
which were succeeded by rain.

Although a water-spout is said to have burst over Bungay, in Suffolk, on
the 3rd instant, yet that day was fine here.

The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our
observations this month, are one lunar halo, two meteors, and two gales
of wind, namely, one from the East, the other from South-west.

London.—Twelfth month. 1. Cloudy: rain at night. 2. Fine. 3. Cloudy
and fine. 4. Cloudy. 5. Cloudy: snow in the night. 6. The ground co-
vered with snow in the morning, which soon disappeared, rain coming on.
7. Rainy morning: day rainy. 8—11. Cloudy. 12. Rainy. 13. Cloudy.
14. Fine. 15—17. Cloudy. 18, 19. Gloomy. 20. Fine. 21. Very fine.
22. Morning foggy : day fine. 23. Gloomy. 24. Drizzling. 25, 26. Gloomy.
27. Fine. 28. Very fine. 29—31. Fine.

RESULTS.

Winds, N. 1: NE.3: E.1: SE.8: 8.1: SW.4: W.4: NW.s.
Barometer mean height for the month ............seesese«. 30°074 inch.
Thermometer, mean height for the month............ss000. 42°258°

Pip ApOM AON erenant ad acdasessecsaavescsessonwaccnedassneceasese ase) SOMICH.

peililer er acteccenenecarces ts tates arcinmcacatcapracsatnstceteeie teat eel Ol Tuck:

Penzance.—-Dec. 1. Rain. 2.Showers. 3—4. Showers, hail and rain.
5—7. Rain. 8. Fair. 9, 10. Rain. 11. Showers. 12. Fair. 13. Fair: rain.
14,15. Misty. 16—18. Fair. 19, 20. Rain. 21. Fair. 22. Clear. 93s—13.
Fair.—Rain gauge at the ground level.

RESULTS.
Sr OMeLers MeATINCITNE | ao ccsccteucsssessccsescesesccessdscecessese, 29°69
Register Thermometer .......... ae uatear Fab Wee Meteo) 450
Rain-gauge at the ground-level ...... Biameke athe see sat ols 2a.) s 1°875
VOVEIMI UL 5 oss sary ovo ole. cha c-s Matetatiels tick sfiaesce.e.cie N.W.

Boston.—Dec. 1. Fine: rainr.m. 2. Cloudy: rainp.m. 3. Fine: rain
pM. 4—6. Fine. 7,8. Cloudy. 9. Fine. 10,11. Cloudy. 12, Fine. 13—15.
Cloudy. 16. Rain. 17—20. Cloudy. 21, 22. Fine. 2s—25. Cloudy.
26. Fine. 27. Cloudy, 28. Fine. 29. Cloudy. 30, 31. Fine.

-Meteor-

EL-L SE6-2SL9-1)19-1 SL-0 , 68: ___|\V8l\9-1h €6-b7 8% | GS | €9-62 {178.6% _L9.62 | BL-62 | PE-62 | 1L-08 | + 494V
vee | one ae gh | L9-6% | zz-0€ | 00-08 | ZI-0€ | 91-0€ | OF-o€ |1€
6P | 88-62 | Zz-08 | 81-0 | 02-0€ | 8f-0€ | HF.0€ jOf
wes) | doe [oe [vee feee | eee furpea, mn] ain oman 0g | 1) If] oF | 19 | LE | LP | O1-0€ | OF-0€ QZ-0€ | O£-0€ | 8-08 | BS-0€ |6%
ves | cee [eve | eee fees | eee frupual ow | uN |*mn) OL |G-SE| OF} Of | HY | 6% | LE | O€-08 | LP-0F 0f-0€ | 9£-08 | 99-08 | 1L.og go @
wee [coe [ore |ocee log. | eee feupeo) a | can] ‘an |) go] oF PP) oF | aP | Of | SP | OF-08 | Pr.0F 0£-0€ | O£-0€ | 69-08 | 1L-0€ |e
go. | cre fot fv [eee fees fuupea) cae] oN | aN | TL G17] SP) oP | BP | GE | GP | L108 9£-08 | 0Z-0€ | GZ-0€ | 09-0£ | 69-08 9%
“+ loro. [°** | €o. fee foots fea) «Nw | oe | ON | OL | G.SP| OF) PP | OS | OF GP | ot€| LZ-0€ | ZT-0€ | GT-0€ | TS:0€ | 09.0 |Sz
o sei |Top ieee we lor, | eee foeo mn | oN | ‘N | ZB | OF| LV| FP | OS | oP | SP | 20-08 PZ-0F | OT-08 | Z1-0€ | LP-O€ | 1S-0€ |F%
wee | dee [eee [eee free | eee furpeo smn | om fen! P8 | 9b) BP] oF | BP | OF | LP | 26-62] 02-08 | 80.08 OL-0€ | ZP-08 | Li-0€ €%
see | fee [eee [eee ove | eee leupeaptmn | in | “m | 249] €€) ZE| g& | OF | Of | PP | 00-08 | 02-08 96-62 | 80-0€ | 1P-0€ |cP-0f 2 DY
cz. | cr lostt} ** |Go- | s+ |x| rmx] cx [sn] ZL] Se! oF) SP | 8h | 82 | OF | SP-6z 19-62 | 01:62 | 08-62 | 00-08 | ZP-0f 1%
s+ lot [eet [Gye [eer | cee [wea] “as |“ | “as:| 08 |G.6€| SP} SP | 0S | LE | EV | S9-6e 78:62 | GP-6% | ZS-6G | $8-6% | 00.0€ 0%
te loro. [ore | cet [eee | cee fmea] “aN | “aS | “ms SO | G.0P) oP Pr | 0S | 6€ | Ib | 2-62] 00-08 | 02-62% | L-6Z | 00-08 | SZ-0€ |6I
vee [cee [eee [eee log, | eee lunpeo] aN [AN | ax) ZL | OF) OP] PP | ZG | SE | BP | 02-62 | 26-60 | 01-62 9L-6% | 81-0€ | SZ-0€ (81
vee | cee [eee [vee [eee | 6p. fcuqeal an | "N | ‘as | PL/¢-€h) LP] ph | cS | oF | SV | 19-62 | €L-62 | OL-6 | 94-62 | 90.0€ | 81.08 LT
6G a] see [eet [ose pera ee bse heh EN et SR SEY |, GF Gv | PS | 8 | PP | oF-6z| 6.62 | GE-6% | OF-6% | 6L-6% | 90-0€ OI
*** 1091. | °°" | G0- |So- wyeo| ‘as | ‘x | as | g9 /¢.Sh| gh| Sh | oS | PF | OF | Ge.6z | SS.6 | 0£-62 | PE-66 | 84-60 | 61-60 ST
“HOT Pen ie en it ee cdpemmeadl ‘as | ‘s | |-as | 9g | oF! ob| Sh | PS | zh | PP | Lz-66 | 99.62 | 62-62 | 0£-62 | 64-62 | 18-60 |FL O
«= lobo» | ott | ee eee wyea|.‘s | -m | as | og] Lr) 67| oF | 7S | PE | ZS | 22-6z | LP.60 | 92-62 | 82-60 | PL-6G | 61-60 (£1
«++ l9L0- jOLo. | Za |So- uyeo) *s |“ | *s | gL |G.cr| 19] gh | £9 | LP | 1S | 09.62 | 94-62 | 0€-62 | 8P-6% | PL-66 | 00.08 1
see | gee | eee 1 ZO, fPo° uyeo| *s | “Mm |*as | £8] 19] 19] gf | SS | PH | SS | 0S-6z] 62.62 | 09.62 0S:6Z | 00-0€ | S0.0£ |TT
€0. |SE0- jo0z- | SO. |*** wyeo| ‘s | ‘4s | ‘as | 06 |G.67| €¢9] 6 | 9S | gh | PS | €9-6z | 08-62 | 09-62% | ZS-62 | $0.0€ | 90.0. OI
OI. |S8t- |°** | SI |So. ‘micn | s || 061 zhl| ofl oF | 99 | 6€ | ES | 29-62] £8.62 | oF-62 | EP-62 | 90-0€ | L0-0€ (6
Lv| 18| 9F | 99 | g€ | ZS | 26-8z | ZE-6Z | O€-62 | OF-6% | SV-6z | Lo.of |g
G.og| tS] gf | 8S | eb | €S | 0€-6z | $9.6% | €€-6% | 8V-6% | 09-62 | 08-60 |Z
Gee| oF | gh | gS | SE | 0S | 06-62 | 09-62 | FS-6z | PS-6% |08-62 | 16-62 9
G.ce| oF| PP | 9S | €€ | 6€ | 09-6z | PL-6z | SS-6% | 19-62% | 06-62 | 16-62 |S
e¢| gf| er | sh | SE | oF | 91-62 | 17-62 | ¥S.6z | 99-62 | P9-6% | 06.60 F
G.g¢| oF] PF | 0S | O€ | ZF | o1-62 | LP-62 | oF-6z | EF-6z | FE-60 | 79-64 |
or| Stl of | 0S | LE | 0S | 08-82 | 81-6% | 02-62 | £2-6% | VE-6G | 8E-6% |
| Le| ob| 1b | 0G | LE | PP | 02-62 | 09-62 | 02-62 |_82-62 | 8€-60 | 89-66 |T_ ‘99a
SSPE O feu Prem) |W) oe Folweev gg) “wa | ew | “WW | PW | oe
ie Lg |'eourzueg| ‘uopuoy | ysoq | ‘dson *aouvzueg *uopuo'T ‘yuuoyAL
jo skuq

*JOJOMIOWLIIY, T,

“19JVWIOIV

“uojsog 1D TIFAA LP pun ‘j1odsoy yo ATNUA “M({ ‘oounzuag wv ACAIQ “py ‘UopuoryT tvau aurmoy “py 49 suoymasasgQ jwnTopouoajayy

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE

AND

ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY.

——

[NEW SERIES.]

MARCH 1827.

XXXIV. Biographical Notice of M. P1azz1.*

HE sciences have recently lost Joseph Piazzi; he died at
Naples the 22d of July 1826. He was born at Ponte, in

the Valteline, on the 16th of July 1746; he took the garb of
the theatins at Milan, and finished his novitiate in the convent
of St. Anthony. In his studies, which were conducted suc-
cessively at Milan, Turin, and Rome, he had the advantage
of being under the tuition of Tiraboschi, Beccaria, Leseur,
and Jacquier. Intending to engage himself in a similar course
of teaching, he went as professor of philosophy to Genoa, where
expressing his opinions too freely, he alarmed the zeal of the
Dominicans, who would have disturbed his tranquillity if
the grand-master Pinto had not engaged him to teach ma-
thematics with him in the new University of Malta. On the
suppression of this body, Piazzi went to Rome, and afterwards
to Ravenna, where he occupied the philosophical and mathe-
matical chair at the College of the Nobles: he there made
himself enemies by publishing some philosophical theses which
appeared to be too bold as coming from a young monk. He
was nevertheless thought worthy to succeed the preacher at
Cremona, where he had retired after the theatins had given
up the management of the college at Ravenna. He was ap-
pointed reader on theological dogmas at Saint-André della
Valle, at Rome, where Father Chiaramonte (Pius VII.) was
his colleague, and who retained for him on the throne, the
same sentiments which he had expressed in the cloister. In
1780, Piazzi, by the advice of Father Jacquier, accepted the

* Bulletin des Sciences, Nov. 1826, p. 341.
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 3. March 1827. x pro-

162 Biographical Notice of M. Piazzi.

professorship of the higher mathematics at the Academy of
Palermo. On his arrival there he reformed the method of
teaching, by substituting modern institutes for the works of
Wolff, and by rendering those of Locke and Condillac fami-
liar, which were previously almost unknown. By his know-
ledge he powerfully contributed to dispel the darkness, which,
under the combined influence of the Inquisition and the Jesuits,
still enveloped the territory of Sicily. Not satisfied with
having rekindled the love of letters, he obtained from the
prince of Caramanico, the viceroy of the island, permission to
establish an observatory at Palermo.

He visited France and England, in order to procure the
instruments necessary for his new establishment, and to form
an acquaintance with those astronomers who were most cele-
brated for their labours and knowledge. He was acquainted
with Lalande, Jeaurat, Bailly, Delambre, and Pingré. He
took advantage of the departure of Cassini, Méchain, and Le-
gendre, who were deputed to determine the difference of the
two meridians of Paris and Greenwich, to visit England, where
he became intimate with Maskelyne, Herschel, and Vince,
and especially with Ramsden, to whom he entrusted the con-
struction of his instruments. He frequented the Greenwich
observatory, and from it he observed the solar eclipse of 1788,
of which he gave an account in a memoir inserted in the Phi-
losophical ‘Transactions.

Being desirous of avoiding the uncertainty which quadrants
always leave in the mind of the observer, Piazzi engaged
Ramsden to construct for him a vertical circle of five feet in
diameter, accompanied with an azimuth, and divided with the
precision of which that artist was then alone capable. He
went every day to the workshop to hasten the work; and be-
ing dissatisfied with Ramsden’s slowness, he conceived that he
might stimulate his self-love by a letter addressed to Lalande,
on the life and labours of this optician. The trick succeeded ;
in a short time after Piazzi had the satisfaction to see his great
circle finished, and he also obtained a transit instrument,
a sextant, and some other less important machines. The
English minister pretended that the circle belonged to the
class of discoveries, and consequently that it was subject to the
prohibitory duties of England; but Ramsden protested that
if it was a new invention the merit of it belonged to Piazzi,
whose instructions he had merely executed. ‘This declara-
tion obviated every difficulty, and Piazzi returned to Sicily,
carrying with him all the instruments. He put the new ob-
servatory in activity, and it was the most southern which
then existed, that of Malta having been destroyed by fire in

1789.

Biographical Notice of M. Piazzi. 163

1789. As soon as every thing was in order, observations were

commenced, the results of which were published in 1792.
Piazzi immediately oceupied himself with forming a new
catalogue of stars, the exact position of which appeared to
him as the only true basis of astronomy. . Francois Lalande, in
France; Cagnoli, in Italy; de Zach, Henry, Barry, in Ger-
many; had partially commenced this work, relying upon the
position of thirty-six stars which Maskelyne had pointed out
to astronomers as fixed points of comparison. Piazzi, on the
contrary, was unwilling to confide in a single observation : the
slightest inaccuracy on the part of the observer, the smallest
imperfection in the instruments, were accidents too probable
to render them admissible. He also knew, that if Flamsteed,
Mayer and Lemonnier had continued their observations, they
would probably have deprived Herschel of the honour of his
discovery. ‘These considerations made him return many times
to the same star, before he fixed its position, and it was ac-
cording to this laborious but exact method that Piazzi finished
his first great catalogue, containing 6748 stars, which was
crowned by the Academy of Sciences of France, and which
was welcomed by all astronomers. But a more interesting re-
sult of this system was the discovery of an eighth planet, which
opened the way to new conquests in the heavens. On the 1st
of January 1801, Piazzi, in examining the 87th star of the zo-
diacal catalogue of Lacaille, between the tail of Aries and
Taurus, perceived a star of the 8th magnitude, which he oc-
casionally observed. His habit of verifying the observations
of the previous day caused him to remark, on the following, a
difference in the place of the small star, which he at first took
for a comet. He communicated his observations to Oriani,
who, observing that this luminous point had not the nebu-
losity of comets, and that it remained stationary and retro-
graded, in the manner of a planet in a moderately short space,
calculated it on the hypothesis of a circular orbit. He was
not deceived in his hypothesis, which, confirmed by other
astronomers, awarded to Piazzi the honour of the discovery.
He gave it the name of Ceres Ferdinandea: Lalande was of
opinion that it should be called simply Piaazi. The king of
Naples was desirous of celebrating this event by a gold medal,
struck with the effigy of the astronomer; but Piazzi, modest
in his triumph, requested that the value of the present might
be employed in purchasing an equatorial, which was wanting
in his observatory. He continued, in the mean time, with
perseverance, the works which he had sketched: neither the
cares of his great Catalogue, nor the labours which the dis-
covery of Ceres had required, nor even a fever which under-
Y2 mined

164 Biographical Notice of M. Piazzi.

mined his health for four years, could for a moment divert him
from his studies. The positions assigned by Maskelyne to
several stars were almost immediately mistrusted; but Piazzi
was too much engaged in his researches to think of correcting
the works of others. He deputed M. Cacciatore, the most
distinguished of his pupils, to compare directly the principal
stars with the sun.

This work was not confined to the thirty-six stars of Mas-
kelyne ; it contained one hundred and twenty, which served as
the basis of the new Catalogue. Piazzi did not finish it until
1814, and it was not without astonishment that he was found
to have extended his researches to 7646 stars. Urged by his
friends and his pupils, Piazzi occupied himself with preparing
several memoirs which he intended for several Academies of
which he was a member: he held at the same time some com-
missions which the government of Naples had given him;
among others, the formation of a metrical code, to establish a
uniformity of weights and measures in Sicily. His work was
preceded by an Essay, published in 1808, and by Instruc-
tions intended for the use of the curés. During the constitu-
tional government of the kingdom (in 1812), Piazzi was con-
sulted upon a new territorial division, which was decreed by
the parliament, according to the report of the astronomers,
and has been preserved even since the destruction of the re-
presentative government. The comet of 1811 gave Piazzi an
opportunity of explaining his ideas upon the nature of these
bodies. He did not suppose their formation to be contem-
poraneous with that of the planets: he was rather of opinion
that they were occasionally formed in the immensity of space,
in which they are afterwards dissipated, nearly like those globes
and luminous meteors which are generated and disappear in
the terrestrial atmosphere. With such opinions, it is not sur-
prising that he always attached but little importance to the
observing of comets.

In 1817, Piazzi was called to Naples to examine the plans
of the new observatory, founded by Murat, upon the heights
of Capo-di-Monte. He introduced many changes, of which
he gave an account in a work published a little before his re-
turn to Palermo. Succeeded in the immediate direction of
this observatory by his pupil Cacciatore, he took an active
part in the labour of a commission charged with the public
instruction in Sicily, a country which he regarded as a second
home, and which he preferred to the brilliant offers made to
him by Bonaparte, to draw him to the University of Bologna.

Piazzi had no less constancy in his affections, than perseve-
rance in his studies: he had collected an uninterrupted fae

°

Mr. Ivory on the Combination of Heat with Elastic Fluids. 165

of solstitial observations, from 1791 to 1816, to determine the
obliquity of the ecliptic. On comparing them with those which
were executed in 1750, by Bradley, Mayer, and Lacaille, it
will be observed that the obliquity undergoes a diminution of
44" in every century.

The last arrangements of this great astronomer furnished —
fresh proofs of his love for science. He bequeathed his li-
brary and his apparatus to the observatory of Palermo, adding
an annual sum for the education of a pupil. Piazzi enjoyed
a just reputation, acquired by his innumerable and important
labours. He was director-general of the observatories of
Naples and Palermo, president of the Academy of Sciences
of Naples, member of that of Turin, Gottingen, Berlin, and
Petersburg, foreign associate of the French Institute, of the
Royal Society of London; ordinary member of the Italian

Society, and corresponding member of the Institute of Milan,
&e.

XXXV. Continuation of the Subject relating to the Absorp-_
tion and Extrication of Heat in a Mass of Air that changes
its Volume. By J. Ivory, Esq. M.A. F.R.S.*

[X treating the subject of this article in the last Number of

this Journal, care has been taken to avoid all assumptions
merely hypothetical, and to ground the reasoning on acknow-
ledged facts. My chief purpose at present is to show that the
conclusions which have been obtained lead to a very direct
and simple solution of the important problem concerning the
velocity of sound in the atmosphere, which has hitherto been
investigated in a manner rather complicated and circuitous.
1 shall also be able to correct some inaccuracies that have
crept into the mathematical part of this research, and which
have arisen from an obscure and imperfect knowledge of the
relations that subsist between the quantities concerned. But
before entering on these topics it may not be improper to re-
capitulate briefly, the main grounds on which the theory pro-
ceeds.

In the first place, when heat is applied to a mass of air un-
der a constant pressure, the variations of volume are propor-
tional to the quantities of absolute heat which produce them.
The same thing in effect may be enunciated by saying in the
usual phrase, that the specific heat of air under a constant
pressure is the same at all temperatures. The proposition
must not be understood absolutely and indefinitely: we ob-

* Communicated by the Author. :
tain

166 Mr. Ivory on the Combination of Heat

tain our knowledge of it experimentally, and by experiment
it must be limited. MM. Dulong and Petit have compared
the expansion of air under a constant pressure with the indi-
cations of a mercurial thermometer; and their researches
prove that the increase of volume keeps pace with the ascent
of the mercury between the points at which mercury freezes
and boils, that is, from —40° to about 600° of Fahrenheit’s
scale*. We must therefore infer, that for this long range of
temperature, equal quantities of absolute heat have caused
equal increments of volume both of the air and the mercury.

In the second place, when heat is applied to air which is
kept from changing its volume, the elasticity increases at the
same rate with the temperature. ‘There is here no absorption
or disappearance of any part of the heat; the whole of it is
employed in augmenting the elasticity. But although the
effect is single, yet, because the condition of the air varies as
more heat is applied, we cannot infer that equal increments of
elasticity accompany equal rises of temperature. ‘This is
a point that experience must determine; and, from the re-
searches of MM. Dulong and Petit and other natural philo-
sophers, it appears, that the increase of elasticity keeps pace
with the rise of temperature within the limits already men-
tioned, that is, from —40° to 600° of Fahrenheit’s scale+.

It is next to be shown that when air under a constant pres-
sure expands by heat, the whole heat it acquires is resolvable
into two distinct and independent parts; the /atent heat which
unites with the air as the volume increases without affecting
the thermometer, and the heat of temperature which is capa-
ble of raising the temperature from the initial to the ultimate
quantity, the volume remaining invariable. In order to prove
this, it is to be observed, that a given mass of air may be made
to change its bulk and temperature in two different ways.
First, the pressure remaining invariable, the air may be di-
lated to any proposed volume by the direct agency of heat.
Secondly, the same mass of air may be allowed to expand to
the same volume without the application of heat, either by en-
larging the dimensions of the containing vessel, or by lessen-
ing the pressure; and when this is done, the volume being kept
from changing, the temperature is next to be raised to the
same degree as in the first process. In this second method
of operating, heat enters the air as it expands; and as the
temperature is the same both before and after the expansion,
it follows that the latent heat depends solely upon the increase
of volume, and is perfectly distinct from the heat of tempera-

* Journal de [ Ecole Polytech. tom. ii. p. 200.
+ Ibid. pp. 199, 200.
ture

with Elastic Fluids. 167

ture afterwards communicated. Now by both processes the
air is ultimately brought to the same condition, and conse-
quently it must have acquired the same quantity of heat. _ It is
therefore proved that the whole heat acquired by air which
expands under a constant pressure, is composed of two inde-
pendent parts, namely, the latent heat and the heat of tempe-
rature.

Let us next compare the dilatation of a mass of air under a
constant pressure, or, which is the same thing, an air-thermo-
meter, with the indications of a mercurial thermometer: the
whole heat acquired by the air will be proportional to the
ascent of the mercury or to the increase of the bulk of the
air: and again, according to what is shown above, the heat of
temperature will likewise be proportional to the ascent of the
mercury, or to the increase of the bulk of the air; wherefore
the difference of these two heats, that is, the latent heat, must
be proportional to the ascent of the mercury, or to the in-
crease of the bulk of the air. It thus appears that the three
heats, namely, the whole heat acquired by the air and its two
parts, the heat of temperature, and the latent heat, receive,
each, equal additions for equal increments of the bulk of the
air; and consequently for any given dilatation, they will al-
ways bear the same constant proportions to one another. And
this must be admitted as true for a very extensive range of
temperature, or so long as thermometers of air and mercury
continue to measure heat exactly.

When air expands under a constant pressure, a rise of one
degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer has been found to cor-
respond to an increase of volume equal to ;4;th of the bulk
possessed by the air at the freezing of water. It follows, there-
fore, that, in order to know the latent heat absorbed in any
dilatation, or disengaged in any condensation, we have only
to investigate the invariable proportion it bears to the heat of
temperature capable of producing the same change of yolume
under a constant pressure. Now this invariable proportion
has been deduced in the last Number of this Journal, from an
experiment of MM. Clement and Desormes, and it comes out
equal to 3 nearly. Such is the nature of the experiment men-
tioned, that it leads to a proportion rather below the truth;
but we may correct the result by the velocity of sound in the
atmosphere, which agrees better with 2 than 3. Hence it ap-
pears that, when air expands under a constant pressure, the
whole heat it acquires for any increase of volume, the heat of
temperature and the latent heat, are as the numbers 11, 8, 3,
or, more nearly, as 7, 5,2. If we apply to a thermometer of
Fahrenheit’s construction a scale haying the distance between

the

168 Mr. Ivory on the Combination of Heat

the freezing and boiling points divided into about 70 equal
parts or degrees, the rise or fall of the mercury on this scale
will show the latent heat of a mass of air varying its volume
under a constant pressure, at the same time that the usual
scale marks the temperature.

In what goes before, our attention has been occupied ex-
clusively with atmospheric air; but it will readily appear that
the conclusions obtained extend to all the gases. For it may
be shown by the same reasoning as in the case of air, that when
a gas expands under a constant pressure, the whole heat it
acquires, is resolvable into latent heat and heat of tempera-
ture; and that these parts are distinct from, and independent
of, one another. It is also a principle that holds good as far
as our experiments enable us to judge, that, for equal rises of
temperature, all the gases expand at the same rate as air. If
now we compare two thermometers, one of air and one of a
gas, the whole heat acquired by each fluid, in any given di-
latation, will be the same; the heats of temperature will like-
wise be the same: consequently the latent heats must also be
the same. We are therefore to conclude, that when a gas
expands under a constant pressure, the whole heat acquired in
any dilatation, the heat of temperature, and the latent heat,
are to one another as 11, 8, 3, or probably more nearly, as
1, 5, Qe

The theory which we have been explaining suggests some
reflections concerning the agency of heat. "When it expands
air or a gas, it raises the temperature, and it enlarges the
volume without affecting the thermometer. These effects are
independent of one another; for they may be exhibited sepa-
rately, and either of them may be carried to any extent while
the other remains unchanged. The latent heat enters the air
and unites with it in a manner not perceptible to our senses,
and increases the bulk; the heat of temperature augments the
elasticity and affects our senses. Does heat operate according
to these laws only in the case of air and the gases? or, rather,
is it not our power over the pressure, by which we can dilate
or contract a given mass of elastic fluid as we please, that
has enabled us to investigate the effects in question? When
heat is applied to a solid or a fluid, its expansive force acts
against the cohesion, over which we have no control. We
cannot expand either of these kinds of body, and at the same
time keep the temperature constant; neither can we raise the
temperature, and at the same time keep the bulk unchanged.
The mode of investigation that has been pursued in air and
the gases, becomes impossible in solid and fluid bodies; but

this does not prove that heat may not operate exactly alike -
bot

with Elastic Fluids. 169

both cases. In favour of the inference that its mode of acting
is similar, we have at least a strong argument from analogy.
It is proved that the heat which dilates air or a gas, spends
its whole force in producing this single effect, and is concealed
from the thermometer:—why should it not follow the same
law when it expands a mass of iron, or a portion of water or
mercury? ‘There seems to be no kind of difference between
the two cases, except that, in one, the experimental proof is
at hand, and, in the other, it is placed beyond our reach.
But in the continued application of heat to solid and fluid
bodies, there are two memorable stages at which we are en-
abled to contemplate the mode in which it operates, while the
temperature remains constant, and while it rises without the
afflux of extraneous heat. These occur in particular relations
between the expansive force of heat and the cohesion; when
the former overcomes the latter, and when it is overcome by
it. The melting of a solid body, and the conversion of a fluid
into vapour, are instances of the power of heat overcoming
the cohesive force; and, during all the time the changes are
going on, the temperature remains constant; the whole sup-
ply of extraneous heat being absorbed and employed in ex-
panding the new fluid or vapour. The reverse processes of
a fluid passing into a solid, and of a vapour condensing into
a fluid, are instances of the power of heat being overcome by
the cohesive force; and here the extrication of heat before
concealed, causes a rise of the thermometer till the transfor-
mation of the bodies is completed. The first instances are
similar to the absorption of heat which always accompanies
the enlargement of the volume of an elastic fluid; the second
resemble the evolution of heat when the fluid contracts its
bulk. By the remarkable phenomena we have mentioned,
which were first accurately examined and explained by Dr.
Black, the argument for the generality of the law relating to
latent heat is much strengthened.

We employ the terms latent heat and sensible or free heat,
not in reference to any hypothesis concerning the nature of
that power, but to denote effects actually observed when it
acts upon matter. Latent heat is that which expands bodies,
which produces this single effect and no other, remaining con-
cealed from the thermometer. Heat of temperature, or free
heat, on the contrary, affects our senses, and is ready to dif-
fuse itself around whenever the equilibrium is broken. In
the two cases, if it be allowed that the facts are equally ge-
neral, the phraseology must be alike unexceptionable. ‘The
modes of speaking relate entirely to modes of acting. Heat

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 3. March 1827. Z in

170 Mr. Ivory’s Notice relating to the

in combining with matter never changes its nature; it is never
annihilated; it passes from free heat to latent heat, and the
contrary, according to circumstances. The only question is
about the generality of the fact; whether it be true that heat
which expands bodies is always concealed from the thermo-
meter. We have proved that it is true in elastic fluids; and
analogy, aided by the discoveries of Dr. Black, affords a strong
argument that it holds without exception.

The theory we have been explaining is nowise inconsistent
with the doctrine of specific heat and capacity. We have here
compared the quantities of heat which unite with bodies when
their temperature is raised, with the dilatation which they
produce. But we may likewise compare with one another the
quantities of heat requisite to cause a given rise of tempera-
ture in different bodies; and, in this view, they are called
specific heats, and the bodies themselves are said to have dif-
ferent capacities for heat. These two ways of considering
the manner in which heat combines with bodies, are clearly
distinguished. ‘The one by no means supersedes the other.
On the contrary, we may deduce from the property of latent
heat we have endeavoured to establish, the condition which
causes the capacity of a body to be constant, or to vary.
Whenever equal additions of latent heat produce equal incre-
ments of volume, the capacity must be constant; otherwise it
must vary. This will readily appear, if it be considered that
it is the latent heat which causes the expansion, and that we
employ the expansion to measure the free heat, or the tem-
perature. The specific heat of bodies is, therefore, plainly
regulated by the latent heat. But in other respects the doc-
trine of capacity leads to considerations of which we have had
no occasion to speak.

The observations I have been led to make have carried me
far beyond my original intention, and I must reserve what
further remains on this subject for a future occasion.

Feb. 5, 1827. J. Ivory.

XXXVI. Notice relating to the Seconds Pendulum at Port
Bowen. By J. Ivory, Esq. M.A. F.RS.*

(THE 4th part of the Philosophical Transactions just pub-
lished, contains an experimental determination of the
seconds pendulum at Port Bowen, a station in Prince Regent’s

Inlet, by Lieutenant Henry Foster, R.N. F.R.S. The result

* Communicated by the Author. r
oO

Seconds Pendulum at Port Bowen. 171

of this experiment and the comparison of it with my formula,
Phil. Mag. for Oct. 1826, are as follows:

: Observed Computed Excess of cal-
Latitades endulum. pendulum. culation.
73° 13! 39"-4 39°20347 39°20265 —'00082

The error is not great: and this is the 29th experiment re-
presented by my formula with small discrepancies.

The latitude of Port Bowen being little more than a de-
gree short of that of Captain Sabine’s station at Greenland,
we may compare the two experiments.

Latitude. Observed pendulum.
Sabine . . . . 74° 32! 19" 39°20335
Foster... . 73 13 39 39°20347

Here the pendulum has shortened for an increase of latitude
equal to 1° 18’ 40". But it ought to have lengthened at least
-00250. Thus there is a discrepancy between the experiments
of the two observers, greater than between my formula and
Captain Sabine’s result.

Port Bowen is in the middle of Captain Sabine’s northern
stations. We may therefore employ Mr. Foster’s experiment
to compute the pendulums at those stations in different hypo-
theses of ellipticity, in order to compare them with the experi-
mental determinations of Captain Sabine. Put J and A for
the length of the pendulum and the latitude, at Port Bowen ;
and let 7’ and a! denote the same things for any of Captain
Sabine’s stations; then,

! = 1 — f(sin?a — sin*’).

According to my formula, f= 0°20835; and according to
Captain Sabine’s calculations, f= 0°20227 ; and these values
may be considered as nearly the greatest and least that can be
assigned with any probability. Calculating, now, with these
data, we get:

Computed
pendulum
Jf = 020835

Computed
endulum
f = 0°20227

Observed
pendulum.

Station.

———

Drontheim . . | 39°17456
Hammerfest . | 39°19519
Greenland .. | 39°20335
Spitzbergen . | 39°21469

39°17920
39°19804
39°20605
39°21436

$9°17990
39°19820
39°20597
39°21404

The computed quantities are very consistent with my for-
mula; but they a4 not agree well with the observed pendu-
lums. In particular the discrepancy at Drontheim, computed
from Mr. Foster’s experiment on one side, is nearly equal to

2 what

172 Mr. Graham’s Account of M. Longchamp’s Theory

what it was before found to be by calculating from Unst and
Stockholm on the other side*.

I confine myself to these observations which must stand as
long as any trust can be put in the rules of arithmetic. To
venture upon any discussion concerning the cause of the sin-
gular discordance between Captain Sabine’s experiments and
those made by other observers, might possibly stir up an al-
tercation of no pleasant kind.

Feb. 5, 1827. J. Ivory.

XXXVII. An Account of M. Longchamp’s Theory of Nitrifi-
cation; with an Extension of it. By Tuomas Grauam, M.A.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Philosophy.
Gentlemen,
LONGCHAMP, in a memoir read some time ago be-
* fore the Academy of Sciences, and published lately in
the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, (t. xxxiii. p. 1.) has deve-
loped a theory of the natural production of nitre in various
soils, and superficially upon certain rocks. This theory, in its
full detail, is, perhaps, not altogether new; for several of the
opinions of which it consists have been advocated, or at least
broached, by preceding chemists. But M. Longchamp has
certainly the merit of confidently displaying these opinions in
their full force, and of methodizing them into a consistent
system. Of this theory we propose to give an account, as
nearly as possible in the words of the author, and to subjoin
certain speculations, with the view of supplying a material de-
ficiency in the theory of M. Longchamp. *

It may be premised that M. Longchamp confines himself
to the production of the acid of the native nitrous salts, and
very properly avoids any supposition of the production of
their base, previously existing as fact and reason point out
that it must be, and, unlike the nitric acid of these salts, inca-
pable of a synthetic formation.

There is reason to doubt the original proposition of Glau-
ber, and which as far as regards the nitric acid has been the
prevailing theory to the present day, that “ saltpetre is formed
by the decomposition of animal and vegetable substances ;”
for nitrates form and are found in materials and in places
which contain no vegetable or animal matter, and which have
never been exposed to the emanations of animals.

* Phil. Mag. Oct. 1826, p. 251.
Persons

of Nitrification ; with an Extension of tt. 173

Persons engaged in the production of nitre know well,
that earths taken from caves furnish nitrates by lixiviation,
and that earths, replaced in the same circumstances, yield
again, after eight or ten years, new quantities of saltpetre.
This fact cannot be denied; but some have attempted to
weaken its force, by the reflection, that in general the nitrous
materials are not completely deprived of their salts by the
washing to which they are subjected ; while these materials,
exposed again to the air, become dry, and as the water does
not eyaporate except at their surfaces, it deposits there all the
nitre which it held in solution. This objection would be of
weight, if it were true, that only a small quantity of nitre
could be obtained from materials which had been replaced ;
but it is well known that if earth from a cave has given b
the first lixiviation 100 parts of nitric acid saturated with the
different bases, the whole mass being returned to the same
place, will yield again, after eight or ten years, the nitrates
which represent the same quantity of acid. It is not, there-
fore, only the nitre which the materials have retained, which is
obtained by the second lixiviation ; but besides, and for the
greater part, what is formed anew upon replacing the earth
in the circumstances which had induced its first nitrification.
Moreover, the same materials twice lixiviated, returned again
to the same cave, will yield, after eight or ten years, the same
quantity of nitre which they furnished at each of the two
former lixiviations; and the nitrification is perpetuated with-
out a limit, provided that the returned earth possess a suffi-
cient portion of the base, which commonly solicits the forma-
tion of the nitric acid, and absorbs that acid as it is produced.

Lavoisier took from the quarry a great number of specimens
of chalk, at Roche Guyon and Mousseaux, and all when
washed yielded a small quantity of nitrate of potash, mixed
with much nitrate of lime. These specimens were frequently
taken at a distance of many hundred toises from any habita-
tion, and from parts of the rock exposed to the rain and all
vicissitudes of weather; and he has drawn this consequence
from the facts related in his memoir: “the nitric acid does
not pre-exist in the chalk of Roche Guyon, but is formed by
the action of the air*.” It is remarkable that this chalk was
often richer in nitre than the best nitrous soils. The quantity
of nitre, which any specimen contained, was found to depend
most upon its vicinity to the surface. As the organic re-
mains of these rocks do not retain their animal matter, no in-

# Mémoires Etrangéres de U’ Academie des Sciences, xi. P. Il. pag. 565.
fluence

174 Mr. Graham’s Account of M. Longchamp’s Theory

fluence can be attributed here to the decomposition and pu-
trefaction of animal substances in contact with the air.

But nitric acid forms in the open air, and in materials which
contain no vestige of animal or vegetable matter. An ex-
periment is related by one of the competitors for the French
prize *, in which a quantity of earth from the fields, washed
with great care, dried by exposure to the sun, and afterwards
kept moist by occasional watering for a year, afforded by lixi-
viation a saline solution, in one case of one degree of the areo-
meter, and in another of half a degree. ‘Thouvenel, too,
who has produced nitric acid by exposing chalk to the gases
evolved from the putrefaction of animal or vegetable substances,
mixed with common air, likewise obtained this acid when the
chalk was in contact with nothing but atmospheric airt. It
is true that in the experiment which he relates, the materials
exposed to the atmospheric air loaded with putrid gases,
yielded fifteen parts of nitrate of lime; while those which were
in contact with pure atmospheric air, afforded no more than
six parts of the salt. ‘Thouvenel concludes, ‘* It is demon-
strated by our experiments, that atmospheric air possesses all
that is necessary to serve for nitrification, as well as the air
which emanates from putrescent bodies, provided it finds mat-
ter capable of absorbing the materials t.”

M. Longchamp having thus shown how ill-founded the pro-
position is, that the materials proper for nitrifying never ni-
_ trify in the air, without the concurrence of animal matter, at-
tempts, in the next place, to prove that the nitric acid is formed
exclusively from the elements of the atmosphere.

It is admitted, he observes, that the animal matters do not
require to be in contact with the earths, but that their emana~-
tions are sufficient for the production of nitre. Could it be
through the instrumentality of azote, which animal matter
might disengage during putrefaction? But chemists know
that the products of this putrefaction are ammonia, carbonic
acid, carburetted hydrogen, and perhaps some carbonic oxide
and water, but no azote; and even if this gas were produced,
how would it combine with the carbonate of lime? ‘There
are instances of extraordinary combinations of gases in the
nascent state, but the azote is not presented in that state in
the case referred to, since the putrescent blood was at the di-
stance of two feet from the carbonate of lime, which it is pre-
tended that it nitrified §. Might

* Mémoires Etrangéres de 0 Academie des Sciences, xi. P. I. pag. 160.

t+ Ibid. P. IL. pag. 124. { Zbid. pag. 89.

§ The commissioners of the Academy, among whom was Lavoisier, took
a quantity

of Nitrification ; with an Extension of it. 175

Might it arise from some combination of azote, which these
emanations bore along with them? But it is known that in
the putrefaction of blood, urine, and similar matter, all the
azote goes to form ammonia: admitting, however, that a part
of the azote escapes the hydrogen, and enters into some com-
bination hitherto unobserved ; Why, it may be asked, does it
exhibit no nitrifying power without the cooperation of car-
bonate of lime? For if directed against caustic lime, magnesia,
alumina, &c., no nitric acid is formed, or at least a scarcely
sensible quantity, and only after a long lapse of time; while
if potash, caustic or carbonated be presented, not an atom
of nitre is formed*.

Might it be through a reaction of the putrid emanations
upon the atmosphere? But, besides that this reaction is dif-
ficult to conceive, and that otherwise it would be the azote
of the air which formed the nitric acid, and not that of the
animal matters, it may still be asked, Why is the carbonate
of lime the only body which solicits this reaction ?

Considering it as proved, that animal substances do not
nitrify by means of their emanations, M. Longchamp be-
lieves that insuperable difficulties attend the supposition, that
putrescent bodies, in contact with carbonate of lime, contri-
bute in any measure to the production of nitric acid. For
there is no chemical fact which entitles us to suppose, that
urine or blood would yield by their putrefaction, other pro-
ducts when they are mixed with calcareous earths, than when
they putrefy without the admixture. Provided, too, that the
animal matters remained in the solid state, their action upon
the solid calcareous matter would be very much circumscribed,
extending only to the particles in immediate contact with
their surfaces. Even supposing that the animal matter was
liquid, and would thereby become diffused more generally
through the mass, still its action would be limited to a great
degree, by the total insolubility of the carbonate of lime.
From a review of these circumstances, Mons. L. considers him-
self entitled to conclude, that animal matters, whether solid
or liquid, do not concur by their azote to the formation of the
nitric acid. He then proceeds to the development of his
own theory, or to show how atmospheric air, without the con-
currence of any vegetable or animal matter, may form nitric
acid.

a quantity of the carbonate of lime, which they carefully washed in boiling

water to extract all the salts; they placed the washed carbonate of lime in

baskets, which were hung at the distance of two feet from a quantity of

blood in a state of putrefaction. Mém. Etrang. de V Acad, xi. P. I. p. 126.
* Thouvenel, Zdid. P. I. pag. 119.

It

176 Mr. Graham’s Account of M. Longchamp’s Theory

It is universally admitted that nitric acid is not formed in
sheltered situations, unless a certain degree of humidity pre-
vails, and the air circulates through all the parts; for in places
where the air cannot be renewed, there is no formation of
acid. Thus, Lavoisier observed at Roche Guyon, that in the
caverns or pits which were very deep and had but one issue,
nitric acid did not appear in the deep parts, but only at the
entrance. The same observation was made by that celebrated
philosopher in the tufa quarries of Touraine. ‘The nitric acid
is formed only in places which contain porous rocks or light
soils, possessing carbonate of lime, moisture, and a constant
circulation of air.

Tufa, light earths and chalk, act chiefly as absorbents.
Chevraud met with compact chalks which did not nitrify.
Hence we never find marble, whether in the quarry exposed
to the atmosphere, or in our houses, to exhibit any tendency
to the formation of nitre; while tufa and chalk, which differ
from it only in porosity, nitrify with ease.

It is upon water that chalk and tufas exert their absorbing
power. But these substances in contact with water, produce
no nitric acid when atmospheric air is withheld. But the wa-
ter brings air with it, and the nitrifiable materials, possessed
of humidity, continue to absorb air by means of that humidity.

Chemists have long known that all kinds of water contain
air; but to MM. Gay-Lussac and Humboldt * we are in-
debted for a fact, which has more recently been confirmed
by the latter philosopher and M. Provencal}, that the air in
water contains more oxygen than atmospheric air does. The
mean of ten experiments made by Humboldt and Provencal
on air derived from water, gives the proportion of oxygen as
Ps The previous researches of Gay-Lussac and Hum-
boldt made us acquainted with a still more interesting fact,
that if aérated water be exposed to heat, and if we divide the
air procured into any number of equal portions, the first por-
tions contain less oxygen than the last, as is exhibited in the
following table :

Oxygen in 1000 parts of 1st portion of air 24:0
2 Sia tlemattae he WAOsO
Bai HAE HORA OW 296
Bh MRT L380
BAG Ie: oes, ofa: SAB

M. Longchamp’s application of this fact I shall give in his
own words, without abridgement,—the more so, as I consider
it not altogether correct. ‘* According to M. Berzelius, prot-

* Journ. de Phys. \x. 129. ¢ Mém. d’ Arcueil. ii, 359.
oxide

of Nitrification ; with an Extension of it. - 177

oxide of azote contains 36:07 parts oxygen; the last portion,
therefore, of the air obtained im the experiments of Gay-Lussac
and Humboldt, contained almost as much oxygen as the oxide
of azote possesses: and we perceive that water exercises such
an action upon the oxygen and azote, as tends to combine
these gases in a more intimate manner than they exist in the
atmosphere. But if any other force should unite with that
of the water, is it not reasonable to think that the molecular
action of the gases will acquire more energy, and that there
will result from these united forces a combination which will
be nitric acid; whether this acid is formed in following out
the whole chain of compounds known and unknown of oxy-
gen and azote, or is formed immediately by the first action of
these gases? Now, the body which in nitrification seconds
the action of the water, is the lime of the chalk. So then,
tufa, chalk and nitrifiable materials act in nitrification both as
absorbents of water and air, and as presenting a base which
solicits the formation of nitric acid; and water acts as an ab-
sorbent of oxygen and azote, and in commencing the combi-
nation of these gases.”

The greater portion of oxygen absorbed depends without
doubt simply upon the greater absorbability of that gas than of
azotic gas, and not as Mons. L. supposes, upon water exerting
** such an action upon the azote and oxygen as tends to unite
them in a more intimate manner than they exist in the atmo-
sphere.” We embrace, however, M. Longchamp’s funda-
mental proposition,—that it is from the action of the oxygen
and azote, held in solution by water, upon the carbonate of
lime, that the nitrate of lime results. All bodies, when in the
liquid state, possess their powers of combination most ener-
getically. Now I have formerly shown* that oxygen and
azotic gases, when absorbed by water, are really in the liquid
state; there is, therefore, some reason for that activity with
which our theorist has invested them.

Such is the theory of M. Longchamp; and it appears to me
to be, as far as it goes, a true explanation of the phenomena.
The process of nitrification is constantly going on in nature,
and in circumstances where no other agents appear to be em-
ployed, except carbonate of lime and the elements of the at-
mosphere. Hence, in circumstances in which animal matter
is superadded to these agents it is reasonable to think that the
latter does not contribute, in any essential way, to the nitrifi-
cation. Where nitrate of potash is the ultimate result, it ap-
pears to be established that nitrate of lime pre-existed, and:

* Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. xii. p. 69.
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 3. March 1827. 2A that

178 Mr. Graham’s Account of M. Longchamp’s Theory

that the nitrate of potash resulted from the decomposition of
the nitrate of lime by some salt of potash.

But it cannot be denied, that the nitrification of calcareous
substances is greatly promoted by the contact, or, more ge-
nerally, by the proximity of putrescent vegetable and animal
matter. The experiment of Thouvenel, to which M. Long-
champ refers above, abundantly proves this; and the constant
and universal practice in the formation of artificial nitre-beds
strongly confirms it. This fact appears, therefore, to weigh
heavily against the theory of M. Longchamp: it is, however,
in our opinion, susceptible of an explanation without any mu-
tilation of that theory; and to this extension of the hypothesis
we now proceed.

We are disposed to attribute the beneficial effect in nitri-
fication of the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter,
to the plentiful supply of an element which exists at all times
in the atmosphere in a perceptible proportion—carbonic acid
gas. The free carbonic acid renders a portion of the carbonate
of lime soluble in the water or moisture, which must be present ;
and thereby enables the carbonate of lime to act more effectually
upon the oxygen and azote, which the water has absorbed. The
oxygen, azote and carbonate of lime are all liquefied, and in
solution in the water; they are therefore in circumstances
most favourable to their mutual action.

Carbonate of lime is altogether insoluble in pure water,
while water saturated with carbonic acid dissolves 1-1500th
part. According to Dr. Thomson*: “when carbonate of lime
is rendered soluble in water by means of carbonic acid, a bi-
carbonate is formed, which seems only capable of existing in
solution.” That carbonic acid is one of the most considerable
products of the putrefaction of both animal and vegetable sub-
stances, is well known.

Water in ordinary circumstances absorbs rather more than
an equal volume of carbonic acid gas.

Now Thouvenel, without any view to this point, performed
and has registered a series of experiments, which render it
exceedingly probable, that of the products of putrefaction, it
is the carbonic acid alone which contributes to the nitrifica-
tion; inasmuch as when these products were deprived of their
carbonic acid, by being passed through caustic potash or lime-
water, before acting upon the chalk, their nitrifying power
was lost; while otherwise their nitrifying power was sufficiently
notable. I shall give Thouvenel’s experiments as reported
by Messrs. Aikin in their Chemical Dictionary, which is

* First Principles, ii, 296.
still

of Nitrification ; with an Extension of it. 179

still the best work we possess upon the chemical manufac-
tures.

‘‘ Having charged a retort with putrefying materials, Thou-
venel connected with it three receivers in the manner of Woulfe’s
bottles, the last of which terminated in a tube communicating
with a pneumatic apparatus. Four different sets of this ap-
paratus were employed at the same time. In the first of these
the two receivers nearest the retort were charged with four
ounces of chalk diffused in distilled water, while the third re-
ceiver contained a solution of caustic potash. In the second
set the two first receivers contained distilled water, and the
last was charged with washed chalk. In the third set the two
first receivers contained lime-water: and in the fourth set a
solution of caustic potash; the third receiver in both cases
holding the chalk. ‘They were all equally exposed to the same
temperature, namely, from 74° to 80° Fahr., for six months,
and the changes which their contents had undergone were then
examined.

‘“‘ The chalk in the first apparatus affurded 26 grains of
nitrate of lime mixed with a little nitrate of ammonia; the
potash in the third receiver had become saturated with car-
bonic acid, and had partly crystallized on the side of the re-
ceiver, but contained no nitre.

“In the second apparatus the water of the two first re-
ceivers had acquired a very putrid smell from the gas which
had passed through it, and contained a little ammonia, but
afforded no nitrous salt on evaporation: the chalk in the third
receiver afforded by lixiviation no more than 4 grains of ni-
trated lime.

“In the third apparatus the lime-water had deposited its
earth in the state of carbonate, and the supernatant fluid had
a strong odour resembling ammonia and putrid garlic: by
evaporation it yielded 5 or 6 grains of nitrated ammonia.
The chalk in the third receiver gave only a slight trace of
nitrate of lime.

“In the fourth apparatus the potash was crystallized, but
contained no nitre: with sulphuric acid it effervesced strongly,
giving out a very pungent and highly fetid gas: the chalk in
the third receiver gave no indications whatever of the presence of
any nitrous salt.

** The gas remaining in the receivers and collected in the
pneumatic apparatus, was in all the four experiments found to
be slightly inflammable, although when rising from the putre-
fying materials it extinguished a taper immersed in it. This
putrid inflammable gas was incapable by itself of nitrifying
chalk ; but when mixed with washed atmospheric air, carbonie

2A2 aid

180 Mr. Swainson on the Natural Affinities

acid soon made its appearance, and then the gas became ca
pable of impregnating chalk with nitrous acid as at first *.”

These experiments of Thouvenel, and particularly the last
observation, point out carbonic acid as the important agent in
nitrification, at least as distinctly as could be expected of ex-
periments of this nature.

It has all-along been observed in the management of artifi-.
cial nitre-beds, that although free exposure to the atmosphere
be indispensable to the progress of nitrification, yet a strong
current of air is exceedingly prejudicial. ‘The rapid circula-
tion of the atmosphere would be attended with the quick dis-
sipation of the carbonic acid gas, upon which we have sup-
posed the superiority of these nitre-beds to depend.

The atmosphere at all times and places abounds in carbonic
acid gas, as the exposure of lime-water would quickly indicate.
In those chalks and calcareous soils, in which the spontaneous
production of nitrous salts is observed, the activity of the car-
bonate of lime may, therefore, equally depend upon its dzsso-
lution, effected by the absorption of moisture and carbonic
acid from the atmosphere. It would still, however, be a cu-
rious subject of inquiry—whether these soils and chalks do
not, in some cases, contain within themselves the carbonic
acid necessary in conjunction with water to effect their partial
solution, and be thus enabled to act to a greater extent upon
the absorbed oxygen and azote—the elements of nitric acid ?

Should this theory of the instrumentality of carbonic acid,
in nitrification, be eventually substantiated, several improve-
ments, in the artificial production of nitre, might evidently be
deduced from it.

XXXVIII. AShketch of the Natural Affinities of the Lepidoptera

Diurna of Latreille. By Wit11am Swainson, Esg. F.R.S.
ELS. §¢.+ é

T° those who have traced the progress of human know-

ledge, or are themselves engaged in its pursuit, it must
appear evident that its extent would have been much greater
than it really is, were we not so frequently withheld from com-
municating that which we know, from a sense of the importance
of that which we do not know. Hence it is, that undertakings
long meditated upon, and even carried beyond the point to
which others have reached, are frequently laid aside on the
appearance of some unexpected difficulty or temporary em-

* Aikins’ Chemical Dictionary, vol.ii. 160. From MJdém. Etrang. de
? Acad. des Sciences, tom. xi, 503. + Communicated by the Author.

barrassment.

of the Lepidoptera Diurna of Latreille. 181

barrassment. This, it is true, in progress of time may fre-
quently be overcome; but no sooner do we begin to make a lit-
tle progress, than other doubts arise, which can only be solved
by information which we again wait for. Thus months and
years pass away, and that knowledge which, if properly used,
might have advanced others one step nearer to the Temple of
Truth, is suffered to lie useless and unemployed.

I have been led to these reflections, by having lately had
occasion to bring together all I can find hitherto written on
the Lepidoptera, and to revise what I had myself done on the
same subject, some years ago. In the winter of 1823 I at-
tentively studied these insects, with a view to discover their
natural affinities ; and I communicated the result to several of
my entomological friends in the following spring. I deferred
however the publication of these views, at the time, from a de-
sire of procuring further information upon several points, then
involved in obscurity. These have long since been cleared up ;
but other difficulties presented themselves ; and it is probable
that but for the necessity I am now under of introducing this
subject in a larger work, the essay of which the following is a
sketch would still have remained neglected.

Before entering upon this subject, it may be as well for me
to express my firm conviction that the Almighty Author of the
universe has created all things that have life upon one pian;
and ‘that this plan is founded on the principle of series of
affinities returning into themselves * ;” which can only be re-
presented by circles. This sublime discovery, sufficient of
itself to immortalize a name, was first made known to the world
by our illustrious countryman. It was soon after confirmed by
two other eminent philosophers +, unknown to each other, and
finally has been proved to demonstration. Yet the right ap-
plication of these principles to the race of beings now ewisting
upon our globe, is another consideration; on which there is,
and always must be, great diversity of opinion. The temple
has been shaken, and in part destroyed; and although a suf-
ficient portion remains to give us some faint idea of the ori-
ginal beauty and perfect harmony it once exhibited, the re-
storation of the fragments will long continue to engage the
speculations and inquiries of the beholder. One fact, however,
is certain, That where we find the series of any particular group
unbroken by sudden or abrupt transitions, it will always be
found to contain five others of an inferior description, two of
which will exhibit a perfection superior to the other three.
And it is no less certain, that this law of Nature is most con-

* MacLeay, Hore Entomolog. Part ii. p. 459.
+ MM. Fries and Decandolle. See Linn. Trans. vol. xiv. p. 62.
spicuous

182 Mr. Swainson on the Natural Affinities

spicuous in those groups where the series of affinities is so
perfect, and the change so gradual, as to set at defiance all
possibility of separating the minor divisions by absolute and
exclusive characters.

Now, upon looking to the Lepidoptera, it does not require
any prejudice in favour of the foregoing principles, to dis-
cover five prominent groups of nearly equal magnitude, which
may be represented by the genera Papilio, Sphinx, Bombyz,
Geometra, and Noctua of the Linnzan school. And further,
that while the two former are typical, the first represents the
greatest perfection, and the second contains not only types of
the other four divisions, but nearly so of all the subordinate
groups.

In selecting the Lepidoptera Diurna of M. Latreille as a
subject for the present sketch, I shall avoid entering into de-
tails of those reasons which have induced me to abandon the
different arrangements proposed by others. ‘Those of Linnzeus
and Fabricius were confessedly artificial; although the minor
groups of the latter deserve to have been better known, and
more generally adopted. ‘The first attempt that I can dis-
cover towards a natural method, is that published by Geof-
froy in 1764*, which in all probability furnished the basis of
the classification adopted by the celebrated Latreille. Both,
in fact, are founded upon characters drawn from the larva and
pupa, and the partial or full development of the anterior feet
in the pefect insect. ‘The former are so much diversified, as
to lead us to imagine that by attentively studying and judi-
ciously combining their forms, we may obtain some certain
clue to thread the labyrinth of affinities; or, at least, that we
shall make a nearer approach to the truth, than if we looked
only to the shape of the wings, or the nails of the tarsi. Yet
it must be confessed that difficulties are opposed to this line
of inquiry, which, in the present state of entomological know-
ledge, seem to me insurmountable. The larvee of many con-
siderable groups inhabiting distant regions are to this day ut-
terly unknown: and even among those contained in the valuable
works of Stoll and Abbot, there exists such a striking diver-
sity in the forms of larvee belonging to insects of the same na-
tural group, that no certain conclusions can, at present, be
made upon the subject. . .

The pupa state likewise presents many remarkable varia-
tions. Yet as, upon the whole, it is confined to much fewer
forms, and these forms are better understood, there seems no

* Was this borrowed from the illustrious DeGeer ? His invaluable ‘‘ 1/é-
moires,’ now of yery rare occurrence, I unfortunately do not possess:

reason

of the Lepidoptera Diurna of Latreille. 183

reason to doubt, that in our present difficulties, more accurate
results will be derived by an attention to this state of the in-
sect, than can be expected from a paramount regard to the
larva. Entomologists have long ago remarked the following
variations in the form and suspension of diurnal pupe.

1. Pupa suspended ,by the posterior extremity. 2. Pupa
attached by the posterior extremity, but braced or supported
in a horizontal or vertical direction by a transverse thread.
3. Pupa attached like the last, but foliculated, or inclosed
within a leaf. Among these, two forms are conspicuous :—
1. Pupe elongated and angular. 2. Pupz obtuse and smooth.

Geoffroy and Latreille have not failed to draw a marked
distinction between such of the diurnal Lepidoptera as have
the anterior feet perfect, that is, distinctly furnished with claws,
and those which have the same feet imperfect, or not furnished
with claws.

It is clear that in any attempt towards a natural arrange-
ment, all these variations must have their due weight, yet
without being used as circumscribing bounds. There is pre-
sumptive evidence to prove the truth of the assertion, “ that
the variation of metamorphosis (or of any particular set of
organs) is only an index of the series of affinity, and not a
principle by which groups have been strictly circumscribed*.”

On searching for that group which presents the most per-
fect development of organs, and at the same time is eminently
distinct from the other primary divisions of the Lepidoptera,
our attention is immediately fixed upon the genus Papilio of
modern authors. In these the larva is eruciform, the pupa
angulated and braced, and the perfect insect furnished in both
sexes with distinct nails on their anterior feet. These cha-
racters, strikingly exemplified in the typical groups (Papilio,
Pieris, L.) are softened down, and in part exchanged for others
in the aberrant examples. In the genus Colzas for instance,
the anterior feet are short, and the ungues small and weak: in
Thais the club of the antennz is elongated and arched like
that of many Hesperide ; and in Parnassus the pupa is smooth
and subfoliculated +. ‘To this last genus we shall subsequently
have to call the reader’s attention.

By the short and weak feet of Colias, we are conducted to a
large and very important division, comprising many forms de-
fined by Fabricius, but classed by Latreille as the genus Nym-
phalis. If strength of body, rapidity of flight, superiority of size,
or brilliancy of colouring, were sufficient to constitute the typical

* Hore Ent. part ii. p. 456.
+ Latreille, Gen. Inst. See also Esper. vol. i. tab. 2. f. 1.
perfections

184 Mr. Swainson on the Natural Affinities

perfections of the diurnal Lepidoptera, the superiority would
undoubtedly be conferred upon this group, did they not show
a decided inferiority to the last in their imperfect construction.
The anterior legs are destitute of claws, and are so short, as
to appear at first sight perfectly useless. The angular form
of the pupa is still fully preserved ; yet, instead of being braced,
it is suspended only by the posterior extremity. ‘The lower
wings of the perfect insect are dilated, so as to form a groove
for the defence and support of the short conic body. It is
obvious that this particular construction is admirably adapted
for giving to these insects that superiority of flight for which
they are remarkable. Yet in this power there are gradations:
it is most developed in the genus Paphia, F., but is diminished
in Morpho ; the former is conspicuous for strength, the latter
for size and beauty. ‘Tracing this gradation further, we find
in the genus Hipparchia a feeble and irregular flight, and
a considerable falling off, in other respects, from the typical
characters.

The following observation of the celebrated Latreille de-
serves particular attention, in this part of our inquiry. ‘ Papil.
Crameri: Philegia, Eugenia, Calliope, Euterpe, Diaphana,
Lenea, Nise, Melanida, etc.; Heliconiorum habitus; horum
lepidopterorum sedes naturalis incerta; an genus proprium ?”
No better authority can be brought forward to show that we
have now arrived on the confines of another and a very ex-
tensive group, typically represented by the genera Mechanitis
and Idea of Fabricius: these, with Euplea, and probably
Acrea of the same author, are marked by the same debility
in their anterior feet, and the same mode of suspension in their
pupa state, as the last: the pupa, however, is obtuse, and quite
smooth; while the perfect insect, from its delicate construction,
betrays a weakness of flight unexampled among the diurnal
Lepidoptera. This I have myself witnessed. ‘The feeble tex-
ture, and horizontally lengthened wings of Mechanitis seem,
during flight, scarcely sufficient to support its long and clavate
body. As we recede from these, the anterior feet in one or
two groups, not hitherto characterized, begin to assume a more
decided form, as if Nature was about to quit this type for an-
other. Unfortunately, the slight information we possess on
the metamorphosis of these insects, leaves me in much igno-
ance in this part of my inquiry; and I must content myself
with noticing the generally weak construction, and striking
similitude between several of the Heliconi and Erycine of
Latreille, as circumstances strongly in favour of a natural affi-
nity.
The next division comprises groups of the most rene

an

of the Lepidoptera Diurna of Latreille. 185

and apparently unconnected, forms; yet all agreeing, so far
as we yet know, in the following characters. Larva somewhat
onisciform. Pupa short, contracted, smooth, and braced. The
anterior legs, in some genera approaching to the insects we
have just quitted, are very short; in succeeding groups they
become progressively longer, and finally, in Polyommatus,
Latr. the six feet, in both sexes, are alike furnished with nails.
These nails are, indeed, scarcely perceptible in Thecla, but in
Lycena they become perfectly developed. ‘The forms and ha-
bits of this interesting group are no less varied. ‘They are
mostly of a small size; some are remarkable for their sombre,
others for their brilliant, colouring. Some are feeble, and when
at rest extend their wings horizontally ; others, of a more ro-
bust make, fly with swiftness, and repose with their wings
erect. Like the Acrita of MacLeay, this .group appears, on
a hasty glance, to want that symmetry of conformation so
observable in the preceding divisions. Yet this impression
soon vanishes, and we discover, in this apparently heteroge-
neous assemblage, that Nature has given symbolical representa-
tions of every form which she afterwards adopts to characterize
the leading divisions of the whole tribe. ‘The Papilionide,
Nymphalide, Heliconide, and Hesperide, are not only repre-
sented, but every minor group and nearly every principal genus,
will find its prototype among the Erycznida.

To lay any particular stress on the close affinity between the
aberrant groups of the Erycinide and the Hesperide is quite
unnecessary. By Fabricius they were at first united in the
same genus, and M. Latreille has placed one almost imme-
diately after the other. The only difficulty is, in ascertaining
to what family the Hesperide are united by affinity at the op-
posite extremity of their own circle. The characters exhibit-
ed by the perfect insects have been sufficiently detailed by
others, although the minor groups remain, for the most part,
undefined. The larva, in every instance we know of, is eru-
ciform ; but the pupa, unlike that of any other division, is foli-
culated, or hid within a leaf, to which it is additionally attach-
ed by a transverse thread or brace. Now on looking to all the
groups we have here noticed, we find no approximation to
this metamorphos, unless it be among the Papilionide. The
pupe of most Hesperida, it is true, are smooth; and so far
the affinity between them and the Erycinide is preserved ;
yet even here the form is elongated ; while there are not want-
ing instances of Hesperian pupz assuming something the an-

ulated form seen in Papilio. Ona due consideration, there-
fac of all these affinities, coupled with the fact of the pupa
of Parnassus having been described by all writers as folicu-

New Series. Vol. 1. No.3. March 1827. 2B lated,

186 Mr. Swainson on the Natural Affinities

lated, I can come to no other conclusion than that we have at
length returned, by a different route, to the point from which
we first commenced our inquiry. And that notwithstanding
the apparent dissimilarity between Papilio and Hesperia, they
are, in fact, closely united by certain characters, which, under
various modifications, preserve an unbroken thread through
the whole circle of the diurnal Lepidoptera.

Nevertheless it must be observed, that there is an apparent
hiatus between the points of these two groups, so far as regards
the forms of the perfect insect: or at least, that the transition
is not so gradual and progressive as that which can be traced
in the other divisions. But this, I apprehend, may originate
either from ignorance of the metamorphos of certain insects
already known, or of others which still remain undiscovered.
I venture to express this opinion, because, so far from disco-
vering any particular fallacy in the mode of investigation here
adopted, I find it has conducted me through difficulties,
which, but for this guide, appeared at first insurmountable.
I see, therefore, no reasonable cause to doubt it will fail, or
become no longer of value, in the present instance. The true
metamorphos of Urania Leilus*, when discovered, may pro-
bably confirm the views of M. Latreille; and by assigning to
this insect an intermediate station between the two groups,
render their connexion perfect. Of the metamorphos of Cast-
nia we are equally ignorant: but I am more inclined to con-
sider that on this point also, the views of that celebrated en-
tomologist will be found correct ; and that Castnia will form
an aberrant group among the Sphingides connecting them
with the Hesperide, by means of Hesp. Amycus of Cramer.

It will be easily seen, that in this faint attempt to thread the
labyrinth of Nature, many inferior groups have been passed over.
To have enumerated all which have been defined by Fabri-
cius and Latreille, and to have characterized many others now
before me, would have swelled this paper to a volume. These
I shall examine more in detail at a subsequent period. At
present, my chief aim has been to fix the reader’s attention to
the typical or more prominent forms, and to the affinities by
which they appear connected. If these are tolerably correct,
the minor divisions will easily arrange themselves on one side
or the other. It is the perfection of a natural group, that,
however extensive, it cannot be broken up, and arbitrary cha-
racters assigned to the different portions. On the contrary,
each will be dependent and interwoven with the next; and the

* I have so frequently had occasion to notice, when in South America,
the inaccuracy of M. Merian’s plates, that I am fearful of citing them as an
absolute authority.

whole

of the Lepidoptera Diurna of Latrevlle. 187

whole will present that order, beauty, and harmony, which
belongs alone to the works of Omnipotence.

Whether in this feeble effort to illustrate such truths I have
made some approach to a correct view of Nature, or whether,
deceived by the little knowledge we yet possess, I have used it
to construct an artificial system, and thereby given another
instance of the misapplication of the Quinary principles, is not
for me to judge. Mr. Macleay has justly said, “It is easy,
indeed, to imagine the prevalence of a number ; the difficulty
is to prove it. The naturalist, therefore, requires something
more than the statement of a number, before he allows either
a preconceived opinion, or any analogy not founded on organic
structure, to have an influence on his favourite science.”
(Linn. Trans. vol. xiv. p. 57.) To bring the foregoing ob-
servations to this test, I shall endeavour to exhibit, in the fol-
lowing synopsis, the leading characters of the groups at one
view.

LepipopTerA Diurna, Latr.
I Families.
Typical Group. § Pupasuspended. Anteriorlegs imperfect. 1. Nymphalidae.
Pupa angulated. ) Pupa braced and naked.... \ Anterior 2. Papilionide.
- 9 Pupa braced & foliculated. § legsperfect. 3. Hesperide, Leach.
Ab Esa fuer’ Pupa braced. Larva onisciform. Ante-
Pupa ie E rior legs semi-perfect. ..+.2se+eeeereeees 4. Polyommatide.
* { Pupasuspended. Anteriorlegsimperfect. 5. Heliconide.

By bringing the Heliconid@ back to the Nymphalidae, the five
groups (which I shall denominate families) will be united every
way, and form a circle. The result will be, that all the most
perfectly formed insects will be brought together ; at the same
time that their several distinctions, in other respects, are pre-
served. The power of flight (which is the distinguishing cha-
racter of the Lepidoptera) is seen to be developed, diminish-
ed, and again increased, in a very remarkable manner.— With
regard to analogical relations, the following are among the
most striking.

Hexapod or
Tetrapod. Body short, thick, conic, reposing in a groove sub-Hexapod.
. formed by the posterior wings. Club of the -
Ne: antenne, seldom compressed. Thorax very ce eh
thick. Flight strong, rapid.

Body lengthened, slender, clavate, free. Club
Heliconid a. of the antenne compressed, generally spa- ¢ Polyommatide.
tulate. Thorax small. Flight feeble, slow.

Many otber analogies may be noticed among the perfect in-
sects; and many, doubtless, from the larvee of such as are at

present known ;—but enough has been said on this point.
In conclusion, I should suggest that the secondary groups,
2B2 or

188 Mr. Phillips on the Crystalline Form

or sub-families, be distinguished by the termination ina or
ana, as Papilionina, Coliana, Paphiana, &c. ‘This rule, so
generally adopted in other departments of natural history by
modern writers, will at once explain the station occupied by
these groups, in relation to those throughout nature.

Tittenhanger Green, near St. Albans,
Feb. Ist, 1827.

XXXVIII. On the Crystalline Form of the Hyalosiderite.
By Wuu1aM Puituies, Esq. F.G.S. 5c.*

D—*: WALCHNER of Freiburg not long since described a
new mineral, under the name of Hyalosiderite, in Schweig-
ger’s Newes Journal; and a translation of his communication
has appeared in the 63rd vol. of the Philosophical Magazine,
and also in the first vol. of the Edinburgh Journal of Science.
Having lately obtained a specimen of that extremely cu-
rious mineral, affording several nearly perfect crystals, well
adapted for the use of the reflective goniometer, I was in-
duced to measure them by means of it, both because the in-
spection of them raised some doubts of the correctness of
Dr. Waichner’s determination in attributing to this substance
an octohedron as the primary form of its crystals, and also
because he has himself observed, that his own determinations
of the measurements he has given, “ cannot boast of very great
accuracy.” But it is somewhat singular that Dr. Walchner
should believe his determinations will nevertheless “ contribute
to adjust in some measure the determinations published in
Hausmaun’s Spec. Cryst. Metall. relative to the crystals of iron
slags formed in various metallurgical processes ;” “ for,” says
Dr. W., “ we find a corresponding similarity not only in the
forms in general, but also in the angles of inclination of the
planes :” and he then observes, that the angles given by Haus-
man ‘ could not but be very imperfect, on account of the small
size” of the crystals.

Dr. Walchner has not said by what means he obtained the
two measurements on which he has relied for the calculation
of all the others given by him: he says, “ the inclination of the
planes d and d! (a' onc or c’ of the following figure) may be
determined most exactly, although on account of the small-
ness of these crystals, even these measurements remain imper-
fect;” and immediately adds, ‘ the inclination on d on d! was
determined to be 141°, and the inclination on d! on a (c or ¢!

* Communicated by the Author,
on

of the Hyalosiderite. 189

on P of the annexed figure) amounted to rather more than
Spo?

Now I have constantly found by means of the reflective
goniometer, that the former of these angles is about 2 degrees
less, the latter about 2 degrees greater, than Dr. Walchner’s
determination. I forbear, nevertheless, from annexing re-
marks, which naturally arise from a consideration of the pre-
ceding extracts from Dr. Walchner’s communication; and
should have been content with simply noticing the differences
between his measurements and those afforded by the reflective
goniometer, which alone is adapted for crystals so minute as
those of the hyalosiderite (for no one of mine exceeds 1-20th
of an inch in any direction), if I could have persuaded myself
that some ill-founded prejudice against that admirable instru-
ment, does not exist on the European continent generally,
notwithstanding the many errors it has served to correct, the
nice differences it has detected, and the ease with which it
may be used. Rarely does a foreign mineralogist visit this
country, who is acquainted with it except in theory: and I
believe that in every foreign work on mineralogy, it is figured,
not with the moveable pin at right angles, but horizontally, in
continuation as it may be termed, with the axis, in which po-
sition it is almost useless. These observations are penned in
the hope that they may meet the eye of Dr. Walchner, and
serve to induce him to prove the superiority of the reflective
goniometer, and consequently the futility of the prejudice
against it, if in reality it exists.

We know, however, that every measurement, by whatso-
ever means it may be made, is, from the natural imperfection
of crystalline planes, rarely to be estimated but as an approxi-
mation; but it is also known from experience, that the reflec-
tive goniometer is most constant in its results, and the only
one adapted for the measurement of small crystals, which com-
monly are by much the most accurate ; for the results obtained
by measuring them, agree much better with each other, than
those obtained from large crystals.

There is at least one plane on the crystals of hyalosiderite
which has not been observed by Dr. Walchner; and which, as
it appears to me, is a very important one: itis the plane M
of the following figure : most of the crystals in my possession
show it, and on some of them it is comparatively large. Its
presence has induced me to assume the primary form to be a
right rhombic prism of about 105° and 75°. I say, about,
because, owing perhaps to the brittleness of these crystals in-
ternally, I have not been able to detect with certainty a cleav-
age in any direction, and because we can only rely upon i

vera

190 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

veral coinciding measurements taken upon planes produced
by cleavage, which when properly made are usually found to
agree,—whilst those taken upon the natural planes generally
differ a few minutes. In one instance I found 104° 55!, not
105°. Hence the accuracy of measurements taken as the
bases for calculation is very important.

Primary.

Measurements taken by Measurements of
the reflective goniometer. Dr. Walchner.

Mon M’.... 105° 00!
Pon MorM’. 90 00
GU wis cts Woe polseee. +0001 30° 18) 56"
THD! apt tates LL Mana Dieisetsetercee 119 29 47
COL he | ASO UGviceated 4). 454

Monal. 124 10
RIA 135 5
—_ c¢ PA tee onto
Cette sO PAO
GALAN. Glee eas ODN ween sscee 99 22 8

a2 ...,162. 22.......169 10 51
cord ..-120 56
a2ong 2 2). +. 130° Li.n.scetZl O26
CORE. st LOS. oO
CGH) bins tes OS. OU

The two measurements given by Haidinger in his transla-
tion of Mohs, vol. iii. p. 111, agree with those of Dr. Walch-
ner.

XL. The Bakerian Lecture. On the Relations of Electrical
and Chemical Changes. By Sir Humeury Davy, Bart.
Pres. B.S.

(Concluded from p. 104.]

VII. On the accumulation of electricity, and the chemical
changes it occasions in voltaic arrangements.

| foe the view of electro-motion adopted by the illustrious in-

ventor of the pile, the metals were considered as the only

agents

-

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 191

agents which, in proportion to their surface and their num-
ber, occasioned the constant circulation of a certain quantity
of electricity through the fluids, or the connecting wires in
the pile; and the chemical changes occurring in these fluids
were considered as mere results, and not necessarily con-
nected with the circulation. The inactivity of combinations
where no chemical changes occur, is sufficiently hostile to this
view; but an examination of some of the circumstances of the
construction of compound electrical combinations, will bring
this hypothesis, and that which I have ventured to adopt,
more distinctly into comparison.

Let a piece of zinc and a piece of platinum, both in glasses
filled with a solution of nitrate of potassa, be connected through
the multiplier, and let the glasses be joined by asbestus mois-
tened with the same fluid; the needle will mark electrical ac-
tion: let the two glasses now be joined by an arc composed
of zinc and platinum, in such a manner that the order is Vol-
taic, i.e. that the zinc is opposite to the platinum, in the ori-
ginal combination—the effect will be increased. Now let an
arc of pure zine be introduced; the effect will be less than
with the double arc, but superior to that with the asbestus,
and the pole of the zinc opposite the platinum will oxidate,
and that opposite the zine will give off hydrogen. Let arcs of
other metals be substituted for the zinc; for instance, of tin,
of iron, of copper, of silver, of tellurium: the electrical effects
will diminish with the oxidability of the metal; and with tel-
lurium, which does not oxidate at the positive pole of a vol-
taic battery, they will be destroyed; and the case is the same
with rhodium, palladium, and platinum. ‘That the effect does
not depend upon any circumstance connected with conducting
power is evident; for charcoal, which is a very imperfect con-
ductor, acts like an oxidable metal; and a very fine wire of
platinum, terminated by a small piece of oxidable metal, acts
more efficiently when the oxidable metal is opposite the nega-
tive pole, than if the whole chain had been composed of ox-
idable metal; but entirely destroys the effect when the oxida-
ble metal is opposite the positive pole.

If the contact of the metals only was necessary for conti-
nued electro-motion, these results, in which a simple homo-
geneous chain is interposed between the fluids, would be im-
possible ; but they are a necessary consequence of the electro-
chemical theory, in which the destruction of the positive sur-
face by the chemical negative agent is regarded as a necessary
condition ; and platinum and tellurium acted like zinc, when

their surfaces opposite to the platinum were plunged into di-
luted nitro-muriatic acid.

If

192 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

If two, three, or four glasses are used, and two, three, or
four arcs of platinum and zinc, the extreme metals of which
are connected through the multiplier, a piece of platinum
used instead of one of the arcs will not now entirely destroy
the electro-motive effect: it will be diminished as if one arc
had been removed. The two will act as a single combina-
tion; the three as two arcs, and the four as three; and of
course in a voltaic combination of 100 arcs, a single piece of
platinum substituted for any one of the arcs, will diminish the
power of the apparatus only 1-100dth part.

In attempting to protect copper by zinc, in a separate ves-
sel, from the action of sea-water, I found that when the two
vessels were connected by moist tow or vegetable substances,
or by a wire (even through fine) of any oxidable metal, the
protection was complete: but when even a thick wire of
platinum was employed, the copper, though in immediate con-
tact with the zinc, became corroded. After the experiment
had continued several days, the surface of the platinum op-
posite to the copper was found tarnished, as if it had been
slightly acted upon by the chlorine combined in the sea-water ;
but this effect had been too feeble to be connected with any
sensible degree of electrical polarity in the platinum.

This result, with those mentioned in the preceding pages,
seems to show that there can be no accumulation of electri-
city in voltaic combinations, unless the same or similar con-
ditions of chemical] change exist in the elements or single cir-
cles composing them; and that under other conditions, the
power generated in single circles is either destroyed or di-
minished according to the opposing nature, or want of con-
ducting power of the chain of intervening bodies. For instance,
in the arrangement (mentioned p. 191) of one piece of zinc
and one of platinum, the power is doubled by another series
of the same kind, destroyed by an arc of platinum, and di-
minished by an arc of zinc; by a second solution and a second
arc of zinc, it is diminished still more; by a third it is nearly,
and by a fourth absolutely, destroyed.

As the chemical changes always tend to restore the elec-
trical equilibrium destroyed by the contact of the metals with
each other in the fluids, it is evident that in cases in which
arcs primarily inactive are connected with those primarily
active, the chemical changes produced by the electrical attrac-
tions must tend to produce in the primarily inactive parts of
the combination, an arrangement which must give it a power
in direct opposition to that of the primarily active circles; so
that when separated, their actions, if any, must be directly the
reverse of the other. ‘This result, shia I anticipated, I have

actually

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 193

actually found to be correct; six arcs of platinum in vessels
filled with solution of nitre, were connected with a voltaic
battery of 50 pairs of plates: of course each are gave off
oxygen, and collected acid round the pole in the place of the
zinc, and afforded hydrogen and collected alkali round the
pole in the place of the noble metal: on separating the six
arcs from the battery, they were found to possess independent
action, the poles which were negative being positive, and those
positive being negative: in short, the combination acted as if
an original one, consisting of acid, alkali, and platinum.

With arcs of zinc, the results were of the same kind, but
the electrical effects were much more distinct: as the tarnished
zine in this case added its own negative power to that pro-
duced by the contact with the acid.

In trying similar experiments with six arcs of tin, silver,
copper, and other metals, and using different saline solutions,
it was found that the reversed electrical effects were most
powerful with the most oxidable metals, and the most con-
centrated and most decomposable solutions; and the weakest
arrangement of this kind was with arcs of platinum and pure
water; yet even in this instance the water had become slightly
alkaline at one pole, and acid at the other.

These experiments, showing the nature of the chemical
changes in combinations made active by their connexion with
voltaic batteries, and the influence of the newly developed
chemical agents, fully explain the pheenomena of the secondary
piles of M. Ritter; and combined with the fact, that the me-
tals are not perfect conductors for electricities of very low in-
tensity, they offer a simple and adequate solution of the cir-
cumstances observed by M. De La Rive on the interposition
of different metallic plates in the fluids connecting together
voltaic combinations *.

From the nature of the chemical changes taking place in
each single circle of a common voltaic battery, it is evident,
that if any small part of a battery for some time in action, is
separated from the whole, and made to act as a distinct com-
bination, its powers must be feebler than if it had been ori-
ginally an independent series; for the electrical action occa-
sioned by the chemical agents developed in it, are such as to
counteract the effects produced by the contact of the metals.
Whereas, if a small voltaic series is connected with a much
larger one, in reverse order, its oxidable in the place of the
noble metals, though the whole power of the combination is
much weakened by it when in union; yet, when separated,

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xxviii, p. 190.
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 3. March 1827. 2C it

194 Sir H. Davy on the Relations

it must act with much greater power, as the chemical changes
produced are exactly of the kind which must enhance the
primary power of the metals. ‘This deduction (a necessary
consequence of the electro-chemical theory) I have proved by
direct experiment. A series of 6 arcs, composed of zine and
copper and solution of nitre, was connected in the proper
order with a voltaic arrangement of 50 pairs, and suffered to
remain in connexion for 10 minutes; they were then sepa-
rated, and made to act as a single battery: their powers were
extremely feeble, not certainly one-third as great as those of
a combination of the same kind which had been in action (but
unconnected) for the same time. Six arcs of copper and zine
were now connected with the same battery of 50, in a reverse
or unconformable manner, so that the six plates of zinc gave
off hydrogen and attracted alkali, and the plates of copper
oxidated and attracted acid. Being separated after a few
minutes, and made to act alone, they exhibited powers which
appeared three or four times greater than if they had never
been in connexion; the zinc resumed a much higher positive,
and the copper a higher negative state, than if they had not
before been in the antagonist or unconformable conditions.

All these facts bear upon the same point, and confirm the
view which I took of the nature of voltaic combinations in the
Bakerian Lecture for 1806; in all of which, whether the de-
struction of the electrical equilibrium is produced by the con-
tact of metals or fluids, it is always restored by chemical
changes, and in which the circulation, if it may be so called,
depends upon a union of these causes, the direction of the
currents being always opposite in the metallic and fluid parts
of the combination, so as to produce what may be regarded as
an electrical circle.

VIII. General observations and practical applications.

To explain the manner in which different chemical agents
in combination, and in a perfectly neutral state, instantly start
into an active existence, when exposed to the two electrical
poles, it is necessary to assume principles, and take views of
corpuscular action of a perfectly novel kind; and as the chief
agents are invisible, and probably imponderable, no direct
demonstrative evidence can be brought forward on the sub-
ject; and different hypotheses may in consequence be applied
to it. In assuming the idea of two ethereal, subtile, elastic
fluids, attractive of the particles of each other, and repulsive
as to their own particles, capable of combining in different
proportions with bodies, and according to their proportions
giving them their specific qualities and rendering them eA

valent

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 195

valent masses, it would be natural to refer the action of the
poles to the repulsions of the substances combined with ex-
cess of one fluid, and the attractions of these united to the
excess of the other fluid; and a history of the phenomena,
not unsatisfactory to the reason, might in this way be made
out; but as it is possible likewise to take an entirely different
view of the subject, on the idea of the dependence of the re-
sults upon the primary attractive powers of the parts of the
combination on a single subtile fluid, I shall not enter into
any discussion upon this obscure part of theory, but I shall
endeavour to clear the way for elucidations of it by stating
some experimental results.

Some solution of nitrate of potassa was introduced into a
glass basin of six inches in diameter, and large slips of paper,
tinged with litmus and turmeric, were placed below the fluid,
and connected with two pieces of foil of platinum; sc that
the indications of the formation of acid and alkali, in any part
of the basin, by electricity, would be instant and distinct.
The two pieces of foil were now connected with the poles of
a voltaic battery: it was found that the alkali was developed
only at the point or immediate surface of the negative plati-
num, and the acid in the same manner at the surface of the
positive platinum; and they then gradually diffused them-
selves through the fluid in a circle round the conductors, and
there was no appearance of any repulsions or attractions of
the menstrua in the line of the circuit.

In various repetitions of this experiment the same result was
obtained; the alkaline and acid matters were influenced in
their direction only by currents produced. by the disengaged
oxygen or hydrogen, or the inclination of the vessel; in short,
by mechanical causes only; and the same effects were pro~
duced on the test papers, as if a spherical piece of acid and
an amalgam of potassium had been introduced in the places
of the two poles.

Mr. Herschel has shown, by some elaborate and ingenious
experiments in the last Bakerian Lecture, that an amalgam
of potassium, containing so minute a portion as some hundred
thousand parts of its weight is strongly attracted so as to oc-
casion violent mechanical motion, by the negative pole in a
voltaic arrangement: and if it be supposed that the fluid is
divided into two zones, directly opposite in their powers to
the poles of the battery, the virtual change may be regarded
as taking place in the two extremities of these zones nearest
the neutral point; so that by a series of decompositions and
recompositions, the alkaline matters and hydrogen separate at
one side, and oxygen, pure or in union, at the other.

2C2 In

196 Sir H. Dawy on the Relations

In this way, the two electricities may be regarded as the
transporters of the ponderable matters, which assume their
own peculiar characters at the moment they arrive at the point
of rest. I shall detail an experiment which I made under a dif-
ferent form some years ago, and which may assist the imagina-
tion in the conception of this singular and mysterious mode
of action. A flat glass basin, 10 inches in diameter, was filled
with water containing 1-2000ndth part of its weight of sul-
phate of potassa, in the bottom of which 40 or 40 separate
globules of mercury, containing from 10 to 100 grains each,
were placed without any regard to order; two wires of pla-
tinum from a battery of 1000 double plates, weakly charged,
were made to connect the extremities of the water (passing to
the bottom of the basin), As soon as the electrical commu-
nication was made, the globules of mercury in or near the
current became instantly agitated; their negative poles be-
came elongated, and approached either the positive pole of
the battery, or the positive pole of the contiguous globules of
mercury, and streams of oxide fowed with great rapidity from
the positive toward the negative pole. No hydrogen appeared
at the negative poles of the globules of mercury ; but after the
action had continued a few minutes, and was then suspended,
there was an appearance of some minute globules, owing, as
was proved by tests, to the formation and oxidation of potas-
sium which had combined with the mercury, and which, as
is evident from Mr. Herschel’s researches, had given to that
part of the globule in which it had combined its high electro-
positive qualities. When the connexion was again made, the
same series of constant and violent motions took place; the
elongated and negative extremities of every globule moving
towards the positive surfaces, and undergoing continual oscil-
lations; but on pouring a small quantity of muriatic acid into
the water, so as to make it slightly acid, these phenomena
ceased ; the masses of mercury resumed their spherical form,
hydrogen was given off from the negative surfaces, and all
motion and agitation were at an end. The energy of the acid in
this case being negative, may be considered as neutralizing the
power of the potassium by its immediate contact,, and as de-
stroying all the pheenomena of attraction by the positive pole.

In the numerous experiments that I made in 1806, on the
transfer of acids to the positive pole and of alkalies to the
negative pole, there were similar instances in which masses of
acid or alkaline matters, by exerting their own peculiar ener-
gies, prevented the accumulation of the antagonist elements
at their points of rest, so as to destroy, or materially weaken,
their power of motion or transport. For instance, in attempt-

ing

of Electrical and Chemical Changes. 197

ing to transfer baryta from the positive to the negative pole,
the negative pole being plunged in sulphuric acid, or sulphuric
acid to the positive pole, the negative being plunged in a so-
lution of baryta, the re-agents were neutralized, and formed
insoluble precipitates at the point of union of the menstrua;
and no baryta reached the negative, and no sulphuric acid the
positive pole.

With muriatic acid and salts of silver the case was the same.
And when acids and alkalies, forming soluble compounds,
were used in similar experiments, a great length of time was
required, proportional in some measure to their masses, be-
fore a particle of acid reached the positive, or of alkali the
negative pole; and the result was not destroyed till after the
intermediate combination had taken place to a considerable
extent; proving the phenomena of continued decompositions
and recompositions, and showing that the electrical and che-
mical phenomena are of the same order, and produced by the
same cause.

In the Bakerian Lecture for 1806, I proposed the electrical
powers, or the forces required to disunite the elements of
bodies, as a test or measure of the intensity of chemical union.
By the use of the multiplier it would be now easy to apply
this test; and accurate researches on the connexion of what
may be called the electro-dynamic relations of bodies to their
combining masses or proportional numbers, will be the first
step towards fixing chemistry on the permanent foundation of
the mathematical sciences.

I could enter into some other genera] views of the pure
scientific relations of this subject, and its connexion. with
thermo-electricity and the phenomena of cohesion ; but having
already taken up so much of the time of the Society, I shall
defer what I have to say on these subjects to another occasion,
and I shall conclude with a few practical observations.

A great variety of experiments made in different parts of
the world has proved the full efficacy of the electro-chemical
means of preserving metals, particularly the copper sheathing
of ships; but a hope I had once indulged, that the peculiar
electrical state would prevent the adhesion of weeds or insects
has not been realized; protected ships have often indeed re-
turned after long voyages perfectly bright*, and cleaner than
unprotected ships, yet this is not always the case; and though
the whole of the copper may be preserved from chemical solu-
tion in steam vessels by these means, yet they must be adopted
in common ships only, so as to preserve a portion,—so ap-

* The Carnebrea Castle.

plied

198 Sir H. Davy on Electrical and Chemical Changes.

plied as to suffer a certain solution of the copper*; and an
absolute remedy for adhesions, is to be sought for by other
more refined means of protection, and which appear to be in
dicated by these researches.

The nails used in ships are an alloy of copper and tin, which
I find is slightly negative with respect to copper, and it is on
these nails that the first adhesions uniformly take place: a
slightly positive and slightly decomposable alloy would pro-
bably prevent this effect, and I have made some experiments
favourable to the idea.

In general, all changes in metals which would indicate the
power of chemical attraction, are easily determined by elec-
trical means. Thus I found copper hardened by hammering
negative to rolled copper; copper (to use the technical language
of manufacturers) both overpoled and underpoled, containing
in one case probably a little charcoal and in the other a little
oxide, negative to pure copper. A specimen of brittle copper,
put into my hands by Mr. Vivian, but in which no impurity
could be detected, was negative with respect to soft copper.

In general, very minute quantities of the oxidable metals
render the alloy positive, unless it becomes harder, in which
case it is generally negative. As I have mentioned before,
amalgams of the oxidable metals are usually positive, not only
to mercury, but even to the pure metals.

There are probably few chemical operations which electrical
changes do not influence, and either increase or modify. In
the rusting of iron, for instance, the oxide formed by the con-
tact of moisture becomes the negative surface, and exalts the
oxidability of the mass of metallic iron, and the rust conse-
quently extends in a circle.

The precipitations of metals have been already traced to
causes of this kind, and many metallic solutions must belong
to the same order of phanomena.

I have pointed out in former papers some of the cases of
electro-chemical protection, which I have no doubt, when the
principles are well understood, will be generally adopted ; and
others are constantly occurring. I shall mention one,—the
preservation of the iron boilers of steam engines by introdu-

A common cause of adhesions of weeds or shell fish, is the oxide of
iron formed and deposited round the protectors. In the only experiment
in which zinc has been employed for this purpose in actual service, the
ship returned after two voyages to the West Indies, and one to Quebec,
perfectly clean. ;

The experiment was made by Mr. Lawrence, of Lombard-street, who in
his letter to me states that the rudder, which was not protected, had cor-

roded in the usual manner.
cing

Dr. Spurgin on the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 199

cing a piece of zinc or tin. ‘This in the case of steam boats,
particularly when salt water is used, may be of the greatest
advantage, and prevent the danger of explosion, which gene-
rally arises from the wear of one part of the boiler.

Another application of importance which may be made, is
ihe prevention of the wear of the paddles or wheels, which
are rapidly dissolved by salt water.

But I will conclude. Whenever a principle or discovery
involves or unfolds a law of nature, its applications are almost
inexhaustible; and however abstracted it may appear, it is
sooner or later employed for common purposes of the arts and
the common uses of life.

XLI. Outlines of a Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature and
_ Properties of the Blood ; being the Substance of three Lectures
on that Subject delivered at the Gresham Institution during
Michaelmas Term 1826. By Joun Spurciy, M.D. Fellow
of the Royal College of Physicians of London, and of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society”.

"ee plan pursued in these Lectures, in regard to the mode
and style of their composition, being intended rather for
the general class of intelligent hearers, than for the medical
profession exclusively, it may readily be conceived that a
departure from what might be termed the usual method of
treating a physiological subject like that of the blood, was
almost unavoidable, at the same time that it might be deemed
in some degree justifiable. The philosophical and abstract
reasoning upon the nature and properties of this fluid, di-
rected and limited as it is, by the facts, the observations, and
the experiments which are adduced concerning it, will not, it
is hoped, be thought unworthy of attention, or destitute of
interest and utility.

To confine the Lectures to a bare enumeration of facts, to
the exclusion of all reasoning, was not so much the object in
their composition, as to draw conclusions from them, that
might lead to further inquiry on the same subject; at the same
time that they interested the hearers; and as the Lectures
were not drawn up with any view to publication in their
present shape, they may perhaps be entitled to indulgence
for the novelty of the method adopted, in the investigation of
this important part of the Animal Economy.

To enter upon a course of investigation into the economy
of the animal kingdom, or in other words, to bring the

* Communicated by the Author.
human

200 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical

human faculties into exercise with the view to discover the
uses and ends of all the parts which compose this kingdom ;
more qualifications are required than might at first sight be
imagined: for not only is it necessary to possess a thorough
knowledge of the anatomy of the body, but likewise to be con-
versant with several other highly important branches of sci-
ence, both mathematical and physical, and to be initiated
moreover into that sort of abstract or philosophical reasoning,
which enables us to discern the difference between a cause
and its effect; or to perceive the relationship that subsists be-
tween a substance, and the forces and powers which it may
be the medium of manifesting,

The investigation then of the animal economy requiring so
many aids, we must not be surprised at the slow progress of
our knowledge concerning it, nor ridicule the various strange
hypotheses and fancies of our ancestors; still less ought we to
contend with any ene of our own day for or against an opi-
nion, as if it were an empire; because if we are guided by ex-
perience, and the clear deductions of reason, the truth will in
all probability be eventually attained, to the dispersion of error.
But as I am precluded from entering upon such an investiga-
tion, or upon a consideration of the animal economy, to any
great extent, and can only take up the subject in a very ge-
neral and cursory manner, I have ventured to draw your at-
tention to the most important part of this economy, viz., the
blood: because the animal system regards the blood as its
common fountain and source; and in a philosophical point of
view, it may be said to be a general principle pervading and
entering into every part and portion of the bedy.

I should be extremely unwilling to offer any thing to your
consideration, which might not prove either interesting or use-
ful to you in some degree ; but if the rule which insists on
an enumeration of facts, tothe exclusion of all reasoning, and
which is too generally acted upon, be taken as the measure
of this interest or utility; the prefatory remarks with which
I have set out, and which have been drawn up in opposition
to the rule just alluded-to, will, I fear, prove insipid to some,
and useless to others: but as in the pursuit of my plan there
is an abundance of facts to bring forward, and as some indul-
gence is claimed in an Introductory Lecture, I trust you will
find the general rule complied with in the sequel, whilst I
avail myself of your indulgence at the outset.

If therefore we in the first place take an abstract or more
philosophical view of this most extraordinary fluid, the blood ;
we may discern in it, as in a type, all the individual parts of
the animal economy ; seeing that neither the solids nor the re-
maining fluids of the body are derived to it, from any other

source

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 201

source than from the blood; we may also be enabled to see
in what manner, and under what sense, it may be regarded as
the iife of the body; inasmuch as our experience proves to
us, that the state and condition of animal life depends upon
the nature, constitution, determination, continuity and quantity
of the blood; and that under the same view, its vessels, or the
arteries and veins, are neither more nor less than its determi-
nations, composing in fact for the most part the entire body.
Moreover, when the proofs to be derived from the best che-
mical authorities are adduced, of the variety of elements, whe-
ther ultimate or proximate, that enter into the composition of
the blood, it will be seen that this fluid is in fact a complex of
many things existing in the world, and as it were, a semi-
nary and storehouse of whatsoever exists in the body; for it
contains, as will be shown in the next lecture, salts of various
kinds, both fixed and volatile, and the gaseous elements,—as
oxygen, hydrogen, and azote; in short, numerous products
from the three kingdoms of nature,—the animal, vegetable, and
mineral; and imbibes also those things which the atmosphere
conveys in its bosom or holds in solution; for by means of
the lungs or respiratory apparatus, it exposes itself to the air,
to be enriched with its treasures.

Now as the blood contains in itself, in this compendious man-
ner, so many of the productions of the whole world, and of
its several kingdoms; may it not be allowable to infer that
these were all created for this end,—namely, to administer to
its composition and continual renewal? For it may be ra-
tionally argued, that if all things were created for the sake of
man, and to afford him the means of subsistence and thence of
life; then all things were created for the sake of the blood,
which is the parent and nourisher of every part of the body:
Sor nothing exists in the body which did not first exist in the
blood.

So true is this, that if the texture of any muscle or gland,
of which the viscera are for the most part compounded, be
divided into its minutest parts, it will be found to consist
chiefly of vessels containing blood, and of fibres or nerves
containing, or conducting, without doubt, a corresponding
and more eminent fluid or blood. And even those parts which
do not appear to consist of such vessels,—as the bony, cartila-~
ginous and tendinous structures,—will nevertheless be found in.
their soft and infant state, or during infancy, to be similarly com-
posed, as experience can prove. The blood then is not only
a treasury and storehouse enriched with all the various pro-
ductions of nature, and thence enabled to bestow on the body,,
as its offspring, whatever it requires for necessity and use;

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 3. Mar. 1827. 2 D but.

202 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical

but is also, as it were, its all in all; and in it are contained the
means which enable man to live in a corporeal form in this
outward world, in the manner we behold.

But in order to our completing the circle of investig
upon the blood, and thence obtaining a true knowledge and
correct doctrine respecting it: a knowledge of those things
which enter into its composition and constitution is indispen-
sable, as also an examination of all the viscera, members, or-
gans and tunics, which are vivified by its passage through
them; for whilst the nature of these is unknown, and their
modes of existence and action, the nature of the blood re-
mains unknown also. It is impossible for us to enjoy any clear
ideas upon any subject, if certain parts of that subject remain
unknown or obscure to us: a full and complete idea of any
subject, can only be attained from a knowledge of every par-
ticular which the subject involves; and consequently, our
knowledge of the nature of the blood can only keep pace with
that of the things which enter into its composition, and of
those in which it is contained, as the blood-vessels and organs
composing the body.

From these remarks it may sufficiently appear how many
sciences are included in that of the blood:—anatomy, medicine,
chemistry, and natural philosophy, with their respective
sub-divisions are evidently so; and not only these, but even
psychology is requisite, for the mind or mental powers suffer
according to the state of the blood; and the blood, again, is
under the influence of the passions of the mind:—in a word,
every science that treats of the substances of the world and
the powers of nature ought to be consulted. Such considera-
tions as these enable us, moreover, to discern the ground and
reason of man’s not being called into existence till all the king-
doms of nature were finished. ‘The world and nature seem
to have concentrated themselves in him; that in him, as in a
microcosm, the whole universe from first to last might be con-
templated.

It is expedient on all occasions to keep close to experience,
and also to follow the order of nature; according to which, a
distinct idea is always preceded by an obscure one, and a par-
ticular idea by a general one: for we never perceive any thing
distinctly, unless we deduce it from, or refer it to, some com-
mon source, and universal principle. Vor such is the condi-
tion of our mind and senses in their advancement to perfec-
tion and subsequent actions. We are born densely ignorant
and insensible ; it is only by degrees that the organs are open-
ed, as it were: the images and notions which we first conceive
are extremely obscure, insomuch that, so to speak, the whole

universe

gation

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 203

universe is presented to the eyes as a single indistinct thing,
a shapeless chaos: yet all things in process of time become
more distinct, and at length make their way to the rational
faculty of the mind ;—thus are we a long time in becoming ra-
tional.

Whether we have discovered the truth or not, respecting
any subject, is easily ascertained ; for all experience will then
spontaneously bear testimony in its favour, so likewise will
every rule of true philosophy : for when truth is at hand, no-
thing whatever refuses it its suffrage; hence it immediately
manifests itself, and commands belief, or, as is commonly ex-
pressed, presents itself naked.

Nothing can introduce us to the causes of things, or to
truth, but experience alone: for when the mind or contem-
plative faculty is left to expatiate without restraint, or without
experience for its guide, how easily does it fall into error, and
go stumbling on from one absurdity to another; and if it then
looks to experience for confirmation and patronage, the at-
tempt will be wholly useless and vain. To consult experience
after assuming our principles is an erroneous mode of pro-
ceeding: we should on the contrary consult experience first, |
and deduce our principles from it; when we are led away by
reasoning alone, we are not unlike those who, with their eyes
blindfolded, as is sometimes practised in childish sport, be-
lieve themselves to be walking in a straight direction, but who
on the removal of the bandage find that they have wandered
greatly from the path, and that if they had continued their
blind progress they would have arrived by a circular course,
at a place the very opposite to that of their destination.

But it may be inquired whether we have at the present day
a sufficient store of experience or of facts to enable us to dis-
cover Nature’s secrets so successfully as the above considera-
tions would Jead us to expect, without its being necessary to
suffer our minds to wander into the wild field of conjecture
unrestrained by experience. It cannot be denied that our ex-
perience or our knowledge of any one individual thing, let it
even be enriched and increased by the accumulated experience
of ages, can never suffice to complete the investigation of the
subject to which it relates, to its very and inmost causes. But
if all that is known, or all our general experience in anatomy,
medicine, chemistry, physics, and the other natural sciences,
he called to our aid in the exploration and investigation of any
i dividual thing,—as in this instance in the investigation of the
blood, we may affirm that we are at this day sufficiently pro-
vided for the purpose.

When we confine our experimental research to a single ob-

2D2 eject,

204 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical

ject, as to the blood, or to a muscle, or a gland; this research
can never be so complete as to exhaust and to display all the
hidden qualities of that object. Let us take the blood for an
example: The experiments which have been made upon it only
inform us that its colour is of different degrees of redness ; that
it is heavier than water; that it sinks to the bottom of the serum;
that it is of a gentle and almost uniform warmth in the body ;
and that it contains salts both fixed and volatile, of several
kinds, besides other things, such as albumen, and fibrin,
which are termed animal matter; and variable proportions of
water. But these experiments alone do not inform us whence
its redness, its gravity, and its heat, derive their origin; nor
in what way the products to be obtained from it by distillation,
or by means of chemical analysis, are preserved therein in
that peculiar combination and form that renders the blood
such an homogeneous and simple fluid as it appears to be in its
natural and fluid state. These latter points must be regarded
as so many accidents and essentials, the knowledge of which
is only to be sought for and obtained in common or more
general experience, or in our experience as taken in its whole
compass and course. For we do not hesitate to assert, nor
are we afraid to maintain, that whenever a subject is defined
and determined by occult qualities, it remains as obscure and
unintelligible as if no definition or description had ever been
given; in like manner as we stop at the very threshold of
the science of angiology, or of the circulation of the blood,
if we do not learn the whole anatomy of the body and of all
its viscera; that is, unless we closely pursue the blood into
all the recesses into which it flows.

The case is similar in all other instances, whether in ana-
tomy, or physics. Thus, if we would investigate the causes of
the action of a muscle or moving fibre, our labour will be in
vain, unless, in addition to our more confined experience or
knowledge of the muscle or fibre itself, as to its particular
form or situation, we are at the same time acquainted with
many of the particulars relating to the rest in the body, and
likewise with those relating to the blood, its arteries, and
heart, to the nerves, ganglia of nerves, medulla oblongata and
medulla spinalis, to the cerebellum, the cerebrum, and to many
of the members, organs, and tunics endowed with the faculty
of muscular motion: and not only so, but we ought also to
know the chief particulars relating to those parts of physics
and mechanics, which treat of forces, elasticity, motion, and
several other subjects.

Thus it may be seen, how, from a knowledge or experience
of the particulars involved in any one subject, our notions and

ideas

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 205

ideas of that subject are but very obscure and indistinct ; but
how that in process of time and by diligent study, these ideas
may be rendered more distinct and clear, by means of the ge-
neral experience we may have at length acquired: for as we

observed above, it takes a long time for man to become ra-
tional; or in other words, for the rational faculty of man to
become stored with those truths which are indispensable to his
becoming a truly rational or intelligent being.

We cannot help bringing to your notice the connexion, com-
munion, and mutual respect existing between all things of the
world and nature ;—for does not one science meet and. enlarge
our apprehension of another, and every new acquisition afford
an explanation to what preceded? By many and various facts
judiciously associated and mutually compared, our ideas are
illustrated and our reason illuminated ; for it is only by de-
grees that the mind disperses the shadows and clouds of
ignorance and prejudice, and emerges thence into light.
Still, however, there is a danger of our relying upon our
thorough knowledge or experience of some single subject, as
a means of our extending our reasoning to other things with
which it may have only a remote connexion. Examples of this
are too abundant in our own day: for how many are there
who are well skilled in one particular science, and who would
investigate or measure every other, by italone. Thus the che-
mist may look for nothing but chemical affinities and decom-
positions in the three kingdoms of nature; the mathematician
for nothing but gravitating tendency, polarity, centripetal and
centrifugal forces ; the anatomist, for nothing but structure and
form; the painter, for nothing but colour, light and shade; the
musician, for nothing but harmony and sound ; and the physi-
cian, for nothing but irritability, and numerous other techni-
calities. Drawing general conclusions from such confined
sources, how dexterously does such limited experience favour
the mind in all its reveries, and how obstinately does it withstand
the objections advanced by the truly rational antagonist? The
reason of this is, because no fact can exist which may not be
placed in some part or other of different series of ratiocina-
tions; just as one syllable, word, or phrase, may enter into and
form a part of innumerable sentences and discourses; one
idea of innumerable series of thoughts, and one colour of in-
numerable pictures. One thing may always be inserted on
another, as branches are by the gardener ; and thus a Salse
inference may be grafted on'a certain Jact, as a wild fruit-tree
on the legitimate growth of the orchard.

To avoid, therefore, being made the dupes of appearances,
we should never yield our assent to any theory, without its
having the concurrence of common or general experience; or

unless

206 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical .

unless all the facts which can be brought to bear upon it
unite their suffrages in its favour; that is, unless the final
conclusions are connected with and confirmed by the mediate
links, throughout their whole progression. ‘Tome it appears
that there is no other possible way for an edifice to be con-
structed, or for a system of philosophy to be formed, which
posterity shall acknowledge, on the: superadded testimony of
thousands of new experimental discoveries, to rest on a solid
foundation, and it shall no longer be necessary for every age
to be perpetually erecting new structures on the ruins of the
former.

If atime shall ever arrive when the human mind will be en-
abled to deduce an entire series of conclusions from the facts
and general experience with which it can be furnished, so as
to build up a more harmonious and consistent philosophy
than we at present enjoy; the facts themselves and our ge-«
neral experience must be of that definite and indisputable kind
that will impress on our minds a conviction of their immuta-
bility. To such a state of things are we undoubtedly ad-
vancing; but it is impossible to say how remote we are from
this state at present. Every science requires of its cultivators a
rejection of hypothesis and an attainment of certainty, to such
a degree almost as to admit of calculation: in no instance is
this more apparent than in chemistry. Consequently we may
with justice aver, that we are advancing to a period when the
human mind will be enabled to philosophize more consistently
and harmoniously than heretofore; more especially as we have
good reasons for supposing that the human mind, regarded in
itself and as to the complex of its astonishing faculties, is as
perfect in one age as in another; is as capable of instruction
at the infancy of a state as at its maturity: the only requisites
being, good materials for its development, and well-established.
facts as things upon which it can be exercised ;—it being in this
respect exactly similar to the human body, which is as perfect
at this day as it was ages ago; as capable of imbibing nou-
rishment in the peasant as in the prince,—the only requisites
being wholesome food for its growth and repair, and active
pursuits to preserve it in vigour. An analogy of this kind
may also be seen to exist, between the gradual advance of
mankind from barbarism to civilization, and the gradual pro-
gress of the mind from ignorance to intelligence: for whilst
history in recording the one, interests us with the extraordi-
nary feats of mighty heroes and conquerors; so do the volumes
of literature in containing the other, astonish us with the vast
manifestations of mental power exhibited by profound rea-
soners and skilful experimenters.

At no period of the world was the human mind _ so quali-

fied

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 207

fied for bringing its various faculties into full exercise, and to
a more complete exhibition of its inherent powers, than at the: -
present :—for never was it so free to act its part in thinking,
judging, and deciding upon, any matter: never did it enjoy
such a vast accumulated store of experience, for its basis and
direction; never did it exhibit such a thirst after and such a
relish for knowledge ; never did it betray such a disposition
to scrutinize the theories, doctrines and traditions which
have so long held her in bondage, as at the present day. And
surely if it be disposed for what is good, as well as for what is
true, its gratitude to the country and age which is now yield-
ing to its empire, will increase with the auspicious extension
of its dominion. In every department of science it must be
admitted that such sentiments as the above are now tacitly ac-
knowledged ; and if they prevail to any benefit, we think we
shall not err in saying, that this benefit will in no instance be
more apparent than in that of medicine. This science is
classed, and rightly too, among the liberal sciences; and we
hope it will not only continue to hold so respectable a rank
among them, but whilst conducing to the common good of
mankind, exhibit among its cultivators a good-wiil and fel-
low-feeling which will prompt them to regard each other’s
sentiments, upon every subject, with mutual candour and for-
bearance ;—for where the good of society is the object, there
the heart, the head, and the hands, will conspire to promote it.

It being then one of the purposes of this Institution to de-
liver lectures on some subject of medical science to any indi-
viduals who may wish to acquire some knowledge respecting
it, it is quite impossible to convey such knowledge in any
other than a very general way indeed; wherefore I have
thought it expedient, from the circumstance of my merely oc-
cupying Dr. Stanger’s place during his absence from town, to
enter upon a subject, which, though the most general of all,
and thence perhaps the least understood, yet involves so many
particulars of interest as well as of general experience, that the
subject may be regarded as worthy of your attention and con-
sideration.

The subject I allude to, is the blood. Toa thorough know-
ledge of which so many requisites are indispensable, that we
intend only to bring forward common facts, or general expe-
rience, in framing our doctrine concerning it.

But as the time will not allow of my bringing forward the
results of the experiments to which this fluid has been sub-
jected, I must beg to defer this material part of my subject to
the next lecture. And at our third meeting I hope to have it
in my power to proceed to consider two of the most interest-
ing and remarkable properties of the blood,—viz. its FLurprry
and Vira.ity.

(‘To be continued.) XLII. On

f 208 ]

XLII. On Contemporaneous Meteorological Observations, as
proposed by the Royal Society of Edinburgh. By ‘Tuomas
SguirE, Esq.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Philosophy.

Gentlemen.

HEREWITH send you a Meteorological Table contain-

ing the monthly means of the barometer, thermometer,
&ce. as obtained from daily observations made at 8 A.M. at
Epping, during the year 1826, and also the depth of rain for
each month of the last five years. I have also added another
table of the hourly observations made at this place on the 17th
July, 1826, agreeably to the wish of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. In this latter table I have moreover given the
computed altitudes of my barometer at Epping above that of
Mr. Bevan’s at Leighton-Buzzard ; the mean of which agrees
so well with ¢hat obtained from similar observations made at
the two places in 1821, as given in the 58th vol. of the Philo-
sophical Magazine, from the computations of Mr. Bevan, jun.,
that for this reason I was induced to trouble you with them
on the present occasion.

It may not be improper to say something respecting the
instruments used in these observations, as relates to their con-
struction and locality,—particulars which ought not to be lost
sight of, as a knowledge of such minutie are sometimes of
great importance, especially when any deductions are intend-
ed to be made from such observations.

First, The barometer is a portable one, of superior work-
manship ; it has a capacious cistern and a large tube, but there
is no adjustment for the change of level in the mercury of the
cistern, neither is the neutral point nor the ratio of the tube
to the cistern marked upon it. These are certainly imperfec-
tions; but as the diameter of the cistern is very great com-
pared with that of the column of mercury, and as the point of
zero is, most probably, between 29 and 30, no great errors
could have arisen from these causes, in the hourly observa-
tions, under the then atmospheric pressure. This barometer
with its attached thermometer hang in an open situation, with
the surface of the mercury in the basin 12 feet from the ground,
free from the rays of the sun, and from the effects of artificial
heat.

The external thermometer is freely exposed to the air in
the shade, with a N.W. aspect; the bulb is perfectly bare,
and it is so situated as not to be affected by direct radiation:
—its height from the ground is about 5 feet.

The

Mr. Squire’s Meteorological Observations. 209

The rain gauge is of the same kind as the one described
by Luke Howard, Esq. in his elaborate work on the Climate
ot London; it stands i in an open situation, about 7 feet from
the ground, and at such a distance from any tree or building
as to prevent, in the least degree, the quantity of precipita-
tion being affected by such a cause. ‘The rain is measured
daily, as often as any falls; and in the summer season, during ~
showery weather with bright intervals, this is done more fre-
quently, for the purpose of guarding against any diminution
arising from the effects of evaporation.

In the 2nd Table, containing the hourly observations of the
barometer, &c., the same instr ruments were used on this oc-
casion as in ae daily observations, with the addition of De
Luc’s whalebone hygrometer and an horizontal self-register-
ing spirit thermometer; they were both exposed to the open
air in the shade, the former 5 feet from the ground and the
latter 2 feet.

A Meteorological Table for the Year 1826, together with the
Depth of Rain for the last Six Years.
Epping: Lat. 51° 41! 41'"6 N. Long. 27" E. Time of obser-
vation 8 A.M.

- eS lie slo 3| Wind |e Depth of Rain.

a= ®@ }O|Z6 fe oe

a} Eg vio O|= Oo °

g ge s|S E\S8 | eee

S Ele 5\k 8 3

im A |S EF 2 ly. le. |s. |w/22] 1822. | 1823. | 1824. | 1825. | 1826.
Pe 2

1826.

--|29°672 | 6 3471 |29°1 |25|50)28 21\4.
Feb. -|29°599 |-2 43°4 |39°9 | 2)16/57/33)6
March |29°634 -1/43" 9 |39°7 |34|32134 24167
April .|29°638 | 1! 49°6 |47°5 |33)10)22 25|62
May .|29°681 | 1'52-7 [51-4 /80|28] 8| 8/59
June .|29°904 | 7,63°5 |62-7 |50|35]14 21/5
July .129°657 | 1166-6 \65-1 |22]22/35'45|58
Aug. .|29°658 | 5 66°5 |64:0 |18|22/41'43/6
Sept. .|29°565 } 2 60-0 |56°5 |23 38|37 22 63
Oct. .|29°582| 255-0 |50°9 |15|30/44 35|5
Nov. .|29°463| 3.427 |38-0 |47| 8/23:42/59] 3°847| 2-122] 3-902] 3-863] 2-998
Dec. .}29°531| 7.44:0 |40-2 |29|24|40 31142} 1: 646) 3° 081] 3272) 3:471] 1-679

Mean |29: 29632 32 51-8 |48°8 |32|26|32 29/57] 22°632| 25-339] 36°238) 26-662) 23-499

418} 1°777| °910} 1°010| +170
1-358] 3°318] 2:468] 935] 2-066
1-517] 1:292| 2°844| 1:321] 1-950
2-688] 1°835} 1:930} 2°248) 1:157
1210} 1:007| 3°775| 2°534} 2°432
*961) 1°633] 5°765} 1:405) -410
3011] 1-938] 1-782} -008] 2:650
1-388] 2:577| 2°620| 2°775| 1:638
-764| 2°201) 4:092} 3°381) 3-471
3°824] 2°558| 2:878) 3°711] 2°878

New Serics. Vol. 1. No. 3. March 1827. 25

cab Observations.

ogi ca

Mr. Squire’s Meteorol

210

19 | 6S | 09 L91899.6¢

SPAVMO} —y\ SMONVAISGO }SL[ UL ULYI SpNO[D SsO"]|LEFP-ZOT | ON 7 j ¥G
“¢ om]. "S O} ‘N WOU Suryoqa.njs —. yonyy TA P 69 19 69 = |L9/F99.64 |6B
‘—\ pur \ YONA|LZOS-86 | TA |. |F oo | 69 | £9 |89:0L9.62 |2z
‘N—'M, OY) 0} —y Otto 4YSI1G|Z9GO-ZSL| ON |T |g 69 | 9 | LO |S9/T99.64 1a
‘ony ystrsoypok Bjo ys © fy autos usirg [I186-O0L | ON jg¢ il os 49 , 69 \69)199.94 \0G
ysuq] "x MPU GYSLMGIE9IOL-BOT| TA fs] | iE] 6h] TZ | 34 0L/199-62 61
fia uns aq} Jo YSU oy} UO yyy *M270Y4NT “WSUG|SSPL-LE | TA |¢ | |b | 8¥} 64 | 64 169299-64\8T
‘Uy [[BuIs Moy Vv paB x atO0S qysiig 6668-68 | T Ig it GPT GL | &4 |89699-66 |LI
“OFUP puv OIC |LLEG-06 | T |S [6h ) 6G | €2L |L9699.62 91:
"ALOSQO JSUT SB aWILS 94} J, *U ][BUUS Mo} B YUESLIG 869-16 | aU |g Tt} oo! TZ | 62 |99699.6a |e1
oy} Apawau Ays omy} Jo souudtvaddy puv zojoviwyo oy |PITS-16 | aw ig | T} to} 0% | 64 |e9699.62 FT
‘v [UIs paw , Moz v Jog |OOLO-SOL | xu |¢ | 'T | &S |; 89 | TL |$9699.64 |SI
‘y JySIT yt AYS|TEOP. au |¢ | TL} ¢¢ | ¢9 | 89 129099.62 |aI
“OUI |FEOF-VOT| 4 ig | | | seh $9 | 99 Iso TS9.65|II
‘OWNG|PESS-OTT| a4 |G | | iT | 09) Bo | F9 |19'869.63 OL
‘pur aq] UT Suyvoy v' ueyorq yp ‘AYG/P99E- LOT |, ae |¢ |; iL | 29} 09 | 89 19, 949-63 [6
*‘PAVMPUIM 0} Hurst v yuoosvu yy “AYSILETS-TOT| mT |e | re ae awa) 1g 6S 19) 949:62 8
“OMT IS6T9-SOT | LU jg |; iT i; SL PS | 9S |19 069-66 |Z
OWN |OPSL- LIT | au |. io dia T¢ 6G |69\1G9-6Z |9 .
“OWI JOS69-611T| T |g || i! 92 | 6 |. Te 59 119-66 |¢
OMI |OFGG-80T|} T 16 | | 1) 2h) Sh | CP 69668-66 P
*AYS SSaTPNO]D YW TA-1¢ || |e GOP OS $9889.62 6
‘WYS'LM4} JO UoWwat op UL [BUNS MOG —-+yYai.Ag Tale || | |T | OL} Gy | 09 |eozss.6a |e
“AMS SsaTPNOD VY] y90q ut Pie | | 36 | $9 | Of | 29 |p9 69-60 |1 ‘wv
as Se ‘eS =| Ms ty] ‘Panos “punord |) =
‘aroydsouny oy) Jo aig quowddy op uo syrwmoy Burddey Jo 48 van | is “ ® ome cee 8 | we | sunoyy
aPOIALY ALL : Srin| >

oe ic es giudg | Aartord zap
“pay | @ | qjauiottuony, | saromorvg
*UOT}IILLOD AININY 0} Joalqns 4aaz 96g vas OY} JO JAE] oY} dAogV apnywypPy *yotausa.ty
JO 4S¥9 OUI} UL SpuodaS LZ PPUNSUOT °9./1F TH o1S apne] “Burddey ye opeut suoyasasqg [voGoyo.oo}0p7
‘9681 ‘LT Ain [Stor MA.0989Q) JnIIoOJO.LOIZaPAT SnoauDLOdUWAzUOI AY} LOT

Mr. Squire’s Meteorological Observations. ZiT

The observations here recorded have been made with great
care, and as near the stated times as possible.

However desirable it may be to institute a general plan
for the purpose of barometrical measurement, yet it is clear
to every one, that instruments of the very best construction
only can be used on such an occasion, with any prospect of
success, in this interesting and useful branch of inquiry. And
I have moreover to regret, that it is not at present in my
power to give to the above barometrical observations that de-
gree of aceuracy I could wish, for the want of the necessary
corrections for the relative capacity of the cistefn and tube,
and capillary action, &c. It was my intention to have sent
you the annual means of the atmospheric pressure for the last
five yeats, as obtained from daily observations made at this
place during that period; but these I shall defer till such time
as I can with certainty apply to them the requisite corrections
and reductions, by a comparison with a barometer of the most
approved construction.

It appears from the highly valuable Essays on Meteorology
by J. F. Daniell, Esq., that this gentleman has paid more than
usual attention to the manufacture of barometers; and the one
that has been made for the Royal Society under his superin-
tendence, is doubtless superior to any thing of the kind known
in this country.

For the more certain verification of the accuracy and good-
ness of barometers intended for philosophical experiments,
would it not be proper that all such instruments were sent, for
a time, to the Royal Society’s apartments, for the purpose of
comparison with this standard instrument? as from the ra-
pid advances and important discoveries that are now making
in the long neglected science of Meteorology, this seems al-
most as necessary as it is to send chronometers to the Obser-
vatory at Greenwich, with the intention of determming the
regularity of their rates, and thereby their fitness for ascer-
taining the longitude with certainty.

I will here just remark that on looking over Mr. Weekes’s
Table Phil. Mag. vol. Ixviii. p. 316. 1 am of opinion that
this gentleman’s barometrical numbers for Sandwich must
be very incorrect; for on comparing these observations with
those made at the same time at Leighton Buzzard by Mr.
Bevan, it appears that Mr. W.’s barometer was in general
lower than Mr. B.’s, but at 2 P.M. Mr. W.’s barometer was at
29°84, and at 3 it seems to have suddenly fallen to 29 inches,
and there continued to the end of his observations. Now
from a comparison of other observations made on the same
day in different parts of the country, it does not appear that

22 any

212 Mr. Squire on the Occultation of Venus in February.

any change like this, took place in the atmospheric pressure,
on the 17th of July last, over any part of the British isles.
And therefore, setting aside the relative situations of the two
places it must be inferred that either Mr. Weekes’s baro-
meter is extremely defective, or that the observations were
made without sufficient regard to accuracy, and for that rea-
son are unfit for the purpose intended.

I have with great pleasure read Mr. Daniell’s excellent
work, entitled “ Meteorological Essays,” and in justice I can
truly say that great credit is due to that gentleman, for his la-
borious and scientific researches relative to meteorology :—
his valuable illustrations of the general laws and phanomena
of our atmosphere;—his unremitted attention to the impro-
ving and perfecting of the various instruments connected with
this branch of philosophy, entitle him to the highest praise
and thanks of all true lovers of science.

I remain, Gentlemen, yours truly,
Epping, Jan. 4th 1827. THomAs SQuIrRe.

= = = = Sone

XLIII. On the expected Occultation of Venus in February.
By Tuomas Sourre, Esg. -

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Philosophy.

Gentlemen,

N reading Mr. Baily’s introductory remarks to his valu-

able list of moon-culminating stars, he says, “* You will
observe that I have inserted Jupiter and Saturn, when they
are near the moon, and when their motion is retrograde: and
also Venus on the day of her occultation in February.”

Now with respect to the ¢ of ? and the ), on the morn-
ing of the 22nd of February, it appears from the result of com-
putations which I made relative to this g, for Moore’s Alma-
nack of the present year, that this will not prove to be an oc-
cultation at Greenwich. Yor at the time of visible 6, (which
happens at 33™ after 9, apparent time,) the apparent latitude
of 2 exceeds that of the moon 17! 57’; and if from this we
take the sum of the apparent semidiameters of the moon and
Venus, it will leave 1! 29''-4, for the distance of the )’s north-
ern limb from the southern limb of Venus. But the nearest
approximation in this respect will be 1! 8!'-4, as seen from
the Royal Observatory.

Hence we may conclude that there will not only be no
occultation at Greenwich, but that this will also be the case
in every other part of England.

It is to be hoped the atmosphere will prove favourable for

verifying

Dr. C. Abel’on the Sumatran Orang Outang. 213

verifying the accuracy of the above calculations. Venus is at
this time approaching very near the point of her greatest elon-
gation, and will pass the meridian about 32 minutes before
the time of visible conjunction, at an altitude of about 16° 51'
above the horizon of Greenwich. Yours truly,

Epping, Jan. 6th, 1827. Tuomas Squire.

XLIV. Some Account of an Orang Outang of remarkable Height
found on the Island of Sumatra ; together with a Description
of certain Remains of this Animal, presented to the Asiatic
Society by Capt. Cornfoot, and at present contained in
its Museum. By Cuarxe ABEL, M.D. F.R.S. bc. Sc., and
Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta*.

| eS the paper which I had the honour of reading to the Asiatic

Society on the evening of the 5th of January last, I endea-
voured to be as comprehensive as possible, in relation to the
published histories of large man-like apes, and to the many spe-
culations of philosophers respecting them ; and in order the
better to accomplish my purpose, I divided my subject under
the following heads: First, I gave an account of what parti-
culars I had been able to collect of the circumstances which
attended the capture of the Sumatran animal: Secondly, I gave
the amplest description in my power, of its different remains,
as they were before the Society: Thirdly, I adduced a de-
scription of Wurmb’s animal, as described in the Batavian
Transactions, for the purpose of showing its identity with the
Sumatran Orang Outang: Fourthly, I brought forward a de-
scription of the small Orang Outang of Borneo, for the pur-
pose of showing its relationship to the two former animals,
and for the better examining the opinion of the Baron Cuvier,
that it is only the young one of Wurmb’s, and consequently
of the Sumatran animal: and lastly, I quoted some notices of
very large man-like apes contained in the works of the older
travellers, and attempted to determine to which of these the
Sumatran Orang should be referred. The essay which I read
to the Society was prepared in haste, and from imperfect
materials ; and although it might, perhaps, be suited to its
principal object, that of exciting inquiry, it was certainly
unfit for publication. For this reason, and because those
who are likely to be chiefly interested in this communication
will be better satisfied with facts than opinions, I shall at pre-
sent limit myself to an account of those particulars of the ap-
pearance of the animal when alive which are best authenti-

* From the Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. p 489.
cated,

214 Dr. C. Abel on the SwnatranaDrang Outang.

cated, and of the circumstances that attended his capture, as
they have been collected from the persons who took him, and
conclude with a description of such parts of his body as are
preserved in the museum of the Asiatic Society.

Capture of the animal.

The following short history of the circumstances under
which the animal was found, and of the mode of taking him,
is drawn up from accounts which were furnished to me either
directly or indirectly by persons concerned in his capture.
A boat party under the command of Messrs. Craygyman
and Fish, officers of the brig Mary Anne Sophia having
landed to procure water at a place called Ramboom near
‘Touraman, on the N.W. coast of Sumatra, on a spot where
there was much cultivated ground and but few trees, disco-
vered on one of these a gigantic animal of the monkey tribe.
On the approach of the party he came to the ground, and when
pursued sought refuge in another tree at some distance, ex-
hibiting as he moved, the appearance of a tall man-like figure
covered with shining brown hair, walking erect with a wad-
dling gait, but sometimes accelerating his motion - with his
hands, and occasionally impelling himself forward with the
bough of a tree. His motion on the ground was plainly not
his natural mode of progression, for even when assisted by
his hands or a stick, it was slow and vacillating: it was neces-
sary to see him amongst trees in order to estimate his agi-
lity and strength. On being driven toa small clump, he gained
by one spring a very lofty branch, and bounded from one
branch to another with the ease and alacrity of a common
monkey. Had the country been covered with wood, it would
have been almost impossible to prevent his escape, as his mode
of travelling from one tree to another is deseribed to be as
rapid as the progress of a swift horse. Even amidst the few
trees that were on the spot, his movements were so quick that
it was very difficult to obtain a settled aim ; and it was only by
cutting down one tree after another, that his pursuers by con-
fining him within a very limited range, were enabled to destroy
him by several successive shots, some of which penetrated his
body and wounded his viscera. Having received five balls,
his exertions relaxed, and reclining exhausted on one of the
branches of a tree, he vomited a considerable quantity of
blood. The ammunition of the hunters being by this time
expended, they were obliged to fell the tree in order to obtain
him, and did this in full confidence that his power was so far
gone that they could secure him without trouble, but were
astonished as the tree was falling to see him effect his retreat

to

*

Dr. C, Abel on the Sumatran Orang Outang. 215

to another, with apparently undiminished vigour. In fact,
they were obliged to cut down all the trees before they could
drive him to combat his enemies on the ground, against whom
he still exhibited surprising strength and agility, although he
was at length overpowered by numbers, and destroyed by the
thrusts of spears and the blows of stones and other missiles.
When nearly in a dying state, he seized a spear made of a
supple wood which would have withstood the strength of the
stoutest man, and shivered it in pieces; in the words of the
narrator, he broke it as if it had been a carrot. It, is stated
by those who aided in his death, that the human-like expres-
sion of his countenance, and piteous manner of placing his
hands over his wounds, distressed their feelings, and almost
made them question the nature of the act they were commit-
ting. When dead, both natives and Europeans contemplated
his figure with amazement. His stature at the lowest compu-
tation was upwards of six feet ; at the highest it was nearly
eight; but it will afterwards be seen that it was probably
about seven. In the following description, which [ give in
the words of my informant, many of my readers will detect
some of those external conformations which distinguish the:
young eastern Orang Outangs that have been seen in Europe..
The only part of the description in which the imagination
seems to have injured the fidelity of the portrait, regards the
prominence of the nose and size of the eyes, neither of which
are verified by the integuments of the animal’s head.“ The
animal was nearly eight feet high, and had a well-proportion-.
ed body, with a fine broad expanded chest and narrow waist.
His head also was in due proportion to his body; the eyes
were large, the nose prominent, and the mouth much more
capacious than the mouth of aman. His chin was fringed
from the extremity of one ear to the other, with a beard that
curled neatly on each side, and formed altogether an orna-
mental rather than a frightful appendage to. his visage. His
arms were very long even in, proportion to his height, and in.
relation to the arms of men; but his legs, were in some re-
spects much shorter., His organs of generation were not very
conspicuous, and seemed to be small in. proportion to his size.
The hair of his coat was smooth and glossy when he was
first killed, and his teeth and appearance altogether indicated
that he was young and in the full possession of his physical
powers, Upon the whole,” adds his biographer, “ he was a
wonderful beast to. behold, and there. was more in him to

excite amazement than fear.”
That this animal showed great tenacity of life is evident
from his surviving so meny dreadful. wounds; and his pecu-
liarity

216 ~=Dr. C. Abel on the Sumatran Orang Outang.

liarity in this respect seems to have been a subject of intense
surprise to all his assailants. In reference to this point it may
be proper to remark, that after he had been carried on board
ship, and was hauled up for the purpose of being skinned, the
first stroke of the knife on the skin of the arm produced an
instantaneous vibration of its muscles, followed by a convul-
sive contraction of the whole member. A like quivering of
the muscles occurred when the knife was applied to the skin
of the back, and so impressed Captain Cornfoot with a per-
suasion that the animal retained his sensibility, that he ordered
the process of skinning to stop till the head had been removed.

It seems probable that this animal had travelled from some
distance to the place where he was found, as his legs were

covered with mud up to the knees, and he was considered as_

great a prodigy by the natives as by the Europeans. They
had never before met with an animal like him, although they
lived within two days journey of one of the vast and almost
impenetrable forests of Sumatra. They seemed to think that
his appearance accounted for many strange noises, resembling
screams and shouts, and various sounds, which they could
neither attribute to the roar of the tiger, nor to the voice of
any other beast with which they were familiar. What capa-
bility the great Orang Outang may possess of uttering such
sounds does not appear, but this belief of the Malays may
lead to the capture of other individuals of his species, and to
the discovery of more interesting particulars of his conforma-
tion and habits.

The only material discrepancy which I can detect in the
different accounts which have been given of this animal, re-
gards his height, which in some of them is-vaguely stated at
from above six feet to nearly eight. Captain Cornfoot how-
ever, who favoured me with a verbal description of the animal
when brought on board his ship, stated that “he was a full
head taller than any man on board, measuring seven feet in
what might be called his ordinary standing posture, and eight
feet when suspended for the purpose of being skinned.”

The following measurements, which I have carefully made
of different parts of the animal in the Society’s Museum, go
far to determine this point, and are entirely in favour of Cap-
tain Cornfoot’s accuracy. The skin of the body of the animal
dried and shrivelled as it is, measures in a straight line from
the top of the shoulder to the part where the ancle has been
removed, 5 feet 10 inches, the perpendicular length of the neck
as it is in the preparation 334 inches, the length of the head
from the top of the forehead to the end of the chin 9 inches,
and the length of the skin still attached to the foot from its

line

Dr. C. Abel on the Sumatran Orang Outang. 217

line of separation from the leg 8 inches :—we thus obtain 7 feet
62 inches as the approximate height of the animal. ‘The na-
tural bending posture of the ape tribe would obviously dimi-
nish the height of the standing posture in the living animal,
and probably reduce it to Captain Cornfoot’s measurement of
7 feet, whilst the stretching that would take place when the
animal was extended for dissection might as obviously increase
his length to 8 feet.

Description of the remains of the animal.

Heap.—The face of this animal with the exception of the
beard is nearly bare, a few straggling short downy hairs
being alone scattered over it, and is of a dark lead colour.
The eyes are small in relation to those of man, and are
about an inch apart: the eyelids are well fringed with lashes.
The ears are one inch and a half in length, and barely an
inch in breadth, are closely applied to the head, and re-
semble those of man, with the exception of wanting the lower
lobe. The nose is scarcely raised above the level of the face,
and is chiefly distinguished by two nostrils three-fourths of an
inch in breadth, placed obliquely side by side. The mouth
projects considerably in a mammillary form, and its opening
is very large; when closed, the lips appear narrow, but are
in reality half an inch in thickness. The hair of the head is
of a reddish brown, grows from behind forwards, and is five
inches in length. The beard is handsome and appears to have
been curly in the animal’s life-time, and approaches to a ches-
nut colour ; it is about three inches long, springing very grace-
fully from the upper lip near the angles of the mouth, in the ~
form of mustachios, whence descending, it mixes with that of
the chin, the whole having at present a very wavy aspect. The
face of the animal is much wrinkled.

Hanps.—The palms of the hands are very long, are quite
naked from the wrists, and are of the colour of the face.
Their backs, to the last joint of the fingers, are covered
with hair, which inclines a little backwards towards the wrists
and then turns directly upwards. All the fingers have naiits,
which are strong, convex, and of a black colour ; the thumb
reaches to the first joint of the fore-finger.

Frrer.—The feet are covered on the back with long brown
hair to the last joint of the toes: the great toe is set on nearly
at right angles to the foot, and is relatively very short. ‘The
original colour of the palms of the hands and the soles of the
feet is somewhat uncertain, in consequence of the effect of the
‘spirit in which they have been preserved.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. $. March 1827. 2¥F SKIN.

218 Dr. C. Abel on the Sumatran Orang Outang.

Sxin.—The skin itself is of a dark leaden colour. The hair
is of a brownish red, but when observed at some distance, has
a dull, and in some places an almost black appearance ; but
in a strong light it is of a light red. It is inall parts very long;
on the fore-arm it is directed upwards; on the upper arm its
general direction is downwards, but from its length it hangs
shagey below the arm; from the shoulders it hangs in large
and long massy tufts, which in continuation with the long hair
on the back, seem to form one long mass to the very centre
of the body. About the flanks the hair is equally long, and
in the living animal must have descended below the thighs and
nates. On the limits, however, of the lateral termination of
the skin which must have covered the chest and belly, it is
scanty, and gives the impression that these parts must have
been comparatively bare. Round the upper part of the back
it is also much thinner than elsewhere, and small tufts at the
junction of the skin with the neck are curled abruptly up-
wards, corresponding with the direction of the hair at the back
of the head.

In the dimensions which I am about to give of the skin, I
have stated that it measures from one extremity of the arm to
another five feet eight inches; to this is to be added fifteen
inches on each side for the hands and wrists, which will ren-
der the whole span of the animal equal to eight feet two
inches.

The following are the measurements which I have made of
the different parts :

Face. parated from the wrist to ff. in.

. the other ©) uf oy he dys - ROMS
sae cc acai Se “| Breadth of the skin from the

hair to a point between the situation of the os coccy-
eyes. . 44 | gis to the setting on of the

F Sea eeeeio tic thigh (didi om Lora dead
So yee Nia aie eens 1 Across the middle of the
From the end of the nose to thigh 9

3 Greatest length of the hair

gare Teena to the ee onthe shouldersand back 0 10
ting on ofthe neck . . 43 | weasuREMENT OF HANDS AND FEET
Circumference ofthe mouth. 6 i
Front measurement of hand.
Sky. Length ofhandfromtheend ft. in.
Greatest breadth about the ft. in.| ofthe middle fingerto the
centre oftheskin. . . 3 2 wrist inaright line . . 1 O
Greatest’ length down the Circumference of hand over
centre ofthe back . . 3 2 the knuckles . . . . O II
Length from the extremity Length of palm from the
of one arm where It is se- WHISt ©3) 1s) hae hoe 64

Length

Lieut. G. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations 1827. 219
fit. in.| the head of the jawtoits ft, in

Length of middle finger . 0 5%] base. . - + + + 0 4
offore finger . - 0 4%} Breadth of the ramus or as-
of little finger 0 43] cendingportionofthe jaw
of ring finger 0 5 at alevel with the teeth 0 2%
of thumb . 0 2k| Depth of the jaw at the

hysi tips .0. ORs
Back measurement of hand. EDS meee 2
Length of ring finger

of middle finger 0
of little finger . 0 53 Number of teeth 32; namely, 2
0

of fore finger . . 6 ac 10 cae and 4 Incisive
are, 1, ) 0. . 4 4), SORRR IEA IPS,

Canine Teeth.
Whole length of lower ca-

MEASUREMENT OF THE TEETH.

—)
for)
ee

Front measurement of feet.
Length from the end of the

Wide teeth pase eee ee
heel to the end of the Greatest length of fang - 2
eels ee aS oh ae 1 Ea Smallest ditto . ke LO

or aid dl the foot . 0 9% Greatest length of the ena-

ago aa 0 4%] mel or exposed part. of
of ring toe . o a | the tects’ 3.5.0 V1

ce BAR opie et : 2| Part exceeding the other
oe pee 0 52 | teethin length . wb fy 4

Ci ote e oe.» ~ | Lateral breadth measured
ircumference over the on alevel with the jaw . 6
knuckles of the toes . 0 93) Breadth from beforeinwards ri

Back measurement. Feiss) Beethe

Length of middle toe . . 0
offoretoe . . - 9

6 | Whole length of the lateral 1:
=~ ofmne tor’... .) 0 6

5

4

5

2| Ofenamel exposed . « « 7
4

4

Breadth of cutting surface .
Ditto of central teeth

The front teeth of the upper jaw
Measurement of the lower jaw. greatly resemble those of the lower,

oflittletoe . . . 0
of greattoe. . . 0

Circumference of the jaw with the exception of the middle in-
round thechin. . . . 0 113| cisive teeth, which are twice the
Length of the ramus from width of the lateral ones..

XLV. Astronomical Observations 1827. By Lieut. GEORGE
Beauroy, R. N.
Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.
ATITUDE 51° 37! 44''3 North. Longitude west in time
1/ 20'-93.

Observed transits of the moon, and moon-culminatin stars over the
middle of the transit instrument in sidereal time.

1827. Stars. Transits.
Jan. 3. 18 A Piscium.......... 23° 33! 14!-41
3. s 19: Piscine se aay, cto 3) sine’ 23 37 34°30
3. Moon’s First Limb...... 23 42 45°05

2F2 1827.

220 Lieut. G. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations 1827.

1827. Stars. Transits.
Jan. 3. 28 w Pisclum .......%.. 23° 50! 27!35
5. Moon’s First Limb...... 1 19 50:01
5. 1027 Piscium.......... 1 97 57°59
Oreaeombariy lesen ti. a ofeutel ae 4 96 02°73
OP brtiLauriiy, Wiest wie. 4 31 54-99
9. Moon’s First Limb...... 4 40 51°96
re? .) LaUTl..: .< cnc ne 4 52 48°95
WO 193 CLaurt ........ eee SON MeN ip
10. Moon’s First Limb...... 5 33 32°06
11. Saturn’s Centre ........ 6 05 11°10
11. 13 Geminorum........ 6 12 32°89
11. 18 y Geminorum,....... 6 18 43-92
11. Moon’s First Limb...... 6 26 31°39
11. 26uGeminorum........ 6 32 22°38
12. 544A Geminorum ...... 7 OS 11°26
12. Moon’s First Limb...... 7 19 1704
12. 68k Geminorum,....... 7 23 46°29
14, *A65 laesCancr fons. ee 8 49 03°29
14. 76. Canertat sd). tt... 8 58 24°31
14. Moon’s Second Limb,... 9 04 57°13
14: S Bois TE Fae 9 22 .38,:87
14. VL4No Teonisye en oe 9 31 56°71
VON WO. COrvin worpiet ce CR 12 20 57°29
Ee ES fe ET 1 Re a 18° 16. 06-77
19. Moon (22)0 4)... w, wulSe 25, O2400
Feb:};3.,),Mieon; (8) net siti? i. . - 2 38 46°86
8... 57 Py Arietisenas 10 (2° 2° 3 Ol 47°31
40160 Daurp to diheorh. | SS 3 17 13°42
4,’ Movn(9)29 19 oi. 3 29 17°89
As 205 Tauntsed alt. ..h. oe. 3 50 52-96
Gi 102 Paurivs eyes) 5. 4 52 48-45
GF LO9m! Launipss dite, 5 O08 55:90
6. Moon' (18)? ging cht, 5 12 54-14
6.123) 2 Tauris? Btw | SOD oD VS
COS CN SA 5 58 17°29
f-> Moon (12) 222507 oe, eS 6 05 37°21
7. 18yvGeminorum........ 6 18 44-01
8. 24yGeminorum........ 6 27 45°43
8. 43 2Geminorum........ 6 53 53°22
Sa .Moon (18). oe chs nce. Gue5s 82 nl
8. 54AGeminorum........ Tie OLS i ak
9. 74fGeminorum........ TOO BY 45
2: maoon (14) 23)... kee) 51 05°20
Os) Boad* Canard i095 Syca, 8 16 (4-32

Jan. 12th. Immersion of Jupiter's
third satellite ........

Jan, 14th. Immersion of Jupiter's
first satellite

14h 12" 14° M. T. at Bushey.

14 13 35 M. T. at Greenwich.

16 04 37 M. T. at Bushey.

16 05 58 M. T. at Greenwich.
- Feb.

Mr. Levy on a New Mineral Species. 221
Feb, 2nd. Immersion of Jupiter's ¢ 12" 17" 09° M. T. at Bushey.

second satellite ...... 12 18 30 M. T. at Greenwich.
Feb. 9th. Immersion of Jupiter’s ; 2 5t OO M. T. at Bushey.
second satellite ...... 2 52 21 M. T. at Greenwich.

These observations were made with one of Mr. Dollond’s 5 feet
achromatic telescopes,—the magnifying power 86.

Summary of a Meteorological Table, kept at Bushey Heath in 1826.

The Barometer, Thermometer, and Winds were observed between
9 and 10 o'clock in the morning, at which hour the temperature of
the external air is nearly the same as the mean temperature. See
column 83 and 8.

The greatest altitude of the mercury in the barometer was on
December 28th, 30:068 inches; the deast, on the 14th November,
28-590 inches. Thermometer highest 28th of June, 88°; lowest
16th January, 19°.

Six’s Thermometer. Winds.
Months.|Barom.| Ther.| Rain. | Evap.| Min. | Max. |Mean. |N.| NE.|E.|SE, S.|SW.| W.|NW.

Inches. Inches. | Inches. ° o °
aM. ese »/29°542 |31-1 | 0°328| 0°700] 28°6 |52°6 | 30°60] 1) 9} 5) 6) OF 4) 0 6
Feb. ... .|29°504 |41:3 | 1-990} 1°58 | 38:1 | 47:2 | 42°65] 0} 0} 0} 5} 5) 14]3 1
March. .|29°488 |41°4 | 1:607| 2°68 | 37:3 | 41°4 | 43°15] 1) 10/}1)5]|0; 7] 1 6
April ...|29-335 |48°8 | 0°690| 4°19 | 42°5 |56°7 | 49°61] Oo} 2) 1) tL] 1) 10]) 4) 11
May ....|29°592 |52°2 | 2°477| 3°17 |44°7 | 58-2 | 51°45] 7] 14) 1) 2) 0) 1) 1 iB
une ...|29°775 |66°2 | 0-594] 5°50 |55°8 | 74:4 | 65°10] 11 13 | 0, 2/0) 4/2] 1
uly .../29°519 |65:4 | 2-095] 5°94 |58°6 | 73°8 | 66:20} 1] 5] 1) 2] 0) 17] 2 3
August. |29°526 |64°3 | 2:073| 6°46 |58°8 | 72°6 | 65°70) 2} 5] 0) 3] 1) 13) 1 5
Sept. ...|29°428 |57-7 | 4°026| 2:43 |53°0 |63°9 | 58:45] 0} 7 | 3/5] 90) 9})3) 3
Oct. ..../29°437 |52°5 | 2:221] 1°46 | 49:4 157-4 | 53°40] 0} 3 | 1) 8} 0} 11) 4 4
Noy. .../29°330 |39°4 | 2°805| 1:00 |35°3 | 44°5 | 39°90] 0} 9} 0, 2| 0; 9) 1 9
Dec. .../29:406 |41:12| 1:°930| 0°97 |38°9 | 45:0 | 41-95] 0] 7] 2) 2] 3] 8] 0 9

Year. |29°490 |50-12 |22-836 |36°08 | 45°01] 55°56] 50-68 |13! 84 [15/43 |10)107 |22 | 61

XLVI. Ona New Mineral Species. By A. Levy, Esq.
M.A. F.G.S.*

ME: HEULAND has lately added to his collection a small

group of quartz slightly chlorited, upon which are seen
some crystals belonging, I believe, to a new species, which
at his suggestion I propose to call Mohsite, in honour of Pro-
fessor Mohs.

An acute rhomboid of 73° 43! represented fig. 1. may be
considered as the primitive form of this substance. It does
not yield to mechanical division in any direction, as far as I
could judge upon the small quantity I had to examine. The
fracture is conchoidal and shining. It is brittle, but scratches
glass very easily. It is opaque, iron black, and possesses a high
metallic lustre. It has not the least action on the magnet.

All the crystals upon the specimen I have seen are twin

* Communicated by the Author.
crystals,

222 Mr. Levy on a New Mineral Species.

crystals, flattened in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the
primitive rhomboid, and present the aspect of small flat tables
almost circular, with alternate re-entering and salient angles
on their edges. The form of the individuals which compose
these macles is represented by fig. 2: all the planes are very
brilliant, except those marked d', d*, which are less shining,
but sufficiently so, however, to allow the use of the reflecting
goniometer to measure their incidences. The angles are as
fellow :

Pp, a'=112° 30 p, p = 73° 43)
6} a'=129 39 b,b'= 96 22
e,a'=101 42 cle'= 64 00
P,d?=157 10 d3d?=142 14 d%,d? = 99° 29

The manner in which the two individuals are grouped in
the macles is very remarkable; their axes coincide, or are pa-
rallel; and to have their relative position it is necessary to
suppose, that, being first in a parallel position, one of them
has turned 30° or 90° round the axis, instead of 60° or 180°
as is generally the case in the macles offered by crystals de-
rived from a rhomboid. The thickness of the two crystals is
the same, and their faces a! are on the same level, and form
only one plane.

Another remarkable fact to be noticed with respect to this
new substance, is its almost perfect isomorphism with Eudya-
lite. The primitive form of the last substance is an acute
rhomboid of 73° 40!, differing only by 3! of the primitive form
of Mohsite: and moreover, out of the six modifications which
compose the crystal just described,—five, P, a', c', 6', d},
occur on the variety ot Eudyalite I have described in the Edin-
burgh Philosophical Journal for January 1825.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

It seems from the appearance of the group of rock crystals
upon which this substance occurs, that there can be no doubt
that the specimen comes from Dauphiny. This circumstance,
added to the analogy of some of the exterior characters, might
suggest the idea that Crichtonite and Mohsite belong to ae

sa

Notices respecting New Books. 223

same species: and in support of this opinion, I find that a
rhomboid measuring very nearly the same angle as the acute
rhomboid of Crichtonite may be derived from the primitive
adopted for Mohsite by the simple law e$. But however, it may
be observed, that a rhomboid so acute as that of Crichtonite
may be derived by simple laws, from many rhomboids ;—thus,
for instance, that rhomboid is derivable by a still simpler law e3
from the primitive form of specular iron, or of axotomous iron.
Besides, Crichtonite presents a cleavage in a direction perpen-
dicular to the axis, and is not sufficiently hard to scratch glass,
—two characters which differ from those of Mohsite.

XLVII. Notices respecting New Books.

An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Steam-Engine, com-
prising a General View of the various Modes of employing Elastic
Vapour as a prime Mover in Mechanics: with an Appendix of
Patents and Parliamentary Papers connected with the Subject. By
C. F. Partineton, of the London Institution. Second Edition,
Corrected and Enlarged. London, 1826. 8vo. pp. 300. Plates
and Diagrams 33.

HE merits of Mr. Partington’s treatise on the steam-engine have

been already so well appretiated by the public, that on the
present occasion we need only point out the improvements it has
received in this second edition. The only additional section it con-
tains is an article on steam-boats, from the pen of Mr. Tredgold,
furnishing some important mathematical data for the construction
of the paddle-wheels ; but several useful tables, and a variety of par-
ticulars respecting the progressive improvement and present state
of the steam-engine in its different forms, have been incorporated in
their proper places. A number of engravings on wood have also
been added, representing on an enlarged scale some of the most im-
portant parts of the steam-engine, &c. ; together with a quarto plate
of a locomotive engine and sections of a steam-vessel. Some less
important or redundant statements in the former edition have been
omitted; and the entire work, we think, has been rendered more
useful than before.

Geological and Historical Observations on the Eastern Valleys of
Norfolk. By J. W. Ropserps, jun.

This interesting tract furnishes a pleasing instance how much as-
sistance may be obtained, from studies which have apparently no mu-
tual connexion, in the investigation of any branch of knowledge or
subject of inquiry. Mr. Robberds has been led by an examination of
the district which has been the object of his attention, to dispute
the conclusion of Cuvier, De Luc, and others, that no alteration in
the height of the waters of the ocean has taken place for many ages.
“If,” says the latter, “ the depression of the level of these seas were

a matter

224. Royal Society.

a matter of certainty, the best authenticated and the least equivocal
monuments of their change would abound along their coasts; but
proofs are every where found that such a change is chimerical.”
« Yet,” says Mr. Robberds, “ the eastern valleys of Norfolk afford
throughout the whole of their extent those clear traces of the former
residence of the sea, which, M. De Luc here says, are not to be
found in any such districts; and the gradual retreat of its waters is
in this instance matter almost of positive historical record.”

That the valleys in question were formerly branches of a wide
zstuary occupied by the sea, Mr. Robberds endeavours to establish,
Ist, by physical proofs, and in particular by the traces of a former
beach composed of recent shells and loose sand, rising always to
the same level of about forty feet above the river, following the
course of these valleys and their recesses on its opposite sides, and
not penetrating beyond the surface of the hills.

Qndly, By historical proofs: viz. tradition ; remains of antiquity ;
etymology of names of villages, &c.; and positive records. With
much learning,ingenuity and judgement, the author has brought for-
ward a considerable body of evidence of this kind, strikingly corro-
borative of his physical proofs: among these are various Roman forts,
which, though now some way in-land, yet were apparently built fur
the protection of the coasts ; the incursion of Sweyn with his fleet to
Norwich in 1004; the saline or salt works enumerated in Domes-
day Book as existing at various villages eight miles from the present
coast; records which prove Yarmouth to have been an island in
1347; and law proceedings in 1327, which show that up to that
time ships had come up to Norwich laden with merchandize: “ all
these,” the author states, “‘ concur to prove that the eastern valleys
of Norfolk were formerly branches of a wide zstuary, and that their
present rivers and lakes are the remains of that large body of water
by which their surface was overspread, even in times compara-
tively recent ;’ and he concludes by inferring that the change “ has
been the result of a depression of the German Ocean itself.”

XLVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

i consequence of the decease of H.R.H. the Duke of York, this
Society did not resume its sittings until Jan. 25 ; when the name
of Professor Jameson was ordered to be inserted in the. printed
lists of the Society : and a paper was read, entitled «« On the expe-
diency of assigning specific names to all such functions of simple
elements as represent definite physical properties ; with the sug-
gestion of a new term in mechanics: illustrated by an investigation
of the machine moved by recoil, and also by some observations on

the steam-engine ; by Davies Gilbert, Esq. M.P. V.P.R.S.”
In the commencement of this paper, the author shows the utility
of distinguishing by separate appellations all such functions as mea-
sure

Royal Society. 225

sure the intensity of physical properties; adverting, in proof of
this, to the acrimonious controversy which took place soon after
the application of mathematical expression to the laws of motion ;
in which it was contended by some mathematicians, that the weight
of a moving body multiplied into its velocity was the measure of
the motion; whilst others of equal eminence maintained that the
weight should be multiplied into the square of the velocity, in or-
der to obtain the measure. But it was at length discovered that
these views were not in reality at variance with each other, and the
introduction of the terms momentum and impetus respectively ap-
plied to them, terminated the dispute. After referring to some ob-
servations on the subject by G. Attwood, Mr. Gilbert remarks,
that in the Bakerian Lecture for 1806, by a Fellow of the Society
[Dr. Wollaston], who has touched upon nothing that he has not elu-
cidated and adorned, it is stated that neither of these terms is usually
a correct measure of the effective action of machines. The cri-
terion of this is the force exerted multiplied by the space through
which it acts; and this measure, numerically expressed, and with
reference to the steam-engine, has been denominated Duty by
Mr. Watt, and the raising of one pound one foot high has been
made by him the dynamic unit; according to which estimate the
Duty performed by one bushel of coals of 84 pounds has. been
found to vary from 30 to 50 millions of such units, according to the
nature of the engine and the mode of combustion employed. To
the measure or function represented by the force multiplied by the
space through which it acts, the author, however, proposes to give
the name efficiency; retaining the word duty for a similar function
indicative of the work performed; and by a comparison of these
two functions; viz. the efficiency expended on, and the duty per-
formed by, any machine, an exact measure of its intrinsic work
will be obtained.

The author then proceeds to show the utility of his new term in
investigating the mechanical value of the recoil-engine, and by an
algebraic process, taking every thing most favourably to the engine,
arrives at the conclusion that the duty cannot, even in the best state
of its action, materially exceed half the efficiency, and that in con-
sequence it can never be used with advantage. The water-wheel,
and the pressure-engine offering much greater duties, while the wheel
possesses the advantage of preserving a uniformity of efficiency du-
ring the whole action, which is not the case with the recoil-engine.
And these considerations Jead him to remark on the impossibility of
carrying into effect a plan proposed by some eminent engineers for
applying steam on a principle of recoil.

To estimate the efliciency of steam acting uniformly with its en-
tire force, the author assumes from experiment, that a bushel of
coals can convert into steam 14 cubic feet of water, occupying 1330
times that space in the state of steam, and therefore lifting an at-
mosphere incumbent on the surface of the water, uniformly to 1330
times its depth;—thus giving an efficiency of about 39 millions of
pounds raised one foot high. From this he concludes that (all de-

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 3. March 1827. 2G ductions

226 Royal Society.

ductions made) 30,000,000 would probably be the utmost attainable
limits of duty but for two expedients; Ist, causing the steam to
act expansively after exerting its whole force through a certain
part of the cylinder ; 2dly, raising its temperature by an increased
expense of fuel much above 212°.

Both these means are considered, and occasion is taken to com-
pare the efficiency of the methods invented by Messrs. Watt and
Hornblower, for the former purpose; the preference in point of
simplicity and advantage being given, however, to the former. With
regard to the latter, it is concluded, that in certain cases ad-
vantage is really gained by the use of strong steam. The author
then alludes with approbation to a method recently attempted,
where a small quantity of water is forced at each stroke into a mi-
nute boiler, presenting, however, a very large surface in proportion
to its capacity, and kept at an equable high temperature by im-
mersion in fused metal. But he considers the greatest hopes of
increased power to rest on the application to mechanical purposes
of some fluid more elastic than the vapour of water, according to
the suggestion of the President in the Phil. Trans. for 1823.

The author concludes this paper by a statement of the duties
actually performed by the engines in Cornwall ; from which it ap-
pears that several of the large engines there at work are actually
performing a duty greater than the whole efficiency of the steam,
unaided by expansive working or high pressure, on the assumptions
here made, while others apparently similar in every respect fail of
performing half that duty, and no satisfactory cause has been as-
signed for this important difference.

Feb. 1.—G. Poulett Scrope, Esq. was admitted a Fellow of the
Society ; and a paper was read, entitled “* Account of a new genus
of serpentiform sea-animals; by J. Harwood, M.D. F.L.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural History at the Royal Institution: communicated
by Daniel Moore, Esq. F.R.S.”

In the introductory portion of this paper Dr. Harwood alludes to
the notion entertained by the ancients, that the sea was peopled by
monsters and animals of anomalous nature ; and to tae modern fa-
bulous relations concerning the kraken and the sea-serpent. The
last subject he mentions as having of late years attracted consider-
able attention and given rise to much exaggerated narrative. He
then states his gratification at being enabled to present to the Royal
Society an account of a new marine serpentiform animal, which
he has recently examined.

This animal was taken up at sea, in latitude 62° N., and longitude
57° W., by Capt. Sawyer, of the ship Harmony, of Hull, whilst he
was pursuing the bottle-nosed porpoise. It was found lying on the
surface of the water, and was at first supposed to be an inflated
seal-skin, as employed by the Esquimaux to attach to their har-
poons, for the purpose of wearying out the larger aquatic animals by
its buoyant power.

From its continued endeavours, apparently, to gorge a species of
perch, of greater circumference than itself, it was in a very ex-
hausted state; and made scarcely any efforts to resist its capture.

The

Royal Society. 227

The author had examined it as preserved in rum by Capt Sawyer.
In several characters this animal strongly resembles the Ophidian
reptiles, especially in the formation of the jaws, which, with the ex-
ception of the apparent want of interarticular bones, are truly ser-
pentiform; and from this resemblance, after showing the dissimi-
litude of the animal from the genera to which it is nearest allied, in
conjunction with the remarkable character afforded by the large
sac with which it is provided, Dr. Harwood assigns to it the generic
appellation of Ophiognathus, with the following generic character :
Corpus nudum, lubricum, colubriforme, compressum, sacco amplo
abdominali.

Giving the specific name of ampullaceus to this animal, the author
proceeds to describe it in detail, The specimen examined is about
four feet six inches in length, is very slender, and the tail has a fi-
lamentous termination occupying about 20 inches of the entire
length of the animal; this begins at the termination of the dorsal
fin, which, like all the other fins, is small. The colour is a purplish
black, the filamentous portion of the tail being lighter than the rest.
The sac extends from near the extremity of the snout about twenty
inches down the body, and when partially inflated is about nine
inches in circumference : its greatest width, including the slender
body of the animal, is four inches. At the distance of a few inches
from its termination is the rectum, the course of which and of the
other digestive organs, owing to the tenuity of the sac, can readily
be traced. The author compares this appendage of the Ophiogna-
thus with similar organs in other animals of various classes, remark-
ing that the nearest approach to it among fishes is to be found in
the Diodons and Tetraodons, which possess a large abdominal sac,
on inflating which they become secure from the attacks of their
enemies, by the mechanical erection of the spines upon it. In the
present animal, however, its only use appears to be that of a float.

The edges of the spiracula with which the Ophiognathus is pro-
vided, partially conceal three tufted branchiz on each side of the
head. It has a single row of teeth above and below; no teeth on -
the palatial bones, and is destitute of a tongue. The jaws are so
long, and their articulation of such a nature, that their opening is
wider then that of any other animal that the author is acquainted
with; not excepting even the Rattlesnake.

The entire form of this animal indicates that it must possess
great swiftness of motion in the waters,

This paper is illustrated by three drawings of the Ophiognathus
and its several parts.

Feb, 8.— A. Melville, Esq., and T. J. Pettigrew, Esq., were re-
spectively admitted Fellows of the Society; and a paper was read,
entitled ‘* An Examination into the Structure of the Cells of the
Human Lungs, with a view to ascertain the office they perform in
Respiration; by Sir E. Home, Bart. V.P.R.S. — Ilustrated by mi-
croscopical observations, by F. Bauer, Esq. F.R.S.”

The author commences this paper by remarking, that the subject
of respiration has hitherto been regarded as belonging rather to
chemistry than to anatomy ; but that he finds reason to believe that

2G2 process

228 Royal Society.— Linnean Society.

process to be more simple than is imagined, and more within the
reach of anatomical than chemical investigation. The present
theory among chemists, he states, is, that respiration decarbonizes
the blood, a volume of oxygen and nitrogen being received into the
lungs at each inspiration, and returned measure for measure, the
oxygen only being partly converted into carbonic acid; thus pro-
ving, as they suppose, that no part of the atmospheric air breathed
is retained. This theory Sir EK. Home considers as satisfactory,
supposing it to besupported by the structure of the lungs themselves,
and taking it for granted that the blood requires no other change
for its purification. But when it was devised, no accurate exami-
nation of the cellular structure of the lungs had been set on foot;
and it is the object of the present communication to explain their
mechanism, and ascertain to what extent it is fitted for the pro-
cesses this theory requires.

The author began the investigation of this subject by inquiring
into the circulation of blood through the lungs; and by the assist-
ance of Mr. Russel, of St. George’s Hospital, he procured injections
of their veins and arteries, capable of being rendered objects of
microscopical examination by Mr. Bauer.

The first fact discovered, was, that though an injection introduced
by the pulmonary artery was found to return by the trunks of the
pulmonary veins ; yet, when thrown in by the veins it does not re-
turn by the arteries. The next fact ascertained, was, that the dis-
tention of the air-cells produces an interruption between the arterial
and the venous circulation, the blood being carried no further than
the small arterial branches surrounding the air-cells. Sir Everard
next proceeds to describe the air-cells and parts surrounding them,
from drawings made by Mr. Bauer. The branches of the pulmonary
artery accompanied by larger and more numerous branches of the
pulmonary vein, are seen ramifying behind the internal membrane
of each cell: the latter have valves at regular intervals, and there
are numerous absorbents supplied also with valves. The injection
was found to have stopped short of the termination of the artery,
and the space beyond to be filled with gas.

The conclusions deduced by the author from this investigation
are unfavourable to the received doctrine of simple decarbonization ;
conceiving the structure thus developed as better adapted to receive
supplies from the atmosphere, and transmit them to the heart. He
considers that the carbonic acid detected by Professor Brande in
urine and perspirable matter, must have been formed in the blood
circulating through the arteries, and have derived the oxygen in
its carbonic acid from the lungs. He considers further, that the
carbonic acid carried off in respiration is furnished from such venous
blood as has acquired it during the process of digestion; having
shown on a former occasion that soon after that process has com-
menced, the oxygen employed in it unites with carbon.

+
LINNHZAN SOCIETY.

Feb.6.—Several vacancies were declared in the list of the Foreign
members, and the names of various distinguished Foreign naturalists

were

Linnean Society.— Geological Society. 229

were proposed, A paper was read, entitled «‘ Observations on the
Trachee of Birds, with descriptions and representations of several
not hitherto figured: by William Yarrell, Esq. F.L.S.”"—The ex-
traordinary structures described by the author, are that of the
crested Pintado of Africa ( Numzda cristata, Pall.), the Demoiselle,
the Stanley Crane, the Black Swan of New Holland, and other
swans, geese, and ducks. It was remarked that all birds with a com-
plex structure of trachea have loud harsh voices, while the simple
forms belong to the delightful song-birds. The paper concluded
with an arrangement of the British species of the Duck family.

Feb. 20.—A Description, by Bracy Clark, Esq. F.L.S. of a new
species of Bot from the Illinois, was read. Also a continuation of
Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s paper on the Comparative Anatomy of cer-
tain birds of Cuba.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Feb. 2.—The reading of a paper was concluded, “ On the coal-
field of Brora in Sutherlandshire, and some other stratified deposits in
the north of Scotland ;’ by R.1. Murchison, Esq. Sec. G.S. F.R.S.

The Brora coal-field forms a part of the deposits, which on the
S.E. coast of Sutherlandshire occupy a tract of about twenty miles
in length, from Golspie to the Ord of Caithness; and three miles in
its greatest breadth ;—divided into the valleys of Brora, Loth, and
Navidale, by the successive advance to the coast of portions of the
adjoining mountain range which bounds them on the W. and N.W.
The first of these valleys is flanked on the S.W. by hills of red con-
glomerate; which pass inland on the N.E. of Loch Brora, and give
place to an unstratified granitic rock that forms the remainder,
of the mountainous boundary.

With a view to the comparison of the strata at Brora with those
of England, the author had previously examined the N.E. coast of
Yorkshire, from Filey-Bridge to Whitby, comprising the coal-field
of the Eastern Moorlands above the lias.

The highest beds at Brora consist of a white quartzose sandstone,
partially overlaid by a fissile limestone, containing many fossils, —
the greater number of which have been identified with those of the
calcareous grit beneath the coral rag;—and along with these Mr.
Sowerby has discovered several new species. The next beds, in a
descending order, are obscured, in the interior, by the diluvium which
is generally spread over the surface of these valleys, but are ex-
posed on other places on the coast ; and they consist of shale with
the fossils of the Oxford clay, overlying a limestone resembling
cornbrash and forest-marble, the latter associated with calciferous
grit. To these succeed other sandstones, and shales containing
belemnites and ammonites, through which the shaft of the present
coal-pit is sunk, to the depth of near 80 yards below the level of the
river Brora. The principal bed of coal is 3 feet 5 inches in thick-
ness, and the roof is a sandy calcareous mixture of fossil shells, and
a compressed assemblage of leaves and stems of plants, passing into
the coal itself. The fossils of this and the superior beds are identi-
cal for the greater part, with those which occur in the strata above

the

230 Horticultural Society.

the coal in the E. of Yorkshire: and of the whole number of species
collected by the author, amounting nearly to fifty, two-thirds are
well known fossils of the oolite ;—the remainder belonging to new
species represented in the last numbers of the Mineral Concho-
logy. The plant of which the Brora coal appears to have been
formed, is identical with one of the most characteristic vegetables
of the Yorkshire coast, but differs essentially from any of the
plants found in the coal measures beneath the new red-sandstone :—
It has been formed into a new genus by Mr. Konig, and is described
by him in the present memoir, under the name of Oncylogonatum.

The author, therefore, considers the Brora coal, from its asso-
_ ciated shells and plants, as the equivalent of that of the Eastern
Moorlands of Yorkshire.

At Loth, Helmsdale, and Navidale, shale and sandstone overlie
calcareous strata resembling the cornbrash and forest-marble, and
these are in many cases dislocated where they are in contact with
the granitic rock, and distorted where they approach it.

The base of the entire series above mentioned is seen at low water
on the coast near the north and south Sutors of Cromarty, where
the lias with some of its characteristic fossils is observable resting
upon the sandstone of the red conglomerate,—the latter in con-
tact with granitic rock.

On the N.W. coast of Scotland, several members of the oolitic
series with their peculiar organic remains were recognized by the
author in the isles of Skye, Pabba, Scalpa, Mull, &c.; where their
occurrence was first noticed generally by Dr. MacCulloch.

A short sketch is given of the geognostic relations of the schists
and sandstones of Caithness, which are probably referrible to the
new red-sandstone ;—some of these beds resembling the copper
slate of Thuringia, and its associates: whilst the fossil fish recently
discovered at Banniskirk, though the species is new, appear to be-
long to the same family with those of Mansfeldt, in Germany.

The paper concludes by adverting to the support given by the
preceding facts to the great importance of zoological evidence in
the identification of distant deposits :—since the existence in the
N. of Scotiand, of a large portion of the oolitic series of England,
has been demonstrated from the agreement of organic remains,
although the mineralogical characters of the beds containing these
fossils are perfectly distinct at the extremes of the tract through
which the strata are distributed.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Jan. 2.—The following papers were read: Upon grafting the
pear upon quince stocks ; by Mr. Thomas Torbron, F.A.S.—An ac-
count and description of the different varieties of raspberries which
have been cultivated and examined in the Garden of the Society ;
by Mr. William Sanderson.—An arrangement and description of
the varieties of gooseberries cultivated in the Garden of the Society ;
by Mr. Robert Thompson.—A fine exhibition of flowers, and some
excellent new Flemish pears, ripened in the garden of Andrew Ar-
cedeckne, Esq. of Glevering Hall in Suffolk, were placed upon the
table. — The most remarkable vegetable, was the Topinambour

Jaune

Royal Institution.— Miscellaneous Articles. 231

Jaune, a new French variety of the Jerusalem artichoke, which was
stated to possess considerable merit.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

The evening meetings of the members of this Institution com-
menced on Friday Jan. 26th, when Mr. Faraday gave a kind of ex-
perimental report on the late advances in magnetism, dependent on
the discovery of M. Arago. This philosopher had found that when
metals not magnetic in the ordinary sense of the word, 2. e. exerting
no action upon the magnetic needle when merely placed in its vici-
nity, were made to assume a state of motion, striking effects took
place, which effects, upon further examination, were found to de-
pend not upon the absolute motion of the metal, but upon the
relative change of place of the metal and the needle. Thus a plate
of copper made to revolve under a magnet had the power of drawing
it 80° or 90° from its natural position ; or if the magnet were made
to revolve under the plate, it produced rotation of the latter. Again,
if magnets and copper plates were made to vibrate, and copper plates
or magnets in a state of rest brought near to them, the vibrations of
the former were rapidly diminished, and soon ceased altogether.
Experiments by Messrs. Babbage, Herschel, Christie, Nobili and
others, were then referred to, and the general conclusion stated, that
the magnet had the power of inducing magnetism in the approxi-
mated metal, but requiring time for the purpose of producing the phe-
nomena in question. The powerful objections to this theory lately
advanced by M.Arago,were then noticed; namely, that the induction
which should equally take place when the body is at rest, and show
itself by its power in attracting the pole, is not so indicated ; and that
upon close examination, the power, of whatever kind it may be, is
a repulsive one.

On the tables in the Library were an ornamental lamp recently
constructed by Mr. Bartholomew ; specimens of dried plants _pre-
pared at Massachusetts, by the sect of people denominated Shaking
Quakers; and numerous books, presented to the Library of the In-
stitution,

XLIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

BROMINE.

M JUST. LIEBIG procured this substance by M. Balard’s pro-
* cess from the mother water of the salt-works of Theororshalle
near Kreutznach, Thirty pounds of the water yielded nearly twenty
grammes (about 308 grains) of bromine. M. Liebig repeated and
confirmed many of M. Balard’s experiments, and no phenomena ap-
peared unfavourable to the opinions adopted by M. Balard as to the
elementary nature of bromine. The following experiments were also
made by M. Liebig: a spiral iron wire was heated to redness in a

glass tube, and the vapour of bromine, which had been well dried b
chloride of calcium, was passed over it. As soon as the bromine
came into contact with the iron it became white hot, and fused
without evolving any gaseous matter. The fused mass was of a
bright yellow colour, resembling Naples-yellow ; its structure was
lamellar

232 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

lamellar and crystalline; it dissolved readily in water without im-
parting colour to it. The solution precipitated nitrate of silver of
a bright yellow colour, and by chlorine bromine was extricated from
it; it was protobromide of iron.

{In another experiment a platina wire was substituted for an iron
one; but this metal was not acted on, and the bromine lost none of
its properties: lamp-black under the same circumstances did not
act upon bromine.

By putting water and bromine into contact with iron filings,
proto- or perbromide of iron are formed according to the proportions,
and the mass becomes very hot.

Very pure bromide of potassium may be obtained by pouring a
solution of potash into one of bromine in alcohol until the alcohol
begins to be discoloured; this salt, evaporated to dryness and
heated to redness, becomes black.

Bromide of silver dissolves readily in ammonia; after some time
white brilliant crystals are deposited, which evolve ammonia when
heated, and leave bromide of silver.

2.521 grammes of bromide of potassium gave by decomposition
with nitrate of silver, 4.041 gr. of bromide of silver; which gives
94.11 for the atom of bromine, oxygen being 10.—Ann. de Chim.
et de Phys. Nov. 1826.

COMPOUND NATURE OF BROMINE.

In opposition to the above-stated opinion as to the elementary
nature of bromine, M. Chevreul announced to the Academy of
Sciences on the 10th of October, that M. Dumas had discovered a
chloride of iodine which had all the properties of bromine.— Ferus-
sac’s Bulletin, Dec. 1826.

ACTION OF THE ALKALINE CHLORIDES AS DISINFECTING SUB-
STANCES.

M. Labarraque having stated it as his opinion that the chloride
which he prepares as a disinfecting substance is quickly converted by
exposure tothe air into a muriate, M.Gaulthier de Claubry has made
some experiments to determine the changes which actually occur.

Some well-saturated chloride of lime was dissolved in water and
subjected to the action of a current of carbonic acid gas; in a very
short time chlorine was evolved, and by continuing the operation
for three hours, a gramme (15°4 grs.) of the chloride was completely
converted into carbonate of lime, which did not contain a trace of
chlorine. It is difficult to obtain chloride of lime quite free from
muriatic acid, but the quantity was perfectly the same after as before
the action of the carbonic acid.

A solution of chloride of lime was exposed to the air from the 13th
of August till the 10th of October ; it then contained no chlorine,
and a precipitate of carbonate of lime was obtained. Chloride of
soda is decomposed by carbonic acid like chloride of lime, but more
slowly, because it does not form an insoluble salt. It is easy to ex-
plain why chlorides are preferable as disinfecting substances to the
fumigations of chlorine; the carbonic acid derived from the decom-

position

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 233

position of the animal matter, and contained in the air, expels the
chlorine from its combinations; and as it acts slowly, the chlorine
is less capable of acting upon the animal ceconomy, but readily de-
composes putrid miasmata; it is in fact a true fumigation of chlo-
rine, only it is not strong, and much longer continued.— Annales
de Chim. et de Phys, Nov. 1826.

MR. LESLIE’S INSTRUMENT FOR ASCERTAINING THE SPECIFIC
GRAVITY OF POWDERS. ’

In the Annals of Philosophy for April 1826, an account was given
of the above-mentioned instrument. The following remarks upon
it are copied from Ferussac’s Bulletin, Dec. 1826. ripe

In the Bulletin des Sciences, &c. for September 1826, it will be
seen that Mr. Leslie had recently contrived an instrument for mea-
suring the density of powders. The description of this instrument
agrees perfectly with that of the stereometer invented twenty-nine
years since by Mr. H. Say, a highly distinguished French engineer,
who unfortunately fell in Egy pt: it is proper to inform Mr. Leslie
that he has committed an error in claiming the honour of this dis-
covery, which he will find recorded, with the drawings and complete
descriptions, in the 23rd volume of the Annales de Chimie, 1797, p. 1.
In addition to this, the instrument has been made and frequently
used to ascertain densities, especially those of gunpowder, and it
still exists in the Ecole Polytechnique.

PRODUCE OF COPPER MINES IN CORNWALL,
Sold at the public ticketings.

For Six Months ending 31st Dec. 1825.

Names and returns of eight principal Mines.

Wheal Harmony

vores | Copper, | Value of Ores
f iy LY Pha A ae Pe Lae ae 7A
Consolidated and 2 5
United Mines... . 6710 G41 67,080, 0
Bast Crinnis ..|....,. 3848 281 27,506 11 6
MYOICOAUN 2. cic > te 3865 250 95,456 11 O
Wheal Buller and 2
Beauchamp jo 3547 228 93,108 13 6
Pembroke Bras siger 3673 223 21,419 4 0
ae and ere ai7z_ | 171 | 17,818 12 0
BN roe ee 2140 166 15,794 14 0
Wheal Montague 1| 119 | 165 | 18,040 4 6

27142 | 2195 |216,184 10 6

64 smaller mines... ..| 29887 2236 |224,160 8 6
Total eae 57029 | 4361 | 440,344 19 0 |
Average produce per cent of the ores .. 7%
Average standard of copper ........ £137

2H For

234 Cornish Copper Mines.

For Six Months ending 30th June 1826.

Consolidated and : 5
United Mines. . . 55,793 5

East Crinnis 21,813 13
Pembroke 16,985 10
Dolcoath 17,282 14
Wheal Buller and } 15,284

Beauchamp.....
Poldice and Wheal 14,961

11,353
12,346

165,821
182,805

348,626

Average produce per cent of the ores .. 73
Average standard of copper.......... £110.

For Six Months ending 31st Dec. 1826.

Tons of | Tons of

Gren Copper. Value cf Ores.
(aaa ayaD iad haar se a? awe | ae Se Sa elk a
Consolidated and ieee
Gated BURG Sin one | veers ee
East Crinnis ........ 3947 310 20,223 16 6
POCO ee ents res 4377 291 20,265 5 O
POMDTOKES sisins) = «5 « 3481 253 16,885 15 0
Penstruthal......... 2824: 234, 16,830 12 O
Wheal Maiden and d 3
Garkavease” 2513 208 15,245 10 6
Poldice and Wheal t
Unity Suanene ets 2137 193 14,110 5 6
Ting-Tang.......... 1907 181 | 13,496 17 6)
28087 9314 |164,031 11 6
57 smaller mines..... 34475 2787 |195,589 14 0
Miata... ...:. 62562 | 5101 [359,621 5 6
Average produce per cent of the ores....,. 8%
Average standard of copper ............ £104.

LECTURES.

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 235

LECTURES,

A Course of Lectures on the Sources and Nature of Terrestrial
Heat and Light will be commenced at the Russel Institution, on
the 5th of March; by E. W. Brayley, jun. A.L.S. This course will
comprise experimental illustrations of the phenomena of combustion,
incandescense, phosphorescence, the evolution of heat and light by
common and voltaic electricity, and luminous animals.

ACCOUNT OF STEAM-ENGINES IN CORNWALL.
Extracted from the Monthly Account for December 1826.
The whole number of engines reported in the month was,
53 Pumping Engines, 14 Whim Engines, 3 Stamping Engines.
Of the pumping engines 50 are single and 3 double power, and
3 of the single power engines have combined cylinders; the dia-
meters of the cylinders as under:

Engines. Inch. Bushels,
4 90 of coals consumed in the month 11864
4 80 do. do. 10332
1 76 do. do. 2660

10 70 do. do. 16078
1 64 do. do. ' 1368
3 63 do. do, 9507
i 60 do. do. 11798
3 58 do. do. 5899
3 53 do. do. 5111
2 50 do. do. 1044
1 48 do. do. 1083
3 45 do. do. 44.98
] 42 do. do. 1010
2 40 do. do. 630
4 36 do. do. 2619
Z 30 do. do. 1310
1 28 do, do. 1080
1 ai do. do. 1080

53 88971

Relative duty of the pumping engines expressed by the number of
millions of pounds of water lifted one foot by each bushel of coal.

Greatest duty 47 millions nearly by 1 engine 60 inch cylinder.

41 do. by 1 do. 80 do.
40 = do. by 1 do. 90 do.
89 ~— do. by 1 do. 76 do.
38 ~— do. by 2engines 63& 70 = do.
36 ~— do. by 3 do. 2 of 80 & 1 of 63 do.
36 to 34 = ~— do. by 4 do,
34 to 30 do. by 5 do.
under 30 ~— do. by 28 do.
duty not reported Tt
53

2H2

Cornwall.

OUNeS tb

team En,

S.

236

*spULoyy,—*Iapuly
-£9 ay} JaAO vag Ue *ATIET
-norpuadied peor oy} [12 Sutmviq,

*suog § suuzg—'punois 1apun
spor [2JMOZIALOY Jo SULOYIBF GT pur
Jopuypéo ay} Jopun Uleaq ureut
wim = ‘Apavpnorpuadsod = Zutmrrq

*‘s294fPor—"yeys ayy
ut spor Arp jo suloyyej QQ “aoRy

f-ins a4} 38 au0 pue ‘punoid tap

-un sqoq-aour[eq Ino *1aparjAo
ay} Jaco uRad UIeY, = “suLOY Ey
eg Avpapun aq} uo pue ‘suu04}
“vy 611 Ajaetnorpuedied surmeiq

9-8 | 1L6‘089‘LE

I-9 | 883'690‘8S

——_]} — - — ——_——--

6&9 | G9L‘SLE‘6S

Yj00 Af —"aoRJANs 32 Qog-aoury

J-eqeug ‘xepuryAd ayy 19a0 uLraq

ureor yjt Aprejnotpuediod 3utaerqy

‘spsvyny & suig—*punord aap

-un sqoqraouryeq OMy, ‘sapuryéo
ay} J9AO Ulvaq UTR. ‘“suLOYyRy
16 Aejtapun ay} uo pur ‘suroyy

}-23 og Ajavjmorpuodied Surmviqg,

*as0LQ—"ddvy
-1ns 38 qoq-aouryEq aug ‘rapury
-f9 ayy Jaao ulvaq wey Ape]
-notpuadied peor oy) [ve Jurmviq

*soUIUNT ,StoouIsUuaT
pure
‘syiculay

6-8 | 898°b9s‘6s

99.9 | 869°Sf0'IF

G.G | 963‘8S8°9r

2 *s[2090
5.3 4) Jo 1aysng ouo
230°} surumsuoo 4q
= 6| ‘Sty 300} ouo
o
“2B ™| pout spunod

4st ‘uve | 81 | & OF
S66‘18| 9 L \0gS*0st| 8696 0} 6 > 83
W8G “AON | OL | 9 6
8 O GI
“pug “ue 6 § II
9F9‘8h| 6 9. |039°6SG| O86 0} ot |S OG
UL *99M tI | 8 I8
6 O 68
61 |8 SI
‘yyga ‘00q. | FIT «=| I g9
1Z0°¢S| § L |0L6‘°F93| 0996 0} Zl |O 33
6s “AON | BIL | I 86
£8 0 @
‘pug ‘uee | of | L Pl
61918} 9 ZL |00g‘bOs| O89F 0} GI |O St
wm. 29d | ot |O 9
v
won fe) 8
L09°68| 9 ZL |096°661| PLES 0} :
(ne 29q 9I |O FF
Sl | 3 Sst
twos "99 | If | 3 IT
991‘L2| O 8 lo68‘I9z| GPSI 0} Yen |G Tt
- WILE "AON | ST | ¢ OF
“Ul "JJ “soyour! "af “QI
a :
*spunod eas *soyorys = ng ‘durnd
ur ERS jo 81209 JO. au, au} “yydaq
peoyT | B=? | zaquiny|uorjduins| JO Jay
mB ite) -oulviqy

‘hinp 4saq Surusofiad sausury xg

“Sut
jo
‘ON

O OT} GI-9
GB. ST
6 8 | ¢0.01
II 6 | Gb-6
O OT) LS-SI
0 6] LES
‘ur "ay | *SqT
*xapuryAo} *uoqstd
ayy ut} ayy
ey0O4js | uo yout
aya jo | arenbs

qyaueT |1ed peo

aaa amo ssuurg

your OL :
a[Surs 3

qour §9 Suvy-sury,
asus

enGEGL {yvoojoq
9]Surs SouTyAy
your 6 | payepyosuog
a|Surs

yout 0g TOA [294M
a[suis

your og jodory [wey A,

*zapuryso

jo
Jae,

*sOUlT

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 237

It may be remarked, that the time of the year is the most unfa-
vourable to the work of the engines; as from the abundance of water
in the mines, many are pushed beyond their most advantageous
rate.

Duty of the best whim engines, rotatory, double, 6 millions drawn
1 foot high, by each bushel of coals, or 30 kibbles, drawn from the
depth of 100 fathoms by ditto.

Duty of the best stamping engines, rotatory, double, 15 millions
lifted 1 foot high, by each bushel of coals.

Note.—The monthly report of the duty of steam engines in
Cornwall, is taken and computed by Messrs. John and Thomas
Lean, who are specially appointed and paid for that purpose by
the adventurers in the mines, whose object is to obtain a correct
comparative statement, by which they may ascertain the merits of
the respective engines, and may judge of the skiil and care of the
engineers they employ.

Messrs, Leans have the custody of the keys of the counters on
the engines, they themselves measure the capacity and lengths of
the pumps, and they receive the returns of the quantity of coals
consumed from the persons who measure it, and make oath of the
ae at the custom-houses for the debenture which is al-
owed.

The engineers whose names are given are not manufacturers of
engines, nor are they allowed to participate in any business of that
kind; they plan the construction and superintend the execution
and erection of engines, for which they are paid according to the
power of each; and they have the care of them after being erected,
and direct repairs, &c. for which they receive regular salaries from
the mines.

The manufacturers who principally make engines for the mines
in Cornwall are: Messrs. Trevenan, Carne, and Wood, Copper-
House Foundry, Hayle, Cornwall; Messrs. Harvey and Co., Hayle
Foundry, Ditto; Messrs. Price and Co. Neath Abbey Iron-works,
South Wales ; and Messrs. Fox and Co. Perran Foundry, Cornwall.

NEW PATENTS.

To Robert Barlow, of Jubillee-place, Chelsea, for a new combi-
nation of machinery, or new motion for superseding the necessity
of the ordinary crank in steam-engines, and for other purposes where
power is required.—Dated the Ist of February 1827.—6 months
allowed to enrol specification.

To John Frederick Daniell, esquire, of Gower-street, Bedford-
square, for improvements in the manufacture of gas.—Ist of Fe-
bruary.—6 months.

To John Oldham, of Dublin, for improvements in the construc-
tion of wheels for driving machinery impelled by water or wind,
also applicable to propelling boats, &c.—1st of February.—6 mon,

To Ralph Hindmarsh, of Newcastle-upon-'l'yne, master mariner,
for an improvement in the construction of capstans and windlasses.
—Ist of February—6 months. i"

ny)

238 Meteorological Observations for January, 1827.

To Robert Stirling Clerk, minister of Galston, in Ayrdeyre, and
James Stirling, engineer, of Glasgow, for improvements in air en-
gines for moving of machinery.—1st of February.—6 months.

To John White, of Southampton, engineer and iron-founder,
for improvements in the construction of pistons or buckets for
pumps.—lst of February.—6 months.

To Samuel Parker, Argyle-place, Argyle-street, Westminster,
bronzist, for improvements in the construction of lamps.—Ist of

February.—2 months.
To Antoine Adolphe Marcellin Marbot, of No. 38, Norfolk-

street, Strand, for improved machinery for working or cutting
wood into all kinds of mouldings, rebates, cornices, or any sort of
fluted work.—2d of February.—6 months.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JANUARY 1827.
Gosport.—Numerical Results for the Month.

Barom. Max. 30-26 Jan. 26. Wind N.—Min. 29-29 Jan.12. Wind NW.
Range of the mercury 0-97.

Mean barometrical pressure forthemonth. . . . . . . . 29-828
for the lunar period ending the 27th instant . . . . 29-869
for 15 days with the Moon in North declination . . 29-857

for 14 days with the Moon in South declination . . 29-881
Spaces described by the rising and falling ofthe mercury . . . 7-520
Greatest variation in 24 hours 0-760.—Number of changes 21.

Therm. Max. 54° Jan. 8th. Wind W.—Min. 20° Jan. 22. Wind N.E.
Range 34°.—Mean temp. of exter. air 38°-90. For 30 days with © iny3 41°25
Max. var. in 24 hours 18°-00— Mean temp. of spring water at 8 A.M. 50°-62

De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer.
Greatest humidity of the air in the evening ofthe 7th . . . . 100°
Greatest dryness of the air in the afternoon of the 20th . . . 48
ance oftheandexy;p'4 sapebhe! x llsewse sb oliey) > 24 fen peyote Aum
Mean at 2 P.M. 67°-7—Mean at 8 A.M. 74:1—Mean at8 P.M. 74:0
of three observations each day at 8,2, and 8o’clock . . 71-9

Evaporation for the month 0-70 inch.
Rain near ground 1-000 inches.—Rain 23 feet high 0-935 inches.

Summary of the Weather.
A clear sky, 4; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 11; an overcast
sky without rain, 11; foggy, } ; rain, snow & sleet 43.—Total 31 days.

Clouds.
Cirrus, Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus.
18 9 30 0 15 15 19

Scale of the prevailing Winds,

N. WEE. S.E. .S., SW... W. | NOW. Daves
5 64 3 1 1 3} 73 6 31
General Observations.— This month has been very variable, it having
shown many varieties of weather: the first part was generally cold and
humid, accompanied with light rains, hail, snow, sleet, and strong gales of
wind; and the latter part was dry, frosty, and more calm, which made it

seasonable, especially as the snow lay on the ground, &c. for eight a
e

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 239

The whole depth of snow here did not exceed two and a half inches, al-
though the atmosphere was apparently loaded with it, and more or less
fell on ten different days; but in the northern districts it is reported to
have been many feet deep. On the morning of the 4th instant the thermo-
meter receded to 22 degrees ; and the maximum temperature of the air on
the 8th was 54 degrees! From the 6th te the 18th the weather in general
was wet and mild; but from the 19th to the 27th it got cold again by the
induction of a North-east wind, and in the morning of the 23rd, the ther-
mometer sunk to 20 degrees; consequently, the water in the pumps was
frozen, also the moats round the fortifications, and the ponds and marshes,
which afforded skaiting for a few days. A change of wind to the South-
west on the 28th broke up the frost, a eradual thaw commenced, and on
the 31st the thermometer reached to 52 degrees. ‘The maximum tempera-
ture of the 4th, 6th, 13th, and 16th occurred in the nights instead of in the
days. The mean temperature of the external air this month, is 1:17 de-
gree under the mean of January for the last ten years. The atmospheric
and meteoric phenomena that have come within our observations this
month, are one paraselene on the north side of the moon in the evening of
the 16th, one large lunar halo in the evening of the 11th, three meteors at
10 o’clock in the evening of the 18th, when the Aurora Borealis was in its
greatest spendour; and ten gales of wind, or days on which they have pre-
vailed, namely, three from the N., one from N.E., two from S.W., one
from W., and three from the N.W.

REMARKS,

London.—First month. 1. Fine. 2. Fine: a little snow. 3. Fine: a little
snow. 4. A little snow during the night, day fine. 5. Some snow early this
morning. 6. Cloudy: some hail r.m. 7. Cloudy, drizzly. 8. Cloudy.
9. Cloudy and fine, 10. Rainy. 11. Snow and sleet during the day.
12. Cloudy. 13. White frost: drizzly : rain. 14. Wind very boisterous all
day, with rain at intervals. 15. Very clear morning: fine day. 16—18.Cloudy.
19. Some snow in the afternoon. 20. Hoar frost: fine day. 21. Snowy day.
22. Snow with driving wind from s.z.: ground deeply covered with snow.
23. Snow showers. 24. Snowy. 25. Fine. 26. Hoar frost and foggy morn-
ing. 27. Cloudy and fine. 28. Fine: thaw commenced about 11 a.m.
29—31. Cloudy.

RESULTS.

Winds, N. 1: N.E.2: E.1: S.E.2: 8.3: S.W.5: W.5: N.W. 12.

Barometer mean height for the Month «...seseesseeeseeeee 30°63 inch.

Thermometer, mean height for the month.......s.se+e0048 34°145°

Evaporation .....0++sseesseceeeseeessecsesseeseersceresseeserseee “78 inch.

Pe Ole 5s) Ht ol eecuaccseercacsesestecdeee ty Le oiineh.

Boston.—Jan. 1,2. Cloudy. 3. Fine: snow a.m. 4. ime: snow p.m.
5, 6. Cloudy. 7. Cloudy: rain a.m. 8.Cloudy. 9. Cloudy: violent storm,
with raine.m. 10. Cloudy; storm with rain e.m. 11. Stormy. 12. Cloudy.
13. Cloudy: rain a.m. 14. Stormy. 15. Fine. 16. Cloudy: rain $ o’clock
AM. 17. Cloudy. 18. Cloudy: rain a.m. 19, 20. Cloudy. 21. Snow.
22, Stormy. 23. Snow. 24. Cloudy: heavy fall of snow in the night : snow.
now knee-deep on the level. 25.Fine. 26. Cloudy: Snow at intervals day
and night. 27. Fine, 28. Cloudy: rainr.m. 29—31.Cloudy.

Penzance.—Jan. 1. Showers : fair, rain at night. 2. Fair: at times clear.
3. In general clear. 4. A fall of snow. 5. Cloudy. 6—8. Misty. 9. In ge-
neral fair. 10. Heavy showers. 11, 12. Showers. 13. Misty. 14. Showers.
15. Fine day. 16. Showers. 17,18. Misty rain. 19. Misty. 20. Fair,
21. Snow: clear ice. 22. Clear: fair. 23. Clear. 24. Cloudy. 25. Cloudy :
snow. 26. Fair: hail shower. 27. Clear. 28. Cloudy, 29—31. Misty.

Meteor-

EL-T \000-1/SEE-6) S11 loL-0 | gL:

*** 1OTO- Sze.0 z0- |SO. | O€-

16.)
s+ 10Z0- | °""
see | *** 100P-0
++ OPO. |*"*
wee O0Z0- ape
ona vee
+++ |CPO+ |093:0
go- (0) 3X0
vee | 8" IGLT.O
eve 10G0~ | °°
ZI. |O€O. | ***
+» 1010. |SZZ-0
0z- |OSI- jOff-0
Go. |O6I- |°**
s+» 10G0- |OSE-1
oc. 1 ae
soe |Ggo. | °**
s*s JOTO- be
ose | *° JOLB-0
ws lozo. | °**
**+ 1062-0) ***
a

P| ols
a uo) N

eee co- oer
+++ Ico, ove
“ lOL. | SP:
se lor [ot
to. |" vee
ss log, | oe
go. |" eee
oP: |r" eee
s+ log, | oe
60. |" ove
s+ lor. | ce
"= lop.o} **
Pe. |e see

“U0jsog JO TIFAA 4 puv 0dsoy) 10 XINUNT °C JOUDZUIT JV AAAIY) “A ‘uopuoT «nau CUV MOP “Yr

“10dvany

6.08

wyeo) “S | "Ms | ‘Ss mia

“PUM

02 | #5 | ¥a| PS | zt | OS

“HAY XC] ULAL |*XP TAL “UMA | XP TAT] IC" V 4g

4ya0dsox) ‘aouezueg *uopuo’'y

*19JDUIOULIOY T,

GS-63

9V-6%
GS-6%
21-66
66-66
£0.08
GS.6G
85-62
OP-6%
CP.6%
0S-6@
08:62
¢0.0€
O1-0€
Go-0€
00.08
L-6%
00-62
[6.8%
OL-6%
£0.66
L6°8@
£6.6G
LV.6G
99-62
06:62
TL-0€
96:60
£9.62
SE.6%
BT-6G

09.6%

u0jsog

| 66-62 | 95-0€ |_8E-6% | O1-0€ |SP-6% | &S-0€ | + 4eay
99.6z | oL-6z | 90-62 | 9F-6z | 76-62 | $6.62 |1£
01-62 |SL-62 | 8h-6z | 09-62% | 76-6 | 00-08 jo
£8-6z | 06:62 | 09-62 | OL-6% | 00-08 | E1-0€ |5%
96-62 | O1-0€ | 06-62 | 26-62 | EL-0€ | EP.0F 8%
00-08 | gT-0€ | 76-62 | 90-0€ | 8-08 | Eb.os Lo @
69.62 | 9L-6% | $S-6% | OL-6% | 68-60 | G£-08 9%
LG.6z | 89-62 | 8£:-62 | OF-62 | 98-62 | 68-62 Sz
25.62 | LS.6z | 8¥-62 | 67-62 | £8.62 | 98-60 |P%
G6.6z, | LS-6% | 06°62 | 0S-6z | 6L-62 | £8-6z
8£-6z | 99-62 | OF'6z | OF-62 | SL-6% | £8-6% 2%
09-62 | 82:6z | 09-62% | 0L-6z | GL-6% | OL-0€ | 1
Fo.0€ | LI-0€ | 98-6¢ | 06-64 | O1-0€ | 1P.0€ 03 D
6L.0€ |€-0£ | 86-6z | 00-0£ | IP-0€ | 9F-0£ 61
9L.0€ | 0Z-0€ | 00-0€ | 00-0€ | F¥-0€ | 9F-0€ 'gI
LL.0€ |2z-0€ | 20-08 | F0.0€ | ZP-0€ | FP-of {LI
Z0-0€ |60-0£ | 80-08 | O1-0€ | £-0€ | ZP-0£ OI
ZT-0€ |Sz-0£ | 00-08 | O1-0€ | HZ-08 | IV-0€ ST
Pb.6z | 0L-62 | 09-62 | 09-62 | 85-62 | PE-0f FI
LL.6z |¥6-6% | 62-62 | 08-62 | 89-6 | $1.08 €1 O
62-62 |£8-6z | L9-6% | OL.6a | 97-62 | SI-0€ |a1
Pf.6z | LE.60 | 8&-60 | 09-62 | SP-6z | GS-62 |II
PP.6z | 06.6% | 09-62 | 9.6% | ZS-6% | GO-0€ joL
88-62 | 06-62 | 88:6% | 06-62 | $0.08 | 40-08 |6
¥6.6z |t0.0€ | 06-62 | 86-62 | S0-0€ | 8T1-0€ |g
60.0€ |O01-0€ | 86-62 | 86-66 | 8L-08 | SE-0€ |Z
0z.0€ |9z-0€ | 00-08 | O1-A€ | SE.0€ | BS-0€ j9
16.6z |Z%-0F | 00-08 | O1-0€ | 64-08 | ZS-08 |¢ =
29.62 | OL-62 | 99-62 | $8-6% | L8-6% | 66-08 |P
€V.6z | SP-6z | 09-62 | $9.6 | PL-6z | L8-62 |€
16.62 | 49.6% | 296% | ¥S-6@ | PL-6z | SL-62 |z
89-62 | 86-62 | 01.6% 06:62 |GL:6z | 91-08 jt“ Uer
‘ura | *xeW | “UNA | *XBIN | “UNAL | "XP
= "LEST
*+yuodsoy “aoueZuo “uopuo'T ‘quo,
jo sku
*1oJOWOIVET

fig suoynasasgQ Jvnz0j0L09ja py

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE

AND
ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY.

oe

[NEW SERIES. ]
APRIL 1897.

L. Description of a Horizontal Pumping Engine erected on the
Mine of Moran in Mexico. By Puri ‘Tayior, Esq.

[With an Engraving.]
To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals.

Gentlemen,

HE first steam-engine erected in the Real del Monte, was
put in action on the 12th of last August, at the Mine of
Moran. So novel a sight to the natives of Mexico, naturally
attracted vast numbers of all ranks; and having heretofore
seen no other means of raising water from their mines than
such as were adapted to the comparatively feeble power of
men or mules, they were of course astonished at the gigantic
and untired efforts of one of these great servants to the arts.

As this engine differs in construction from any hitherto em-
ployed for pumping water, a short description of it may in-
terest your readers.

I believe no doubt was ever entertained by those competent
to form an opinion, that, if steam-engines could be transported
to the mines of America, and fuel found to work them, such
mines as admitted of their application would become far more
productive. The difficulties anticipated were as to the con-
veyance of such ponderous machinery over so rugged a coun-
try, and as to the erection of it when arrived on the spot.

To obviate these difficulties as much as possible, I endea-
voured to invent a powerful engine which at the same time
should consist of such parts as would be easily conveyed, and
so constructed that it could be erected and put to work with-
out the usual labour and expense of building an engine-
house, &c.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 21 In

242 Mr. P. Taylor on a Horizontal Pumping Engine

In Plate I. is a section (fig. 1.) and a plan (fig. 2.), showing
the principal parts of the engine now at work on the mine of
Moran,—which was constructed by Messrs. Taylor and Mar-
tineau.

A A. The foundation on which the engine is fixed, being
merely a level bed of masonry, with pieces of timber intro-
duced to receive the bolts, &c. which hold down the engine.

BB. Two cylinders, each 10 feet in length and 18 inches
interior diameter. These are fixed in a horizontal position
and exactly parallel to.each other, by means of the four cast-
iron saddles CCCC, which embrace both cylinders, and are
secured to the foundation.

Each of these cylinders has a metallic piston ; one of which
is shown (a) fig. 1. and it will be observed that both the pistons
are fixed on the middle of the piston rods DDD D, which
work through stuffing boxes at each end of the cylinders.

EE. Two strong cross heads, into which the four extre-
mities of the piston rods are firmly fixed.

FFF F. Four friction wheels fitted on the ends of the
cross heads. These wheels are grooved on their edges and
traverse between parallel guide rods, which are kept in a state
of tension by the screws at their extremities GG GG, their
other ends being made fast to the saddles CC, which confine
the cylinders.

H H. The connecting rods attached to the cross heads EF,
by which the power may be applied to pumps placed either
at one or both ends of the engine.

I I. The tappet rod fixed also to the cross heads EE, by
the reciprocating motion of which the valves are opened and
shut.

J J. The passages in the valve nozles to admit steam from
the boiler.

K K. The passages through which the steam escapes af-
ter it has given motion to the piston.

The steam entering through the passages J J, is admitted
by the action of the valves (6), to both cylinders at the same
instant through the cross passages LL LL (fig. 2.) While in
like manner the steam from the opposite ends of both cylin-
ders passes off through the passages K K.

The pistons are 18 inches in diameter, and make a 9-feet
stroke. The boilers attached to the engine are calculated to
supply them with steam of a pressure equal to 50 pounds on
the square inch with perfect safety.

The speed of the engine is regulated by a cataract, and the
valves are so arranged as to allow of its being worked ex-
pansively or otherwise, as circumstances may render desire-

able.

erected on the Mine of Moran in Mexico. 243

able. These parts cannot be shown in a drawing on a small
scale.

The arrangements which are more especially novel in this
engine are, the mode of combining the effect of the cylinders,
and the carrying the piston rods through both ends of the
cylinders.

The horizontal position affords a facility of concentrating
the power derived from even 4 or 6 cylinders upon one point,
and the carrying the piston rods through both ends of the
cylinders has the effect of preventing the weight of the piston
from producing unequal friction, owing to the state of tension
in which the rods are constantly kept.

It is obvious that with an engine thus constructed, the
power may be divided and applied at each end; or it may be
directed wholly to one end, by attaching at the opposite ex-
tremity a balance bob, or beam with a weight equal to half
the power of the engine.

A common pumping engine with a beam requires that the
engine-house should be built close to the mouth of the shaft
in which the pumps are placed, which is often attended with
much inconvenience. The engine above described may be
merely covered by a shed, and this placed at any convenient
distance from the shaft. As mining engines are often re-
moved from one situation to another, the greater the facility
of fixing them, and the less masonry required, the more will
time and expense be saved.

The engine which I have described, with three others built
in Cornwall under the superintendence of Mr. Woolf, and a
complete out-fit of founders’, engineers’, and millwrights’ tools,
implements, &c., also saw-mills and stamping-mills, were
shipped on board the Melpomene, at Falmouth, on the 30th
of March 1825, and arrived off the coast of Mexico the 27th
of May following.

The Castle of St. Juan de Ulloa, which commands the
harbour of Vera Cruz, being at that time in the possession of
the Spaniards, the cargo was obliged to be landed on the
beach at Mocambo, a league to the southward, which could
not be accomplished until the 10th of June, when the setting
in of the rains, and of the unhealthy season on the coast, oc-
casioned great suffering and the death of some of the trans-
port party. These circumstances prevented the machinery
being carried further than Santa Fé, which is about four
miles from the coast.

Here Lieut. Colquhoun of the Royal Artillery, who had
taken the charge of this most arduous enterprise, remained to
recruit the health and strength of the party under his com-

Pela mand,

~ “

244 Mr. P. Taylor on a Horizontal Pumping Engine.

marid, as well as to procure mules and make arrangements
for moving up the country on the return of the dry season.
In the January following the great bulk of the machinery was
forwarded by different convoys to a depdt on the table-land
near Jalapa; and on March 31st, a train of 52 waggons, car-
rying the engine above described, with the various other
articles, proceeded to the Real del Monte, and reached the
Mine of Moran, on the 1st of May 1826. It has been already
stated that this engine was in action on the 12th of August,
an instance of dispatch which does great credit to Mr. Black-
aller who had the charge of erecting it, under the orders of
Captain Vetch, the first commissioner of the Real del Monte
company.

The following particulars are from the letters of a gentle-
man who was present when the engine went to work.

‘* The engine went off in great style with 20 pounds steam,
and very soon brought the water up to the launders to the
surprise of the native spectators of all classes, who were greatly
astonished at this visible proof of her power. In 40 minutes
she lowered the water in the shaft 10 inches. Before con-
necting with the bobs, we had tried her friction as the boilers
heated ; she began to move with 2} pounds steam.”

“From the 12th of August to the 7th of September the en-
gine continued to work regularly, as far as the repairs of the
shaft would permit; it being necessary to remove decayed
timber, and replace it with new, clear obstructions, and drop
the pumps from time to time as the water lowered. The
average time of the engine working amounted to about six
hours per day—the steam in the boiler being at 25 pounds
pressure—worked expansively—the steam valve closing at
about half stroke. At the above date the water was drawn
out to the depth of 18 varas (the vara being nearly a yard).”

A later account mentions that on the 24th of September
the water was lowered to 45 varas, which is one half the depth
of the mine.

There is every reason to think from these statements that
when this mine is once drained, it will be easily kept clear of
water.

The fuel employed under the steam boilers is small oak
with a little pine, which is so abundant that its cost will not
exceed that for coals in Cornwall.

I am, gentlemen, yours very truly,

Jan. 22, 1827. Puitre Taytor.

P.S. The following is an extract from a letter addressed to
“ Messrs.

Mr. George’s Analysis of a Sulphuretted Water. 245

Messrs. Taylor and Martineau, by Mr. J. Blackaller, and dated
Real del Monte, Oct. 18, 1826.

“In the early part of May last I had the pleasure of having
the erection of the first of your engines at the mine of Moran
placed under my direction and superintendance; and on the
12th of August started the same, to the no small surprise and
satisfaction of the numerous visitors who had assembled on
the occasion. The engine has continued to work beyond our
most sanguine expectations, not a thing having failed or re-
quired alteration.

‘“* Our foundry has been at work a short time, and we have
turned out some decent castings, both in brass and iron.”

On the 31st of October, Captain Vetch also writes: “ I am
happy to state that Moran Mine may now be considered as
dry; that is, the water has been sunk to the bottom of the
shaft; but it will be necessary by means of flat rods to drain
some of the pozos (pits or winzes) in the lowest level, to get at
the rich ores.”

LI. Analysis of a Sulphuretted Water from the Northern Part
of the Yorkshire Coal-feld. By H. 8. Groner, F.L.S.
Hon. Mem. Y.P.S.*

HIS mineral water is very extensively employed in the
fulling of woollen cloths,—a process to which, from the
absence of earthy salts, it is peculiarly adapted. It formerly
issued in a considerable spring at the village of Holbeck near
Leeds, and was used medicinally: it appears in most cases to
rise from a thick bed of shale lying below the flagstone, and
so large is the supply that it has been procured in every situ-
ation in which borings to a sufficient depth have been made.
There are in Leeds near fifty borings, and about 200,000
gallons of the water are pumped up daily. The depth at which
the water is procured, from 70 to 200 yards, according to the
situation of the well as regards the inclination of the strata.
The amount of both gaseous and saline contents varies with
the occurrence of higher springs, affected by heavy rains or
by sudden elevations of the river Aire.

The water analysed was from Johnson’s Well in Campfield,
Leeds; the depth of the boring 90 yards: upon the surface is
a bed of gravel about four yards thick, communicating with
the river Aire, from which the well is about 200 yards distant :
the water in the gravel is prevented from mixing with that in

* Read to the Yorksh, Phil, Soc. Jan. 2, 1827; and communicated by
the Author.

the

246 Mr. George’s Analysis of a Sulphuretted Water

the boring by a casing of iron pipes descending into a solid
stratum of shale.
Analysis.

Specific gravity 1:00155.

The water when taken from the spring appears clear and
sparkling, has a considerable sulphuretted odour, slightly blues
reddened litmus; reddens turmeric; with solution of soap
gives a very slight curdy precipitate. Lime-water occasions a
precipitate both before and after ebullition, Oxalate of am-
monia no precipitate ; in the concentrated water a slight cloudi-
ness. Nitrate of barytes, a precipitate; the addition of a few
drops of nitric acid removed nearly the whole with efferves-
cence. Nitrate of silver, a precipitate with an immediate slight
discoloration. Ferrocyanate of potash, no precipitate, nor any
change of colour. Acetate of lead, a copious precipitate with
a brown tinge, before boiling,—a colourless precipitate after
ebullition.

Nitro-muriate of platinum does not occasion any precipitate
in the concentrated water after boiling. ‘The concentrated
water possesses a strong alkaline taste, and deeply reddens
turmeric paper: not the slightest cloudiness was perceptible
after boiling the water twenty minutes with the addition of
carbonate of soda. Phosphate of soda gave no indication of
magnesia.

The action of tests shows that sulphuretted hydrogen exists
“in a gaseous state, that the carbonate, muriate, and sulphate
of an alkali are present, and that the alkali is soda; that the
water does not contain any metallic salt, any muriate of lime,
or any salt of magnesia.

Gaseous contents.

Having ascertained the gases contained in the water to be
sulphuretted hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, oxygen and
azote ;—a wine gallon of the water was boiled in a proper ap-
paratus, and gave out 12 cubic inches of gas.— The experiment
was repeated several times with the same result.

1. To ascertain the amount of sulphuretted hydrogen, ex-
posed a cubic inch of the gas, contained in a graduated glass
tube, to contact, by very gentle agitation, with carbonate of
lead; (obtained by precipitating [the carbonate of lead] from a
solution of acetate of lead by carbonate of ammonia as directed
by Dr. Henry, in his excellent paper “On the analysis of coal
gas”) 0°22 of a cubic inch was absorbed. Having thus separated
the sulphuretted hydrogen, agitated the residue in a solution
of caustic potash, a further diminution of 0°18 of a cubic inch

of carbonic acid gas took place.
2, 0°33

from the Northern Part of the Yorkshire Coalfield. 247

2. 0°33 of a cubic inch of the gas, (after the separation of
the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gases, ) was mixed
with 0°60 of a cubic inch of nitrous gas: an absorption of 0°10
took place, indicating 0°025 of oxygen gas; and in 1 cubic
inch of the gas from the water, 0°045 of oxygen gas.

3. On firing 0°5 of a cubic inch of the unabsorbable gases
with 0°575 of oxygen, the carbonic acid produced was 0°20,
and the oxygen that had disappeared 0-397; approximating
so closely to the quantity of carbonic acid gas produced, and
of oxygen gas consumed during the detonation of the carbu-
retted hydrogen gas from stagnant pools, that the composi-
tion of the gases may be considered the same; and since that
gas produces its own bulk of carbonic acid, the carburetted
hydrogen contained in 0°50 of the gas will be 0:20, and in
1 cubic inch of the gas from the water, will be 0-24.

4, After the separation of the excess of oxygen by nitrous

gas the residual azote was 0°2625. ‘The gases contained in
the water are:

In one cubic inch of the gas. In a gallon of the water.

Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches.
Carburetted hydrogen 0°24 ..... Pe 1) eeiters.
Sulphuretted do... . 0°22 . : 2°64
CEH raion Pets Bae Ree 01 PS ae Briard oe 2°16
ye a ait so setae, | O°ORD sari aijavsie yes 0°54
PACAIN Cag ek Tos iiSietas). ieA chs OS 5 ea, chal sh ctsicy ops 3°78
1:000 12°00

Saline contents.

1. Evaporated one wine-gallon of the water gradually to
dryness ; it did not become in the least turbid: the concentrated
liquid tasted strongly alkaline, the solid residue weighed 38°5
grains.

2. Dissolved the 38°5 grains in 8 ounces of distilled water,
and boiled a few minutes ; a small portion of flocculent matter
floated in the solution; separated by subsidence and dried, it
weighed 0°3 grains.

3. Into the clear solutions dropped nitrate of barytes as
long as any precipitate fell down; collected by subsidence and
dried after repeated washings, it weighed 60 grains: this pre-
cipitate contained the carbonic and sulphuric acids existing
in the water.

4. Upon the precipitate (No. 3.) poured dilute nitric acid :
nearly the whole was dissolved with effervescence ; the insolu-
ble part when dried weighed 9 grains, and was sulphate of
barytes.

5. Into

248 Mr. George’s Analysis of a Sulphureited Water.

5. Into the solution after the separation of the precipitate
(No. 3.) dropped a solution of nitrate of silver: a precipitate
of chloride of silver fell down, weighing after fusion 7-9 gers.

6. Upon the 3 grains insoluble in water (No. 2.) poured di-
lute nitric acid: the whole was dissolved with effervescence,
and was again entirely precipitated by oxalate of ammonia.

The contents of the water are:

Carbonic acid in 51 grains of carbonate of ba- 11°40
rytes and 0°3 gr. of carbonate of lime . . .
Sulphuric acid in 9 grs. of sulphate of barytes . 3°05
Muriatic acid indicated by 7-9 grs. of chloride 1:97

oftsilyer. sits Sti! S48 ALIS FRO RIES
Sodat.. 2 Shar Diis eee Tee CRIED. De HES - 20°48
ime) seth: Cae och les DSO suai ; 107,
Existing in the water as
RC ATOONALE OL SOGM\.. «meskes cchucveaensie Tossctie - 27-40
Sulphate of soda....... -2.2 e+ «. Sikhs Gas heuer eee
IMirmiate OfesOUa mctiee sishepe beldchcnis ie fellas. 2) aces aaa
Sulphate of lime... . .).)0\. athe Tie, vette | Ricauuans wa sORL
WUGSSaM. wsuiee oats 42 Ze ahbig ihc SAL Siete icc iets oak, Gatacnmenelgt:

38°50

The loss appears to be partly occasioned by the different
hygrometric states of the substances; the salts resulting from
evaporation being highly deliquescent, and requiring great care
during their evaporation, to prevent the decomposition of the
carbonate of soda: while the precipitates of carbonate and sul-
phate of barytes and chloride of silver, retaining moisture with
much less tenacity, were dried at a higher temperature.

It is probable that the soda exists in the water as a bicar-
bonate, the excess of carbonic acid being given out in the
state of gas, during the evaporation required to perform the
analysis. ‘The water examined presents two striking pecu-
liarities, the large quantity of carburetted hydrogen, (this
gas although supposed to occur in mineral waters, was only
very lately proved to exist, by the experiments of Mr. West, on
the water of the Crown Spa at Harrogate,) and in the saline
contents the large amount of carbonate of soda. I shall not
offer any conjectures on its source; but only remark, that I
have detected its existence in many waters of the Yorkshire
Coal-district. y

St. Peter’s Hill, Leeds,
Jan. 1, 1827.

LIL. Ap-

[ 249 J

LIL. Application of the Variations of Temperature in Air that
changes its Volume to account for the Velocity of Sound. By
J. Ivory, Esq. M.A. F.R.S.*

+ eS formula for the velocity of sound investigated by
Newton, having finally overcome all objections, it still
remained to account for the remarkable discrepancy between
the theory and observation. The difference, amounting toa
sixth of the whole quantity, could hardly be thrown entirely
upon incidental errors of the experiments. The author of
the Principia led the way in the conjectures that were ad-
vanced for reconciling the calculated velocity of sound with
the true velocity; but as all these attempts have shared the
usual fate of hypotheses, and have lost all interest by the dis-
covery of the real cause, it would be superfluous to mention
them here. But it will be proper to observe, that the difficulty
was occasioned by no inaccuracy or neglect of Newton. It
arose from an inexact estimate of the air’s elasticity, which he
was unavoidably led to make from the state of natural science
in his time, and which the progress of knowledge has enabled
the philosophers of the present day to correct. When the ex-
act elasticity is substituted for the inaccurate quantity, the dis-
crepancy between theory and experiment disappears, without
any change being required in the demonstration. At the time
of the publication of the Principia, and long after that time,
what could possibly have led any one to surmise, that nearly
half as much heat enters into air when it dilates, and comes
out of it when it contracts, as must be applied from some ex-
traneous source, in order to produce the same change of vo-
lume?

The fact, that air absorbs heat when it expands, and evolves
heat when it contracts, having been established by many ex-
periments; and very notable effects being observed in some
cases of great and sudden condensation; Laplace, between
20 and 30 years ago, first suggested that this property of air
was the cause of the perplexing difference between the velo-

city of sound as determined by theory and observation. In
the aérial undulations by which sound is conveyed to the ear,
every small portion of air is first condensed and then dilated ;
and we may compare the elasticities on the two suppositions,
that the temperature of the agitated air remains the same as
in the quiescent state of equilibrium, and that it varies with
the changes of volume. The external compressive force be-
ing always the same, it is manifest that, whenever the bulk of

* Communicated by the Author.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 2K the

250 Mr. Ivory’s Theory of the Velocity of Sound.

the small parcel of air is less than in the quiescent state,
the elasticity will be greater on the second supposition than
on the first, on account of the extrication of heat; but, when-
ever the bulk is greater than in the quiescent state, the elasti-
city will be less on the second supposition than on the first,
on account of the cold, produced by the absorption of heat.
Now the accelerating forces of the aérial particles are the dif-
ferences between their actual elasticity and the elasticity of
the quiescent medium; and as these forces are always greater
on the second supposition than on the first, the velocity of
the undulation must be swifter in that case than in this. ‘The
formula of Newton, being deduced from the law of Boyle and
Mariotte, is consonant to the first supposition ; and there is
undoubtedly in the second supposition a tendency to diminish
the difference between theory and experiment, by increasing
the estimate of the velocity of sound. One circumstance how-
ever, it may be alleged, must in some degree modify the effect
of the variations of heat in the agitated air; namely, the ra-
pidity with which the small increments and decrements of free
heat would be equalized to the temperature of the surrounding
medium. But the whole time of an aérial vibration is ex-
tremely short; and we may safely consider every change of
volume that takes place during its progress, and every varia-
tion of free heat, as enduring only for an indivisible instant of
time. Every parcel of air as it is successively agitated retains
the whole of its absolute heat; and the rapid evolution and
absorption of free heat have no other effect than to increase
the elasticity.

The principle suggested by Laplace, having a real exist-
ence in fact, and being adequate at least in a certain degree
to reconcile the theory with experiment, it became important
to ascertain the exact increase of velocity deducible from it.
But here a difficulty occurred. It was known that heat was
extricated from air when it is condensed, but there was no
measure of the effect. It even seemed very difficult, if not
impossible, to arrive at any tolerably precise estimation by
direct experiment. MM. Biot and Poisson therefore reversed
the question, and inquired in what degree the elasticity com-
puted by the law of Boyle and Mariotte must be increased ;
or, which is the same thing, in what proportion the free heat
must vary with respect to the volume; in order to bring out
the true velocity of sound. By this means we might at least
be able to judge whether the assigned cause would alone ac-
count for the observed deficiency. And, admitting that the
effect fell within the limits of probability, there can be no
doubt that the just rules of philosophizing would be nowise

infringed

Mr. Ivory’s Theory of the Velocity of Sound. 251

infringed by adopting the explanation deduced, ‘by this in-
verted procedure, from the phenomenon itself. In 1816 La-
place published the following theorem, without the demon-
stration :— The velocity of sound is equal to the velocity accord-
ing to Newton’s formula, multiplied by the square root of the
proportion of the specific heat of air under a constant pres-
sure, to the specific heat under a constant volume. The in-
vestigation was first given in the Conn. des Tems 1825, and af-
terwards in the xiith book of the Mécanique Céleste. 'This
theorem left nothing more to be done than to find a certain
ratio in numbers; and this was accomplished by the ingenious
experiment of MM. Clement and Desormes, from which we
have deduced the proportion of the latent, to the free, heat,
when air varies under a constant pressure. MM. Gay-Lussac
and Welter improved a little the original procedure of the in-
ventors, and repeated the experiment in a great variety of cir-
cumstances; by which means they not only determined the
number sought more exactly, but they likewise showed that
it was constant, or nearly so, in considerable diversity of tem-
perature and pressure. ‘The result of this long investigation,
protracted for so many years, was a complete solution of the
difficulty, and a satisfactory reconcilement of the theoretical,
with the experimental, estimate of the velocity of sound.

The numerical value of the proportion indicated in Laplace’s
theorem is immediately deducible from what has been shown
respecting the manner in which heat combines with elastic
fluids. When air varies under a constant pressure, the ab-
solute heat requisite to produce the rise of temperature r, is
++, i being the latent heat. But r is the heat that causes
an equal rise of temperature when the volume is constant.
It is manifest therefore that the proportion of the two specific

heats in the theorem, is r +7 tor, or 1 + = to 1, that is,

1+ i to 1: and 2 1+ o is the factor by which the New-
tonian velocity of sound must be multiplied, in order to ob-
tain the true velocity.

But the whole difficulty respecting the velocity of sound is
overcome, when it has been found how much heat is extricated
from air condensed in a given degree. This is the leading
principle on which the investigation must turn, by whatever
process the result is brought out. In Newton’s formula the
pressure and density are supposed to follow the law of Boyle
and Mariotte; and the computation will be best rectified by
searching out the true relation of the same quantities, and
substituting it in the place of that inaccurately employed. It

9K? remains,

252 Mr. Ivory’s Theory of the Velocity of Sound.

remains, then, to investigate the relation between the elasticity
and density of a mass of air that varies its temperature as it
dilates and contracts, without losing or receiving any heat
from the surrounding medium.

Put p’, ¢', 6, for the pressure, density, and temperature of
a given mass of air; and suppose that these quantities are
simultaneously changed into p, ge, +7; then, we shall have,

Pa ee lt+taétar
p SS gat aes
Again, p' remaining the same, put D for the density at the
beginning of the thermometrical scale; and let 2’ be the latent
‘ heat requisite to change D into g!: then
é diy 1
Tha Vp wer

i ie ees oS Sh
Further let 2’ + z be the latent heat accompanying the change
of D into ¢; and,

efor Aile Ss Winter at Bo od
Dials GF 4-6 & nd et Be
Hence, te Lied

Pp aaees rae ey
From the values that have been found, we now get,

Dee peal ries
ae TES
(C)
Da ane S” 7 keel
e | ~— 1+ ab+ Bi

These formule express the elasticity and density of the air by
means of the initial quantities p’, g', 6, and the variations of
temperature and latent heat represented by + and z. It must
be observed, however, that the mass of air is supposed to vary
in an unlimited supply of heat; so that the small increments
and decrements of free heat arising from the changes of vo-
lume produce no effect on the thermometer, being continually
equalized to the temperature of the surrounding bodies. In
this case the quantities + and 7 are independent on one an-
other; the first being the temperature as shown by the ther-
mometer, and the second the latent heat connected with the
change of bulk. But if the supply of heat were limited, it
would be requisite to take into account the free heat evolved
or absorbed by the contraction and dilatation of the air. For
this purpose we must write t—7 for r in the first of the for-
mula (C); supposing that 7 is all the heat derived from ex-
traneous sources, and + 7 the variation of the latent heat. In

a parcel

Mr. Ivory’s Theory of the Velocity of Sound. 253

a parcel of air agitated in an aérial undulation, there is no
extraneous heat, and r = 0: the foregoing equation, therefore,
will become,
p l+aé—azi
“pl — 1+ ab+Bi’
eben! l1+2é
abt Bi
And, by exterminating 7,

Be Ee Batti * 5, aes

S aanaiien < ar ) B (D)
This equation expresses the relation between the elasticity and
density in the circumstances supposed, and it is that which
must be employed in the investigation of the velocity of sound
in place of the equation - = —., resulting from the law of
Boyle and Mariotte, and forming the basis of Newton’s for-
mula.

In the Philosophical Magazine for June 1825, p. 12, the
following equation is obtained in considering the motion of a
line of air, viz.

Bioeth) IS He
e ae dz°
Substitute, now, this value in equat. (D); thus
peerage h He ame
ihe - < he “p /J dz*
and if we put k = 1 + a and go through the rest of the

calculation as at the place cited, we shall obtain,

ddz pr ddx
qe eX oe x ae

: Sei ae,
The true velocity of sound is therefore sf kx: but the
Newtonian velocity, deduced from the law of Boyle and Ma-
riotte, is cu “ : and these two formulz contain the demon-
stration of Laplace’s theorem.

The theory we have attempted to give of the. combination
of heat with ‘elastic fluids is founded on acknowledged facts.
It is general, extending as far as experience has enabled us
to reduce the effects of heat to precise rules. It follows from
it that the quantity £, on which the velocity of sound depends,
has the same value for air and all the gases; and likewise that
it remains constant in every diversity of pressure and density:
all which consequences are known to be consonant to obser-
vation.

The

254 Mr. Ivory’s Theory of the Velocity of Sound.

The equation (D) does not coincide with what is elsewhere
given for expressing the relation of the same quantities. It is
different from the equation published by M. Poisson in the
Conn. des Tems 1826, p. 264. In order to clear away all
clouds of obscurity from a matter of considerable importance,
I shall now examine particularly, what it is that occasions the
difference. For this purpose I shall set out from M. Poisson’s
equation (6), p. 263, viz.

w= (k —1)(1 +a).

Here » is the variation of latent heat corresponding to the

small condensation y; and, in our notation, » = dz, y= es
k-l= ts the equation may now be put in this form, viz.
de _ Bdi
TF Tae Vict?

which is nowise different from what M. Poisson obtains in
p- 264, except that he writes d# = , instead of di = w. Dif-
ferentiate the second of the formule (C), changing the sign
of z in order to agree with M. Poisson’s supposition, that the
density increases; then,
de. * Bai
ha © 2 Ee pe.

Now this equation is identical with M. Poisson’s only at one
point, namely, when z = 0. ‘The latter is therefore true only
in a particular state of the variables, and is inexact in all other
circumstances. When the density and latent heat of a mass
of air vary together, M. Poisson’s equation expresses the true
relation of the differentials only initially ; and it ceases to be
exact when the variable quantities have changed their original
magnitudes. The integral formulz deduced from such a pro-
cess cannot be accurate results, although they may be ap-
proximations. The truth of what has been observed must
be so evident to any one that will consider with attention the
manner in which the author obtains the equation in question,
that it would be a waste of words to attempt any further ex-
planation. .

The investigation I have given in pp. 7 and 8 of the Phil.
Mag. for June 1825, is liable to the same objection that has
just been urged against M. Poisson. The relation of the dif-
ferentials is obtained only in a particular state of the variables.
The experiment of MM. Clement and Desormes, although it

7 - a . .
enables us to ascertain the value of 3 Is, nevertheless, in-

sufficient

Mr. Ivory’s Theory of the Velocity of Sound. 255

sufficient for finding, generally, the relation between the den-
sity and latent heat, when these quantities vary together.

It must not, however, be imagined that the damage arising
from the inadvertency that has been noticed, is ruinously great.
The formulz obtained are true to quantities of the second
order with respect to « and 6. They are sufficiently exact
for investigating the velocity of sound; and they can hardly
lead to any error of moment in any practical inquiry. But it
is always best to square our speculations according to expe-
rience and the laws actually followed in nature; and, in a case
like the present, when it may be supposed that we have re-
turned into the right path after having deviated a little from
it, it is instructive to look back and examine what led us
astray. y

In further illustration of what has been said, it may not be
improper to add a few words concerning the equations in the
xiith book of the Mécanique Céleste, pp. 123, 127. For this
purpose I seek the values of and 7 from the foregoing equa-
tions (C); then, by taking the sum, we get,

peter 2. iomisideel ol phi ie 2 igh Biedes
T+i=Va=(7-4 1) A + 1) i
Put F=1+4+ “a as before, and differentiate: then
dV dV tet gf pp’
“de 8 + f ap P T B @ pl
We have initially, p = p', g = e'; and if we suppose that the

mass of air undergoes only a small variation from the initial
state, we shall have,

Ta etk—— p=
Ree AS

ae
ORE A at

dp P

These equations are true only at one point, and ina particu~
lar state of the variables, as has been mentioned. ‘They can
have nothing to do with integration, which supposes that the
differential equations are exact for all values of the flowing
quantities within the limits of their variation. They merely
express that the two specific heats, under a constant pressure
and under a constant volume, have to one another the same
invariable proportion, whatever be the condition of the mass
of air.
March 5, 1827. J. Ivory.

LULL. | Theory

[ 256 ]

LILI. Theory of the Spirit-Level. By J. Nixon, Esq.*

Definitionst—1 ‘Tuat part of the straight (or perpendicular)

line in which the plummet hangs, and bodies
fall tothe ground, which liesaboveany given point (on the earth’s
surface) through which it passes, is termed the vertical (line) of
that point, and terminates upwards at another point called the
vertex or zenith. 2. A straight line, or plane passing through
the given point at right angles to its vertical, is termed a hori-
zontal line or plane. 3. As no one vertical is parallel to an-
other, the horizontal lines or planes of points situated in the
same vertical, although parallel to each other, are nevertheless
inclined to those of points lying in any other vertical. 4. Planes
which pass through the given point and that of its zenith (in
the direction of the vertical line in which they are situated),
cut its horizontal plane at right angles, and are called vertical
planes. 5. As the angle formed at the given point by the in-
tersection of its vertical and a straight line from any other
point will lie in a vertical plane, it is termed a vertical an-
gle, and is equal to the zenith distance of that point or line.
6. The vertical angle formed at the given point by the inter-
section of one of its horizontal lines and a straight line pro-
duced from any other point, is equal to the horizontal inclina-
tion of that line. 7. This vertical angle is also termed the ele-
vation or depression of the same line or point, accordingly as
it is situated above or below the horizontal plane (or horizon)
of the given point. 8. The zenith distance of a horizontal
line or “plane, and the elevation of the zenith of any given
point being equal to each other and to a right angle, it follows
that the angle of elevation of any other point or line is equal
to 90° minus its zenith distance, and that of depression to the
zenith distance minus 90°.

9. Fluids gravitate in straight lines in the direction of gra-
vity. 10. When at rest, and subjected to the sole action of
gravity, their order of superposition, with curved surfaces of
contact, is inversely as their specific gravities. 11. The hori-
zontal lines or plane of any given point situated on the sur-
face of a fluid, having other fluids superincumbent or not, are
tangents to that surface. 12. When the surface of the fluid
is of inconsiderable extent, it is sensibly a horizontal plane,
perpendicular to the vertical and parallel to the horizontal
lines and plane of any other point above or below it.

* Communicated by the Author.
+ The exact figure of the earth’s surface is supposed to be unknown.

If

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level. 257

If we place in a vertical position the sides of a (glass) vessel
W, formed of two equal
parallel circular planes,
held together by a rim
R, perpendicular to the
planes, the surface of
contact of the incom-
pressible fluid (or liquid),
with the superincumbent
elastic fluid, together fill-
ing the vessel, will be sen-
sibly a horizontal plane.

A vertical plane passing

in the direction of the
centres of the circles,
(through their vertices
and that of the rim,) will wv.
divide at right angles a
straight line Ld, drawn on this horizontal surface parallel to
the circles, into two equal parts. The vertex or zenith v of
the circumference of either circle or the rim will therefore be
the point of bisection of such part of the arc of either as is
situated above this horizontal surface.

Having marked this zenith-point, if the vessel be made to
describe in a vertical plane, any part of a revolution about
the horizontal line or axis C, passing through the centres of
the circles, the mark moving along with the vessel, will pass
over an equal arc of revolution. The zenith-distance of a
straight line drawn from the mark, which we will now call v’,
to C, will therefore be equal to that arc or to the angle formed
by the intersection at C of this straight line, and a vertical
line passing through the new zenith-point of the rim, &c. found
by bisecting, as before, the arch of the rim, &c. now extended
over the horizontal surface L 1.

When the interior of the rim is perfectly circular, the arc
passed over (or zenith-distance of v) may be measured at
once on its graduated parallel exterior. But should the figure
of the rim be that of any other curve, the length of L/ will
vary in different parts of the curve;—the zenith-points will
seldom be vertical to the point of bisection of LJ, or be si-
tuated at the middle point of the arch extended over it. The
points v and v must now be found exclusively by drawing
straight lines through the centre of revolution (or axis) of the
vessel perpendicular to L/; their angular opening or zenith-
distance of v being measured on a graduated circle described

New Series. Vol 1. No.4. April 1827. 2L on

258 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level.

on either vertical side of the vessel concentric to the axis of
rotation.

Vertical lines passing through points situated near each
other, differ so slightly in parallelism, that the vessel might
have been moved forty horizontal feet in the interval of mark-
ing the two zenith-points, without introducing an error in the
zenith-distance of v’ equal to halfa second. Ifthe expansion
of the liquid should exceed that of the glass of the vessel, the
increase of temperature which augments its volume will ele-
vate its horizontal surface, and cause a sensible diminution in
its area and the length of the line L7. Decrease of tempera-
ture will therefore augment the horizontal surface, and elon-

ate Li. In either case the zenith-point will be invariably at
the point of bisection of the arch situated above the surface
of the liquid, without regard to its extent.

When the temperature of every part of the vessel is not the
same (which may be the result of handling it, or breathing on
it), the circular figure is destroyed, and the length as well as
probably the figure of the surface of the liquid undergo alter-
ations. The graduations of the distorted rim are therefore
rendered unserviceable from their inequality ; and should the
partial temperature affect the vessel where in contact with the
surface of the liquid ; in such case the true zenith-point eannot
be found otherwise than by drawing a line through C per-
pendicular to LZ. Generally the surface of the liquid will ap-
pear to advance towards that part of the rim bulged out by
the partial increase of temperature.

In the construction of a spirit-level the upper interior sur-
face of a straight (hollow) cylinder of glass is ground in the
direction of its axis to a perfectly circular arch. Either end
being permanently closed, the cylinder is nearly filled with
spirits of wine or ether, and the other end hermetically sealed.
Hence it is evident that any section of our circular vessel
perpendicular to its sides, when nearly filled with the pro-
per liquid, and securely closed up, would be equivalent to
a similar spirit-level. In this instrument the atmospheric
air incumbent on the ether, &c. or rather their surface of
contact, is termed the air-bubble, or simply the bubble; and
is represented in our circular vessel by the horizontal surface
of the liquid on which is drawn the straight line L/.

Having learned from our experiments with the circular
vessel, that the length (or figure) of the bubble LZ would not
alter in a constant temperature, we may restrict ourselves, in
lieu of finding the zenith-points v and v, to the marking of
either end of the bubble, as L or /, before, and the same end

subsequent

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit- Level. 259

subsequent to any degree of revolution of the vessel. The
zenith-distance of v, equal to its change of inclination, may
now be ascertained at once, by observing on the graduated
rim, &c. the angular distance of the two marks. To guard
against any change of temperature in the interval of the ope-
ration, it will be advisable to mark the rim at both ends of the
bubble (L and Z) and to consider the half-sum of the degrees,
&c. on the rim corresponding to each mark as the zenith-point
of v (or v'). The difference of these two half-sums, granting
the change of temperature to have been uniform, will give the
zenith-distance of wv. When the graduations are sufficiently
large to admit of being read off without vernier, &c. we may
dispense with the marks by noting the degrees, &c. exactly
over the-ends of the bubble.

In order to graduate in a similar manner the upper or con-
vex surface of a spirit-level, we must ascertain in the first place
the linear space passed over by its bubble, corresponding to
a certain angular change of inclination, as one minute, one se-
cond, &c. This may be effected after various methods * ; as by
fixing the level to a long straight bar of a known length, and
having elevated either end a quantity equal to the given angle,
to note the inches, &c. passed over by the bubble; generally
termed its displacement. ‘The tube or the ivory scale laterally
attached to it, may now be divided into equal spaces+, each
equivalent to a change of inclination of one second, &c.; and
so numbered as to give, without risk of mistake, the middle
point of the bubble, regardless of its varying length, and con-
sequently minute differences of vertical anglest.

* The French verify the scale of the great level of their repeating-circle,
by measuring on its graduated vertical circle a sufficient multiple of the
minute angle subtended by two well-defined fixed objects situated in the
same vertical plane, and comparing the result with the corresponding mea-
surement by the divided scale of the level.

In lieu of the repeating-circle we might have recourse to the microme-
ter of a telescope.

+ When the bubble does not pass over equal spaces for equal angles of
inclination throughout the length of the tube, it proves that the arch is not
perfectly circular.

t In general the middle division is considered as zero, whence the
numeration, alike for the divisions on each side of it, is carried on pro-
gressively to each end of the scale.—The divisions on the one side of zero
being considered as positive, and those on the other side as negative, the
distance of each end of the bubble from zero, with the proper signs pre-
fixed, are registered ; and half their sum, when the signs are alike, or half
their difference (with the sign of the greater quantity), when the signs are
unlike, is considered the middle point of the bubble, or vertex of the level.
Hence the difference or sum, as their signs are like or unlike, of two simi-
lar middle points, of which one was noted before, and the other after an al-
teration of inclination of the level, indicate its angular value.

2L2 The

260 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit- Level.

The radius of curvature of a spirit-level is found by multi-
plying the linear displacement of the bubble, answering to a
change of inclination of one second, by 200,000; and vertical
angles are measured on the divided scale of a spirit-level as
correctly as by a plumb-line of the length of the radius of
curvature of its tube*. (Had the cylindrical tube of the level
been without curvature, and closed at the ends with (circular)
planes perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, the bubble,
if we may designate the hori-
zontal surface of the liquid 1% L
as such, would extend from
one end of the tube to the
other, and small angles of in-
clination, measured on a divided vertical line or scale passing
through the centre of each end, would possess a degree of
accuracy equal only to similar observations made with a plumb-
line of the length of the cylinder.)

The circular vessel W, is represented in the figure as fixed
to a pedestal (P) of a triangular shape; and we might ima-
gine, that increased temperature, inasmuch as it would elevate
T without affecting the height of U, would produce a greater
inclination of the plane TU, and consequently throw vC out
of perpendicular. But as the sides of the triangle will elon-
gate in one and the same ratio, the angles they subtend, and
therefore the horizontal inclination of TU, must be constant.
Hence the exterior sides of the tube, instead of being parallel,
might be inclined to the cylindrical interior without disturbing,
during variations of uniform temperature, the position of the
bubble. Supposing even the znterior of the tube to be coni-
cal, it does not follow, as might at first be conjectured, that

change of temperature would affect the inclination of the
level.

Let ABCD represent
the vertical section of a /~
conical tube resting on
the plane E, which forms
an angle with the hori-
zon equal to the inclina-
tion of the sides of the cone (or B fD), so that the upper side
of the cone AB will be forecints ‘then if the foo aes of
the section augment (from expansion) in the same ratio, the

A B

* The linear displacement per second of the bubble of a spirit-level sel-
dom exceeds the one-twentieth part of an inch ; but occasionally, especially
on the continent, they have been constructed with a much greater radius
of curvature. In a level by Reichenbach it amounted to 200 miles !

angles

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level. 261
angles at A, B, C, D will be constant, and the upper side AB

preserve its parallelism to the horizon *.

When the temperature of the level is not uniform, the bub-
ble (as in the parallel case of the circular vessel) will be dis-
placed and move towards the warmer end of the tube. Its
ground arch, as well as the divisions of the scale being dis-
torted, the half-sum of the divisions at each end of the bubble
cannot correspond with the true vertex of the level.

The tube of the level is generally mounted in a thin case of
brass, a metal which expands in a greater ratio than glass.
When the bottom of the case and that side of the tube in con-
tact with it are not strictly parallel, it may occur in great va-
riations of temperature that the tube will rest on some dif-
ferent part of the case, and cause a sensible variation in its in-
clination to the horizon. The difference of expansion may
also affect the radius of curvature, or alter the perfectly cir-
cular figure of the arch of the tube.

In our circular vessel, as the graduated rim is perpendicu-
lar to its horizontal axis, either end of the bubble (or hori-
zontal line LZ) must describe, as the vessel revolves, arcs of a
circle lying in a vertical plane: and were a hollow (glass)
sphere, nearly filled with any liquid, made to complete a re-
volution about a horizontal line (or axis) passing through its
centre, then would the centre of the surface of the liquid (or
bubble) have described a great circle, also lying in a vertical
plane perpendicular to the axis, and on which, when gradu-
ated, zenith-distances, &c. might be measured, precisely the
same as on the rim of the circular vessel. And if we divide
the interior of the sphere into two unequal parts by means of
a circular plane (inferior in diameter to the sphere) also placed
at right angles to the axis of rotation, and nearly fill the two
divisions with any liquid, then will a vertical plane passing in
the direction of the axis of the sphere, divide at any period of
its revolution the semicircular bubble of the lesser division, and
the circular one of the larger division (moving parallel to each
other) into two equal parts. Hence differences of inclination,
&c. measured on the great circle, or on the similarly graduated
rim of the parallel circular plane would always be equal.

Let a graduated hollow glass ring, nearly filled with any
liquid, be made to closely incircle the sphere (the partition
being withdrawn) in the direction of any one of its great cir-
cles except the one perpendicular to its axis. When the point
of intersection of these two circles is made to coincide with the

* It is nevertheless certain that change of temperature alters the vertex,

or reversing point of most spirit-levels ; which the artists attribute to the
tubes not being perfectly cylindrical.

vertex

262 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level.

vertex of the sphere, then will the centres of the bubble of the
ring and that of the sphere also coincide, or be in the same
vertical; yet it will be found after any partial revolution of
the sphere, that although the bubble of the ring will always
come to rest at the most elevated point of the ring, or that
part of it the nearest to the vertex of the sphere (or centre of
its bubble), its distance from its initial mark, as measured on
its graduated scale will, however, fall short of the correct
zenith-distance of that mark or arc of revolution ;—the dis-
crepancy augmenting with the inclination of the ring to the
circle described by the bubble of the sphere. When the in-
clination equals 90°,in which case (the plane of) the ring
passes through (the centre of) the sphere in the direction of
its axis, the arc of revolution may amount to 90°, without dis-
placing the (unserviceable) bubble of the ring from between
its marks *.

Let ad! a'b be the great circle of the sphere parallel to the
horizon; 6! the ver-
tical circle perpendi- b
cular to the axis of
rotation aa’, descri-
bed by the bubble of
the sphere now at
rest at the vertex v;
and let w be the bub-
ble of the (oblique
circle, or) ring 77,
inclined to 66 at an
angle equal to vm, m
being their point of
intersection or initial
mark where the bub-
bles of the ring and %
sphere coincided when
in the same vertical. Then as the bubble of the ring will be
stationary at that point of the ring the most elevated above
the horizoutal circle, » will be equidistant, or 90°, from 7 and
7, and also touch the nearest of the small circles of equal al-
titude described round v as a centre, so that mv'v must be
right-angled at v. We shall, therefore, have given in the
right-angled spherical triangle vmv' the leg vm (or zenith
distance of m as given by the bubble and graduations of the
ring) and the angle (of inclination of the ring to the vertical

* The bubble will nevertheless pass over an arc of 90° of the minute
circle on which we measure the interior diameter of the ring.

circle)

Mr. Phillips on the Crystalline Form of the Gaylussite. 263

circle) v m v', to find the hypothenuse m v (or true zenith-di-
stance of the mark m).

Were fluids indeed subjected, as we have hitherto sup-
posed, to the sole action of gravity, our explanation of the
theory of the spirit-level might be considered as complete;
but from the effect of the mutual attraction of glass and the
liquid of the level, the figure &c. of the bubble, as we shall

proceed to demonstrate, must suffer material alterations.
[To be continued.]

LIV. Observations on the Crystalline Form, &c. of the Gay-
lussite. By W. Puttures, F.L.S. G.S. 5c.*

N the Ann. de Chim. for March 1826, is inserted an account
and analysis of a mineral newly discovered in a natron-
lake in Colombia, by M. Boussingault, followed by a descrip-
tion of its crystalline forms, by M. Cordier. It appears to be
a hydrous carbonate of lime and soda; consisting of Carbonate
of soda 33°96, Carbonate of lime 31:39, Water 32°20, Car-
bonic acid 1:45, and Alumine 1:0, according to M. Boussin-
gault. It has received the name of Gaylussite, in honour of
the celebrated French chemist M. Gay-Lussac.

Five crystals of this substance have been presented to me
by my brother, who lately received them from Robert Ste-

henson, a gentleman connected with the establishment of the
Columbian Mining Company. One only of these crystals is
what may be termed symmetrical in its form, the rest being
elongated and channelled on their surfaces in a very remark~
able manner. M. Cordier also appears to have possessed only
one regularly-formed erystal; but as this was not, as he ob-
serves, sufficiently bright for the use of the reflective goniome-
ter, he was compelled to rely on the common one for the mea-
surement of its planes. Mine, on the contrary, is remarkably
brilliant, and even transparent : I submitted it therefore to the
former instrument, which confirms the most important mea-
surements by M. Cordier.

The primary form adopted by M. Cordier is an irregular
octohedron; but finding, as he observes, that ‘it is not easy
to make it clearly appear how the planes of these crystals re-
late to that form as their primary,” he has substituted, ‘ as be-
ing more simple, and as Haiiy had done in analogous cases,
an oblique prism.” The measurements and cleavages of these
crystals have led me to the conclusion, that the primary is in
reality an oblique rhombic prism, but of different measure-

* Communicated by the Author.
ments

264 Mr. Phillips on the Crystalline Form of the Gaylussite.

ments to that of M. Cordier, and altogether constituted of
different planes ; that which is adopted by that gentleman does
not coincide with the cleavages of the mineral, while that which
I propose is bounded by them: the terminal planes decline
from one acute angle of the prism to the other.

The planes e e! of the following figures have been adopted
by M. Cordier as the lateral planes of his primary prism, and
the plane c (if I understand his statement correctly), as the
terminal plane.—Slight, but very uncertain indications of cleay-
age exists in the direction of the latter, but none parallel to
the former; while cleavages parallel to the planes M M are
easily obtained, and of uncommon brilliancy ; and parallel to
P, I have obtained a cleavage sufficiently bright for the use of
the reflective goniometer.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Measurements by the reflective Goniometer.

M on poeeaia 68° 50! WGI 2 ys 6 eee tered 137° 45!
Jan pk ata | bd ame a 110 10
age planes g

PonMorM’.... 96 30 ia irs 145 35
Einto,t bette sans Sint GD COME yc.» «me: 48 70 30

e ore! 125 10 Sh coplapee pris, ats 152 20

g or g! Tel hue Ee ent A 144 46
Selene Siete, oO. ON OAM IGT es oat a, lar ale 110 30
EON CRS p tee 110 20 ION a vis Reena 124 30

The crystals do not occur in the determinate form of fig. 1,
but are generally elongated, owing to the increased dimen-
sion of the planes g, g, thus greatly reducing the planes M M’,
or annihilating them, as in fig. 2: the crystals are often still
further elongated, by narrow and repeated alternations of por-
tions of the plane e ¢’, and g, g’, thus giving them the effect of
being deeply grooved, or channelled.

As no description of this mineral has yet appeared, as I be-
lieve, in any one of our Journals, I subjoin the following,
chiefly extracted from the accounts given by MM. Boussingault
and Cordier.

It occurs in detached crystals, disseminated in clay; the
less perfect of them might readily be mistaken for crystals of
selenite,—the more perfect and smooth haye more nearly the

aspect

Mr. Phillips on the Crystalline Form of the Gaylussite. 265

aspect of calcareous spar: the latter are colourless and trans-
parent, and are doubly refractive in a high degree : in respect
of hardness, this substance is between the two above men-
tioned. Spec. grav. 1:928, 1°950; but that of the remarkably
brilliant and solid crystal above figured, was found by my
friend S. L. Kent to be 1:990. It is extremely brittle; is ea-
sily reduced to a grayish powder; the cross fracture is con-
choidal, and the surfaces produced by it are of a vitreous lus-
tre. The crystals are neither phosphorescent by friction, nor
electric by heat; nor does any phosphorescence appear if the
powder be thrown on a live coal. When exposed to heat in
a matrass, it decrepitates slightly and becomes opaque: de-
crepitation continues until it has acquired a red heat; if then
subjected to the flame of the blowpipe, it melts rapidly into
an opaque globule, which once formed, is infusible; and which
if placed on the tongue when it is cold, has a decidedly alka-
line taste. In nitric acid it dissolves with brisk effervescence,
and if then left to spontaneous evaporation, fine crystals of ni-
trate of soda are formed, floating in a solution of nitrate of
lime. }

This mineral is found in great abundance near Lagunilla, a
little Indian village, situated one day’s journey S. W. of the city
of Merida. It occurs disseminated at the bottom of a small
lake in a bed of clay covering carbonate of soda, termed by the
natives wrao, which has been described by M. Palacio Faxar,
in a Memoir inserted in the first volume of the Institution
Journal. The natives term the crystals of Gaylussite clavos
(nails), from their general form, doubtless, when greatly elon-
gated. A specimen of the wao was likewise received by my
brother. It occurs in long slender crystals, which are very
indeterminate and dull, but affording one bright cleavage pa-
rallel to their axis: they radiate from a common centre.

The following particulars respecting the relative positions
of the Gaylussite and Urao are extracted from the letter re-
ceived by my brother with the specimens.

The lake of Laguilla (Lagunilla, Boussingault; Lalagu-
nilla, Faxar) is about two days’ journey from the southern ex-
tremity of the lake of Maracaibo: it seldom exceeds six feet in
depth: the water reposes on a stratum of black slimy mud in
which the crystals of Gaylussite are disseminated. Below the
mud, which varies from 18 inches to two feet or upwards in
thickness, appears the upper layer of wrao, confusedly cry-
stallized, and varying from two to four inches in thickness. It
is extracted by expert divers, who can remain a long time un-
der water; they guide themselves, when diving, by a long
pole which they stick into the mud, where they expect to be

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 2M suc-

266 Mr. Abraham on New Phenomena caused by

successful. The divers told me that there are other and infe-
rior strata of urao and mud alternating to a depth which they
could only reach by extraordinary exertions. The urao is
used by the natives to give pungency to their tobacco, by
steeping it ina solution. Smoking cigars thus prepared pro-
duces soreness of the mouth, really amounting to a slight sa-
livation. The inhabitants in the vicinity of the lake use a pre-
paration of this salt worked into a paste, with tobacco, and
which they call chimo, carrying it in a small box slung round
the neck, and occasionally rubbing the nauseous mixture upon
the gums and tongue,—a practice which appears to be of In-
dian origin. According to the analysis of Boussingault, this
salt differs in no respect from that of natron.

M. Palacio Faxar says (R. I. J. vol. vi. p. 192) that the
urao was analysed by Gay-Lussac, who found it to be natron
in no respect different from that found in the lakes of Egypt
and Fezzan.

LV. New Phenomena caused by the Effect of Magnetic and
Electric Influence, and Suggestions for ascertaining the Extent
of the Terrestrial Magnetic Atmosphere.* By J. H. ABRra-
HAM, F.L.S.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Philosophy.
Gentlemen,

PPE subject of this paper is, generally speaking, one that
has been till lately less understood than any other in na-
tural philosophy.

It is a branch of science of which I have attempted to gain
some knowledge by numerous and often repeated experiments.
It is a branch of science so intricate in its laws and subtile in
its effects, that we can make but little progress in it without
experiment; and as it is a subject which has of late excited
intense interest, it is presumed that the following observa-
tions and suggestions may not be deemed unworthy of in-
sertion in your valuable Journal.

Active magnetism may be communicated to, or more cor-
rectly concentrated in, a bar of steel of any form, by rubbing
one of its sides only, and the power will be found to be equal
on any part of its surface at the same distance from the equa-
tor of the bar or magnet.

* Communicated by the Author. Part of this paper has been read be-
fore the Royal Society; and the whole was read before the Sheffield
Literary and Philosophical Society in August 1826.

Magnetism,

the Effect of Magnetic and Electric Influence, Sc. 267

Magnetism, like electricity, may be rendered active on every
part of the surface of a body (the centre excepted), though
the stimulating power be applied to one of its sides only.
But they differ very materially in other respects: If we com-
municate the electric fluid to a Leyden jar, and a second be
connected with it bya conducting medium, they both will be-
come equally electrical, and that instantaneously. But in mag-
netism this rapid transmission of the fluid from one bar to
another, does not take place: if two unmagnetized bars of
steel be placed longitudinally in contact, or even one upon the
other, and a set of bars be carried over the uppermost, it will
become strongly magnetical; but the lower bar, if removed
immediately, will not have received power sufficient to attract
the finest needle.

While repeating several of my experiments on the simi-
larity in some respects, and the dissimilarity in others, be-
tween the electric and the magnetic fluids, I was led to be-
lieve that a more perfect conductor for securing buildings
from the effects of atmospherical electricity might be pro-
duced than any hitherto used. For the performance of the
experiment I procured two cast-steel rods properly hardened
and tempered, each three feet in length, and half an inch in
diameter; one end of each bar must be hammered to a fine
point.

In order to prove the superiority of a point over a knob,
and a pointed magnetic conductor over one nonmagnetic, I
conducted the experiment in the following manner :—

I placed a brass ball two inches in diameter upon a stand,
at the distance of one inch from the prime conductor of the
electrical machine; which in this experiment represents a
positively electrified cloud. When the machine was put in
motion, a stream of the electric fluid passed from the prime
conductor to the brass ball; which may represent a building
or other object (if not in a negative state of electricity) in a
minus state compared with the prime conductor. Upon pre-
senting the unmagnetized rod to the prime conductor when the
machine was excited, it was robbed of the electric fluid as
rapidly as it was produced, at the distance of nine inches, so
as to deprive it of the power of passing a spark to the brass
ball. ‘Vhe magnetic rod produced the same effect at the di-
stance of 12 inches from the prime conductor; consequently
we may fairly presume that a steel rod rendered powerfully
magnetic, will secure a building, in every direction, to a much
greater extent than one that is not magnetical.

M. Gay-Lussae (in a paper in the Ann. de Chimie, vol. xxix,
p. 105, “ On the length of the electric flash producing light-

2M2 ning,”)

268 Mr. Abraham on New Phenomena caused by

ning,”) observes, that ‘when lightning falls on a lightning-rod,
it frequently happens that a small portion of the point is fused ;
and this effect is not very different to what may be produced
by large electrical batteries.” Hence we presume that a
pointed rod which has been a long time erected, may have lost
much of its original conducting power, owing to its pointed
end having become oxidated from electrical and other at-
mospherical causes, and consequently become knobbed or
rounded at the upper end; and as the safety of the building
depends upon the silent and rapid transmission of the electric
fluid into the earth, particularly when the charge of the de-
scending fluid is great, I should recommend that the upper
part of all conductors of lightning be made of steel properly
hardened and tempered, to hold concentrated at the point the
greatest magnetic power that can be given to the rod; and well
gilt at the point, to preserve it from the action of the atmo-
sphere. This conductor, from the preceding experiment, would
receive the approaching accumulated electrical fluid at a much
greater distance than an equally fine nonmagnetical rod ;
whereby its discharging power upon that conductor would
be greatly diminished, and the building rendered more safe
from the effect of the destructive element.

The 42nd Number of the Journal of Science and the Arts,
contains an interesting paper, by Lieut. Johnson, R.N., “ On
local and electrical influences on compasses.”

After having attentively read the paper, I felt so much in-
terest in several of the experiments, that I was induced to try
whether those which the Lieutenant asserts ‘ produced a
variation of the needle in the compass-box, by wiping the
glass cover with a silk handkerchief or other soft substance,”
were correct. In the course of these experiments I noticed
several pheenomena which the Lieutenant seems not to have
been aware of at the time his paper was written. He remarks,
‘that having observed a considerable deviation produced on
the compass needle by the mere act of wiping the dust from
the glass cover of the compass-box with a silk handkerchief,
I rubbed it successively with silk, woollen, cotton, and linen,
and found that they produced similar results, and also leather
in a less degree, viz. causing a considerable deviation, generally
to the eastward, sometimes as much as 20°, and once to 40°,
from the magnetic meridian.” After repeating this experi-
ment several times, I was not able to discover, when the com-
pass needle was placed due north and south, and the box
containing the needle was kept firmly in its place during the
experiment, that the friction produced any variation whatever.
He further observes, ‘‘ that one pole of the needle adhered

for

the Effect of Magnetic and Electric Influence, c. 269

for more than a minute to the glass cover, and then gradually
losing such power, it declined again to its horizontal and di-
rective positions.” This I invariably found to be the case
when any apparent variation took place, which may be pro-
duced by giving the compass-box the slightest motion during
the time that the glass cover is excited: this causes the needle to
oscillate; and when the glass becomes sufficiently electrical, it
attracts one point of the needle; and if that point be 20° or
40° on either side of the magnetic meridian, at the moment
when it becomes stationary by the attraction of the fluids, it
gives not a real but only an apparent variation of the needle.
When the glass cover of the compass-box is rubbed with a
silk handkerchief, positive electricity is produced upon its up-
per surface, consequently negative electricity will pervade the
opposite surface; which, I observed, invariably attracted the
south pole of the needle; and when left undisturbed, this mu-
tual attractive force of the two fluids generally continues for
the space of one minute.

Lieut. Johnson likewise states, ‘ that the rubber (the silk
handkerchief), and various other substances, as the metals, &c.
when presented to the glass cover, have the power and pro-
perty of repelling both poles of the needle.” This effect I
have reason to doubt, as I have not been able to produce it
in a single instance. No small substance which I yet have
tried that is not magnetical, with the exception of the finger
(a curious fact), will immediately neutralize the effect produced
by the attraction of these mysterious and powerful agents.

A bar of warm or hot iron has not the same effect as the
finger, in immediately neutralizing the attractive power of the
two fluids; but when the needle by repulsion, or saturation
by contact, recedes from the glass plate, the austral pole will
be attracted and the boreal repelled on having a bar of hot
iron presented to them. Being anxious to ascertain whether
the boreal fluid and positive electricity are similar in their
effect to what was witnessed with the austral fluid and nega-
tive electricity, I adopted the following experiment:

Having charged a Leyden jar positively, I placed a hori-
zontal needle upon a stand, so as to be on the same plane with
the knob of the jar, and within the influence of the electrical
atmosphere. ‘The north pole, as I anticipated, was instantly
influenced and drawn from the magnetic meridian ; and it
pointed to the brass knob of the jar, which was situated due
west, or in the line of the magnetic equator. The needle was
removed from the stand and placed on the table, about five
or six inches from the jar, and the south pole was immediately
attracted to the negative side of the jar, confirming — I

lave

270 Mr. Abraham on Magnetic and Electric Influence, &c.

have long anticipated,—almost an identity of these two extra-
ordinary fluids. Every natural and artificial magnet is sur-
rounded by a magnetic atmosphere ; consequently the “ great
globe itself” must be encompassed by an attractive power,
which decreases in an unknown ratio, as its extent from the
earth’s surface increases. If the particles composing the mag-
netic atmosphere of an artificial magnet be sufficiently subtile
to penetrate a block of marble or a stone wall of half a yard
in thickness, so as to disturb the repose of a magnetic needle
on the opposite side of the block or wall (which is easily
proved to be the case, by a bar magnet and a delicate needle),
and on removing the interposing body, if the needle be af-
fected by the atmosphere of the same magnet at a greater
distance (which is a fact), it proves that free space is necessary
for the magnetic bedy to act with full force upon any object
within the sphere of its attraction.

If an atmosphere or influencing power extend to the di-
stance of 50 or 60 inches from the poles of a small bar of
steel rendered powerfully magnetical by artificial means, to
what distance must the polar influence of the terrestrial mag-
net extend ?

Were we in the possession of the ratio in which the magnetic
power decreases in either a natural or an artificial magnet of
a certain power, we ought likewise to have a knowledge of
that force or power in the magnet submitted to experiment,
to enable us to calculate its action upon other substances at
any given distance from its point of greatest force of attraction
or repulsion, and likewise the properties of the body experi-
mented upon.

In the works which I have read upon this interesting sub-
ject, I do not recollect having met with a theory which would
enable us to ascertain the extent of the magnetic influence of
our globe in any given latitude. Professor Poisson remarks,
that “the magnetic power of the earth, like that of all other
magnets, is the product of two factors; one of which depends
upon the distribution of the two fluids, the boreal and the
austral in its interior ; and the other, common to all substances
capable of magnetization, expresses the intensity of attraction
and repulsion at a unity of distance, and between quantities
of fluid also taken as unity. It may therefore vary for two
different reasons; because the particular magnetic state of the
terrestrial spheroid has changed, or because the mutual action
of the particles of the magnetic fluid weakens or strengthens
_in all substances capable of retaining magnetism.”

A knowledge of the ratio and extent of the magnetic at-
mosphere of our earth in any latitude, appears to me so ne-

cessary

Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants. 271

cessary and desirable, (if it can possibly be obtained, ) that I
embrace this opportunity of suggesting what I consider the
most likely means of ascertaining this important object.

I recommend the employment of a machine that has not
hitherto been of the least use in promoting a knowledge of
either the arts or sciences, although numerous adventurous
individuals have perished in the attempt to navigate it through
the aérial flood, to gratify the idle curiosity of countless mul-
titudes.

If the dip be taken at the place from whence the balloon
is intended to ascend, and the same needle (which ought to
be of the most perfect construction) be carefully deposited in
the car attached to the balloon, any number of observations
may be recorded by the aéronaut or his companion, according
to the variation or decrease of the dip as the altitude of the
observers increases. It will be necessary, in order to insure
the accuracy of the experiment, to have a correct set of ap-
paratus, independent of the dipping-needle; as a mountain
barometer, a thermometer, &c. to ascertain the altitude and
the temperature of the air at the moment when the dip is
taken at each observation.

If during an aérial voyage the experimenters (for I consi-
der one person incapable of managing the balloon and making
the necessary observations) should be elevated only two or
three miles, they, I have not the least doubt, would observe
a diminution of magnetic action upon the needle, long before
they reached that elevation; or its influence will extend far
beyond our atmosphere: and if the distance of two or three
miles from the earth’s surface would only afford us two or
three very minute and progressive variations in the dip, we
might be enabled thereby to solve many curious problems in
magnetism.*

Holy Green House, Sheffield, Feb. 9, 1827.

LVI. Description of New Succulent Plants. By A. H. Ha-
worth, Esq. F.L.S. dc.

[X this my ninth Decade of new Succulent Plants, are de-
scribed ten South-African species; the first five of which
were discovered near the Cape of Good Hope, and sent from
thence to the royal gardens of Kew, by Mr. Bowie, where

* An experiment on this subject in which the dip appeared to be reversed
at the elevation of about 8000 feet, was made by Sacharof and Robertson
during their aérial voyage from St. Petersburgh, on the 30th of January
1804, See Phil. Mag. vol. xxi. p. 199.—Eprr.

they

272 Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants.

they are all now flourishing. They appear to belong to the
Linnzean genus Cotyledon ; at least as it now stands.

They all likewise appear, thus far at least, to be unrecorded
species; and belong to two very distinct divisions of the genus,
the last of which, Parvirtor®, will hereafter, from its in-
cluded unequal stamina, and furfuraceous appearances, be-
come the type of a 2ew genus: when we shall become suffi-
ciently acquainted with its component species and fructifica-
tion; and I propose for it the name Prrurza, @ voce ‘mrugoy
Surfur.

In all probability also, Cotyledon coccinea of Cavanilles will
be the type of another new genus; and the species allied to
C. umbilicus, that of a third. But these speculations must at
present be relinquished, for want of sufficient specimens.

The species of the first Section of Cotyledon, in the present
Decade, are nearly all, very stately plants, with showy termi-
nal dichotomously cymed bunches of large pendulous flowers,
of a deep aurora colour, approaching to scarlet, with exerted
equal stamina, and are produced every summer upon old plants.
The species of this division too, are easily propagated from
cuttings in the usual way; love sandy earth, and will thrive
in any good greenhouse: and indeed, many of them make a
fine appearance there; being conspicuous ornaments even
when out of bloom, through the great contrast formed by
their broad mealy leaves, with the more ordinary foliage of
every greenhouse.

And the section of the genus ParvirLor®, hereunder further
explained, and which I have above proposed to call Prrurea,
is very interesting, in a philosophical point of view, because
some at least of its component species have the remarkable fa-
culty of gradually by day-light opening, and even retrofracting
their blossoms, and of again closing them, in the same day ;
and this for several days successively.

Nor are these plants all, which may hereafter recede ge-
nerically from the present genus Cotyledon, many recorded
species of which are at present but little understood.

With respect to the remaining plants which complete this
decade; one is a new Gasteria, and the remaining three be-
long to the succulent aphyllous division of the genus Huphor-
bia of Linnzus; and were also discovered in South Africa, by
Mr. Bowie, and are now flourishing in the greenhouses of the
royal gardens at Kew, where I have made the following de-
scriptions of them.

Chelsea, Dec. 7, 1826. A. H. Hawortu.

Decas

Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants. 273

Decas nona Plantarum Novarum Succulentarum.

Classis et Ordo. Dercanpria PEnTAGYNIA.
Genus, CotyLepon Linn. &c.

Sectio, GuanpirLor®, Inflorescentia alté pedun-
culata, floribus cymoso-umbellatis terminalibus,
plants ramos superbe superantibus; corollis
monopetalis quinquefidis magnis (inter affines)
campanulatis, pallidé coccineis, apicem versus
revolutis. Caules grossi suffruticosi, foliis carnosis
crassis, szepissime magnis farinoso-albis, obtusis
cum mucronulo, aére aperto margine roseo, sive
purpurascente.

Obs. Post florescentiam (ni malé memini) Flores re-

erecti sunt.

crassifolia. C. (thick mealy wedge-leaved) farinoso-alba:
1. subsimplex: foliis rhombeo-obcuneatis incrassatis.

Habitat C. B.S.

Obs. Frutex, nunc sesquipedalis, erectus succulentus,
ramis perpaucis crassis. ola subdistantia decussata
opposita, omnium Cotyl. cognitarum crassiora, valdé
farinosa; supra medium marginibus fusco-purpureis.
Flores non vidi.

Vigebat in regio horto Kewensi ante A.D. 1824.
GPE. he

Pone Cotyl. oblongam locarem.

viridis. C. (simple, green-leaved) foliis obovato-cuneatis
2. perviridibus, caudice valde cicatricato.

Habitat C. B.S.

Obs. Bipedalis (tertio anno) erecta, caule caudiceve
feré simplici, foliorum vestigiis maximé cicatricato;
cicatricibus lunulzeformibus, lunulis obtusissimis, pal-
lidis, dorso jacentibus; magisque quam in aliis cog-
nitis Cotyledonibus profundioribus et conspicuioribus.
Folia mediocria; macra (inter affines) et semper viri-
dia. Cum prioribus sine floribus vigebat ante A.D.1824.
Gi Heh.

Pone praecedentem locarem.

** ParviFLOR#, floribus parvis erectis albis roseo-
striatis saepé spicatis; foliis subfurfuraceo-punc-
tatis.

rotundifolia. C. (dwarf round-leaved) foliise rectis confertis

$. rotundatis sordidé viridibus, ramis brevibus decum-
bentibus.

New Series. Vol. 1, No, 4. April 1827. 2N _ Habitat

274 Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants.

Habitat C. B.S.

Obs. Suffrutex pygmeus non adhuc semipedalis;
ramis spe humum versus depressis, vel erectioribus,
carnosis. Folia plana, subtus convexa, et praecipué
per lentem undique farinoso, crebré punctata, punctis
rotundis minutissimis parim regularibus; marginibus
(foliorum) minuté cartilagineis sine punctulis.

Cotyl. hemispherice aftinis, at foliis duplo latioribus,
dupléque tenuioribus: ramis minus erectis, brevioribus,
caudice crassiori. Flores non vidi. G. H. kh.

cristata. C. (Coxcomb-leaved) foliis petiolatis cuneato-trian-
4. gularibus, apice crispo-cristatis.
Habitat C. B.S.
Florebat copiosé in regio horto Kewensi, Sept. 1826.
Go Ue
Descriptio. Herba succulenta foliosa sempervirens,
caudice brevi crasso. Surculi ramulive perbreves, pilis
ramentiformibus rufis respicientibus sive deflexis,
densissimé vestiti. Folia numerosa erecta subuncialia,
sordidé viridia, obsoleté punctatim furfuraceo-puberula
crassa, sive pulvinatim tumescentia, apice purpuras-
centia, sed deorstim in petzolos teretes clavatos (folio
breviores) pedetentim abeuntia. Fores (in spicas ter-
minales erectas flexuosas graciles,) parvi sessiles quo-
que erecti, et horizontaliter aperientes ante horam
octavam A.M. atque apud meridiem gradatim us-
que ad spicam ipsam retroflectentim arcte adpressi:
sed vesperam versus sensim sensimque retrogressi;
necnon post solis occasum:arctim omnino reclausi, ut

ante mirabilem aperientiam: et in hoc more per varios
dies !

clavifolia. CC. (club-leaved branny) foliis petiolatis clavi-
5. formibus incurvantibus, apice subcrispo acuminulato.
Habitat C. B.S.
Florebat cum preecedente in Sept. 1826. G.H. hk.
Descriptio. Priori valdé affinis at abundeé distincta
videtur. Folia subtrientalia, plusquam duplo angus-
tiora, petiolo magis incurvo, vix puberula, ramentis
caulinis forté paucioribus; cum eodem modo florendi;
at flores dupl6 majores, seepé binati vel ternati: corolla
tubo subincurvo robustiore, viridi; laciniis intus albis,
extus (uno latere) purpureis, et basi undato-sublo-
bulatis ut in priore.
Obs. Sequens est (ni malé memini) alteram descrip-
tionem (alio tempore factam) hujus speciei; vel si non,
ultimee

Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants. 275

ultimze Cotyledonis. Corolla tubo longo crasso angula~
tim cylindrico. Stamina inclusa, filamenta decem recta
alba, horum quinque tubo 7 breviora, eoque usque ad
medium adnata: quinque alia alternantia, tubi longitu-
dine, eoque usque ad medium, altius adnata. Anthere
pollinose, flavee. Germina quinque tubo parum bre-
viora virescentia, cum continuantibus stylis parum sub-
ulata, stigmatibus obtusis inconspicuis. Sguamula ger-
minis ordinaria subrotundato-quadrata retusa, atque
hyalina.

Classis et Ordo. Herxanpria Monoeynia.

Gasteria, Duval.—et Nob. in Phil. Mag. Oct.
1825.—Synops. Pl. Succ. Sc.

bicolor. G. (half-marbled, lightest green) foliis angusté lin-
6. guiformibus obtusis biconvexis lzvissimis pallidis imis,
subtus maculato-marmorescentibus.

Obs. Folia inter erectiores, nunc pedalia disticha
ecarinata, sed forte non in ztate; omnium pallidissimé
virescentia, mucronata, supra immunia; marginibus
superné cartilagineo-asperiusculis, et intra ipsam mar-

inem margine alia lineari concinna atro-viridi. Subtus,
infima folca crebré ac subsordide et saturantéer varie
marmorescentia. ores non vidi.

Pone Gasteriam candicantem Nob. Revis. Pl. Succ.
46. sive G. ensifoliam Nob. in Phil. Mag. in loco supra
citato locarem; quee ambze Gasteri@ nunc carinantibus

foliis gaudent.

Classis et Ordo. Doprecanpria TRIGYNIA.
Evrnorsia Auctorum.

Sectio, ACULEATH, ramis crassissimis nudis angu-
latis; angulis spinosis; folz7s minutissimis, citius
marcescenti-deciduis seu caducis, in summis ramo-
rum solum (cum floribus ordinariis) visis, et sub-
indé feré (é parvitate) invisibilibus, sine lente.

Subsectio, FLorisPin#, spinis solitariis floriferis.

stellespina, KK. (starry-spined) multangularis: valida: sin-
7. gulis spinis ramoso-stellantibus rufescentibus; mor-
tuls nigris.
Habitat C. B.S. Gil bs
Flores forté affinium; non examinavi. G.H. h.
Descriptio. Planta in regio horto Kewensi (Oct.
2N2 1825)

276

Mr. Haworth’s Description of new Succulent Plants.

1825) dodrantalis est; erecta sub-12-angularis, tres
uncias crassa; spinis infra foliola minuta ordinaria
trilinearia lineari-lanceolata vix lineam lata utrinque
attenuata glaucescentia. Spine quinquelineares ex-
pansze ramulose valide, ramulis (spinarum) duobus
alternis, quatuorque aliis subradianter patentibus.

Obs. Distinctissima et preesingularis species. Inter
affines multangulares et pone L. polygonam Nob. lo-
carem.

Subsectio, STERILISPIN#, spinis sterilibus.

cerulescens. KE. (square blue Cape) articulatim interrupta:

8.

erecta: tetragona: ramis basilaribus luridé czerules-
centibus.

Habitat C. B.S. G. H. k.

Obs. Nunc tertio anno, in regio horto Kewensi, sub-
bipedalis est; ramzs a radicali base grossa, simplici-
bus; spinis marginalibus, affnium modo digestis, sive
opposité geminatim divaricantibus atro-rufis semuncia-
libus. Flor es ut in affinibus sine dubio; at non exami-
navi. ;

Obs. E. canariensi valdé affinis, at magis articulata,
longissimé humilior et dupl6 gracilior ; ramorum sub-
ceruleorum articulis 1—4-uncialibus solim, spinis quam
in #.canariensi duplo longioribus : nec 10—20-pedalis,
ramis ramulosis 4—5- angular ibus longissimé continu-
antibus viridibus, cicatricibus annuis “annularibus vix
impressis solim notatis, ut in E. canariensi. Nihilo-
minus pone eam locarem, cui simillima.

tetragona, KE. (slender square light-green) subsimplex : erecta :

9.

caulibus subgracilibus continuosis leté viridibus; spinis
patentibus geminatis.

Obs. Nullze valdé affinis. Nunc subtripedalis firma
erecta tetraquetra. Ultime affinis at altior, et plus-
quam duplo tripléve gracilior, spinis minoribus, et
valdé distincta. Ambas hasce preesucculentas plantas
sine dubio post E. canariensem collocarem.

squarrosa. k. (the Chevaux -de-frise) tuberoso-strumosa :
10. ramis simplicibus decumbentibus, squarrosé spinoso-

pinnatisectis.

Obs. Affinis EZ. procumbenti Meerburg, Rariores, t.55.
E. uncinata DeCandolle. Radix strumoso-tuberosa,
2—3 uncias longa. tami capitati pervirides, sive €

capite tuberis circulariter erumpentes ceespitosé paten-
tes bilaterati, subsemipedales planiusculi; (subéus i
vexi

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk, 277

vexi) torquati et quasi pinnatisecti, é spinis geminatis
patulis rufo-fuscis marginalibus brevibus insuper pe-
dunculos productos carnosos crassos trilineares, obliqué
spiraliter tortos et squarrosé sexfarios insidentibus ; et
quasi in apice ramorum in totidem angulis.

Folia ordinaria affinium, in ramorum apicibus habet
minutissima subrotundo-cordata, feré invisibilia citius
marcescentia, et caduca.

Qbs. Plantam hance mirabilem in propria subsec-
tione locarem cum £. procumbente Meerburg (que
est E. uncinata DeCandolle, ut supra:) necnon £. sco~
lopendra Nob. in Synops. Pl. Succ. p.1263 que ultima
nunquam cum radice tuberosa, neque ramis numerosis
simplicibus ambientibus vidi: sed cum ramis solitariis,
ramuliferis, et dupld majoribus, magisque dilatatim
obliqué pallidéque venosis quam in E. procumbente.

LVII. On the Geology of East Norfolk; with Remarks upon
the Hypothesis of Mr. Robberds, respecting the former Level
of the German Ocean. By R. C. Taytor, Esq. £.G.S.

[With Engravings.]
To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Gentlemen, Philosophy.

PE district which is the subject of examination in Mr.
Robberds’s “ Geological and Historical Observations on

the Eastern Vallies of Norfolk,” noticed in your last Number,

having particularly occupied my attention, a perusal of the

work has induced me to send you some remarks on this in-

quiry, and on the validity of the conclusions which the in-
enious author has adopted.

Mr. Robberds shows that these valleys, which are now for
the most part solid and productive land, yielding rich pas-
turage to many thousand head of cattle, were ‘* at no very
distant period, arms of the sea, navigated by our forefathers.”

The proofs of this change are arranged under two heads:
Physical and Historical.

Under the first class are enumerated the connection between
the valleys and the German Ocean; the resemblance which
their outline bears to the forms generally exhibited by zestu-
aries and inlets of the sea; and the remains of marine shells
and exuvize discoverable along their margins, at the elevation
of 40 feet. These beds of shells are stated to have the fol-
lowing striking and peculiar characters.

« 1st. None of them, except a few casual specimens, belong to

any

278 Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

any extinct or even rare species; but they consist entirely of
the littoral shells, which now abound in the German Ocean,
and are constantly met with on its shores or in the estuaries
into which its tidal waters flow.”

“2d. Many of them, particularly the Buccina, are still
very perfect, and in excellent preservation. 3d. The beds are
found at various places, and uniformly at the same height of
40 feet. 4th. They appear, in most instances, not to extend
beyond the face of the hills. 5th. They are mixed with verte-
brze of small fish, and bones of land animals, decayed vege-
table substances resembling fucz, fragments of coal, &c.

From these physical circumstances the following conclu-
sions are drawn :—

1st. The shells found either below the soil that fills these
basins, or on the sides of the surrounding hills, are unques-
tionably marine; they were therefore deposited by the waters
of the sea.

2d. They contain no exuvie that are peculiar to the older
strata, but all resemble those of the testaceous molluscze now
found in the neighbouring ocean ; therefore the sea, by whose
waters these deposits were formed, was the German Ocean.

3d. These beds of shells and other coincident traces of an
ancient beach are found about 40 feet above the present sur-
face of the valley of the Yare: therefore the waters of the Ger-
man Ocean once flowed up, and permanently occupied this
valley at that elevation.

4th. The valleys of the Bure and Waveney are upon the
same level, and communicate with that of the Yare; therefore
they were at some period connected branches of an extensive
estuary filled by the waters of the German Ocean, to that height
at which the traces of their residence may still be discerned.

Historical proofs.—The ancient map deposited in the Yar-
mouth town chest, of which document an inaccurate copy was
published in Ives’s Garianonum, indicates that many centuries
ago, there prevailed a confused notion that these valleys were
in earlier times filled by the waters of the sea. Imperfect as
is this testimony, it derives confirmation from the remains of
anchors which have been discovered in the marshes; evincing
the spots where they were found to have been permeable to
maritime vessels, since the art of navigation has been known
toman. There is further evidence in the sites of Roman forts,
most of which the author conjectures, “* were built for the de-
fence of this very exposed part of the Saxon shore, against
the inroads of those formidable Northern pirates by whom it
was afterwards so frequently laid waste.” Caister near Yar-

mouth, and Burgh Castle, generally viewed as the true Garz-
anonum,

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 279

anonum, appear to have been the principal frontier posts; and
the names and situations of Wheatacre Burgh, Happisburgh,
Smalburgh, and another Burgh in West Flegg, seem to refer
all these places to a similar origin*.

A dissertation follows on the etymology of the Garienis.
Mr. Robberds judiciously maintains, that there are no traces
of a Latin origin in the term, as applied either to the indivi-
dual river now exclusively bearing the name of Yare, or to
the several openings by which this large inlet is connected
with the sea; the most probable origin of the Garienis being
the Celtic Garu, and thence Garu-an (the rough river). In
addition to the instances of the Yarrow and the Garonne, re-
cited to prove the prevalence of this name, as applied to rivers
in different countries, and under various modifications of lan-
guage, may be mentioned the names of two mountain streams,
the Garw and the Garan, in Glamorganshire.

In the etymology of the names given by the Saxons to
many parts of this district, Mr. Robberds perceives further
proofs of the state in which they found it on their arrival.
The insulated plots of rising ground, interspersed in the wide
part of the valley of the Bure, are still called Holms, the
Anglo-Saxon term signifying islands. ¢ It is remarkable that
the names of nearly all the villages in the Flegg hundreds ter-
minate in by, which Mr. Robberds conjectures may be de-
rived from the word bight or bay. When the valleys were
filled with water, the marginal indentations and recesses would
present the appearance of bays, and these sheltered coves
would naturally be selected, by maritime adventurers like the
Saxons, as the first places on which to fix their abodes. The
villages having this termination are all situated adjoining these
bights+.

At Kirkley, ten miles south of Yarmouth, was the ancient
haven and inlet of the sea, communicating through Lake Lo-
thing and Oulton Broad, with the wide valleys of the Wave-

* Mr. Robberds is inclined, on considering the position of Wheatacre
Burgh, to designate it the Garianonum of the Romans. Hitherto, but from
its name, there has not arisen the slightest circumstance indicative of a
station of so much importance at this point. There are no traces of Ro-
man works, nor does the site command the main entrance from the sea.

+ In process of time, Mr. Robberds conceives, the by became synonymous
with dwelling : which may account for the exceptions to the rule. There are
six or seven of these unconformable localities in Norfolk and Suffolk, far
removed from sea, marsh, or low valley. The numerous small bays in Lake
Lothing, Oulton and other Breads, are provincially called hams. Of the
forty parishes which skirt the edges of the marshes between Norwich and
the sea at Kirkley, a district abounding in similar interior bays, one parish
only terminates in dy, four in dey, six in ham, and sixteen in ton.

ney

280 6 Mr. R. C.. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

ney and Yare. The area which is circumscribed by these
valleys and the sea, forming the hundred of Lothingland,
still retains its name of the Island.

A.D. 1004, Sweyn, as the Saxon Chronicle states, “came
with his fleet to Norwich,” which he plundered and burned.
From the circumstance of this fleet proceeding so far as thirty
miles into the interior, it is inferred that this could not have
been effected in safety within the ordinary channel of the Yare,
but that the whole valley was at that time navigable.

Domesday-book is the next historical document which sup-
plies certain proofs of the sea having entered into the eastern
valleys. ‘These proofs exist in the saline, or saltworks, which
are enumerated in many parishes, now distant from the ocean.

The bank on which Yarmouth is placed became firm and
habitable ground about the year 1008; but it continued an
island, that is, it had a northern as well as a southern chan-
nel, as late as the year 1347. From a memorial of the inha-
bitants it appears, that at the latter period, the main passage
at Grubb’s haven was silted up; that thousands of acres in
consequence of the exclusion of the tide had become good
land; and that the inland waters with extreme difficulty forced
their way to the sea, through the opposing beds of sand and
shingle, almost as far southward as Lowestoft.

In the 13th and 14th centuries, the contentions between the
citizens of Norwich and the burgesses of the rival port of
Yarmouth, gave rise to certain documents, which are useful
in the present inquiry, by showing that to these periods trad-
ing vessels sailed up to Norwich, “the King’s Port ; where all
foreign merchants paid their customs.” The citizens pleaded
«that Norwich was a mercantile and trading town, and one of
the royal cities of England, scituate on the banks of a water
and arm of the sea, which extended from thence to the mazn
ocean, upon which shipps, boats and other vessels have im-
memorially come to their market.”—“ and all this long be-
fore Yarmouth was in being, even when the place which that
now stands upon, was main sea.”

The foregoing recital contains the substance of the evidence
adduced to show, “ that the eastern valleys of Norfolk were:
formerly branches of a wide estuary, and that their present
rivers and Jakes are the remains of that large body of water,
by which their surface was overspread, even in times compa-
ratively recent.” After reviewing all these circumstances, the
conclusion to which the author arrives is, ‘* that the change
here observed is the result of a depression in the level of the
German Ocean itself, which is now at least forty feet below the

height where there is evidence of its having been stationary
at

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 281

at some distant period. In summing up, Mr. Robberds con-
ceives that the sea once filled the interior valleys to the height
of 40 feet, as marked by the ancient shells ;—that the tides
flowed at an elevation of 10 or 12 feet, at Burgh Castle, du-
ring the Roman occupation of that fort :—that at the Norman
Conquest they were only about six feet high :—that there have
been in every succeeding century, fewer and less extensive in-
undations of fresh-water in these valleys :—that old navigators
observe within their remembrance, a sensible lowering of the
waters in the present channels;—and that all these circum-
stances combine to mark “ a progressive depression in the
level of the adjacent sea.”—“ The rate at which this change
has proceeded, might probably be calculated with mathema-
tical precision; the data are rather uncertain, but they seem
to indicate that the level of the sea has been regularly falling
about eight or nine inches in every hundred years, which would
carry back the period of its greatest elevation to about six
thousand years ago.”

Such are the inferences which the observation of Mr. Rob-
berds has enabled him to form. He proposes hereafter to
take a wider survey; to show that throughout this quarter of
the globe, there are similar traces of the retiring waves, and
that there is evidence of a corresponding elevation of the In-
dian and Pacific oceans.

In an inquiry of this nature, previously to assenting entirely
to certain conclusions, it will be permitted me to scrutinize the
“* evidence of change,” so near home; to examine the data
which have led to this conviction, and formed the ground-
work of the author’s present arguments, and as may be con-
cluded of his future reasoning.

Admitting at once the accuracy of the historical portion of
this evidence, it still appears possible to demonstrate, that all
the recorded and authenticated changes in the valleys under
investigation, since the epoch of the deluge, were effected
without any depression of the neighbouring ocean.

A slight preliminary sketch of this district may be useful.
It includes ten principal valleys; all nearly upon the same
level, approaching to one plane surface, having the outfall of
their collected streams at Yarmouth; there passing with diffi-
culty over the bar that obstructs the haven’s mouth. Several
minor ramifications, with numerous bays and indentations,
almost incircle certain higher lands, forming greater or smaller
promontories. Other spots of elevated ground, provincially
termed Holms, rise, like islands, from the bosom of these
marshy flats. The whole character of the scene is that of an
arm of the sea, whence its waters have been withdrawn, or

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 20 whose

282 Mr.R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

whose bed has emerged from its original level. About 150
square miles, or one hundred thousand acres, are occupied by
these valleys; and in traversing them, on the causeways by
which they are now intersected, one is reminded of those si-
milar but more extensive tracts of low lands on the opposite
coast. The general width of the river Yare is about 150 feet ;
and of the Waveney and Bure 100 feet each. In their wind-
ing courses they frequently expand into or communicate with
small lakes, locally termed Broads. There are upwards of
sixty of these broads; besides as many smaller pools. Their
depth varies from 15 to 30 feet, and they differ in extent, from
one acre to 1200; that of Breydon being the first, and Lake
Lothing the sixth in magnitude.

It may not be irrelevant to state, that the drainage of the
greater portion of Norfolk and part of Suffolk, is effected by
means of Yarmouth haven. The summit or highest edge of
this area of drainage, extends to within seven miles of the sea
at Snettisham, on the opposite side of the county. Within
these limits is comprised an area of 1200 square miles in Nor-
folk, and 220 in Suffolk. Consequently, the quantity of water
collected in, and passing out of, so extensive a basin is consi-
derable. In connection with this subject is the geological fact,
that these limits of drainage singularly correspond with the
boundaries of the great deposit of clay, brick-earth and dilu-
vial matter, resting upon the chalk, in this portion of Norfolk.

The most material circumstance now to be inquired into, is
the presumed occupation of the eastern valleys, to the height
of 40 feet, by marine waters, at an indefinite period, subse-
quent to the deluge. The authority for this supposition ap-
pears to be solely found in the beds of marine shells, which
are exposed at that elevation, along the sides of the Norwich
valley. ‘These shells are described as strictly similar to those
of the testaceous molluscze now abounding in the adjacent sea,
and continually met with upon our shores. Upon this apparently
strict conformity to the genera of present times the conclusions
of Mr. Robberds are obviously founded: but I conceive, if it
should appear that these exuviee are more properly assignable
to an zra preceding the deluge which last affected our earth,
that gentleman will consent to abandon the views he at present
entertains.

It happens that a catalogue of the stratified shells of Bra-:
merton, the principal source in this neighbourhood, whence
Mr. Robberds, Mr. Sowerby, Mr.W. Smith, Mr. Leathes, and
others have derived their specimens, was not long since com-
municated by me in the Geological Society’s Transactions.
From this list, which is capable of extension from subsequent

discoveries

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 283

discoveries in the minuter genera of shells, naturalists are en-
abled readily to determine, whether such do in reality belong
to the class of living shell-fish ; or, if otherwise, what are the
proportions it exhibits between those which appertain to the
recent and the extinct species. Nearly the whole of the shells
contained in this catalogue are accurately figured in Sowerby’s
Mineral Conchology, from specimens collected at this spot;
and all are unquestionably similar to those which characterize,
and are peculiar to the crag; or, as it is properly called, the
upper marine formation. It is extremely probable, that up-
wards of one half of those enumerated have no recent ana-
logues, and the practised eye of a skilful conchologist will de-
tect varieties in many that appear to assimilate to those now
living. At the same time it must be remembered, that they
are associated with the remains of herbivorous animals, which
have never been known in the present state of our globe,—
the mastodon, the elephant, the gigantic elk, and the enormous
horned bison. Their regular beds contain no works of art;
no traces of the human species*. The British Museum con-
tains a tooth of the mastodon, in which the enamel is con-
verted into opal. This fine specimen is figured in Smith’s
** Strata Identified,” and was discovered with horns of deer,
at Whitlingham, in that same stratum of crag shells, described
by Mr. Robberds.

In general, the fossils of this formation are not minera-
lized, but are very fragile. In Suffolk and part of Norfolk
they are chiefly deposited in dry loose beds of sand, which
are slightly consolidated and discoloured by iron. Thus
at Languard Cottage, some curious artificial caverns have
been formed in a thick bed of these shells. Where they oc-
cur in clay, they are partially mineralized; their surfaces are
smooth, and sometimes glossy. At Whitlingham and upon
the north-west coast of Norfolk, they are occasionally seen
resting immediately upon the chalk, mixing with its flinty de-
bris, and even having their cavities filled with chalk. Horns
of stags are frequently found under the same circumstances,
embedded in chalk marle, particularly along the sides of the
Norwich valley, extending between Hellesdon and Cantley.
In Essex, similar shells occur in a strong blue clay. Near
Orford, in Suffolk, they are mixed with interesting varieties
of coral and sponges, forming a soft porous rock used for
building. In some other parts of its course this formation

* The rudely-shaped flint axes which have been discovered in the peaty
bed of the Waveney Valley, are among the most ancient monuments of man
in this island. They must be classed with the extraneous alluvial substances
of our highest valleys.

202 assumes

284 Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

assumes the appearance of a gray sandstone; in others the
shells are detected in an extremely hard clay-stone; but in-
stances occasionally occur where organic remains are alto-
gether wanting.

In remarking upon the absence, at Bramerton, of a parti-
cular shell, which is met with among the crag fossils of Har-
wich, Mr. Robberds considers that this circumstance alone is
fatal to the opinion entertained by me, of the continuity of the
formation. But it must be remarked, that it is characteristic
of the shells and other organic bodies deposited with the crag ;
that they are by no means diffused in equal numbers and pro-
portions throughout, as in some older strata; but occur at in-
tervals, in groups and genera. Thus at Cromer the predo-
minant and remarkable shells are Mactre ; at Runton, Cardia;
nearer Cley, Murex striatus; at Bawdesey cliff, Murex re-
versus, and Pectunculus ; at the Beacon, Venus equalis; at Felix
Stow, Pectunculus and Voluta Lamberti; south of Languard
Cottage, Murex contrarius, Cardia,and Mya lata: at Bramer-
ton and near Norwich are Murex striatus, Telline and Ba-
lani. ‘The absence, therefore, of one or of many species from
any of these localities, cannot weaken the remaining concur-
rent evidences that identify this formation, nor can it lead to
the confounding it with any other.

The shells of Bramerton, and other parts of the Norwich
valley, consequently, belong to the crag formation, and are
not an assemblage simply of the recent species which abound
in our seas, although they are mixed with many that closely
resemble the existing varieties.

Mr. William Smith, than whom a better practical authority
on this question cannot be quoted, states that ‘through Nor-
folk the crag shells lie near to, or are in contact with the top
of the chalk; and wnder a loamy soil, on or near some of the
best land in Flegg and the Vale of Aylsham.”

On the contrary, Mr. Robberds’s experience goes to prove,
—and without it his views of the flowing of the ocean tides
through the Norwich valley at 40 feet elevation, cannot be
sustained,—that the shells so far from being stratified, form
only a beach or belt, in no case penetrating into the sides of
the hills. That this may be partially and occasionally the
case, it is by no means here intended to doubt, particularly
after the positive investigation to which this point has been
subjected. There are difficulties in discovering a vein of coal
or a bed of iron-mine, even in the exposed face of a rock or
mountain: how many impediments prevent the tracing any
thin or soft stratum, in a highly cultivated country, thickly
overspread with diluvial and alluvial substances! Norwich is

nearly

——

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 285

nearly upon the western boundary of the regular deposition of
crag: the few detached indications that are observed further
in the interior valleys, seem rather to denote its antediluvian
limits. Consistently with what is observed elsewhere, this de-
posit becomes thin and imperfect at its western edges, which
have evidently been operated upon by diluvial agency. The
high lands and the great accumulation of diluvium on each
side of the principal valley, render examination difficult: the
chalk itself rises above the level of the highest crag deposits ;
—the phenomena attendant on the sinking of deep wells are
seldom observed or recorded; and it is chiefly on descending
again into the other valleys of this district, that fresh proofs,
more or less positive and abundant, present themselves.

Experienced well-sinkers, however, do affirm, that on forming
deep wells, in various places around Norwich, at a distance
from the river, they have occasionally encountered a stratum
of shells overlying the chalk. In one instance, at a farm upon
Mousehold, the depth perforated was 132 feet, of which the
first 88 consisted of diluvial gravel and sand; then a bed, two
feet thick, of conglomerated crag shells, consisting of Murices,
Cardia, Telling,and Patelle elongate, immediately lying upon
the chalk. Here, therefore, was absolute proof of a conti-
nuous shelly bed, extending beneath nearly 90 feet of diluvium
to a considerable distance from its outcrop in the Norwich
valley.

At Marsham, and in the adjacent vales, it is again disco-
verable, accompanied with many bones of animals, large ver-
tebree, and horns of deer.

Further north, at Aylsham, on sinking a well in 1824, at
the depth of 60 feet, a bed four feet thick of crag shells, was
met with. They consisted of the genera Murex, Turbo, Na-
tica, Mactra, Venus, and Tellina.

On reaching the coast at Cromer, they are again observed
at low water embedded in a sandy ferruginous stratum, resting
upon the chalk. Along the whole line of this coast, extending
from near Cley in Norfolk, to the Naze in Essex, in an extent
of one hundred miles, this formation has been minutely and
almost uninterruptedly traced, by myself. The result of this
investigation has been fully confirmed by able geologists, in
various portions of that district. (See Section II.)

The remains of certain animals have been so often observed
accompanying the crag, that they may be considered as indi-
cative of its extent even when other proofs are not attainable.
Fragments of bones, teeth, skulls, and horns are repeatedly
met with by the fishermen, when dredging for oysters at sea.

So

286 Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

So abundant are these animal remains on the oyster banks op-
posite Happisburgh, that they are frequently drawn up in nets.

Further arguments in proof of identity and general con-
tinuity,—the two great facts which it was essential to establish,
as applied to this formation and the theory of Mr. Robberds,
—are, it is presumed, unnecessary. ‘The supposed course of
the crag formation across Norfolk and Suffolk is traced in Sec-
tion III.

Some notices of the prevalence of fossil bones upon the
eastern coast have appeared in the Philosophical Magazine, and
Geological Transactions. To those enumerated might now
be added many subsequent discoveries. I am happy in having
been instrumental in attracting the attention of several ob-
servers to these phenomena. Since the year 1822, many in-
teresting well-preserved specimens have been collected upon
the beach between Winterton and Cromer, where heretofore
they continued unregarded. It is useless to occupy these
pages with a detail of localities; for in fact, traces are discerni-
ble at every mile. By far the greater number of specimens
have been derived by means of the fishermen : a circumstance
that confirms the opinion before given, that a considerable ac-
cumulation exists on some of the outer banks off this coast.
Viewing these scattered fragments as the relics of those
animals who once inhabited the surface of the upper marine
formation, who roamed along the antediluvian shores and
zestuaries, and fed amidst the forests of a former world,—how
numerous are the proofs here assembled !

A detailed account of these deposits cannot but be in-
structive, and will be best supplied by those who have frequent
opportunities for observation. ‘There is some reason to hope
that this information wi!l be furnished by a reverend gentle-
man of East Norfolk, who possesses ample materials, and the
ability to promote the science of which he is an admirer.

Let me be permitted to add here one word on the services
which the establishment of a provincial museum at Norwich
has already rendered, by furthering the progress of local geo-
logical discovery, by increasing the number of labourers in
the field of science, and by furnishing a public depository of
those interesting objects, which illustrate the structure and
former condition of the surrounding district, and attest the
revolutions to which it has been subjected.

In tracing the leading superficial features of Kast Anglia,
it will be observed, that the general dip ofthe strata is to-
wards the south-east, forming an angle of inclination, amount-
ing probably to not less than 600 feet. At Harwich the up-

per

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 287

per surface of the chalk was reached at 64 feet *, and on the
north-west coast, beginning at Hunstanton cliff, the inferior
strata rise to the surface. The top of the chalk being sunk
as much below the sea at Harwich as the bottom is elevated
above the sea, on the north-western escarpment, and its entire
thickness being estimated at about 400 feet, the slope will be
somewhere as above suggested. This will be best understood
by consulting the Section No. I.

It has before been remarked, that the principal drainage of
Norfolk, comprised within that portion which is covered by
diluvial clay and loam}, conforms to the slope of the chalk, and
passes its collected waters to the sea at Yarmouth. In like
manner the drainage water of nearly four-fifths of Suffolk, in-
cluding the great clay district, conducted by several channels
towards the south-east corner of that county, there enters the
ocean.

Imagine the general plane of the chalk, as it sinks to the
south-east, once divested of its diluvial covering. The line at
which this plane would be intersected by the ancient ocean,
defines an irregular area, which is precisely that occupied by
the crag formation.

It is unnecessary to enlarge, in detail, upon the geological
minutize of this district, but it is essential to our subject to
consider its principal characters.

All admit that the chalk, more than any other formation,
exhibits the powerful effects of immense currents, sweeping
over its surface: that valleys have been hollowed out, and
eminences formed, and a large portion of this island covered
with its debris. From the variety of strata, some even of fresh-
water origin, which occupy certain positions above the chalk,
it is evident, that at distant intervals, considerable geological
changes, more or less extensive, were effected. The im-
bedded vegetables, the zoophites, the shellfish, and the animals
change with each deposit; the old series become extinct, and
new ones in their turn become documents attesting geological
epochs ;—the unerring records of successive zras :—medals
stamped, not with specific, but with relative dates.

The stratum of marine productions, under the local name
of crag, has its assignable and comparative date ; its inhabi-
tants were the last that occupied the waters and the ancient
shores, prior to the catastrophe which affected this part of our
globe, and to the reforming from its wreck that surface on

* Borings were continued in the chalk at this place, 293 feet more.

+ I adopt the term di/uvial, now in general use, to indicate the water-
worn debris resulting from the deluge ; as distinguished from the alluvial
deposits which proceed from causes yet in operation.

which

288 Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

which man has fixed his abode and covered with his species,
This crag rests in part upon the London clay, and a lami-
nated clay without fossils, perhaps the plastic clay, and partly
upon the chalk, occupying the lowest sites; rarely rising to
80 feet above the present level of the sea, and in general not
more than half that elevation. ‘The average level of its base
may be considered to be about that of the present ocean. In
certain cases, where the chalk hills attain a higher level than
the crag, that deposit could only be expected to envelop or
surround their sides, and not to penetrate znto the chalk. Such
eminences would then present the appearance of tongues or
promontories of chalk, protruding into the crag; and this cir-
cumstance accounts for the occasionally apparent absence of
that formation.

But the crag itself has, at the last of the geological epochs,
been subjected to abrasion by the diluvial currents to which
allusion has been made. Portions, probably from its western
edges, have been swept away. ‘Their fragments, mingled with
those of the chalk and preceding formations, piled in enormous
heaps, form the cliffs of Cromer and Trimingham 250 or 300
feet in thickness, upon the original crag, which rests, 27 s7tu,
at their base. The proof of the disruption and transportation
of more ancient strata, may be observed in the enormous de-
tached masses of chalk, in these diluvial cliffs, at various ele-
vations above the crag. Near the light-house hill at Cromer,
one of these insulated patches is 150 feet high, and has a
kiln upon it, in which lime of an excellent quality is burned.
Further on, at Runton, is a large mass 80 feet thick: another
rises to the height of 100 feet; and at Sherringham is another
still higher. In all these cases, they rest wpon the crag, proving
alike the breaking up of the older strata and the continuity of
the later. (See the Section No. IV.)

We have yet to consider one remarkable accompaniment
of the upper marine formation, upon the Norfolk coast. This
consists in that apparently continuous bed of vegetable sub-
stances, with which the crag is frequently in contact, at an
irregular elevation; sometimes above and sometimes below the
high-water line. This coincidence had been remarked in 1822
along about 25 miles of the coast; but it was more obvious
after the unusually high tides, in February 1825, had carried
away large portions of the cliffs, leaving the woody stratum
exposed. At some points this bed consists of forest peat, con-
taining fir cones and fragments of bones; in others, of woody
clay; and elsewhere of large stools of trees, standing thickly
together, the stems appearing to have been broken off about
18 inches from their base. ‘They are evidently rooted in the

clay

Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 289

clay or sandy bed in which they originally grew, and their
stems, branches and leaves, lie around them, flattened by the
pressure of from 30 to 300 feet of diluvial deposits. It is not
possible to say how far inland this subterranean forest extends ;
but that it is not a mere external belt is obvious from the con-
stant exposure and removal of new portions, at the base of the
cliffs.

Doubtless this must be the southern extremity of that sub-
marine forest, which has long engaged the notice of geologists,
on the north-west part of Norfolk, whence it is traced across
the Wash, and the fens of Cambridgeshire to Peterborough,
and all along the Lincolnshire coast, as far as the Humber.
There is no important variation in the general level of this
woody tract. As relates to the Norfolk portion, it appears
so closely in connection with the crag formation, as almost to
form a part of it: the shells of the one being occasionally
mixed with the vegetable matter of the other; and are further
accompanied by bones of stags, elephants and oxen.

An obvious similarity exists between the deposits on the Nor-
folk coast, and those in the district between the Humber and
Bridlington bay. The same diluvial accumulations; the same
description of large bones of animals, of shelly fragments ;
of crumbly slipping cliffs; of subterranean forests at their
base ;—the same traces of plastic clay above the chalk, and
rolled masses of primitive rocks mixed with the alluvium, at-
test the contemporaneous origin of the Holderness district
with that more immediately under consideration. Dr. Alder-
son, in describing the geological characters of that district *,
many years ago, was of opinion that the diluvial hills were
heaped upon the submarine forest. Nothing has arisen to
discourage that idea; but it derives confirmation from the
parallel case which is presented by the cliffs of Norfolk.

On the first view of this extensive subterranean or subma-
rine forest, one is inclined to inquire whether it be not con-
temporaneous with the freshwater formations observed else-
where above the chalk? Hitherto no freshwater shells have
been observed imbedded in this deposit on the Norfolk coast ;
but they have been seen at Harwich, and in the clay cliffs of
Essex; and fluviatile shells abound in the forest peat of the
fens of Lincolnshire.

ee our observation at present to these sites of an-
cient woods and beds of peat on the east coast of this county,
we perceive that they are so variable in position, so undula-
tory, so often concealed by diluvium, so changeable in their

* Nicholson’s Philosophical Journal, 4to vol. iii.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 7? ap-

290 Lieut. G. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations 1827.

appearance through every modification of woody clay and
gravel, peat and beds of forest trees, that it is often difficult
to determine whether their real position be above or beneath
the crag. Certainly, near Cromer, the trees are a few feet
above the crag stratum, and are about the level of high water.

Perhaps the most probable conclusions, to be derived from
a consideration of all these circumstances, are these :—

That after the formation of the chalk, the waters deposited
the marine exuviz, and gave existence, during the long period
in which they occupied that portion of the former surface, to
those remarkable accumulations of crag shells which we now
witness.

That the trees and vegetables covered various parts of the
surface of this new formation after it had become consolidated.

That in this state, these woodland tracts afforded shelter and
support to certain animals, whose traces we find both amongst
the vegetable deposits and in the drifted heaps containing
marine substances.

Finally: All were buried in one common catastrophe. The
same eruption of the waters that overthrew the pines and
forest trees, destroyed the herbivorous animals, and buried
the crag shells, beneath the ruins of more ancient strata.

[To be continued.]

LVIII. Astronomical Observations 1827. By Lieut. GrorcE
Brauroy, R. N.
Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.
ATITUDE 51° 37! 44!"3 North. Longitude west in time
1! 20"-93.

Observed transits of the moon, and moon-culminating stars over
the middle of the transit instrument in sidereal time.

1827. Stars. Transits.
Feb. 18. 62g Leonis ........ 10° 54! 47""-64
03; (G9 Wieonis ©. evel ieee «(ee 11 04 56 62
18. + Woon (1S) oa 6 tee ee te 11 20 41 ‘16

Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites.
Feb. 17th. Emersion of § 12" 45™ 415-06 M.T. at Bushey. ©
Jupiter’s 3d satellite. (12 47 01 ‘99 M. T. at Greenwich.
Feb. 22d. Immersion of § 14 28 23°77 M.'T. at Bushey.
Jupiter’s Ist satellite. (14 29 44 °70 M. T. at Greenwich.
Feb. 24th. Immersion of § 14 00 25 :07 M.T. at Bushey.
Jupiter’s 3d satellite. 14 01 46 -00 M. T. at Greenwich.
Feb. 24th. Emersion of § 16 42 21 -08 M.'T. at Bushey.
Jupiter’s 3d satellite. (16 42 42 -00 M. T. at Greenwich.

LIX. Notices

[ 291 ]

LIX. Notices respecting New Books.

British Entomology, or Illustrations and Descriptions of the Genera
of Insects, found in Great Britain and Ireland ; containing coloured
Figures from Nature of the most rare and beautiful Species, and of
the Plants upon which they are found. By Joun Curtis, F.L.S.

GQLNCE this valuable work was last noticed in the Philosophical
Magazine the third volume has been completed, in the same
style of accurate and beautiful execution in its figures and dissec-
tions, and of authentic and full information in its scientific details,
which had so justly recommended it to the students of Entomology.

In this volume 4 new genera have been established, and cha.
racters given of 19 others which had not appeared in any British
work. Of the Plates, 22 are of species never before figured, and
of the remaining 26, 7 only have been figured in this country. The
author states “that the generic characters have all been described
from actual observation, except where acknowledgements are at-
tached; instead of being taken, as was at first proposed, from La-
treille and other authors ; and that the figures, both of the insects
and plants, are all from the author’s original drawings, with the ex-
ception of a few of the caterpillars, which have either been supplied
by friends or copied from German works ; and in addition to many
local and rare plants, he has been so fortunate as to record a new
British species, Mespilus Cotoneaster—The original plan has also
been somewhat enlarged by the synoptic view that is given of each
genus, which when the work is completed will render it the most
perfect that has ever appeared in this country ; and the references
that are given to all the species, will enable any one to study and
obtain a perfect knowledge of the individuals comprised in each
genus, thereby imperceptibly leading him to a knowledge of the
whole system.”

Three numbers of the fourth volume have also appeared, contain-
ing many interesting subjects.

LX. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

Feb. 9.— REPORT of the Council of the Society to the
seventh Annual General Meeting this Day :—

Seven years have now elapsed since the formation of this
Society: during which period, it must be evident to every in~
telligent observer, that a considerable progress (assisted, it
is hoped, by the exertions of this Society) has been made in
the science of Astronomy, not only in our own, but in every
other country. The increased number of observatories, and
the consequent encouragement which is given to the improve-
ment of astronomical instruments :—the zeal and assiduity,
not only of the public observers, but also of many private in-
gPr2 dividuals,

292 Astronomical Society.

dividuals, who nobly sacritice a great portion of their time
and fortune to this laudable pursuit,—prove that the science
is now more generally followed and encouraged than at any
former period.

To enable the Society to continue their assistance in pre-
serving and promoting this favourable change, the Council rely
on the cordial cooperation of all those members who have the
means, in their power, of conducing to this grand end. Those
even, who have only smai/ instruments in their possession,
may still do much good, by a careful and judicious use of
them: for although every astronomer must admire the vast
field that has been opened by the powerful and splendid tele-
scopes of Messrs. Herschel, South, and Struve, and the pa-
tience and skilful assiduity of these observers, yet we ought
not to lose sight of those innumerable aids which may be ren-
dered to astronomy, by more humble instruments, nor of the
assistance that may be afforded to the physical and other de-
partments of the science by those who are not possessed of
any instrument at all.

In the last Report of the Council it was stated, that a letter
had been received from M. Bessel, relative to a plan for a
general survey of the Heavens, and for making detached
Charts of the same. The prospectus relative to this subject
was translated and distributed, not only amongst the mem-
bers of this Society, but also amongst such other astronomers,
as might be supposed desirous of encouraging so useful and
important an undertaking. Two applications were made from
this country, to the Committee at Berlin, appointed to super-
intend the distribution of the allotments; but, it is doubtful
whether more than one of them can be appropriated here, as
it is understood that the rest have been, or probably will be,
taken up by different astronomers on the continent.

The Council regret that all the various prize questions, that
have from time to time been proposed by the Society, still re-
main unanswered: the period havirig expired for the deter-
mination of the whole of them; except that which relates to
the moon’s place, which will not terminate till Feb. 1st in the
ensuing year. How far it may be expedient to renew them,
or to substitute others, will depend on the views entertained
on this subject, by their successors in office.

The new Tables for computing the Aberration, Precession,
and Nutation of 2881 principal fixed stars, together with a
Catalogue of the same, are now completed, and have been
some time in the hands of the public. This important work
was first suggested, and the formule for the computations
were investigated and practically arranged by F. Baily, Esq.

your

Astronomical Society. 298

your indefatigable President, who, agreeably to the Regula-
tions of the Society, resigns the chair this day. Much of the
time and labour of the computers, engaged in this extensive
work, was saved, and the liability to error very much abridged,
by the use of printed skeleton forms, which he had constructed
expressly for their use from formule reduced to the most
simple and convenient shape for calculation. The work itself
has been brought to a successful termination by the extraor-
dinary diligence, activity and perseverance of Lieut. Stratford,
of the Royal Navy, one of your Secretaries ; who, in the midst
of his other various avocations and duties, has been unremit-
ting in his attention to promote the progress and secure the
accuracy of this highly useful work; and who is entitled to
your best and most cordial thanks for such a devotion of his
time and labour. In fact, the Council, desirous of expressing
their sense of the benefit conferred on the science of Astro-
nomy by this important undertaking, have awarded the gold
medal to Mr. Baily ; and the silver medal to Lieut. Stratford,
for the service rendered by these gentlemen in the promotion
and completion of the work. May we hope that some ex-
perienced astronomer will now take up this new catalogue,
and make a series of observations on every star contained
therein, whereby we may be enabled to ascertain more cor-
rectly the proper motion (if any) that should be attributed to
each star: and thus deduce a Fundamental Catalogue that
may assist astronomers for many years to come. The ex-
pense of computing and printing this Catalogue has encroach-
ed on the ordinary funds of the Society; and has induced
many members to suggest the propriety and advantage of de-
fraying the expense not only of this, but of any similar under-
taking, by means of a separate subscription amongst the mem-
bers. Should a measure of this kind be recommended, the
Council trust that it will meet with the support of every friend
of Science*.

The Council, bearing in mind the objects which it is the
wish and desire of the Society more particularly to promote,
have also awarded the silver medal to Col. Beaufoy for his valu-
able collection of observations communicated from time to time
to this Society, and more especially those relative to the Eclipses
of Jupiter’s Satellites. Part of this collection has already been
published in the Memoirs of this Society ; and the remainder
will appear in the ensuing volume. These observations seem
to have been made with great care and diligence, and afford

* [The subscription was immediately set on foot, and met with very con-
siderable support. he list of subscribers is in the hands of the Sceretary,
and may be seen by any of the members.— Sec.]

another

294 Astronomical Society.

another and a powerful instance how much the science of as-
tronomy may be benefited by the active exertions of one in-
dividual. Phzenomena of this kind cannot always be observed
at the public observatories: the state of the weather, or more
important avocations, may oftentimes interfere to prevent it.
It is in such cases, and in numerous other instances, that pr7-
vate observers may render an important benefit to the science
by their active cooperations.

These several medals to Mr. Baily, Lieut. Stratford, and
Col. Beaufoy will be presented at a subsequent general meet-
ing of the Society to be convened for that express purpose.

The past year has been abundant in the discovery of Co-
mets; no less than five having been announced at the last
meeting of the Society. One of these was discovered by M.
Gambart, the celebrated astronomer at Marseilles; who, on
computing its elements, found that, in all probability, it would
pass over the sun’s disc on the morning of the 18th of No-
vember. He immediately adopted measures for communi-
cating the result of his calculations to all the astronomers in
Europe, in order that they might witness this remarkable ap-
pearance. But, unfortunately, the whole of that day was
cloudy ; and it does not appear that this singular phenomenon
was witnessed by any human being. ‘To M. Gambart we are
also indebted as one of the discoverers of another comet, which
appeared in the month of March; and which has since been
found to be periodical. This comet had been previously seen
by M. Biela at Josephstadt: and M. Clausen, on computing
its elements, ascertained that it was the same as that which
was seen in 1772 and again in 1805. It is remarkable that
both M. Biela and M. Gambart had, in the mean time, come
to the same conclusion, from the elements deduced from their
own separate and independent observations ; thus confirming
the addition of another revolving comet to our system, whose
period is about 2451 days, or about twice the period of the
celebrated comet of Encke. This new planetary body will
make its appearance again about the latter end of the year
1832: and the attention of astronomers will then be naturally
directed towards its return. Ifthe comet of 1786 bear the
name of Encke, this new revolving comet ought, for a similar
reason, to bear the name of that astronomer who may most
effectually succeed in investigating the laws by which it is go-
' verned. It is but a just tribute of respect to men who, by their
assiduity and talent thus enlarge the bounds of science, and
add to that vast mass of facts which are absolutely necessary
to enable us to judge of the true system of the universe.

In the last part of the Memoirs of this Society, is a Report

from

Astronomical Society. 295

from the Committee appointed to examine the telescope, whose
object-glass was formed of the glass presented to the Society
by the late M. Guinand. The object-glass being finished and
approved by the Committee (whose report will be seen in the
last volume of the Memoirs) it was thought advisable that it
should be offered for sale to any of the members of the So-
ciety that might be disposed to bid for it: and that the pro-
ceeds, after the payment of expenses for working the glass,
should be transmitted to the family of M. Guinand, for their
use and benefit. This has been done: and the object-glass
is now in the possession of the Rev. Dr. Pearson, the Trea-
surer of this Society.

With respect to the finances of the Society, it will appear
from the report of the Auditors, which has been read, that
there have been elected 11 new Members, and 3 Associates
since the last anniversary: and that the Society now consists
of 212 Members and 32 Associates :—in all, 244. At the same
time it will be seen that considerable expenses have been in-
curred in printing the last volume of the Memoirs: which,
however, contains a considerable quantity of matter that must
be interesting both to the theoretical and practical astronomer.

Amongst the losses by death, which the Society has sustained
in the year just past, the Council have to regret those of three
of its distinguished Associates: MM. Bode, Fraunhofer, and
Piazzi. The first has been long known not only as the able
conductor of the Ephemeris published annually at Berlin,(a work
which for many years tended more than any other to promote
the advancement of astronomy, by the circulation of important
and useful information on various branches of the science, )
but also as the author of several valuable werks conducive to
the same end; amongst which his Catalogue of 17,240 stars
(reduced from the observations of various astronomers), and
his Charts of the same, may be considered as the most important.

‘ He died at the advanced age of 80 years.

M. Fraunhofer has long been celebrated as a distinguished
optician, and as an artist of the first class. Few of the spe-
cimens however of his superior talent have reached ¢his country:
but on the continent, where they are more numerous, their
value is highly appreciated. Though not an Astronomer him-
self, he has the strongest of claims to the respect and gratitude of
Astronomers, in furnishing them with means of discovery, in
which the most exquisite skill in point of practical execution was
directed by the utmost refinement of theoretical knowledge. He
was in the highest sense of the word, an optician, an original
discoverer in the most abstruse and delicate departments of his

science,

296 Astronomical Society.

science, a'competent mathematician, an admirable mechanist,
and a man of a truly philosophical and scientific turn of mind.

Raised by his extraordinary talents from the lowest station
in a manufacturing establishment, to the direction of the opti-
c¢al department of the business in which he originally laboured
as an ordinary workman, he applied the whole power of his
mind to the perfection of the refracting telescope. Easily
mastering the refinements of its theory, he saw with regret
that they were for the most part unavailable in practice for
want of precise knowledge of the optical properties of the mate-
rials used. ‘This he set about to remedy; and by a series of
admirable experiments (of which it is impossible in a report of
this nature to give any idea) succeeded in giving to optical de-
terminations the precision of astronomical observations, sur-
passing in this respect all that had gone before him, except
perhaps his great predecessor Newron. He had, it is true,
advantages in these researches (such as neither Newton nor
any other experimenter has ever possessed) in a command of
apparatus limited only by his own inventive powers. It was
in the course of these researches that he was led to the impor-
tant discovery of the dark lines which occur in the solar spec-
trum. In this, indeed, he was in some degree anticipated by
an illustrious countryman of our own, to whose powers uni-
versal science bears grateful testimony. But itis certain that he
had no knowledge of the facts thus previously ascertained, and

‘that he pushed his discovery to a point very far beyond them:
being aided in so doing by possessing the happy secret of ma-
nufacturing flint glass of perfect homogeneity. Whether he ori-
ginally invented this process, or procured it from another, this
is not the occasion to pronounce; but at least his own distinct
assertion that he brought it to its final state of perfection, and
to a certainty of manipulation by his personal investigations,
ought not to be doubted. Nor did he suffer the secret to lie
idle or useless,—his telescopes are scattered over Europe; and
his last splendid performance has already demonstrated, by
the results it has afforded, his claims to unbounded admiration
as an artist. The mechanism employed in the working of his
glasses, his mode of centering and adjusting them, and every
other part of his processes (the fabrication of his glass only
excepted) has been witnessed by more than one member of
this Society. It bore the stamp of all his works—simplicity,
regularity, and incomparable neatness and precision.

Of his other valuable experiments and discoveries in physi-
cal optics, connected with the interferences of the rays of light,
(in all of which, though pushed far in advance of the actual

state

Astronomical Society. 297

state of knowledge, he appears to have relied entirely on his
own resources, and drawn little from others, ) as less connected
with astronomy, it is not necessary here to speak. He died at
a premature age: his death being accelerated, it is said, by the
unwholesome nature of the processes employed in his glass-
house; leaving behind him a reputation rarely if ever attained
by one so young.

Of M. Piazzi and his labours, it will also be interesting to
the Society to receive a concise account, as this distinguished
individual furnishes another example, in addition to the many
already upon record, of the power of genius to deliver a man
from pursuits for which he had no taste, and to carry him
successfully through others, to promote which he was richly
qualified *. Piazzi was born at Ponte in the Valteline, July 16th
1746, and died at Naples, July 22d 1826. Early in life he
was devoted to a religious order denominated the Théatzns, at
Milan. But, after various changes, he in 1780 accepted the
appointment of Professor of the Higher Mathematics in the
Academy of Palermo: and from that time, entirely devoted
himself to science.

In a few years he obtained the confidence and favour of the
Prince of Caramanico, viceroy of Sicily, by whose permission
and assistance he founded an observatory at Palermo. With
a view to open an intercourse with astronomers, and to obtain
valuable instruments for his observatory, he visited England,
where he formed an intimacy with Maskelyne, Herschel, Vince,
and Ramsden. From the last of these he obtained some very
excellent instruments, and, amongst the rest, the Altitude and
Azimuth instrument, with which his principal observations
were made. From this time Piazzi cherished a warm attach-
ment both to the English and to their language; and to the
latest period of his life continued to evince the same esteem.
While he was in England, Piazzi observed at Greenwich,
in conjunction with Maskelyne, the solar eclipse of June 3d
1788. He also collected the corresponding observations of
eighteen different astronomers in various parts of Europe, and
deduced from them the differences in longitude of the several
observatories from that of Greenwich. The results he pub-
lished in the Philosophical Transactions for 1789 (vol. Ixxix);
and the circumstance is here recorded, as this paper is under-
stood to be M. Piazzi’s earliest production as an astronomer.
In 1789 he commenced with great activity, his labours in his
new observatory, then the most southern which existed in
Europe; that at Malta having been recently destroyed by fire.

* A Memoir of this distinguished Astronomer will be found in our last
number. — Epir.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 2Q On

298: Astronomical Society.

On the ist of January 1801 he discovered the planet Ceres.’
The principal circumstances of that discovery, being well
known to astronomers, need not be detailed here. But it is due
to the character of this distinguished individual, to state, that
when the king of Naples announced his intention of perpe-
tuating the event by the circulation of a gold medal among
European observers, Piazzi, whose modesty and zeal were
equal to his merit, requested the monarch to assign the pro-
posed value of the medals to the purchase of an equatorial,
which he thought was greatly needed in his observatory. In
1803 he published the result of a labour of twelve years, un-
dertaken with a view to determine ¢he mean position of the
principal stars; for this work he received the medal from the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. In 1814 was published
M. Piazzi’s New Catalogue, from which it appeared that this
indefatigable astronomer had actually extended his researches
to 7646 stars! Early in 1817 M. Piazzi published his Lessons
on Astronomy, and the same year he was called to Naples, to
put into activity the new observatory established on the heights
of Capo-di-Monte. Cacciatore (now also one of the Associates
of this Society) has from that time taken the charge of the ob-
servatory at Palermo; and by his zeal and assiduity is emu-
lating the conduct of his predecessor.

The subsequent labours of this indefatigable astronomer,.
are as universally known as they are highly appreciated,
throughout Europe. The grand work, however, to which we
have already adverted (the Catalogue of 7646 stars) will ever
remain a monument of his superior activity and perseverance,
as long as the science endures. This important work far ex-
ceeds every thing of the kind that has preceded it ; and shows
more powerfully than words can express, what may be effect-
ed by the talents and assiduity of ove individual.

The will of this eminent astronomer furnishes a new proof
of his cordial desire to contribute perpetually to the promotion
of his favourite science. He has bequeathed his library and all
his instruments to the observatory at Palermo; and has as-
signed a liberal annuity to be devoted in succession to the in-
struction of young men who evince a marked partiality for
this interesting department of knowledge.

The Council trust that the several members of this Society
require no additional excitement to promote and advance the
cause in which they have so laudably embarked. They should
recollect, however, that without their cordial cooperation and
assistance, the labours and efforts of the Council will be in
vain. For, the Council are merely the officers of the Society,
and can only collect and arrange the subjects that present

themselves.

Astronomical Society. 299

themselves. To the individuals of the Society it more pro-
perly belongs to furnish those subjects which may tend to the
improvement of the science, either theoretically or practically.
The Council have, indeed, in some of their former Reports,
ventured to suggest several points as more particularly worthy
of the attention of the Members, but it must be obvious to
every one, that these are a few only of the desiderata in Astro-
nomy ; and that many others will suggest themselves to every
skilful and intelligent observer.

The meeting then proceeded to the election of Officers for
the ensuing year, when the following List was delivered in by
the scrutineers: viz.

President: J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. M.A. F.R.S. L. & E.
M.R.LA.& F.G.S.—Vice-Presidents: Capt. F. Beaufort, R.N.
F.R.S.; Lieut.-Gen. Sir T. M. Brisbane, K.C.B. F.R.S. L.& E.;
Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. PRESSE: Soe FBS... 8c
G.S.; James South, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S.— Treasurer: Rev.
William Pearson, LL.D. F.R.S.—Secretaries : Olinthus G.
Gregory, LL.D. Prof. Math. Roy. Mil. Acad. Woolwich ;
Lieut. W. S. Stratford, R.N.—Forcign Secretary: Charles
Babbage, Esq. M.A. F.R.S, L. & E. & M.R.I.A.—Council :
Francis Baily, Esq. F.R.S. L.S. & G.S. & M.R.LA.; Colonel
Mark Beaufoy, F.R.S. & L. S.; Lieut.-Col. Thomas Colby,
R.E. LL.D. & F.R.S. L. & E.; Capt. George Everest ; Davies
Gilbert, Esq. M.P. V.P.R.S. F.L.S. & G.S.; Benjamin
Gompertz, Esq. F.R.S.; Stephen Groombridge, Esq. F.R.S. ;
James Horsburgh, Esq. F.R.S.; Rt. Hon. Lord Oxmantown ;
Edward Riddle, Esq.

March 9.—At this meeting there was read, a “ Notice respecting
some errors common to many tables of logarithms,” by C. Babbage,
Esq. Foreign Secretary of this Society. Mr. Babbage having lately
printed a stereotype table of the logarithms of the natural numbers
for the use of the Trigonometrical Survey in Ireland, for the sake of
greater accuracy subjected them to eight readings and comparisons
with other tables. This cautious process led to the detection of va-
rious errors, which are common to almost all the tables; those of
Vega, the last impressions of Callet, and Mr. Babbage’s own tables,
being all that he has found free from the errors which he specifies.
The tables subjected to this examination, were those of Vlacq, Gou-
da, 1628, carried to ten figures; Vlacq, London, 1633; Wingate,
London, 1633; Newton, in his 7rig. Britan. 1658, to eight figures ;
Sherwin, London, 1726; 2nd ed. 1741; 3rd ed. 1742; Gardiner, Lon-
don, 1742; Sherwin, 4th ed. 1761 ; 5th ed. 1770; Gardiner, Avignon,
1770; Schulze, Berlin, 1778; Gardiner, Furenze, 1782; Taylor,
London, 1792; Vega, Leipsic, 1794; Callet, (stereotype,) Paris’,

2Q2 1795 ;

300 Astronomical Society.

1795; Callet, ditto, Paris, (tirage,) 1825; Hobert and Ideler, Ber-
lin, 1799; Delambre, Tab. Dec. Paris, 1801; Hutton, 4th ed. Lon-
don, 1804, 5th ed. 1811; Vega, Leipsic, 1520; Hutton, 6th ed.,
London, 1822 ; Babbage, London, 1827.—Mr. Babbage thinks that
the errors which he has detected can only be attributed to the uni-
versal system of copying which prevails in such works.

The numbers and correct logarithms to seven places are as below:

Numbers. Logarithms. Vlacq’s last five figures.
246296 ..... 39189940. 5° aves 39751
$8969 hse 5906412 ..... 13420
B7698 Cys 4 7606335 ..... 85875
B7GR9 MOMS, 1 Uh ay ae 10436
aad. (ee 8044598... do eye 97412
BOR cy cata. 8821989. cs. « wt 58424

From these the several tables specified may readily be corrected.

Mr. Babbage knowing that there was in the Library of the Royal
Society a table of logarithms printed in the Chinese character, and
which exhibits no indication or acknowledgement of its being copied
from another work, was naturally desirous to compare it with Euro-
pean tables. On doing so, he found that in the szz cases above
noted, errors occurred precisely as in the European tables; thus
furnishing an irresistible proof that the Chinese tables have an Eu-
ropean origin

There were next read two letters from Mr. Andrew Lang to
F. Baily, Esq.: one dated St. Croix, 20th of March 1826; the other,
St. Croix, 30th of November 1826, The first of these transmits an
account of observations of the meridian transit of the moon’s en-
lightened limb, and some stars preceding and following her, made
at St. Croix, lat. 17° 44/ 32" north, assumed long. 64° 45' west,
between September 22, 1825, and March 15, 1826. These were
sent to Mr, Schumacher at the same time, and have been published
in No. 104 of his Astron. Nachrichten.

Mr. Lang describes the climate of St. Croix as peculiarly favour-
able to astronomical observations, and speaks of the steadiness of the
terrestrial refraction there. The terrestrial refraction scarcely ever
varies perceptibly from the one-sixteenth part of the intercepted are.

In Mr. Lang’s second communication he presents a further ac-
count of the meridian transits of the moon’s enlightened limb, and
of moon-culminating stars, observed between March 30, and
November 21, 1826. He also gives a summary of his observations
of occultations of ', and 4°, Sagittariz by the moon, on the 9th
of September ; and of ) Virginis, on the 28th of October.

Next, there was read a paper, ‘‘ On a new application of the me-
thod of determining the time by observations of two stars when in
the same vertical, to the case of Polaris when so situated with re-
spect to any other circumpolar star in the course of its diurnal re-
volution below the pole: By Dr. T.L. Tiarks. The author first
describes the peculiarities and advantages of this method, and then

presents

Astronomical Society. 501

presents the investigation of the formule of computation. If] de-
note the co-latitude of the place of observation, d the polar distance
of the pole-star, D that of the other star, « their difference of right
ascensions, and ¢ the time elapsed from the upper passage of the
pole-star to the moment of its being on the same vertical with the
other; then the result of the investigation gives

; sin @
4 Ae eR Blea shh) a Seay

The values of y and ¢ being determined by the following equa-
tions : viz.

: _ __sin(D—d)

CLE ac share si Lei cngiye

sin 3 @ ,/(sin 2 Dsin gd)
sin (D — d) ;

(Il)... tany=

sin @

y i =_ .
(EV 1 Ae wig Si O— eae

The author occupies a portion of his paper in tracing the limits
of error, and in pointing out in what cases the method is not strictly
true.

Lastly : There was read a letter from M. Gambart to the Presi-
dent, dated Marseilles, 30th of December 1826. ; After adverting
to what may be supposed his temerity in anticipating the transit of
the comet seen in Bodtes over the sun’s disc, on the 18th of Novem-
ber, he presents the elements of the parabolic orbit of another
comet, which are as below: viz.

Passage of the perihelion 1827. 34°989 M.T. from midn‘.
Perihelion distance ...... 0455

Longitude of perihelion .... 34° 0! 50"

Longitude ofthenode..... 191 44 33

Enclmation / eich bet wh 72 4 15

Motion retrograde.

M, Gambart exhibits a comparison of the results of these ele.
ments, and of his observations on the 27th, 28th, and 29th of De-
cember. He then adds a few remarks, which need not be recorded,
and congratulates himself and astronomers generally, upon the ex-
istence and success of the Astronomical Society of London, « What,”
he asks, “may not be expected from so liberal an association ? Happy
the country where the love of science alone causes so many men of
enlightened minds to combine in such an object! Happy, also,
those who dwell there!”

The President read part of a private letter from M. Littrow,
Director of the Imperial Observatory at Vienna, stating that His
Majesty the Emperor of Austria has liberally authorized the pur-
chase, for that observatory, of a refractor, similar in all respects
to that made by Fraunhofer for the Observatory at Dorpat, and
which at the death of that excellent artist was left (so he under-
stood the words ‘des noch iibrigen”) by him amongst his other
instruments undisposed of,

ROYAL

302 Royal Society.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Feb. 15. —Sir R. R. Vyvan, Bart. M.P., and Cesar Moreau, Esq.,
were respectively admitted Fellows of the Society ; and the following
papers were read:

South Polar Distances of Stars included within the tropic of
Capricorn; observed in the months of May and June 1822; re-
duced to their mean places for January 1823: with other astrono-
mical observations : by C. Rumker, Esq.

This paper consists of, 1. A Catalogue of the south polar distances
of about 204 stars in the Southern Hemisphere, arranged in a table
accompanied by columns containing their annual variations in
S. P. D. and their elements of aberration and nutation :

2. A determination of the latitude of the observatory at Para-
matta, as deduced from circumpolar altitudes of 6 Argus, observed
with the repeating circle; and which determination differs about 15!
from that obtained from solstices and zodiacal stars :

3. Observations of the summer solstice of 1822, with the mural
circle :

4, Observations of the moon :

5. Observations of the comet of 1824 in the Lion, with its ele-
ments; as also of another comet discovered by Sir Thos. Brisbane,
in the Lion, in the year 1825; and of another, designated as the
great comet of 1825:

6. Observations of the opposition of Mars.

7. Intervals between the transits of the moon and those of fixed
stars culminating nearly in the same parallel in the year 1826.

8. Observations of an eclipse of the moon at Paramatta, May 21,
1826.

The author regards the accuracy of these observations as in-
ferior to that obtained by Jupiter’s satellites.

9. Observations of the Northern solstice of the sun with a re-
peating circle of Reichenbach, at Paramatta, in the year 1826. The
obliquity resulting from these observations differs only 0'-4 from
that stated in the Nautical Almanac.

Remarks on a correction of the solar tables required by Mr.
South’s observations; by G. B. Airey, Esq. F.R.S. and Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.

The reading was begun of a paper On the mutual attraction of
the particles of magnetic bodies, and on the law of variation of
the magnetic forces generated by rotation; by S. H. Christie, Esq.
M.A. F.R.S.

Feb. 22.—G. W. Taylor, Esq. M.P., was admitted a Fellow of
the Society; and the reading of Mr. Christie’s paper was cdncluded,

The results described by Mr. Christie in a former paper, when a
copper disc was made to revolve under a magnetized needle, appear-
ing to him not likely to lead to an accurate knowledge of the law of
magnetic attraction developed during rotation, from the effect of
lateral attraction, he was induced to resume the inquiry, substitu-
ting a ring for the disc, expecting that as no lateral force would here
be called into action, the results would be more uniform; and in

this expectation he was not disappointed, One of the first phano-
mena

Royal Society. 303

mena that he encountered, was a very great diminution of magne-
tic force, when a ring of the same weight was substituted for a disc ;
and pursuing this point of inquiry, he found, that in all cases of so-
lution of continuity, not only by cuts in the direction of radii from
the centre, but also in concentric annuli or otherwise, there is al-
ways a great loss of force; the magnetism of the whole being always
much greater than the sums of that of the parts.

In reasoning on the experiments detailed, Mr. Christie concludes
that the greater development of magnetism in a disc subjected to
the action of revolving magnets, takes place, when the axes of the
magnets are vertically under points bisecting the radii, and that the
magnetism decreases very rapidly as they approach the edge; thus
indicating that for a full development of magnetism, a continuity
of substance in all directions from the point acted on is principally
requisite. Various phenomena lead also to the conclusion that the
reduction of the disc by concentric and radiating cuts into very
small portions, would render its magnetism quite insensible.

The author next proceeds to investigate by experiments of the
same kind, the law of variation of the magnetic force, regarded as
depending on the distance of the revolving magnets from the sus-
pended body. Assuming in this investigation, as a consequence of
the principles proposed by other writers, that the action may be
referred to a single point or pole in the copper ring, somewhat in
arrear of the point vertically over the magnet, and also that the
mutual action of this pole, and the single point near the extremity
of each magnet to which its action may also be referred, is inversely
as the 4th power of their distance, he found these laws to be esta-
blished by the experiments, made in various ways.

Lastly, Mr. Christie enters into an analytical examination, the
object of which is to ascertain how far the principle of time being
required for the development of magnetism, will account for the
phznomena; and the conclusion at which he arrives, is, that it will
do so satisfactorily. In the course of this examination, he infers
that in certain cases a retrograde rotation in the suspended disc
might take place, and suggests the great confirmation which such
a fact, if observed, would afford this theory.

A notice was read, entitled, ‘‘ Correction of an error in a paper
published in the Philosophical Transactions, entitled ‘ On the paral-
lax of the fixed stars ;’ by J. F. W. Herschel, Esq., M.A. Sec. R.S.”;
and a paper was also read, entitled, ‘On attractions apparently
magnetic exhibited during chemical combination; by W. L. Hen-
wood, Esq.” : communicated by Davies Gilbert, Esq. M.P. V.P.R.S.

March 1.—Dr. J. C. Prichard was admitted a Fellow of the So-
ciety ; and a paper was read, entitled «On the structure and use
of the submaxillary odoriferous gland of the Crocodile; by Thomas
Bell, Esq F.L.S.”: communicated by Sir E. Home, Bart., V.P.R-S.

Beneath the lower jaw of the Alligator and the Crocodile, on each
side, is situated a gland which secretes an unctuous substance of a
strong musky odour. About two years since, the author of this
paper discovered in it a structure which is without parallel in the
glandular system of other animals, His observations were made on
the common American Alligator. In this animal the external ori-

fice

304 Royal Society.

fice of the gland is situated about two-thirds of the length of the
lower jaw backwards from the symphysis, being a longitudinal slit
a little within the lower edge of the basis of the jaw, through which
exudes the substance just mentioned. During warm weather, when
the animal feeds freely, the secretion is copious ; but in winter it is
much diminished in quantity and is less powerful in scent. The
gland itself is a simple follicle of an elongated pyriform figure, lying
between the skin and the under surface of the tongue. In an_ alli.
gator of four feet in length, it is about half an inch long and one-
sixth of an inch in diameter. This gland is enveloped by ex-
tremely fine and delicate muscular fibres, disposed obliquely, con-
sisting of two fasciculi passing repeatedly over and under the
gland, which unite at its base into a long and slender round muscle,
closely attached to the corner of the os hyoides, and following the
course of another muscle apparently identical with the mylo-hyoi-
deus in the mammiferous animals. The use of the muscle appears
to be to bring the gland into a proper position for its discharge,
and then to operate the discharge, by pressure.

The author, considering the situation of the gland near the mouth
of the alligator, and the predatory habits of the animal, together
with its voracity of fish, and the well-known partiality of fish for
odoriferous oils and extracts, conceives, that this secretion acts asa
bait, attracting the fish to such a position as will enable the alliga-
tor readily to seize them, in his usual way of seizing his prey, by
snapping sideways at them.

The reading was also commenced, of a paper ‘ Note on the che-
mical composition of two liquids lately proposed as powerful dis-
infectants, and on the action of those liquids on putrid animal mat-
ter.” By A. B. Granville, M,D. F.R.S.

March 8.—MM. Morichini, Ehrman, and Ampére, were re-
spectively elected Foreign members of the Society.

A letter was read by the Vice-President in the Chair, which had
been received at the Foreign office, from M. Rumker, announcing
his discovery of a comet in the southern hemisphere, in September
last, at Paramatta.

The reading of Dr.Granville’s paper was then concluded.— Mons.
Labarraque, a pharmacien residing in Paris, proposed, two or three

ears ago, to employ chlorine in a liquid form, in lieu of Morveau’s
method hitherto adopted, for disinfecting air in which putrid ani-
mal effluvia are disseminated, and for arresting putrefaction in dead
bodies. For this purpose he selected; Ist, a solution of the salt
formerly termed oxymuriate of lime in water; and 2dly, a solution
of carbonate of soda saturated with chlorine gas.

To these liquids Mons. Labarraque gave the names of Chlorure
d’oxide de calcium, et d’oxide de sodium,” corresponding to our chlo-
rides of lime and soda; and under those denominations he promul-

ated, with a becoming spirit of liberality, his discovery of their dis-
infecting properties. ‘The promulgation, however, was not as one
had aright to expect, accompanied by any scientific inquiry into
the real constitution of the liquids, nor by any analysis of their in-
gredients. Nor was it followed by any attempt to explain the
curious and important facts which they had brought to light, itn
which

Royal Society. 305

which were in a short time confirmed by the observations of many.
Labarraque’s views were formed, in Dr. G.’s opinion, on mere as-
sumption, and were adopted by the French and by all the English
translators and commentators who assisted in making his discovery
more generally known. No one seemed to doubt the correctness of
those views, until Dr. Granville, having had occasion to use very
extensively one of the liquids in question (that containing soda),
undertook the analysis of that liquid, in order to ascertain its real
composition, and he entered upon an inquiry into the phenomena
resulting from the action of chlorine on animal matter in a putrid
state. The results of these inquiries Dr. Granville has detailed at
full length, in his paper in which a series of experiments is minutely
described, from which the author conceives he has proved, that the
supposed “ chloride of oxide of sodium” in solution is in reality a
mixture of

73°53 dry chloride of sodium

26°47 neutral chlorate of soda

100:00
with an excess of chlorine equal to twice the bulk of the water
employed in preparing the liquid agreeably to Labarraque’s own
formula.

Besides detailing the several analytical and synthetical experi-
ments in support of the above conclusions, Dr. Granville attempts
to prove the accuracy of those conclusions by the application of
the atomic doctrine, as well as by a calculation of the weight and
measure of the chlorine gas required to form the disinfecting li-
quid ; whence it appears that during the process of preparing that
liquid five atoms of oxygen combine with one atom of chlorine to
form chloric acid, which unites with one atom of soda to form the
chlorate of soda; and five atoms of sodium combine with five
atoms of chlorine to form five integrant atoms of chloride of so-
dium. These combinations are not due to the decomposition of
water but to a peculiar arrangement of the elements contained in
the solution. With regard to the quantity of chlorine gas employed,
it appears. to be very considerable. Twenty fluid ounces of the
liquid contain 503°36 cubic inches of that gas (besides the free
chlorine), which weigh, according to Thomson’s tables, 383-815
grains; and as the soda dissolved in those twenty ounces of liquid
weighs 341-185 grains ; according to the atomic theory, the weight
of the solid contents of that quantity of liquid ought to amount to
725 grains; which is precisely what Dr. Granville found on eva-
porating the whoie of the liquid to dryness. If this be the real com-
position of Labarraque’s liquid, it is clear that no such compound
as the chloride of oxide of sodium exists in it, and its present de-
nomination must be incorrect; Dr. Granville therefore recom-
mends that it should be abolished, and that the simple name of
Disinfecting liquid of soda should be substituted for it.

In another part of his paper the author endeavours to show that the
singular properties of the above liquid are due entirely to the chlorine,

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 2K and

306 Royal Society.

and in no way to the agency of the salts contained in it. The same
results are obtained when a simple solution of chlorine water is em-
ployed; but in that case the escape of the gas is considerable, and
consequently offensive to the operator and assistants. This is not
the case when the same quantity of chlorine is thrown into a solu-
tion of the two salts mentioned in the course of the paper; so that
Dr. Granville infers that the presence of those salts serves to lessen
the tendency of the free chlorine to escape in a gaseous form. When
the two salts, alone obtained by evaporation, are redissolved in di-
stilled water, no disinfecting effects are obtained, although so large
a proportion of the chlorine enters into their composition; but if
two measures of that gas, equal to twice the bulk of the solution,
be thrown in, all the disinfecting properties are restored to the
liquid.

Dr. Granville promises to lay before the Royal Society a con-
tinuation of his inquiries on this subject, in which he will describe the
mode of action of the disinfecting liquid on putrid animal matter,—
detail the new compounds that result from that action,—point out a
method of ascertaining the presence of animal effluvia in the air by
means of chlorine, applicable in time of infectious diseases; and
lastly, suggest a more easy and ceconomical process of preparing
the Disinfecting liquid.

A paper was also read, entitled «« On the permeability of trans-
parent screens of extreme tenuity by radiant heat ; by W. Ritchie,
A.M.” communicated by Mr. Herschel.

Mr. Ritchie states that invisible radiant heat from sources at
elevated temperatures freely permeates thin transparent screens in
the same manner as light; but as this doctrine, established by Pro-
fessor Prévost and M. de la Roche, has been controverted, he
thinks it necessary to demonstrate it by fresh experiments. To
this end he covered a small aperture with a film of glass almost
iridescent, and keeping it constantly cold, by blowing on it, below
the temperature of the ambient air, he found that an air-thermo-
meter on one side of it was not affected by a heated iron ball on
the other, if the temperature of the ball was low; but that as the
temperature was raised, though not to the point of visible ignition,
the effect on the thermometer became sensible and even consider-
able. Several other experiments are adduced, confirmatory of the
same doctrine ; and the author finds that little difference of effect is
observed, whether the screens be near to or far from the heated
ball, ceteris paribus :—and this he considers as demonstrating that
the effect was not due to secondary radiation from the screen.

March 15.—Capt. G, Everest, the conductor of the Trigonome-
trical Survey of India, was admitted a Fellow of the Society; and
MM. Struve, Stromeyer, Plana, and Semmering, were respectively
elected Foreign members.

A paper was read, entitled “Correction of an error in the reduc-
tion of the observations for atmospherical refraction at Port Bowen;
by Lieut. H. Foster, R.N. F.R.S.”

The reading was also commenced of a paper on Experiments for
determining the mean density of the earth, made, with two invariable

pendulums,

‘
:

Linnean Society.— Horticultural Society. 307

pendulums, at the mine of Dolcoath in Cornwall, by Mr. Whewell,
M.A. F.R.S., and G. B. Airey, M.A. F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of
Mathematics iu the University of Cambridge.

March 22.—The reading of the above paper was concluded, and
an Appendix to it by Professor Airey, wasread. We intend giving
some account of these two communications in our next Number.

LINN AN SOCIETY.

March 6.—Read a paper by Thos. Bell, Esq. F.L.S. On two new
genera of land tortoises.—These genera possess a peculiar interest
as exhibiting the affinities by which the freshwater tortoises are
connected with those inhabiting the land. Mr, Bell has named
them Pyzts, and Kinyzis; and both are distinguished by a moveable
joint, one in the sternum, and the other in the hinder part of the
back, by means of which the shell can be completely closed. The
species described are Pyzis arachnoides, a perfect land tortoise,
with the anterior lobe of the sternum moveable, and capable of as
accurately closing the shell as in any species of the freshwater box
tortoises: Kinyxis castanea: and Kinyxis Homiana, a species forming
a passage from the group of Testudinide to that of the Emydide.

March 20. Amongst the presents announced, was a collection of
birds from New Holland sent by Alex. MacLeay, Esq., Secretary
of the Colony, and formerly the much-respected Secretary of the
Society.—A further portion was read of Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s
paper on the Birds of Cuba, in the introductory part of which the
principles of arrangement adopted by Aristotle in the Animal King-
dom are investigated.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Feb. 6.—The following papers were read: Upon destroying the
mildew on peach trees ; by Mr. John Mearns, F.H.S.—Upon the
best mode of obtaining late crops of melons; by Mr. William Green-
shields, F.H.S.—Upon pruning and managing standard apple and
pear trees ; by the same.—On the progress of Horticulture in the
north of Europe, particularly in and around Riga; by Mr. F. H.
Zigra.—On the cultivation of the Heliotrope and other tender
plants in open borders ; byMr. John Mearns, F.H.S.—On pruning
plum trees when trained to walls; by the same.—An account of
the mode of managing peach trees in an early peach-house ; by
Mr. Walter Henderson, C.M.H.S.—On the phenomena of the
rose of Jericho; by Mr. John Murray, F.H.S.—Some remarkably
cheap woollen netting for protecting fruit trees, which had been
manufactured in Wales, was laid upon the table.—Various fruits of
the season, and flowers of several kinds of Camellias, were exhibited
by different Fellows; and a variety of articles were sent from the
Society’s Garden for inspection.

Feb. 20.—The following papers were read: An account of some
remarkable holly hedges and trees in Scotland ; by Joseph Sabine,
Esq., F.R.S. (Secretary).—On the culture of the pine-apple ; by Mr.
James Dall, gardener to the earl of Hardwicke.—On forcing aspa-

2R2 ragus ;

308 Royal Institution of Great Britain.

ragus ; by the same. Both these papers were communicated by the
Cambridge Horticultural Society, as deserving the annual silver
medal given by the London Horticultural Society to provincial
Horticultural Societies in communication with it.—On the cultiva-
tion of Camellias in the open air ; by Mr. Joseph Harrison.— An ac-
count cf a plan for preserving grapes in vineries from insects; by
Mr. Charles Harrison, F.H.S.—Observations upon metallic hot-
houses ; by Mr. W. M‘Murrie, F.H.S.—Upon the culture of the
Prunus Pseudo-cerasus or Chinese cherry ; by Thomas Andrew
Knight, Esq., F.R.S. (President).—A journal of meteorological ob-
servations made in the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chis-
wick during the year 1826 ; by Mr. W. B. Booth, A.L.S.—A fine
collection of fruit of the best American apples, which had been sent
to the Society by Mr. Jesse Buel of Albany in the state of New
York, was exhibited.—A plant in flower of a single Warata’h Ca-
mellia, raised from seed in the garden of the Comte de Vandes, at
Bayswater, was also placed upon the table.
ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Feb. 2—An account was given by Mr. Alcock in the Lecture-
room, of the applications lately made in France of the chloride of
lime, and the solution prepared by passing chlorine through solu-
tion of carbonate of soda, as disinfecting agents. It appears that
notwithstanding the affinity by which the chlorine is held in these
bodies, that it is ready to act upon, and destroy any putrid miasma-
ta that may be floating in the atmosphere in which they are exposed.
If a cloth be dipped in a solution of chloride of lime, and exposed
toa foul air, or placed over putrescent matter, as a disinterred corpse,
that the noxious effluvia are quickly destroyed, and all injury to the
persons present prevented, without any unpleasant effects from
the presence of the chloride. The applications of this fact to nu-
merous cases of infected atmosphere were pointed out, and also to
the amelioration and cure of ulcers or putrescent sores.

The Library tables were as before covered with numerous objects
of interest: amongst which was a specimen of deadly vegetable
poison from the kingdom of Assam, with which the Assamese tip
their arrows and spears. It has not yet been examined.

Feb. 19—A communication on the principle of security in
locks was given from the table by Mr. Ainger, from which it ap-
peared that the various methods invented of conferring security on
locks, might be considered as of two kinds; those which placed nu-
merous obstacles to the passage of the key (usually called wards),
and those which placed impediments to the motion of the bolt, The
latter appeared to be the only methods which afforded security, and
a lock of this kind constructed in Egypt was produced, which from
historical records appears to have been known and used there for
4000 years. Its action was illustrated by large models, as was also
that of Bramah’s and other locks; and the perfect security, which
could now be obtained by locks, was explained by a reference to
the principles upon which they were picked, and the manner in
which these were rendered deceptive or unavailing by the lock-
maker, A specimen

London Mechanics’ Institution. 309

A specimen of a fungus gathered from the beech-tree was laid
upon the Library table. The whole of its upper surface was cover-
ed by an exudation of fine resin, forming an uniform coat over it.
Books presented to the Institution, and works in the press, were also
laid upon the table.

Feb. 16.—Mr. Brande gave an account from the Lecture table
of the method of manufacturing dies for coining, including an ac-
count of the mode and of the circumstances connected with the
striking of coin and medals. The nature of the steel required for
the die was first considered, and that stated to be the best, as far as
the experience of the speaker went, which was least acted upon by
dilute sulphuric acid : and the manner in which it was forged, soft-
ened, and prepared for the artist, was then described ; the progress
of his work illustrated by numerous specimens, and the way in
which the first piece of art, or the matrix, was made to produce
punches, and these again dies to be used for striking the pieces of me-
tal or blanks, fully explained. The hardening of the die, the guard-
ing it by a ring of iron, the work it could perform in the coining-

resses, the destruction of dies at the Mint, the preparation of the
blanks, and the difference between striking coin and medals,—were
fully described ; as was also that curious operation of lettering the
edges of the pieces. Many fine specimens of Mr. Wyon’s workman-
ship were on the table.

In the Library was exhibited a very fine specimen of that rare
bird Meleagris ocellata or Dindon Giillé. \t was brought alive to this
country in 1814, from the Bay of Honduras ; but died soon after
its arrival, and has been very finely preserved.

A very large skull of a Walrus was also upon the table, with nu-
merous presents of books, rare works, and the publications of the
week.

LONDON MECHANICS’ INSTITUTION.

A quarterly general meeting of the members of this Institution
was held on the 7th of March, to receive the Committee’s Report
of the proceedings of their quarter terminating on that day; from
which it appeared that courses of lectures had been delivered by
Professor Millington, On the application of mathematical science
to mechanical subjects; by Mr. Cooper, On metallurgic chemistry,
which had occupied the Wednesday evenings: and that the Fri-
day evenings had been occupied by a variety of lectures on miscel-
laneous interesting subjects.

It appears that the purposes for which this Institution was esta-
blished, are now in full operation, and carried on with much activity
and advantage to its members; for, besides the lectures twice a
week, they have a Reading Room, and a Circulating Library, con-
taining nearly 3000 volumes, and classes for instruction in arith-
metic, mathematics, drawing, the English and French languages,
geography and writing; and also weekly meetings for mutual in-
struction in mechanical philosophy and chemistry.

It was announced at the close of the meeting that Professor

Millington

310 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

Millington was about to deliver a course of lectures on pneuma-
tics, and that these would be followed about the middle of April,
by a course of lectures on the structure and functions of the hu-
man body, by Dr. Birkbeck, the President.

LXI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

DESCRIPTION OF A PLANETARIUM, OR ORRERY, ON A NEW
PRINCIPLE, PUT IN MOTION BY THE STATE OF THE ATMO-
SPHERE.

i the year 1824, I made a Planetarium or Orrery, on a new prin-

ciple, showing the motion of the Earth and Moon round the Sun,
and of the Moon round the Earth; of which invention I observed a
notice in the Philosophical Magazine for March that year, I have
lately constructed one on the same principle, representing the Sun,
an inferior planet (Venus), the Earth and Moon, and a superior
planet (Mars ),—which I shall describe, referring to the figure which
accompanies this paper. The figure is not given as an exact re-
presentation as to dimensions, but will, I imagine, with the descrip-
tion be found sufficient for those persons who may wish to make a
planetarium of the same sort. The principal parts of this machine
are the following ; to which may be added rings and hooks for con-
necting the parts together.

A piece of catgut string about fifteen
inches in length, A (represented as
suspended from a beam in a room),
this passes through the round bars or
rods B, C, D, and is fastened to them
on the under sides by knots with glue,
to prevent them from slipping.. E, a
small bar or rod; F, a string of catgut
about three feet long. G,H, I,J, K,
five wooden balls to represent the Sun
(which is gilt), Venus, the Earth, the
Moon, and Mars. These balls are some
suspended by sewing (linen) thread, and
some by silk. They might all have been
of either of those substances.

The Sun is hung below the catgut
string A. Venus, from one end of the
bar D. The Earth and Moon from E,
which is suspended from the bar C
(by catgut), and Mars from the bar B.

In order to balance the three large K J }
rods, I make use of flexible copper wire ;
and find a piece wound round spirally, very convenient for the
purpose.

The

———————

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 311

The annual motion of the planets round the Sun is caused by
the property which catgut strings have of twisting and untwisting
according to the state of the atmosphere. When the apparatus is
removed from a damp room into one whichis drier, and hung up,
the catgut A twists and carries the rods B, C, D round from right
to left, thus showing the course in which the planets really move

- round the Sun.

The small bar E hanging by a string of catgut about three feet
long, makes several revolutions, whilst it is carried round the Sun
once; the Earth and Moon are connected with this bar at unequal
distances from the point of suspension, and are carried round this
point (which represents the common centre of gravity between
those bodies), the Moon by revolving round the Earth illustrating
the monthly motion. Owing to the relative lengths of catgut be-
tween the point of suspension of the string A, and the bars B, C,
and D, the difference in the annual motions of the planets is oc-
casioned. In the Planetarium here figured, the diameter of the
Earth’s orbit is about one foot eight inches; that of the Moon’s
round the centre of gravity, between four and five inches. I have
one, of the Sun, Earth, and Moon, in which the diameter of the
orbit of the Earth is about six feet, and of the Moon about one
foot eight inches.

On the principle of this machine, the rest of the Solar system
usual on Orreries may be added; and where a considerable length of
catgut can be conveniently made use of, the diurnal motions of the
planets may be shown. By substituting a catgut string instead of
the thread which suspends the Sun, its motion round its axis may
easily be shown. By using a lamp instead of the gilt ball, or placing
a candle at a proper height, eclipses of the Sun and Moon, and
phases of the Moon, may be explained in a pleasing manner. It is
suggested, in order to make the Earth keep its parallelism whilst
revolving round the Sun, that a small terrestrial globe with an axis
rendered magnetic be made use of; and if still greater accuracy be
desired, that a bar magnet be placed according to the present de-
clination of the Magnetic needle within a globe ; but such a method
does not appear to be necessary.

I am persuaded that a very amusing and instructive Planetarium
on the plan of this may be made, and hope to see one with im-
provements. If a method can be adopted by which the planets can
be placed at one point, to set out from, in their revolutions, it would
be very satisfactory. Perhaps by having different pieces of catgut
(instead of one string) to be connected by screws to the rods, this
could be accomplished ; but I think there will be some difficulty at-
tending the attempt. This Apparatus | propose calling an ‘‘ Atmo-
spherical Planetarium, or Orrery,” as itis put in motion by the state
of the atmosphere as respects moisture, in the same way which
catgut Hygrometers are. Perhaps some preferable substance to cat-
gut may be met with; but I know not of any such. ‘To prevent the
strings entangling, the apparatus had better be removed in different
portions than when connected together, I think it possible that a
very eccentric orbit of a Comet may be contrived on the same prin-

ciple

$12 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

ciple as this Planetarium, but I have not yet attempted to make a
ball revolve in such a course; to effect this object a much more
complicated apparatus appears necessary than for a circular mo-
tion.—B. M. Forster.

Walthamstow, Essex, March 12, 1827.

CRYSTALLIZED LITHARGE.

M. Gaultier de Claubry remarked that crystals of litharge were
formed during the cupellation of argentiferous lead: he collected
and analysed some of them. These crystals had the appearance of
regular dodecahedrons ; but M. Beudant, who examined them with
the assistance of the reflective goniometer, found that they possessed
no regular angles, and that their facets were curvilinear.

M. Houton-Labilliadére had previously obtained litharge in
crystals, which appeared to him to be regular dodecahedrons ; they
were formed in a solution of oxide of lead in soda, during the win-
ter.—(Ann.de Chim. et de Phys. t. vii. p. 218.)

The crystals obtained during cupellation consisted of :
Protoxide of lead, with a trace of copper ....- 963
UAPHOMIC ABI ae san oe ee, eAG em APNE GS STADE a5

On the surface of the crystals there were semitransparent lamine
of a yellow colour, of the size of the nail; their composition was
similar to that of the crystals.—( Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xxiii,
p. 443.)

COMPOSITION OF NITRIC ACID.

The 12th volume of the Annals of Philosophy, O.S. (p. 351),
contains a translation of a paper on the composition of nitric acid,
by Berthollet: the process employed was that of decomposing ni-
trate of potash by heat in a porcelain retort, the weight and nature of
the gaseous products and of the residual potash being ascertained.
From these experiments the author concluded that nitric acid is

composed of 69°6 oxygen + 30:4 azote, instead of 74-08 of the

former and 25-92 of the latter element, as now generally admitted.
Dr. Thomson observes, that though he has no doubt of the inac-
curacy of Berthollet’s analysis, he cannot pretend to account for the
fallacy. Having lately prepared some oxygen gas by decomposing
nitre, I found that the last gaseous product, if not entirely azetic
gas, contained so little oxygen that it extinguished a candle. Upon
pouring water into the gun-barrel to remove the potash, I found
that oxygen gas was immediately evolved, and in such quantity
that an ignited stick was immediately inflamed; and the combustion
continued for a considerable period.
Now Berthollet distinctly, though erroneously, asserts, that the
potash retains no oxygen: but it is evident from the experiment now
stated,

ie |

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 313

stated, that peroxide of potassium is formed ; and it appeared to me
probable, that the quantity was sufficient to supply the deficiency
of about 44 per cent of oxygen in Berthollet’s experiment.— R. P

; PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS.

M. Viala finds that when phosphorus is introduced into a receiver
containing a weak solution of an alkali, phosphuretted hydrogen is
formed, and evolved in a few hours without the application of heat.—
Journ. de Pharm, Feb. 1827.

ACIDS DISCOVERED IN CASTOR OIL.

MM. Bussy and Lecanu have obtained three new fatty acids from
castor oil: one, which they call ricinic acid, is fusible at 72° Fahr.;
another, termed elaiodic acid, is fluid at several degrees below 22°;
and the third they have denominated margaritic acid; this crystal-
lizes in fine scales, and is not fusible below 264°. These acids are
volatile, more or less soluble in alcohol, and perfectly insoluble in
water; and they form salts of very distinct characters, with several
bases, and especially with magnesia and oxide of lead.

When castor oil is distilled in a retort in the common way, there
are obtained a small quantity of gas, water, and acetic acid, a co-
lourless crystallizable volatile oil, ricinic and elaiodic acids, which
condense with the oil in the receiver, anda solid matter which re-
mains in the retort. The quantities of acid and of the volatile oil
are nearly equal, and form nearly a third of the oil employed ; the
solid matter constitutes nearly the remaining two-thirds.

This is a very singular substance: it is of a yellowish white co-
lour, full of cavities, and somewhat resembling the crumb of new
bread. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, the volatile and fixed
oils. It is dissolved by the alkalies, with which it forms a kind of
soap. It is not decomposed at a high temperature, inflames when
exposed to an ignited body and burns very réadily without melting.
When, instead of distilling castor oil, it is treated with a solution
of potash or soda, it saponifies even more readily than olive oil, and

there are formed ricinates, elaiodates, margaritates and glycerin.
No other product appears ; the glycerin amounts to about a fifteenth
part of the oil, the margaritic acid about one-thousandth, and the
remainder is constituted of the other acids. ‘These salts are very
soluble in water, and act like ordinary soaps; the smallness of the
quantity of margaritic acid will account for its not being found in
the product of the distillation — Ibid.

SUPPOSED CHLORATE OF MANGANESE IN THE NATIVE
PEROXIDE.

Mr. Mac Mullin having observed (institution Journal, vol. xxii.
p- 231) when sulphuric acid is added to peroxide of manganese that
chlorine is evolved, he conceived it might be derived from an ad-
mixture of muriate of manganese, iron, or copper 5 but having wash-
ed some of the peroxide with water, he did not find that any chlo-
ride of silver was precipitable from it; he therefore concluded that
the peroxide in question contained no muriatic salt.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 4. April 1827. 28 Mr.

314 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

Mr. Mac Mullin continued his experiments to discover the source
of the chlorine, and concludes “that the chlorine combined with
the black oxide is in the state of chloric acid; and that the native
oxide is, at least in part, and probably in proportions varying with
the different specimens of the ore, a native chlorate of manganese.”

I had prepared some observations, and at considerable length,
to prove that the author of the above paper has been completely
misled by forced analogies and erroneous experiments ; but it af-
terwards occurred to me, that it would be better to show in a few
words, the real source of the chlorine in question, the evolution of
which from peroxide of manganese I had noticed, some time pre-
vious to the publication of Mr. Mac Mullin’s paper.

I procured first some common peroxide of manganese, a second
and pure specimen from Warwickshire, and a third crystallized va-
riety from Germany: these were reduced to powder, and on the
addition of sulphuric acid, chlorine was evolved from each. I then
washed separate portions of them with distilled water ; and on the
addition of nitrate of silver to the washings, chloride of silver was
immediately precipitated: sulphuric acid being poured upon the
washed peroxide, no chlorine whatever was evolved ; but being un-
willing to trust merely to my own observation, I added sulphuric
acid to an unwashed portion and to one which had been washed ;—
a by-stander immediately detected the odour of chlorine in the
former, but not in the latter case.

To determine the nature of the salt from which the chlorine was
evolved, I evaporated a portion of the washings very low, in order
that, if any common salt were present, it might crystallize. I was,
however, unable to procure any of it; sulphuretted hydrogen indi-
cated no appearance of any metallic muriate, but oxalate of ammo-
nia showed that lime was present, and nitrate of barytes gave sul-
phate. I conclude therefore that the native peroxide of manganese
usually contains a small admixture of muriate and sulphate of lime.
—R. P.

ARRIVAL OF MAJOR LAING AT TIMBUCTOO.

We are happy to learn that letters have been received from
Major Laing, dated subsequent to his arrival at Timbuctoo; but
by some oversight, the particular date is not inserted. The state
of this city, so much talked of, and so much sought after by Euro-
peans, together with the rivers and the country adjoining, will soon
be made known, and by a hand fully able for the work. We re-
gret, however, by these letters to learn that, instead of proceeding
down the river Niger, as he intended, Major Laing intends return-
ing home by way of Tripoli. What has occasioned this change in
his route, whether ill-health, or finding insurmountable obstacles to
his progress eastward and southward, we have not heard, and can-
not take upon ourselves to determine.—Glasgow Courier.

HYBERNATION OF THE BLACK ANT.
On the 18th of January a large elm-tree, to all appearance sound,
was cut down on the estate of Mr. Baden Powell of Lackington
Green,

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 315

Green, near Tunbridge Wells. On examining the lower part of the
trunk close to the root, a large excavation was discovered, rendering
the base of the tree quite hollow: this cavity was filled with a large
nest somewhat resembling a wasp’s nest, but of looser materials,
being composed of cells or separate excavations, the sides of which
were tough and pliable, and of a brownish colour, smelling strongly
of the sap of the tree, and filled with innumerable large black ants
and their eggs, quite alive ; that is, not torpid. The tree had evi-
dently been excavated by them, and would in all probability have, ere
long, failed in its accustomed foliage, the cavity being very large ; it
appeared indeed to measure above a foot in height, and the same in
diameter, tapering towards the upper part. I am not aware that
the nidus of this species of ant has ever been described ; and should
any of your correspondents wish it, L have not any doubt but a
drawing might be obtained, as the nest is preserved.—T. Forster,

OBSERVATIONS ON A COMET; MADE AT PARAMATTA IN SEP-
TEMBER 1826. BY C. L. RUMKER.

Sidereal time. Right Ascension, Declination S.

84° 8! a7!
84 13
85 43

89 13
90 48

2
4
1
1
2 87 27
3
2
3 92 37

SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

Just published.

Outlines of Human Physiology, by Herbert Mayo, surgeon, and
lecturer on anatomy.

An Introductory Lecture on Human and Comparative Physio-
logy, delivered at the New Medical School in Aldersgate street.
By Peter M. Roget, M.D. F.R.S. &c.

Rheumatism, and some Diseases of the Heart and other Internal
Organs; considered in the Gulstonian Lectures, read at the Royal
College of Physicians, May 1826. By Francis Hawkins, M.D.

Nearly ready for publication.

A Memoir on the Geology of Central France, including the Vol-
canic Formations of Auvergne, the Velay, and the Vivarais, By
G, Poulett Scrope, Esq. F.R.S. &c.

No. IX. of the Zoological Journal; containing, with Articles on
various departments of Zoology, some Account of the Life and

282 Writings

316 Néw Patents.

Writings and Contributions to Science of the late Sir T. Stamford
Raffles.

H. T. De Ja Beche,Esq. has in the press, —A Tabular and Propor-
tional View of the Superior, Supermedial and Medial (Tertiary and
Secondary) Rocks; to contain a List of the Rocks composing each
Formation ; a Proportional Section of each, its General Character,
Organic Remains, and Characteristic Fossils ;—on one large sheet.

NEW PATENTS.

To Sir William Congreve, of Cecil-street, Strand, for a new mo-
tive power.—Dated the 8th of February, 1827.—6 months allowed
to enrol specification.

To William Stratton, of Limehouse, engineer, for an improved
apparatus for heating air by means of steam.—12th of February.—
6 months.

To John George Prist, of the Old City Chambers, Bishopsgate,
for certain improvements, communicated from abroad, in copper
and other plate printing —14th of February.—6 months.

To Philip Jacob Heisch, of America-square, for improved machi-
nery for spinning cotton, communicated from abroad,—20th of Fe-
bruary.—-2 months.

To Charles Barwell Coles, late of Duke-street, Manchester-
square, esquire, and William Nicholson, of Manchester, civil engi-
neer, for a new method of constructing gasometers, communicated
from abroad.—20th of February.—6 months.

To William Benecke, of Deptford, in behalf of M. W. Pescatore,
of Luxemburgh, for a machine for crushing seeds and other olea-
ginous substances, for the purpose of extracting oil therefrom.—20th
of February.—6 months,

To William Jefferies, of London-street, Radcliffe, brass-manu-
facturer, for improvements in calcining or roasting and smelting or
extracting metals from ores, &c.—20th of February —6 months.

To Pierre Erard, of Great Marlborough-street, musical instru-
ment-maker, for improvements in the construction of piano-fortes,
communicated from abroad.—20th of February.—6 months.

To Augustus Count De la Garde, of St. James’s-square, for a
method of making paper from the ligneous parts produced from
certain textile plants in the process of preparing them by the pa-
tent rural mechanical brake, and which substances are to be em-
ployed alone or mixed with other suitable materials in the manu-
facture of paper.—20th of February.—6 months.

To William Smith, of Sheffield, for an improved method of
manufacturing cutlery and other articles of hardware by means of
rollers.—20th of February.—6 months.

To Joseph F, Ledsam, of Birmingham, for purifying coal gas by
means not hitherto used.—2nd of March.—6 months.

To Jonathan Lucas, and Henry Ewbank, both of Mincing-lane,
for an improved process for dressing of paddy or rough rice.—10th
of March.—2 months,

To

ee

New Patents.—Aurora Borealis. 817

To Lemuel Wellman Wright, of Upper Kennington-lane, Surrey,
engineer, for improvements in machinery for making metal screws.
—17th of March.—6 months.

To Benjamin Rotch, of Furnival’s Inn, esquire, for his diagonal
prop for transferring perpendicular to lateral pressure,—2znd of
March.—6 months.

To James Stewart, of Store-street, Bedford-square, piano-forte-
maker, for improvements on piano-fortes, and in the mode of
stringing the same.—22nd of March.—6 months.

To James Woodman, of Piccadilly, perfumer, for his improve-
ment in shaving and other brushes.—2¢nd of March.—6 months.

To James Perkins, of Fleet-street, engineer, for improvements in
the construction of steam-engines.—22nd of March.—6 months.

AUROKA BOREALIS.

At six o’clock on the evening of the 15th at Gosport, a light appeared about
the magnetic North, which increased in brilliancy and gradually extended
at each end for several hours. ‘The increasing of the arch of light, with
some faint coruscations from its vertex between seven and eight o’clock,
determined it to be the Northern Lights. Soon after eight the light reached
to the two bright stars Beta and Gamma in the head of Draco, an altitude
of 14 degrees. By half-past nine the eastern end of the light had ex-
tended to the N.E. by N. point of the horizon; its extension towards the
East was gradual, as xt first it was contained between the N. and N.W. by
W. points. Soon after nine it was at its greatest extent ; viz. upwards of
90 degrees, and the stars « Lyra (Vega) and « Cygni(Deneb) were the most
conspicuous in the Aurora, From a quarter before ten till about ten minutes
past, the Aurora Borealis appeared in its greatest splendour, and it would
have been more beautiful had not a dark cirrostratus cloud sprung up
and intercepted a great part of it. At this time the northern hemisphere
was in a blaze, and no atmospheric phenomenon could exceed the grandeur
of the pale red columns suddenly emanating from circular patches of in-
tense light, which broke out in almost every part of the arch, like erup-
tions from a volcano; some of these perpendicular columns were short,
where the patches were small, and the others so long as to reach to
within two or three degrees of Polaris, an altitude of 48 degrees from the
northern horizon. The height of these electrical columns on mixing with
the superior stratum of air caused several accensions or falling meteors,
which are common accompaniments of the vivid Northern Lights. By
half-past ten the clouds had extended nearly all over the Aurora; yet it
was distinguished between them at intervals till half-past eleven, half an
hour after the moon had risen. ‘There was no appearance of it on the
subsequent evenings. A brisk gale came on soon after this phenomenon,
but did not arrive at its greatest force till the 22nd. The last Aurora
Borealis observed here, was near midnight on the 25th of March 1821.

At 8 o’clock in the evening of the 17th of February, a bright light ap-
peared 10 degrees above the northern horizon, and 20 degrees on each side
of the magnetic North; and from a quarter past 9 till twenty minutes to
10 o’clock, several vivid patches of light appeared at intervals in the Aurora,
from which perpendicular columns emanated ; but their altitudes could not

be determined, in consequence of intervening black clouds, from which at
10 o'clock a sprinkling of snow descended, and the Aurora rather suddenly.
disappeared

318 Meteorological Observations for February 1827.

disappeared. The star a Cygni(Deneb) was conspicuous in the Aurora;
and two small meteors fell immediately after the last of the coruscations
had ascended. The thermometer rose about 3 degrees during the time of
the Aurora, also in the evening of the 18th of January, when it appeared,
which indicates a diffusion of warmth through the atmosphere from this
electrical phenomenon.

In 12 hours after its disappearance a strong gale came on from the East,
and continued about 40 hours.—An article on the recent Northern Lights
from a higher north latitude than this, would be acceptable by the way of
comparison.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR FEBRUARY 1827.
Gosport.— Numerical Results for the Month.

Barem. Max. 30-44 Feb. 3. Wind NE.—Min. 29-49 Feb. 28. Wind SW.

Range of the mercury 0-95.

Mean barometrical pressure forthe month. . . . . . . . 29-983
for the lunar period ending the 25th instant . . . . 29-996
for 14 days with the Moon in North declination . . 30-100

— for 15 days with the Moon in South declination . . 29-892

Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury . . . 5-070

Greatest variation in 24 hours ()-480.—Number of changes 16.

Therm. Max. 56° Feb. 27. Wind SW.—Min. 14° Feb. 16. Wind E.

Range 42°.—Mean temp. of exter. air 369-62. For 30 days with © in*% 35:27
Max. var. in 24 hours 21°-00— Mean temp. of spring water at 8 A.M. 499-12

De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer.
Greatest humidity of the air in the evening of the 28th. . . . 98°
Greatest dryness of the air in the afternoon of the 18th . . . 45
Range oliihe ndexighed tas ai ear ol (late Mivls Kia me yee OS
Mean at 2 P.M. 58°-6—Mean at 8 A.M. 66-3—Mean at 8 P.M. 66:1
cf three observations each day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock . . 63-7
Evaporation for the month 0-90 inch.
Rain near ground 0-820 inches.—Rain 23 feet high 0-765 inches.
Prevailing Wind N.E.

Summary of the Weather.
A clear sky, 44; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 114; an over-
cast sky without rain, 10; rain, 2.—Total 28 days.

Clouds.
Cirrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus.

~

Scale of the prevailing Winds,

N. NER Bee oe ISAWWene We ING Wee Danes
23 133 4 1 1 3} 4 2 28
General Observations. — The weather this month has been remarkably
dry, with a long continuance of a piercing North-east wind, and extremely
cold for the advanced state of the winter quarter. Persons of delicate
constitutions have felt this wind, which prevailed about half the month,
very searching. No rain fell here from the Ist to the 26th, only light
sprinklings of snow on the 3rd, 12th, 15th, and 17th, which were not mea-
surable when dissolved. From the 9th to the 21st the fields, gardens,
ponds and marshes were ice-bound, and the carriage roads as dusty as is
often seen in March. a
n

Meteorological Observations for February 1827. 319

On the 16th the thermometer receded 18 degrees below the freezing
point, and the night was the coldest we have had here since the 15th of
January 1820, when the same degree of cold was registered. ‘The minimum
temperature of the external air at Paris in the nights of the 17 th and 18th
instant, was four degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale lower than it was here on
the 16th, Paris being about 110 miles inland from the nearest sea-shore of
the British Channel.

This depression of temperature, though it came on rather late, was very
seasonable, as it will prove beneficial to cultivated lands, and in a great
measure preserve the corn and vegetation, in consequence of the destruction
of ground insects, which for the last two or three years had increased and
made such ravages thereon. The thaw was so slow and gradual from the
21st to the 25th, as to be almost imperceptible ; but on the 27th the ther-
mometer rose to 56 degrees, with a South-west gale and a humid air.

The mean temperature of the external air this month, is 2°3-10ths de-
grees colder than that of January, and 5*1-10th degrees colder than the
mean of February for the last eleven years.

The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our
observations this month, are one Aurora Borealis, four solar halos, four
meteors, and ten gales of wind, or days on which they have prevailed, viz.
six from the NE., one from E., and three from the S.W.

REMARKS.

London.—Second month. 1. Cloudy. 2. Some snow in the evening, more
during the night. 3. Fine. 4. Cloudy. 5. Cloudy. 6. Cloudy: drizzly.
7. Fine. 8. White frost: fine day. 9. Fine. 10. Fine. 11. Cloudy.
12. Slight showers of snow during the day. 13. Fine. 14, Cloudy: a little
snow. 15. Fine: with occasional snow showers. 16. Fine: bleak. 17. Hoar
frost : foggy morning: fine afternoon. 18. Fine. 19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy.
21. Cloudy: some snow in the afternoon. 22. Fine. 23. Foggy morning:
cloudy. 24. Foggy morning: fine day. 25. Hoar frost: fine afternoon.
26. Thaw commenced this morning with gentle rain: a very stormy night
succeeded. 27. Boisterous wind in the morning: rainy afternoon, 28.
Rainy : very boisterous night.

RESULTS.

Winds, N. 2: N.E.10: E.3: S.E.s: S.W.3: N.W.6: var. 1.
Barometer mean height for the month ........+ssessseeee+. 30°239 inch.
Thermometer, mean height for the month.......-.ss+ese00. 32°625°
Evaporation .....2+.ssessssssessessceseesceseseeeeesceeseesereees 1°32 inch.

RENIN oe, nc sce conan ecdbecisiegduexsencdacisatse see cecaliestheek SOTIDCL.

Boston.—Feb. 1. Rain. 2,3. Fine. 4. Cloudy. 5. Fine. 6, 7. Cloudy.
8. Fine. 9. Cloudy. 10. Fine. 11,12. Cloudy. 13. Snow. 14. Cloudy.
15.Fine. 16. Snow. 17. Fine. 18. Cloudy. 19. Fine. 20, Cloudy: hail
storm. 21, Cloudy. 22, Fine. 23—25. Cloudy. 26. Cloudy: rain a.m.
27. Fine. 28, Cloudy: rain at night.

Penzance.—Feb. 1. Misty: rain. 2—4. Clear. 5. Fair: clear. 6. Cloudy.
7. Fair: clear. 8,9. Clear. 10—16. Fair. 17. Light showers: fair. 18.
Snow showers. 19. Fair: clear. 20,21. Fair. 22—24, Clear. 25, 26,
Rain, 27, Showers. 28. Rain.—Rain gauge ground level.

Meteor-

PV-OE | 02-66 | 0-08 |25-66 |_SL-0€ | * “2aV
eee |e" 1968.9] SL. ce| ov | 19 | SV | 3S | 1h | LS | 08-62] 67-60 | 19-6 | 02-62 | 8E-62 | oS-62 | OL-66 |8@
90. [> Eo eae zS| Sb | 9S | 67 | FS | Le | SS | S0.6a| 95-62 | 69-62 | 8-62 | 8P-62 | 01-68 | 88-6 [Le
++ 1090-0,0SZ-0] €1- |""* | *** Le| gh | PS | oF | ZS | 6€ | 17 | 09-62 | FL-62 | 8-62 | OF'6z | 09-62 | 04-62 | 80-0€ jos
PA SI | I cl | re| o€ | Sb | FE | 6F | ce | CF | 00-08] Z0-0€ | 11-08 | 04-62 | S.6z | g0-0€ | LE-o€ |Sz GS
Moo Heneey [Rene ai-s2*" 16g) | SF c.e¢| 6% | &F | €& | PF | P1 | PE | €L-6%| 26-62 | 0-0€ | OL-6Z | 01-62 | GI-0€ | LE-0€ |he
wes yeete. Heese Weegee Sy se" o¢ | SE | €b | ga} LV | oz | OF | S9-6z| L6-6z | LO-0£ | 08-62 | 88-62 | G1-0€ | Lz-0€ |€%
a> |e eck lh | ja 1¢| Sz | ab | Z€ | PF | cz | OF | OL-6a| £8-6z | £0-0€ | OL-6c | 08-62 | LO-O£ | Lz.0€ \zz
qe ade eh SO G.ze| se | 1b | S| oF | TE | 9E | 09-6z| LS-6z | g9-6% | 8E-6G | 0-62 | 68-62 | LO-0€ |1z
SOO ca | ee | a me > of| ze | Pe | 18 | LE | 6z | PE | LO-6z| 09-62 | Z9-6z | OF-62 | OF.62 | 68-62% | 96-6 \0z
|e! 0e-0) i's ie" 9z| Lz | SE | La} SE | 6t | TE | 96-6z| 69-62% | 62-60 | 90-62 | 87-62 | S6-62 | LI-0€ 61 »
aoe eeser ieesen at = 1GGs. By See 9z| 9% | ££ | 8@ | BE | ot | ZE | L6-62 | 16-62 | P6-6% | SP-6z | $9.62 | LT-O€ | 62-08 |sI
wee [cee [eee [eee [fee | eee farpea) tm | oe [ran] bz] Fs | SE | 62 | LE | ot | 62 | SL-6z | 06-6z | 76-62 | 02-62 | GL.6z | 91-0 | 62-08 [LT
vee [eee [eee [eee [eee | eee feuea] “a | ea |-aval Zz] Fr | PE} O€ | ZE | FI | CE | 00-0€ | G0-0€ | O1-0€ | 08-62 | 08.62 | LI-0€ | SE-0€ jot
vee {cee [eee [eee pp. | eee funpwo] “ain | on} an (e.ee| bz | €F | ge | LP | or | 6 | £4°6z | Le-6z | 86-62 | 08-62 | 18-6 | ZI-0€ | SE-0F |ST
ERA ip take tage 2 ++ Junpeo| "MN | ex Joan! pe] SE | PH | SE | PY | 6% | OF | $8-6%| 66-62 | OT-0€ | 06-62 | 96.62 | 60-0€ 93-0£ |P1
ses | cee [ove [eee leew | eee | er | ow |ean |emun] ze] 6z | ob | SE | PP | oz | oF | 06-62] 01-08 | 81-08 | 96-6z | 80-08 | 9z-0€ | OS-0€ |£1
vee [vee [eee | oes log, | ee funpea! «x | -an | an [g.ze] ae | &h | v& | SP | o€ | IP | OL-6z|98-6z | 00-0€ | 89-62 | 8L-62 | 80-0F | O£-0F [aI
sev | cee [eee [eee [eve | eee | ox [ean | can] can | ce] ee | oe | ze |-98 | Lo | 98 | £L-62|FL-62 | 08-62 | 89-62 | 02-6 | 80-0€ | 80-08 |Ir O
“a O1-0€ | L6-6z | 60-0€ | 08-6z | 06-62 | 90-08 | LE-0€ jor
0£-0£ | 0z-0€ |9Z-0€ | 00-08 | g0.0€ | LE-0€ | LS-08 |6
€£-0£ | GE.0€ |9£-0€ | Z1-08 | ZI-0€ | LS-0€ | 09-0€ |g
Gz-0€ | €£.0€ | PE-0€ | OL-O€ | OF-0€ | 09-08 | H9-0€ |Z
ZL-0£ | ZZ-0€ | PZ-0€ | 00-0€ | 00-0€ | SV-0£ | 09-0€ |9
CE.0€ | [€.0€ | PE-0€ | OT-0€ | ZI-0€ | SPV-0F | 69-08 |S
OP-0£ | F¥-0€ | FF-0€ | 0Z-0€ | O£-0€ | 69-0€ | SL-08 |F
€-0€ |Sz-0€ | PP-0€ | OT-0€ | O€-08 | gG-0F | SL-CE\E C«
GL-62 | 08-62 |00-0€ | OL-6z | 08-6% | OL-0€ | 8G-0€ |%
08.62 | 89-62 | OL-6z |_FP'6s | 09-60 | $6-60 | OL-O€ |1 “qa7
“ULI “xe “ULA “xe “UAL | “xe oe
y10dson) “souvzuag “wopuo’y cucu
jo skegqy

*19]9UIOULIOY,T, *1o]OWOIv

“uojsog, Jo TIFIA py puv yuodsoy jw AINUAT “MCT ‘oouvzUag yo ACAIY “py ‘Uopuo'yT tvau aurMoZy “py 9 suoynasasgo pursopoLojayy

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE

AND

ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY.

=.

[NEW SERIES. ]

MAY 1827.

LXIL On the Orange Phosphate of Lead. By the Rev.
Ww. V. Vernon, F.R.S. Pres. Y.P.S.*

yp a former communication which I had the honour of
making to the Society, I stated as the result of some ana-
lytical researches into the cause of the diversity of colour in
the phosphates of lead, that I had found manganese in the
green phosphate, and chrome in the orange phosphate from
Wanlock head; at the same time I offered some reasons for
supposing that the chrome in this mineral is in the state of
protoxide.

Such a supposition, however, afforded no satisfactory solu-
tion of the orange colour of the phosphate; for though many
of the combinations of the chromic acid are yellow or red, and
especially its combination with lead, this is not the case with
the green oxide of chrome.

For the purpose of clearing up this difficulty, I have lately
resumed the inquiry, and made the experiments, of which I
now propose to give the Society an account.

Upon sixty grains of the mineral I poured nitric acid a little
diluted with water, which with the assistance of heat dissolved
the whole, except four-tenths of a grain, consisting of silex
and red oxide of iron. ‘The colour of the solution was a
golden yellow.

Sulphuric acid was now added to precipitate the lead. The
sulphate of lead weighed 63°4 grains. ‘The liquid after the
separation of the lead retained its yellow colour.

I took a third part of this liquid to examine the nature of
its contents, reserving the other two-thirds for the determina-

* Read to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, March 6, 1826; and
communicated by the Author.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5. May 1827. = 27 tion

322 Rey. W. V. Vernon on the

tion of quantities, and I added to it caustic soda; a precipi-
tate fell which had a greenish tinge; the liquid also changed
its colour to a yellow green, and being boiled let fall a further
green precipitate. ‘These precipitates consisted of the prot~
oxide of chrome, together with some lead and lime.

The liquid after the separation of the last precipitate re-
sumed its yellow colour, which led me to imagine that it
might contain chromic acid. The method which I adopted
for ascertaining this point, was founded upon the property
possessed by certain vegetable acids of abstracting oxygen
from the acid of the chromates, a property not belonging to
the acetic or prussic acids, but which I have found in the oxalic
and citric as well as in the tartaric. The two latter of these,
though they convert the chromic acid into protoxide of chrome,
do not furnish a ready method of separating the chrome, be-
cause a part of them remaining undecomposed, they form
soluble triple salts with the oxide and with whatever alkali
might be employed to throw it down; but if the oxalic acid
be used, though in this case also the chrome cannot be thrown
down by ammonia, it may, with the assistance of heat, be pre-
cipitated by soda.

I therefore added oxalic acid to the liquid, and after boil-
ing it perceived a change in the colour: having then neutra-
lized it with soda, I obtained a green precipitate; this was
separated and re-dissolved in oxalic acid, to clear it from any
lime that might have fallen with it; a small quantity of lead
still adhering to it was removed by sulphuretted hydrogen, it
was neutralized with soda; and of the precipitate which took
place a particle was heated on platina foil with nitrate of pot-
ash: the yellow salt thus obtained gave with the nitrates of
silver and lead the crimson and yellow precipitates by which
the chromates are distinguished.

It is evident from these experiments that chromic acid ex-
isted in the nitric solution of the mineral; and since nitric acid
does not, in the circumstances above described, acidify the prot-
oxide of chrome, it may be concluded that the orange phos-
phate of lead contains chromic acid, and the colour of the
mineral is thus sufficiently accounted for.

A good reason can now be assigned for the circumstance
noticed by Klaproth, that when the muriate of tinis poured upon
this phosphate it removes the colour,—a phzenomenon which
induced him to suppose that the lead contained in it is in a
state of superoxidation. We see also how it happens that
when the crystals of this substance are heated by the exterior
flame of the blowpipe, or out of contact with inflammable
matter, the colour is unaltered, growing only darker during

ignition ;

Orange Phosphate of Lead. 323

‘ignition; whereas when they are heated in the interior flame,
they become green by the reduction of the chromic acid.

In considering the circumstances of this analysis, it ap-
peared to me extraordinary that the chrome should be partly
in the state of protoxide and partly of chromic acid; and to
this point I directed my attention in examining the remainder
of the nitric solution. Instead of neutralizing it, as before,
I now evaporated it down, and observed the yellow colour
change by degrees to green; ammonia was then added, and
the whole of the chrome was thrown down, no chromic acid
being left in solution.

Nitric acid alone has no tendency to reduce the acid of
chrome. The mineral, therefore, must have contained some-
thing which might contribute to this reduction. I heated some
of the crystals in a glass tube, and observed a strong empy-
reumatic smell indicative of vegetable matter. I then dropped
minute portions of sugar, green vegetable substances, oil of
turpentine and bituminous coal, into solutions of the bichro-
mate of potash in nitrie acid; by each of these, when heat
was applied, the chromic acid was reduced. I donot find this
effect to be produced by the gases which the action of the
nitric acid on vegetable matter evolves-when they are passed
through such a solution: nitrous gas does not affect the bi-
chromate of potash, neither does hydrogen in the gaseous state,
nor carburetted hydrogen; it is decomposed, indeed, by the
gaseous products of the distillation of sulphuric acid and al-
cohol, but this reduction is not effected by the olefiant gas,
but by a portion of sulphurous acid which accompanies it.

Another circumstance in the constitution of the mineral
may contribute to the reduction of the chromic acid. Klap-
roth has stated that the yellow phosphate of lead contains a
portion of muriatic acid; and I have found it in the specimen
which I have analysed. Now muriatic acid reduces the chromic
acid when heated with it; and in the present case, the muriate
of lead having been decomposed by the sulphuric acid, the
muriatic acid would be free to operate.

Upon the whole, there is no reason to doubt that the chrome
is here united to the phosphate of lead, in the state of chromic
acid, or rather of chromate of lead. When the mineral is dis-
solved in nitric acid and heated, a portion of the chromic acid
is reduced, by one or both of the causes which I have stated :
if it is then neutralized with an alkali, part of the chrome is
thrown down as protoxide, and part remains in solution as a
chromate; but if the nitric solution is evaporated without
having been neutralized, the whole of the chrome is reduced,
and may be precipitated in the state of protoxide.

3 lah. I have

324 Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memoir.

I have taken for granted, from the general account given
by Klaproth of the yellow phosphate which he examined, and
of its locality, that it was the same mineral as that of which I
have now been giving an account, though he calls its colour
citron yellow, and though his description of its crystalline
character is defective ; for in the more perfect specimens the
form of the crystal is a regular six-sided prism. It is not to
be wondered that he should have overlooked the chrome,—a
substance of which, when he made his analysis, nothing I be-
lieve was yet known, and which is here present in a very mi-
nute proportion; not more, if my experiments are correct,
than between five- and six-tenths of a grain of the protoxide
in a hundred of the mineral.

The amount of oxide of lead which Klaproth found, and
with which my analysis nearly agrees, was eighty per cent. If
from this the proper deduction be made for the chloride of
lead calculated from his statement of the muriatic acid which
the mineral contains, and also for the chromate of lead which
I have found in it, the phosphoric acid which corresponds with
the remaining oxide of lead will be somewhat less than it is
given by Klaproth: but the quantity of phosphoric acid can
scarcely be obtained with accuracy by the method which he
employed, in precipitating it with lead. Thus calculated, the
composition of the mineral may be stated in the following pro-
portions :

Phosphate of lead ..... I SS7-66
Chloride of lead®), 100255 PAP R I NO 7
Chromate of lead. .... Mae Ce Orgo

Water and combustible matter . . 00°40
Silex, lime, red oxide of iron .. . 00°67

100:00

LXIII. Some Remarks on a Memoir by M. Poisson, read
to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, Nov. 20, 1826, and in-
serted in the Conn. des Tems 1829. By J. Ivory, Esg.
M.A. F.R.S.*

Magna vis veritatis.

N the Conn. des Tems 1829, lately published, there is in-
serted a long Memoir by M. Poisson, on the attraction of
spheroids. ‘The intention of it is, to vindicate the theory of
the figure of the planets contained in the Méc. Céleste, from
all the objections that have been urged against it. The talents

* Communicated by the Author.
and

Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memoir. 325

and acquirements of the author of the Memoir are well known:
he has made this branch of the mechanical philosophy more
particularly his study, and has applied the peculiar kind of
analysis employed in it to different problems; so that among
existing mathematicians an abler vindicator could not have
been found. Every subject that passes through such hands
must acquire valuable improvements; and if, on the present
occasion, M. Poisson has not succeeded in removing every
difficulty, this must be ascribed to the doctrine he defends,
which can never be entirely freed from inconsistency, nor per-
fectly reconciled to clearness and accuracy of demonstration.

The author begins his Memoir with stating anew the fun-
damental principle of the analytical theory: he then repeats
the demonstration of it he had given on a former occasion,
and endeavours to defend it against an objection advanced
in the Phil. Mag. for January 1826, p. 37. It is chiefly on
this part of M. Poisson’s paper, extending through about four
pages, and another short passage, that I intend to offer some
brief remarks. Supposing that the reader has the Memoir
alluded to before him, I shall, for the sake of abridging, write
yand y for 9 (6, J) and ¢(#, Y), and f for /1—2ap+e:
I shall also write ds for the differential of the surface of the
sphere; it is equal to sin #'d 6! dw, when its position is deter-
mined by the ares é! andy’; and it may be similarly expressed
by any other two independent arcs that fix its place, if any
transformation should make this convenient. For the sake of
simplicity, I shall further suppose that « never exceeds 1, al-
though it is always near it, and approaches it as a limit. The
formula (3), p. 330, will then be thus written,

1 (1 — at) y'ds
Now the fluent being extended to the whole surface of the
sphere; or, which is the same thing, the integration being
effected separately for the two variables # and ’, from # = 0,
Y = 0 tod =z, ! = 27; it is proposed to prove that X = y,
in the particular case when ¢ = 1.

The distinguishing features of the formula are these: the
numerator is always *nconsiderable, because 1 — a? is small;
and, taking and ¥ for the initial values of §' and ’, the de-
nominator increases rapidly from the least value (1 — «)’, so
as to become incomparably greater than the numerator when
the two variable arcs have acquired very small increments,
On these grounds M. Poisson thinks himself entitled to inte-
grate on the assumption that 7 does not vary from the initial
value y: then, xX =t fl —a)ds

4” f3

The

326 Mr. lvory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memoir.

The difficulty is now overcome; for there is no doubt that the
integral is equal to 4a. The integration may be performed
as usual; or it may be accomplished by the peculiar process
of M. Poisson. The argument cannot be affected by different
algebraic operations that lead to the same result. But we
may fairly hesitate to admit the gratuitous supposition of
making y' constant. In order to examine this point, put
y=yt+(y—y)*: then
<< “ye (l— #)ds a Se (1 — a) (y’ —y)ds :

4a S38 + Ag f3

If we neglect the term newly introduced, what remains is
M. Poisson’s demonstration. Whether we admit or reject
his conclusion, will therefore depend upon the evidence we
have that the term omitted is evanescent. Now put this term
equal to zero; separate it into the two parts of which it con-
sists; and substitute the known value of the integral multi-
plying the constant quantity y: then,

olen (1— a2) yds

Y er 4a f3

But this is neither more nor less than the original formula to
be demonstrated, if we substitute y for X. It appears, there-
fore, that the very property to be proved is involved in the
omitted term; or, which is the same thing, in the assumption
made by M. Poisson, that y’ is constant. The boasted de-
monstration published in 1823+, which was to dissipate all
doubts and objections, is merely a petitzo principii. I am
induced to make such observations, because I am concerned
to show that the objections I have made are not frivolous, but
such as it would be a reproach to any one to overlook them
in the profest examination of a difficult question.

But, in his new Memoir, M. Poisson endeavours to correct
his former demonstration, by considering the term which must
be taken into account, in order to confer rigour and accuracy
upon the reasoning}. ‘To use a homely phrase, he makes no
bones of it. He resorts to his former assumption, and inte-
grates on the supposition that 7/ — y, or § as he denotes it, is
an infinitely small constant quantity. By this means the term
in question comes out infinitely small, or zero; and this is all
which is thought necessary for settling the point in dispute.—
Will this pass for demonstration? It is a mere assertion. It
is one of those curt and imperative attempts at proof, of which
too many occur in the modern mathematics, which are none

* Phil. Mag. for Jan. 1826, pp. 36, 37.
+ Journal de ? Ecole Polytechnique, 19° cahier, p. 145.
£ Conn. des Tems 1829, pp. 332, 333.

of

EEE oor

Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memozr. $27

of its improvements, and which ought never to be admitted
without scrupulous examination. In reality, the procedure of
M. Poisson hides, from the attention of his readers, the true
principles of the case. The numerator and the denominator
of the expression vanish together; and the value of the fluent
will depend entirely on the limit of the ratio of the two quan-
tities as they both approach zero. According to that value,
the fluent may be evanescent, or it may be finite, or infinitely
great.

It is remarkable that the analytical process employed by
M. Poisson, if he had pursued it accurately, would have led
him to a right result. Put #@=6+h,¥=w-+ &; then ac-
cording to the operations in p. 331, the term of which the
value is sought, will take this form, viz.

1 fi sin 6dhdk
24S (geht ke sin? 4)?

But as 2/ varies with 4 and /, we must not make y'— y, or the
Z of M. Poisson, constant. We have

d dy
y¥—y= ah + Gy t= Ah + Bh,

putting A and B for the differential coefficients. By substitu-
tion, our expression will become,
1 g Asin éhdhdk

ae (g? + 4? + I? sin? ay2
1 if g Bsinédhkdk
a (g? + h2 + i? sine 6)2

Here the two parts are similar, and the integrations are readily
performed by the procedure of M. Poisson: the result is this,

aE. § re es ee MESES)
57 p Alog. arr ie a log. eet

Although g is a vanishing factor, we must not immediately
infer that the whole of this expression is always evanescent.
It is necessary to take into account the ultimate values of

~ and “ , which again depend upon the limit of 2”. If we
suppose that 7'— y is ultimately divisible by f’, it is manifest
that the expression is evanescent, which proves M. Poisson’s
proposition for such functions. This is the only case compre-
hended in Laplace’s demonstration, Méc. Céleste, liv. xi. pp. 25,
26. Again, if we suppose that z/— y is ultimately divisible
by f, the quantity multiplied by g will be finite; the whole
expression will therefore be equal to zero; and this proves
the proposition for all rational functions of cos 4, sin 4 cos ¢,

sin

$28 Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memoir.

sin @ sin , which possess the supposed property. In all other
cases the value of the above expression is indeterminate, and
the demonstration of M. Poisson’s formula, or, which is the
same thing, of Laplace’s fundamental equation in partial dif-
ferentials, ceases to be exact.

Mr. Professor Airy, in a short paper read to the Cambridge
Philosophica] Society in May last, and printed in their Trans-
actions, has treated of this subject; and he advances rather a
singular opinion. He agrees with me that the method of La-
place must be limited to a- particular class of spheroids; and
he claims the honour of having first placed the matter in its
true light. But he attempts to show that the fundamental
equation, Méc. Céleste, liv. ili. No. 10, is exactly demon-
strated. Now admitting that the equation in question is ac-
curately and numerically proved, it seems impossible to deny
that the series of terms deduced from it, is numerically equal
to the distance between the surfaces of the sphere and sphe-
roid. I have always contended that the fault lay in the sup-
posed generality of the equation, which is true only in a par-
ticular class of spheroids. On the other hand MM. Laplace and
Poisson have upheld the universality of the equation by new
proofs, of which I have here had occasion to speak. In my
view the theory is freed from its difficulties, and becomes
satisfactory, although stript of its high pretensions to gene-
rality. Mr. Professor Airy, by supporting the fundamental
equation without restricting it, and at the same time denying
the unavoidable consequence, has only introduced new incon-
sistencies, and embroiled, with new difficulties, a subject very
seducing by its analytical elegance, but very perplexing when
we resolutely seek to exhibit to the understanding a rational
account of its principles.

In examining the theory of Laplace, the want of rigour in
the analysis could hardly escape detection; and in a subject of
so great interest and difficulty, it seemed requisite to scruti-
nize and clear up every doubtful point. But the nature of the
analysis will become a consideration of only secondary im-
portance, if it shall appear that there are defects in the first
principles, or in the conditions of equilibrium. In the pro-
blem of the figure of a planet in a fluid state, there are too
different cases; for we may suppose it to consist of only one
homogeneous fluid, or of several fluids arranged in strata
varying in density from the centre to the surface. _ If the first
case were solved, the theory of equilibrium of which we are
in possession, would be sufficient for investigating the second
case. But the present theory fails in the equilibrium of a ho-
mogeneous planet. I have found that the equilibrium sp i

take

Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memoir. 329

take place unless two conditions, or laws, which I need not
here repeat, are both fulfilled, of which one only is necessary
according to the usual doctrine*.

There is a remarkable proof of the deficiency of the usual
theory in M. Poisson’s Memoir. He applies his analysis to a
homogeneous fluid mass, revolving upon an axis, and nearly
spherical}. When the square of the centrifugal force is neg-
lected, he finds that the figure of the fluid must be an ellipti-
cal spheroid, agreeing with the solutions of Legendre and
Laplace. But, on attempting to carry the approximation
further, the method fails; all that can be known is, that there
is only one figure which will satisfy the equations :— Mais ce
procédé ne sauroit déterminer davantage ce solidey. Now, what
is the reason of this? It cannot be the want of mathematical
methods; for the symbols are all arranged, and ready to obey
the directions of the analyst. The truth is, there is no prin-
ciple to govern the calculation after the first step. ‘The ma-
chinery is sufficient, and ready prepared; but it cannot be set
to work, because there is no fulcrum for its support. In or-
der to supply the defects of his method, M. Poisson has re-
course to the elliptical spheroid, which is known to satisfy the
conditions of the problem ; and he infers that his series for
the radius of the solid, must coincide with the expansion of
the radius of the ellipsoid§. Now it is far from clear that he
is right in this inference. If 1 take in both my conditions,
and thence deduce the resulting figure of equilibrium, there
is no doubt that the radius, to whatever length the expansion
is carried, will coincide with an elliptical spheroid ; because
this is the only figure deducible from the premises. But, if
I leave out one of my two conditions, and attempt to solve the
same problem by means of the other alone, which is exactly
what M. Poisson has done, it is next to certain that the new
computation will not agree with the former one.

There are rio direct objections to my theory; but it stands

* In the Phil. Trans. 1826, p. 557, there is a note of Mr. Airy, very in-
jurious to me. He is treating of spheroids of variable density, and evi-
dently misapprehends my conditions of equilibrium, which I have always
limited to the case of homogeneity. The R.S. are not responsible for the
accuracy of what they publish : but I apprehend few instances will be found
so injurious to an individual, cast upon the public on the authority of mere
assertion, and arising from mistaken notions. But I console myself because
1 know with the certainty of demonstration, that Mr. Airy’s problem, ad-
mitting that any practical utility could be attached to it, is not solved, and
that it cannot possibly be solved except by my theory, and indirectly, with
the help of that law with which he so flippantly finds fault. What a dif-
ference between the supercilious importance of the Cambridge Professor,
and the candid expositions of M. Poisson !

+ Conn. des Tems 1829, p. 37]. { Ibid. p. 373. § Ibid. p. 375.
New Series. Vol.1. No, 5. May 1827. 2U opposed

330 Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memoir.

opposed to the splendid analytical processes that have been
so long and so unsparingly admired. According to my view,
there can possibly be but one figure of equilibrium of a homo-
geneous planet in a fluid state; and in fact, this compre-
hends all that geometers have been able to accomplish in this
question. The usual theory advances one step in one parti-
cular case; and then it leaves the geometer in the lurch, with-
out his being able to explain the reason of the failure. Be-
yond this it has been entirely inefficient: —Quand la masse
fluide west pas assujettie ad differer tres peu de la sphere, les
géometres wont point encore determiné Vespéce de figure qui
satisfait d Pequation d’equilibre*. In an elliptical spheroid
in equilibrio, it is known that the rotatory velocity is limited,
being contained between zero and a maximum quantity; so
that there are two different figures that have the same rota-
tion. On this ground M. Poisson makes an objection, which
I notice the more willingly, because it does not turn upon any
technical point of analysis. Si Pellipsotde etait la seule figure
gui eut cette propriété, il en resulterait cette consequence singu-
liére, que Vequilibre serait impossible pour une rapidité de la
rotation, qui west cependani pas celle ou le fluide commencerait
ad se dissiper*.

Suppose a homogeneous mass of fluid, at rest, in equilibrio,
and consequently spherical in its figure: conceive a great
circle of the sphere extending indefinitely, and an axis, or
diameter, perpendicular to the great circle. Now let a velo-
city of rotation about the axis be communicated to the fluid
sphere: I impose no restriction to the degree of the velocity,
except that it must not be such as to dissipate the particles,
which must retain their continuity. The rotatory motion will
cause the fluid to recede from the axis, and to subside at the
poles; and to these effects there would be no limit, if the cen-
trifugal force were not opposed by that part of the attraction
of the particles which is directed perpendicularly to the axis.
At a certain degree of oblateness the two opposite forces will
be equal; and although the recession of the fluid from the
axis will not immediately cease at this point, yet it will soon
be entirely arrested. ‘The figure of the fluid will now return
in an opposite direction, becoming less oblate, and passing a
little beyond the limit at which the two forces are equal. ‘The
fluid will thus oscillate about a state of equilibrium; and if we
admit any tenacity or friction of the particles, the oscillations
will gradually decrease, and finally settle in a permanent figure.
But it is to be principally observed that, whenever the fluid

* Conn, des Tems 1829, p. 375.
recedes

Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on M. Poisson’s Memoir. » 331

recedes from the axis, the rotatory velocity will decrease; and
whenever it returns in a contrary direction, the same velocity
will increase; and ultimately, in the state of equilibrium, the
rotation actually remaining, will depend upon the nature of
the figure of equilibrium, and the proportion of the two forces
urging the particles. Although we suppose that the rotation
in equilibrio is small, yet we cannot infer that the rotatory ve-
locity originally imprest, was likewise small. On the contrary,
if the rotation were very small, and at the same time the figure
very oblate, we must conclude that the primitive rotatory force
was just within the limit required to dissipate the fluid. What
particular figure the fluid zx equilibrio will have, we do not
now inquire; but we are entitled to infer that there is only
one such figure for every degree of rotatory force originally
communicated to the fluid sphere. This is incompatible with
the usual theory; and it refutes M. Poisson’s argument. But
it is very consistent with my system; nay, it can be consistent
with no other; for, if there be but one figure, that, it is cer-
tain, must be an oblate elliptical spheroid.

But perhaps all this concurring evidence may not be sufli-
cient to overcome the prejudice in favour of a spendid theory,
very powerfully upheld from various motives. I hope soon to
lay other more direct demonstrations before the public. But
I have observed on a former occasion that this branch of
science is discouraged and undervalued ; and a passage in the
last Quarterly Journal of Science*, written by a modern F.R.S.
corroborates what I ventured to allege. ‘The theory of the
figure of the planets originated with Newton and Huygens: it
has been the subject of incessant discussion for a century; it
has been attended with greater difficulty, and has occasioned a
greater number of memoirs, than any other branch of the system
of the world. It has occupied the attention of Clairaut, Mac-
laurin, D’ Alembert, La Grange, Legendre, Laplace, and Pois-
son: and I shall not easily be brought to think slightly of the
speculations of such men, even when compared with the bust-
ling activity in philosophical pursuits that now prevails. One
can hardly help thinking that, in order to make amends for
past remissness, the indefatigables of the present day are now
determined to take Nature by storm. In allusion to what is
said, in the passage cited, respecting the studies to which I
have been attached, but in allusion to that only, I shall close
these remarks with declaring, that I am prouder of the stric-
tures of such a critic, than I should have been of his praise.

April 4, 1827. J. Ivory.
* Page 17.
2U2 LXIV. On

[ 332 ]

LXIV. On Capillary Attraction. By the Rev. J. B. Emmerr.*
(Continued from p. 118.]

HE force which elevates a column of liquid in a fine
tube, between two plain surfaces, or around solid mat-
ter generally, is corpuscular: the effect is produced by either
the surface only of the solid, or a stratum of immeasurably
small depth. ‘The liquid is elevated by the attraction of
the solid to its upper strata: for, if the upper strata alone
of the suspended column be heated, as great an effect is pro-
duced as by heating the whole column to the same tempera-
ture, which is apparent when the mechanical principles upon
which the phenomenon depends are considered.

This fact I did not ascertain until very recently: I had
* gone through a long series of experiments, using a test tube
which contains the liquid, into which is inserted the capillary
tube, along which an index moveable by a fine screw, having
a divided head, slides: the liquid having arrived at its proper
altitude, the whole was plunged into water or other liquid
heated to a given temperature, the index being a little above
the surface. After having repeated a great number of experi-
ments, many of which were anomalous, I found those which
had occupied several weeks wholly useless. ‘The whole series
must be repeated by help of an apparatus, which will allow the
summit of the column to be seen, and by which any required
temperature may be applied to the upper part only. ‘These
experiments being useless, I was not able to communicate a
paper for the last Number.

In the former paper, I showed that if the density of a liquid
be changed by expansion or contraction, the altitude of the
column is not affected. This may be proved experimentally :—
Heat as much as possible of the capillary column, except the
upper strata, and no sensible effect is produced: apply the
same temperature to the upper part, and a notable depression
takes place, such as 3 or 4 parts in 20; even the heat of the
hand causes a depression of about 4,th of an inch in a column
of 2,2, inches.

I now proceed to investigate the phenomena of such com-
pounds as saline solutions, dilute acids, &c. Let there be two
substances, A and B; let the compound be C.

Let a=sp.gr. A b=sp.gr.B c=sp.gr.C
d=weight of A e=weightB f= weightC=d+e
H = altitude to which A is elevated; 4 = altitude B;
h' = altitude of C.

* Communicated by the Author.

The

Rev. J. B. Emmett on Capillary Attraction. 333

The volume of A = co volume of B = —; volume of C
d+e

i c
But since each substance A, B, is diffused throughout the
whole volume,

ate, .:¢@: density of A in its diffused state = ee
c a d+e
also ote - —: : b: density of B in its diffused state = m8 =
Hence, (Note +, p- 118, No. for February)
dc ec
Force of A = 1s oe mrart force of B = hay} and the

sum of these forces is equal to the force of the compound
Aic; i.e.

Hd+h
a ae Wl PAL ale te a teres (a)
and whapeh - He pda. wlalas o(B)

é
But if, as generally happens, three tubes of different dia-
meters A, 3, #, are used respectively for the liquids A, B, C;
AHd-+dhe (c)

ey {a +e }

Again: since the force of attraction is proportional to the

altitude of the column, multiplied into the density of the liquid,
in the same tube;

Force of C = dc = Le aeach a re hoes: cht (d)

By transposing the equations c and d, the forces of attraction
may be found under all circumstances.

‘The primary formula (a) may be derived more simply, but
not so satisfactorily, thus:

Force of A = Hd; force of B=he; force of C=?!
fd + ef; the same tube being used.

But Hd + he=H' {d+ ef; therefore ;! =

before.

In any solution or compound d and e being known; and
Hand &, or H and #’, or h and h' being found by experiment,
the force may be found, when the tubes are equal, by formula
(a) or (b); or in unequal tubes by (c), or (c) transposed, if H or
h be required: and the force of attraction between the solid
and the compound, or the solid and one of the component

arts of the liquid at any temperature is found by (d).

The following table exhibits a few results, the data of the

annexed

then =

Hd+he
Teer ?

334 Rev. J. B. Emmett on Capillary Attraction.

annexed calculations: I take the altitude of water as the
standard :

Name of the Liquid. Altitude.
Te Witenes 6 cohen a. suicie nud int viicgin
2. Sat. sol. muriate of ammonia ..... 102°7
3. sulphate of potash ..... oul SEG
4. sulphuret of potash ..... 95:2
ae —— TIALS GL SOUE fee duis. ske vn 88:2
vA sulphate of copper......- 840
S, ANIC ACIC. ial © SuRARREEN Uewaiverhs Kou 75°0
9. Muriatie acids.) oS Brad kA wd ol 70°1
5. Oil of tartar per deliq. ........ 88°
10. Essential oil of lemon......... 4.2°8
Kas Alleohol oat. 65h. ek. eee 6 REN OL ROS
12...Riefined. whale. oil). 0) o)crr:cjpabie,sed ate 37°5

15. Olof lavender j...+; 4 ees Ite Ls Vane
Oil of turpentine, Oil of olives, and Sulphuric zther, nearly
the same with 11, 12, 13.

This table exhibits the relative altitudes to which the liquids
are elevated; and since it was shown in the former paper, that
a change in the density produced by variation of temperature,
does not affect the height of the column, these numbers re-
present the ratios of the forces of attraction between the glass
and one particle of the liquid, at the distance to which they
are kept asunder by the repulsive force of caloric: and if the
force of attraction of the liquid to the solid be required at any
temperature, multiply the altitude by the density of the liquid
at that temperature.

The following are some effects of combination:

Exp. 1. Saturated solution of subcarbonate of pot-

ash, was elevated 23 tenths ofan inch .... =
Water in the same tube 26°25 tenths ...... =
Mixture of one volume water, and one volume so-
lution 24°25 or 24°5 tenths ........-.. =H
du) lis € == 105,

By formula (a), 2! = 24-3; which is between the two values
of 7’, found by experiment.

Exp. 2. Solution of sulphate of potash (sp. gr. 10328) was
elevated 89 divisions of the scale.

Altitude of water = H = 93 d = 548
h = 89 e = 56°6

By formula (a) h' = 90°9.

Exp. 3. Solution of muriate of soda... .h = 22°5
Wateeereeio es cee es oe. ee H = 255
Mixture of equal volumes ........ h! = 23°5.

The formula accords closely with the experiment.
Exp.

Rey. J. B. Emmett on Capillary Attraction. 335

Exp.4. Solution of sulphate ofcopper kh = 95 d = 54
water H = 113 e:= 58

1 vol. of solution + 1 vol. water h' = 108
By the formula, 4’ = 103°6.
Exp. 5. Alcohol .....- h=>T7° d = 100
Water . datos H= 22: e= $83

1 vol. alcohol + 1 water 4’ = 7°8.

By formula (4), 4 = — 9:3; but by experiment 4 = 7.

By formula (a), 2! = 15:2; by experiment 1! = 7°8.

Hence the altitude to which any liquid, mixture or combina-
tion of liquids is raised, does not depend solely upon the den-
sity or densities of the substances concerned: this is evident
from Exp. 5; in which, 100 by weight of water, added to 83
of alcohol, causes an addition of =8,th only to the column of
pure alcohol; although the height of the column of water : that
of alcohol : : 100: 40°8. ‘ So extraordinary a phenomenon can-
not result from any mechanical law depending upon the rela-
tive weight or specific gravity of the component parts ; it is more
analogous to chemical attraction, and capillary phenomena
will afford a measure of corpuscular forces, as well as of their
increase and decrease, so far as depends upon distance.

The phenomena of alcohol present apparent anomalies ;
but they are so constant, that a thorough investigation will de-
velop some of the primary laws of corpuscular forces: the
appearances may be partially accounted for by considering that
alcohol consists of the elements of 51°15 olefiant (bicarbu-
retted hydrogen) gas, and 31°85 water; the former of which
must be repulsive to glass, since a small quantity of alcohol
greatly depresses a column of water: thus, 100 water + 83
alcohol rose to 6°66 elev.; 1 vol. of this mixture + 3 water
rose to 10°5; 1 vol. mixture + 7 water was elevated 13;
water alone 16: in this experiment (since 100 alcohol consists
of 61°63 olefiant gas + 38°37 water), 100 of the mixture,
proof strength, contains 27°95 olefiant gas + 72°05 water; its
altitude was 6°66; pure water 16; 27°95 olefiant gas + 372°05
water rose to 10°5; 27°95 olefiant gas + 772°05 water rose
but to 13; z.e. if to 100 parts by weight of water, 3-62 of
liquid bicarburetted hydrogen gas, as it exists in alcohol, be
added, the column is less by =3,th than that of pure water.

If the altitude 4, to which the liquid olefiant gas alone will
rise, be calculated, we find by the experiment on alcohol, that
it is — 2°2; whilst, by that on the mixture of equal volumes
of alcohol and water, it is about —29.

Whether these curious results arise from an actual force of
repulsion between the glass and the olefiant gas, or whether
it arises simply from the cohesive force of the upper strata of

the

336 Mr. Galbraith on the Velocity of Sound.

the water (on which the effect depends) being diminished by
the mixture of the alcohol, is not apparent.

Another singular example of the agency of heat in effecting
a diminution of corpuscular attraction presents itself in the
following experiment :—Cut two pieces of soft lead, so that
each may have a plain and bright surface; by pressure these
surfaces may be made to cohere with considerable force.
Suspend the pieces one perpendicularly over the other, and to
the lower piece hang weights, nearly as heavy as the cohesive
force may be supposed capable of supporting. The applica-
tion of a degree of heat, not superior to that of boiling water,
will cause a separation, provided the weights be sufficiently
heavy : whence the corpuscular force of heat produces sensible
effects at minute, even sensible distances.

The pheenomena of the capillary action of parallel metallic
plates are curious. Ihave made a considerable number of
experiments; but until some difficulties shall be surmounted,
they cannot be in a state to be submitted to public scrutiny.

An apology is due to you as wel] as to your readers, for the
delay—after I had promised to continue the subject in your
last Number: however, I am certain it will not be required,
when it is considered that the manufacture of all my own ap-
paratus, which the small resources of a country curacy make
requisite, often requires ten times the time which the experi-
mental researches occupy. In addition, the discovery that the
column is suspended by the upper stratum only, rendered the
experiments of several weeks quite useless, and demands the
application of apparatus of a new construction, which is now
nearly complete.

[To be continued.]

LXV. On the Velocity of Sound. By W.Gatznraitu, Esq. M.A.

To Richard Taylor, Esq.
Sir,

N the 68th volume of the Philosophical Magazine, page 214,
I gave a short paper On the velocity of sound transmitted
through the atmosphere. In it I endeavoured to investigate
an accurate and commodious formula for determining the ve-
locity of sound under given circumstances, embracing all those
minutiae affecting it, so far as I was acquainted with them.
In anote, (pages 215 and 216,) I mentioned the values of the
constant generally introduced in the late investigations of this
question, and hinted that a mean of the whole of these, namely
1:4112, was more conformable to the velocity of sound by ex-
periment,

Mr. Galbraith on the Velocity of Sound. 337

periment, than that (1-362) which I had usually supposed the
more accurate. Now if this be introduced into formula (4),
page 217, and the proper value for g also, a slight modifica-
tion will be effected in the general formulz for the velocity in
metres or English feet.

= (105:9518 + 0°198457) (1+ =~ ae, 7) (3°14143 —

0°0042 cos 2 A) + w cos Dvr e eee eeees » (A)
the velocity in metres using the metrical eaideter and

centigrade thermometer.
= {105-9518 +0'1103 (#— 32°} (1 + =“ ) (10-2739

— 0°01378 cos 2A) + w cose... . 2.00, . (B)
the velocity in English feet, employing the English ba-
rometer and F alireriheit? s thermometer.

As | have been able to find no experiments by which a di-
rect comparison with these formule can be made, except those
of Professor Moll of Utrecht, with the omission of the ast
term, namely, w cos ¢, I cannot say whether it is in this last
respect perfectly correct. As Dr. Moll took the precaution
of firing guns at each end of the measured base, the effect of
the wind was in this case obviated; and if my formula agree
nearly with his experiments, independent of this term, it may
be looked on in this state as verified by direct experiment.

The truth of these remarks will be obvious, on consulting
Dr. Moll’s paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London for the year 1824, pages 425, &c.
in which a full account of the whole steps of his experi-
ments is recorded. At page 445 there is presented a table of
the velocity of sound from 44 different experiments on a base
near Utrecht in Holland, of about nine miles in length. On
the 27th of June 1823, twenty-two shots were fired at each
station or end of the base of 17669°28 metres, or 9664°7044
fathoms, the metre being supposed 39°3824 English inches.
The sum of the times was 2286%:07, which divided by 44
gives 51°-96 for the mean of the whole, which Dr. Moll adopts.

1 5 :
Whence oe 5 = $40:06 metres, the experimental velocity

in one as of time. Now while these 22 shots were fired
at each end of the measured base, the mean temperature at
both ends of it was 11°-16 = ¢ of the Centigrade scale. Also
the mean height of the metrical barometer’ was ‘74475 = p;
the mean tension of aqueous vapour by Daniell’s hygrometer
was 0:00925307 metre =f. By substituting these quantities
in formula (A) Te the last term, » cos g, since by
firing guns at both ends of the measured base its effect, as

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5, May 1827. 2X Dr.

338 Mr. Galbraith on the Velocity of Sound.

Dr. Moll observes, page 425, was “ annihilated,’—we have,
f ; 0:0092531 . . b+
(105°9518 + 2-2147) Qa Se ee (3°13143 +0:00105)=
108°1665 x 1°0023 x 3°:13248 = 339°622 metres.
Experiment gives ........- 34.0:06
Error of formula ..... . «+. —0°438 metre.

In like manner if we compare 14 shots at each end of the
base, or 28 at both, fired on the 28th of June 1823, we have,

108°17742 x 1°00212 x 3°13248 = 339°582 metres.
Experiment gives ......... 339°34

Pirror. of forma “Pie tinue sy 5 +0°242 metre.
Whence, these errors being of different signs, we may con-
clude that it is probable the formula agrees very well with
Dr. Moll’s experiments, as the mean error of the whole would
only be about — 0°196 of a metre, or about eight English
inches; a degree of coincidence, in such researches, not to be
expected.

Though Dr. Moll has not stated the effect of the wind, yet
it may, I think, be inferred from his observations made at
each end of the base alternately, as on the 25th and 26th of
June 1823.

On the first day, the velocity was 337°39 metres.

C0 f DE SCCODGE, «5501 dun tawieico lan aieita 346°59

Difference ...%5..: se naiethxy 9-20 metres,
or about 30 English feet.
The same conclusion may be drawn from his experiments
when the guns were fired, and heard at both stations.
Thus on the 27th of June 1823, Phil. Trans. 1824, p. 445,

The mean of the one column II. is ae =.. 525835
The mean of column III. is —— == ).. 51*049
Difference in timeis.......... rey ods LoF86
17669™:28
Now, 52"-835 = 334°424 metres,
17669™:28
And, Roig t= 346 124

Difference... = 11°700 metres, or about 38 English
feet per second, according as the velocity is determined from
the one end of the base, or the other.

Now for want of other evidence, we may reasonably sup-
pose that this is occasioned by the effect of the wind accele-
rating the sound in the one case, and retarding it in the other.
Direct experiments are, however, still wanting to settle this
point in an unobjectionable manner, though from the eo 4

whic

Results of Meteorological Observations at Wick. 339

which the investigation is now brought, we may shortly ex-
pect the most decisive proof of its just effect. Iam, Sir, &c.
Edinburgh, Jan. 21, 1827. Wo. GALBRAITH.

P.S. I have since found that the coefficients to the formula
may vary on account of the different states of the atmosphere.
The quantity by which the formula of Newton before extract-
ing the root should be multiplied, may vary from 1:3 to 1:5,
making that adopted lately by M. Laplace, or 1:4, the mean.
Therefore 1°3 must be the quantity in very dry air, 1:4 in
moist, and 1°5 in very damp.

Hence my coefficients should be

Dry .. . 103) instead of 1040885,
Moist . . 106 + oreven 105°9518.
Damp. . 109

I have come to these conclusions in the mean time, but shall
return to the subject at some convenient opportunity. W. G.

LXVI. Results of the Meteorological Observations made at

Wick in the northernmost part of Scotland, published in the
Philosophical Magazine. By W. Burney, LL.D.
To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of

Gentlemen, Philosophy.

you have inserted in your Magazine and Annals, two ar-
ticles containing Meteorological Observations made at
Wick, in the county of Caithness, in the years 1823 and 1825;
and as no observations of this kind have been sent to you be-
fore from that remote part of Scotland, I have thought their
results would be acceptable to those of your readers who are
interested in meteorology, by the way of comparison; and
have therefore made up their results in two concise tables, with
occasional remarks. Seeing some discrepancies in the results
of the first article, and knowing that you are very correct in
printing, 1 was induced to go over the calculations for accu-
rate results of the monthly tables; the differences, however, are
not considerable. I have also added a scale of the prevailing
winds; and to the mean monthly temperatures at 10 A.M.
and 10 P.M., I have applied corrections, which are the differ-
ences between the monthly mean temperatures at 10 A.M.
and 10 P.M. at Kinfauns Castle, North Britain; and the
monthly mean temperatures by a Six’s thermometer at that
place for 1823, being the nearest to Wick, where a register of
the weather was kept at the same hours of observation. ‘The
application of these differences as corrections to the monthly
mean temperatures at Wick at 10 A.M. and 10 P.M., ought
to make the averages nearly as.correct as if a Six’s thermo-

meter had been used there for that purpose.
2X2 Results

G9s| 66 | Sb | $9 | G8! OF | Ll

699-86
609-99F
o96-LP
608-69
LLb-GG
086-99
890-69
G96-60
SI1L-SP
196-0F
VOLE
961-96

FONFANNOOMN ®D

PI

OmrFOMANOAHMr ON
COrFarnonanwodrDon

PG61-0 + SLP-8E
606-0 + 008-9F
S8t-0 + 088-97
696.0 + OF&-1¢
LEL-0 + OVL-F9
966-1 + 989.9
810-I + 090-19
SII-L + 093-84
86-0 + 068-6F
998-0 + S6F-66
140-0 — GLL-F6
640-0 = oh8-96

Dr. Burney’s Results

hai P| <= aes) = .
'skeq|'AN “AX |'AN'S| “S| ‘aS | “a arn ‘N fee

ayeUul
-rxoiddy

‘spuLAA Suyreadd ay} Jo ayeag YW

‘OI ¥ OT
qe ‘duray,

uvoy]

“u01}
09.09

LL-8&
66:9¥
09-S'p
86-87
66-19
6L-19
L0-8F
F0-9F
69-0F
TL-L6
16-6
68-96

81-86
86-9F
91-87
OL-6¢
ST-8¢
PPLE
60-9
94-09
L0-9%
86-1¥
$9.96
18-96

‘Wd 01) AV O1

ye ye

+9 | $86-9h = 409-0 + 086-94 | 61-64 | 60-L% |999-6G| :sedvi0ay

ee | | -

96-66
L166
69-66
19-66
69-66
GS-66
61:66
99-66
89-66
L¥-66
£6-66
61-66
“Uy

‘u0ONy
qe

‘OULD, J | OWLOY,]| *WoIeg

"PSB Laquasagy 4of joudnoy pun auizosnpy yooryd osoziyg, ay, fo 4aquinny
IY, UL paplasue PUD “EZSl wax ayz us punpjoog Jo Y1MON IY] U2 YII44 7o Fday sazsisay JVISOjOLOIIIYT V Jo synsaay

840

Jaquisdeq
JaquUIdAON,
* 1940199
Jaquiaydag
* -\snsny
: Ayne
* aun
: Beye
*ydy
yore
Areniqa,y
* Arenuee

"€e8 I
*sUJUOTA

of the Meteorological Observations at Wick. 341

Numerical Results for the Year.
Inches.

Max. Noy. 9th & 10th—Wind E.& S. 30°4

Barometer 4 wrin. Dec. 1st & 18th— Wind S.W. & W. 28-3
Ranve of the quicksilver Gi) «5, <teietvatiei 36 0 SAI Z1
PEMA) TOCA eessties es. ee ws dw so ole we 29°565

Maximum, Aug. 11th— Wind S.W. 65°50
Thermometer ) Minimum, Feb. sth—Wind N. 12-33
Annual mean temperature by approximation .... 45 -984

The barometrical observations having been registered only
to the first decimal place of an inch, there is no doubt a con-
siderable loss in the resulting mean pressure: this supposition
is verified by the annual mean result being so low, compared
with those of barometers that were placed much higher; as
it is ;88, or 3, of an inch lower than that at Kinfauns
Castle, where the barometer is stated to have been 129 feet
above the level of the sea, and that at Wick only 45 feet, if
it were placed at the same height as the thermometer. Con-
sidering the difference of latitude of these places, it is curious
that the mean temperature at Wick at 10 A.M. and 10 P.M.
should be higher in January, February, March, October, No-
vember, and December 1823, than at Kinfauns Castle, at the
same hours, and lower in the other six months; and also that
the annual mean temperatures of these places should coincide
within ;'4, of a degree: but this must have arisen from the
contiguity of Wick to a more open sea, which tends to lessen
the chill of the atmosphere in the winter months.

Winp. The prevailing wind, according to the scale in the
table, was decidedly from the S. and S.W. points of the com-
pass, in which direction they are influenced by the Western
Ocean, and its bluff eastern shore. The wind from the N.
was the next in duration, as coming from the open sea. From
the S.E., W. and N. W. they were nearly equal, but least from
the N.E. and E., from which points they had to travel over
the continents of Europe and Asia. Hence it appears that
the S.W. wind does not retain its prevailing character at
Wick, as it does along the southern shores of England. The
prevailing South wind at Wick may be considered as a land
breeze, and is a fortunate one for vegetation there. The winds
from the S.W., W. and N. are sea breezes; the succulent
state of the two first, soon counteracts the sterile effects of the
last.

The second article is inserted in the Philosophical Magazine
and Journal, for October 1826, p. 317, and contains a table
of thermometrical observations made at Wick, at half-past
7 A.M. and half-past 8 P.M. throughout the year 1825. As
no results are given in that table, I have therefore calculated

the

342

the monthly temperatures; and the following are their result~
ing averages, with corrections :

—

January . : 39°55
February : 39° 38°78
March. . . : 41°03
ori”. : : 43°41
May... . : 47°20
June... ° : 53°06
July... : ‘ 57°07
August . : ; 55°46
September | 54: : 54°14
October . : : 47°38
November : “$5 | 37°47
December ‘ : 39°18

Means of

Months . i Cor- | Approximate!
1825. i ‘lg rection. |Mean Temp.

41°34
41°15
43°51
45°96
49:26
54°15
56:97
57°37
56°54
49:27
39-07
41:26

1°79
2°37
2°48
2°55
2°06
1:09
0°10
1°91
2°40
1°89
1°60
2°08

es

Pid dnb dt ded dea

Averages : 46°096| 46°192) 46°1444 1:°843= 47°987

The above corrections are the differences of the mean
monthly temperatures by a Fahrenheit’s thermometer at Gos-
port, taken nearly at the same time in the mornings and even-
ings as at Wick, and the monthly means by a self-registering
thermometer; and are applied to the average temperatures of
the morning and evening at Wick, in order to obtain an ap-
proximation to the real mean temperature of that place. But
as these corrections were obtained from simultaneous obser-
vations here, perhaps they have made the approximate mean
temperature of Wick, nearly half a degree too high. From
these results, which were made to compare the temperature
of the atmesphere at the remote part of Scotland with that at
the southern parts of England, it appears that the difference in
the approximate mean temperature at Wick, and the real
mean temperature at Gosport, Hants, in 1823, was only 44
degrees, and in 1825, jive degrees, notwithstanding the former
place has a greater north latitude than the latter by 7° 14/.

Results of Meteorological Observations at Wick.

I am yours, &c.

Gosport, March 5, 1827. Wm. Burney.

LXVII. Re-

[ 343 ]

LXVII. Remarks on Mr. Sturgeon’s Paper ‘* On the Inflam-
mation of Gunpowder by Electricity.” By Mr.Txos. How py.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals.
Gentlemen,
N consequence of some passages in Mr. Sturgeon’s paper,

inserted in your Number for January, appearing to me to
insinuate that my experiments on the inflammation of gun-
powder were not actually performed in the manner which I
stated, but that I concealed, either designedly or ignorantly,
some essential particular which rendered them successful, I
feel the necessity of requesting the favour of your inserting
my present letter. Mr. Sturgeon introduces the subject of
my experiments with the following observation. * The most
extraordinary method of effecting the ignition of gunpowder
by the electric fluid, that I have yet heard of, is that stated
by Mr. Howldy, in the Philosophical Magazine, vol. Ixviii.
p-173.” This is a strong, though an indirect, testimony that
my method is at least orzginal. He then proceeds: “ I have
been induced,” says Mr. S. “ to pay some attention to this
method.”—* I think, however, it is to be regretted that Mr.
Howldy has not mentioned the hygrometrical state of that
part of the table (‘four inches’) between the extremity of the
chain and the outside of the jar: as it is possible that a varia-
tion in that particular may vary the result of the experiment.”
Now, I can relieve Mr. Sturgeon’s regret, by assuring him that
the part of the table which he has mentioned and suspected,
was perfectly dry, and free from moisture of every kind, as
was likewise every other part of the table, and the apparatus
employed, when the experiments in question were made. The
table is of elm; it was made and has been employed solely
for the purpose of supporting electrical and other apparatus.
Mr. S. next remarks, ‘* Considering, however, that four inches
is a long striking distance through dry air,—” It would indeed
have been a long striking distance, under the circumstances
I have described, supposing the charge to have actually struck
or passed over that distance in the form of a spark. But the
distance or interval was made Jong, expressly for the purpose
that the isa might Nov strike over it; for if the charge had
struck over that interval, the experiment would not have been
successful. For in any arrangement that is made according
to my method, when the jar is discharged, whether the inter-
val between it and the chain be four, three, or two inches, the
only appearance in that interval is a little light at and near
to the extremity of the chain; from which place the charge

becomes

344 Mr. Howldy’s Remarks on Mr. Sturgeon’s Paper.

becomes so attenuated in its passage to the jar, as to be in-
capable of affecting the organs of sight. This circumstance
very frequently occurs when the charge is directed over an
imperfect conducting surface, if the distance be greater than
that over which the charge can strike in the form of a spark,
or with explosion.

If Mr. Sturgeon is acquainted with this fact, he has on
the present occasion inadvertently employed the expression,
striking distance.— The electric fluid by expanding or diffusing
itself over an imperfect conducting surface of some extent,
often passes as invisibly as it does when it pervades a metallic
conductor. In the next clause to that which I have been
considering, Mr. S. says: “ not happening to be successful
when attempting to repeat the experiment, according to Mr.
H.’s directions, I have been induced to suggest to that gentle-
man the necessity of his repeating the experiment, under the
following circumstances.”

Now, it Mr. Sturgeon found the experiment to be either
impracticable, or to be more difficult to be performed success-
fully by my method than by that with the water tube, he
ought, I submit, for his own credit and the satisfaction of his
readers, to have pointed out clearly and demonstratively in
what the difficulty or impracticability consisted. The state-
ment of facts, and the observations which I have made relating
to the subject in discussion, will relieve me from the necessity
of repeating the experiment under the circumstances Mr. 8.
has suggested, especially as I perfectly agree with him that
** there would recur different results.” Mr. S. seems to have
misunderstood a part of my statement concerning the wooden
point or peg, and has asserted that the celebrated electricians
Dr. Watson and Mr. Wilson “ used it in that shape more
than fifty years ago.” I must observe, however, that Priestley,
in his History of Electricity, (4to, fourth edit. 1775,) has given
an account of Dr. Watson’s experiments ; but he has not stated
that Dr. Watson used a wooden point in any of them. And
as to Mr. Wilson, I have his own account of the experiments
he made, under the patronage of His late Majesty, in the large
room at the Pantheon; and I do not find that in any of his
various experiments he employed a wooden point: and the
manner in which he inflamed gunpowder shall be told in his
own words: ‘* Upon a staff of baked wood a stem of brass
was fixed, which terminated in an iron point at the top. This
point was put into the end of a small tube of Indian paper,
made somewhat in the form of a cartridge, about one inch
and a quarter long, and about two-tenths of an inch in dia-
meter. When this cartridge was filled with common gun-

powder

Mr. Teschemacher on Chromate of Silver. 345

powder (unbruised), the wire of communication with the well
was then fastened to the bottom of the brass stem. Being so
circumstanced, and whilst the charge in the great cylinder and
wire was continually kept up by the motion of the wheel, the
top of the cartridge was brought so near to the drums as fre-
quently to touch the metal. In this situation a small faint
luminous stream was observed between the top of the car-
tridge and the metal drum. Sometimes this stream would set
fire to the gunpowder at the instant of the application; at
others, it would require half a minute, or more, before it took
effect.” p. 75.

I must now beg to call upon Mr. Sturgeon to verify his
assertion, by giving a reference to any electrical experiment
which either Dr. Watson or Mr. Wilson made with a wooden
point. I am, Gentlemen, your obliged servant,

Hereford, Jan. 11, 1827. Tuomas How tpy.

LXVIII. On Chromate of Silver. By Mr. E.¥. TEScHEMACHER.

To Richard Phillips, Esq.
Dear Sir,

I BEG to hand you herewith a small quantity of crystallized

chromate of silver, obtained by allowing a solution of chro-
mate of potash (after separation of the precipitate occasioned
by nitrate of silver) to evaporate spontaneously : at the end of
ten days these crystals were deposited at the bottom of the
vessel. ‘The crystals have a strong metallic lustre, and are
of a deep red colour by transmitted light, much resembling
native red silver. They are insoluble either in cold or hot
water. The primitive form appears to be a doubly oblique prism
of the following measurements, taken by Dr. Wollaston’s re-
flective goniometer from very brilliant natural planes.

Ponta. 26 123°
PonM .. 101° 05!
MonT... 69° 55’, or on T’ 110°05!

On platina wire before the blowpipe it gives a
deep emerald green glass. On charcoal the sil-
ver is reduced, appearing in small globules on
the surface of the chromic oxide. ‘That this substance is a bi-
chromate of silver, I have proved by directly combining the
chromate with an additional portion of chromic acid.
I am, deéar sir, yours, &Xc.
Barnsbury, March 13, 1827. E. F. TescHrEMACHER.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5. May 1827. 2 Y L&Alx. Ge ‘

cr 346 4

LXIX. On the Geology of East Norfolk; with Remarks upon
the Hypothesis of Mr. Robberds, respecting the former Level
of the German Ocean. By R.C.Tayior, Esq. F.G.S.

[Continued from page 290.]

N apreceding paragraph of this paper a proof of the violent

disruption of the strata is exhibited in the enormous de-
tached masses of chalk, lodged in the diluvial cliffs and occu-
pying a position above the crag, which is seen distinctly stra-
tified, reposing upon the plane of the original or main body of
chalk. .

An examination into the materials of this range of cliffs
will introduce to our notice more ancient formations, whose
traces are not here so readily accounted for. ‘The shore to
the west of Cromer exhibits a singular accumulation of tra-
velled fragments of primitive rocks, whence it would not be
difficult to collect a tolerably illustrative series. They consist
chiefly of rounded blocks of several varieties of granite, ba-
salt, porphyry, trap, and micaceous schist; sandstones of va~
rious kinds, chert, breccia; besides limestone, claystone, &c.
I am not sufficiently acquainted with the nomenclature of
rocks to hazard a more detailed enumeration here. The dilu-
vial fragments of the later series are from the chalk, the plas-
tic clay, London clay, green sand, Kelloway’s rock, the oolites,
lias clay, and marlestone ;—in fact, almost every formation
above the coal measures. These are of all intermediate mag-
nitudes, up to four tons weight. Large bouldered masses may
be seen in the sea at low water, lying mixed with flints, upon
the chalk. One block of granite was observed near six feet
in diameter. Another mass standing six or eight feet high,
has for years been known to the fishermen under the name of
Black Meg. This collection extends about two miles, chiefly
opposite to Beeston Hills. At Happisburgh Cliff the blue
diluvial mud or clay appears to contain rolled fragments of
various primeval and secondary rocks. Among them have
been observed granite, basalt, sandstones, black siliceous peb-
bles, septaria, and micaceous schist containing small garnets.

Whence has this singular assemblage been derived? Cer-
tainly not from ballast; the size of many of these stones pre-
vent that supposition, as does the locality of their position.
Had they drifted from our northern continental shores, as has
been suggested, one would expect to find them dispersed ge-
nerally along this coast. But the question appears decided by

» the fact that they are chiefly, if not entirely, supplied by the
diluvial

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 347

diluvial clay in which they may frequently be noticed, whence
I have collected many specimens, and others may be seen se-
veral miles inland. It is probable that these large masses, after
being dislodged from the cliffs, are very little removed from
their original sites by the action of existing currents in the
ocean. This opinion is confirmed on considering the other cir-
cumstances attendant on the wearing away of these cliffs. As
might be expected, the alluvial substances that form the beach
and line the shores of the eastern counties, are, for the most
part, obviously derived from the small rounded fragments,
and the ancient water-worn gravel, which the sea has washed
from its precipitous borders. But there remain extensive por-
tions which do not appear to have changed their position,
further than would be occasioned by the dissolution of their
matrices. These instances occur, with few interruptions, in
a course of 12 miles, from Mundesley to Salthouse Bay, and
in particular at Foulness. A series of irregular ridges of un-
rolled angular flints, locally termed rocks, mark the ancient
sites of denuded chalk beds, and prove valuable barriers by
checking the violence of the surf in northerly gales. No change
in the forms of these ridges of chalk flints is perceptible. ‘The
ocean, mighty and furious as it sometimes is, will partially
oyerspread them with sand, but is incapable of shifting the
heavy interlocking materials which offer the only permanent
obstacle to its encroachments.

As regards the boulders of miscellaneous rocks, it may be
observed, in concluding that portion of our subject, that they
occur chiefly upon the beach and sloping shores ; not on those
external ridges over whose sharp irregular surfaces they can
scarcely be imagined to have rolled.

Whilst reviewing the geological pheenomenaattendant on the
eastern coast and valleys, we must not lose sight of those which
are observable in their upper extremities and ramifications.
These are lined, not with an oozy sediment as in the zstua-
ries, but with moor and forest peat, to the depth of six or seven
feet. In the operations of cutting drains and turf, the horns
of Jarge ruminant animals have been discovered; and in the
gravelly margins occur vertebrz and teeth of elephants. ‘There
is a considerable deposit of peat in that valley in which the
Waveney and Little Ouse have their sources; and trunks of
trees, whose wood is yet hard, are sometimes taken out and used
as fuel. Horns of deer are occasionally met with in the fens of
Lopham, Hinderclay, Redgrave and Bressingham. It is an
interesting fact also, that in the peaty valley of the Waveney, at
Roydon, Diss and Hoxne, have been found ancient flint axes.
Teeth and large bones prevail in the diluvial gravel of the

2¥2 same

348 Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

same valley at Hoxne and also at Eye. Vertebree occur in
another branch near Botesdale, and in some valleys on the
eastern coast of Suffolk.

The gravel of the Bure valley has furnished many animal
remains, as also have the banks of the Wensum. Mr. Par-
kinson long ago observed that this district supplied a greater
abundance of fossil bones of deer than any other part of this
kingdom.

But the most considerable discovery was very recently made,
in a valley near North Walsham, in the process of digging an
extension of the Dilham Canal. These specimens have, by
permission of the Canal Company, been deposited in the Nor-
wich Museum. ‘They consist of horns of two species of deer,
and skulls apparently of the fossil auroch or bison, and of the
common ox.

It will be observed, that the localities which are here re-
cited, are all within the limits which may be assigned to the
Crag; and it must be added that in frequent instances they
are accompanied by decided traces of that formation. Al-
though they are comparatively remote from the sea, their
sites are not more than 40 to 80 feet above its level. The an-
cient stone axes and other implements found in the peat of
the Waveney valley, denote its alluvial covering *. Some of the

bones

* The Waveney valley has exhibited traces of the early occupants of
this district in greater abundance, and more generally distributed, than
any other portion of East Anglia. From Garianonum even to Thetford
(the ancient Sitomagus), coins, medals, urns, and other reliques of Roman
origin, have been found at numercus points; indeed in almost every pa-
rish bordering upon this valley,—indicating it to be a favourite position with
that people. Many local circumstances concur te render the occupation
of this valley desirable to the adventurers of various nations, who from time
to time penetrated into the interior, through one or other of the chan-
nels of the Garienis. At Thetford, and at several points near the upper
part of the Waveney, Celtic and Scandinavian remains of military weapons
have been discovered. Flint axes and copper celts have been found in the
neighbouring parishes of Roydon, Diss, Scole, and Hoxne. The stone axes
appear to be similar in form to those to which the original Teutonic ap-
pellation of Staimborts or Steinbartes is given by Dr. Hibbert, occurring in
Orkney and Shetland.

They have also been met with in the vicinity of the Humber, near the
confluence of the Trent and the Ouse, being probably brought hither by the
Saxon and Scandinavian pirates that from the earliest period infested the
shores of this country. A comparison of the forms of these ancient wea-
pons, the substances of which they are constructed, and the circumstances
under which they are discovered, aided by the scanty historical materials
hitherto collected, is necessary to determine their origin with any degree
of precision. This is a task which, I believe, antiquaries have not hitherto
attempted. The copper instruments of war are observed chiefly in those
districts which were occupied by Celtic tribes. As regards the stone axes,
the authority alluded to, states, that in whatever country of Europe wea-

pons

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 349

bones probably belong to animals who fed and died in those
situations; while others appertain to species that were extin-
guished by the last catastrophe which affected our earth.

In two other moory valleys within the diluvial district of
Norfolk the horns of stags have been found: the one at Car-
brooke, near the head of the Stoke river; the other at East
Bilney by Derebam, communicating with the Wensum valley.

From all that has been said in the foregoing pages, it will
appear that the fossil bones occupy no specific place in the
upper marine formation. They are found equally lodged in
the higher valleys as at the lowest point to which the sea re-
tires, and even on shoals some miles from the shore; and
though frequently unaccompanied by crag shells, are most
commonly blended with them. Sometimes they rest, in good
preservation, in ancient peaty depositions, or lie, as if thrown by
currents, amongst heaps of marine shells ; and in other cases,
broken and partially rounded, they are imbedded in diluvial
gravel.

We can therefore only conclude that the existence of those
races was equally contemporaneous with the crag and with
the buried sylvan tract at the base of the cliffs, and that it

pons similar to them might be found, a visitation from the Vikingr, or Sea-
kings of the North, is strongly indicated.

Having obtained certain data, approximating to chronological ‘accuracy,
we shall thence be enabled to observe, with some precision, the time occu-
pied in forming alluvial depositions, since those early traces of man, those
rude works of art, were deposited in our valleys and morasses. The ca-
noes, the implements of war and of commerce, the works and the personal
ornaments, both of the aboriginal inhabitants and their successive invaders,
are occasionally exposed or raised from beneath extensive peat formations
in this island. “They are, indeed, the only criteria by which to mark and
measure the extent of this alluvial process in given periods, and in parti-
cular situations, during the succession of ages which have elapsed since the
surface of our soil was habitable to man. From the many iastances which
have occurred of these geological chronometers, two only will be selected
as bearing more immediately upon the main topic of this paper, and but
little removed from the district under consideration. In the marshes of the
Medway, which nearly resemble those of East Norfolk, several canoes were
dug up, in 1720, in all respects similar to those which are ascribed to the
ancient Britons ; being composed each of a single tree, hollowed by fire,
precisely in the same manner as those of the North American Indians.

The other instance is the Roman Causeway, supposed to have been
made by the Emperor Severus, extending from Denver to Peterborough,
across theFens of Cambridgeshire. It was composed of gravel three feet deep
and sixty feet broad, but is now covered with moor or peat from three to
five fect in thickness. In both these cases, particularly in the latter, evi-
dence is produced of an increased elevation of surface, and the gradual for-
mation of solid land, either by the deposition of oozy sediment, or by the
growth and decay of vegetable substances ; and data are supplied, as in
the case of the ancient anchors in the Garienis, for measuring the extent
and duration of that process.

ceased

350 Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

ceased at the epoch which invested the whole with their dilu-
vial covering.

That the crag shells and their accompaniments form a com-
paratively local deposit, like some other formations, is evident.
Its existence and its peculiarities, nevertheless, indicate a di-
stinct geological zra.

Let us recapitulate the remarkable facts, by which, in this
case, the questions of identity and general continuity are de-
termined,

A district, bordering a hundred miles upon our eastern
coast, is occupied by an ancient marine deposit, continually
changing its aspect, yet constant in its peculiar characters, and
always to be understood by unerring data: now appearing
as a ferruginous sandstone, then in compact clay, and again
considerably indurated ; sometimes blended in a mass of ex-
tinct zoophites, sponges and alcyonites, forming a soft rock ;
oftener an irregularly accumulated mass of decomposed and
broken littoral shells, loosely imbedded in sand like an ordi-
nary sea beach, yet accompanied with the remains of unknown
animals. Sometimes forming the substratum of a considerable
area ; or, overwhelmed beneath the debris of older strata, only
detected at intervals. At one point exhibiting groups of shell-
fish allied to those of the neighbouring sea, and at another
composed of numerous genera, which are neither to be recog-
nized living in any part of our globe, nor assimilating to the
fossil shells of other formations. Can it be doubted then, that
we must look to an earlier epoch in the geological history of
our earth; toa period prior to that in which our diluvial
eastern counties received their existing shape and covering ;
and to other, but not less extraordinary operations upon
their antediluvian surfaces, than those to which Mr. Rob-
berds’s views would limit us, in accounting for the phaznomena
to which he invites our attention, and of which I cannot but
consider an erroneous application has been made ?

I have been led to introduce this sketch of the most remark-
able deposits above the chalk, because they have been hi-
therto neglected ; and because it was desirable to elucidate,
with precision, the geology of the limited district to which
these observations are directed,—so far, at least, as it bears
upon the assistance which the phenomena it exhibits have
afforded to the peculiar views of Mr. Robberds. At this stage
of the inquiry, conclusions incompatible with those views are
unavoidably suggested by a consideration of the data here
supplied.

Enough has been advanced, to withdraw from inferences,
apparently so unobjectionable, the very basis upon which they

are

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. $51

are founded. May I not here be allowed to register those
premises and those conclusions which, after a careful orycto-
logical examination, appear opposed to those of Mr. Robberds?

The shells which are deposited at the height of 40 feet, on the
sides of certain valleys, belong to an antediluvian formation ;
therefore they cannot be admitted as evidence of supposed
changes, or of events that have occurred subsequently to the
deluge.

There is no direct or reasonably inferred proof remaining
of the postdiluvian operations of the sea at such an eleya-
tion upon our coasts; therefore the assumption that the Ger-
man Ocean was 40 feet higher than at present, and has gra-
dually fallen, is unsupported.

That at an early period of what may be termed, in geolo-
gical phrase, the existing state of our globe, the sea entered
the mouths of these estuaries, and rolled its tides far up into
the interior, I can no more doubt than the respectable autho-
rity, who has collected so many indisputable proofs. The dif-
ference, and that no trivial one, between us, lies in the amount.
I differ as regards the quantity and elevation of the tidal wa-
ters, after their admission into these valleys; being satisfied
that such elevation was inconsiderable, and that in no sensi-
ble respect were the waters of the surrounding ocean, since
the existence of man upon this island, higher than at the pre-
sent moment.

To render this more intelligible, it is necessary to trace the
causes of the change in the level of the inland waters, and of
the bed of the valleys themselves, to their probable origin ;
commencing frem the period at which it is proved that such
flats openly communicated with the sea.

The set of the great tidal current of the German Ocean is
from the North-west, along the eastern shores of this island.
It consequently happens, that wherever any portion of the
land projects beyond the general line of coast, and consists of
any material which yields to the action of those tides, such
exposed points have, from the earliest recorded periods, been
gradually reduced and rounded off, and the debris has been
uniformly deposited to the southward; either forming shoals
in the sea, or elevating low tracts of land upon its borders.
Thus the detritus of the chalk strata at Flamborough Head
and the diluvial cliffs of Holderness have contributed, in the
slow progress of years, to increase the alluvial districts near
the Humber. In their progress southward, the tides next meet
with an extensive obstruction in the projecting county of Nor-
folk. About twenty miles of its coast has been subjected, from
time immemorial, to the abrasive action of ocean currents.

The

$52 Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

The ancient villages of Shipden, Wimpwell and Eccles have
disappeared ; several manors and large portions of neighbour-
ing parishes have, piece after piece, been swallowed up by
the encroaching waves; and their site, some fathoms deep,
now forms a part of the bed of the German Ocean. Coope-
rating with the tides, the land springs in the bordering high
grounds are constantly, though slowly, working to reduce our
boundaries. Enormous masses, dislodged by the pressure of
the springs, are continually precipitated upon the beach from
the high cliffs, to be carried off by succeeding tides. In the
winter of 1825, one of these fallen masses covered twelve acres,
extending far into the sea; its upper portion having fallen
from a height of 250 feet, near the light-house at Cromer.
The effects of this destructive process are traced in the banks
and shoals extending 20 miles to the southward, and in the
formation of the low flat tract between Happisburgh and
Gorleston. In their progress the tidal currents possess suffi-
cient strength and velocity to preserve a deep channel, locally
called Roads, parallel with the shore; but they deposit, both
on the sea and land sides of this passage, the alluvial matter
with which the waters are charged. Mr. Cubit has appro-
priately denominated this channel, a sea river. A portion only
of the substances that form the shoals and sand-banks may be
considered shifting, and these are modified by every variation
of wind and tide. ‘The nuclei of most of the largest appear
to be permanent, and probably existed at a period far more
remote than we can estimate. Thus the antiquity of the
Holm-sand, opposite Lowestoft, is decided by its Anglo-Sax-
on name.

There is reason then to believe, that the removal of one
part of the Norfolk coast has led to the consolidation of an-
other; and has tended to silt up and raise the bed of the es-
tuaries to such a degree, as almost to exclude the ingress of
the tide. In their present state, they are filled to the depth
of many feet with ooze, accompanied with fluviatile shells.
Gravelly knolls arise, at intervals, to the surface; and banks of
shells, partly drifted from the ocean, and partly consisting of
those ¢elline, mactre, and other genera usually found asso-
ciating in oozy beds near the mouths of large rivers, are oc-
casionally discovered. After having passed some miles from
the sea, the rivers. are contracted by the growth and decay of
aquatic plants, forming unembanked margins locally called
Rands; and similar recent formations of marshy peat are gra-
dually narrowing the broads. Except under such circum-
stances, the main estuaries exhibit no ancient accumulations
of peat, no large trunks of trees, or other indications of a

freshwater

Corrections in Vlacq’s Tables of Logarithms. 353

freshwater valley. Every thing denotes that their beds were
gradually heightened by the deposition of a marine sediment.
In this there is nothing remarkable; the operation is daily
going on on the Lincolnshire coast, where instances are re-
lated of the precipitation of a stratum of mud an inch thick,
in a single day. The industry of man enables him to avail
himself of this tendency ;—the operations of nature are assisted
by art, and large tracts of the richest land have been artifi-
cially produced from the earthy materials brought by the
waters of the ocean. Had we need to travel further than the
adjoining county, this article might be extended by reciting
remarkable illustrations of the formation of alluvial lands, in
the numerous and fertile Danish islands of the Baltic; in the
marsches on the coast of Sleswick, or in the Deltas on the
shores of the Adriatic. A due examination into all the facts
by which local changes are accomplished,—whether in the gra-
dual absorption of high lands, on the one hand, or in the pro-
gressive emersion of extensive flats, on the other,—in either
case the result of existing causes, has always ended in con-
firming the general principle of the permanent residence of
the sea at one level, and without diminution, since the deluge.
All the apparent exceptions are referable to local and existing
causes; as in the cases of coral reefs, of muddy depositions, or
volcanic agency, which affect not the surface of the ocean, but
elevate or depress the base upon which its waters repose. The
balance of these fluctuations leaves the water level where it
ever stood: or if any alteration could be perceptible over so
extensive an area, it would be an elevation corresponding to
the disintegration of the land. .

[To be continued.]

LXX. Corrections in Vlacq’s Tables of Logarithms.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Philosophy.
Gentlemen, -

Tue importance of having our tables of logarithms accu-
rately printed, makes us greatly indebted to such men as
Mr. Babbage, when they will undertake the tedious labour of
minutely examining and correcting them. ‘The same reason
induces me to submit to you a few observations on the list of
corrections, which are enumerated in page 300 of your present
volume.

Every one knows the disgraceful carelessness with which
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5. May 1827. 2Z Vlacq’s

354 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-level.

Vlacq’s great work was printed at Gouda in 1628: and upon
examination I find the following results for the numbers in
Mr. Babbage’s list.
Logarithms as printed Logarithms as they ought
by Vlacq. to have been printed.
24626 .... 39139°39751 .... 39139°38751
38962 .... 5906413420 .... 59064-12420

57628 .... 76063-35875 .... 76068°35475
57629 .... 7606410436 .... 76064-10836
63747... . 8044597412 2... 80445°97512
67951 .... 83219°58424 .... 83219-58524

I have placed a mark:over the corrected figures: and it will
be clear that, if we reserve only seven places of decimals,—and.
we wish to have the last’ of them true to the nearest figure,—
Mr. B.’s corrections will be necessary for the last five num-
bers in this list. It should, however, be remarked in justice
to Taylor, that he had detected the mistake in the logarithm of
38962, and has noted, in the errata printed on the last page
of his tables, that the last figures should be 412, not 413. In-
deed the cost of time, labour and attention must have been
immense, to have avoided a greater number of errors. Some
idea of the difficulty may be formed, when it is seen that even
Mr. Babbage, with all his most laudable anxiety for accuracy,
has not been able to avoid mistake. It seems to have escaped
him that Vlacq’s logarithms for 24626 was wrong, and that
the last figures of the seven decimals are, therefore, not 940,
as he suggests that they ought to be, and as they are in Gar-~
diner and Hutton, but 939, as they are given by ‘Taylor.

Allow me to take this opportunity of pointing out to you
that your note at page 271 is incomplete. You should have
added that M. Gay-Lussac, who ascended higher with his bal-
loon than MM. Sacharoff and Robertson, found no such va-
riation as they describe, in the intensity of the earth’s mag-
netism. There is an account of his voyage in the 21st volume
of the Philosophical Magazine, at page 220.

April 12, 1827. N. R. D.

LXXI. Theory of the Spirit-Level. By J. Nixon, Esq.

[Concluded from p. 263.]
{% order to acquire some knowledge of the variation of
figure produced in the bubble of a spirit-level in conse-

quence of the reciprocal attraction of the glass tube and the
contained

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level. 355

contained liquid, the following experiments were made with
a straight glass tube having a bore of 0°5 inch. Both ends
being stoppered, an open-
ing a, of an irregular fi-
gure, about 0°2 in. across
and 0°3 in. deep, was made
in a part of the tube equi-
distant from the ends. The
tube being placed horizon-
tally with the orifice up-
wards, was filled with wa-
ter, which stood within it
apparently the same in vo-
lume and figure as though the tube had been entire and im-
pervious to the air. Drawing out the stoppers, so as gradu-
ally to augment the space between them, the atmospheric air
soon made its ingress, causing that portion of the water im-
mediately under the orifice on which it was incumbent to as-
sume the concave surface, of which a section is given in the
upper figure. But as the interior space continued to augment,
the bubble of air elongated towards the stoppers without ma-
terial addition to its depth; its ends being equidistant from a,
and curved precisely as those of the bubble of a spirit-level.
On pushing the stoppers home, the bubble, repassing through
the same changes of figure, was finally expelled from the tube.

The tube being well dried, the experiment was repeated
with mercury, which not only filled the tube, but stood at a
quite out of it. On increasing the interior space, the mutual
repulsion of glass and mercury gave room to the latter to
shrink in the first instance from the upper corners of the tube,
thus checking the admission of the air until a further addi-
tion of space within the tube caused the mercury to subside
throughout its length with a surface nearly horizontal, but
terminating at the stoppers in a convex curve as before*.

In order to enable us to comprehend, in some degree, why
the water filling the horizontal tube, so soon as the containing
space became enlarged, should not subside equally the whole
length of the tube, and come to rest’ with a horizontal surface
of which the bounding lines (a right-angled parallelogram)
would be in every point in contact with the sides of the tube
or ends of the stoppers, it will be necessary to notice such of
the phanomena of capillary attraction as appear calculated to
ilustrate the subject.

(1). When a vertical cylinder or plate of glass is partly im-

* Had the stoppers been of platinum, what would have been the figure ?
2Z2 mersed

356 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level.

mersed in water, a portion of the water rises immediately
around them with a curved surface about 0:1 in. above its na-

bites 21

tural level. (2). If two vertical cylinders or two plates of
glass be brought nearly in contact, the water will ascend
higher between them than on the opposite or other sides.
(3). On inclining a plate or cylinder of glass, the water un-
der the overhanging side of either will rise to a greater per-
pendicular height than when they are vertical ; but on the op-
posite side the elevation will be so much diminished as to be
nearly insensible. (4). When two plates of glass, inclined to
each other, are immersed in water with the line of their inter-
section vertical, the water will ascend between them, and form
a hyperbola. (5). One end of a vertical tube having a bore
of 0°5 inch being immersed in water, the water immediately
surrounding its exterior appeared to stand as much above its
natural level as within the tube. (6). But when capillary tubes,
that is, those of which the bore did not exceed 0*1 inch, were
made use of, the water within the tubes stood with a concave
surface at a much greater height than on the outside; the
discrepancy augmenting nearly as the bore of the tubes di-
minished. (7). Within a ¢uwbe the ascent of the water, on ac-
count of the quantity of attracting zone being nearly double
that of two vertical plates placed at a distance from each other
equal to the diameter of the tube, is about double its eleva-
tion between the plates. (8). For the same reason the ver-
tical height of the water within the half-inch tube when in-
clined, was greater on that interior side of it overhanging
the water within, than on the corresponding exterior side
(9). On drawing the same tube horizontally out of the water,
it continued to be filled exclusively with that fluid, even when
its interior upper surface was elevated nearly 0-1 inch above
the general level. (10). This was equally the case when
either end of the tube was submerged in, and the other stood
out of the water not more than 0°1 inch. (11). On raising
either end of the tube more than this height out of the water,
the air began to intrude, impressing on the fluid the curved
form exhibited in the figure. (12). The tube being subsequently

held

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level. 357

held with the lower end rather more than 0:1 inch above the
water, the air entered also at that depressed end, and in ef-
fecting a junction with the air previously introduced at the
upper orifice, burst a film or thin plane of water extended
across the tube almost close to the depressed end. (13). This
film (which would abruptly form again, and in the same place
on lowering the tube) was ruptured, on taking the tube hor7-
zontally out of the water, at the middle of the length of the
tube. (14). When completely out of the water, a portion of
that fluid remained at the bottom of the horizontal tube at a
depth of about 0:1 inch. (15). One end of a tube, having
a bore capable of raising water half an inch above its level,
being hermetically closed, a disk of thin paper covering the
other orifice was secured to the tube by means of melted wax.
This end (purposely left rather moist within) being placed
vertically in water at a considerable depth, the wax and paper
were forced completely off; yet the water, from the resistance
of the included air, did not rise more then 0°1 inch within the
tube. (16.) Repeating the experiment with the half-inch tube,
the water stood within it about the preceding height; ‘but in
bringing the tube nearly horizontal, the included air protruded
a little beyond the upper part of the orifice, continuing to
escape gradually in small bubbles. (17.) When the tube,
wholly immersed in the water, appeared to be exactly hori-
zontal, the residue of the air, in figure like the bubble of a
level, reached within 0:1 inch of each end, and did not at-
tempt to escape until the stoppered end was slightly depressed,
when the whole rushed abruptly out. But when the tube, in
a subsequent experiment, contained only a small quantity of
air, so that the (more spherical) bubble was at a considerable
distance from each end, the stoppered end was obliged to be
depressed several degrees, before the bubble could complete
its escape.

On a careful review of the experiments, will not a diminished
specific gravity of the water immediately in contact with the
glass, together with the cohesion of its particles, account for
every observed violation of hydrostatics? In a narrow tube
the particles of water within it may be considered as equally
acted upon by the maximum of the force peculiar to the sur-
face of the glass which tends to diminish their specific gravity ;
whereas the particles within a wide tube are mostly at some
distance from that force, especially where it is greatest, and
are also influenced in a contrary sense by the cohesion of a
greater number of particles beyond the effect of the force in
question. Hence the same external pressure causes the lighter
water within the small tube to rise higher than the heavier

water

358 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level.

water within the wide one: and for the same reason the water
fills the horizontal tube (9), even when held above its general
level. No. 16 proves very clearly that a force of attraction
perpendicular to the axis of the tube does not elevate the fluid,
—or why should the included elastic air wholly prevent its
wonted ascent? If such a force did exist, why should an al-
most insensible depression of the horizontal tube in No. 16,
overcome it so completely as to expel the bubble of air? A
globule of air rises to the surface of a liquid in consequence
of the pressure upwards against its base being greater than
’ the downward pressure on its upper surface : hence the greater
the diameter of the globule, and the greater the force with
which it is urged upwards; which may serve to account for
the tardy and impeded escape of the minute bubble on re-
peating the 16th experiment. Besides, as the small bubble has
to move at an almost insensible distance from the curved sur-
face of the glass, where the levity of the water must be very
great, its specific gravity approaches more to that of the water
in contact with its ends, and will therefore require a consi-
derable depression of the tube to make the vertical column
urging it below adequately heavier than the opposed one in-
cumbent on it. But when the bubble is long and deep, the
pressure upwards is derived from an incomparably longer and
specifically heavier vertical column acting against diminished
obtacles.

According to our theory, the specific gravity of the liquid
within the horizontal tube of a level will be least at the upper
corners of the tube ; but along the upper surface, and still more
so on the sides above the level of its axis, it will approach in
a greater degree to its proper specific gravity. Hence the
surface of sections of the liquid, whether perpendicular to, or
in the direction of the axis, but especially the latter, will have
a concave curve at the extremities ; which will account for the
peculiar figure of the bubble of a spirit-level.

(We may now comprehend how an uncurved tube contain-
ing a sufficient quantity of ether, &c. becomes possessed of a
bubble which does not extend to the ends of the tube. Ina
level of this description, as its bubble, when the cylindrical
tube is horizontal, will be stationary indifferently in any part
of its length, and as the slightest inclination would displace
the bubble (if sufficiently large) indefinitely, causing it to move
at once to the elevated end of the tube, it could not serve to
measure the minutest variation of inclination.)

Let the bubble of a curved tube pass over 0:1 inch for a
variation of inclination of 1"; then if its depth in the middle
be 0°2 inch, its length, when the tube is horizontal, should be

equal

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level. 359

equal to 15 feet. But as the levity of the water near the ex-
tremities of the arc is greater than under the vertex, it must
stand higher there than in the latter place, or an equili-
brium cannot be effected. From this cause the length of the
bubble becomes reduced from 15 feet to little more than as
many tenths of an inch: however, as the reduction will be the
same at each end, provided the tube be a perfect ring, the
middle of the bubble will still coincide with the vertex of the
arc. For reasons already assigned, it is nevertheless requisite
that the bubble should be of a proper length and depth.

When a vertical plane describes any are of revolution about
a horizontal line or axis, a straight line, as the radius or chord
of a circle, previously drawn anywhere on that plane, will have
its inclination to the horizon varied by an angular quantity
equal to that are of revolution. This will be as obvious for
an excentric line as it is for one intersecting the axis, when
we consider that their parallelism or angle of inclination to
each other remains constant. If we therefore describe with
the same radius two circles on the vertical plane, one concen-
tric and the other excentric to its axis, and mark their vertex
points before, and also after any partial revolution of the plane,
the lineal distance of the two points on the one circle will be
exactly equal to that of the corresponding points on the other.
Were we to fix anywhere on (but parallel to) either vertical
side of our circular vessel* the tube of a spirit-level having
an equal radius of curvature, then, as the vessel revolved, its
bubble would pass over the same lineal space as that of the
tube. Should the radius of curvature of the tube exceed that
of the vessel, the are of revolution (or variation of inclination),
as measured by the graduations on the rim of the latter, would
nevertheless correspond with the indications of the scale of
the level. With this explanation we may now comprehend
how a spirit-level, having a radius of curvature of several hun-
dred feet, although fixed (parallel) to a vertical plane (such
as that of an astronomical circle) within a few inches of the
axis of rotation, should have its bubble displaced by the same
(sensibly) lineal space as though that axis coincided with the
centre of its circular curve.

To construct an instrument called a level, capable of deter-
mining the horizontal inclination of straight lines, planes, &c.
the curved tube of a spirit-level furnished with a scale is fixed
with its convex side upwards to the upper surface of a straight
bar of brass, wood, &c. in such a manner that the plane of
the circle of curvature of the tube shall be perpendicular to

_ * See above, page 257.
the

360 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level.

the under surface (a right-angled parallelogram) and parallel
to the (longitudinal) szdes of the bar or frame*.

If we mark the vertex (or most elevated point) of the arc of
any segment of a circle previous to its revolution about an in-
scribed vertical line touching the arc in any point, then will
the true vertex and the initial mark coincide during the revo-
lution; and the chord of the (vertical) segment (or a plane
cutting it at right angles), if perpendicular to the vertical line,
will continue horizontal throughout, and describe a perfectly
horizontal plane. Now as the middle point of the bubble of
a spirit-level will always come to rest at the vertex of the cir-
cular arch of its tube, represented by the are of the segment;
and as the intersection (at right angles) of the under surface
of the level by the vertical plane of the circle of curvature is
equivalent to the chord of the segment, (and that under sur-
face to the plane cutting it at right angles,) we may be certain
that the surface on which the level may be moved about in
exact contact, without displacing the bubble, is a plane paral-
lel to the horizon. Or, as the ends of the bubble do not de-
viate from their marks on the tube, or divisions on the scale,
the under surface of the level preserves during the revolution
its parallelism to the surface of the liquid (or base of the
bubble), which is always horizontal, and must therefore move
parallel to a horizontal plane.

When the level rests on a horizontal plane, with the ends of
the bubble coinciding with the two marks drawn on the tube,
or with each end at the same distance from the zero of the
scale, it is said to be adjusted; in which case the middle of
the bubble is at the point of bisection of that arc of the circle

* Tf the circle C move with its centre on the circumference of the
larger circle B, its plane being always per-
pendicular to that of the latter, and in
the direction of the line joining their
centres, then will its circumference gene- T°
rate a ring similar to the curved tube. ZG
The circle described by that point v, of
the circumference of the smaller circle C,
which lies in the direction of the plane
of the great circle B (and of the straight
line connecting their centres) will there-
fore represent the circle of curvature of
the tube.

Having placed the tube with its axis
parallel to the sides of the frame, bring
the mark indicating the situation of some point of the circle of curvature
to its greatest elevation above the under surface of the frame, when it will
lie in the plane passing through the axis of the tube perpendicular to that
under surface.

of

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level. 361

of curvature, of which the line of intersection of its plane by
the (horizontal) under surface of the level is the chord.

As the sides of the level are perpendicular to its under sur-
face, if we fix a short tube to the frame at right angles to the
principal one, and mark the ends of its bubble when the level
rests on a plane found to be horizontal, we shall know in fu-
ture that the sides of the frame, and consequently the parallel
plane of the circle of curvature, will be vertical when the bub-
ble of the transverse tube comes to rest between its marks.

It is also evident, that if we place the level with either of
its (perpendicular) sides in contact with a vertical plane so
that its under edge (or corresponding longitudinal line of
the under surface) lies exactly on, parallel to, or in the direc-
tion of a straight line described on that plane, and find on
reversing the level (that is, on making the opposite side of the
level to press against the vertical plane with its under edge
coinciding with the straight line) that the ends of the bubble
come to rest at the same marks, it proves that the line is hori-
zontal.

If a segment of a circle be made to revolve about an inscribed
line inclined to the horizon, and touching its arc in any point, its
chord, if perpendicular to that line, will describe an inclined
plane. A horizontal line being drawn on this plane through
the point in which the line of revolution, if prodaced, would
touch it, another straight line lying in the same plane and
passing through that point at the greatest possible angular in-
clination to the horizon, also that of the plane, will imtersect
that horizontal line at right angles*. Then, if we mark the
vertex of the arc when the segment is vertical, that is when in
the direction of the inclined line drawn on the generated plane,
the mark will attain its maximum distance from the true ver-
tex, varying as the segment revolves, at the completion of a
semi-revolution; at which period the reversed segment be-
comes vertical again, and coincides with the inclined line for
the second time; and /alf this maximum distance, as mea-
sured on the graduated arc of the segment, will be equal to
the zenith distance of the line of revolution, and to the hori-
zontal inclination of the plane and generating chord. At one-
fourth, and again at three-fourths of the revolution, the plane
of the segment will be at its greatest inclination to the horizon,

* The intersection of an inclined plane through any point on it by a
horizontal plane, is a straight line parallel to the horizon; and the inter-
section of the same plane bya vertical one passing through any point of it

erpendicular to its horizontal (parallel) lines, will be a straight lime having
in common with lines parallel to it, an inclination to the horizon greater
than that of any other line that can be drawn on the same plane.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5. May 1827. 3A equal

362 Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level.

equal to that of the inclined plane, when the chord, then in
the direction of the horizontal line described on the inclined
plane, will be horizontal, and the vertex be situated at the point
of bisection of the total arc, and of that portion of it compre-
hended between the initial mark and the vertex at its greatest
elongation from it. Or conceive an adjusted level to be placed
so as to coincide in the first instance with any horizontal line
drawn on the inclined plane, and subsequently with one at
right angles to it, or in the direction of the line on which the
inclination of the plane is measured; and it will be evident
that the bubble must have advanced from zero towards the
elevated end of the level, by a distance on the scale equal to
the inclination of the plane. But on reversing the level, the
same end, (repassing the horizontal line with the bubble re-
verted to zero,) will be depressed equal to its previous eleva-
tion, and the bubble must consequently come to rest at the
same distance from zero as before, but on that side of it the
nearest to the other (now elevated) end of the level; so that
the arc of distance passed over by the bubble will equal ¢w7ce
the inclination of the plane.

To find the angular inclination of a plane, move the level
about on its surface until the bubble has made its maximum
approach to the (elevated) end of the tube. Having registered
the divisions on the scale giving the middle point of the bub-
ble, proceed with the rotatory movement of the level until its
direction is reversed, which will occur when the bubble has
made its greatest approach to the other end of the tube, and
ascertain the middle point of the bubble as before. Half the
sum of these two middle points when the signs are unlike, or
half their difference when the signs are like, will be equal to
the angle of inclination of the plane*. When the level is placed
on the inclined plane in such a direction that the bubble set-
tles at that point of the scale answering to the half-difference
of these two middle points, the longitudinal lines of the under
surface of the level are horizontal, and its corresponding sides
inclined at an angle equal to that of the plane+.

* When the level is furnished with a transverse tube properly adjusted,
we are enabled to place it at once on the inclined plane, in the direction ofits
greatest inclination, which will be, when the sides of the level are vertical,
known by the bubble of the transverse tube coming to rest between its marks.

+ On this account the bubble would deviate (at right angles) from the
equally inclined circle of curvature, and horizontal lines cannot be safely
drawn by a similar level on the inclined plane with which its under surface
is in contact. To draw them correctly, the sides of the level must be pre-
served vertical by means of the transverse tube, whilst one of the longitu-
dinal lines of the under surface rests on the inclined plane with the bubble
of the principal tube at the proper divisions.

The

Mr. Nixon’s Theory of the Spirit-Level. 368

The measurement of the angular inclination of a line lying
in a vertical plane does not differ essentially from that of a
line of maximum inclination described on an inclined plane,
but is susceptible of more evident demonstration. Let AB
and CD be two straight lines lying in the same vertical plane

and equally inclined to the horizontal line HH. Place the
under edge of either (vertical) side of a level on AB, and,
having marked the ends of the bubble, reverse the level, and
make the (opposite) under edge coincide with DC; when tke
bubble, as the same end of the level is equally elevated as be-
fore, will come to rest at the initial marks. Depress this ele-
vated end until the under edge coincides with AB, when the
bubble must have passed over a distance on the scale equal
to the angle CDB, evidently the sum of the two equal angles
CDH and HDB, either of which is equal to the inclination
of the line AB (or that of CD). In depressing the reversed
level from its position on DC to that on AB, its under edge
must have coincided with, or been parallel to the horizontal
line HH when the bubble had run over half the distance an-
swering to the double inclination of AB, equal angle CDB.
Hence the under surface of the level will be horizontal when
(its sides being vertical) the middle of the bubble settles at a
point on the tube, or division on the scale corresponding to
the point of bisection of the space run over by the bubble, on
reversing the level on any inclined line. When this point falls
exactly between the two marks drawn on the tube, or on the
zero of the scale, the level is properly adjusted. When this
is not the case, turn the adjusting screws until the bubble set-
tles on the elevated side of zero at a distance from it equal to
the inclination of the line on which the level rests. Should the
error of adjustment be trivial, it is more advisable to ascertain
and register its value every time the level is made use of, than
to attempt to correct it by the screws; for variations of tempe-
rature not only cause the vertex of the tube to alter its position

3A2 relatively

364 Mr. Swainson’s Synopszs of the Birds of Mexico.

relatively to the under surface of the level *, but have also the
effect of disturbing for some time the adjusting screws, and pro-
bably other parts of the mounting. On measuring by an ad-
justed level a number of planes or lines differing in inclina-
tion, the half-difference of the space passed over by the bubble
should always be zero, or the instrument cannot be considered
as perfect.

Leeds, March 5, 1827.

Erratum.—Page 260; for 200,000, read 206265 ; (the number by which

the length of a division on the scale of a level answering to 1" must be
multiplied to obtain the length of the radius of its curvature).

LXXII. A Synopsts of the Birds discovered in Mexico by
W. Bullock, #.Z.S. and H.S., and Mr. William Bullock,
jun. By Wit11am Swainson, Esg. F.RS. FLAS. &c.+

HE intercourse which recent political events have opened
between Mexico and Great Britain, promises to be no
less interesting to zoological science, than important to the
commercial prosperity of both nations. Mr. Bullock was
among the first of our countrymen, whose ardent curiosity led
him to visit those distant shores; and the scientific treasures
with which he returned, bear ample testimony to that zeal and
indefatigable industry which has ever marked his pursuits.
The exhibition of these objects, together with the valuable
models and relics of Mexican antiquity, which this enterpri-
sing traveller procured during the short space of his sojourn,
attracted the public attention for two years. ‘That such a col-
lection, invaluable to the historian as throwing a new light
upon the ancient state of one of the most extraordinary nations
of antiquity, should have been suffered, in these days, to have
been dispersed by the hammer of the auctioneer, will excite
the deep regret of every friend to knowledge. ‘They may now,
indeed, serve as objects of mere curiosity, but those advan-
tages which the historian and the antiquary might have de-
rived from their study and investigation, as a whole, are for
ever lost.

The zoological subjects, possessed by no museum in Europe,
shared the same fate, but not before Mr. Bullock had placed

* When the temperature increases, the vertex removes to a point of the
tube nearer the thicker end. In some levels now in my possession the va-
riation is 1!’ for every 2 degrees of Fahrenlieit’s thermometer.

+ Communicated by the Author.

the

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. 365

the whole in my hands, for the publicly avowed purpose of
recording this portion of his discoveries. In the mean time
his son, Mr. William Bullock, remained in Mexico; and, al-
though occupied in more pressing avocations, continued to
devote his leisure to the acquisition of its productions. His
attention has hitherto been principally directed to the depart-
ment of ornithology, in which he possesses considerable in-
formation. Every new remittance of specimens that he has
since forwarded to this country, has tended to show how little
is known of Mexican zoology. This, however, has been at-
tended with some disadvantage to the task I had undertaken,
inasmuch as it has delayed the publication of those descrip-
tions which were made in the first instance.

That no further delay may take place, in securing the ho-
nour of these discoveries to Mr. Bullock and his son, I have
drawn up, in this paper, a short synopsis of those birds which
have reached me up to this time; indulging the hope of giving
a more detailed account hereafter of the zoology of Mexico,
accompanied by coloured figures.

It may readily be supposed, by those naturalists who have
attended to the geographic distribution of animals, that in a
country so new to science, many interesting objects would oc-
cur. ‘The peculiar situation of Mexico, placed between the
two great divisions of the American continent, and concen-
trating within itself every variety of climate, renders its
zoology uncommonly interesting. The materials I have yet
received are too scanty to allow of any very particular con-
clusions being drawn from them, so far as regards general
views. I shall, therefore, merely observe in this place, that
many of the ornithological groups of North America, occur
also on the table land of Mexico, but that those of South
America generally predominate. In addition to these are
some few forms peculiar to the country itself, and one (Cinclus)
which occurs in Europe, but in no other part of America.

The generic definitions will, I hope, shortly appear in an-
other Journal, to which they have been sent, with the inten-
tion of preceding the publication of this paper, ever since last
November. By this unfortunate delay, I am reduced to the
unpleasant necessity of referring to a book not yet published,
for what the reader should have the immediate power of con-
sulting.

That this synopsis may be more generally useful to my
English ornithological friends in Mexico, many of whom are
miners, 1 have written the whole in our native language. It
only remains for me to assure them, how much they have it
in their power to benefit science, and.to illustrate the natural

history

366 Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico.

history of that interesting country they have chosen as a re-
sidence, by devoting a portion of their leisure to this subject;
and by giving me that assistance in investigating the produc-
tions of Mexico, which I can only hope to receive through
their kindness.

February 1827. ———

ORDER. INSESSORES. Vig.
Famity. Fatconrpa.

1. Harpya imperialis. Cuv. Pl. Col. 14.

A living specimen of this noble bird was in the possession of
Count Regla, from which a spirited drawing was made by
Mr.W. Bullock junior. It differs in some respects from the
figure above quoted, which exhibits some indication of being
taken from a young bird.

2. Aquila. A doubttul species, in immature plumage.
3. Polyborus Braziliensis.: Ray. Vieil. Gal. des Ois. Pl. 7.

This appears to be a common bird in Mexico.

4. Circus rutilans. ‘Tem. Pl. Col. 25.
A young bird, but identified with the Falco rutilans of M. Tem-
minck by himself.

Fam. Hirunpinip&.

5. Hirundo melanogaster.

Crown, back, scapulars, and spot on the throat glossy blue-
black: front, throat, and sides of the head rufous: rump
ferruginous ; tail nearly even.

Total length 5}: wings 47; tail 2%.

Inhabits the Table land of Mexico. It has been since sent from
Real del Monte.

Breast dusky ; body, vent and under tail covers white ; collar
round the neck gray; wings and tail brown; the first quill
rather longer than the second.

6. Hirundo thalassinus.
Above changeable green with liliac reflections ; beneath snowy
white; wings and tail violet brown ; tail slightly forked.
Table land; Real del Monte, by Mr. Morgan.
Ears, sides of the head, and all the under parts pure white ;
wings long, the first quill longest.
Total length, 43; wings, 4,%; tail, 2,3,, depth of the fork 4,

Fam. Hatcyonip2.

7, Alcedo Americana. Lath. Pl. Entl. 591.
Common on the Table land.

Fam. Muscicapipe.

8, Platyrhynchus pusillus.
Olive

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. 367

Qlive brown, beneath yellowish-white ; wings with two pale
bands; tail moderate, even ; bill small; head crested.

Maritime parts of Mexico.

There are four or five small American Flycatchers, perfectly
resembling this in the colour of their plumage, but all dif-
fering very materially in the size and form of their bills.
This, in the present bird, is rather broad, flat, and not
abruptly hooked: when viewed in a vertical direction the
margins appear rather dilated, or curved outwards; a cha-
racter so conspicuous in the typical Platyrhynchi, that we
may take it as a suflicient reason for bringing this bird within
the confines of the same group.

The yellowish band at the base of the lesser quills is obsolete;
the margins of the greater are not pale, neither is the outer
feather of the tail margined with yellow.

Total length, 54: bill, 4%; wings, 23; tail, 23.

G. Tyrannuca. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

9. Tyrannula affinis.

10.

DY:

12.

13.

14,

15.

Olive, beneath pale fulvous ; wing covers and guills with pale
margims ; base of the lesser quills with a blackish band ; bill
small; under mandible yellow ; tail divaricated.

Maritime parts of Mexico.

Tyrannula obscura.

Muscicapa querule? Vieil. Ois. de l’Am. pl. 39.

Above olive gray, beneath yellowish-white; wings short,
brown, with two whitish bands; tail brown, even, the oater
feather with a pale yellow margin.

Mexico. Rather larger than the last.

Total length, 54: bill, nearly +5; wings, 25; tail, 24; tarsi, 1%.

Tyrannula barbirostris.
Brown, beneath pale yellow ; crown blackish ; chin and throat
white; bill large, strongly bearded ; tail even.
Mexico.
Total length, 65; bill, -%,; wings, 3; tail, 3; tarsi, +%-

Tyrannula nigricans.
Blackish brown, head and throat darker; vent, under tail co-
vers, and margin of the exterior tail feather, white.
Table land of Mexico: not uncommon.
Total length, 7 : bill, +; wings, 34; tail, 33; tarsi, 7%,

Tyrannula coronata.
Muscicapa coronata. Gm. The most beautiful, and seemingly
one of the most common species found in Mexico.

Tyrannula cayenensis.
Muscicapa Cayenensis. Gm. Maritime parts of Mexico.
Tyrannula pallida.
Pale

SA

$68 Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mezico.

Pale gray, beneath ferruginous; throat hoary; tail black.

Table land of Mexico. :

Total length, 7: bill, ¥,; wings, 4; tail, 31; tarsi, ,.

16. Tyrannula musica.

Cinereous-brown, beneath dirty yellow; tail forked; wings
lengthened, brown; bill strongly hooked.

Total length, 75: wings, 43; tail, 3}.

This bird may be placed either with the Tyrannina, or at the
utmost limits of this group,

G. SeropHaca. Sw. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.
17. Setophaga ruticilla.

Muscicapa ruticilla, Lin. mas. M. flavicaude. Gm. fem.
Maritime parts.

18. Setophaga miniata.
Cinereous, breast and body beneath vermilion; tail black,
the lateral tail feathers partly white.
Table land: woods of Valadolid; rare, size of the last.

19. Setophaga rubra.
Entirely red, ear feathers of a silky whiteness.
Inhabits the same woods, and is of the same size as the last.

Fam. Laniap&.
20. Lanius Carolinensis. Wilson iii. pl. 22. f. 3.
Table land: very common.
21. Tyrannus intrepidus. Vieil. Wilson ii. pl. 13. f. 1.
22. Tyrannus griseus. Vieil. Ois. de ? Am. pl. 46.
23. Tyrannus sulphuratus. Vieil. Swainson.
Maritime parts: with the two last.
24. Tyrannus crassirostris. Sw.
Maritime and table lands.
25. Tyrannus vociferans. Sw.

G. Pririoconys. Swains. in Zoo!. Journ. No. 10.

26. Ptiliogonys cinereus.
Cinereous ; chin and middle of the lateral tail feathers white ;
under tail covers yellow; wings and tail shining black,
Table land of Mexico. Real del Monte.

Fam. Merutipz.
27. Cinclus Mexicanus.
Cinereous gray, head and chin brown.
Size of the European species.

28. Merula migratoria. Turdus migratorius auct. Wilson i.
pl. 2.
29. Merula

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. %69

Merula flavirostris.

Gray; back and wings tinged with ferruginous; beneath
white ; breast and flanks ferruginous; chin spotted; bill
yellow. '

Total length, 94: bill, 1; wings, 5; tail, 42; tarsi, 1-2,.

Merula tristis.

Olive brown, beneath whitish ; chin with black spots ; under
wing covers pale ferruginous; bill and legs brown.

Total length, 9: bill, 1; wings, 5; tail, 4; tarsi, 1,2,.

Merula silens.
Hermit thrush. Wilson v. pl. 43. f. 2.
Olivaceous gray, beneath white; chin, throat and breast with
black spots; tail tinged with ferruginous.
This and the four preceding birds, are from Temascaltipec,
on the Table land.
Total length, 7: bill, $; wings, 33; tail, 3; tarsi, 1.

G. OrpHevs. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

Orpheus polyglottos. Turdus polyglottos. Wilson ii. pl.
10. f. 1.
Table land. Real del Monte.
Orpheus curvirostris.
Gray, beneath whitish; throat and breast spotted; vent pale
fulvous ; bill long, curved. ¢
Table land.
Total length, 104: bill, 14; wings, 43; tail, 5; tarsi, 14.
Orpheus caerulescens.
Bluish, crown and throat paler, ears and sides of the head
black.
Table land. The notes of this species are very sweet.
Total length, 10: bill, 13,; wings, 43; tail, 53; tarsi, 5.

G. Serurus. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

Seiurus aurocapillus. Golden-crowned Thrush. Wilson ii.
pl. 14. f. 2. 7
Table land ?

Seiurus tenuirostris.
Above olive brown, beneath pale yellow with triangular
blackish spots ; stripe above the eye pale.
Table land? Size of the last.

G. Srauia. Sw. in Zool. Journal. No. 10.

Sialia azurea? Sylvia Sialis? Wilson i. pl. 3. f. 3.
Common on the Table land at Real del Monte and other places.
I have some doubts whether this is not a distinct species:
my specimen is of a young bird.
(To be continued.)

New Series. Vol.1. No. 5. May1827. 3B LUXXIII. Out-

pr 870%]

LXXIII. Outlines of a Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature
and Properties of the Blood; being the Substance of three
Lectures on that Subject delivered at the Gresham Institution
during Michaelmas Term 1826. By Joun Spurcin, M.D.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of London, and of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

(Continued from p. 207.]

HEN blood is drawn from the body, as from a vein of

the arm, it presents the obvious characters of fluidity

and redness, and to the touch is warm and slightly viscid ;

after remaining at rest, however, for about seven minutes, it

begins to separate into two distinct portions; the one yellow-

ish and fluid, and occupying the surface of the mass; the

other red and solid, and tending to the bottom of the vessel

that contains it. This change is denominated the coagulation

of the blood ; the watery part is termed the serum, and the red
and denser part the crassamentum, coagulum, or clot.

In order to our obtaining a more particular or intimate
knowledge of these now separate parts of the blood, we must
avail ourselves of the experiments and observations which have
been recorded by various authors upon whom we can place the
greatest reliance. We learn then from these, that the serum
is an apparently homogeneous fluid of a yellowish colour, unc-
tuous to the touch, and saline to the taste; that its specific
gravity is very variable, but on the average is about 1029, water
being 1000; whilst that of blood fresh drawn, and therefore
in its more natural state, is about 1050. When exposed to
a heat of 160° of Fahrenheit, it is converted into a somewhat
firm white mass which is designated coagulated albumen, and
which on being cut into slices and subjected to gentle pres-
sure, gives out a small quantity of a slightly opaque liquor, of
a saline taste and peculiar odour, which is called the serosity,
consisting of water, pure soda holding albumen in solution, of
muriate of soda, or common salt, muriate of potash, slight traces
of phosphoric acid, besides lactate of soda, and animal matter.
When serum is evaporated at a heat below that required for
its coagulation, it yields a yellowish semitransparent mass re-
sembling amber, that splits into pieces in drying, and amounts
to about 95 grains from 1000 of serum. But not only is the
serum permanently coagulated by heat, but also by the mine-
ral acids; and the insoluble compounds thence produced ex-
actly resemble those of the same acids with the fibrin of the
crassamentum, on which we shall have to speak presently :
and as alcohol produced similar effects with both these mat-

ters,

Dr. Spurgin on the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 371

ters, the celebrated chemist Berzelius was led to contend that
there was very little difference between these two products,
albumen and fibrin.

The only character that appears to distinguish one from
the other, is, that whilst albumen requires a high temperature
for its coagulation, the fibrin will coagulate spontaneously at
a low one. Berzelius states the composition of the serum to
be 905 parts water; 80 albumen ; substances soluble in alco-
hol, such as the muriates of potass and soda, 6 parts ; lactate of
soda and animal matter, 4 parts ; and substances soluble in
water only,—such as soda, phosphate of soda, and a little ani-
mal matter,—5 parts. In this statement of the composition of
the serum, nothing is said of the existence of sulphur in any
of its forms or modifications: but other chemists have given
such proofs of its existence in the serum of the blood, as to
render it beyond all doubt. Alcohol, metallic salts and tan,
will also cause its coagulation ; and the same change, accord-
ing to the discovery of Mr. Brande, may be effected by the
negative wire of the voltaic electric circle.

Dr. Bostock is of opinion that some of these agents in the
coagulation of the serum, as alcohol, and perhaps the stronger
mineral acids, produce their effect by abstracting a portion of
the water which held the albumen in solution: while tan and
the metallic salts unite with the albumen and form a com-
pound which is insoluble in water, and consequently separates
from the fluid; thus producing an effect, which should rather
be styled precipitation than coagulation *. When serum is Co-
agulated, it exactly resembles the white of the egg hardened
by boiling; and it is found to be essentially the same with this
substance, whence it has obtained the name of albumen. The
efficient cause of this coagulation is a question that has been
frequently discussed +, and the only way it can be accounted
for, is, by supposing some change to take place in the figure or
nature of its particles, by which their relation to each other is
altered; but what the nature of this new relation is, or the
means by which it is effected, has not been explained. Con-
centrated sulphuric acid coagulates albumen ; but if assisted
by a moderate heat dissolves it again and forms a solution
of a very fine red colour. Several hypotheses have been
framed to account for this remarkable change ; but the abstract
conclusion just now stated, cannot be disputed. Before coa-
gulation, serum is readily miscible with, or soluble in water ;
but after coagulation it is completely insoluble. A most re-
markable effect takes place after digesting coagulated albumen
for some time in diluted nitric acid; for it is hereby converted

* Bostock’s Elements of Physiology, vol. i. pp. 408, 409. + Ibid. p. 470.
3B2

372 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical

into a substance which possesses the physical and chemical
properties of jelly*.

With regard to the red and denser part that forms or se-
parates spontaneously from the more fluid part or serum, which
incontradistinction tothe serum is called the cruor or clot, it ap-
pears to the eye, generally, under the form ofa soft solid, of such
consistence as to bear cutting with a knife, and to be of a fibrous
and reticulated structure. The colour of this fibrous mass
may be washed away or separated by repeated ablutions in
water, and the mass will then be found to be made up of a white
shred-like matter, apparently deriving its colour from a sub~
stance distinct from itself, or from a colouring ingredient
which is only mechanically mixed with it, and not retained
by any chemical affinity. When this shred-like matter is
thus procured in a pure state, it is found to be a solid of
considerable consistence, elastic and tenacious, and in its ge-
neral aspect as well as in its chemical relations very similar
to the pure muscular fibre. It has been designated by several
names ; as the coagulable lymph, gluten, fibre of the blood, and
fibrin. Upon this substance the spontaneous coagulation of
the blood depends. Many are the experiments which have
been made with the view of ascertaining the circumstances
which peculiarly affect or produce this spontaneous change of
the blood, or which influence it in any way either to retard or
to promote it: but it is not requisite to adduce in this place
all the modes resorted to for the purpose, nor all the results
that have been obtained ; but suffice it to say, that rest chiefly
conduces to its coagulation, whilst free agitation and the ad-
dition of certain neutral salts will either retard it or prevent it
altogether. The experiments of Mr. Hewson on the coagu-
lation of the blood are very interesting, inasmuch as they show
that this tendency is modified by various circumstances, even
in the living body; and he was enabled to conclude from them,
that any thing which tended to impair the strength of the
body,—as large bleedings, faintings, &c.—seemed to increase
the tendency to coagulation +; as also certain passions of the
mind,—the depressing passion fear more especially. Whilst, on
the contrary, any thing which increased the action of the ves-
sels, or in other words excited the body, lessened this tendency
very considerably: indeed, his experiments led him to think
that the properties of the blood depend on the action or state
of the blood-vessels, or “ that they have a plastic power over it,
so as to be able to change its properties in a very short time f.”

In inflammations, when the blood-vessels are acting more

* Bostock’s Elements of Physiology, vol. i. p. 473.
+ Hewson’s. Experimental Inquiries, p. 126. t Ibid. p. 127.

strongly,

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 373

strongly, Mr. H. says, the disposition of the fibrin to coagulate
is proportionably diminished. On the contrary, when an animal
is bled to death, or when the vessels are acting with the lowest
degree of strength, the blood was more and more disposed to
coagulate in proportion as the animal was reduced. ‘Temporary
exertion of strength, moreover, even the struggles of the dying
animal, he thought might lessen this tendency for a short time;
for the struggles of dying sheep, he says, seemed to alter the
lymph or fibrin: and he adds, that although it must be ad-
mitted it is very difficult to conceive how the blood-vessels
should do this, yet he hopes that ingenious men will not merely
on that account reject his conclusion ; but would consider, that
as it is deduced from a number of experiments, as it agrees with
all the appearances, and as it leads to an explanation of many
of them which we cannot otherwise account for,—it may be
well founded, although it be difficult to be conceived. For
there may he powers in the animal ceconomy that are not yet
dreamt of in our philosophy.

Mr. Hewson spent much labour and time on these points ;
and we find that he confirms the testimony of some of the
writers of the last century, in stating that the sulphate and
muriate of soda and the nitrate of potash were among the most
powerful salts in counteracting this change; so much so in-
deed, as Dr. Bostock has qucted, that if we add to a portion
of blood rather less than 1-20th of its weight of any one of
them, the coagulation does not take place: on which re-
markable effect Dr. B. remarks, that this cannot be owing
to any tendency in the salt employed to dissolve the fibrin,
because the neutral salts do not possess this property; at the
same time that potash, which is the proper solvent of fibrin,
has less power in retarding its coagulation.

The mere dilution of the blood with a sufficient quantity of
water will effectually prevent its spontaneous coagulation, which
is attributed to its particles being thereby removed to so great
a distance from each other as to be placed beyond the reach
of their mutual attraction. The coagulability of the fibrin is
also affected and indeed destroyed by electricity and light-
ning; for in persons who have been killed by lightning, the
blood is not coagulated at all, but remains perfectly fluid: nor
is this the only remarkable effect; their muscles also remain
as flexible as ever, and the rigidity and stiffness which is the
common consequence of death does not take place*. But
what may be regarded as more extraordinary still, this coa-
gulation of the blood is likewise prevented by a blow on the
pit of the stomach when causing sudden death, instances of

* Henry’s Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 320.

which

374 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines oj a Philosophical

which occasionally happen. The same occurs when death is
occasioned by the poison of the viper ; or by injury to the brain ;
or by some vegetable poisons, as laurel-water ; or by violent
passions of the mind, or by over-exertion of the body. In some
diseases, on the contrary, its tendency to coagulation is greatly
increased. The striking difference that is observable between
blood drawn from a person in full health and from one who is
labouring under inflammation, has excited the interest and in-
quiries of many medical men and chemists; which difference
consists in the surface of the coagulum being of a yellowish,
buffy, or leather-like appearance, instead of a dark or florid
red. Numerous hypotheses have been broached to account for
this appearance. The immediate cause of this appearance
in the crassamentum, says Dr. Bostock, is obvious: the glo-
bules, or other matter which give it the red colour, begin to
subside before the coagulation is completed, so that the upper
part of the clot is left without them; the remote cause not be-
ing yet ascertained.

Dr. Dowler made some experiments on the composition of
the buffy coat: and from these it appears that it contains a
very large proportion of serum, which by diminishing the vis-
cidity of the crassamentum, must more readily allow of the
subsidence of the red or colouring particles. The appearance
of a buffy coat on the surface of the blood is usually regarded
as indicative of the inflammation of some organ; but as it
occurs in other states of the body, other discriminating signs
are sought after by the physician, to be convinced of its ex-
istence. ‘The blood taken trom a pregnant female most com-
monly exhibits this buffy coat; or collecting the blood in dif-
ferent vessels during the same bleeding will be followed by
the extraordinary circumstance,—that the first portion will
exhibit no such appearance; the second will exhibit it in a
considerable degree; the third more or less so, and so on;
which changes Mr. Hewson is inclined to attribute to certain
alterations in the state and action of the blood-vessels ; whilst
more recent observations discover that the same results are
brought about by the more or less free escape of the blood
from the body, by the size of the orifice made in the vein, or
by the form of the vessel the blood is received into. In short,
these results all prove that the coagulation of the fibrin is liable
to alteration from various causes, or from the operation of vari-
ous influences. The difference in specific gravity between the
fibrin and serum varies according to numberless circumstances ;
for though in general the former subsides to the bottom of the
vessel containing them, yet it must be confessed it is sometimes
seen to be floating in the serum, and nearly on a level with its

surface ;

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 375

surface ; consequently, its specific gravity differs very much in
different cases. The chemical properties of fibrin appear
exactly to resemble those of the muscular fibre; being acted
upon in the same manner by nitric acid and the other re-agents,
so as fully to be entitled to the appellation of liquid flesh,-as-be-
stowed upon it by the older physiologists; and the great re-
semblance between the muscular fibre and the sanguineous,
has led many to imagine that they are in fact identical. Al-
cohol of sp. gr. ‘810 converts the muscular fibre into a kind
of adipocirous matter—into a substance partaking of the pro-
perties both of fat and of wax; whilst this is more com-
pletely and perfectly effected by ether, yielding it in greater
abundance, and distinguished by a much more disagreeable
odour. It is converted by means of heated acetic acid into
a tremulous jelly, becoming immediately soft and transparent,
which jelly is dissolved by warm water, with the evolution of
a small quantity of azotic gas. Strong muriatic acid boiled on
fibrin, decomposes it, and produces a red or a violet-coloured
solution; digesting it with weak muriatic acid, it becomes
hard and shrivelled: this by repeated washing in water
changes at length into a gelatinous mass that is perfectly so-
luble in tepid water. This solution reddens litmus paper, and
yields a precipitate with acids as well as with alkalies. Strong
sulphuric acid decomposes and carbonizes fibrin; diluted with
six times its weight of water and digested with fibrin, it ac-
quires a red colour, but dissolves scarcely any thing. The
undissolved portion is a compound of fibrin with an excess of
sulphuric acid; and when this excess is removed by water, a
neutral combination is obtained, which is soluble in water, and
has the same characters as the neutral compound of fibrin and
muriatic acid.

Strong nitric acid at first disengages nitrogen or azotic gas
from fibrin, pure and unmixed with nitrous gas. By continu-
ing the digestion twenty-four hours, the fibrin is converted
into a pulverulent mass, of a pale citron colour, which when
placed on a filter and washed with a large quantity of water,
becomes of a deep orange colour.

This yellow substance was discovered by Fourcroy and
Vauquelin, who gave it the name of yellowacid. Berzelius has
ascertained that it is a combination of the nitric and malic acids
with fibrin, which is in some degree altered by the process.
Fibrin precipitated from its solution in caustic alkali has
undergone some change by the solution; for it is now insoluble
in acetic acid. The sitive that are wrought on the blood
by means of various other chemical substances, it would be
both prolix and useless to mention: what we have adduced

1S

376 Mr. R. Phillips on the Chlorides of Lime and Soda.

is sufficient to prove that the blood is a fluid suz generis,
though a compound of many chemical elements.—We must
now speak of the red globules, or of the colouring matter of
the blood.

For some time these have been regarded as a distinct compo-
nent part of the crassamentum, as well as the cause of the red
colour of the blood: for when the structure of the crassamen-
tum is viewed by the microscope, it not only appears fibrous or
thread-like, but also reticulated, the interstices of the network
being occupied by a greater or less number of red globules,
and by a quantity of the serum or watery part; the effect of
the coagulation being to entangle a part of the red globules
and serum: whence, if the coagulum be sliced and cut into
small pieces, a quantity of serum makes its escape, in addition
to what was separated from the mass of blood at the time of
its coagulation. Now, as the red globules are the heaviest part
of the blood, they subside to the lower part of the clot or co-
agulum at the time of its formation ; and consequently it might
be inferred that if the blood coagulates very slowly, these
globules will have an opportunity of subsiding completely
from the upper portion of the clot, and the clot will thence be
devoid of its red colour; and as the blood which is drawn
from a person labouring under severe inflammation, is covered
with a yellowish or buffy crust, it is imagined that this is an
effect of the slower coagulation of the fibrin allowing the red
particles to subside more completely. But a material objeetion
to this theory is, that in most instances the coagulation is
actually accelerated in inflammations : indeed we have repeat-
edly seen the blood coagulating before the bleeding has been
stopped, and assuming the buffy surface; whilst at other times,
again, the coagulation has been very slow, but no buffy appear-
ance was exhibited. These effects, then, ratherseem to depend

upon some altered condition of the blood itself.
! (‘To be continued.]

LXXIV. On the Chlorides of Lime and Soda. By R. PH1.uips,
ERS. L. & E. $c.

HESE chlorides have lately excited considerable notice,
owing to the recommendation of M. Labarraque ; and not
only in France, but in this country also : should they be found
to possess a moderate share only of the powers which have been
attributed to them, they are exceedingly important compounds,
and their exact nature as well as their mode of action is intitled
to a more careful examination than, as appears to me, they
have hitherto received.

The

Mr. R. Phillips on the Chlorides of Lime and Soda. 377

The chloride of lime has long been known under the name
of oxymuriate of lime, or bleaching powder: it is prepared, as
is well known, by passing chlorine gas over hydrate of lime;
the resulting compound, put into water, yields the chloride of
lime in question; it is also sometimes formed by passing the
gas into water containing lime in suspension: this chloride is
now proposed to be employed, and it appears with great suc-
cess, as a disinfecting substance.

The existence of such a compound as chloride of soda, or
potash, has hitherto not been so clearly ascertained as that of
the chloride of lime. Two modes of preparing this compound
have been proposed,—one by M. Labarraque, and the other
by M. Payen; the former passes chlorine gas into a solution
of carbonate of soda, while the latter proposes to decompose
chloride of lime by carbonate of soda.

I have tried both methods, and both are very easy of execu-
tion. When chlorine gas is passed into the solution of car-
bonate of soda, it is very readily absorbed, and this absorption
takes place without expelling a particle of carbonic acid: the
solution has a faint smell of chlorine; when heated scarcely
any chlorine is evolved, and the solution first acts as an alkali
upon turmeric paper, and then bleaches it: on the addition of
an acid, chlorine and carbonic acid gases are evolved.

When evaporated until a slight pellicle appears, a mass of
fibrous crystals is soon formed, the consistence of which is
almost pulpy, owing to the retention of the solution by the
capillary attraction of the crystals. When these crystals have
been separated, the solution yields minute crystals of carbo-
nate of soda, possessing the usual form of that substance.

These filamentous crystals are too minute to admit of any
examination of their form: they appear to me to consist of
chlorine, carbonic acid, and soda, or chlorine in combination
with carbonate of soda; when put into a solution of indigo in
sulphuric acid, they immediately decolorize it, by the evolution
of chlorine, accompanied with carbonic acid. I have not yet
had an opportunity of analysing this compound ; I find, how-
ever, that whilst drying by exposure to the air, it loses so much
chlorine,—I presume by the action of carbonic acid,—that it
does not contain two per cent. of it in any state, either of mix-
ture or combination. I have not particularly examined the so-
lution formed by decomposing chloride of lime by means of
carbonate of soda; but I find that it retains its bleaching power
after ebullition, and yields crystals by evaporation.

In the last Number of the Phil. Mag. and Annals, an
account was given of a paper of Dr. Granville’s, read before
the Royal Society, on the composition and action of the chlo-
ride of soda. According to Dr. Granville, the disinfecting
properties of chloride of soda are entirely dependent upon

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5, May 1827. 3 C the

378 Mr. R. Phillips on the Chlorides of Lime and Soda.

the uncombined chlorine gas which the water holds in solu-
tion. Now admitting for a moment this to be the case, and
that no such compound as chloride of soda exists, the same
explanation cannot apply to the action of chloride of lime: and
it is singular that Dr. Granville has taken no notice of this
substance, although according to M. Labarraque it is gene-
rally employed for disinfecting apartments, while the chloride
of soda “ is especially employed in topical and external ap-
plications to wounds and ulcers affected with hospital gan-
grenes, &c.” (Alcock on the Use of the Chlorurets, p. 126.)

Some late experiments have proved ina most decided man-
ner that the explanation which Dr. Granville has offered, is
not a correct view of what actually occurs. M. Gaultier de
Claubry has shown, that air which was passed through putrid
blood and afterwards into a solution of chloride of lime, was
rendered inodorous, and was completely purified, occasioning
the precipitates of carbonate of lime; but'in a similar experi-
ment the fcetid air was passed through a saturated solution of
caustic potash; the chloride of lime had then no effect upon
it, and it retained its insupportable odour: this is decisive as
to the action of the carbonic acid of foul air in evolving the
chlorine by which it is purified.

I have already mentioned that chloride of soda does not
even by ebullition lose its bleaching property ; and this is an-
other proof that its action does not depend upon the mere gas
which it holds in solution; for it will hardly be maintained that
any circumstance less than combination will retain chlorine in
water at a boiling temperature. It also retains its power to a
considerable extent even after evaporation to dryness.

Dr. Granville states, that the salt in question is a mixture
of 73°53 of chloride of sodium and 28°47 of chlorate of soda;
I am quite at a loss to conjecture how Dr. Granville obtained
this result, either by calculation or experiment. For prepa-
ring the chloride of soda M. Labarraque directs that a solution
of 288 parts of crystallized carbonate of soda, is to have the
chlorine evolved from the decomposition of 66 parts of com-
mon salt passed into it.

Now as 288 are equivalent to 2 atoms of crystallized carbo-
nate of soda, there will be required the chlorine of 2 atoms=
120 of common salt to convert them into chloride of sodium
and chlorate of soda; and even admitting, what I believe is
not the case, that the chlorine of the 66 parts af the common
salt, converts, as far as it goes, the carbonate of soda into
chlorate of soda and chloride of sodium, the quantity is so de-
ficient that the dry salt must consist very nearly of

Chloride of sodium . . 45
Chlorate of soda . . . 16
Carbonate of soda . . 39

100 LXXV. No-

pers ‘y

LXXV. Notices respecting New Books.

Elements of Chemistry, including the recent Discoveries and Doctrines
of that Science. By Epwarp TuRNeER, M.D. F.R.S.E., &c. §c.

R. TURNER is already advantageously known to the chemical
student as the author of an “ Introduction to the Study and
Laws of Chemical Combination,” &c. and the present work will not
detract from his merit as a clear, and in general a correct, narrator
of the numerous facts and theories embraced by, and constituting,
chemical science ; indeed it would be difficult to name any work of
similar extent on the subject, which contains so much information.

After a few pages of introductory matter, relating principally te
the physical properties of bodies, and the definition of chemical sci-
ence, Dr. Turner divides his work into four principal parts. In the
first of these, the imponderables are treated of ; the second comprises
inorganic chemistry, including the doctrine of affinity and the laws
of combination ; the elementary bodies are divided into nonmetallic
and metallie,—and the author has deviated, and we think with great
propriety, from the usual practice of dividing elementary bodies
into supporters of combustion and combustibles, or into electro-
negative and electro-positive bodies : we agree with him, that an ar-
rangement founded on these principles is not free from objection
in theory, and that it offers no advantage in facilitating the study
of the science. The third general division of the work is on organic
chemistry, comprehending the products of vegetable and animal
life; while the fourth division contains brief directions for the per-
formance of analysis.

Although our limits will not permit us minutely to follow Dr. Tur-
ner through the details and execution ofhis plan, we shall offer such
observations upon many parts of it which may appear to require no-
tice; and if the author should find that we are free in our remarks,
we trust he will receive them in the same spirit as that by which
they are dictated ; and we hope we may not only be useful to him
in a second edition, which we have no doubt will soon be required,
but we trust that utility may also arise to those who may possess
the work in its present form.

The Imponderable first treated of is Caloric. The chapter is written
with clearness and precision. If we do not mistake, alcohol is not,
as Dr. T. asserts, the only fluid which has not been solidified ; for
if we remember right, neither sulphuret of carbon, chloride of
azote, nor protochloride of carbon, have ever been rendered solid ;
and we recommend him to peruse Mr. Daniell’s observations in
vol. xxi. of the Royal Institution Journal, before he repeats his
statement as to the novelty and utility of Mr. Jones’s Hygrometer.

In treating of Light, the second imponderable, Dr. ‘I’. observes
that terrestrial light has been supposed to contain no chemical rays.
In opposition to this opinion we may remind the author, that Mr.
Brande has shown (Phil. Trans. 1820), that the intense light pro-

3C3 duced

380 Notices respecting New Books.

duced by galvanic action is similar to solar light: this was proved
by its causing the rapid combination of chlorine and hydroger gases;
indeed, Dr. T. afterwards admits that the similarity is confirmed by
the chemical effects recently occasioned by phosphorescent or more
correctly, incandescent lime.

The chapters on Electricity and Galvanism do not call for any
particular observation : we would merely remark, that the different
theories of the pile are given with great brevity and clearness.

To the subject of galvanism, succeed some remarks on the me-
thods of taking specific gravities, and on chemical nomenclature :
and then follow affinity and the changes that accompany chemical
action; the subject of crystallization is dispatched with most un-
usual brevity, the primary forms of crystals are not even mention-
ed; indeed we suspect both from this circumstance and some of the
author’s subsequent statements respecting crystalline forms, that
they have received but little of his attention.

In treating of Cohesion, Dr. Turner offers some observations, to
the accuracy of which we can by no means assent. Thus muriate of
lime is stated to be decomposed by carbonate of ammonia, in con-
sequence of the insolubility of the carbonate of lime. Now as in-
solubility is a property arising from combination, it cannot be the
cause of it: it is unquestionably true that insolubility may, and cer-
tainly does in many instances, prevent chemical action ; but it ap-
pears to us to be utterly confounding cause and effect, to imagine
that a property which a body would possess when formed, can be the
cause of its production: supposing also that insolubility were the
cause which produced the carbonate of lime, it ought also to pre-
vent its decomposition by muriatic acid, and the carbonates of lead,
lime, and barytes ought to be as insoluble in any acid as their re-
spective sulphates.

We cannot agree with Dr. Turner, that if four substances be
mixed together, the compound which is insoluble will, in all cases,
be formed ; the fact that prussian blue and peroxide of mercury,
both substances insoluble in water, yield by boiling in it a soluble
cyanuret of mercury, is a sufficient refutation of this statement as
a general law.

Again; the author observes that some substances are decom-
posed on account of their volatility : this argument is similar to that
respecting the insolubility, and is refuted by the same reasoning ;
viz. that causes cannot act previously to their existence: if the
volatility of a body in its uncombined state, were to influence it
while in combination, hydrate of potash ought to be as easily de-
composed as hydrate of copper ; and indeed the existence of hy-
drate of potash at a red heat completely disproves another of Dr.
Turner’s statements, viz. that all compounds which contain a vola-
tile and a fixed principle, are liable to be decomposed at a high tem-
perature.

The most remarkable exception to the accuracy of this state-
ment is the compound of chloride of phosphorus and ammonia, dis-
covered by Davy : this substance, composed of three elementary

gases,

Notices respecting New Books. 381

gases, and a very volatile solid, is not only difficult of decomposi-
tion, but is not volatilized at a red heat; many similar examples
might be quoted. h

In refuting an error respecting the action of quantity in modify-
ing affinity (p. 114), it appears to us that the author has not been
fortunate in the selection of his example :—Thus he states, that
‘acids and alkalies have a tendency to unite in more than one pro-
portion, and will readily form salts with excess of acid or of base
when circumstances are favourable to their production.” If by this
it is meant that the alkalies form compounds with acids which con-
tain less than one atom of acid, we do not remember any such case ;
but we readily admit the formation of salts with excess of acid: and
this, according to Dr. Turner, “ explains why nitrate of potash can-
not be entirely decomposed by a quantity of sulphuric acid ; which
is just sufficient for neutralizing the alkali: the sulphuric acid,” he
continues, ‘instead of taking the whole of the potash, unites with
a part of it and forms the bisulphate. This tendency to the forma-
tion of an acid salt accounts for the fact quite satisfactorily ; nor is
there any reason to infer the co-operation of any other cause.”
We are enabled by the results of direct experiment to show the
inaccuracy of these statements. When 100 parts of nitre were de.
composed by the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, more than
+84 of the whole quantity of nitric acid were procured, and the salt
left in the retort weighed 86-2 parts, which is the precise atomic
quantity of sulphate of potash obtainable by decomposing the nitrate
by its equivalent of sulphuric acid: that it contained no bisulphate
of potash, was proved by its being rendered alkaline by ;1, of its
weight of carbonate of potash: it is scarcely necessary to add, that
if two atoms of sulphuric acid were required to decompose one
atom of nitrate of potash, only ;*°; of the whole quantity of nitric
acid could have been procured, instead of -3%, ; the loss of 8 parts
being inevitable in the operation. When treating of nitric acid, we
shall briefly resume the subject of employing two atoms of sulphu-
ric acid to decompose one atom of nitre.

We have already alluded to Dr. Turner’s “Introduction to the
Study and Laws of Chemical Combination ;” this work the author
has judiciously introduced, with a few alterations, into the present
volume, A clear and excellent view is given of the subject; but
we shall notice two or three important errors,—mere slips of the
pen,—two of which also occur in the original treatise. First, in
p. 135, we have 05554, instead of 0°5554 ; and 9720, for 0-9720 : and
in page 148, the ratio of the oxygen of the acid and of the base in
neutral sulphates, is stated to be as one to three, instead of three
to one,

The third section commences with an account of the properties
of Oxygen; and upon some of the statements which it contains, we
shall offer a few observations. Dr, Turner has correctly stated the
sources from which oxygen is procurable: he might, however, have
added deutoxide of lead to the list. He agrees with Dr. Thomson
in stating, that 44 parts = 1 atom of peroxide of manganese, lose
4 parts of oxygen by exposure to a red heat and become deutoxide.

Dr.

382 Notices respecting New Books.

Dr. Thomson has also mentioned that if the peroxide be exposed
to too high a temperature, it loses more oxygen,—not indeed suffi-
cient to convert it into protoxide, but there is obtained a compound
of 1 atom of protoxide with 2 atoms of deutoxide. Now Dr. Tur-
ner says, that by the action of sulphuric acid “the peroxide loses a
whole proportion of oxygen, and is converted into protoxide, which
unites with the acid, forming a sulphate of the protoxide of man-
ganese.” This statement is at variance with both Dr. Thomson’s
and also with the results of our experiments ; for we find that 44
or 1 atom of peroxide of manganese yield 4°2 of oxygen, which is
so much nearer 4 than 8, that there is no question but that the
deutoxide and not the protoxide is obtained by the action of sul-
phuric acid ; that this is the case is further proved by the deep red
colour of the solution of the sulphate, and by its losing that colour,
as stated by Dr. Thomson, when mixed with sulphurous or nitrous
acid.

In describing the properties of oxygen gas, the author states that
it does “‘not evince a disposition to unite with acids or alkalies.”
Perhaps not with them, as such, and yet it combines with sulphurous,
nitrous, and other acids, and with potash, soda, and other alkalies ;
and the compounds which it forms are not divided by chemists into
acids and oxides only, but into acids, oxides, and alkalies. Hydro-
gen is the second elementary body in Dr. Turner’s arrangement.
We do not deny, but we most certainly doubt, the production of
carbonic acid when iron is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid : the
metal unquestionably contains charcoal,—but whence proceeds the
oxygen necessary to its conversion into carbonic acid? This
chapter contains but few other passages which call for obser-
vation, excepting the assertion that zinc cannot decompose water
at common temperatures is contradicted both by Davy’s experience
and our own. It takes place with great slowness, but still it
actually does occur. We do not find any thing material to arrest
our progress till we arrive at Nitric Acid (p. 195); and here in-
tending to resume our remarks on this subject, we shall first quote
Dr. Turner's statement, that “there are two substantial reasons for
using more than one proportion of sulphuric acid to one of nitre.
The first is, that nitre cannot be wholly decomposed by a quantity
of sulphuric acid, which is merely sufficient to form a neutral sul-
phate. Owing to the tendency of potassa to unite with two propor-
tions of that acid, the product would contain a portion of bisulphate
and of undecomposed nitre.” This part of the subject we have al-
ready disposed of ; but by referring to Wollaston’s admirable paper
on Chemical Equivalents, Dr. Turner will find the true reason for
employing 2 atoms of oil of vitriol for decomposing 1 atom of
nitre: it is, that there may be sufficient water for condensing the
nitric acid; for while 1 atom of sulphuric acid = 40 is condensed
by 9=1 atom of water, | atom of nitric acid = 54, requires 2
atoms of water = 18 for its condensation; the formation of the
bisulphate of potash is a consequence merely of employing as much
sulphuric acid as contains the requisite quantity of water to con-
dense the nitric acid. The other reason for employing 2 atoms

of

Notices respecting New Books. 383

of sulphuric acid for decomposing 1 atom of nitre, is stated by
Dr. Turner to be’the facility which it affords of removing the resi-
dual salt from the retort ;—this we will admit : he continues, how-
ever; “but though it is advisable to use more than 1 atom of
sulphuric acid, it is important to employ no more than is really re-
quired for decomposing the nitre with advantage. An unnecessary
excess,” he continues, ‘is not only unceconomical, but positively
hurtful ; for some of it is then apt to pass off in vapour during the
distillation, and thus render the nitric acid impure. The propor-
tions of the Edinburgh College are calculated to fulfil all those
conditions; the excess of sulphuric acid is sufficient to decompose
almost all, if not the whole of the nitre, and a pure nitric acid is ob-
tained.”

Now it appears to us that some of these statements are at variance
with others ; the proportions employed by the Edinburgh College,
are two parts of sulphuric acid and three of nitre: if then, according
to Dr. T.’s statement, “nitre cannot be wholly decomposed by a
quantity of sulphuric acid, which is merely sufficient for forming a
neutral sulphate,” the proportions of the Edinburgh College do not
and cannot ‘fulfil all the conditions” alluded to, nor is the ‘ excess
of sulphuric acid sufficient to decompose almost all the nitre ;” and
the residue of the Edinburgh process, instead of being “a mixture
of the sulphate and bisulphate of potassa,” as Dr. Turner states, must,
according to his own showing, be a compound of about 128 parts of
bisulphate of potash and 45 of nitre. It mayalso be observed that when
2 atoms of sulphuric acid are employed, no portion of it ever rises
and contaminates the nitric acid; nor indeed can it do so, consist-
ently with the opinion that it is necessary to combine with the pot-
ash of the nitre.

As far as we have observed, there are a few, and only a few
statements which require notice, in looking through a large
further portion of Dr. Turner’s work. We would, however, inquire
whether it would not be a more correct expression to speak of
evolving than of forming hydrogen and other elementary gases;
4 mixture of nitric oxide and hydrogen gas burns with a greenish
and not with a white flame (p. 187). It may also be difficult to con-
ceive how an orange-coloured liquid, like nitrous acid, should give
different shades of green and blue merely by being diluted, and yet
green muriate of cobalt becomes red by dilution, and green muriate
of copper blue by the same means. We do not by these observations
mean to deny the probability of Dr. Turner’s suggestions, at p.193,
respecting the nature of the changes produced in nitrous acid by
mere dilution; all we intend is to show that the case is not without
a parallel, We do not know that it is of much consequence that the
same nomenclature should in all cases be adopted; but on a subject
which is always puzzling to learners,—we mean the atomic theory,
— it rather increases the difficulty to use numerous terms in the same
sense, especially when treating of any peculiar substance. In p. 210,
Dr. Turner states that carbonic oxide is regarded as a combination
of one proportion of carbon = 6 and one of oxygen = 8; and car-
bonic acid of one atom of carbon = 6 and two of oxygen = 16.

The

384 Notices respecting New Books.

The combining proportion of carbonic oxide is therefore 14, and that
of carbonic acid 22. The italics are ours; and we use them to mark
the circumstance that three different terms are used in the space of
as many lines, to express the same meaning. In p, 215, a similar
case occurs,

In p. 217, the sulphuric acid obtained by decomposing sulphate
of iron is stated to be colourless: the fact is well known to be other-
wise; but we believe the cause of the dark colour has not been
ascertained: Dr- Thomson, if we remember right, suspects that it
may be derived from the presence of selenium.

We proceed now to the Metals, the arrangement of which, if we
may use the expression, is too chemical, and not sufficiently depend-
ent upon obvious or physical properties. The metals are divided into
two classes ; First, those the oxides of which cannot be reduced to
the metallic state by the sole action of heat ; Secondly, those metals
the oxides of which are reducible by heat only. As however the
metals of the first class are divided into four orders, the arrange-
ment is in fact equivalent to five classes. The first order includes
the metals which decompose water at common temperatures ; these
are stated to be six, viz. Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Barium, Stron-
tium, and Calcium. Now to those ought to be added, Magnesium
from the second order, and Zinc and Manganese from the third order.
That the two former metals decompose water at common tempera-
ture, is stated by Davy. The action of manganese we have witnessed.

The second order of metals includes Magnesium, Glucinum, Yt-
trium, Aluminum, Zirconium, and Silicium.

One of the characteristics of these metals is stated to be, that
their oxides are very sparingly soluble in water; but on referring
to the account given of each of them, three of them, viz. alumina,
glucina, and zirconia, are stated by Dr. Turner himself, to be
“ quite insoluble in water ;” and the same might also have been men-
tioned with respect to yttria. The late experiments of Berzelius
have nearly demonstrated that neither silicium nor zirconium has
any claims to be considered as metals: indeed two circumstances
mentioned by Dr. Turner with respect to silicium,—viz., that it is
a non-conductor of electricity,and has no metallic lustre,—are almost
decisive with respect to that substance.

The third order includes those metals which decompose water at
a red heat ; they are stated to be Manganese, Zinc, Iron, Tin, and
Cadmium. Now, as already noticed, two of these decompose water
at common temperatures; and according to Davy, antimony pro-
duces the same effect at a red heat. The remaining order includes
metals which do not decompose water at any temperature ; and the
second class contains those, the oxides of which are decomposed
at a red heat.

From the length to which our observations have already extend-
ed, we shall be unable to allot more than a very limited space to
the remaining parts of Dr. Turner’s work. We may however ob-
serve, that his account of the crystalline form of muriate of barytes
will, we think, justify an observation we have previously made respect-
ing the little attention which Dr. Turner has paid-to the subject of

crystalization.

Royal Society. 385

crystallization. Thus at p. 356, muriate of barytes is said to crystal-
lize in four, six, or eight-sided tables, without any reference to its
primary or secondary forms; and the form of a six-sided prism,
bounded by pyramids with six sides, in which sulphate of potash is
said to crystallize, is not merely a secondary one, but a macle. In
p. 358, line 7, we have 108 parts or one atom of water, instead as
we presume, 12 atoms; and in the next page, line 14, calcium oc-
curs instead as we suppose, of strontium; and in p. 262, chloride of
calcium, is substituted for chloride of lime.

There are some statements respecting the oxides and salts of man-
ganese which require careful revision; and although, as we have had
frequent occasion to show, Dr. Turner’s werk bears evident marks of
occasional haste, it will in general be found a safe guide for the
student. We would advise the author, however, to give more rules
for conducting processes; and towards the latter part of the work
especially, the compositions ef bodies are too frequently omitted.
And we cannot help observing, that the graphic illustrations are not
sufficiently numerous, and are altogether unworthy of the work.

LXXVI. Proceedings of Learned Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

March 22." ‘HE reading of Mr. Whewell’s paper On experi-

ments made at Dolcoath mine in Cornwall, to de-
terminé the density of the earth, was concluded; and Professor
Airy’s Appendix to it also read.

« The experiments described in this paper were made with two in-
variable pendulums, one swung at the surface of the ground at Dol-
coath, the other at the depth of 1220 feet in the mine. The pro-
secution of them beyond a certain point, and their complete verifi-
cation by a second exchange of the pendulums between the two sta-
tions, was rendered impossible by the accidental destruction of one
of the pendulums. Their result, however, down to this point, gives
8'-23 per day, for the sum of the variations or double variation, of
each of the pendulums, observed above and below. And Mr. Whe-
well considers that this result is the inevitable consequence of the
observations ; although very much greater than could have been
anticipated, from any opinion hitherto entertained of the earth’s in-
ternal structure and density. In reasoning on this result the author
concludes, that it would require a mean density of the earth equal
to 7°73 times that of the superficial stratum, or about 20 times that
of water, to produce the difference of 8'"23 observed: that had it
been only 6", still a density of 13 times that of water would be re-
quired ; but that the usual estimate resulting from the calculations
of Hutton and Zach, would reduce the difference to 2/46, a quan-
tity too distant from that observed, to be attributable to any error
of their observations. Neither can this difference be attributed to
local attractions, or to the removal of the matter in the mine ; but
considering the uncertainty, under which, from the accident above
mentioned, the results labour, Mr. Whewell regards any exact cal-

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5. May 1827. 3D culations

386 Linnean Society.— Geological Society.

culations as superfluous, and recommends a repetition of the experi-
ments with the experience already gained, and in the same locality.

The Appendix to this paper by Mr. Airy contains the formule
of computation used, and their application to the observed cases.
The observations were made by the method of disappearances and
re-appearances, the vibrations being continued till the are of vibra-
tion had become so small as to produce a complete obscuration of
the disk, for more than 40 in some instances, and thus entailing
errors on the method of disappearances alone, which Mr. Airy cha-
racterizes as most enormous, as he also states to be, the interval be-
tween the disappearance on one side and the disappearance on the
other, as the arc of vibration diminishes. It therefore became ne-
cessary to find some rule for determining the exact time of coinci-
dence, which was found to be a mean of the first disappearance and
the last re-appearance, or that of the first re-appearance and last
disappearance ; or rather a mean of all these four times. Mr. Airy
next considers the correction depending on the arc of vibration, and
then, successively, the thermometric and barometric corrections ;
and he finally states at length the analytical theory of them all.

March 29,—Viscount Mahon, and the Rev. C. Mayo, were re-
spectively admitted Fellows of the Society. And the reading was
commenced of a paper On the compounds of chromium; by Tho-
mas Thomson, M.D. F.R.S.

LINNEAN SOCIETY.
April 3, and April, 17.—The reading of Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s
paper On the Birds of Cuba was continued on the above evenings.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Feb, 16.—At the Anniversary Meeting of the Society, held this
day, the following gentlemen were elected Officers and Council for
the year ensuing.

President : William Henry Fitton, M.D. F.R.S.— Vice-Presidents :
Arthur Aikin, Esq. F.L.S.; John Bostock, M.D. F.R.S.; Rev.W. D.
Conybeare, F.R.S.; Rev. Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S. Woodwardian
Professor, Cambridge.—Secretaries : W. J. Broderip, Esq. F.L.S. ;
R. I. Murchison, Esq. F.R.S.—Foreign Secretary: Henry Heu-
land, Esq.—Teasurer : John Taylor, Esq. F.R.S.— Council: Henry
Thomas De la Beche, Esq. F.R. & L.S.; J. E. Bicheno, Esq. Sec.
L.S.; Davies Gilbert, Esq. M.P. V.P.R.S.; George Bellas Green-
ough, Esq. F.R. & L.S.; John Frederick William Herschel, Esq.
Sec. R.S.; Armand Levy, Esq. ; Charles Lyell, Esq. F.R.S.; Wil-
liam Hasledine Pepys, Esq. F.R.S.; Rev. John Honeywood Ran-
dolph ; Charles Stokes, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S.; J. F. Vandercom,
Esq.; Henry Warburton, Esq. M.P. F.R.S.; Thomas Webster,
Esq.; Thomas Young, Esq.

March 2.—A paper was read, ‘On the volcanic district of Na-
ples;” by G. Poulett Scrope, Esq. F.G.S. F.R.S.

Inthis paper the author purposes to confine himself toa general view
of the volcanic formation of this district, and to such observations as
have hitherto escaped notice, or on which he differs from other writers.

At

Geological Society. 387

At one extremity of the tract in question lies the habitually erup-
tive volcano of Somma; at the other the once active vent of Ischia ;
the intermediate space is studded with hills, evidently thrown up by
numerous eruptions, succeeding one another at distant intervals,
and from separate though neighbouring orifices. These are arranged
in one general band, which is remarkable from its parallelism to the
elevated limestone range forming the opposite side of the Bay of
Naples, and separating it from that of Salerno.

Somma is a very regular volcanic mountain, created by the accu-
mulation of repeated streams of basaltic lava and beds of ejected
ashes, sand and scoria, round a central and habitual vent.

The author dissents from the theory of Von Buch, that such
mountains were produced by the forcidle elevation of horizontal
beds round an aperture of eruption ;—though he allows that beds
originally inclined, may often suffer a certain degree of elevation,
during the shocks occasioned by the forcible protrusion of lavas
from below, into the fissures through which they are emitted.

The great crater of Somma is attributed to the explosions of the
“paroxysmal eruption” of A. D. 79; and the whole cone of Ve-
suvius which occupies the centre of that crater, is stated to have:
been created by repeated subsequent eruptions. This cone is si-
milar in structure to that of Somma, as is seen in the walls of its
actual crater, compared with those of the Atrio del Cavallo.

Ischia is a less regular voleanic mountain; has produced no leu-
cite, and none but trachytic, or rather, according to the author’s
nomenclature, gray-stone lavas,—a class intermediate between tra-
chite and basalt, and consisting of felspar and augite. The great
mass of the island is composed of the conglomerates belonging to
this class of lavas, forming an indurated tufa of a light green colour.
There are traces of a vast central crater on the west of the Monte
Epomeo. Some of the lavas of Ischia are remarkably brecciated
and zoned,—with varieties of grain, texture, and mineral composi-
tion.

The intermediate district between Somma and Ischia, properly
called the Campi Phlegrei, including the islands of Procida and N1-
cida, exhibits the traces of between twenty and thirty crateriform
basins, many of very large diameter, but in general much degraded,
and sometimes almost obliterated, by the erosive action of the sea
and of rains on the loose conglomerates of which they are partly
composed, and by the ejections of later neighbouring eruptions.
Ten at least of these cones, with their included craters, are however,
very nearly entire ; such are the Monte Nuovo, produced in the
year 1538 ; Capo Mazza, a hill entirely composed of silky pumice
and its detritus ; the Monte Gauro, which incloses a deep circular
crater a mile in diameter; Astroni, which is nearly equal to the
last in size, and precisely similar in figure; the basins of the lakes
Averno and Agnano; the island of Nicida; the southern extremity
of the island of Procida; the Capo di Miseno; and the Solfatara of
Pozzuoli.

The author disputes the existence of any large vaulted cavity
under the floor of the lastementioned crater; and attributes the rever-

3D2 beration

388 Geological Society.

beration produced when it is struck sharply, to the cellular nature of
the beds of indurated clay which form this floor, and have been de-
posited from the washings of the surrounding slopes, and hardened
by the influence of heat and moisture.

The author accounts for the production of two varieties of Piso-
lite, which occur in the tufa and decomposed lava of the Solfatara.
This hill is recorded to have been in eruption in A. D. 1180; and
the present crater may have been formed at that late epoch. The
hill which supports the Camaldoli, 1643 feet above the sea, is a re-
markable mass of indurated tufa; from beneath which, on the N. E.
side, crops out a bed of gray-stone, in which a singular concretion-
ary separation has taken place, of the augitic from the felspathose
parts; the former appearing as lenticular patches in a base consist-
ing of the latter. This and other somewhat similar Javas in the
same neighbourhood, give rise to important inferences as to the
condition of such substances at the period of their emission from the
earth, The solid tufa of Capo di Monte and other hills envelops
shells of the same species with those which at present inhabit the
Bay of Naples. It is likewise in some points traversed by vertical
veins of a finer and harder matter, seeming to have exuded from
the sides of a fissure formed in the rock, before it was completely
desiccated.

The author attributes the formation of all these volcanic hills to
successive eruptions from below the surface of the sea, though on
a shallow shore: and, from the existence of loose tufa over the
whole plane of the Campagna, and even to some distance up its prin-
cipal valleys, he infers that the sea once washed the foot of the
Appenines behind Capua ; and that this plain has since suffered an
elevation of 200 feet at least,—an elevation in which the whole
western coast of Italy and the Appenines probably shared ; as ap-
pears from the traces of lithophagi in the cliffs between Rome and
Palermo, much above the present sea-level, and from other colla-
teral testimony.

March 16.—A paper was read ‘ On the geology of the vicinity
of Pulborough, Sussex;” by P. J. Martin, Esq.

The author's object is to give a detailed account of the district
on the north of the South Downs, extending from about Petworth
on the west, to Steyning and the Adur on the east, and inter-
vening between the portions of Sussex described by Mr. Mantell
and Mr. Murchison. The structure of this tract agrees in general
with part of the adjoining district on the west; but two of the for-
mations are here subdivided into natural groups, which the author
conceives ought to be distinguished ; the following being the series in
a descending order, that has come under his observation :—1. Chalk.
2. Firestone,—including upper greensand and Malm-rock. 3. Galt.
4. Shanklin sand,—including, as subdivisions, ferruginous sand, and
lower greensand and sandstone. 5. Weald clay.

The portion of the Firestone, which the author denominates Up-
per Greensand, may be traced distinctly as a thin bed at the foot of
the chalk hills from Sutton to Washington, and is best exposed at
the entrance of the Arundel defile, resting upon the Malm-reck ,—an

argillaceous

Geological Society. 389

argillaceous limestone which extends into terraces in some places
50 feet thick and half a mile in breadth. The Galt is probably not
more than 60 feet in its greatest thickness : it is widest on the E. of
Sutton, and from thence eastward varies in width from a few hun-
dred yards to a quarter of a mile. The upper, or ferruginous, por-
tion of the Shanklin sand, occupies the broadest space between the
chalk and the weald, and is from one to three miles in width, its
northern boundary forming a very distinct escarpment. The sur-
face of these sands is distinguished by its barrenness ; they vary
much in consistency and colour, and the lower beds especially, are
pervaded by seams of clay, and abound ina stone consisting of
coarse siliceous sand cemented by oxide of iron. The lower divi-
sion of this formation (green sandstone) has in some portions
a strong external resemblance to the stratum immediately be-
neath the chalk. It constitutes a fertile arable country, and affords
pure and copious springs. The upper part contains thick layers
and nodules of limestone, chert, and clay resembling fuller’s earth.
The lower affords a compact building-stone, which has long been
quarried at Pulborough: but further west, these beds pass into
chert. This stratum has obviously suffered great disturbance; and
one of its natural chasms, forming the valley of Greenhurst, and
about 4 miles in length, points towards the outlet of Arun, and
might probably be taken advantage of to connect that river with
the Adur. The demarcation between the lower part of the Weald
clay and the subjacent Hastings’ sands, is not well defined in the
tract which the author describes.- A considerable bed of sand oc-
curs within the clay at its upper part ; after this comes in a bed of
«Sussex marble ;” and lower down in the clay, a second layer of
sand containing siliceous grit in thin beds ; beneath which the prin-
cipal beds of Sussex marble (about 18 inches in thickness) occur ;
and these are finally succeeded by blue, brown, and red clay, and
micaceous sand, the commencement of the forest ridge.

The author gives a particular description of the defile of the
Arun, the principal outlet of the Weald in the south of Sussex.
This river traverses about 15 miles of a country almost mountain-
ous, cutting across the ridges of the sand and the chalk escarp-
ment nearly at right angles to the valley of the Weald. The gorge,
where it enters the green sandstone, is more than 400 or 500
yards in width at the bottom; and the banks rise quickly to the
height of about 200 feet on the east; and on the west to about 400
or 500 feet. At Bury and Amberly, where the river penetrates the
chalk, the hills are 600 or 700 feet high; the ravine having all the
characters of a fissure. And as the strata, in several cases of this
description, rise on both sides towards the crack, the author sup-
poses that the channels now existing on the surface, have been
produced by the operation of some internal forces by which the beds
were broken up and elevated ; and that the drainage of the country
by the present outlets, can be thus explained; without having re-
course to a debicle, or to denuding operations: and he supports
this hypothesis by reference to the local features of the country,
illustrated by sections.

ASTRO-

390 Astronomical Society.

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

April 11.—A paper by Colonel Beaufoy, was read, containing his
Observations of Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites, from January 2 to
May 15, 1826, together with some Observations of occultations of
stars by the moon.

A paper was also read “* On the Longitude of Madras, as deduced
from Observations of Eclipses of the first and second Satellites of
Jupiter, taken between the years 1817 and 1826. By John Gold-
ingham, Esq. F.R.S.”

The eclipses stated in this paper are 96 in number, being Immer-
sions and Emersions of the Ist and 2nd Satellites only. Of these,
11 are directly comparable with those of Colonel Beaufoy, made
at Bushey Heath, viz.8 of the Ist, and 3 of the 2nd; and their mean
result, which of course is independent of the errors of the tables, is
stated by Mr. Goldingham at 5" 21™ 93, being the longitude of
Madras east of Greenwich. The remainder, consisting of 34 Emer-
sions and 35 Immersions of the first Satellite, and 12 Emersions and
4 Immersions of the second, are not directly comparable with Colo-
nel Beaufoy’s. Mr. Goldingham endeavours, however, to render them
so, or at least to eliminate the errors of the tables, by determining
the latter from Colonel Beaufoy’s observations made nearly about
the same time, and then applying it to the results of a comparison
of his own with the Nautical Almanac as a correction ; and in this
way deduces a conclusion agreeing almost exactly with the fore-
going. :

This is not the place to enter into any discussion on the legiti-
macy of the process pursued by Mr. Goldingham for this purpose,
or of its general applicability in the present state of the tables. The
end of this abstract will be better answered by presenting in one
view the results of these several classes of observations as obtained
separately, by direct comparison with the Nautical Almanac, uncor-
rected by reference to Colonel Beaufoy’s, or any other observations,
which may be stated as follows :

Madras East of Greenwich.
By 34 Emersions of the ist Satellite observed at } 5h 21m 6%5
Madras, and compared with the Nautical Almanac.
By 35 Immersions of ditto, similarly observed ig 5 Ql 124
BNOCO: Go a's Se hore fom cin = cides aia cme -

Mean Longitude of Madras ............ 5, 2) ee
Difference of Immersions and Emersions . . 5:9

By 12 Emersions of the 2nd Satellite, similarly ob- ~, og),
served and compared ..........---0-- ee sees } 55 21m O%5

By 4 Immersions of TEOMA HSS SARIS 5 2) 331
Mean Longitude ............--...-.. « 5 2) 166
Difference of Immersions and Emersions .. 32-6

The latter series has, however, only the weight of four double ob-
servations, and is therefore no way to be put in competition with

the former, corroborated as it is to minute precision by the results
of

Horticultural Society.— Zoological Society. 391

of the comparative observations ; so that on the whole we may take
5 21™ 9°-35 as the true longitude of the Madras observatory.

Mr. Goldingham states the difference of longitudes between the
Observatory and Fort St. George at 2' 21" (of space), the latter
being to the east ; so that the longitude of Fort St. George, Madras,
is 5" 21m 18°*-7,

Immediately after the conclusion of the ordinary meeting, a Spe-
cial General Meeting was held, pursuant to notice, for the purpose
of presenting the Honorary Medals awarded by the Council ; on which
occasion the President, J. W. F. Herschel, Esq. delivered a very ad-
mirable and interesting Address, which we regret that our limits will
not enable us to insert till next month.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

March 6.—The following paper was read: Upon forcing garden
rhubarb; by Mr. W. Stothart.—A fine specimen of the Azastatica
hierochuntica was exhibited by A. B. Lambert, Esq.; and the table
was covered with a profusion of flowers, fruit, and vegetables. Va-
rious seeds and cuttings were distributed.

March 20.—It was stated from the chair that H. R. H. the Duke
of Clarence had been graciously pleased to signify his desire of be-
coming an Honorary Member of the Society, in the vacancy occa-
sioned by the death of his late R. H. the Duke of York.—The follow-
ing papers wereread: An account of the varieties of the apple which
have been found to succeed in Ross-shire, in latitude 57° 34! N;
by Sir George Stewart Mackenzie, Bart.—Upon the best mode of
raising seedling fruit-trees ; by Mr. Weissenborn, of Weimar.—Va-
rious flowers and fruits were exhibited, especially specimens of some
remarkably fine apples, called the Farleigh Pippin, which. were in
excellent condition notwithstanding the lateness of the season.—
The usual distribution of seeds and cuttings was made.

April 3.—The following papers were read: On a new method of
obtaining strawberry plants for forcing ; by Mr. Alexander Diack,
—Upon the cultivation of running kidney beans for forcing, in pre-
ference to those commonly used ; by the Rev. George Swayne.—
A variety of seeds and cuttings were distributed. Upon the table
were some fine specimens of oranges, lemons, and limes, from
Malta; and some apples called the Bess Poole, and the Thoresby
Seedling, the names of which deserve record from their great beauty
and excellence, They were in as high perfection on this day, as
any apple could have been at Christmas. There was also some fine
fruit of the Beurrée de Paques, commonly called the Paddington
Pear ; a variety now at its best.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

We are happy to perceive that this Society is now completely or-
ganized. A meeting was held in March for electing a President in
the place of the late lamented Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, when
the Marquis of Lansdown was unanimously elected to that office.
Regular weekly meetings of the members have since taken place

on

$92 - Royal Institution of Great Britain.

on each Wednesday, between the hours of one and five, for the pur-
pose of inspecting the museum. This department consists of ex-
tensive and instructive collections in every branch of zoology ; the
value of which is enhanced by the consideration of their being ex-
clusively the result of the liberality and public spirit of some of the
leading members. Lectures on various subjects of interest in zoo-
logy have also been given at 3 o'clock during these meetings. Mr.
Vigors, the Secretary, has delivered some discourses on the Affini-
ties of Birds, illustrated by specimens from the Society’s museum ;
and Mr. Brookes has commenced a series of lectures on Comparative
Anatomy, selecting the structure of the Ostrich as the subject of
the first lecture on Wednesday the 25th. Several valuable prepa-
rations from a specimen of this bird, which His Majesty was gra-
ciously pleased to present to the Society, were brought forward to
illustrate this lecture. The gardens of the Society are stated to be
in great forwardness, and it is expected that they will be opened
during the ensuing summer.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Feb. 23.—Dr. Harwood read a paper from the lecture-table, On
the natural history of the seal. It was illustrated by numerous fine
specimens and preparations of the animal, from the collection of Mr.
Brookes and other sources, and by many specimens of the fur and
skin, in the state into which they are brought by the furrier. Dr.
Harwood particularly remarked upon the amazing expansion of the
olfactory nerves in the Seal, from which, and other circumstances,
he was induced to suggest as probable, that these animals often hunt
their prey upon the surface of the water by scent. He expressed
his surprise to, that they had not as yet been brought under sub-
jection to man, and made to perform the same good offices for him
in the water that the dog does on land.

In the library were the contents of a Tumulus found near the Falls
of Niagara, Upper Canada, and of another in the back settlements of
Ohio: several Egyptian antiquities, presented by General Tolly ;
and new American and English publications.

March 2.—The librarian, Mr. Singer, read a paper communi-
cated by a member of the Institution, On the principles of the struc-
ture of language. The investigations had been made upon the
Hebrew tongue, and were illustrated by numerous diagrams.

The head of the Ghurial of the Ganges, with other fine specimens
in Natural History, and presents of books, were laid upon the li-
brary tables.

March 9.—Mr. Holdsworth made some observations in the Jec-
ture-room on the structure of Shipping: they were merely intro-
ductory to some practical and experimental illustrations which are
to be submitted to the members.

In the library was a specimen of gas for illumination, made by
Mr. Daniell’s process from resin. Resin, tar, and numerous other
sources of highly carbonated combustible gases have hitherto been
objectionable only because during decomposition they choke the

retorts

Royal Institution of Great Britain. 393

retorts and pipes with carbonaceous matter. Mr. Daniell’s process
obviates this objection, and renders these substances readily, ceco-
nomically, and in consequence advantageously, available.

Several new works of art, and presents, were laid upon the tables,
with some very ancient and scarce books.

March 16.—Mr. Ainger gave a brief sketch of the history and
principles of suspension bridges. Simple communications of this
kind were observed to be very numerous and ancient, especially in
Asia; but in them the road was laid on the curved lines of suspen-
sion, whereas in the suspension bridges of the last twenty years it has
been hung from these lines in such a manner as to form a horizontal
surface. The credit of the latter application was given to America.
The causes of the great superiority in economy, of suspension over
insistent bridges, was pointed out; and the peculiar advantages
united’ in iron over those of any other substance explained. The
direction and amount of the forces exerted, the necessary strength
required to sustain them, and many other circumstances in their
construction, were then developed and explained by models and
diagrams,

Numerous specimens of Natural History and of expensive and
rare literary works were laid upon the library tables.

March 23.—Mr. Reinagle of the Royal Academy delivered a
discourse On the property of beauty contained in the oval. The
peculiar beauty of the ever-varying curve of the oval was pointed
out, and the manner in which, by the combination of different parts
of different ovals, arranged according to a certain order, all the
forms of Grecian vases might be obtained. A still more extended
application of the principle was made to the grouping of the im-
portant parts of figures and objects in historical paintings :—this was
illustrated by reference to the works of the great Italian painters.

In the library were worked specimens of Swedish porphyry :
some specimens of pierced metallic plates, the holes being made at
perfectly regular intervals, and accurately punched, so that no bur
was produced, or any circumstance created to destroy their uni-
formity ; some of them were so fine as to present the appearance
almost of an uniform metallic surface——Some peculiar crystalline
depositions from oil of turpentine, with numerous new books, were
also upon the tables.

March 30.—The subject this evening was A general view of the
animal ceconomy, particularly illustrated by a history of the circu-
lation in man and other animals; by professor Pattison.

A large meteoric stone was placed on the library table, with a
particular account of its fall, in the Persian language. This was
translated by Dr. Wilkins. The stone fell in the night of the 7th of
August 1822, near the village of Kadonah, in the district of Agra.
It descended with much noise as of cannon and of the wind, awaken-
ing those who were asleep, and alarming a watchman who heard
it fall. On making search in the morning, the stone was found warm,
and with a little smoke rising from it: it is to be subjected to ex-
amination.

Mr. Ritchie’s simple and accurate Balance was also placed upon
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 5. May 1827, 31k the

394 Mechanics’ Institution.—Royal Academy of Paris.

the table; likewise specimens of the Pemmican, which have been
prepared by government for Capt. Parry’s voyage; an experiment
upon the reflection of light at different angles; and new publica-
tions,

April 6.—A few observations were made by Mr. Webster on the
impulse of wind on sails.

In the library were several fine presents to the Museum of Na-
tural History ; amongst which was the skeleton of the Ouran Outang
of Borneo, given by Gen. Hardwicke. On the tables were speci-
mens of paper made from various substances ; books presented to
the library, and various literary novelties.

The evenings were then adjourned over two Fridays, to April 27.

LONDON MECHANICS INSTITUTION.

On Wednesday the 4th of April, Professor Millington completed
a course of lectures on Pneumatics at this Institution, to an exceed-
ingly crowded auditory of the members. Mr. Kirby commenced a
course of lectures on the Steam Engine, on the 11th of April. These
lectures will be succeeded about the 23rd of May, by a short course
on Luminiferous animals, on Phosphorescence, and on the Philo-
sophy of the ordinary means of producing fire ; by Mr. E. W. Bray-
ley, jun. The Friday evenings have been occupied with lectures on
Prejudice, by Mr. Chambers ; on Combustion, by Mr.Hemming; on
the Architectural Antiquities of Britain, by Mr. Stackhouse; and
Dr. Birkbeck (the President, ) commenced his course on the Struc-
ture and Functions of the Human Body, last Friday evening, the 27th
of April.

ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS.

Sittings of June 22, 1826, to the 17th of Feb. 1827.

The President announced that after an examination of the pre-
cedents for the prizes founded by M. de Montyon, for Experi-
mental physiology, no decision excluded memoirs on the physio-
logy of vegetables.

M. Arago communicated a letter from M. Boussingault, ad-
dressed to M. de Humboldt, and dated Bogota, in which this tra-
veller describes the earthquake that occurred in that city on the
17th of June 1826.

MM. Dulong and Gay-Lussac reported on the Memoir of M.
Dumas on some points of the atomic theory. ‘ We trust,” says
the reporter, “ that we have sufficiently shown the importance of
the recent researches of M. Dumas. They contain that talent for
observation, exactness of methods of experimenting and justness of
views which characterize his other labours. We propose therefore
to the Academy, to bestow its approbation on this Memoir, and to
order its being printed in the Recueil des Savans étrangers.”

M. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire read A report, drawn up by himself,
MM. De Lamark and Boyer, on a Memoir by M. Vincent Portal,
D.M. entitled Description de plusieurs monstruosités humains anon-
céphales. ‘The Memoir was approved, and advised to be printed in
Recueil des Savans étrangers.

MM. Thenard

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 395

MM, Thenard and Chevreul reported on a Memoir of M. Sérullas
on the constituents of bromine. ‘“ Bromine, with which M. Balard has
lately enriched chemical science, has so great analogy with chlorine
and iodine, that it forms similar combinations with other bodies :
this results from the experiments of M. Balard, and it is confirmed
by the new results of M. Sérullas. These results are the production
of hydrobromic zther and a cyanuret of bromine, which are ob-
tained like hydriodic ether and cyanuret of iodine, and which they
resemble very much in their appearance and properties. Hydro-
bromic zther is a colourless liquid, heavier than water, very vola-
tile, of a strong ethereal odour, a sharp taste, very soluble in alco-
hol, from which it is precipitated by water.— As to the cyanuret of
bromine, it crystallizes in long fine needles, it is colourless, very
solid, a very pungent smell, and acts so strongly upon the animal
economy, that a grain of the cyanuret dissolved in water is suffi-
cient to killa rabbit. Added to this, in all the experiments to which
the cyanuret of bromine has been subjected, M. Sérullas did not
observe any circumstance which induced him to think that bromine
is a compound body. M. Sérullas not only repeated before us the
principal experiments which relate to the hydrobromic ether and
the cyanuret of bromine, but he made others which he had tried
since he sent his memoir to the Academy, which show that bromine
solidifies at 20° below 0 (Centigrade), that it acts strongly upon
hydriodide of carbon, and that the result, attended with great heat,
is a bromide of iodine soluble in water, and a hydrocarburet of
bromine almost insoluble in it, which has an zthereal smell and a
sweet taste.” M. Sérullas’s memoir is recommended to be printed
in the Recueil des Savans étrangers.

LXXVII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

ON BROMINE: BY M. SERULLAS.
M BALARD having stated that bromine does not become solid
e at 0° of Fahr., M. Sérullas intended to employ liquid sul-
phurous acid as a cooling medium for its solidification. Having how-
ever, as a preparatory step, subjected some bromine to a cooling
mixture of about 4° below zero, it became solid and very hard in
an instant, and was broken by a blow: the experiment succeeds

very well by putting the bromine in a watch-glass.

When one part of hydriodide of carbon is added to two parts of
bromine in a glass tube, the former is immediately decomposed with
the extrication of much heat, accompanied with a hissing noise :
there are formed bromide of iodine, and liquid hydrocarburet of
bromine ; a portion of bromine is therefore substituted for iodine ;
water dissolves the bromide of iodine and the hydrocarburet of
bromine coloured by bromine, separates at the bottom of the li-
quor; the colour is removed by the necessary quantity of potash,

If the hydriodide of carbon is in excess, but little hydrocarburet
of bromine is formed; but a subbromide of iodine is obtained, from
which iodine is precipitated by the careful addition of solution of
potash. $E2 Hydro-

396 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

Hydrocarburet of bromine after washing with potash is colour-
less, heavier than water, of a penetrating exthereal smell, an ex-
tremely sweet taste which it imparts to the water that covers it, and _
in which it is but slightly soluble; it is extremely volatile, and re-
mains solid at 40° to 42° Fahr., and is about as hard as camphor.
M. Sérullas obtained hydrobromic zther by distilling from a small
tubulated retort a mixture of 38 parts of aicohol, one part of phos-
phorus, and 7 or 8 parts of bromine, gradually added. When the
bromine came into contact with the phosphorus under the alcohol,
rapid action took place with the extrication of heat,and hydrobromic
and phosphorous acids were formed. ‘These are to be distilled with
a gentle heat, and the product is to be received in a well-cooled
receiver. The distilled liquor being mixed with water, the hydro-
bromic ether separates. If any acid be present, the washing wa-
ter is to bave a small quantity of potash added to it.

Hydrobromic ether is colourless, and transparent after long
standing ; it is heavier than water, and hasa sharp taste and a strong
ethereal odour. It is very volatile, and soluble in alcohol, from
which it is precipitated by water. It does not suffer any alteration
of colour, as hydriodic ether does when kept under water.

CYANURET OF BROMINE.

M. Sérullas obtains this by the following process.—Put at the
bottom of a small tubulated retort, or a long glass tube, two parts
of dried cyanuret of mercury, that there may be excess of it, This ©
long tube is to be placed in cold water or a freezing mixture, and
one part of bromine is then to be added; the action is very consi-
derable ; so much heat is given out, that without the artificial cool-
ing, the high temperature would prevent the bromine from coming
into contact with cyanuret of mercury ; bromuret of mercury, and
cyanuret of bromine are formed; the latter crystallizes in the form
of long needles in the upper part of the tube, surrounded by a little
vapour of bromine which disappears by causing it to condense,
and fall back upon the cyanuret of mercury.

A small well cooled receiver is then adapted to the orifice of the
tube, into which by the application of a slight degree of heat, the
cyanuret of bromine rises and crystallizes in cubes or needles.
Cyanuret of bromine so strongly resembles cyanuret of iodine in its ~
physical properties, that they may be readily confounded, espe-
cially when the former is acicular: the cyanuret of bromine has a
penetrating smell, more so even than the cyanuret of iodine; and
it is also more volatile; it becomes aériform at about 15° below
zero (Centigrade), and suddenly crystallizes by cooling. Cyanuret
of bromine is more soluble in water and alcohol than cyanuret of
iodine. Solution of potash converts it into hydrocyanate and hy-
drobromate of potash. This solution, when nitrate of silver is add-
ed, gives a precipitate of cyanuret and bromuret of silver, which
are easily separable, the latter being soluble in ammonia, and the
former not. The different experiments to which the cyanuret of
bromine was subjected, never deprived the bromine of its character-

istic

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 397

istic properties, even in those cases which would be the most likely
to separate its elements, if it were not a simple body.

Cyanuret of bromine is extremely deleterious. A grain dissolved
in water and given to a rabbit, instantly killed it; the inconveni-
ence produced by its deleterious properties, as well as the scarcity
of bromine, induced M. Sérullas to discontinue his experiments
upon it—Ann. de Chim. et Phys. tom. XXXiv. p. 95.

NEW THEORY OF CRYSTALLIZATION.

Accident has within the last few days thrown in our way a volume
on Mineralogy, by Mr. Beudant, published in 1824, On looking
through it, we have been surprised to observe a statement which is
as wholly inaccurate in fact, as it is inconsistent with theory.

In page 60, Mr. B. states, that ‘in all crystals of which the com-
position is identical, the angles are the same ; but if the crystals con-
tain accidental mixtures, the angles are sensibly and constantly dif-
ferent.” He says, “ the angles we find in these cases are generally
the mean of the angles of each of the mixed substances taken pro-*
portionally to the quantity of each.

<< Thus if 10 particles of carbonate of lime be mixed with one of
carbonate of magnesia, the angle of the compound will be the 1-11th
part of the sum of 10 angles of 105° 5' and one of 107° 25’, which
would be 105° 24! 10".

« I have,” he adds, ** observed these angles for these composi-
tions, and Mr. Mitscherlich has made similar observations.” And
he adduces in support of this statement the known angle of “ car-
bonate of lime and magnesia, 106° 15’, as the mean of 105° 5! and
107° 25'.”

But it unfortunately happens that the carbonate of magnesia
from different localities distinctly measures 107° 30!.

The statenient therefore fails in the only instance in which its
correctness otherwise could be ascertained ; that is, in the case of a
definite compound. And there can be no doubt that both Mr. B. and
Mr. M. have been deceived by their goniometer in the measurements
of merely mixed minerals which Mr. B. supposes he has obtained.

The instances in which mere mixture does not alter the crystal-
line form of a mineral are too numerous to admit of doubt as to the
fact; and carbonate of magnesia is known to exist with various
proportions of carbonate of iron, yet without the slightest appreci-
able variation in its angle of 107° 30!.

If the fact were as Mr. Beudant supposes, where in the crystal
does he imagine the single atom of carbonate of magnesia should
be placed, supposing 10 atoms of carbonate of lime, or 20, or 100
atoms, so as to affect the angular measurement of the crystal ?

NEW PATENTS. @

To Aristides Franklin Mornay, of Ashburton House, Putney
Heath, for improvements in preparing for smelting and in smelting
ores, or in extracting metals from such ores.—Dated the 27th of
March 1827.—6 months allowed to enrol specification.

To

398 Meteorological Observations for March 1827.

To Matthew Bush, of Dalmonach, Print Field, near Bonhill, by
Dumbarton, calico-printer, for improvements in machinery or ap-
paratus for printing calico and other fabrics.—27th of March.—
6 months.

To Bennett Wodcroft, of Manchester,manufacturer, for processes
and apparatus for printing and preparing for manufacture yarns, of
linen, cotton, silk, woollen, &c.—3]st of March.—6 months.

To Henry Astney Stothert, of Bath, founder, for improvements
on or additions to ploughs. —4th of April.—6 months.

To John Paterson Reid, Glasgow, for improvements on power
looms.—4th of April.—6 months.

To J. Tilt, of Prospect-place, St. George, Southwark, for im-
provements in salt-pans, and in the mode of applying heat to the.
brine.—4th of April_—é6 months.

To E. Cowper, of Clapham-road Place, Surrey, for his improve-
ments in printing music.—5th of April.—6 months.

To J. 8. Broadwood, of Great Pulteney-street, Westminster, for
zertain improvements in grand piano-fortes.— 9th of April—6
months.

METEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR MARCH 1827.

Gosport.—Numerical Results for the Month.

Barom. Max. 30-30 Mar. 19. Wind SW.—Min. 28-79 Mar. 4. Wind SW.
Range of the mercury 1-51.

Mean barometrical pressure forthe month . . . . . - . ~ 29-716
for the lunar period ending the 27th instant . . . . 29-723
for 16 days with the Moon in North declination . . 29-480

for 14 days with the Moon in South declination . . 29-966
Spaces described by the rising and falling of themercury . . . 11-440

Greatest variation in 24 hours 0-940.—Number of changes 31.

Therm. Max. 60° Mar. 24. Wind NW.—Min. 32° Mar. 4. Wind NW.
Range 28°.—Mean temp.of exter. air 74°-06. For 30 days with © in} 44:92
Max. var. in 24 hours 24°-00--Mean temp. of spring water at 8 A.M, 48°-54

De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer.
Greatest humidity of the air in the eveningof the Ist . . . . 96°
Greatest dryness of the air in the afternoon of the 31st . . . . 44
Range of the index =. - es 5 te we le Be ew 52
Mean at 2 P.M. 60°-7—Mean at 8 A.M. 69-6—Mean at 8 P.M. 71-0
of three observations each day at 8,2, and 8o’clock . . 67:1
Evaporation for the month 1-95 inch.
Rain near ground 3-145 inches.—Rain 23 feet high 2-925 inches.
Prevailing Wind S.W.

Summary of the Weather.
A clear sky, 3; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 124; an over-
cast sky without rain, 10; rain, 54.—Total 31 days.

Clouds.
Girrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus.
2) 10 31 0 19 26 22 ~

Scale of the prevailing Winds.

N. WEES SESS. SW. W. N.W. Days.
2 2g 0 ] 3 10 6 7 31
General

Meteorological Observations for March 1827. 399

General Observations.—The first part of this month to the 16th was wet
and windy, and the latter part cloudy and fine, with occasional showers of
rain and hail. After so dry a winter the rain was very seasonable, and the
subsequent mild sunny days brought on a sudden spring, which has accele-
rated the budding, and is rapidly unfolding the leaves of the trees.

Although the thermometer has only receded twice to the freezing point,
and the weather mild for March, yet the spring is comparatively backward,
which is a favourable circumstance, as an early spring is not very desirable
in this latitude, in consequence of the night frosts which generally follow.
On the 15th at 1 P.M. we had a smart shower of snow, which is later than
we remember to have seen snow here: it was brought on by a change of
wind from W. to N.W. . About the same time of the day on the 29th, a
heavy shower of hail fell, and lay on the ground a short time: this was
also brought on by the inosculations of two winds, one from S.W. the other
from N.W.

The mean temperature of the external air this month, is 22 degrees
higher than the mean of March for the last eleven years.

Parhelia and coronz have frequently appeared. In the afternoon of the
10th a parhelion is reported to have been seen at Southampton and it was
also distinctly seen by a gentleman at Hampton, near Farnham, who has
described it in a letter as being of a very beautiful appearance. It was ob-
served here the same afternoon, tinged with red, purple, and a silyery co-
lour, and was distant from the sun’s centre 22° 45': the angular distance
of the mock-sun from the true sun varies from 221° to 233°, according to
the density and position of the vapour in which it is generated. When
two or more parhelia appear at the same time, they alternately increase
and wane in size and colour, in proportion to the intensity of the solar
rays, and the humidity of the vapour from which they are reflected. In
the evening of the 10th there was a discus halo round the moon, encircled
by a large lunar corona 45 degrees in diameter.

The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our
observations this month, are six parhelia, nine solar and two lunar halos,
two brilliant meteors, one rainbow, lightning in the evening of the 29th,
and 15 gales of wind, or days on which they have prevailed, namely, two
from N., ten from S.W., two from W., and one from the N,

REMARKS.

London.—March 1, 2. Showery. 3. Cloudy. 4. Cloudy, with showers.
5. Showers: very stormy night. 6. Showery. 7. Showers, 8. Cloudy :
windy. 9,10. Fine. 11. Fine day: stormy night. 12. Fine. 13. Rainy.
14. Fine: rainy night. 15. Showers. 1¢. Fine morning: cloudy P.M.
17. Windy: cloudy: showers. 18. Fine: windy. 19,20. Cloudy. 21. Rainy
evening. 22—27, Fine. 28. Rainy night : high wind. 29. Cloudy: a shower
of hail, P.M. 30. Some hail about noon, very bleak wind. $1. Fine.

Boston.—Mar. 1. Stormy. 2,3. Cloudy. 4. Cloudy: stormy night with
rain. 5. Fine. 6. Windy. 7. Fine: showery a.m. and p.m. 8—10. Fine.
11. Cloudy: rain am. 12. Fine. 13. Fine: rain p.m. 14. Stormy. 15.
Cloudy. 16. Fine: rain p.m, 17. Stormy: blew a hurricane all day.
18. Stormy. 19—25. Cloudy. 26. Fine. 27. Cloudy: rain at night.
28. Stormy. 29—31, Fine.

Penzance.—Mar. 1, In general rain. 2. Fair. 3. Rain. 4. Rain: fair.
5,6. Rain. 7. Showers. 8, Rain: fair. 9. Fair. 10, 11. Fair: showers.
12. Fair: rain. 13. Rain. 14, Clear: fair. 15. Rain: fair. 16. Clear:
showers. 17. Showers: clear. 18. Clear. 19. Fair. 20. Misty: rain.
21. Fair: clear. 22. Clear. 23, 24. Fair: clear. 25. Fair: showers.
26. Fair. 27,28, Showers: hail and rain. 29, 30. Showers. 31. Clear.

Meteor -

*u0jsogT jv TIFT A"

S96-S GGg6-1 06-3]
** 170-0SE. | €%-0) “MN
eoz.o| fee fot [AS
006-0] *** [*** | 96-0) “AN
eee PE.o\""° eee "MN
(006-0) *** |0d. | °° |"
vee foes log, [eee | cas
eee Co0-o/SI- eee AA
OLl-0 one eee eee “mM
see tee OS. JPS:0) ee
ore £0-0|"** eee “MN
wee azote: | cee | aan
OPE-0]90-0/S1. | *** | “AN
we Logie | tet | ca
0S€-0| 90-0/"*" | LV-0) “48
CSLO|e rs Os eee eae
eee ZesOle = eee “Mm
eee Sr eee ‘as
wee | ese loz, | eee | can
we | roles | ott | cm
OZ1-0|G0-0|"*" | *** | “#
S¥9-0) Z1-0]0d- | *** | “AS
064-0] O1-0}/"** | °° | “4
we Lgo.gies | ote | cat
«» |go.olot.o| ** | -s
0SZ1 PZ-0 ee eee wipro
06000) *2"s'| LEON" ere eae
218) fe
nD i=} n
Sale Olas

*10deany

“as

"aas

“yy pun y40ds0H ww AINUAT *M([ ‘aounxuag jv AAAI “py “vopuo'T

09 | 2€ | 9S | Sz | 09

“xB TA UNA | XB IA] rev Fg
‘y10ds0g |‘aouvzuag| ‘uopuory |40S0E

*1OJDULOWLAIY, J,

90-08 |S1-0€ | 76-6z
1¥-6z | (4-6 | PE-6z
¥2-6G |OF-6% | Z1-6z
9:66 |0L-6% | 00-62
8L-66 |96-6% | OL-6%
L1-0€ |S%-0€ | 06-62
10-08 | LL-0€ | 98°62
80-08 |O1-0€ | 06-62
IL-0€ |ZI-0€ | 00-08
OL-0€ |P1-0€ | 00-08
OL-0€ |£T-0€F | 00-08
1Z-0€ |SZ-0€ | 90-0€
LZ-0€ |0€-0€ | 20-08
Fo0-0€ |0Z-0€ | 86-6
€P-6% |89-6z | 8S 6Z
16-60 |GI-0€ | 86:6
19.62 |Lg-6% | 09-6
18:62 |96:62 | 08:6
PL-6z |c6-62 | 01-62
19.6% |26-6% | 89-62%
0S-6% |Z9:6@ | 8£-6%
89-6 |08-6% | OF-6%
ZE-6% | 17-60 | 01-6
L8-8% |S1-6% | 79-8
86:82 |09-6% | OL-8%
£0-62 |V1-6% | V6-8%
68.6% |€L:6% | PI-6%
6L-8Z |61:6% | 89-82%
t0.6z |SP-6% | 02-8
Lz-6% | 09.6% | Z1-6%
6-62 _| LV-6z 02'6%
‘ul | *X®8W | “OLA
4100809) | saouezueg
*1o}OWIOIVET

61-86

of.0€

QG-8_| 80-06

unau Cur MOT “pT &Q suornatasgO 10nF070L09j WT

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE

AND

ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY.

——

[NEW SERIES. ]
JUNE 1897.

LXXVIII. Observations on the Crystalline Form of Sillimanite.
By W. Puts, F.L.S. GS. §c.*

THs mineral was first described by Bowen in the Ameri-
can Journal of Science for May 1824, and is therein said
to occur in rhomboidal prisms of about 106° 30! and 73° 30!,
the inclination of the base on the axis of the prism being 113°;
and as having one cleavage parallel to the longest diagonal
of the prism. In the translation by Haidinger, of Mohs’s
System, &c. the measurements quoted are the same as those
given by Bowen.

This mineral being always found, I believe, imbedded, and
chiefly in quartz, its prisms are frequently somewhat bent,
sometimes even twisted ; and their planes being generally far
from bright, and occasionally somewhat convex, are mostly
unfit for accurate measurement. Having attempted to mea-
sure several by means of the reflective goniometer, I was
unable to find any one affording the measurements above men-
tioned; but almost uniformly found the prism bounded by
several longitudinal planes, of which however it was difficult
to obtain the measurements, for the reasons already stated. At
length I succeeded in detaching from the matrix some very
thin prisms presenting but four lateral planes, which afforded
constantly angles of about 88° and 92°; but they were far
from bright: these slender prisms are nearly transparent and
colourless, or have only a slight tinge of yellow; and at first
some doubt arose whether they were in reality prisms.of silli-
manite. They agreed with it in being very hard; but it oc-
curred to me that if I could procure the easy and brilliant

* Communicated by the Author.
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. 8F plane

402 Mr. W. Phillips on the Crystalline Form of Sillimanite.

plane of cleavage parallel to one of the diagonals of the prism,
it would satisfactorily prove them to be that substance: and
the attempt succeeded ; but I found it to be parallel to the
shortest diagonal of the prism.

Again, taking advantage of this cleavage, I obtained it on
some of the larger prisms having several lateral planes: it is
represented by f on the second of the following figures ; and
the measurements accompanying the figures were afterwards
obtained.

Po ssiMur | eS
M on M' about 88° es RPS f >

Sy eae
glon f ... 145 M Mailed rlgdonl®

g2on f ... 152

From the foregoing circumstances I am led to believe, that
a rhombic prism of 88° and 92° may, in default of better evi-
dence, be adopted as the primary form of this mineral: the
planes of this prism are brighter than the other planes. The
terminations of the prism are, according to Bowen, oblique to
the axis; but I have not succeeded in my attempts to find
any indications of cleavage in that direction, nor at right an~
gles to the axis. The crystals, indeed, are often separable
with ease nearly in that direction, owing apparently to natural
fissures across it; but the surfaces produced by the fracture are
neither even nor brilliant, nor at a constant angle with the
axis. Besides the brilliant cleavage already mentioned, im-
perfect indications of another at right angles to it may some-
times be observed.

From the close agreement in the analysis of this mineral
with that of kyanite, and the measurements adopted by M.
Haidinger, as may be assumed from Bowen, which also agree
very nearly with those of that mineral, he is of opinion that
sillimanite is probably a variety of kyanite; an opinion which
it is probable will at least receive a revision, on taking into
consideration the circumstances above detailed relating to
form, measurement and cleavage, in all which the two minerals
seem to disagree very decidedly.

LXXIX. Re-

[ 403 J

LXXIX. Remarks on Mr. J. Taylor’s Paper on the Explosion
of Steam-Boilers. By AN ENGINEER.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals of
Philosophy.
Gentlemen,

I HAVE experienced much gratification in reading in your

Number for February a paper by Mr. John Taylor On
the explosion of steam-boilers. ‘The public are indebted to
him for bringing forward a subject of so much interest and
importance; and I am glad to observe that he has set an ex-
ample which I hope to see followed,—that of discussing practi-
cal subjects in a scientific Journal.

Having been professionally engaged in the application of
high-pressure and common steam in all its branches, the sub-
ject of steam-boilers and the accidents to which they are liable
have of course occupied my attention.

I have accordingly availed myself of every opportunity af-
forded me, of personally examining or inquiring into the cir-
cumstances which have attended such explosions of steam-
boilers as happen to have come to my knowledge. The result
of my inquiries has generally been, that these accidents have
originated either from the carelessness or ignorance of the
persons attending the boilers, or from the bad construction of
the boilers themselves.

The extreme difficulty of obtaining any thing like informa-
tion to be relied upon on these occasions, must have been felt
by all those who have endeavoured to acquire it. It has too
often happened, that the only ‘person or persons competent to
give such information, have lost their lives by the effect of the
explosion; and where this lamentable result does not take
place, it is too much to expect that men will confess their care-
lessness when a loss of situation would be the inevitable con-
sequence. Hence it arises that, in order to divert attention
from themselves and conceal their neglect, they invent a won-
derful tale of the explosion re preceded or accompanied
by something extraordinary; such as a flash of flame, a rum-
bling noise, &c. &c.—tales which I have often heard repeated.
Even where there exists no intention of deceiving, the love of
the marvellous (so common to the lower classes), or the agita-
tion produced by terror, will cause them to magnify the most
trivial occurrence into something out of the common.

Having expressed an opinion that these accidents are al-
ways attributable to neglect, or the originally bad construction

of the boilers, I shall proceed to inquire how far one or other
8F2 of

4.04 Remarks on Mr. J. 'Taylor’s Paper

of these causes has in all probability produced the several ac-
cidents alluded to and detailed by Mr. Taylor. This inquiry
is rendered more simple and easy from the circumstance of
the same description of boiler having been used in each of the
four instances.

As I am not in a situation to prove that these accidents have
originated in neglect, I shall only observe under this head,
that as far as appearances after explosion are to be relied upon,
they were such as to justify a suspicion that the boilers at Pol-
gooth and East Crennis were short of water. I do not think
it necessary to pursue this part of the inquiry further, because
I am prepared to show that the construction of these boilers,
and the mode of setting them, is quite sufficient to account,
not only for these, but for every accident that has ever oc-
curred with boilers of a like description.

In boilers intended for high-pressure steam, three important
considerations are to be attended to: viz. the material em-
ployed, the form, and the mode of setting. With the experi-
ence we now have in these matters, no one would think of
using any other material than wrought iron. The form ought
to be such, that the expansive force of the steam can produce
no effect tending to change the form; or in other words, that
the expansive force is equally exerted over the whole of the
internal surface of the boiler. This object is attained in the
spherical form, or the cylinder with hemispherical ends. This
is the form to which I give a decided preference; not only for
the reasons above stated, but from the circumstance that not-
withstanding the smallness of diameter, a great depth of water
may be kept above the fire-line,—a point in my opinion of the
greatest importance. ‘The diameters should be small, never
exceeding five feet, and any augmentation of capacity should
be attained by increase of length; in this way also an increase
of heating surface may be obtained to any extent.

The mode of setting boilers must vary according to circum-
stances; such as quality of fuel, &c. Care, however, should be
taken to expose as much surface to the action of the fire as is
consistent with the allowing of a considerable depth of water
above the fire-line.

In no respect, except in the material employed, do these
Cornish boilers correspond with my idea of a good and safe
boiler. The right angles formed by the flat ends are subject
to an immense strain, and the angle iron introduced in these
parts is ill-calculated to resist it. It is well known to engi-
neers that angle iron will not resist the same strain, substance
for substance, as iron in any other form,—a fact which may be
accounted for by the distortion which it undergoes during the

process

on the Explosion of Steam- Boilers. 405

process of rolling it. Mr, Taylor admits that in theory these
angular parts are bad; but he goes on to say, that it does
not appear in practice that these have been the first to give
way.” Whether they are the first parts to give way, I cannot
pretend to say; it is enough for me to know that they have
eventually given way, and that it is to the failure of these parts
that the tremendous effects related by Mr. Taylor are to be’
attributed. It is not at the junction of the angle iron to the
outer case where I should apprehend the greatest danger, be-
cause the outer case is not liable to a change of form. I ap-.
prehend more danger from those parts where the inner tube
Joins on to the front; because, as I shall presently show, the
inner tube is extremely liable to a change of form; and ac-
cordingly it is here where a fracture is exhibited in all the in-
stances above alluded to.

I consider the introduction of a tube within a high-pressure
boiler to be bad under any circumstances, but it is peculiarly
so where the furnace is placed in it. If these boilers had
their fire-places underneath, as shown in Mr. Taylor’s second
sketch, and the tube used only as a return flue, some of my
objections would be removed, and I conceive a better effect
would be produced: a larger surface would be exposed to
the direct action of the fire, and there would be as much
heating surface generally. The fire-place and ash-pit could
then be made of any size required; the latter of which is by
necessity most objectionably small where the furnace is inside
the boiler. ‘This is an evil of some magnitude, both as re-
gards the draught, as well as the wear and tear of fire-bars.
Lastly, but not the least important consideration in a tube-
boiler, the water would be equally heated throughout.

The objections raised by Mr. 'Taylor’s Cornish agents to a
brick furnace would of course apply to this mode of setting a
tube-boiler, as well as to the use of a plain cylinder where the
furnace is by necessity of brick. I confess the adhering of
clinkers to the sides of a brick furnace to such an extent as to
injure the draught, to be perfectly new to me; and as Mr.
Taylor does not state this of his own knowledge, he must ex-
cuse me for doubting the fact.

Having stated under what circumstances the tube-boilers
may be rendered less objectionable, I shall proceed to consi-
der them as they are at present used in Cornwall, and point
out what I take to be the defects, as relates to their liability to
accident.

In the first place, I consider the want of space in the boiler
over the fire-place a serious evil. If too much of this space
be occupied by water, then there is not room enough left for

steam ;

4.06 Remarks on Mr. J. Taylor’s Paper

steam; and the consequence is the passing over of a quan-
tity of water into the cylinder, to the injury, and sometimes to
the destruction of the engine itself. On the other hand, if this.
space be divided, not in depth but in cubical contents, there
is great reason to apprehend the water being allowed to get
below the top of the tube: a temporary derangement of the
feed-pump might occasion this, without any very great neglect
on the part of the engine-man. If this takes place, I scarcely
need point out what must be the result. ‘The expansive force
of the steam exerted upon the plates rendered soft by the ac-
tion of the fire, would bring down the upper surface; and when
once the cylindrical form was lost, a further depression would
be rendered easy. It is quite clear that the upper surface of
the tube cannot be depressed, without such a strain being
thrown upon the ends where they form a junction with the
angle iron, as finally to rend them off. I should observe here,
that the sort of fracture described by Mr. Taylor in the boiler
at East Crennis, would in this case present itself; the angle
iron would appear to be wrenched off by a force drawing it
inwards.

Even where the water is not so far reduced in the boiler as
to be below the top of the tube, I am by no means inclined
to consider this boiler in a safe state. At all times the upper
part of the tube is more expanded than the lower, in conse-
quence of the water above being hotter than it is below; and
although this may not produce an immediate effect, yet it very
probably renders the parts, where the strain is thrown in con-
sequence of this unequal expansion, more disposed to. give
way when a further stress comes upon them. A few inches
of water over the tube would certainly prevent the plates from
becoming red-hot, and perhaps the leaden plug from melting ;
but it would not be sufficient to prevent the strength of the
iron being impaired.

The strength of iron is much impaired before it arrives at
the heat of melted lead. I have every reason to believe (and
this belief is founded upon effects which I have myself wit-
nessed), that the plates of a boiler urged by an intense fire,
and covered with only a thin stratum of water, become very
considerably hotter than the steam and water above them.
I account for it in this way: — When the column of water is di-
minished to a certain extent, the weight of it is not sufficient
to keep it in contact with the plates, the continuous escape
of steam bubbles keeping it off. ‘This effect may be observed
in an open pan placed over an intense fire, and containing a
thin covering of water or other fluid; the whole appears to

be a mass of bubbles, and the bottom of the pan may be oc-
casionally

on the Explosion of Steam- Boilers. 407

ceasionally seen. I find I am by no means singular in this
respect; for on conversing some time since with an intelligent
practical engineer on the subject, he gave it as his opinion
that a boiler was not safe where there was only a foot of water
over the fire. I do not go to this extent, but I mention it in
corroboration of my own opinion.

With this view of the matter, I see nothing very extraor-
dinary in thecircumstance of the leaden plug remaining as hap-
pened at East Crennis; nor, I confess, does the appearance
and form of the tube after the explosion surprise me more
than the projection of the tube at Polgooth, which is equally
unaccountable. It by no means follows, because the sides of
the tube were flattened, that these were the first parts to give
way when such an immense volume of elastic vapour was_sud-
denly let loose: there is no accounting for the effect it may
produce upon the parts in immediate contact with it; this may
even go to the extent of obliterating impressions made imme-
diately antecedent to the explosion.

If an accident take place with a boiler of any given form,
I should not be guided by the appearance that the wreck may
present after the explosion, as to any opinion of what were the
first parts to give way; but I should examine as to whether
from its form or construction the boiler contained any weak
points; and taking it for granted that these must have been
the first to give way, I should make the necessary alterations.

That these Cornish boilers are more liable than any others
to accident, is proved from the result of Mr.’Taylor’s own ex-
perience. If therefore they possess the defects which I have
endeavoured to point out, it is fair to infer that such accidents
are attributable to these defects.

It has been observed by Mr. Taylor, that in the opinion of
his Cornish agents these boilers possess advantages which no
other form affords, and that in comparison with the plain cy-
linder in particular, more duty is effected.

They certainly ougkt to possess great advantages as to con-
sumption of fuel, to compensate for the frequent accidents to
which they are liable,—accidents not only involving loss of
property, but too frequently loss of lives. If this latter con-
sideration only were taken into account, there ought not to
be one moment’s hesitation as to their total rejection. I am,
however, by no means prepared to admit that the tube-boiler
is more ceconomical as to fuel than the plain cylinder. Mr:
Taylor observes, that in North Wales, boilers of the latter de-
scription are giving great satisfaction, while in Cornwall this
by no means appears to be the case; but this he attributes to
the difference of fuel. As I have before said, a difference in fuel

may

408 Mr. Henwood on the Explosion of Steam-Boilers.

may render some change in the mode of setting necessary, or
even some modification of the boiler: such as a diminution in
diameter and increase in length where the coal is bituminous ;
and the contrary, where the coal is the reverse of this: but I
am quite sure that the cylindrical boiler may be so modified
and set as to suit every variety of coal. The Monthly Reports
may prove that more duty is effected by the tube-boilers ; but
the conclusion I should draw from this is, that the plain cy-
linder has not had a fair trial in Cornwall. Long and con-
tinued use of the former has created a strong prejudice in their
favour, and it will take some time and require some manage-
ment to overcome this.

In the hands of such a man as Mr. Taylor, this desirable
end may, however, be accomplished ; and I should venture to
suggest, that in no way could he more beneficially employ the
influence which he has so deservedly attained by his character
and talents, than by exerting it to put an end to the use of

so dangerous and destructive a machine.
Yours, &c.
An ENGINEER.

LXXX. Remarks on Mr. J. Taylor’s Paper on the Accidents
incident to Steam-Boilers. By Mr. W. J. HENwoop.

To Richard Phillips, Esq.
Sir,

| a late number of your Journal, Mr. John Taylor-has fa-

voured us with an interesting paper On the accidents inci-
dent to steam-boilers, many of which he seems disposed to at-
tribute to the explosion of gas in the flues. Thinking that
this opinion, if generally received, may operate as an objection
to steam navigation, as well as to the erection of steam-engines
in manufactories,—this cause being perhaps further out of our
reach than those to which such accidents are usually attri-
buted; permit me, through the medium of your Journal, to
offer a few remarks on Mr. Taylor’s valuable communica-
tion.
After some observations on the comparative merits of boilers
of particular constructions, Mr.'T. proposes several questions ;
which I will endeavour to answer in the order in which they
stand.

“The Pen-y-fron engine had been stopped a few minutes,
and the workmen had opened the fire-doors of three of the
boilers, and closed the dampers of two of them. ‘The engine-

man observed a gust of flame from the fire-place, which was
almost

Mr. Henwood on the Explosion of Steam-Boilers. 409

almost immediately succeeded by an explosion.”—* In : this
case had the rush of flame from the fireplace any thing to do
with the subsequent explosion?” I think there can be but
little doubt that the rush of flame was in consequence of some
fracture having already taken place in the boiler; probably
the fissure was not at first of very considerable size, as we
know that wrought iron does not break at once (as is the case
with cast iron), but rends. The rent being at first small, it
would have occasioned the rush; but as the fissure once made
weakened the boiler, and the aperture not being sufficiently
large to permit the escape of a very considerable quantity of
water or steam, a moment between the gust of flame and the
explosion would in all probability have elapsed.“ And ad-
mitting that the steam was so far within the pressure that
could by mere expansive force regularly exerted injure such
a boiler,—might not the rupture be occasioned by the aid
that a vacuum suddenly created might produce?” ‘That the
expansive force of the steam (30lbs on the inch) was not suf-
ficient to injure the boiler, remains yet to be proved, as Mr.
Taylor has not informed us how strong the boilers were.
Admitting the possible formation of a vacuum, it might per-
haps help us towards a real knowledge of the cause: but I
am not aware of any circumstances which can have been there
in action, to which the power of forming a vacuum can with
any appearance of probability be ascribed.

* Joes not the bursting of one boiler after another as at
Polgooth, seem to indicate that exterior causes operated ?-—Is
it possible to conceive,—supposing the pressure equal in two
boilers as at Polgooth, both being connected to the same steam-
pipe,—that the relative strength of the two should be so ex-
actly the same as that what would by mere expansive force
burst the one, should have the same effect upon the other ?”

Mr. ‘Taylor informs us that the plates of which the interior
tubes are made are half an inch thick, and those of the outer
three-eighths of an inch. Now if we suppose each boiler to be
made of 200 plates, would it not be truly surprising if in 400
plates there were no two of the same strength,the thickness be-
ing the same, and (as we suppose both boilers were made at
the same manufactory) the quantity similar in each? Here
then we have an expression of two known quantities only;
whilst if we refer the accident to the agency of an explosion
of coal-gas with atmospheric air, we must take into consider-
ation the activity of the distillatory action, the facilities of es-
cape afforded to the gas in either boiler, the intensity of com-
bustion in the fireplace, the influx of air, &c. which leads us
into a much more complicated calculation. ‘The evidence

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. $G then

410 Mr. Henwood on the Explosion of Steam-Boilers.

then appears to preponderate in favour of the idea of its ex-
plosion originating in the expansive force of the steam, which
it would seem was permitted to attain too strong an elasticity.

*‘ At the Pen-j-fron engine we see that the fire-door is
thrown open, and then the current of air up the flue is stopped
by closing the damper: the interior is filled with atmospheric
air mixed to a certain extent with coal-gas; the latter is in-
creased by the distillatory action of the fire, until the propor-
tion is attained which is explosive; it takes fire, producing the
rush of flame which would be followed by a sudden vacuum in
the tube; while the other side, pressed by the steam, gives
way to this sudden impulse, and is destroyed by a force very
much smaller than would be required if uniformly exerted.”

What Mr. Taylor says may be very possible, with the ex-
ception of the formation of a vacuum. Motion only obtains
when the resistance is inferior to the force applied, and ceases
(except under particular circumstances) as soon as the two forces
become equal. ‘This then is the case in the phznomena be-
fore us: the explosion may occasion a rush of air outward
through the fire-door, because the elastic force of the fluids
within the tube exceeds that of the atmosphere; but as soon
as that within has so expanded as to be reduced in elasticity
equal to the pressure of the atmosphere, no further emission
of air from within the boiler can possibly ensue. Again, sup-
posing the possibility of a diminution in volume of the gaseous
matter within the boiler, the fire-door (say 14 foot wide and
23 feet long) in such boilers would afford an aperture quite
sufficient to supply (at the moment of the diminution of vo-
lume) the void. Hence then it is evident that no force at all
varying from the atmospheric pressure, can under any cir-
cumstance be exerted on the part of the boiler exposed to the
fire.

«< By some it has been suggested that hydrogen may have
been generated by the decomposition of water from leaks in
the boiler.”

This is not improbable in many instances: but we can about
as easily admit that the gas extricated from the coal, and
which is required in order to support combustion in ordinary
cases, produces the explosion. We also know that the coal
when thrown into the fireplace is never perfectly dry, so that
hydrogen is constantly evolved if water be decomposed. If
hydrogen produce explosion, such explosions are constantly
occurring; and if the water be not decomposed, of course the
hydrogen cannot explode. In either case it is evident it would
be alike innocuous.

But I believe the water is not decomposed when the boiler

leaks

Rev. J. B. Emmett on Solids and Liquids. 411

leaks much ; and when such defects have existed in a boiler,
Mr. Taylor as well as myself has doubtless observed the es-
cape of large quantities of steam through the stacks: of course
the water in such cases does not undergo decomposition.

The sudden bursts of flame from the chimneys of steam-
engines when observed at night, are in my opinion much
more satisfactorily accounted for, by supposing the flame to be
carried further up the flue at some times than at others, by
the action of gusts of air, which always operate more or less.
This is perhaps more frequently observed on the chimneys of
founderies or tin-smelting houses, than on those of steam-en-
gines; and we are very sure that in the former cases no explo-
sions ever obtain. Iam, &c.

March 10, 1827. W. J. Henwoop.

ea We have received a communication on this subject
from Mr. J. Moore of Bristol, in which he states that steam-
engines have often exploded on their being stopped ; and that
the immediate cause of explosion, in these cases, is probably an
additional strain on the boiler from within, produced by the
steam, which previously had a free passage, being prevented
from escaping anywhere but at the safety-valve ; the aperture
of which, compared with the content of the cylinder, into
which the steam passed before, is very small. Mr. Moore
also suggests, for the purpose of obviating accidents from such
a cause, the application of a large valve on the tube, adjacent
to the part where the steam is prevented from passing to the
engine.—EKpir. :

LXXXI. On the Physical Construction of Solids and Liquids.
By the Rev. J.B. Emuetr*.

ypratr the particles of liquids do not touch each other, is
universally allowed, because the change of volume of
which all liquids are susceptible by changes of temperature, is
greater than any that can result from any possible alteration
in the arrangement of contiguous spheres. Besides, since the
particles of which a liquid is composed are in equilibrio be-
tween two equal forces acting in opposite directions, they can
occupy but one order of arrangement; 2. e. as Newton proved,
two right lines joining the centres of three adjacent particles,
must form an angle of 60° ; were they not thus balanced in the
point of equilibrium of two equal and opposite forces, they
could not possess their observed freedom of motion. So long,
therefore, as a body is in a liquid state, there can be neither

* Communicated by the Author.
$G2 expansion

412 Rev. J. B. Emmett 07 the

expansion nor contraction, except such as results from the
receding from, or approach to, each other of the particles, in
right lines joining the centres of the adjacent particles.

With respect to solids, the case is very different; the utmost
expansion is very small, compared with that of the same bodies
in a liquid state. Some have supposed (Lavoisier’s Chemistry)
that the particles of solids do not touch each other. Boscovich
imagined them to be separated to a distance from each other,
in a point of equilibrium between their own centripetal force
and the repulsion of caloric;—nearer to the particle, he sup-
posed the force of repulsion to prevail; beyond it, that of at-
traction, which increases, according to his system, according
to some function of the distance directly, to a certain maxi-
mum: hence, if any force be applied, tending to separate the
particles, since their «distance is somewhat increased, the cen-
tripetal force begins to produce sensible effects; when the
particles are removed to a distance beyond that at which the
force of attraction attains its maximum, they separate. Were
this the true state of the case, the particles of solids must have
the same freedom of motion which those of liquids possess ; or
in other words, there could be no solid in nature. It is also
evident from sect. 12, 13, of the first volume of Newton’s
Principia, that whatever law of variation the centripetal force
obeys, the particles of solids must be in contact, otherwise the
observed pheenomena cannot be produced.

These departments of science have received but little at-
tention from modern chemical philosophers, except so far as
the subject of crystallization is concerned; and here, systems
are commouly received, which seem to be at variance with
established principles of physical science. For, spherical par-
ticles are so placed together, that if the centre of a particle be
joined with the centres of two adjacent ones, the lines form
angles of 60° or 90°: since every variety of crystal cannot be
produced by such arrangements, some particles have been
supposed to be spherical; others, ellipsoids, oblate and pro-
late, of various degrees of eccentricity. This being supposed,
a crystal cannot either expand or contract by change of tem-
perature : for if it contract, the particles must be compressible ;
if it expand, it is resolved into a liquid: this system cannot
account for the direction of the cleavages, nor explain why, on
heating the nucleus of a crystal (as a rhomb of carbonate of
lime), the acute angles are increased and the obtuse diminished.
Again, since nearly all known crystals are compound bodies,
this system has to suppose a compound atom; 7. ¢. a system of
several contiguous atoms, to assume the form of a regular el-
lipsoid, or some such figure, in all, except a few cases. The

argument

Physical Construction of Solids and Liquids. ALS

argument which militates mainly against the hypothesis, is
drawn from the phenomena of expansion and contraction,
which are impossible, as it is framed at present, which is ex-
cessively nearly, and in most parts precisely, the same with
Dr. Hooke’s (See Micrographia). :

In anumber of the Annals of Philosophy, (but at what time I
cannot exactly state, since I have not the series at hand,) I en-
deavoured to show how the particles of solid matter, being al-
ways in contact with each other, and obeying the laws which are
known to exist, may alter their relative position, and thereby
produce a change in the volume of the entire mass. The parti-
cles being always in contact with each other in certain points,
their order of arrangement admits of every variety between the
angles of 60° and 90°, being held in eguilibrio by the balance
of two opposite forces: hence may result every variety of form
in crystals, as well as the direction of the cleavages, as also
the phenomenon of the enlargement of the acute, and dimi-
nution of the obtuse angles. According to this hypothesis, the
force of cohesion is produced by the actual contact of the par-
ticles of matter, which force is so greatly diminished by se-
paration to the least distance, (Newtoni Principia, lib. i. sect.
12, 13,) that it is commonly said to vanish: the first sepa-
ration to even the least distance destroys that force which is
properly termed cohesive; and the particles are then held to-
gether by the force of the whole particle, as in liquids, as has
been shown in the former papers.

Were it possible to deprive bodies of all their caloric, or
to reduce them to the true zero, then the particles must be
in the closest possible contact; 7. e. the centres of three adja-
cent particles must occupy the angular points of an equilateral
triangle: in the utmost state of solid expansion, ali the angles
become right angles, as in Dr. Hooke’s and Dr. Wollaston’s
figures; between these extremes, the expansion of solids takes
pe It is then easy to compute the utmost degree of ex-
pansion of which a simple solid, if such exist, is capable, as
well as the distance to which the particles of a solid must se-
parate from each other, in order that it may expand or con-
tract during fusion. orm a rhombic parallelopipedon of small
spheres, placed in rectilinear rows, and so that each sphere of
one row shall be in contact with two spheres of the next. Let
A be one side of the rhombus; @ one of the acute angles; R the
tabular radius; the solid content is ~~~ ~— if there be
a spheres on each edge of the solid, the diameter of each is

A ; . An. ¥s , sep. Ae >
—, and its radius 5-3 its solid content Is “Ga 3 Siuce there
/ /

are

414 Rev. J. B. Emmett on Solids and Liquids.

are % spheres on each edge, the number in the whole solid is

7°; therefore the whole solidity of the spheres is = ; and
° . A3, sin 2 - A’ aes
the sum of the interstices = —~"-~ — 4; which is known

R: 6
when a is given.

The whole content of a cube, whose side is A = A};
therefore when the particles are arranged in a square form,
p.A3
a,
this paper, is the angle B in the former papers here quoted.
In any solid, let a become a right angle just before it fuses;
its content is A*; after fusion, let the distance A become
(A+h)3. sin? 60 (A+2)8 5.

R

the sum of the interstices = A? —

The angle a in

A +h; the content then is

2 rr R2 4° ’
hence, in order that there be neither expansion nor contrac-
: : f 3/4 :

tion during fusion, 4 = A tJ 4 —1 ; ; if 4 be greater, the
body expands during fusion; if less, it contracts. And the ut-

most expansion of which a solid is susceptible = AS} 1 -= i

A3 : P
Fig? this comprehends the whole possible range from the

true zero, or total privation of heat, and results from the change
which may take place in the relative position of equal sphe-
rical particles, held together and in perfect contact, by co-
hesion.

The particles of liquids are in equilibrio between two op-
posite forces, viz. attraction and the repulsive force of caloric.
The latter, in liquids decreases more rapidly than the former ;
for liquids expand by heat, and contract by being cooled:
but if it varied inversely as a lower power of the distance than
the centripetal force, the contrary must happen; if according to
the same power, matter could not exist in a liquid form, except
under pressure. This is evident from the nature of forces.

Now, when a solid is heated, the angle a increases, until
the force of cohesion is overcome; the particles then separate
from each other, and are arranged in regular hexagons: by
the evidence derived from experiment, the force of repulsion
exceeds that of attraction to a certain distance, beyond which
it is inferior to it; the distance of the point of equilibrium is,
therefore, a measure of the distance between the particles ; and
this point recedes from the particles as the temperature is in-
creased; until, by a certain increase of temperature, the par-
ticles become altogether repulsive, or the matter becomes
gaseous. J. B. Emmerv.

Great Ouseburn, March 12, 1827.

LX XSL Gi

LXXXII. On retaining Water in Rocks for Summer Use.
By Mr. Wittram StH, Engineer, M. Y.P.S. *

As practical applications of knowledge acquired from geo-

logy in relation to the comforts and conveniences of man
in a most essential article of life, must be considered matter
of importance, I hope to be excused for troubling the Society
with a detailed account of what I may call a Geological Reser- .
voir of water made in the hills near Scarborough in the dry-
est summer this country has experienced for sixty years.

We know from the annual variation of springs, that rocks
hold a much greater quantity of water in winter than in sum-
mer; and we further know, that in wet seasons rocks hold pe-
riodically much more than their annual average quantity both
in winter and summer: and hence the question as to the pos-
sibility of retaining water in rocks for summer use is decided
by the annual and periodical operations of nature.

For the means of altering or improving some of these na-
tural operations, so as to render the irregular supply of water
which falls upon the earth more convenient to the general
purposes of man, we must resort to geology ;—to find what
stratum is fitting for the object, and what site in the range
thereof; what the rock lies upon; what stratum or diluvium
covers it, and the dip, rises, and troughs or undulations in the
strata.

I have for many years entertained notions of the practica-
bility of making use of rocks as subterraneous reservoirs of
water, in some cases extensive enough for the use of canals:
and once, in a Report on Springs, suggested such a plan to one
of our canal companies. But tor the use of towns and dwell-
ing-houses, many situations may be found where the joints of
a rock are capacious enough for penning up winter water
therein, for use in even the dryest summers; as many springs
which then fail, produce a superabundant quantity in winter.

This was the state of the first springs anciently taken from
adjacent hills to supply the town of Scarborough; which sup-
ply has been from time to time increased and improved at the
expense of the Corporation. Within a few years new pipes
have been laid at a great expense.

Still however, in the summer months, when there was much
company in the place, water was deficient; and the commis-
sioners for improving the town undertook to search for more
water on the hill sides about a mile and half distant.

In the month of May last a small quantity was found to

* Read to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, March 1827; and com-
municated by the Rev. W. V. Vernon, Pres. Y.P.S.

issue

416 Mr. Smith on retaining Water in Rocks for Summer Use.

issue from a bore-hole made several years since for draining
the land. On cutting an open channel up to this, the dis-
charge increased and at the depth of nine or ten feet amounted
to tw enty-four hogsheads per hour. ‘This encouraged them to
proceed ; and the channel under my direction was deepened
four feet, when the discharge became for some time fifty or
sixty hogsheads per hour.

Suspecting from an intermediate and subsequent diminu-
tion that we had drawn off a confined stock of water, and that
the regular run of the spring at the end of a dry summer
might not be found sufficient, I suggested the propriety of
damming up the produce of this spring for summer use, as
the previous supply was more than sufficient for the town in
winter.

The circumstances were favourable for the purpose, as there
was no other known issue of water from the rock in that hill,
which is about a mile long, narrow on the top, and insulated
in all the upper part of its stratification. ‘The same rock is
not opened or known any where else on these hill sides, but
in a deep valley which separates the insular hill from the main
and higher hill of Falsgrave Moor, In the upper end of that
valley a spring was opened several years since in the same kind
of rock, and Was brought with a ‘declivity of thirty or forty
feet round the south end of the insulated hill, near to and high
enough to run into the opening made to the new spring. 'T his
was sufficient to prove the general rise of the rock westerly in
the base of the insular hill, “and beneath an isthmus connected
with the main ridge of Falsgrave Moor and Seamer Beacon.
The rock in which the spring was found is a yellowish fine-
grained crumbly sandstone, in thick beds, with open irony
joints, the same as in the cliff south of Scarborough Spa.
From the quantity of carbonaceous matter in it, it is here e called
“ coaly grit.” ‘This sandstone, with its overlying and alter-
nating clays, is analogous in position to the clay and sand
and sandstone between the cornbrash and great oolite rocks.
At the depth of ten feet the rock was found covered with regu-
lar clay about four feet thick ; on this a mark of coal, and a thin
bed of hard stone full of imper fect vegetable impressions ; and
up to the surface a very tenacious slidden clay. The rock was
found, by boring through it, to be ten feet thick, lying on clay.
The channel excavated up to the spring about thirty or forty
yards long, and fifteen feet deep, at the upper end was en-
tirely in a very tenacious clay partly diluvial, with a few
rounded stones in it deeply covered by slidden clay. Within
four feet of the edge of the rock lay gravel (deeply covered
also with slidden clay), consisting of large and small boulders

of

Mr. Smith on retaining Water in Rocks for Summer Use. 417

of whinstone, granite, mountain-limestone, &c. which gravel,
between the clay and the face of the rock tapered downward
‘to nothing” in the bottom of the excavation.

About two yards within the edge of the rock (which was
nearly as upright as a wall) a basin six feet in diameter and four
feet deep was excavated, to receive the water flowing from the
joints of the rock. Cast-iron pipes branching from the main
line of pipes were laid up to this basin, to receive the regular
flow of the spring, which before the end of summer was re-
duced to less than six hogsheads per hour. The clay chan-
nel, in the bottom of which the pipes were laid, was refilled
with clay and puddled, so that no water could pass from the
rock but through the pipes. The end of the last pipe was closed,
and a vertical aperture made for receiving the run of the
spring. No further contrivance was required for stopping the
water and damming it up in the rock, than an open vertical
pipe ground to fit tight into the aperture in the horizontal
pipe; and this to the height of four feet was done by pieces
of pipe, each a foot in length, tight-fitting one into another
for the convenience of wholly or partially damming or draw-
ing off the stored water as occasion might require; the water
being allowed to run in at the top of the pipe.

After the rainy days in the beginning of November last,
these short pieces of pipe were put in one after another, and
found to dam up the water in the joints of the rock to the
height of four feet, which from the quantity wasted last sum-
mer during the progress of the works, was calculated to con-
tain 5000 hogsheads. The vertical pipe being since closed at
top, (and lately also the main iron pipe,) the whole of the
water from those parts becomes forced into the cavities of the
rock, and now stands 14 feet deep at the spring, or 10 feet
higher than we calculated upon penning it; so that the subter-
raneous reservoir may contain 12,000 or 15,000 hogsheads of
water. This will be ascertained in the summer as it is drawn
down from time to time into the new arched reservoir in the
town. This reservoir, formed of a brick cylinder 18 feet deep,
sunk in the ground, and covered by a dome 40 feet span and
20 feet high, surrounded by a strong bank of earth, is calcu-
lated to contain 4000 hogsheads.

Scarborough, Feb. 5, 1827. WI.i1AM SMITH.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. 3H LXXXIII. Out-

[ 418 J

LX XXIII. Outlines of a Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature
and Properties of the Blood; being the Substance of three
Lectures on that Subject delivered at the Gresham Institution
during Michaelmas Term 1826. By Joun Spurcin, M.D.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of London, and of
the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

[Continued from p. 376.}

@er knowledge, however, of the red globules, would be
extremely limited, were it not for the assistance of the mi--
croscope; and although great discrepancy of information exists
among various microscopic observers respecting them, still
they all agree in regarding them as organized bodies, having
different ingredients entering into their composition. Their
appearance before the microscope will be stated presently.
With regard to their chemical composition and chemical pro-
perties, the latest writers on this subject, and the latest compilers
of the sentiments of others, observe, that these bodies still re-
main the subject of controversy ; for although they have en-
gaged the attention of some of the most acute modern chemists,
the results obtained by them are so discordant, that no con-
sistent or decided conclusion can be deduced from them. 'The
greatest reliance, though by no means an implicit one, is placed
on Berzelius, whe spent so much time in this department of ani-
mal chemistry; and his conclusion is, that these particles do
not materially differ from the other parts of the blood, except
in their colour, and in the circumstance of a quantity of the
red oxide of iron being found among their ashes after com-
bustion. The presence of iron cannot be detected however,
by the most delicate test, previous to the calcination; whence
Dr. Bostock supposes it to exist in no form, answering to
any of the known salts of this metal. ‘That this is the cause
of the red colour, Dr. B. thinks may be admitted as a
probable presumption: whilst Mr. Brande endeavours to
prove that it cannot be so, because he found the presence of
iron to be indicated as much in the colourless parts of the
blood as in the globules themselves; or rather, his results tend
to prove the almost entire absence of iron from the blood *.
A very remarkable property of the red globules is their chang-
ing colour on being exposed to the action of the different
gases. This change was observed to take place on exposing

* For the most recent experiments on the colouring matter of the blood,
which set at rest for ever the question, by confirming the existence of iron
in the red particles of the blood, by Engelhart and Rose, see the Edinburgh
Medical and Surgical Journal for Jan, 1827, vol. xxvii. No. 90, pp. 95, 96.
the

Dr. Spurgin on the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 419

the blood to the air, some time before the component parts of
the air were discovered: and Priestley fully proved that this
is owing to the oxygenous part of the air alone; and that car-
bonic acid and azote have the contrary effect, reducing bright
scarlet blood to a purple colour. And it is conjectured that
this change is owing to the presence of iron, and experienced
by the red globules alone.

The preservation of the life of the blood, and thence of the
body, would seem greatly to depend upon the change by which
this bright scarlet colour is constantly renewed and preserved ;
for as the blood loses this colour by its circulation through the
body, it is made to pass through the lungs after its arrival at
the heart before it can be distributed again from the heart to the
body. Now, the structure of the lungs is such as to admit of a
large quantity of air being exposed to an extensive surface of a
most minute and vascular net-work, whereby the dark venous
blood comes almost into contact with the air admitted into the
pulmonary air-cells ; the consequence of this is, an immediate
change of the dark venous blood to a bright scarlet colour, or
to what is commonly termed arterial blood, because such is the
blood contained in the arteries. But not only does the air exert
such an influence on the blood both in and out of the body, but
also certain other gases and certain’salts will manifest a similar
effect:—among the gases, the nitrous oxide more especially ;
and nitre, ammonia, and common salt, among the salts.

Many discordant circumstances have also been stated re-
specting the appearance of these globules before the micro-
scope; and different microscopic observers have described
them ina manner that might lead one to question, whether they
could have been engaged upon the same subject: for the evi-
dence of our eye-sight, and this assisted too by the magnifying
powers of an optical instrument like the microscope, ought to
be relied upon, if any satisfactory evidence at all can be ob-
tained for our guidance. But this instrument may be compared
in its power to the reasoning faculty of man; and we thence
need no longer be surprised, that the subjects zt is employed
upon, should, like the subjects of our reasoning powers, be dif-
ferently represented and differently apprehended by different
persons. Many of these anomalies have been attributed to the
instrument itself, and to its modification of the rays of light as
they pass through it; or to its conveying the altered modifica-
tions induced by the subject under examination itself, whereby
it imparts a false impression to the eye of the observer. And
certainly the instrument in question and the rational faculty are
nearly allied together in these respects ; for our minds are very

8H2 apt

420 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical

apt to turn the rays of truth into a wrong direction ; and not
only so, but to be deceived in turn by the aberrations or fal-
lacious appearances exhibited by the surface of things.

In no instance whatever have we a more striking example
of our being liable to fall into error, even with our eyes open ;
nay more, even with our eyes armed and guarded against all
possible deception! ‘The statements of different observers
are so directly opposed to one another, that in perusing them
we have felt extremely desirous to view these globules for
ourselves, and to be guided in our decision concerning their
form and nature by what our own eyes could discern. But as
we might incur the charge of seeing what our own theory and
sentiments required, and thence with seeing what no one else
could, we must be content with the testimony already afforded:
and by collecting all the facts that are in ayreement into one
heap, and not casting aside but rather keeping in view those
which are not, we may, perhaps, be fortunate enough to elicit
something from their conflicting testimony, that will conduct
us at length to a better acquaintance with these extraordinary
bodies.

Malpighi, it seems, was one of the first to employ this in-
strument (the microscope) to investigate the blood ; and he with
many others described the globules merely as globules floating
in the serum and imparting to the blood its red colour.. But
Leeuwenhoek, the greatest microscopic observer of all, by
paying very diligent attention to these bodies, professed to
have discovered that these were not simple spherules, but were
in fact composed of a series of globular bodies descending in
regular gradations: thus each of the red particles was sup-
posed to be made up of six colourless particles, and one of
these six to be made up of six other colourless particles; so
that the red particle was made up of thirty-six colourless ones.
Although this account of the red globules proceeded from the
very highly celebrated Leeuwenhoek, and was made the basis
of many theories that were advanced by tke physicians of his
and the following age, particularly by the renowned Boér-
haave, yet it was at length disputed: and Lancisi and Senac,
and afterwards the great physiologist Haller, were among the
foremost to discard the doctrine altogether, by denying such
a composition to have any but an imaginary existence. Hew-
son, Hunter, the Abbé Torré, Monro, and Dr. Young, differ
in their descriptions of these globules. ‘The first described
them as consisting of a solid centre, surrounded by a vesicle
filled with a fluid, and sometimes assuming an elliptical form.
Hunter never could discern this latter circumstance, nor

does

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 421

does he mention the investing vesicle or the central nucleus:
and what is singular, he never could discover them in some
animals, as in the silkworm and lobster. He regards these
bodies as liquids possessing a central attraction, which deter.
mines their figure. ‘Torré stated them to be like flattened
annular bodies, or like rings composed of a number of se-
parate parts cemented together. ‘To Monro, they appeared
as circular flattened bodies like coins, with a dark spot in the
centre, which he conceived was owing to a depression, and
not to a perforation. Cavallo believes them to be simple
spheres. The account recently given of these bodies by Dr.
Young confirms in a degree the statement of Hewson. He
remarks, that if the globules be viewed by a strong light, they
will appear like simple transparent spheres; but that if we
examine them by a confined and diversified light, we shall be
better able to ascertain their real figure and structure. The
red particles of the skate, as being larger and more distinct, are
better fitted for such an examination. ‘These are almond-shaped,
and consist of an external envelope containing a central nu-
cleus. This central nucleus is independent of the envelope;
for when this latter has been removed or destroyed, the nu-
cleus still appears to retain its original form *.

With regard to the size of the red globules, there has been
as much difference of opinion as we have adduced respecting
their form. The medium of the most correct observations
and measurements would represent a globule to be about the
5000dth part of an inch in diameter.

The external envelope, from the most recent observations,
is now believed to be either principally or entirely the colouring
matter, and the central nucleus itself to be without colour. It
was generally supposed that the particles were soluble in wa-
ter: but Dr. Young informs us, that it is the colouring matter
which is contained in the envelope that is so; and he points
out a method by which the central nucleus may be procured,
retaining its perfect form in water, after the red part has been
dissolved.

The information we possess of the origin of these red glo-
bules is extremely vague and indefinite, whilst we appear to
be entirely ignorant of the mode of their formation. An in-
teresting account is given in the Philosophical Transactions for
1819, by Sir E. Home, of some observations that were made
by Mr. Bauer on the serum of the blood. Mr. Bauer remarks,
says Sir Everard, “thatthe globules in the blood are pro-
duced in the serum, I first observed in July 1817; when I ex-

* Bostock’s Physiology, vol. i. p. 457.

amined

422 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical

amined a small portion of human blood on a glass plate, to
ascertain the real shape and size of the globules. I then found
in one square of the micrometer (which was the 160,000dth
part of a square inch) two of these globules, which were se-
parated to a considerable distance from the rest; they were
entirely disengaged from the cclouring substance, and lay in
pure clear serum, which covered the surface of the whole square
inch of the micrometer. Having placed this particular square
immediately under the focus of the microscope, I attentively
examined the globules for about six or eight minutes, when [
perceived two extremely minute opaque spots arising in the
clear serum within the same square of the micrometer, and
which seemed increasing in size. In a few minutes more I
perceived five or six more such opaque spots arising and gra-
dually increasing, and assuming the same form and appear-
ance as the two original globules; but the moisture of the
serum being nearly evaporated, I diluted it with water, when
all the seven new globules, as well as the two original ones,
floated in the water, and appeared of precisely the same shape
and white colour; and three of the new globules were of the
same size as the original ones, but the rest were smaller.
When left on the glass to dry, the globules remained of the
same shape and size as they were whilst floating in the serum.

‘‘ The above experiment,” he proceeds to say, “I have
repeated a great many times with human blood, as well as
with sheep’s and calves’ blood; and the results have been al-
ways the same. When warm and fresh blood was used, the
serum covering the surface of a 160,000dth part of a square
inch, produced from 6 to 12 globules; but when the serum
was diluted with water, the number of globules produced was
less, and they were smaller in size.

“On the 11th of August 1817, I poured half a pint of warm
sheep’s blood into a glass vessel, and left it 48 hours at rest to
coagulate. I then poured off the serum into another vessel, in
which it remained at rest six hours; with this serum a glass
tube four inches long, and 3-8ths in diameter inside, was filled
to overflowing, and closed with a good cork, and covered with
a bladder. The serum was as clear as water; and although I
examined it very attentively, I could not see more than 15 or
20 globules in the whole extent of the tube. It was kept in-
verted in a glass of water. At the end of seven days, upon
holding the tube between my fingers, which were tolerably
warm, and examining it with a double lens of considerable
magnifying power, I saw some hundreds of globules rise from
the bottom and ascend in a straight line in the centre of the
tube, and when arrived within about half an inch of the up-

per

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood. 423

per end, they spread in all directions, and descended close to
the sides of the tube; when near the bottom they re-ascended,
but more rapidly than the first time; and when held longer in
the warm hand, the rapidity of the motion was much increased.
In two days more I found on examination the number of
globules much greater; and on the 25th of September the
numbey of globules was such as to form a sediment at the bot-
tom of the tube of half an inch in thickness, besides a strong
coat on the inside of the tube.”

A similar experiment was made on human blood by Mr.
Faraday, at the Royal Institution, with similar results. Dr.
Bostock informs us that the buffy coat of inflamed blood con-
sists almost entirely of these lymph-globules as they are called;
and this agrees with the discovery of Dr. Dowler, that the
buffy coat contains a very large proportion of serum. Dr. B.
remarks further, that after much discussion respecting the
structure of the red particles, Dr. Young appears to have at
length decided this point, by showing that the colour of the
blood is produced by a vesicle which surrounds a colourless
globule; while the still later observations of Mr. Bauer, to
which may be added those of MM. Prevost and Dumas, ren-
der it probable that these central colourless globules compose
the fibrin.

Prevost and Dumas regard the blood as essentially com-
posed of serum, holding in suspension a quantity of red par-
ticles, which consist of central colourless globules inclosed in
a coloured vesicle or coat. When the fluid is drawn from the
vessels, the central globules, in consequence, as it may be in-
ferred, of the loss of their envelope, are attracted together,
and disposed to arrange themselves in lines or fibres, thus
forming the basis of the clot or crassamentum. These fibres
mechanically entangle in the net-work which they form, a
quantity of the serum and of the colouring matter, which, by
simple draining, or by sufficient ablution in water, may be re-
moved from them. What we then procure is pure fibrin;
this substance they therefore identify with the central globule,
and the clot generally with the entire particle. ‘They consi-
der the colouring matter as a compound of a peculiar animal
substance and the peroxide of iron. Water possesses the pro-
perty of breaking down these vesicles and detaching them from
their nuclei, but does not dissolve them. They state that
the various re-agents act upon the albumen in the same man-
ner as upon fibrin. According to their observations the quan-
tity of red globules in the entire mass of the blood bears an
exact ratio with the temperature of the animal; and arte-

rial

424 Dr. Spurgin’s Outlines of a Philosophical

rial contains a greater proportion of them than venous blood.
—The appearances exhibited by the blood in different diseases
of the body have been minutely described by different patho-
logists, as well as the alteration which takes place in its phy-
sical properties: but it must be acknowledged that there is
scarcely a fact that can be relied upon that would indicate
any decided difference in its chemical constitution. An in-
ference is drawn from a few experiments upon the relative
composition of the blood in the different periods of life,—that
as age advances, the proportion of azote increases; which is
consistent with the opinion of there being more fibrin in the
blood of the adult than in that of the infant. Fourcroy in-
forms us that he found the blood of the foetus to contain no
fibrin, but a gelatinous substance in its stead.

Before chemistry arrived at its present comparative degree
of perfection, the only mode of examination of the blood re-
sorted to, was to subject it to the destructive distillation, as it
is called,—which consists in exposing it to the action of heat,
and thence in forcing its component parts and its ultimate ele-
ments to enter into new combinations, and to yield products
altogether different from any thing that can be found in the
blood in its natural state. ‘This mode of examination is cer-
tainly highly objectionable, more especially if it leads the in-
quirer to conclude that the products so obtained exist as
such in the blood; but the later and improved mode not only
has a greater claim to the appellation of chemical analysis,
but is superior to the former in one essential particular, viz.
in its proving to a demonstration that the elements of the
blood do form new combinations, and thence entirely new pro-
ducts. But it at the same time proves its own fallibility and
deficiency in another respect, viz. that it affords no ground
for supposing that the results of its analysis are absolutely
the same with what exists in and compounds the blood in its
living state. Compared with the other mode it may be regarded
as a closer approximation to the truth, but not the truth itself.
Giving it its whole scope and power, this mode informs us that
the great portion of the blood, which it denominates the ani-
mal matter, in contradistinction to the salts and gaseous parts,
is, as to its ultimate composition, a combination of oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon and azote; whilst the various forms under
which it exists, are only combinations of these ultimate ele-
ments in different proportions.

Taking the vegetable kingdom in general, this mode of
analysis discovers a similar law to obtain, the only exclusion
being the azote, whence, chemically speaking, the great dif-

ference

Inquiry into the Nature and Properties ofthe Blood. 425

ference between animal and vegetable matter, consists in the
former possessing an ingredient that the latter does not, ex-
cept to a very small extent indeed.

To do justice, however, to the labours and ingenuity of the
past age, we are bound to confess that but little more is known
at this day, concerning the proximate elements or ingredients
of the blood than at the time alluded to: and that whilst some
addition has been made to the store of our knowledge on this
head, some material facts known to the physiologists of that age
have either been lost or overlooked ; and what is worse, certain
facts have been recently regarded as new discoveries and ob-
servations, which are not so. The illustrious men to whose
labour and ingenuity we are now adverting more especially, are
Leeuwenhoek, Lancisius, Boérhaave, Gulielmus, Malpighi,
Heister, and others. To adduce an instance or two: Leeuwen-
hoek distinctly speaks of the globules in the serum, which Sir
E. Home informs us were first seen and described by Mr. Bauer,
and the existence of which Mr. Faraday afterwards confirmed.
The opinion of the spherules arranging themselves into right
lines and forming fibres, was entertained by Leeuwenhoek be-
fore Prevost and Dumas or Mr. Bauer were in existence.
The destructive distillation of the mass of the blood, as per-
‘formed by modern chemists, differs but little in its results
from those of an earlier date; but as there is more accuracy
in chemical manipulations now than formerly, we will adduce
the result obtained by this process by Dr. Thomson. “ When
blood is dried by a gentle heat, water exhales from it, retain-
ing a very small quantity of animal matter in solution, and
consequently having the odour of blood. Blood dried in this
manner being introduced into a retort and distilled, there comes
over, first a clear watery liquor, then carbonic acid gas, and
carbonate of ammonia, which crystallizes in the neck of the
retort; after these products,there comes over a fluid oil, carbu-
retted hydrogen gas, and an oily substance of the consistence
of butter. By the same process, and by increasing the heat, a
light smoke is emitted, which affects the eyes and nose, has the
odour of prussic acid, and reddens blue vegetable colours: ata
more advanced stage of the process, denser fumes arise, which
on examination possess the properties of phosphoric acid.”

The above facts and observations, derived from the testi-
mony of the most celebrated chemists and physiologists, are
among the most important that are considered as throwing any
light on the nature of the blood. But the remarks with which
we set out are amply confirmed hereby ; for we may see, most
plainly, that the experience afforded us by one science, as che-
mistry for example, is not sufficient to complete our knowledge

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. | or

426 Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

or doctrine concerning it. On the contrary, it is indispensable
for us to be acquainted at the same time with all the organs
and viscera through which it circulates, as to their functions
and actions ; with the principles and elements of the physical
sciences, and with those pathological facts which make up our
knowledge of disease, or with the effects induced on the body
by disease. And not only so, but we ought likewise te keep in
remembrance the vicissitudes and changes of state which are
induced on the body by numberless external and internal in-
fluences, whether by climate, seasons, states of the weather ; or
by diversities of food, medicines or the like ; or by passions of
the mind, which may be either in an orderly or disorderly
condition :—in short, the circuit of science in its widest range;
its height and its depth, must all be searched, in order to arrive
at a complete knowledge and doctrine of the blood.

It will not be difficult to discern, therefore, the reason of
our comparative ignorance, and of our real uncertainty con-
cerning its true nature; for in proportion to the limited views
we take of this wonderful fluid will our means fail us of es-
caping from the labyrinthian windings of the subject, or of ex-
tricating ourselves from those difficulties respecting the nature
of life which the materialist delights in on the one hand, and
the mystic broods upon on the other.

In our next lecture we shall proceed to consider the Flu-
idity and Vitality of the Blood.

(To be continued.]

LXXXIV. On the Geology of East Norfolk; with Remarks
upon the Hypothesis of Mr. Robberds, respecting the former
Level of the German Ocean. By R. C. Taytor, Esq. F.G.S.

[Concluded from page 353.]

THE ground upon which the town of Yarmouth stands is

decidedly alluvial. Four distinct processes contributed to
its formation. The first may be traced in the accumulation of
heavy materials, rolled by the action of the sea; the second
in the deposit of oozy sediment from muddy waters ; the third
in the external covering of sand by the operations of the winds;
and lastly, in the rise and decay of vegetable substances.

The wind is a more powerful agent in forming the sandy
belts which defend our shores, than has been imagined. Mr.
Robberds has overlooked this circumstance altogether, in spe-
culating on the origin of the low lands between Caister and
Gorleston. His arguments are, that if the sea retained the
same level as when it washed up the banks across this zstu-
ary, it would occasionally still overflow those mounds; and

its

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 427

its waters would be capable of sweeping away at one time,
what they may have brought at another ; for ‘itis physically
impossible that water, even in a state of the most impetuous
agitation, should raise any permanent barrier against its own
course.”

It is no less singular than true, that in the whole circuit of
our shores, wherever the substantial barriers of high lands,
cliffs and rocks are wanting, except in the cases of retiring un-
exposed inlets, nature has substituted defences of sand, accu-
mulated by the winds, preserved by peculiar plants, and rarely
requiring the assistance of man to render them effectual.

Has Mr. Robberds never rambled by the side of the sand-
hills, formed by the actions of the winds, along the coast be-
tween Winterton and Happisburgh; or witnessed the remark-
able ridges of sand, provincially termed Meals, by which the
harbours of Cley, Blakeney, Wells, Burnham and Brancaster,
are securely defended from the fury of the northerly gales ?
These hills are 50 or 60 feet high; they are composed of dry
sand, bound in a compact mass by the long creeping roots and
fibres of the plant called marram:—Arundo arenaria*. To
this singularly useful plant the sand-hills owe their consolida-
tion and elevation ; it has been cultivated with some care upon
our coast, and the industrious Dutch are indebted to its assist-
ance for the preservation of their islands and flat coasts.

On the western coast, where the tides attain a great eleva-
tion, the marshes of Pembrey in Carmarthenshire have four
or five concentric ridges of similar hillocks, forming as perfect
and permanent barriers against the sea as the art of man
could execute.

The mouth of the River Ogmoor, in Glamorganshire, pre-
sents a singular appearance of desolation at the present mo-
ment, through the agency of the wind and sand. _ Its ancient
channel is filled up for two miles; houses are rendered unin-
habitable, and sand-hills are raised nearly 150 feet. The moun-
tains which bound the harbour will check the advance of this
sand-flood into the interior; otherwise it threatens to over-
whelm all the lands which adjoin it ; while the squalls of wind,
rushing down the steep valleys, occasion eddies, which deposit
the sand at an elevation apparently far beyond the reach of
such an irresistible enemy.

There is no need to multiply instances; and having men-

* “One of the most valuable grasses for binding the sand of the sea-
shore, and raising those banks which in Norfolk, and especially in Holland,
are the chief defences of the country against the encroachments of the
ocean. Elymus arenarius, Carex arenaria, and even Festuca rubra, contri-
bute to the same end.” Smith’s English Flora, vol. i. p. 172.

$12 tioned

428 Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

tioned these, out of many of a similar description, the com-
paratively insignificant height to which the sand has hitherto
been drifted on Yarmouth Denes (dunes or downs), will
scarcely be considered deserving further discussion. At all
events it may be stated, since the fourteenth century the ope-
ration has proceeded unceasingly, and may at a future period
become a formidable evil to that town. It is an historical fact,
that part of the ground within the limits of the Burgh is arti-
ficially raised. The ramparts round the inside of the walls
were constructed in 1663, from “those little sand-banks which
the sea and easterly winds had raised on the denes.”

It is a well known fact, proved before a committee of the
House of Commons during the last and present session of par-
liament, that the chief portion of the eastern marshes is even
now eighteen inches to two feet below the surface of the rivers
which pass through them, and that the water is artificially
kept out by embankments and draining mills. Consequently,
were the operations of these to be suspended, the valleys
would, even under the present circumstances as to the ad-
mission of tides, be overflowed about the same depth as the
unembanked Lake of Breydon.

All the tidal waters that proceed up the various streams and
diffuse themselves over Breydon Lake, must previously pass
through an opening or water-way only about 150 feet wide at
Yarmouth bridge; and such are the obstructions so narrow a
passage and the bar present to the ingress of the tide, that an
eminent engineer has recently reported that the height of high-
water above Yarmouth bridge is from one to three feet lower
than at the haven’s mouth. The average rise of the tide
throughout the year at Yarmouth bridge being only three or
four feet, the absolute quantity of sea water passing into the
interior is therefore very small.

Let us contemplate the effect produced, when an immensely
increased volume of water pressed forward, unimpeded, through
several wide openings, as in the former state of the Saxon
shore. It would be contrary to all analogy to assume that
these inlets ever existed upon such an exposed coast, and
amidst such moveable materials, without bars at their mouths,
like the deep Forths of Scotland, to which they have been
improperly assimilated. Nevertheless, a large body of sea
water would advance, and be forced, in proportion to the width
and depth of those openings and the absence or presence of
obstructions, more or less far up the valleys. ‘The waters of
wide eestuaries being impelled by the force of the tides from
behind, and being restricted in their channels as they proceed
by the contracting high grounds, actually attain a ain

ligher

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk. 429

higher elevation than the open sea whence they proceed. On
the contrary, in narrow entrances, like the haven of Yar-
mouth, the tidal waters speedily sustain a material decrease
in their height; and in this instance, we have seen that the
level of Lake Breydon is from one to three feet lower than
the ocean, from which it is separated by an alluvial bank
not half a mile across. If to the thickness of the bed of ooze
be added the difference between its present surface and that
of the sea at high tides, we obtain the absolute depth of water
which could with any probability be contained within the es-
tuaries, at the earliest period, before they received any portion
of their covering of marine sediment. But there appear no
conclusive reasons for assigning a higher level than four or
five feet above the mean height of the existing rivers, at any
period of which we possess historical records.

Surely Mr. Robberds’s etymology of Herringby and Her-
ringfleet is explained to favour a given theory, and must be
received with caution. One at least is an evident corruption
of compound Anglo-Saxon words, and has no reference to
fish, whose habits lead them to avoid shallow muddy rivers.
In Domesday Book, Herringby is written Har-ing-ber. Her-
ringfleet is spelt Herl-yng-flete ; and in a subsequent record
we have it Herl-inga-flet : the two first syllables being clearly
the same as Herling, lately written Harling, in Shropham
hundred.

About the year 901 the boundaries of the counties and hun-
dreds were defined, and the limits of parishes and manorial
jurisdictions were determined. These provincial subdivisions,
and even the estates into which they were further appropri-
ated, are carefully registered in Domesday Book. It happens,
without any exception, that all the boundaries of the counties,
hundreds, and local jurisdictions of this district, are the rivers
which wind through the various marshy valleys. It follows,
therefore, that these streams had, as early as the year 900,
formed themselves channels, adapted to mark the boundaries
of property; which channels have continued to our times,
with little alteration, except at their immediate outlets.

They were gradually embanked, as cultivation proceeded
and the value of land increased. We know that the river
which divides the hundreds of Flegg and Happing was em-
banked previously to 1274, near the Abbey of Holm; for in
that year occurred a dispute about the right of fishing from
the river’s banks.

One mode of estimating the comparative elevation of the
waters, is distinctly furnished in the causeways or dams, which
were early constructed across the wstuaries. ‘The bridge call-

ed

430 Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

ed Weybrigg, at Acle, and the great causeway connecting with
it, were certainly in existence in the eleventh century; and
we find that payments were made towards their repazr in 1101,
and succeeding years. ‘This causeway is so little above the
present level of the river and marshes, that even in our own
times it has been repeatedly overflowed. At any rate, it es-
tablishes the negative fact, that no very important change has
taken place in seven centuries at a point adjoining the broad-
est part of the main estuary, and only eight miles from the
sea.

It is stated in a preceding page, that to a limited extent
the channels of the Yare and other rivers were wider than at
present ; evinced by the peaty margins and the deposit of silt
in the undisturbed recesses. These circumstances are con-
firmatory of the reduced supply of tidal waters, and show that
the streams have gradually accommodated themselves to the
volume of water which they have to convey.

With regard to the arrival of the Danish fleet at Norwich,
A. D. 1004, no other change is needed to explain the pro-
bability of such an event, than has been accounted for. At
that early period of the art of navigation, ships were con-
structed of little burden and of light draught; and with the
advantages of several feet of tide, there could be little hazard
in attempting a navigation which even at this day is capable
of admitting the smaller description of coasting vessels. Nor
could there be much danger under the circumstances, in an
enterprize where there was neither a hostile fleet nor army to
contend against; and where, on arriving at the capital of Kast
Anglia, the invaders found the inhabitants unprepared for de-
fence, and eager to purchase an humiliating peace.

The Saline, mentioned in Domesday Book, were chiefly
situated on the north shore of the main zstuary, within three
miles of its mouth ; 39 of them being at Caister, and 30 more
in the two contiguous parishes. None occur in the Norwich,
Beccles, or Kirkley valleys; and as it does not appear that
saltworks were mentioned after the Confessor’s time, it is
probable that the north entrance commenced silting up shortly
after, so as to exclude the requisite admission of sea water for
such works *.

Some uncertainty prevails with respect to an open commu-
nication between the ocean and the extensive watery flat near
Horsea. Mr. Robberds’s map shows two pvints by which the
sea appears to have penetrated into this flat. Local records
are silent upon that head. ‘There is no mention of saltworks

* The value of a Salina was at that time estimated at sevenpence.
upon

LO Ee errr

eg

tits

Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk, 431

upon its borders, or of any other circumstances positively im-
plying such an event. From the remotest period to which we
can refer, it has been a branch of the main estuary of the
Garienis, and by this channel the drainage of the district is
effected. The soil is composed chiefly of peat, rather than of
ooze; the first characterizing the upper parts of a valley, the
latter its mouth. Whether by the gradual external wearing
away of this coast, the sea approached so near this flat as
occasionally to overflow the intervening bank of sand; or
whether that bank results from the abrasion of the cliffs to the
north, and blocks up an ancient inlet,—there are scarcely suf-
ficient data to determine. The existence, therefore, of those
northern channels, although not improbable, must remain
conjectural.

There is a mistaken quotation at p. 66, stating that, A. D.
1549, an armed pinnace was sent up the Waveney, as far as
Weybread. As the place is called Waybridge in the original
authority, this evidently refers to Waybridge, near Acle; that
being the most important pass between Yarmouth and Nor-
wich, near which place the rebel army was encamped. Wey-
bread in Suffolk was far removed from the theatre of opera-
tions, independently of the physical improbability of any ves-
sel ascending this stream, at least 40 feet above the level of
the Yarmouth river, and of passing half-a-dozen water-mills,
which interpose in its course. It would not have been neces-
sary to notice this error, but for the circumstance of its being
classed with proofs of the aliitude of the water, as late as the
sixteenth century.

No further comments are suggested by the historical evi-
dence adduced to corroborate the physical circumstances that
have previously been investigated, to sustain the theory of an
extraordinary reduction in the level of the waters of our zstu-
aries, and by inference, in that of the surrounding seas.

The result of the foregoing inquiry is opposed to that hy-
pothesis. This inquiry suggests views of cause and effect ade-

uate to the admitted extent of the change, which are briefly
i p

That as long as the ocean-currents set unrestricted into
these estuaries, it was in sufficient quantity to expand over
and fill them; the elevation being limited by the height ot
the tides at the time, and the depth by the greater or less ac-
cumulation of oozy sediment.

That there was from the remotest period, through the local
causes which have been detailed, a progressive decrease in
the volume of this water, and by consequence a reduction, in
an equal ratio, of the power to maintain an open mouth.

That

432 Mr. R.C. Taylor on the Geology of East Norfolk.

That the same causes which finally closed the sestuary at
Caister, were simultaneously operating to bar the ancient
haven at Kirkley, and probably to exclude the sea from the
more northerly inlets.

That as soon as the admission of the tide was limited to
one narrow and obstructed inlet, the quantity thenceforward
was so trifling that ‘many thousand acres became dry, and
in time good pasturage for cattle.” With the assistance of em-
bankments, the entire level of marshes became firm land; rich
vegetation covered its surface, and the rivers were restricted
to their deep channels.

This is the solution of that change whose traces are yet so
perceptible ; a solution compatible with all the real circum-
stances, physical and historical, with which the subject is con-
nected. Whilst care has been taken to divest the recital of its
apparently exaggerated features, abundant range has been
allowed, in accordance with physical probability, for all re-
corded facts and fairly inferred occurrences.

There exists nothing in the series of phanomena, displayed
within the limits of these eastern valleys, that is not repeated
on a tenfold scale, in the fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridge-
shire. We have there the spectacle of a tract as extensive as
the county of Norfolk ; once an inland sea, now valuable and
productive land ;—subjected, in its various stages, to opera-
tions similar to those on the shores of the Garienis :—reclaim-
ed, abandoned to the ocean, and again reclaimed ;—while
the efforts of nature in this earth-forming process, seconded
by the labours of man, have been recorded with instructive
fidelity.

Assumptions founded on the limited considerations of local
operations, of obvious origin and of daily occurrence, are ob-
jectionable, because the deductions drawn from thence are
seldom applicable to general principles.

The filling up an estuary by the gradual precipitation from
waters charged with alluvial mud, and the consequent exclu-
sion of the tide from its ancient receptacles, offers no better
claim on which to establish the principle of a general depres-
sion of all the seas in this quarter of our globe, than the ac-
tual elevation of several feet, through obvious volcanic agency,
of the bed of the Pacific Ocean for a hundred miles parallel
to the Andes, proves the general depression of the entire wa-
ters of that immense ocean.

The antediluvian shells in the margin of the Norwich val-
ley, prove a local formation only; not the general elevation
of the North Sea, subsequent to the deluge. As well might
Mr. Robberds have fixed the general elevation of the mighty

water

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. 433

waters at that point on the Apennines, where are deposited
the Buccine, the Turbines, and Murices, of which analo-
gous genera are so abundant at Bramerton: or have as-
cended the scale, and carried its limits yet higher,—where, at
the height of twelve hundred toises, upon the Andes, M. Hum-
boldt discovered the fossil teeth of the mastodon, whose re-
mains are also found with the crag shells in our humble val-
ley of Norwich.

It was the common error of the English geologists of the
last century, to deduce consequences from too limited pre-
mises. Thus our Whitehurst, Woodward, Whiston, Hutton,
and other intelligent observers, had each his favourite theory :
each saw in the phenomena around him sufficient confirma-
tion of a preconceived hypothesis ; each reasoned and specu-
lated from the confined data which came under his own par-
ticular observation: and, as it happens in all those cases where
research is limited to the evidence of peculiar systems, the
facts were not always recorded so impartially as the strictness
of geological inquiry demands. Thus, for a time, schools were
instituted, the disciples of which saw only through the eyes of
their respective masters, and rejected truths which harmo-
nized not with their views. It is obvious that such a process
tended rather to confuse, than to simplify and facilitate the
progress of this science.

This disposition to theorize has happily decreased, as the
number of observers has augmented ; while all unite to collect
the data, to arrange the documents, and to combine those
proofs, whence hereafter will arise some incontrovertible and
universally acknowledged principle, by which to account for
phznomena at present so inexplicable.

LXXXV. A Synopsis of the Birds discovered in Mexico by
W. Bullock, 7.2.8. and H.S., and Mr. William Bullock,
jun. By Wit11am Swainson, Esq. F.RS. FLAS. §c.

[Concluded from p. 369.]

Fam. SyLvIADz&.
G. Tricuas. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

37. Trichas personatus. Sylvia trichas, Wilson i. pl. 6.f-1.
Near Vera Cruz,

G. Syivicoita, Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.,
38. Sylvicola pusilla, Wilson iv. pl. 28. f. 1.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6, June 1827. 3K 39. Sylvicola

AS4: Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico.
39. Sylvicola Blackburnia. Wilson iii. pl. 23. f. 3.

40. citrinella. Wilson ii. pl. 15. f. 5.
41. flavicollis. Wilson ii. pl. 13. f. 6.
42. znornata.

Above olive green, beneath white; sides of the head, ears,
and throat cinereous; wings with two pale yellow bands.
This, and all the foregoing species, were collected near Vera

Cruz, and seem to be young birds.

G. Vermivora. Wilson. Swazns. 72 Zool. Journ. No. 10.

43. Vermivora solitaria. Wilson ii. pl. 15, f. 4.
Inhabits with the last.

44. Vireo olivacea. Sw. Wilson ii. pl. 12. f. 2.

Fam. FRINGILLIDA.

45. Alauda cornuta. Wilson i. pl. 5. f. 4.

To continue the specific name of Alpestris to a bird which,
as Wilson affirms, is only seen upon sandy plains, is a mani-
fest absurdity. I have, therefore, adopted the alteration
which that accurate observer himself has suggested.

44 Pipilo macronyx.

Olive, head and throat black, body white, sides and vent fer-
ruginous; wings and lateral tail feathers (in one sex) with
yellow spots.

Table land. Real del Monte. Temiscaltipec.

Total length, 9 inches: wings, 34; tail, 44; tarsi, 1,5; hind
toe and claw, +°,.

4.5. Pipilo maculata.

Olivaceous brown; head and throat black ; body white ; sides
and vent rufous; back, wings, and lateral tail feathers with
white spots.

Table land. Real del Monte.

Total length, 84: wings, 35; tail, 4; tarsi, 1,; hind toe
and claw, 3.

46. Pipilo fusca.

Gray, beneath paler ; throat obscure fulvous with brown spots ;
vent ferruginous.

Table land. Temiscaltipec.

Total length, 8: bill, 4; wings, 32; tail, 4; tarsi, x4; hind
toe and claw, =.

The two preceding species are typical; the next is aberrant.

4.7. Pipilo rufescens.
Rufous brown, beneath whitish ; crown rufous; ears grayish ;
chin with a lateral black stripe.
Table land. Temiscaltipec.
Total length, 7: bill, .°,; wings, 3; tail, 31% 5 tarsi, 4.

G. Am-

EE EI

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. 435

G. AmMMopramMus. Swazns. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

48. Ammodramus bimaculatus.

Above gray, varied with chesnut lines and black spots; be-
neath ochraceous white, unspotted ; breast with a lateral
black spot.

Table land. Temiscaltipec.

Total length, 44: bill, $; wings, 2,3, ; tail, 14; tarsi, 3; hind
claw and toe, +3.

G. CuHonpEsTES. Swazns. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

49. Chondestes strigatus*.

Fulvous brown, beneath whitish; ears and double stripe on
the head chesnut; chin with a lateral black stripe; lateral
tail feathers black, tipt with white.

Table land. Temiscaltipec.

Total length, 62: bill, 4; wings, 34; tail, 34 ; tarsi, 4.

50. Fringilla socialis. Wilson ii. pl. 15. f. 5.
Table land. Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte.

. Fringilla cinerea.
Cinereous, beneath whitish; back and wing covers rufous;
tail divaricated, the outer feather white.
Table land. Temiscaltipec.
Total length, 64: bill, 5; wings, 23 ; tail, 3; tarsi, 58).

52. Pyrrhula frontalis. Bonaparte, Am. Orn. i. pl. 6. f. 1. 2.

Table land. Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte.

Total length, 52: bill, 3,; wings, 342, ; tail, 23 ; tarsi, +3,.

I adopt the name by which that enlightened ornithologist
Prince Charles Bonaparte has distinguished this species ;
although I am at present unprepared to offer any opinion
as to its true affinities.

53. Carduelis Mexicanus.

Glossy black, beneath yellow; base of the quills and lateral
tail feathers white. :

Table land. Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte.

Total length, 44 : bill =, ; wings, 23; tail, 2; tarsi, 4.

~

a

—

Fam. STuRNIDA.
54. G. Doticnonyx. Swazins. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

Dolichonyx orzivorus. Sw. Wilson ii. pl. 12. f. 1, 2. /
Table land,

* Since the above was written, I have been gratified by a sight of the
valuable addition made to “ American Ornithology” by Prince Charles Bo-
naparte. I have it not in my power, at this moment, to institute a com-
parison between the bird above described, and the Fringilla grammaca of
this writer. They appear, however, to belong to the same group; but as
the characters of the genus Spiza are not there detailed, I know not
whether it accords with my definition of Chondestes.

$K@2 55. Agelaus

436 Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico.

55. Agelaus pecoris. Sw. Wilson ii. pl. 18.
Table land, near Mexico.

56. Agelaus Pheeniceus. Vieil., Wilson iv. pl, 30. f. 1, 2.
Sides of the Cordilleras. Real del Monte.

57. Agelaus longipes.

Blackish brown; front, temples, and throat fulvous yellow ;
bill short.

Table land: rare.

Male. Total length, 84: bill, ., ; wings, 5.,; tarsi, 142,; mid-
dle toe and claw, I>.

Taking L. Suchii as the type of the genus Leistes, it ap-
pears to me that the three foregoing birds, with several
others in my possession, are sufficiently distinct, as a group,
to remain under their former designation. So far as my in-
formation goes, Leistes is a genus peculiar to South Ame-
rica, and is immediately connected to Xanthornus. Agelaus,
on the contrary, is more closely allied to Sturnella.

58. Sturnella magna. Wilson iii. pl. 19. f. 2.
Table land: very common at Real del Monte.

59. Xanthornus Baltimore. Wilson i. pl. 1. f. 3.
Table land, Real del Monte.

60. Xanthornus Bullockii.

Black; rump and under parts golden yellow; lesser wing co-
vers white; throat with a black stripe ; ears and eye-stripe
golden.

Table land: rare.

This, the most beautiful of the group yet discovered in Mexico,
will record the name of those ornithologists who have thrown
so much light on the birds of that country.

G. CassicuLus. Swazns. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

61. Cassiculus coronatus.
Black; wing covers, rump, vent, and lateral tail feathers yel-
low ; crest elongated, pendulous ; bill white.
Table land. Temiscaltipec.
Total length, 12 inches: bill, 1,°,; wings, 6; tail, 54; tarsi, 1+.

62. Icterus Dominicensis. Pl. Enl. pl. 5. f. 1.
Table land. Temiscaltipec, not uncommon.

63. Icterus Mexicanus. Leach Zool. Misc. tab. ii. ex. syn.
Table land. Temiscaltipec.

64. Icterus cucullatus.
Golden yellow; middle of the back, front, throat, wings and
tail black; wing covers with white bands.
Table land. Temiscaltipec.
Total length, 8; bill, «°, ; wings, 34 ; tail, 34; tarsi, 3.
65. Scaphidurus

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. 437

65. Scaphidurus palustris.

Glossy blue black ; thighs brown; bill slender, commissure
straight ; legs slender, claws long, slightly curved.

Inhabits the marshes and borders of the lakes round Mexico,
in flocks.

Total length, 15 inches: bill, 14%,; wings, 64 ; tail, 74; tarsi, 14.

M. Vieillot’s name for this group, Quiscalus, being already
used in botany, I propose to call it Scaphidurus, as ex-
pressive of the singular boat-shaped tail common to most,
if not all, of the species.

Fam. Corvip&.

66. Garrulus sordidus.
Blue, beneath grayish white ; tail rounded.
Table land. Real del Monte.
Total length, 11 inches: bill, 13 ; wings, 63; tail, 64; tarsi, 15.

67. Garrulus coronatus.

Crested; blue, sides of the head blackish ; chin, front, and
eye-brows whitish; wing covers and tertials banded with
black lines; tail rounded.

This elegant bird, remarkable for its full and lengthened crest,
occurs in various parts of the Table land.

Total length, 11: bill, 14; wings, 54; tail, 53; tarsi, 15.

68. Pica formosa.
Cinereous gray, beneath white; crown and pectoral band
black ; head with a long crest of black recurved feathers.
Table land. Temiscaltipec.
Total length, 194: bill, 13; crest, 3; wings, 7; tail, 12;
shortest feather, 6 ; tarsi, =

Fam. Loxtap&.

G. SPpERMAGRA. Swazins. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

69. Spermagra erythrocephala.

Sub-crested; olive green, beneath yellow; head, ears, and
chin, red.

To this curious bird, Mr. William Bullock has attached the
following note. “ Found round Temiscaltipec. Feeds on
insects, but is fond of beef, &c. Two were shot on the
meat at the back of my house.”

The forms among the Tanagers are already so numerous,

- that I am not willing to increase their definitions, or rather
add to the number of their genera, without due precaution.
But for this, the bird before me presents such a combina-
tion of characters, that it might fairly claim a distinct sta-
tion. ‘The rounded form of the wings and tail, with the
strength and thickness of the bill, associates it with Sperma-
gra; but the peculiar form of the last organ brings it close
to the confines of Pyranga, notwithstanding that the com-

missure,

43

70

72

8 Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico.

missure, although curved, is without any appearance of a

tooth.
Total length, 6: bill, 3; wings, 3; tail, 34; tarsi, +7.

. Pyranga livida.
Livid red, beneath brighter ; bill sinuated at the base ; tail di-
varicated, the sides rounded.
Table Jand. Real del Monte.
Total length, 8: bill, .%, ; wings, 3,3,; tail, 34; tarsi, 3.

. Pyranga hepatica.

Grayish livid, beneath bright red; bill toothed in the middle;
tail even.

Table land. Real del Monte. The female is olive green

above, and yellow beneath.

Total length, 8 : bill, $; wings, 4; tail, 33; tarsi, 3.

. Pyranga bidentata.

Head, neck, and under parts golden ; back, rump and tail co-
vers fulvous brown, striped with black; wings black, the
covers varied with fulvous and white.

Temiscaltipec: rare.

Total length about 8: bill, 3; wings, 34; bill with two small
teeth near the base.

G. Traris. Swazns. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

73. Tiaris pusillus.

Olive; crown, ears, throat and breast blackish; eye-stripe and
chin golden yellow.

Table land. ‘Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte.

A variety, or probably a young bird of this species now before
me, differs in having the black confined to a narrow margin
bordering the yellow spots.

G. Gurraca. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

74. Guiraca cerulea. Wilson iii. pl. 24. os

Although rarely seen in the United States, this bird is very
common on the Table land of Mexico,

75. Guiraca melanocephala.

76

TY

Head black, throat, breast, and rump ferruginous. Middle
of the body, and under wing covers yellow.
Table land. ‘Temiscaltipec. Size of the last.

. Guiraca ludoviciana. Sw. Vieil. Gal. pl. 58.
Table land. I have seen two or three specimens from Mexi-
co, but all in immature plumage.

Fam. Psirracip&.

. Psittacus leucorhynchus. Sw.
Green ; crown, chin, and naked orbits white; head bluish;
tail short, the lateral feathers red, margined with blue.
A pair of these birds, male and female, were brought to this
country

a ee ee eee

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. 439

country alive by Mr. Bullock, who purchased them in the
city of Mexico.
Size of Ps. menstruus. Linn.

78. Macrocercus militaris. Edwards, pl. 313.

Table land. Temiscaltipec.

The minute description of Edwards enables me to state some
few variations which present themselves in the Mexican
specimen, The size is somewhat larger, being 28 inches :
the two middle tail feathers alone are red, the others being
blue, margined with dull red about half their length : the
outer one being entirely blue.

Total length 28 inches: wings, 14; tail, 17; outer feather, 62.

Depth of both mandibles, 25.

79. Macrocercus pachyrhynchus.

Green; front, eye-brows, and ridge of the shoulders red ;
cheeks plumed ; tail feathers broad and obtuse.

Table land: rare.

This bird has strong claims to generic distinction ; but I place
it, for the present, on the confines of the true Mackaws.

Wings, 10 inches: middle tail feathers, 54; curveof the upper
mandible, 2 inches ; depth of the under, 1 inch.

Fam. Pictpz.

80. Picus formicivorus.

Glossy blue-black ; hind head red ; front, rump, and band on
the quills white; throat yellow; breast black with white
stripes.

Table land: not uncommon in the pine woods of Temiscalti-
pec. Information derived from Mr. Jenkens, a medical
gentleman now at Real del Monte, enables me to give this
species a name appropriate to its habits.

Total length, 8: bill, 12, ; wings, 53; tail, 34.

81. Picus elegans.
Equally banded with black and white; beneath gray; eye-
brows black, crown red, hind head golden.
Maritime land.
Total length, 84: bill, 15; wings, 5; tail, 33.

82. Picus albifrons.

Above blackish, transversely marked with white lines, be-
neath olivaceous; front, chin, and sides of the head white;
crown and neck red.

Table land: rare.

Total length, 104: bill, 1,°, ; wings, 5; tail, 4.

83. Picus varius. Wilson, Am. Orn. i. pl. 9. f. 2. Bonap.
Am. Orn. i. pl. 8. f. 1, 2.

Table land. Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte.

Total length, 7 : bill, 15; wings, 4}; tail, 34.

G. CoLapres.

440 Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico.

G. Coxrarres. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

84. Colaptes Mexicanus.

Vinaceous gray; banded above, and spotted beneath with
black ; throat cinereous ; shaft of the quill and tail feathers
bright red.

Table land. Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte. The male
has a red stripe on each side the head.

Total length, 114: bill, 15; wings, 6}; tail, 43.

G. X1pHoruyncuus. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.
$5. Xiphorhynchus leucogaster.

Chin and fore part of the throat white, immaculate ; feathers
of the head, neck, and breast whitish, margined with
black; bill one inch and a half long, slender, pale, the up-
per mandible brown.

Table land. Temiscaltipec.

Total length, 83: bill, 15; wings, 4,8, ; tail, 43.

86. Xiphorhynchus flavigaster.

Chin fulvous white, immaculate ; head, neck, and back striped
with fulvous; bill long, strong, brown, slightly curved.

Table land. ‘Temiscaltipec.

Total length, 94: bill, 1,°,; wings, 4, ; tail, 44.

G. Oxyexossus. Swazns. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

87. Oxyglossus maculatus. Sw. Wilson iii. pl. 19. f. 3.
Maritime lands, near Vera Cruz.

88. Sttta carolinensis.
Table land. Real del Monte.

Fam. Cucu ip.

89. Cuculus Mexicanus.

Rufous beneath cinereous ; throat and breast cinnamon; tail
long cuneated, beneath rufous.

Table land. Temiscaltipec.

Closely resembles C. cayenensis, L., but the tail beneath is
rufous, not black; the ferruginous colour of the head and
neck is likewise much brighter.

Bill, 14; wings, 6; tail, 133; outer feather, 63.

90. Crotophaga sulcirostris.

Black, glossed with green and violet; bill carinated, the sides
marked by transvérse grooves.

Table land. Temiscaltipec. Size of the Lesser Ani,

91. Trogon Mexicanus.

(Female).

Ferruginous-brown; breast and body beneath red ; middle tail
feathers ferruginous, the rest black, the three outer pair
tipt and banded on their exterior shafts with white.

Temiscaltipec.

Fam.

Mr. Swainson’s Synopsis of the Birds of Mexico. 44.1

Fam. TRrocuiLip™.
G. Trocuitus Auctorum.
92. Trochilus fulgens.

Green, beneath blackish, front and crown sapphire blue, up-
per part of the throat and ears emerald green; tail even.

Table land. ‘Temiscaltipec.

Total length, 54: bill, 14; wings, 23; tail, 13.

93. Trochilus thalassinus.

Green, spot behind the ears sapphire blue; chin bluish ; tail
even, shining sea-green, with a broad chalybeate band.

Table land? Temiscaltipec.

94. Trochilus melanotus.

A) Golden green ; front and chin sapphire blue; throat emerald
green; ears black margined above with white; bill red;
tail even.

Table land. Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte.
Total length, 4: bill, 2,; wings, 242,; tail, 142,.

95. Trochilus platycercus.

Green, beneath whitish; chin and throat amethystine red;
tail rounded, the four middle feathers very broad: the tips
obtusely pointed,

G. Cynantruus. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

96. Cynanthus latirostris.
‘Green, beneath bluish; chin and throat sapphire blue; tail
Mat ‘moderate, slightly forked, bluish black; base of the bill
‘ depressed, red.
Table land?
Total length, 34: bill, 1; wings, 2,; tail (outer feathers)
1425. al)
97. Cynanthus bifurcatus. Mn Ay pO B
; Golden green, beneath white, head brownish; tail rather
lengthened, black, doubly forked; the six middle feathers
with green tips, the two outer white with a black base; bill
slightly curved.
Table land ?
Bill slightly curved, base broad. This is an aberrant species,
touching the genus Phethornis, Sw., or that group of which
Troch. superciliosus of Authors forms the type.
Total length, 4+, ; bill, %,; wings, 2°, ; longest tail feather,
1,3.
98. Cynanthus minimus.
Brown, glossed with green, beneath whitish; tail short,
( forked, narrow and black; bill very straight.
Table land.
Total length, 25: bill, .4, ; wings, 14; tail, 2.

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. 3L 99. Cy-

442 Professor Airy in reply to Mr. Ivory.

99. Cynanthus Lucifer.
- Golden green; throat amethystine ; the feathers elongated
and narrow ; tail short, the feathers pointed ; bill curved.
Table land. Temiscaltipec.
This is an aberrant species; allied, by its curved bill, to
Cy. bifurcatus.

G. Lampornis. Swains. in Zool. Journ. No. 10.

100. Lampornis amethystinus. Sw.
Green ; chin and upper part of the throat amethystine; ears
black, margined above with white; tail black. Female?
Table land. Temiscaltipec. Real del Monte.
Total length, 5: bill, 1; wings, 2,7, ; tail, 14.

101. Mcmotus Mexicanus.

Head and neck cinnamoneous; back and wings green; ear
feathers lengthened, black tipt with blue; beneath the eye
a cerulean spot; under plumage greenish white,

Temiscaltipec,

Much smaller than the Brazilian species : on the throat are
two small tufts of black feathers, longer than the others ; a
character which is not, however, peculiar to this species.

LXXXVI. On some Passages in Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on a
Memoir by M. Poisson relating to the Attraction of Spheroids.
By G. B. Arry, Esq. A.M., Lucasian Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Cambridge.

To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals.
Gentlemen,

[X a paper printed in the last Number of the Philosophical

Magazine and Annals, Mr. Ivory has coupled my name with
terms which have never before appeared in the pages of your
Magazine, or (I will venture to say) in those of any other
scientific Journal. After such an attack, I am entitled to ask
that you will insert in your next Number my answer to the
accusation which Mr. Ivory has brought against me in so un-
disguised a manner.

When I read this article, I was grieved to think that I
had been the cause (I think I need not say the unintentional
cause) of irritating Mr. Ivory’s feelings to such a degree, as
to occasion the use of the opprobrious epithets alluded to.
Though conscious that I had used no language, except that
of courtesy towards Mr. Ivory, I referred immediately to the
note to my paper in the Philosophical Transactions, of which
he complains so bitterly. In it I found nothing which could
justify the torrent of spleen that Mr. Ivory has vented against
me. And I profess that I have said nothing in that ae

which

Professor Airy in reply to Mr. Ivory. 4.43

which I would not willingly hear from any one, as far below
me, in all respects, as I am below Mr. Ivory.

But that your readers may judge of the provocation that
I have given, I will lay before them the article which is made
the ground of animadversion. The note to my paper in the
Philosophical Transactions, of which Mr. Ivory complains, is
as follows:

« I have not considered the second condition of equilibrium
given by Mr. Ivory in the Philosophical Transactions for 1824,
‘as the reasoning upon which that gentleman has founded the
necessity of such a condition, appears to me altogether de-
fective.”

Upon which Mr. Ivory (Phil. Mag. and Annals, N.S. vol. i.
p- 329, note) has made the following remarks:

“ In the Phil. Trans. 1826, p. 557, there is a note of Mr.
Airy, very injurioustome. He is treating of spheroids of variable
density, and evidently misapprehends my conditions of equi-
librium, which I have always limited to the case of homo-
geneity. The R. S. are not responsible for the accuracy of
what they publish; but I apprehend few instances will be
found so injurious to an individual, cast upon the public on
the authority of mere assertion, and arising from mistaken
notions. But I console myself because I know with the cer-
tainty of demonstration, that Mr. Airy’s problem, admitting
that any practical utility could be attached to it, is not solved,
and that it cannot possibly be solved except by my theory,
and indirectly, with the help of that law with which he so
flippantly finds fault. What a difference between the superci-
lious importance of the Cambridge Professor, and the candid
expositions of M. Poisson 12

I will omit mention, for the moment, of those sentences
in which Mr. Ivory says that I am mistaken on the mathe-
matical points, and will allude at present only to those in
which he attacks my character as a gentleman. I will there-
fore state, that in my paper in the Phil. Trans., it was my
business not to investigate conditions of equilibrium, but to
make use of those already known. The equations which are
best known are the one (or rather the two) commonly used,
and that which Mr. Ivory has suggested. For the latter I
saw no foundation, and I contented myself with a simple state-
ment to that effect: the object and the limits of my paper
not allowing me to enter into details. But, 1 should not have
made even this statement, did I not think that the character
of Mr. Ivory demanded it. I could mention the name of an-
other writer who has added one to the common equations, but
whose character did not seem to require the same compliment

g$L2 which

444 Professor Airy in reply to Mr. Ivory.

which I paid to Mr.Ivory’s. This is merely to account for
the introduction of the note. What foundation Mr. Ivory
can find for the charges of “ injury on the authority of mere
assertion,” ‘¢ flippancy,” and “ supercilious importance,” I
cannot imagine. I have simply stated my difference of opinion
from Mr. Ivory on a point which I was unable, from the na~
ture of the paper, to explain at greater length. The note is
now before your readers; and I appeal to them whether I
have said any thing which can justify the use of such expres-
sions. Upon the whole, I think that I have reason to com-
plain of the terms in which Mr. Ivory has mentioned me, as
most improper, and most unworthy of the respect which a
gentleman ought to have for himself, as well as for any other
who claims that title.

The only probable cause for Mr. Ivory’s anger, independent
of our difference of opinion, appears to be my omission of
the reasons for that difference of opinion. The cause of that
omission I have explained: but that Mr. Ivory may have for
the future no ground of complaint, I shall state here my rea-
sons for disagreeing with him. Mr. Ivory’s opinion was first
published in the Phil. Trans. for 1824, p. 101—108; but he
has explained it in nearly the same terms in the Philosophical
Magazine for July 1826. I shall request your readers, there-
fore, to refer to page 4 of that Number; and I shall begin
my remarks at line 25. By the common theory it is known
that if the forces which act on a fluid satisfy a certain equation,
any level surface (couche de niveau) may, by the removal of a
part of the fluid, become the external surface of the remaining
fluid which is still in equilibrium. But this is true as a general
proposition only when the forces are expressed by the same
functions of the coordinates, whether the quantity of fluid be
great or small. It appears then, from the common theory of
fluids, that Mr. Ivory’s proposition advanced in the sentence
beginning in line 25, is certainly true, if there be no mutual
attraction of the particles; but is not certainly true, if there be
such attraction. It may happen, and in the particular case of
which he treats it does happen, to be true, when the mutual
attraction is taken into account, but this is quite accidental.
The two following sentences are elucidations of the preceding:
the latter of them is of course to be taken with the same re-
strictions as that of which I have treated; namely, it is to be
supposed that the particles have no mutual attraction. With
this supposition the reasoning of the next sentence, which
depends entirely on the existence of attraction, falls to the
ground. And after much consideration I am quite unable to
see any force in the reasoning upon which I have commented.

Whatever

ee

Professor Airy in reply to Mr. Ivory. 445

Whatever may be the meaning of the expression “ similar
forces,” I am quite unabie to discover in the sentence begin-
ning at line 22, any grounds for the inference in line 25.
Perhaps I may place the question in a clearer point of view,
in the following manner. If a fluid mass in equilibrium, acted
on by any external forces, and by the mutual attraction of its
particles, were inclosed in a thin shell of the same shape, there
would be no pressure on the shell. Or, if a pressure were
communicated to the fluid (by slightly contracting the shell,
suppose, or by a force acting on a small piston), the pressure
on a unit of surface would be the same in every part of the
shell. Now suppose some more of the fluid to be spread on
the shell, and (from the action of the external forces, the at-
traction of the inclosed fluid, and the mutual attraction of its
own particles) to receive the form of equilibrium. I do not
see the slightest reason to believe that the pressure on the shell,
produced by this superincumbent matter, would be every where
equal. Though the whole force which acted on every particle
in the original external surface must have been perpendicular
to that surface, and consequently the whole force arising from
the external forces and the attraction of the original fluid
acts in a direction perpendicular to the shell upon the ex-
terior particles in contact with the shell: yet there is an-
other force not considered; namely, the attraction of the new
stratum on its own lowest particles; and if this can be re-
solved into a perpendicular and a tangential force, the pres-
sure on different parts of the shell must be unequal (from the
property of equal transmission of pressure in all directions).
Yet the whole fluid would still be in equilibrium, without
owing its equilibrium to the existence of the shell, if the va-
riations of the internal pressure on the shell, produced by the
attraction of the external fluid on the internal, corresponded
exactly to the variations of the external pressure.

Now I need not point out to Mr. Ivory that this is the case
when the equation of integrability is satisfied ; which holds
with all the forces with which we have to do. The fluid
therefore may be in equilibrium, and yet the surface which
was the external surface may, for all that we can discover, be
a surface of unequal pressure; and if this be admitted, the
question is ended. I may remark, that even if Mr. Ivory had
proved every thing which he has stated as far as line 41, the
inference in the next sentence would have been unjust. “ If
the action of the exterior stratum does not disturb the equili-
brium of the interior fluid body, this can happen only because
the resultant of the attractions of the exterior matter upon an
particle within the stratum is evanescent.” It will be wate |

to

446 Professor Airy zn reply to Mr. Ivory.

to remind Mr. Ivory, that the equilibrium would not be dis-
turbed if the resultant of these attractions were a force ex-
pressed by a function of the coordinates of the attracted point,
similar to the function expressing the previously-acting forces
(including the attraction), and that there does not therefore
appear to be any reason for saying that it must be evanes-
cent.

These are my reasons for not admitting Mr. Ivory’s new
equation. I have stated them plainly, but I hope not unci-
villy: if I am wrong, I shall be glad to have my errors pointed
out in the same manner. I trust that I shall not be exposed
to the charge of presumption for holding the opinion of La~-
place and Poisson, in opposition to that of which Mr. Ivory
is (I believe) the sole advocate.

But Mr. Ivory says that I misapprehend his conditions,
which he has always limited to the case of homogeneity.
When | wrote the note in question, I was perfectly aware that
the algebraical investigations which Mr. Ivory had founded
on his equation were confined to homogeneous fluids: but
I did not so clearly know that the reasoning was equally re-
stricted. I have since examined the reasoning with some at-
tention; and I declare, that I cannot discover any part of it
which is not as applicable to heterogeneous fluids as to homo-
geneous fluids. Judging from my own feelings, I think that
the scientific world would be much obliged to Mr. Ivory, if he
would point out the parts of his reasoning which are not ap-
plicable to heterogeneous fluids.

Mr. Ivory “ consoles himself because he knows with the
certainty of demonstration, that my problem is not solved, and
cannot possibly be solved except by his theory.” I console
myself by thinking that Mr. Ivory has not reasoned with his
usual accuracy upon a point which is somewhat abstruse, and
by believing that my problem is solved (as far as such a pro-
blem can be solved) without the assistance of Mr. Ivory’s
equation.

I had intended to confine my remarks to the offensive
note in which Mr. Ivory has treated me so unhandsomely.
But as Mr. Ivory has in the preceding page mentioned an-
other point on which we are at variance, 1 will endeavour
to lay before your readers a more complete statement of the
argument than he has given. I think it proper to say, that I
have no reason whatever to complain of the terms in which
he has there mentioned my name.

The first part of my paper (as Mr. Ivory has correctly
stated) is employed in attempting to prove that Laplace’s fun-
damental equation (Méc, Cél. liv. ill. No. 10) is exactly de-

monstrated,

Professor Airy in reply to Mr. Ivory. 44:7

monstrated, and for all kinds of spheroids differing little from
asphere. The only limitation of its generality is, that the sine
or tangent of the angle made by the spherical and spheroidal
surfaces at their intersection, must be expressed by a finite
multiple of ¢; which condition is satisfied when y is expressed
by any function, rational or irrational, that never makes
V1l—pe. or or vis : oe. infinite. I have only to add,
that this part of the paper is little more than a filling-up of
the sketch given by Laplace in one of the last books of the
Mécanique Céleste.

I cannot at present enter on the discussion of a very nice
and abstruse point: I shall merely remark, that the difficulties
which Mr. Ivory has found (see his paper, Phil. Trans. 1812,
p- 16), appear to arise from the separation of y'— y into two
parts. For the rest I must beg leave to refer the reader to my
_paper in the Cambridge Transactions, vol. ii. . “* Now,” says
Mr. Ivory, “‘ admitting that the equation in question is accu-
rately and numerically proved, it seems impossible to deny
that the series of terms deduced from it is numerically equal to
the distance between the surfaces of the sphere and spheroid.”
With this I perfectly agree: but Mr. Ivory afterwards says,
** Mr. Professor Airy, by supporting the fundamental equation
without restricting it, and at the same time denying the un-
avoidable consequence, has only introduced new inconsist-
encies,” &c. I can only infer from this that Mr. Ivory has
not read the whole of my paper. However little the trouble
of reading it might be repaid, it is not right to make such
remarks on the connection of the first and the last parts, with-
out examining or alluding to the subject which occupies the
body of the paper. In the beginning I have endeavoured to

. dV Q2ra2 ar
show that the equation — a i OR eas generally
: : U'?) un)
true. From this the equation 4¢7a*y = —— + 3

5. U0)
a3
this equation as it stands is useless, unless we can resolve
47 a*y into a series. of terms, distinguished by the same pe-
culiarities which separate those on the other side of the equa-
tion. If it is not possible to resolve 4«2a*y into more than
one such series, the corresponding terms must be equal: if it
is possible to do it in more than one way, nothing can be in-
ferred from the equation, but the equality of the whole quan-
tity on one side to the whole quantity on the other side. It
is therefore necessary to proye that this resolution can be ef-

fected

+ &c. is derived by an unobjectionable process. But

448 Mr. Levy on Murchisonite.

fected in only one way. Now the most important part of my
paper is occupied in endeavouring to show that the proof
offered by Laplace is insufficient, and in giving a demonstra-
tion not liable to the same objections. Laplace’s proof pro-
fesses to be general; mine applies only to the cases in which
y can be expressed (at any rate approximately) by a rational
function of the coordinates. Where then is the unavoidable
consequence of which Mr. Ivory speaks? I have endeavoured
to show that the fundamental equation of Laplace is general,
but that its application to the theory of the attractions of solids,
is restricted by the limited nature of the proof of one of the
subsequent steps. In this I can discover no inconsistency,
nor do I perceive that I have embroiled the subject with new
difficulties. I have only done with regard to one point, what
Mr. Ivory has done respecting another: I have endeavoured
to show that a demonstration professing to be general, is un-
satisfactory, and have substituted one which appears, though
more restricted, to be better founded.

I am sorry that I should have come in contact withMr.
Ivory, for the first time, on an occasion so disagreeable. I am
not desirous of appearing in a public controversy of this na-
ture; and under any common censure I should have remained
quiet. But the manner in which I have been mentioned is so
gross, and the name of the person who has mentioned me
stands so high, that I have no other resource than to lay my
defence before all who have read the accusation. I am aware,
that the Editors of a Philosophical Journal can take little plea-
sure in inserting the squabbles of quarrelsome writers; and
therefore, whatever further provocation may be offered, I shall
not trouble you again with my complaints.

I am, Gentlemen, yours, &c.
Trinity College, Cambridge, May 9, 1827. G. B. Arry.

LXXXVII. On anew Mineral Substance, proposed to be called
Murchisonite. By A. Levy, Esq. M.A. F.G.S.

{* looking over some specimens of the conglomerate of the
new red sandstone, which Mr. Murchison had brought
from the neighbourhood of Dawlish, and which he was so
good as to show me, I observed, in many of them, a felspar-
like laminated substance, with a peculiar nacreous cleavage,
which induced me to believe, it might differ from common
felspar. Upon further examination I found that it had cleav-

ages

Mr. Levy on Murchisonite. 449

ages in three different directions, two of which are at right
angles to each other, like the two principal cleavages of com-
mon felspar, are obtained with the same facility, and present
the same characters. The third has a nacreous appearance,
is obtained as easily as the other two, and is found by the re-
flective goniometer to be perpendicular to one of them, and
to make with the other an angle of 106° 50’. So that the
solid obtained by cleavage is a tetrahedral prism, such as
fig. 1, the incidences of the planes of which are as follow:

P,g'= 90°. P,# = 106°50..—_g', hk! = 90°.

This substance in the specimens from Dawlish, is white
with a slight tinge of red, and is opake; it is accompanied by
quartz, a little mica, and very minute crystals of black tour-
maline disseminated throughout the mass. The whole forms
rather a compact rock ; but in some specimens the substance is
partly or entirely disintegrated, almost pulverulent, and of a
pure white colour.

Mr. Brayley jun. having kindly given me for examination se-
veral specimens he had himself collected, of the conglomerate
of Heavitree, near Exeter, I found disseminated among the
minerals and rocks which compose it, a great many crystals of
this substance, always rounded on the edges, either slightly
adhering to the red marl, or strongly attached to the more
solid parts of the conglomerate. The form of these crystals
is generally that represented by fig. 1, parallel to the planes
of which they readily cleave.

Another form offered by these crystals is that represented
by fig. 2; the plane a is always narrow, dull, irregular and
curved, and its incidence upon P, measured by the common
goniometer, is about 120°. Most frequently, however, these
crystals are macled. Suppose two crystals of the form fig. 2.
first placed in a parallel position, and in contact by their planes
g' or penetrating each other; if then one of the crystals be sup-
posed to turn round an axis perpendicular to the plane g" till
its face P makes an angle of 128° 10! with the face P of the
other, they will be in the relative position of the two indivi-
duals which form the macles of this substance. The two na-
creous planes are then inclined to each other at an angle of
161° 10', and the plane a of one crystal is nearly on the same
level as the plane P of the other: so that as these crystals are
always so much rounded on the edges, and their planes so ir-
regular, it is, in the greater number of cases, only by cleavage
that it can be discovered that they are macles.

The nacreous cleavage of these crystals is not always so
easily obtained, and frequently more interrupted than in the

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827, 3M speci-

450 Mr. Levy on Murchisonite.

specimens from Dawlish; and instead of the silvery reflection
of light of the latter, presents a gold-yellow reflection, ge-
nerally not uniform but in spots. It somewhat resembles in
this respect the variety of felspar called sun-stone, and when
cut in a proper manner gives a similar play of light: but the
red marl which is generally disseminated throughout the
crystal, prevents the effect from being so great as it may rea-
sonably be supposed it would have been had not that circum-
stance interfered. A further comparison between this sub-
stance and sun-stone would have been very interesting; but
I could not procure the sight of a rough sun-stone, to examine
whether it had any indication of cleavage; and the very high
value set upon those which are cut, does not leave much hope
of our being allowed to cleave them.

The natural plane itself parallel to the nacreous cleavage
presents frequently a gold-yellow reflection. Simple and ma-
cled crystals are also found divided in two parts by a thin
layer of red marl in a direction parallel to the nacreous
cleavage, as if the crystal had been broken and cemented
again. Small perihexahedral crystals of black mica are
sometimes found in the interior of the crystals. Thin laminz
parallel to either of the two cleavages perpendicular to one
another, are sometimes transparent. ‘The hardness of the sub-
stance is rather less than that of felspar. Mr. Kent has been
so good as to take with great care the specific gravity, and has
found it to be 2°5091: I had found it somewhat lower, but I
give in preference his result, as being determined with greater
accuracy. Mr. R. Phillips has also had the kindness to ana-
lyse the substance, and has found the following result :

Sree aR ao, OE BOC aN 68°6
VANTIN eee a heise che ele 16°6
Porshe ee Sees . 148

100°0

I have now to state the reasons which induce me to consi-
der these crystals as belonging to a species distinct from fel-
spar. The characters which are common to both are very
apparent: they both possess cleavages in two directions per-
pendicular to each other; they have nearly the same hardness,
nearly the same specific gravity; and the analysis, although
indicating a greater proportion of silica and a smaller propor-
tion of alumina than the adularia analysed by Vauquelin, and
the common felspar analysed by Klaproth,—presents precisely
the same result as the analysis of glassy-felspar by the latter.
Finally, the macled crystals have a very remarkable resem-
blance to the macled crystals of felspar found in Auvergne
and

Mr. Levy on Murchisonite. 451

and in Bohemia, and represented in the translation of Mohs’s
«« Mineralogy,” by figures 80 and 81. For in both, the axis of
revolution is perpendicular to one of the two cleavages at
right angles to each other, and in felspar the second cleavage
of one of the individual crystals forming the macle is inclined
upon the second cleavage of the other, at an angle of 127° 3,
according to the dimensions I have assigned to the primitive
form of felspar ; whilst in the crystals under consideration, the
same angle is about 128°.

The only difference which is now left to distinguish this
mineral from felspar, whether in its laminar form, as in the
specimen from Dawlish, or in crystals, as in those from
Heavitree, is therefore the nacreous cleavage which it pos-
sesses, under both forms, and which cannot be obtained in
felspar. But not only this cleavage does not exist in the va-
rieties of felspar which have hitherto been examined, but it is
not parallel either to any known modification of that sub-
stance, or to any unobserved modification, which might be
derived by some simple law from the primitive form. To
show the truth of what I have advanced, it is sufficient to ob-
serve, that in order to compare fig. 1. with a crystal of fel-
spar,—for instance, with the figure given in Mr. W. Phil-
lips’s “Mineralogy,” we must suppose that the plane P, fig. 1,
corresponds to his plane P, and the plane g! to his plane M.
Then we ought to find that the plane /' corresponds to
either of his planes c’, c’, c*, which are perpendicular to M,
and inclined to P. But this is not the case: for these planes
are respectively inclined upon P, at angles of 99° 15', 129° 29,
and 146° 3/, whilst the inclination of the plane /’ on P, fig. 1,
is 106° 50'.. Moreover, I find that a plane, the inclination of
which upon P would be equal, or nearly equal, to 106° 50',
could only be derived by one of two laws, from the oblique
rhombic prism, which is the primitive form of felspar, either
by the law ot or ai. Now neither of these modifica-
tions has ever been observed in felspar, and they are rather
beyond the simplicity which might be reasonably expected in
a modification parallel to which a cleavage is found to exist
in some varieties. If now it is remembered that, as far as
crystallographic observations go, it is found that, although
some varieties of a species present occasionally cleavages which
do not exist in all, in no occasion a cleavage has been ob-
tained which did not correspond to some simple modification ;
even the false cleavage or faces of composition, —then theground
upon which I would propose to consider the substance I have
just now described as distinct from felspar, will I hope be-
come sufficiently obvious. The definition of the mineralo-

3M2 gical

452 Mr. Levy on Murchisonite.

gical species which appears most consistent with the actual state
of the science is, that a mineral species contains all the indivi-
duals composed of the same principles united in the same
proportion, and when regularly crystallized, referable to the
same primitive form. Now since cleavage has in every in-
stance observed some very simple relation with the dimensions
of the primitive, if we meet with a substance having a great
resemblance to another, but having a cleavage that does not
correspond to some simple modification of the primitive form
of that other substance,—we must necessarily infer, that the
first has a primitive form differing at least in its dimensions
from the primitive form of the second, and consequently, ac-
cording to our definition of the species, must constitute a new
one. ‘To the essential difference existing between the new
substance and felspar, it may be added, that the first has no
cleavage parallel to the lateral planes of the primitive form of
the second, which most of the varieties of the latter present.
But this difference would not be sufficient, since the facility of
cleavage seems to vary with circumstances. Thus Mr. Fara-
day has discovered the means of obtaining crystals of sul-
phate of copper in which he may increase at will the facility
of cleavage parallel to one of the primitive planes of that sub-
stance; so that he can even make it to crystallize in a mica-
like state with a nacreous reflection of light on the face of the
easiest cleavage.

I shall propose for the substance I have described the name
of Murchisonite, in compliment to the gentleman who first di-
rected my attention to it, and whose zeal for mineralogical
science is so well known.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

LXXXVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.
April an Rea reading of Dr. Thomson’s paper, On the com-
pounds of chromium, was resumed and concluded.
The principal object of this paper is to give an account of a singu-
lar

Royal Society. 453

lar compound of chromic acid and chlorine, discovered some years
ago by the author; but in the investigation to which it gave rise,
the author was led to a more careful examination of the oxides of
chromium than they had before undergone, and to a knowledge of
their composition. The communication begins with a description
of metallic chromium. That used by the author was reduced by
Mr. Cooper. It was white, with a shade of yellow, very brittle,
and sensibly attracted by the magnet even in fine powder ; its
specific gravity 5-093 at least. Nitric acid boiled on it has no ef-
fect; and aqua-regia scarcely any, unless the action be very long
continued. When heated however with a mixture of potash and
nitre, it is converted into chromic acid. The weight of its atom
is 4.—The author next describes the green oxide of chromium,
which consists of 1 atom metal, 4 and 1 oxygen] =5. And after
the description also of two compounds, the one of chromic acid
and oxide of chromium, the other of sulphur and the same oxide,
he proceeds to describe a combination of 4 atoms peroxide of iron
and | green oxide of chromium. Phosphuret of chromium he states
to contain |Z atom phosphorus and 1 atom metal, The brown oxide
appears to be either a mixture, or a compound far from intimate,
of | atom chromic acid and 6 atoms of oxide of chromium.

The next section of this paper is devoted to an account of the
chloro-chromic acid, a remarkable compound produced by making
sulphuric acid act on a mixture of 190 parts of bichromate of potash,
and 225 parts of common salt. From this mixture, on applying
heat, it separates in red fumes, and distils over in a liquid of a rich
deep crimson colour, of a sweet, astringent, acid taste, and having
a strong smell of chlorine. Specific gravity nearly twice that of
water, with which it does not mix, but which decomposes it, evol-
ving chlorine and producing heat. This liquid, when dropped into
oil of turpentine or alcohol, or poured on sulphur, sets them on
fire ; but (which is remarkable) it not only does not fire phosphorus,
but even extinguishes it when already inflamed. On other com-
bustibles and metallic bodies it acts with great energy, but without

roducing ignition: in ammoniacal gas, however, it burns readily.
hen heated, per se, the chlorine escapes, and a substance resem-
bling green oxide remains. Dr. Thomson analysed it by solution
in water, saturation with carbonate of soda, and precipitation by
solutions of baryta and silver ; stating its composition to be an atom
of chlorine and an atom of chromic acid.

An account of the salts of chromium occupies the succeeding
portion of the communication. They are formed by the union of
the green oxide with acids, and are all uncrystallizable and of very
intense colours. They are not precipitated by sulphuretted hy-
drogen; gallic acid precipitates them green; prussiate of potash
only changes their colour to brown, and throws down no precipi-
tate; ammonia and potash throw down green oxide, which redis-
solves in excess of the latter—The following salts are next de-
scribed in detail: the muriate, nitrate, sulphate, dicarbonate, bi-
phosphate, chromate, oxalate, tartrate, and potash-tartrate of chro.
mium.—Dr. T. then gives an account of certain chromates not be-

fore

454 Royal Society.— Linnean Society.

fore described ; viz. the perchromate of iron, dichromate of lead
and silver, double chromate of potash and soda, and double chro-
mate of potash and magnesia. The author concludes this paper
with an account of his analysis of the mineral known in cabinets as
chromite of iron, which, when examired in a state of purity, he
found to consist of 2 atoms of green oxide of chrome, 1 of per-
oxide of iron, and 1 of alumina, together with an admixture of a
white matter, apparently a metallic salt, of unknown acid and base,
but too minute in quantity for thorough examination.

The Society then adjourned to

April 26, when Dr. J. Blackman was admitted a Fellow, and
H.R. H. the Duke of Clarence elected a Fellow, of the Society.

A paper was read, entitled, «‘ On the derangement of certain
transit instruments by the effects of temperature; by Robert Wood-
house, Esq. F.R.S. Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge.”

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, the author alluded
to the derangement of the Cambridge Transit Instrument, arising
from unequal expansion of its braces, establishing as he con-
ceived the fact and cause of such derangement; and in a subse-
quent paper instanced its effects in one case as altering by no less
than 20° the time of the passage of the pole-star over the wires.
The removal of the braces was in consequence resolved on; but
from one cause or other, delayed; though the Author considers
good to have arisen from this procrastination, as enabling him to
make further experiments, which he was led to do, in consequence of
Mr. South’s observations, which led to conclusions opposite to those
deduced by himself. To satisfy his own mind, therefore, he insti-
tuted the series of experiments described in this paper, from which
he concludes that the partial heating of the diagonal braces, or of
any one of them, deranges the Cambridge Transit Instrument ac-
cording to the reasoning in his former paper; and that this cause
may, in certain instruments, and under certain circumstances of
temperature, produce balancing-effects, thus giving an appearance
of inflexibility, which under other circumstances would not subsist.

LINNZEAN SOCIETY.

May 1.—A large collection of New Holland Birds and Quadru-
peds, presented by Sir John Jamieson, were upon the table.

The Society proceeded to fill up the vacancies in the list of
Foreign members, when the following gentlemen were elected :—
Henry Ducrotay de Blainville; Charles Lucien Bonaparte, Prince
of Musignano; Leopold von Buch; Viscount Henry de Cassini;
Henry Fred. Link, M.D.; C. F. P. von Martius, M.D.; C. G. Nees
von Esenbeck, M.D.; Ch. Asmund Rudolphi, M.D.; Auguste de
Saint-Hilaire ; Frederick Teidemann, M.D.

A description was read of a new Genus belonging to the natural
family of plants called Ni mpheacee ; by Nathaniel Wallich, M.D,
F_L.S. superintendant of the Botanic Garden, Calcutta. The fol-
lowing is the character of the genus :

Hydrostemma : (PoLYANDRIA PoLyoynia.) —Sepala 5 Misting ie

infra

Astronomical Society. 455

infra ovarium thalamo inserta. Torus basi in ovarium globosum
ampliatus ; inde tubulosus, corollaceus, staminiferus, fauce S—10-
lobo, lobis inzequaliter bi- vel tri-serialibus, conniventibus. Stamina
plurima nutantia, tubo tori intus adfixa eodemque inclusa; superiora
sterilia ramosa, Anthere nude. Styli plures, fundo tubi radiatim
inserti, supra foveam verticis ovarii conniventes, basi connati.
Bacca carnosa, globosa, calyce suffulta corollaque coronata per-
sistentibus, multilocularis, polysperma. Semina globosa, setis car-
nosis obtecta, albuminosa, inversa.

May 24.—The Anniversary was held on this day, as directed in
the Charter, at the Society’s House, A. B, Lambert, Esq. V. P. in
the chair ; when the following were chosen as Officers and Council
for the year :—

President: Sir James Edward Smith, M.D. E.R.S., &c. — Vice-
Presidents : Samuel Lord Bishop of Carlisle, LL.D. V.P.R.S. F.A.S.;
A. B. Lambert, Esq. F.R.S. A.S. & H.S.; W. G. Maton, M.D.
F.R.S. and A.S.; and Edward Lord Stanley, M.P. F.H.S.—
Treasurer: Edward Forster, Esq. F.R.S. & H.S.—Secretcry: James
E. Bicheno, Esq.— Under Secretary: Richard Taylor, F.S.A. Mem.
Astr. and Asiat.S. Also to fill the vacancies in the Council: Arthur
Aikin, Esq. V.P.G.S.; John Barrow, Esq. F.R.S.; Francis Boott,
M.D.; Mr. George Loddiges, F.H.S.; Richard Waring, M.D.—
Many members of the Society afterwards dined together at Free-
mason’s Tavern, Lord Stanley in the chair.

ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

An Address delivered by J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. President of the
Astronomical Society of London, on the Occasion of the Distribu-
tion of the Honorary Medals of that Society, on April 11, 1827,

_ to Francis Baily, Esg., Lieutenant W.S. Stratford, R.N., and Co-
lonel Mark Beaufoy.

GENTLEMEN,

Tue ordinary business of the evening being now terminated, it
remains to fulfil the object for which we are especially convened
this night, which is one of no less interest than the distribution of
the Honorary Medals awarded by your Council, in pursuance of the
principle of encouraging works of great labour, high practical utility,
and steady perseverance in astronomical observation, and in re-
demption of the pledges held out in the Address circulated at the
origin of this Society, explanatory of its objects.

On former similar occasions when we have been called on to
witness the execution of this important duty, it has frequently been
our good fortune to acknowledge and applaud the claims of foreign
merit, and to prove by our awards, that no mean jealousies, or narrow
and mistaken views of national honour, are capable of blinding our
judgement or biassing our decision ; but that he who, whatever be
the spot of earth he inhabits, most promotes the cause of Astrono-
mica] science, is most our brother and our countryman. Yet, I am
sure it will be gratifying to you to know that on this occasion, ample

scope

456 Astronomical Society.

scope has been found for selection in the merits of our own com-
patriots, and in the home list of our members. It is not that great
and important Astronomical works have not emanated from our
continental neighbours: on the contrary, the spirit of research and
discovery appears to have prevailed with extraordinary activity ; and
the last year has even witnessed the addition to our system of an-
other of those singular bodies, the discovery of which has conferred
so much lustre on the names of Halley and Encke. No less than
three independent claimants to the almost simultaneous disclosure
ot this interesting fact may be enumerated ; and this circumstance,
while it marks the spirit of the age more forcibly perhaps than any
trait which could be produced, must obviously render it impossible
for this Society to interfere or decide on the priority and rank of
the competitors. But though unmarked by any tangible memorial
of our approbation, the names of Biela, Clausen, and Gambart
will not the less be cherished among us, and enrolled by posterity
in the choicest and most permanent annals of Astronomical ce-
lebrity.

It is however for labours of a very different kind that our medals
are this day to be conferred: labours, if less brilliant, yet more
vital ; if less associated with lofty speculations on the nature of the
universe, yet more intimately linked with the practical uses of this
world. The first award of your Council is that of a gold and silver
medal respectively to your late excellent President Mr. Baily, and
your indefatigable Secretary Mr. Stratford, for their joint labours
in the construction of the Catalogue of 2851 principal fixed stars,
which forms the Appendix to the second volume of the Memoirs
of this Society.

A catalogue of stars may be considered in two very distinct lights,
either as a mere list of objects placed on record, to fix on them the
attention of astronomers, and to afford them matter for observation,
or as a collection of well-determined zero points, offering ready
means of comparing their cbservations with those of others, and of
detecting and allowing for instrumental errors. In this light only I
shall now consider it as chiefly of importance to the practical as-
tronomer. It is for his uses that an amount of pains, labour, and
expense, both national and individual, has been bestowed on the per-
fection of such catalogues, which on a superficial view must appear
in the last degree lavish, but which yet has been no more than the
necessity of the case demands. If we ask to what end magnificent
establishments are maintained by states and sovereigns, furnished
with master-pieces of art, and placed under the direction of men of
first-rate talent, and high-minded enthusiasm, sought out for those
qualities among the foremost in the ranks of science :—if we demand
cui bono? for what good a Bradley has toiled, or a Maskelyne or a
Piazzi worn out his venerable age in watching ? the answer is,—not
to settle mere speculative points in the doctrine of the universe; not
to cater for the pride of man, by refined inquiries into the remoter
mysteries of nature,—to trace the path of our system through infinite
space, or its history through past and future eternities. These in-
deed are noble ends, and which I am far from any thought of depre-

ciating ;

Astronomical Society. 4.57

viating ; the mind swells in their contemplation, and attains in their
pursuit, an expansion and a hardihood which fit it for the boldest
enterprize.—But the direct practical utility of such labours is fully
worthy of their speculative grandeur. ‘The stars are the land-marks
of the universe ; and amidst the endless and complicated fluctuations
of our system, seem placed by its Creator as guides and records,
not merely to elevate our minds by the contemplation of what is
vast, but to teach us to direct our actions by reference to what is
immutable in his works. It is indeed hardly possible to over-ap-
preciate their value in this point of view. Every well-determined
star, from the moment its place is registered, becomes to the as-
tronomer, the geographer, the navigator, the surveyor,—a point of
departure which can never deceive or fail him,—the same for ever
and in all places, of a delicacy so extreme as to be a test for every
instrument yet invented by man, yet equally adapted for the most
ordinary purposes; as available for regulating a town clock, as for
conducting a navy to the Indies ; as effective for mapping down the
intricacies of a petty barony, as for adjusting the boundaries of
transatlantic empires. When once its place has been thoroughly
ascertained and earefully recorded, the brazen circle with which
that useful work was done may moulder, the marble pillar totter
on its base, and the astronomer himself survive only in the grati-
tude of posterity: but the record remains, and transfuses all its
own exactness into every determination which takes it fora ground-
work, giving to inferior instruments, nay even to temporary con-
trivances, and to the observations of a few weeks or days, all the
precision attained originally at the cost of so much time, labour
and expense.

To avail ourselves of these records, however, we must first have
the means of disentangling the observed places of the stars at any
moment, from the regularly progressive effect of precession, and
from a variety of minuter periodical inequalities arising from the
nutation of the earth’s axis, and from the aberration of light, of which
the genius of theoretical, no less than the industry of practical, as-
tronomers has at length succeeded in developing the laws, and
fixing the amount, so as to leave little probability of any material
change being induced by future researches.

The calculations, however, required for this purpose, if instituted
for each particular star at the time it is wanted, are so numerous
and troublesome as to become a very serious evil; the effects of
which have been severely felt in Astronomy in the discouragement
it has offered to the reduction of observations, owing to which the
labour of many an industrious observer's life has been in great mea-
sure thrown away. Indeed, a lamentable picture might be drawn
of the waste of valuable labour traceable to this cause. The want
of tables therefore to facilitate the reduction of particular stars was
early felt. I shall not, however, enter into any historical detail of
the attempts hitherto made from time to time to supply this desi-
deratum. A well drawn up and concise account of them is given in
Mr. Baily’s Preface to the Catalogue, which renders superfluous all
I could say on the subject. Indeed, useful as they have been, and

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. 3N con-

458 Astronomical Society.

considerable as has been the pains bestowed on them, they are all
so far surpassed by this work of Mr. Baily, that it ought rather to
be considered as belonging to a new class, than to be compared in
any way with preceding ones, which must eventually all be super-
seded by it*.

It is time now to speak more particularly of the Catalogue itself.
Its whole plan and arrangement, the selection of the stars, the pre-
paration and revision of the formule, the choice of the coefficients,
and the discussion of the terms to be retained or rejected, we owe
to Mr. Baily, who has stated every particular relating to it in a
most elaborate Preface, which may indeed be regarded as a com-
pendium of all that is known on the subject of the corrections, and
is remarkable at once for its precision and perspicuity. A great
portion of the computation has been gratuitously performed by Mr.
Stratford, checked by a computer engaged for that purpose, From
this very severe labour, however, he was unfortunately compelled
to desist, I regret to say by ill health, and his place supplied by a
professional computer: but the hardly less laborious task of com-
paring and checking the computations of his assistants, and, what is
as important in all such cases as accuracy of computation, the care-
ful superintendence of the press, and repeated revision of the whole
work, has entirely devolved on him; and never, I must say, was
task performed with more diligence and exactness.

The selection of the stars has been made from the Catalogues of
Flamsteed, Bradley, Lacaille, Mayer, Piazzi and Zach, so as to in-
clude all stars down to the 5th magnitude, wheresoever situated in
the heavens,—all of the 6th within 30° of the equator, and all the
stars to the 7th magnitude inclusive, within 10° of the ecliptic. Al-
most all of them, however, are to be found in the Catalogues of
Bradley or Piazzi, from which they have been reduced to 1830,
(the epoch adopted) by formule given by Bessel. Their number
is so considerable, that in whatever part of the heavens we may be
observing, one or more are sure to be within a moderate distance;
so that no one provided with this Catalogue can possibly be at a loss
for a zero-point to check his observations, and ascertain the state
of adjustment of his instrument. To its convenience and utility in
this respect, I can speak from individual experience. It is indeed
become my sheet anchor, and has infused into a series of observa-
tions wholly dependent on such aid, a degree of exactness which,
without it, I should hardly have expected to attain.

The formulz employed for calculating the corrections are almost
entirely those of Bessel, who has laboured with such diligence and
perseverance on this department of Astronomy, as to make the sub-
ject almost his own. In adopting them, however, Mr. Baily has
taken nothing for granted, even from such high authority. He has
gone over the whole subject anew; and the slight inaccuracies which

* From this sentence, however, I ought to except special tables for the
daily reduction of a certain number of select stars, whose use is no way su-
perseded by the general Catalogue, being destined for continual, as the
latter is only for occasional, reference,

the

Astronomical Society. 459

he has detected and corrected in several ot’ the results of this pro-
found geometer, although almost insensible in a numerical point of
view, are valuable, as proving at once the general accuracy of his
investigations and the minuteness of the scrutiny they have under-
one.

: The most delicate part of the whole operation, however, was the
choice of the several coefficients, which, if erroneously assumed,
would render the whole subsequent work of no value. In making
this assumption, Mr. Baily has exercised a degree of judgement
which I feel convinced will unite the suffrages of astronomers.
Taking a comprehensive view of the results afforded by all former
investigations, he has uniformly adhered to the principle, to steer
clear of extreme quantities, and to adopt only such as not only rest
on the greatest number of the best observations, but agree in their
values nearly with the average of all. Thus, in the case of the aber-
ration, the value adopted is the mean of the almost miraculously
coincident results of Brinkley and Struve, and agrees within two-
hundredths of a second with that of the extreme values assigned by
Bradley and Bessel. I have much satisfaction in being enabled to
state, that this value has been recently confirmed within a very minute
fraction of a second, by the praiseworthy zeal and industry of Mr.
Richardson of the Royal Observatory, who has compared for this
purpose upwards of 2000 observations, made with the two mural
circles of Jones and Troughton; so that this datum may be regard.
ed as one of the best established in Astronomy. In the same cau-
tious manner has Mr. Baily proceeded with the other coefficients,
That of precession he has taken entirely from Bessel’s elaborate in-
vestigations compared with those of Laplace, in which the only re.
maining source of uncertainty, is that arising from our ignorance of
the mass of Venus; the influence of which cannot possibly produce
an error, however, of a tenth of a second in the precession. The
nutation he has taken, as it results from Dr. Brinkley’s observations,
which (like his aberration) justify this partiality by holding almost
exactly an average value among all the different results of Bradley,
Mayer, Maskelyne, Laplace, and Lindenau, and can hardly be con-
sidered as more than a tenth of a second in error.

This judicious choice will secure tie present tables from a possi-
bility of ever sharing the fate of preceding labours of this sort.
They can never be superseded by others of greater accuracy, nor
fall into disuse or grow obsolete till the apparent places of the stars
shall have become so much altered by the effect of precession as to
render the computations inexact, for which a very Jong series of
years will be required.

But the distinguishing characteristic of this work, is the adoption
throughout of Professor Bessel’s capital improvement in the system
of applying the corrections, by arranging the formule in such a
manner that all that is peculiar to each star, and permanent in mag-
nitude, shall stand distinctly separated from all that is ephemeral, or
varying from day to day; and that in such a manner that a short
ephemeral table, capable of being compressed into a single page,
shall serve, not only for these stars, but for every star in the heavens,

3N2 The

460 Astronomical Society.

The convenience of this method, the brevity it introduces into the
computations, the distinctness it gives to all the process of reduc-
tion, requiring neither thought nor memory on the computer’s part,
give it an incalculable advantage over every other. To reduce any
observation, no other book need be opened. ‘The work occupies
four lines, and is done in half that number of minutes. If we com-
pare this with the tedious and puzzling operation required by former
processes, we shall fully agree with Mr. Baily that “ those only
who are versed in such calculations can appreciate the labour, the
risk of error and the loss of time incurred in their several operations ;”
all which are saved by the present arrangement.

These considerations will amply justify the award of your council
in your eyes and those of the world. They will justify a great deal
more. At no time was the necessity of pressing on the attention
of astronomers the utility, I may say, the duty of uniformity in
their systems of reduction more urgent than at present*, when
hardly a nation in Europe is unprovided with a good observatory,
and when rival astronomers in all quarters of the globe are con-
tending for the palm of accuracy and diligence. So long as they
persist in continuing to reduce their observations by different sy-
stems, their merits can never be fairly compared. Each may boast
the perfection of his instruments, and vaunt himself in the security
of his preeminence. Each may promulgate his standard Catalogue,
which will be adhered to in his own nation, and rejected by all
others ; thus dividing astronomers into sects and parties,—a state
of things which ought surely not to continue. The only remedy is
to agree to speak one language, to adopt one system. It matters
little in the present advanced state of science, whether that system
be still open to infinitesimal corrections. Let astronomers only
consent to use it as, like all human works, confessedly imperfect,
and in process of time to be corrected: but not at the caprice of
each individual who may think one coefficient a tenth of a second
too small, or another as much too great ; but after full consideration,
when the necessity and amount of correction shall have become
certainly known and generally agreed on.

Meaawhile, .a fair opportunity is offered to rival astronomers
throughout the world, to try their strength, in an arena of ample
extenf, and where every part of the honourable contest will be
brought distinctly into sight. In giving this Catalogue to the world,
we invite their examination to its errors, (for such it must contain,)
and call on them to lend their aid to its perfection, by determining,
with all the exactness their resources afford, the mean places of the
stars it comprises. For this, its arrangement affords every facility,
and those who observe, have no excuse for neglecting to reduce.
Let us hope then, that instead of lavishing their strength in fruitless
attempts to give superhuman precision to fifty or a hundred select
objects, the formation of a standard Catalogue’ of nearly 3000 will
be deemed of sufficient importance to fix the attention of astrono-

* This applies with equal or greater force to the correction for refraction ;
a common table for which ought to be agreed on and adhered to by all.
mers ;

Astronomical Soczety. 461

mers ; and that not only those to whom the direction of great na-
tional observatories is confided, but even private individuals, if such
there be, who feel themselves in possession of the means required,
may take a share in this glorious, but at the same time arduous
undertaking.

( The President then, delivering the Gold Medal to Mr. Baily, ad-
dressed him as follows :— )

Mr. Balty,

Accept this Medal, which the Astronomical Society bestows on
you, by an award which every astronomer in Europe will confirm.
The work you have accomplished will identify you with the future
progress of that Science, into almost every department of which it is
calculated to infuse new life ; since every practical astronomer has
in it to thank you for an accession of power. It is needless for me
to accompany this testimony of the sense the Society entertains of
your distinguished merits, with the expression of a hope that your
exertions in the cause of Astronomy will continue. You could not
struggle against nature so far as to desist from pursuits which, de-
manding of ordinary men a total devotion of their time, and con-
centration of their whole intellectual powers, have been to you a
relaxation from the most active business. Possessing thus within
yourself a source of pure and exalted enjoyment, enhanced by the
consciousness of public utility, and a certainty of the approval and
admiration of those whom you esteem, we can only add our wishes
that length of years, and continuance of health, may render your
distinguished talents, and rare zeal for the promotion of your favour-
ite science, as useful to Astronomy as it is honourable to yourself.

( The President neat presented the Silver Medal to Mr. Stratford,
addressing him at the same time in these words :—)

Mr. STRATFORD,

The Medal which, in the name of the Astronomical Society, I
now deliver to you, though “less fine in carat” will, I trust, be to
you “more precious” than gold, as proving how highly we appre-
ciate your devoted and persevering attention to the work you have
so happily brought to a conclusion. Those only who have actually
entered into the details of a work of this nature can possibly under-
stand the overwhelming, and soul-sickening labour ofsuch a task ;
—but the pile of volumes now lying on the table, a great por-
tion of which you have yourself penned, and the whole of which
you must in the course of your undertaking have repeatedly read
over, figure by figure, will serve to give some idea of it. In execu-
ting this arduous duty, you have had no other inducement than your
zeal for the progress of science, and that devotion to the interest of
this Suciety which is so conspicuous in every part of your conduct,
and which would not suffer you to tolerate the idea of any incor-
rectness, anything unworthy the importance of the subject emana-
ting from it. The habits of correctness in numerical computation,
and systematic fidelity of detail indispensable for such a work,
you possess, though in perfection, yet in common with many: but

the

462 Astronomical Society.

the enthusiasm in the cause of abstract science, which could carry
you successfully through the task thus voluntarily imposed on your-
self, you share with few. You have however the satisfaction of
knowing that so much labour has not been bestowed in vain ; for,
if there be any thing on which we can calculate with certainty, it is
that the work you have been mainly instrumental in completing,
must exercise a powerful influence on the future destinies of As-
tronomy.

(The President then resumed his Address to the Members in general,
as follows :—)

GENTLEMEN,

We have still another, and a very interesting part of the business
of this meeting to perform, in the delivery, to Colonel Beaufoy, of a
Medal for his valuable series of observations of eclipses of Jupiter's
satellites, communicated to this Society, and in part already printed
in the first part of the second volume of our Memoirs; in part
recently read at a late meeting, and completed up to the present
time, by the paper you have heard read to-night.

The subject of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, is one of singular
interest in the history of Astronomy. The discovery of these bodies
was one of the first brilliant results of the invention of the telescope ;
one of the first great facts which opened the eyes of mankind to the
system of the universe—which taught them the comparative insig-
nificance of their own planet, and the superior vastness and nicer
mechanism of those other bodies, which had before been distin-
guished from the stars only by their motion, and wherein none but
the boldest thinkers had ventured to suspect a community of nature
with our own globe. This discovery gave the holding turn to the
opinions of mankind respecting the Copernican system: the analogy
presented by these little bodies (little however only, in comparison
with the great central body about which they revolve) performing
their beautiful revolutions in perfect harmony and order about it,
being too strong to be resisted. As if to confirm this analogy be-
yond dispute, Kepler lived justlong enough to witness the discovery,
and to demonstrate * the extension of the same general law to their
periods which he had found to obtain among those of the primary
planets about thesun. The conclusion was irresistible; and the full
establishment of the Copernican System must date from the disco-
very of the satellites of Jupiter.

This elegant system was watched with all the curiosity and in-
terest the subject naturally inspired ; and the eclipses of the satel-
lites speedily attracted attention, and the more when it was dis-
cerned, as it immediately was, by Galileo himself, that they afforded
aready method of determining the difference of longitudes of distant
places on the earth’s surface by observations of the instants of their
disappearances and reappearances simultaneously made. Thus the
first astronomical solution of the great problem of the longitude,—

* According to Delambre this extension of Kepler’s law is due to Ven-

delinus,
the

Astronomical Society. 463

the first mighty step which pointed out a connection between spe-
culative Astronomy and practical utility, and which, replacing the
fast dissipating dreams of astrology by nobler visions, showed how
the stars might really and without fiction be called arbiters of the
destinies of empires,—we owe to the satellites of Jupiter ; to those
atoms, imperceptible to the naked eye, and floating like motes in
the beam of their primary—itself an atom to our sight—noticed
only by the careless vulgar as a large star, and by the philosophers
of former ages as something moving among the stars—they knew not
what—nor why; perhaps only to perplex the wise with fruitless
conjectures, and harass the weak with fears as idle as their theories.

No wonder now that the eclipses of the satellites were watched
with anxious, earnest interest; they were soon to afford matter for
yet greater wonder and deeper contemplation. Roemer's discovery
of the velocity of light from the retardation of their eclipses about
the end of the 17th century, was the next in order, and the subli-
mest truth they were destined to be the means of unfolding; a
truth so amazing, so overwhelming to human faculties, that (not to
mention the feebler names of Cassini, Maraldi and Fontenelle) even
the comprehensive genius of a Hooke quailed before it, and refused
to admit the existence of a motion so little short of infinite in a
finite system like our own. The discovery of the aberration of
light by Bradley, however, more than 40 years afterwards, confirmed
it in its full extent ; and no truth in the circle of physical science is
either more astonishing, or better established than this.

We are not yet come to the end of the long catalogue of useful
and admirable ‘results afforded to science and to mankind by the
discovery of these bodies. We have hitherto regarded only obvious
results; broad and evident conclusions from apparent facts. Let
us now trace them in the quiet succession of their convolutions, in
the unfolding of their periodical inequalities, in the slowly accu-
mulating amount of their mutual action, in the influence of the
oblate figure of their primary on their orbits; in short, through
all the mazy intricacies of their perturbations. The lessons they
have thus whispered to the intellect of man, over the midnight lamp,
have not been less instructive, less fraught with wonder and utility,
than those which they have blazoned to his senses. It is to that
powerful and gifted genius, now so recently gathered in an illustri-
ous grave; on whose ashes the tears of mourning science are yet
warm,—to him, whose revered name so freshly sanctified by death,
I am unwilling to pronounce, that we owe the complete develop-
ment of their theory. His penetrating mind saw all the advantages
likely to accrue to the general theory of the planetary perturba-
tions from the study of this miniature system, where years are re-
presented by days, and ages by years, and where inequalities, which
in the planetary theory have a character approaching to secular,
can be traced in their increase and on their wane. Aided, therefore,
by his powerful analysis, he succeeded in applying the law of gra-
vitation to the minute investigation of all their inequalities ;and the
result has been not merely another triumph of the Newtonian theory
in the complete explanation of all their complicated irregularities,

but

464 Astronomical Society.

but the formation of tables even more perfect than observation
itself* : and in addition, a mass of most valuable and instructive
information on the general nature of planetary perturbations, am-
ply repaying all the labour of the inquiry, and adding fresh lustre
to the already imperishable glory of his name.

This slight sketch of the history of the satellites of Jupiter may
serve to show how intimate is the connection of distant parts of
science with each other, and that in it we are to regard nothing as
trivial and nothing as great in itself, but in respect of the instruc-
tion we may draw from it;—to show, in fine, how deep are the
foundations and how wide spread the ramifications of that tree
of knowledge which, in the poet's words,

.... quantum caput ardua ad astra

Attollit—tantum radice in Tartara tendit.
which draws its increments from small beginnings and matters of
speculative curiosity, and ends in becoming the ornament, the
shelter, and the support of society.

It isby observations of the eclipses of the satellites alone that their
theory can be compared with nature, their apparent distances from
the planet being too small and its change too slow to admit of mi-
crometrical measurements precise enough for the purpose, though
perhaps the modern improvements both in the telescope and mi-
crometer may authorize a hope that this may not long be an insu-
perable difficulty. Accordingly, from the time of Roemer down-
wards, a series of eminent astronomers have occupied themselves
with observations of these phenomena, and it is on no less than
two thousand of such observations that Delambre, improving on
the tables of Wargentin by the aid of the profound theory just al-
luded to, succeeded in calculating the first series of tables laying
claim to precision.

The longitude is so much better ascertained now by lunar di-
stances and occultations, that these observations are less resorted
to than heretofore for that purpose. Nevertheless they are occa-
' sionally used, especially those of the first and second, whose
eclipses not only happen much more frequently, but are much more
definite, than those of the exterior ones. Indeed, the observations
of the latter have been declared by high authority, utterly useless.
It is not always good, however, to trust to authority; and Mr. South
by a comparison of his own with Colonel Beaufoy’s observations,
has arrived at a very different conclusion, at least for the cases
when both the beginning and end of the eclipse can be seen. Still,
however, it is highly desirable that they should continue to be assi-
duously observed, not merely to furnish corresponding observations,
but to afford the means of further perfecting the tables, so as ulti-
mately to enable us to dispense with corresponding observations
altogether.

Colonel Beaufoy has for many years past been a most careful
and assiduous observer of these eclipses and indeed of all occasional
phenomena; such as occultations, eclipses both Solar and Lunar,

* Than any single observation.— Delambre.
and

Astronomical Society. 465

and of late of that very useful and important class, the transits of
Moon-culminating stars, of which one of his recent communications
contains an extensive and highly interesting series. His observa-
tions of the immersions and emersions of the satellites communi-
cated to this Society, amount to no less than 180, all (with the ex-
ception of two or three of the earlier ones) being made in the in-
terval from 1518 to 1826 inclusive ;—a fine series, indeed a surprising
one, when the comparative rarity of the phenomena is considered,
not more than about 40 visible at Greenwich occurring annually on
an average, and when the great drawback on observations of this
sort from unfavourable weather in this anti-astronomical climate is
taken into the account. What chiefly adds to their value as a
series, however, is the circumstance of their being all made by one
observer, and with one telescope,—a fine five-feet achromatic of ~
Dollond, and with the same magnifying power 86. In no class of
Astronomical observations, is uniformity in this respect of such im-
portance, since the variations in the times of appearance and dis-
appearance, when observed at the same spot, simultaneously, by
different observers with different telescopes, is found to amount not
merely to a few seconds but to whole minutes.

It must be a matter of deep regret to us all, both for his own sake
and for that of Astronomy, that so valuable and interesting a series
of observations should sustain, what I trust however will prove only
a temporary interruption from the severe illness of Colonel Beaufoy,
which alone prevents him from receiving in person the mark of our
approbation adjudged him by your Council. At his request, there-
fore, I will hand it to our worthy Secretary.

(Here the President delivered the Medal to Mr. Stratford, as
proxy for Colonel Beaufoy, at the same time thus addressing him : )—

Mr. STRATFORD,

When you shall transmit this Medal to Colonel Beaufoy, accom-
pany it with the assurance of our warmest approbation of the useful
and excellent example he has set, in thus steadily prosecuting from
year to year, a train of observations so important in itself and requir-
ing so much patient and persevering attention : anexample we trust
to see emulated by others, since it shows how much, how very
much, may be done with moderate instrumental means, by regular,
systematic, and well directed observation. He has succeeded in
rendering his name conspicuous among astronomers, and his ob-
servatory a standard point of reference,—one of those zero points
on earth which, like the standard stars in the heavens, will serve for
the determination of innumerable others. Already we are furnished
with a conspicuous instance of its use in this respect, in the deter-
mination of the Longitude of Madras by Mr. Goldingham, which
has this night been read to the Society, in which that important
element is derived from a very moderate number of corresponding
observations made at the two stations, with considerable presump-
tion of exactness. Nor can we suppose that this will prove a solitary
instance. Assure Colonel Beaufoy how much we consider science

New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. 30 as

4.66 Horticultural Society.— Zoological Society.

as practically benefited by his labours :—assure him tou of our lively
grief and sympathy for his present sufferings, and our earnest wishes
and prayers that he may be speedily restored to the full enjoyment
of health, to his friends, and to his favourite astronomy.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

April 17.—The following paper was read: Upon the use of an
infusion of tobacco for washing fruit-trees infested with Aphides ;
by Sir George Stewart Mackenzie, Bart—A statement was read of
the medals which had been awarded by several provincial societies
in conformity with the determination of the Horticultural Society
of London, to give annually one silver medal to some one person
within the district of each provincial Horticultural Society, who
shall appear to be deserving of it. A great variety of flowers and
fruits were exhibited, and several kinds of seeds and cuttings were
given away.

May 1.—This was an anniversary meeting, at which the follow-
ing officers were elected:

President: Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq.—Vice- Presidents: John
Elliot, Esq.; Dr. Henderson; R.H. Jenkinson, Esq.; Sir Claude
Scott, Bart.—Secretary: Joseph Sabine, Esq.— Vice-Secretary: Ed-
ward Barnard, Esq.— Assistant Secretary: Mr. John Lindley.

May 8.—The following papers were read :—Observations upon
canker in fruit-trees ; by Mr. Archibald Stewart.— Observations on
the effect of frost upon various hardy trees and shrubs at Newark ;
by T. C. Huddlestone, Esq—On the cultivation of figs in Den-
mark; by Mr. P. Lindegaard.—On the use of double windows in
hot-houses; by Mr. Frederick Otto. A fine display of fruits and
flowers ornamented the table, and the usual distribution of seeds
took place.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The anniversary meeting of this Society took place on Saturday ;
the Marquis of Lansdowne (President) in the chair. ‘The meeting
was very numerously attended. Amongst other distinguished sup-
porters of the establishment, we noticed Karls Spencer, Malmes-
bury, and Carnarvon, Lord Auckland; Marquis Carmarthen ;
Bishop of Bath and Wells; Sir E. Home, Sir R. Heron, Bt. M.P.,
Sir T. D. Acland, Bt., Sir John De Beauvoir; Mr. Baring Wall,
M.P., &c. &c. The President having adverted with much feeling
and effect to the vacancy occasioned by the lamented death of the
late President, and his own accession to that office, reported to the
meeting the progress of the Society during the past year; from
which it appeared that the Museum had been enriched by numerous
and valuable donations; amongst the most conspicuous of these
was particularized a female ostrich from His Majesty. The mag-
nificent collection of Sir T. S. Raffles, consisting of mammalia,
birds, reptiles, insects, zoophytes, &c. has also been transferred to
the Society. The President further informed the meeting that the
works in the Regent’s Park are rapidly advanting : the walks are
laid out and partly executed ; and some pheasantries and ci

wit

Royal Institution of Great Britain. 467

with sheds and inclosures for some of the rarer animals belonging
to the Society, are in active progress. It is expected that the gar-
dens will possess sufficient interest to authorize the opening of
them during the ensuing autumn. The President then announced
that the number of subscribers exceeds 500, and that the list is
daily increasing. He also gave a highly favourable report of the
funds of the Society; which after defraying all charges attending
upon the various works in progress, leave a considerable and in-
creasing balance in the bankers’ hands.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

April 27.—Dr. Granville gave an account of his investigations
of the processes followed by the Egyptians in the embalming of
their mummies. After fecapitulating what he had done in the ex-
amination of a very fine mummy, an account of which is already
before the public, and referring also to other modes in which human
bodies had been preserved, he proceeded to show how far his own
exertions in preparing mummies, according to that which he con-
sidered as the Egyptian method, had been attended with success ;
and he produced numerous well preserved specimens prepared by
immersion in tanning liquors, in saline solutions, &c. An extraor-
dinary and abundant collection of mummies and preserved speci-
mens was upon the table.

In the Library was a piece of a ship’s bottom pierced by a sword-
fish, presented by General Hardwicke ; a poisoned arrow from Ce-
lebes ; specimens of the Mantis, and numerous literary curiosities.

May 4.—Mr. Faraday gave an account of the chemical action of
chlorine and its compounds when used as disinfectants. This was
a continuation of the subject of February 2, by Mr. Alcock. The
chemical action of chlorine upon infectious or fetid vapours appears
to vary according to circumstances, sometimes apparently abstract-
ing hydrogen to form muriatic acid with it; at others producing
triple compounds of chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen; and at others
again, probably decomposing water and causing the nascent oxy-
gen to act upon the fetid or injurious substance ;—but in all cases
chemically altering its nature, and rendering it innocuous or very
nearly so. ‘The compounds of chlorine with lime and with carbo-
nate of soda were considered as acting precisely in the same man-
ner as pure chlorine, but with moderated energy ; and the experi-
ments of Gaultier de Claubry quoted as decisive on this point. The
nature of the compound of chlorine with lime was considered as
well ascertained ; but that of the compound with carbonate of soda
stated as doubtful. It is evidently not a chloride of soda; and when
made according to the proportions directed by M. Labarraque, not
a particle of carbonic acid is evolved. It was stated that in some
experiments made by Mr, Phillips, a portion of this eas be-
ing evaporated, crystallized in acicular forms, which if dissolved
still possessed disinfecting and bleaching powers, especially when
carbonic acid was passed through the solution; but which, if ex-
posed to the air for a sufficient time, lost all bleaching power ; and
being then dissolved, neutralized, and examined by nitrate of silver,

$02 gave

468 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

gave so little chloride of silver, as to show that scarcely any por-
tion (if any) of chloride of sodium had been formed, and that by
such exposure nearly all the chlorine could be liberated from the
carbonate of soda.

The mummy of an Ichneumon was also opened this evening upon
the Lecture-table, by Dr. Granville; and numerous rare and curious
books were on the Library tables.

May 11.—Mr. Brockedon has devised a process by which fine
metallic wires can be drawn through gems which, much surpassing
the steel plates in ordinary use, suffer no appretiable wear, and
permit an immense length of wire to be drawn without any increase
in diameter. Many curious observations arose during the neces-
sary experiments relating to the ductility, tenacity and malleability
of metals. Mr. Brockedon described these at the Lecture-table, and
illustrated the points of interest by numerous experiments,

In the Library were Mr, Wheatstone’s Kaleidophone, or Phonic
Kaleidescope ; Mr. Lydiatt’s Smecrologometer, an instrument to
measure the tenacity of fine wire: and literary novelties.

May 18.—Mr. Holdsworth gave a discourse on the forms of the
hulls of vessels. ‘The means of conveyance upon the waters was
traced from the raft and balza upwards, to the most perfect speci-
mens of naval structures ; the various points of difference and coin-
cidence being illustrated by numerous very fine models from the
Navy Board and from private gentlemen, and also by drawings.

A series of Geological specimens, collected by Capt. Parry and
his companions from Port Bowen, Prince Regent’s Inlet, were laid
on the Library tables, with many literary novelties and curiosities.

LXXXIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

CRYSTALLIZED CARBONATE OF POTASH.

M FABRONTI (Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. vii. p. 470) ob-
* tained this salt by evaporating a solution of it until its spe-
cific gravity was 1-6; it then deposited crystals in the form of long
rhomboidal lamine.

In order to procure crystallized carbonate of potash,
I evaporated a solution of sp. gr. 1425 to about one
half; on cooling, crystals were plentifully deposited,
which having been examined by my brother W. Phillips,
he states that the salt is so deliquescent that it is im-
possible to determine its form, It generally consists of
a number of crystals, having a resemblance to the dog-
tooth spar in form, arranged in the same direction, and limited ex-
ternally by six sides ; the underside of the crystal, represented in
the accompanying figure, has a line proceeding to the centre from
each of the six angles, and each of the six parts was striated in the
same manner: viewing the whole as one crystal it would be said
that the edge was replaced.

To

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 469

To determine the quantity of water of crystallization, I heated
200 grains of the salt to redness; they lost 42 grs.; consequently
158 of carbonate of potash are combined with 42 of water: there-
fore 70 = 1 atom give 18-6 of water, so little exceeding two atoms,
that we may safely consider the crystallized carbonate of potash as -

composed of one atom of carbonate of potash = 70
two atoms of water....... =18
Weight of the atom . . 88 RiP:

ACTION OF ZTHERS ON VARIOUS BODIES.

M. Henry, senior, has made numerous experiments on the above-
named subject, and has arrived at the following conclusions :—first,
with respect to sulphuric ether. In this the easily oxidable metals
and oxides, capable of combining with acetic acid, give rise to the
formation of acetates, probably by decomposing, not the sulphuric
zther, but the acetic zther which is always found in it. The author
concludes also, that it is owing to the saturation of the acetic acid
set free in consequence of this decomposition, that sulphuric zther
during evaporation does not redden litmus paper, whilst it acts
differently when exposed to a gentle heat; this small quantity of
acetic 2ther with which it is mixed is decomposed by the action of
the air, when it has not been combined with oxides.

Phosphorus and sulphur dissolve in sulphuric zther at common
temperatures, especially the former, and in considerable quantity ;
protomuriate of iron is also soluble in it, and crystallizes from it
in rhomboids of an emerald green colour. Nitric and acetic zthers
are readily decomposed by keeping, by many substances without
the assistance of heat, so as to occasion among other products the
formation of their respective acids ard acetates, and also alcohol
which dissolves the salts formed: this is a fresh proof that their
elements, though recently combined, may be very readily se-
parated.

The results yielded by acetic ether have great analogy with
those obtained with sulphuric zther, which is a reason for sup-
' posing that the opinion stated with respect to the acetification of
the latter is very probable.

Muriatic zther dissolves phosphorus and sulphur to a certain
extent.— Journ. de Pharm. March 1827, p. 130.

CHLORIDE OF BORON.

M. Dumas prepares this compound by passing dry chlorine gas over

a mixture of charcoal and boracic acid, heated to incandescence
in a porcelain tube. The tube was first heated to expel all moisture
from the mixture, and the gas was then passed over it. When
it had passed for about a quarter of an hour, an adopter and bent
tube were attached, and the chloride was received over mercury,
It is a gaseous body, and corresponds in composition with fluoboric
acid ; it is colourless, denser than air, fuming in contact with it,
decomposable by water, and resists a high temperature. M. De-
Spertz

470 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

spertz also lays claim to the discovery of this compound; he ob-
tained it as above described, and also by passing chlorine over
boruret of iron.— Ann. de Chim. xxx. 378—442,

NEUTRALIZING THE MAGNETISM OF WATCH-WORKS.

Mr. Abraham, of Sheffield, has contrived an extremely easy and
effectual mode of divesting watch-works of their magnetism. The
process consists in dipping the part to be divested of magnetism, as
a balance-wheel, into fine steel filings, and then presenting a fine
magnet to the part covered with them, at a distance of a quarter
to one inch, according to the power to be neutralized. It will be
directly observed whether the polarity of the magnet be of the
same kind as that in the apparatus; if so, the filings will gradually
fall from the part as the power becomes neutralized. When all the
filings have fallen from the part submitted to experiment, dip it
again into the filings, to prove whether it has acquired opposite
polarity by remaining too long exposed to the magnet; if that be
the case, present the contrary end of the magnet at a distance pro-
portional to the power to be diffused. By this process, exposure
to heat is rendered unnecessary. — Trans. Society of Arts, 44—59.

NEW ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE: BY M. CAUCHOIX.

M. Cauchoix, the vptician, of Paris, has nearly completed an
achromatic telescope, measuring about nineteen and a half feet in
length, with an object-glass by the late M. Guinand, of 123 inches
diameter. Some remarkable observations on Saturn’s ring have
already been made with this instrument, by MM. Arago and Ma-
thieu, the results of which will shortly be published when fully
verified. ay hahaa

CHLORIDE OF ARSENIC.

Put one part of arsenious acid and 10 parts of concentrated sul.
phuric acid into a tubulated retort, and raise the temperature to
nearly 212° Fahr, ; then throw fragments of fused common salt into
the retort by the tubulure. By continuing the heat and successively
adding common salt, protochloride of arsenic is obtained ; it falls
drop by drop from the beak of the retort, and may be collected in
cooled vessels : little, if any, muriatic acid is disengaged, but to-
wards the end of the operation a portion of hydrated: chloride of
arsenic is frequently produced, which collects in the vessels above
the pure chloride. The two bodies do not mix; the hydrate is
liquid, transparent and colourless, and more viscid than the dry
chloride. The hydrate may be decomposed, and pure chloride ob-
tained, by distilling the mixture from a sufficient quantity of sul-
phuric acid.— Dumas. Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xxxiii. 360.

NOTE RESPECTING MR. BABBAGE’S LOGARITHMS.

The logarithm of the number 24626, whose four last figures are
3939,

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. ATI

3939, is given among the errata printed at the end of the preface,
to Mr. Babbage’s Logarithms.

The errata so stated can scarcely be considered as errors, since
each copy contains the proper corrections. The history of that
particular mistake may be useful as pointing out the manner in
which they are sometimes introduced. Its origin in all the modern
tables arises from a misprint in Vlacq’s folio edition of 1628, in
which a nine is printed instead of an eight in the 7th place of
figures. In the first three readings of the proofs of Mr. Babbage’s
tables, they were compared with tables corrected by his own copy
of Vega, and this correction was included ; and it was rightly printed
3939. During the next three readings by a different set of readers,
copies of tables were accidentally employed, in which this had been
neglected to be corrected; it was consequently altered to 3940.
The plates were now stereotyped, and in the 7th and Sth reading
it was again detected, and the source of its introduction traced.
The only error at present known in these tables is the misprint in
the logarithms of the number 13588, in which the fourth figure is
a large unity instead of a small unity.

SILICA IN SPRINGS IS DISSOLVED BY MEANS OF CARBONIC
ACID.

Dr. Karsten remarks, that, if so feeble an acid as the acetous,
is capable of dissolving silica, it is not improbable that the carbonic
acid may have the same property. This conjecture he has con-
firmed by experiment, The experiment may be made as follows.
Decompose a portion of liquor silicum by means of a superabun-
dance of any acid, the muriatic for example, and neutralize the
clear fluid with carbonate of ammonia, at the lowest possible tem-
perature. The carbonic acid evolved by this process combines with
the water; and, if the neutral fluid is preserved in a well-closed
glass vessel, it may be kept for many weeks, without exhibiting any
precipitation of silica. But if it is exposed to the air, or, better,
if the solution is heated in an open vessel, it is decomposed in pro-
portion to the escape of the carbonic acid, and the siliceous earth
is deposited on the walls of the vessel in a-gelatinous state. This
result shows, that the great quantity of silica met with in many mi-
neral springs, particularly hot springs, is held in solution by carbo-
nic acid. It is true that we cannot in this way explain how the si-
liceous earth was first dissolved,—for the generally received opi-
nion, that the earth is simply washed out of the strata in the vici-
nity of the springs is, according to Karsten, untenable.—Edin.
Phil, Journ.

NOTICE REGARDING THE COMMON STAR-FISH, ASTERIAS
RUBENS.

On the 6th of March last year, M. Eudes Deslongchamps ob-
served the beach at Colville to be covered with star-fish. When the
waves retired, and there was still an inch or two of water upon the
sand, he saw them rolling out in the form of balls, which, on exami-
nation, he found to consist of five or six individuals, closely united

and

4:72 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

and clinging together by their rays. In the centre of each of these
balls was a full-grown specimen of Mactra stultorum. The asteriz
were arranged along the edge of the valves, which were always se-
parated to the distance of two or three lines ; they were applied to
them by their lower surface. On detaching them from the shell,
it was remarked, that they had introduced between its valves, large
round vesicles, with very thin walls, and filled with a transparent
fluid. Each asterias presented five pendent vesicles, arranged sym-
metrically about the mouth. These vesicles were of unequal size :
two of them were commonly larger, and about the size of a very
large hazle-nut ; the other three were not larger than a pea. They
appear to be connected with the animal by a very short and narrow
peduncle, At the other extremity was a round open hole, through
which the fluid, contained in the vesicle, flowed gently, and drop by
drop. ‘The walls of these vesicles were very thin; the upper half,
however, was thicker than the other, and Jongitudinally wrinkled.
At the end of a few seconds, tlie vesicles, having contracted and
discharged their contents, were scarcely larger than a grain of or-
dinary shot. When the sea had left the asteriae some moments dry,
they quitted the animal which they were in the act of sucking, and
immediately after, the place of the vesicles could no longer be di-
stinguished. The shells, that had been seized upon by these ani-
mals, were found in various states of destruction ; some so far gone
as to have only the adductor muscles remaining ; but all of them
had lost the faculty of closing their valves, and appeared to be dead.
If testacea be the ordinary food of the asteriz, an enormous quan-
tity of them must be destroyed, if we may judge by the number of
these animals. M. Deslongchamps inclines to the opinion that the
asteriz attack the mactre while the latter are still alive, and that,
probably, by means of some fluid, capable of producing torpor, they
force them to open their shelJs, and thus allow the introduction of
the singular bodies described, and which act as suckers. He is the
more inclined to think so, as none of the mactre, which he ex-
amined, had the least smell, or presented any other indication of
having been dead for any time. It must, however, be remembered,
that bivalve shells of this, or any other analogous species, tossed
about by the waves, are no longer in their natural state, but have
been raised from their native haunts under the sand, either by bois-
terous weather, or after intense frost, by even a scarcely more than
ordinarily troubled state of the sea. Shells in this state are frequently
observed on our shores. In some the animals are dead, in others so
much weakened, as to be unable to close their shells, while others
may, at least after gales, be for a time apparently as sound as ever.
Now, it is more than probable, that the asteriz could only attack
those which were absolutely dead or dying, and from which the
insertion of their suckers could experience no opposition ; for it
would be impossible for them to insinuate even a pretty solid sub-
stance, much less a mere vesicle, between the closed valves of a
living shell ; and, on the other hand, how should the asteriz con-
trive to make the shell of a vigorous animal open, in order to let
them throw in their imagined torporiferous fluid ?-— [bid.

Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 473

SUGAR OF MELONS.

M. Payen has lately extracted 13 of well crystallized sugar, and
possessing all the properties of that of the sugar-cane, from 100
parts of the juice of the melon.—Bull. Philomath. 1826. p. 135.

FAILURE OF THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE AT PARIS.

The suspension bridge erected over the Seine at Paris, opposite
the Hotel des Invalids, by M. Navier, Ingénieur des ponts et
chaussées, has entirely failed; the attachments of the chains having
given way, on account of an error which it is conceived an engineer
of inferior mathematical attainment to M. Navier would readily
have avoided: and the circumstance is the more remarkable, as the
construction of the suspension bridges in England (none of which
has failed) has repeatedly been condemned by M. Navier.

LIVING CONDOR AT PARIS.

In the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes is a living specimen
of the condor, which has survived the past winter, and is now ina
healthy condition.

SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

Just Published.

Tracts on Hydraulics, edited by Thomas Tredgold, civil engi-
neer; containing, I. Smeaton’s experimental papers on the Power
of Water and Wind to turn Mills, &c. &c.; II. Venturi’s experi-
ments on the Motion of Fluids; and III. Dr, Young’s Summary of
Practical Hydraulics, chiefly from the German of Eytelwein ;—with
notes by the editor, and illustrated by seven plates.

No. LX. commencing the third volume, of the Zoological Journal,
containing a Memoir of the Life and Writings, and Contributions
to Science, of the late Sir T. Stamford Raffles ; with other original
articles in every branch of Zoology, Reviews of Books, &c.

Preparing for Publication.

The Rev. J. A. Ross is preparing a Translation from the German
of Hirsch’s Geometry, uniform with his translation of Hirsch’s
Algebra.

Mr. Babbage has nearly completed for publication, a table of the
logarithms of natural numbers to seven figures. This work was
undertaken for the use of the Trigonometrical Survey of Ireland,
and has been, we understand, corrected with the greatest care, and
several errors have been detected, which run through almost all

‘known tables.

NEW PATENTS.

To James Whitaker, of Wardale, near Roachdale, for improve-
ments in machinery for pressing cardings from woollen or carding
engines, and for drawing, stubbing and spinning wool and cotton.
—Dated the 24th of April 1827,—2 months allowed to enrol spe-
cification.

To Carlo Glugo, of Lyons, now residing in Fenchurch-street,
New Series. Vol. 1. No. 6. June 1827. $P loom,

474 New Patents.

loom, &c. manufacturer, for improvements in weaving-machinery.—
24th of April.—6 months.

To M. W. Lawrence, of Leman-street, Goodman’s Fields, for im-
provement in refining sugar.—28th of April.—6 months.

To J. A. Berrollas, of Great Waterloo-street, Lambeth, for a de-
tached alarum watch.—28th of April_—2 months.

To R. Daws, of Margaret-street, Cavendish-square, for improve-
ments on chairs or machines calculated to increase ease and com-
fort.—28th of April.—6 months,

To T. Bradenback, of Birmingham, for improvements in bed-
steads.—28th of April.—6 months.

To B, Somers, of Langford, Somerset, M.D. for his improve-
ments in furnaces for smelting.—28th of April.—6 months,

To W. Lockyer, of Bath, for his improvement in the manufac-
ture of brushes, and materials applicable thereto.—28th of April,—
6 months,

To H. Knight, of Birmingham, for a machine for ascertaining the
attendance to duty of any watchman, workmap, or other person; also
applicable to other purposes.—28th of April.—6 months.

To John M‘Curdy, Esq. of Cecil-street, Strand, for improve-
ments, communicated from abroad, in the rectification of spirits.—
28th of April.—6 months.

To J. Browne, and W. D. Champion, of Bridgewater, Somerset,
for a composition or substance which may be moulded into bricks,
or blocks for building, and also made applicable for ornamental
architecture.—5th of May.—2 months.

To D. Bentley, of Eccles, Lancashire, for an improved carriage-
wheel.—8th of May.—6 months.

To T. P. Coggin, of Wadworth, near Doncaster, for. a new or
improved machine for the dibbling of grain.—19th of May.—2 mon.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR APRIL 1827.

Gosport.— Numerical Results for the Month.

Barom. Max. 30-28 April 8. Wind NE.—Min. 29-44 April 21. Wind NE.
Range of the mercury 0-84.

Mean barometrical pressure for themonth. . . . . . . . 29-960
Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury . . . 4-040
Greatest variation in 24 hours 0:330.—Number of changes 14.

Therm. Max. 70° April 30. Wind S.—Min. 35° April 25. Wind N.
Range 35°.—Mean temp. of exter. air 51°-07. For 30 days with © in 50°58
Max. var. in 24 hours 22°-00— Mean temp. of spring water at 8 A.M. 49°-78

De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer.

Greatest humidity of the air in the evening of the 9th . . . . 88°
Greatest dryness of the air in the afternoons of the 14th and 15th. 42
Eimperot Semen ee ek hay Ce ae
Mean at 2 P.M. 55°-5—Mean at 8 A.M. 63°-6—Mean at 8 P.M. 68:8
of three observations each day at 8,2, and 8 o’clock . . 626
Evaporation for the month 2°35 inch.

Rain near ground 1-910 inch.—Rain 23 feet high 1-785 inch.

Prevailing Winds N.E, and S.E.

Summary

Meteorological Observations Sor April 1827. 475

Summary of the Weather.

A clear sky, 4; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 13; an over-
cast sky without rain, 83; fogg £; rain, 4.—Total 30 days.

Clouds.
Cirrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus.
13 9 28 4 17 18

Scale of the prevailing Winds.

N. NE. EB SH. S. SW. W. N.W. Days.
4 5 3 5 4 1 4 4 30

General Observations.—The first part of this month to the 16th was mild
and generally dry; but the latter part, excepting the last three days, was
cold, with frequent showers of rain and hail, and hoar-frost in the morn-
ings. The mean temperature of the air was so low on the 22nd, 23rd,
24th, and 25th, that it became necessary to resume office fires, which had
been dispensed with from the beginning of the month.

On the 24th we had several smart showers of pulpy hail without icy
nuclei, sufficient to whiten the surrounding hills; and in the northern parts
of Hampshire the hills were lightly covered with snow: on the same day
the snow on Malvern hills in Worcestershire, and on Blagdon hills in So-
mersetshire, is said to have been several inches deep. It was brought on
by the union of a Westerly wind with an upper current which had blown
several days from the North-east. During one week of the low tempera-
ture and frosty mornings the spring lay dormant, and no progress appeared
in the bloom of the fruit-trees.

The Swallows returned here on the 13th, but from the change in the
weather they were very little on the wing for a fortnight afterwards.

The Barometer has been remarkably steady this month, on some days
it was quiescent ; and the number of changes is comparatively few for April.
The mean temperature of the external air for this period is nearly one
degree higher than the mean of April for the last eleven years,

The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our
observations this month, are two parhelia, three solar and three lunar halos,
four meteors, and two gales of wind from the North-east.

REMARKS.

London.—April 1. Gloomy. 2. Cloudy. 3—9. Fine. 10. Cloudy, with
slight showers. 11. Cloudy, and fine. 12. Rainy. 18—15. Fine. 16. Cloudy,
and fine. 17. Showers of hail and rain, 18. Rainy. 19—21. Cloudy.
22,23. Cloudy: cold wind. 24. Hail-showers. 25. Fine. 26. White
frost: fine. 27. Fine: white frost. 28—-30. Fine.

Boston.—April 1, 2. Cloudy. 3—5. Fine. 6. Fine: thermometer 72° |
} pM. rain at night. 7—9. Fine. 10. Rain. 11. Cloudy. 12. Cloudy:
rainpM: 13, 14. Fine. 15. Cloudy: rain pM. 16, 17, Cloudy. 18. Rain.
19. Cloudy: rain a.M. 20—23. Cloudy. 24. Rainy : rain P.M. 25. Cloudy.
26—929, Fine. 30. Fine: thermometer 78° 2 P.M.

Penzance.—April 1. Rain : clear. 2. Showers: fair. 3—5. Fair. 6. Misty
rain. 7. Clear: rain. 8. Clear, 9. Fair: rain. 10. Misty rain: fair.
11. Clear: fair. 12. Fair: clear. 13—19. Clear. 20. Fair: rain at night.
21, 22. Rain: fair, 23. Fair. 24. Fair: showers, sleet and hail. 25. Showers:
clear. 26.Clear. 27. Fair: clear. 28, 29. Clear. 30. In general clear.

gsP?2 Summary

( 476 )

Summary for the Year 1826, of the state of the Barometer, Thermo-
meter, &§c. in Kendal. By S. MARSHALL, Esq.

Barometer. Thermometer.
1826.
Max.| Min. (Mean. Max.

——

No. of
rainy

4 Days.

| Prevalent
Vinds.

Ist Month | 30-16 Al 29°81] 44:5} 9 | 30:50
2d Month | 30-00) 28-89, 29°53151 | 29 | 41-37
Sd Month | 30-27) 29:25 29-74) 66°5| 26 | 41-13
4th Month | 30-78} 28°85 29-76} 60

5th Month | 30:10) 29:63 29:87}76 | 28
6th Month | 30:25] 29:70) 30:02! 85
7th Month | 30-15} 29°34) 29-76! 81
8th Month | 30:03} 29-37) 29:

9th Month | 30-03) 29-16) 29-68) 68
10th Month! 29-99} 29-02) 29-63} 65
11th Month} 30-31] 28-69) 29-614 50
12th Month} 30-29) 28-62) 29-61) 50

Average.

The preceding Summary of the Meteorological Phenomena for
1826, presents, in most respects, unusual results for this part of the
country. The barometer throughout the year has maintained an
altitude not very common for the height of Kendal above the level
of the sea. This will appear from the mean altitude for the three
preceding years : that of 1823 being 29°56; for 1824, 29-96; and for
1825, 29°64. The mean temperature 47°81 is also greater than in
these years. This is a circumstance which has been generally ex-
perienced in every part of the island. In 1823, the mean tempera-
ture was 45°-00; in 1824, 46°-88; and in 1825, 47°49. It is gene-
rally admitted that no parallel to the late summer can be found for
the last 63 years, for intense heat and dryness. In this instance, as
in the year 1763, the drought of the summer has been succeeded
by an unusually mild and open Autumn and Winter, so far as the
latter season has advanced. To the last day of the year, vegeta-
tion has maintained much of its verdant appearance, and cattle in
this part have been enabled to derive the greater part of their sus-
tenance from the fields. The dryness of the year is sufficiently
proved from the circumstance, that only 43-060 inches of rain have
fallen in that period, and within 16 miles of this town ( Yealand )
but 291 inches have fallen. In 1825, 59:973 inches of rain were
taken at Kendal, and in the three preceding years, of 1822, 1823,
and 1824, nearly 63 inches fell in each year,

In this town, the winds from the S.W. may be said to prevail
during nine months in the year; but in 1826, but five months show
this wind to have been the most prevalent. As it is from this quar-
ter that the greatest quantity of rain accompanies the currents of
the atmosphere, this circumstance appears to be an additional proof,
(if any were wanted,) that the greatest quantity of moisture is con-
veyed by this wind. In 1823 we had 198 rainy days ; in 1824, 187 ;
and in 1825, 169; but in 1826, we have had only 147 days in which
rain has fallen; and had it not been for the remarkably wet month of
February, the number would have been much smaller. S. M.

OO 06.0 Go%

ALT OLG-T,

eS

eee +e one eee ov. 09: M " “MN Te
see fuupo) Su eM | a8
eee Tem | a | ae |e

sre) #88 1068-0
Wie. s'|| vax ave. leet we | yeah | Ayla

FX OSG 0} (0) a GO. |OG. eee | erg | SAN MIEN | AAS
ses 1090. ina bie eee | oon | SOEN | SUM | AANN
ET a a eli (01 OB Los eee] rN | SEN: | AN "ENN
se logd. | tt" eee lop, | tte | ait | SN) SAAN | SION
wngge: | | tOe I eee forma] it] 8B] a
bud ceo | eon | St | SR] SOEN
‘MN
eee Loup) OPN] nN | SN
see Tey | ODN | SIUM | SEN
see Vanya] tN | al | SAN
soe Tea] ON | St | SAAN
*MN
se 1008. |°°* | GS jOT. | *** |Atlwo ‘"W “mM | TAS
14) (rte a ta see fees | QH.QiurUO! IG | MAN | ‘ae
vee Jurpw) “N *N .| ‘AAWN
“M8 .
a U8 | AN | SB
™
8

GLO.

one ee eee tee ovo ove

tee one aoe wee lene ane

** 1OQT-O.09L-0] Z0.0)"" | ***

an

6
g

THM} LOdUAnT ‘PUL

6.00
gg
9.09
.0V
IP
GRE
oP
Ve
GV

GE | OL | 9 | 19 |_Pe | 64 | 1 62
og | oL | gh | 19 | 9 | 6L | £9-6%
eh | vo | gh | 19 | oF | 82 | 99.6%
0G | 29 | BY | 99 | BE | OL | GB.0%
ov | So | €b | Se | LE | FO | 90.08
ov | bS | 9€ | 19 | OF | 9 | LR-6%
of | 19 | OF | 19 | PU | GG | 9.6%
Le | 09 | GE | BY | SE | OG | GE.66
ov | ab | ob | 6P | 1€ | SP | F9-6%
6€ | of | PR | 6b | LE | SP | 19-60
ep | 49 | bP | oo | ob | 1G | Gb.6%
py | Lo | bP | So | bE | PbS | Ge.6%
oP | o9 | &h | og | €€ | 19 | bb-6e
ov | 29 | ob | So | ov | 19 | 99.6%
ov | ag | €b | eo | ob | 69 | 02.6%
Ww | to | PP | og | LE | 8g | 04-68
evi 19 | | Lo | PP | £9 | 69.6%
1 | 09 | €v | So | &P | @9 | 08-66
ov | 19 | €b | vo | SE | SO | 99.6%
6£ | LG | 6b | Sg | Le | Sg | LE.6e
ov | to | 1h | Sg | OP | &O | 09°68
6r | go | Lh} og | OV | 09 | h.6s
Scr | o9 | 9b | €9 | GP | 19 | 29.6%
fv i €o | oe | og | &F | £9o | 06.6%
bry | 69 | PP) bo | Gb | 19 | $2.68
oy | co | LU | 99 | 6 | OZ | SY.6%
Ly | 69 | Lb | go | €b | Lo | $0.68
6r | Go | Lb | bo | PP | £9 | 99.6%
av | 19 | av | &9 | PP | RG | 09.6%
oy | 19 | gh | SS | BE | BP | 2.6%
ov | eo | be | Po | PP! OP | bR.6%
au sew wt sera MW [ew] iwey Fg

odo ‘pounzue,| tuopuory [HOMO

“LOOUIOLOT,T,

S¥-66 | RGOF | 08-66% | 00-08 | £1.66 |
90.08 | Lo.o€ | 086% | hR-6%
86:66 | £0.08 | 89-6% | 01.6%
V6-6% | 90-08 | 89:66 | R0-6%
GL.O€ | 9@-08 | 08'6% | 99:66 |
OLOL | Gt08 | BR:6t | hg.6%
81:66 | 266% | 09.66 | GL:6%
09:66 | 99-66 | OF-6% | 09-68
£9.66 | OL:66 | PV-66 | 89-60%
99:6¢ | €L:66 | Bb-6% | 89-66
VP.60 | P9.6% | 0%'6% | BE-6%
09.6% | 69.60 | O£:68 | OF-66
89:66 | 94.66 | 09:66 | 09.6%
VR.60 | 96.6% | 89 6% | 0L-6%
86:60 | Vo.0€ | PL:6% | 82:68
vo.o£ | 90.08 | PR-6% | 886%
90.0€ | 80.08 | 06.6% | 16.6%
GLOF | 08.08 | 26.6% | 96.6%
OT-O£ | SL.OF | 8H6G | 06.6%
61:60 | 06.6% | 09.6% | Po.6%
89:66 | 88.6% | 09.6% | 29.6%
19.6% | 88.6% | 09.6% | 69.6%
66:66 | 01.08 | 01.6% | %8-6%
£%.0£ | RZ.0£ | 00.08 | 00.08
ZLOE | LZ.0£ | 08.6% | 06.6%
06.66 | GO.0F | P9.6% | 04.6%
00.08 | $0.08 | OL.6% | PL.6%
L0.0€ | TLO£ | 08.6% | PR-6%
0.08 | 60.08 | 98-6 | RR-6%
OLOL | OL-O8 | 886% | PO.6%
OLOL | GLOE | 96°66 | £6.66 | O6.«
“UN xe “HW UW
*odson POULT
“OP OULO NET

Li.0€
81-0f
RT'OL
06.08
6.08
6:68
bL.66
VL.6%
LR6%
£1.6%
£L:6%
986%
16.6%
OLOe
61.08
0.08
0G.08
G08
00.08
00.0£
f0.08
S0.0£
9% of
96.08
60.08
OLof
bu.of
bo.of
bo.of
66.08

“THIN | ox "<VW
“Wopuo’y

RP-of

BLO |OL
OL-08 [6%
OG-08 [RS
obof [Le
OF-0f [9%
62.08 |S%
G6-66 |b
68-68 |€%
68.68 &%
L8-6% 1%
98.6% |0&
16.6% \61
OLOL |81
OL.of \L1
OG.OL OT
GT
hr
a |
Gt.08 [EI
£0.08 | U1
90.08 (OL
Gt.08 16
gh.of is
gb.of iL
9%.0€ |9
bZ.0€ |
SG.08 IP
Lz.0£

66.08 \%
_be.08 |1

1 MOAYy

))

dy

uw:

LERL
“Hon

mOpogy DW TIVILA PY pun uodsoy ww AINUA “cp ‘eounsay 1 AMAT “py “WopuoryT ae CUVMOTT “IV hq suoymasasge pootoposoapyy

INDEX to VOL. I.

—>—

ABEL (Dr. C.) on the Sumatran
Orang Outang, 213.

Abraham, (Je H.) on magnetic and
electric influence, 266.

Acetates of mercury, 73.

Acid, nitric, composition of, 312.

——— cyanic, 72.

Acids in castor oil, 313.

African expedition, 74.

Airy’s (Prof.) reply to Mr. Ivory’s re-
marks on the attraction of spheroids,
442,

Alkaline chlorides, action of, as disin-
fecting substances, 232.

Ant, black, hybernation of, 314.

Arsenic, chloride of, 470.

Assam, rivers of, 151.

Astronomical observations,
Beaufoy’s, 46, 219, 290.

Astronomy, 19, 28, 46, 47, 55, 69, 81,
140, 212, 219, 290, 291, 310, 315,
324, 390.

Atmosphere, finite extent of, 107.

Attraction, capillary, 115, 332.

Aurora borealis, 317.

Babbage’s logarithms, 471.

Baily’s (F.) list of moon-culminat-
ing stars for 1827, 47; on some new
tables for determining the apparent
places of the Greenwich stars, 81.

Barometrical registers, formule for
reducing, 15.

Bath, mode of heating water for, 104.

Beaufoy’s (Lieut.) astronomical ob-
servations, 46, 219, 290.

Bevan, (B.) on the cohesion of cast-
iron, 14.

Birds of Mexico, synopsis of them, 364,
433.

Bismuth cobalt ore, 145.

Bleaching flax, method of, 119.

Blood, Dr. Spurgin on the nature and
properties of, 199, 370, 418.

Books, new, 76, 152, 223, 291, 315,
379, 473.

Boron, chloride of, 169.

Botany, 120, 271.

Bromine, 231, 395; compound nature
of, 232; cyanuret of, 396.

Bullock, (Messrs.) birds discovered in
Mexico by them, 364, 433.

Burney’s (Dr.) results of the meteoro-
logical observations at Wick, 339.

Capillary attraction, 115, 332.

Carbon, oxide of, 71.

Cast-iron, strength of, 14.

Castor oil, acids in, 313.

Cerium, sulphuret of, 71.

Lieut.

Chemistry, 31, 71, 72, 73, 94, 110, 142,
143, 144, 145, 146, 172, 190, 239,
312, 313, 314, 321, 376, 379.

Chloride of arsenic, 470; of boron,
469.

Chlorides of lime and soda, Mr. R.
Phillips on, 376.

Chlorine in native black oxide of
manganese, 142.

Chromate of silver, 345.

Chrome, 452.

Cobalt ore, bismuthic, 145.

Comet at Paramatta, observations on,
$15.

Copper mines in Cornwall, produce of,
233.

Cornwall, copper mines in, produce of,
233.

steam-engines in, account of,
2336

Crystallization, new theory of, 397.

Cyanic acid, 72.

Cyanuret of bromine, 396.

Davy, (Sir H.) on electrical and
chemical changes, $1, 94, 190.

Diamond, origin of, 147.

Disinfecting properties of alkaline
chlorides, 232.

Dyeing drugs, 55.

Elaine, separation of from oils, 71.

Electric and magnetic influence, Mr.
Abraham on, 266.

Electricity, 20, 31, 94, 190, 266, 343.

Emmett, (J. B.)on capillary attraction,
115, 332; method of bleaching and
preparing flax, 119; physical con-
struction of solids and liquids, 411.

Entomology, 180, 291.

Epistilbite and heulandite, Mr. Levy
on, 6.

Ethers, action of, on various bodies,469.

Flax, method of bleaching and prepar-
ing, 119.

Fluor spar, 73; phosphorescent, 143.

Foster, (Lieut.) and Parry, (Capt.) on
the velocity of sound at Port Bowen,
12.

Foster’s (B. M.) description of a pla-
netarium on a new principle, 310.

Fustic, its application in dyeing, 55.

Galbraith, (W.) on Capt. Parry’s and
Lieut. Foster's experiments for as-
certaining the velocity of sound at
Port Bowen, 136; on the velocity
of sound, 336.

Gaylussite, Mr. W. Phillips on, 263.

Geology, 66, 156, 145, 147, 223, 229,
277, 346, 387, 426.

INDE X.

George, (E. S.) on fustic and its ap-
plication in dyeing, 55; analysis of
a sulphuretted water, 245.

Graham, (T.) on the finite extent of
the atmosphere, 107; on M. Long-
champ’s theory of nitrification, 172.

Greenwich stars, tables for determin-
ing the apparent places of, 81.

Gunpowder, inflammation of by elec-
tricity, 20, 343.

Harbour of Ko-si Chang, 149.

Haworth, on new succulent plants,
120, 271.

Haytorite, Mr. Tripe on, 38; Mr. W.
Phillips on, 40; Mr. Levy on, 43.

Heavy spar, Pyrmont, 73.

Henwood, on the accidents incident to
steam-boilers, 408.

Herschel, (J. F. W.) Address to the
Astronomical Society, 455.

Heulandite and epistilbite, Mr. Levy
on, 6.

High-pressure engines, Perkins’s, 143.

Howldy’s (T.) remarks on Mr. Stur-
geon’s paper On the inflammation of
gunpowder by electricity, 343.

Hyalosiderite, Mr. W. Phillips on, 188.

Hybernation of the black ant, 314.

Hydrogen gas, phosphuretted, 313.

Tron, protoferrocyanate of, 72; separa-
tion of, from manganese, 72.

Tronsand and iserine in Cheshire, 145.

Iserine and ironsand in Cheshire, 145.

Ivory, (J.) on the elastic force of
steam, 1 ; investigation of the heat
extricated from air, 89, 165; on the
seconds pendulum at Port Bowen,
170; theory of the velocity of sound,
249; remarks on a memoir by M.
Poisson, 324; Professor Airy in re-
ply to his statement, 442.

Jet discovered in Wigtonshire, 147.

Kelp, phosphorus in, 143.

Ko-si Chang, harbour of, 149.

Laing’s (Major) arrival at Timbuctoo,
314.

Lead, orange phosphate of, 321.

Lepidoptera diurna of Latreille, on
the, 180.

Levy, (A.) on epistilbite and heu-
landite, 6; on some new Siberian
minerals, 26; on the crystalline forms
of the haytorite, 43; on the wag-
nerite, 133; on a new mineral spe-
cies, 221; on a new mineral sub-
stance to be called murchisonite, 448.

Lime and soda, Mr. R. Phillips on the
chlorides of, 376.

Liquids and solids, construction of,
4\l1.

Litharge, crystallized, 312.

Logarithms, Vlacq’s tables of, correc-
tions in, 353.

479

Madder, separation of the colouring
matter of, 143.

Magnetic and electric influence, Mr.
Abraham on, 266.

Magnetism of watch-works, 470.

Manganese, separation of iron from,
72; native, black oxide of, chlorine
in, 142,

Margaric and oleic acids formed from
fat, 143. ’

Mercury, acetates of, 73.

Meteorology, 15, 78, 153—160, 208,
238—240, 318—320, 339, 398—400,
474.

Mexico, synopsis of the birds of, 364,
433.

Mineral, new species of, Mr. Levy on,
221.

Mineralogy, 6, 26, 38, 40, 43, 133, 14S,
145, 147,188, 221, 263, 345, 401, 448.

Moon-culminating stars, list of, for
1827, 47.

Murchisonite, a new mineral, 448.

Nitric acid, composition of, 312.

Nitrification, theory of, 172.

Nixon, (J.) on reducing barometrical
registers, 15; theory of the spirit-
level, 256, 354.

Norfolk, East, geology of, 277, 346,
426.

Oleic and margaric acids, formation
of, from fat, 143.

Orang Outang, Sumatran, 213.

Origin of the diamond, 147.

Ornithology, 364, 433.

Orrery on a new principle, 310.

Oxalates, experiments on, 145.

Oxide of carbon, 71.

Parry, (Capt.) and Lieut. Foster, reply
to Mr. Galbraith’s remarks on the
velocity of sound at Port Bowen, 12.

Patents, list of, 77, 152, 287, 316, 397,
473.

Perkins’s high pressure engines, 143.

Peroxide of manganese, native, sup-
posed chlorate of manganese in, 313.

Phillips, (W.) on the crystalline form
of the haytorite, 40; on the hya-
losiderite, 188; on the gaylussite,
263; on the sillimanite, 401; on
carbonate of potash, 468.

Phillips, (R.) on the triple prussiate
of potash, 110; on the chlorides of
lime and soda, 376; analysis of mur-
chisonite, 450; on crystallized car-
bonate of potash, 468.

Phosphate of lead, orange, 321.

Phosphorus in kelp, 143.

Phosphuretted hydrogen gas, 313.

Physical construction of solids and li-
quids, 411.

Piazzi, biographical notice of, 161; his
catalogue of stars, errors in, 19.

480

Planetarium on a new principle, 310.

Port Bowen, velocity of sound at, 12,
136.

Potash, triple prussiate of, 110.

Powell’s (Rev. B.) observations on the
solar eclipse, Nov. 1826.

Protoferrocyanate of iron, 72.

Prussiate of potash, triple, 110.

Pumping-engine in Mexico, 242,

Pyrmont heavy spar, 73.

Rivers of Assam, 151.

Rumker’s (C. L.) observations on a
comet, made at Paramatta, 315,

Seidlitz powders, 146.

Sérullas, on bromine, 395:

Siberian minerals, newly discovered,
26.

Sillimanite, crystalline form of, Mr. W.
Phillips on, 401.

Silver, chromate of, 345.

Smith, (W.) on retaining water in
rocks for summer use, 415.

Societies, learned: Royal Society, 60,
224, 302, 385, 452; Linnean So-
ciety, 65, 228, 307, 386, 454; Geo-
logical Society, 66, 136, 229, 386;

Astronomical Society, 69, 140,'291,~

390, 455; Horticultural Society, 230,
307, 391, 466; Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 231, 308, 392, 467 ;
London Mechanics’ Institution, 309,
394; Zoological Society 391, 466;
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
394.

Soda and lime, chlorides of, Mr. R.
Phillips on, 376.

Solar eclipse, observations on, 28, 55.

Solids and liquids, physical construc-
tion of, 411.

Sound, velocity of, 12, 249, 336; ve-
locity of, at Port Bowen, 12, 156.

Spheroids, attraction of, 442.

Spirit-level, theory of, Mr. Nixon on
the, 256, 354.

Spurgin, (Dr.) on the nature and pro-
perties of the blood, 201, 370, 418.

Squire, (T.) on the solar eclipse, 55 ;
his meteorological observations, 208 ;
on the occultation of Venus 212.

INDE X.

Stars, errors in Piazzi’s catalogue of, 19;
moon-culminating for 1827, 47.

Steam, elastic force of, 1; navigation,
75; boilers, accidents incident to,
126, 403, 408 ; engines in Cornwall,
account of, 235.

Strength of cast iron, 14,

Sturgeon, (W.) on the inflammation of
gunpowder by electricity, 20.

Succulent plants, 120, 271.

Sugar of melons, 473.

Sulphuret of cerium, 71; of zinc, ar-
tificial, 72.

Sulphuretted water, Mr. George’s ana-
lysis of, 245.

Sumatran Orang Outang, 213.

Suspension bridge, 473.

Swainson, (W.) on the Lepidoptera
diurna of Latreille, 180; synopsis
of the birds of Mexico, 364, 433.

Taylor, (J.) en the accidents incident
to steam-boilers, 126.

(P.) description of a horizontal

pumping-engine erected at Moran in

Mexico, 242.

(R. C.) on the Geology of East
Norfolk, 277, 346, 426.

Teschemacher, (KE. F.) on chromate
of silver, 345.

Thompson, (E. D.) mode of heating
water for a bath, 104.

Thomson, (Dr.) on chrome, 452,

Timbuctoo, arrival of Major Laing at,
314,

Tripe, (C.) observations on a mineral
from near Hay Tor, 38.

Velocity of sound, 12, 249, 336.

Venus, occultation of, 212.

Vernon, (Rev. W. V.) on the orange
phosphate of lead, $21.

Vertebra, fossil, 74.

Vlacq’s tables of logarithms, correc-
tions in, 353.

Wagnerite, Mr. Levy on, 133.

Water, on a substance that inflames
upon contact with, 74; retained in
rocks for summer use, 415.

Zine, artificial sulphuret of, 72.

Zoology, 213, 391, 4v6.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME,

LONDON:

PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE.

WS VOLAPUA.

Phil. Mag. &dnaals,

S Porter scalp.

PL Mer

Zon the A

—— a

PSL Mag &Auneke, NS. Vol

S Porter soolp:

We Lilie Faylirs Herezontal —Yunpuny Cngine

Erected on the Mine of Moran in Mexico

soUog PSLoy

Bay ZALL2K i? LL A

Penne

NI
y
: :
& 8
&

aULog Ary] oy Y2MIDYY Utoly UONIIS BVO —~ aN

reer PieattoyS?
URLSAA
L7ULAL)

SYD PLINRT

JSOLAZ PALIUQUS JO JIAO T
y UDII) UDULMID

eee fee

“UOTUDTS UNTT OR YOtMioy Moy UuolmIIAS’ AOLMIUT ~~ To. N

MTOAANS INV MTOAMON

ogy bag Jo sper

ET

“yyy uodn Buysor Aoyy poypununT] yp

ares

SMI UWLYLON 22 JO UORIS — MToN

—

od Be rerensy sot

UDIIQ UDMAID

esnougyiT
AIULOLD

wamag 0 axmyuayny mats wonI7g S804) ——~ To

_— =e i aac

CONTENTS or Ne 1.—New Series.

"I. On the Elastic Force of Steam at different Temperatures. By

BAwORY, egy MAILS, |... ci ieis2le creepers = a menacetenty we page }

II. On the Identity of Epistilbite and Heulandite. By. A. Levy,
OB PR ASE STE, Sa Recreate ie re APRA ie

III. Reply to Mr. Galbraith’s Remarks on the Experiments for
ascertaining the Velocity of Sound at Port Bowen. By Capt. W. E.
Parry, R.N. F.R.S., and Lieut. H. Foster, R.N. F.R.S....... seca ©

IY. Experiments on the Cohesion of Cast-Iron. By B. Bevan, Esq. 14

V. Table and Formule for reducing Registers of the Height of
the Barometer to the Standard Temperature and Level. By Mr. J.
INIXON Caetano ase SN ENS EAU A CEN Re oA OMIT «ete gl i LO
VI. Further List of Errors in Prazzi’s Catalogue of Stars...... 19
‘VH. On the Inflammation of Gunpowder and other Substances by
Electricity ; with a Proposal to employ the Term Momentum as ex-
ressive of a certain Condition of the Electric Fluid. By Mr. W.

URGEON .......-. Bae eMart a Uae a eralS araligt wfalighaya late feel ate’ al q's 20
‘VIII. On some newly discovered Siberian Minerals. By A. Levy,

Bag. MPAs BiG 10 SaaS a sree ate oa. slalnicte vide =) sig einen vie 26
IX. Observations on the Solar Eclipse, November 29th, 1826. By

the Rey. Bapen Powetr, M.A. FIRS. ................ med -. $28
X. The Bakerian Lecture. On the Relations of Electrical and

Chemical Changes. By Sir Humpury Davy, Bart. Pres. R.S. (To

Fe COMPMUeLd Yi). stew oe Aart apenas ool a vbace ate tephinie ahelel'e)eid wie 31
XI, Observations on a Mineral from near Hay Tor, in Devonshire.

By Cornevius Tripe, Esq. .....--- 2-0. eee eee eee beeen 88
XII. Remarks on the Crystalline Form of the Haytorite, By

BART EEG EDR ATS ee ae ace Saad aco weil ae ola, e gr s were ee 40
XIII. On the Origin of the Crystalline Forms of the Haytorite.

By ‘A. Levy, Esq.'MiA, F.GSS. |... ee ee ene ee see eee 43

XIV. Astronomical Observations 1826. By Lieut. Beauroy, R.N. 46
XV. A List of Moon-culminating Stars for 1827. By F. Barry,

1 Ha AL GEER RRA AL SE ae Pas | oR ee Eh ie aR Sores 47
XVI. Observations on the late Solar Eclipse. By Tuomas
Sourre, Esq.) he... bE LLAPae ASO ASC fohaty are aay” oetasainiaieas easysee > 55

“XVIL. On Fustic (Morus tinctorius), and its Application to the
Dyeing of Yellow, Green, Olive,and Brown. By E. S.Grorcs, Esq.
F.LS. 55

XVIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies :—Royal Society; Lin-
nean Society ; Geological Society; Astronomical Society...... 60—70

XIX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous , Articles:—Separation of
Elaine from Oils; Sulphuret of Cerium; Oxide of Carbon ; Artificial
Sulphuret of Zinc ; Protoferrocyanate of Iron; Cyanic Acid; Sepa-
ration of Iron from’ Manganese; Acetates of Mercury ; Pyrmont
Heavy Spar; Discovery of a Substance that inflames upon Contact
with Water ; Enormous Fossil Vettebra; African Expedition ; Steam
Navigation; Scientific Books ;. Foreign Books of Science lately pub-
lished; New Patents: Meteorological Observations, Table, &c. ...71—80

*,* It is requested that all Communications for this Work may be addressed,
post paid, to the Care of Mr. R. Taylor, Printer, Shoe-Lane, London.

Works recently published by Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green.

CONVERSATIONS ON CHEMISTRY. In which the Elements

of that Science are familiarly explained and illustrated by Experiments.
In this Edition, a Conversation has been added on the Steam Engine.
The Tenth Edition, revised and improved, in 2 Vols, 12mo. with Plates
by Lowry, 14s. Boards. — ca rem ie:

By the same Author, (

CONVERSATIONS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. The Fourth |

Edition, 10s. 6d. Boards, with 22 Engravings by Lowry. -

CONVERSATIONS ON POLITICAL ECONOMY. The Fifth
Edition, in 12mo. 9s. Boards. ei a

CONVERSATIONS ON BOTANY, with Twenty-one Engravings.

The Fifth Edition, enlarged, in 1 Vol. 12mo. Price 7s. 6d. plain, or 12s.

coloured. The object of this Work is to enable young persons to acquire
a knowledge of the vegetable productions of their native country : for this
purpose the arrangement of Laieas is briefly explained, and a native
plant of each Class (with a few exceptions) is examined, and illustrated
by an engraving; and a short account is added of some of the principal
foreign species. sere ;

CONVERSATIONS ON MINERALOGY; with Plates, engraved |

by Mr. and Miss Lowry, from Original Drawings, comprising upwards
of 400 Figures of Minerals, including 12 beautifully coloured Specimens.
Second Edition, in 2 Vols. 12mo, Price 14s. Boards. eine

“The plan of these Conversations is happily conceived, and it is exe-
cuted with ability and taste. ‘The Author has studiously avoided all un-
necessary parade of technical Diction, has rendered the Doctrine of Cry-
stallography more familiar than heretofore to the Tyro in Mineralogy,
and has included some of the most recently discovered Substances. We
may, therefore, unhesitatingly characterize this Work as one of the most
desirable Text Books that have issued from the British Press.” —Monthly
Review.

THE ENGLISH FLORA. By Sir James E. Situ, President of
the Linnzan Society, &c. &c. Vols. I. Il. and III. Price 12s. each, Bds.
“These volumes are composed with such an intimate knowledge
of the subject, with such an undeviating aim at accuracy, and with such
an invariable respect for candour and for truth, that we look forward to
the completion of the work as an event of national importance to the
science of Botany.”— Monthly Review. a
*,* The Work will be completed in Five Volumes.

By the same Author,

‘A GRAMMAR OF BOTANY, illustrative of artificial as well as natu-

ral Classification, with an Explanation of Jussieu’s System. In 8vo. with

277 Figures of Plants, and their various Parts and Organs. Second Edit. -

12s. ; or coloured plates, 1/. 11s. 6d.

COMPENDIUM FLOR BRITANNICE. Price 7s. 6d. - Fourth

Edition.

AN INTRODUCTION to the STUDY of PHYSIOLOGICAL and —

SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY. In 8vo. Fifth Edition, with 15 Plates.
Price 14s. plain ; or coloured, 1/. 8s. Boards.

A SELECTION of the CORRESPONDENCE of LINN/EUS and

4

other Naturalists, In 2 Vols. 8vo, 1/. 10s. Boa
ae ee TERNS Oe RES + ; * : vq

7 F
; ie Jit