Caer hy “oll ye Pa Wigs ak " * RAS +s .* rh Hisns pene 4 { : : nen <* ; } al ¢ og oo : | eee tigi ' tes . , { + . * es 4 a aia, vo a - : oie Leek i, e wh! J ‘ #, 4s ee en chet Rs Sal, 4 ere M ¢ ~- we aS * * eit. “ N y . : : ‘ ; ’ eo ; Fa t : ae - 1 lied ‘ , : * . ral a > } Pig “f =< = a Poa k 4 54 t ee ray 2 : £ ? sol on Fares Mela : | tak out - = ; : ae eoxg O Pion. OF. =. 5 oxy tpe3-: No. 803. SWEAR MEA NEA MEA ME AME AMER MEA UE AME ANG, ‘SI Rs ~ Published the Last Day of every Month—Price 2s. 6d. ; sy THE Ss ES PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE : a bd yn AND JOURNAL: : COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, | THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. WANE | We MG) - A NUMBER CCCIIL. Pay NA ei Ks N82, pe : WITH A PLATE : Mlustrative of Professor Hare’s Communications on Electricity, and on the Self-acting Blowpipe. NEAME By ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. BLR IA. M.G,S, M.A.S. F.S,Ae EDIN. AND PERTH; CORRESPONDING MEMRER OF THE ¥: ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH$S AND OF THE ACADEMY OF SCLENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, ETC. AnD RICHARD TAYLOR, F.1.S. MEMBEK OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY 3 OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND; re) SS. ALERE Trtantacant. ‘, we) i AX LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOK-LANE? —* A ‘Sold by Cadell; Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown; Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy; Highley; Sherwood, Neely, and Jones; Harding; Underwood ; Pays _ Simpkin and Marshall; London :—and by Constable and Co, Edinburgh ; } and Penman, Glasgow. ata | VOU £ Ye y/ VAY A s a Awe EA | n We —— ANS € a TO CORRESPONDENTS. Our thanks are due to Dr. T. Forster for the Register of Thermometrical Observations at Smyrna. Since Mr. P. Newron’s paper on the Trisection of a Circular Avec was printed, that Gentleman has informed us that he has succeeded in removing or avoiding the hypothetical point respecting the Lune, and that we may expect a continuation of his remarks. PRACTICAL MECHANICS. This day is published, handsomely printed in two vols. octavo, illustrated with 20 plates and numerous figures, Price 1/. 6s. in Boards, RACTICAL ESSAYS on MILL WORK and other MACHINERY; viz. on the Teeth of Wheels; the Shafts, Gudgeons, and Journals of Machines; the Couplings and Bearings of Shafts; disengaging and re-engaging Machinery in Motion; Equalizing the motion of Mills; changing the velocity of Machines in motion, and the framing of Mill work; with several useful Tables, By ROBERTSON BUCHANAN, Engineer, ‘The Second Edition revised, with notes and additional articles containing new researches on various Mechanical Subjects: By THOMAS TREDGOLD, Civil Engineer, &c. Printed for J. Taylor at the Architectural Library, No, 52, High Holborn. Also handsomely printed in octavo, illustrated with two large plates, Price 4s. sewed, ‘ DESCRIPTION of a RAILWAY on a new Priaciple ; with observa- tions on those hitherto constructed, and a Table showing the comparative amount of resistance on several-now in use: also an illustration of a newly ebserved fact relating to the friction of Axles, and a description of an im- proved Dynamometer for ascertaining the resistance of floating vessels and carri.ges moving on Roads and Railways. . By H. R. PALMER, Civil Engineer. ¥ Where also may be had. SMEATON’S REPORTS, 4 vols. quarto, 5l. 10s. Boards. N.B. All works on Architecture, theoretical and practical, also Civil Engineering, are constantly on sale at Taylor’s Architectural Library, with a liberal discount for ready money. ENGRAVINGS, Vol. LIV. A Plate illustrative of the Mena: Bripvcz.—A Pilate illus. trative of Mr. Lowe’s Description of a Mercurial Pendulum.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument.—A, Plate illustrative of Captain Sasinz’s Paper on Irregularities observed in the Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander in the late Voyage of Discovery; and Mr. Scoxgsny’s Anomaly in the Va- rixtion Of the Magnetie Needle as observed on Ship-board, Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. —A Plate illustrative, of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun on the 7th of September next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for gaunering Fruit; Mr. Youxc’s Mode of preparing Opium from _ VATE Ow) \ ices ue Avoust 1823. ree No. 504. AND FOURNAL: COMPREHENDING . . = Samepratire of Mr. Brunet’s new Mode of Tunnelling, and of = iss Z his Proposal for a Roadway under the Thames. SS cS ‘ . — Esse) By ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. S M.R.LA. M.G.S. M.A.3. F.S.A. EDIN. AND PERTH; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE EX , ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH; AND OF THE ACADEMY OF (—+4 ise BCTENOES LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN; ETC. Se. en And RIGHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S. Gas ‘ce ‘MEMBER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND OF THE ASIATIC soolrTy —4A pr 4 OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Se a. << a 1h) — ie ALERE [\¥camsam, got < ee € - ess: f 7 tz l= = res “ Ber * = . Tee : ° S o LONDON: = é cd Sold by Cadell; Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown ; Baldwin, Cradock, (: and Joy; Highley; Sherwood, Neely, and Jones; Harding; ‘Underwood ; “4 Simpkin and Marshall ; London :—and by Constable and Co, Edinburgh ; Gs, and Penman, Glasgow. Sy ; YAY Lat Vary Ue} tS ath, TO CORRESPONDENTS. ee A List of all the Occultations of Fixt Stars by the Moon, calculated for 1824, ‘by M. Incuiramr of Florence, (for which we are indebted to the kindness of e: F. Barry, Esq.,) will be given in our next. we The following communications have also been received :: On the Transforma- tion of Functions; by Mr. P. Nicnorson.—On Cadmium ; by Mr. W. Herapatu. _ —On the Construction of an Air Barometer; by Mr. H. Merxre.—On the Tri-. section of a Circular Arc ; by Mr. P. Newron. ae Pag: ) THE WEATHER. This Day is published, with great Additions, and Six Plates illustrative. of the Clouds, &c., price 15s., ey PUIRIES relating to ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA, as af- fecting the Weather. Clouds. ‘Thunder and Lightning. Winds. Rain. Stars. Prognostics of Change. Influence of Weather upon Vital Funetions. Diseases, Temperature, &c. &c. By THOMAS FORSTER, F.L.S. M.B. &c. &c. Third Edition ; to which is now first added THE CALENDAR OF NATURE. Printed for Harding, Mavor, and Lepard, Finsbury-square. CATON ON DEBILITY, ILLUSTRATED WITH CASES, This day was published, price 3s. 6d., a New Edition of - RACTICAL OBSERVATIONS on the DEBILITIES, natural | and contracted, of the GENERATIVE ORGANS of both Sexes ; including Remarks on Onanism, Seminal Weakness, Nocturnal Emission, Gleet, Tabes Dorsalis, Fluor Albus, &c. with the Theory of Generation, | By T. M. CA TON, Surgeon, No. 6, Norfolk-street, Strand ; Late of the United Hospitals of St. Thomas and Guy. Sold by W. Neely, 22, Change-alley; C. Chapple, 59, Pall-mall; Bowen, 315, Oxford-street ; Callow and Wilson, 16, Princes-street, Soho ; or by the Author, as above. Where may be had, “a Caton on the Venereal Disease and its Consequences, a New Edition, price 5s. illustrated with Cases: A Practical Treatise on the Prevention _ : and Cure of the Venereal Disease, exhibiting the character, symptoms, and treatment of the diseases immediately or remotely connected with it; con- taining Observations on Gleet, Stricture, Mucal Discharges, the use of the Caustic and common Bougie, Cutaneous Eruptions, Imaginary Venereal : Diseases, &c. &c. comprising an Elementary Work for Students, anda = * Guide to the general Reader; interspersed with select Prescriptions ape “a plicable to each division-of the Disease. Be) . lee —_—eeeees_g_qeeaaeaaqannaaa«sSse— NDS Oo —Sswow_nmj_nnwaewaawaemsss ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. — —A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun onthe 7th of = » September next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for, — ' gathering Fruit; Mr. Younc’s Mode of preparing Opium from thes _ : ee ‘ Ris a i SKS Li UG IN Vs / Ay Published the Last Day Of AND, JO URN shag rang a COMPREHENDIN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. NUMBER CCCVI. For’. OCTOBER © 1823. WITH A PLATE Illustrative of M. Becqueret’s Experiments on the Develop- ment of Electricity by Pressure. By ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. M.R.I.A. M.G.S. M.A.S. F.S.A. EDIN. AND PERTH} CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH} AND OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND AR1'S, LEGHORN, ETC. AnD RICHARD TAYLOR, F.LS. MEMBER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, ro) ALERE YArcamaran. LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE: a New Edition, ‘ This day is published in three vols. octavo, price 36s. boards, oa) 1S; aoe ‘JURISPRUDENCE, comprehending Medical, Chemi. cal, Anatomical, and Surgical Investigations, »pplicable to Forensic Practice ; for the Instruction and Guidance of Coroners, Magistrates, Barristers, and Medical Witnesses With a copious Appendix of Sta- _ tutes, Cases and Decisions. F ; By JOHN AYRTON PARIS, M.D. F.R.S. F LS. Fellow of the Royal College ef Physicians, &c. And JOHN S. M, FONBLANQUE, Esq. Barrister at Law. London: Printed and Published ‘by W. Phillips, George Yard, Lom; bard Street; sold also by T. and G. Underwood, Fleet Street; and : W. and C. Tait, Edinburgh. 4 ENGRAVINGS. ; Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. —A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun onthe 7th of September next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr, Lane’s Instrument for ~ gathering Fruit; Mr. Youse’s Mode of preparing Opium from the ‘Papaver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- scriptive of Mr, CuruBert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c, —A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- tion, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuaries Bonnycastue’s Communicacion respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Maris ner’s Compass. : EAMG ANE} Me} Ae hwe ale) cy We) ale} ag Z| Published He hast Day of every Month:—Price 2s. 6d: we i. i ESS SR SR i rs ; "7 Pay [a A] Vp " \ % Ja f\ NG an - ™ PD 2 | ‘4 ae b J wv , wv << ¥ eA ¥ ip FN et COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SUIENCE, + "DHE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, , _ ‘AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, . : AND COMMERCE. | __ NUMBER CCCVIL. for NOVEMBER 1823. WITH A PLATE ~ Iilustrative of Mr. Bartow's Binasiticcth on Mr. Manrsa‘s Thermo-Electric Apparatuss* By ALEXANDER TILLOCH, PD. Bas MORAL M.G.3. MLA.S. F.S.A. EDIN. AND PERTH; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF we BOYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH; AND OF THE ACADEMY OF tee SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, ETC. Be: AND RICHARD TAYLOR, ELS. R-OF THB ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND OF THE ASIATIC socrere OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, ~ a4 2) ALERKE y. YLAMSMIAM, tae. LONDON: ; | PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE? Sold by Cadell Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green; Maltin, Cra d Joy; Highley; Sherwood, Jones, and Co.; Harding; Under- Baad pean kin. and arshall ; London :—and by Constable and Co. Edin- a yr Penman, ye Ml PRESEREDE on 1% _ NICHOLSON’S: ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY,’ On Thursday, January 1, 1824, will be published, . No. I., “Price One Shilling, of ICHOLSON’S ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY, AND BUILDER'S, CARPENTER’s, and JOINER’s COMPLETE: WORK BOOK;; confaining all the Térms of Art, with a full Display of . their technical Meaning and Applicati s used by, Architects, Builders, and Workmen ; exhibiting, in a s Point of*View,' the Theory and Practice of the various Bra f Architecture, Building, Car- — pentry, Joinery, Masonry, Brick &c., with copious Treatises on Carpentry, Joinery, Hand-railingy Perspective, Mechanical Carpentry, Roofs, Mensuration, Staircasing, Timber, Trigonometry, &c. The whole forming a complete Guide to the Science of Architecture and the Art of Building. Illustrated with nearly Three Hundred Copper-plate En- gravings by W.’Lowry and the first Artists, from Drawings made ex- pressly for the Work. The Work will be published in weekly Numbers, at One Shilling each. Every Number will contain at least One Sheet of closely printed Letter- press, printed jin an elegant Manner on fine Yellow-wove Paper, Hot- pressed, and One or Two Copper-plate Engravings. The Work being already complete, may be had in Thirty-five Parts, at Six Shillings each, or Bound in Two handsome Volumes, at the Option of the Purchaser. A few Copies may be had on superfine Royal Paper, with Proof Im- pressions of the Plates, in Thirty-five Parts, Price Ten Shillings each. London: Printed and Sold by J. Barfield, 91 Wardour-street, Soho. Sold also by Sherwood and Co. Paternoster-row, and by all Booksellers. *,* The Practical Builder being a Piracy of the Architectural Dic- tionary, it is decreed by the Court of Chancery to be discontinued; in consequence of which, those Subscribers who may wish to exchange their Numbers for the Architectural Dictionary, will have One-half per Number allowed for each, at 91 Wardour-street, Soho, London. In one Volume, 8vo, price 5s,, boards, A SUPPLEMENT to the Comparative Estimate of the MOSAICAL and MINERAL GEOLOGIES, relating chiefly to the Geological Indications of the Phenomena of the Cave at Kirkdale, and generally to the Animal Deposits in the Limestone Caves of Germany and England. By G. PENN, Esq. Author of the ComPARATIVE EsTIMATE. Printed for James Duncan (late Ogle, Duncan and Co.) ; Parker, Ox- ford ; and Deighton, Cambridge. This day, 4 Vols. 8vo, with Fifty Plates, price 4/., SYSTEM of MECHANICAL PHILOSOPHY, By the late JOHN ROBISON, LL.D. Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University, and Secretary to the ; Royal Society, of Edinburgh, With Notes by DAVID BREWSTER, LLD. F.R.S. E. A copious Article on the History and Operations of the Srzam EnGIng has been completely revised by the late James Watt, Esq. and his Son, of Soho ; who have also made many Additions ; so that it is now become the only account which can be relied upon. This subject is illustrated — with eight large and original Engravings, Printed for John Murray, Albemarle-street. Ri wv. ve 830) ; = = alae : 5, % se = P OS Mende 'S 7 bea nga % pug PEE A? UNOS GAOT — at EK ST SSS —— i ptighe SSG €. apart we 4 12 MALS ps a ‘SMOPUAD YI SaAoUL “SErTOL Pung v Jo suveul Ap pry JOY. LO O84 Sf AG My BR PDS gums ayy go szras 4 re SUOCTYSTED A ATZO FOL A Ape 0 AfD ATEN MEAPLIIT STIOUISOL busds burangyby feats: snovipa Typ Cunaadd 404 Srgpsioddp ‘Poy op Ay adidmong : ei a ce Ds ‘r AOL MIL Punoducs Bugeo-yps an Tid WX 724 Oop PMT THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL: COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. By ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. M.R.I.A. M.G.S. M.A.S. F.S.A. EDIN. AND PERTH; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH; AND OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, ETC. Anp RICHARD TAYLOR, F.LS. MEMBER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; AND OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. “Nec aranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.”’ Just. Lips. Monit. Polit. lib. i. cap. 1. VOL. LXII. For JULY, AUGUST, SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, and DECEMBER, 1823. LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE: AND SOLD BY CADELL; LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN; HIGHLEY ; SHERWOOD AND CO.; BALDWIN AND CO.; HARDING; UNDERWOOD; SIMPKIN AND MARSHALL, LONDON: ' CONSTABLE AND CO. EDINBURGH; AND PENMAN, GLASGOW. 9 ALUKE re FLAMSIAM, \ CONTENTS OF THE SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME. AN Essay on the Question, Whether there be two Electrical Fluids according to Du Faye, or one according to FRANKLIN. By Professor Hare . 2+) 6 tt tts Page 3 Description of an Electrical Plate Machine, the Plate mounted horizontally, and so as to show both negative and positive Electricity. By the same ter ae st pate tee ey OS Description of an improved Blowpipe by Alcohol; and of the Means of rendering the Flame of Alcohol competent Jor the Purpose of Illumination. By the same Oe OE) On the Trisection of a Circular Arc. By Mr. P. Newton 10 On a Method of observing Solar Eclipses by means of the Alti- tude and Azimuth Instrument . . «+ © © + © « (15 True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MaskELYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1823 _. 16, 110, 190, 276, 346 On Metallic Titanium. By W.H.Wou..aston, M.D. VPLRS. 18 Report of T. Tetrorp, Esq. on the Effects which will be pro- duced on the Thames by the Rebuilding of London Bridge 21 On the Project of taking down London Bridge . . + + 28 An Account of the Observations and Experiments on the Tem- perature of Mines, which have recently been made in Corn- wall, and the North of England . 5s tesa 8 - 38,94 ‘atalogue of Zodiacal Stars for the Epoch of January 1, 1800 ; from the Works of Wxunscuer, Prazzi1, Bove, Sc.; weth Notes. By a Member of the Astronomical Society . 47 On M. Lavvacr’s Communication to the Royal Academy, “ Sur Y Attraction des Sphéres, et sur la Répulsion des Fluidcs élastiques.” By J. Henaparn, sg. . + - sake 136 Reflections on Volcanos. By M. Gay-Lussac . +. 81 Analysis of “ Observations and Experiments made at Vesuvius in 1821 and 1822 by 'T. Monticeii1 and N, Covers.” By M. Menanrp bE 1A Grove iv ocnmaitli:, bien oo On the “Essays of Jean Rey.” By Mr.J.Murray . . 95 On Electro-Magnetism. By Mr. J. Tatum . . + 107 Account of the Accumulation of the Exuvie of Bears in a Cave at Kiihloch in Franconia. By Professor Buckuanpd — 112 Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. a CONTENTS. Observations upon the Cadmia found at the Ancram Iron- Works in Columbia County, New York, erroneously supposed to be a new Mineral. By Wu. H. Keatine/. . . .. . YS On a Planetary Analogy; or a Law of Motion pervading and connecting all the Planetary Orbits. By Mr. J. Urtine 119 State of the Thermometer at Smyrna for every Day in the Year 1820. Communicated by Dr.'T. ForsvErR. . . 121 Notice of the Fusion of Plumbago, or Graphite, (commonly called Black Lead,) by Professor SILLIMAN. . . «194 Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite, and Plunbago, with the compound Blowpipe: by Professor SLLIMAN. . 181 A New Plan of Tunnelling, calculated for opening a Roadway under the Thames. By M.J. Brunet, Esg. CL. F.R.S. 139 List of the Occultations of the Fixed Stars. By M. Incurramt 161, 278, 378 On Cadmium. By Wrii1am Herapatu, Esq. . . . 166 On the Transformation of Functions. By Mr. P. Nicnoison 168 On the Changes which have taken place in the Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. By Joun Ponp, Esq. zsrOonemer Teogal, Eis: ee es ee eee Chemical Researches by Dr. FRrEDEMANN GOBEL of Jena 187 On the Identity of certain General Laws which have been observed to regulate the Natural Distribution of Insects and Fungi. By W.S. MacLray, Esq. M.A. FLAS. 192, 255 A few Observations on the Natural Distribution of animated Vater! oo Sp, DOD. ek, ER ORE © 5 NOS ame On the Firing of Gunpowder by Fulminating Mercury. By Mr, k.G. Wricut .-. Os Experiments on the Development of Electricity by Pressure ; —Laws of this Development. By M. BecguEret 204, 263 On the Nature of the Curves described by one of the Combina- tions of Jopuine’s Apparatus. By Mr.T.Trepeorp 211 Mr. J. Urrine on a Planetary Analogy. a Te On the Construction of an Air Barometer. By Mr. Henry Meeenre *. "S00! : eee Complete Description of Erlan, a new Mineral. By Av- Gustus Breiruaupt and C.G.Gmetin . . . 241 Derivative Analysis. By Mr.P. Nicuotson 244, 348, 433 On the Destroyers of the Trees in St. James's Park . . 252 An easy Method of reducing Sidereal into Mean Time. By Dr. Bila. Tages: FEO A SE ARYA Bh oRg Note on the Property ‘which some Metals possess of facilitating the Combination of Elastic Fluids. By MM. Dutone and LHERARE Pee cee Se Ce, 35° lo Singpgreaay On Nesereier’s Experiment. By W. HeErararn, Esq. 286 CONTENTS. On some newly discovered remarkable Properties of the Prot- oxide, Oxidized Sulphuret, and Metallic Powder of Platinum. By Professor De:pererner . : ship 289 On the Parallax of « Lyre. Bi y Jol OHN "Pon, Esq. Astrono- mer Royal, F.R.S. hr suthg yAZae On a new Steam-Engine Governor. By Mr. Preuss 297 An Account of some Electr o-magnetic Combinations, for exhi- biting Thermo-electric Phenomena, invented by Mr. JaMES Marsu of Woolwich; with Experiments on the same. By Peter Bartow, Esq. F.R.S. . . ee sae | On the Caloric of Gases and V apours, by M. Porsson: with Ob- servations by JoHN HeErapatn, Esq... sidietts Lice On the Quadrature of the Circle. By Mr. J. Swart . 338 An Examination of certain Minerals. By AuGustus ARrr- WEDSON. . : 355 On the Origin aS Pr aS of Matter, aaa on is alleged Infinite Divisibility auth ish aes On the Petrifactions of Oster weddigen, near + Magdebou ‘g. By Professor GERMAR . . : Say ek ts B67 Remarks on some of the American Animals of the Genus Felis, particularly on the Jaguar, Felis Onca Linn. By T. S. ear. VED. oc. Bae 04 On the Adjustment of the Line of Collimation n of the Transit Instrument . . SPURL R RT Plante rare Sucdulentie; a "Deser iption “Of: some rare Succulent Plants, by A. H. Hawortn, Esq. F. LS. $e... . 380 On the Cultivation of the English Cranberry (Oxycoccus pa- lustris) 7x dry Beds. By Mr. Tuomas Munn. . 382 The Specific Characters of several undescribed Shells. By AV: SWAINSON, Fisg. POR: G18. Gc. Me se AOI On the Management of Cauliflower Plants, to secure good Pro- duce during the Winter. By Mr. Gro. CockBurn 404 Description of a Method of protecting Cauliflower and other tender Plants during Winter. By Mr. J. DRumMMoND 405 Method of defending Ships and Fortifications against Cannon Balls. By Lewis Gompertz, Esg. . . . . «+. 407 On Fluid Chlorine. By Mr.¥arapay . . Fe CARS On the Condensation ee several Gases into Liquids By Mr. FARADAY . - 414 An Examination of the g ereen Garnet of Sala. By B.G. Brep- BERG : sees Observations on ) Suspe nsion Chain Bridges; with an improved Method of forming the supporting Chains or ftods: accom- panied with a Drawing. By Mr.J.Srawarp . . 425 An Account of a new Genus of Narcissex, allied to the Genus Ajax of Salisbury. By A.V. Haworrn, Esq. LS. &e. 440 CONTENTS. Observations upon the Cadmia found at the Ancram Iron-Works in Columbia County, New York, erroneously supposed to be a new Mineral. By WM. H. Keating . . .. ~. 115 On a Planetary Analogy; or a Law of Motion pervading and connecting all the Planetary Orbits. By Mr. J. Uttine 119 State of the Thermometer at Smyrna for every Day in the Year 1820. Communicated by Dr.T. Forsvrr. . . 121 Notice of the Fusion of Plumbago, or Graphite, (commonly called Black Lead,) by Professor SILLIMAN. . . «194 Lixperimenis upon Diamond, Anthracite, and Plumbago, with the compound Blowpipe: by Professor SLIMAN. . 181 A New Plan of Tunnelling, calculated for opening a Roadway under the Thames. By M. J. Brunet, Esg. C.L. F.R.S. 139 List of the Occultations of the Fixed Stars. By M. Incurramt 161, 278, 378 On Cadmium. By Wri11am Herapatnu, Esq. . . . 166 On the Transformation of Functions. By Mr. P. Nicnoison 168 On the Changes ‘which have taken place in the Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. By Joun Ponn, Esq. Asrronenter Toye, Pas. oO ey ee aS Chemical Researches by Dr. FRrirpDEMANN GOBEL of Jena 187 On the Identity of certain General Laws which have been observed to regulate the Natural Distribution of Insects and Fungi. By W.S. MacLray, Esq. M.A. F.L.S. 192, 255 A few Observations on the Natural Distribution of animated UVELET CS oa Seas AD. a, OM OUR TE Deo Fe OAC Re On the Firing of Gunpowder by Fulminating Mercury. By hdr, EG: WRiGhttiere: Ss.) vagtae ies icky heen eee Experiments on the Development of Electricity by Pressure ; —Laws of this Development. By M. BecguEre. 204, 263 On the Nature of the Curves described by one of the Combina- tions of JopLine’s Apparatus. By Mr.V.Trepaorp 211 Mr. J. Urtine on a Planetary Analogy . . . . . 214 On the Construction of an Air Barometer. By Mr. Henry I airac rie ©. tS SRDS SE ORNS EAMETS) 081A Sin tk Complete Description of Erlan, a new Mineral. By Av- Gustus Breiruaupt and C.G.Gmenin . . . 241 Derivative Analysis. By Mr.P.Nicuoison 244, 348, 433 On the Destroyers of the Trees in St.James’s Park . . 252 An easy Method of reducing Sidereal into Mean Time. By Dr 38, 13, Visas 22m. SONS AI SE Gta. Sh yoga Note on the Property which some Metals possess of facilitating the Combination of Elastic Fluids. By MM. Dutone and LHENARD Me ee eee Cee LS 2S lo Wokegeiag On Qapererner’s Experiment. By W. Herararn, Esg. 286 CONTENTS. On some newly discovered remarkable Properties of the Prot- oxide, Oxidized Sulphurct, and Metallic Powder of Platinum. By Professor Da@veREINER. . - 289 On the Parallax of « Lyre. By Joun Ponp, Esq. Astrono- mer Royal, P.RS.. 1 . Sra yn2O2 On a new Steam-Engine Governor. “By Mr. Prevss 297 An Account of some Electr ‘o-magnetic Combinations, for exhi- biting Thermo-electric Phenomena, invented by Mr. JaMEs Marsu of Woolwich; with Experiments on the same. By Perer Bartow, Lsq. F.RS. . aieoet On the Caloric of Gases and Vapours, by vy M. Poisson: with Ob- servations by JouN HeErapatn, sq... SPE Sten? 3 On the Quadrature of the Circle. By Mr. J. Swart. 338 An Examination of certain Minerals. By AuGustus ARr- WEDSON. . - 355 On the Origin and Production of Matter, and on its alleged Infinite Divisibility . . et geo On the Petrifactions of Oste? seedigen near + Magdebu ‘g. By Professor GERMAR . . hae S67 Remarks on some of the American , Animals of the Genus Felis, particularly on the Jaguar, Felis Onca Linn. By 'T. 8. Traitt, M.D. FR. SE. (oi nara ee Se On the Adjustment of the Line o Collimation n of the Transit Instrument. . ae ia EF | Plante rare Succulent ; a “Deser iption “of: some rare Succulent Plants, by A. H. Haworru, Esq. FL SoGent. “eS 380 On the Cultivation of the English Cranberry (Oxycoccus pa- lustris) 7x dry Beds. By Mr.Tuomas Mint . . 382 The Specific Characters of several undescribed Shells. By W. Swainson, 2sg. OR: & TiS. Ge. Mos. 8s 2 ROT On the Management of Cauliflower Plants, to secure good Pro- duce during the Winter. By Mr, Gro. CocksurNn 404 Description of a Method of protecting Cauliflower and other tender Plants during Winter. By Mr. J. Drummond 405 Method of defending “Ships and Forti eed ti against Cannon Balls. By Lewis Gomerrtz, Esq. . .« oye te SOT On Fluid Chlorine. By Mr.¥Farapay . - 413 On the Condensation ae several Gases into Liquids B ry Mr. Farapay . - 414 An Examination of the green | Garnet of Sala. By by B.G. Brep- BERG . - + 423 Observations on ) Suspe nsion Chain ‘Bridges; with an improved Method of forming the supporting Chains or Rods: accom- panied witha Drawing. By Mr. J. SEAWARD . 425 An Account of a new Genus of Narcisseee, allied to the Genus Ajax of Salisbury. By A. Vi. Haworrn, Esq. LS. &e. 440 CONTENTS. On the Law according to which the Llectro-magnetic Power of the Connecting Wire of the Voltaic Pile is augmented by Schweigger’s ee By L. F. a5 a Phil. Doct., of Figlle 4% riuhhaae Suggestions for renderi sing the Labours of For ‘eign Astronomers available in Great Britain . . Sie Ue BARESO Notices respecting New Books 66, 142, 218, 300, 384, 451 Proceedings of Learned Societies 70, 145, 225, 304, 387, 452 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles 73, 150, 229, 307, 389, 466 Lastof Patenis® *. "ae, ©. «+ 79,158, 239, 319, 399, 471 Meteorological Tables . . . «~ 80, 160, 240, 320, 400, 472 PLATES. I, Illustrative of Prof. Hart’s Communications on Electricity and on the Self-acting Blowpipe. JI. and HI. Mr. Brunew’s new Mode of Tunnelling. IV. Illustrative of M. Becaverer’s Experiments on the Development of Electricity by Pressure. V. Illustrative of Mr. Bartow’s Experiments on Mr. Mansu’s Thermo- electric Apparatus. VI. Illustrative of Mr. Goarrrrz’s Defence of Ships and Fortifications. VII. Suspension Bridges. THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. 31 JULY 1823. I. An Essay on the Question, Whether there be two Electrical Fluids according to Du F aye, or one according to FRANKLIN. By Roserr Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania*. Y those who allege the existence of two electrical fluids, much stress has been laid on the fact, that light bodies, when negatively electrified, separate from each other no less than when in the opposite state. The absence and presence of a fluid cannot, it is said, have the same effect of producing repulsion. ‘To this it has been answered, that the separation of such light bodies is not the effect of repulsion, but of an at- traction between them and the surrounding medium; which must equally ensue whether they be electrified minus or plus: since in either case that diversity of electrical excitement be- tween them and the surrounding medium arises, which is al- ways productive of attraction. In support of this view of the question I propose to make a few observations. In an electroscope with moveable coat- ings, like the galvanometer of Mr. Pepys+, the divergence of the leaves is facilitated in proportion as the coatings are approximated to them, whether the excitement be resinous or vitreous. In this case it must be admitted that there is an attraction between the coatings and the leaves; for, were re- pulsion between the leaves the cause of their divergence, the approach of the coatings would not increase it. It may however be supposed, that the repulsion between the similarly excited leaves, being counterbalanced, more or less, in all cases, by the electric tension of the surrounding medium, the coatings may permit the electric fluid to re- cede through them with greater facility, and thus lessen the electric tension in the direction in which they are situated. * Communicated by the Author. + See Phil. Mag., vol. x. p. 38. Vol. 62. No. 303. July 1823. A2 Were 4 Professor Hare on the Electric Fluid. Were this supposition to avail in the case of an electrome- ter with two leaves, it cannot apply in the case ofan instrument Jately contrived by me, in which, uninfluenced by the idea that repulsion is the cause of electrometrical indications, I suspend only a single leaf. A brass ball, one-fourth of an inch in diameter, is so situated that it may be made to touch the leaf, or retire from it to the distance of an inch, by means of a screw which supports it. (See Plate I. fig. 1.) This in- strument is evidently more simple, and is far more sensitive, than any instrument with two leaves heretofore contrived *. It will be admitted, I presume, that the contact between the ball and the leaf must result from attraction, whether the leaf be minus or plus; and that this would not cease to be true, although a second leaf were, as usual, suspended beside the first. In a common electrometer, it is usual to have pieces of tin foil pasted on the glass-case opposite the gold leaves. If at- traction be exercised between the leaves and coatings, when moveable, it must also be exercised by the fixed coatings thus pasted on the glass. It is therefore established, that when coatings, whether moveable or fixed, are employed, the diver- gence Is not caused by repulsion. It cannot, then, be reason- able to ascribe it to repulsion, though no coatings should be present, as when the leaves are suspended where nothing can attract them unless the surrounding air; especially as the air may be shown competent to perform the same office as the coatings, though not so well, on account of its presenting less matter within the same space. The lightness and mobility of the air is no obstacle to this conclusion. | When equally acted upon in all directions, as it must be in the case in point, air resists like an arch, or an elastic solid. The electric attraction may have a tendency to condense it about the sphere of ex- citement, but cannot move one portion more than another. This opinion of the agency of the air is supported by the fact, that, in proportion as an exhausted receiver is larger, so will the difficulty of producing a divergency in the electrometrical leaves, situated within it, be increased. It would be difficult to procure a receiver so large, that gold leaves might not be made to diverge electrically in it, when exhausted; but leaves of light paper, which will easily be made divergent, in pleno or in vacuo, in a small vessel, will cease to be affected by a like influence, if suspended in an exhausted receiver sufficiently large. Iam aware that the air prevents the electric fluid from * By means of an instrument with a single leaf, since constructed, I am enabled to detect the electricity produced, by one contact between a cop- per and a zinc disk, each six inches in diameter. escaping, - Professor Hare on the Electric Fluid. 5 escaping, by its insulating power, and that when it is removed, electrometrical leaves cannot be sustained in a state of excite- ment much higher than the rare medium about them. Thus situated, it may be alleged that repulsion can no more act be- tween them to produce separation, than it does without them to keep them together. But this reasoning would apply equally, whether they be in a large or a small receiver; and, of course, does not account for the influence which the size of the receiver has on the divergency. I will now adduce some additional facts and arguments, in opposition to the doctrine of two fluids. According to Franklin, positive and negative, as applied to electricity, merely designate relative states of the same fluid. If, of three bodies, the first have more electricity than the se- cond, and less than the third, it will be positive with respect to the second, and negative with respect to the third. Ac- cording to Du Faye, there is a radical difference between vi- treous and resinous electricity; and though separately exer- cising intense action, they neutralize each other by union. It is universally admitted, that the fluid evolved by the prime conductor of a glass cylinder machine, and that evolved by the cushion, are of different kinds or states. According to the American theory, the first is positive, the last negative. Ac- cording to the I’rench theory, the first is vitreous, the last re- sinous. Let there be two machines, No. 1 and No. 2,so arranged* that the positive or vitreous conductor of one may communi- cate with the negative or resinous conductor of the other. In this case, the conductors, thus associated, form effectively but one conducting mass; and one body, with a cushion on one side, and collecting points on the other, might be substituted for both. When this compound apparatus is put into action, it will be found that the intermediate conductor, tested by the resinous conductor of No. 1, is vitreous; but that it is resinous, when tested by the prime or vitreous conductor of No. 2. This result agrees with Franklin’s doctrine, as above stated; but how can it be reconciled with the idea that the electricities are radically different, that the same state of excitement may be confounded with either? It may, indeed, be alleged, that the fluid is never completely vitreous, or resinous, or neutral ; that although the proportion of either fluid be great, it may still be increased: that one conductor may be more vitreous than a second, but less so than a third—or more resinous than a second, but less so than a third; and hence, in either case, * See Plate I. fig. 2. may 6 Professor Hare on the Electric Fluid. may give sparks with either. This is to me, nevertheless, a complicated and unsatisfactory solution of the difficulty. Pursuant to the Franklinian theory, there can be no really neutral point; though the earth, as a reservoir, infinitely great, compared with any producible by art, furnishes an invariable standard of intensity, above and below which all bodies elec- trically excited are said to be minus or plus*. _ It is perfectly consistent with this theory, that sparks should pass, as they are often seen to do, from conductors in either state; not only from one to the other, but to bodies nominally neutralized by their communication with the earth. As the difference be- tween the electrical states of the oppositely electrified bodies, must be greater than between either of their states and that of the greater reservoir, the sparks between them will be longer, but in all other characteristics will be the same. This practical result is irreconcileable with the doctrine of two fluids, according to which there can be no electricity in the earth, which is not in the state of a neutral compound, formed by these opposite electricities. | For it would be an anomaly to suppose the re-action between a neutral compound (a fer- tium quid) and either of its ingredients, to resemble in inten- sity, and in its characteristic phenomena, the re-action which arises between the ingredients themselves. As well might we expect aqueous vapour to explode with hydrogen or oxygen gas, as they do with each other. Nothing can be more at war with the doctrine of definite proportions, of multiple volumes, and every analogy established by the chemistry of ponderable matter, than that two substances should combine, in every possible proportion, and with precisely the same phzenomena ; that they should be capable of neutralizing each other, and yet eagerly act as if never neutralized. An argument in favour of the existence of two fluids has been founded on the appearance of two burs, when a card is pierced by an electric discharge. ‘This phenomenon is as difficult of explanation, agreeably to Du Faye’s theory, as Franklin’s. If a current of electricity, flowing in one direc- tion, should produce a bur, in piercing a card on the side towards which it flows, two currents should be productive of none, one current being precisely adequate to neutralize the * In some discussions which took place some years ago, between Mr. Donovan and Mr. De Luce, in Nicholson’s Journal, it was erroneously charged against Franklin’s doctrine, that he supposed that there was an absolute state of neutrality. The doctrine of one universal fluid is to me obviously irreconcileable with that idea, otherwise than as above explained. The quantity of electricity in the globe, is as unalterable in any sensible degree, as the quantity of water in the ocean; and it may therefore be assumed to be invariably the same. other, Professor Hare on the Electric Fluid. ” other, according to the premises. ‘The appearance may be explained by either doctrine, as resulting from intense attrac- tion between the paper and the knobs transmitting the dis- charge. It has been observed, in favour of the French theory, that, when the hands are made the medium of a feeble discharge, a shock is felt simultaneously in the fingers only of each hand; that, as the shock is made stronger, it affects the wrist, the arm, and finally the chest. This is considered as proving the operation of two distinct fluids; for, were the shock the effect of one current, it would be experienced equally, though feebly, throughout the whole of the circuit. Admitting that such a current were necessary to the discharge, agreeably to Frank- lin’s theory, it ought to be felt most in the fingers, where it is most concentrated, as torrents flow with greater violence in proportion as their channels are narrowed. A current passing from one coating of a Leyden jar to another, is far from being necessary to restore the equilibrium of its surfaces. As soon as a circuit is established between them by the hands, the elec- tricity in the hand which touches the negative surface, flows into it to supply the deficiency; while the hand which touches the positive surface, receives from it a surcharge. It is a case analogous to that of a syphon, in which a fluid, forcibly dis- placed from the level, is suddenly relieved from restraint; both columns would move at the same time, and with a velocity greater in any part, in proportion as the diameter should be less. ‘The deficit caused in the hand in contact with the ne- gative coating, is supplied by electricity from the arm; and this, again, from the body, where if the charge be inconsi- derable, it is so much diffused as not to be perceived. In like manner, a slight surcharge received by the hand in contact with the positive coating, is diffused, as it proceeds up the arm to the chest, so as to be too feeble to be felt there. A piece of tin foil, interposed between paper, has been found not to be perforated by a charge, which had pierced the paper on both sides of it. If there were but one current, it is alleged that tin foil, situ- ated as above mentioned, would be pierced during its passage from one coating to the other——a fortiori, then, it should be pierced, if two currents be necessary, passing each other. Be- sides, the explanation afforded, in the case of a shock received by the hands, applies to this: owing to its great conducting power, the tin foil diffuses the attraction from each side so much as not to be damaged by it. II. De- pees II. Description of an Electrical Plate Machine, the Plate mounted horizontally, and so as to show both negative and positive Electricity. Illustrated by Engravings. By Ropert Harr, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania*. "PSe power of electrical plate machines has been generally admitted to be greater than that of machines with cylin- ders. ‘The objection to the former has been, the difficulty of in- sulating the cushions, so as to display the negative electricity. Excepting the plate machine contrived by Van Marum, I have read of none in which this difficulty has been surmounted. It is still insisted upon, by respectable electricians, as if it had not been sufficiently removed by his contrivance. I presume, therefore, that a description of a plate machine, by which both electricities may be shown, and which, after two years’ experience, I prefer on every account, may not be unacceptable to the public+. My plate (thirty-four inches in diameter) is supported upon an upright iron bar, about an inch in diameter, covered by a very stout giass cylinder, four inches and a half in diameter, and sixteen inches in height, open only at the base, through which the bar is introduced, so as to form its axis. The sum- mit of the bar is furnished with a block of wood, turned to fit the cavity formed at the apex of the cylinder, and cemented therein. The external apex of the cylinder is cemented into a brass cap, which carries the plate. The glass cylinder is liable to no strain; it is only pressed where it is interposed between the block of wood within and the brass cap without. The remaining portion of the cylinder bears only its own weight, while it effectually insulates the plate from the iron axis. ‘The brass cap is surmounted by a screw and flange; by means of which, a corresponding nut, and disks of cork, the plate is fastened. A square table serves as a basis for the whole. The iron axis, passing through the cover of the table, is furnished with a wooden wheel of about twenty inches dia- meter, and terminates below this wheel in a brass step, sup- ported on a cross of wood, which ties the legs of the table dia- gonally together. The wheel is grooved, and made to revolve by a band, which proceeds from around a vertical wheel out- side of the table. This external wheel has two handles: it may of course be turned by means either of one or both. It is supported on two strips of wood, which by means of screws may be protruded lengthwise from cases, which confine them | * Communicated by the Author, + See Plate I. Fig. 3, from. Professor Hare on the Blowpipe. 9 from moving in any other direction. By these means the distance between the wheels may be varied at pleasure, and the tension of the band duly adjusted. Nearly the same mede of insulation and support which is used for the plate, is used in the case of the conductors. These consist severally of arched tubes of brass, of about an inch and a quarter in diameter, which pass over the plate from one side of it to the other, so as to be at right angles to, and at a due distance from each other. They are terminated by brass balls and caps, which last are cemented on glass cylinders of the same dimensions, nearly, as that which supports the plate. The glass cylinders are suspended upon wooden axes, sur- mounted by plugs of cork turned accurately to fit the space which they occupy. The cylinders are kept steady below by bosses of wood, which surround them. In this way the con- ductors are effectually insulated, while the principal strain is borne by the wooden axes. I consider this mode of mounting an electrical plate pre- ferable to any with which I am acquainted. The friction aris- ing from the band may render the working of the machine a little harder for one person, with one hand; but then it affords the advantage, that two persons may be employed for this pur- pose, or one may use both hands at once. The intervention of the band secures the plate from being cracked by a hasty effort to put it into motion, when adhering to the cushions, as it does at times; and the screws, by means of which the distance of the wheels is increased, obviate the liability of the band to slacken with wear. III. Description of an improved Blowpipe by Alcohol, in which the Inflammation is sustained by opposing Jets of Vapour, without a Lamp : also, of the Means of rendering the Flame of Alcohol competent for the Purpose of Illumination. Illustrated by an Engraving. By Roser Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. [TX the ordinary construction of the blowpipe by alcohol, the inflammation is kept up by passing a jet of alcoholic steam through the flame of a lamp, supported, as is usual, by a wick— otherwise the inflammation of the vapour does not proceed with sufficient rapidity to prevent the inflamed portion from being carried too far from the orifice of the pipe; and being so much cooled by an admixture of air, as to be extinguished. By using two jets of vapour, in opposition to each other, I find the inflammation may be sustained without a lamp. If one Vol. 62. No, $03. July 1825. B part 10 Professor Hare’s improved Blowpipe. part of oil of turpentine, with seven of alcohol, be used, the flame becomes very luminous. In order to equalize and regulate the efflux, I have contrived a boiler, like a gazometer. It consists of two concentric cylin- ders, opening upwards, leaving an interstice of about one quarter of an inch between them; and a third cylinder, open- ing downwards, which slides up and down in the interstice. The interstice being filled with boiling water, and alcohol in- troduced into the innermost cylinder, it soon boils and escapes by the pipes. These pass through stuffing boxes in the bot- tom of the cylinder. Hence their orifices, and of course the flame, may be made to approach nearer to, or recede further from, the boiler. The construction of this instrument, which I call the com- pound blowpipe by alcohol, may be understood from the en- graving (Plate I. Fig. 4.). : The idea of making the flame of hydrogen gas, or alcoholic vapour, more luminous by an admixture of oil of turpentine, occurred to me in 1819; and I put the idea into practice in the summer or succeeding winter of that year, when my pupils witnessed the result. It seems, that Mr. Morey, by another catenation of ideas, was led to a similar inference, employing, in an alcohol blow- pipe, whiskey and turpentine. He endeavours so to regulate the efflux of a single jet of the vapour of these fluids, as that it may continue to burn, when once lighted. This process is too troublesome and precarious for ordinary use. A mixture of alcohol and turpentine are burned with a wick in a lamp, in the same way as oil, according to my plan. It is of course perfectly practicable, and I shall be surprised if it be not adopted in the western country, where alcohol may be had very cheap, and oil must be comparatively dear. IV. Remarks on the Trisection of a Circular Arc. By Mr. Pau Newron. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. : Newark, May 4, 1828. HOULD the following remarks, the result of much pa- tience, and of many attempts, on the trisection of an angle or a circular arc, obtain a place in your Philosophical Maga- zine and Journal, they may perhaps prove interesting to some of your mathematical readers: That geniuses so exalted as Newton, Barrow, Halley, in conjunction with an endless list of other illustrious names of our own countrymen, and of ” celebrated —— : : Mr. P. Newton on the Trisection of an Are. 11 celebrated foreigners,—that nearly all these authors, ancient and modern, should concur in observing a profound silence on trisection; or that none of them should speak or write thereon, but confidently to pronounce its impossibility, except so far as chiefly relates to a right angle; is discouraging in the extreme, and is sufficient to damp the ardour of the most re- solute, zealous, aspiring mind. Hopeless, however, as the per- formance of this task which I have assigned myself, may still appear to the reader, yet what I have observed permit me to communicate. I am, gentlemen, Your very obedient servant, Paut NEWTON. With any radius AF, or FB, describe the given circle AEHRB, &c. With half the radius of AT’, or of FB, de- scribe the circle cnmtoD, &c. Let the arc AH, or the arc HB, be that of a quadrant, and let the arc AE be equal to the arc RB, the co-are EH will in consequence be equal to the co-are HR. It is required to find a third part of the quadrantal are AH, or HB, a third part of the are AE, or RB, a third part of its co-are EH, or HR, and a third part of the arc AR, or of its equal BE. To find a third part of the quadrant AH, or HB.—Draw the diameter HG perpendicularly to the diameter AB. Draw the chord Hcl. through the point c, in which the circumference of the circle cnmtoD bisects the radius AF, to meet the given B2 circle 12 Mr. P. Newton on the Trisection of an Are. circle in L. Draw the sine La; the chord LA; and, through s, the extremity of the semi-radius F's, and in a di- rection parallel to the diameter AB draw the chord YZ. But the sine La, and the semi-radius F's, being perpendiculars to the parallels AB, YZ, are themselves parallels, and from the nature of parallel lines the sine Lz is longer than I's. And because the third part of a quadrant =30 degrees, and the sine of 30 degrees = half the radius, the sine Lz, being longer than the half radius F's, exceeds its proper magnitude. ‘The sine Lz is here considered as = the sine of 4d part of the quadrantal are AH or HB augmented by an are commencing at L, and described from the centre c, with the radius Le, part ofthe chord LcH. WithcL, therefore, as radius, and centre c, describe the are LAMN4@, forming a lune with the given circle, and meeting or intersecting the given circle in the points L, and 6, at equal distances from N, the extension of the diame- ter AB. With the chord AL as a distance, and L as a centre, describe an arc at M. With the same distance AL, and centre N, describe an arc at #2 ‘The arc NM = the arc kL. From which I infer that if we apply the chord AL, from N to, on the lunar arc LAMN4@, the point & fixes the situation of the sine /iv, drawn of course perpendicularly from the point /, or parallel to the sine Lx; and the point z, in which the sine /zv intersects the given circle, is one extremity of the true sine; the other extremity v is consequently on the dia- meter; and 7v = Fs is = the sine of 3d part of the quadrant AH, or HB. For the sake of illustration, let us suppose the radius cL, the sine Lz, and the chord LA, to be composed of, or repre- sented by, three inflexible rods. Let the extremity c of the radius Le be a fixed point, and let the chord LA, the sine - La, and the radius Le, all meeting in the point L, be so joined or attached to one another in this point, that the end A of the chord or rod LA shall, in quitting the are LA, fall upon the lunar are LEMNO at M, and that while the extremity L of the lunar radius cL, bearing with it the sine Lz, shall move along the are L/MN2, from L to /; the extremity M of the chord or rod LM shall be driven along the same are LEMN@, from M to N, and shall lie in the direction 4N, during which time and motion the sine Lz, preserving its perpendicular direction, is carried into the situation of the sine £zv; for the arc MN is =the are &L. It hence appears that the chord LA, applied to the arc LEMN4@, leaves a remainder of this arc MN, or /L, = the intervening are which separates the sine La from the sine /iv; the part ‘v of the latter of which is Mr. P. Newton on the Trisection of an Arc. 13 is the true sine, For, produce now the sine 7v, to meet the given arcin a on the opposite side of the diameter AB. Then because the chord of an are = double sine of half that are, the chord za = double the sine zv, or the sine av = sine 7v, and the are Ai = the are Aa. Draw aH, joining a, the up- per extremity of the sine av, with H, the termination of the quadrant AH; and parallel to aH draw vm, connecting the lower extremity v, of the sine av, with m, the termination of the quadrant cxm described with half radius. Join aF = ra- dius of the given circle. Bisect the sine av in p, and parallel to the diameter AB draw pno, passing through the point x of intersection of the radius aF with the line vm. Because aF = radius of given circle, and nF = half radius; therefore an = half radius or =2F. And because the sine av is bisected in p, and pz is perpendicular to av, the sides ap, pn, of the triangle apn are respectively equal to the sides vp, pn, of the triangle vp, and they include equal angles apn, vpn. Consequently the side vz = the side an, or = n¥. The line pro being parallel to the diameter AB, the arc mc = the arc oD, and the co-arec nm =the co-arc mo. Consequently the 2 nFc =the ZoFD. And because the triangle vF'n is isosceles, and the side vm = the side nF, the ZnvF = the Z nFv = the Z oF D, or by sim. As. = the Z mno. But the Z mno at the circumference = only half the Z m¥o at the centre. Therefore the are mo (= the are nm) is double the are oD, or double the arc nc. See Leslie’s Geo- metrical Analysis, book i. prop. 31st, prefixed to his Geometry of Curve Lines. Or, since the line po, which bisects the sine av in p, bisects its equal mF in w, the Z mnw or Zmno = Z nic; because the sine mw of the former Z is = the sine wF of the latter Z. But because the Z mmo is an angle at the circumference, the arc mo, or its equal the arc mn, is double the are nc, the Z Fc being an Z at the centre. Again, because the circumferences of circles have the same ratio to each other as their radii, and the radius AF, or al’, is double the radius F or cl’, the ares Aa and aH are re- spectively double of the ares cn and nm, and the are aH is double the are Aa: or this latter arc Aa is = 3d of the arc AH, or = 4d of HB. In a similar manner we may find the third of any fractional part of the quadrant, as well as a third of the whole, because for every variable position of the chord HL we describe a new circle with the varying radius cL. That is, when HB ceases to be the are of a right angle, or, which is the same thing, when HC moves into the position of Re, or when, sa steac i4 Mr. P. Newton on the Trésection of an Are. stead of a right angle, the given arc becomes only = RB, then cL varies to cg, which now becomes a substituting radius for cL. To find one third part of the are AE, or of RB.—Draw the line RéIr through the centre F of both the concentric circles. Through the point c, which bisects the radius AF, draw the chord Reg, meeting the given circle in g. With the radius gc, and centre c, describe the lunar are gPd, inter- secting or meeting the given circle in the points g and d points equidistant from P, the extension of the diameter AB. 'To pre- vent a confusion of sines, we will pass to the other side of the diameter AB. Through the point of intersection d draw the augmented sine dh. Apply the chord of the are Ad to the arc Pd (as for the quadrant) from P toc, and through this latter point c draw the sine cg, intersecting the given circle in the point «. The sine wg is the true sine, or is the sine of 4d of the arc AE, or of 3d of the arc RB, and consequently the arc Au = 4d of the arc AE, or 4d RB. Make the arc Ae = the arc Aw, then will the arc Ae = 4d of the arc AE, or = 4dof RB. If the upper extremity w of the sine ug were connected with R, the termination of the arc RB, by means of a straight line; and if a straight line were drawn from g, the lower extremity of the sine wg, to ¢, the termination of the are Dé; and if; moreover, the sine wg were bisected in a manner similar to that employed for the right angle, a similar proof would follow; viz. that the are Au = 4d of the arc AE, or = 4d oftheare RB. The straight line drawn from g would fall on the are cn between c and x, and would be = vn, or = I’, and on being produced would pass through the point of intersection made by the other two lines; drawn from u, and from the bisection of the sine wg. Since the are Aa = 3d of the are AH, or = 4d of HB, and the arc Au = 3d of the arc AE, or = 4d of RB; the dif- ference between these thirds, viz. the arc wa, or the arc e7, = 4d of the co-are EH, or of HR. Make, next, the are 7Q = the are Az, then will the are eQ = 4d of the are EB, or = 4d of the are AR. Scholium.— When the proposed arc is less than half a qua- drant, as the are EH or HR; the complement AE, or RB, may be trisected, and the difference between 3d of this com- plement, and 3d of a quadrant as the arc wa, will be = 3d of the proposed arc EH or HR. PEN: Veron —_ ~ bovibsed. J V. On a Method of observing Solar Eclipses by means of the Altitude and Azimuth Instrument. By A CorrEesPponvDeENT. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. A DAY or two ago, after perusing Mr. Troughton’s able defence of the altitude and azimuth instrument, it struck me that it might be advantageously employed at the end (and probably at the beginning) of the next solar eclipse to ascer- tain the moon’s declination and right ascension, as well as the longitude of the place of observation. The instrument being carefully orienté, observe the azimuth (from the north) and the zenith distance of the point of con- tact, and correct the latter for refraction. With this datum, the calculated zenith distance of the sun’s centre affected by parallax, and his semi-diameter (diminished by irradiation ?), find the angle formed at the sun’s centre be- tween the zenith and the point of contact. This angle, toge- ther with the (parallared) Z. D. of the sun, and the sum of the apparent semi-diameters, will give the moon’s azimuth and (parallaxed) zenith distance. Admitting the earth to be a spheroid, the difference of the true and apparent zeniths, together with the azimuths and zenith distances, afford data to diminish* the former and in- crease the latter to the quantities due to the reduced latitude. The parallaxes being subtracted from these transposed zenith distances, we find (as in lunars) the distances of the cen- tres of the sun and moon, and consequently the longitude of the observer. ‘The method of deducing the N. P. di- stance of the moon, as well as the right ascension, is sufficiently obvious. The apparent time of the end of the eclipse being known to great accuracy, it might serve to calculate the azimuth of the sun’s centre; and consequently the semi-diameter. By com- paring the two methods, we might learn the value of the irra- diation. An observer in possession of a well regulated chronometer furnished with a micrometer (or merely with vertical and horizontal wires) might arrive at the same results by com- paring the point of contact with the proper parts of the sun’s disk. June 21, 1823. X. X. * The objects being to the north of cast. VIL. 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Woutaston, M.D. VE Re HE evidence that we yet possess of the reduction of ti- tanium to its metallic state, is not altogether satisfactory ; for even Laugier (who has described a valuable series of ex- periments made upon it in 1814, and who had the advantage of all the previous knowledge acquired by the labours of Vau- quelin and Hecht in 1796, of Lowitz in 1798, and of Lam- padius in 1803) could only say that he thought himself justi- fied in considering certain parts of his product which were of a golden colour as really reduced ; adding in confirmation, that Messrs. Vauquelin and Hatiy, to whom he had shown them, “ appeared disposed to adopt his opinion +.” As M. Laugier had not the means of confirming his opi- nion by analysis, I may presume that an account of some ex- periments which I have recently made upon this substance will be acceptable to chemists in general; and that in pro- portion to the degree of doubt they may entertain, they will feel interested to examine scrupulously the evidence | shall adduce as to the metallic state of the subject of my experi- ments. My attention has been directed by various friends, especially by Professor Buckland, who gave me the subject of my ex- periments, to certain very small cubes, having the lustre of burnished copper, that occasionally are found in the slag of the great iron-works at Merthyr ‘Tydvil, in Wales, which, from their hue, have by some persons been imagined to be pyritical. Their colour, however, is not truly that of any sul- phuret of iron that I have seen; and though the form be cubic, it is not the striated cube of common iron pyrites, which so often passes into the pentagonal dodecahedron, but similar to that of common salt; for any marks, that are to be dis- cerned on their surfaces, appear as indented squares instead of striae. Their hardness also is totally different from that of pyrites, and is such as, when combined with the preceding characters, marks a substance wholly unknown to mineralogists. By se- lecting a sharp angle of one of these cubes, I found that I could not only write upon the hardest steel, or upon crown glass, but could even visibly scratch a polished surface of agate or rock crystal. * From the Philosophical Transactions, Part I. for 1823. + Je me crois fondé a regarder cette couche mammelonnée comme la nortion récllement réduite ...... wanuaseSUWsvewaecscsweveurevdtes MM. Vauquelin et Haiiy m’ont paru disposés 4 adopter cette opinion. Annales de Chimie, vol. \xxxix. p. 317. Having Dr. Wollaston on Metallic Titanium. 19 Having broken out some of these crystals for experiment, I found them all apparently attracted by a magnet; but ob- serving that they had still small portions of slag adherent to them, they were next digested in muriatic acid, which, by dis- solving the iron from their surfaces, soon freed them from their deceptive appearance of magnetism. The cubes thus purified are not acted upon by muriatic acid. Nitric acid has no action upon them. Nitro-muriatic acid does not dissolve them. Boiling sulphuric acid does not affect them. Before the blow-pipe they are utterly infusible. A con- tinued heat oxidates them, and they become purple or red at the surface, according to the degree of oxidation, or depth to which it penetrates. Borax has no action upon them, but only cleans the sur- face from any oxide that may be formed. Neither does the addition of subcarbonate of soda produce more effect than borax alone. Nitre, aided by a strong heat, oxidates them rapidly: but unless the heat be long continued, the effect is only super- ficial. The combined action of nitre and borax together soon ef- fects their solution, as the latter dissolves the oxide as fast as it is formed, and presents a clean surface for fresh oxidation. But as these salts do not unite by fusion, the addition of soda, as a medium of union, considerably shortens the process. The fused mass becomes opake in cooling, by the deposit of a white oxide, which may either be previously freed of the salts by boiling water and then dissolved in muriatic acid, or the whole mass may be at once dissolved together. In either case alkalies precipitate from the solution a white oxide, which is not soluble by excess of alkali, either pure, or in the state of carbonate. By evaporating the muriatic solu- tion of the oxide to dryness, at the heat of boiling water, it is freed of any redundant acid, and the muriate which remains is perfectly soluble in water, and in a state most favourable for exhibiting the characteristic properties of the metal. Infusion of galls gives the well known colour of gallate of ti- tanium. The colour occasioned by adding triple prussiate of potash is red, as observed by Laugier, and so nearly resembling that of the gallate, that I do not think any difference that I can discern is to be depended upon as constant. It differs from prussiate of copper by inclining to orange instead of purple, while the colour of prussiate of uranium is rather brown than red. C2 Since 20 Dr. Wollaston on Metallic Titanium. Since the oxide thus examined agrees in its characteristic properties with that of titanium procured from Anatase, I can- not entertain a doubt as to the general nature of the substance under consideration. I believe it to be pure, for I find no trace of any other substance combined with it, not even of iron, although the crystals are found imbedded in an iron slag, in the presence of metallic iron; nor yet of silica, for which the oxide has a strong affinity. Neither is there any sulphur present, as the salt which remains after oxidation of it by nitre, contains no trace of sulphuric acid. That the cubes are in the metallic state, is nearly proved by their lustre, by the effect of nitre upon them, and by the failure of borax to act upon them, till they have been sub- jected to the action of nitre. It may be further observed, that, when the action of nitre is rapid, heat is evidently ge- nerated, as by the combustion of other metals: but as I acted upon them in their solid state, and did not pulverise them, I did not witness what could properly be called detonation, as described by Lampadius. The property which may be regarded as most decisive of the metallic state of these cubes, is the power which I find them to possess of perfectly conducting the most feeble elec- tricity. If a slip of zinc and another of copper be placed in contact, and immersed together in dilute sulphuric acid, bubbles of gas are seen to rise from the surfaces of both the metals; but, if a piece of paper be interposed between them, then no gas is given off by the copper. In a piece of paper, so placed be- tween zine and copper, I made a small hole, and after insert- ing in it one of the cubes so as to be in contact with both the metals, I had the satisfaction to find an electric communication completely established by this interposition, for gas was now given off from the surface of the copper. From the situation in which this metal is found, it evidently has no affinity for iron in the metallic state, and it seems equally indisposed to unite with every other metal that I have tried. Though it is evidently impossible to measure with precision the specific gravity of such specimens as I first re- ceived for analysis, I was in hopes of trying whether one of the largest of the cubes would sink or swim in melted tin, and for that purpose endeavoured to tin its surface; but I could not succeed in uniting it with either tin or lead, with silver or copper, and had no encouragement to prosecute further a series of negative results, in search of metals for which it may have an affinity. From the extreme infusibilty of these cubes, it seems pro- bable Mr. Telford on the Effects of removing London Bridge. 21 = bable that they have not been formed by crystallization in cooling from a state of fusion, but have received their succes- sive increments by reduction of the oxide dissolved in the slag around them: a mode of formation to which-we must have recourse for conceiving rightly the formation in nature of many other metallic crystals. Since the date of this communication, the liberality of Mr. Anthony Hill, of Merthyr Tydvil, has supplied me with a larger quantity of the slag which formed the subject of my first experiments, and has enabled me to determine the spe- cific gravity of metallic titanium to be 5-3. For this purpose, the vitreous part was fused with a mixture of borax and sub- carbonate of soda in about equal quantities, and was then dis- solved in muriatic acid, which also removed a quantity of me- tallic iron, and left the titanium freed from extraneous matter. Though great part of what was thus obtained from the in- terior of the slag was in a pulverulent state, the quantity, which amounted to 32 grains, and displaced 6-04 of water, was sufficient to preclude any considerable error. I have moreover learned that metallic cubes, similar to those which I have above described and examined, were more than 20 years since observed in a slag at the Clyde iron-works in Scotland; that a small quantity has also been met with at the Low Moor iron-works, near Bradford in Yorkshire ; and at the Pidding iron-works, near Alfreton in Derbyshire; and that some good specimens have been obtained from Ponty- pool in Monmouthshire; but it does not appear that any one has ascertained or even suspected the real nature of this sin- gular product. VIII. Report of Tuomas Texrorp, Esq. on the Effects which will be produced on the River Thames by the Rebuilding of London Bridge. [|X consequence of the authority given me by the resolution of the Committee for letting the Bridge-House Estates, dated the 7th of March last, I immediately took measures to get an accurate survey made of the river, its banks and ap- pendages. For this purpose I employed two persons expe- rienced in making similar surveys, viz. one for the district from London Bridge to Putney, and the other from Putney to Teddington Lock; and in order to ensure accuracy and pro- per connexion and uniformity, I caused one of my own assist- ants, also accustomed to river surveys, to carry levels from London Bridge to Teddington Lock, and I have myself su- perintended 22 Mr. Telford on the Liffects on the Thames perintended and occasionally inspected the proceedings: I have also received the tidal observations made at different times at several stations upon the river. In order to proceed with regularity, I shall adopt the fol- lowing arrangement in tracing the effects which would be pro- duced to the westward and also to the eastward of London Bridge, if the present edifice, which constitutes a dam of from 1 foot 1 inch to 5 feet 7 inches, or 4 feet 4 inches on an aver- age, were removed, and in its stead a new bridge, with com- paratively little obstruction, were substituted : Ist. Observations on the comparative state of high water, founded on the surveys and levels lately taken, and the tidal observations made in 1820, 1822, and 1823; and further, what is likely to take place if London Bridge be removed. 2dly. Similar observations as regards the state of low water. 3 3dly. As to the effects which the aforesaid changes are likely to produce upon the navigation, bridges, banks, wharfs, shores, and adjacent properties. First, As to the State of the River at High Water. It appears from the table of observations of the height of the tides at the several bridges in 1820 and 1822, that the average fall through London Bridge at high water was from 8 to 13 inches; that by those of 1823, since the removal of the water-works, the fall instead of 8 inches is now only from 8 to 4 inches; I think therefore it is fair to conclude that with a still less obstructed waterway there will be little or no fall at high water, and that hereafter high tides in the western parts of the city will even in calm weather be at least on the same level as below bridge. I find that the level of the wharfs below bridge is from 2} to 4 feet above the Trinity datum, and that those of 23 feet are occasionally flooded. The aver- age level of the wharfs above bridge is from 1} to 2 feet above the Trinity datum; and the extraordinary flood of 1821, which rose at Teddington 7 feet, rose at Putney only 2 feet, and at Lambeth 1 foot 11 inches above the said datum. Therefore it appears that there is more reason at present to dread the elevation arising from the tide below bridge, than from floods above; and that the floods of the Thames are not sufficient, in the present state of things, to fill the lagoon or pond above the narrows of the bridge to the height which some of the tides do below, and which, there is reason to be- lieve they also would above, were the channel unobstructed. But it may be supposed that the quantity of tide coming in at the Nore being given, the additional space provided for it by —s from the Removal of London Bridge. 23 by opening the upper part of the river will prevent it from rising so high as it now does near the bridge, and that there- fore not only is there a probability of no greater elevation oc- curring there than at present, but that it will, in similar cir- cumstances, be lower below bridge—consequently that no danger can arise above. To this I reply, that when it is high water at the Nore, we have it, within two hours, high water at London Bridge, at the distance of forty miles; so that the high water passes up at the rate of twenty miles per hour: so much more rapidly than any known velocity of the river, that its effects are not to be accounted for by the flowing of the cur- rent merely, as may be supposed the case in filling up the pond to Teddington through the arches of London Bridge. In this last case we have levelled along the banks of the river, and find, after correcting the marks expressing ‘Trinity datum, that the lowest surface of high water is between Put- ney and Kew; that it rises about one foot to Teddington, and nearly as much at London Docks: but this is liable to con- siderable variation. The rise in the upper part of the river pond may be easily accounted for by the accumulation of the fresh waters of the river over and above what is tidal water. The fall from London towards Putney seems to show that the tide has not time, through the contracted passage, to fill up the pond above bridge to the lower level. From London Bridge to Blackwall the high water seems, from the observations, to be level: the quantity of water re- quired to fill up this difference of level is, after all, so small, that with an unobstructed waterway it would evidently make no difference worthy of notice in the level of the tide below bridge, even were it subtracted from the mass that lies between London Bridge and the Nore. "Whereas consider- ing the great rapidity with which the lower part of the river is filled by the tide, it is clear that an unobstructed tide would fill up this trifling increase in at least as litile time as the pre- sent period. But to render this a matter of calculation: we find the average breadth of tide-water at the Nore to be 34 miles; at Gravesend half a mile, the distance being 18 miles; which, at 6000 feet per geographical mile, with 15 feet of tide, gives from the Nore to Gravesend 17,000 millions cubic feet of tide- water: at London Bridge, taking the breadth at 1000 feet and 3000 at Gravesend, we have in 24 miles, and with the same depth, 4320 million of cubic feet, or 1-4th additional tide-wa- ter. There run at present through London Bridge, between the lowest ebbs and high water of ordinary springs (or 14-feet tides) above bridge, 582 millions cubic feet Caen: and 24 Mr. Telford on the Liffects on the Thames and if London Bridge be removed, so that there be no ma- terial dam at low water, we have also to fill the pond now caused by that dam. ‘This pond is from 4 to 6 feet deep at the bridge, at low water; and we find that the level of low water above bridge meets the bottom of the Thames between Putney and Kew, viz. 10} miles above bridge: taking this as the head of the pond, the average breadth at 600 feet at low water, the mean depth to be filled at 2 feet, we have an addi- tion of 75 millions of cubic feet, or 1-57th of the quantity of tide-water between London and Gravesend, or only 1-284th of the whole quantity of tide-water within the Nore; therefore the whole water which must pass the New Bridge, to raise the upper river to the level of high water below bridge, is 657 millions, or 1-32d of the entire quantity of tide-water within the Nore below bridge. It is a well-known fact that the tide in narrow channels with funnel-shaped mouths, or against coasts which oppose its re- gular course, rises considerably higher than at the places which are situated in retired bays, or under the wake of pro- jecting points: thus the Atlantic tide running up the Channel rises 6 or 7 fathoms against the French coast near St. Malo and Havre; while on the opposite English coast, at Port- land and Poole, we have only one fathom rise. In St. George’s Channel, the tides at Milford and along the Welsh coast rise four fathoms; on the opposite Irish coast, from Carnsore Point to Wicklow, hardly one fathom. Many similar instances might be given. Again, as to funnel-shaped mouths: the spring-tide at the entrance of Bristol Channel rises 22 to 24 feet; but as that channel contracts in breadth, the velocity and vertical rise increase in proportion so much, that in King Road it rises between 7 and 8 fathoms. Many other similar in- stances may be shown. As may be perceived by the position of the banks of the Thames’ mouth, the flood-tide comes from the N.E. or German sea: at half-past eleven it is high water at Harwich, Kentish Knock, and Margate; the oscillation or rise at springs is from 15 to 16 feet; at twelve it is high water at the Nore; and although the rise there is only 14 feet, yet in the Swale, which is in the direct course of the tide, the rise is 17 to 21 feet at halfpast twelve. . The general set of the current running up the Thames forms a branch which at the Nore at noon rises, as we have said, 14 feet; but from thence the funnel-shape produces a gradual increase in the oscillation until we arrive near London: that at Gravesend, at one, the rise is 16 feet; at Woolwich, at three-quarters past one, it is 18 feet; at Deptford, at two o’clock, we have 18} feet; but at Billingsgate, at a quarter past from the Removal of London Bridge. 25 past two o’clock, there is a rise of 173 feet only. The action of the tide is now affected by the bridges, the regular progress of this wave being checked, and the surface of the high water declines all the way to Putney, where it is high water ata quarter past three o’clock; but from thence again there is a rise of one foot to Teddington, where it is high water at three- quarters past four. Hence observe that from Billingsgate to Teddington the wave passes at the rate of 8 miles per hour only; while below Billingsgate the same wave of high water passes at the rate of 20 miles per hour, or more particularly Time. Miles. Hour. Minutes. Miles. From the Nore to Gravesend 18 in 1 _ 0 is 18 per ho. Woolwich 15 — # O — 20 Deptford 64— + O — 26 Billngseate 4 — 4 O— 16 Swan Stairs, a loss of 10 — Putney 7, ty, uu 50 — 83 Teddington 11 — 1} O— 7% It is obvious then that this rapid diminution of the velocity of high water is caused by the narrow at London Bridge, and that, were that obstruction removed, there is every reason to believe the velocity in the upper river would be greatly in- creased. : It must also be observed that the fall or difference of height between the surfaces above and below bridge at high water must not alone be taken as the proper measure of the obstruc- tion, and used as a datum throughout a calculation, because the fall through the whole tide is much greater. _ In one very moderate spring-tide, which I observed on the 26th of Ma last, when the fall at high water was only 5 inches, the fall through most of the preceding part of the tide had been 14 inches. The high water will therefore go up to the head of the tide- way more speedily, and will rise higher than at present. Secondly, Of the River at Low Water. This water must also return with greater velocity, and the removal of the bridge will not only permit the increased head to pass off at the ebb, but likewise that portion which is now ‘retained by the obstruction. Were the flood tide not to return, and the stream of the river to cease, the bed would exhibit a series of ponds at levels, gradually increasing in elevation as we pass to the westward ; of which the first would extend to Battersea Bridge, having a shoal at Westminster Bridge, on which there will be little or Vol. 62. No. 303. July 1823. D no 26 Mr. Telford on the Effects on the Thames no water, and nearly 2000 yards in length. The second pond, from Battersea to Putney, would be 16 inches higher than the former. At Putney Bridge would be a rise of 17 inches. Above Putney to Mortlake is a shallow channel with small pools; in the deepest passage across the bars there is now less than 3 feet of water. Mortlake is the next pond, two miles in length. Its surface is level with the present low water at Lon- don Bridge; but before the construction of that work it would, ‘as its name implies, have been a dead or stagnant lake at low water. The other ponds which are higher than the present low water may be observed in the general section. The depth over the bar is no where less than 24 feet, or more than 4 feet ; ‘but this depth is with some difficulty sufficient at present for navigation to the locks at ‘Teddington. Were the river water to be run off above bridge, this navi- gation must cease, unless a new channel be excavated through the shoals: independent of the depression in the lower pond which the New Bridge will permit, a longer time will be given for the ebb to empty the upper reaches, as we may see by in- quiring whether the obstruction of London Bridge occasions any remarkable deviation from the progress of the ebb, as we have just found it to do in the case of the flood tide, whereby we form some judgement of the probable result of its removal with respect to the velocity of the ebb stream. Allowing therefore that the tide at the Nore occupies 6 hours 16 minutes, or the regular half tide, we find that low water proceeds — Time. Miles. Hour. Minutes. Miles. From the NoretoGravesend 18 in 1 24 Woolwich 15 — 1 8 Boch Deptford 6} — 0 373 102 Billmgsgate 4 — O 2234 10 Old Swan, a loss of 20 Westminster 2 in 0 224 5 Putney 54 — 1 34 34 Teddington 11 — 83 20 ren which exhibits the same rapid changes of velocity caused by the bridge as in the case of flood. Were the bridge removed, therefore, it is evident that the velocity of ebb above bridge would materially increase, the time of low water be earlier than at present, the drainage of the upper ponds more complete, and the navigation which is now ° preceohi: up to Teddington would cease too early near that place, Thirdly, Effects to be produced. And lastly, from the foregoing statement of facts it has been shown — i Jrom the Removal of London Bridge. 27 shown that the removal of London Bridge will admit a greater body of water to flow up the river to the westward, and with a greater velocity, which together will considerably increase the momentum; and it is equally certain that the same cause will operate in the ebbing tide, and leave the bed of the river nearly dry for several hours in the latter part of the ebb. This will in part be remedied by the increased velocity and momentum scouring away the mud, sand, and small gravel, so as to deepen the bed; but this cannot take place where the matter has more consistence, and to obtain the same depth as at present at low water would require excavation to a very great extent, probably to incur an expense of 40,0007. But this lowering of the bed, if accomplished either by the tide scour or artificial excavation, would seriously affect the foundations of some of the other bridges. The piers of West- minster Bridge stand upon gravel without having piles under them, and several are now not more than 3 feet under the pre- sent surface of the river bed, the matter of which I proved to be sand and gravel. By the plate of the geometrical elevation and plan of Blackfriars’ Bridge, published from drawings by Mr. Baldwin, the bottom of the platforms is not more than about 5 feet below the present bed of the river: these piers have, it is true, piles of about 10 feet in length under them, but if the bed were lowered they would require to be protected. Some of the piers of Waterloo Bridge have their platforms laid only at about 6 feet 4 inches under the line of the present low-water mark. Respecting the bridges between Westmin- ster and Teddington, which stand partly on stone piers and partly upon wooden piles, I have not hitherto been able to obtain any accurate information; but it is clear that the lower- ing of the bed of the river would in some measure affect them. With regard to wharfs and houses built on the banks of the river, the lowering of the surface of low water, and extending the time of that depression, would afford an opportunity of a greater drainage from the adjacent soil upon which buildings are erected, and may have the effect of causing settlements: if no excavation takes place in the shores adjacent to the wharfs, the barges, &c. will be longer prevented from approaching to. or departing from them: if an excavation does take place, there will be some risk of the walls being undermined. ‘These observations apply to the whole river as far as Teddington. Besides these consequences from lowering the bed of the river, others will unavoidably follow from the tide above Lon- don Bridge rising higher than it does at present. Many of the wharfs by the sides of the river are not more than from 1} to 2 feet above Trinity Datum, and are not ows ms 2 overflowed, 28 Observations on taking down and overflowed, partly by land floods, but chiefly by high tides, which rise above a foot higher below bridge than they do at present above bridge: the evil will therefore be proportionably increased both in degree and frequency. But besides the common operations of land floods and tides in calm weather, all the river above bridge will, when the dam is removed, be further exposed to the influx of heavier waves driven from the Nore, with storms from the northward, which have hitherto been checked by the almost solid mass of the upper part of London Bridge. ‘These observations apply to all the banks and low grounds on each side of the river from Westminster to ‘Teddington, and which are very extensive. Instances of such influx and rising of the tide have been already mentioned, and another has come to my knowledge while engaged in the present survey. At the Cashen river in Kerry, which falls into the sea near the mouth of the Shan- non, a bar has been lately cut across to make a more direct navigation: the upper river has thereby been lowered two or three feet at low water, and at high water raised so as to over- flow the marshes more than before; and the direct stream is now cutting a channel through the sandy shoals above the bar. This information I received from the able engineer (Mr. Nimmo) who advised the measure. The Effects Eastward of the Bridge.—No longitudinal or cross sections having been taken to the eastward of the bridge, I have no accurate knowledge of the state of the river bed, and can therefore only observe generally, that my investiga- tions have led me to the conclusion that more water will pass with a greater velocity in every part of the river; but as the difference will diminish as the section increases, the effects will of course disappear in the lower parts of the river. When operations do take place, they will scour and deepen the river, where the matter is alluvial and loose. 24, Abingdon-street, Westminster, Tuomas TELFORD. June 11, 1823. IX. Observations on the Project of taking down and re- building London Bridge *. T is a matter certainly of great interest to men of science, to know what effect the removal of a dam producing a fall of water westward at high water sometimes of two feet, and east- ward at low water sometimes of nine feet, from a great river like the Thames, would have westward and eastward of that dam in respect to the bed and shores of such a river; and * From the Quarterly Journal of Science, &c, No, xxx. whether rebuilding London Bridge. 29 whether a more frequent inundation and saturation with water of the low lands will cause miasms and pestilential diseases again to prevail, should the means of stopping such inundations or of quickly draining off the water not be immediately ob- tained. ‘They look forward with great anxiety to the experi- ment; and the knowledge that this dam has existed many centuries, that the river passes through a dense population, that the estates of individuals have been regulated by it, that the levels of the lowest floors of houses and those of the streets in the low lands adjacent, have reference to this habit of the river, adds much to the excitement; for the intenseness of the interest always increases with the hazard of the throw. The complaints of the inhabitants on the banks of the river, like those of the dumb creature subject to the knife of the surgeon, a) are not heard in the eager pursuit of knowledge, and in the speculation of future amelioration. There are others who have great influence, and are urgent for the demolition of London Bridge, looking to their own gain* in the erection of a new one. A mathematician, like to him of Laputa, has brought his im- plements to the question, and, without sections, without levels, and ignorant of the soil over which the river flows, or against which it impinges at its sinuosities, knowing neither what ma be overflowed, nor what may be sapped, has, by a kind of in- tuitive philosophical tact, determined that, after the removal of the dam, the stream will flow on as harmless and obedient as heretofore}. Presuming there may be some of your readers unable to discover truth except by induction, and others cos- tive of their belief in the delirations even of a great teacher, and thinking that they may be desirous of viewing this im- portant question by any glass, however weak its power, your correspondent ventures to offer that by which he views the question, and solicits the shelter of a few pages for the follow- ing observations in your journal. The writers on the ordinances of rivers consider the courses and velocities of them dependent on the nature of the ground over which they pass, as well as upon the heights from which their waters descend. For example: water descending from a height on rocky ground, which it cannot remove, rises, spreads, and forms a lake; and proceeds with diminished velocity to the lowest point, and there cascades; advancing at the rate of forty-five inches per second, it will drive flint stones about the size of an egg before it, and rise and spread until its velocity * There is no doubt that that writer here ascribes the efforts which have been made with so much success to procure the demolition of London Bridge to their real cause ; although the influence of a Committee of the House of Commons was employed for the attainment of the object,—Korr. + See Dr. Hutton’s Answers, App. 4th Report, 1821. is 30 Observations on taking down and is reduced to thirty-six inches per second, when the stones remain at rest: proceeding among pebbles about an inch dia- meter, it serves them the same, rising and spreading until its velocity is reduced to twenty-four inches per second, when they remain at rest: proceeding through coarse gravel about the size of a marble, it serves it the same, rising and spreading until its velocity is reduced to twelve inches per second: and so it proceeds with diminished velocity according to the size of the grain, the velocity and the course always varying with the ob- stacles met with. Gravel, the grain being about the size of aniseed, will be at rest at a velocity of four inches per second. Sand will remain at rest at a velocity of seven inches per second, and precipitate at six inches per second. Clay will remain at rest at a velocity of three inches per second*. By reference to the map of the river Thames west of London Bridge, and bear- ing the above-mentioned facts in mind, it will appear that the banks of the river from Nine Elms, a little above Vauxhall Bridge, to London Bridge may be considered artificially fenced, and only requiring additional aid by raising and wharfing to prevent overflowing and sapping, through any increased height and velocity of the current; and, consequently, as the waters will not be allowed to spread in a neighbourhood where land is so valuable, the bed of the Thames in this part must be deepened naturally if the current acquires increased velocity ; and, therefore, the bridges, in this part, especially Vauxhall and Westminster Bridges, which do not stand upon piles, must be secured. If, proceeding from Fulham and impinging on the sore of Wandsworth and Battersea+, the water should find the soil less resistive than on the opposite bank of the Grove, Chel- sea, and Ranelagh, and the banks be not artificially strength- ened, the water may take a short cut at some high flood in its course to the sea, from Fulham to Nine Elms, and place Battersea in Middlesex. The same principles will apply both to the effects of the flood and ebb tides, from an increased velocity, at the several bendings of the stream ; and, without expensive wharf- ings and continual care after the dam is removed, the proprie- tors of lands on the river shores, where there are elbows, may expect sometimes to lose a rood, and sometimes an acre of their lands, together with their sheep and cows. The present turbidness of the river, and the frequent shifting of some of the banks and shoals, show it to be now sometimes * See Principes d’ Hydraulique, par M. le Chev. Du Buat; Expériences sur les Cours des Fleuves, par M. Genneté ; and the article River, Ency. Brit. + The river here is comparatively rough and rapid. The boatmen have a story, that a band of fiddlers at this place were in former times drowned, and that the river has been dancing here ever since. Another band are de- termined to make the land join in the jig. at rebuilding London Bridge. 31 at variance with its bed and banks. Hence it is necessary to ascertain the nature of the soil of the bed of the river and of its banks at the several points of sinuation up us high as Tide- end-town, wherever it may be hereafter, whenever there are buildings to be sapped *; and this inquiry should be made in the survey, which, by an extract from the Report of Mr. Telford in the Phil. Mag. of May last, he has requested authority to get made, complaining that no such document exists ; the per- sons examined before him since 1800 up to this session of par- liament, as to the effect likely to be produced by the enlarge- ment of the water-way of London Bridge, having been able to decide upon these matters without the data Mr. Telford now thinks necessary. Such a river as the Thames, which, at a mean width between London and Blacktriars Bridges, even now the dam exists, having a velocity in the mid stream of sixty-three} inches per second, or 3,6, miles per hour, at halt flood, requires some respect to be paid to its speed, its wind- ings, and its fences, and will be found indignant to an altera- tion of its ancient habits. ‘The paradoxes which experiments on the flowing of waters present, the recent history of the Eau Brink as to its anticipated and its actual effect on the harbour of Lynn, the erroneous calculations of the Royal Academy of Paris in respect to the apparently simple question of the Paris aqueduct, and those of Desaguliers and MacLaurin as to that of Edinburgh, might cause some doubt of any opinion with sufficient data, and much more of the determinations of mere theory, from one of very advanced age, without any. The question relating to the effects of the removal of the dam west- ward, put in the following manner, would cause more inquiry than the present seems to have done. What effect would the introduction of another river on the west side of London Bridge, of the same dimensions as the river Thames at London Bridge, with a fall into it of two feet, have upon the bed and banks westward at high water? What effect would the subtraction of a quantity of water, at low water, equal to the surface of the river, six feet in depth at that subtraction, have upon the river westward at that time of the tide? It has been maintained, with reference to a compensation clause in the bill for the new bridge, that, in cases of land-floods, the removal of the dam of London Bridge would not cause an in- * See Appendix (A. 23, 3d Report. Lond. Port.) in which are given the bornings from London to Blackfriars’ Bridge, from which it appears that the bed of the river in that part is gravel and sand, coarse and fine. + See 3d Report, Appendix G. London Port, and Plate 20, Appendix. At Westminster, Mr. Labelye ascertained the velocity to be thirty-six inches per second, creased 32 Observations on taking down and creased height of the waters in the up country, but have a con- trary effect. This position is true at all times of the ebbing, but not of the flowing; a high sea-flood meeting a high land- flood must dam back the latter, and at times two feet higher than at present, when the dam of the bridge is removed. For example: on the 28th of December 1821, from the freshes, the whole of the up-country was so flooded that the inhabitants of the low-lands adjacent used boats in the streets; a sea-flood meeting such a flood, and suffered to rise two feet higher than it can at present, would have caused a greater extent of coun- try to be flooded than suffered at that time*. Those who favour the removal of the dam of London Bridge, should, during the present hot weather, take a boat at low 5 : 3 water from London Bridge, and proceed up the river; and, whilst they enjoy the odour from the banks, contemplate the effects of lowering the water from four to six feet, consequent on such removal, occasionally requiring the boatman to sound the depth with his oar; it will then be manifest to them what a stinking ditch the river will become at low water. Though an expenditure of a large sum of money might dredge out a tem- porary channel for the navigation at that time, it must neverthe- less be remembered, that the width of the river increases up- wards from London Bridge, and there are no moveable dams, for which purposes the ships below London Bridge are used to keep it clear. The cause assigned for taking down London Bridge is as follows: ‘* Whereas the great fall of water at certain times of the tide, occasioned by the large starlings and piers of the said bridge, renders the navigation through the * The late Mr. Mylne’s Report, Appendix (A 1) and Plate I, 3rd Report, London Port, without data, but from a practical tact, confirms the opinions contained in this paper. He was employed with a view to the demolition of London Bridge, and was a strenuous advocate for a new one. He contem- plates the inadequacy of the sea-walls, but leaves, like the new bill, the care of them to the respective owners. If we may rely on the effect of the in- creased velocity on the bed of the Thames, which he anticipates, there will, soon after the dam is removed, be the materials of two or three bridges ready wrought at London Bridge for the new structure, without the trouble of stopping the receipts of the excise and customs of the three kingdoms. The fall of water, westward of London Bridge, has dug out the bed of the river, to a distance of four hundred feet, of twenty-eight feet in depth at the lowest point; and that eastward from the ebbing and freshes, has dug out the bed of the river to a distance of six hundred feet, of thirty-four feet in depth below the bed at the lowest point: when the dam of the bridge is removed, this power will be principally spent in deepening the river up- wards. The maintaining Blackfriars Bridge, even with the present bed of the river, ought to be more an object of solicitude than the destruction of London Bridge ; its piers are in a very dilapidated state,—and it is to be remembered that the piles under them were not driven nor cut off within coffer-dams. said —— rebuilding London Bridge. 33 said bridge dangerous and destructive to the lives and proper- ties of His Majesty’s subjects*.” By reference to the Reports of the Committees of the House of Commons, of the sessions 1820 and 1821, relating to this bridge, ordered to be printed May and June 1821, and upon abstracting from the evidence therein, relating to the loss of life and property in the last twenty years, the promoters of the demolition of the bridge cannot produce a statement of a greater number of persons drowned than 17, nor damage to property exceeding 4000/. by accidents at Lon- don Bridge during that time. The evidence, with respect to the danger of the navigation through the bridge, of the lighter- men examined, many of whom have navigated the river for forty years, is directly at variance with the opinions of those who are desirous of a new bridge, and attributes the accidents which occur, to mere ignorance and drunkenness. The sufficient stability of this bridge was ascertained in 1759, when the large arch was made, and unquestionably confirmed by the late examination of the structure of the piers +. The sufficient width of the bridge as a roadway, is main- tained by Mr. Rennie’s evidence (16th April 1821), who, upon being asked, “ What would you propose to make the width of the new bridge ?” answered, ** The same width as the old one ;” and added, London Bridge is wider than either Southwark, Blackfriars, or Waterloo Bridges. The width of the bridge, in the clear of the parapets, in the design which received the first premium, is only 444 feet, a less width than between the para- pets of the present bridget; so that the mechanics and trades- men who urge the necessity of a new bridge, in the hope of having a freer thoroughfare for themselves and their carts, well be grievously disappointed. In the late application to architects and engineers, it seems remarkable, that it had not occurred to the Bridge Committee, that the supposed evil might have another remedy than a new bridge ; and out of the course of ordinary proceeding. It might have suggested itself to some engineer, contemplating the di- * The passion for legislating about London Bridge is not new, although it now has changed its direction. In the last century Parliament passed an act to compel the corporation to stop up some of the arches, and to in- crease the fall which the present act complains of.—Enrr. Appendix, Report on London Bridge, 1821, p. 66, &c. See Mr. Dance’s section, Append. B.1. 2d Report, London Port. By Append. B. III. 3d Report, London Port, London Bridge is 45 feet wide, Blackfriars 41 feet, Westminster 39 feet 9 inches. The late Mr. Mylne (App. B. I.) thought 50 feet a proper width for the new London Bridge. The roadway of Waterloo Bridge is 28 feet, the foot- paths each seven feet, together 42 feet ; the same as Westminster Brid ei s stated to be by Mr. Eater: ~Vauxhall Bridge has a roadway of 28 feet, and two footpaths of 5 feet 6 inches each, together 39 feet. : Vol. 62, No. $03. July 1823. 10) rection 34 Observations on taking down and rection of the mid stream of the Thames towards Pepper-alley stairs, and the bank of gravel that directs it in that course; or to some antiquary, who recollected King Canute’s mode of con= veying his fleet from the east side to the west side of London Bridge; or the direction of the cut which was. made in 1173, when this bridge was rebuilt,—that an auxiliary cut and bridge, round the foot of the present structure, north of ‘Tooley-street, might be a cheaper mode of obtaining the proposed object than a new bridge; especially upon finding, upon inquiry, that be- tween the linear waterway (690 feet) required, and the abso- lute linear waterway of the present bridge (545 feet), there is only a deficiency of 145 feet ; and between the superficial water- way of London Bridge, and that of the section of the whole river, from Old Swan-stairs to Pocock’s Flour wharf, at high water, there is only a deficiency of about 4000 feet. Others, deprecating the removal of the dam, but desirous of rendering the navigation, even when intrusted to unskilful and drunken lightermen, safe, and accustomed to view the locks on other rivers, and even upon this, may surmise, that the object might be obtained by locks *. It appears, that there are about 750,000/. in embryo for the new bridge, squaring, of course, with the estimates ; but, upon referring to the bill brought into parliament this session, for rebuilding London Bridge, there seems to have been originally some doubt as to the sufficiency of means+; for it will be found, that the Commissioners of His Majesty’s Trea- sury were to be allowed to issue exchequer bills for the ap- proaches, and they were also to be allowed to pay the expenses of the act, and direct taxes were to be levied on the public, on coals and wine imported into the city of London, for liquidat- ing and paying the interests of these exchequer bills, under .* Had the instructions to these candidates been unfettered, there might have been a renewal of Messrs. Douglas and Telford’s scheme for a cast-iron bridge of 600 feet span, with a rise of 65 feet above high water, for vessels to sail above London Bridge, and only at the cost of 262,289. The practi- cability and advisableness of this bridge was certified by twelve out of fif- teen mathematicians and engineers, though, at that time, neither the de- signers, nor the committee,nor any of the mathematicians or engineers, knew the strength of cast-iron; and those who supposed they knew something of the matter, thought it forty times stronger than it since has been found to be: so easy is it to ask and receive opinions. _ But where a favourite object is to be carried, the data, upon which such opinions must be founded, are kept out of sight or mis-stated, or an inquiry into them is refused. t The amended bill makes the doubt approach to a certainty; for it is said to contain a specific clause, that no one shall be entitled to compensa- tion for any nuisance, obstruction, or injury, on account of the bridge re- maining unfinished, in case the sum or sums of money, to be raised and ad- vanced, prove insufficient to complete the same, the rebuilding London Bridge. 35 the screen of what is called the Orphans’ Fund, and indirectly, by the introduction of a clause to exempt the corporation “ from the payment of any damage to persons, or their houses, estates, vessels, or property, by reason of the increased rise of the tide of the said river above the said bridge, or the alteration of the channels or currents of the said river, or of the want of water for navigating the same, nor for any nuisance, obstruction, or injury, to be occasioned thereby*.” But it being understood that the direct taxes might be in- digestible, that part of the bill is struck out, and a less visible mode of taxation is to be adopted, by allowing the Commis- sioners of Customs and of Excise, of England, Ireland, and Scotland, with consent of the Lords of the Treasury, to remit taxes on stone, brick, timber, or other materials used in build- ing the bridge, and its appurtenances. For this purpose, the ordinary course of Government is to stop, and there is to be a particular interposition; but the poor people, who may be ruined in their fortunes, diseased by the damps and miasms caused by the saturation of their habitations by frequent floods, or overwhelmed by floods, from an inability to provide against them, consequent on this revolution of the ancient and now constitutional habit of the river, are left fo the care of a higher Power, who has set his bow in the heavens as a token. The scheme seems now to be}, to pass the act and get up the bridge, relying, in the case of a deficiency of money to rebuild it, that Government would be compelled, by the urgency of the occa- sion, to provide the means. Such a scheme, in respect to the Post-office, failed: but that was a singular case, an exception to the general success of such policy. The new bridge, proposed by the late Mr. Rennie, was estimated by him to Cost ..cseseceseeeee eee eee e0e5©430,000 A temporary bridge....cccssceseseeeseeevercnsecsneneneces 20,000 The purchase of property 1 On the north side.......+. 150,000 for approaches ......... § On the south side......+.. 150,000 £750,000 This sum, by reference to absolute costs, compared * Those who have built their houses low in the low-lands, and feed their cattle there, the proprietors, and others, who have allowed the foundations of their bridges to be laid at an insufficient depth, are informed that they came to the river, and not the river to them; and that they ought, in choosing such a neighbour, to have provided against such an event as the proposed alteration of the habits of it. + It would have been but justice to state that this scheme is not to be imputed to the corporation, which has from the first remonstrated against the destruction of London Bridge, as a project set on foot by interested persons. And to the assertions of those who declared their conviction, from what had come to their knowledge of the proceedings of the Committee of the House of Commons, that the whole was a job, no answer has ever been given,—Epir. EF 2 with 36 Observations on taking down and with estimates of other works of the same kind, might with propriety be taken as half the cost, even could we not see the causes from which such an excess would arise, viz. at ......+0.00+00-£1,500,000 But we have the following items* of charge, by which we may guess that doubling the estimate will be found too small an allowance for contingencies. 1. The bridge is to be erected in a hole where the depth of water, at high water, is 46 feet. 2. The approaches are to be made through property of great yalue, and in a thoroughfare of persons and carriages as close as sheep in a flock. 3. On removing the old bridge. * Many great losses will be sustained by individuals under the heads of these items, but for which they will be shut out from having any compen- sation from the City; nevertheless they must be considered part of the cost of the new bridge. It may be proper to inquire, who are to be subject to these actions, suits, indictments, claims, and demands, which are thus shifted from the mayor, commonalty, and citizens? On the northern shore, we find, among others, the Duke of Northumberland, the Rev. William Lowth, the Duke of Devonshire, the owners of Fulham Town Meadow, Viscount Cremorne, Lord Cadogan, Lord Grosvenor, the Chelsea Water-works Company, the Crown, and others. From Teddington eastward to Cotton stairs, near Westminster Bridge, all the river walls are defective in height to resist such a flood as that of the 28th December 1821, that deficiency varying from one foot at Twickenham, to two feet five inches at Cotton Garden stairs ; but, generally, in the less populous parts westward, the walls are from three to five feet below that level; while the lands in the populous parts northward are greatly below it: for example, Walham-green and Chelsea are from one to five feet below this level. The ground of the Penitentiary is cight feet below this level. The Vauxhall Bridge road, and Tothill-fields, are generally from three to four feet below this level. St. James’s Park, on the south side, varies from sixteen inches to eight feet below this level; and there are various defec- tive banks or ways, as far eastward as the Duchess of Buccleugh’s, for the water to get to these parts. It will be the duty of the commissioners of sewers forthwith to give notice to the various proprietors to repair their banks, by raising or otherwise ; and it will be a matter determinable by the custom or peculiar laws of the commissioners, whether, in default of com- plying with such notices, the commissioners may direct the proper raisings and wharfings to be done, and rate the proprietors of the banks for the cost, or leave them to the actions, suits, indictments, &c., of which the mayor and commonalty are so apprehensive f. After the demolition of the dam of London Bridge, this level will be that of not a very uncommon high sea-tide west of London Bridge. _ { As this undertaking is forced upon the mayor, commonalty and citizens in spite of their almost unanimous opinion, repeatedly expressed, it was but justice that they should not be made liable for the damage which may be sustained by the neighbouring proprietors. The injury which it is ap- prehended will be done to the navigation and to the corporate property may be a sufficient share of loss for them to bear.—Eprr. 4, On rebuilding London Bridge, 37 4. On raising about 40 miles of river wall, varying from 24 to 26 inches in height, and strengthening the banks by wharfing and piling, in order to provide against the effects of frequent floods, expectant on giving a freer water-way, and increased velocity and height, to the current. 5. On dredging out a channel for the current at low water, for the navigation. : 6. On the necessity of narrowing the river in several parts. 7. On removing shoals and sand-banks, caused by the altera- tion in the directions of the mid stream. 8. On the erection of starlings round the piers of the different bridges, and especially round Vauxhall and Westminster Bridges, which do not stand upon piles. The bridges above London Bridge generally stand in shallow water, and the foundations of them are very little below the bed of the river, which may be undermined; for a greater depth must be effected artificially, in the first instance, for the navigation, and subsequently, by the increased velocity of the stream, in a manner which cannot now be guessed at*. 9. On the necessity of erecting another dam, or locks, to keep up the water, asa substitute for the dam taken down, the necessity for which, the locks up the river, beginning at Teddington, prove +. 10. On the damage to shipping below the bridge, in times of frost, by ice now stopped, at such times, by London Bridge. 11. On compensations to persons possessed of wharfs, adapted to the present state of the river above and below the bridge, for damage to them by the alterations in the course of the stream, and the shifting of the sand banks. 12, On compensation to persons whose trades are dependent on the free thoroughfare over the bridge, living south and north thereof, for seven years, during the erection, or while it remains unfinished for want of funds to complete it. * The head of water maintained by the lock at Teddington in winter is one foot, in summer four feet; a similar head is maintained at Moulsey. Dams are erected here to keep the water up the country; but the dam of London Bridge is to be taken down to let it out. + The bottom of the foundations of the piers of Westminster Bridge is five feet below the bed of the river, allowing two feet three inches, as at Blackfriars Bridge; for grating; the bottom of the stone is only two feet nine inches below the bed. ‘The bottom of the foundations of the piers of Blackfriars Bridge is three feet nine inches below the bed, the bottom of the stone eighteen inches. How much below the bed of the river are the foundations of Vauxhall, Waterloo, and Southwark Bridges? The bottom of the stone piers of Waterloo Bridge is only fifteen feet below the spring- ing of the arches, 13, On 38 Summary Review of the late Investigations 13. On compensation to persons navigating the river, for pro- perty destroyed, and loss of life, during the erection of the bridge, and while it may remain unfinished for want of money to complete it, which, at a moderate estimate, may be taken to exceed the same loss arising from the old bridge in the last twenty years. Hence, in any view of the question, it would be unreason- able to consider the cost of this bridge at less than one million and a half. These observations may probably, through your Journal, cause more inquiry to be made into this important question, than the impatient determination, at any rate to have a new bridge, has hitherto allowed. They may make the failure of the proof of the expediency of removing the dam of the bridge’ manifest; also show the deficiency of the means for building the bridge, without taxes to a large amount being eventually levied on the public; and remove the general delusion, that the thoroughfare over the bridge will be more free than it is at present. ‘They may cause some reflections on the forbear- ance of the Government regarding the public dignity, but scru- pulous of increasing the public expenditure, in listening for a moment to such an useless and dangerous expense, which, directly or indirectly, will cause taxes to be raised to pay a million at least.” X. An Account of the Observations and Experiments on the Temperature of Mines, which have recently been made in Cornwall, and the North of England; comprising the Sub- stance of various Papers on the Subject lately published in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Corn- wall, and other Works. (Continued from vol. xi. p. 447.] 1y, R. R. W. FOX’s third communication on this sub- ject to the Cornish Geological Society “ was unfor- tunately too late for insertion in the second volume of 'Trans- actions, a circumstance which the editors very much regret,” in a note attached to the ninth Annual Report of the Society’s Council, ‘* because the facts and observations therein contained form an important addition to the papers on that very im- portant subject. The Council rejoice, however, that an op- portunity for its publication is now afforded, and that it will: form the leading article in the first number of the Society’s ‘Transactions, to be printed before the next anniversary.” The substance of this communication, however, we are enabled to present, a respecting the Temperature of Mines. 39 present, from the Annals of Philosophy for December last, p- 440. «The high temperature which prevails in mines having excited some attention, I am induced to submit to the Corn- wall Geological Society, the result of further observations, which have been made on the subject in several mines since my last communication.” (Phil. Mag. vol. Ixi. p: 350.) “At South Huel Towan Copper Mine, in the parish of St. Agnes, the temperature of the water in the cistern at the ** sump,” or bottom of the mine (45 fathoms deep), was 60°. This may be taken therefore as the mean temperature of the streams of water which flow through the deepest levels, or galleries, into the cistern.—Two men were employed at one time, that is, 8 in 24 hours in this part of the mine.” “ Kast Liscomb, a copper mine in Devonshire; depth 82 fathoms ; temperature of water in the cistern 64°.” * Fluel Unity Wood, a tin and copper mine in Gwennap pa- rish; depth 86 fathoms; temperature of water taken as before, 64°. Four men constantly worked at the bottom of this mine.” ‘‘ Beer Alston, a lead mine in Devonshire; 120 fathoms deep; water 66°5° of temperature, taken as before.” ‘* Poldice, a tin and copper mine in the parish of Gwennap ; temperature of the water 78° in the lowest cistern in one shaft, which was 144 fathoms deep.—Eight men were constantly employed at a time at the bottom of this part of the mine, besides two men during the day (“on ¢tridute”), The tem- perature of the water in another shaft of the same depth, and tried in the same way, was 80°: two men only were employed at a time in the levels at the bottom.” * Consolidated copper mines in Gwennap. One shaft is 150 fathoms deep, and the temperature of the water 76°: six men were employed at atime at the bottom. ‘The tempera- ture of the water, ascertained in the same way, in another shaft of the same depth, was 80°; and here there were eight men at work at a time.” ** Huel Friendship, a copper mine in Devonshire. ‘Tem- perature of the water taken as above, was 64°5° at the depth of 170 fathoms. The number of men employed at the bottom has not been reported; but as they were sinking the engine shaft, there could not be less than two. ‘There is, when its depth is considered, a very small quantity of water flowing into the bottom of this mine; for it requires only a six-inch box, and five strokes of the engine a minute to draw it up. The mine is situated on very elevated ground bordering the gra- nite hills of Dartmoor. Although the temperature of the wa- ter is probably more than 14° above the mean of the climate Mi 40 Summary Review of the late Investigations in which it is situated, it is certainly much inferior to the tem- perature generally observed in mines of the same depth.” «‘ The undermentioned mines being partly filled with water, I give the temperature of the water remaining in each.” ** North Huel Virgin, a copper mine in St. Agnes parish. The temperature of the water, which stood at 39 fathoms un- der the surface, was 60°.” ‘‘ Nangiles, a copper mine in the parish of Kea. The tem- perature of the water, at 59 fathoms under the surface, was 58°. Nangiles is 88 fathoms deep at the engine-shaft. The machinery for pumping the water out of this mine had very recently been set to work, and had consequently made but little progress in draining it. I mention this, in connexion with my remarks on the temperature of stopped mines, in or- der to account for its not being greater. The veins in this mine are large, and remarkable for the quantity of iron pyrites they contain.” “‘ Tresavean, a copper mine in Gwennap. The tempera- ture of the water, standing at 100 fathoms under the surface, is 60°; and the whole depth of the mine is 170 fathoms. It is situated on elevated ground, about 480 feet above the level of the sea, and is moreover in granite, in which the tempera- ture generally appears to be inferior to what is observed in ‘killas,’ or clay slate, at equal depths.” «* Huel Maid copper mine. ‘The water which it contains is 126 fathoms from the surface, 30 fathoms in depth, and 60° of temperature. There are no pumps in this mine; but the water has recently been considerably reduced, in consequence of the reworking and draining of some neighbouring mines: all the water from the higher levels &c. must therefore be raised with that in the mine, and reduce its temperature ; which is in a considerable degree prevented in mines which are furnished with pumps, by placing cisterns to receive the water at different levels.” “* Mines which contain much water, if the workings have been only recently renewed, are generally of an inferior tem- perature to those of equal depth, which are drained to the bot- tom. This remark applies, in a much greater degree, to mines which have been long stopped and filled with water ; in con- firmation of which the three following instances may be given.” ‘* The water in Herland copper mine, in the parish of Gwinear, in the shaft, at the adit-level, 31 fathoms deep, is only 54°, though the mine is 161 fathoms in depth.” «¢ At South Huel Ann, in the same parish, the water in the shaft was likewise 54°; the depth of the adit being 11, and that of the mine 23 fathoms.” 66 At respecting the Temperature of Mines. 41 ** At Gunnis Lake copper mine, in the parish of Calstock, which is 125 fathoms deep, the water in the shaft, at the adit- level 35 fathoms deep, was 57°.” “ The water that flows out through the adits of stopped mines, is, I presume, derived from the superincumbent strata, or indirectly, by displacing the water in the shafts, or in the upper levels that communicate with them, and which must be in a greater or less degree more accessible, and offer an easier outlet to the water, than those which are deeper and more remote. If this be admitted, it follows that the water which issues out of the tops of shafts of stopped mines, does not proceed from the deeper levels; but, on the contrary, it seems highly probable that the water they con- tain is nearly stationary, and, as it does not readily. communi- cate heat in a lateral direction, that its temperature may ma- terially vary from that in the shafts; whereas it is well known that in a perpendicular or oblique column of water, an inter- change wili take place between the warmer part of the liquid column at the bottom and the colder at the top, till an equality of temperature is produced through the whole.” *< T attribute the higher temperature of the water in Gunnis Lake shaft, at least in part, to the very elevated ground in its immediate neighbourhood; although the relative temperature of the water in the shafts of stopped mines may also depend on the greater or less depth at which the columns of water commencing above the adit-level communicate with the shafts, or with the levels connected with them.” *¢ When the working of Tincroft tin and copper mine, in Cambora parish, was recently resumed, after it had been for several months suspended, an opportunity occurred for ascer- taining the temperature of the water, when it was sunk to the depth of 126 fathoms under the surface, and was only 10 fa- thoms deep, in the bottom of the mine. It was then found to be 63°; and this was before many men had resumed their la- bours, or indeed any of them, at the inferior levels ; and more- over, at the time of making the observations, even the few men who worked in the mine had not been in it for the space of nearly two days. Near the middle of 1819, when the water stood at the same place in the mine, and it was, and had long been, in a state of full working, the temperature of the water at the bottom was only 59°. Perhaps the water will again be reduced to this temperature, if it should remain at the same depth in the mine; for is it not reasonable to suppose, that the droppings of colder water down through the shafts, must affect the temperature of that at the bottom ?” ' * In consequence of an accident in the steam-engine at Vol, 62. No. 303. July 1823, F Ting- 42 Summary Review of the late Investigations Ting-Tang, the water rose considerably in the mine. On its being again sunk to within 10 fathoms of the bottom, the mine being 117 fathoms deep, its temperature at this station was found to be 63°5°; whereas the water pumped up from the bottom, into a cistern immediately above the place of ob- servation, was 65°: so that the water seems to have been 1°5° warmer at the depth of 10 fathoms, than at its surface. This phenomenon must, I think, be attributed to the under current from the levels caused by the action of the pumps.” “‘ A fact, communicated to me by a gentleman in the brew- house of Barclay and Co. at Southwark, may here be noticed. Not long ago, a well was sunk in order to procure water for the supply of the brewery. They did not attain their object until they had got down 140 feet under the surface, and cut through the great bed of clay which lies under the metro- polis. The water then rose rapidly in the well, its tempera- ture being 54°, which it invariably maintains at all seasons of the year. Now the climate of London and its vicinity is at the mean temperature of 49°5° on the authority of Luke Howard, which is 4°5° under that of the water in the well.” “‘T stated at the last annual meeting of this Society (Phil. Mag. vol. lxi. p. 353) that a thermometer buried at the depth of 3 feet in a rock, in a level at Dolcoath mine, 230 fathoms under the surface, indicated, during eight months, a tempera- ture of about 75° to '75°5° when the mine was clear of water. It has subsequently remained in the same place nearly twelve months longer, and the mercury has continued stationary at 75°5°, notwithstanding the changes of the season.” ** Although I think it will be admitted, that the bottoms of our mines are, for many reasons, less liable to be influenced by adventitious causes than the superior levels, I shall give the results of various observations made on the temperature of water in the undermentioned mines, at different levels, and, as far as it was ascertained, of the air also at the same stations; in order to show the relative temperature of both, and the ratio in which it increased in depth, without particularizing the mines in which the experiments were respectively made; as this appears to be unnecessary.” ** The mines referred to were South Huel Towan, East Liscomb, Huel Unity-Wood, Beer-Alston, Poldice, the Con- solidated Mines, Huel Friendship, the United Mines, Tres- kerby, Huel Damsel, Ting-Tang, and likewise Huel Maid, Nangiles, North Huel Virgin, and Tresavean. The four last- mentioned mines having been partly full of water for many years, the figures which refer to them are distinguished by an asterisk.” Depth respecting the Temperature of Mines. 43 Og 25 gog/s258 SES ESSE (Sas|26P 5 Degrees of Temperature. Roe! Se 8s si IASE|S Fae water D S fe o 120| 20) Water air water air 240]... 40| Water alr 61 *58 *58 61 *59 “64 64 62 *59 65° 64 64 64 66 62 67 ter | 65 *60 *60 66 * 56 HEeunge PELAy tu 65 66 664 66 68. 68 sateen ey “66..72...7%.. 7s. 63..72 68 *60 660| 110} Water alr 790] 120 water air 73 74 62 73 70 *58 7870 80 72 75 900| 150) Water air water alr 66 76 tt wattide water | 72 69 1080| 180) 1 | 74 72 88 44: Summary Review of the late Investigations “In taking the temperature of the water in the different levels of mines, care was generally cbserved to select the largest streams, and to put the thermometer at or near the places where they first flow into the mines, so that the influence of any heat from the miners seems to be put out of the question.” “Tt appears that in almost all the mines which have been examined, the highest temperature has been found at the bot- tom; and it is deserving of notice, that here, in most instances that I have investigated since my last paper, very few work- men are employed; and generally their number increases at each level in ascending from the bottom, as high up as one- quarter or even one-third of the way; so that not very far from the middle of mines they are frequently the most nu- merous. At a level 180 fathoms under the surface, in the United Mines, I find the temperature of the water, which was, and had been during twelve months, 30 fathoms deep in the mine, was 80°, and a stream of water flowing into the same level was 87°. This is only half a degree less than it was at the same place in 1820. At that time, about 400 men were employed in the mine § hours each day, and about 50 on an average for the remainder of the 24 hours. When the last observation was made, only about 200 men worked in the mine 8 hours a day, and about 50 during the remaining 16 hours.” “I do not dispute, that in close levels, where there is no cur- rent, the presence of the men increases the temperature of the air; yet it does not appear by the above table that the heat of the air is usually much greater than that of the water in the same places,—perhaps on an average not exceeding 1° or 2°. In many instances, indeed, the water was from 1° to 4° warmer than the surrounding air, and this occurred in several mines at or near the deepest levels.” ** Before I conclude my enumeration of facts, it may per- haps be desirable to state the temperature of the water which flows through the great adit, and is discharged near Nangiles mine, above Carnon Valley. This adit traverses the prin- cipal mining district of Cornwall, and extends nearly 30 miles, including its different ramifications, and. more than 5 miles from one extremity to the other in one direction, and 3 miles in another. ‘The temperature of the water was taken near the mouth of the adit about six weeks since, and was found to be 69°25°. Richard Thomas, land surveyor, of Falmouth, (author of an interesting map of a large portion of our mining district,) has ascertained by frequent observations, that the quantity of water discharged by the adit, at different times of the year, has varied from 910 to 1644 cubic feet per minute: but respecting the Temperature of Mines. 45 but as some deep mines have been set to work since he made his experiments, the average quantity is now probably greater. It appears, on making a comparison of the depth of the water at the time the foregoing temperature was ascertained, with his calculations, that the quantity discharged was equal to 1400 cubic feet per minute, or about 60,000 tuns per day.” ** The great adit is divided into three principal branches, the first of which unites with it at about a mile from its mouth, and communicates with the United and the Consolidated Mines, Huel Squire, Ting-Tang, Huel Maid, and South Huel Jewel; the average depth of which mines seems to be about 150 to 160 fathoms. The temperature of the water in this branch, near the junction, and about 14 mile from the mines which principally supply it with water, was 73°5° about the end of last month, when this and the following observa- tions were made. At nearly a mile further on, the great adit is divided into two branches; one of them receives the water from Poldice, Huel Unity, Huel Unity-Wood, Huel Damsel, Huel Pink, Rose Lobby, Huel Hope, Huel Gorland, Huel Jewel, and Huel Clinton; the average depth of which is per- haps from 110 to 120 fathoms, and the temperature of the water in the branch, at about a mile from the principal mines above named, was 66°5°.. The other branch is connected with Treskerby, Huel Chance, Chacewater, North Downs, Creg- braws, Huel Boys, Cardrew, and a few smaller mines; their average depth may be estimated at 100 to 110 fathoms, and the temperature of the water in the adit, about 35 miles from the mines, was 65°. I have not ascertained the quantity of water discharged by each of these branches; but it is evident they carry off, not only the water pumped from the various levels of the respective mines, but also that which is drained from the strata under which they pass, and which is from 30 to 50, and in some places from 60 to 70 fathoms in thick- ness.” “The temperature of the water in the adit is therefore even more considerable than might be expected; and the dif- ference observed in the branches may be attributed to the relative depths of the mines with which they are connected, and to many of those communicating with the two last-men- tioned branches, being stopped, or partly full of water.” «| have mentioned that the water flows into cisterns at dif- ferent levels in mines, being partly or entirely retained by the rock on which it rests; but generally, from the strata — more or less porous, some of the water sinks through it, anc may either mix with an inferior portion before it flows into the levels, or it sometimes descends in numerous drops or smal] streamlets 46 On the Temperature of Mines. streamlets from the roofs of deeper levels ; and in either case, it must produce more or less influence on the temperature, and prevent its being uniform at equal depths. If there were a perfectly free and open communication between the various portions of water under the surface of the earth, it is evident that mines could not be drained, but the pressure of the co- Jumns of water would be irresistible, and their impetuosity over- whelming.” “ ‘The high temperature in mines seems to have no necessary connexion with the minerals which they contain: even where iron pyrites is very abundant, the heat does not appear to be greater than where it is the reverse.” “* Having recently tried some experiments on the water taken from ‘the bottom of several deep mines, I find it in most instances to contain in solution a very minute quantity of any foreign substances, varying perhaps from one to five or six grains ina pint. Its relative purity appears to have no re- ference to the depth or temperature of the mines ; for instance, Huel Abraham and Dolcoath are the two deepest and two of the warmest mines in the county, and the water from the bottom of these mines does not in either case hold in solution more than about two grains of foreign matter ina pint. On the other hand, some mines abound with much less pure wa- ter: that froth the Consolidated Mines leaves ten grains of residuum from a pint; Hucl Unity, sixteen grains; from one shaft in Poldice, nineteen, and from another aneh ty-two grains, from the same quantity. In most of the mine-water that I have examined, the muriatic salts, especially the muriates of lime and of iron, are most abundant. I have detected muriate of soda in some instances, particularly in the water from the bottom of the United Mines, the Consolidated Mines, Huel Unity, and Poldice.” “ Out of the 92 grains of residuum, produced from a pint of water from one of the engine shafts of the latter mine, 24 grains proved to be muriate of soda; 52 grains the muriates of lime and magnesia, chiefly the former; and the remainder muriate of iron, “and a small quantity of the sulphate of lime. The water from another engine shaft of the same mine con- tained 55 grains of muriate ‘of soda, and about 13 grains of the muriates of lime and magnesia, and the carbonated oxide of iron.” s¢ All the mines above enumerated are situated in the in- terior of this part of Cornwall, and are distant several miles from the sea!” [To be continued.] XI. The — XI. The Third Portion of a Catalogue of Rodiacal Stars for the Epoch of January 1, 1800; fromthe Works of HErscurt, Prazzi1, Bove, and others; with illustrative Notes. Selected and arranged by a Member of the Astronomical Society of London. : Constellations: Orion, Auriga, Gemini, Cancer. Synonyms. = |S] & Vihours. Right Asc.}| Declination + Lat. ———————| £2 }238/s | PIB IFoM) & | 84 ci ml os w|AV+} o 1 wu |A.V.-| 9 | 2| 269} 68 |(E.1)} Ori. +) 6 | 0/90 2 33°0/53:24 | 19 49 17°5 —3'7 | 3} 18 6) Gemt| 67| 0, 2 47-4|54-40 | 22 56 225 05 | 7| 271 69|f. 1 | Ori. +} 6) 1 7 465|51-75 |16 9 453 —73 8| 270 70| & Hu a 8 30015116 | 14 14 24:9] 0-10 | —9-2 4 13 Gem.t| 8 2) 28 46°5}54:95*|24 1 37-9) O17") 0'5 18} 200) 44) « |Aur.+| 4 3} 39 22-9)57-24 | 29 33 223,055 | 61 22) 20 7) Gem.4| 4:5} 3] 42 1-2| 54:25 | 22 33 25) 025 | —0-9j Ori. +] 7°83 43:8 14 32-1 —8-7 | 23 276 71 (£.2)| —— | 5:6; 3]. 46 13-5) 53°02 | 19 12 386) 027% | —4°3 24 —! 8/53 47 59:1|51:80*| 16 4 42:0) 0:28*| —7-4 29 | 279 72\ £2) ——$_ 6 4 58 13°9|51°86 |16 11 30°7| 0:22 | —7-3 30} 23 Gem. | 7 | 4/91 1 26:1/54°82 |24 1 14:3) 0°36 05 33) 25) 9 41 7/5] 11 357|5478 |23 47 37:1) 043 | 0 43| 26 (t) | ——| 7) 6 27 10°5|56:34*) 27 16 22:0) O51") 3:8 51| 27 10 ~~~ 17-8 7| 40 44-°7|54-71 | 23 39 58-6) 0:59 0-2 52| 28 ll =} 717) 47 69/5469 | 23 32 26) 0-58 O1 53| 29 12 —t/ 317 48 9:0|54:66*| 23 20 226) 0°61 | —0-1 62| 30/m. 248 — | 8 | 9192 19 7-5|53-78"| 21 12 26:1) 0'81*| —22 64| 3l\m. 249 SS eh) 21 0:0/53°81*| 21 16 31:2) 0:62*| —2-2 67| 32im. 250 — | 8 /|lo 24 13°5|54°86*| 23 50 20-2) 0:84* 744 33 13} ~# | ——t| 311 42 49°9|54°43 |22 36 8:5) 1:05 | —0°8 78| 34 === | 7 |12)93 6 © 6:0/55°40*)25 8 21-2) 1-09* 87 c. 183 = | 7-413)' 20 30°9|54°72*| 23 G2 1374) 1:17* 89| 36\c. 184 SSS 20 A8°3|54:68*| 23 25 22:8) 1:17" 91) 37 14 —— | 7:8 {ld} 25. 33'7|53°91 |.21 44 31:6] 1:19 | —1°7 94 —| 8(|14) 35 9:0;51°07*| 14 11 26-4) 1:25*| —9 98 | 225 48| (z) | Aur. | 6 {16 55 38-7\57°84"| 30 36 7:0) 1°35 ‘ 100} 38 15 Gem.+| 6 |16) 57 46°3)53°57 | 20 53 53:1) 143 | —2: 101| 39 16 6 |16;94 0 40°8153°48 | 20 36 11:0) 1°39 | —2°8 amet | 7 116 3 21 16 —271 109| 42 18)» 5 |17| 16 13°5153°37 | 20 19 30°8) 1:46 | —3:1 114| 228 Aur. | 7°8|18} 26 8:4'56-78*| 28 19 49°0| 1:55*| 49 120 Gem. +| 89/19} 41 39:3 |53'49*| 20 32 29°5) 1-64" | —2:9 +| 8 {19} 43° 21 55°5 —15 126) 231 Aur, 7 \19 50 54:9158°78*| 32 34 55:5) 1-69* 9°3 129 Gem. | 8 |20;95 0 165 |51°73*| 15 58 47:7) 1°75*| —7-4 13¢| 44 19 6°7 20 1 44°7|51'74|16 1 50:0] 1:71 | —7-4 135| 45 20 —t|| 7/21 9 36°9|52°40 | 17 54 41-2! 1:76 | —5°5 8 |22} 30:0 22 15°4 —L0 142| 236 Aur. | 89/22} © 31 165 |58-27| 31 34 25°0| 1:93*| 8:3 48 Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. eS LL Synonyms. 5 2 2 th ly I hours. Right Asc. | Declination. + So RB. |F.C.M. a os = Im. o 7 6H {ALVIAL of 2p uw J|AV— x 48| | |Gem. 4] 6-7 '22} 95 33 37°5/51:10* |14 17 441] 1-94") —91. 146 | 237 49\ (c) | Aur. | 6 (23 39 3°7/56 83 128 9 47-2] 2-01 4:8 147| 47| -. 22 Gem. | 78/23] 42 40°2/52-99 [19 34 9:7) 106 | —3'8 150 | 139, Aur. +} 7:8 23 45 30°0 58: 29*|31 37 26:0] 2:01* 3:3 152] 49m. 258 Gem. | 7:8 /23 50 27°9|51-86*|i6 20 51°7) “04° | —7:0 153 7:8 |23 50 30°7|52-08*|16 54 21-4] “04* | —63 157 —— | 7:8 ,24| 96 4 36°0/51-96*/16 35 35°7| °12*| —65 158| 50 23 = ee. \24 6 45'0/52:10 16 56 430| -14*| — 6-2 165} 52 7°8 12! 17 42°0/55'19*|24 44 33°4] *20* 15 167 | 243} 53 Aur, | 78/26] 25 24°0'57-06 [29 8 267} -24 58 168 Gem. | 78 26 30 53°5/55:13%|24 36 31:0} -28* 1-4 169| 55 24) » | —— 4! 3°126 32 169/51-94 |16 33 24:6] -29 | —O8 173 | 245) 54 Aur. | 6 |27| 43 59°5|56-75 |28 25 29°5| -42 511 181] 58.1. 260 Gem. | 8 [28] 97 3 13°8/53:19*|19 49 39°4; °46*| —3°5 186| 59] 25 7 |29 10 59°1156°67 |29 22 0:0! ‘50 50 202| 62 26] (u) | —— | 5°6]3] 41 19°5/52-42 |17 49 388! -73. | —5-4 204| 64 27/ « | — + 3 |32 54 10°3/55-41 |25 18 540} -74 2:0 207 | 65 28 See 6 132} 98 1 6:0/57-:03 |29 9 31:4) ‘79 59 211) 68; 30} 2.1 | ——+) 56/33] 10 28'5|50°64 |13 25 05] “91 | —9°8 217) 71 31| 22} ——+) 4 |34 30 55°2/50°58 |13 5 565} 3:11 |—10°1 240| 80 33|(G) | —— 6 138] 99 34 34:5/51-83*|16 25 1:0} -34*) —6°8 243| 82 35 pet ©6189 46 56°4|50°80*|13 37 48:9} -41*| —9'5 247} 84 36) *d'*} —— 67 40 53 19°5|54:06 }21 59 1:0} +44") —1°2 254 —_— 8 |41]100 11 49°5/55-44*/25 32 29:0; -55* 2-4 264| 94 37 — 6 |43 45 0°0/55°32 125 36 43:0] ‘69 2°5 5 a iG AS, 45 15°6/52°38*)17 55 15:5] -74* 1! —5'1 266} 96 38/e (1)| ——+| 5°6 143 50 21°3/50°'74 |13 25 9:4] °82 | —97 270 98 270 eee? 7 |45,101 9 32°2152-40*|17 58 58°4| ‘88*) — 5:1 281} 100). 271 SE AS 30 54:0)52-46*|18 9 fe 4:00" | —4'9 283 | 102 39 \(y.1)| —— +) 6°7 |46 36 42'0/55'43 |26 19 47:5} 3:93 Ke) 288 | 103 40 (y.2)) —— | 67147 46 34°8/55°62 |26 10 18:5! 4:06 31 294 —-- +} 7 [48,102 5 13:5/51-71*/16 12 9:0} -20*| +6-7 295 setae 2 8 149 8 0°7|57-09*|29 28 53:0} :22% 6:6 96| 105m. 274 RE hy ELS) 8 5°7|54:61*|23 42 15-2] +22+ 0:7 297 | 106 41 ——+t) 67149 11 25:0|51:72 [16 20 33:4] +14 | —6°6 302 | 108 Ph) cael fe fue OO 33 13°5|54:92 |24 29 13:5} °32 15 305 | 109 —+) 67/51 41 43°5|57°14*|29 39 254) -4l*| 6:8 312 | 112 43) & | ——+| 4 |52/103 3 33:9/53:49 |20 51 90) ‘57 | —2'1 317 115) 44| #.2) -— |-6°7|53 18 46°8/54-21 |22 55 238] -62 0-0 322 | 116)m. 279) — 8 [55 39 54°4/52-36*|18 2 10:7) -74*| —4°8 329 ——+| 9 |57}104 8 28°5/51°53*|15 50 23:6) -90*| —7-0 330 — +} 7°83 57 8 24:0/57:44*|30 27 66) -90* 77 332 — | 89/57 11 25-0/51°53*|15 49 58-4}; -92*| —7-0 119 45| o | ——+! 6 [57 13 20-1/51-67 16 14 15:0] -99 | —66 121 46| + | —— 5 |58 35 52°8/57°43 |30 33 32:2] 5:05 lig! 122 47 —-| 6 59 44 29°1/55°84 [27 10 16:5] +14 4-4 123 -— | 7:8 60 57 47°2/51-44*|15 38 57-0} -18*| —7:0 —- —— VIi hours. — — 124 48} m |Gem.+/ 6 | 0105 4 5:4/54:79 |24 26 57:0] -21 1-7 125 49 8 | 0 7 37°2155'43-|26 4 88] -23* 33 —t) 7351 128 21 40°5 —1-0 Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. > © oe Synonyms, E ae eee bi p.| B./FomM|& 9) 11; 126 50 17/127} 51] (w) 21) 129) 52) n 25! 132 53] (2) 35| 134)M. 285 39| 136)\31. 286 42 50) 138 54) 4 57| 139 55| 3 69} 140 56; 4q 75) 141 57| a 76| 142 58 77| 143|m. 292 83} 144 59 84 89| 146 90) 147 60) + 97| 149\u. 294 98| 150 612 101) 151 63} P 105} 154 62} e 107|156| 64 /b.1 111| 158] 65|b.2 114 27) 17 6| © 118 162 128] 165 66| @ 129/166} 67 131| 167 68) k 168 136 138) 169| 69! » 144} 171 146| 174|m. 302 153| 176\m. 303 161) 181 \s1. 304 166|185| °74| £ 176! 188 178} 190 75| @ 179| 192!s. 309 182 183 | 193 76| ¢ 184| 194 77| * 191) 195 78, B 192) 196 79 Constel- lation. o | Mag. ~] aS CU = Saas 3 BOING EAPIBMHUINS J] = a~1 NMBIYNINA EGGCG4GNMLONG® Hor wo AVR ABIADZAD wo ViThours. Right Ase.! | Declination, + 1 m| 09 ¢ «AAV 9 7 4 |AV.— 11105 18 6:0/51-71*/16 24 24-7] 5-28* 1 ZO 50:2/51:37* |15 30 3:3] -<31* 2) 28 9°951°81 16 29, 83} 33 2) 36 48°0/55°15 |25 13 7:3] -40* 3 51 40:0/56:28 |28 13 53:9] -44 5106 9 47:7/55°83*|27 2. 9:6| ‘58x = 18 55°0/51:71*|16 29 8-8] -63x 6 =. 24: 58°5/51°76*|16 38 5:1] +66% 7| 38 51915189 |16 53 19:0| -75 8107 2 27°653°92 |22 20 14:3| -88 A 32 1-0/53°31 |20 48 29:0} 6:03 11 49 1°5|55°09 |25 25 17:4] :12 11 51 28°5|54°24*|23 19 0-4) -21 11} 51 36-9152-45*/18 38 40°0| 14+ 12.108 1 26:2/56:15 |28 0 369) -18 12 5 44:1/54:21*/23 18 18:0) -22% 13 18 42°3|58°03*|32 16 33:1] -29+ 13 19 18:0'5615 |28 10 564] -33 14) 265 20. 52°6 15] 45.—-15|53°65*|21 55 21-4) “44 15 47 6°8/53°22 |20 38 38°5| -48 16-57 22 32 16, 57 49°8)53'59 |21 50 285} 59 16109 05 15 42°4 16 3 22°8/58:01 132 10 48] -33 17 12 53°7/56°18 |28 30 59°6| -65 17 20 15'9|56-14 |28 18 565) -59 18) 33. _-4°5|56:19*|28 18 461) -70* 19 39 45°050°08 |12 24 305} ‘71 19} 44 54°7/56:05%/28 1 402) -77« 20110 355 |521* |17 30 4 at 22 27 13:0 57°67 32 18 45°0 7:06 22 29 54:9|51'41*|16 3 22:7] 6-94 22 32 45:0/51°48*|16 14 42°3| :96 29 36 16° |57°46*|31 22 53°7| 7:05* 23) 43 15:0|56'42°|29 3 2:0 ‘O9Or 24 53 42°7/55°76 |27 19 39°2| “19 25 111 19 45:0|/53:03"|20 35 42°2| -29* 26-27: 37-9)52°57*|19 21 222) -33* 26, 31: 46°5/54-62*|24 47 45:1) 35" 27 46 30:0|54°56*|24 39 45°6| °42%* 28! 58 43:9/5216 [18 7 36| °45 31.112 39 34:0|50:60*|13 56 10°6| -72* 31 Al 51:0|56°47 |29 21 160| -95 31| 51 43°5|53°79" |22 51 503] -78* 32) 58 21:9155°50* |24 42 22:7 *82* 32) 58 26:2/55:12 |26 14 53°0| -79 32113 5 15°0|54°42 |24 51 527) “91 33/15 49:9/55°26 |28 29 468] -97 21 3°7|/53°00"|20 47 14) *95* WOAAHOASGOH NHOADO Sob Her ; YS ; = = SAK RBGSEYHT BAHNHNSHHBSKHPN ANISSHHOAANY HaAISeEn eK QW He) Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. Synonyms. co a | & Vil hours. Right Asc.} Declination. +- a's “ ee ee ae 7 Pel bos ONY 5a fs m. on 7 SWVetelinvs deine ave Gem 6 |135)113 37 55°5| 52°22 |18 59 9:0) 8:05 —+) 89/36 525 29 87 ——+)| 8:9 |36 59°9 29 14:7 " 207 | 200 82|(B)| —— | 7 |37|114 8 41°7/ 53-92 |23 37 23°6 201 —+| 7 |37 11 30 | 52°3* |18 49 22 “25 224} 209m. 314 ~— | 7 |40)115 4 28-0] 52°56*|19 49 30°7| -49" 232) 210 84 —+) 784] 16 51-0) 53°68 |22 50 143) °47 233| 211 Sal) |. 2 2nl) Poyl ae 18 30:0] 55°28 |27 16 13:2] -62 246) 213 85) 1 6°7 |44 59 40:0] 52°71 |20 24 O4| -78 255| 1 1 Can 6 |46|116 24 16:2) 51°25 |16 18 48:0] ‘88 261| 2 —+\ 7 |47| 46 28°5|51°50*/17 2 44:0) 9:03* 267| 3 ——| 7 |48|117 6 3:7} 50°39*|13 46 29:6] °13° 270| 4 Q)el) —— 6 |49 12 5'1} 54°62 |25 55 40°4} (14 272|.217 Gem. | 7:8|49| © 16 58:3] 52°62*/20 21 9:2) -19* 273 Can. | 7:8 |49 17. 3:0} 52°07*|18 46 52:6| 20 275| 6 o + 6 |49 19 40°5| 51°74*|17 59 43°6| -20* 276| 8 4\ o. 2 4 6°7 |50 24 38°7| 54°55*|25 37 39:7} °18 279| 10 5] (xr) | ——| 6 |50 31 18°6| 51°37 |16 59 43°5| ‘21 280 8 |50 36 17-7| 52°58*|20 16 47°5| -29* 219 x |Gem ‘ : : : F 285 6 Can 5 56 |51 48 7°5| 55°53 |28 20 33-4] -41 286 — | 78)51 51 9:0} 50-93*|15 29 37°7| °36* 290} 15 yi ——— |-7°8 52/118 0. 12°1|53:26 |22 37, 10:5) 39 295 | eet lh 8) 54 28 6:0) 51°85*|18 10 38°5| °55* 296| 18 8. = 6 |54 28 48-1] 50:29 |13 40 39°5| °52 297| 19\m. 320, —— | 7'8|54 35 28°5| 50°42* 114 3 43:0] -59* 298) 20 9 «w.1| — 6 |54 36 33°0/53°52 |23 1l 42°5| +57 299 —— | 7°8 55 41 15:0|53'48*|23 1 10:0] -62* 304| 22 10 «.2| —— | 67 |56 59 36°7/53°18 |22 9 3:7] ‘75 307| 24 11 —+| 7 |57|119 8 36:0) 55:40 |28 3 1:2) -78 310] 25 12) (s)| —— | 6 [57 22 45:0| 50:46 114 12 44:7) ‘81 312| 26 13 y.1| —— | 7°8|58 31 30°0| 54°50 [26 25 16:0] -89 313 sass 9 |58 31 36°6| 49°43*)11 4 57:1] -88* 314| 27 14 y.2| — +| 7°8|58| 35 45°0| 54:50 |26 6 7:5/10-26 317} 28 |m. 324! —— | 7:8 |59 38 45:0) 51:54*|17 35 31°5| 9:91* —+] 7 |60 55 51 15 12 38 ——_| —— — — VIII hours. — — 3] 31\m. 328 Can:+| 7 | 0/120 5 21:0) 49:20*|10 24 14:2/10:05* 4| 33 15| ¥.3 +| 6/1 10 46:2) 56:06 |30 14 37-0| 11 5| 32 16} f | ——t) 6] 1 10 51°6| 51°83 |18 14 21°8|} +16 —+| 7:8| 1 17 32 114 35 28 13 — | 78] 3 38 45:4] 49°50* 11 26 30:0] -22* 14] 37 \m. 329 SF Tales 40 48:1] 51:71*/18 16 3:8] :23” —t| 78] 3 48 15 13 38°6 20 — 8 | 4121 3 3:3) 51:65*)18 10 17-3] -34* 24/ 39 — | 89) 5 17 54:0| 54:98*|27 39 14:3} -41* 26 — | 8] 5 20 37:3] 49°03*|10 0 35:7) °43* 37| 47 18) x | ——-t] 6/8 58 17:2} 54:99 |27 51 13:0} -98 41} 50 19) A | —— |. 6 | 91122 9 17°7| 53:73 24 38 26:7} °71 42} 49 —— fF) 67179 9 54°7| 52°64" |21 22 3:0) -67* 48 — | 8 {11 51 31:8] 49-37*|11 17 20:1] -87* 50| 54 20 d.1| —— | 6 12 58 28°6151:84 |18 57 47-4] -93 ROKR AIH VHS IH HH BHSWORH PHONON ADD eo ROO Qi CO Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. 51 Synonyms. 3 3 g ep |WIIThours. Right Ase.} Declination. + | Lat. £/ 23 | =| -——_—_|_— P. | B. |F.C.M a oe = |m. Oe ANe sal oy 4, Seal! 5s 55 Ca 8 |12)122 59 20°7/51-73*|18 45 59:6 |10°91* | —1-2 56} 21 | (f) 7 |13\123 14 30°0/49-30 |11 16 O08] -96 | —85 7:8 )13 20 23°4/51-40*|17 49 27:6 |11-:02*| —2-0 58] 22 |e. 1| —— +] 67|14 34 1°8/54-99 |28 32 26:3] -20 8-4 — + 9114 37 11°7|55°15*|28 42 14-5] -10* 8-6 59| 25 |d. 2} —— +] 6 {14 37 21:0\51-09 |17 41 39:7] °25 | —2:1 60| 23 |¢.2}—— +| 6 {15 39 58°5|54:°66 |27 34 36:0] +13 PEG 62) ° 24 | v. 1} —— fF) 7 {15 41 12:0|53-90 |25 10 49:0| -23 5:2 67| 27 ee 7) 54 50:4/49-92 13 18 15:0] -29 | —2-4 a 128" )o. 2) 67 124 10 55°0/53°55 |24 47 51:4] °33 49 71 29 — + 6 21 40°5|50°36 \14 51 47°3| °25 | —4°8 72\m.341 Ts 26 33°9153°72*|25 0 OO| -34° 52 73\m.340 — 78 26 51°1/54:37* |26 50 50°5) -38* 7:0 a5 30 |} vu. 3| — 67 54 52°5|53°50 |24 44 42:0] °51 5:0 76 31 | 3 |—— Ft] 56 125 2 31°8|51-45 |18 45 36°5| +55 | —0-8 77\Mm.344 —_— 78 2 57°7/51°87* |19 39 5:0) -53* Ol 80 Gaol igh | tee 6 16 49:2|52:29 \21 6 35°7| ‘64 36 2, Al ——— 728 17 2071/5345 |24 45 145) -63 ol (i) |e 1627, 26 28:5\49:09 |10 44 3°5| ‘60 | —8:5 |28e 14 "8 39 49°5|50:05* 13 55 53°0| -73*| —5°3 pee See 8 57 64)51:96 |20 16 2°5| -75 0-9 a 8 126 3 27°7|52:06*|20 27 O05} ‘81*| 1 a NaS 13 25°0\50°65* |15 59 44:5] °85*| —3-2 a 7 33 35°2/48:85 |10 20 27:0] -98 | —8-6 —— 8 34 27-0\51-86* |19 57 11:7] :99*| 0-7 ce. 2|—— | 7:8}: 48 35-7/48-84 |10 15 50:0] -98 | —8-6 r| 8 53 49 5/51:97* |20 22 7:6|12:04*} 1-2 p | 89 54 39°0/51-94*|20 17 5°6] -06* 11 ——p}| 8 127 2 37°8\52:09*|20 46 49°5| -07* 16 o |—r| 7 2 59°1/51:98*/20 28 20:7] -08*} 1:3 —-rt, 7 5 11°1/51-91*')20 14 8-4 09* 11 100} 39 —rt| 6 8 44°1|52:05* |20 42 12°7 10* 15 101; 40 —rt| 6 10 3°6/52-04* |20 40 1:4! -11*} = 1°5 ee tee |) 12 3°7|51:90* |20 13 43°7} -12*| 1-1 | 102)1.359 ee eal 12 58°5|51:94* |20 21 58:7] -12*| 1:3 t ep | 67 14 24-0/51:90* |20 14 30°4| -13*| 1:1 ene 7S 18 10°9/51:95* |20 25 17) "15*| 1:3 ee 21 42°4)51-90*|20 16 45°5] -17*| 1:2 25 24°0\52-:18*|21 10 33:7] “18*} 2-1 34 52°5)51°97*|20 34 34:6) -23*) 1:5 113 55 19°5/52°30 |22 10 39:0] -25 3:2 143} 114) 44 56 12°0/51:41*|18 51 25:8] -32*| —O-l 144\ 116) 45 128 2 30:0/49°73 |13 23 18:2] -32 | —5:3 150} 119] 47 19 27-4.51:42 |18 52 46:5| -66 01 154) 120} 49 28 9°7|49°00* 10 47 46:4) °47*| —7‘7 121 4 31 22°5/51°58*|19 31 58°3| -48*] 0-6 6 52 48:0\49:13*|11 18 52:8] -58*| —7-0 163) 131) 50 6 59 17°5'49°39 \12 50 7:0] ‘61 | —5°6 133)m.370 8|129 24 42-4'49°67*|13 16 30:0] *73*| —5:1 8 25 55°5'49°68*|13 19 27-4] -73*| —5:0 52 iM.371 im.372 M.377 176\m.388 177|M.389 181 68 183 69 189 m.391 191 194 200 202 206 205 208) 79 209\m.395? Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. af 6 |o= Can = (m) | —— —t —t —t Hyd. + Can. + —+ —t a. 1|—— —+ o. 1 |—— o. 2|—— —} a, 2|—~ t+ (p)|— t BAe. —+t —t - ae —i —t g |—— = = | lo «* -waeee ee 7 139\129 49 49:5|51-24* |18 44 14°5|12°84* 03 7 |39 50 16°9|51°49* 3 : 11 8: 9} 40 53 58°5|51°24* % 6°7 | 40 57 58°5|50°20 7:8 \40 59 28:2|50°57 7 |42|130 28 38:2 |50-99* 7:8 |42 36 58:5 |51:77* 78 |43 38 4:5|51:04* 8-9 |43 39 10:0|50°13* 8-9 [43 48 13:5 |48-46* 8 |43| 50 21°9|50:07° 7 |44|131 1 26:4/50:92* 8 145 8 21:0|50:04* 6 |45 14 50°4|49°31 8 |45 21 55°8|50:97* 7:8 146 28 5:4|50:87* 6 |46 31 6°3|50°34 6 |46 35 56:1 |50°34 6 |47 43 29 |48-7* 5 52 59°4|49°37 7 57 54-7 \51°12* : ; 10 8 |48)132 6 27-:0|49°68*|13 50 32°8; -44*; —3°9 7°8 |50 37 13-5 |50°68 |17 51 22°38) -57* Ol 6 51 45 15°6 |52'90 |25 13 49:9} -5Y re 8°9 |52/133 3 19-5 '49:°93*|14 57 55°5| °69*| —2°5 8 53) +170 =| 25 23°8 74 7°8 |54 25 57:0 49-01*|11 38 12:5} -71*| —5°6 78 \54 37 43°0 50°78*|18 10 43°5| -:83* 0°7 8 [55 48 36:7 50°18 |16 3 57:5} ‘88*| —1:2 8 [56 54 39:0 50:16*|16 0 39:7) -89*| —1:2 6 58 34 |52:4* |23 46 39 | -9* 6:2 5°6 57|134 13 37°5 49°11 |11 27 50-4|14:00 | —5°6 6°7 157 14 50:2 53:26 |27 26 50°3| -41 9°8 7:8 157 15 50-2 50-°00*|15 30 32:2|13:99%, —1°9 7 (58 27 2-1/50°60 |18 16 17-5| -97 1-0 56/58 27 33:0 52:04 |22 50 44:7| -98 5:4 6 159 42 28:0 52°05 |22 47 59°5|14:06 5-4 78 43 18:0 |49:14*|12 |: —45 Vill hours. Right Asc. Declination. + | Lat. AppITIONAL NorEs to the first and second Portions. Anon. R. A, 23° 23'.) In Harding’s Atlas are 2 stars of the ninth magnitude, P.I. 174.) Upon an inspection of Harding’s Atlas, it may be doubted whether Herschel has not mistaken 4 Arietis for 3; in which case his double star V. 92 will be placed in R. A. 24° $2’, and Decl. 15° 20’, or thereabout. P. IL. 96.) This is No. 12 of Herschel’s new Cat. of double stars, Notes to Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. 53 stars, printed in the Memoirs of the Astronomical So- ciety. This will hereafter be quoted by the abbreviation 6 Flens C??, B. 34 Tauri.) See H.n. C. 23. 55 Tauri.) Flamsteed’s Declination requires —8’. In Her- schel’s Index to Flamsteed, and in Phil. Trans. 1799, the correction is given with a wrong sign. P. V. 43.) In the note, for “ is left out of,” read, “ has —1° of Decl. in.” P. V. 225.) The place of Herschel’s star I. 67 is probably R.A. 84° 12’. Decl. 32° 50’. At R.A. 89° 18’,—Decl. 14° 1’, is a cluster of stars, Hers. VIII. 24: in which is a double star, I. 57. Preceding 70 and 67 Orionis. ‘ A spot which appears nebulous in the finder, and is about 50’ from 67 Ori. and 4.5’ from 70. More than 12 stars in view with 460; among them is a double star. The largest of the base of an isosceles tri- angle, n. preceded by four stars in a line. Considerably unequal. With 460, one full diameter of L. Position 19°-8 s. following.” Notes to the third Portion. Page 47. 68 Orionis.) The precession in Decl. is —0’-015, the proper motion +0%05. Near this is a double star. Hers. VI. 72. ‘ The most N. of two that are one degree asunder. Very unequal. L.w; S.dr. Distance with 278, 7283. Position 41°:0 s. preceding. 6 Geminorum.) The prec. in Decl. —0"016; pr. mot. +0”-03. 69 f. 1 Orionis.) The prec. in Decl. — 0-045; pr. mot. + 0”:06. P. VI. 13.) Double. The following star, 14 of Pi. 8 mag. R.A. +90. Decl. —1'56'"6. 44 x Aurige.) Pr. motion in R.A. —0"14; in Decl. —0"32. This latter is confirmed by an obs. of the Decl. by Flam- steed. 7 Geminorum.) Called Teat. Anon. R.A. 90° 44’.) Double. Observed by Lalande. Hist. Cel. 313. 72 f. 2 Orionis.) See Hers. V. 23. * A double star following f.” Distance about 40". 9 Geminorum.) Mayer’s declination requires + 2”. 12 —___—..) Hers. V. 55. “ A small star near the place of 12 Gem. Treble. The two nearest a little unequal. Di- stance less than 1’. 13 » Geminorum.) Called Tejat posterior. 15 Geminorum.) Double. The preceding star, Pi. 99, Pe: ie 54 Notes to Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. R.A. —16"3. Decl. —32"6. Hers. V. 56. ‘* Consider- ably or very unequal. L.r; S.d. Distance, 32°65. Pos. near 60° s. preceding.” See also V. 52, which appears to refer to the same star. ‘* Double, the 2nd star from » towards » Gem. Pretty unequal. L.r; S.b. Distance 35", inaccurate.” Anon. R.A. 94° 3’.) This may be the star whose brightness Sir W. Herschel estimated as 17 Gem. The place of that star in Fl. is 1™ following 15 Gem. in which spot no star exists. It turns out that Fl. has only one obs. which could be referred to 17 Gem. and in that the time is marked doubtful, so that most probably the obs. belongs to 15. P. VI. 120.) Double. H. n. C. 111. ‘ About 25’ or 30’ n. f. 18» Gem. A very small star, 5th class. L. r; S. d, very unequal, or rather, extremely unequal. Pos. 77°2 s. f. Anon. R.A. 94° 44’.) Astar 1° 40’ from »Geminorum. Sup- posed to be identical with H. n. C. 141. “ Double, 2nd class. It is 1° 20’n. f. 18 Gem. in a line parallel to y and «. Equal, or the preceding perhaps the smallest.” Position from Hist. Cel. 272. 20 Geminorum.) Piazzi calls this 21 Gem. and the star preced- ing it (134) he calls 20 Gem. There is however reason to suppose that Flamsteed never observed the star as double, and that his 21 arose from an obs. of 20 as a single star, but with an error of 1™ in R.A. Pi. 134, mag. 8. R.A. —14""4. Decl. —18"6, whence the distance 23”1 and position 53°°6 s.p. Herschel’s description is as follows, *©21:: Geminorum. Double; a little unequal. Both pr. Distance about 25”.” He observes that 20 and 21 are not in the heavens as they are marked in FI. Atlas. Anon. R. A. 95° 30’) Double. Lal. H. C. 272, foll. star, 8m. R.A. +457. Decl. +24”. Hers. V. 112. * Forms almost an isosceles triangle with » and y Gem. Nearly equal. The preceding pr, the following wr. Distance fifth class far. Page 48. P. VI. 144. or B.48 Gem.) The R. Asc., as given by Bode from Lalande, is +10’. P. VI. 150. or B. 139 Aur.) The declination, as given by Bode from Lalande, is +10’. 24 y Geminorum.) Called Alhena. Hereabouts, two or more double stars. Hers. IV. 28. “ Double. Near y Gem. towards ¢ Tauri. A little unequal. Both r. Distance 19"*7. Pos. 57°°0 s. prec.” Also, V. 71. ‘Double, 3’ or 4’ n. prec. y Gem. Of the 5th class. More in view.” And again, VI. 91. Double, 3° or 4’ n. of y Gem. Consi- derably unequal. Both small; too obscure for measures with Notes to Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. 55 with 7-feet; my 20-feet shows a third star between them, with 12 inches aperture.” The two last mentioned were observed on the same day. 27 « Geminorum.) Called Mebsuta. Double. Hers. VI. 73. “LL. w. Distance 1105.” 30 and 31 § Gem.) The magnitudes of these stars are vari- ously set down in Flamsteed and Mayer. 38 e Geminorum.) Double. Hers. III. 47. ‘* Extremely un- equal. L.rw.; S.r. Distance, with 460, 7'"8. Position 89°-9 s. foll. Two more in view, the nearest of them per- haps 40”; they form a rectangle nearly.” 39 Geminorum.) The proper motion is deduced from Br. and Pi, viz. R.A. —0’30. Decl. +011 per annum. P. VI. 294.) Pi. calls this 41 Geminorum, and he suspects a proper motion. But see the next following note. P. VI. 297.) This is 275 of Mayer’s Zod. Cat. and according to Bessel is the true 41st of Flamsteed. P. VI. 305, or B. 109 Gem.) Lalande’s Decl., as given by Bode, is —10’. 43 ¢Geminorum.) Called Mekbuda. Bode estimated it scarcely so bright as the fourth mag. in 1801, which accords with Piazzi. In the older catalogues it is set down as 3°4 or 3m. Herschel’s comparative estimate will be found in the note toa Gem. It has a star 8:9 mag. preceding. Pi. 311. R.A.—8"’7. Decl. +88”:0. Hers. double stars VI. 9. “ Very unequal. L.rw. S.dr. Distance 91'°87, rather full measure. Pos. 81°23 n. preceding.” P. VI. 329, 330.) Either there is an error in the R.A. of one of these stars, or they are not placed in their proper order. 450 Geminorum.) A star 7 mag. precedes this about 3°, north 6’. Piazzi. —-.) Burckhardt (in Conn. d. T. 1820) supposes that C. H. 159 is the same star with this, only with an error of 2° of declination. There isa star of 8th mag. in Hard- ing’s Atlas, about R.A. 104° 58’. Decl. 22° 42’, but it is not in Lalande’s Hist. Cel. Anon. R.A. 105° 13’.) From Lalande H.C. p. 272. Double, H. n. C. 94. ‘ South preceding ¢ Gem. near 2° in a line parallel to 60 and 27 « Gem. A third star near. About the 4th class.” 48m Page 49. 50 Geminorum.) Herschel in Phil. Trans. 1797, says that Flamsteed never observed 50 Gem., and that the star of which he there gives the brightness is at a considerable distance from the place assigned by the Brit. Cat. And yet the place of P. VII. 11 differs but little from re i t ( wake 56 Notes to Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. (R.A. 105° 12’ 15". Decl. 15° 28’ 58”.) The remainder of Herschel’s remarks are unintelligible. C. H. 139, set down as preceding 51 Gem. 25’ 22” and north 49’ 35", is not to be found in Bode, Piazzi, Lalande, or Harding; but if we substitute south for north, the place will then agree with P. VI. 346. 51 Geminorum.) Hers. VI. 74. “ Has two very obscure stars in view. L.r. S.r. S.r. The nearest about 14’, the next 2’. Pos. of both about 40° or 50° n. following. 54 A Geminorum.) Is marked 5 mag. in the Brit. Catalogue. Bode supposes it to be changeable, and estimates it of the 3rd mag. in 1801. Herschel (Phil. Tr. 1796) gives its lustre thus, A; 8 x, 3—¢. An interval of 9 months be- tween two observations seemed to indicate an increase of brightness. 55 8 Geminorum.) Called Wasat. Double, Hers. II. 27. _ “ Extremely unequal. L. w, inclining tor; S.r. With 227, about 24 full diameters of L; with 460, 4 or 5 diam. Position 85°85 s. prec.” 58 Geminorum.) Two obs. of Bradley, compared with Pi. in- dicate a pr. motion in R.A. of —0'15. M. 292.) Mayer’s observation of this star is imperfect. P. VII. 83.) A star, 7°8 mag. about 30% preceding, 5’ north. Anon. R.A. 108° 26’.) From Lalande, p. 272. Double, foll. star9m. R.A. +05*3. Decl. +6”. Hers. III.48. ‘About 3° n. prec. 61 r Gem. in a line parallel to x and 60; near 2° from 8. A little unequal. Both pr. Distance 6'"25. Pos. 43°°9 n. foll.’ This must surely be identical with H.n. C. 95. “South foll. 3 Gem. towards r, about 25’ from r; third class, a little unequal.” Anon. R.A. 108° 57’.) A star in Harding, but not in the Hist. Cel. or any Catalogue. Double, Hers. V. 66. About 2° n. of, and a little preceding 63 p Gem. in a line parallel tovanda. Very unequal. L.pr; S.d. Distance 34°65. Pos. 1° or 2° n. preceding.” 63 p Geminorum.) Double, Hers. V. 53. ‘“ The brightest of two. Extremely unequal. L. pr; S.d. Distance 44°25.” Anon. R.A.109° 0’.) From Lalande H. C. 51. Double H.n.C. 108. “2° 40's. f. 54 4 Geminorum, towards 6 Cancri, Ist class, pretty unequal.” 62 p Geminorum.) Pr. mot. in R.A. +008 in Dec!. +0722. The star is called s in Flamsteed’s and most subsequent catalogues; but this, according to Bessel, is owing to a typographical error in the former work, and copied into the others. 66 « Geminorum.) The proper motion of Castor, according to Br. Notes to Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. 57 Br. and Pi. is in R.A. —0-22, in Decl. —0'"05. A very remarkable double star. According to Piazzi the pre- ceding star is 3°4 mag., the following 3 mag., diff. R.A. 5”°8 determined with the utmost care: diff. Decl. 0”-0. In a note he remarks, that Dr. Hornsby first determined the distance of the stars in R.A. =3’-8, which measure remained constant for 20 years. Castor is the first of Sir W. Herschel’s 2nd class of double stars, and in his ori- ginal catalogue (Phil. Tr. 1782) he sets down the distance 5'°156 diameters included. Pos. 32°8 n. prec. In the volumes for 1803 and 1804, this indefatigable observer stated the results deduced from a series of observations from 1783 to 1803, viz—that the two stars revolved round their common centre of gravity in 342 years; in a plane nearly perpendicular to the visual line. This dis- covery, which appears to have been wholly unknown to Piazzi, will account for the discordance between his mea- surement and that of Hornsby. B. 162 Geminorum.) This is the star, situate between 68 and 61 Gem. noticed by Hers. (Phil. Tr. 1783) as among the considerable stars not comprised in any existing catalogue. B. 168 Geminorum.) Position from Bradley. M. 303, 304.) The synonyms are wanting in Piazzi. 75 ¢ Geminorum.) Pr. mot. R.A. +006. Decl. —0-21. 76 ¢ -) Erroneously called L in Piazzi. 78 6 ———__——.) Called Pollux. The R.A. in the text is that given by Bouvard. (Conn. d. T.1821.) That of Piazzi is —0":3. Both authorities agree in the Declination. ‘The proper motions are as follow: R.A. Decl. Great Circle. As given by Bouvard —0647 +0'"080 eevee From Br. and Piazzi —0""742 —0"-058 0655 Piazzi’s own comparison —0’*72 OTT Aosta A multiple star. Hers. VI.42. “ Extremely unequal. The nearest distance 116’"75, rather full measure. Pos. 24°°5 n. foll. not extremely accurate. This is the smallest. The next distance 1973 pretty accurate. Pos. 15°-93 n. fol- lowing.” ‘The same observer, in Jan. 1796, records thus, “ 8 Gem. appears to be of a deeper colour than it was a good many years ago. I should now place it among the red or ruddy stars, which formerly I did not use to do.” Page 50. Anon. R. A. 113° 52’.) From Lal. H.C. 53. Double. Hers. Il. 65. * Full 2° n. foll. 8 Gem. in a line from @ con- tinued through it; the star next to the middle one of three, nearly ina line. Excessively unequal; L. r. w. S. d. Vol. 62. No. $03. July 1823. H With 58 Notes to Catalogue of odiacal Stars. With 227, above 2} or near 3 diameters of L, and 5 other stars in view; with 460, above 3 diam. of L. Pos. 89°°2 n. foll.” Anon. R. A. 113° 59’.) From Lal. H.C. 53. Double. Hers. V. 67. “ Near 1° n. foll. 6 Gem. nearly in a line from 8 continued; the furthest and smallest of three. Consi- derably unequal. L.r. S. dr. Distance 47/6.” B. 201 Geminorum.) From Lalande. Double. Hers. IT. 64. About 3° s. foll. 81 ¢ Gem. nearly in a line from { continued; the nearest and largest of two. Very un- equal. L.r; S. blueish r. With 227, above 3 diameters of L. Position 4°°15 n. preceding.” 84 Geminorum.) Is of the 7th mag. only.—Bode. Although marked 5 m. in the Brit. Cat., it has no magnitude in Fl. observations. P. VII. 261, or B. 2 Cancri.) Is the same as C. H. 140. 2w.1 Cancri.) Double. The small star 3” north, very faint. —Priazzi. 3 Cancri.) Astronomers have been much puzzled to account for the erroneous declination given to this star in Brad- ley’s Catalogue (Naut. Alm. 1773). An inspection how- ever of Bessel’s Cat. clearly shows that although Bradley’s R. A. is correct, his Decl. belongs to a star about 56’ north, which is P. VII. 273. This latter star had not appeared in any earlier catalogue. 4.2 Cancri.) ‘Has a very obscure star in view. L. pr. Distance about 14 minute. Pos. about 30° n. prec. A third about 2’.. Pos. more north.” Hers. VI. 75. 11 Cancri.) Double. Hers. I. 11. ‘ Considerably unequal. Both pale r. With 227, 1 full diam. of L. with 460, about 1? diam. Pos. 85°-17 n. prec.” 14 y. 2 Cancri.) Pr. mot. R.A. —0”05. Decl. —0”36. Anon. R. A. 119° 56.) From Lal. A.C. 52,279. Is 13 Cancri of Fl. Cat. edit. 1712, although omitted in the standard edit. of 1725. See C. H. 161. i6 § Cancri.) Double. Pi. foll. star VIII. 6. mag. 7°8. R.A. +24. Decl. +60. Hers. I. 24, and III. 19. “A most minute treble star. It will at first sight appear double only, but with proper attention, and under favour- able circumstances, the preceding of them will be found to consist of 2 stars, which are considerably unequal.” The single star is of intermediate magnitude between the other two, which latter “ are both pale r. or r. With 278, but just separated, with 460, distance 3 ‘diam. of S. Pos. 86°'53 n. following.” The single star “paler. Di- stance 8-046 mean measure. Pos. 88°:27 s. prec.” M. 328. Notes to Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. 59 M. 328.) Is C.H. 165. Mayer’s R. A. requires —15’. 15. 3 Cancri.) Ought not this properly to be ¢ Gemino- rum? See Hevelius, and the original obs. of Flamsteed. Anon. R. A.120°17’.) From Lal. H.C. 52, 279. Is C. H. 162.—F. 15 Cancri. ed. 1712. M. 329.) Mayer’s Decl. doubtful. Double. Hers. VI. 78. * About 4° foll. ¢ Cancri towards 4 Leonis. Extremely unequal, Dist. 638.” A telescopic star precedes (to the N.) about 108.—Piazzi. Anon. R. A. 120° 48’.) From Lalande, 216. Is C. H. 163. 18 x Cancri.) Pr. mot. in Decl. —0”37. P, VIII. 42, or B.49 Cancri.) Is C. H. 93, 5th magnitude. Lalande (#7. C. 211) calls it “ Etoile singuliére.” Page 51. 22 ¢. 1 Cancri.) Pr. mot. R.A. —0"1]. Decl. —0”-12. Double. H. VI. 109. “ Very unequal, L.r; S. dr.” P. Vili.61.) This star is not far from the place of 26 Cancri, which was not observed by Fl. and in fact never existed. 25 d.2 Cancri.) Pr. mot. R. A. —0°’25. Decl. —0°15. 23 $.2Cancri.) Double. Hers. II. 40. “ A little unequal. Bothrw. With 227, near 2 diameters, with 460, 21 diam. of L. Pos. 56°-7 n. following.” 24 v.1 Cancri.) Double. Pi. foll. star. 66. mag. 7°38. R.A. +379. Decl. +36. Hers. I. 41. ‘Consid. unequal. Both pr. With 227, 14 diam. of L; with 460, 4 diam. Pos. 32°15 n. following.” Mayer’s 338 should seem to be the same star, with an error of 20’ in declination. 29 Cancri.) In Piazzi’s Cat. for Geminorum read Cancri. M. 341.) Is C. H. 166. 31 3 Cancri.) Double. Hers. V.59. “Extremely unequal. L.r. S.d. Distance 44"°53. Pos. n. foll. P. VIII. 118.) The thirteen stars marked with a p, belong to the cluster called Presepe. M. 355.) The star C. H. 168 (called f in FL. obs.) agrees with this within 10’ of declination. 39 Cancri.) Fl. declination requires + 5’. 40 Cancri.) Fl. declination requires —24’. P. VII. 185.) Mayer’s 357 is an imperfect observation. Wollaston places it in R.A. —17' 5". Decl. —4' 22”. but in Bode’s Catalogue (109) the R. A. is +52". 43 y Cancri.) Called Asellus Borealis. 476 Caneri.) Called Asellus Australis. Pr. motion in R. A. +0'"03, in Deck —0”23. Page 52. 54 Cancri.) Pr. mot. R. A. —0"24. Decl. +020. Double. H 2 Hers, 60 Notes to Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars. Hers. LV.111. “A little unequal. Both rw.; S. a little darker. Distance 17’:23. Pos. 29°-0 s. following.” P. VIII. 200.) Double. Pi. following star (201) R. A. +12”0. Decl. —7'-5. Mag. 9. Mayer’s obs. doubtful. M. 374. 375. 376. The synonyms are omitted by Piazzi. M. 378.) Mayer’s obs. imperfect.— Pazzi. M. 380.) * Etoile rouge.’”—Lalande. M. 381.) Mayer’s observation imperfect. M. 385.) The place of this star in Bode’s Cat. as given from Mayer, agrees nearly with that in the text, but in Wollas- ton the differences are, R. A. +114/, and Decl. —1}. B. 172 Cancri.) The author has taken the liberty to correct what he considers a misprint in Bode’s Catalogue, by substituting 10° for 12°. This correction is sanctioned by Lalande’s obs. and by Harding’s Atlas. C. H. 360 appears to be the same star. Anon. R. A. 133° 17'.) From Lalande, 148. It is C. H. 167. 71 Cancri.) The R.A. of the Brit. Cat. requires, +10’ Herschel has remarked that the star is wrongly laid down in Fl. Atlas. P. VIII. 250.) Piazzi calls this 73 Cancri, of which no obs. by FL. is to be found. Bode and Herschel consider it as erroneously introduced into the Brit. Cat. where the R. A. is greater by 11’ than that of Piazzi’s star. B.194 Cancri.). Double according to Bode, who settled its place. Neither he nor Mr. South (Mem. Astr. Soc.) seems to have recognised this to be Herschel’s star III. 92. “ About 1° n. prec. § Cancri, in aline parallel to <« Leonis and 40 Lyncis, a considerable star. A little unequal. Both rw. Dist. 8’-83. Pos. 65°*2 s. preceding.” 75 Cancri.) Pr. motion. R. A. —0"21. Decl. —0'42. P.VIII. 257.) The place of 74 Cancriis R.A. —12’ 2’. Decl. — 10’ 32”, and no observation by Flamsteed is to be found. 78 Cancri.) Fil. R. A. requires —2}’. _P. VIIL 263.) The R. A. of Mayer 395 is incomplete, and if this be the star observed, it requires —23’. In Bode’s Cat. Mayer is quoted as the authority, and yet the R. A. is right. . pitas nlc *+* The author wishes for some information respecting a star marked Variable in Harding’s Atlas; it is about 50’ pre- ceding 31 Virginis. R.A. 187° 4’. Decl. +8° 5’. No such star is mentioned in any other work within his means of ex~ amination. XII. O0- Ll Gd yo] XII. Observations on M. Lariace’s Communication tothe Royal Academy of Sciences, “ Sur l Attraction des Spheres, et sur la Répulsion des Fluides élastiques.” By Joun Heraratu, Esq. ON the first of May 1821, I published in the Annals of Philosophy a theory of gaseous bodies, mathematically drawn from the Newtonian theory of heat. An announcement of the publication and objects of the paper which contained this theory, and which had been in the hands of the principal members of the Royal Society from the May preceding, was sent to the Marquis de Laplace in June 1821. On the 10th of the following September, this nobleman communicated to the Royal Academy of Sciences a paper, whose professed ob- ject is to demonstrate from the principles of caloric the known laws of permanent airs,—the same that my paper contained. Unfortunately I did not meet with M. Laplace’s paper until towards the fall of 1822; at which time I first saw it in the Connaissance des Tems for 1824. Though it was obvious from the perfect coincidence of the object of M. Laplace’s paper with that of a part of mine, and its being presented to the Royal Academy so long after the printing and notice of my paper, that his communication was in consequence of mine and intended to supersede it, yet I preferred leaving some instances of arguments and _ results, which appeared to me in point of accuracy to be exceptionable, to the comments of others, to making any observations on them myself, Perceiving, however, by the Connaissance des Tems for 1825, which I have lately received, that M. Laplace has in that work as good as four papers in continuation of his first; and that he has excited such an interest in the French Board of Longitude, as to induce that body to issue a com- mission to repeat some experiments on sound, for the purpose of affording him the advantage of better results; I have thought it necessary to throw together a few remarks, which may enable philosophers more easily to estimate the success of M. Laplace’s mvestigations. In the views of corpuscular repulsion of airs, which Newton proposed to philosophers to examine, he imagined that the re- pulsion of each particle extends to those particles only which immediately surround it. ‘The reason, if a reason it can be called, which I believe he assigns for this limitation, is the similarity of a phenomenon in magnetic attraction. Without entering into a discussion of the difference of those phzeno- mena, which are as different and dissimilar as they can well be, it 62 Mr. Herapath on M. Laplace’s Theory it may be said that explanations by analogy are in most physical cases illusive and deceitful, and in all unsatisfactory. M. La- place therefore, discarding the limitation of Newton, proceeds to determine the laws of elastic fluids on the supposition of the corpuscular repulsion being sensible at insensible, and insen- sible at sensible distances. Each particle of a fluid which is at a sensible distance from the envelope, is on this hypothesis kept in equilibrio by the balance of 1 epulsion in the surround- ing particles. This repulsion he first assumes exclusively due tothe caloric of the particles; their mutual distances being such, though insensibly small, that their reciprocal attraction has no sensible effect. In the general equation therefore of a fluid sphere, dp=p¢dr, in which ¢ is the repulsion of the whole sphere of the density p on apoint at the distance 7 from its centre, and p the pressure In an opposite direction to the repulsion, M. Laplace conceives $¢=0; which gives p=constant. So far I apprehend no great objection would be made to M. Laplace’s assumptions; though some of them are certainly not unexceptionable. His statement however, that ‘en nom- mant 7 la distance mutuelle de deux molécules de gaz, nous exprimerons la loi de répulsion par H c? ¢$ (r),” $(7) being insensible with a sensible value to r, and H being a constant, we cannot I think so easily admit. For since the particles of caloric are supposed to have a mutually repulsive force, and each particle of the gas to retain by its attraction its caloric, the caloric must assume about a particle of the gas, the form of a sphere or spherical shell. Nor would the repulsion of the surrounding particles have any effect on the figure, unless to promote or preserve it. Supposing therefore the distance r between the particles to remain the same, the function ¢ (7) must involve the dimensions of the spheres or shells; conse- quently, as these dimensions would vary with the quantity of caloric, the repulsion would not be as c®, as M. Laplace con- ceives ; unless when the particles of caloric mutually repel one another by a force reciprocally proportional to the square of the distance, which would give the gas a very different law to that which experiment requires. Conceding to M. Laplace the above law, which I think it is plain cannot be correct, he finds by some ingenious considera- tions, P being the pressure on any point, and 27 H K an in- variable factor, that P=27HKe’c*; (1) a theorem which of itself expresses nothing that I know of in the laws of gases. This of the Laws of Elastic Fluids. 63 This theorem, combined with another which he immediately deduces, includes, he says,“ les lois générales des fluides élas- tiques.” “* Let us imagine,” proceeds M. Laplace, “that the envelope and the contained gas have a common temperature ¢ It is manifest that any molecule whatever of this gas will every instant be struck by some of the calorific rays emitted by the surrounding bodies. A part of these rays it will stifle; but to maintain the temperature unchanged, it must radiate as many rays as it stifles. In any other space of the same temperature the molecule will be struck by the same quantity of calorific rays; the same part of which as before it will absorb and re- place by its radiation. The quantity of calorific rays therefore which any given surface at every instant receives, is some func- tion of the temperature alone, and in dependent of the surround- ing bodies: I shall denote it by 1 (¢). Hence the extinction will be gM (¢), g being a constant factér depending on the nature of the molecule or of the gas. _I will here observe that the quantity of rays emitted by the surrounding bodies, and which constitutes the free caloric of space, is, on account of the extreme velocity we must necessarily assign those rays, but a very insensible part of their whole caloric; which’ is otherwise manifest from the experiments made to condense it. Now in whatever manner the caloric of the surrounding mole- cules acts by its repulsion on the caloric of any particular mole- culeof gas, to detach a part of this caloric and make the molecule radiate, it is evident that this radiation will be in a ratio com- pounded of the density of the gas surrounding the molecule, or of ec and the caloric ¢ contained in the molecule. It will therefore be proportional to ec’: which is consequently pro- portional to the extincton gII (t); so that we may suppose, ee = Tl {t); (2) 7 being a constant factor depending on the nature of the gas, and II (¢) a function of the temperature independent of this nature.” These are the arguments by which M. Laplace attempts to establish his equation 2. If for the sake of brevity we pass over the first conclusion, namely, that the radiation to the molecule is independent of the surrounding bodies and some function of ¢, which if rigidly considered is probably not so evident as M. Laplace seems to think it; philosophers will, I presume, hardly then grant the latter conclusion, that the radiation of a molecule is proportional to gc xc. We might also easily show that surrounding waibheceals tend rather by their repulsion to compress the caloric of an inclosed molecule closer towards the centre, than to disperse it; but this too we will 64 Mr. Herapath on M. Laplace’s Theory will pass over. Granting that the caloric of the surrounding molecules acts in some way by its repulsion to make the central molecule radiate, it is plain by the course M. Laplace himself takes, that he considers this action proportional to the quantity of caloric acted on, and to the intensity of repulsion of the surrounding caloric. The radiation must therefore be as c x ec¢ (r) nearly *; 7 being the distance of two molecules, and 9 (7) the intensity of repulsion of a particle of caloric at the distance 7. But a being some constant 7 = rf = and there- fore by M. Laplace’s own principles his equation 2 should be, y I I p | g°9 (9/2)=q (0) (A) instead of, ecc=q II (t). In the third part of his paper, M. Laplace introduces the function ¢ (7); but drops it in the final equation without giving any reason whatever. From what I can perceive, he seems to involve it in the constant coefficient g. If so, it appears to me to be utterly repugnant to his own principles and definition of this supposed constant; for he distinctly tells us that ¢ ts “un facteur constant dépendant de la nature de la molécule ou du gaz;” and therefore it ought to be the same for every density of the same gas; since neither the nature of the mole- cule or gas is changed by a change of density. It is the error of neglecting this function which has enabled the marquis to bring out his conclusions independently of the law of repulsion in his 2nd part, and of the laws of repulsion and attraction in the 3rd part—conclusions which at the first glance of his paper forcibly struck me as strongly indicative of errors somewhere. That we are not justified in neglecting that part of A which depends on $7, will appear from the con- sideration, that a molecule of gas is made, by M. Laplace’s views, to radiate its caloric by the repulsion of the caloric of other molecules surrounding that molecule. And as he assumes that this sphere of repulsion is insensibly small, the entire action of the whole molecules within this sphere must be some fanction of 7, the distance of two molecules; and therefore some function of the density ¢. Equation A combined with 1, would produce results at * The correct value of the factor depending on Q(7) is 24/72 @rdr taken from r=0 to r=Hn. I might here make a remark very useful in investigations of this kind, and which I do not remember to have seen elsewhere. If @(r) be such a func- tion of r that it is sensible only with insensible values to 7; and if f(r) be any other function of 7, finite always when 7 is finite, and such that the value of f (+) Q(7) decreases as r increases, [f(7). @ (7). d r=o when r=. variance of the Laws of Elastie Fluids. 65 variance with phznomena almost whatever form we may give to the function ¢. It is however not my intention to pur- sue them. My object has been merely to show, that M. La-~ place’s principal and fundamental equations are erroneously deduced from his principles; and consequently that his sub- sequent conclusions are not consequences of what he first as- sumes. It appears to me to be evident that the equations he has produced are more the offspring of a previous know- ledge of what they should be from the phenomena, than of that sound reason which his other works usually manifest. Had the principles he sets out with been given him, namely, that there is such a thing as caloric, which, while strongly repulsive of its own, attracts and is attracted by all other matter; which by some means radiates in extremely minute portions with a great velocity; which attaching itself in considerable quantities to particles of matter overcomes their mutual attraction, and occasions them to stand at the greatest distance the envelope admits from each other;—had, I say, these things only been given him withoutv any knowledge of what the phenomena require, I would enture to appeal to himself, whether, with his mind so unacquainted, unbiassed, and unprejudiced with the facts in question, his results would not have been very different to what they are. Now, so far from this having been the case with myself, I was not even acquainted with any other law of airs than that of Mariotte, when my theories of collision and of aériform bodies were first laid down. It was not until some time afterwards that I knew any thing of MM. Gay Lussac and Dalton’s law; which, from the awkward synthetical course I pursued, I had some difficulty in demon- strating. Nor was I acquainted with the law that the pressure of a mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures of the compo- nentuirs, until after my theory had been published; when I acci- dentally met with it in Biot’s Traité de Physique while look- ing over the theory of vapours. ‘The theory of latent heat, and particularly that of evaporation, was investigated under cir- cumstances incomparably more disadvantageous. Examples such as these of correct fertility are, I believe, never to be met with where nature and theory are at variance. ‘It is rather curious that M. Laplace has in effect brought out the same point of absolute cold that I had. He says that all the caloric in a mass of any air at the centigrade zero, is equal to 266% centigrade degrees, or to 2663 x $=480° Vahr. ; the precise quantity that I had given. With respect however to the Marquis de Laplace’s theory and mine, there are cases by which the fate of both may be Vol. 62. No. 303. July 1823. I decided 66 Mr. Herapath on Elastic Fluids. decided -by experiment. According to his conclusions, the march of an air thermometer is a correct indicator of the in- crease of caloric; and according to my theory the said march is proportional to the difference of the squares of the true tem- peratures. If therefore equal weights of any two bodies were mixed at the Fahr. temperatures 32°? and 212°, by his theory the resulting temperature should be 122°, the arithmetical AV/ 448 + 32 Ra Sai) 2 With a greater interval of temperature, a greater difference would exist. Now as far as experiments go on this subject, they are unequivocally in my favour. Every philosopher who has tried such an experiment has, I believe, found the resulting temperature beneath the arithmetical mean. Even Crawford, who made experiments in a manner the most unaccountable for any one who had hopes of success, found his results less than M. Laplace’s theory would give; and by the only two of De Luc’s experiments that I have yet seen, there are variations from M. Laplace’s theory of 3° and 23° in defect, and from mine of only 2° and ,° in excess. I have also made some experiments on this subject myself, which accord with the conclusions I have drawn equally as well as De Luc’s; but in consequence of being deprived of the means of deciding the value of some corrections through a material accident to my apparatus, I have not yet been able to put them m a condition for publication. It were much to be wished that some decisive experiments of this kind were undertaken by those who have proper appa- ratus and opportunities. A determination of the true quantity of deflection from the arithmetical mean of equal weights of the same body mixed at unequal temperatures, would at once settle the grand point respecting the real indications of thermo- meters; and consequently establish laws of the highest impor- tance in science. Cranford, July 19th 1823. J. Herapatu. mean; and by mine 1184°= ( XII. Notices respecting New Books. Recently published. HE First Part of the Transactions of the Philosophical ~ Society for 1828 has just appeared, and the following are its contents : The Croonian Lecture. _ Microscopical Observations on the Suspension of the muscular Motions of the Vibrio Tritici. By Francis Bauer, Esq.— On Metallic Titanium. By W. H. Wollaston, M.D.—On the Difference of Structure between the Mr. Palmer on Railways of a new Principle. 67 the human Membrana Tympani and that of the Elephant. By Sir Everard Home, Bart.—Corrections applied to the Great Meridional Are, extending from Latitude 8° 9’ 387,39, to Latitude 18° 3’ 237,64, to reduce it to the Parliamentary Standard. By Lieutenant Colonel W. Lambton. On the Changes which have taken place in the Declination of some of the principal T'ixed Stars. By J. Pond, Esq.—Appendix to the preceding Paper on the Changes which appear to have taken place in the Declination of some of the Fixed Stars. By John Pond, Esq.—On the Parallax of « Lyre. By John Pond, Esq.—Observations on the Heights of Places in the Trigonometrical Survey of Great Britain, and upon the Lati- tude of Arbury Hill. By B. Bevan, Ksq.—On some Fossil Bones discovered in Caverns in the Limestone Quarries of Oreston. By Joseph Whidbey, Esq. To which is added, a Description of the Bones by Mr. Wm. Clift.—On the Chinese Year. By J. F. Davis, Esq.—Experiments for ascertaining the Velocity of Sound, at Madras in the East Indies. By John Goldingham, Esg.—On the double Organs of Generation of the Lamprey, the Conger Eel, the common Eel, the Barnacle, and Earth-Worm, which impregnate themselves; though the last from copulating, appear mutually to impregnate one an- other. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. Description of a Railway on a new Principle, with a Table of the comparative Amount of Resistance on several now in use ; also an Illustration of a newly observed Fact relating to the Lriction of Axles ; and a Description of an improved Dyna- mometer. By Henny R. Patmer, Civil Engineer, Mem- ber of the Institution of Civil Engineers. J. Taylor. 1823. pp. 60. vo. It has often been remarked that those things which suc- ceed in model often fail entirely when tried on a large scale; and it is equally true that many things succeed on the large scale which promise very little when tried in model; one of the most striking examples of the latter kind isa ship. What can afford less prospect of stability than experiments made on a small floating body?—what individual, not deeply versed in the theory of stat’e;, would have ventured to construct a ship on such experiments? ‘The machine described in the pam- phlet before us is of a similar nature: in a drawing, or small model, it seems as if nothing less than the most nice equili- brium would be required in practice for its success; but its author has wisely anticipated such an objection by making a working model on a large scale, which renders the stability and advantage of the contrivance manifest. 12 This 68 Notices respecting New Books. This new railway consists of a single rail supported by equidistant pillars; it is raised above the common surface of the ground to the height of about 3 feet; and the load is sus- pended from the axles of two wheels which run one before another on the upper edge of the rail. The construction of the frame is such, that the centres of suspension of the load are below the virtual centre of support; therefore the equilibrium is always stable, the virtual centre of support being equivalent to the metacentre of a ship*. But since the load on each side of the rail may happen to be unequal, the change of position, which would be a necessary consequence of this unequal distri- bution, is counteracted by the breadth of the surface of the rail ; and the stability may be greatly increased, if necessary, by add- ing braces to the bars which suspend the load to the axles. By adopting this railway, a perfectly even and adjustable plane with a very small degree of resistance may be obtained : elevated so as to be free from dust, or other extraneous mat- ters, “no further preparation is requisite for the moving power than an ordinary towing-path. The horse draws by a towing- rope connected to the carriages, and proceeds on one side of the rail; and as his height will vary with the natural undula- tions of the surface of the ground, he will sometimes be below the surface of the rail, and is consequently provided with a length of rope which allows a considerable variation of height without much altering the angle of traction.” The various contrivances that may be employed to ren- der loading and unloading, passing, crossing roads, brcoks, rivers, ravines, &c. easy and simple, are fully described, and illustrated by two beautiful engravings. But the author has not confined his work to a description of his ingenious rail- way alone; he gives some interesting particulars respecting other kinds of railways, with a table of ‘experiments showing the effect produced by a given power on different kinds of rails. Also some very curious remarks on the friction of axles, and a description of an improved dynamometer on a_ principle analogous to that which Coulomb employed to check the irre- gular oscillations of delicately suspended needles in his ex- periments on magnetism. It appears, from the experiments described in the work, that, allowing the force of a horse to be 1501bs, one horse will be capable of drawing about 20 tons upon a Jevel railway on Mr. Palmer’s principle ; on a good hard and !evel turnpike * Our readers will find this principle of stability illustrated in a recent work on the Elements of Natural Philosophy, by Professor Leslie, where it is applied to explain the curious phenomena of rocking or laggan stones. road a horse of the same power could not draw more than about SS a ee ae Notices respecting New Books. 69 about 1} ton; in both cases we suppose the weight of the carriages to form part of the load. A horse will therefore produce 13 times the effect on the new railway that he pom upon a turnpike road. A Second Edition of Dr. Ure’s Dictionary of Chemistry, on the basis of Mr. Nicholson’s, has just made its appearance. We spoke favourably of the First Edition in our 57th volume. The reception it has met with (a large impression having been sold off within two years) justifies “the opinion we then ex- pressed of the w ork. The new Edition, besides several minute corrections, contains numerous additions which, very judiciously, the author has rendered obvious by marking them with a double asterisk. ‘The following are among the new articles: Acids —Butyric, Cevadic, Cholester ic, Delphinic, Ellagic, Formic (factitious), Hydroselenic, Hyponitrous, Iga- suric, lodo-sulphuric, Nitro-lucic, Nitro-saccharic, Phosphatic, Pyromucic, Pyrocitric; Acrospire; Aphanite; Carinthine; Chlorides of Carbon; Chinconina; Electro-magnetism; Geo- logy; Gieseckite; Inulin; Iolite; Kollyrite; Lievrite; Chlo- ride of Lime; Liquefaction of Gases; Moirée Metallique ; Peliom; Piperine; Quinina; Soap; Tea; Trachyte.— Besides these additions, considerable insertions have been made in some of the articles of the former edition. ‘The work as a whole reflects high credit on the author both in respect of his know- ledge and his industry. ————— Preparing for Publication. In the course of the ensuing month will appear the first two volumes of The English Flora; by Sir J. E. Smith, President of the Linnean Society, &c. &c. In 8vo.—So much has been done in Botany since the publication of the learned President’s Flora Britannica and English Botany, especially with regard to natural affinities ; and he has for 30 years past found so much to correct in the characters and synonyms of British plants, that this is announced as an entirely original work. The language also will be reduced to a correct standard ; the genera reformed, and the species defined, from practical observation. We are well persuaded that the expectations of British betanists will not be disappointed. Also, in one vol. 8vo, An easy Introduction to Lamarck’s Arrangement of the Genera of “Shells; with illustrative Re- marks, additional Observations, and a synoptic ‘Table. By Charles Dubois, F.L.S. Berthollet on Dyeing; translated from the last Parisian edition: with Notes, by Andrew Ure, M.D. ¥’.R.S. &c. It is expected that this work will appear at the end of autumn. XIV. Pro- D atOorag NIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. June 6.— PAPER was read containing Remarks on Sec- tions presented by the Rivers Isla, Meleum, Pro- son, and 8. Esk in the county of Forfar, with some general Observations on the Geology of that County: accompanied with Specimens; by Charles Lyell, Esq. Sec. G.S. The county which formed the principal subject of this com- munication is situated on the southern flank of the Grampians ; it is occupied by old red sandstone, grauwacke and argilla- ceous schist, with their associated porphyries. The strata are clearly exposed by the rivers that cut through them. ‘They are very highly inclined, and dip for the most part towards the south. ‘The old red sandstone may be described as con- sisting of two formations of sandstone, with a formation of conglomerate of great thickness interposed between them. An extensive formation of felspar porphyry cccurs in the lower part of the conglomerate ; and it is from the broken and rolled fragments of this porphyry that the conglomerate is for the most part composed. Between the porphyry and the conglomerate a rock prevails ofa mixed character, which seems intermediate between the two, and which it is difficult to describe or ac- count for. The lower red sandstone which is beneath the conglomerate is in many parts seen to be traversed by a mass or dyke of greenstone, which passes into serpentine, in which form it continues through a great part of its course; it lies parallel with the strata. The lower red sandstone, which is for the most part schistose and not of great thickness, alter- nates with grauwacke at its juncture, and the grauwacke with argillaceous schist. A large mass of porphyry, resembling that _ of the Elvans of Cornwall, intersects in one part of the district the superior beds of the grauwacke formation. ‘The paper concludes with some ebservations on the primary rocks of the Grampians in the county of Forfar. June 20.—A Notice was read On some fossil Bones of an Ichthyosaurus, from the Lias near Bristol; also On two new Species of Fossil Teeth: by George Cumberland, Esq. Hon. Mem. G.5. A Letter was read, accompanying some Specimens from Stonehenge, by Godfrey Higgins, Esq. An Extract of a Letter was read from Lieut. J. Short, R.E., addressed to and communicated by Dr. Babington, Pres. G.S., containing some Remarks on the Isle of Bourbon. —The Isle of Bourbon, which is situated about 120 miles from the Mauritius, 4 ‘ | 4 a eo — Geological Society. val Mauritius, and is 150 miles in circumference, appears to be chiefly of volcanic composition. An «active volcano still exists. Although beneath the tropics, perpetual snow and ice cover the summits of some of the mountains, which rise to an elevation of 10,000 feet. Lieut. Short observed basaltic co- lumns of great height exposed in some parts of the island, and found olivine, lava, zeolite and puzzolana abounding through- out the rocks. A Notice was read respecting the Pebbles in the Bed of Clay which covers the new red Sandstone in the South-west of Lancashire, by John Bostock, M.D. V.P.G.S. A Paper was read containing a Description of a Section of the Crag Strata at Bramerton, near Norwich, by Richard Tay- lor, Esq. Communicated by John Taylor, Esq., Treas. G.S. —This Paper was accompanied by a Sketch of the Crag Beds at Bramerton, resting upon the upper Chalk, and a Table was subjoined containing the respective thicknesses of the series of Beds, with a List of such organic Substances as belong to each. A Paper was read On the Geology of Rio de Janeiro, by Alexander Caldcleugh, Esq. M.G.S.—The mountains in the neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro are for the most part com- posed of gneiss, intersected by granite veins. A siliceous sta- lactite was observed by the author to form in this district, from the overhanging masses of gneiss; specimens of which were presented to the Society. As the absence of hot springs makes the occurrence of these stalactites of very considerable interest, Mr. Caldcleugh offers the following hypothesis to explain their formation: The water, which in Brazil constantly trickles down the bare sides of the hills, often reaches a temperature as high as 140° or 150° of Fahr.: this warm water descending on decomposing strata of gneiss, such as is the case with that from which these specimens are taken, seizes the potash of the felspar, and then acts upon the quartz, and forms a siliceous stalactite. Some of the hot springs, or geysers, of Iceland do not reach the boiling point, and perhaps the quantity of silex dissolved, the inverse of what is shown to be the case with car- bonate of lime, may in a great measure depend on the tem- perature of the alkaline solvent. June 27.—A Paper was read, entitled ‘¢ Observations on the Quartz Rock Mountains of the West of Scotland and North of Ireland, more particularly those of Jura, with an Ac- count of the ancient Beaches and Trap Dikes of that Island, accompanied by a Plan and Sections.”—The quartz rock is traced in a succession of districts, from Lerwick in Shetland to the county of Donegal in Ireland, and in Jura the thickness of the mass is estimated at 10,260 feet. ‘The similarity and singularity 72 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. singularity of form assumed by quartzrock mountains, in districts remote from each other, is deduced from the peculiar construc- tion and material of the mountain mass, acted upon by powerful aqueous currents. Quartz rock is of great extent in the county of Donegal, where in one instance it rests immediately on gra-~ nite; and at the murkish mountain contains a bed of pure siliceous sand of considerable thickness.—The author proceeds to notice the ancient beaches of Jura, which appear hitherto to have escaped observation : these occur on both shores of Loch Tarbert, and are disposed in six or seven terraces, rising re- gularly from the present shore, above which the highest is ele- vated about forty feet: the breadth occupied by these beaches in some instances amounts to three-fourths of a mile, and their line or extent has been traced eight or ten miles.—The author concludes with a description and remarks on the trap dikes of Jura: these are extremely numerous, and remarkable for pre- serving courses nearly parallel to each other, and nearly in the line of dip of the quartz rock which they traverse ; which gives occasion for offering some reasons to account for that particu- lar disposition. a ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. March 31.—M. de la Borne exhibited some apparatus for augmenting the Voltaic effects produced in the experiment of M. Seebeck. They consist of a series of bars, alternately of brass and of iron; of conductors of different sizes, one of which is reduced in the middle to a very small thickness, and which are to form a communication between the two ends of the pre- ceding apparatus; and of one piece to form a communication by very fine wires of: different lengths. April 7.—The astronomical observations made at the Ob- servatory at Paramatta by Major-General Sir Thos. Brisbane, Governor of New Holland, and by M. Rumker, were received. —Sir T. Brisbane, in his last letter, speaks in high terms of the climate of the colony, and expresses his wish that some members of the Institute would visit a country which abounds in objects of scientific research. He also states that he is forming a collection of rarities which he intends to present to the Jardin du Roi, and that he is making preparations for the measurement of an arc of the meridian. M. Arago communicated a letter, in which M. Duperrey, now on a voyage in the corvette la Coquille, gives an account of some magnetic observations made by him at sea, and at the isle of St. Catherine. M. de le Borne presented a memoir, entitled A Thermal Electrometor, and formule representing its effect. XV. In- ) XV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. MR. MURRAY ON THE COMBINATION OF PHOSPHORUS WITH SULPHURET OF CARBON AS CONNECTED WITH AN INSTAN- TANEOUS LIGHT, &c. &c. "THE compound resulting from the solution of phosphorus in sulphuret of carbon is one, I should think, capable of being advantageously employed to ascertain slight increments of tem- perature, in eases where it might be difficult to employ other means ; and also as an instantaneous light. It is on these accounts I would now advert to this interesting compound, and to illustrations corroborating the relations re- ferred to. The sulphuret of carbon dissolves, it is known, a very consi- derable quantity of solid phosphorus and still remains liquid. Ata temperature of even minus 80° F’. it inflames—a few crystals of chlorate potassa triturated in contact with a very small por- tion of the triple compound is accompanied by a violent ex- plosion and inflammation. Posited on the end of the condensor in contact with amadon, &c. the simplest pressure, even that of a finger, will be-suffi- cient to inflame it. It kindles on the gentlest friction. The employment of phosphorus per se in experiments of _ the preceding description is to be deprecated as dangerous, be- cause ignited portions are dispersed, burning with great vio- lence, and often inflicting serious injury on the operator ; whereas in the triple compound referred to no such disper- sion ensues. In the small condensing machine for instan- taneous light, a considerable force is necessary as well as a pe- culiar management: tipt with this inflammable material, the experiment may be made ina glass tube. Dropt into chlorine, it exhibits zmmediate flame. Aslip of paper partially moistened with it, on its transit from a medium of nitrous oxide into the free atmosphere, inflames. A bit of paper dipped into the inflammable liquid, and brought in contact with the zodide or chloride of azote, is instantly set on fire, and these violent compounds explode with great force. When a similarly supplied slip is brought very near a portion of fuiminating silver, and this last is touched with sul- phuric acid, explosion ensues, and the inflammable liquid is instantly kindled. ; As far as I have been able to ascertain the fact experi- mentally, it should seem that the light which accompanies the separation and expansion of elemental forms, as in the chloride of azote, possesses an increment of temperattire ; and it ap- Vol. 62. No. 303. July 1823. K pears » 74 On the Influence of Heat on Magnetism, &c. pears to me not improbable that all Light, however attenuated, and by what means soever elicited, is thus attended. Buxton, 2]st May, 1823. J. Murray. MR. MURRAY’S NOTE ON THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT ON MAG- NETISM, &c. Some interesting experiments made before the Royal So- ciety of Edinburgh about the middle of last month, amply con- firm the phenomena which I have already described touching the influence of heat in the deflection of the needle from the magnetic plane. No question can now arise, and I feel grati- fied in having been the first to elucidate and to excite attention to the connexion obtaining between caloric and magnetism. In reference to the same subject, I quote with pleasure the following from some judicious remarks on the magnetic needle published at Genoa by the Baron de Zach. *¢ Si mette una bussola fra due calamite, si lasciano cadere i ragei del sole sulla calamita collocata all’ est, l’ago se ne al- lontanera all’ ouest quando sara scaldata la calamita. I] con- trario avra luogo, scaldando la calamita collocata all’ ouest.” The steel bar presented to me by Professor Morrichini when at Rome, and which had been magnetized by the violet ray of the spectrum, has since 1818 preserved its polarity, and while I now write vibrates in the magnetic plane: it is however not undeserving of remark here, that while its north pole is attracted by the south pole of another needle, and repelled by a north one, its sowth pole is indiscriminately attracted by either pole of a needle, and would thus seem mul. May we anticipate the separation of the two poles, and their insulated and independent exhibitions? That time may come. It would appear from the excellent remarks of the Baron de Zach already quoted from, that Governor Ellis has not been the exclusive observant of the influence of cold on the compass. Perhaps the fact is to be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London: but not having the records of that learned body at this moment at hand, I quote again: “Il capitano inglese Middleton traversando nel 1737 la bajo di Hudson, in mezzo ad immensi ghiacci galeggianti, trovd che tutti gli aghi delle sue bussole aveano perduto il loro movimento, e che si fermavano indifferentamente in tutte le direzioni qualunque, nelle quali si collocavano col dito. Egli porto una di queste bussole agghiacciate nel suo camerino, ma essa non riprese il suo moto se non dopo averla messa vicino al fuoco, e dopo averla ben riscaldata per un quarto d’ora: allora soltanto si gird nella direzione magnetica. Il capitano fu cosi obligato di scaldare ognimezz’ ora tutte le sue bussole,” &c. I amyours, &c. Stranraer, N.B., 10 July 1823. J. Murray. ~T oO Acid Earth of Persia.—Varieties of the Lynx. ACID EARTH OF PERSIA. Lieut. Col. Wright of the royal engineers, who lately came over land from India, brought a small quantity of this natural production from Persia. The natives apply it to the same uses that lemons and limes are used for elsewhere, namely, to make their sherbets, of which considerable quantities are used, they being prohibited the use of wine. The acid earth is found in . great quantities at a village called Daulakie, in the south of Persia, between three and four days’ journey from Bushire on the Persian Gulf. Some analytical experiments made on a few grains of it by W. H. Pepys, Esq. gave the following results :— About one fifth is soluble, by trituration, in boiling distilled water. The solu- tion changes litmus paper and solution of cabbage red. It yields copious precipitates with nitrate and with muriate of barytes—indicating the presence of sulphuric acid. The triple prussiate gave a strong blue precipitate; and the sul- phuret of ammonia a copious blackish brown precipitate— proofs of the presence of iron. The solution, when evaporated nearly to dryness, yielded crystals; which by their figure. and taste seemed to be acidulous sulphate of iron, The earthy matter was not examined,—the principal aim of the experiments being only to ascertain the nature of the free acid in a product so abundant, where it is found, that it might be taken up in cart loads. VARIETIES OF THE LYNX IN THE NORTH OF EUROPE. The subjoined observations on some varieties of the Lynx occurring in the north of Europe are extracted from Mr. De Capell Brooke’s Travels through Sweden, Norway, and Fin- mark, to the North Cape; a work which contains many in- teresting notices respecting the zoology of those countries. They may assist, perhaps, in removing from the history of the smaller feline animals principally characterized by having tufted ears, a portion of that obscurity which seems at present to pervade it. hits “ The lynx of the north, the tiger of the polar countries, is not rare in this part of Norway (the province of Drontheim). In the Norwegian language it is called goupe, and in the north of Sweden it is generally known by the name of waryelue. From the skins of this animal, that were shown to me in dif- ferent parts of Norway and Lapland, three of which differed very materially in their colour, it seems that there are at least as many species or varieties of the lynx. Of one of these Mr. Knudtzon had several. ‘The largest measured five feet in length, not including the tail, which did not exceed an inch andahalf. The colour of them all was gray, with a yellowish tinge, beautifully marked with dark spots, and the ears were K 2 tufted. 76 Mr. Belzoni’s Progress in Africa. tufted. The general price they brought at Drontheim was about five specie dollars, or a pound sterling. This seems to be more peculiar to Norway, as I never observed it during my subsequent travels. Of the two others, which I met with in Lapland and Sweden, one that I saw at Umea measured from the muzzle to the beginning of the tail five feet eleven inches, and the tail was hardly two inches. The appearance _ of the skin in every respect so much resembled that of the leopard, that I should have suspected it to have belonged to this animal, had it not been for its tufted ears, and the length and superior thickness of the fur. The third species which T met with in Swedish Lapland differed also materially from the other two, being of a uniform reddish-brown colour. In length it exceeded five feet. This, which I imagine to be the same as the North American lynx, and the animal most com- monly known by the name of the lynx, I have seen alive in collections in this country, though of a much smaller size, be- ing in appearance not unlike a large cat, but much more ro- bust, and of a thicker make. The variety of names given to the lynx has tended greatly to perplex naturalists, and been the occasion of much confusion respecting this animal; and it seems singular, that although it has been represented as comparatively of small size, the dimensions of those above de- scribed would place it on an equality with the panther; and in length it would greatly exceed both the leopard and the ounce, though its height, which hardly equals that of the wolf, may cause it to appear more diminutive. Its claws, which are not much inferior to those of the tiger, must render it a very formidable antagonist. In the northern forests it preys chiefly upon game, not only winged, but four-footed; and should it chance to come near the abode of man, it will make great ravages in the sheepfold of the farmer.” MR. BELZONI’S PROGRESS IN AFRICA. It must be known to many of our readers that this enter- prising traveller, who made so many valuable discoveries in Egypt and Nubia, is now on another journey in Africa. The following letter was lately received from him by a gentleman belonging to the University of Cambridge : “ ez (Capital of Morocco), 5th May. ** In the short letter I wrote to you from Tangier, dated the 10th of April, I informed you that I had gained permission from His Majesty the Emperor of Morocco to enter his coun- try as far as Fez, and that I had great hopes of obtaining his - permission to penetrate further south. I stated also, notwith- standing the great charges upon my purse, unsupported as I am, =. ee Obituary.—Colonel Lambton. 77 am, and relying entirely on my own resources, that nothing should be left undone before I quitted my attempt. I have now great pleasure in acquainting you, my dear friend, of my safe arrival at Fez, after having been detained at Tangier till a letter had been forwarded from Mr. Douglas, His Britannic Majesty’s Consul at Tangier, to the Minister at Fez, to obtain permission from the Emperor for me to approach his capital. As soon as a favourable answer was received, we started for this place, and in ten days arrived here in safety with my better half, who, having succeeded in persuading me to take her as far as Tangier, has also enforced her influence to proceed to Fez; but this, though much against her will, must be her ne plus ultra. Yesterday, I had the honour to be presented to His Majesty the Emperor, and was highly gratified with his recep- tion of me.—He was acquainted that I had letters of introduc- tion from Mr. Wilmot Horton to the Consul in Tangier, from whom I received the greatest hospitality, and who did all in his power to promote my wishes. ‘The fortunate circum- stance of my having known the Prime Minister of His Majesty whilst at Cairo, on his return from Mecca to this country, is also much in my favour; and though a great deal has been said against my project by the commercial party, particularly by the Jews of this country, who monopolize all the traffic of the interior, I obtained His Majesty’s permission to join the caravan, which will set out for Timbuctoo within one month. If nothing should happen, and if promises are kept, I shall from this place cross the mountains of Atlas to Taflet, where we shall join other parties from various quarters, and from thence, with the help of God, we shall enter the great Sahara to Timbuctoo. Should I succeed in my attempt, I shall add another ‘ votive tablet’ to the Temple of Fortune; and if, on the contrary, my project should fail, one more name will be added to the many others which have fallen into the river of Oblivion. Mrs. Belzoni will remain at Tez till she hears of my departure from Taflet, which place is 18 or 20 days’ journey from hence*; and as soon as that fact is ascertained, she will return to England.” OBITUARY.—Lievr.-Cor. Wittiam Lampsron. We have again to perform a painful duty, in recording the loss of an officer of distinguished worth and high talent. Lieut. Colonel William Lambton, superintendent of the Grand Tri- gonometrical Survey in India, died on the 20th ult. while pro- ceeding in the execution of his duty from Hydrabad towards Nagpoor, at Hingin Ghaut, 50 miles south of the latter place. The Annals of the Royal and Asiatic Society bear ample * 'Taflet is 340 miles south of Tez. P tesumony 78 Obituary.—Colonel Lambton. testimony to the extent and importance of the labours of Co- lonel Lambton, in his measurement of an arc of the meridian in India, extending from Cape Comorin, in lat. 8. 23. 10. to a new base line, measured in lat. 21. 6., near the village of Takoorkera, 15 miles S.E. from the city of Ellichpore, a di- stance exceeding that measure by the English and French Geometers, between the parallels of Greenwich and Tormen- tara in the Island of Minorca. It was the intention of Colonel Lambton to have extended the arc to Agra, in which case the meridian line would have passed at short distances from Bhopaul, Serange, Nurwur, Gualiar, and Dholpore. At his advanced age, he despaired of health and strength remaining for further exertion; other- wise it cannot be doubted that it would have been a grand object of his ambition to have prolonged it through the Dooab, and across the Himalays, to the 32d degree of north latitude. If this vast undertaking had been achieved, and that it may yet be completed is not improbable, British India will have to boast of a much larger unbroken meridian line than has been before measured on the surface of the globe. Though the measurement of the Arc of the Meridian was the principal object of the labours of Colonel Lambton, he extended his operations to the East and West, and the set of triangles covers great part of the Peninsula of India, defining with the utmost precision the situation of a very great number of principal places in latitude, longitude, and elevation; and affording a sure basis for an amended Geographical Map, which is now under preparation. The triangulation also con- nects the Coromandel and Malabar coasts in numerous im- portant points, thus supplying the best means of truly laying down the shape of those coasts, and rendering an essential service to navigation. ; It was the Colonel’s intention to have himself carried the meridian line as far north as Agra, and he detached his first assistant, Captain Everest, of the Bengal Artillery, to extend a series of triangles westward to Bombay, and when that ser- vice should be completed eastward to Point Palmyras, and probably Fort William, by which extensive and arduous ope- ration, the three Presidencies of India would be connected, and several obvious advantages gained to geography and navi- gation. But it is in the volumes of the proceedings of various learned Societies, that the accounts of the labours of this ve- teran philosopher, whose loss we lament, must be looked for, and who for 22 years carried on his operations in the ungenial climate with unabated zeal and perseverance, and died full of years and conscious of a well deserved reputation.— Madras Gazette, Feb. 25, 1823. LIST — a en List of New Patents. 79 LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To John Moncrieffe Willoughby, of Fair-street, Horsleydown, Surrey, gentleman, for certain improvements in the construction of vessels, so as to enable them to sail with greater velocity.—Dated 26th June, 1823.— 6 months allowed to enrol specification. To John Green, of Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, whitesmith, for certain machines used for roving, spinning, and twisting cotton, flax, silk, wool, or other fibrous substances.— 26th June.—6 months. To William Vere, of Crown-row, Mile-end Old-town, in the parish of Stepney, Middlesex, engineer ; and Henry Samuel Crane, of Stratford, in the parish of Westham, Essex, manufacturing chemist; for their improve- ments in the manufacture of inflammable gas.—30th June.—6 months. To Thomas Wolrich Stansfeld, of Leeds, Yorkshire, worsted manufac- turer; Henry Briggs, of Luddendenfoot, in the parish of Halifax, in the said county, worsted manufacturer; William Richard, of Leeds aforesaid, engineer; and William Barraclough, of Burley, in the parish of Lecds afore- said, worsted manufacturer ; for their improvements in the construction of looms for weaving fabrics composed wholly, or in part, of woollen, worsted, cotton, linen, silk, or other materials, and in the machinery and implements for, and methods of working the same.—5th July.—6 months. To George Clymer, of Finsbury-street, Finsbury-square, Middlesex, me- chanic, for certain improvements in agricultural ploughs—5th July.— 6 months. To John Fisher, of Great Bridge, in the parish of Westbromwich, Staf- fordshire, iron-founder, and John Horton the younger, of the same place, manufacturers of steam boilers, for improvements in the construction of boilers for steam engines, and other purposes where steam is required.— 8th July.—2 months. : To Stephen Fairbanks, of the United States of America, but now resid- ing in Norfolk-street, Strand, Middlesex, merchant, who, in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, is in possession of an invention of certain improvements in the construction of locks and other fastenings.—10th July.—6 months. To John Leigh Bradbury, of Manchester, Lancashire, calico-printer, for improvements in the art of printing, painting, or staining silk, cottons, woollen, and other cloths, and paper, parchment, vellum, leather, and other substances, by means of blocks or surface ;rinting.—15th July.— 6 months, To Bennington Gill, of Birmingham, Warwickshire, merchant, who, in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner resid- ing abroad, is in possession of certain improvements in the construction of saws, Cleavers, straw-knives, and all kinds of implements that require or ad- mit of metallic backs.—15th July.— 6 months. To Sir Isaac Coffin, of Pall-mall, Middlesex, Baronet, admiral of the “white squadron, who, in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, is in possession of a certain method or methods of catching or taking mackarel and other fish—15th July.— 6 months. To William Palmer, of Lothbury, London, paper-hanger, for his improve- ments in machinery applicable to printing on calico, or other woven fabrics composed wholly or in part of cotton, linen, wool, or silk,—5th July. 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It was next placed on the right side: here it descended. _ Exp. 8. And finally, when it was brought above the wire, it passed off to the right: which may be represented by Fig. 2, in which it will be seen that the motions of the needle at the positive wire are the reverse of those at the negative wire: and if the south end of the needle be made use of, all the above effects are reversed; from which it must appear, that there was an evident tendency of the needle to rotate round the positive and negative wires, but-in opposite directions. £xp. 9. Having shown, in a lecture which I delivered be- fore the above Society, that when an electrical discharge of a battery of five jars, equal to twenty-one coated feet, was made to traverse a helix which was coiled from left to right, and which contained pieces of steel, it not only communicated to them magnetic properties, but their north poles were directed towards the posztive side of the battery. xp. 10. But when a helix coiling in a different direction was used, the north poles of the pieces of steel were directed towards the negative side of the battery. I was desirous of showing the analogous effects of common and Voltaic electricity, not only in communicating magnetism to Mr. J. Tatum on Electro-Magnetism. 109 to pieces of steel, but as respects the direction of their poles; for which purpose, Exp. 11, I inclosed a piece of steel in a helix similar to Exp. 9, which connected the copper and zinc side of the appa- ratus (described in your last number): in afew moments it be- came magnetic, and its north pole was towards the zine or positive side of the apparatus. Lixp. 12. Another piece of steel was inclosed in a helix coiled from right to left. After a few moments it was examined, when its north pole was found to be towards the copper or negative side of the apparatus: so that it appears evident that the poles of the steel, rendered magnetic by either common or Voltaic electricity, are determined by the direction of the coils of the helices. I cannot help noticing the similarity which appears to exist between the direction in which it is necessary for the electrical current to traverse, in order to render ferruginous bodies mag- netic, and the direction in which I suppose the magnetic influ- ence traverses in magnetic bodies. I am aware that pieces of steel may have been rendered mag- netic by passing an electrical charge across them; but I have never produced such powerful magnets by this means as by the use of the helix ; indeed the experiment has been rather uncer- tain, but after all it is but an imperfect modification of the helix. I am fully sensible that an erroneous theory may be ad- vanced to explain the phenomena of experiments, and I am not so partial to my opinion as to znszst that I may not labour under some mistaken idea; but I cannot- conceive how those movements are produced on the dipping needle, rotatory ap- paratus, &c., if the magnetic fluid passes in straight lines from one part of the needle to the other, or from one part of the connecting wire of the Voltaic apparatus to the other; for, let us suppose AB, Fig. 3, to represent a part of the above wire, and that the magnetic fluid passes in a straight line from A to B; and let CD represent one end of a dipping needle, in which the fluid passes from C to D—what can occasion the needle to descend in the direction from 1 to 2 when on one side of the wire, but to ascend in the direction from 2 to 1 when on the other side of the wire; and also to move from right to left when above the wire, but from left to right when below it; and further, that these effects are reversed, if we reverse either the poles of the wire or those of the needle? But if it be granted that the fluid rotates, as I have sug- gested, then, to me at least, those movements and rotations are easily explained. I am, Gentlemen, yours, Xc. Dorset Street. J. Tatum. Erratum—In Mr. Tatum’s last paper, vol. 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An Account of the remarkable Accumulation of the Exuvie of Bears, in a Cave at Ktihloch in Franconia. By Professor BuckLanp*. § ieee cave of Kiuhloch (in Franconia), is more remark- able than all the rest, as being the only one I have ever seen, excepting that of Kirkdale, in which the animal re- mains have escaped disturbance by diluvial action; and the only one also in which I could find the black animal earth, said by other writers to occur so generally, and for which many of them appear to have mistaken the diluvial sediment in which the bones are so universally imbedded. ‘The only thing at all like it, that I could find in any of the other ca- verns, were fragments of highly decayed bone, which oc- curred in the loose part of the diluvial sediment in the caves of Scharzfeld and Gailenreuth; but in the cave of Kuhloch it is far otherwise. It is literally true that in this single cavern (the size and proportions of which are nearly equal to those of the interior of a large church) there are hundreds of cart loads of black animal dust entirely covering the whole floor, to a depth which must average at least six feet, and which, if we multiply this depth by the length and breadth of the cavern, will be found to exceed 5000 cubic feet. The whole of this mass has been again and again dug over in search of teeth and bones, which it still contains abundantly, though in broken fragments. The state of these is very different from that of the bones we find in any of the other caverns, being of a black, or, more properly speaking, dark umber colour throughout, and many of them readily crumbling under the finger into a soft dark powder, resembling mummy powder, and being of the same na- ture with the black earth in which they are imbedded. The quantity of animal matter accumulated on this floor is the most surprising, and the only thing of the kind I ever witnessed ; and many hundred, I may say thousand, individuals must have con- tributed their remains to make up this appalling mass of the dust of death. It seems in great part to be derived from comminuted and pulverised bone; for the fleshy parts of animal bodies pro- duce by their decomposition so small a quantity of permanent earthy residuum, that we must seek for the origin of this mass principally in decayed bones. The cave is so dry, that the black earth lies in the state of loose powder, and rises in dust under the * This article is extraeted from the section on the Caves in Franconia in Professor Buckland’s “‘Religuie Diluviane,” lately published ; of which in- teresting work, and several recent memoirs on subjects connected with those which are discussed in it, we purpose to give analyses in our next, feet : Prof. Buckland on the Exuvie of Bears at Kiihloch. 113 feet: it also retains so large a proportion of its original animal matter, that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an en- riching manure for the adjacent meadows*. The exterior of this cavern presents a lofty arch, in a nearly perpendicular cliff, which forms the left flank of the gorge of the Esbach, opposite the Castle of Rabenstein. The depth of the valley below it is less than 30 feet, whilst above it the hill rises rapidly, and sometimes precipitously, to 150 or 200 feet. This narrow valley or gorge is simply a valley of denudation, by which the waters of the Esbach fall into those of the Weissent. The breadth of the entrance arch is about 30 feet, its height 20 feet. As we advance inwards the cave increases in height and breadth, and near its inner extremity divides into two large and lofty chambers, both of which terminate in a close round end, or cul de sac, at the distance of about 100 feet from the entrance. It is intersected by no fissures, and has no lateral communications connecting it with any other caverns, except one small hole close to its mouth, and which opens also to the valley.' These circumstances are important, as they will assist to explain the peculiarly undisturbed state in which the interior of this cavern has remained, amid the dilu- vial changes that have affected so many others. The inclina- tion of the floor, for about 30 feet nearest the mouth, is very considerable, and but little earth is lodged upon it; but further in, the interior of the cavern is entirely covered with a mass of dark brown or blackish earth, through which are dissemi- nated in great abundance the bones and teeth of bears and other animals, and a few small fragments of limestone, which have probably fallen from the roof; but I could find no rolled pebbles. The upper portion of this earth seems to be mixed up with a quantity of calcareous loam, which, before it had been disturbed, by digging, probably formed a bed of diluvial sediment over the animal remains; but as we sink deeper, the earth gets blacker, and more free from loam, and seems wholly composed of decayed animal matter. There is no appearance of either stalactite or stalagmite having ever existed within this cavern. In some of the particulars here enumerated, there is an ap- ~ parent inconsistency with the phenomena of other caverns; but the differences are such as arise from the particular position * I have stated, that the total quantity of animal matter that lies within this cavern cannot be computed at less than 5000 cubic feet. Now allowing two cubic feet of dust and bones for each individual animal, we shall have in this single vault the remains of at least 2500 bears, a number which may have been supplied in the space of 1000 years, by a mortality at the rate of two and a haf pet annum, Vol. 62. No. 304. Aug. 1823, Pr and 114 Prof. Buckland on the Exuvie of Bears at Kihloch. and circumstances of the cave at Kihloch: the absence of pebbles, and the presence of such an enormous mass of animal dust, are the anomalies I allude to; and both these circum- stances indicate a less powerful action of diluvial waters within this cave than in any other, excepting Kirkdale. To these waters, however, we must still refer the introduction of the brown loam, and the formation or laying open of the present mouth of the cavern; from its low position so near the bottom of the valley, this mouth could not have been exposed in its present state, and indeed must have been entirely covered un- der the solid rock, till all the materials that lay above it had been swept away, and the valley cut down nearly to its present base; and as the cave ends inwardly in a cul de sac, and there is no vertical fissure, or any other mode of access to it, but by the present mouth, if we can find therein any circumstances that would prevent the admission of pebbles from without, or the removal of the animal remains from within, the cause of the anomaly we are considering will be explained. The throat of the cave, by which we ascend from the mouth to the in- terior, is highly inclined upwards, so that neither would any pebbles that were drifting on with the waters that excavated the valley, ascend this inclined plane to enter the cave, nor would the external currents, however rapidly rushing by the outside of the mouth, have power to agitate (except by slight eddies in the lower part of the throat) the still waters that would fill the bottom of the cavern, and which being there quiescent, would, as at Kirkdale, deposit a sediment from the mud suspended in them upon the undisturbed remains of what- ever kind that lay on the floor. From its low position, it is also probable that this vault formed the deepest recess of an extensive range of inhabited caves, to which successive genera- tions of antediluvian bears withdrew themselves from the tur- bulent company of their fellows, as they felt sickness and death approaching; the habit of domesticated beasts and birds to retire and hide themselves on the approach of death, renders it probable that wild and savage animals also do the same. The unusual state of decay of the teeth and bones in this black earth may be attributed to the exposed state of this cavern arising from its large mouth and proximity to the external at- mosphere, and to the absence of that protection which in closer and deeper caves they have received, by being secluded from such exposure, or imbedded in more argillaceous earth, or in- vested with and entirely sealed up beneath a crust of Sta- lagmite. III. O0- * ww pl opyg XXIII. Observations upon the Cadmia found at the Ancram Lron-Works in Columbia County, New-York, erroneously supposed to be a new Mineral. By Wm. H. Keatine*. N the second number of the first volume of the New-York Medical and Physical Journal, Dr. Torrey has published a description and analysis of a substance, which he considered as a new mineral, and for which he proposed the name of green oxide of zine: a specimen of this substance having been handed to me last spring, I immediately recognised it to be similar in its nature and appearance to a product of the iron furnaces of Belgium, which has been described by Mr. Boues- nel in the “ Journal des Mines,” (vol. xxix. p. 35) under the name of Cadmia. Having had an opportunity of collecting on the spot} the most satisfactory proofs in support of my opinion, I beg leave to offer to the Academy the following account of this substance. It was first noticed at Ancram in the year 1812, when it was found in pulling down a stone wall connected with the iron furnace, which belongs to General Livingston, and is now under the direction of Walter Patterson, Esq. It excited some interest among the mineralogists of New-York, but no public notice was taken of it until lately. Mr. Bouesnel’s obser- vations on this subject are very full; these and a few short notes by Messrs. Collet Descotils, Heron de Villefosse and Berthier in the Journal and in the Annales des Mines, are the only notices of it I have ever met with; I sought in vain for a men- tion of it in English works. The cadmia of Belgium is a new and rare metallurgical product, which is formed in iron fur- naces about five or six feet below their orifice, and immediately under the charge; it there forms an annular disk or ring, which increases continually in thickness, and which, if not re- moved, would choke the furnace; it forms in the Belgian fur- naces, according to Mr. Bouesnel, a ring of about sixteen inches in height, offering in the profile or vertical section, a cutvilineal triangle, the base of which rests upon the sides of the furnace; and the apex which corresponds with its greatest breadth, is but little distant from the lower part of the ring, so that the triangle appears in some cases almost rectangular.” I have seen a piece found at Ancram, which presented tole- rably well the above described characters, and corresponded exactly with Mr. Bouesnel’s description; like the European, * Silliman’s American Journal of Science, &c. vol. vi. p. 180, from the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. i, Part Il. + These observations were made during a short visit to Ancram, in com- pany with Mr. Vanuxem, who likewise, at the first inspection, recognised this substance to be cadmia, f P2 it 116 Mr. W. H. Keating on the Cadmia found at it was found in tabular masses, presenting in many cases a distinct slaty structure. The substance has often a striped aspect; its colour is grayish, inclining to yellow, green or black. The specific gravity of the European is 5°25, of the American 4°92; this difference is not very great, and may in part be accounted for, by the fact that the former contains a small quantity of lead, which varies from 274 to 6:0 per 100-0. The chemical analysis of this substance made in New-York, has rendered it unnecessary for me to undertake that which I proposed making. I shall merely add a comparative view of the results of the analyses, made upon the European and American. Bouesnel. Drappier. Berthier. Torrey. Oxide of zinc 90°71 940 870i FESS lead 6°0 Q°4 4°9 iron 1°6 2°6 3°6 3°5 Carbon 1:0 0°5 0°6 1:0 Silex, earths, sand, &c.1°8 3°4 - 100°5 99°5 99°5 98°0 These analyses present a remarkable coincidence, except in the presence of lead in the European, and its absence in the American cadmia; but this difference is of no importance; in Belgium Mr. Bouesnel tells us that the iron ore is visibly in- termixed with lead ore, and this accounts for its existence in the cadmia; we are also told that lead is found there in the furnaces below the metallic iron. It is not difficult to account for the presence of zine with the iron ore; for in examining the ore bed at Salisbury (14 miles east of the furnace) we ascer- tained that the hematite was found in the side of a hill, incum- bent upon the schist, and, as it were, incased in the decomposed part of it, and that the adjoining schist was very much broken up and altered: it does not appear that the hematite is the re- sult of infiltration alone, for masses of micaceous iron ore are found connected with it, which appear to indicate that it re- sults, in part at least, from the decomposition of oxidule or oligist iron ore. We know that this schist contains blende or sulphuret of zinc, in some places at least, as at the Ancram lead-works, and this may account for the presence of zine. Mr. Bouesnel has endeavoured to explain the formation of these cadmia, in a manner which does not appear to me to be satisfactory. I would rather admit that it results from a reduc- tion of the oxide or carbonate of zinc, which is intermixed in small quantities with the iron ore; that this reduction takes place in the furnace ; that the zinc sublimes and oxidates as it rises, and settles in the form of a ring at the infefior part of the the Ancram Iron-Works in Columbia County, New-York. 117 the charge, where the temperature of the furnace is consi- derably lowered by the successive additions of cold ore, char- coal, &c. This substance is not, it is true, found at present forming in the Ancram furnace; but this may in a great measure be owing to a better roasting of the ore, previous to its introduc- tion into the furnace. It may also be occasioned by the cir- cumstance that all the ore destined for Ancram is picked with great care at the ore bed. I must not, however, omit to state, that I found in the flue erected above the orifice of the furnace, for the protection of the workmen, a red, pulverulent sub- stance, to which the workmen have given the name of sulphur, a name which, as the editor of the Emporium has well ob- served, has been most unfortunately given by furnace and forge men, to every product which puzzles them, and without any regard to its real composition: this powder I supposed to be a mixture of ashes and fine ore, blown out of the furnace by the rapid current of air; I conceived that if there was any zine with the ore, it would be likely to be detected in this sub- stance; accordingly I found by analysis, about eight per cent. of oxide of zinc, a quantity much greater than I expected. It would require a more accurate study of the progress of the furnace than I could make in two days, and a better know- ledge of the methods formerly in use, to determine why cad- mia are not formed there at present, as they were formerly. Dr. Torrey has, I believe, never visited Ancram, and the in- formation which he received on the subject may have led him into error. For instance, he was misinformed (I think) when he stated, that “it was found when taking down one of the old walls of the furnace erected in the year 1744.” We were told by Mr. Patterson, that it had never been found but in taking down a wall connected with the furnace, and which having been built after the furnace, may have contained mate- rials which had been extracted from it at different times. This observation is of more importance than it at first appears; for if, as Mr. Patterson told us, the Ancram furnace was the first erected in the colonies of North America, or at least the first in the province of New-York, and if, according to Dr. Torrey, the cadmia had been found in the wall of the first furnage erected, the substance must have pre-existed to any furnace known to have been erected there, which we think is not the case, But, in addition to all the above-mentioned proofs, and to those which might be drawn from the circumstance of its being found in the vicinity of a furnace, I have been able to obtain the evidence of men to the fact of its having been formed in it. Having 118 Mr. Keating on Cadmia found in Iron-furnaces. Having been informed that ore from the same bed was used at the works belonging to Messrs. Holley and Coffing, near Salisbury, I repaired there with a hope of finding the cadmia near that furnace also. After a short search, I found it in its immediate vicinity, and was informed by Mr. Holley, that he had himself taken it out of his furnace about twelve years ago, when they renewed the stack. He was positive that it was the same; that it had been found about six feet below the ori- fice of the furnace, and that if not occasionally removed, it would have eventually choked it. I even understood him or his partner to say, that this substance was even at present oc- casionally formed in the furnace in pieces of almost oue-eighth of an inch in thickness. One of the reasons why it is still formed at Salisbury, and not at Ancram, is probably owing to the ore used at Ancram being picked, and the other not. Mr. Patterson thinks his ore is also better roasted. According to Mr. Heron de Villefosse, a similar substance is formed in the copper and lead furnaces of Julius, Sophia, and Ocker, near Goslar, in the Hartz. At Goslar, as well as at Jemmapes in Belgium, this cadmia is considered as the best material that could be used in the manufacture of brass; as it is purer than the roasted calamine, it is preferred to it, as well as to all other zinciferous substances. It had not, I believe, been used in Belgium before Mr. Bouesnel described _ it. Should it be found in any quantity at our furnaces, it would no doubt be equally advantageous to work it with copper for brass. This substance has not yet been observed in many places. 1 believe the only spot where it has been noticed, in addition to the above mentioned, is at Verrieres, in France, where I discovered it in the year 1819*. I am inclined to think that if more care were taken by our iron-masters in observing the progress of their furnaces, and the products which they yield, * As no account of the cadmia of Verrieres has as yet been published, 1 shall here add the note which I made on the subject in my journal. “ July 6, 1819. I visited the furnace of Verrieres, in the department de Ja Vienne, in France. The director mentioned that his ore was good, and that the iron it produced was likewise good. He complained, however, of a substance which formed in the furnace, five fect below its orifice; it was in the form ofaring. It would, he said, have choked the furnace if not removed, which at times was a difficult undertaking. I mentioned to him that it appeared to be analogous to the cadmia of Belgium. The speci- mens which I took with me were heavy, compact, and of a dark colour.” —I have not had an opportunity of analysing them since; but my suspi- cions on this subject were confirmed, when, on returning to Paris in the autumn of 1820, I was informed that the engineer of mines De Cressac had discovered calamine in that vicinity the year before. it Mr. J. Utting on Planetary Motion. 119 it might be found in many other places; certainly it must have been formed in the old Franklin furnace, in Sussex county New-Jersey, where so many fruitless attempts were made to work the Franklinite. Before I conclude these remarks, I must observe, that it does not appear that the presence of zinc affects the properties ofiron. In Belgium the iron is of good quality; and it is an interesting fact, that the bar-iron of Ancram is in ereat de- mand at 2120 per ton, a higher price than is at present paid for any imported iron. The castings from the Ancram fur- nace are in such a repute, that no other pigs are used at the West Point Foundry for the heavy guns (32 and 42 pounders) now casting for the United States’ navy. The Ancram furnace equals, in beauty of workmanship, and economy of means, any that we have seen; and we entertain no doubt, that all works carried on with such admirable per- fection, must and will always prove equally honourable and profitable to their owners and directors. XXIV. On a Planetary Analogy; or a Law of Motion pervading and connecting all the Planetary Orbits. By Mr. J. Urtine. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Lynn Regis, June 21, 1823. HE following beautiful analogy which obtains in the mo- tions of the planetary orbs has, I believe, never been de- scribed by any astronomical writer, or is not generally known, viz. If the mean orbicular motion of each planet in its orbit, be multiplied by the square root of its mean distance from the sun, a product will be obtained common to all the planets: for instance, if the orbicular motion in miles of each planet in one sidereal day, be multiplied by the square root of its mean distance from the sun, the product will be 15.634.588.170 miles, a constant quantity for all the planets, as the mean velocity of the planets, multiplied by the square root of their respective mean distance, is always a constant quantity. The same analogy obtains in each respective system of sa- tellites; for, if the velocity of a satellite be multiplied by the square root of its mean distance from its primary, a constant product will also be produced in each respective system of satellites; and if this constant product be multiplied by the square root of the reciprocal of the sun’s attractive power, and that of their respective primaries, the same result will be pro- duced as that which obtains in the planetary motions, as above. Thus a constant product, or quantity, obtains in the motions of 120 Mr. J. Utting on a Planetary Analogy of the planets, and their respective systems of satellites, ex- tending to the whole planetary system, resulting from the periodic times and mean distances of the planets, with the periodic times and mean distances of their satellites, com- pounded with the attractive power of the sun, as compared with that of the primary planets, around which each respec- tive system of satellites circulates ; viz. Let V, V’, V”, &c. represent the velocities of the planets in their orbits; and ./D, /D’, ./D”, &c. the square roots of their mean distances from the sun. Let also v, v’, v’, &c. repre- sent the velocities of their respective satellites; and the Vd, Jd’, a”, &c. the square roots of their mean distances from their primaries. Let the square root of the sun’s attrac- tive power, that of each planet being unity, be denoted by fm, fm, /m’, &e. respectively. Whence we have Vx /D=V’x /D’=V” X VD” &c. a constant quantity for the primary planets. And v x /d= v x/d' =v" x ,/d’, &e. a constant quantity for each respective system of satellites. Also, vx ./d x ./m.=v x Jd’ x f/m.= vw’ x fd’ x /m’, &c. a constant quantity equal to that in the y y" : first analogy. Whence Seti Dasha = ut Mah aie = UX SAX f/m UX Jd X f/m yr " Bal B == Or Ook. ee vx Jd! x fm" The following general analogy also obtains, viz. As V:W:: /D’: /D; also as viv:: fd’: /d &c. where the product of the two extreme terms will always be equal to the product of the two mean ones, whatever may be the planets or satellites fixed on. The following table exhibits the result of my calculations in elucidation of this analogy. Tabular View of the Analogy which obtains in the Planetary System. 4344°4468810| 488-908265 | 1066:09} 32-6510J22111-27 x 707087 = 15634588170 10787°7763273) 896517987 | 3512°08| 59:2628}29941°91 x 522164= 15634588170 30772°7323350) 1803-218792 | 19504: | 139-6567142464:32 x 368182 =15634588170 | Mass of Square | Velocity al. the © | Square | root of | in one Constant 2 |Sidereal periods, Mean dist. | each | root of | mean | sidereal | product in = | insid. days. in miles. | planet | the ©’s§ dist. in | day in miles, Py =A pe nas miles. | miles. ce) $5:2101005].....36°387308 | ccsierss, «beyycenees 6032'19 x 2591860 = 15634588170 2 22573150734) 1077908235) |\...c2screisl: biaseses 8245-80 x 1896067 = 15634588170 @ | 3662563835! 94000000 337102: | 580-605 | 9695:36 x 1612585 = 15634588170 G | 6888604607) 143:227108} ...... | cesses 11967-75 x 1306393 = 15634588170 Y h HL Satel- Mr. J. Utting on a Planetary Analogy. 121 Satellite of the Earth. Velo- Constant Mean | Square |city in | product for | Square | Constant Sid. period | dist. in} root of |onesid.| each system | root of | product in in sid. days. | miles, |meandist.| dayin | of satellites | the ©’s miles. in miles, | miles. in miles. mass, 27°3964021| 239780) 489°674 x 54992 = 26928100 > 580-605 = 15634588170 Satellites. Satellites of Jupiter. 1:7739813} 263410] 513-239 x 932975 = 478839200 x 32°6510 = 15634588170 3°5609034| 419160| 647-426 x 739605 = 478839200 x 32:6510 =15634588170 7:1741405} 668630] 817-699 x 585594 = 478839200 x 32-6510 = 15634588170 16-7344602}1176020)1084-444 x 441553 =478839200 x 32°6510 = 15634588170 Satellites, and Ring of Saturn. 0°9452910; 116360] 341:112 x 773406 = 263818000 x 59°2628 = 15634588170 1-3739915| 149300| 386-400 x 682760 = 263818000 x 59°2628 = 15634588170 18929684] 184860) 429-965 x 613595 = 263818000 x 59°2628 = 15634588170 2°7469802) 236950] 486°775 x 541973 =263818000 x 59-2628 = 15634588170 4°5298580) 330730] 575:091 x 458741 =263818000 x 59°2628 = 15634588170 159889550) 766710) 875°618 x 301293 =263818000 x 59°2628 = 15634588170 795467885) 2234420/1494-798 x 176491 =263818000 x 59-2628 =15634588170 0°4402692| 69914) 264°412 x 997754=263818000 x 59-2628 = 15634588170 Satellites of Uranus. 59087328) 222960] 472°186 x 237089 = 111950150 x 139°6567 = 15634588170 8-7306375| 289240] 537°812 x 208159 = 111950150 x 139°6567 = 15634588170 10°9911093| 337230] 580-714 x 192780 =111950150 x 139:6567 = 15634588170 13°4927396| 386630] 621-797 x 180043 = 111950150 x 139°6567 = 15634588170 38:1792417| 773480| 879-476 x 127292 = 111950150 x 139°6567 = 15634588170 107°9892458|1546980/1243:775 x 90008 =111950150 x 139°6567 = 15634588170 Notre.—tThe periodic times of the planets and satellites were taken from the fourth edition of Laplace’s Systéme du Monde, the time being converted from solar to sidereal days in the proportion of 1:0027378 to 1._The mass or attractive power of the sun, and planets, was also taken from the same work, from which with the periodic time, and constant product, the distances of all the satellites from their primaries were computed. The distance of the ring of Saturn, is the distance from the centre of the planet to the centre of attraction in the cylinder of the ring, or the centre of gravity of a satellite, supposing all the particles of matter in the ring to be condensed into a globular form, and whose sidereal period is equal to that of the ro- tation of the ring. XXV. State of the Thermometer at Smyrna for every Day in the Year 1820 (being the Year of the great Eclipse, and Leap- year,) taken in the Shade four times every Day ; viz. 9 A.M., Noon, 6 P.M., Midnight. Communicated from Smyrna by a Correspondent to Dr. T. Forster. Vol. 62. No. 304, Aug. 1823. Q JANU- State of the Thermometer at Smyrna “VNUAWS LY YALANOWUAHL IHL AO ALVIS 0G | a c¢ | F¢ €¢- | o¢ OF | 8 | LF | GE oo | 0¢ 68 | 9F | Sh | SF Of | 6F oy | Sb | oh | LF 0S | 6F 6F | OF | €¢ | O¢ [¢ | 0¢ 0G | #¢ | 9¢ | 6F 0G | o¢ 0g | €¢ | Sco | GP 9¢ | Le 0¢ | €¢ | Go | 6F g¢ | o¢ o0¢ | If | 0G | SF 0S | 6F SF | 6b | Lr | 8F Pr. | CF 6h | LE | 8P | LP CY | tF SF | 0S | If | a? SP | Lr s¢ | ¢9 | $9 | Le sr | LY 6¢ | 79 | ¢9 | 8g 67 | 0S 8¢ | 69 | 29 | Le Fg | €¢ 09 | a 09 | 98 e¢ | o¢ 09.| €9 | 09 | 98 €¢ | a¢ 09 | ¢9 | 09 | ¢¢ 1¢ | 0¢ c¢ | G9 | @ 09 €¢ | FS 09 | $9 | & s¢ Ig | aS ¢¢ | oO | 09 | og 6F |} 0S I¢ | ¢¢ | FS | GF oc | €¢ 0G | Fo | o¢ | LF €¢| G& 6F | GF | OF | 8P €F | ¥V 6F | OF | as | OS GF | OF 0g | Fe | 9G | Ss oP | 6€ FE | 9¢ | 8S.) gs GY | 6& oo | sg | Ze | Lb lé | 8& 8h | ee | 0° | FF BRE | aPR OF | 6F | 8h | €F_ l=) for) s |: | 8 | 2 “HOUVIN “AUV ONE “AUVONVE a OleO Tig crmeDa 1820 Year in the ay every D, or J “dad WaALdas lrmw Dw ihw ® Pw 1D H 1919 Is Ds Ds Ds IDs Ds Ds Ps PS DS | "WONG om oD OD & XXVI. No- ™~ QR ao be wl Qn ic} 2 S =D ae ial et Q a] Col lool |= oer Han ow aS Q2 f..124° 4 XXVI. Notice of the Fusion of Plumbago, or Graphite, (commonly called Black Lead,) in a Letter from Professor Sriuiman to Professor Ropert Hare, M.D. Dated March 26, 1823.* | a former letter published in my Journal, (vol. v. p. 108,) and in an additional notice, (p. 361 same vol.) I gave an ac- count of the fusion and volatilization of charcoal, by the use of your Galvanic Deflagrator. Ihave now to add, that the fusion of plumbago was accomplished yesterday by the same instru- ment, and that I have again obtained the same results to-day. For this purpose, froma piece of very fine and beautiful plum- bago, from North Carolina, I sawed small parallelopipeds, about one eighth of an inch in diameter, and from three fourths of an inch to one inch and a quarter in length : these were sharpened at one end, and one of them was employed to point one pole of the deflagrator, while the other was terminated by prepared charcoal. Plumbago being in its natural state a conductor, (although inferior to prepared charcoal,) a spark was readily obtained, but in no instance of half the energy which belongs to the instrument when in full activity ; for the zinc coils were very much corroded, and some of them had failed and dropped out; still the influence was readily convey- ed through the remaining coils. As my hopes of success, in the actual state of the instrument, were not very sanguine, I was the more gratified to find a decided result in the very first trial. To avoid repetitions, I will generalise the results. The best were obtained when the plumbago was connected with the copper, and prepared charcoal with the zinc pole. The spark was vivid, and globules of melted plumbago could be discerned, even in the midst of the ignition, forming and formed upon the edges of the focus of heat. In this region also there was a bright scintillation, evidently owing to combustion, which went on where air had free access, but was prevented by the vapour of carbon, which occupied the highly luminous re- gion of the focus, between the poles, and of the direct route between them. Just on and beyond the confines of the ignited portion of the plumbago, there was formed a belt of a reddish brown colour, a quarter of an inch or more in diameter, which appeared to be owing to the iron remaining from the com- bustion of the carbon of that part of the piece, and which, being now oxidized to a maximum, assumed the usual colour of the peroxide of that metal. In various trials, the globules were formed very abundantly * Silliman’s Journal, vol. vi. p. 341. on Professor Silliman on the Fusion of Plumbago. 125 on the edge of the focus, and in several instances were stud- ded around so thickly, as to resemble a string of beads, of which the largest were of the size of the smallest shot; others were merely visible to the naked eye, and others still were mi- croscopic. No globule ever appeared on the point of the plumbago, which had been in the focus of heat; but this point Bisrenvee a hemispherical excavation, and the plumbago there ad the appearance of black scoriz or volcanic cinders. These were the general appearances at the copper pole occupied by the plumbago. On the zinc pole, occupied by the prepared charcoal, there were very peculiar results. This pole was, in every instance, elongated towards the copper pole, and the black matter, ac- cumulated there, presented every appearance of fusion, not into globules, but into a fibrous and striated form, like the half flowing slag found on the upper currents of lava. It was evidently transferred, in the state of vapour, from the plum- bago of the other pole, and had been formed by the carbon taken from the hemispherical cavity. It was so different from the melted charcoal, described in my former communications, that its origin from the plumbago could admit ofno reasonable doubt. I am now to state other appearances which have ex- cited in my mind a very deep interest. On the end of the prepared charcoal, and occupying, frequently, an area of a quarter of aninch or more in diameter, were found numerous poe of perfectly melted matter, entirely spherical in their orm, having a high vitreous lustre, and a great degree of beauty. Some of them, and generally they were those most remote from the focus, were of a jet black, like the most per- fect obsidian ; others were brown, yellow, and topaz coloured : others still were greyish white, like pearl stones with the trans- lucence and lustre of porcelain; and others still, limpid like flint glass, or in some cases like hyalite or precious opal, but without the iridescence of the latter. Few of the globules upon the zinc pole were perfectly black, while very few of those on the copper pole were otherwise. In one instance, when I used some of the very pure English plumbago, (sawed from a cabinet specimen, and believed to be from Borrowdale,) white and transparent globules were formed on the copper side. When the points were held vertically, and the plumbago up- permost, no globules were formed on the latter; and they were unusually numerous, and almost all black, on the opposite pole. When the points were exchanged, plumbago being on the zinc, and charcoal on the copper end, very few globules were formed on the plumbago, and not one on the charcoal: this last was rapidly hollowed out into a hemispherical cayity, while the plumbago 126 Professor Silliman on the Fusion of Plumbago. plumbago was as rapidly elongated by matter accumulating at its point, and which, when examined bythe microscope, proved to bea concretion in the shape of a cauliflower—of volatilized and melted charcoal, having in a high degree all the charac- teristics which I formerly described as belonging to this sub- stance. Indeed, I found by repetitions of the experiment, that this was the best mode of obtaining fine pieces of melted char- coal. In some instances I used points of plumbago on both poles, and always obtained melted ghobules on both; the results were, however, not so distinct as when plumbago was on the copper and charcoal on the zinc pole; but the same elongation of the zinc and hollowing of the copper pole took place as before. I detached some of the globules, and partly bedding them in a handle of wood, tried their hardness and firmness ; they bore strong pressure without breaking, and easily scratch- ed, not only flint glass, but window glass, and even the hard green variety which forms the aqua fortis bottles. The globules which had acquired this extraordinary hardness, were formed from plumbago which was so soft that it was perfectly free from resistance when crushed between the thumb and finger, and covered their surfaces with a shining metallic-look- ing coat. These globules sunk very rapidly in strong sulphuric acid—much more so than the melted charcoal, but not with much more rapidity than the plumbago itself, from which they had been formed. The zinc of the deflagrator is now too far gone to enable me to prosecute this research any further at present; as soon as the zinc coils can be renewed, I shall hope to resume them, and I entertain strong hopes, especially from the new improved and much enlarged deflagrator, which you are so kind as to lead me soon to expect from Philadelphia. April 12. Having refitted the deflagrator with new zinc coils, I have repeated the experiments related above, and have the satisfaction of stating that the results are fully confirmed and even in some respects extended. The deflagrator now acts with great energy, and in consequence I have been enabled to obtain good results when using plumbago upon both poles. Parallelopipeds of that substance, } of an inch in diameter and one inch or two inches long, being screwed into the vices connecting the poles, on being brought into contact, transmit- ted the fluid with intense splendour, and became fully ignited for an inch on each side; on being withdrawn a little, the usual arch of flame was formed for half an inch or more. Indeed when the ‘instrument is in an active state, the light emitted from the plumbago points, appears to be even more intense and rich Professor Silliman on the Fusion of Plumbago. 127 than from charcoal; so that they may be used with advantage in class experiments, where the principal object is to exhibit the brilliancy of the light. On examining the pieces in this and in numerous other cases, I found them beautifully studded with numerous glo- bules of melted plumbago. They extended from within a quar- ter of aninch of the point, to the distance of } or 4 of an inch all around. They were larger than before and perfectly visi- ble to the naked eye; they exhibited all the colours before described, from perfect black to pure white, including brown, amber, and topaz colours; among the white globules, some were perfectly limpid, and could not be distinguished by the eye from portions of diamond. In different repetitions of the experiment with the plumbago points, there were some vari- eties in the results. In one instance only, was there a globule formed on the point; it would seem as if the melted spheres of plumbago as soon as formed, rolled out of the current of flame, and congealed on the contiguous parts. In every instance, the plumbago on the copper side was hollowed out into a spherical cavity, and the corresponding piece on the zinc side received an accumulation more or less considerable. In most instances, and in all when the deflagrator was very active, besides the globules of melted matter, a distinct tuft or pro- jection was formed on the zinc pole, considerably resembling the melted charcoal described in my former communications, but apparently denser and more compact; although resembling the melted charcoal, as one variety of volcanic slag resembles another, it could be easily distinguished by an eye familiarized to the appearances. In one experiment the cavity, and all the parts of the plumbago at the copper pole were completely melted on the surface, and covered with a black enamel. The appearances were somewhat varied when specimens of plum- bago from different localities were used. In some instances it burnt, and even deflagrated, being completely dissipated in brilliant scintillations; the substance was rapidly consumed and no fusion was obtained. This kind of effect occurred most distinctly when there was a plumbago piece on the cop- per side, and a piece of charcoal on the zinc side. I have al- ready mentioned the curious result which is obtained when this arrangement is reyersed, the charcoal on the copper, and the plumbago on the zinc side; this effect was now particularly distinct and remarkable,—the charcoal on the copper side was rapidly volatilized, a deep cavity was formed, and the charcoal taken from it was instantly accumulated upon the plumbago point, forming a most beautiful protuberance, completely di- stinguishable fromthe plumbago, and presenting, when viewed by 128 Professor Silliman on the Fusion of Plumbago. the microscope, a congeries of aggregated spheres, with every mark of perfect fusion and with a perfect metallic lustre. I would again recommend this arrangement when the object is to attain fine pieces of melted charcoal. April 14.—In repeating the experiments to-day, I have ob- . tained even finer results than before. The spheres of melted plumbago were in some instances so thickly arranged as to re- semble shot lying side by side; in one case they completely covered the plumbago in the part contiguous to the point on the zinc side, and were without exception white, like minute, delicate concretions of mammillary chalcedony; among a great number there was not one of a dark colour, except that when detached by the knife they exhibited slight shades of brown at the place where they were united with the general mass of plumbago. They appeared to me to be formed by the con- densation of a white vapour, which in all the experiments where an active power was employed I had observed to be exhaled between the poles and partly to pass from the copper to the zine pole, and partly to rise vertically in an abundant fume like that of the oxide proceeding from the combustion of various metals. I mentioned this circumstance in the report of my first experiments (see vol. v. p. 112 of Silliman’s Journal,) but did not then make any trial to ascertain the nature of the sub- stance. Although its abundance rendered the idea impro- bable, I thought it possible that it might contain alkali derived from the charcoal. It is easily condensed by inverting a glass over the fume as it rises, when it soon renders the glass opaque with a white lining. Although there was a distinct and pe- culiar odour in the fume, I found that the condensed matter was tasteless, and that it did not effervesce with acids, or affect the test colours for alkalies. Besides, as it is produced ap- parently in greater quantity, when both poles are terminated by plumbago, it seems possible that it is white volatilized car- bon, giving origin, by its condensation, in a state of greater or less purity, to the grey, white, and perhaps to the limpid globules. 1 The deflagrator having been refitted only at the moment when a part of this paper had already gone to the press, and the remainder is called for, I am precluded by these circum- stances from trying the decisive experiment of heating this white matter by means of the solar focus in a jar of pure oxy- gen gas, to ascertain whether it will produce carbonic acid gas. This trial I have this morning made upon the coloured glo- bules obtained in former experiments; they were easily de- tached from the plumbago by the slightest touch from the point Professor Silliman on the Fusion of Plumbago. 129 point of a knife, and, when collected in a white porcelain dish, they rolled about like shot, when the vessel was turned one way and another. ‘To detach any portions of unmelted plumbago which might'adhere to them, I carefully rubbed them between my thumb and finger in the palm of my hand. I then placed them upon a fragment of Wedgwood ware, floated in a dish of mercury, and slid over them a small jar of very pure oxygen gas, whose entire freedom from carbonic acid had been fully secured by washing it with solution of caustic soda, and by subsequently testing it with recently prepared lime-water; the globules were now exposed to the solar focus from the lens mentioned volume v. page 363. It was near noon, and the sky but very slightly dimmed by vapour ; al- though they were in the focus for nearly half an hour, they did not melt, disappear, or alter their form; it appeared, how- ever, on examining the gas, that they had given up part of their substance to the oxygen, for carbonic acid was formed, which gave a decided precipitate with lime-water. Indeed when we consider that these globules had been formed in a heat vastly more intense than that of the solar focus, we could not reasonably expect to melt them in this manner, and they are of a character so highly vitreous, that they must necessarily waste away very slowly, even when assailed by oxygen gas. In a long continued experiment, it is presumable that they would be eventually dissipated, leaving only a residuum of iron. That they contain iron is manifest, from their being at- tracted by the magnet, and their colour is evidently owing to this metal. Plumbago, in its natural state, is not magnetic, but it readily becomes so by being strongly heated, although without fusion, and even the powder obtained from a black lead crucible after enduring a strong furnace heat, is magnetic. It would be interesting to know, whether the limpid globules are also magnetic; but this trial I have not yet made. I have already stated, that the white fume mentioned above appears when points of charcoal are used. I have found that this matter collects in considerable quantities a little out of the focus of heat around the zinc pole, and occasionally exhibits the appearance of a frit of white enamel, or looks a little like pumice stone, only it has the whiteness of porcelain, graduating however into light grey, and other shades, as it recedes from the intense heat. In a few instances I obtained upon the char- coal, when this substance terminated both poles, distinct limpid spheres, and at other times they adhered to the frit like beads on a string. Had we not been encouraged by the remarkable facts already stated, it would appear very extravagant to ask whether this white frit and these limpid spheres could arise Vol. 62. No. 304. Aug. 1823. R from 130 Professor Silliman ox dhe Fusion of Plumbago. from carbon, volatilized in a white state even from chareoal itself, and condensed in a form analogous to the diamond. The rigorous and obvious experiments necessary to determine this question it is not now practicable for me to make, and I must in the mean time admit the posszbility that alkaline and earthy impurities may have contributed to the result. In one instance contiguous to, but a little aside from, the charcoal points,, I obtained isolated dark coloured globules of melted charcoal, analogous to those of plumbago. The opinion which I formerly stated as to the passage of a current from the copper to the zinc pole of the deflagrator, is in my view fully confirmed. Indeed, with the protection of green glasses, my eyes are sufficiently strong to enable me to look steadily at the flame during the whole of an experiment, and I can distinctly observe matter in different forms passing to the zine pole, and collecting there, just as we see dust or other small bodies driven along by a common wind; there is also an obvious tremor, produced in the copper pole, when the instrument is in vigorous action, and we can perceive an evi- dent vibration produced, as if by the impulse of an elastic fluid striking against the opposite pole. If, however, the opinion which you formerly suggested to me, and which is countenanced by many facts, that the poles of the deflagrator are reversed, the copper being positive and the zinc negative, be correct, the phenomenon, as it regards the course of the current, will accord perfectly well with the re- ceived electrical hypothesis. ; The number of unmelted substances being now reduced to two, namely, the anthracite and the diamond, you will readily suppose I did not neglect to make trial of them: as, however, the diamond is an absolute nonconductor and the anthracite very little better, I cannot say I had any serious hopes of success. I have made various attempts, which have failed, and after losing two diamonds, the fragments being thrown about. with a strong decrepitation, I have desisted from the attempt, having, as 1 conceive, a more feasible project in view. I trust you will not consider the details of the preceding pages as being too minute, provided the subject appears to you as interesting as it does to me. The fusion of charcoal and of plumbago is sufficiently remarkable; but the evident approximation of the material of these bodies towards the con- dition of diamond, from which they differ so remarkably in their physical properties, affords, if I mistake not, a striking confirmation of some of our leading chemical doctrines. XXVII. Er- paige s4 XXVIT. Experiments upon Diamond, Anthracite, and Plun- bago, with the compound Blowpipe: in a Letter addressed to Professor Roperr Hare, M.D. by Professor SiruiMan, dated Yale College, April 15, 1823.* AVING last year caused to be constructed an apparatus, capable of containing fifty-two gallons of gas, for the supply of your compound or oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, and capable of receiving a strong impulse from pressure, I have been intending, as soon as practicable, to subject the diamond and the anthracite to its intense heat. Although their being non-conductors would be no impediment to the action of the blowpipe flame on them, still obvious considerations have always made me consider the success of such experiments as very doubtful. I allude of course to the combustibility of these bodies, from which we might expect that they would be dissi- pated by a flame sustained by oxygen gas, My first trials were made by placing small diamonds in a cavity in charcoal; but the support was in every instance so rapidly consumed, that the diamonds were speedily dis- placed by the current of gas. I next made a chink in a piece of solid quick lime, and crowded the diamond into it; this proved a very good support, but the effulgence of light was so dazzling, that, although through green glasses I could steadily inspect the focus, it was impossible to distinguish the diamond in the perfect solar brightness. ‘This mode of conducting the experiment proved, however, perfectly manageable, and a large dish placed beneath secured the diamonds from being lost (an accident which I had more than once met with) when suddenly displaced by the current of gas: as, however, the support was not combustible, it remained permanent, except that it was melted in the whole region of the flame, and covered with a perfect white enamel of vitreous lime. The experi- ments were frequently suspended, to examine the effect on the diamonds. They were found ta be rapidly consumed, wasting so fast, that it was necessary, in order to examine them, to re- move them from the heat at very short intervals. They ex- hibited, however, marks of incipient fusion. My experiments were performed upon small wrought diamonds, on which there were numerous polished facets, presenting extremely sharp and well defined solid edges and angles; these edges and angles were always rounded and generally obliterated. ‘The whole surface of the diamond lost its continuity, and its lustre was much im- paired; it exhibited innumerable very minute indentations and * Silliman’s Journal, vol, vi, p. 349, KR 2 inter- 132 Professor Silliman’s Experiments with the Blowpipe intermediate and corresponding salient points; the whole pre- senting the appearance of having been superficially softened and indented by the current of gas, or perhaps of having had its sur- face unequally removed by the combustion. In various places, near the edges, the diamond was consumed, with deep indenta- tions, and occasionally where a fragment had snapped off, by decrepitation, it disclosed a conchoidal fracture and a vitreous lustre. These results were nearly uniform in various trials; and every thing seems to indicate that, were the diamond a good conductor, it would be melted by the deflragator, and were it incombustible, a globule would be obtained by the compound blowpipe. In one experiment, in which I used a support of plumbago, there were some interesting varieties in the phenomena. ‘The plumbago being a conductor, the light did not accumulate as it did when the support was lime, but permitted me distinctly to see the diamond through the whole experiment. It was consumed with great rapidit y; a delicate halo of blueish light, clearly distinguishable from the blowpipe flame, hovered over it; the surface appeared as if softened, numerous distinct but very minute scintillations were darted from it in every di- rection, and I could see the minute cavities and projections which I have mentioned forming every instant. In this ex- periment I gave the diamond but one heat of about a minute; but on examining it with a magnifier, I was surprised to find that only a very thin layer of the gem not much thicker than writing paper remained, the rest having been burnt.* I subjected the anthracite of Wilkesbarre, Penn., to similar trials, and, by heating it very gradually, its decrepitation was obviated. It was consumed with almost as much rapidity as the diamond, but exhibited, during the action of the heat, an evident appearance of being superficially softened; I could also distinctly see, in the midst of the intense glare of light, very minute globules forming upon the surface. These, when examined by a magnifier, proved to be perfectly white and limpid ; and the whole surface of the anthracite exhibited, like the diamond, only with more distinctness, cavities and pro- * In the Phil. Mag. for November 1821, vol. lviii, page 386, I observe the fellowing notice by Mr. John Murray:—“ By repeatedly exposing a diamond to the action of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe in a nidus of magnesia, it be- came as black as charcoal, and split into fragments which displayed the con- choidal fracture. “ Tt will be found, that this gem affixed in magnesia, soon flies off in mi- nute fragments, exhibiting the impress of the conchoidal form. _ ‘In lately exposing the diamond, fixed on a support of pipe-clay, to the ignited gas, I succeeded in completely indenting it :—examined after the experiments, it exhibited proofs of having undergone fusion.” jections upon the Diamond, Anthracite, and Plumbago. 133 jections united by flowing lines, and covered with a black var- nish, exactly like some of the volcanic slags and semi-vitrifi- cations. ‘The remark already made’ respecting the diamond appears to be equally applicable to the anthracite, i. e. that its want of conducting power is the reason why it is not melted by the deflagrator, and its combustibility is the sole obstacle to its complete fusion by the compound blowpipe. I next subjected a parallelopiped of plumbago to the com- pound flame. It was consumed with considerable rapidity, but presented at the same time numerous globules of melted matter, clearly distinguishable by the naked eye ; and when the piece was afterwards examined with a good glass, it was found richly adorned with numerous perfectly white and transparent spheres, connected also by white lines of the same matter, covering the greater part of the surface for the space of 3 an inch at and around the point, and presenting a beau- tiful contrast with the plumbago beneath, like that of a white enamel upon a black ground. . In subsequent trials upon pieces from various localities, foreign and domestic, (confined however to very pure speci- mens, ) I obtained still more decided results; the white trans- parent globules became very numerous and as large as small shot; they scratched window glass—were tasteless—harsh when crushed between the teeth, and they were not magnetic. They very much resembled melted silex, and might be sup- posed to be derived from impurities in the plumbago, had not their appearance been uniform in the different varieties of that substance, whose analysis has never, I believe, presented any combined silex, and neither good magnifiers, nor friction of the powder between the fingers, could discover the slightest trace of any foreign substance in these specimens. Add to this, in different experiments, I obtained very numerous perfectly black globules, on the same pieces which afforded the white ones. In one instance they covered an inch in length, all around; many of them were as large as common shot; and they had all the lustre and brilliancy of the most perfect black enamel. Among them were observed, here and there, glo- bules of the lighter coloured varieties. In one instance the entire end of the parallelopiped of plumbago was occupied by a single black globule. The dark ones were uniformly at- tracted by the magnet, and I think were rather more sensible to it than the plumbago which had been ignited but not melted. We know how easily, in substances containing iron, the mag- netic susceptibility is changed by slight variations of tempera- ture. Iam aware, however, that the dark globules may con- tain more iron than the plumbago from which they were he rivec 134 Professor Sitliman’s Experiments with the Blowpipe rived, as the combustion of part of the carbon may have somewhat diminished the proportion of that substance. I find that the fusion of the plumbago by the compound blowpipe is by no means difficult, and the instrument being in good order, good results may be anticipated with certainty. As the press is waiting while I write, it is not in my power to de- termine the nature of all of these various coloured globules, and particularly to ascertain whether the abundant white glo- bules are owing to earths combined with the plumbago, or whether they are a different form of carbon. If the former be true, it proves that no existing analysis of plumbago can be correct, and would still leave the remarkable white fume, so abundantly exhaled between the poles of the deflagrator, and so rapidly transferred from the copper to the zinc pole, entirely unaccounted for. I would add, that for the mere fusion of plumbago, the blowpipe is much preferable to the deflagrator, but a variety of interesting phenomena in relation to both plumbago and charcoal are exhibited by the latter and not by the former, Postseript, April 18. Fusion of Anthracite. The anthracite of Rhode-Island is thought to be very pure. Dr. William Meade (see Bruce’s Journal p. 36) estimates its proportion of carbon at ninety-four per cent. This anthracite I have just succeeded in melting by the compound blowpipe. It gives large brilliant black globules, not attractable by the magnet, but in other respects not to be distinguished from the dark globules of melted plumbago. The experiment was entirely successful in every trial, and the great number of the globules and their evident flow from, and connexion with, the entire mass, permitted no doubt as to their being really the melted anthracite. The Kilkenny coal gave only white and transparent globules; but it seems rather difficult to impute this toimpurities, since this anthracite is stated to contain ninety-seven per cent. of carbon. I have exposed a diamond this afternoon to the solar focus in a jar of pure oxygen gas, but observed no signs of fusion ; nor indeed did I expect it, but I wished to compare this old experiment with those related above. The diamond is now the only substance which has not been perfectly melted. I inserted a piece of plumbago into a cavity in quick lime, and succeeded in melting it down by the blow-pipe into two or three large globules, adhering into one mass, and occupying the cayity in the lime : these globules were limpid, and nothing remained of the original appearance of the plumbago except a few black points. Additional apon the Diamond, Anthracite, and Plumbago. 135 Additional Notice on the Fused Carbonaceous Bodies *. Ir melted charcoal, plumbago and anthracite do really ap- proximate towards the character of diamond, we ought to ex- pect that, in consequence of fusion, there would be a diminu- tion of conducting power, with respect both to heat and to electricity. This I find to be the fact. As soon as the point of charcoal is fused by the deflagrator, the power of the instru- ment is very much impeded by it; but as soon as the melted portion is removed, the remaining charcoal conducts as well as before; and so on, for any number of repetitions of the experi- ment, with the same pieces of charcoal. The globules of melted plumbago are absolute non-conduct- ors, as strictly so asthe diamond. This fact is very pleasingly exhibited, when a point of prepared charcoal, cdnnected with the zinc pole of the deflagrator, is made to touch a globule of melted plumbago, however small, still adhering to a parallelo- piped of plumbago, in its natural state, screwed into the vice connected with the copper pole: not the minutest spark will pass; but if the charcoal point be moved ever so little aside, so as totouch the plumbago in its common state, or even that which has been ignited, without being fused, a vivid spark will instantly pass. ‘This fact is the more remarkable, because it is equally true of the intensely black globules which are sensi- bly magnetic, and therefore contain iron, as of the light co- loured and limpid ones, which are not attractable. The globules of melted anthracite are also perfect non-con- ductors. This may appear the less remarkable, because the anthracite itself is scarcely a conductor; at least, this is the common opinion, and it certainly is strictly true, of that of Wilkesbarre and of that of Kilkenny; for, when both poles are tipped with those substances, there is only a minute spark, which is but little augmented when charcoal terminates one of the poles. But the fact is remarkably the reverse with the Rhode-Island anthracite; this conducts quite as well as plum- bago, and I think even better, giving a very intense light, and bright scintillations. I have now no doubt, that the deflagra- tor will melt it, but have not had time to complete the trial. If it should be said that the conducting power of the R. I. anthracite may be owing to iron, we are only the more embar- rassed to account for the fact, that its black melted globules are insensible to the magnet, and are perfect non-conductors. It will now probably not be deemed extravagant, if we con- clude that our melted carbonaceous substances approximate very nearly to the condition of diamond.— April 23, 1823. * Silliman’s Journal, vol, vi. p. 378. XXVIII. Od- [ 136 ] XXVIII. Observations on Marquis Lapiace’s Communica- tion to the Royal Academy of Sciences “ Sur V Attraction des Spheres, et sur la Répulsion des Fiuides élastiques.” By Joun Heraparn, Esq. [Contiimed from p. 66.) M LAPLACE tells us that an air thermometer may be * regarded as the true thermometer of nature, and finds that his function I(¢) is proportional to the expansion of a given volume of gas under a constant pressure. From this it follows that his equation P= 7 I(t) becomes P=70(F +448); F denoting the Fahr. temperature, and 7 being as with him a constant. ‘Taking therefore for granted, what has been ex- perimentally demonstrated over and over; namely, that vapours at all temperatures equal to and above,that of their tensions, follow the same laws as gases; this equation of M. Laplace coincides with the theorem I have delivered, p. 269, Annals for October 1821, when discussing the experiments of Sharpe and Southern; for my squares of true temperature have the same ratio as M. Laplace’s simple temperatures. It is likewise the same theorem that I have given, Annals for June 1822, p. 422, which Dr. Apjohn and Mr. Silvester imagined to be erroneous. I have before mentioned that M. Laplace has in effect de- termined the point of absolute cold to be the same as I had ; which I have lately been informed coincides likewise with the joint determination of two other French philosophers, MM. Clement and Desormes. It is a curious fact that these two results of my theory, which have been corroborated by the subsequent inquiries of such a man as Laplace, are the identical cases which some of our Inglish philosophers have opposed. M. Laplace observes, “ It results from equation 2,” fec°=q/I(t)} “that the temperature remaining the same, the heat c diminishes by an increase of density ; and consequently that the compression of a gas must develop caloric, in order to be brought to the same temperature, which experience con- firms.” It is true that the temperature is elevated or depressed by rapidly compressing or rarefying an air, but M. Laplace is too much of a philosopher to imagine that so vague and inde- finite an appearance of agreement as he has here adduced can add any thing to the probability of his views. The same re- mark I might make on his preceding paragraph. He immediately afterwards tells us “ that a quadruple com- pression will express half the caloric of any mass of gas.” Indeed by his 2d equation equal compressions of a given mass of gas, whether rapid or slow, will always evolve the same quantity of the Laws of Elastic Fluids.’ 137 quantity of caloric; and, generally, the whole caloric of any gas is reciprocally as the square root of its density. These are consequences which may be experimentally examined. We have unfortunately, however, no good experiments on this part of the subject, and therefore cannot come to a numerical comparison. But as far as experiments go, I conceive they make against the general consequences of M. Laplace’s theory ; namely, that the same compression however made develops the same quantity of heat. I have always under- stood that rapidity of compression is essential to the eleva- tion of temperature, and that in very slow compressions no rise of temperature has been observed. This M. Laplace: would account for on the supposition of insensible abstraction by the surrounding bodies; but was such the case, the tem- perature evolved would always be sensible by immersing the apparatus in water, and properly insulating it; for it would be- absurd to suppose it to become latent, unless the water change its state. I shali presently show that a very easy consequence of M. Laplace’s theory is, that the elasticities being the same, the absolute quantities of caloric are equal in equal volumes of all gases. By his equation 2, therefore, equal and si- milar compressions of equal yolumes of any two gases must evolve equal portions of caloric, provided the temperatures were at first equal. Now it is well known that the specific heats or capacities of different gases for caloric are different. Applying consequently M. Laplace’s theorem, that the caloric expressed is as the difference of the square roots of the pres- sure, it follows that equal and like compressions of equal volumes of different gases, the primitive temperatures and . pressures being also equal, develop the same part of the whole caloric of each, and therefore unequal, not equal quantities of caloric. Hence the results of the theory alone on compres- sion are contrary to those of the theory on the same subject, applied to established facts, which would not be the case if the theory were correct. It appears by the theory I have expounded, that the masses of the particles of the moving sides by which the compressions are effected, have an influence on the elevation of temperature. All other things being alike, the greater the masses of the par- ticles in the compressing sides, the greater the rise of tempera- ture by equal celerities of compression, even in the same gas. When therefore equal compressions are equally and similarly made on equal volumes of the same gas at the same tempera- ture and elasticity, the elevations of temperature are as the masses of a particle of each compressing side directly. This Vol. 62. No. 304. Aug, 1823. S is 138 Mr. Herapath on Elastic Fluids. is to be understood when the compressing sides are individually homogeneous; and also when the compressions do not pro- duce any decomposition, combustion, &c. in the gas. Hence, if any gas, as oxygen, be compressed by mercury, the rise of temperature should be 27 times greater than in an equal volume of the same gas similarly compressed by water. I here take it for granted, that the experiments of Mr. Dal- ton are correct, from which I have (Annals for September 1821, p. 208,) computed the relative masses of particles of water and mercury; and likewise that a due allowance has been made for the temperature evolved by the condensation of the aqueous vapour in the space containing one portion of the gas. This allowance I conceive may be easily made by the data I have heretofore published. Let philosophers try this very striking case; and, if the ex- periments are too delicate to define precisely the amounts of the elevations of temperature, they will, I think, at least per- ceive enough to show that the general consequence I have drawn of the superior rise of temperature by mercury is cor- rect; and consequently that the result of M. Laplace’s theory is erroneous, which makes equal compressions, however made, produce the same rise of temperature. In M. Laplace’s equation 1 {P=27HKe’c*} P is the pressure or elasticity of the gas; 2 is double the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter; “ H est une constante qui dépend de la force répulsive de la chaleur, et qui semble ainsi devoir étre la méme pour tous les gaz;” K is the integral of Ys ds from 0 to «, s being an indefinitely small distance from the envelope ; ¢ is the density or rather number of the particles of gas in a unity of space; and c is the caloric of one particle. It is evident, therefore, that the factor 2r HK is independent of the nature of the gas, and ought to be “la meéme pour tous les gaz.” Hence we have universally P= Apc’, A being =2x HK, however different the gases. Now ¢ being the number of particles, and c the caloric of each, we have AD eA hc tas P putting C for the absolute calorie in a unity of space. In equal volumes, therefore, of all gases under equal pressures, there must be the same absolute quantity of caloric; and conse- quently the same specific quantity. That is, the capacities for caloric of equal volumes of all gases under equivalent pres- sures and temperatures are the same—a conclusion notoriously at variance with facts. It is extraordinary that this consequence, so very obvious and absurd, should have escaped the penetration of such a mathematician Mr. Brunel on a New Plan of Tunnelling. 139 mathematician as M. Laplace. But what I have adduced are not the only instances in which his theory and facts manifest the clearest opposition. Many others could be easily advanced, which, had this philosopher attempted to extend his researches beyond the three simple laws he has considered, could not fail to have shown him the marked sterility and insufficiency of his principles. Fer instance: had he tried to explain the facts in the conducting powers of gases discovered by Leslie, Dulong and Petit, Davy, &c., oer the well known laws of va- pours discovered by Dalton and Gay-Lussac, he would have found, besides the absurdities in capacity which I have men- tioned, that his principles are not merely inadequate to explain, but repugnant to most of the phenomena; and are incapable of even a semblance of probability, without adding to the hypo- thetical assumptions already but too much outnumbering the phzenomena expounded. Cranford, London, Aug. 19, 1823. J. HERAPATH. XXIX. Description of a New Plan of Tunnelling, calcu- lated for opening a Roadway under the Thames.* By M. J. BrouneEL, Esq. CE. ERS. T° discover convenient and efficacious means for opening a spacious subterraneous communication between the shores of a great river, without occasioning any obstruction to the navigation, has long been a desideratum of considerable im- portance with the public, and in the estimation of scientific engineers. ‘The difficulties which have opposed themselves to every attempt that has been hitherto made to execute a Tunnel under the bed of a river, have been so many and so formidable as to have prevented its successful termination in those in- stances where the attempts have been made. To propose therefore the formation of a Tunnel after the abandonment of these several attempts, may appear somewhat presumptuous: on inquiring, however, into the causes of failure, it will be found that the chief difliculty to be overcome, lies in the inefficiency of the means hitherto employed for forming the excavation upon a large scale. In the case of the drift-way made under the Thames at Rotherhithe in 1809, the water presented no obstacle for 930 feet; and when a great body of quicksand gave way and filled the drift, the miners soon overcame this obstruction, and were * Proposals for the execution of this plan have been Jatcly issued, with explanatory Plates. two of whieh we are enabled to give througlt the kind- ness of the author. (Plates LU. and UL) $2 able- 140 Mr. Brunel’s New Plan of Tunnelling able to proceed until they were stopped by a second irruption, which in a few minutes filled it. Nothing comes more satis- factorily in support of the system that is adopted here, than the result of the operations that were carried, under that cir- cumstance, to an extent of 1011 feet, and within 130 feet from the opposite shore. It isto be remarked, that atthe second irruption, on examining the bed of the river, a hole was discovered 4 feet diameter, 9 feet deep, with the sides perpendicular ;—a proof that the body of quicksand was not extensive; but what is most remarkable is, that this hole could be stopped merely by throwing from above, clay partly in bags and other materials: and after pump- ing the water out under a head of 25 feet of loose ground and 30 feet of water, the miners resumed the work, and proceeded a little further; but finding the hole at the first irruption in- creased, and the filling over the second very much sunk, the undertaking was abandoned. The character of the plan before us consists in the mode of effecting the excavation, by removing no more earth than is to be replaced by the body of the Tunnel, retaining thereby the surrounding ground in its natural state of density and solidity. In order so to effect an excavation 34 feet in breadth by 18 feet 6 inches in height, the author of this plan proposes to have the body of the Tunnel preceded by a strong framing of corresponding dimensions, as represented in the accompany- ing drawings, (Plate III.) and in the model proposed to be submitted for inspection. ‘The object of this framing is to support the ground, not only in front of the Tunnel, but at the same time to protect the work of excavation in all di- rections. The body of the Tunnel, which is to be constructed in brick, is intended to be fitted close to the ground; and in proportion as the framing is moved forward, so the brick work is made to keep pace with it. But as this framing could not be forced forward all in one body, on account of the friction of its external sides against the surrounding earth, it is composed of eleven perpendicular frames which admit of being moved singly and independently of each other, in proportion as the ground is worked away in front. These several frames are provided with such mechanism as may be necessary to mave them forward as well as to secure them against the brick-work, when they are stationary. It is to be observed, that six alter- nate frames are stationary, while the five intermediate ones are left free for the purpose of being moved forward, when re- quired; these, in’ their turn, are made stationary for relieving the six alternate ones, andsoon. ‘Thus the progressive move- ment of the framing can be effected. In Jor @ Road-way under the Thames. 141 In order that a sufficient number of hands may be employed -together, and with perfect security, each perpendicular frame is divided into three small chambers, which may properly be denominated cells. By this disposition, 33 men maybe brought to operate together with mechanical uniformity, and quite in- dependent of each other. These cells, which are open at the back, present in front against the ground a complete shield composed of small boards, which admit of being removed and replaced singly at pleasure. It is in these cells that the work of excavation is carried on. There each individual is to operate on the surface opposed to him, as a workman would cut out a recess in a wall for the purpose of letting in a piece of framing, with this difference only, that instead of working upon the whole surface, he takes out one of the small boards at a time, cuts the ground to the depth of a few inches, and replaces the board before he pro- ceed to the next. When he has thus gained from 3 to 6 inches over the whole surface, (an operation which it is ex- pected may be made in all the cells nearly in the same time, ) the frames are moved forward, and so much of the brick-work added to the body of the Tunnel. Thus intrenched and se- cure, 33 men may be made to carry on an excavation which is 630 feet superficial area, in regular order and uniform quan- tities, with as much facility and safety as if one drift only of 19 feet square was to be opened by one man. The drift carried under the Thames in 1809, which was about the size of these cells, and was excavated likewise by only one man, proceeded at the rate of from 4 to 10 feet per day. In the plan now proposed, it is not intended that the progress should exceed 3 feet per day, because the work should proceed with mechanical uniformity in all the points beget ee ith regard to the line of operation, if we examine the na- ture of the ground we have to go through, we observe under the third stratum, which has been found to resist infiltrations, that the substrata to the depth of 86 feet are of a nature that present no obstacle to the progress of a Tunnel; we are in- formed that no water was met there. It is therefore through these substrata that it is proposed to penetrate, and to carry the line that is to cross the deep and navigable part of the river, leaving over the crown of the Tunnel a head of earth of from 12 to 17 feet in thickness quite undisturbed. Admitting that in descending to or in ascending from that line we should come to a body of quicksand, such as that which was found within about 200 feet from the shore, it is then we should find in the combinations of the framing, before de- scribed, 142 Notices respecting New Books. scribed, the means that are necessary for effecting, upon a large scale, what is practised on a very small one, by miners when they meet with similar obstacles. Indeed, were it not for the means of security that are resorted to on many occasions, mines would inevitably be overwhelmed and lost. ° Notwithstanding we may encounter obstacles that may re- tard the daily progress, it 1s with satisfaction we contemplate that every step we take tends to the performance and ultimate completion of the object; and if we consider that the body of the Tunnel must exceed the length of Waterloo Bridge, it must be admitted that, if, instead of two years, three were ne- cessary to complete the undertaking, it would still prove to be the most economical plan practicable for opening a land com- munication across a navigable river. No notice is taken here of the mode of constructing the de- scents or approaches into the Tunnel; because whatever form or direction it may be found necessary to adopt, it is obvious that no difficulties oppose themselves to the accomplishment of that part of the work, the expense of which is however taken into account in the estimate. Nature of the Ground under the bed of the River at Rother- hithe, at a short distance below the place now proposed for opening a Roadway. Oo, Feet. Inches. 1. Stratum consisting of brown clay — - - 955.0 2. Loose gravel with a large quantity of water 26 8 $. Blue alluvial earth inclining to clay - = 2 249 4. Loam S = = = - - Bud il 5. Blue alluvial earth inclining to clay mixed with shells - - bo f= - - 38.9 6. Calcareous rock, in which are imbedded gravel stones, and so hard as to resist the pick-axe, and to be broken only by wedges 7 6 7. Light-coloured muddy shale, in which are imbedded pyrites and calcareous stones - 4 6 8. Greensand, with gravel and a little water - 0 6 9. Green sand - - - - - - 8 4 68 4 XXX. Notices respecting New Books. , Recently published. HE IVth Volume, Part II. of the Memoirs of the Wer- nerian Natural History Society has just appeared, and the following are its contents: Sketch of the Geognosy of Part of the Coast of Northum- berland, Notices respecting New Books: 143 berland. By W. C. Trevelyan, Esq.—On the Fossil Remains of Quadrupeds, &c. discovered in the Cavern at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, and in other Cavities or Seams, in Limestone Rocks. By the Rev. George Young, A.M.—List of Birds observed in the Zetland Islands. By Lawrence Edmondston, Esq.—An Illustration of the Natural Family of Plants cailed Melasto- maceex. By Mr. David Don.—Examination by Chemical Re-agents of a Liquid from the Crater of Vulcano, one of the Lipari Islands. By John Murray, Esq.—Notice of Marine Deposites on the Margin of Loch Lomond. By Mr. J. Adam- son.—Descriptions of the Esculent Fungi of Great Britain, with Observations. By Robert Kaye Greville, Esq.—Notice relative to the Habits of the Hyena of Southern Africa. By Dr. R. Knox.—An Account of three large Loadstones, one of which presented an unusual Line of Attraction. By John Deuchar.—Recollections of a Journey from Kandy to Caltura, by the way of Adam’s Peak, made in the Year 1819, by Simon Sawers, Esq. and Mr. Henry Marshall, Surgeon.—Some Ob- servations on the Falco chrysaétos and F. fulvus of Authors, proving the Identity of the two supposed Species. By P. J. Selby, Esq.—Remarks on the different Opinions entertained regarding the specific Distinction, or Identity, of the Ring- tailed and Golden Eagles. By James Wilson, Esq.—On the Natural Expedients resorted to by Mark Yarwood, a Cheshire Boy, to supply the Want which he has sustained from Birth, of his Fore-Arms and Hands. By Dr. Hibbert.—Notice in regard to the Temperature of Mines. By Matthew Miller, Esq. —Remarks on some of the American Animals of the Genus Felis, particularly on the Jaguar (Felis Onca, Linn.). By Dr. Traill.— Observations on some Species of the Genus Mergus. By James Wilson, Esq.—Observations on the Sertularia Cus- cuta of Ellis. By the Rey. Dr. Fleming— Remarks on the Guanaco of South America. By Dr. Traill—On a Reversed Species of Fusus(Fusus retroversus). Bythe Rev. Dr. Fleming. —Notice of a Specimen of the Larus eburneus, or Ivory Gull, shot in Zetland; and further Remarks on the Iceland Gull. By L. Edmondston, Esq.—Observations on the Formation of the various Lead-Spars. By Mr. James Braid, Surgeon.— Description of a New Species of Larus. By Dr. Traill.—Re- marks on the Specific Characters of Birds. By Mr. W. Macgillivray.—Notes on the Geognosy of the Criff-Fell, Kirkbean, and the Needle’s Eye, in Galloway. By Professor Jameson.—Observations on the Anatomy of the Beaver, (Cas- tor Fiber, Linn.) considered as an Aquatic Animal. By Dr. Knox.—Speculations in regard to the Formation of Opal, Wood-stone, and Diamond. By Professor oe mea o 144 Notices respecting New Books. of Mackenzie’s River. By Mr. W. F. Wenzel.—Observa- tions on some Species of the Genus Vermiculum of Montagu. By the Rev. Dr. Fleming.—Notes in regard to Marine Shells found in the Line of the Ardrossan Canal. By Capt. Laskey. Mémoires de la Société d’ Histoire Naturelle de Paris: tome premier ; lre partie. Paris, Baudoin Fréres, 1823, 4to. Preparing for Publication. Dendrologia Britannica ; or Trees and Shrubs that will live in the open air of Britain throughout the year. A work use- ful to proprietors and possessors of estates, in selecting sub- jects for planting woods, parks and shrubberies; and also to persons who cultivate trees and shrubs for sale. By P. W. Watson, of Cottingham, near Hull. The work will be accompanied with a critical preface, tracing up the subject, and reviewing the principal works that have appeared on it from the time of Evelyn, and containing other matter relative to botanical science, with illustrative diagrams, and particularly a carpologic concordance of the terms and definitions used by Gartner, Mirbel, Richard, De- candolle, Desvaux and others, as applied to fruits and seeds. ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON NATURAL HISTORY. Mr. G. B. Sowerby’s Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells. Nos. XVI. and XVII. of this work contains the following genera: Unio, two plates; Conus, two plates; Hyria; Calceola; Cyprzea, two plates ; Anodon, two plates; Lima, Nucula. Curtis's Botanical Magazine. No. 437, 438. Pl. 2406. Banksia latifolia, heretofore confounded with serrata, atree 30 feet high, but described by Mr. Brown as a low shrub, plentiful in the marshes near Sidney, New South Wales: supposed to have flowered for the first time in this country last August, in the conservatory of E. Gray, Esq.— Nerine pulchella, “‘foliis glaucis, scapo bipedali, corolla subdif- formi, pallide subrubescente, rubro striata, loculis circiter 8- spermis,” sometimes confounded with humzlis.—Scilla ameenula, raised in the Chelsea garden from seeds sent under this name by Mr. Otto, of the Berlin garden. Redouté has two figures under the name ameena, of which this is supposed to be his tab. 130. Itea virginica.— Ageratum strictum “ caule erecto simplice scabro, foliis cordatis rugoso-venosis inaequaliter ser- ratis, pedunculis coloratis:” raised from seeds sent from Ne- paul.—Pitcairnia staminea, “ foliis lmeari-lanceolatis integerri- mis, laciniis corolle revolutis, staminibus corolla longioribus,” figured i i i te i Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 145 figured also in Loddiges’ Cabinet. It is a native of South America, and flowered last January in the stove of Messrs. Whitley and Co. Fulham. Pl. 2412. Vestia lycioides, the only species at present known of this genus, referred first by Mr. Brown to the Solanee, which arrangement has been confirmed by Mr. David Don from an examination of the fruit. Native of ChilimLupinus micro- carpus, “ foliis digitatis, calycibus verticillatis inappendicu- latis: labio superiore emarginato inferiore bifido ter breviore, leguminibus rhombeis_hirsutis dispermis:” from Chili, and differs from all the other Lupines by its small 2-seeded pods. Hyoscyamus orientalis, indigenous in Iberia.— Oxalis rOsed, raised by J. Walker, esq., of Southgate, from seeds from Chili, and agreeing in all respects, excepting the intensity of the co- lour, with the description and figure of Feuillée.—Limonia parviflora, “ inermis, foliis bijugis: foliolis elliptico-lanceolatis integerrimis, corollis campanulatis, baccis oblato-sphzeroideis obliquis.” Nearly allied to pentaphylla. From China; culti- vated in the stove of the magnificent establishment of the Hor- ticultural Society at Chiswick.— Acacia diffusa: from the new country beyond the Blue Mountains, New South Wales, and belonging to the division of leafless Acacie pointed out by Mr. Brown as almost peculiar to Terra Australis. —Calceolaria corymbosa: this beautiful plant was also raised from seeds from Chili by Mr. Walker. _ The public will not fail to notice the improved appearance of these Numbers, and to welcome the supply of interesting no- velties which they afford. Botanical Register—Owing to the illness of the Editor, no descriptions have been given in the three last numbers of this work. We regret that we are from this cause still obliged to postpone our notices. XXXI. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. PRIL 14.—M. Arago communicated the results of the ex- . periments recently made in England on the liquefaction of certain gaseous substances. M. Magendie gave an account of a pathological observation made on a man who had lost the power of motion without being deprived of sensation, and in whom the anterior part of the spinal marrow was softened. This observation confirms M. Magendie’s experiments on the distinct functions proper , to the anterior and posterior origins of the nerves. Vol. 62, No. 304, Aug. 1823. yp M. Bory- 146 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. M. Bory-de-Saint-Vincent continued the reading of his Memoir on the Physical Geography of Spain. M. Dupetit-Thouars commenced thereading of a Memoiron the Differences between Monocotyledones and Dicotyledones. M. de la Borne, after having presented some new experi- ments on Voltaic electricity, stated that his results would be found in the sealed packet presented by him on the 10th of March. Report on Steam Engines. M. Dupin read the conclusions of the Report made by him in the name of a Commission, consisting of MM. Laplace, Prony, Ampere, Giraud, and Dupin, on the use of low and High Pressure Steam Engines, considered particularly with a view to the public safety. M.Gay-Lussac, whose opinion on the subject differed in many respects from those adopted in the Re- port, had requested to withdraw from the Commission. ‘The conclusions adopted by a majority of the Academy were as follows : ** 1. Two safety valves to be adapted to the boiler. One of them to be so disposed as to remain out of the reach of the workman who attends the boiler and the working of the engine; the other to be placed under his controul, in order that as oc- casion may require he may be able to lessen the pressure ; whilst he would be unable to increase this pressure, as the valve to which he has no access would give vent to the steam at a lower pressure than that at which ie might imprudently aim. *° 2, We propose that the strength of every boiler should be proved by means of the hydraulic press, submitting it to a pressure four or five times greater than that which it would. have to sustain in the usual work of the engine, so long as the pressure is between two and four atmospheres; and that above this term, the pressure in proving should be as many times greater than the usual pressure exerted by the steam in the work of the engine, as that pressure exceeds the simple pres- sure of the atmosphere. ** 3. We propose that every manufacturer of steam-engines should be obliged to make known his method of proving, and every thing which can ensure the strength and safety of the engine, especially of the boiler and its appendages. The manufacturer to be obliged to make known to the authorities as well as to the public, the usual pressure at which the engines should be worked. “ 4. The boilers of steam-engines in the neighbourhood of any habitation to be surrounded by a wall, in every case where the explosion would be sufficient to throw down the partition-wall between Ceylon Literary and Agricultural Society. 147 between such habitation and the building containing the engine. It appears that in every case the distance between the sur- rounding wall, the thickness of the latter, and its distance from the boiler, may each be fixed at a metre. ** The Commission also proposes that an exact account should be kept by the authorities of all accidents happening to engines of each construction, and to publish this statement with an account of the causes and effects, the name of the ma- nufactories where the accidents occurred, and the name of the maker of the engine; as being of all means the most effica- cious for diminishing the number of accidents from the use of steam-eng ines, whether of simple, mean, or high pressure. “ The Commission concludes its report by stating, that in the examination of the important question submitted to the Academy by the Government, it set out from this. principle, that every mechanical method carries with it its dangers, and for persevering in the employment of it, itis sufficient that these dangers do not exceed, notwithstanding their possibility, a very slight degree of probability.” April 21.—M. Dutrochet transmitted a memoir on some ex- periments on Vegetable Irritability. M. Dumeril made a verbal report on the superb anatomical work of M. Autommarchi, published in numbers at Paris under the direction of M. Lasteyrie. M. Coquebert le Montbret read the first part of his report, made in behalf of a Commission, on the Geological Descrip- tion of Puy-en-Veley, by M. Bertrand Roux. M. Chevreul read a memoir on the Causes of the Differ- ences which are observed in various kinds of Soap, as regards their degree of hardness or softness, and their odour. M. Bertin was elected to the situation of joint Professor of the School of Pharmacy of Montpellier. CEYLON LITERARY AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The Annual Meeting of this Society was held at the Cham- bers of the Judge of the Vice Admiralty Court, on the 16th instant, at which Sir Hardinge Giffard, who presided, delivered the following discourse, reviewing the proceedings of the So- ciety since its formation, and suggesting to its members the best means of accomplishing the design of its establishment. “‘Gentlemen—As we are now entering upon the third year of our Institution, it may be useful to look back upon our pro- ceedings, and examine how far we have hitherto fulfilled the purpose of our Association. T 92 * To 148 Ceylon Literary and Agricultural Society. “To do this with fairness to ourselves, we should bear in mind very clearly what that purpose was, as well as the means which we have enjoyed of carrying it into effect. If our pur- pose has been rational and useful, and the means accessible and adequate, we are bound to show to the world that we have not neglected the task which we have voluntarily undertaken. Our purpose, detailed at large in our preliminary paper of As- sociation, may be expressed in very few words; it was the collection and subsequent diffusion of information concerning the civil and natural history of Ceylon. To this end we have solicited the communication of information from every person willing to furnish it; and having collected what may be offered, then will commence our further duty of selecting such as may appear sufficiently valuable for diffusion amongst the public. ‘‘In the first part of this task, we have made a degree of progress to which I have to call your attention. “To our able and excellent Vice President, Dr. Farrell, we owe some very valuable communications; and we must fur- ther ascribe much of the good spirit which has prevailed in the department over which he presides, to his salutary influence and example. ** Amongst our correspondents of this department, Messrs. Collier, Russell, and Hoatson are particularly entitled to our grateful recollection. The system of conchology traced by the former of these gentlemen, and founded not only on the exter- nal form, but on the internal physiology of the creatures in- habiting shells, promises to supersede all those which, depend- ing upon appearance, often vague and transitory, left the know- ledge of that beautiful department of nature in a state of con- fusion and uncertainty. We have also to thank this gentleman for his kindness in forming our collection of conchology ; his opportunities at Trincomalee have given him advantages, in the immediate investigation of those subjects, which he has not permitted to pass unemployed. ** From Mr. Russell we have a highly useful Report upon the subject of smelting the iron at Ceylon, The extraordinary and valuable quality possessed by this metal, in being malleable immediately from the furnace, will probably attract attention amongst our manufacturers at home, to whom such a property must i many instances prove inestimable. “In Mr. Hoatson’s very full account of the Singhalese prac- tice of Medicine, and their Materia Medica, if we do not find any thing to rival the improved state of medical knowledge in Europe, we can contemplate with some advantage the extent to which a perseverance in original error, unenlightened by the Ceylon Literary and Agricultural Society. 149 the operations of the understanding, will carry the human mind. Their system seems to combine all the old absurdities of European ignorance upon this important topic, with an abundance of truly Indian origin. “To our late very worthy member, Colonel Wright, we owe some very ingenious observations upon the action of the quicksilver in a barometer within the Tropics, and particularly the curious fact of its periodical rising and falling twice within 24 hours so regularly, as to afford almost an opportunity of measuring the lapse of time by this instrument. ** Professor Rask, a gentleman travelling for the purpose of science under the patronage of the King of Denmark, having been detained for some time in this island, was kind enough to become an Honorary Member of our Society. He has given to us a most elaborate and valuable Treatise upon the Con- struction of a General Alphabet, adapted to all the Indian dialects—a scheme which, if it could be adopted, at least with respect to printed communications, would much abridge the labours of learned men in investigating subjects connected with India. “‘ Our highly respected member, Mr. Lusignan, has fur- nished us with an accurate Observation cf a late Transit of Mercury. . ‘Tn a short paper upon the Maranta arundinacea, or In- dian Arrow-Root, Mr. Moon has pointed out the proper ma- nagement of a vegetable only lately introduced into Ceylon, but promising, from its facility of growth and the simplicity with which it is rendered fit food, to add much to the comforts of its inhabitants. “To extend the usefulness of our Institution, we have re- solved to include Agriculture in the subjects to which our atten- tion is directed. The communications in this instance have been few in addition to Mr. Moon’s: we have, however, from Mr. Vanderlaan some important suggestions, and from an anony- mous contributor an Essay on the Horticulture of Ceylon, which, however, present too discouraging a view of the subject to induce us to give it more extensive circulation. “ From our worthy Members, Mr. Marshall, Mr. Bennett, Mr. De Saram, and from Count Ranzow, we have received papers relating to subjects of Natural History, adding to our stock of information in that department of science. “ Our efforts towards compiling catalogues of the Natural History of Ceylon have been, to a certain degree, successful. Some (we wish we could say a majority) of the list of queries circulated with that view have been returned in a very satis- factory manner; in this we have to notice the zeal and war Oo 150 Astronomical Information.—Solar Eclipse of 1823. of some of the more intelligent natives, most particularly of the Modeliar of the Hapittegam Corle, who, in the returns from his district, has given us a very complete list of the various animals included in its Natural History. *‘ Through the kindness of Messrs. Armstrong and Knox, we have been enabled to commence the formation of a Museum, with a collection of the Birds of the interior of this island. We have received specimens from many quarters. Messrs. Gisborne, Backhouse, and several other gentlemen, have made contributions of this kind; and we have every reason to hope that their example will be followed by all who possess opportu- nities of thus furthering the purposes of science and improve- ment. ‘‘ Having thus reviewed our progress and sketched our pre- sent situation, allow me to express an opinion that we have not been deficient in our duty; and that with a very little exertion on the part of gentlemen in the several out-stations of this island, we may be enabled to render essential service to the general interests of science.”—Ceylon Government Gazette, Jan. 25, 1823. XXXII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. ASTRONOMICAL INFORMATION. UR next number will contain a list of all the occultations of the fixed stars by the moon, that will be visible in the en- suing year (1824), calculated by M. Inghirami of Florence, for the meridian and parallel of Greenwich; a work which will be very interesting and useful both to the astronomer and navi- gator. ON THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JULY 8. Epping, August 14, 1823. As no observations of the small Solar Eclipse, which hap- pened on the 8th of July, have as yet appeared in your Jour- nal, in the absence of anything better on the subject, you may be inclined, perhaps, to devote a corner in your next number for the following remarks. About four o’clock on the morning of the eclipse, there was much cirrostratus to the eastward, which in a great measure obstructed the sun’s rays. This modification afterwards increasing, totally obscured the sun, and prevented my seeing the beginning of the eclipse; but at 5" 29™ mean time the sun had so far advanced above the more dense parts of this range of clouds as to show a pretty distinct and well defined disc. The eclipse now was near the time of its greatest obscuration to a Eruption in Java—Captain Sabine’s Expedition. 151 to this part of the globe; and as the atmosphere became more bright, I was enabled, by an excellent achromatic telescope and power of 50, to observe the eclipse with great advantage, and found the appearance, &c. of this phenomenon to cor- respond with the type, &c. in Moore’s and others of the Book Almanacks published by the Stationers’ Company. At 39 minutes after five, the sun became perfectly clear of clouds, and continued so to the end of the eclipse, which took place at 5" 46™ 10° mean time, according to the meridian of Epping. The rate of the clock was found by altitudes of the sun, taken before and after the eclipse with 'Troughton’s Reflecting Circle on an horizon of gil, and the times computed for the latitude of the place of observation, which is 51° 41’ 416 north. I remain most respectfully, : Tos. SQurre. P.S. The appearance of this eclipse was an exception to the general rule; for it began and ended on the eastern side of the vertical circle of the place, passing through the centre of the sun. The oblique motion of the moon rendered the exact points of contact more difficult to be observed than if the ob- scuration had been greater. Thereis an Almanack published in London, wherein the types and popular illustrations of the eclipses of this year are most egregiously incorrect. T.S. ERUPTION OF GALOENGOENG IN JAVA. The Government has received a detailed account of the eruption of the volcano Galoengoeng in October last. In this terrible visitation, one of the greatestmisfortunes that have befallen Java within the memory of man, 4,011 persons perished; and 114 campongs were destroyed; 2,983 rice plan- tations totally destroyed, and 5,361 injured; the number of coffee trees destroyedamounts to 775,795; that of those which have suffered more or less to 3,871,742. Batavia, March 22. CAPTAIN SABINE’S EXPEDITION. Accounts have been received of the progress of the Griper, Captain Clavering, on board of which Captain Sabine sailed from the Nore in the month of May last, for the purpose of carrying on the series of observations on the pendulum, in the high latitudes of the Polar seas. They arrived at the North Cape, after a tedious passage, the beginning of June, and pro- osed to remain at Hammerfest about three weeks. From that place they would go to Spitzbergen, as the second “—. oO 152 Statistics—Chesnut-tree Bark. of observations, and then proceed to the eastern coast of Greenland, intending to make their way to the most northern part of that unexplored coast, as far as the obstruction of per- manent ice would permit the ship to pass. It is intended to land the instruments for observation at the highest point they should reach in Greenland, and afterwards to navigate down this hitherto almost unknown coast southwards. On quitting Greenland, they would visit Iceland, and then cross to Dront- heim, in Norway, when a fourth series of observations would be completed, previous to their return in the month of No- vember. STATISTICS, The following is the official return of births, marriages and deaths in Paris in the year 1822 :— ’ Male. Fem. Total. Births.— Legitimate ...sssee0008 8,671 8,458 17,129 Illegitimate known ... 1,126 1,144 2,270 ——_——— unknown... 3,765 3,716 7,481 13,562 13,318 26,880 Marriages.—Young men and maids .......0006. 5,933 $$ WICOWS cesccecee 329 Widowers and maids csecsseseees 685 WICOWS ceeveeoee 210 7,157 Deaths.—Males unmarried ....scccccccseseesecsees 75968 PATI Becbicss caves’ deuce cusvdeves Sano IWViCES! «os She CSICT NUE cadCdeceeces cee), “OLS At the Morgue cssecvscccsescveeverveveres — 203 11,850 Females unmarried ..scccesssesecsecsees 6,537 IMAETICM © Ji. .bsieck ceohussseserer > 5 19-1 | OG dou nO’'T Ww ¥ ; 16-664 RZ Bb) 6 % urey edt | SV.62 | £6. 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I I Sieh [hs 22 see [eee loz, [eee 6¢ Apnojg) Apnoyg 09-63| F660; T |T |" | "|r | t | {Sto joeo 8% wey He] OGIGINCG Gr Lagi T= jst et o (TS le |e 1008 ahs 1% Apnoiy ey C6.60|.69:65| T | t_| Te) "| ts | 1/1 _\soo0y"s _9¢ Ainge a 5 “vig mdr) y| al Sl aelal « ee Ss ade *u0380 qf Fad Sipe! ‘ysog | “puory E is z 2 3 Ba z Ps S"2 Bie . pee 4 P elf) FI] a Zie3s pe |B & o sku ‘oy ‘sayou] B |e P| 2 | | RIB E) 2 | Bs e 3 a *HAHLVA AY ——_—_—_| UI ‘uojautoieg ‘soJaWOULLOY,T,| JO ISIaFT “sanoty “WV “YO0[D 0 IST sed-zyey ye SiA0ssoH ae ea trae a aa "UOISOT 1D TIFAYA “MI pun ‘uopuoyT we xurg*py —6z+15 into another which shall have 2—3 instead of w. Operation. 4 | +15 | —6 | 15 | (3 12-+-15=27 12427=39| 81— 6= 75 4|124+39=51 | 117+75=192 225+15=240 So that the function 423-++-152*—6r+15 is transformed to 4(x—3)?+51(a—3)?+192(«—3)+240; or if c—3=v 403 +1527 —67415= 403 +51v*+19204+ 240. But as the minor parts of the process of- multiplying and adding are so easily performed mentally, the results may only be set down, which will save a great deal of writing, and render long operations much clearer; and thus the work now executed will stand thus, Ate linn, 64,15(8 427 439+ 75 4 +51+192+4240. This 174 Mr. P. Nicholson on the Transformation of Functions. This mode of operation will be observed in the following examples. Ex.2. Transform the function 2!—9z2°42727?—417+30 into another which shall have «—4 instead of 2. Operation. 1—9+27—41+430(4 —5 —1l+ 7 +3+ 3—13 14+7+15— 1—22 And thus the function 2*—923+9272?*—41x%+30 is trans- formed to («—4)'+7(a—4)}-+15(@—4)?'—(«—4)—22. Ex. 3. Transform the function «t—3.2?—32?+152—29 into another function which shall have x+3 instead of x. Operation. 72, S—, 9 pagers — 6 — 9+15 —12+42— 30 —15-+4-78—156+61 So that the original function «*— 323 —3a*+15a—29 is trans- formed to («-+3)4—15(a+3)}+78(¢+3)?—1 56(x+3)+61. Ex. 4. Transform the function 2?—72?+17r—15 into another function which shall have «— instead of 2. In this example it will be the most eligible to find equiva- lents to the coefficients and absolute number in the form of fractions, so that the denominators may be the regular powers of the denominator of the fraction, by which the base « of the original function is to be diminished ; and then perform the operation with the numerators instead of the respective co- efficients, as if whole numbers, then 2 by 7. Now 7= a = = ee — = * dite? Whence the operation 1—214+153—405(7 a4 — 7455 1F 0+ 6—20 The original function 23 —72?+177—15 is thus transformed to («—4)3+0+ $(«—J)— $9. So that in fact this process is equivalent to taking away the second term, as it is called, or to transform the equation to another which shall want the second term. 33 27° Ex. On the Changes in the Declination of the Stars. 175 Ex. 5. Transform the function —72*+17r—15 into another which shall have «—2-333 instead of 2. Operation. ey aT —15(2°333 —5 —3 +7 a aYF} ad —0°7 SHOrAy oot Os79 1-01 +067 —0°763 —0°07 —0°04 40-6679 1—0°01 -+0°6667 —0°742963 —0°007 —0°004 -+0°666679 1—0-001+0°666667 —0°74.0962963 Here 3 =2-333 &c. and the coefficients of the transformed function are continually approaching respectively to 1, 0, and 29, Comparing this example and the next preceding; it appears that the length of the operation is greatly increased by re- ducing the vulgar fraction to a decimal. Examples in the extraction of roots will not be necessary at this time, as these have already been given in the Philoso- phical Magazine for September 1822, before alluded to. cyto XXXVI. On the Changes which have taken place in the De- clination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. By Joun Ponp, Esg. Astronomer Royal, F.R.S.* (THE mural circle having in September last been put into complete repair, and declared by Mr. Troughton to be in as perfect a state as when first erected, I resumed my exaini- nation of the principal fixed stars which form the Greenwich catalogue. In the course of a very short time, I found that seyeral anomalies, which had previously given me much per- plexity, still subsisted: some of these were of such a nature as to lead to a suspicion that a change might possibly have taken place in the figure of the instrument; on the other hand, there were circumstances that strongly militated against such a sup- position. Several of the stars in which the supposed discordance ap- * From the Philosephical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1823. Part I. peared 176 Mr. Pond on the Changes in the peared the greatest, passed over almost the same divisions with others, in which no such discordance could be perceived. Moreover, in examining these discordances in different points of view (that is, both with respect to their right ascensions and polar distances), I fancied I perceived something like a general law, that was quite incompatible with any possible hypothesis of error in the instrument. On a point of this importance, I clearly saw the necessity of devising some new method of observation which might de- cide with certainty that which otherwise would become an endless subject of doubt and conjecture. I had often attempted to observe the altitudes of stars by means of an artificial horizon of quicksilver, or other fluid, but had abandoned the attempt from the difficulty of protecting it from the wind, and from the number of observations I lost in fruitless experiments. ‘To this method I had again re- course; and by means of wooden boxes of different sizes and figures, according to the different altitudes of the stars, I have sufficiently accomplished my purpose. A very few observa- tions were sufficient to convince me that the instrument was in every respect perfect, and that I might repose the greatest — confidence in every result it gave. Several stars, and particularly those most discordant, I have observed by this new method, and find their places, without any exception, to agree within a fraction of a second with those determined by direct measurement from the pole. Presuming that the observations* which accompany this paper will remove every shadow ‘of a doubt as to the accuracy of the instrument, I shall now proceed to state, in as few words as possible, the nature of the changes which appear to me to have taken place since the year 1812. If Bradley’s catalogue of stars for the year 1756 be com- pared with the Greenwich catalogue for 1813, it will be pos- sible to deduce the annual variation for each star for the mean period, or for the year 1784, on the supposition of uniformity in the proper motion of each star; then allowing for the change of precession for each star, a catalogue may be computed for any distant period; as for example, the present year 1822. Suppose such a catalogue computed, which I have named a predicted catalogue; then, if this be compared with the ob- served catalogue for the same year, the following differences will be found to subsist between them. The general tendency of all the stars will be to appear to the south of their predicted places, and this tendency seems to be greater in southern than in northern stars: if any star * Vide Appendix, p. 178. be Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. 177 be found north of its predicted place, it will always be a star north of the zenith, and the quantity of its motion extremely small, There may be observed a much greater tendency to southern motion in some parts of the heavens than in opposite or distant parts as to right ascension, and in much the greater portion of the heavens the southern motion seems to prevail. A southern star, as Szréus, situated in that part of the heavens most favourable for southern motion, will be found more to the south of its predicted place than An/ares, situated in the part least favourable for southern motion, though it is itself more southward. Several stars have moved more from their predicted places than other neighbouring stars: when this happens, the motion is always southward; I have yet met with no exception to this rule; nota single star can be found having an extra tendency to northern motion; and indeed the northern motion in any star is so very small, that it would never have excited atten- tion. A very great deviation will be found in three very bright stars, Capella, Procyon, and Sirius: the proper motion of each of these is southward; it therefore follows that these proper motions are accelerated. The proper motion of Arcturus is very great, and likewise southward. _ It is situated in that part of the heavens where the southern tendency is least discerni- ble, and is nearly quiescent; its proper motion in polar di- stance may therefore be considered as uniform. ‘Where is a circumstance that deserves notice, though it may be merely accidental: the stars in the Greenwich catalogue, whose pro- per motions are south, nearly equal in number those that are north, yet the guantity of southern proper motion exceeds the northern in the proportion of four to one. I shall at present offer no conjecture on the cause of these deviations, but endeavour, by continued observations, more accurately to ascertain the law which they follow. Should the weather prove favourable for observation, I hope before the Society separate for the summer, to be able to give greater accuracy to the numbers here subjoined. Indeed I should not have made so early a communication on the subject, but as the Greenwich observations of 1820 are about to be pub- lished, they might without this explanation have appeared erroneous; for I find that during that year the instrument was rather defective from general unsteadiness, than from any per- ceptible deviation of the telescope. It was not till after the month of February 1821, that the instrument got completely out of repair. It must however be admitted, that the obser- vations of that year ought not to be employed in the deter- Vol. 62. No, 305. Sept. 1823. Z mination 178 Mr. ‘Pond on the Changes in the mination of such small quantities as form the subject of the present communication. Horizontal point of the Circle as found by different Stars ob- served by direct Vision and Reflection, from 11ih to 23d March 1822. ° i a“ h Urs. Maj. 123 30 29°55 Woe hc oRie me ie, seta 28:95 Tha stan ot Se aa ser 99°75 Abs snail ed adorn tei ae Beet e ete Meth artes 29°50 Queer arate Mstaie rca ts 29°05 WHstol ts. ee Peso Hee ys es sy | Sooo SOU pe are see so 29°95 BAUD, es «5 Sooo Mean or lO. snes 1.6 5, 20 Oe SIGIUIS iat eles Myicl chlejutd sn crs SZON ANT) There being no perceptible difference in the results ob- tained near the zenith and near the horizon, it may be con- cluded that the instrument has no deviation, either from flexion of the telescope or change of figure. APPENDIX fo the preceding Paper. Tuer observations which have been made during the last summer, confirm in a very decided manner the results which formed the subject of my last communication; in which I laid before the Society the nature of the differences that exist be- tween the computed places of the principal stars of the Green- wich catalogue, and those deduced from actual observation. It is not my present intention to offer any explanation of the cause of these phenomena, although many obvious conjectures present themselves, the value of which it will require perhaps many years to determine. It is now my principal object to consider the force of that explanation of the differences in question, which will most readily occur to every astronomer, namely, that the whole may arise either from error committed by the observer, or from defect in the instruments of observa- tion: this objection being the more weighty from the circum- stance, that the observations of three distant periods are em- ployed, and that an error in those of either period (but parti- cularly of the two latter) would materially affect the result now under consideration. I believe that every person, in proportion to his experience im the use of astronomical instruments (even of the most un- exceptionable Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. 179 exceptionable construction), will be cautious in admitting the accuracy of any results, with whatever care the observations may have been made, which appear to militate against any re- ceived theory of astronomy; and I shall have occasion myself to show, from the great discordances between instruments of the highest reputation, that this distrust is but too well founded. More particularly ought our suspicion to be excited, when such anomalies are found to exist, as bear some direct pro- portion to the zenith distances of the stars observed. In all such cases we should never hesitate, I think, to ascribe the anomalies to defective observation. If therefore in the pre- sent instance any part cf the discordances in question can be shown to depend on polar or zenith distances, I shall willingly admit, as to such part of them at least, that they are no other- wise of importance, than as affording data for leading to the detection of some hitherto undiscovered errors. ‘The anoma- lies, however, that have led me on to this inquiry, and to which alone I attach any importance, are found to depend rather on the right ascensions, than on the declinations of the stars. Accordingly I found, while collecting observations to form a catalogue for the present period, that 1 could more nearly pre- dict the deviation of a star from its computed place, by know- ing its right ascension, than its declination. Now it is not easy to conceive in what way the error of an instrument for measuring declination, fixed in the meridian, can be occa- sioned by any circumstance depending on the right ascension of a star to be observed. The general nature of the deviation of the stars from their computed places will be best understood from the annexed tables*; in one of which the principal stars of the Greenwich catalogue are arranged according to north polar distance, and in the other, in the order of their right ascensions. From these tables it will appear, according to my statement in the former part of this paper, that the general tendency of the deviation is towards the south; that in about one-third part of the heavens in right ascension this southern tendency is very inconsiderable, and would hardly have excited atten- tion: for in this part, stars between the zenith and the pole, appear a very small quantity to the northward; whereas in the remaining and most considerable portion of the heavens, every star appears to be a considerable quantity to the south of its computed place; and with few exceptions, the more * As our limits do not enable us to insert these tables, we ca only re- fer the reader to them in the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, Part J. page 61, &e.—Eprt. Z2 southward 180 Mr. Pond on the Changes in the southward stars have a greater tendency to deviation than the northern ones. If we select from the preceding tables those stars which were least frequently observed, at one or all of the three pe- riods, we shall find that they all tend to confirm the foregoing general results; though they must be regarded as doing so rather by their united effect, than by their weight of evidence when considered singly. Stars that have been but seldom ob- served, give results considerably affected by accidental error of observation; which error is quite of a different nature from that produced by permanent defect in the instrument, and which repetition of observation has no tendency to remove. If the deviations of those stars that have been imperfectly observed, were attributable either to error of observation, or defect in the instruments, the deviation would either follow no law at all, or some law depending upon zenith distance: but the facts we have seen to be at variance with either of these hypotheses. Not however to rest satisfied with these consi- derations, drawn from the general tendency of all the stars without exception, let us select some striking examples of de- viation, in particular groups of stars, on which we might be satisfied to rest the issue of this question. Of these groups I have marked five in the table of stars arranged according to north-polar distance, each of which we will take the pains to consider more attentively. . 1. There are six stars in my catalogue north of y Draconis, of which three are found to the north, and three to the south of their computed places. These inequalities may appear at first sight to be wholly accidental; but if we pay attention to the right ascension, we shall find that the three which appear to the northward, are situated in that part of the heavens as to right ascension where the southern deviation is the least perceptible, and that the three which appear to the southward, are in that part as to right ascension where the southern de- viation is the greatest. But of these six stars there are two, a Cassiopeia, and y Urse Majoris, which deserve further con- sideration. These two stars are within less than one degree of each other in polar distance, and consequently pass over the meridian at nearly the same altitude. The observations of Bradley on the stars north of the zenith are not so nume- rous as could be wished ; but each of the two stars in question was observed by him about five times towards the year 1753; that is, 60 years from the date of my catalogue of 1813. I have carefully recomputed the predicted places of these stars, and I find « Casstopeie not less than 15 to the south of its pre- dicted Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. 181 dicted place, and y Urse Majoris half a second to the north. Now I am quite at a loss to conceive how this difference in so small an are can arise from error of observation, and I can only attribute it to that cause, whatever it may be, which seems so generally to depend not on the polar distance, but on the right ascension of the star. 2. The second group which I shall consider, contains the stars a Arietis, Arcturus, and Aldebaran, comprehended within an arc of about six degrees and a half. Of these three, Arcturus alone has yet been observed by reflection; but from the present very perfect state of the Greenwich circle, which the method of reflection has enabled me to ascertain, it can- not be doubted that the places of the two other stars are well determined*. In Arcturus the southern deviation is nearly insensible, but in the two other stars it is very considerable, being in each not less than 1"°5. Now these three stars, but particularly the two latter, are among those that have been most assiduously observed by Bradley and myself at each of the three periods. Let us suppose then, if it be possible, that the whole of these deviations arise from error of observation : or, in other words, that no systematic deviation has really taken place in the stars, but that their proper motions are uniform. Then we must admit that the mural quadrant and the mural circle have at each period given the polar distance of Arcturus correct, or at least subject to the same constant error; and as this star has been observed at each period, at all times of the day, and at all seasons of the year, the observations may be considered as perfectly exempt from accidental error. It will, I believe, be readily conceded that both instruments are so far perfect, that if the error be either nothing, or a given quantity at one point of the arc, the errors must be very nearly indeed the same within a moderate distance, as within 15 degrees, for instance, of that point. Upon this supposition, how can we possibly reconcile the great errors that must have been committed in stars, adjacent as to polar distance, but of op- posite right ascensions? I do not wish to press these remarks, in order to obtain greater confidence than they deserve, for ob-’ servations which can never be regarded with too much suspi- cion; but the arguments I have used appear to me to follow logically from the data before us, and strongly to indicate the probability that some cause purely astronomical has, at least, some share in producing these unexpected deviations. 3. The third group, « Herculis, a Pegasi, and Regulus, is still more remarkable, being comprehended within two degrees * This has been confirmed by subsequent observation, of 182 Mr. Pond on the Changes in the of declination, and two of the stars, « Herculis, and a Pegasi*, being within half a degree of each other. In this group a Pegasi is at least 3” south of its predicted place, whereas the other two stars have not deviated much more than 0"°5 to the south. 4. « Orionis, « Serpentis, and Procyon, furnish an example equally striking, they being within less than 2° of declination from each other; « Serpentis is exactly in its predicted place, while « Orionis and Procyon are each of them at least 2” to the south, P 5. Rigel, Spica Virginis, and Sirius, are not contained within so short an arc as the former groups, nor are their places so well determined, on account of their proximity to the horizon ; but they afford another instance of the inequality of southern deviation in stars having nearly the same polar distance, but opposite right ascensions. But leaving the considerations suggested by these groups of stars, let us examine more minutely the different hypotheses that may be formed on the supposition, that the whole of these deviations depends on error of observation caused by some defect in the instruments employed: this investigation becomes the more necessary, as it does not appear that Dr. Brinkley, with his instrument at Dublin, has met with similar discerd- ances. Admitting the accuracy of the observations of Bradley to form the ground-work of this inquiry, there are then two distinct hypotheses, that may be formed by those who are in- clined to maintain, that the proper motions of the stars are uniform; and that the discordances in question have their source, not in any astronomical cause, but in scme erroneous system of observation. Of the observations from which the catalogues ef 1813 and of the present year have been com- puted, we may suppose the one or the other to be erroneous. Let us consider the consequences of each hypothesis. Let us first suppose the error to be in the observations of 1813. Then the observations of 1756 and 1822 being sup- pal perfect, a catalogue for the year 1813 may be computed y interpolation; such a catalogue is annexed, and this (as- sumed to be correct) compared with the observed catalogue of 1813, will show the errors of observations at that period. On this assumption the Greenwich circle must, in 1813, have been in a very defective state; and admitting the instrument to be now perfect, this can be only attributed to the insuffi- ciency of the braces which then connected the telescope to the circle; for this is the only difference between the instrument * The lunar nutation of « Pegasi was nearly a minimum at each period. in Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. 183 in its former and in its present state. The natural tendency of any such defect would be, I think, continually to increase, and to give results every year more and more distant from the truth: but this is contrary to the known history of the Green- wich observations, which I have found gradually for some time past approaching to. those results which are obtained at the present day, and which, according to our present hypothesis, are supposed to be nearly perfect. If the catalogue of 1813 were really so erroneous, as our present hypothesis would compel us to regard it, then it would appear that Dr. Brink- ley’s catalogue for the same period must have been still more erroneous, as may be seen by inspection of the annexed tables. Now admitting for a moment that there were at that time cer- tain imperfections in the Greenwich and Dublin instruments, no person will believe them to have been so imperfect as our present hypothesis would tend to represent them. Let us now examine the second hypothesis, which presumes the catalogue of 1813 to have been perfect, and consider what confidence is due to the Greenwich observations of the present day. ‘This investigation is to be regarded as important, not merely with a view to the discussion of the nature of the dis- cordances in question, but also from the circumstance, that instruments of well-known celebrity are represented as giving very different results; for which reason I shall be excused for entering into considerable details on this particular question. As the principal reliance I place on the accuracy of the pre- sent catalogue, and on the superiority of the Greenwich circle over all other instruments, with the history of which I am ac- quainted, is derived from the coincidence of the results ob- tained by the two independent methods; the one of direct measurement of polar distance, the other of observing the an- gular distance of the direct and reflected image of the stars, it becomes of some importance to consider in what way this coincidence is a proof of the accuracy of either. The source of error the most to be dreaded in every instrument whatever, quadrant or circle, is that which will be caused by the flexure of the materials of which the instrument is made. It is im- possible in theory that any instrument can be wholly free from this defect. In the Greenwich circle the number of micro- scopes placed round its circumference have an obvious ten- dency to diminish this error, though they cannot annihilate it ; but they have no tendency whatever to diminish the error arising from the flexure of the telescope attached to the circle. The effect of flexure in any circle will be, in the first in- stance, to give an erroneous distance from the pole to the zenith :*in instruments that turn in azimuth, of the usual con- struction, 184 Mr. Pond on the Changes in thé struction, the error thus occasioned will be applied to every star under the form of co-latitude, and a star south of the zenith will be moreover affected by the probably opposite flexure due to that point of the instrument on which the star is observed. ‘This in stars near the equator, or a little to the northward of it, will in our latitude give an error in polar di- stance, amounting to about double the error committed in de- termining the co-latitude. On the contrary, the polar distances of stars north of the zenith, being affected only by the differ- ence of two flexures, will be more accurately determined as they approach nearer to the pole, where the errors will wholly vanish. Now, though in the usual mode of employing the Greenwich circle, viz. in measuring directly polar distance, the co-latitude does not become an object of inquiry, yet any flexure of the circle will produce a system of errors of the same - nature as those above pointed out. In instruments, like that of Dublin, which turn in azimuth, and with which the observer has to find the place of all the stars by measuring the double of their zenith distances, if he does not find the same zenith point with different stars (provided the instrument be well di- vided) he may be sure that flexure takes place; but he cannot infer the converse, that flexure does not take place, from his obtaining with all the stars the samé error in the line of colli- mation. For if the flexure be the same on both sides of the zenith, a supposition by no means improbable, the observer will then have no indication of flexure by the usual method of determining the error of collimation by stars of different alti- tudes. Let us suppose that, with an instrument liable to flex- ure, it is required to measure by both methods the meridional distance of any two stars. The angular distance of the direct images will (as we have already seen) be affected by the dif- ference, or by the sum of two flexures, according as the stars are placed on the same or on opposite sides of the zenith. In viewing the reflected images, the instrument, receiving two new positions, will be subject to two new flexures, by the sum or difference of which (as it may happen) the angular distance of the reflected images will be affected. The most probable supposition to be made concerning the flexures is, that at equal inclinations with the horizon, above and below it, they will be the same nearly both in direction and degree, and therefore that the two images below the hori- zon will approach by nearly the same quantity that.the direct images receded, or vice versd. With an instrument therefore having such-a system of flexures, the double altitude of each star will be correctly ascertained; but stars of different alti- tudes will give different determinations of the horizontal point. From Declination of some of the principal Fixed Stars. 185 From observations thus obtained, a near approximation to the true angular distance might be inferred, by taking a mean be- tween the distances of the direct and of the reflected images. The least probable supposition concerning the flexures is, that at equal inclinations above and below the horizon, they will be equal, but in opposite directions; the consequence of which would be, that the direct and reflected images would approach to or recede from one another by the same quantity: the double altitudes of each star would be incorrectly given, but every star would give the same determination of the horizontal point. To suppose however the existence of such a system of flexures, would be to suppose that gravity produced the same change of form in the instrument, as if its direction were inverted; and since the horizontal line is that at which according to the sup- posed system a contrary flexure will take place, the flexure at or near the horizon should be zero, where, however, according to the known laws of mechanics it ought to be the greatest. Such a system therefore must be considered as mechanically next to impossible. ; If then an instrument give the angular distances both by reflection and by direct vision the same, and the same deter- mination of the horizontal line from stars of whatever altitude, there are then only two hypotheses that can be formed re- specting such an instrument; either that the flexures are in- sensible, or that they are such as are absolutely inconsistent with the laws of mechanics. Hence I conclude that the coin- cidence of the results by direct vision and by reflection, and the uniform determination of the horizontal point, will be the strongest proof of the non-flexure of the instrument, and of the accuracy of both results*. In illustration of the whole of the preceding observations, let us examine two catalogues, those of Dr. Brinkley and Mr. Bessel, which have lately much excited the attention of astronomers. It is obvious, by merely inspecting these cata- logues, a comparison of which with the Greenwich catalogue I here subjoin, that one or both of the instruments used by these astronomers must be erroneous; and it seems to me, that the source of error is the very flexure, the nature and effects of which we have been considering. For, if we attend to the differences between these two catalogues, we:shail find that the six stars near the equator differ 5” from one another, whereas the stars near the zenith do not differ above 25. In which direction flexure will affect the zenith distances, is a * I must also notice that the method by reflection possesses, in common with instruments turning in azimuth, the advantage of measuring the double of the required angle. Vol. 62. No. 305. Sept. 1823. Aa matter 186 On. the Changes in Declination of Fixed Stars. matter quite accidental, depending on the unequal elevation or depression of the object-end or eye-end of the telescope, in consequence of the unequal strength of the materials. If we suppose error to exist in each of the catalogues, this cause must have had an opposite influence in the two cases: if we compare the Greenwich observations with those of Dr. Brink- ley, we shall arrive at the same conclusion; namely, that the differences must be caused by flexure in one or both of the instruments ; since here also we find that the stars in the neigh- bourhood of the zenith are affected by only half the difference in polar distance, that is observed in the stars near the equator ; and the same conclusions may be drawn from comparing the Greenwich observations with those of Mr. Bessel. ‘The polar distances of all the stars in Mr. Bessel’s catalogue exceed the polar distances given in the Greenwich catalogue ; while those of all the stars in Dr. Brinkley’s catalogue as regularly fall short of my determinations. It is not from the casual circum- stance of my results being nearly a mean between the results of those two astronomers, that I intend to claim a superior weight of authority for my own; for, were this the only ground ‘for preference, I should regard the question as yet undetermined, and should think it my duty to recommend the providing of new and more powerful instruments for ascertaining the truth. But it appears to me that from the observations by reflection, which I have lately made, and from their agreement with my observations by direct vision, that I am entitled to determine the share of error to which each of these two catalogues is liable; not only from the general superiority of the Green- wich circle, which I consider to have been thus proved, but from this peculiar circumstance, that whereas in the two cata- logues of Mr. Bessel and Dr. Brinkley, the errors cannot fail to be the greatest in stars near the horizon; by my method of reflection, those stars which are nearest the horizon must be determined the most correctly, from their double altitudes be- ing measured on the smallest arc. In stars near the equator the catalogue of Mr. Bessel differs from that of Dr. Brinkley five seconds; and from the preced- wp considerations, I think we may venture to conclude that r. Bessel’s polar distances are too great by about three se- conds, and Dr. Brinkley’s too small by about two: and since my catalogue differs from the two former from the zenith to equator in very nearly the same proportion, there can be no reason to doubt that their errors throughout are divided in nearly the same ratio. With regard to the catalogue for the present period, which accompanies this paper, I beg to state that I consider it only as | Chemical Researches by Dr. Gobel. 187 “as a very near approximation to the truth, and requiring at least another year’s observations, to render it of equal value with that of 1813, which is the result of two years observations with six microscopes, and in four positions of the telescope. I am persuaded that the more this subject is considered, the more distinctly it will appear, that if any doubt can be enter- tained, founded on any circumstance arising out of the Dublin ‘observations, that doubt must relate, not to the accuracy of former catalogues, but to the present position of the stars; since it is with respect to their present position that the two instruments are really at variance. This circumstance is very fortunate, as time may confirm the present or suggest some more satisfactory method of investigation, if what I have now advanced be not thought sufficient tor the purpose. XXXVII. Chemical Researches by Dr. FRiEDEMANN GoBeEL, of Jena*. A. Analysis of yellow Lead Ore. LAPROTH has already given us, in his valuable ‘ Con- tributions,” an examination of this metallic salt, from which mine considerably differs both in the proportions of the component parts and in the means by which I determined them. I obtained for analysis, through the kindness of M. Lenz, some very beautiful regular crystals of this substance. ‘They were rectangular four-sided prisms, the lateral planes of which were uneven, dull, rough, and covered with a little carbonate of lime of a yellowish-white colour. ‘The terminal planes, on the contrary, were smooth and shining, with a resinous lustre. The fracture was compact and obscurely lamellar. ‘The colour of awax-yellow. It was found at Bleiberg in Carinthia. The crystals which were to be decomposed were first washed in dilute nitric acid, to separate the carbonate of lime adhering to them; then carefully washed in water, and dried. I.—100 grs. reduced to a fine powder, and placed with sul- phuric acid in the vacuum of an air-pump for 24 hours, only lost 0°02 grs.; their loss in water was equally small. II.—100 grs. were dissolved by heat in dilute muriatic acid. When cool, a number of crystalline particles of chloride of lead were precipitated, and the precipitation was completed by a gentle evaporation of the liquid. "The precipitate, col- lected on a filter, dried and ignited, weighed 72°5 grs. Now * From Schweigger and Meinecke’s Nues Journal fiir Chemie und Physik ; BE A Neue Reihe, Band 7, p. 7). Aa2 plumbane 188 Dr. Gobel on Molybdate of Lead, plumbane is a compound of 100 lead +35 chlorine; there- fore the above 72°5 grs. of plumbane contain 54°9 of lead, which combined with oxygen makes 59:0 oxide of lead. I1J.—The fluid separated from the chloride of lead was now eyaporated to dryness; and nitric acid was poured over the residuum, which produced by its decomposition a strong effervescence and evolution of nitrous gas; and the blue molybdous acid became again a yellowish-white powder (mo- lybdic acid), which, when dried by evaporation and ignited in a coated crucible, weighed 40°5 grs. According to this analysis, 100 grs. of the yellow lead ore consist of Oxide of lead... 59°0 d Molybdic acid... 40°5 TLGSh tej rcencdaees 1004 100:0 The component parts, reckoned according to their propor- tions, correspond nearly to 1 proportion of molybdate of lead ; and the regularly crystallized yellow ore is to be looked upon as such. It therefore consists of One proportion of oxide of lead = =107°5 One proportion of molybdic acid = 77°5 185°0 Taking a centesimal division, we have Oxide of lead 581 Molybdie acid —41°8 99°9 According to Klaproth, it consists of Oxide of lead 64°42 Molybdic acid 34°25* 98°67 B. Tartarus Stibiatus. Some very fine and large regular crystals of this salt in- duced me to examine them; the result I obtained is given be- low. ‘The crystals were about one inch long, and half an inch in diameter, and were very fine and transparent double four- sided pyramids. * Although the results of Dr. Gébel’s analysis of molybdate of lead differ so materially from those obtained by Klaproth, yet they nearly agree with Mr. Hatchett’s, which were as follows: Oxide of lead.......0000 58°40 Molybdic acid............ 38°00 Oxide of iron......ec000e 2°08 DUCA csvecacdocegcseacucss (USS Mossy tee ake Hee onee 1:24 100:00 See Phil. Trans. for 1796, p. 323.—Enrr . I found on Emetic Tartar, and on a new Pyrophorus. 189 I found that 100 parts were composed of Protoxide of antimony...... 42°6 PSEA, AIG ie ceetnintnaeinnns 4:50) PRGISSALAAE eee eee, 9S BV Alero 8 Mees eeenesenseyeserss it 5°75 101°15 If we reckon these parts according to the laws of atomic combination, we find pretty nearly that emetic tartar may be considered as a compound of one proportion of sub-tartrate of protoxide of antimony, with half a proportion of neutral tartrate of potassa; and that one atomic proportion of it must be expressed by the number 231°7. For Two proportions of protoxide of antimony =2 x 48=96:0 One proportion of tartaric acid....s..ssssesesseeseee 69:8 ) Protartrate of antimony. Half a prop. of neutral tartrate of potassa. One prop. of Half a proportion of potassa.......sscssccssccsssceseee 225 Half a proportion of tartaric acid......csccsseseeseees 34°9 Ome MrOpOrion Of WHLEE ceccassassasaccncdaacanncsans 231-7 100 parts of this compound then consist of Protoxide of antimony...... 41*4 TPOEASSAN so .Peasnesevcesenvaradete: 1 OF Wartaric acid. -.vss specs saases 7 0-2 WVGLCE Siva, sce etetassptectesaces (°° 99°8 which agrees very nearly with the experimental result. C. A new Pyrophorus. While I was determining the proportions of the component parts of the tartrate of lead, I found that when it was heated in a glass tube, it produced a most beautiful pyrophorus. ‘When a portion of the dark-brown mass is shaken out of the tube, it catches fire immediately, and there appear on the surface of the ignited body, brilliant globules of lead, some of which become gradually changed into the yellow oxide, afford- ing a most interesting spectacle. he brilliancy continues much longer than in other pyro- phori, so that, on account of its easy preparation, this might afford a convenient method of producing fire. The inflammation of such pyrophoric substances has of late been attributed principally to potassium; but this pyrophorus gives us a new proof that other metallic compounds (as in this case the carburet of lead?) are susceptible of spontaneous in- flammation on coming into contact with the air. XXXVII. 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M.A. F.L.S.* HE naturalists of the present day have in one respect a peculiar claim to the appellation of disciples of Linnaeus; inasmuch as they direct their chief attention to what this reat master declared to be the end of all his immortal labours in botany. His admirable maxim, that the natural system is the “ultimus botanices finis,” is now not only universally ad- mitted, but on all sides acted upon. The natural system is in fact not only made the remote consequence, but the imme- diate aim, of every modern observation in natural history ; the rule now being to commence with supposing nothing known but what has actually been observed, and by comparing the affinities thus collected, to search after that knowledge of na- tural groups which in the old methods we started with sup- posing to be already acquired. ‘They who formerly confined themselves to artificial systems, and neglected the above im- portant maxim of Linnzus, have at least thereby lost much gratification, since, if there be nothing within the whole range of human science more worthy of profound meditation than the plan by which the Deity regulated the creation; so most assuredly no study is more calculated to administer pure and unmixed delight. Thus, for example, the satisfaction of the mere gazer at a collection of animals must evidently be in- ferior to that experienced by the comparative anatomist, who understands their respective structures. And again, the ana- tomist himself, on viewing a museum, can scarcely be so much gratified by the sight, as that naturalist who, not content with a bare and in some degree insulated knowledge of particular organizations, endeavours to comprehend how these harmonize with the rest of the creation. It is in this last mode alone, if I may so express myself, that the human mind can take, as far as its imperfect nature will permit, a view of the universe as it was originally designed. Nor ought any person to be deterred from commencing so delightful a pursuit, either by the sup- posed difficulty of the investigation, or by the extent of prepa- ratory information which it necessarily requires: for truly has it been said, that he who questions his abilities to arrange the dissimilar parts of an extensive plan, or fears to be lost in a complicated system, may yet hope to adjust a few pages with- out perplexity. ’ * From the Transactions of the Linnean Socicty, vol. xiv. part I. Having On the Natural Distribution of Insects and Fungi. 193 Having such ideas both of the dignity of natural history and of the importance and feasibility of a more extended research into the natural system than has yet been made, we can scarcely fail to be interested by a late work*, of which the perusal has induced me to address this learned body. Although this work is confined to a department of botany not very generally studied, its author has evidently not been satisfied with the specific discrimination of the imperfectly organized subjects of his research, but has earnestly sought to discover the relations which they bear to each other. Keeping this object steadily in view, M. Fries has been able to give so connected and sym- metrical an outline of what he considers to be the natural di- stribution of fungi, as, at least in my opinion, to merit the careful attention of zoologists as well as botanists. It will readily be imagined that, in saying this much, I do not, in the presence of so many more able judges, presume to advance any positive opinion on his merits as an observer. I confine myself entirely to that theory or reasoning founded by M. Fries upon the general result of observations, which it would be impossible to suppose altogether incorrect, even if his reputa- tion as a cryptogamist were Jess than it really is. On this head, however, I have to remark that our author, although undoubtedly an original observer, is neither the first who has advanced this theory, nor do fungi compose the only part of organized matter in which this sort of arrangement has been conceived to exist. So that even with respect to his theory I may be a partial judge, and may probably be more inclined to admit the validity of his conclusions, than will be deemed prudent by others who are altogether unprejudiced. M. Fries justly remarks, that the notion of the celebrated Bonnet, as to the existence of a sinple series or chain of na- tural affinities, has been long exploded. ‘The truth however is, that the law of continuity has been quite misunderstood both by Bonnet, and his opponents, so far as organized mat- ter is concerned: for Bonnet fancied that, if affinities were con- tinuous, the series must therefore be simple: and some modern naturalists finding by experience the series not to be simple, therefore supposed that affinities could not be continuous, but that nature presents to the view a mass of unconnected groups, in which it would be a waste of time and a loss of labour to search for any general plan. It does not however appear that either of these inferences has been very philosophically drawn; for there is a certain rule in natural history which originates * Systema Mycologicum sistens Fungorum Ordines, Genera, Species, &c. uos ad Normam Methodi Naturalis determinavit, disposuit atque descrip- sit Elias Fries, &c. vol. i, Gryphiswaldia, 1821. Vol. 62. No. 305. Sept. 1823. Bb solely 194 Mr. W. S. MacLeay on certain general Laws regulating solely in observation, and which, if properly followed up, will infallibly induce us to grant to Bonnet the truth of his pro- position, that affinities are continuous, and yet to agree with his opponents that the series of natural beings is not simple. This rule is, that Relations of Analogy must be carefully distin- guished from Relations of Affinity ; for, as cur author M. Fries most truly says, “ Quo magzs in superficie acquicverunt nature scrutatores, co magis analoga cum affinibus commutdrunt.” The ideas of Affinity and Analogy are so distinct from each other in the mind of every person acquainted with the first principles of logic, that even while this distinction was not laid down as an axiom in natural history, experienced naturalists perceived that every correspondence of character did not ne- cessarily constitute an affinity. Thus the celebrated Pallas, in his Llenchus Zoophytorum, has well observed that Bonnet, in or- der to complete his linear scale of nature, was obliged to aban- don the true vinculum of affinity, and to resort to such super- ficial or analogous characters as those which connect Vesper- tilio and Exocetus with birds. But the nature of the difference which exists in natural history between affinity and analogy, was I believe first discovered in studying Lamellicorn insects ; and in the year 1819, when I published that discovery*, the fifth part of an acute philosophical work, entitled Botanical Aphorisms}, appeared in Sweden, wherein the distinguished cryptogamist M. Agardh proves by the following words, that he likewise had a slight glimpse of the same truth: ‘ Analogia quaedam et similitudo in diversis seriebus vegetabilium inter- dum cernatur, quasi progressa esset natura ad perfectionem per eosdem gradus sed diversa viat.” * The Ist Part of Hore Entomologice is here alluded to.—Eprr. Aphorismi. Botanici, quos venia Ampliss. Ord. Philos. Lund. Praeside Carolo Ad. Agardh, &c. pro Gradu Philosophico, p.p. N. Kuhlgren, &c. p. v. Lunde, 1819. t In the same little tract M. Agardh makes two other observations, which coincide with what I have noticed in the animal kingdom. The first is as follows: “Inter inferiores formas superiores szepe efflorescunt, sed rudes et veluti experimenta: sic anticipationes forme: perfectioris in plantis inferio- ribus non raro obyeniant ; ut etiam in plantis superioribus regressus ad formam imperfectiorem.” Now in the Hore Entomologice, p. 223, I have attempted to show that Nature, in the imperfectly constructed Acrita, sketches out in a manner the five principal forms of the animal kingdom. So also the direct return of Annulose Vermes to Acrita is repeatedly as- serted in the same work: this however seems to depend more properly on M. Agardh’s other observation, viz. ‘‘ Duplex est itaque affinitas plan- tarum, aut ea, que oritur e transitu ab una forma normali ad alteram, aut ea, que yersatur imprimis in anticipatione formee superioris aut regressu in formam inferiorem. [Illam affinitatem ¢ransitus appellamus, hance tran- sultationis.” ‘This affinity of transultation is evidently nothing else than the disposition observable in opposite points of the same series or ¢vansitus of affinity to meet each other, and of which I have given yarious examples in the Hore Entomologica, p. 319, The the Natural Distribution of Insects and Fungi. ™. 198 The next work in which the distinction appeared was the Mémoires du Muséum d’ Histoire Naturelle; in a part of which, published in the autumn of 1821, a paper was inserted by M. Decandolle on the natural family of Crucifere. Here this botanist states, that he finds it possible to express in a table all the affinities existing in this family of plants by what he terms a double entrée; in other words, he supposes that there are transversal affinities as well as direct ones,—a notion of the reality however which appears to be much more confused than that previously entertained by M. Agardh and explained as above in his Botanical Aphorisms. In the same year (1821) likewise appeared the abovemen- tioned work of M. Fries on Fungi, which is explicit on the subject, and wherein the very same expressions of affinity and analogy are used to designate these different relations, which I had applied to them two years before in treating of Lamel- licorn Insects *, The theoretical difference between Affinity and Analogy may be thus explained+: Suppose the existence of two parallel series of animals, the corresponding points of which agree in some one or two remarkable particulars of structure. Suppose also, that the general conformation of the animals in each series passes so gradually from one species to the other, as to render any interruption of this transition almost imperceptible. We shall thus have two very different relations, which must have required an infinite degree of design before they eould have been made exactly to harmonize with each other. When, therefore, two such parallel series can be shown in nature to have each their general change of form gradual, or, in ether words, their relations of affinity uninterrupted by any thing known; when moreover the corresponding points in these two series agree in some one or two remarkable circumstances, there is every probability of our arrangement being correct. It is quite inconceivable that the utmost human ingenuity could make these two kinds of relation to tally with each other, had * T owe my acquaintance with these several works, as well as much in- formation on points of which I should otherwise have been totally ignorant, to the friendship of the consummate botanist, in whose possession the Banksian Library has been so worthily deposited. The second part of the Hore Entomologice was published in April 1821. On the 24th of the following month [ first saw a copy of M. Decandolle’s paper, which was not published till some weeks after, and in the course of last winter I first saw Agardh’s paper and the work of M. Fries on Fungi. If M. Fries bor- rowed from his master Agardh the idea of distinguishing affinity and ana- logy, which is not improbable, we must at least allow him the merit of having greatly improved this part of the theory. + See Hera Entomologica, p. 562 et seq. Bb2 they 196 Mr.W.S. MacLeay on certain general Laws regulating they not been so designed at the creation, A relation of ana- logy consists in a correspondence between certain parts of the organization of two animals which differ in their general struc- ture. In short, the test of such a relation is barely an evident similarity in some remarkable points of formation, which at first sight give a character to the animals and distinguish them from others connected with them by affinity; whereas, the test of a relation of affinity is its forming part of a transi- tion continued from one structure to another by nearly equal intervals. As a relation of analogy must always depend on some marked property or peculiarity of structure, and as that’ of affinity, which connects two groups, becomes weaker and less visible as these groups are more general, it is not in the least surprising, that what is only an analogical correspondence in one or two important particulars, should often have been mistaken for a general affinity. M. Fries draws the distinction between them precisely in the same way, and, making allowance for the difference of the ob- jects he was investigating, almost in the same words: “ Natura tamen, ubique varia, semper tamen eadem, hoc est, eandem ideam exponere tendit, mutatis modo, quae ex ulteriori ratione necessario pendent; eadem sequitur principia, ita modo ut in- feriora (v. g. exterior forma, que in infimis adhuc vaga) su- perioribus cedant. Errant igitur qui distinctiones summas e forma exteriori tantum ducunt; quis ex hac regnum animale et vegetabile definire potuit? Evidentissimé hoc demonstrant Lichenes et Fungi. Recentiores, horum differentiam in cha- racteribus externis tantum ponentes, cum Fungis jungere vo- luerunt Leprarias, Opegraphas, Calicia, Verrucarias, &c. qued nullo modo probare possum. Altius illorum differentia de- ducenda. Sed cum natura eédem via inter Lichenes et Fungos ubique progreditur, singulum genus Lichenum Fungis corre- spondet. At hac inde affinia non dicimus; sed analoga. “ Affinia igitur sunt que in eadem serie sequuntur et in se invicem transire videntur. Heec in ulterioribus congruunt sed in citerioribus rationibus differunt. Analoga autem dici- mus que in diversis seriebus locis parallelis* posita sunt et sibi invicem correspondent. Ultima cosmica momenta dif- * As there is some danger of being led astray by our imagination when we first attempt to separate relations of analogy from those of affinity, it is fortunate that the naturalist cannot have a more admirable test of his ac- curacy, or a stronger rein on his fancy, than this parallelism of analogous groups in contiguous series of affinity. Thus, although a solitary resem- blance may mislead, it is clear that. when we find several of such resem- blances to keep parallel to each other in contiguous series, we may reckon upon their having some more solid foundation than our own fancy. ferunt, the Natural Distribution of Insects and Fungi. 197 ferunt, sed citericra congruunt, quee in habitu externo et cha- racteribus accidentalibus mutandis maxime valent. Ubicumque in Historia naturali oculos convertimus, singulum organismum multiplicia hujus offerunt exempla. Systema mycologicum infra explicatum his omnino nititur. Clavaria et Peziza, Bia- tora et Beomyces affines. sunt; sed Clavaria et Baeomyces, Pe- ziza et Biatora analogee, ec. s. p. in imfinitum. * Comparatio Linnzeana affinitatis plantarum cum mappa geographica haud ignobilis visa fuit; ignoscatur igitur mihi hanc ita extendenti, ut affinitas in hac indicet longitudinem et analogia latitudinem. “ Neque hoc tantum in infeviores classes quadrat. Nature leges ubique harmonicz. Si systema mycologicum et prin- cipia quibus nititur, omnibus non displicerent, totius regni vegetabilis dispositionem demonstrare conabor. Plurima jam elaboravi.” Relations of affinity being thus separated from those of ana- logy, we immediately get the following facts from the observa- tion of what M. Agardh terms the affinity of Transitus, namely, that species form the only absolute division in nature, and that no groups of species (whatever may be the rank of these groups) ought to be considered as insulated, but only as series of afli- nities returning into themselves, and forming as it were circles which touch other circles. Such only are natural groups. This was said of insects*; and our author, looking only at plants, and principally at Fungi, comes to the same conclu- sion, as appears from the following words: ‘ Species unica in natura fixe circumscripta idea. Superiores nullas agnovimus sectiones strictissimé circumscriptas, tantum circulos plus minus clausos, affines vero ubique tangentes. Hos tribus, genera, sectiones, &c. simulque si nature vestigia sequuntur, naturales dicimus.” That the circle, indeed, is not always closed or complete has been observed likewise in the animal kingdom; and there are two ways of accounting for it. First, that the beings which would render the circle complete have not yet been discovered; a conclusion to which we readily arrive on considering how little is yet known of natural productions; and secondly, that there are hiatus or chasms which do really exist in nature, and which may be attributed to the extinction of species in consequence of revolutions undergone by the surfaee of this globe. Whether one only or both of these reasons be requi- site to account for circles of affinity not always appearing com- plete, we shall not at present investigate; contenting ourselves * Hore Entomologica, p. 159, &c. with 198 Mr.W.S. MacLeay on certain general Laws regulating with the undoubted fact, that Aiatus or chasms are everywhere in nature presenting themselves to the view. But this truth by no means contradicts the Linnean maxim, that no saltus exists in nature, although such has been esteemed its effect by certain naturalists who have been in the habit of taking the words hiatus and saltus as synonymous terms*. Thus the series of the Systema Nature and of the Regne Animal is not natural where the Cetacea intervene between Quadrupeds and Birds, but is perfectly consonant with nature where the Tor- toises are made to follow these last. In the first case, there is a saltus or leap from Quadrupeds to Birds over a group totally dissimilar to the latter; there is, in short, an unnatural inter- ruption of the law of continuity, which shocks not merely the naturalist but the ordinary observer. In the other case there is only an hiatus or chasm, which the discoveries of a future day may fully occupy. Speaking therefore theoretically, it may be affirmed that a saltus never did exist in nature; and it also may be argued, with great appearance of truth, that if the hiatus are real which so commonly occur in nature, they did not always exist; or, in short, as M. Fries expresses himself, *¢ Omnis sectio naturalis circulum per se clausum exhibet.” Now this definition of a natural group could never have been given by any person who was not aware of the distinction to be made between affinity and analogy. But whenever two parallel series of objects finked by affinity are drawn up in array, the connexion of their extremes, that is, the formation of the circle, becomes in that very moment, so far as I have observed, more or less conspicuous. It follows, moreover, from admitting the existence of analo- gical relations, or, in other words, from laying down the paral- lelism of groups in different series of affinity, that the number of groups in these series must be the same. For were it other- wise,—as for instance, supposing three groups to exist in one complete series, and four in another,—it 1s clear that the paral- lelism could not exist. But if this parallelism be real, which has been, as shown above, asserted independently of each other by several naturalists acting in different branches of natural his- tory, then the number of groups of the next lower order com- posing a group of a given degree must be determinate. And if, moreover, we accord to our author the accuracy of the fol- lowing rule, namely, “ Nunquam negligendum, unumquodque * It is to be regretted that Professor Dugald Stewart should have been led into this common error, and thus have acquired a somewhat erroneous notion of the law of continuity as it refers to natural history. See the se- ~ cond part of his admirable Dissertation, as prefixed to vol. y. of the Supple- ment to the Encyclopedia Britannica. regnum the Natural Distribution of Insects and Fungi. 199 regnum, ordinem, genus, &c. in systemate ut individuum esse sumendum;”—in other words, that class bears the same relation to class which order does to order, and genus to genus; then the number of groups composing any group of the next higher degree must be determinate ; and it only remains for the naturalist to discover from observation what this number is. That Nature has made use of determinate numbers in the construction of vegetables has long been known empirically ; as for instance, where botanists have found the typical number of parts of fructification in the acotyledonous plants of Jussieu to be two, that in monocotyledonous plants to be three, and that in dicotyledonous plants to be five, or multiples of these numbers. Consequently the existence of a determinate num- ber in the distribution of the plants themselves might have been argued d@ prior7. And in this manner indeed M. Fries appears to have argued; for it is tolerably clear that it was the consideration of the foregoing rule, adopted by Nature in the structure of acotyledonous plants, which induced hin theoretically to assume four as a multiple of two to be the de- terminate number in which Fungi are grouped *. I say this, because he is obliged from actual observation to admit that of these four groups, one is excessively capacious in comparison with the other three, and is always to be divided into two. So that we may either, with M. Fries, consider every group of Fungi as divisible into four, of which the largest is to be rec- koned as two,—a supposition that would not only make two determinate numbers, but which, from the binary groups not being always analogous, will moreover break the parallelism of corresponding groups,—or we may account every group as divisible into five, and thus not only agree with M. Fries’s ob- servations, but besides keep the parallelism of analogies unin- terrupted. If in this state of the matter it could now be shown, that in the animal kingdom the same law is followed by nature; in short, to take an instance, if it could be proved that the Annulosa may either be divided into four groups, viz. Ametabola, Crustacea, Arachnida and Ptilota, where this last is remarkably capacious and divisible into two natural groups, viz. Mandibulata and Haustellata, or that annulose animals may be divided at once into five groups of the same degree, but of which two have a greater affinity to each other than * It ought here to be observed, that Ocken had previously advanced the . opinion that four was the determinate number in natural distribution. This naturalist, however, having in his Natérgeschichte fiir schulen, lately pub- lished, in a great measure abandoned the number four for five, and that more especially in the animal kingdom, has thus got into all the difficulties which necessarily attend the supposition of two determinate numbers. they 200 On the Natural Distribution of animated Nature. they have to the other three—if, I repeat, this could be proved, should we not be justified in affirming that the rule, so far as concerns Insects and Fungi, is one and the same? The pos- sibility of thus distributing the annulose animals has, however, been demonstrated already in the Hore Entomologice ; and it is the way in which we ought to take the rule that only now remains to be investigated. In short, since only two methods * have yet been found to coincide with facts as presented by nature, the question is, whether we ought to account Fungi as divisible into five groups,—or into four, of which one forms two of equal degree. Now I think it may without difficulty be shown, from our author’s own observations and rules, that there is only one determinate number which regulates the di- stribution of Fungi, and that five is this number. [To be continued.] XL. A few Observations on the Natural Distribution of ani- mated Nature. By A Fetitow or tue Linnean Society. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. GENTLEMEN, May 1823. S the natural arrangement of animated forms has gradually advanced into a very dignified and important science, a few remarks on the subject, although anonymous, may not be unacceptable to your zoological readers: because the objects themselves are so immediately or remotely connected with every thing we esteem, and are withal so multifarious, that much more remains for future ages to develop, than has al- ready been achieved. * The number seven might also perhaps, for obvious reasons, occur to the mind, were it allowable in natural history to ground any reasoning except upon facts of organization. The idea of this number is however imme- diately laid aside, on endeavouring to discover seven primary divisions of equal degree in the animal kingdom, It is easy, indeed, to imagine the prevalence of anumber; the difficulty is to prove it. The naturalist, there- fore, requires something more than the statement of a number, before he allows either a preconceived opinion or any anaiogy not founded on or- ganic structure to have an influence on his favourite science. He requires its application to nature and its illustration by facts. As yet, however, no numbers have been shown to prevail in natural groups but five,—or, which is the same thing, four, of which one group is divisible into two. Perhaps, indeed, the most clear methed of expressing ourselves on this subject is to say that, laying aside osculant groups, every natural group is divisible into INE which always admit of a binary distribution, that is, into two and three, Assuming On the Natural Distribution of animated Nature. 20) Assuming the existence of ¢wo primeval principles, one sentient—the other not, viz. Mriwp......and...... MATTER, the place of whose existence is space, and the period of it time ; whose continuity constitutes eternity; the writer ventures to conclude, that a Binary Distribution of natural objects was at least the primeval one*, however altered or modified by causes and effects of subsequent occurrence, and themselves amenable to ulterior variations. And it is very remarkable that most, or all, of Nature’s superior divisions, are actually, or virtually, either duplications, or multiples, of the numeral Two. Nor is it until we arrive amongst the groups which consti- tute as it were the interiors of the vegetable and animal king- doms, in ascending the great scale of creation, that 5 ap- pears clearly a very frequent, if not an universal number, circularly disposable, and as it were returnable into itself, according to the elaborate theory of MacLeay in his learned Hore Entomologice recently published. Of the two supernal divisions, the first, that is, Minp or Sprit, is an wnt and absolutely indivisible, although creation is replete with it; for it actually occupies, in endless variation, every animated form; “‘ubique varians, semper tamen eadem.” But the other supernal division, Marrer, separates into no less than three modifications, viz. 1. Unorganized, 2. Crystallized, 3. Organized. And the latter divides into Animal and Vegetable. And all these, if thus placed, Unorganized, Organized, Crystallized, would form what may be called the first circle of Nature re- turning into itself; and from whence emanate, in endless order, all things that exist : “ Mens agitat molem, magnoque se corpore miscet.” ag > q t * Jt has occurred to us that the poet Ausonius (Eidyll. xi.) hints at a ternary arrangement, commencing in a manner somewhat similar : “In Physicis tria prima, Deus, munpus, DATA FoRMA. Tergenus omnigenum, genitor, genitrix, generatum.” But some, perhaps, will think that those who begin so high, and classify abstractions and qualities, should say, not “in physicis,’ but “in metaphy- sicis.” Epit. Vol. 62. No.305. Sept. 1823. Ce Yet, 202 On the Natural Distribution of animated Nature. Yet, notwithstanding the apparent probability of this ternary arrangement, the writer inclines in favour of the binary distri- bution, together with its duplications, as insisted on by Fries (in his celebrated work on Fungi) and others; for in that man- ner much, in verity, may be advanced. ; Thus, supposing that of the two primeeval principles Minb (i.e. Sprrir) and Marrer, the latter divided itself into two (organized and unorganized); and that these again each sepa- rated into two more, viz. the former into vegetables and ani- mals, the latter into crystallized and uncrystallized ; according to the plan subjoined to this paper, we should appear to pro- ceed in a clear light, and without perhaps any objection. . The two latter of these secondary divisions (crystallized and uncrystallized) are, as it were, sterile, and proceed no further, at least into primary divisions; while from the organized ex- uberant 7oo0t advance, in the most beautiful and harmonious order, all the multifarious branches of animated Nature : “ Spiritus intus alit; totamque infusa per artus.” Of the vegetable and animal groups, each of which are so often and so repetitely divisible into fives, forming circles na- turally returning into themselves, the writer has not at pre- sent leisure to consider, otherwise than the annexed plan itself may show; but he reserves for a more favourable opportunity the remaining details of this most interesting subject. The Plan alluded to above, dividing Matter in a binary manner. Minp— Matter Organized Unorganized crystallized—_uncrystallized Animal——————-_L————__Vegetable Niece: At He iiigllndowih=* weomieasoant Cryptogamous--A gamous Dicotyledonous+-Monocotyledonous Apetalous+Petalous Monopetalous+-Polypetalous Culmaceous—-Liliaceous Triandrous+Hexandrous Pkecakt utetettiad XI On [203 ] XLI. On the Firing of Gunpowder by Fulminating Mercury. By Mr. E.G. Wricut. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. ig has been a just subject of complaint with sportsmen who use the percussion lock to their guns, that the powder made with the chlorine of potass has a tendency to promote rapid oxidation in the barrel and lock; besides generating dirt from the charcoal, after firmg. I have found this incon- venience myself, and was induced to seek a remedy by adopt- ing a different substance, in which I succeeded to my satisfac- tion; and I shall feel obliged if you will allow me, through your means, to make known the discovery, which may not only prove interesting to sportsmen, but to many of your sci- entific readers also. In November last Mr. Murray delivered his scientific and instructive lectures on chemistry in this city; and in consequence of his observations on fulminating mer- cury, some experiments I had made with that substance several years ago in firing gunpowder, were recalled to my recol- lection; and soon after he left us I was induced to make the powder, and try it with the copper caps, when I found it in every respect superior to the chlorine of potass preparation, and shot with it the remainder of the winter. Its advantages are :—It does not create rust so rapidly as the powder now used; it is not affected by damp or moisture ; and from every severe test I have given it, I do not believe it so liable to explode,— artd in case of such accident, as its force does not extend so far, its effects would not be so destructive. I am aware it is asserted that fulminating mercury will not fire gunpowder ; but if any one has a doubt on this point, by procuring a per- cussion gun he may try the experiment and be fully satisfied, taking care, in loading, that the gunpowder is forced by the wadding to the point of contact with the fulminating com- pound. My method of preparing the fulminating mercury is as fol- lows :—lI place two drachms of quicksilver in a Florence flask, and pour six drachms (measure) of pure nitric acid on the mercury: this I place in a stand over a spirit-lamp, and make it boil, till the quicksilver is taken up by the acid ;—when nearly cool, I pour it on an ounce (measure) of alcohol in another flask: sometimes immediate effervescence ensues, with the ex- trication of nitrous ether; and often I have been obliged to place the mixture over the lamp, till a white fume begins to rise, when the effervescence follows. I suffer the process to coutinue (removing the lamp) till the fumes assume a reddish hue: when I pour water into the flask, and the powder is found Cc2 precipitated 204 M. Becquerel on the Development precipitated to the bottom, I pour off and add fresh water, permitting the powder to subside each time before the water is poured off, so as to free the substance as much as possible from the acid; and then I pour it on a piece of filtering paper, and place the powder in an airy room to dry. It should be kept in a corked (not stopper) bottle. Sometimes the powder is quite white, and often light brown, ‘in colour ; but this is of no consequence. To fill the caps, I use a small ivory pin, scooped at one end to take up the powder, and flat at the other end to fit the bottom of the cap: I place a very small portion of the powder in the cap, just suflicient to cover the bottom, and then dip the flat end of the pin in a strong tincture of gum benzoin, so as only to moisten it, (if I may be allowed the ex- pression, ) and press the pin so moistened on the powder in the cap, and gently turn it, so as to secure the powder in the cap, the tincture acting as a varnish on the surface of the powder. After a little practice, a great number of caps may be pre- pared in a short time in this manner; and I have no doubt the fulminating mercury will be preferred, on trial, to the percus- sion powder at present used. Several of my sporting friends have tried some caps I gave them charged with the fulmi- nating mercury, and all agree as to its superiority to the com- mon preparation from chlorine of potass. I am, gentlemen, Your very obliged servant, Hereford, Sept. 18, 1823. E. G. Wrieut. P.S. The fulminating mercury ought to be made in an out- house, or in an unfurnished room, under a chimney, on account of the nitrous fumes extricated in the first, and the nitrous ether in the second part of the process. It may be made into a paste with weak tincture of gum benzoin, and granulated, for the magazine locks of Forsyth and other makers, but must not be mixed with any other substance. XLII. Experiments on the Development of Electricity by Pressure ;—Laws of this Development. By M. BrcQguEREL, Ancien Chef de Bataillon du Genie*. Statement of the Phenomena. OULOMB, in a series of researches respecting the de- velopment of electricity by friction, was led to conjecture that the dilatation and compression experienced by the particles of the surfaces of bodies had a determinative influence upon the nature of the electricity developed by each of them. M. * From the Annales de Chimie et de Phisique, tom. xxii. p, 5. Biot, of Electricity by Pressure. 205 Biot, in his Traité de Physique, cites from the manuscripts of that celebrated philosopher the observations upon which he was induced to found this conjecture. An experiment made by M. Libes with gummed taffeta seems to accord with this view of the subject. This experi- ment consists in taking adisk of metal, which is held by an insulating handle, and pressing it on gummed taffeta; the taffeta acquires the vitreous electricity, and the disk the resi- nous electricity. The effect is the more striking in proportion as the pressure is stronger; but it ceases as soon as the taf- feta has lost that glutinosity which renders its surface easily compressible. If, on the contrary, the metal is rubbed over the taffeta, the metal takes the vitreous, and the taffeta the resinous electricity. Having recently had occasion to repeat the excellent observations of M. Hat on the electrical pro- perties which simple pressure with the fingers imparts to Iceland spar and to some other mineral substances, I was struck with the different effects produced by the bodies be- tween which they were pressed, accordingly as they were more or less flexible. I wished at first to examine, in these and the preceding experiments, what might be the proper influence of the condensation of parts on the development of electricity, not only in minerals, but in other bodies, susceptible, like them, of experiencing this effect. In the course of this examination I have been led to a general result, which seems to promise, one day, to throw light on the yet unknown causes of the development of electricity. This result ma be expressed in the following terms: When any two bodies whatsoever, one of which is elastic, are insulated, and pressed one against the other, they remain in two different electric states; but the excess of contrary electricity which they re- tain, on escaping from the compression, is in proportion as one of the bodies is what is called a bad conductor. The effect thus produced in this latter case, is incomparably more powerful than those arising from simple contact in the expe- riments of Volta. The most simple method of obtaining these results consists in forming small disks of the substances with which the ex- periment is to be tried, of the thickness of some millimetres ; they are fitted to handles, by which they are perfectly insu- lated*. One of these handles is then taken in each hand, and the * Each handle is composed of a solid glass tube (tube plein en verre) covered with lac varnish, and terminated by a wooden knob, which is used in order to avoid the friction of the hand upon the glass. The small disks are fixed at the extremity of the tubes with lac. Before using this instrument, it is advisable to try with the electroscope whether the handle exhibits 206 M. Becquerel on the Development the substances are pressed, for an instant, one against the other. After withdrawing them from contact, the quantity of electricity acquired by them is ascertained by the electroscope. A single contact is usually sufficient to repel the small disk of the electroscope of Coulomb; but on repeating these contacts, any electroscope whatever may be’strongly charged. Some- times the electricity is so strong, that the disk immediately attracts the small light bodies which are presented to it. Let us suppose, for instance, two insulated disks, the one of cork, the other of caoutchouc; after pressure, the latter has acquired the resinous, and the former the vitreous electricity. If we press, in the same manner, the cork on the rind of an orange, both being insulated, the cork acquires the vitreous electricity, and the orange-peel the resinous. Finally, the orange-peel, pressed on the caoutchouc, takes the vitreous electricity, and imparts the resinous to the caoutchouc. Pressure exerted upon insulated mineral substances pro- duces analogous effects. Iceland spar, sulphate of lime, fluate of lime, sulphate of barytes, &c., when pressed by the disk of cork, acquire an excess of vitreous electricity, whilst the disk itself contracts an excess of resinous electricity. Disthéne and retinasphaltum, on the contrary, have the resin- ous electricity. Coal, amber, copper, zinc, silver, &c., when pressed by the insulated disk of cork, receive an excess of resinous elec- tricity, and the cork receives an excess of the vitreous. In all the preceding experiments, the two substances sub- jected to pressure were insulated, in order that the species of electricity acquired by each of them might be separately studied; but, as might be expected, the same effects take place when a single body is insulated, and the other commu- nicates with the common reservoir. The insulated body then acquires by pressure the same kind of electricity as when the body upon which it was pressed was also insulated; but the electricity acquired by the latter cannot be perceived, since it escapes into the earth. For instance, an insulated disk of cork, pressed upon Ice- land spar, fluate of lime, sulphate of lime, &c., acquires the resinous electricity; but when pressed upon copper, zinc, and the other substances, it retains, after the compression, an ex- exhibits any marks of electricity. If any appear, the electricity may be expelled by heating the tube in the flame of a taper. In order to ascer- tain to what degree the lac may influence the electric effects of disks by pressure, these disks must be pressed hard upon bodies incapable of giving out much electricity ; it is then perceived whether or not a development of electricity takes place. cess of Electricity by Pressure. 207 cess of vitreous electricity. Even fruits, as, for instance, the orange, being slightly compressed by the disk of insulated cork, communicate to it an excess of vitreous electricity. In proportion as the fruit dries, its power of electrifying the cork diminishes. When ripeness has given it all the elasticity of which it is susceptible, and before its surface is moistened by decomposition, this power appears to be at its height. The insulated cork, applied with pressure upon all parts of animals, provided they are not moist, receives an excess of resinous electricity. The hair and fur of animals communi- cate to it nearly as much as Iceland spar would do, but it is of a contrary nature. Imperfect liquids, when sensibly compressible, give analo- ous results. Cork, slightly pressed upon oil of turpentine thickened by fire, exhibits, after the pressure, an excess of resinous electricity. I have hitherto only considered the pressure of a disk of cork upon different substances; but similar results would be obtained by the pressure of disks of leather, of amadou, or of elder-pith, upon the same substances. Bodies which have acquired electricity by pressure, pre- serve it for a longer or shorter time according to the degree of their conducting power. M. Haiiy found that Iceland spar gave some signs of electricity, even at the end of eleven days. There are other bodies, which are such good conductors, that, when not insulated, they part with the excess of elec- tricity they have acquired, to the substances with which they are in contact. ‘The sulphate of barytes of Royat is of this number : it is necessary to insulate it perfectly, in order to preserve its electricity. A crystal, which had been subjected to the experiment, possessed the electric faculty at the end of half an hour. It is very probable that the continuance of electricity in bodies is in proportion to their conducting power. This preservation of electricity in certain bodies, notwith- standing the absorbing action of the air, and even notwith- standing the contact of the moist substances by which they are surrounded, has been satisfactorily proved by M. Haiiy. May it not be accounted for by supposing that the electricity developed by pressure at the surface of these bodies acts on the natural electricity of their masses, decomposes it, attracts that of a contrary denomination, and drives the other into the centre of the mass, in such a manner as to transform these bodies into actual condensers, precisely as when an electrified plate is placed on the marble plate of Volta’s condenser ? On 208 M. Becquerel on the Development On the Causes which modify the Development of Electricity by Pressure. In the account I have just given of the electrical phaeno- mena produced by pressure, I have only pointed out the manner of repeating the experiments, without speaking of the causes which might possibly modify the results: but as these causes have more or less influence on the development of electricity, and may even sometimes render it null, it is neces- sary to examine them. The more or less perfect conducting power of the two bodies subjected to pressure, has a singular influence on the quantity of electricity produced. If, for instance, a disk of elder-pith and one of metal are pressed together, neither of them, when the pressure is withdrawn, will be found to have acquired any excess of electricity; and this will be the case whenever the substances pressed are conductors; each of these substances will possess only the quantity of electricity due to the contact. In general, it appears that the more perfectly the two bodies possess the quality of conductors, the more difficult it becomes to obtain electricity by pressure. We are ignorant of what passes during this action: never- theless the electric phenomena we have observed, permit us to hazard some conjectures on this subject. It appears, that at the moment of pressure there is produced a new state of equilibrium between the two fluids which compose the natural electric fluid; the vitreous electricity takes possession of one of the surfaces in contact, and the resinous electricity of the other. As long as the pressure continues, these two fluids are neutralized by each other, and they cannot escape from the surface of contact. Thus, notwithstanding the reciprocal attraction of their molecules, notwithstanding their greater or less tendency to pass from one body to another, they find in pressure, and in pressure alone, a power which neutralizes both these actions. In fact, if the bodies be perfect conductors, as soon as a diminution of pressure takes place, the two fluids in- stantaneously combine, however great may be the rapidity of the separation: if, on the contrary, one of the two bodies be an imperfect conductor, a diminution of pressure is not immedi- ately succeeded by the recomposition of the two fluids, the de- yevelopment of which arose from the cessation of the pressure. This recomposition will occupy more or less time in the ratio of the conducting power of the two bodies subjected to pressure; so that, in the end, the quantity of electricity found in each of the of Electricity by Pressure. 209 the bodies, will be exactly that due to the remaining pressure. Let us take, for instance, two insulated bodies, such as a disk of cork and a crystal of sulphate of barytes, conveniently dis- posed ; let us press them one against the other with the pressure p;let us diminish the pressure by the quantity p’; the two bo- dies will then be subject to the action of a pressure p—p’: let us immediately withdraw the two bodies from the compression, and we shall find upon each of them an excess of the contrary electricity greater than that relative to the pressure p—p’. It is evident that this plus value is solely attributable to the ces- sation of the pressure, since the bodies have not ceased to be in contact. The two fluids developed by pressure are perfectly in equi- librium at the surface of contact; for I have ascertained by very accurate experiments, that neither of the two bodies, during the continuance of the pressure, gives the least sign of electricity. It may be generally asserted that the better con- ductors bodies are, the greater ought to be the rapidity of their separation, in order to prevent the two fluids from recombining: it is probable that in the case of those bodies which are perfect conductors of electricity, the rapidity of separation ought to be infinite. The following experiment gives an idea of the influence of the rapidity of separation on the development of electricity. Press an insulated disk of cork on an orange, and withdraw it quickly; it will retain a pretty considerable excess of vitreous electricity: but if instead of withdrawing the disk quickly, it is done more or less slowly, it is regularly perceived that the quantity of electricity developed by the same pressure, di- minishes in proportion as the rapidity diminishes, till it be- comes imperceptible when that is much abated. We shall hereafter mention an apparatus, by the assistance of which these experiments may be repeated with great accuracy. We shall see that there exists for every substance and for every pressure a degree of rapidity which givesa maximum of electricity. From these considerations it may be affirmed, that any two bodies whatsoever, whether conductors or non-conductors of electricity, being pressed one upon the other, always enter into two different electric states; but these bodies, after their sepa- ration, possess the quantity of electricity due to the pressure, only in proportion as the rapidity of their separation is suitably adapted, that is to say, is sufficient to prevent the recombina- tion of the two fluids. Caloric appears to have great influence in the phenomena at present under our notice, since it modifies them in a very Vol. 62. No. 305. Sept. 1823. Dd peculiar 210 M. Becquerel on the Development peculiar manner. It has long been known, that the more the temperature of a body is raised, the greater is its tendency to acquire resinous electricity by friction with a non-conducting body. Thus, if the temperature of Iceland spar be sufficiently raised, it may be made to acquire resinous electricity by a slight pressure with the disk of cork. The following experi- ment will also show the influence of caloric in electrical ex- periments by pressure :—Take a very dry cork, and cut it in half with a very sharp instrument, and press the two parts together by their newly eut surfaces,—each of them will usually acquire an excess of contrary electricity on. being withdrawn from compression: it will however be found, some- times, that they have acquired no excess of electricity, however great may have been the rapidity of their separation. In this case, if the temperature of one of the two disks be raised by warming it slightly at the flame of a taper, both will be imme- diately electrified by the pressure. Two pieces of Iceland spar of equal temperature are not more electric by pressure ; a slight difference of temperature between them suffices to give them the property of becoming electric. May we not conclude from these two experiments, that in two bodies of the same nature, of equal temperature, and in which the state of the par- ticles of the surface is similar,—in two bodies, in short, which are identically the same, no electricity can be developed by pressure. It appears that this must be the case; for if every thing be perfectly alike on each side, there is no reason why one of the surfaces should take the vitreous rather than the re- sinous electricity, or vice versa: pressure, therefore, cannot change the state of equilibrium of the two fluids which com- pose natural electricity. If two disks of cork, taken from the same piece, sometimes give out electricity upon pressure, it is probably because the two surfaces are not identically the same: in fact, unless the instrument with which they are cut, sepa- rates them with extreme precision, it must follow that the state of the molecules of the surfaces is not the same in both of them. M. Dessaignes had already observed that a glass rod is not excitable when plunged into mercury of the same tem- perature;—it is the same with sulphur, with amber, and with sealing-wax. There are, however, exceptions; for the same philosopher discovered that paper, cotton, wax, and wool, are always electric by contact, whatever precaution may be taken to equalize their temperature. If we keep the temperature of one of the disks higher than that of the other, the pressure, as we have just observed, in- duces upon each piece of cork a different electric state; but if the pressure lasts long enough for equilibrium of temperature to a) 2 © of Electricity by Pressure. 211 to be established between the two bodies, then, on the pressure ceasing, neither of them will have acquired any electricity. It is therefore clear that the development of electricity in this case takes place only during the passage of caloric from the one body to the other; as soon as that has ceased, we see no more electric effects. ‘Thus, then, when two bodies pressed one against the other retain no sensible electricity alter compres- sion, before we pronounce on their want of the electric property we must ascertain whether a change of temperature in one of them would not suffice to render them electric. The hygrometric water which usually adheres to the surface of bodies, sometimes destroys the electric property of pressure: for example, sulphate of barytes, sulphate of lime, mica, &Xc. must be freed from this water before they are subjected to the experiment; without this precaution; no development of electricity will be obtained: for want of having taken it, some philosophers have concluded that these substances were not electric by pressure. In certain cases it is necessary to attend to the dimensions of the disks: for instance, when Iceland spar is pressed with an insulated disk of metal, if this disk be of a certain size, the development is null; while if it is a milli- metre in diameter, the spar immediately acquires an excess of vitreous ‘electricity. Want of polish in Iceland spar entirely changes its electric properties; from being a very bad con- ductor it becomes a good one; so that it ismecessary to insu- Jate it, in order to make it preserve the electricity it has acquired by pressure; its electric sensibility is then considerable. To recapitulate:—We find that the electric effects of pres- sure are modified by the temperature of bodies, by the ra- pidity with which they are separated, by their hygrometrical state, by the state of the particles of their surfaces, &c. [To be continued.} XLII. On the Nature of the Curves described by one of the Combinations of Jovuine’s Apparatus for describing Curves. By Mr. Tuomas TRrepeGo.p. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. [* your last Number a notice was given of a very simple and general method of describing curves, invented by Mr. Jop- ling. Of this method I propose to take a single case to con- sider, and one of the easiest; leaving the others to those who are better acquainted with the doctrine of curves, and. better versed in the art of analysis. The case I propose to investigate may be thus stated : Sup- pose there to be two straight lines on a fixed plane, and two Dd2 fixed 212 Mr. Tredgold on the Nature of the Curves fixed points in another plane, and let the latter plane be moved, so that while one of the points moves along one of the straight lines, the other point may move along the other straight line: it is required to determine the nature of the line that would be described by a tracer fixed in any part of the moveable lane? Let AD and DB be the two straight lines on the fixed plane; and A and B the two points on the moveable plane; and, in the first place, suppose the tracing point C to be situate at any point in a straight line passing through STITT TA PEROT IT the points AB. Put Ge: cake Ree AB=a; AC=na; me AG= s; anddenote = the angle ADG by 4; the abscissa and ordinate of the line described being, in any position of the point C, denoted by x and y. Now, CE=na+GD—z2z; and x (na+GD —2)*=n'a?— (sf y)*. The sign + applying to the case where the tracing point C is out beyond B. Hence, x=nat+GD— ¥ n*a*—(s fy)* But, Q{N422828 4 Y3 OF Sas se + —_ 3 . a ee) fF tF es Also, GD= maw consequently GD= a Pnyen — ey, oe 27% 92 1.32 2 Therefore, w=na+ OP njtand Jn a—y ee “ 1) ; If we suppose the ordinates to be taken parallel to DA, then GD=0; and, a 12 wana va—y'(se5 £1). + Hence it appears that the conic ellipse will be described by the tracer, if it be placed any where in the straight line passing through the points AB: excepting when placed so as to de- scribe either a circle or a straight line. A circle described by Jopling’s Apparatus. 213 A circle will be described when n=4; for then v=ta-— Ke + —y’. The tracing point C being, in this case, in the middle be- tween the points A B; the lines AD,DBat right angles, and a will be the diameter of the circle described. Referring again to the general equation, if we make n=0, we have the equation of a straight line, or y Taastan..2 5 If we describe a circle, to pass through the points ADB, then every point of this circle will describe a straight line passing through the point D; for it is only the reverse opera- tion to describing a circle by an angular point* (see Emerson’s Geom. Prop. 41. B.iv.). Therefore the extremities of any dia- meter of that circle might be taken as the moving points: con- sequently we can always draw a straight line from a tracing point situate any where in the moving plane to pass through two points in this circle; and lines being drawn from these points to the point D, we may consider these the fixed lines on the fast plane, and our equations become general. Hence we arrive at the conclusion, that any point in the moving plane will describe an ellipse, a circle, or a straight line. When the tracing point is in the line A B but not between the moving points AB, the principle is identical with that of the common trammel. Also, when the point is in the line, and between the points A B, the mode of describing an ellipse is well known+ and interesting to me, because it is the tra- jectory of the centre of gravity of a beam when it moves be- tween two angular planes by the force of gravitation t. 16, Grove-place, 13th Sept. 1823, Tuos. TrEeDGoLp. P.S. In the additions to Buchanan’s Essays on Mill-work, just published, I have omitted to state distinctly that the me- thod of finding the least number of teeth for a pinion, so that it may be conducted uniformly by a wheel without part of the action taking place before the teeth arrive at the line of centres, is only approximate. It is founded on the supposition that in a small are the cosine may be assumed equal to the radius, and the third line of page 52, vol. i., ought to read thus: “ But (in small arcs we may, with sufficient accuracy, consider) * The idea of reversing this operation was suggested by Mr. Jopling, or rather its use in the case we are considering. + See Ency. Metho. Amusement des Sciences, p. 566. { Elementary Prin, Carpentry, art, 38. sin. A 214 Mr. Utting on a Planetary Analogy. sin. A &c.” the passage between the parentheses being the correction. Iam much obliged to the friend who informed me of this omission; for every departure from strict mathe- matical truth ought to be announced; at the same time such deviations may often be made with great benefit. . ys ni XLIV. Postscript to Mr. J. Urrine’s Paper on a Planetary Analogy, page 119 of the present volume. F the distances of the planets from the sun, and that of the satellites from their primaries, be estimated by the radii or semiaxis major of the earth’s orbit, equal to wnity ; and the velocities of the planets and satellites be taken for one s¢dereal year, the constant quantity thus obtained (viz. V x / D &c.) will always be equal to the circumference of the earth’s orbit, or equal to the circumference of a circle whose radius is unity. It has been demonstrated by La Grange that, amid the changes which arise from the mutual actions of the planets, there are twothings which remain perpetually the same, namely, the greater axis of the orbit which the planet describes, and its periodic time ; so that the mean motion of a planet, and its mean distance, are invariable quantities. Whence it appears that the velocity of a planet in its orbit, multiplied by the square root of its mean distance from the sun, is not only a quantity resultant for all the planets, but a constant quantity, which will forever remain invariably the same. The quantity produced by Vx 4/D &c. as above, is equal to the earth’s sidereal motion in one year; and if the radi of the orbit and sidereal period of any other planet, be substi- tuted for that of the earth, the constant quantity thus obtained will always be equal to the circumference of a circle to radius unity for each planet respectively. Lynn Regis, Sept. 1, 1823. : JU. Erratum.—Page 120 lines 21 & 22, for =0. read =unity. XLV. On the Construction of an Air Barometer. By Mr. ‘ Henry MEIKLE. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. [4 your Number for January last, Mr. Murray has given the description of a barometer for measuring altitudes, and which in his opinion possesses extraordinary advantages over every other instrument employed for the same purpose. But as these advantages are scarcely enumerated, much less minutely Mr. Meikle on an Air Barometer. 215 minutely described, I have somehow either undervalued them or failed in discovering what they are; for the common portable barometer seems still to be the more convenient of the two, especially considering the very troublesome correc- tions his instrument requires for change of temperature, &c. In Mr. Murray’s barometer, the rise of the mercury, on being carried to a higher station, will, in general, be less than the corresponding depr ession in the common barometer: Its sensibility will ther efore be less ; and unfortunately there does not appear to be any means of "remedying this defect, which is occasioned by the following causes: The included air, hay- ing most likely become colder on reaching the upper station, will be less elastic, and the sinking of the mercury in the cistern, occasioned by its rise in the tube, and by its contrac- tion from cold, must enlarge the space occupied by the air, and still further diminish its elasticity, which will not, there- fore, be able to raise the mercury to the proper height. Some inaccuracies, it is true, may be lessened by sliding the tube; but the whole of the requisite corrections could be more easily estimated were the tube fixed; for if the bulk of the glass tube within the cistern be varied, a new source of error: will be introduced. In order to correct this instrument for a change of tem- perature, we must find—the change in the len ath of the mercurial columm—the change in bulk of mercur y in the cistern—and the change in “the elasticity of the included air. - Indeed, the elasticity of the air would require cor- rection, although the temperature were constant, on ac- count of the variable bulk of mercury in the cistern. It also seems highly probable that the included air, having so large a proportion of its surface in contact with mercury, ‘will be of a temperature intermediate between that of the mercury and the external air, when these disagree. In its present form, I do not see how a vernier scale can be applied ; and without this, the instrument can be of little use in measuring altitudes. Perhaps Mr. M. may hereafter be able to alter it so as to admit of this indispensable appen- dage. On the whole, I should think his instrument would have been more convenient, though at the same time more liable to fracture, had the tube first branched out from the bottom of the cistern, and then turned round till it stood upright. In this form, a vernier could be applied, and the corrections for temperature, &c. could be as easily computed. The construction of a more convenient barometer is a sub- ject to which I have often turned my attention; but have not yet succeeded altogether to my wish. The following, how- ever, 2i6 Mr. Meikle on the Construction ever, is, in my opinion, an instrument greatly preferable to Mr. Murray’s, particularly in being more sensible, and only requiring one correction on account of temperature. Its con- struction is totally different from his; but the principles em- ployed have little novelty to boast of, though, perhaps, they may not have been applied to the same purpose, at least in the same form; and therefore I would hope that a brief ac- count of it may not be altogether unacceptable to your readers. This instrument, which has some resemblance to an air- thermometer, consists of a hollow ball of glass containing air, from which a vertical tube, open at bottom, descends, and terminates in a cistern of mercury*. The mercury is likewise designed to occupy a part of the tube, more or less, according to the state of the atmosphere. Another tube, equal to the former, and placed close by its side, is also immersed in the quicksilver, though open at top. But in order that the air in the ball and first tube may always be readily brought to the same tension as the air without, the cistern consists of a leathern bag, inclosed in a box, the bottom of which is move- able by a screw precisely as in a mountain-barometer. The mercury in the cistern is, however, open to the external air no where but through the tube, which is open at top. | Now it is manifest, that if the screw at the bottom is turned till the mercury in both tubes stand at the same height, the elasticity of the air within will just balance the weight of the atmosphere: and since in this case the spring of the included air, allowing for change of temperature, cannot sensibly differ from being inyersely as its bulk, the space which it occupies will always be inversely as the atmospheric pressure. If, therefore, the tube connected with the ball, or a scale by its side, is graduated, and numbers attached proportional to the contents of the ball, and of that part of the tube which lies above them, these numbers being inversely as the densities, or inversely as the mercurial altitudes in a common barome- ter, are also ordinates to a logarithmic curve, equal that em- ployed in the usual mode of investigation; and hence the dif- ference of their logarithms has still the same proportion to the difference of elevation+; wherefore these numbers will be equally convenient for the purpose of calculation, as the num- bers on a common barometert. The mode of applying a vernier, * Dr. Hook long ago employed air in the construction of his marine baro- meter ; but that instrument is very different from this in various respects. + Or, more simply, the difference of the logarithms of two numbers is equal the difference of the logarithms of their reciprocals: the logarithms of any number being the arithmetical complement of that of its reciprocal. t These numbers are equally well suited to the very ingenious method of of an Ary Barometer. D7 yernier, and of reading off the observation, being so nearly the same as in a portable barometer, need not here be parti- cularly described; and it is scarcely necessary to remark, that since the surface of the included air in contact with the mercury is so very small, the temperature of the mercury can- not sensibly affect this instrument. If the air-ball be quite exposed to the air, and be at the same time kept in the shade, it may be presumed that the included air will be at least as near the temperature of the surrounding air as the detached thermometer is; and if so, an attached thermometer may be dispensed with. Indeed, after all the precautions that have been used, it may be questioned whe- ther the thermometer attached to a mountain-barometer may not sometimes differ considerably from the temperature of the mercury in the barometer, especially when the two ther- mometers themselves disagree. A difference in the temperatures of the included air at the two stations, will affect the elevation so much more than the same difference would in the temperature of the common baro- meter, as the effect of heat on air is greater than on mercury. Yet as the temperature of the air seems to admit of being ascertained with greater precision than that of the mercury, it may be presumed that this instrument will not on account of heat be less to be depended on than the mercurial barometer. If a lighter fluid could be employed in place of mercury, the sensibility of the instrument might be greatly increased ; but the evaporation, viscidity, capillary attraction, or some such defect, almost precludes the use of any thing else. The range or scale of this barometer might be made of almost any mag- nitude, though it is doubtful if its sensibility can be increased quite in the same proportion. Still, when of large dimensions, its sensibility may much exceed that of the common barometer; but a very large instrument would hardly deserve the name of portable. It may however be at least as sensible as the mer- curial barometer when only of about half its length. Ifthe tube connected with the bulb, in place of being cylin-. drical, were to widen downward, so that the numbers on an attached scale of equal parts might be the logarithms of those already mentioned, the elevation could be obtained with greater facility: but the formation of such a tube with accuracy would be a matter of some difficulty; and unless the divisions are of computing the elevation given by Dr. Robison, in which no tables are required. ‘The only difference is, that here a correction is to be applied for the temperature of the included air, instead of that of the mercury. . Vol. 62. No, 305. Sept. 1823. Ke equal, 218 Notices respecting New Books. equal, it would be still more difficult to apply a vernier to the scale, though it is by no means impossible to do so. Iam, Gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, ~ August 21, 1823. Henry Merk.e. XLVI. Notices respecting New Books. Practical Essays on Mill-Work: and other Machinery; by Ro- BERT3ON BucHawWaNn, Lingineer: the Second Edition, cor- rected, with Notes and additional Articles, containing new Researches on various mechanical Subjects; by THomas Trevcoxp, Civil Engineer. 2 vols. 8vo. pp. 588, illus- trated by 20 Plates and numerous Wood-cuts. HX rapid progress of the art of constructing Machinery has rendered works on that subject extremely desirable; they serve at once to record the progress of the art, and to diffuse and improve it. Amongst other able works, Robertson Bu- chanan’s Essays on Mill- Work and Machinery, have contri- buted in no small degree to make known and improve the constructions of the best proficients in this important art. A second edition of this useful work has just made its appearance, edited by Mr. Thomas Tredgold, who has added a consider- able portion of new matter, which to practical mechanicians will be found extremely useful. As the Essays themselves are pretty well known to the public, we shall confine the remarks we intend to make, to the Editor’s additions. The first Essay is on the Teeth of Wheels, wherein is now given, a simple method, by the Editor, of describing Teeth, by arcs of circies, such, as to possess the same advantages, nearly, as the correct theoretic forms: indeed, he has shown that these forms, have the properties which are ascribed to them by writers, only in the imaginary case, when the acting surfaces have no friction. He gives a general in- vestigation of a rule, for ascertaining the smallest number of teeth there should be on a pinion, to produce uniform motion: the calculations which M. Camus had made on this subject, being confined to particular cases, and these not practical ones. ‘The Editor next shows the advantage of forming the teeth of impelled wheels or pinions, so as to resemble the staves of trundles, giving to the impelling pinions or wheels, teeth of a proper figure, to act upon the stave-formed teeth, of the impelled wheels or pinions: by this very simple arrange- ment, the greater part of the action of the teeth, will occur, after they have passed the line of centres. This insportant advan- tage : ae ae | Notices respecting New Books. 219 tage will, when understood, occasion this kind of teeth to be almost universally adopted. An easy mode of computing the real radius of a wheel or pinion, of this construction, is given: but we could have been better pleased, if the manner of finding the real radius, by geometrical construction, had also been explained, the advan- tages of which mode, in similar cases, the Editor appears to be fully aware of, and therefore we have been surprised that he should here have neglected it. He remarks, that an in- genious rule employed by Mr. Murray, of Leeds, for finding the length of teeth, is founded on the properties of volute teeth, and therefore applicable, to such teeth only. The author had given an erroneous method of forming the teeth of pinions for rack-work, which his Editor has detected, and supplied a rule for finding the real radius of the pinion, and alse described the form of the teeth for a rack to move a pinion. The subject of beveled wheels, has always been esteemed an intricate one; because it has been so treated, as to involve the consideration and description of curves of double curva- ture; but Mr. Tredgold has been fortunate in discovering a new principle of forming these teeth, which is simple, and very easy of application; and in consequence of the very general use of beveled wheels, in modern machines, and the im- mense advantage of well-formed teeth for such, this discovery will prove a valuable one. The most important of the pro- perties of involute teeth are pointed out, which show, that thev ? a can only be useful in particular cases. In addition to some supplementary definitions of the author, his Editor has now subjoimed some interesting definitions ef power, force, momen- tum and mechanical power. ’ It is well known that the nature of force, was a subject of much discussion about fifty years ago, which has been at intervals revived, up to the present time: the importance of settled and clear ideas on the subject, is of the first importance, in all mechanical inquiries, and in our opinion, the Editor’s views are founded in truth. The horse’s power, was by Mr. Buchanan, made the mea- sure of strain, in the parts.of machines, and ‘hence his Editor has taken oceasion to-wnfold his own ideas, on the maximum of effect of animal force; and after an interesting inquiry re-— specting the velocity which corresponds to the maximum effect, he justly gives the preference to Smeaton’s measure, of the force of men, as given from the papers of that able engineer, by Mr. Farey junior, the writer of the excellent article Water in Dr. Rees’s Cyclopedia. On the strength of the teeth of wheels, the |ditor enters into some new investigations, from whence he derives simple and general rules, for guiding the Ee2 practical 220 Notices respecting New Books. practical mechanic in fixing their proportions: and he coi= cludes his additions to the first Essay, with valuable remarks, rules and examples for arranging the numbers of the teeth, for wheel-work of mills and other machines. The second Essay is on the shafts and gudgeons, and the journals (or neck-bearings) of machines, and is accompanied with additions, not less novel nor less important than those we have noticed in the first Essay: the subjects are exemplified by rules, tables and examples, and are treated quite in a new manner, on principles which the Editor has established, in an Essay which he lately published (and of which a second edi- tion is in the press) on “the Strength of Cast-Iron.” The second Essay is concluded by one of the most complete tables of the strength of metals that has ever been published, with references to the original works of the experimenters. 3 The addition of the most consequence, now remaining to be noticed is, on Water-wheels. Practical millwrights had, since the time of Smeaton, ascertained, that overshot water- wheels, do not produce the greatest effect, when the water flows on at their summits, and the advantage was under- stood, of forming a wheel, so that it might receive the water, at some distance below the summit, as was some time ago mentioned in the Cyclopzedic article above referred to, and it was probably in consequence of this mention, that Mr. T. has made it here the subject of investigation, and shown the point, at which the water ought to flow on, so as to produce a maximum effect. He has also determined the velocity, which corresponds to the greatest effect; and shows that each parti- cular height of fall, has its particular velocity, to render the effect a maximum, when the height of the wheel is made to suit the fall. Mr. Smeaton employed only one sized model, he could not therefore obtain a general maximum, and the ve- locity which he considered the best, is limited to the sized model he used. ‘This shows how careful writers should be, in generalizing from too limited experiments; in fact, it has long been known, in the northern counties, that it was advantageous to give wheels greater velocity, and where (according to Mr. Fenwick) they often have a speed of 9 feet per second, instead of less than 4 feet, as limited by Mr. Smeaton: this interesting subject is closed with very simple formule for cal- culating the power of water-wheels, which will, we think, con- tribute much, to improve the practical application of this valuable natural power. There are many subjects of minor importance discussed in the Editor’s additional articles and notes (which are all di- stinctively marked); and on the whole, the work before us, will —— Notices respecting New Books. 29) will be & valuable acquisition to the library of the mechanical student. The additions are chiefly illustrated by wood-cuts, and there is one new plate: the work is handsomely, although somewhat too widely printed; and the publisher deserves praise, for having placed Mr. Buchanan’s work in the hands of an Editor, of a more scientific character than the author, by which we have a combination of views on the same sub- jects, very favourable to their improvement. At the com- mencement of the first volume, a concise biographical sketch of the life of the author is given, in the Editor’s preface; followed by a justly drawn estimate, of his character and writings. Soological Researches in Java and the Neighbouring Islands ; by Tuomas Horsrie.tp, M.D. F.L.S. M.G.S. Five numbers. 1821, 1822. Quarto. We have too long omitted to notice this valuable work, which has been for some time in a course of periodical publi- cation. Dr. Horsfield, it may be remembered, was engaged . . . tos) by Sir S. Raffles, during the short time that Java remained in our possession, to form a collection of the productions of that island for the East India Company; and he returned to this country three years ago, bringing with him the fruits of his researches, the greatest part of which are now arranged in the Museum at the India-House. The present work is published, we believe, under the patronage of the Honourable Company, and is intended to comprise a selection of the most interesting quadrupeds and birds collected by the author. It is intended to be completed in eight numbers, each containing eight co- loured plates, and generally another of anatomical outlines, to illustrate the subjects more fully. The plates of animals are by Mr. W. Daniell, and, with a few exceptions, are in his best manner: those containing the anatomical details are su- perior to any hitherto published in this country, and reflect the highest credit on the artist, Mr. Taylor, who has given such unequivocal proofs of high excellence in this department: the birds are principally drawn on stone by Myr. Pellitier, ard are very good specimens of lithography. It is not our object to enter into a critical examination of the descriptions which accompany the plates. Dr. H. has pro- posed several new genera, some of which, we think, rest on good and valid characters ; while others have been either already made, or appear to us not so likely toreceive general adoption. On the other hand, it should be stated, that the author appears to be actuated by a sincere and zealous spirit of investigation : this is cbvious from the course of inquiry he has pursued, and the 222 Notices respecting New Books. the reasons which have guided him; all of which he details to the reader. From the judgement which Dr. Horsfield has displayed, we are disposed to think that his inquiries would have led, on some occasions, to different conclusions, had his materials for com- parison been more extensive: but this is not his fault;—whathe has observed, he has minutely described; and these details, if not interesting to the general reader, are useful, and indeed highly valuable to the scientific. That they have not been more ex- tended must be attributed to the lamentable state of the zoolo- gical collections in the national Museum, which, instead of being a source of information and of reference to zoological writers, is a meagre gathering of a few hali-decayed quadrupeds and moth-eaten birds, exciting the regret of British naturalists, and the contempt of foreigners: but we hope, ere long, for better things; there appears a good and an improving spirit spreading among those who have power: we trust it will not slumber, but that all parties will join in placing this portion of our public Museum on the same footing with its other de- partments. % Having now endeavoured to do justice to the execution of. a work, which merits the support of every one at all interested in these pursuits, we shall briefly notice a few of the principal subjects contained in the five numbers before us. In the first Numbers are Felis Javanensis.and gracilis, the latter of which appears to be a new animal; Viverra musanga; Tapirus Ma- Jayanus, the Malay Tapier ; Zrena puella, (male and female,) a beautiful bird, allied to the Rollers; Phrenotrix Temia (the Temia of Vaill.); these two last are placed as new genera: and Motacella speciosa.— No. 2. The quadrupeds are, Mydaus meliceps; Gulo orientalis; Tarsius bancanus ; and Felis Suma- trana. The birds consist of Eurylaimus Javanicus ; a new Pogardus, and two others.—The 3d Number has Tupaia Javanica and Tana; a singular long-armed ape, by the name of Sima syndactyla, and Picropus rostraius. 'The birds are twe species of Falco; two others of a new genus by the name of Timalia, and Cuculus Xanthorhynchus, a splendid species. In the 4th Number are contained, Semnopithecus (Simia Cuv.) maurus; Ursus Malayanus; Pteromys genibarbis, and Picropus Javanicus. Wemay here observe, that it would perhaps have been better had the author been less sparing of this latter spe- cific name, which implies an exclusively local habitat. It is true such species have been found only in Java; but it should be remembered, we know scarcely any thing as yet of the zoology of the great islands in the Indian Archipelago; and it is not improbable that many animals, thus designated, will be hereafter Analysis of Periodical Works on Natural Fitstery. 293 hereafter found in Sumatra, Borneo, or New Guinea. There are four birds in this Number, cne of which is proposed as a new genus by the name of Calyptomena viridis. . The 5th and last part which has reached us contains four quadrupeds, viz. Nyctinonus tenuis; Mangusta Javanica; Sciurus insignis, and Pteromys Lepidus. The birds introduced are, Pomatorhinus montanus (a new genus allied to Cinnyres), Pheenicophaus Ja- vanicus ; Scolopax saturata, and Muscicapa Indigo. Numerical Games: intended Jor the Improvement of Young Persons. Gy Thomas Halliday. Hunter, St. Paul’s Church yard, &c. This small work is evidently the result of much thought, labour, and ingenuity; and we are induced to notice it as being adapted to facilitate the early acquisition of readiness and skill in those numerical calculations which are requisite not cnly in the usual avocations of commercial life, but also in the pur- suits of science. The exercises supply a great variety of re- creations, at once instructive and entertaining; and from the rational occupation and exercise which they furnish to the mind, we are disposed to recommend them to the notice of those who withhold from young people games of chance, as being likely to be particularly useful in habituating young per- sons to mental arithmetic, and in cultivating that quickness of apprehension and combination which are the best preparatives for the successful cultivation of the higher branches of know- ledge. The games are played with the assistance of appro- priate cards and counters; and we can add, from cur attentive observation, that children will take great interest and derive much entertainment from them. pe nolcaical Essays and Observations, by J. F. Daniell, F.R.S. —— Preparing fer Publication. We are very happy to learn that the first number of a Zoological Journal, to be continued quarterly, and edited by Thomas Bell, Esq. F.L.S., John George Children, Esq. F.R. and L.S., James De Carle Sowerby, Esq. F.L.S., and G. B. Sowerby, F.L.S., will appear on the first of January next, and trust that the study of Zoology will be essentially pro- moted by it. - ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON NATURAL HISTORY. Sowerby’s Mineral Conchology. Nos. 71, 72, 73, 74. Since our last notice of this work (vol. Lxi. p- 135) the fourth volume has been concluded. The paper by Mr. Farey in p. 388 224 Analysis of Periodical Works on Natural History. p. $38 of our last volume supersedes the necessity of any further detail of its contents. Of the fifth volume, four num- bers have also appeared, the subjects figured and described in which are as follows: No. 71.—Pl. 408, &c. Crania Parisiensis with its upper valve: Plicatula pectinoides, and P. inflata (the former of these has been called a Placuna by Lamarck !): Afurex quadratus and Calear: Murex alveolatus, M. defossus, and MM. sexdentatus: Buccinum labiatum, and B. lavatum: Buecinum cris- patum.—No. 72. PI. 414, &c. Buccinum tetragonum, and B. incrassatum : ‘Buccinum desertum, and B. canaliculatun: Murex tricarinatus, IM, bispi- nosus, and AL, frondosus: Lucina divaricata, exactly similar to the recent shell: Mya depressa: Mya gibbosa, Mya intermedia var., and MM, plicata.— No. 73.—Pl. 420, &c. Ammonites Catena, long celebrated for its loose joints: Ammonites striatulus, subradiatus and cristatus: Venus transversa, V. lineolata, V. elegans, and V.? pectinifera; this is probably distinct from any known genus: Fusus reguaris, adult: I’. complanatus, and PF. Lima: Nerita globosa, and N, aperta; this has just appeared in Ferrussac’s great work under the name of N. wnidentata: Anomia striata, generally con- founded with A. Ephippium.—No. 74. Pl. 426, &c. Two views of Dolium nodosum, avery curious and rare fossil: Cirrus perspectivus, and C. de- pressus: Cirrus rotundatus, and C, carinatus: Mitra parva, and MM. pu- mila: T'rigonia elongata (a variety of J’, costata, according to Lamarck). The seven numbers which have appeared since our last notice of this work, contain 36 new species, besides several that were but imperfectly under- stood, The shells figured by Brander have received particular attention, and several species, especially of his Volutes, are cleared up. Several former errors are corrected, and the characters of four genera are introduced. The shelly productions of the crag and chalk a!so have been examined, and se~ veral figured; so that probably there is not much left to be done either in those beds or in the London clay. G. B. Sowerby’s Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells. No. 19. This number contains the following genera: Sigaretus, including Crypto- stoma of Blainville; Stomatia, united to Stomatella; Pileolus, a new tessil univalve, related to Nerita; Eburna, as distinguished from the Buecinum spiratum and its congeners, which are usually united to it; Ranella; Phola- domya, a new genus of bivalve Shells, of which a single recent species has been lately found, but of which many fossil species have been hitherto de- scribed as Cardite, Lutraria, &c. Curtis's Botanical Magazine. No. 439, 440. Pl. 2419, Ornithogalum gramineum, “scapo angulato foliis linearibus al- tiore, floribus umbellatis, pedunculis erectis, petalis ovatis acutis striatis,” raised from seeds from Chili by J. Walker, Esq., and not hitherto described. — Geranium macrorhizon.—Alstrameria pulchra, * caule erecto, foliis lineari- lanceolatis, pedunculis sub-umbellatis involucratis trifloris, pedicellis tor- tuosis, petalis exterioribus obcordatis mucronatis ;” from Chili—Pulmo- naria mollis, from the botanic garden at Bury St. Edmund’s.—Erysimum lanceolatum 3. minus.—C@nothera tenella, from Chilii— Hyacinthus amethy- stinus.— Spirea bella, “caule fruticoso, foliis ovatis acutis argute serratis sub- tus tomentoso-albidis, paniculis terminalibus foliaceis.” Pl. 227. Magnolia acuminata. Catesby’s figure appears to’ have been from MM, glauca, and not from this plant. Jvora rosea Roxb. Fl. Ind. Vitis riparia, mascula. Pyrus Amelanchier: Mr, Lindley has proposed Amelanchier ‘ Analysis of Periodical Works on Natural History. 225 Amelanchier as a distinct genus, containing, with this plant, Pyrus botrya- pium, ovalis and cretica; while on the contrary Sir J. E. Smith has thought it best to reduce the whole order in which it stands to the two genera, Mespilus and Pyrus. Erythrina caffra, native of Southern Africa, flowered for the first time in this country last year; and now figured, as is supposed, for the first time. Arum Italicum, frequently confounded with A. maculatum. “It was in this species (adds the Editor) that M. Lamarck observed an ex- traordinary degree of heat, amounting almost to burning, in the spadix, at a certain epoque, probably that when the fecundation of the germens takes place. This high temperature continues only for a few hours, and when several spadices come from the same root, the heat is evolved from each, in succession, as they arrive at the proper epoque, while the rest remain at the same temperature as the surrounding atmosphere. This observation is said to have been confirmed by Desfontaines. “We are not informed, however, that the fact was proved by the ther- mometer ; and, if not, it is possible that some pungent vapour might occa- sion the sensation of heat in the fingers, without really inereasing the tem- perature of the surrounding air. We hope some of our readers may be induced to attend to this curious phenomenon.” The Botanical Register. No. 103. With this number are given the descriptions of the following plants, the figures of which were contained in Nos. 100 and 101 :— Plate 711. Physica capitata; belonging to the Natural Order of Rhamnee described by Mr. Brown in Flinders’s Voyage, 2, 554, where upwards of 30 plants of this order are said to be found in Terra Australis.—Lonicera flexuosa ; native of China, said to be quite new to our collections.— Murica c@rulea, a newly observed species from the Brazils, very near to M. Nor- thiana.—Amaryllis Belladonna, from Southern Africa, long confounded with Aquestris, a West Indian plant.—Pancratium australasicum, from the newly explored inland parts of New South Wales, where it was lately discovered by Mr. Cunningham, the zealous investigator of the natural history of those regions.— Tabernemontana laurifolia.— Scabiosa Webbiana, gathered on the summit of Mount Ida by Mr. Barker Webb in October 1819.—T'ro- eolum peregrinum.— Amaryllis maranensis, the Hippeastrum stylosum of r. Herbert in Curtis’s Mag.—Calanthe veratrifolia: this is a genus sepa- rated from Limodorum and Bletia by Mr. Brown.—Acacia Lambertiana, a new Mexican species from the collection of Don José Paven: the descrip- tion by Mr. Don.—Brachystelma tuberosum; a genus of the Nat. Ord. of Asclepiadee established by Mr. Brown.—Calceolaria corymbosa.—Amaryllis candida, sent to the Horticultural Scciety in 1823 from Peru. XLVII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. July 1." [HE Silver Medal was presented to James Cowan, Esq. for his attention to the objects of the So- ciety in sending a valuable collection of seeds and bulbs from Peru for the Garden of the Society. The following communications were read : Directions for cultivating the Sugar Cane, with Observa- tions on the Species and Varieties of that Plant. By Mr. Vol. 62. No. 305. Sept. 1823. Ff George 226 Horticultural Society of London. George Caley, Corresponding Member of the Society, and Curator of the Botanic Garden at St. Vincents. On the Cultivation of Parasitical Plants. By the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, D.C.L. F.H.S. &c. _ July 15.—The following communications were read : On the Cultivation of tender Roses by budding on the Musk Cluster Rose. By John Williams, Esq. Corresponding Mem- ber of the Society. On the Cultivation of Dahlias. By Mr. John Mearns, F.H.S. An Account of a new Variety of Apple. By M. André Thouin, Foreign Member of the Society. August 5.—The Silver Medal was presented to Mr. George Washington Jones, for having first introduced into this country Plants of the Aracacha from South America, and for present- ing the same to the Society. The following communications were read : An Account of a Steam-Apparatus erected at Barton Cot- tage, Hampshire, by Mr. John Hague; communicated by John Dent, Esq. M.P. F.H.S. On the Cultivation of the Arachis hypogea. By Mr. John Newman, Gardener to the Hon. Robert Fulke Greville, F.H.S. August 19.—The following communications were read : On the Cultivation of tender Plants in the open Air. | By Mr. Nathaniel Shirley Hodson, Corresponding Member of the Society. On the Cultivation of Citrons. By Mr. Archibald Craig, Corresponding Member of the Society. September 2.—On the different Modes of increasing Solar Heat on the Surface of Garden Walls, &c. By John Williams, Esq. Corresponding Member of the Society. September 16.—The Silver Medal was presented to Edward Nicholas Bancroft, M.D. of the Island of Jamaica, for his at- tention in sending to the Society plants of the Aracacha. - Also to William Atkinson, Esq. F.H.S. for having produced the new variety of Strawberry called the Grove End Scarlet Strawberry. Also to Mr. Peter MacArthur, Corresponding Member of the Society, Gardener to Alexander Baring, Esq. at the Grange, Hampshire, for his skill in the cultivation of fruits, as evinced by the specimens exhibited by him at the meetings of the So- ciety on the 5th and 19th of August and 2d of September. ~ The following communications were read : On the Propagation and Growth of the Yucca filamentosa. By Mr. Folkes, Gardener to Sir Everard Home, Bart. F.H.S. On a Method of treating Dwarf Standard Apple- and Pear- Trees, By Peter Rainier, Esq. Captain R.N. F.H.S. ROYAL PI oh oe eS en en ee eee Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 227 ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. April 28.—The following memoirs were received : On an Instrument for Measuring Angles and Lines; by M. Hurtel.—On the Binomial Theorem; by Mr. John Walsh.— On the Existence of Hydrocyanite of Iron in Wine; by M. Julia.— Meteorological Observations at Alais; by M. d’Hom- bres Firmas.— Additional notes to the former communication of M. de la Borne on Voltaic Electricity. The conclusion was read of the Report on M. Bertrand Roux’s Geological Description of Puy-en-Velay, and parti- cularly of the Valley in which that city is situated :—the work received the approbation of the Academy, and was ordered to be published. M. Geofiroy St. Hilaire read a Memoir en- titled General Considerations on the Sexual Organs.—M. Destontaines made a Report, in the name ofa Commission, on the Memoir of M. Paulet on the Synonymy of the Plants of Theophrastus :—this work required the research of one well skilled both in the knowledge of plants and in the learned languages; and although it cannot be said that the author has in all points been equally successful, yet his work will be of great use to those who read Theophrastus. May 5.—A Memoir was received from M. Turban, on the Internal Navigation of Paris; from M. de la Borne, on the In- fluence of the Multiplication of Bars in the Circuit of Doctor Seebeck; and from M. Metternich, a complete Theory of Pa- rallel Lines. M. Feuillet was unanimously elected Librarian in the room of the late M. Charles. M. Brongniart read a Report on the Memoir by M. Becquerel relative to the Plastic Clay of Auteuil, which received the full approbation of the Academy.—M. Gaymard, one of the na- turalists who accompanied M. Freycinet round the world, read a Memoir on the Form of the Sculls of the Papous; and MM. Pelletier and Dumas, a Memoir on the Elementary Constitu- tution and some characteristic Properties of Vegetable Alkalis. May 12.——M. Fresnel was unanimously elected a Member of the Academy.—The Prize for an Essay on Animal Heatwas awarded to M. Despretz of the Polytechnic School.—It was the opinion of the Commission that the physiological Prize founded by M. de Montyon should be divided between M. Fodera, author of a Memoir on Absorption, and M. Flourens, author of a Memoir on the Functions of the Nervous System*, —M. Edwards read a Memoir on the Production of Carbonic Acid in Respiration.—M. de Lalande’s two Medals were given * See Philosophical Magazine, vol, Ixi. p. 114, F { 2 at 228 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. at the recommendation of the Section of Astronomy, the one to M. Rumker, and the other to M. Gambart, jun. May 19.—A Memoir by M. Hill was received relative to certain new Means of Producing Sound; also one by M. Mar- cel de Serres, entitled Observations on the Human Bones dis- covered in the Fissures of Secondary Strata, and in particular on those which are found in the cavern of Durfort in the De- partement du Gard.—M. Poinsot read a Memoir on the Ana- lysis of Angular Sections; and M. Gay-Lussac read his Re- flections on Volcanos*. May 26.—M. Cauchy read a Memoir on the Determination of Definite Integrals; and MM. Prévost and Dumas read their Memoir on the Decomposition of Urinary Calculi in the Bladder by means of the Voltaic Pile. M. Prony made a very full Report, inthe name of a Com- mission, on the work of MM. Clapeyron and Lamé relative to the Stability of Arches. It appears that these young en- gineers had been anticipated in the discovery of the fundamen- tal bases of the theory, by M. Audoy, chef de bataillon of en- gineers. Their work is not the less worthy of praise : the geo- metrical construction which they give of the point of rupture is curious; and the analysis is conducted with skill and elegance. June 2.—At this sitting were read M. Fourier’s Eloge on Delambre; a Memoir by M. Magendie on some recent Dis- coveries relative to the Functions of the Nervous System; M. Cuvier’s Eloge on M. Haiiy; and Considerations on the Com- mercial Strength and Public Works of France and England, by M. Dupin. June 9.—A paper on Mathematical Analysis, by Mr. Walsh, was received.—M. Cuvier read a Memoir, “ Sur une Pha- lange onguéale fossile,” which may be presumed to have be- longed to an unknown toothless animal, probably a gigantic species of pangolin.—M. CErsted was elected to fill the va- cancy among the Corresponding Members; the other candi- dates heing MM. Chladni, Seebeck, Brewster, Amici, and Gilbert of Leipsic. M. A. St. Hilaire read a first Memoir on the Ginobasis. June 16.—A Memoir was received fram M. Lambert on Symmetric Polyhedrons. M. Becquerel read a Memoir on the Development of Elec- tricity by the contact of two portions of the same metal of a sufficiently unequal temperature. Also, M. Cuvier read a Memoir entitled Observations on a singular Alteration of some Human Sculls, * See page 81 of our present volume. M.*Ampére Meteorological Society. 229 M. Ampére presented to the Academy an Instrument for Measuring the Intensity of the Electro-dynamic force, in de- termining by experiment the duration of the oscillations which are produced, at various distances, in a circular moveable con- ductor, by the action of two semi-circumferences forming part of a Voltaic circuit. Mr. Walsh had addressed to the Academy a fresh note on what he formerly denominated the bznominal calculus, and which he now wished to call the Irish calculus (calcul @ Ir- lande), Mr. Walsh’s country. ‘The report now read by M. Cauchy on this subject was not more iavourable than his re- ports on the preceding memoirs of the same author. - M. Lassaigne read his Observations on the Existence of Cystic Oxide in a vesical Calcuius from a Dog, and an analytical Essay on its elementary Composition. June 23.—M. de Humboldt gave a detailed account of the new work on the last Eruption of Vesuvius, published by MM. Monticelli and Covelli*; and he communicated the re- sults of the measurements which he made shortly after that event. M. de Freycinet communicated a letter written by M. Duperrey, and dated from La Conception, in Chili, the 24th of January last. M. Duperrey announces the transmission of the Magnetic Observations, and of those on the Pendulum, which he made at the various places at which he touched during his voyage. XLVIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT OF A METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY. HE science of Meteorology, we understand, is likely to re- ceive, in a short time, the powerful aid ofa Society expressly devoted to its cultivation. A meeting will be held on the third Wednesday in October, at the London Coffee-house, Ludgate Hill, at 8 o’clock in the evening, for the purpose of taking the subject into consideration, at which a number of scientific gen- tlemen, attached to the science, are expected to attend: and we hope their example will be followed by all who are inter- ested in Meteorological pursuits. MISSION TO THE INTERIOR OF AFRICA, FOR THE DISCOVERY OF THE COURSE OF THE RIVER NIGER. We have the greatest satisfaction in announcing that our * See page 90 of our present volume, ; three 230 Voyages of Discovery, Sc. three enterprising countrymen, Dr. Oudenay, Major Den- ham, and Lieut. Clapperton, who left London on the above interesting and hazardous expedition, under the authority of Government, in 1821, arrived at Bornou, in the centre of the continent of Africa, in February last, and were exceedingly well received by the Sultan of that kingdom. The Doctor (an eminent professor from one of the Scotch Universities) is to remain at Bornou as British Vice Consul, while the cther parties pursue their inquiries as to the course of this long-sought river. All the parties were then in good health and spirits, though they have all at times suffered severely from the rigours of the climate. Their route has been over dreary deserts of 15 or 16 days journey in length ; but their undiminished zeal and ardour in the service augur well of their ultimate success. The fatigue and privations they have suffered have been extremely gveat. ‘They are, however, borne with scarcely a complaint or murmur ; and we sincerely hope such exertions may be rewarded by the complete discovery of their object of research. At all events, the public will hereafter be gratified with many interesting particulars, before unknown, of this curious and unexplored region of the world. at CAPTAIN SABINE’S EXPEDITION. A letter from an officer on board his Majesty’s gun-brig the Griper, on her voyage to the North Pole, dated Hammer- fats Bay, Norwegian Lapland, June, 1823, says—“‘ We ar- rived here safe on the 2d instant. On the 24th May we passed the arctic circle, and experienced some difficulty in finding Hammerfats Bay, as the whole land is one continued chain of islands along the coast, and but imperfectly laid down in the charts. We enjoy excellent health, and are extremely com- fortable. The weather is now getting better, as summer is rapidly advancing, and we have a continuation of day-light all the twenty-four hours, the sun never sitting below the horizon. The island is about 24 miles in circumference, and five or six in breadth, and gives name to a small town of about 30 or 40 wooden houses, containing about 200 inhabitants. Captain Sabine has all his instruments on shore tocommence his opera- tions. We expect to remain here 12 or 14 days, when we pro- ceed to Spitzbergen. Should we return this winter, the Cap- tain proposes calling at Drontheim, the capital of Norway.”— Inverness Journal. ORIENTAL MANUSCRIPTS. The celebrated philologer Rask, in the course of the jour- ney New Voyage of Discovery. 231 ney into the East which he has prosperously accomplished, has made a most valuable addition to the literary treasures of the university of Copenhagen, in a collection of one hundred and thirteen manuscripts in various oriental languages, and of great antiquity. Of these, thirty-three belong to the Persic literature, including very ancient copies of the Zendavesta. The rest relate to ancient Indian literature, and are written in the ancient Indian and Malabaric dialects.—Revue Encycl. NEW VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY. Portsmouth, Sept. 22.— We have just been visited by a navigator of great celebrity, who is going on his third voyage round the world,—Captain Otto Von Kotzebue, who accom- panied Captain Krusenstern, and afterwards made a voyage to the South Sea, and North East coast of America, in a small vessel fitted out at the expense of that munificent patron of science Count Romanzoff. On the present oc- casion he is sent by the Russian Government, and nothing has been neglected to insure the success of the voyage. The ship was built last winter expressly for the voyage. She is a corvette, called the Enterprise, carrying 24 guns, and manned with a crew cf 80 men and 13 officers, all volunteers from the Imperial navy; she has on board two physicians, both well versed in Natural History—one of them is Dr. Eschscholz, who accompanied Captain Kotzebue on his late voyage. The Astronomer is Mr. Preiss; Mineralogist, Mr. Lintz; and professed Naturalist, Mr. Hoffman. These gentlemen are all from the University of Dorpat. Immedi- ately on his arrival, Captain Kotzebue went to London to re- ceive the astronomical instruments and the chronometers, which had been previously ordered by the Imperial Govern- ment for this expedition. ‘The astronomical instruments are made by the celebrated Troughton, and by Jones instrument maker to the Admiralty. The chronometers are by Park- inson and Frodsham, whose improvements in these machines have obtained much well-merited praise, since their superi- ority has been so fully proved in several of the late scientific voyages, especially Captain Parry’s to the Polar Sea, and Captain Sabine’s to the coast of Africa. As the object of this expedition is said to be not so much for new discoveries, as to make accurate surveys, and most strictly to deter- mine, by astronomical observations, the real situation of many unportant points, we cannot but applaud the judgement and li- berality of the Imperial Government in applying to the above eminent artists for the numerous instruments required for the full 232 ~—-Prussian Travellers.—Storms, and Water-Spouts. fall attainment of the object proposed. Captain Kotzebue’s destination is to Rio Janeiro, round Cape Horn to Kamts- chatka, where he will find further instructions, which are to be forwarded over-land through Siberia. PRUSSIAN TRAVELLERS. Drs. Ehrenberg and Hemprich, Prussian naturalists now travelling in Egypt, are not expected, as some journals have stated, to return immediately to Europe. On the contrary, they were, according to the last accounts from them, about to avail themselves of the assistance afforded by His Majesty for a new expedition. Their plan, as described in a letter dated Suez, June 8, is as follows: In the first place to proceed along the coast of the Red Sea, making their longest haltjat Tor and Abaka. They will afterwards embark for Mocca, whence they will make excursions on the coast of Abyssinia, and in the islands situated near Ral and Nandel.. Hence they mean to proceed to Suakin, and, if circumstances permit, to penetrate again into Nubia and Sennaar, to examine those fertile coun- tries with which they had acquired a slight acquaintance on their former journey, but only by skimming the frontiers. They wish to return to Cairo by Cosseyr and Ginch. We have already received from them thirty large packing-cases, con- taining valuable articles collected during their voyage in Nubia, and which furnish most interesting information on countries hitherto very little known. What curiosities they have since collected have been embarked’for Trieste, and we expect to receive them before the end of the present year. From the researches of these zealous and intelligent travellers, we expect important results for the study of natural history and geo- graphy.—Berlin Paper. VIOLENT STORMS, AND WATER-SPOUTS. On August 26, at three o’clock in the afternoon, the sudden heat of the atmosphere announced an approaching storm, which showed itself coming from the S.E. over the village of Boncourt (Canton of Anet), and not far from thence a remark- ably large water-spout made its appearance. Its base touched the earth, and its summit was lost in the clouds. It was formed of a dense dark vapour, and flames frequently darted through its centre. In its course onwards, it tore up or broke the trees for a space of a league, destroying between seven and eight hundred trees, and at length burst with vast impetuosity on the village of Marchefroy, destroying in an instant one half ofthe houses. The walls were shaken to their foundations, and crumbled down in eyery direction; they were torn off and Earthquakes.—Eruption of a Volcano in Iceland. 233 and split, and the pieces carried half a league away by the force of the wind. Some of the inhabitants:who remained in the village were knocked down and wounded; those who were at work in the field, fortunately the greater number, were also thrown down by the violence of the storm, which destroyed the harvest and wounded or killed the beasts. Hail-stones,:as big almost as a man’s fist, stones, and other bodies, showered down by this impetuous wind, wounded several individuals very severely. Waggons heavily laden were broken in pieces, and their burdens dispersed. Axle-trees capable of support- ing the weight of eight or ten tons were broken, and large wheels were carried two or three hundred paces from where the storm found them. One of these waggons, almost entire, was even carried over a brick-kiln, some portions of which were carried to a considerable distance. A steeple, several hamlets, and isolated houses, and new walls, were blown down, and other villages were considerably damaged. ‘The spout occupied about 100 toises at its base, if we may judge from the durable and disastrous marks it made in its progress.— Journal des Debats. —_———~ ofa On the 19th of August aterrible storm passed over Brussels, which did great damage in Zeilich and other places. A -water- spout that accompanied it breke twenty large trees within six feet of the ground, which blocked up the road so as to stop the diligence from Antwerp. ‘The storm raged chiefly in the direction from Aelst to Mechlin. Above 100 trees were snap- ped asunder, or torn up, at the corner of a small meadow; and between Mazeendeel and Steinhuffel, several thousand trees of all kinds and sizes have been thrown down, or strip- ped of their foliage, Of course, every thing in the fields and gardens is destroyed, and the corn may be gathered up as ona thrashing-floor. Hailstones as large asa hen’s egg were picked up, and pieces of ice several inches long and an inch thick. EARTHQUAKES.—ERUPTION OF A VOLCANO IN ICELAND. A shock of an earthquake was felt at Madras on the 2d of March, extending through the Nilgherry and the country in that direction, as well as generally along the coast. ‘The shock was also perceived in Travancore, but twenty minutes later than at Madras, and also in the island of Ceylon. Accounts from Iceland, of the 16th of August, say, that the volcano of Kollugean, in that island, which had been a for 68 years, made a terrible eruption on the 26th of uly last, accompanied by an earthquake; enormous blocks of ice were detached from the summit of the mountain; a great extent of country was laid waste; but fortunately no Vol. 62. No. 305. Sept. 1823. Gg lives 234 Formation of Prussic Acid, §c. lives were lost. Ships which were 20 leagues distant in the open sea, were covered with volcanic ashes. ‘There were three distinct eruptions, each very violent. NEWLY DISCOVERED MINES IN FRANCE. There have lately been discovered in the environs of Con- folens, in the department of the Charente, and at Melle, in the department of the Deux Sevres, several mines of zinc and lead. The presence of a great mass of metallic matter has been ascertained by a Company formed to make experiments. Sulphat of zinc and lead, in combination with silver, have been found, and submitted to analysis by the most distin- guished chemists of Paris: it has been from 3 to 33 ounces of silver to the old quintal. Cadmium, a metal lately dis- covered in Hungary, has been detected in these minerals; the uses to which it may be put are, however, not yet very well known. ‘These mines are situated in a country where fuel is abundant and cheap. The Charente and the Vienne flow close by the spot where it is purposed to place the machines ; and the high-road is not far off. Some specimens of the pro- duce of these mines are now to be seen in the Louvre; and some rich capitalists propose to work them on a grand scale. —Courier Francois. FORMATION OF PRUSSIC ACID BY THE IGNITION OF A CAR- BONACEOUS SUBSTANCE WITH NITRATE OF BARYTES. In our last number, we gave an extract from Silliman’s Jour- nal, respecting the production of cyanogene by the action of nitric acid upon charcoal: the subject has recalled to our re- membrance a notice found among the late Mr. Gregor’s papers by Dr. Paris, and published by him in the first volume of the Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, in which certain effects are described that must have resulted from a si- milar action; and as we believe the notice in question to be little known, it may be useful to republish it. “‘ The species of coal known by the name of culm,” says Dr. Paris, “‘ Glanz Kohle, is imported, on account of its purity, tor the purpose of smelting tin. Mr. Wm. Gregor informed me, shortly before his death, that he had observed amongst the heaps of this coal Jumps of a much more dense texture, and which were perfectly uninflammable. In order to decompose it, he powdered it, and added twice its weight of nitrate of barytes, and subjected it to heat in a platina crucible; when, to his great astonishment, a violent detonation took place, accom- panied with a copious evolution of prussic acid vapours; and, upon examination, he found the residue in the crucible to consist Mr. Jopling’s Apparatus for describing Curves. 235 consist of the prussiate and carbonate of barytes. Since Mr. Gregor’s death I have examined his chemical memoranda, and am thereby enabled to extract the following facts. From different experiments the specific gravity of this substance appears to be 1.627. Fifty grains of the coal were mixed with 200 of nitrate of barytes, reduced to powder, and placed in a platina crucible, which was set in a common fire: before the crucible became red hot, a violent detonation took place, with the disengagement of a brilliant light and vivid heat, which rendered the crucible and its cover red hot; a porous light greyish mass, mixed with black streaks, remained, which smelt of prussic acid. ‘This was separated from the crucible and pulverized, when it was introduced into a mattrass. Mu- riatie acid operated upon the powder, and a considerable quantity of an elastic fluid was disengaged. The solution assumed a dark blue colour, and a very light powder was sus- pended in it, resembling Prusszan blue. It was poured off with the fluid, and the remainder was a portion of the unde- composed mineral, which, when dried, weighed 23? grains. This residuum was mixed with 100 grains of nitrate of ba- rytes, and treated as before, when a detonation again took place, but with less energy, a greyish mass remaining, which was treated with muriatic acid as before: there was now no blue powder separated, but the lixiviated mass became opa- line. The undissolved residuum now weighed 15% grains: this was again mixed with 50 grains of the nitrate of barytes ; a brisk detonation and vivid flame were produced. In this case the vessel was exposed to a stronger heat than before ; and on the addition of muriatic acid, a blue powder was again separated, when the undecomposed residue was edulcorated and dried. It weighed 83, which was mixed with 40 of the nitrate, with the same phenomena, and the same separation of a blue coloured powder, by the effusion of muriatic acid. The residue now weighed only 24 grains: this underwent a similar treatment; and after this, as not one grain remained undecomposed, it ceased to be an object of experiment. A strong smell of prussic acid accompanied the detonation.”— Trans. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. i. p. 229. MR. JOPLING’S APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING CURVES. The following testimonial has been published of the utility of an apparatus invented by Mr. J. Jopling, architect, for generating Curves of several divisions of his system. “ August, 1823. “ We the undersigned have seen Mr. Joseph Jopling’s newly invented apparatus for the organical description of Gg 2 curved 236: ~~ Question by John Hamett, Esq. curved lines, and have also seen its mode of operation, and haye inspected a great variety of curves which have been de- scribed by means of it. We haveno hesitation in saying, that we regard this apparatus as most simple and ingenious, capa- ble of producing, with the utmost facility, an indefinite variety of curves, comprehending those which have been the subject of mathematical research, and numerous others, which cannot fail to be of great utility in naval architecture, in the ornamen- tal departments of civil architecture; and in the formation of patterns in the imaginative regions of the arts. ‘To mathema- ticians, the use of this apparatus will suggest a variety of in- quiries in reference to new and curious curves, whose proper- ties have not as yet been investigated; while to architects, shipwrights, engravers, and many others, it will be found sub- servient to the most fertile and interesting applications.” (Signed,) Oxrntuus Grecory, LL.D. Professor of Ma- thematics in the Royal Military Academy. S. H. Curistiz, M.A. of the Royal Military Academy. ArtHuR AIKIN, Secretary to the Society of Arts, &c. Tuomas TrepcGo.p, Civil Engineer. The Apparatus may be had at Mr. Taylor’s Architectural Library, Holborn; at Mr. T. Jones’s, Philosophical Instru- ment-maker, Charing Cross; and at Mr. Jopling’s, 24 Somer- set-street, Portman-square. A friend who has seen the machine assures us that nothing can be more simple, more easily managed, or more free from any thing.to obstruct the operator from seeing the describing point, ‘To engravers it seems likely to be an invaluable acqui- sition, It describes all species of the conchoidal, elliptic, car- dioidal, and many other species of curves ; every section of a ship, so that they shall range; arches of every form that can be desired: atid it may be successfully applied to describe an im- mense variety of patterns, which you can make perfectly symme- trical, identical, or vary in any manner. An account of the principles on: which the apparatus is con- structed, is given by the inventor ina small work (sold by Taylor, Holborn,) entitled “The Septenary System of Gene- rating Curves by continued Motion.” QUESTION BY JOHN HAMETT, ESQ.’ "| ‘Inthe construction of Pythagoras’s theorem, lines are drawn from the acute angles of ‘the right: angled triangle to the op- posite angles of the squares described upon the sides contain- ing the right angle ; and a line is drawn: from the right angle parallel to either side of the square described upon the side ~htending the right angle. Now, as it so happens that these three Electro-Magnetism.—Fascination. 237 three lines intersect in one common point within the triangle, and that this circumstance of intersection has not been de- monstrated in any of the books of geometry with which I am acquainted, I will thank any of your ingenious Correspondents to give a genuine Euclidian demonstration of this, without bringing in to his aid any proposition beyond the 47th itself.” ee J. Hamerr. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATION. The electro-magnetical revolving cylinders of zinc and copper as first contrived by M. Ampére, and improved by Mr. Marsh of Woolwich, certainly rank among the most pleasing instru- ments for exhibiting electro-magnetic rotation that have yet been contrived. It gives us pleasure to introduce to the public a still further improvement upon this apparatus. Mr. Sturgeon, a pensioned artil- (AN leryman of Woolwich, who has suc- cessfully devoted himself to scentific pursuits, has constructed the appa- ratus with two sets of revolving cy- linders, one suspended on each pole of an inverted ‘horse-shoe magnet, as the annexed figure illustrates. Upon the usual insertion of the diluted ni tric acid the two sets of cylinders si-- multaneously enter into rotations in a very interesting or striking manner. This form of the magnet gives the ad- vantage of increased power on a re- duced altitude, and the proximity of the poles materially aug- ments the rotation of the opposed cylinders. The effect is the most pleasing we have ever seen, and was witnessed at the’ house of Messrs. Jones, opticians, Holborn. FASCINATION. A very singular fact oceurred at Manchester (U.S.) a few days since. As Mr. Samuel Cheever was at work in the field, his attention was arrested at the sight of a number of fowls, with heads erect, and wings extended, standing in a circular manner. On going near to’ ascertain the cause, he saw a large black snake of five feet in length within the circle, and his squamous head elevated eight or nine inches above the surface of the earth, while his postérior parts remained in a spiral form. And so complete was the fascination, that Mr. Cheever was under the necessity of getting a pole to disperse the fowls, in order to kill the snake, in which he happily succeeded.—Salem Register, Aug. 2. Meteoro- 238 Meteorology.—Lectures. Meteorological Observations at Great. Yarmouth, by C. G. Har ey, Esq. (Continued from vol. lxi. p. 399.) Days. Thermom. Rain. 1823. Dry. Wet. E. SE. S. SW. W. NW. N. NE Low. High.Med. In. May 19 12 19 47 8 7 50 65 58 ig June 12.406 LS. 2 6 Ce Wie 9 1544 72 61 13 July 9 22 5S alo (pent ig i | St 560 ao Ga 26 August 9 22 6 15 6 2 Fin 59 76 V66 2 Remarks.—The temperature of May 13:29 above the mean of May for the last 29 years. June 2, 11°29 below. July 1, 18°29. August 1, 10°29. The variations of temperature have been unusually great; the thermometer frequently varying from 15 to 20 degrees in 10 or 12 hours. White frosts in the nights of July 7th, 17th; August 9th, 10th, and 13th. An exact resemblance between July and August in the num- ber of dry days and wet days, and in the quantity of rain; a fact which has not occurred for 29 years in two adjoining months. REMARKABLE METEOR. May 23d, at 10 o’clock at night, a luminous meteor was observed at Kiel in Denmark. It was seen almost at the same time at Copenhagen, which is 60 miles from Kiel. This will give some idea of its size and of its velocity, which was apparently not very great. At Kiel it seemed to take a direc- tion from S.E. to N.E. and to have an elevation of 30 degrees. It was visible for 10 seconds. As it disappeared, it threw out a volume of sparks, and left a luminous track in the sky. LECTURES. Guy's and St. Thomas’s Hospitals, Southwark.—The annual Course of Medical and Scientific Instruction at these Hospitals will commence early in the ensuing month of October, when separate Courses of Lectures will be delivered on the following subjects; viz. Practice of Medicine, Pathology, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica, by Drs. Cholmeley and Back, Physicians to Guy’s Hospital. Principles and Practice of Chemistry, by William Allen, Esq. F.R.S., Dr. Bostock, F.R.S., and Arthur Aikin, Esq. Experimental Philosophy, by William Allen, Esq. F.R.S., and John Millington, Esq. Prof. Mech. Phil. Roy. Inst. Midwifery and Diseases of Women and Children, and on Physiology, by Dr. Blundell. Anatomy and the Practice of Surgery, by Sir Astley Cooper, Bart., and Mr. Green. Structure and Diseases of the Teeth, by Mr. Thomas Bell. Medical and practical Botany, by Dr. Bright. Obituary.— List of Patents. 239 A Course of Chemical Lectures will be delivered in the season.—Particulars to be had of Mr. Stocker, Apothecary to Guy’s Hospital, who enters Pupils to all the above Lectures. Osituary.—M. Breguet. The funeral of M. Brequet, the celebrated watchmaker, took place on Sept. 18th. He was followed by a great number of men celebrated in the sciences and arts, to the cemetry of Pére le Chaise. There were deputations from the Academy of Sciences, the Bureau de Longitude, the Council-general for Manufactures, and from the Jury to decide on the Exposition of the Pro- ducts of Industry; of all which M. Brequet was a member. M. C. Dupin, in the name of the Academy, M. Arago in the name of the Bureau, and M. Ternaux in the name of the Council, expressed successively the regret of these bodies. They paid a proper tribute to the talents and virtues of M. Brequet, who reckoned among his friends the persons who were charged to express the universal regret which was produced by the unexpected death of an artist whose vigorous old age seemed to promise a much longer career. LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To Benjamin Rotch, of Furnival’s Inn, London, esq., for his improved fid for the upper masts of ships and other vessels.—Dated 21st of August, 1823.—6 months allowed to enrol specifications. : To James Surrey, of Battersea, Surry, miller, for his method of applying heat for the producing steam and for various other purposes, whereby the expense of fuel will be lessened.—4th Sept.—2 months. To William Weodman, of York Barracks, veterinary surgeon of the 2d Dragoon Guards, for his improved horse’s shoe, which he denominates the beviled heeled expanding shoe.—11th Sept.—2 months. To BryanDonkin, of Great Surry-street, Surry, engineer, for his invention on the means or process of destroying or removing the fibres from the thread, whether of flax, cotton, silk, or any other fibrous substance com- posing the fabrics usually termed lace net, or any other denomination of fabric, where holes or interstices are formed by such thread in any of the aforesaid fabrics.—1]th Sept.—2 months. To John Hughes, of Barking, Essex, slopseller, for certain means of se- curing the bodies of the dead in coffins.—11th Sept.—2 months. To Henry Constantine Jennings, of Devonshire-street, in the parish of St. Mary-le-bone, Middlesex, esq., for an instrument to be affixed to the saddle-tree, by the application and use of which, inconvenience and distress to the horse may be avoided.—11th Sept.—6 months. To James Sprigg the elder, of Birmingham, Warwickshire, fender-maker, for a certain improvement in the manufacture of grates, fenders, and fire- iron rests.—11th Sept.--2 months. To Thomas Wickham, of Nottingham, lace-manufacturer, for his im- proved and prepared rice rendered applicable for use in all cases in which starch is applied — lith Sept.—6 months. To William Hase, of Saxthorpe, Norfolk, iron-founder, for his new method of constructing mills or machines chiefly applicable to prison disci- pline.—11th Sept.—2 months. METEORO- aurq) Apno[d qyStu ye urei—aury| Apno[D “qu ye ulvi—Apnojy| AutI1071g syS1u ye ures ‘oul quires im ‘zed ures oul ‘wd ures ‘oul ud urer—Apno[9 Te ST Urey, Tey eq Te uley ey 4 tp “Uys By uresr oq) "Ue" UN Apnopg 5] tea “yu 78 urer ‘Apnolg IIe] IIe] wey qe yy UBT Tey Tey Hey ATE ey pnoj) re] Tey Ue uey Ie] Ale, HL AB Af Dery *‘uopuo'y "WHHLVA Ah “u0}sogq *NIVY "W'd | ‘puory » O29 ‘satpUuy UL “1ajauIOLeg ‘jomouayy,| Jo ISI TT _—_ . det _—s — ot SSS SS eee -—— ——— bd on Il con coe = = ee Nee Be eon ee eel ao, ee le ee ee 1 | UCLh 0£0- seeeee OVO: OST. | *sO.11 ‘ysopnumng | 3: “STL ssnquun, |" i i ssnjnung | *UINIOII | a a =) ° A 1S) oo BB | tS fF \28 4 ee |8o| = ss |5 = a el al Lo gz isnsny} "8B8T “(UOT jo skuq “W'v *Y90TD 0 YS ysvd-zpey yw “LUosasoH “mopsogy JD TIVAA “APY Pun ‘uopuory wm AUV “py p4odsoy yo AINUAT “CT fo suotmadasgg ayy Fusidwoo :ATAVL TWOIMOTOUORLAN V THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. 31° OCTOBER 1823. XLIX. Complete Description of Erlan, a Mineral long mis- understood, and newly determined. By AvuGcustus Breit- Haupt, and C. G. GMELIN*. I. Determination of Erlan as a Mineral Species. By Aug. Breithaupt, of Freiberg, Inspector of Precious Stones. A. Characteristic. Ertan.’ [HIS mineral varies in lustre from glistening to dull; in the streak it has a resinous lustre: its colour is greenish-gray, usually light, the streak is white. It occurs massive; and in small and fine-granular distinct con- cretions, from which it passes to compact. Its fracture varies from foliated to splintery and even. Hardness from 6°25 to 7.+ Specific gravity from 3:0 to 3°1. B. Observations respecting the History and Discovery of Erilan. I first saw this mineral in the autumn of 1818, lying as a flux at the smelting-furnace (Huttenhose) of the Erla Iron- Works (commonly called Erlhammer) near Schwarzenberg, in the Saxon Erzgebirge; I was then convinced that it was not limestone, for it was much too angular, too hard, and too heavy. It has been made use of as a flux in these extensive iron-works for above two centuries, as well as in some neigh- bouring works; but although they have often been visited by mineral Sersts and chemists, yet no one ever doubted but that it was limestone. I immediately sought for the place where it was found, and ascertained that erlan mixed with mica constituted part of the oldest gneiss-formation. In one place there were also * Abstracted from Schweigger and Meinecke’s Neues Journal fiir Chemie und Physik, N. R. band 7, p.76, where it is given as an extract from Breithaupt’s Complete Characteristic of the Mineral Kingdom, a work nearly ready for en when the extract appeared, which was in February last: the iditors inform us that this work may be considered as a supplement to Hoffmann and Breithaupt’s Manual of Mineralogy. + That is, it varies ie being somewhat harder than apatite, to the hardness of sodalite or actynolite. Vol. 62. No. 306, Oct. 1823. Hh strata 242 Description and Analysis of Erlan. strata ofa red felspar, almost as small and fine-granular as erlan usually is, but it may be immediately distinguished from that substance by its inferior specific gravity, which is 2°6. The mountain consisting of erlan, and a small quantity of mica, which are also mixed with slate, and which aggregate I call Erlan-rock, constitutes a portion of at least 100 fathoms in width, in the chain of the Erzgebirge, that separates the Pohle from the Schwarzwasser. ‘The stratification is here inter- sected by small parallel veins of prehnite, associated with fluor-spar, blackish-green radiated hornblende, green augite (sahlite), green epidote, copper-pyrites, copper-green, &c. The prehnite of this place, of a greenish-white colour, and partly crystallized in the well-known tabular prisms of 103°, was taken for quartz: it is remarkable that here, as almost every where else, it is accompanied with copper ore. In the pre- ceding year erlan was found at the Teufelstein, below Schwar- zenberg, but only in.a compact state. I have been assured that it is found in the Fléssegruben near Breitenbrunn. The name £rlan refers to the place where it was first found, near the village and forge of Erla, and it may be taken as a temporary one, until the crystalline nature of the mineral be studied. I doubt not (as it is crystallized) but that some coarse-granular erlan may be found, which will show the di- rection of the cleavage better than the varieties hitherto dis- covered. All doubts respecting its identity as a mineral species would then be dissipated. I know no mineral, how- ever, which can be easily mistaken for erlan. It most resem- bles gehlenite in oryctognostic characters; it is soon distin- uished from felspar by its greater weight, and from saussurite (or dyskolite) by its inferior weight and hardness. I heard that this flux is roasted before it is used; and that, for the smelting of iron ore, at Erla they mix it with an equal quantity of white granular limestone.’ My highly esteemed friend Professor C. G. Gmelin, at my request, was so kind as to subject erlan to a minute chemical examination. Chemical Examination of Erlan; by Professor C. G. Gmelin, ; of ‘Tubingen. A. The specific gravity of the purest foliated erlan, determined at the temperature of 54°5 Fahrenheit, was 1°7507.* The specimen employed weighed 28 grammes. * There must be an error here, perhaps in writing only, as: the specific gravity of erlan is always between 5:0 and 3:°1.—DBreithaupt. B. Before Description and Analysis of Erlan. 243 B. Before the blowpipe, without addition, it melts into a trans- parent bead, free from bubbles, and but slightly coloured. With borax it becomes a transparent greenish glass. Phos- phoric salt decomposes it, leaving a skeleton of silica; but the bead, when cool, remains transparent: if more of the pul- -yerized stone be added, the bead, partly transparent while in fusion, becomes quite opake when cool. Soda, in small quan- ‘tities, melts with the pulverized stone, but in large quantities it does not possess this property. C. a.) 4°925 grammes of the pulverized mineral dried by a spirit-lamp, left, after having been strongly heated, 4°899 gr. : 100 parts, therefore, contain 0°606 of volatile matter. b.) 5 gr. dried by the spirit-lamp were heated in a pla- tinum crucible, for two hours, with 25 gr. of carbonate of barytes. The fused mass was in one piece, of a grey-yellow colour; it was dissolved in water, decomposed by muriatic acid, and evaporated. ‘The silica after having been heated weighed 2°658 gr. or 53°160 per cent. c.) The solution, freed from barytes by sulphuric acid, was afterwards evaporated nearly to dryness: some sulphate of lime became separated from it, which, after having been washed on a filter, dried, and heated, weighed 1°495 gr. con- taining 0°62087 of lime, or 12-417 per cent. d.) ‘The liquid separated from the sulphate of lime, gave, by means of caustic ammonia, a precipitate, which was heated with excess of caustic potassa, and alumina was obtained from the alkaline solution by saturation with. muriatic acid, and precipitation by carbonate, of ammonia: it weighed, when dried, 0°7017, or 14°034 per cent. e.) The brown residuum which remained after separating the alumina by caustic potassa weighed 0°3718. By means of succinic acid, and precipitation with a boiling solution of carbonate of soda, it was decomposed into 0°3569 of oxide of iron, =7'°138 per cent., and 0°01491 of oxide of manganese, = 0°299 per cent. ‘ f:) From the fluid mixed with caustic ammonia that had passed the filter, oxalate of ammonia precipitated oxalate of lime, which gave 0°17557 of carbonate of lime, containing 0:09902 of lime, = 1°980 per cent. g.) The solution, entirely freed from lime, was now evaporated and heated. An unmelted mass remained, which indicated a large proportion of ma mesia. It was dissolved in water, and mixed with hydtpsulphuret of ammonia, the precipitate de- composed by muriatic acid; and the acid fluid, in a boiling Hh 2 state, 244 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. state, was precipitated by carbonate of soda: 0:017 gr. of oxide of manganese was obtained, =0°340 per cent. h.) The excess of hydrosulphuret of ammonia being re- moved, the liquid was decomposed by acetate of barytes; the sulphate of barytes was separated by filtration, and the fluid containing acetic acid being evaporated, and heated, and the residuum boiled in water, 0°217 gr. of carbonate of soda were obtained, containing 0°13057 of soda, =2°611 per cent. It must be observed, however, that in dissolving this carbonate of soda in water, some traces of magnesia remained undissolved, which had previously been dissolved in the alkaline solution. 2.) The residual matter (2) was dissolved in muriatic acid, the barytes precipitated by sulphuric acid, and separated on a filter; and the liquid in a state of ebullition precipitated by carbonate of soda: 0°271 gr. =5°420 per cent. of pure mag- nesia was obtained, which entirely crystallized with sulphuric acid, into sulphate of magnesia. The fluoric and phosphoric acids were sought for, in an assay made for the purpose, but no traces of them were dis- covered. Erlan, therefore, consists of Stlicaedh wocskenssswesesidedeys 005160 Alumina .....seccccceeeesces 14°034 LAM 0 ihe diese edrensansesses) FABOT Bodaiisacstsstacutstescpecpes. OS Obed. Magnesia. .ocscocssessesseee 5°420 Oxideiiol iON .5c-ccveee FUSS Oxide of manganese...... 0°639 Volatile matter .......00.. 0°606 98°005 L. Derivative Analysis; being a new and more comprehensive Method of the Transformation of Functions than any hitherto discovered: extending not only to the Extraction of the Roots of Equations, but also to the Reduction of Quantities from the Multiples of Powers or Products to other equivalent Ex- pressions, by which the Summation of any rational Series may be readily effected, By Mr. Perer Nicuorson*, 5 Claremont-place, Judd-street. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Part 1.— Multiplication. MULTIPLICATION is performed in the usual way; but instead of the compound coefficients of the entire pro- duct, substitute a letter for the amount or aggregate of each such coefficient; then as many equations as the entire product * Communicated by the Author. has Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 245 has coefficients will be formed, which will show the relation between the succeeding and the preceding coefficients of the entire product, or between the coefficients of the entire pro- duct and those of the multiplicand and multiplier. Ex.1. Multiply A+Br+Ca?+Da2'+ Ext+&c. by the binomial a+. Operation. A+ Be+ Ca?4+ Da*+ Ex*+&e. a+w2z aA +aBe +aCz?+aDz23 +akr++&c. Av + Bz?+ Cz?+ Dai+ke. A,+ B,2tC,a7* +D,2'+ E,x++&e. From which we have the following derivative equations, viz. = aA B,= A+aB C,= B+aC D,= C+aD Hence it appears that the entire product may be derived from the multiplicand, and the constant part of the multiplier. Since any coefficient of the entire product is equal to the par- tial product of the corresponding coefficient of the multipli- cand, and the constant part of the multiplier plus the pre- ceding coefficient of the multiplicand. Er. 2. Multiply 2+Be®+Co"+Da"*Ex™+&c. by the binomial «+4. 24 Ba? Ca 4 Dao™*+ Er™+&c. z+a 2 + Bett Co’ De?+ Ez™*+&e. + az™ +aBr"?+aCz"*+aD2™+Ke, a, +B, 1+ Ca*+ D,2*+ E,2"*+&c. Whence we have the following derivative equations, viz. — +a C,= C+aB Di Daal E,=E+aD &e. From which it appears that the entire product may be de- rived from the multiplicand; for the coefficient of any term of the entire product is equal to the coefficient of the correspond- ing term of the multiplicand plus the partial product of the preceding term of the multiplicand, and the second part of the multiplier. Ex.3. Multiply the series 1+-ae+a*w*+a'z' +c. by the series 1+ba2+6'2*+032'+&e. Put 246 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. Put B=a, C=a’*, D=a? &c. and the operation will be 1+Be+ Cx?+ Dz? +&e. 1+ ba + b727?+ 0323 +&c. 1+Be+ Ca?+ D2?+&ce. bxt+bBa*+ bCx*+&e. +072? +0°B2?+&e. + 33x73 +&ce. +e. 1+B,7+C,27+ D,z?+ &e. Where B,=B+42, —C, =C+0B407=C+)(B+b)=C+0B, Di= Ded a B+0= Da kOG +6B+67)=D+0C, In ree same manner by lang ae series 1+B,a?+C,a? + D,23+&c. as a multiplicand and “thé series l+cate*x?+c3x3 + &c. as a multiplier; then if the entire product be 1+B,7+ C.27+D,23+&c. we shall have by the same law B,=B,4+-C C,=C,+cB,+c?=C.+cB, ieee shel +c’B, +e=D, +¢e(C,+cB,+c¢?)=D,+cC, and so on 1 for the product of any number of series; therefore, ar- ranging these values according to the number of pr oe there will : arise B, =B +0 | C,= @ +OB, | D,=D +2C, B.=B,+e | C,=C,+cB, De B= =B,+d C,= & +dB, Deel s+dC, &e. Let it be coun to find ail the obaaiee of the letters a, 6, c, equally with one another to the third order. Mew observing that B=a, C=a*, D=a’, then will B,=e+0 Ist order. B= +c C,=a*+ab+0* 2d order. C,= +ac+be+c? D,=@+a*b+ab*+b3 3d order. D,=———— +. ac + abe +-b*c+ ac? 4+ be? +c3 &e. ; Where the long line stands for all the combinations of the next line above it. Again, let it be required to find all the orders of the com- binations of the letters aaa, bb, c, or a3, b*, e, or let all the di- visors of 360 be required; now 360=23.3°.5=a3b°c. Here B,=a+0 Ist order. Bi +c Cj =a?*+ab+b 2d order. C,= —-+ac+he-for c* is not wanted ~I Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 24. | D,=a34a*b+ab? for 3 is not wanted 3d order. D,= +a’c4-abc+b'c E,=a?b+a‘l* no higher than a? or b? being wanted 4thorder. E,= +abc+a*bic - fF, =a3b? 5thorder. F,= +aibcta%bc i=0 6th order. G,=a3b*c Part W1.—Division. Division is performed in the usual way, viz. by arranging the parts of the dividend in a line according to the natural or inverse order of the powers of the variable, and the parts of the divisor in the same order. Divide the first part of the dividend by the first part of the divisor, and the result is the first part of the quotient. Multiply the first part of the quotient successively, by every part of the divisor, and place the products so that the powers of the variable may be under the same powers in the dividend. Draw a line underneath and write in a line below the line thus drawn the same powers of the variable as those imme- diately above, except in the first place, and prefix a new let- ter to each power as a coefficient which will form the first re- mainder. Annex the next part of the dividend from which no sub- traction has been made to this remainder, and consider this remainder so increased as a second dividend; then proceed to find the second or next part of the quotient, and the third or next dividend as before; and so on, as far as may be neces- sary. In any convenient place write the letters thus substi- tuted, and their values, in the form of equations; that is, every letter equal to the aggregate of the two coefficients of the cor- responding power above, considering the sign of the lower of these two changed by subtraction. Then the table thus formed will show the law of derivation by which the real quotient may be obtained. Ex.1. Divide 2+6x+yx?+0u3+&c. by 1—bx put A=a;3 then proceed with the operation, Dividend. Divisor. A+ fr+y2* +623 + &c. 1—ber A—Abe« quotient ~~ Baya A+Br+Ca2?+&c, Ba— Bd? Ca*+6x3 Ca? — Cbz3 Dal +&e. &c. By 248 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. _ By this operation we have the following derivative table, viz. From which it appears that the th coefficient of the quo- tient is equal to the product of the next preceding coefficient, and the coefficient of the second term of the divisor plus the nth coefficient of the dividend. Whence by the table we de- rive the coefficients of the quotient thus, = aa B=Ab+6=ab +6 C =Bb+y¥ =ab?+ 6b +y D=Cb+6 =ab3 + Bb?+yb+8 &e. &e. Whence A+Bza+Cr?+&c.=a+(ab+f)a+(ab?+fhb+y)a*+&e. Ex.2. Divide the infinite series «+ Bx+ yx*+023 + ext +&e. by a—bx—cz’. Operation. Dividend. Divisor. a+ Pat ya? +or3+ert+&e. | a—bx—ca’ b Quotient pet pee ya oo a a a B Cl 2 if Ba+B,a?+ 023 a aie 1 ees [3 ead per a a Cx? + C23 + ex* bC 3, Cc C Cx? — —— 2X —— xr1&e. a a Dz? + D,z* + &e. &e. &e. From which operation we have the following derivative table, via: ab-+-Ba BS a c+ ya Bb+B B=" ee eee a Gig al 5 lay A aes a &e. &e. From this table we derive the real quotient a ab+fa r+ se Ri oy bee. But Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 249 But if the first part @ of the divisor were unity, the deriva- tive table would be simply B =ab+6 B,=ac+y | C =BO+B, C,=Be+ 3 | D=COd4C, D,=Ce+¢ | E=Db+D, &e. Xe. And the quotient derived from this table would be simply a+ Bet+Cr?+&e.= a+(ab+ B\a+(ab?+ Bb+ac+y)x° +e. Ex. 3. Divide the series a+ Bx + yx? + 6x? + at «VE (a) 6S 6 86 ce 18 80 y ft js€_| €o | 09 | ov | 66-49) PE | 18 | 80__— eS AE | Sh 3 VI |9€ So 19 1 10 Pe z8 go N or |e 90 £9 cP £0 Ge Z8 Lo R=) LI 6¢ Lo r9 tW vo 9¢ £8 Lo 80 Iv 60 99 si 90 9¢ £8 Lo pS j_68_ 80 gz |to_ joe je jor | 49 | 4p | so | le |e | Lo * GS vy {1 69 67 ol ge G8 Lo {os 9¢ 89 9% ¢ dS £@ cP el OL 0g rat ge 98 go jog /|ZLEé LO «| SG «| P 3 Co. LY uh OT ee tt | 6€ 9g |go |6h-|/LZ6 | 99 | to |e Q ra GL ee 16 ee cy eg GI €L £¢ or ob Lg go |6r {Le ¢9 €& b > PUL | 94-99 |PE-SP | F1-92|9a-21 }09-€9} Lt-oF| GL-11| S¢-€S | 91-89] 1P-SP 98-98 | 90-LE16P-SE|LE-E1 | F9-8 | co-LS} 1 % ‘ *§ "Ss "Ss *s "Ss be ‘Ss "S "s *S ‘Ss bt} ey *S. .& ‘Ss *s ‘s *AONT x 6S €% 19S zalLh ae l9S IZ/Sf oz] g oz|L ozlor 6L| ch 61 | LE 6t | Of gt) 93 Lt | 9 Ltlgt 9L/SE StjLo S1| 1h HL | OF FI ; N “NW ‘H ‘W‘H|'W °*H “W °H | ‘W °H |"WW °H | *W cH "W‘H | ‘NW *H ‘WH ‘W “‘H ‘WwW “*H W °H | ‘W‘H |‘M °H |°K ‘*H si“ ‘NH “€Z8I ‘epour | ‘ised |-yneyye|‘enby|usho9] tude |iadeg} ay] | ‘ey | aepinby | ‘aah T “ry ‘synod | ‘sare} *BAQUT| “VAQrT 2 I -oipuy # -og 7) -woy| 2 2 2G, at \-mbyg-mby a 4 2 | =-ni1ydQ 4) -19FT 2) -uy fey BIB nd LVI. Listof Occultations for the Year 1824, computed for the Meridian and Parallel of Greenwich. By M. Incurrami of Florence. (Continued from p. 165.] Dist. | Dist. Im. | Em. ary SG hm| hm 73 59| 23 59N)\10 27 88 28) 23 39 9 28 88 39] 23 39 104 24 117 17 117 23 120 11 145 53 146 20 158 43 187 3 213 26 213 27 240 42 240 30 242 16 268 56 268 59 268 59 282 19 284 1 284 13] : 297 4 320 14 342 23 16 53 29 28 P 247| 99 53 = i=} ie} ~ Qa © B ke ot, 5S : “1 i=) | ell comeal _— HM HAOO. — _ NSODWOmD OeYKne ~] AnAnAZn nNnNnM — 6 8 ah 7 8 7 6 8 8 6 7 8 7 8 ¢ ih — oo a) 10D aed ad EPHWOCMOUONINWWWT WADHK KAW Q~! ZAARNNNANAZANRNA AAAAAPNAAR ANH I SQ COIYSNIUINIAN aD ~I > B = B 2| Sextant.| 7/L 10/143 31/ 9508 |11 13/11 52| S5N/14N 3 78\|L 10/156 12) 417 10 37) cont. 4| Leonis | 78\L 10/169 37} 150 |10 49|11 49| 8N| 78S —_— 45|P 89\170 1) 1 54 11/20)12 15) 1S ;138 5 Virginis 7°8\|L 10\181 42) 7 36 9 44|10 20/158 8S — 8 |P 35|182 4) 7 47 10 18|10 56} 168 | 10S =~ | - 14 6:7|P 41/182 16] 7 48 10 36\10 54; 148 58 8 Solitar. | 7°8|/L 10\221 21] 21 17 9 6/1017) 28S 8S — 7:8|L 10/221 40} 21 33 10 O/11 6/10S 68S 9| Scorpii| 6 |P 191/235 30/2355 | 9917/1011] 6N|12N _ —-—]| 6/L 13/235. 31] 23 57 9 33)/10 35} 5N]11N — 67/L 13/236 30] 24 13 11 52/13 3] 18S 3N — 7 |L. 12/237 34) 24 25 14 15/15 16] 4S |] 3N 10 | 25Scorpii 6 | P 168/248 39/25 9 7 9) 8 8]. 2N) ‘6N — ——— 7\L 13/249 48) 25 14 9 52;11 1] TZN/1IN — —— 7|\|L 13/249 51) 25 13 10 5/11 1] 8N/11N — 7'8|L 13)250 22] 25 28 11 16;12 14; 38S 18 12 Sagitt. 8 |Z1241/277 41] 24 0 10 15/10 44/15 N/}14N 14 Capric. | 7°8| P 80|302 23] 18 57 9 20/10 16] 9S | 2N _ 8 | P 97/302 55| 18 58 10 21/11 26] O 78 D Im, oo hm 303 58] 18°51's| 13 27 304 22/18 28 |14 6 304 24) 18 31 14 10 316 25 14 14 326 37 1l 14 327 58 15 3 349 15 13 8 51 36) : 14 3 JULY. 1 165. 9 6 232 58 9 |25Sagitt. 3 |275 35 10 286 6 287 1o 287 12 287 25 288 36 288 39 298 39 299 16 299 42 299 28 299 34 300 53 55 35 59 58 60 30) 73 59 91 33 91 41 91 47 91 48 91 59 AUGUST. _ WOW RK KE NK DRO RE OHNO fy ca area can aca —_— — — ~ _ NHN OKSeENIANNODSG AN 242 16 282 19123 30 283 20.23 9 297 4/20 25 319 39 332 44 332 36 332 50 342 23 351 33 354 3 3 51 16 53 40 36 40 44 41 40 54 55 55 So) 56 18 67 21 67 47 7\L. 121237 34 ocd wo ioe) = AAIN PAODASSAS Leh calla] cal calla>h cal cal -_ 16Piscium 19 45—— ~] — he “Soa Ano» 280 Dr. Tiarks on a Method of reducing LVI. An easy Method of reducing Sidereal into Mean Time. By Dr. T. L. Trarks.* (THE following tables are useful to those who, having clocks or time-keepers that show mean time, have fre- quently occasion to calculate the time of transit of stars over the meridian, for reducing observations taken out of the me- ridian, or for ascertaining time by the altitude of a star, Xc. The right ascension of the star is to be taken from Table IIT. ; and then, by applying the variation and periodical equations, to be reduced to the day of observation. From this right ascension thus reduced a number is to be subtracted, which is found by Tables I. and IL, the quantity for the next preceding day in Table 1. being increased by the quantity corresponding to the number of additional days in Table II., and this sum is then a \ by the mean motion of the sun in iminished right ascension for the longitude of the place of observation west east If this number exceeds the right ascension, 23° 56’ 4-09 is to be added to the latter, or the number is to be calculated for the next day, and the right ascension to be increased by 24 hours. of Greenwich. Taste I. August 10 2 ~ Marcl f Sept. aren 3 ep HW 2 me OT TANTS UW OU WROD SOY Www Son Gy 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 3 4: 4 5 5 6 * Commuuicated by the Author. TABLE Sidereal into Mean Time. 281 Taste II. Days. } é “ 1 3 55:91 o, 7 51°82 3 ll 47°73 4: 15 43°64 5 19 39°55 6 23 35°46 iC 27 31°37 8 31 27°28 9 35 23:19 Taste III. AR of Stars in Mean Time for January 1, 1824. h ‘ a“ h ‘ ta y Pegasi 0 4 10.44 Arcturus 14 5 19°47 a Cassiop. 0 30 29-44 10 Lipre | 14 38 33°85 Polaris 0 57 51:86 Arta 14 38 45°31 a Arietis 1 56 57:19 6B Urs. Min.| 14 48 53°10 a Ceti 2 52 SaOe a Cor. Bor. 15 24 42°53 a Persei 3 4 17:08 a Serpentis.| 15 33 3:20 Aldebaran 4 25 646 Antares 16 15 57°52 Capella 5 2 52°49 a Herculis 17 3 49°54 Rigel 5 5 14:99 a Ophiuchi 17 23 54:79 6 Tauri 5 14 18°89 y Draconis 17 47 35:73 a Orionis 5 44 42:27 a Lyre 18 27 57:02 Sirius 6 36 18:24 y 19 34 40°74 Castor 7 22 8:86 ae Aquile 19 38 58-15 ba Bh es 7 28 51°56 B 19 43 25-80 ollux fas le Ye!) 1 . 20 4 35°34 « Hydre 9 17 24:83 2 i aCapric.| 99 4 59-08 Regulus 9 57 21:42 a Cygni 20 32 3°87 a Urs. Maj. 10 51 10:39 at Geakiei 21 10 53°60 B Leonis 11 38 10-10 py -ePMe | 91 22 50-48 B Virginis 11 39 36:96 « Aquarii 21 53 895 y Urs. Maj. | 11 42 36:39 Fomalhaut | 22 44 10:26 Spica Virg. 10 13 45°68 a Pegasi 22 52 14:70, n Urs. Maj. 13 38 21:49 « Androm. 23 55 22:92 Example.—Required the time of transit of « Aquile over the meridian of long. 4" 56’ west, on the 3d June, 1824. a Aquilae, June 1, 1824 ....caccsecvccceee 19" 38° 5815 PPCOUCHON 10): JUNE 4 ccc nchtanesedacecsees ears ry) we Aquilze, June 3) ssesisccocssscsvecsesses 19 39 1°37 N. for May 31 4M 34! 572 For three days + 11 47°73 For 4" 56" W. + 48°49 ey 4 47 33°42 Time of transit in mean time ......... 14 51 27°95 TS PTA KS: Vol. 62. No. 306. Oct. 1823. Nn NEW 289 Note by MM. Dulong and Thenard NEW EXPERIMENTS OF M. D@BEREINER. In the course of the last month some new and most interest- ing chemical experiments by Professor Doebereiner of Jena have engaged the attention of the scientific world. These were first announced in this country in the short no- tice which we extract from the Quarterly Journal, in which Mr. Faraday states that he had verified these experiments. The last number of the Annales de Chimie which has reached us, aiso contains a note on the subject by MM. Du- long and Thenard, read to the Academy of Sciences on the 15th of last month, a translation of which we subjoin. ‘The phzenomena discovered by M. Doebereiner were known to those gentlemen only by a paragraph in the Journal des De- bats ; they have however been earnestly engaged in researches on the subject, which will be read with great interest. To these we are enabled to add a paper read before the Bristol Philo- sophical Society by W. Hierapath, Esq., for which we are obliged to the author and to that new institution. Since these were prepared for the press, we have been so for- tunate as to obtain Professor Deebereiner’s own account of his experiments, and we are very happy that it has arrived Just in time for insertion in the present number. ‘* A most extraordinary experiment has been made by M. Dobereiner. It was communicated to me by M. Hat- chette, and having verified it, I think every chemist will be glad to hear its nature. It consists in passing a stream of hydrogen against the finely-divided platina obtained by heat- ing the muriate of ammonia and platina. In consequence of the contact, the hydrogen inflames. Even when the hydro- gen does not inflame, it ignites the platina in places; and I find that when the hydrogen is passed over the platinum in a tube, no air being admitted, still the platinum heats in the same manner. What the change can be in these circum- stances, M. Dobereiner has, no doubt, fully investigated; and the scientific world will be anxious to hear his account of this remarkable experiment, and the consequences it leads to.—M. F.”—Quarterly Journal of Science, No. XX XI. LVIII. Note on the Property which some Metals possess of faci- litating the Combination of Elastic Fluids*. By MM.Duione and 'Turnann.—[ Read at the Academy of Sciences, the 15th Sep¢. 1823.] Annales de Chimie, vol. xxiii. p. 440. M DAZBEREINER, professor at the university of Jena, * has just discovered one of the most curious phznomena which * Since the printing of this note, the writers have ascertained, Ist, that palladium in a spongy mass will inflame hydrogen, as platinum does ; 2ndly, that ca on the new Experiments of M. Deebereiner. 283 which the physical sciences can present. We are acquainted with the researches which he has made on this subject, only by the announcement which appeared in the Journal des De- bats of the 24th of August last, and which is scarcely adapt- ed to give an exact idea of it; and by a letter from M. Kast- ner to Dr. Liebig, which this gentleman, now at Paris, has had the goodness to communicate tous. It thence appears that M. Deebereiner has observed that platinum in the spengy state causes, at the ordinary temperature, the combination of hydro- gen with oxygen, and that the development of heat resulting trom this action renders the metal incandescent. We. has- tened to verify a fact so surprising. We have found it very exact; and as the experiment can be made with the greatest ease, we are about to perform it in the presence of the Aca- demy *. Having no knowledge of the researches which the author of this beautiful experiment has no doubt undertaken in order to discover its theory, we could not resist the desire of our- selves making some attempts directed towards this object ; and although we have not yet attained it, we think that the results of the observations which we have hitherto made, are not unworthy of the attention of the Academy. In the experiment which we have been making, the spongy platinum becomes incandescent at the time when it is placed at the spot where the hydrogen which issues from the reser- voir is become intimately mixed with the air. From this it was evident, that a small quantity of this platinum being plunged ita mixture of two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen, there ought to be a detonation; which the experiment con- firmed, If the proportions of the gaseous mixture deviate much from those of water, or if there be present a gas foreign to the combination, as, for example, azote, the combination that iridium under this form becomes very hot while it produces water ; 3rdly, that cobalt and nickel in mass cause at about 300° the union cf hy- drogen and oxygen; 4thly, that platinum in the spongy state, when cold, formed water and ammonia with nitrous gas and hydrogen, and also acted ona mixture of hydrogen and protoxide of azote. * The hydrogen gas lamp improved by M. Gay-Lussac is very convenient for making this experiment. The electrophorus is raised, or the conductors merely are detached; a very slight morsel of platinum in the spongy state is placed at the distance of about two centimetres from the opening by which the gas escapes, and as the cock is turned the stream of hydrogen gas falls mixed with air-on the surface of the platinum. This becomes forth- with incandescent, and the hydrogen gas, once inflamed, keeps burning as it flows out, as if it had been lit by the spark. In defau't of a lamp, the common apparatus may be employed which is used in laboratories for obtaining hydrogen gas. It is only necessary to take care that the gas be let out by a very small opening, in order that it may imix more completely with the air. Nn2 oes a) 284 Note by MM. Dulong and Thenard goes on slowly, the temperature rises little, and water soon appears condensing on the vessel. Platinum in the spongy state strongly calcined, loses the property of becoming incande- scent; but in this case, it causes the combination of the two gases slowly and without a very sensible raising of the tem- perature. The finely-divided platina, obtained by a well- known chemical process, has no action, not even the slowest, at the ordinary temperature. The result with wires or laminze is the same. The comparison of these observations might give rise to the idea that the porousness of the metal was an essential condition of the phenomenon; but the following facts destroy this conjecture. We caused some platinum to be reduced into leaves as thin as the malleability of this metal admits of. In this state the platinum acts, at the ordinary temperature, on the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and with a rapidity proportioned to the tenuity of the leaf. We obtained some that caused de- tonation after some moments. But what renders this action still more extraordinary, is the physical state indispensable for its development. A very thin leaf of platinum, rolled round a cylinder of glass or suspended freely in a detonating mixture, produced no sensible effect at the end of several days. ‘The same leaf crumpled like the wadding of a gun, acted instantly, and made the mixture detonate. Leaves prepared as we have just mentioned, and which are then without effect at an ordinary temperature, wires, powder, and thick plates of platinum, whose action is always null, in the same circumstance, act slowly and without producing explo- sion at a temperature of from 400° to 572° F. according to their thickness. We have observed that some other metals possess the same property as platinum. The very remarkable fact which Sir H. Davy discovered in the course of his researches on the safety- lamp, namely, that wires of platinum and palladium heated toa dull red become incandescent when plunged in a detonating mixture, having appeared to us referable to the same cause with the phznomenon in question, we were immediately led to try palladium. The piece which we employed had been given to one of us by Dr. Wollaston ; it must have been free from alloy; we were not able, however, to obtain very thin leaves from it; it shattered under the hammer of the beater. To this circum- stance we attribute its inaction at the temperature of the atmosphere: however, it acts at least as well as platinum, of the same thickness, at an elevated temperature. Rhodium, being brittle, could not be subjected to the same operation ; but on the new Experiments of M. Deebereiner. 285 but it caused the formation of water at a temperature of about 464° F. Gold and silver in thin leaves act only at high temperatures, but always under that of the ebullition of mercury. Silver is less efficacious than gold. A thick lamina of the latter does indeed act, though with more difficulty than the leaves; and F a lamina of silver has an action so weak as to be doubt- ul. We have also tried if other combinations could be effected by the same means. Carbonic oxide and oxygen combine, and nitrous gas is decomposed by hydrogen at the common tempe- rature by contact with platinum in the spongy state. The fine leaves of the same metal do not produce the combustion of the first-mentioned gas, exceptat a temperature above 572° F. Gold leaf causes it also at a degree near the boiling of mercury. Finally, olefiant gas mixed with a suitable quantity of oxygen is completely transformed into water and carbonic acid by platinum in the spongy state, but only at a temperature of more than 572° F, We would call to mind, on the subject of the preceding ex- periments, that one of us showed long since that iron, copper, gold, silver, and platinum, had the property of decomposing am- monia at a certain temperature, without absorbing either of the principles of that alkali; and that this property appeared in- exhaustible. Iron possesses it in a higher degree than copper, and copper more than silver, gold, and platinum, in proportion to the surfaces. Ten grammes of iron wire are sufficient for decomposing, within a few hundredths, a current of ammoniacal gas rather rapid, and kept up for eight or ten hours, without the tem- perature passing the limit at which the ammonia completely resists decomposition. Thrice that quantity of platinum wire of the same thickness, does not produce nearly a like effect even at a higher temperature. The remarkable results of this experiment depend, perhaps, on the same causes as those which make gold and silver effect the combination of hydrogen and oxygen at 572° F., solid pla- tinum at 518° I’., and spongy platinum at the ordinary tempe- rature. Now, if we observe that iron, which so well decomposes ammonia, does not effect, or but with difficulty, the combi- nation of hydrogen with oxygen, and that platinum, which is so effective for this latter combination, produces but with dif- ficulty the decomposition of ammonia, we are led to believe that among the gases some have a tendency to unite under the influence of the metals, while others have a tendency to separate 5 286 Mr. W. Herapath on the separate; and that this property varies according to the nature ofeach. Those of the metals which would best produce the one effect would not produce the other, or but in a less degree. We shail abstain from offering some further conjectures to which these singular phenomena give rise in our minds, until we shall have terminated the experiments which we have undertaken in order to verify them. LIX. On Debereiner’s new Experiment. By WiLL1aM Heravatu, Lsq.* October 20, 1823, "THE philosophical publications and newspapers have lately announced an experiment by Docbereiner with hydrogen gas and platinum in a finely divided state. Those announce- ments were either not accompanied by a description, or by one evidently so inaccurate as to cause chemists in general to treat it as an attempt at the marvellous: the impression made upon my mind was, that Deebereiner himself had not discovered the changes which were effected; and I regret that Mr. Faraday of the Royal Institution did not prosecute his inquiries further thar verifying the one experiment. I therefore made a series of experiments, to make myself ac- quainted with the phenomena; and, as they throw some light upon the subject, I beg to offer them to this Society for its in- formation: but I shall first premise, that it was before known that oxygen, iodine, chlorine, and sulphur, would, in some cases, where they rapidly united, give out caloric and light suf- ficient to produce those effects which have been termed igni- tion and combustion: but no such knowledge had been ac- quired of hydrogen. Consequently, as this experiment of Dae- bereiner’s appeared to prove that pure hydrogen also had that property, it was of importance that it should be minutely in- vestigated. Exp. 1. A stream of hydrogen as generated from zinc, &c., and therefore mixed with common air, was passed upon Sgr. of the spongy mass (as obtained by heating to redness the am- monia-muriate of platinum) in a thin glass capsule; the metal became red hot quite close to the orifice from which the stream issued; but as the gas became purer from the smaller proportion of air, I found it necessary to remove the metal to a little distance; the great heat set fire to the hydrogen; I extinguished it, and occasionally removed the platinum so as to prevent the recurrence of flame. After the experiment had continued half an hour, the metal was examined; there was no * Read before the Bristol Philosophical Society of Inquirers ; and com- municated by the Author. change new Eaperiments af M. Deebereiner. 287 change in its appearance, nor had it increased or diminished in weight. ‘The phenomenon then, I presume, was not occa- sioned by any change the metal had undergone. As it was necessary to remoye the platinum to a greater distance as the gas became purer, it appeared to indicate that the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen was as essential as the hydrogen : to prove the truth of this idea, a large thin bulb having a hole in its side was blown at the end of a piece of tube ; into which tube hydrogen was conveyed. The platinum was in an at- mosphere of hydrogen, but.it did not become hot; a fine tube was then introduced into the hole in the bulb, and a stream of common air made to act on the metal; it immediately glowed, and continued to do so as long as both currents were directed towards it, while water was found on the sides of the bulb, which increased as the experiment went on. Exp. 2. It seemed to result from this, that the platinum has the curious property of causing oxygen and hydrogen to com- bine at a low heat: I therefore directed a stream of the mixed gases from the gas blowpipe upon a portion of the spongy mass, when it glowed as before and ignited the gases at the jet pipe; but I found that the metal required to be heated a little before the pheencmenon occurred: as this was not neces- sary when hydrogen was admitted direct from the retort, the temperature of the atmosphere being sufficient, it favoured the idea that a small quantity of caloric was requisite, which quan- tity was carried over from the retort, but which it afterwards lost in the cool vessel. I therefore constructed a small appa- ratus with which I could repeat the experiments under more favourable circumstances. Oxygen, or common air. Hydrogen, or Bulb containing coal gas. platinum. Capsule containing water for heating the metal. Exp. 3. The apparatus was kept full of hydrogen from the tube A ; the metal did not glow at any temperature, and the gas’ was inflammable as it escaped from the capillary orifice of the tube 288 : Mr. W. Herapath on the tube C. A stream of common air was made to act on the metal through the perpendicular tube B; it now glowed and continued to do so as long as both streams were continued ; when either failed, it immediately cooled; while the metal continued red hot, there was no inflammable gas issuing from the tube C, while water rapidly condensed within it. In these experiments, the bulb containing the platinum was placed in water at the respective temperatures of 60°, 70°, 80°, 90°, 100°, and 98° (blood heat); at the first four no effect was observable, while it was at the last two. After 130 cubic inches of hydrogen had passed, the water in the tubes was driven off by heat, and the apparatus weighed; it had lost 08gr., which I attributed to accident; but to prove it, I passed 130 cubic inches more, and upon reweighing there was no further diminution. Exp. 4. The bladders were now changed so that the pla- tinum was in an atmosphere of common air; there was no action at any temperature; but as soon as hydrogen was passed down the tube B, and the platinum was heated to 98° or 100°, the gases were condensed as before. Exp. 5. Coal gas mixed with common air was next passed through the tube B (A being stopped); it caused the metal — to glow, but not until the temperature was much increased. I did not ascertain the exact point, as I consider that it would vary with different proportions. Exp. 6. The tube B was then connected with the gas blow- pipe and a fine stream admitted, taking care to avoid explo- sion or inflammation ; at 100° it glowed as before. If in ei- ther of the foregoing cases any moisture was present upon the metal, no action took place; whereas the combination was ef- fected more readily and at a lower temperature, when the ex- periment was repeated a second time within a short time after the first, which I suppose was owing to the platinum being a very bad conductor of caloric, and consequently not cooling to the temperature of the surrounding medium within that time. I found that the same platinum might be used for any length of time, with the precaution of using it dry. Imagining that the effect might be electrical, I placed some of the metal in a platinum foil cup on Bennett’s electrometer ; it glowed in the parts not adjoining the foil, but no signs of electricity were observable. To try if it was owing to the nonconducting power, I passed a stream of the gases upon asbestus, which is a nonconductor of caloric and finely divided (but fibrous instead of spongy) ; but there was no action. I tried new Experiments of M. Deebereiner. 289 I tried other finely divided metals, such as lead as precipi- tated by zinc, and gold and silver as thrown down by copper ; but without success. From those experiments I am perhaps warranted in con- cluding, Ist, That no chemical change takes place in the platinum, and therefore I presume its effect to be mechanical : 2nd, That a change does take place in the condition of the gases, which change is their union to form water: 3d, That in case the gases have the temperature of 55°, the platinum requires a temperature of 98° to cause them to unite : 4th, That as the condensation of the gases is the only change in the substances used, we must infer that the greatly increased heat of the platinum arises from that condensation. I have here pointed out the proximate cause of the heat of the platinum, but the ultimate I have not been able to dis- cover. It is therefore left as a problem to future inquirers, Why platinum in a state of minute division should cause the union of oxygen and hydrogen at 100°, whereas their lowest com- bining temperature without it is 700°? If the effect of the metal be mechanical, I have no doubt that other substances will be found having the same power, although I have not succeeded in selecting them. The phenomena altogether are singular, and appear inti- mately connected with aphlogistic phenomena, or at least to stand in the same relation to them as they do to rapid com- bustion : for instance ; At 100°, spongy platinum causes oxygen and hydrogen to combine, At 700°, they unite without it silently. At 800°, explosion attends their combination. At red heat (about 1000°), platinum-, silver- or brass-wire causes carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen to combine, forming water, acetic acid, and resin. At a white heat, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, combine, forming water and carbonic acid. Wititiam Herapartu. LX. On some newly discovered remarkable Properties of the Protoxide, Oxidized Sulphuret, and Metallic Powder of Pla- tinum. By Professor D@BEREINER*. if HAVE already proved that the protoxide of platinum ob- tained by Edmund Davy’s method, has the property of * From Schweigger and Meinecke’s Neues Journal fiir Chemie, $c. N.R. band viii. p. 321. rf Vol. 62. No. 306. Oct, 1823. Oo causing 290 Prof. Deebereiner on his new Experiments. causing alcohol, placed in contact with it, to attract oxygen gas, and to become converted into acetic acid and water; and that this property is likewise possessed by the oxidized sulphuret of platinum, prepared by treating a solution of that metal with sulphuretted hydrogen, and exposing in a dry state the sulphuret formed by that means, to the action of at- mospheric air for some weeks. In this very remarkable process, 1 atom (=46) of alcohol combines with 4 atoms (=4 x 8=32) of oxygen, and forms with it 1 atom (=51) of acetic acid, and 3 atoms (=2 x 9=27) of water; that is to say, equal volumes of the vapour of alcohol and oxygen gas, be- come equal volumes of acetic acid and aqueous vapour ; for 1 atom of water is requisite to the isolated existence of acetic acid. The respective proportions in which acetic acid and water appear in this case, are exactly the same as those which they bear to each other in crystallized sugar of lead, and also in the subacetate of copper; the quantity of water in acetate of soda is exactly double that which is contained in each of the former acetates. After having finished my experiments on this process of the formation of acetic acid, I took the opportunity of ascer- taining the relations of the two above-named preparations of platinum to different elastic fluids. The results of the expe- riments instituted for that purpose are interesting; for I found, 1. ‘That neither oxygen nor carbonic acid gas was absorbed by the protoxide, or by the oxidized suiphuret of platinum ; but that those substances absorbed every inflammable gas. 2. That 100 grains of protoxide of platinum absorb from 15 to 20 cubic inches of hydrogen gas, during which absorp- tion so much caloric is evolved, that the protoxide becomes ignited, and the hydrogen burns with detonation, if it had been previously mixed with oxygen or with atmospheric air. The preparation of platinum, charged with hydrogen, has the property of greedily attracting as much oxygen gas as is requisite for the saturation of the hydrogen it contains. If - atmospheric air, therefore, be suffered to enter the tube con- taining it, it instantly deprives it of its oxygen, and even forms ammonia with a portion of the residual nitrogen, if there be not sufficient oxygen present for its saturation. By this agency the oxide of platinum is reduced, and thereby loses its re- markable property of disposing alcohol to become acetic acid, and also that of condensing hydrogen gas; but, what is very remarkable, it retains the property of determining the latter substance to the state ur which it combines with oxygen gas, and becomes water; and so much heat is evolved during this combination, that if the hydrogen gas be mixed with pure oxygen, sa ee ee Prof. Doebereiner on his new Experiments. 291 oxygen, and the volume of the mixture be rather large, the platinum becomes red-hot. I could not but conclude, from this most remarkable phanomenon, that the finely-divided metallic platinum which is produced by the igneous decom- position of the ammonia-muriate, would perhaps exhibit this singular effect upon the detonating mixture; and, to my great satisfaction, this supposition was confirmed by the experiment. Some platinum powder, prepared from the saline precipitate just named, was wrapped up in white blotting-paper, and brought into contact with the hydrogen gas; and, as might be expect- ed, no absorption took place, nor any other perceptible mu- tual action. Upon this I caused atmospheric air to have ac- cess to the platinum powder in contact with the hydrogen, and after the lapse of a few moments that remarkable reac- tion took place; viz. the gas diminished in volume; and in ten minutes all the oxygen of the atmospheric air admitted had condensed with the hydrogen into water. I afterwards mixed pure oxygen gas with the hydrogen in contact with the pla- tinum; a condensation of both immediately took place, and the platinum heated to such a degree, that the paper in which it was wrapped was suddenly charred. These experiments were repeated about thirty times on the same day, July 27, 1823, on which I discovered this remarkable phenomenon, and with the same success every time. What useful applications of this discovery may be made in oxymetry, the synthesis of water, &c., I shall hereafter state more circumstantially, I shall at present merely observe, in conclusion, that the entire phenomenon must be considered as an electric one, that the hydrogen and platinum form a vol- taic combination, in which the former represents the zinc;—the first established instance of an electric alternation formed by an elastic fluid and a solid substance; the application of which will lead to further discoveries. I obtained another interesting result in an experiment on the relation of the oxidized suphuret of platinum to carbonic oxide. I found that this gas is always diminished to half its bulk when it comes into contact with the sulphuret, and that the remaining gas is not carbonic oxide, but carbonic acid, The carbonic oxide gas is therefore decarbonized by the oxidized sulphuret of platinum, and thereby changed into carbonic acid. SUPPLEMENT™. : I send you a short supplement to the paper communicated to you some days ago, on the newly discovered properties of * From a lettér of Professor Deebereiner to Professor Schweigger, dated Jena, Aug 3, 1823. Oo2 several 292 Prof. Deebereiner on his new Experiments. several preparations of platinum. That the continuation of the experiments on this interesting subject would lead to new discoveries, was to be expected. I merely mention to-day, that I have succeeded in making the observed dynamic rela- tion of the platinum powder to the hydrogen gas, appear in a very splendid manner by experiment. If hydrogen gas be suffered to issue from a gasometer through a capillary tube bent downwards, upon the platinum contained in a small glass funnel sealed at the bottom, so that the stream may mix with the atmospheric air before it comes in contact with the platinum, which is effected when the tube is from 1 to 14 or 2 inches distant from the platinum, the latter almost in- stantly becomes red- and white-hot, and remains so, as long as the hydrogen continues to fiow upon it. If the stream of gas be strong, it becomes inflamed, particularly if it has al- ready been mixed in the reservoir with some atmospheric air. This experiment is very surprising, and astonishes every be- holder, when he is informed, that it is the result of the dy- namic reaction of two species of matter, one of which is the lightest and the other the most ponderous of all known bo- dies. That I have already applied this new discovery to the formation of a new apparatus for procuring fire, and of a new lamp; and that I shall avail myself of it for much more im- portant purposes, you may well suppose beforehand:—more of it in my next. Da@BEREINER. LXI. On the Parallax of a Lyre. By Joun Ponn, Esq. Astronomer Royal, F.R.S.* MY former experiments with a fixed telescope upon « Cygni have always appeared to me so decisive, as to ren- der hopeless any further attempt to discover its parallax; but respecting that of « Lyre, my observations with the mural circle were not equally satisfactory; for among the observa- tions of this star we may find occasional discordances that admit of being interpreted in favour of parallax. And although I have been inclined myself to attribute these irregularities to other causes, yet their existence made it desirable to institute new experiments. ‘The method with a fixed telescope, which I had contrived for « Cygni, could not here, I found, be ap- plied successfully; there being no star of nearly the same al- titude but opposite in right ascension sufficiently bright to be observed throughout the year, a circumstance quite essential to that mode of observation. I have employed therefore the mural circle to investigate, Ist, the difference of parallax be- * From the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, Part I. tween Mr. Pond on the Parallax of « Lyre. 293 tween y Draconis and « Lyra: 2dly, the absolute parallax of the latter star; the Dublin observations indicating, it may be remembered, that the parallax of + Draconis is insensible, but that of « Lyre a very perceptible quantity. The pro- cesses employed in these two investigations being very dif- ferent, I shall consider each of them separately. On the Difference of Parallax between y Draconis and « Lyra. It is impossible to conceive a more simple process than that of determining with the mural circle the difference of polar distance between these stars. From their proximity in right ascension, the operation is the same as that of measuring the angular distance of two terrestrial objects, about 12° asunder, with a theodolite surrounded by six microscopes: for the mural circle, in principle, exactly resembles a vertical theodo- lite; with this difference, that its microscopes, instead of be- ing placed on a frame-work of brass, are securely fixed on a stone-pier. Now I find that the angular distance thus mea- sured in winter does not differ one-tenth of a second from the. same angular distance measured in summer; and therefore, that the difference of parallax between the two stars is abso- lutely a quantity too small to be measured. In this investi- gation, it is to be considered that any constant error in the determination of the absolute polar distances has nothing to do with the question, it being the difference only of those di- stances at opposite seasons that is required. To render all errors throughout the whole course of observation as constant as possible, the telescope remained fixed to the same part of the limb of the instrument, and the utmost pains were taken to reduce the temperature in the Observatory to that of the outer air; the difference throughout the year not exceeding one degree. The winter of 1821-1822 was extremely favour- able for astronomical observation; there was an unusual num- ber of fine nights, and the weather was so mild and uniform, that we were enabled to equalize the temperature, so as to make it of no importance whether the observations were com- puted by the outer or inner thermometer ; and it is to this cir- cumstance, in a great measure, that I attribute the perfect coincidence between the observations at different seasons. _ It has been objected, however, that perhaps some unex- pected effect of temperature deranges the instrument by the exact quantity of the difference of parallax attributed to these stars by Dr. Brinkley; if we suppose a derangement from temperature so considerable as to give a sensible error, even after being diminished by the effect of six microscopes, we should expect the error to be much greater when the ex- perument 294 Mr. Pond on the Parallax of a Lyre. periment is tried with two microscopes only; for to suppose the contrary, would be to deny the tendency of six micro- scopes to correct the errors of two. Now I find the same difference of polar distance whether I employ two microscopes or six; temperature, therefore, cannot materially have viti- ated the results by causing derangement in the form of the instrument. ; In the whole of the above process I do not see one objec- tionable point, and if called upon to inyent an instrument for this particular experiment, I could not devise one more per- fect in principle than the mural circle. Whoever will compare the above simple process with the more complicated one necessarily employed in using an in- strument with two microscopes, turning freely in azimuth, will not hesitate, I think, in deciding upon which of the two instruments temperature is likely to produce the greatest error. On the absolute Parallax of « Lyre. _ The preceding observations only indicate that y Draconis and « Lyre have the same parallax, or that their difference of parallax is zero; but they have no tendency to show what is the actual magnitude of the parallax that the two stars have in common. If indeed we admit it to be proved, by the ob- servations of Bradley, and the more recent ones of Dr. Brinkley, that the parallax of y Draconis is insensible, we may then infer from the observed difference what is the parallax of the other star. But the method of investigation that we are now about to consider, does not depend on'such an admission. Having successfully adopted the method of observing by reflection, I was desirous of employing it in a series of obser- vations upon « Lyre, with a view to determine this question. This series began on the Ist of July 1822, and has been con- tinued to the present time*. Although this period embraces only half the interval in which the greatest change or double parallax is affected, a circumstance which at first may appear very disadvantageous, yet that is more than compensated, in my opinion, by the number of observations, and by a unifor- mity of temperature, such as never can be expected in the extreme seasons of winter and summer. In observations of this nature the effects of temperature upon the instrument itself, and the uncertain. refractions of the ray of light when brought into the lower part of the room, may produce errors of no inconsiderable magnitude, with re- ference to a question of so much nicety as the present. * Since the date of this paper (read Nov. 14, 1822) the observations have been continued throughout the winter, and the results will be found in the Table, Phil. Trans. p. 61. I can Mr. Pond on the Parallax of a Lyre. 295 I can show however in the present as in the former process, that no error from temperature, affecting the instrument, has introduced itself into this series of observations; for I obtain the same result from the readings with two microscopes as from those made with six. In the case of two microscopes, the angular distance is measured upon two arcs only. Now it cannot be for a mo- ment contended that an error from temperature, so great as not to be corrected by six microscopes, will not be much ex- aggerated by employing only two. The errors then, if any, must arise from the effects of temperature on refraction, and not from the changes it occasions in the instrument. But from the season which I have chosen for this investigation, and from the care that has been taken to equalize the tempera- ture, the errors arising from the latter cause must be almost insensible. My observations, thus conducted, indicate in the most decided manner, that the parallax of « Lyre cannot ex- ceed a very small fraction of a second. The advantages and disadvantages of the Dublin and Greenwich methods are in this process much more nearly balanced than in the former- The Dublin instrument has the great advantage of determin- ing the zenith distance in the course of a few minutes; whereas at Greenwich twenty-four hours at least, and frequently seve- ral days elapse, before a complete observation of the double altitude can be obtained by the method of reflection. This disadvantage attending the Greenwich method could only be remedied by employing two mural circles for observing a star on the same night, both by direct vision and by reflection. I have now to consider that argument on which the greatest reliance in favour of parallax has been placed, namely, that founded on the actual determination of the solar equation from the observations made with the Dublin instrument. This argument may, I think, be thus stated. By a series of observations made with a given instrument two equations have been disengaged, previously considered as unknown in amount, but known only as to the law of their variation. Of these, one is much smaller than the other. Hence it is inferred, that as the instrument.has faithfully disengaged the smaller equation (respecting which there is no dispute), it must be admitted with equal fidelity to have disengaged the larger, which might be supposed the easier operation of the two. This reasoning is strictly logical, as proving the disengage- ment of two equations; but it by no means proves the larger equation to be caused by parallax. The larger equation here to be disengaged is after all so small, that it is impossible, in different points of its period, to show that the law assumed coincides 296 Mr. Pond on the Parallax of « Lyre. coincides with observation; it is only a rude agreement at the points of the greatest and least variation that can be de- monstrated. The disengagement of the larger equation only proves therefore the existence of some regularly recurring cause, acting with greatest effect at the extreme seasons. The reason, I conceive, why Dr. Brinkley does not find parallax in y Draconis is, that with respect to the zenith point, his instrument, like every one of a similar construction, is a perfect instrument. No portion of the arc is employed, nor can temperature here occasion any errors by its changes. As the star to be examined recedes from the zenith, the instru- ment becomes less and less perfect; and he finds a small parallax in « Cygni, a larger in « Lyre, and oftentimes a still larger in stars-more remote from the zenith. An additional reason for suspecting that the discordances observed arise from temperature is this: the greatest supposed parallax is found in those stars whose maximum and minimum of parallax would fall in the extreme seasons, and it is not at all improbable that irregular refraction, arising from the unequal state of the temperature within and without the Observatory, may have had a considerable share in occasioning the Dublin discordances, combined, perhaps, with the effect of the changes of tempera- ture upon the instrument itself. It is a circumstance not hitherto sufficiently noticed by astronomers, that there are many cases where the smallest disturbing cause will produce an error quadruple of its own amount; and consequently, that the greatest error to which we are liable from such a cause at any one observation will be only one-fourth of the difference that we can detect between the most discordant of them. Of such a nature are those disturbances which, like refraction for instance, introduce errors, both positive and negative, into the determination of either extremity of the are that measures the distance between two stars. By a singular combination of circumstances, not probable certainly when considered a prior7, but by no means impossi- - ble, the variation caused by change of temperature may follow an annual law so little differing from that of parallax, as to bring out the assumed parallax, and to leave the solar nuta- tion disengaged. Notwithstanding the importance of these investigations to the history of astronomy, and to our forming a correct notion of the system of the universe, yet our decision ultimately turns upon so very small a quantity, that our having reduced the inquiry to these narrow limits, rather tends to show the per- fection of each instrument than the defect of either. On former occasions I considered the question of parallax in Mr. J. Preuss on a new Steam-Engine Governor. 297 in the particular case of « Lyre as undecided, and as per- fectly open to future investigation; but the observations of the present year have produced on my mind a conviction approaching to moral certainty. ‘The history of annual parallax appears to me to be this: in proportion as instru- ments have been imperfect in their construction, they have misled observers into the belief of the existence of sensible parallax. This has happened in Italy to astronomers of the very first reputation. The Dublin instrument is superior to any of a similar construction on the continent; and accord- ingly, it shows a much less parallax than the Italian astrono- mers imagined they had detected. Conceiving that I have established, beyond a doubt, that the Greenwich instrument approaches still nearer to perfection, I can come to no other conclusion than that this is the reason why it discovers no parallax at all. LXIL. On anew Steam-Engine Governor. By Mr. J. Preuss, of Hanover, Engineer, late Inspector-General of French Imperial Forests, Fellow of several learned Societies *. if has been observed by Mr. Doolittle of America, that the well-known centrifugal steam-engine governor, invented by the celebrated James Watt, is a less perfect regulator of velocity than might be wished for, particularly for purposes which re- quire a great regularity and nicety in the motion of the steam- engine; as for instance, in cottom mills, &c. Indeed the cen- trifugal forces of two equal masses which perform their revo- lutions round a central point in equal times, being to each other as the radii of the described circles, it follows, that if the two balls revolved with an adequate speed, so that their centrifugal force, which tends to make them fly asunder, was exactly counterbalanced by their weight, which tends to make them collapse, they would continue in their places, but without exerting any pressure upon them. Let us suppose now that their speed happened to increase by a quantity, however small; the balls would then fly out, and as long as the motion was carried on with the same speed, their centrifugal tendency would increase as the interval increased which separated them. Let us further suppose them to move with an interval double of that which they keep when in their seats, and so as to make the same number of revolutions in a given time as they did when in their placesy—then their tendency to fly out will- be * Communicated by the Author. Vol. 62. No. 306, Oct. 1823. P p double, double, and it will be necessary that their speed should be diminished by half, in order to restore the equilibrium be- tween their centrifugal force and their weight, and a still more considerable decrease of speed would be requisite to make the balls collapse. Hence the speed must oscillate between the maximum and the minimum; while, in order to have an equal motion of the machine, the difference between the two possible extremes ought to be as small as can be. I have endeavoured to invent a contrivance which might not be subject to the inconveniencies now stated: how far I have succeeded in my task, I leave to practical engineers to decide. | The annexed figure shows a section of the apparatus. . 298 Mr.J. Preuss on a new Steam-Engine Governor. , Description. a. Is a water-pipe connected to a small forcing-pump, which draws water, in order to supply the hot-water pan, out of which the boiler is fed. This water may either be drawn from the condensor or from a well. ‘S é, Is a small cistern supplied by the said pump. ¢. Pipe provided with a regulating cock, through which the water Mr. J. Preuss on a new Steam-Engine Governor. 299 water flows out of the tank into the hot-water pan. The cock can be adjusted upon the scale of the sector, so as to transmit the requisite quantity of water in a given time. d. A float or close box of copper, or varnished sheet-iron, or tin, filled with atmospheric air. e. Lever connected on one side to the rod at the top of the float, and at its opposite extremity to the rod f. Jj- A rod attached to the small lever of the throttle valve g. g- Throttle valve connected with the pipe which conveys the steam from the boiler to the steam cylinder. This valve being turned either up or down, increases or reduces the steam- passage and affects the speed with which the piston moves in the cylinder. h. Index fixed against the support of the lever e, showing upon the scale attached to the float-rod, such variations as may occasionally take place. After this, it is evident that if the water-pump which sup- plies the pipe @ is constructed and placed so as to throw up an equal quantity of water at every stroke, the cock with its hand being turned upon such a figure of the index as will correspond with the desired number of strokes per minute, this cock will always deliver the same quantity of water in a given time; and though a greater or smaller portion may be pumped into the tank 6, yet neither more nor less water can flow out of it (for the possible slight variation of pressure by the different heights of water in the tank is too trifling to de- serve any consideration in the present instance). Now let us suppose the cock c were regulated upon 30 strokes per minute, and that the engine happened to make 32 strokes, which would certainly be so slight an increase of speed as hardly to be perceptible even in very delicate work: yet this small ir- regularity could not even continue for a minute; for at the end of that time there would be a surplus of water in the tank equal to the bulk of two pump strokes, which would raise the float d in a degree which would be the greater, the smaller the capa- city of the tank had been made in proportion to the bulk ofa pump stroke; and this elevation of the float d would act upon the throttle valve with more efficacy, the shorter the small lever g was pinned to the rod, and the longer the right-hand side of the main lever e was made in comparison with its left-hand side. J, Preuss, Pp2 LXIII, No« CBO ol LXIII. Notices respecting New Books. A History and Description of the French Museum of Natu- ral History. 2 vols. 8vo, published at Paris, and sold by George Sowerby, 33 King Street, Covent Garden. "Pes work has just been published in Paris under the im- mediate auspices, and indeed by the direction, of the learned professors of that noble establishment. At a time when the singular management of the British Museum has been so com- pletely brought under the public notice, our continental neigh- bours may well feel proud at the appearance of this work. It commences with a history of the Jardin du Roi, which we could wish that every person intrusted with the government of a National Museum would carefully peruse. The reader indeed will see that, notwithstanding the proud edifice France has now raised for the study of Natural History, the Jardin du Roi in its early days had many difficulties to contend with, owing to the trustees, superintendants, or governing persons, whatever may have been their titles, being men better ac- quainted with the intrigues of courts than with the beauties of nature. He will see, that while some who were indifferent to the science, or had affairs of greater importance to attend to, left the government of the infant institution to economical persons not only ignorant of Natural History, but who were jealous of its progress merely because they did not understand it, public property never failed to suffer, and great expense in the end to be incurred by the nation. He will not perhaps find magnificent bequests to the French nation to haye been dispersed and sold in opposition to the manifest intentions of the generous and patriotic donors ; still less will he find such sales to have taken place merely because the trustees of the National Museum knew little and cared less* abont the value of what was placed under their protection. Although indeed in this respect the interest of the tale may be a little deficient, we may safely say that the naturalist will derive much amuse- ment from watching the rise and progress of the Jardin des Plantes, the history of which is intimately interwoven with that of some of the most celebrated men of France, such as Tourne- fort, Jussieu, Buffon, Vicq d’ Azir, Fourcroy, &c. The general reader also cannot but receive pleasure from the description of the contents of the Museum, which is interspersed with in- * As a means of infusing a portion of science into the direction of the British Museum, we have heard it suggested that the Presidents of the An- tiquarian, Linnzan, and Geological Societies, or some sufficient representa- tives of the great scientific bodies of the Metropolis, should be added to the number of Trustees. teresting Notices respecting New Books. 801 teresting anecdotes, and is given in so popular and instructive amanner as to render any previous knowledge of Natural History quite unnecessary for its perusal. The work however is certainly most valuable, as showing us what a National Institution for the study of Natural History may become under proper management; and we cannot re- frain from expressing our gratitude to the editor M. Royer, who has thus provided us with an authentic description of the only public establishment of which we have reason to envy France the possession. Two editions of the work have been printed, the one in French and the other in English, and beth are ornamented with a number of excellent engravings of the romantic Jardin du Roi. —_—__. A Series of Lectures upon the Elements of Chemical Sci- ence, lately delivered at the Surry Institution; comprising the Basis of the new Theory of Crystallization, and Diagrams to illustrate the Elementary Combinations of Atoms, particu- lar Theories of Electrical Influence, and of Flame; with a full Description of the Author’s Blow-Pipe, and its Powers and Effects, when charged with certain Gases, &c. &c. with eight Plates. By Goldsworthy Gurney. In Octavo. An Elementary Treatise on Algebra, Theoretical and Prac- tical; with Improvements in some of the more difficult Parts of the Science, particularly in the general Demonstration of the Binomial Theorem, the Solution of Equations of the higher Orders, the Summation of Infinite Series, &c. Dedi- cated, with Permission, to Dr. Gregory, Professor of Mathe- matics in the Royal Military Jon ees By J. R. Young, Teacher of the Mathematics, Navigation, Nautical Astronomy, &c. In Octavo. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. Vol. XII. Part II. 8vo, with several coloured Plates. Published by the Medical and Chirurgical Society of London. Formularly for the Preparation and Mode of Employing several New Remedies; namely, the Nux Vomica, Morphine, Prussic Acid, Strychnin, Veratrine, the active Principles of Cinchonas, Emetine, Iodine, &c. with an Introduction, and copious Notes. By Charles Thomas Haden, Surgeon to the Chelsea and Brompton Dispensary, &c. Translated from the French of Magendie. In 12mo. An Improved System of Arithmetic (in two parts), for the use of Schools and Counting-Houses. By Daniel Dowling, Master of the Mansion House Academy, Fiiglivate: and Au- thor of the Key to Dr. Hutton’s Course of Mathematics. Part I. Second Edition. Chemical 302 Notices respecting New Books. Chemical Recreations: a Series of amusing and instructive Experiments, which may be performed easily, safely, and at little Expense. To which are prefixed, First Lines of Che- mistry; wherein the principal Facts of the Science, as stated by the most celebrated Experimentalists, are familiarly ex- plained. With a minute Description of a cheap and simple Apparatus; illustrated by Seventy engraved Figures of the different Parts of it. In one vol. 18mo. 3s. A Treatise on Subterraneous Surveying, and the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fenwick, Colliery Viewer and Surveyor of Mines; Author of the Essays on Practical Mechanics. Second Edition. Ueber den Antheil welchen der Erdboden an den Meteorischen Processen nimmt; On the Part which the Earth takes in Meteoric Processes: a discourse delivered at the anniversary of the Halle Society of Natural History, July 5, 1823, by the president Professor F. R.G. Meinecke. 8vo, 35 pages. In this discourse the Author assigns the alternate absorp- tion and giving out of air by the porous strata of the globe, as a main cause of the rise and fall of the barometer. Observations Mineralogiques sur les Environs de Vienne; by Count Razumowski. 1822. 4to. Ricerche sopra 0 Intendimento del Cane e degli altri Bruti, &c. Researches on the Intellect ofthe Dog and other Animals ; by F. Orioli, Pesaro and Bologna, 1823, 8vo. Gaspari Georgii Caroli Reinwardt Oratio, de Augmentis que Historie Naturali ex Indie Investigatione accesserunt, publice habita. 3 Maii 1823. Leyden, 4to, 23 pages. This is a discourse delivered at the commencement of his professorship by Dr. Reinwardt, who after a residence of some years in Java, devoted to scientific objects, has been ap- pointed on his return to the chair of chemistry and natural history in the university of Leyden. Dictionnaire classique d Histoire Naturelle; by MM. An- donin, Brongniart, Decandolle, Edwards, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Latreille, A. Richard, Bory de St. Vincent, &c. vol. iii. from CAD to CHL, 8vo, pp. 592. Mémoire sur la Distribution Geographique des Animaux Vertébrés, moins les Oiseaux ; by M. Desmoulins. Chimie appliquée a V Agriculture; by Count Chaptal. 1823, 2 vols. 8yvo. ; Recherches Balistiques sur les Vitesses Initiales, le Recul et la Resistance del? Air; by L. M. Prosper Coste. 1823. 8vo. ANALYSIS Analysis of Periodical Works on Botany. 303 ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON BOTANY. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine. No. 441. Pl. 2433, Phaylopsis longifolia, “caulibus erectis, foliis oblongo-ovatis acuminatis reflexis, spicis axillaribus brevibus laxiusculis, lacinia calycis dorsali corolla longiore.” The genus Etheilema, separated from Ruellia by Mr. Brown in his Pro- dromus, he has since found to be the same with Willdenow’s Phaylopsis. ‘This plant was raised by the Horticultural So- ciety from seed from Sierra Leone. Prostanthera lasianthos, a New Holland plant: Mr. Brown has recorded 13 species of this genus. Iris neglecta. Salvia nutans. Polygala amara. This species and vulgaris are often mistaken for each other, from their variableness, and the difficulty of finding good di- stinguishing characters: the taste, however, will at once decide, the vulgaris being slightly acrid without bitterness, whilst the amara is intensely bitter. Polygala cordifolia, the fruticosa of Bergius:— Cape of Good Hope. Protea levis, from the moun- tains at the Cape of Good Hope. This is the same plant which Mr. Salisbury gave in the Paradisus Londinensis as longifolia, ‘a name already occupied by a very different species, of which there are three varieties figured in the Botanist’s Repository.” Rawwolfia ternifolia. Collected in South America by Hum- boldt and Bonpland, and described but not figured by them. The Botanical Register. No. 104. Descriptions of Plates 725—739 given in preceding numbers: Schizanthus pinnatus, now first drawn from the living plant; the figure of Ruiz and Pavon, who established the genus Fi. Peruv., being from a dried specimen. Astelma fruticans, the Gnaphalium fruticans of Hort. Kewensis. Oncidium luridum, “ foliis ellipticis acutis, scapo stricto ramoso, perianthii laciniis patentibus undulatis retusis subzequalibus, labello reniformi, columne alis rotundatis.” An unrecorded species from South America. Daviesia alata, Smith Linn. Trans. ix. A very rare plant. Berberis Chitria, the aristata of Decandolle, Syst. Veg. Under this head we find some animadversions on the work of the Genevan professor in a spirit of asperity and of exulta- tion at the presumed failure of his undertaking (too great, no doubt, for any man to hope to accomplish), which we wish had been spared, and which may perhaps call for some observations at a future time. Brexia madagascariensis, a species not de- scribed in any general system of vegetables. Alstramerta Flos Martini, pulchra of Bot. Mag. See p. 224 of our last Number. «The drawing was taken at the garden of the Horticultural Society, enriched, extended, and arranged under the able di- rection 304 Horticultural Society. rection of the intelligent and indefatigable secretary, Mr. Sa- bine; next to whom, we must not forget, in their different departments, Messrs. Lindley and Monroe. In our opinion, that richly-endowed establishment cannot be confided to abler or more competent agents, as well in regard to the application of its treasures, as a judicious management of the collection.” We are glad to transcribe this testimony as conveying our own sentiments. Dendrobium squalens, “ terrestre bulbis co- nicis truncatis, floribus resupinatis confertis, foliis lanceolatis plicatis subtrinervibus scapo duplo longioribus. Lindley MSS.” Sent to England from Rio de Janeiro by Mr. Forbes, a col- lector in the service of the Horticultural Society. Lobelia campanuloides, newly introduced from China. 'Thunberg in Linn. Trans. ii. 332. Dianella longifolia, Brown’s Prody. i. 280, now first figured. Gardenia amena, lately figured in Bot. Mag. Lrythrina caffra, Thunb. Prodr. Passiflora herber- tiana, with an appropriate specific character of six lines, too long for us to transcribe. Edwardsia chrysophylla, Linn.'Trans. ix. 299. Rosa involucrata of Mr. Lindley’s Monograph. Pl. 740. Nemophila phaceliodes. Bignonia equinoctialis B. given asa separate species, Chamberlaynii nm Bot. Mag. Eu- lophia gracilis, “ scapo gracillimo, foliis lanceolatis trinerviis triplo longiore, calcare clavato, labelli lobo medio obsoleto. Lindleys MSS.” Yn the garden of the Horticultural Society, sent from Sierra Leone last year by Mr. G. Don. Phaseolus semierectus. Calceolaria integrifolia. Isochilus linearis. Ia- tropha gossypifolia. Tritonia flava; recorded by Dr. So- lander in Hortus Kewensis under Gladiolus, *fromwhich genus it was detached by us*, in the treatise on Ensatee in the Annals of Botany, i. 219.” LXIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Oct. 7.—THE following communications were made : On the. Form and Materials for Rafters and Bars for the Roofs of Hot-houses, &c.; by Mr. Thomas Tredgold, Civil Engineer. : F The rafter proposed by Mr. Tredgold is of iron with a casing of wood, the advantage of which is, that its dimensions may be much smaller than if made wholly of wood; and the objection to iron rafters or bars is effectually remedied, namely, the facility which they give to the escape of caloric. Mr, * Ensatarum Ordo, autore Joh, Bellenden Gawler, armigcro. Tredgold Meteorological Society. 305 Tredgold also proposes that the strength of the rafter shall be obtained by making it flat rather than deep, as he con- ceives that the great depth of the rafter produces a shade in the house at the period when the sun is low in the horizon; and at the time when he is at his greatest altitude the obstruc- tion of his beams by the flat rafter will rather be advantageous than otherwise. Description of a Vinery constructed upon a new Plan, by William Atkinson, Esg., and an Account of the Mode of ‘Training practised in it. By Mr. William Beattie, Correspond- ing Member of the Society. The excellence and economy of Mr. Atkinson’s plan of constructing Vineries, is now very generally ascertained. By having introduced an easy and complete mode of ventilation, he has rendered it unnecessary to make the sashes moveable, and thus avoids the continual liability to breakage, which there is with moveable lights. METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. The science of Meteorology is peculiarly susceptible of im- provement, by means of a combined system of experiment and observation, carried on under the auspices of an associated body of inquirers. It embraces an immense variety of atmo- spheric phenomena, presented to our view under multiplied relations, modified in innumerable ways by the various confi- gurations of the earth’s surface, and connected, perpetually and intimately, with the subjects of almost every branch of scientific investigation. This character of the science, and that more particularly when considered with reference to its present defective state, clearly evinces the propriety, and even the necessity, of giving to the pursuit of Meteorology a new and determinate form, by affording it that powerful aid,—the establishment of a Society expressly devoted to its cultivation, —which experience shows to have been so effectual in pro- moting the advancement of every department of knowledge to which it has been applied. It is under this impression that we have much satisfaction in announcing the formation of the “ Meteorological Society of London,” which took place on Wednesday the 15th instant, at a meeting held for the purpose, pursuant to the notice which was inserted in our last Number. The following’ ac- count of the preliminary arrangements agreed to on the occa- sion, has been transmitted to us by the Provisional Committee ; and we have now only to express our cordial wishes for the prosperity of the undertaking, and our hopes, that this So- ciety, closely and harmoniously allied by its extensive objects Vol. 62. No. 306. Oct. 1823. Q q of 306 Meteorological Society. of research, with every other philosophic association, but in- fringing on the province of no one, may be eminently suc- cessful, in its own department, in extending the boundaries of human knowledge. On the 15th inst. a Meeting was held at the London Coffee House, Ludgate Hill, to take into consideration the pro- priety of forming a Meteorological Society. Among the gen- tlemen present were Drs. T. Forster, Clutterbuck, Shearman, Mr. Luke Howard, &c. &c. At eight o’clock the Chair was taken by Dr. Birkbeck, when the following Resolutions were agreed to :— 1. Resolved, That the formation of a Society to promote the advancement of Meteorology, have the cordial approbation of this Meeting. 2. Resolved, That a Society be formed to be called “ The Meteorological Society of London.” 3. Resolved, That the business of this Society shall be con- ducted by a President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and Council; and that the number of Vice-Presidents and Members of the Council be determined at a subsequent Meeting. 4. Resolved, That Mr. Thomas Wilford be requested to officiate as Secretary to this Society (pro tempore), and that he be authorized to send a printed Summons to attend the next Meeting to each person who shall become a Subscriber. 5. Resolved, ‘That an Annual Subscription of Two Guineas be paid in advance by every Member of this Society. 6. Resolved, ‘That those gentlemen present who are in- clined to become Members of this Society, do now send their names to the Secretary to be enrolled. 7. Resolved, That a Committee of three Members be ap- pointed, in conjunction with the Secretary, to draw up an ac- count of the Society’s proceedings this evening. ~ 8. Resolved, That scientific men throughout the United Kingdom be solicited to co-operate with this Society, and to transmit communications to it; and that this Society will always be ready to receive meteorological observations from the culti- vators of science throughout Ae various quarters of the gtobe. 9. Resolved, ‘That no other qualification be required to constitute eligibility to this Society, than a desire to promote the science of Meteorology. 10.. Resolved, That after the next Meeting the election be by ballot upon the proposition of three, and that a majority of Members decide. 11. Resolved, That this Meeting do adjourn to the 12th of November next, to meet at the same place and hour. MEDICO- a Medico- Botanical Society.— French Academy. Encke’s Comet. 307 MEDICO-BOTANICAL SOCIETY. The Medico-Botanical Society of London held its first Meeting this Session on Friday, Oct. 10. An address was de- livered to the members on the objects and utility of the Insti- tution ; after which the death of its late honorary member, Dr. Baillie, was notified to the Society, accompanied by an appropriate eulogium on his character. The Meeting then adjourned to Oct. 31, 1823. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. June 30.—M. Gaillon of Dieppe communicated some mi- croscopic and physiological Experiments on a Marine Con- ferya; and M. Arnoul a Memoir on Equations of three terms. MM. Cauchy and Ampere gave an account of a Memoir, by M. Texier de Montainville, on the Inscription of the Cube in the Octahedron. The author shows that this problem is undetermined. If we take for the axes of x, y, z, the three diagonals of an octahedron, every section made in this octa- hedron by a plane parallel to z, y, will be a square; and if double the distance of the two planes is contained between the side of the square and its diagonal, it is clear that in the square treated of may be inscribed a second, which will be- come the base of a cube inscribed in an octahedron; and what is remarkable is, that the summits of all the cubes in- scribed in this manner trace on each face of the octahedron an equilateral hyperbola. M. Arago gave an account of the experiments which Mr. Wheatstone had just been making in England on Phonic Vibrations. M. Giraud read a third Memoir on Navigable Canals, considered with regard to the fall and distribution of the locks. M. Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire read a Note on the Respiration of the Foetus. M. Longchamp read a Memoir on the Analysis of Phos- phoric Acid, and of Phosphates. LXV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. HISTORY OF THE REDISCOVERY OF ENCKE’S COMET. HE merit of the rediscovery of this comet *, which has ex- cited great interest, is due to our countryman, Mr. James * Sce Phil. Mag. Ixi. p. 275—282. Qq?2 Dunlop, 308 New Elements of Encke’s Comet. Dunlop, an ingenious maker of telescopes from Ayrshire, who went out to New South Wales with His Excellency Sir Thomas Brisbane, as a scientific assistant. Mr. Dunlop was examining the heavens with a sweeper, when he encountered this singular body. We state this fact on the authority of Sir Thomas Brisbane, who has recently transmitted to the Royal Society of Edinburgh a series of valuable astronomical observations made at Paramatta. It is impossible to speak too highly of the zeal and talents of this eminent astronomer, whose appointment to the government of New South Wales has given such universal satisfaction. Great credit is due to him in doing this justice to our modest countryman. Baron de Zach, who considers the rediscovery of this comet as one of the greatest efforts of modern astronomy, ascribes all the glory of it to the “ yigilant and penetrating eye of M. Rumker,” and to “* Germanic diligence.” M. Rumker has great merit in every thing he does, and particularly in what he has done on this subject; but the merit of discovering the comet is solely Mr. Dunlop’s.—Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. ix. p. 391. NEW ELEMENTS OF ENCKE’S COMET. The following correct elements of this comet have been given by M. Encke: Passage of the perihelion, 1822, May 21, °01768, mean time at Seeberg. Longitude of the perihelion.......... 157° 11’ 28”°8 ) From mean NOGSsscarvvresesscy SOL” 19 ‘31 bese Inclination of the orbit, EXCEntriCity.....ccessececeesscoesevees 0°84454'79 Tis) Sine Lise 2s GE A ST? eae og Log. of one-half the greater axis... 0°3472191 M. Encke is engaged in very laborious calculations, with the view of ascertaining if the resistance of the ether could have any influence in causing the diminution which has been observed in its periodical time.—Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. xi, p. 391, from Rach’s Corresp. Astron. vol. viii. p. 279. ANSWER TO MR. J. HAMETT’S QUESTION [in our last Number, p. 236]. Newark, Oct. 9, 1823. Although Mr. Hamett’s question appears to rank among those of the axiomatical class, yet I have endeavoured to comply with his wish by sending the following demonstration, which Answer to Mr. Hamett’s Question. 309 which is much at your service, if it should be thought to merit insertion in your valuable Journal. I am your obedient servant, Paut NEwrTon. In prop. 47, produce DB to meet FC in M, and EC to meet KB in N. From the point E draw EQ parallel to CM; and from D draw DP parallel to BN (prop. 31st): Then will the parallelograms DBCE, DBNP, and ECOM, be equal to one another G (props. 35 and 36). The parallelograms DBT L, DBRS, and OMRS, are also equal to one another. For the same reason, the parallelograms LTCE, SRCE, and SRNP, are equal to one another. Now LT is equal to SR (prop. 34); consequently LS is equal to TR. But the side SR is evidently common to the four parallelograms DBRS, OMRS, ECRS, and PNRS;; therefore the lines FC, KB, and AL, intersect one another in the point R; or otherwise the opposite sides of parallelograms could not be equal. But further; draw BL, BS, CL, and CS. The triangle FBC is equal to the triangle BDL (props. 34 and 47), or equal to the triangle BSR (props. 37 and 38). For the same reason, the triangle BK C is equal to the trian- gle CLE, or is equal to the triagle CSR. The three triangles LDS, LBS, and TBR, are equal to one another (props. 37 and 38). Again, the three triangles LES, LCS, and TCR, are equal to one another. _ Hence we perceive that the two tri- angles LBS and LCS, which meet in the point S, on the line LA, are respectively equal to the two triangles DLS and ELS, which meet likewise in the point S; or they are respectively equal to the two triangles TBR and TCR, whose sides BR and C R meet in the point R,on LA. Besides, we perceive that because OM is equal to BD, BM is equal to OD. Therefore the triangles MRB and OSD are equal to each other, and the triangles NRC and PSE are for a similar reason equal to each other (prop. 38); consequently the lines FC, KB, and AL, intersect one another in the point R. Q. E. D. SOLUTION 310 Solution of Mr. Hameti’s Question. SOLUTION OF MR. HAMETT’S QUESTION. BY MR. M. N. CRAW-~ FORD. Cranford, Oct. 9, 1823. Let ABC be the given triangle right-angled at A. Upon AB, AC, BC, describe the al squares AG, AD, and CH. Then a right line being drawn from A parallel to BH will meet the two lines GC, BD in their common point of intersection, which Mr, Ha- mett requires to be demon- strated without the aid of any proposition of the Ele- y4 ments beyond the 47th. Produce BC both ways to meet perpendiculars on it from Gand D in M and N;; and since the angle ABG isa right angle, the sum of the angles HX L GBM, ABP is equal toa right angle (1 Elem. 13). Hence the angles at M and P being right angles, and GB equal to BA, the triangles GBM, BAP are identical (1 Elem. 26), and BM is equal to AP, and GM to BP. Ina similar manner it may be proved that the triangles D NC, CP A are identical, and that DN is equal to CP, CN to AP and consequently to MB; and hence CM to BN. _ Complete the parallelogram BNDQ, and through d the intersection of AT and BD draw TU parallel to BC, and produce PA to R. Then because the complements Qd, dN are equal (1 Elem. 43), the parallelograms QP, UN are equal; that is, a parallelogram whose base and altitude are Pd, PN is equal toa parallelogram whose base and altitude are BQ, BP or PC, BP. Inthe same manner it may be proved that the parallelogram whose base and altitude are CM, Pg (the segment of A P cut off by CG) is equal to the parallelo- gram whose base and altitude are PC, BP. Consequently the parallelogram whose base and altitude are Pd, BN is equal to the parallelogram whose base and altitude are Pg, CM. Therefore, as CM, BN, have been shown to be equal, Pg is equal to Pd; that is, the intersection of CG, A P, coincides with the intersection of BD, A P.—g. £. p. Mervyn Nott Crawronrp. Paramatta.— Dorpat Observat/— Greenwich Mural Circle. 311 LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE OF PARAMATTA. The longitude of the observatory of Paramatta, in New South Wales, is 10° 4’ 145 east of Greenwich, as determined by various methods of observation. The latitude of the ob- servatory is 33° 48’ 42”,—Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. ix. p. 391. OBSERVATORY OF DORPAT IN LIVONIA. This observatory, under the direction of M. Struve, an able and active astronomer, has been supplied, in the most hand- some manner, with fine instruments, by the Emperor of Russia, whose liberality to science deserves the highest en- comiums. M. Frauenhofer of Munich has been occupied for two years in completing, for this observatory, an achromatic telescope, fourteen feet in focal length, and with an aperture of nine inches. ‘You may judge from this,” says M. Struve in a letter to Baron de Zach, “ how much our liberal Govern- ment does for astronomy. Our observatory is particularly indebted to the curator of our university, M. General Comte de Lieven, who has not only provided it with every thing that is excellent and perfect in the way of instruments, but has also built a commodious house for the astronomer. He has likewise ordered a great meridian circle, similar to that of Gottingen, Munich and Konigsberg; a great repeating cir- cle; and an universal instrument, &c., all from the manufac- tory of MM. Reichenbach and Ertel of Munich.—Zdin. Phil. Journ. vol. ix. p. 392, from Zach’s Corres. Astron. vol. viii. p. 370. MEASUREMENT OF A DEGREE IN LIVONIA. The liberality of the Russian Government has also been shown, in charging M. Struve of Dorpat, with the measure- ment of a degree of the meridian in Livonia. Properly speaking, this work is carried on by the University out of the large funds which the Government has put at its disposal for every purpose that is useful and interesting to science. M. Struve began his operations in the summer of 1822.— Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. 1x. p. 392. THE GREENWICH MURAL CIRCLE. Feeling a lively interest in any thing connected with the Royal Observatory, we have, with the greatest satisfaction, seen the results of Mr. Pond’s inquiry into the state of the Greenwich mural circle: the experiments prove almost to a mathematical certainty, that this splendid instrument is, after twelve years’ constant use, as free from error, as even its warmest advocates, or the most accomplished observer, could wish.—Journal of Science, vol. xvi. p. 189. 812 Mr. Groombridge’s Transit Circle.—Polar Expedition. MR. GROOMBRIDGE’S TRANSIT CIRCLE. Whilst admiring the mechanical skill of him who con- structed the Greenwich mural circle, we were much concerned to hear that there were some grounds to suspect the accuracy of another instrument made by the same artist, and generally considered little inferior to the Greenwich circle itself; we allude to the four-feet meridian transit circle, late the property of Mr. Groombridge. On this gentleman’s retiring from the duties of an active observer, the instrument was disposed of, liable, however, to an examination on the part of its maker, as to its efficiency or inefficiency; which investigation being con- ducted by Mr. Troughton, in the presence of Mr. Groom- bridge, the late Professor Tralles, and its intended purchaser, gave reason to fear that_some alteration in its figure had been sustained. Accordingly, future and more minute examination was deemed necessary; and at length it was resolved, that comparisons of north polar distances taken on the same nights with it and the Greenwich mural circle should be entered into; and the results of many weeks’ observations proved, that those obtained by Mr. Groombridge with fis instrument, were, to use the words of the Astronomer Royal, “ as coincident with those procured by the Greenwich mural circle, as those of the Greenwich mural circle were with themselves.” Knowing that the reports of the suspected inaccuracy have extended far and wide, we feel it due to Mr. Troughton who constructed the instrument, and to Mr. Groombridge who used it, to give publicity to the above statement. It is at present in Black- man-street, and is having eight additional microscopes applied by Mr. Troughton; it will then have six readings to each of its divided circles, so that all error of division will probably be annihilated. We hope ere long to see it actively employed. RETURN OF THE EXPEDITION UNDER CAPTAIN PARRY. At length the increasing anxiety for the fate of our brave countrymen who have been so long exploring the Polar Seas, has been terminated by their safe return. The Fury and Hecla arrived at Lerwick, in Shetland, on the 10th in- stant, made the northern coast of England on the 16th, and on Saturday, the 18th, the gallant and enterprising Captain Parry reached London. He and his brave companions have well earned the admiration of their countrymen and of all mankind, although the discovery of the long-sought north- west passage has not yet been the reward of their exertions. The outward voyage in 1821 was fair and prosperous. Passing up Hudson’s Straits, the navigators kept near the land on their south, and explored the coast towards Re- pulse Polar Expedition. 313 pulse Bay. The furthest west which they attained was 86° of longitude, and the highest latitude only 69° 48’ N; and they finally brought up for winter-quarters at a small isle which they named Winter Island, in 82° 53’ W. longitude, and latitude 66° 11’ N. The chief part of the summer of 1821 was oceupied in exa- mining Repulse Bay, and some inlets to the eastward of it, through some one or other of which they hoped to find a pas- sage into the Polar Sea. In this they were disappointed, for all the openings proved to be only deep inlets, which ran into the continent of America. While thus occupied, early in Oc- tober the sea began to freeze: and on the 8th of that month the ships were laid up for the winter in the situation noted above. Here at Winter Island the Expedition was frozen up from the 8th of October 1821 to the 2d of July 1822. ~The most beneficial effects resulted from the system of heating the ships with currents of warm air. These were di- rected to every requisite part by means of metallic tubes, and so well did the contrivance answer its purpose, that the lowest temperature experienced during the winter was 35° below zero. In the second winter it was ten degrees lower, viz. 45° below zero; but this was not near so difficult to endure, nor so in- convenient, as the cold in Capt. Parry’s first voyage, nor indeed, if we are rightly instructed, as that felt in the northern stations of the Hudson’s Bay traders on the American continent. In the season of 1822, the vessels having steered along the coast to the north, penetrated only to the long. of 82° 50’, and lat. 69° 40’; and, after exploring several inlets &c. in their brief cruize, they were finally moored for their second winter, about a mile apart, in 81° 44’ W. long. and lat. 69° 21’ N. Here, close to another small isle, they remained from the 24th of September 1822 to the 8th of last August. They had latterly entered a strait leading to the westward. From the accounts of a party of Esquimaux and their own observations, they had every reason to believe that this strait separated all the land to the northward from the continent of America. Afier getting about fifteen miles within the entrance of it, however, they were stopped by the ice; but from the persua- sion that they were in the right channel for getting to the westward, they remained there for nearly a month, in daily expectation that the ice would break up. In this last hope they were again quitedisappointed, and on the 19th of Sep- tember, the sea having begun to freeze, they left these straits, and laid the ships up in winter quarters near the small island alluded to, and called by the Esquimaux Igloolik. The inlet where the second winter was spent presented a Vol. 62. No. 306. Oct. 1823. Rr solid 314 Mr. Rose on Felspar and other Crystals. solid mass of perpetual ice. It is about ten miles in breadth; its length (of course not having been traversed) uncertain. The ebb tide is from the south-west, and the flood from south-east; small channels ran through it, but not wide enough to work a ship. ON FELSPAR, ALBITE, LABRADORE SPAR, AND ANORTHITE. BY GUSTAVUS ROSE, OF BERLIN. Some differences which Mr. Rose observed in the angles of certain crystals, hitherto classed among the felspars, led him to make a closer investigation of them; the result of which was, that under these crystals are contained four species, dif- fering both in a crystallographical and chemical point of view, though in the former respect they exhibit an undoubted ana- logy. fF elspar proper, KS*+3 AS’, is the most abundant of these species. To it belong the Adularia of St. Gothard, the glassy felspar of Vesuvius and the Siebengebirge, the Amazon-stone of Siberia, the Labradore felspar from Friedrichswarn in Nor- way, the felspar of Baveno, Carlsbad, and the Fichtelgebirge, and generally most part of Werner’s common felspars. The second species, Albite, is more rare. It is denoted by NS?+3AS*. Eggerts first found it in an uncrystallized fi- brous and granular form at Finnbo and Broddbo, near Fah- lun, and thereafter Haussmann and Stromeyer in a mineral from Chesterfield, in North America, to which the former gave the name of Kiefelspath. Nordenskiold found it in a granite at Kimite, near Pargas, in Finland; and Ficinus in a granite from Penig in Saxony. All these are uncrystallized varieties. To the crystallized, which I have had occasion to see, belong the white schorl, first described by Romé de I’'Isle; the fel- spar crystals of Dauphiny of Hauy; the small crystals from Saltsburg and the Tyrol, known a few years ago under the name of Adularia. The third species forms the Labradore spar, which Klaproth analysed and distinguished from felspar, though mineralo- gists did not consider it as a distinct species. Berzelius has assigned to it the formula NS*?+3 CS*+12 AS from Klaproth’s analysis. The fourth species is the rarest of the whole. Mr. Rose has recognised it only in the druses of limestone blocks, which are found at Mount Somma, near Vesuvius, where it occurs in small shining perfect crystals. He has determined its formula to be MS+2 CS-+-8 AS; and has called it Anorthite. Albite is readily distinguishable by the twin grouping of its crystals. Its primitive form is an irregular parallelopiped. In Meteor and Earthquakes.—Storm at Rotterdam. — 315 In its massive state it differs from felspar in not being straight foliated, but always radiated. Labradore spar is completely decomposed by concentrated muriatic acid, while felspar and albite are not affected by it. Anorthite yields to muriatic acid as Labradore spar does. The name is derived from dvogios, not rectangled ; as the want of a right-angled cleavage, in both directions of its laminze, peculiarly distinguishes it from fel- spar. We must refer to the paper itself for the details of the crystallization-system of the above minerals. — Journal of Science, vol. xvi. p. 106, from Gilberts Annalen, No. Ixxiii. p. 173. sadly ube METEOR AND EARTHQUAKES. At Ragusa (in Dalmatia) the heat in August last was at 31° of Reaumur, which produced contagious diseases, that carried off a great number of people. The drought was very distressing. On the 20th of that month the air became sud- denly dark, a fiery meteor appeared over the city, fell into the sea, and was followed by an earthquake, which overthrew many houses. Several persons were killed. The sea retired nearly a mile from the coast. The first shock was felt in Turkish Bosnia: it caused an immense piece of rock to fall, which, rolling into the sea, struck a vessel laden with flour and buried it with its crew in the waves. It is reported that a volcano has broken out in that province. At Ragusa a fort built by the French, and a great number of houses, are thrown down. Accounts from St. Petersburgh state, that slight shocks of an earthquake were felt at Pawlouisk, in the government of Wororesch, on the 22d, 23d, and 27th of August. STORM AT ROTTERDAM. Dublin, October 20, 1823. In your Magazine for last month you gave an account of the effects of a storm in the districts of country round Antwerp in August last, where your correspondent says some hundred trees were overturned and great ravages committed in the corn- fields and gardens by water-spouts; and one place is men- tioned where twenty large trees were broken by these spouts and thrown across the public road. I happened to be in that part of the country at the time, and I did not hear of any damage done by water-spouts, nor did I see any marks of their ravages on the fields; but there were some severe thun- der storms at that time. And near Mechlin, on the road side, I counted thirteen large trees broken across and lying by the way. They had been broken by lightning a few days betore I passed, and were part of a row of poplars which had lined the road. And, what appeared to me very singular, it was Rr2 only $16 British Tenthredos. only each alternate tree that had been struck, one being broken and one left. The road had, as you say, been blocked up with them, so that the diligences for the day could not get on. One of these thunder storms occurred at Rotterdam a few days previous, and presented in its progress some interesting and beautiful phenomena. The day (26th Aug.) had been exces- sively hot and sultry, with the wind at SSE.; at 4 p. m. clouds began to approach from the NW. and some thunder was heard in that quarter. At 5 it came nearer, and the lightning from the north was frequent. Clouds then suddenly began to drive from the east, carrying with them along the ground a vapour like blue smoke, which rose upwards and soon became tinged of a deep dusky red. The lightning was now continual, the air seemed on fire, and the thunder rolled in one unbroken and unceasing peal. It grew very dark, and the rain poured down in torrents. The storm passed directly over head, but at a great height, and the lightning did not strike the earth. The air shortly after became clear to the NW., the thunder cloud slowly retiring in a SE. direction, when it seemed to become fixed at the distance of six or eight miles, and at the height of about 25°, and there the storm was seen exerting its fury in the highest splendour. The cloud was one blaze of fire, and the flashes of lightning darted from one quarter of it to another in the most fantastic coruscations ; sometimes zigzag, at others in streams of fire or running out in circular lines of blue flame, or darting from it like the forked light- ning which painters put into the hands of Jupiter. This fine display of fireworks continued more than an hour; the moon . in the mean time rose behind the cloud in great majesty, and began to move along the sky, which was calm and serene in every other quarter. There was no thunder heard, and the streets and walks of Rotterdam were filled with admirers of this interesting spectacle. Yours, &c. W. W. Jameson. BRITISH TENTHREDOS. A young Entomologist who makes inquiry in the Philosophical Magazine for August, p. 155, concerning the British Tenthredos, and requests their specific names and characters, is probably not aware of the number of British species.—An entomologist of the first eminence informs us that his cabinet contains about 150; and adds that there may probably be double that num- ber, were all known. We believe that the collections of Mr. Haworth and Mr. Stephens are equally extensive. We know not, however, whether the inquiry relates to the genus Tenthredo Cutting of Steel by soft Iron.— Purple Tint of Plate Glass. 317 Tenthredo of modern entomologists, or to the Linnzean genus, which constitutes their family Tenthredinide, including 23 Bri- tish genera, according to Dr. Leach’s division, as given in Mr. Samouelle’s Entomolvgist’s Compendium. CUTTING OF STEEL BY SOFT IRON. Mr. Barnes, of Cornwall, Connecticut, has ascertained a singular property of soft iron in cutting hard steel. He had fixed a circular plate of soft sheet iron on an axis, and putting it into a lathe, gave it very rapid rotatory motion, applying, at the same time, a file to it to make it perfectly round and smooth; the file, however, was cut in two by the plate, the latter remaining untouched; and it was found not to have been much warmed in the operation, though a band of intense fire surrounded it whilst in action. A saw made of a very hard plate, which required altering, was cut through longitudinally in a few minutes, and after- wards teeth were cut in it by the same means. Had the file been used to produce the same effect, it would have required a long and tedious operation. Rock crystal applied to the plate cut it readily.—Svz/liman’s Jour. vi. 336. ; Mr.Jacob Perkins, of Fleet-street, has verified thisremarkable and useful observation. A piece of alarge hard file was cut by him into deep notches at the end, where, also, from the heat produced by friction, it had softened and been thrown out like a bur. On another part of the file, where the plate had been applied against its flat face, the teeth were removed, without any sensible elevation of the temperature of the metal. The plate, which had previously been made true, was not reduced either in size or weight during the experiment, but it had, ac- cording to Mr. Perkins, acquired an exceeding hard surface at the cutting part.—Journal of Science, xvi. 155. PURPLE TINT OF PLATE GLASS AFFECTED BY LIGHT. “It is well known,” Mr. Faraday remarks, “ that certain pieces of plate glass acquire, by degrees, a purple tinge, and ultimately become of a comparatively deep colour. The change is known to be gradual, but yet so rapid as easily to be observed in the course of two or three years. Much of the plate glass which was put a few years back into some of the houses in Bridge-street, Blackfriars, though at first co- lourless, has now acquired a violet or purple colour. Wish- ing to ascertain whether the sun’s rays had any influence in producing this change, the following experiment was made: Three pieces of glass were selected, which were judged ca- pable 318 Change of Fat in Perkins’s Engine, by Water, Heat, §c. pable of exhibiting this change; one of them was of a slight violet tint, the other two purple or pinkish, but the tint scarcely perceptible except by looking at the edges. They were each brokeni nto two pieces; three of the pieces were ‘then wrapped up in paper and set aside in a dark place, and the corresponding pieces were exposed to air and sunshine. This was done in January last, and the middle of this month (September) they were examined. The pieces that were put away from light seemed to have undergone no change; those that were exposed to the sunbeams had increased in colour considerably; the two paler ones the most, and that to such a degree, that it would hardly have been supposed they had once formed part of the same pieces of glass as those which had-been set aside. Thus it appears that the sun’s rays can exert chemical powers even on such a compact body and per- manent compound as glass.” CHANGE OF FAT IN PERKINS’S ENGINE BY WATER, HEAT, AND PRESSURE. Mr. Perkins uses in his steam cylinder a mixture of about equal parts of Russia tallow and olive oil to lubricate the piston and diminish friction. This mixture is consequently exposed to the action of steam at considerable pressure and tempera- ture, and being carried on by the steam, it is found in the water, giving rise to peculiar appearances. The following is Mr. Faraday’s account of it. The original mixture is solid at common temperatures, but fuses at about 85° Fah. When boiled in alcohol, a small portion dissolves. The water, as it issues from the end of the ejection-pipe into the tub placed to receive it, and from which it is pumped up again into the generator, appears white and translucent, and after having been used some time, very much resembles thin milk. A scum is found floating on it, which, when collected together, forms a soft solid, but when it has been long ex- posed to the action of the steam and at a high temperature, is hard like wax nearly. It is always black and dirty. A portion of this substance was digested in hot alcohol, and the clear solution set aside; flocculi separated in abundance from it on cooling, which, when dried, collected, and fused, gave a grayish substance, contracting and cracking as it cooled, with the lustre and appearance of wax, but rather more brittle. It does not melt in boiling water, but at a higher heat melts, and ultimately burns like fat. It is rather lighter than water; it dissolves readily in alkalies, more readily, I think, than fat, and in this respeet resembles Chevreul’s acids of fat, as well as List of Patents. 319 as in its solubility in alcohol; the alkaline solution is turbid. It is not soluble in ether, or very slightly so; when burnt it leaves an ash consisting principally of carbonate of lime. The cold alcoholic solution, on evaporation, left a sub- stance similar in many respects, but much softer, even fluid. It burnt in the same manner, leaving a slight ash of carbonate of lime. The merest trace of copper was found in these sub- stances. The action of the alcohol being continued, nothing at last remained but dirt and mechanical impurities. The softer portions from the surface of the water were found to contain a quantity of unchanged fat and oil. ‘The milky water, on examination, was found to be a mix- ture, probably, of this substance and water. It undergoes no change in appearance when left for many weeks ; but when filtered through good filtering paper, the latter portions came through clear and transparent, the altered fat being separated. When evaporated, it leaves a substance having all the pro- perties of the solid matter above described. The finely-divided state of the substance, its solidity, and its near approach to the specific gravity of water, will, perhaps, account for the length of time during which it will remain uniformly diffused through it.—Journal of Science, xvi. 172. LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To John Christie, of Mark-Lane, London, merchant, and Thomas Har- per, of Tamworth, Staffordshire, merchant, for their improved method of combining and using fuel in stoves, furnaces, boilers and steam-engines.— Dated 9th of October 1823.—2 months allowed to enrol specifications, To Joseph Rogerson Cottor, of Castle Magnor, near Mallow, in the county of Cork, for certain improvements on wind musical instruments. — 9th October.—6 months. y To John Henfrey, of Little Henry-street, Waterloo Road, Surry, engi- neer, and Augustus Applegath, of Duke-street, Stamford-street, Blackfriars, Surry, printer, fer certain machinery for casting types.—9th October.— 4 months. To Edward Schmidt Swaine, of Bucklersbury, London, (in consequence of a communication made to him by Frederick Adolphus Augustus Streeve, of Dresden, doctor of physic, and Edward Swaine, of Leipsig, merchant, on whose behalf he is pursuing the patent,) who is in possession of an invention for a method of producing and preserving artificial mineral waters, and for machinery to effect the same.—9th October.—6 months. To Sir William Congreve, of Cecil-street, Strand, Middlesex, baronet, for his various improvements in fire-works.—16th October.—6 months. To Archibald Buchanan, of Cathrine Cotton Works, one of the partners of the house of James Finlay and Company, merchants, in Glasgow, for his improvement in the construction of weaving looms impelled by machinery, whereby a greater quantity of cotton may be woven in a given time with- out injury to the fabric than by any application of power for that purpose heretofore employed.—16th October.—2 months. METEORO- Asya} Apnopg aun] Tey aulgy IIe] ci TE aul] ey Apnoj9 Ley AVSHAL ue eurq| Apnor fpnoj9 Mey aul] eq “wap ures ‘Apnoj[g meq Apnojo uley ud urex ‘eurg| Aramoyg aul} Aramoyg jw urex SAUIO}G ey -qurerta wd uerourg, AUTIOIG ureyy| Araaoyg our Mey aun kt Apnoj9 Urey aurg} Apno[9 aur] are] wd ured UT Tey ulezy Ries uIPy Urey uley uley auly Ie "med ures 29 [rey‘aury wey : aul ney ould wscte! “u0ysog ‘uopuo’'y “MAH LVS AA 108 (L601 (eL eee *NIVIY ‘rojouIOULIOY T,| JO IYSIOFT Lal —— mt “qsopaumng | — tt : | 24 eee 4) OP\LV\OP} O1-0€ | SZ-0€ |°** SV\OS|LP| $8.62 | VO-0€ |°"* 8Vi9S\SP| 06.62 | F0-0€ }""° ShiPSj0S} £0-0€ | S1-08 |""" OS/sSitS} £0.08 | $d-08 |**" GS\09'SS| 08-66 | 80-08 |°** $G\09|2S) St-6z) 04-66 |T OSISSIZP| 9Z-6% | 05-62 |T ZVIES|IV| €€-62| 69-66 jT THESIS) Ss-6z | 29.62 |T GPIPS|2P| 06-62 | 09-62 |1 GVIOS|OE| 06-62 | 0S-6z |T OF|PS|OF| S1-6a] 2f.6g }1 LV\SS\VP) ~—--6a| BE-62 |T OPC OF) SP-9z} OL.6z {1 LU\SV\ZP} €%-6% | ZV-6z | 1 SVISSI0G} SZ.6%} 19-62 {1 GS\O9|LP) 98.6%] SO.o¢ |°"* SP\19|9S| $9.62] V0.o¢ IT 85/09\8S| SS.6z | 88-62 |1 09)09|0S| $8.6z} OL-of |""" 0S|8S\0S} 0L.6z| S0.9¢ |" 6P/TSioF| 09.62} 16.62 1 OF|ZS\8E! $1.6z | 05.62 |T ZVIEV|OS! 08-82 | 88-gz |T LV\0S\0S) S1.6z| P£.6z |1 67|\LS\0F| P8-6z | 0.08 |" ZV\ES\0F| OL-6Z| 00-08 |" SP/8S\0S) £6.66] 16.62 |" 2S'99'09| 09-62 | 06-62 }""" last OO] ware 5 a Sieh wean cat |Z 5/Sle @ | “puoTy}s — =| ‘Noanory| “29 ‘soyouy |” UL ‘1ajaMIOTEg, fons ee ieee Eileen Mine Nien ian! —_ ai, oe CP 19 [Oa RS ee at hee SS reer eo atlas rea ge SAM{NUAT |e ae *“I)SO.LU a a =) cS) a Oo Ze saben T |I wD 3 As Z BEA 2 €=% Bp They do not therefore depend on the temperature 6, but are * Such cases I think could never under any circumstances whatever be subjected to experimental examination.—J. H. known M. Poisson on the Caloric of Gases and Vapours. 331 known for all pressures, when one of them has been deter- mined for one determinate pressure. Following MM. La- roche and Berard, we have c = ‘2669 for air under a pressure of "76, the specific heat of an equal weight of water being unity. Calling therefore P the pressure corresponding to the barometric height ”*76, we get eee 2609 —-b bs 3 from which we conclude generally Peis, c= (-2669)(>) 7; and the value of c, is deduced from that of ¢c by dividing the latter by &. Since the quantity / exceeds unity, the specific heat of a gramme of air, and generally of any gas whatever, will augment as the elastic force p diminishes. If we denote by m the quantity of caloric lost by a gramme of air, when its temperature is diminished n degrees, we shall have the pressure p remaining constant, , Py 1-2 m = n (*2669) ry) . For an equal volume, the temperature being invariable, the weight will be 2 grammes, when the pressure becomes ‘h. Calling therefore m’ the loss of caloric of this other volume for the same diminution of temperature, we get me ne (-2669) G) Te from which we conclude mm ftr\t* ne N Cor We (7) for the ratio of the quantities of caloric lost by the same vo- lume of air under different pressures. § II. The formule (6) and (7) are extracted from the 12th book of the Mécanique Céleste. M. Laplace has also extend- ed the former to aqueous vapour. For this purpose he sup- poses, first, that when a gramme of vapour is formed, and neither augmented by more vapour nor diminished by conden- sation, the ratio of its specific caloric under a constant pressure to its specific caloric under a constant volume is invariable; second- ly, that the quantity of caloric necessary to elevate the tempera- * M. Poisson’s formula (7) must be regarded as a mere theoretical con- clusion unsupported and even unsanctioned as to numbers by experiments. It is directly at variance with what I have shown, Phil. Mag. vol. xii. p. 138, follows from M. Laplace’s views. What makes it more curious, it is La- lace’s own conclusion. Such is the unfortunate inconsistency which fol- ows from the doctrine of caloric even in the hands of such men as Laplace and Poisson.—J. H. © 2 ture 332 M. Poisson on the Caloric.of Gases and Vapours. _ ture any number of degrees, is proportional to this number, the pressure being constant. This being admitted, if we call C the caloric required to reduce a gramme of water at zero into vapour at 100° and with an elasticity of ”°76 ; Q the caloric necessary to vaporise this same gramme of water and give it a temperature 9, under any pressure p; y the same specific caloric of the aqueous vapour under the pressure ”*76; and finally, if we substitute in equation (6) the barometric altitude h for the pressure p, which it measures, this formula will give Q=C when A=”°76 and 6=100°, and a=y when h=”™°76. Determining then in consequence the two arbitrary constants which it contains, it becomes Q=C+y{ (26667+4) (—*) F —36667} (8) It would be desirable that the accuracy of this formula should be verified by experiment, and the constants C, y, and & de- termined with precision. If we put unity for the specific heat of a gramme of water, or for the quantity of heat necessary to raise its temperature 1°, we shall have C=650 very nearly, by taking the mean of the values found for this quantity by different philosophers. Following MM. Laroche and Berard, we shall likewise have =°847. Indeed they have not given this value of y with much confidence; but there is reason to believe it is not far from truth, and we shall therefore adopt it until it be modi- fied by other observations. With respect to the value of / we know of no direct observations by which it can be deter- mined ; but an important remark which many philosophers, and particularly MM. Clement and Désormes, have made will enable us to approximate to it. ; According to this remark, when a space is saturated with vapour, the quantity of caloric contained in each gramme is sensibly the same whatever be the temperature; so that if for § in the value of Q we put successively different temperatures, and substitute at the same time for / the corresponding maxi- mum tensions of the vapour, Q will be constant or nearly the same in each case. When §=100°, the maximum tension, h=”-76, which numbers substituted for 6 and 2 in the value of Q render the coefficient of y nearly=0. Consequently de- noting by H instead of 4 the maximum tension of any tem- perature 4, this coefficient of y must still be nearly=0, what- ever be the value of #. Hence the following approximate equa- tion : mM. esl (266°67+8) (=") = 36667=0; (9) from M. Poisson on the Caloric of Gases and Vapours. 333 from which we may determine & by giving to # any value for which the corresponding one of H has been settled by obser- vation. For example, by the table of M. Biot’s Traité de Physique, tome 1, p. 531, deduced from the experiments of M. Dalton, H=”-088742 when 6=50°; and therefore the preceding equation gives "=" ="0688 and k=1°073. By employing values of H corresponding to other values of 6 comprised between 0° and 100°, the value of & will scarcely differ from the preceding by a hundredth at most, or a two hundyedth at least. We shall therefore retain this value of k, to which joining the preceding values of C and y our for- mula (8) becomes Q=6504(°847) § (266°67-+0)(—22) spear} (10) The application of this formula to temperatures far distant from 100° shows us that the quantity Q varies but very little in the case of saturation or when H=A. For §=0°, we have H=5-059; whence Q=658. For § =— 19°°59 M. Gay- mm Lussac has found H=1°3718; whence Q= 662. When §=140° many philosophers agree in giving to H nearly four times its value at 100°, or four times ”*76; whence we get Q=653. Again, M. Christian makes H nearly twice the last value or eight times "76 when §=170°; from which Q comes out 661. These values of Q, as we perceive, differ but very little among themselves, though they have ranged over a tem- perature of nearly 200°, and a tension of vapours from almost nothing to eight atmospheres*. ‘This result shows that / in the case of aqueous vapour is but very little greater than unity; but we cannot, as we have shown above, suppose it precisely equal to unity. We should not forget that Q is not sensibly con- stant unless when the tension or vapour isamaximum. When * The evidence in favour of his formula which M. Poisson here adduces in the supposed constancy of Q is illusive. It all results from the high value which Q happens to have. Where would have been the evidence had Q happened to have a much less value ? for instance, a value of about 3 or 4 or even 10!! Did probability belong to the views producing this theorem, the coefficient of + being once nearly =0 should deviate but very little from it. Its different values even under the range of temperature M. Poisson mentions, have ratios from nothing to infinity. A greater proof of the propriety and justice of my objections cannot be adduced than in the very erroneous values of the tension H immediately following. No- thing, it appears to me, can be a stronger argument of the insufficiency of a theory, than the same formula in one instance coming up nearly to obser- vations, and in another instance closely connected running almost in di- rect opposition to them,—J. H. the 334 M. Poisson on the Caloric of Gases and Vapours. the space is not completely saturated, Q, as given by equa- tion (10), will vary more with the variations of / and 6. ‘The specific heat of vapour depends simply on / ; for denoting this heat by c we have m. 0683 c= "847 (=) Dividing this by & or 1:073, we have the specific heat under a constant volume. By means of the value of 4 we draw from equation (9) ” 266°67+46\ 14°65 Figs. 76 ‘ees ee. If this equation was correct, that is, if Q was rigorously constant in the case of saturation, this formula would express in this same case the tension of the vapour in terms of the temperature; but though Q varies so little, the preceding value of H wanders in high pressures far too much from ob- servations, Thus when 6=170° H comes out 13 atmospheres instead of 8; nor does the formula represent observations but imperfectly in temperatures beneath 100°*. Whether the vapour be at a maximum or not, equation (1), which is equally applicable to vapours and gases, will always — give the density p of the vapour when the temperature 4 and tension / are known. Therefore calling D the density of the vapour at 100° and under the pressure of ”*76, we obtain D h 866°67 P= "6 260-67 LE The weight of a litre+ of dry air at the temperature of 100° and pressure of ”*76 is equal to £945; and the weight ofa litre of vapour 3 of it or £59. Consequently the weight of a volume v of yapour at the temperature 4 and tension / will be vh 187-233 mG 266-6746 * . the unity volume being the litre. Then calling V the quan- * In the Annals of Philosophy for December 1821, I have given a theorem which represents experiments within about 2 inches of pressure from 32° to 312° of Fahrenheit, and comprehending a tension from 1-5th inch to 167 inches, or upwards of 5 atmospheres. It indeed seems to agree with the observaticns much better than they agree with each other. In fact, I am inclined to doubt the correctness of Dr. Ure’s experiments in the higher temperatures. From the manner in which he made them, I think the va- pour of the mercury must have had considerable influence in augmenting the apparent tensions. Probably Mr. P. Taylor’s, in the Phil. Mag., vol. ix. page 452, are nearer the truth, though his not describing the manner of his operating * prevents us from using them with that confidence to which they are very likely entitled.—J, H. + 61:028 cubic inches, or 2:113 pints. * Weregret that Mr. P. Taylor’s absence from home, and pressing engagements, have as yet prevented his communicating through our pages an account of his ap- paratus. Several of the most eminent men of science both of our own and other countries have examined it.—Eprr. tity M. Poisson on the Caloric of Gases and Vapours. 335 tity of heat necessary to form this quantity of vapour, the water being first at zero temperature, V will be the product of this number of grammes and the quantity Q, given by (10); so that we shall have h v 187°33 V= 76 2660740 e The unity to which V has respect is the quantity of heat necessary to elevate the temperature of a gramme of water one degree, which, as we know, is 75 times that requisite to liquefy a gramme of ice at zero. Consequently, if we assume this last quantity to be the unity of heat, we must multiply the above value for V by 75. In steam engines, in which this fluid is employed in a state of saturation, Q does not sensibly vary: the ratio of V to h, or of the quantity of heat usefully employed in pressure on the piston, is then, all other things being alike, reciprocally as 266°67+0. The higher the temperature 4, therefore, of the vapour, the less will be this ratio; and consequently the ex- panse of heat will increase less rapidly than the force produced. But the economy which thus results in favour of high pressure engines is far inferior to that which experience seems to indi- cate; and it is in a less waste of heat, or in other circumstances relative to their construction, that we must look for an expli- cation of the advantage which they present. § III. Let us suppose that we have two different gases of the same temperature @ and elasticity p; and whose volumes are vand v. Were they now put one on the other in a closed vessel of the capacity v+v’ it is plain they could preserve an equilibrium, because the temperature is the same and the mu- tual pressures are equal; but this equilibrium would not be stable. Experience proves that these gases would gradually penetrate each other until they are completely intermixed. It further shows that during this operation heat is neither evolved nor absorbed ; so that os a certain time the mixture is per- fectly homogeneous ; the two gases holding the same propor- tion in every part, and the temperature and pressure being 4 and p. From these facts, established by observation, we may deduce another equally well verified by experience. , If two gases mixed together at the temperature 4 fill a vo- lume v; and if p, p’ denote the pressures they would sepa- rately exert, separately occupying the same volume », at the same temperature 6, the pressure of the mixture will be p+p’. In effect, let us suppose that the two gases at first are distinct, and let p’7p; then dilating the gas under the pressure p’ until p changes to p, its volume will become vp ?? provided 336 M. Poisson on the Caloric of Gases and Vapours. provided the same temperature # has been preserved. Placing the two gases now one on the other, their united volume is ot" or © (ptp’). These gases, acccrding to what we have said above, will equal- ly intermix without changing their temperature or common pressure p. Now by Marriotte’s law, which is as true of mixed as of simple gases, if we compress the mixture without changing its temperature until its volume Mined, becomes v, its pressure p will become p+ ’, the same as we had to prove. Equally good would the principle hold with three or more gases, or with a mixture of gases and vapour ; in all cases the united pressure will be equal to the sum of all the pressures which the gases or vapours would singly exert, when separately occupying the same volume v at the same temperature 4. It may be seen in the 12th book of the Mécanique Céleste how M. Laplace has deduced this principle from the hypotheses he has made on the caloric and radiation of the gases; we simply propose to exhibit its connexion with another fact which we first announced. Let 7 and 7’ be the number of grammes of two different gases mixed together at the temperature § under a pressure p and filling a volume v; and let c, c’ denote the specific heats of a gramme of these gases under an invariable pressure p, and c” the specific heat of a gramme of the mixture under the same pressure. ‘Then will (n+n') c’=nc+n'e (11) For if we suppose the two gases instead of being mixed merely superposed, so that under the temperature @ and pressure p of the mixture they occupy separate portions wv and w’ of the total volume v; then, by what we have said above, the quantity of heat will be the same in the two gases thus placed as in the perfect mixture of them. This equality will moreover subsist if we augment by one degree the temperatures of the mixture and of the gases. Now to make this augmentation we must communicate a new quantity (7+47’) c” of heat to the mixture, and the quantities c, m’ c’ to the two gases. The first there- fore must be equal to the sum of the other two, which is equa- tion (11)—an equation that may be easily extended to the mixture of any number whatever of gases and vapours. It will give the specific heat of any mixture when that of each of the component gases or vapours is known; and reciprocally we may employ it to find the specific heat of either of the com- ponent gases when those of the others and of the mixture are known. M. Poisson on the Caloric of Gases and Vapours. 337 known. Thus MM. Laroche and Berard having determined the specific heat of air mixed with vapour at the temperature 39° and pressure ”*76, and moreover knowing the number of grammes of dry air and vapour contained in the mixture, as well as the specific heat of dry air under the same pressure ”*76, have been able to draw from it the specific heat of vapour at the whole pressure ”*76, and not at the particular tension of the vapour, a case which they have left undecided, Annales de Chimie, tome 85, p. 132. This specific heat of vapour is the value of y, which we have used in the preceding article*. Our equation (11) will still hold, if for the specific heats c, ¢, c’, under a constant pressure we substitute the specific heats corresponding under a constant volume. For instance, calling these latter c, c/, c/’ we shall have (n+n') c/=nc,+N c,. Let &, i’, k’’ be the several ratios of ¢ toc, c’ to c/, c” to ¢,”, so that c=hc, =k c/, c’=k" c,’, then from equation (11) and the preceding we conclude gates kon kc! | me plaice avert? or if the ratios /, / are unequal, the quantities c, c/ will, ac- cording to what we have said in § I., be different powers of the pressure p; from which it results that the ratio 4” will not be independent of p. Thus the ratio of the two specific heats for a constant pressure and volume of the same simple gas being supposed invariable, but different in different gases, can- not be invariable in a mixture of two of more simple gases, or simple gases and vapours. If this ratio has appeared con- stant in the experiments on atmospheric air of different pres- sures, it is because the values of the specific heats for the two component gases oxygen and azote are sensibly the same+. * I cannot satisfy myself of the degree of confidence to be attached to the experiments of MM. Laroche and Berard. Calculations from the in- fluence of currents of air do not impress me with the idea that such me- thods are susceptible of much accuracy. Besides, it certainly seems to be ad- verse to the theory of caloric itself, that so rarefied and expanded a body as vapour should have a less specific heat than its generating water ; which is the case in the above philosopher’s results. Crawford’s method is much more simple and direct, and brings out results more favourable to caloric. —J. H. + M. Poisson seems here to think the atmosphere a mere mechanical mixture of oxygen and azote. Were this the case, the proportion of these elements would scarcely be so uniformly the same in all parts of the at- mosphere as philosophers tell us it is. But Mr. Harrop’s experiments, namely, that nitrogen confined over water absorbs from it just as much and no more oxygen than is sufficient to make atmospheric air, appear to put it beyond a doubt that the atmosphere is a chemical compound, though perhaps but a weak one.—J. H. Vol. 62. No. 307. Nov. 1523. Uu Supposing 338 Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. Supposing this ratio constant for vapour as well as for dry air, its value is very different in the two fluids, and cannot there- fore be constant in moist air, particularly if the vapour in the air be considerable. Hence the formule we have given in § L, being founded on the invariability of the ratio in ques- tion, will not apply at the same time to simple gases and mix- tures of gases and vapours. Addition to the preceding Memoir by M. Potsson. During the printing of this memoir M. Clement has com- municated to me the result of a new experiment on the tem- perature of vapour under a very high pressure. According to this experiment, the pressure of aqueous vapour, in the state of saturation at the temperature of 215° centigrade, is 35 atmospheres. From these data equation (10) gives Q— 659; so that the invariability of the quantity Q appears still to hold good very nearly under this high temperature. Never- theless, we cannot suppose that the caloric Q is rigorously in- variable; for, were this the case, our equation (9) would bring out 54 atmospheres for the maximum pressure of vapour at 215°, whereas experiment gives only 35 atmospheres. LXVIII. Quadrature of the Circle; and Proportion of the Diameter to the Circumference; containing some Observations on its Perimeter and Area, tending to demonstrate the utter Impossibility of ever obtaining a perfect Solution of these de- lusive Problems: together with the true and ONLY Cause of the constant Failure of all Attempts to effect it. To which is added, a simple and easy Process of estimating the most use- Jul Properties of the Sphere &c. in Mensuration. By Mr. Joun Syarr.* Lo the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. CONSIDERING the sterling talents and very high capa- _ bilities of many of the speculators on these mathematical desiderata, it is truly astonishing that none of them ever appear to have penetrated the true cause of their continual disappointment; but, as if they were fully persuaded of the entire practicability of the thing, they have all confidently per- severed to obtain a still nearer and nearer approximation, * Communicated by the Author, (which Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. 339 (which could never terminate) until the inscribed and in- scribing polygons have been augmented to half a million of sides to lessen their differences. And by the tangent of 30 degrees, or by constantly bisecting the arc, the decimals have been wrought out to 128 places of figures! (a number far too great, either to be used or appreciated), without coming to a conclusion. For still the Utopian phantom, like the * Cube’s Duplicature,” has always eluded their most sanguine grasp, although the imperial largess of Charles the Fifth tempted their efforts with a bait of a hundred thousand crowns! And the States of Holland, at a respectful distance followed the Em- peror’s example. The last of these elaborate operations was that of De Lagny, a late mathematician of France, and is one of the many proofs in Nature, that great learning is not always competent, nor needful, to explain simple matters ; for had he been less erudite, he might probably by dint of reason alone, have hit upon, at least the negation of, that plain matter of - fact at once, by seeing its impracticability. Instead of which, his very scientific process only tends to seduce himself and others into the unfathomable abyss of infinity. And yet reflection must needs tell all who use it, that by continually bisecting and comparing the inscribing and in- scribed polygons, we only increase the approximation, and with it the difficulties: because by bringing them nearer to equality, we do but remove the decimal-differences further off from the separatrix. And then, as every finite number must bear some proportion to every other finite number, it is but a sophistication of science to expect a perfeet conclusion to a process which so obviously leads deeper and more deep at every step, until thought itself is lost and bewildered in the impalpable mazes of infinitely approximating decimals, without even the forlorn relief of a c7rculate, or the delusive ground of hope, that a nonary instead of a decary scale might effect our object and enable us to mensurate the circle! Descending therefore from these sublime heights, let us seek the truth of the matter in the more humble paths of arithmetic. Analysing first the functions of those powers with which we would make the comparison. There are one or two properties of figures, in mensuration, which though not latent, are notwithstanding pretty much overlooked. ‘That in the first power is this: The, first, second and third powers of numbers are not only lineal, superficial and solid, but they are RECTILINEAR also, in their operations ! And unless the integrity of this (and another) essential feature be preserved se ialda they cannot produce their plenary Uu2 effect, 340 Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. effect. Consequently they can know oe (until qualified) about bent, circular, or curved lines, superficies nor convex solids, such as the perimeters, surfaces and cubic contents of spherical bodies. And as this matter seems heretofore either to have been totally unnoticed or forgotten, perhaps the reader will pardon even a mechanical demonstration of this sine qua non, which may be given by placing any number of slender rods of known and uniform dimensions endwise in a row; letting each be an inch, a foot, &c. long. Suppose, for example, nine such of a foot long were to be taken; it is very evident that, if placed in a straicur line, they would extend nine feet, as indicated by the fist power of figures; but should any bend, curve, or angular deflection arise in placing them, it is equally plain that they would fall short of their proper extension, and that the said discrepancy must be proportioned to their aber- ration from the right line. And if numbers were alike sub- ject to these tortuosities, heir conclusions would be equally indefinite and defective; 7.e. unless their indications have a plenary effect, by operating in srrarcur lines, their assump- tions cannot be ¢rwe! But it is very obvious that figures, as symbols, of whatever they be made the representatives, must be true; indeed they are the very and ultimate tests of, truth itself! And in this case they would be considered as unities of length, or lineal measure, and therefore the measured nine feet must accord with the numeral nine feet, or concede the point of infallibility to figures, whose first power it is pre- sumed is herein satisfactorily identified and demonstrated. And with this rectilineal power, it is that the men- suration of the perimeter of the circle has had to do; a power which is to- tally incompetent to take cognisance of bent or curved lines, which the segment S of the circle would be if the chords thereof were extended to a thousand millions! (see fig. 1.) and as we have just seen that figures can know nothing but straight lines ; these mathematicians measured only the polygon, but not the circle! The second power of figures, which must also be justified by | Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. 341 by the test of numbers, not only generates an area, or super- ficies; but, to produce a plenary effect, as indicated by mul- tiplication, must be rectangular as well as rectilineal, or else the superficies so generated would be defective in the propor- tion of such aberration from the rectangle; and instead of producing 81 tetragons (fig. 2.), by squaring the nine, we should obtain but 81 lozenges or rhombi (fig. 3,), each of which would be minus in proportion to the deflection from the right angle; and which, if the declension were carried to 60 degrees from the perpendicular, would sacrifice half the surface, as in fig. 4, producing only 40°5, although the peri- meter of the rhombus (fig. 3), whose two segments generated it, was equal to the tetragon (fig. 2). For when that rhombus is bisected in the perpendicular aa, and united by the diago- nal bd, it forms the diminished parallelogram (fig. 4.) Q.E.D. The third, or cubic power of figures, is a compound of the first and second modes, and therefore so similar (indeed iden- tical) in its rectangular operation, that it is almost superfluous to say any thing about it; as those who are convinced of the sufficiency of the former arguments will scarcely withhold their assent to the latter. For although 729 cubes arise from the primitive root (as 9x 9x9=729) when the operations have had their plenary or numerical effect, yet if the third power of the same root in figures could be alike deflected from the perpendicular, and applied to the oblique angled parallelogram or rhombus above spoken of, the solid pro- duct would be only 729 parallelopipeda, oblique in all their angles, and whose whole cubic content, therefore, would be but 182-25 solid feet (=729~4). In which erroneous opera- tion the loss would be no less than 3-4ths of the whole solid mass. But the integrity of figures cannot be so grossly vitiated, nor is it presumed that their misapplication, in the mensura~ tion of the circle, has been so glaring as the possibilities sup- posed in this extreme case: but that their indispensable pro- perties have been invaded and violated, and incompatibilities expected from them, by all those who sou ht either to men- surate or quadrate the circle to perfection by either of their two first powers, is quite plain——And that they did expect to 342 Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. to arrive at perfection, is pretty evident, or else they would scarcely have carried the solution to so useless an extent. Indeed Van-eick, the Dutch mathematician, declared that he absolutely had effected it; and pertinaciously insisted on the correctness of his construction ; ; and had it not been for the acumen of his cotemporaries in science, who were not so easily convinced, he, without benefiting the world in the least, might have Fates himself master of the Imperial douceur, or 100,000 crowns promised by the Emperor Charles the Fifth! as well as the premium offered by the States of Hol- land. However, the imperial and princely bounties were both withheld, as unavailing to procure zmposszbilities, and since that time some mathematician has declared the thing “ impracticable, because the proportion is a surd number.” But thinking an ipse dixit, without proof, insufficient to put a stop to this “Utopian labour, I have attempted in the simplest manner to demonstrate why it is a surd number. How well I have succeeded, must be left to a learned and dispassionate public to determine. However, to make the matter more in- teresting, I beg leave to subjoin a few words on the nature of the circle, Seal its measure, as derived from the various polygons. The difference between the perimeter of the hexagon (each of whose six sides is equal to radius) and that of the circle as derived from the sines and tangents of every second of some portion of the quadrant (=to a polygon of 1.296,000 sides; or, if taken from the sznes, which are always equal to half the chords of double the arcs, = to a polygon of 648,000 sides) is but a trifle less than a twenty-second part of the whole circumference thereof, being 16°225323 degrees = 16° 13’ 31" 09" 46"" 04” 48"".. A difference of nearly one- seventh of the whole diameter, and which difference subtracted from 360° 00’ 00” 00” 00” 00'” 00’”” as measured on the arc, leaves for the triple diameter, or perimeter of the hexagon = 343°774677° = 343° 46’ 28” 50” 13’ 55”" 12”"”" of the arc. Divided by 6, for length of radius on ditto 57:2957795°=57° 17! 44" 48” 22" 19" 19""" of the arc. Length of diameter on ditto 114°591559° = 114° 35’ 29" 36” 44" 38" 34" of the arc. The length of the radius (=to the chord of 60 degrees) as herein measured upon the arc of the circle, is the quotient arising from dividing 180 degrees by. 3°141592653, being a competent part of the great series of 128 figures, or the cir- cumference of a circle whose diameter is one, as derived from a polygon so augmented in the number of its sides as to vie with the circle itself. The other proportions are multiples of that radius ded an Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. 343 and 6, and whose differences are therefore found by subtracting them from 360 degrees. Then, as the area of any circle is found by multiplying half the circumference (in this case = 1-570796325) by half the diame- ter (=*5) we obtain *7853981625 for area of such circle, whose VW (="886226925) squared is *785398162594955625, which product may be called a quadrature of the circle, as being a square, whose area is so nearly equivalent thereto, that it is perfect up to the 1000 millionth place of figures. And as the thing cannot be done to absolute perfection, discretion must always adjudge the proper maximum of approximation thereto, which may be exemplified by the following Scholium. As it has been demonstrated that the circumference of the circle can only be mensurated by the sum of the sides and the differences of its greatest inscribing and inscribed poly- gons; so, if those of the inscribed hewagon were to be taken, the perimeter would be exactly the same as the triple diame- ter; because each of the six sides thereof is equal to radius, or half the diameter. Therefore sweeping the outer circle circumscribing the hexagon (fig. 1), any right line from the centre to the circumference may be taken for radius; then, without going into abstrusities, we may easily demonstrate, by the extraction of the square root only, any augmentation of the polygon we please; all of whose sides being rectilineal are completely mensurable. Thus, Let radius of the circle, and of the hexagon (either of whose sides, is =60° at the centre), be 1. The sine of half the arc will then be -5 (=sine 30°), the square of which (=-25) sub- tracted (by 47th 1st Euclid) from 1- (the square of 1?) 975; V 8660254 (=cosine 30°)—1-0000000 =-1339746 =versed sine 30°=depth of segment cut off by the chord of any hexa- gon inscribed in a circle whose radius is one. But if the segments cut off by so simple a figure as that of the hexagon, be too great to produce any similitude between that figure and the circle, they become lessened by every aug- mentation of the number of the sides, until approximation takes place. Therefore, bisecting the above figure through- out, the dodecagon is produced ; each of whose 12 sides makes an angle with the centre of 30°. Then, as before. If from the square of radius (1+) be subducted the square of the sine of half the are (or 15°)=-0669873, we obtain "9330127, W 9659258 (=cosine 15°)—1:0000000 =:0340742= versed sine 15°=depth of segment cut off by the chord of any do- decagon inscribed in a circle whose radius is one. Thus, 344 Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. Thus, by continual bisections, the sides of the polygon may be so augmented as to vie with the perimeter of the ezrcle 7t- self; because the segments are lessened in the same ratio that the number of sides is increased; but still the smallest por- tions of an arc will eternally be curves, while the chords of the polygon will as constantly be straight lines, and which curves can never be assimilated with a polygon of any definite number of sides whatever. And had it not been for the sake of the collateral branches of science, the mechanic might as well have found this approximat- ing proportion between the circumference and the diameter, as the mathematician, at least as far as wse goes, merely by rolling a cylinder of a competent diameter (having a strong spring with a knife edge sunk in, but forcing outward) over a true plane of hard surface, when one revolution would have im- printed a lineal distance between the two light incisions made by the knife’s edge to as great a nicety as any wse could re- quire, which would have done the thing at once, without deduc- tion; because the cylinder and plane would have been in per- fect contact the whole time. But in this enlightened age, and after the thing is done so well, it would be Gothic indeed to think of superseding mathematics by a rolling stone. Therefore, for the benefit of those who are unacquainted with the nature of decimals, and yet have frequent occasion to appreciate these proportions, perhaps a simple modifica- tion of the process may be acceptable; especially as it re- quires no previous science beyond that of the most common school arithmetic, and yet is perfect up to the tenths of mil- lionths, or seventh place of figures. The circumference of the circle (as shown by the 128 de- cimals) being about + of twice the radius more than the triple diameter, may conveniently enough be found by persons of limited arithmetic, by multiplying the given diameter by the very low and comprehensible vulgar fraction of 34% to pro- duce the cércumference, which simple fraction will be found much nearer to the truth than the usual decimai factor 3°1416. Insomuch that the circumference of the earth (taking its dia- meter at 7964 miles) is found by this process to be 25019573, miles =25019°6460, which is nearer the truth of the 128 de- cimal figures than that given by the usual decimal factor 3°1416 (which gives 25019-7024 miles). This extreme test of the proposed vulgar fraction is a proof that the numerator 16 may safely be used by such unqualified persons as a constant multiplier for any accidental diameter ; while the denominator 113 is equally correct for the uniform divisor of such multiplied numerator as shall be required by the occasional diameter. The ” ee Urs t i. : ssa, sek tice hl aii. 5, Wineis-< -» adcmmenremmaninendirnidnih aetilmeatle Mr. J. Snart on the Quadrature of the Circle. 345 The proportion of the area of the circle, to that of a tetra- gon, or square whose side or root is equal to that of the cir- cle’s diameter, though not so simple, may notwithstanding be worth the notice of those to whom it is addressed. Its area being 3227 of that of the square, that is, as 3927 is to 5000, or nearly 41ths. So that when any diameter is squared and multiplied by eleven, the quotient arising from dividing such product by 14 will be but a trifle more than the true area of the circle as found by the quadrating factor *7854. The proportion of the sphere’s solidity in comparison with that of a cube, whose side or root is equal to the diameter of such sphere, and whose decimal expression of solidity is °5236 or 5256 may as well be expressed, for common use, by the equivalent vulgar fraction 3322, or nearly so, by the very low fraction of 34; or as 11 is to 21:: the solidity of the sphere to that of the cube. 1 Therefore, when any diameter is cubed, or twice involved by its own root, and that product multiplied by 11, the quo-: tient arising from dividing the latter product by 21 will be but a trifle more than that found by the decimal mede. ‘Thus 2x2x2x11+21=4°190 instead of 4°1888. That is, by either mode, the solidity of the sphere is but little more than half that of the cube of the same depth or thickness. The superficies of any sphere is always equal to four times the area of one great circle thereof, and is therefore found by multiplying those areas by 4, or by squaring the diameter and multiplying the product thereof by 37,5. Thus, 8 x8 x 345,=201;2, (=201°06195+ by the decr- mal process) = the superficies of a sphere whose diameter is 8. And 12 x12 x32%=4524% (=452°38938+ by the de- cimal process) = the superficies of a sphere whose diameter is 12. N.B. The numbers indicate the same kind of measure as those in which the diameters were first taken, whether feet, inches, or whatever. How far these little matters may be called discoveries, in this enlightened age, when it is difficult to produce any thing new, or show any thing that has not been done by others, is a hard matter even for the author himself to determine, unless he were acquainted with all that others have done. I shall therefore claim no merit beyond that of an unpirated attempt to inform those who most need it, and therefore delivered in terms best suited to their capacities. I remain yours, &c. 215 Tooley-street, Oct. 13, 1823. JOHN SNART. Vol. 62. No. 307. Nov, 1823. : LXIX,. 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Derivative Analysis ; being a new and more comprehensive Method of the Transformation of Functions than any hitherto discovered: extending not only to the Extraction of the Roots of Equations, but also to the Reduction of Quantities from the Multiples of Powers or Products to other equivalent Ex- pressions, by which the Summation of any rational Series may be readily effected. By Mr. Peter Nicuotson. 5 Claremont-place, Judd-street. : [Continued from p. 252.} 4 . B B, C2 Dz Ex. 7. IVIDE the series C+ — +. + $+ = +&e. (which is the quotient of the preceding example increased by the quantity C) by the binomial v—e (which is the same divisor as in the two preceding examples). Divisor. B B C; D, sat C+ — 4+ ~4+— 4+ —4+&e. | O*, v DF ae Ul ot Quotient C Cc B Co , D. C-— —+—24+—+ 4+ Ke. ; v v v. v v B: B. caer = » v B; eB3 y v2 GG ye v3 C3 eCs "copa ede D; 2 TALE RTE &e. By this operation we have the following derivative equa- tions, B, = eC C, = eB, + B, D, = eC, + C, &e. Problem. To divide a quantity by a new divisor at each step equal to that in the preceding step. Find the first part of the quotient and the remainder by the first divisor. Find the second part of the quotient and the second re- mainder by the second divisor. Proceed from step to step in this manner as far as may be judged necessary, always substituting at each step as directed. he several equations being tabulated, will show the law by which Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 349 which the coefficients of the quotient may be derived from each other. Examples. Ex. 1, Divide the quantities A by r—ad’=s—)’=t—c'= u—d &e. Operation. Divisors. Aye HO et red =s—Y =t—c =u—d'=Ke. A—2A Beye sao x t t I eh Base | ee en ee ; B, vB, ii eas C, 7s Cie Cc: 7s rst. D, rst &e. From the operation herewith executed we have the follow- ing derivative equations, viz. B,=aA C,=0’B, D,=¢C, &e. Ex.2. Divide B+ = + ay & +&c. (which is the quo- rs tient of the preceding example increased by the quantity B) by r—a"=s—b" =t—c'=u—d' Ke. Bo wht: Bile! a +&c.\"—¢ =s—b"=t—c’=u—d'=Xce. Tr rs rst B B, C. D, ta = a ene ns. a’ B rst rstu 7, 2 B, r rs By b6"Bz r rs Cy C, Ts rst C2 c'C; yt rst estos. ae ee Dz —+&c. rst &e. From 350 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. From the operation now executed we have the following derivative equations, B,=a’B+A &e. &c. Whence the law of derivation is obvious. bah : BeBe on Ce Ke De Ex. 3. Divide the series C + =+—=~ + Se = ee &e. (which is the quotient of the preceding example increased by the quantity C) by r—a"=s—b"=t—c"=u—d"=Ke. Divisor. Bj) Bet Gy. 8D r—a=s—b"=t—c"=u—d"= ae = = aS es ° Cr r 2m rs i rst + ate Quotient ; &ec. al’C Cc Bs C3 Ds Cra Pet eats am Bye rT. Ts B; vB; v; “Ih Ts C3 Cc, Ts rst C3 eC Ts rst Ds rst &e- From the operation now executed we have the following derivative equations B,=a’"C +B: C,= 0° BR, +B; &e. Let Avwr &e. + Bwr &c. + Cr &c. + D &e. + &c. be any function of w, and Av'w'z’ &c.+ B,v'w &c. + C,v' &c. + D, &e. +c. be another function of « equal to the former, then will B,=B +(v —v) A | C,=C +(w—v’)B, | Dx=D+(e—v)C, B,=B,t+(w—w)A | C,= C,4+(c¢—w’)B, &e. B,=B,+(2 —2’)A &e. & ' Ce And finally, let 2 be the greatest number of factors; and if a, be the difference between the mth factors of the first term of each series, 5, the difference between the 2— 1th factors in the second terms; and so on, then will Ba= Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 351 B, — Be, +a,A, C,= Cha F brBuas D,= Dix +en,Cn1 &e. For let v—v'=a,, ww =a, w—v=b,, @—U =A, t—W=),, c—V=C, &e. Then by transposition v= +4, w= w' +a,=v 43, v=w2 +a,=0'4+b,=v'+e, &e. (1) Now since A=A Multiply the first side of this equation by v, add B to the product and multiply the second side by v’+a, and add B to the product, and (2 _fAv+ B Av+B= ail (3) Let Av+B=Av'+B, Multiply the first side of this equation by w, add C to the product, and of the two terms on the second side multiply the first by w'+a,, the second by v'+d, and add C to the product, and (ay ct : Avo} BOPOL Av'w'+ Bw+ C +a,A v+0,B, 5) Let Avw+ Betce Av'w' + B,v' + C, Multiply the first side of this equation by x, add D to the product, and of the three terms on the second side multiply the first by 2’+a,, the second by w'+4,,. the third by v'+ce,, and add D to the product, and (6) ? _ fAowse'+ Byw+ Cw'+ D Avwrt+Bwr4+ Cr+ D= ia ee a PR cae. (7) Let Avwr+Bwr+Cr+D=Avw'r'+ Byo'w'+ Cyv'+ D, &e. &e. Now, by comparing the coefficients of the corresponding terms of the second sides of equations 2 and 8 will be found B 1 =B+a,A. And by comparing the coefficients of the corresponding term of the second sides of equations 4 and 5 will be found B,=B,+a,A, C,=C-+6,B,. ri n 352 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. . And by comparing the coefficients of the corresponding terms of the second sides of equations 6 and 7 will be found B,=B,+a,A, C= C,44,B,, Ds=D+c.C,. Let now v =uta, w =utdb, x =u-tc &e. Also let vJ=uta, w=ut+f, v’=ut+y ke. Then will a,=a—a, b,=b—a, cs=c—« a,=b—B, b,=c—B &e. a,=C—¥, &e. &e. Whence B,=B +(a—a)A C,=C +(s—«)B, | D,=D+(c—a)C, B,=B,+(5—A)A | C=C,+(c—A)B, | —&e. B,=B,4+(¢—y)A &e. &e. A very convenient form for the arithmetical operation is as follows : For a simple function, B (a—a) | B, For a quadratic function, (a—a) A | B,x(b—2)=Q, | C, (o—8, A 2 For a cubic function, ; B C D (a—a) A| B,x(6—2)=Q, | C,x(c—«)=R, | D, (b—6) A| B,x(c—B)=Q, | GC, (c—y)A | B, &e. Explanation. B +(a—z) gives B,, and B, x (b—a) gives Q,, C+Q, gives C, BHT oo B, 2.csbpxiecn) ct Oe Cols tere Ble —y) seeee B, &e. The rule thus exhibited may easily be expressed in words at length as follows : Place the coefficients of the given function in a horizontal line. From the first, second, third, &c. factors of the first term of the given function, subtract the first, second, third, &c. factors of the first term of the function of which the coeffi- cients are required each from each. : i Multiply the coefficient of the first term of the given func- tion by each of the differences, and write the products ina column under the second coefficient. Write ——— ss Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 353 - Write the successive sum of the coefficient of the second term of the given function and each product in another co- lumn on the right, and the last of these successive sums op- posite the last product is the coefficient of the second term of the transformed function. From the first, second, &c. factors of the second term of the given function subtract the first, second, &c. factors of the second term of the function of which the coefficients are required each from each. Multiply each of the successive sums by each of the dif- ferences of the factors of the second terms, and place the pro- ducts in a column under the coefficient of the third term of the given function. Write the successive sums of the coefficient of the third term and the products in a column on the right, and the last of these successive sums is the coefficient of the third term of the transformed function. Proceed in the same manner to the last coefficient, which being added to the product under it, the sum will be the abso- lute number of the transformed function. Transform the cubic function of binomial factors (w+5)(x—3)(a+2) + 3(a—3)(~+2)—5(a@+2)+6 into (x+3)(a+2)(v#—5)+B,(a+3)(v+2)+C(2+3)+D, 3 —5 6 4+3]+5: —3:42 42]+5x-—6=—30 carey ee ov y it tee Te —5| +0x+0=+ 0|—35=C, —5|4+2: +7 | +7=B, Whence “3 ne (a +5)(~—3)(x4+2)+3(c—3)(e4+2)— 5(a+2)+ 6 is trans- formed to (x+3)(x+2)(v1—5)+7(a+3)(e+2)—35(x +3)4+41 Transform (2 + 2)(7—3)(«+4)(7—2) in terms of the powers of x. That is, to transform (x+2)(a—3)(a+4)(a— 2) +0(2+3)(x+4)(v—2) + 0(x++4) (x—2)+0(a—2)+0 into (x +0)(v+0)(a+0((c+0)+B,(7+0)(x+0)(7+0) +C,(x +0) (+0) +(D,(2+0)+E, 0).42:-3: +4: 01] 3's pai 2 O| +4: —2: Oo| —2: * The differences above are found mentally, as 5 minus 3 is +2, and —3 minus 2 is —5, and 2 minus —5 is +7; these are the respective dif- ferences of the factors in the first terms. Again, —3 minus +3 is —7, and +2 minus +2 is 0; these are the differences of the factors of the se- cond terms. Again, +2 minus +3 is —1, which is the difference of the factors in the third term. Vol. 62. No. 307. Nov. 1823. Yy Sub- —2 354 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. | Subtract as many of the first column as are opposite to each of the other columns, from each of these other columns will give each respective column of differences. Here A=1, B=0, C=0 &c. 0 0 0 0 1x —3=—3|—1x +4=—4|/—10x —2=+420|— 4=D, 1x +4=44!143x —2=—6]—16=C; 1x —2=—2!+1=B! Whence (#+2)(c1—3)(x+4)(x—2) =21+ 2° — 162°—42448 | Transform 3(2+6)(x+1)(v+4)(v—3) into the series 32(2+1)(2+2)(0+8)+B,alet1)(+2)+Co(e+1)+D,e+ Es hp Ree ee ee ee 1x +2=42)4+2x —3=—- ‘|- 6x +4=—24|—24x —2=48 |48=E, 0} +6: +1: +4: —3 1} +1: +4: —-3: 2144: —-3: 3|—8: 0 0 0 0 3x +0=+ 0/18x+3=+4 54/4+72x —4= —288|—216=Ds 3x +2=4 6/24x —5=—120/—48=C, 3x —6=—18] 6=B, Whence 3(7+6)(2+1)(a +4)(a—3) is transformed to the series 32(a-+1)(242)(x+3)+6a(a+1)(a+2)—482(¢+1)—2162—216 Transform the series 521—2x3+5xz?—42-+6 into the series 5(a-+1)(2+2)(0-+8)(0-+4)+B(2+1)(e-+2)(e-+3)+C(e+1) (v+2)+D,(2+1)+E, 1 a aR ety Teves! Sema, we Re ge ON ae Pe i aot aT sd Ue 3x +6=+4+18]18x +1=+ ite d= 72\4+ 72x —3=—216| —216=E —2 +5 4 6 6x —l=— 5|/— 7xXx—1= 7| 12x—1=—12/— 16x —1=16|22=E, 5x —2=—10|/—17 x —2=34| 46x —2=—92|/—108=D: 5x —3=—15)—32 x —3=96]142=C: 5x —4=—20'—52 =B Whence 5a+—223+52?—42+6 is transformed to the series 5(a-+1)(e@+2)(2+3)(v+4)—52(a41)(7+2)(@+3)+142(@41) (~+2)—108(x+1)+22. Let it be required to transform the biquadratic function 24+323+ 247+ 427+5 to the form 2(2+ 1)(x7+2)(a7+3)+ B,x(@+1)(27+2) + Cy(v+1)+D,7+E,. Here A=0, B=3, C=?2, D=4, and E=5. M. Arfwedson’s Examination of certain Minerals. 355 3 2 + 5 0 3x—0= 0|2x—0=0/4x0=0|5 —1 2x —1=—2/0x—l1=0]| 4 —2} 0Ox—2= 0]0 B gfictag Therefore the proposed function is transformed to x(r+1)(a7+2)(v+3)—3x(@+1)(7+2)4+404 5; or more shortly expressed to x'l'—3z3l'+42+5; and conse- quently 24+ 32° + 22°4+49+5=a5'—3a'l'+4a 5. And hence, if 2 be considered as the number of the term of a series, and if v++3234+2r7+4x7+5 be considered as the = + 2x7l'-+ 52, or in full length ee = a(e+1)(e+ 2) (e+3)+2a(a+1)+5z. (To be continued.] t general term, the sum of xz terms will be = —3 LXXI. An Examination of certain Minerals. By Aucustus ARFWEDSON*. Cinnamon-stone of Maisjo. PEOFESSOR Berzelius, while on a mineralogical journey in Wermeland, in the summer of 1822, met with a garnet- like fossil, in the lime-quarry of Malsjo in the vicinity of Phi- lippstadt, which bore a great similarity in its external charac- ter to the cinnamon-stone of Ceylon, and likewise exhibited similar properties before the blowpipe. By the following ana- lytical examination, I hope to prove that both fossils, even in their component parts, strongly resemble each other. This stone is not affected by concentrated muriatic acid, at common temperatures at least; its adhering calcareous enve- lope is merely dissolved. 1,526 grammes of it, purified in this manner, reduced to powder, and afterwards levigated and dried, were mixed with thrice as much subcarbonate of potassa and exposed to a red-heat. The fused grayish-green mass was dis- solved in muriatic acid, and a portion of silica remained, which, after ignition, weighed 0,625 gram. (a). With the usual pre- caution, in order to prevent the alumina from redissolving, the solution was precipitated with caustic ammonia, after which the apparently ferriferous precipitate was placed on a filter, and * This paper was originally published in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, for 1822; it is given above from a Ger- man translation in Schweigger and Meinecke’s Neues Journal, band viii. Ds 1; Yy2 washed 356 M. Arfwedson’s Examination of certain Minerals. washed with boiling water. It was again dissolved in muriatic acid and caustic potassa added to excess: the precipitate be- came redissolved, and left oxide of iron behind, which, after exposure to a red-heat, weighed 0,067. On redissolving it in muriatic acid, it was found to contain 0,007 gram. (d) of silica; thus there remained 0,06 (c) for the oxide of iron. The alumina was separated from the alkaline fluid by mu- riatic acid and carbonate of ammonia, and weighed 0,321 gram. ‘This also left, after solution in sulphuric acid, 0,007 gram. (d) of silica. The quantity of alumina was therefore 0,314 gramm. (e) The fluid, precipitated with caustic ammonia, and then com- pletely neutralized by a few drops of muriatic acid, was treated with oxalate of ammonia, which separated oxalate of lime. This was well washed with warm water, exposed to a red-heat, mixed with a little carbonate of ammonia, and gently heated in order to drive off the excess of ammonia; in this manner 0,920 gram. of carbonate of lime were obtained, equivalent to 0,518 of pure lime (/). ; The liquid, freed from lime, was mixed with a sufficient portion of subcarbonate of potassa, and evaporated to dryness. This dried mass, after solution in water, left a substance be- hind, which, after being ignited, weighed 0,006 gram. and, upon trial, proved to be oxide of manganese with a trace of mag- nesia (2). A portion of this fossil coarsely powdered, and exposed to a red-heat in a platinum crucible, suffered no loss of weight. This fossil has therefore yielded, , Silicas(a) desis Wiese bastOs625 (D). castddes aes .24s L007 In 100 Parts. Oxygen. te) rédaizisen.teesiaOj007 0,639 41,87 21,06 Alumina (2): ass ses Soxazech 0,314 20557 9,06 [Briley Gglurrryrecery Be 0,518 33,94 9,53 Oxide of iron (c) ......... 0,060 3,93 1,20 Oxide of Manganese, ‘i 0,006 0,39 5 3 and Magnesia 1,537 100,70 From this it appears, that the proportion of oxygen in the silica is equal to that of the bases taken together; and that, besides this, the quantity of oxygen in the alumina and in the lime is equal; and is, in each of these bases, eight times as great as in the protoxide of iron. The formula, therefore, which expresses the composition of this fossil will stand thus, FS + pote = ae Se ee eee oe ek aa | M. Arfwedson’s Examination of certain Minerals. 357 FS+8 AS+8 CS. Klaproth’s analysis of the Ceylon cinna- mon-stone yielded, Silica .awsi« ces e0 vee, G858O Alenia, “250. ee 20 Pane 2 oes Oxide of iron.... 6,50 WULGS8rh a cop Sepctswee: 1 ORES This result indeed does not differ considerably from my own; but with regard to the smallest constituent part, viz. the oxide of iron, it gives an essentially different formula; for it becomes FS+4 CS+5 AS. It may be apprehended, that Klap- roth obtained too little, as well of the lime as of the alumina, because he separated the first by carbonate of soda, and the latter, from its solution in potassa, by muriate of ammonia. His formula may therefore be considerably faulty in this re- spect. I think there is reason to consider, from my analysis, that this fossil from Malsj6 is a real cinnamon-stone; until, at least, Klaproth’s analysis be repeated and its accuracy con- firmed. Brazilian Chrysoberyl. Our knowledge of the component parts of this mineral is derived from Klaproth’s analysis, according to which 100 parts are stated to contain, ATWMING ~ sscesaess A180 FAME is eiestevcsese 6,00 Oxide of iron, ... 1,50 Siliea. 22262 Aee0s284 8300 From a series of trials before the blowpipe, to which Profes- sor Berzelius has subjected most mineral productions, he sup- poses that this fossil cannot essentially contain lime, but that, according to all circumstances, chrysoberyl is a pure bisilicate of alumina. I am enabled to confirm this supposition by the analytical examination which I here communicate. Analysis. 0,214 gram. reduced to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and afterwards levigated, were mixed with a sufficient quantity of caustic potassa, and exposed to a red-heat ina silver cruci- ble. By an hour’s continued heat, I found the mass but half fused. It was then extracted from the crucible by water, and treated in the usual manner with muriatie acid, which left 0,238 gram. undissolved. This residue was again exposed to a red-heat with potassa, and dissolved in muriatic acid: the undissolved portion now weighed 0,137. After once more re- peating 358 M. Arfwedson’s Examination of certain Minerals. peating its ignition with potassa, the portion insoluble in mu- riatic acid was lessened to 0,108, which on trial was found to be pure silica* (a). All the solutions, together with the water used for edulco- rating the precipitates, were then precipitated with caustic am- monia in the least possible excess. The well-washed precipi- tate, after exposure to a red-heat, weighed 0,507 gram.; these were dissolved in sulphuric acid, leaving a residue of 0,007 gram. (5) of silica, and the solution gave a precipitate with caustic potassa, which was dissolved by adding more potassa, and only left a few unappreciable flakes of oxide of iron be- hind. That portion, therefore, which was dissolved in sul- phuric acid was alumina, the quantity of which, after deduct- ieee separated silica, amounts to 0,500 gram. (c). or the sake of certainty, the solution in caustic potassa was saturated with muriatic acid, until the precipitate became re- dissolved; after which carbonate of ammonia was added to great excess, but no glucina or magnesia could be discovered; and the filtered fluid remained perfectly clear even when boil- ing, and after the excess of ammonia had been expelled. The fluid, precipitated by caustic ammonia, was neutralized with muriatic acid, and mixed with a few drops of oxalate of ammonia; but after the lapse of twelve hours, not the least sign of turbidity appeared, and on boiling it with subcarbonate of potassa, no precipitate could be produced. 0,614 gramm. of this fossil have therefore yielded, Silica (a)... 0,108 In 100 Parts. (d) e+ 0,00 7ics0s00000--.0,1 15 18,73 Alumina (c) 0,500 81,43 0,615 100,16 18,73 parts of silica contain 9,42 of oxygen, and 81,43 parts of alumina contain 38,03; but 9,42 x4= 37,63; by this ratio the formula of chrysoberyl becomes A +S. Boracite from Liineburg. Professor Stromeyer mentions in Gilbert’s Annals, vol. xviii. p. 215, that he had found this mineral to be compounded of 67 boracic acid and $3 magnesia. As the analytical expe- riments of Professor Stromeyer have in general gained so just a confidence, one could not well doubt the correctness of _ * In order to convince myself that the silica I obtain in my experiments is pure, I am accustomed to dissolve it by fusion“in a good quantity of sub- carbonate of potassa. Ifthe mass dissolve in water without any residue, —_ it for granted, that the silica is not contaminated by any other earth. the j M. Arfwedson’s Examination of certain Minerals. 359 the above statement: but since we are still in want of his ac- count of the manner in which the analysis was performed, it is the more difficult to decide upon, because every method hitherto known of separating boracic acid from its combinations has but incompletely answered its object. From some experi- ments which I have made for the purpose of discovering the composition of boracic acid, by means of its capacity of satura- tion, I have found, that if a boracic salt, borax for instance, be mixed with from three to four times its weight of finely-pow- dered fluor-spar, free from silica, and a sufficient quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, and the mixture be evaporated to dryness and exposed to a red-heat, that in this manner the entire proportion of boracic acid may be expelled, in the form of fluo-boracic acid. If, after this, the quantity of the base is determined, then the composition of the salt is at the same time obtained *. This analytical method is naturally applicable to all boracic salts with fixed bases, which can be decomposed by sulphuric acid; and as the boracite belongs to this number, I have been enabled to repeat Professor Stromeyer’s experiment, in hopes of obtaining a result in some degree worthy of reliance. In order to free the boracite Hin any possible admixture of its matrix, consisting of sulphate of lime, a portion of the finely-powdered mineral was repeatedly washed and levigated with water, after which it was placed ona filter, washed and dried. Of this powder 0,849 gram. were mixed in a platinum cru- cible with three grammes of finely-powdered Derbyshire fluor- spar, concentrated sulphuric acid being afterwards poured over it, with due precaution, in order to avoid the spirting up during the evolution of the gas; then desiccated, and finally ignited. For the sake of obtaining a certain result, the mass was once more treated with sulphuric acid, but the peculiar smell of the fluo-boracic acid could not be perceived this time; which proved that the decomposition had been completed in the first process. The sulphate of magnesia was afterwards extracted with water, and the undissolved part washed on the filter, until I could be quite certain that nothing of the sulphate of mag- nesia remained amongst the sulphate of lime. The filtered * I have found in two experiments made in this manner, that borax, de- prived of its water of crystallization, consists of . 2, Boracic acid ...... 68,6 Boracic acid ...... 69,2 SOdA seodgenecntecaeh ol, BOGAyTiveptoanuatness) OOS 100,0 100,0 and 360 On the Origin and Production of Matter, and neutralized liquid was finally freed from the lime contain- ed in it, as gypsum, by means of oxalate of ammonia, was re- duced to dryness, and exposed to a red heat. The salt ob- tained in this manner weighed 0,758 gram., and proved on trial to be pure sulphate of lime. The quantity of magnesia contained in it amounted to 0,257 gram., and the deficiency in 0,849 gram., or 0,592, must consequently be boracic acid. 100 parts of boracite contain, according to this analysis, Boracic acid ...... 69,7 Magnesia ......... 30,3 100,0 Gay-Lussac and Thenard have found boracic acid to con- tain 33 per cent. of oxygen. If this be the case, then the quantity of oxygen in 69,7 parts of acid amounts to 23; 30,3 parts of magnesia, on the other hand, contain 11,73 parts of oxygen; but 11,73 x2=23,46, that is to say, the boracic acid would contain twice as much oxygen as the magnesia. So long as the composition of boracic acid remains in dispute, I will not quote it as a proof of the correctness of my analysis, by which Gay-Lussac’s and Thenard’s statement may per- haps receive support. LXXII. On the Origin and Production of Matter, and on its alleged Infinite Divisibility. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. GHOULD the following remarks on the Origin and Pro- duction of Material Substance, and on the Infinite Divi- sibility which is usually, though, I believe, erroneously, ascribed to it, appear to be sufficiently philosophical, I shall be gratified by their insertion in your useful Journal. I am, Gentlemen, yours respectfully, —— J.O. F. Bulk and extension pre-suppose solid elementary particles, of which forms are compounded; for if there be no such primary solid particles, there can be no material solidity what- ever, either primary or derived; thus no material bulk or ex- tension,---which is absurd. A solid or primary particle of matter must be the smallest particle, and can admit of no divisibility; for if it can be di- vided into parts, it is not a solid or primary or the smallest particle; matter is therefore not infinitely divisible. That original, elementary, or solid particle of matter, which admits and on its alleged Infinite Divisibility. 361 admits of uo further division, must be the smallest particle of matter; and to say that there is no such thing as this smallest particle, is the same as to affirm that there are no material forms at all;---because it is to affirm that a whole can exist without the parts necessary to compose it. From this it follows, that there is but one elementary prin- ciple in matter, of which principle the primary particle above mentioned consists ;---and that all material subjects are forms compounded by motion arranging and co-arranging this ele- mentary principle in innumerable relations and modes; for if there be primary material particles, these must be innume- rable, in order to their entering into and producing the innu- merable forms and combinations of forms observable in the material universe. It is, moreover, in accordance with reason and observation, thus to consider the original substantiality of matter, whence arises our idea of a simple or primary par- ticle of material substance, called an atom;---a congregation of which atoms, by modes of motion, furnishes the idea of na- tural compounds, or material subjects as they exist in nature, in all their varieties: for as it is evident that modes of motion produce changes in material subjects, by transforming them into other material subjects of a totally different form and quality, so analogy points to the conclusion,—that all differences in material subjects, as they exist in nature, are effects of mo- tion disposing primary particles into forms, and then operating successive and various combinations of those forms; and thus, that what is called Chemical Action, is, when considered in its origin, nothing more than an effect of motion in the more refined and subtle orders of substances ;—decomposition being effected by opposing forces, composition by attractive forces; and thus also, Chemical Action, like that which is called Mechanical, is resolvable into an effect of motion. If the above observations be founded in truth, the law of infinite series in numbers is totally inapplicable to the divi- sion of matter; and such erroneous application of that law must arise from confounding the distinct properties of numbers and of matter: this will appear evident, when we consider, that by the doctrine of numbers we can conceive that which is absolutely and originally one, and indivisible in itself, to be itself divided even infinitely ;—which is absurd. Thus by means of numbers we can conceive the First Cause to be divided into two or three, or an infinite number of First Causes, thereby destroying its existence! This error arises, therefore, from conceiving that the properties of numbers are applicable to simples or elements, in the same manner as they are ap- plicable to compounds; but as substance is prior to any Vol. 62. No. 307. Nov. 1823. Zz thing 362 On the Origin of Matter, thing that can be conceived or predicated of it, and is what it is in itself, whatever is affirmed of such substance, therefore, can be no otherwise true than as it is found not to contradict the properties and modes, which are discovered to be true re- specting it, and which are essential in its nature. Thus the doctrine of numbers is not applicable to particular substances, except in a manner limited and determined by the properties and modes of the existence of such substances themselves ; and not in an arbitrary manner :—any other application of number is merely ideal and notional; for it is evident that in a sub- stance, for instance, which is in itself a compound, the idea of number is applicable according to the several simples, unities, or elementary parts of which it is compounded ; whereas the unities, or simples, which form it, in themselves, individually considered, admit of no application of number whatever; but that of unity only. To divide a first principle is to destroy it! Number, therefore, is the natural measure of what is com- pounded ; unity is the measure of what is simple: if it be not so, and if number be universally applicable to all substances, then there is no such thing asa simple substance, and by con- sequence no such thing as a First Cause, or Original Entity or Substance ;—which is absurd. And this leads again to the conclusion, that all compounds whatever must be formed from simples or primaries. But as the primaries or simples which form material compounds, are not in themselves First Causes, that is, they are not self-subsisting, but created and derived, — it follows, that they must be simple effects, resulting from causes of a superior order :—we will endeavour, therefore, to enter into a somewhat further investigation of their nature. If there be any substance in itself simple, and thus, zn zts present or actual state of existence, incapable of being divided, such substance will be, zn its present or actual state of existence, incapable of being modified; for every modification of such sub- stance, while it remains in its present or actual state of existence, presupposes re-arrangement; and there can be no re-arrange- ment without parts, which it has not: it follows then, if a simple particle of matter cannot, in its present or actual state of ex- astence, be at all modified, because it is without parts,—that in order to its being modified it inust be resolved into somethin of a totally different nature, and not material; and ehich may be called immaterial ; for an indivisible material particle may thus be conceived of as creatable and created from an immaterial or spiritual origin, or substance ;—as a natural simple effect, resulting from a spiritual cause. To say that such simple and indivisible particle of matter cannot be modified at all, is to suppose it uncreatable in itself, thus — and on its alleged Infinite Divisibility. 363 thus self-subsisting,—thus a First Cause, as having no ante- cedent whatever,—thus infinite ;—and if infinite, as there can be but one infinite, there can be but one such particle of ma- terial substance, which is absurd; such a supposition would render creation impossible, by requiring a number of infinite things to constitute its parts! Such a doctrine, if for argument sake it were admitted, would place Deity in matter itself,— in the lowest sphere of created existence instead of in a sphere infinitely above all created existences, the life and subsistence of which are the effects of a continued momentary emanation from Him ;—whereas nothing but a derived life and existence appear to belong to matter, and those of the lowest order. No- thing, for instance, of motion, except in a derived and se- condary degree, appears to belong to matter, much less the power in which motion finally originates, namely Life itself, Life in its origin,—or the Divine Essence. Material sub- stance then, considered in itself, or in its origin, is a passive substance, the simple effect or created result of immaterial substance. The visible and invisible worlds are no doubt thus mysteriously connected with each other, throughout the various gradations of Cause and Effect, from the Divine Arti- ficer himself down to the lowest things of his creation :---and if these lowest things were for a moment disconnected and in- dependent of their causes, they would lose their support, and instantly perislt: so necessary is the constant exercise of Di- vine Power to uphold that which it has created, that sub- sistence may justly be termed perpetual creation. But how this connection is carried on, and in what manner material substance is formed or created from immaterial substance, can no otherwise be explained than by considering them in the relation of cause and effect; by the thing prior operating a medium whereby it may descend into the extreme or ultimate ; this prior thing being itself a created existence from the only self-subsisting existence, which is God: the whole being thus the work of God in successive order. The primary particles of matter, or the substances of which the material universe is compounded, appear evidently to be assive, and to be operated upon by active substances of a higher order in creation: and that this is the case, may be concluded from observing the various subjects in nature, to the life of which matter may be said to serve as a fixing’ or ultimate medium, or instrumental basis; for nothing of life appears to belong inherently to the material substances com- posing those forms or subjects in nature: on the contrary, the material substances composing such forms, seem to con- tain and to be operated upon by zx/erior forms of life, actuat- Zz2 ing 364 On the Origin of Matter, ing and disposing them, by modes of motion, into outward forms corresponding to such interior or inward forms. Matter, then, considered in itself, is a passive substance, created as an instrument, or medium, for the development of an active, living, immaterial substance, in the ultimate or lowest degree of existence, namely, in nature; and this by being made the passive subject into which such living and active subject may enter and manifest itself. Would not such a doctrine, if fully developed, satisfactorily explain some of the first principles of the economy of nature, and prove the presence of the invisible in the visible world, and the order of life therein? Under this view, the natural universe is primarily divisible into two universals or principles which enter into every par- ticular of whiéh it is constituted; namely, the active, imma- terial, or spiritual; and the passive, material, or natural; the latter being created from, and for the use of the former, and being the last result of the Divine Operation. I now proceed to offer some further proof of the defective state of science respecting the solidity and divisibility of ele- mentary matter, by examining the doctrine upon these sub- jects, as laid down in a standard work on natural philosophy not long since published; in domg which I beg to premise, what is indeed deducible from the views I have already ad- vanced, that my arguments do not at all oppose them- selves to the facts resulting from the indefinite divisibility of matter, as these facts are exhibited and brought forward by modern philosophers; but, on the contrary, are calculated to exemplify the true limit and nature of this divisibility, as it is illustrated by experiment, and to confine it within the bounds which appear to belong to it, by overstepping which, philoso- phers seem to have formed erroneous conceptions respecting these very facts, as regards their application to illustrate the first principles of Nature. Professor Millington, in a recent work of great merit, his Epitome of Natural Philosophy, proceeding upon the received opinions entertained respecting original or elementary matter, enumerates five properties as belonging to “ original uncom- pounded or primitive” particles of matter; the second of which properties is, that they are “ infinitely divisible,” and the third, that they are ‘ impenetrably hard.” Now it may beasked, if one of these particles be impenetrable, how can such particle be divided, since division, or a separation into parts, implies perviousness or penetrability ? And may it not hence be con- cluded that a substance, the simple and component parts of which are zmpenetrably hard, must itself be finitely divisible ? that is, its divisibility must be limited, although allowed to be indefinite, and on its alleged Infinite Divisibility. 365 indefinite, or beyond the reach of experimental or assignable limitation ? Whence it follows, that if the primitive or uncom- pounded particles of matter are considered to be znfinitely di- visible, they must also be considered to be in like manner zm- finitely pervious or penetrable—thus infinitely compressible, which is contrary to reason and experiment; and from which it also follows, that matter, not being infinitely penetrable, can- not be infinitely divisible, but only zndefinitely so. The author then goes on to illustrate the doctrine of infi- nite divisibility, by the separation and attenuation of certain substances; in doing which, however, he proves nothing further than that those substances are divisible zndefinztely, or in a greater degree than our means will enable us to effect their separation, as in the instance given by him of pulverized marble; and in a greater degree than our senses, aided by instruments, can enable us to perceive, as deducible from the instance cited of the animalcula counted by Mr. Leuwen- hoek; which facts merely ‘go to prove how indefinitely, and not how infinitely, the division of matter may take place. ‘“‘ The second property of matter,” says the Professor, “ is that it is infinitely divisible, or in other words, that the origi- nal component parts, or elementary particles of which all things are formed, are small beyond conception: thus, if marble or any brittle substance is reduced to the most im- palpable powder which human art can produce, its original particles will not be bruised or affected ; since if this powder be examined by a microscope, each grain will be found a solid stone, similar in appearance to the block from whence it was broken; and of course, if we possessed suitable imple- ments, would admit of being again subdivided or reduced to a still finer powder. If a single grain of copper is dissolved in about fifty drops of nitric acid, and the solution is after- wards diluted with about an ounce of water, it is evident that a single drop of it must contain an almost immeasurably small portion of copper, and yet so soon as this comes in contact with a piece of polished steel or iron, that metal will become co- vered with a perfect coat of copper ; consequently as much iron may be covered with copper as the solution will wet; which shows how infinitely the copper can be divided without any alteration in its texture. « Gold is so extended under the hammer of the workman, in forming it into the thin sheets called ot pe that the 500,000th part of a grain becomes visible to the naked eye, or the 50,000,000th part, through a microscope magnifying but ten times: and Mr. Ferguson has calculated that a single pound of gold would be sufficient to cover a silver wire ca- pable 366 On the Origin of Matter. pable of encompassing the earth, or about 24,000 miles in length! But the wonders of art sink into nothing, when com- pared with those which nature produces; for Mr. Leuwenhoek, the celebrated microscopic observer, affirms, that he has counted two millions of animalcula in a portion of the milt of a cod-fish not longer than a common grain of sand! ! That matter is thus infinitely divisible, also admits of demon- stration on mathematical principles.” _ In the above cited passage, the infinite divisibility of matter is defined by its being said, that the elementary particles of which matter is composed, are “ small beyond conception,” by which term I apprehend, nothing more can be understood, than that an elementary particle of matter is a body of insensible magnitude ; for magnitude is certainly affirmed of it, although not of a nature sufficiently gross to be obvious to the senses. Let this magnitude then be the smallest possible, and it will be a magnitude that, as we have already seen, cannot be di- vided: whence it appears that a thing “small beyond con- ception,” or rather beyond the powers we possess of bringing its magnitude into sensible perception, is not on that ac- count zfinitely divisible, but only indefinitely so. In like manner, in the instance which is adduced of the attenuation of particles of copper in solution, the author observes, that a single drop of the solution, containing but an “ almost im- measurably small portion of copper,” will deposit, by the division of its particles, a coat of copper upon as large a surface of steel as the drop will wet; which,” he proceeds to observe, ‘ shows how infinitely the copper can be divided.” But such a conclusion by no means follows: for the term almost immeasurably small” implies, at most, nothing further than the state of indefinite division; and this state bears no relation to that (ideal state) of infinite division. 'The same may be said of the divisibility and tenuity of gold; namely, that those qualities afford no proof that gold is infinitely tenuous or divisible; for even although a pound of that metal, as instanced by the Professor, may be sufficiently te- nuous to be made to cover a silver wire capable of encom- passing the earth, yet this, so far from proving it to be infi- nitely divisible, does not even prove that it would gild a wire capable of encompassing the planet Jupiter: and there are yet many far greater and readily conceivable finite magni- tudes,—the orbits of the planets, for example. With respect to the assertion, “‘ That matter is thus infinitely divisible, also admits of demonstration on mathematical prin- ciples” —this, as I have before shown, cannot be maintained, unless it can be proved that the point, origin, or first principle, from Prof. Germar on the Petrifactions of Osterweddigen. 367 Srom which geometrical quantity or solidity commences, will ad- mit of something more than an imaginary division; for until this is done it cannot be assumed to be divisible, and therefore mathematical science must be inapplicable for the purpose of dividing it. If indeed we first assume a primitive particle of matter to be a compounded material substance,—which, as I take it, would be to assume a simple to be compound,—mathematics may then be applied to divide it ad infinitum: but if, after all, there be any real limitation in such (supposed) compound, the application of mathematics to divide it, beyond such limitation, must necessarily be a fiction. The term infinite is, I think, philosophically inapplicable * to any and every created thing, and is applicable only to the attributes of the CREATOR ! _ In concluding these observations on the origin and alleged infinite divisibility of matter, I beg it may be fully understood, that I have selected for criticism the work of Professor Milling- ton from among the various works in which the doctrine of the infinite divisibility of matter is asserted or maintained, which are all, as I conceive, equally in error upon the point in ques- tion, solely because it conveys, in my opinion, a just view of the present state of science upon the subjects of natural philo- sophy of which it treats ; and it should be particularly adverted to, with respect to this highly useful volume, that my objections apply to first principles only, and do not affect what may be called the tangible and experimental properties of matter, as explained in it; and which properties are applied by the au- thor to elucidate the practical and experimental subjects he describes. It is only in that part which treats of the primary laws of matter, as the sources to which those experimental pro- perties are attempted to be traced, that any error is attempted to be pointed out in the statements or conclusions of the author, upon whose valuable labours the writer of these remarks would be most unwilling to cast a shade. LXXIII. On the Petrifactions of Osterweddigen, near Magde- burg. By Professor German. Read before the Natural History Society of Halle, Feb. 1, 1823.+ At Osterweddigen, a German mile and a half from Mag- deburg, is a stratum of sand, which is distinguished by its richness in fossil bivalve and univalve shells; But which, * What then shall we say of infinite duration, infinite space, and infinite series in mathematics? Is not the term infinite applicable to physical, as well as to moral and intellectual properties ?—Eniv. + From Schweigger and Meinecke’s Newes Journal, band vii. p. 176. with 368 Prof. Germar on the Petrifactions of Osterweddigen. with respect to the formation it belongs to, as well as to the genera and species of shells that it contains, appears to differ from the sand- and marl-strata of England and France, which likewise contain fossil remains. This stratum consists partly of coarse, and partly of fine loose quartz-sand, somewhat of a greenish colour (on the sur- face at least), and varying in thickness from a few inches to more than afoot. It rests upon the new red sandstone (? bun- ten sandsteingebiirge), which crops out there, the sand entering into its fissures and cracks; and is covered by the clay-marl (mergelleimen), which, as is well known, lies upon our brown- coal bed. It is difficult to decide whether this stratum of sand appertains to the brown-coal rock, or to the later clay-rock (leimengebirge), or whether it belongs to those formations which occur near Paris, as intervening between our brown-coal and clay-rock. A nest of brown-coal was indeed found beneath the clay (/ezmen), but the stratum of sand was so narrow at the place, that their relative situations to each other could not be ascertained. In this sand, a great number of bivalve and univalve shells are found, partly as fossils, partly in the state of casts; and only a few of them retaining their nacreous lustre. The casts, on the contrary, consist of a dark greenish-gray, and mostly fine foliated, argillo-calcareous ironstone, and their surface is not unfrequently still coated with a thin layer of enamel. These casts are likewise contained in the lowermost layers of clay. In the sand, there are also found nodules of the same calcareous ironstone, which appear in places as united toge- ther by means of casts of the various genera, interwoven with each other; and these nodules are seldom found destitute of petrifactions. The occurrence of these fossil bodies, together with their proper casts, at the same time, becomes particu- larly interesting; because it enables us to compare the one with the other, and affords proof, that casts of shells assume, very frequently, a totally different form from that of the ori- ginals. It is also remarkable, that the secretion, as it were, of the solid argillo-calcareous ironstone from the mass of sand, appears to have been effected in a particular manner by the organic bodies, even if we could not ascribe to them any further influence than the affording, by their hollow spaces, oppor- tunity and room for secretion; and that, where numbers were lying together, they presented collecting points for the mass. The following is an enumeration of the fossil remains found here, which altogether originate from marine animals ; and which, on that account, allow us to presume that they do not belong to the brown-coal formation; for that includes the remains of land- or fresh-water-animals only. No Prof. Germar on the Petrifactions of Osterweddiggen. 369 No traces were found of chambered shells, except a couple of remnants of the so-called jointed Dentalia, one of them with the apex broken off, in the state of a cast, the other asa very acute cone, with its shell partly preserved; these shells were in all probability related to Dentalzum. A true Bulla Lam., the casts of which are known by the name of Physalites, was frequently met with in that state, but only twice as a fossil shell. It is of the size of a coffee-bean, is nearly cylindrical, its apex umbilicated, and has regular fine transverse striz. Of Turbo two small species were found, it seems, with an umbilicus: the one, almost perfectly conical, and striated lon- gitudinally; the other, with a shorter spire, smooth, and ap- pertaining perhaps to Delphinula Lam. ‘They appear, how- ever, to occur but rarely, and but few casts of them were found. The genus Turritella likewise appears to have been rare at this spot. Two specimens, which were not complete, might indeed belong to two different species, and are of about four lines in length, but it is impossible to determine them more exactly. Trochi were more abundant, but were found as casts only ; with some fossil opercula, which perhaps belong to this genus, but which had joined concentrically, and not in a spiral form. Of the genus Natica many casts were found; and several fossil specimens collected, which may belong to different spe- cies. One particularly distinguished species, of the size of a hazel-nut, has only from four to five volutions, a very flat and scarcely protruding spire, is closely and very finely striated in a spiral direction, and marked at greater intervals with un- dulated longitudinal striz. Another and very similar species is rather smaller, nearly smooth, its spire more produced, and appearing to be plicated on the apex. Another, probably a species of this genus, has five or six scarcely protruded volu- tions, the largest of which, where it meets the other, appears pressed and driven in. Of the genera Conus and Cyprea no remains were found, but some of Voluta and Oliva occurred; and of these, a spe- cies which possesses some resemblance to the smaller speci- mens of Vol. glabella, but which is unknown. Also a small species of the genus Columbella. Whether real Buccinites were present cannot be exactly ascertained. Casts are abundant, which, according to the size of the first volution, might be placed amongst Buccinites ; but they appear to have originated rather from Voluta and other enera than from Buccinum. Vol. 62. No. 307. Nov. 1823. 3A Two 370° Prof. Germar on the Petrifactions of Osterweddigen. Two specimens were collected of a small Cerithium, quite smooth, and half an inch in length; and amongst the casts were some which appeared to belong to this genus. Casts of the genus Fasciolaria were found in great abun- dance, all of which, however, appeared to belong to one or two: species also found in a fossil state, and which, in the state of casts, would be ranged with Buccinites. Some casts likewise ° occurred, which were most probably derived from a Pyrula. Turbinated shells in the state of casts were not unfrequently found, which originated in all probability from species of the genus Fusus, and which presented three fossil shells of smaller species, one of them with its volutions from left to right. Amongst Bivalves, the Ostracites occupied the first place with respect to their abundance. Single valves of a very thick- shelled oyster occurred frequently, the diameter of which some- times measured about five inches, and which may perhaps belong to Ostrea biauriculata Lam. Smaller species also oc- curred, in part regularly grooved; but no specimens were met with of the mantle pectens or of Cristacites. ‘The very strength of this shell (Ostrea) appears to have effected its preservation, for scarcely any casts of it were found; casts of bivalves were. rare in proportion. A small, elliptical, finely-ribbed Terebratula, with a perfo- rated beak, and internal cartilage still preserved, perhaps be- longing to Terebratula radiata Lam., was found in some spe- cimens. A small concentrically striated shell was more fre- quently met with, the beak of which was not perforated, and which did not exhibit its cartilage, but was provided with a notch in the beak, below the hinge, through which the muscle of attachment had probably passed. ‘This species appears to belong to a peculiar genus hitherto unknown. The genus Arca yielded two species, one of the breadth of half an inch, finely decussated, the margin not crenulated, and the hinge very narrow; and one, a fourth of the size, with di- stinct excentric ribs and toothed margin. Two or three small. species of Pectunculus occurred, but not in specimens suffi-- ciently distinguishable. Cockles were rare: some imperfect specimens. were found, however, which undoubtedly belonged to the genus Cardiwm. ; Some casts appeared, by their outlines, to belong to Tellina. Of Veneres, occurring so frequently amongst fossil shells at other places, two species only were found here, and those not rare ones; the one a larger, of about four lines diameter, . with fine distant concentric stra, and another of half the size: mare distinctly and more closely striated.. Two species of the genus Venericardia Lam. were found pretty frequently, both Prof. Germar on the Petrifactions of Osterweddigen. 371 both strongly ribbed longitudinally, and toothed at the mar- gin; the lar. ger one was of about nine, the smaller of about three lines in length. On some casts the impressions of the abductor muscle were very strongly marked. Many of the Bivalves and Univalves were frequently found with round holes bored into them, which indicated the pre- sence of some predaceous Trachelipodes (? Bohrmuscheln), al- though none of them were found. We met with, however, a cylindrical irregularly bent tube, which might have origi- nated from a Teredo, but perhaps from a Se? pula. Dentalites were dispersed about in great numbers, yet always as casts only, very rarely in single “fossil fragments. They ‘were an inch in length, two lines wide at the base, their trans~ verse section circular ) and tapered uniformly and with a gradual flexure towards the apex. The shell appeared to have been smooth. Of Corallines single bits of Madrepores and Millepores were observed. But a species of Coral likewise occurred, consist- ing entirely of cylindrical branches, variously grouped to- gether, without a mutual trunk; and the Hollow spaces of which were every where filled with sand, which prevented an examination of the surface of these branches. ‘They formed, as it appeared, small running banks in the sand. Whether Lchini also existed here cannot be ascertained with certainty; but certain bodies appeared, which most pro- bably were fragments of their spines, though no further traces of them were discoverable. Teeth of fishes, or the so-called Glossopetra, might be col- lected in abundance; and, if we may be permitted to conclude, from the variety of heir form, upon the variety of animals to which they belonged, they indicated several species of preda- ceous fishes not of great size. The above are the genera and species of fossil bodies I have observed in this place ; manifestly real marine produc- tions, and, with the exception of oyster shells, of proportion- ably inal size. ‘To judge from the frequency of the indivi- dual shells met with, I should characterize this stratum of sand by the genera Bulla, Natica, Fasciolaria, Ostrea, Venus, and Venericardia. My endeavours to determine the species more exactly after Lamarck were in vain, and I am compelled to conclude, that amongst the fossil shells of France there are few or no iiaeoni identical with those found near Magde~ burg. Cuvier, in the new edition of his Geological Description of Paris, enumerates the following series of formations, com- mencing with the chalk :— 8A 2 1. Chalks 372 Dr. Traill ow American Animals of the Genus Felis. 1. Chalk, with marine exuvie. 2. First Fresh-water Formation, consisting chiefly of plastic clay, brown-coal, and sand. ‘This is probably the same with our brown-coal formation, and contains fresh-water shells principally; but in the upper stratum both fresh- water and marine shells together ; of the latter, Cerithia, Ampullarie and Oysters, in particular. 3. First Marine Formation. Limestone and sand. The characterizing shells here belong to the genera Cerithium, Lucina, Cardita, Cardium, Voluta, Ovulites, Turritella, Cy- therea, Crassatella, and Corbula. 4. Second Fresh-water Formation, containing siliceous lime- stone, gypsum and marle. ‘The gypsum contains the well- known bones of remarkable land animals; but the marle lying above it always contains the remains of marine ani- mals, particularly Cerithia, Cytherea and Oysters. | 5. Second Marine Formation ; compounded of gypseous-marle, sand, sandstone, limestone and calcareous-marle. Here the genera Oliva, Fusus, Cerithium, Melania, Crassatella, Pec- tunculus, Cytherea and Ostrea are particularly found. 6. Third Fresh-water Formation; consisting of marle and sand. Our stratum of sand near Magdeburg must be referred, in all probability, to the second marine formation. LXXIV. Remarks on some of the American Animals of the Genus Felis, particularly on the Jaguar, ¥elis Onca Linn. By T. S. Trai, M.D. E.RS.E. &c. * AMONG the genera into which Linnzus has distributed the higher animals, none seems more natural, or better defined, than the genus Fe/is; yet such are the vague descrip- tions given by most travellers, and by the older naturalists, that we are still in uncertainty respecting several of the species which compose it. My attention has been particularly drawn to this genus, by accidentally meeting with skins, and occa- sionally with living animals belonging to it, which I have in vain endeavoured to reconcile to the descriptions of authors; and the magnificent collection of zoological drawings in the possession of Lord Stanley has made me acquainted with se- veral of the feline genus, which do not appear to have attract- ed the attention of our best systematic writers. The feline animals belonging to the American Continent are numerous, and have generally been ill described by naturalists. {Indeed there appears to be a singular prejudice respecting . them in the minds of many zoologists. Because neither the * From the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol. iy. Part II. p. 468. . lion « Dr. Traill on American Animals of the Genus Felis. 373 lion nor the tiger (the monarchs of the forest in the Old World) is found in America, it was a favourite dogma with a cele- brated author, that the beasts of prey of the New Continent were inferior in courage and ferocity to those animals of the Old World, which they most nearly resembled. It is true, that none of the beasts of prey of America equal in size and power the lion of Africa, or the great tiger of Bengal: but the jaguar, the puma, and black tiger of South America, equal in courage and ferocity the panther, leopard, and onca, the animals of the other continents which they approach most nearly in size and habit. Buffon and some other writers have described the jaguar and puma as destructive to other quadrupeds, but as cowardly and fleeing from the approach of man. It is now well ascer- tained that Buffon has confounded the true jaguar of South America with the ocelot, a much smaller and less formidable animal; and his account of the puma seems to be taken from the descriptions of those who have only seen the animal in the vicinity of human civilization. That eloquent writer has ad- mitted the commanding influence of the experience of human prowess in subduing the courage of even his favourite animal the lion. “A single lion of the desert will frequently attack a whole caravan; and if, after a violent and obstinate encoun- ter, he experiences fatigue, instead of flying, he retreats fight- ing with a bold front to his pursuers. ‘Those lions, on the contrary, who dwell in_ the neighbourhood of the towns and villages of India and Barbary, being acquainted with man, and having felt the power of his weapons, have lost their na- tive courage to such a degree, that they fly from the threaten- ings of his voice, and dare not assail him. They content them- selves with preying on small cattle; and will fly before women and children, who make them indignantly quit their prey, by striking them with clubs.” Had Buffon not been trammelled by a favourite hypothesis respecting the alleged inferiority of the animal kingdom in America, he would have seen that the writers who notice the cowardice of the larger beasts of prey of that continent, only speak of them as observed near European colonies, where their native ferocity has been compelled to acknowledge the superiority of human intellect and arms. Recent observations have shown how ill founded these speculations of the French naturalist have been. ? Humboldt mentions many instances of the ferocious courage of the great jaguar. Among others, an animal of this species had seized a horse belonging to a farm in the province of Cu- mana, 374 Dr. Traill on American Animals of the Genus Felis. mana, and dragged it to a considerable distance. ‘ The groans of the dying horse,” says Humboldt, “awoke the slaves of the farm, who went out armed with lances and cutlasses. The animal continued on its prey, awaited their approach with firmness, and fell only after a long and obstinate resistance. This fact, and a great many others, verified on the spot, prove that the great jaguar of Terra Firma, like the jaguaret of Pa- raguay, and the real tiger of Asia, does not flee from man, when it is dared to close combat, and when it is not alarmed by the great number of its assailants. Naturalists are now agreed, that Buffon was entirely mistaken with respect to the largest of the feline genus of America. What that celebrated writer says of the cowardly ¢zgers of the New Continent re- lates to the small ocelots; and we shall shortly see, that on the Orinoko the real jaguar of America sometimes leaps into the water to attack the Indians in their canoes.” T am personally acquainted with gentlemen who have hunted the jaguaret in Paraguay, and who describe it as a very cou- rageous and powerful animal, of great activity, and highly dangerous when at bay. Both this species and the puma are rendered more formidable by the facility with which they can ascend trees. I have been assured by several friends, who have repeatedly hunted the tiger in India, that even this * most beautiful and cruel of beasts of prey,” as it is termed by Linnzeus, generally endeavours to escape from the hunters, unless hard pressed, or surprised in a situation from which re- treat is difficult; and one gentleman informed me, that, on a shooting excursion, to his great horror he found himself with- out a companion in a small field, in which he espied a tiger watching him; that, finding retreat impossible, he advanced against the animal firmly, when it slowly retired, until he had an opportunity of dispatching it with his rifle. ¢ Such instances show that there is no striking difference be- tween the habits and courage of the beasts of prey of the Old and New Continents, as imagined by Buffon. While naturalists have been so unjust to the character of the American animals of this genus, the forms of these qua- drupeds have not been more fortunately delineated in our en- gravings. For instance; the figure of the black tiger in Buf- fon, and in his copyist Shaw, is so wretchedly drawn, and its limbs are so distorted, that not a trace of the genuine form is preserved ; but it is considerably better given in the respectable work of Pennant. The figures of the jaguar and puma, in both the former works, are inaccurate in many respects, espe~ cially in the form of the heads, and in giving no idea of the fierce Dr. Traill on American Animals of the Genus Felis: 375 fierce expression of the countenances. The figure of the ocelot, in Shaw, is an absolute caricature, and conveys no idea of the sprightly motions and strength of this beautiful miniature of the leopard. These circumstances have induced me to lay before the so- ciety a fine drawing of a very beautiful jaguar from Paraguay *, which was some time ago alive in Liverpool. When the ani- mal arrived, it was in full health, and, though not fully grown, was of very formidable size and strength. The captain who brought it couid venture to play with it, as it lay in one of the boats on deck, to which it was chained; but it had been fa- miliarised to him from the time it was the size of a small dog. I did not venture to take measurements of it; but it appeared to be between six and seven feet in length (including the tail), and to stand between two and three feet in height at the shoul- der. The size of the fore-legs seemed very great in proportion to the bulk of the body, and especially of the hind-legs and rump of the animal. The ground-colour is bright fulvous; the fur is short, thick, and glossy, all over the body. It is variegated by long chain-like spots. A chain of such spots passes down the spine from the shoulders to the tail, which consists chiefly of single spots; but some of them are double. On each side of this chain are several rows of open spots, formed by a glossy border of black, including one or more spots of the same colour. As they descend the sides of the animal, these borders become interrupted, and present the appearance of clusters of four irregular oblong spots, with oc- casionally one or more small central dots. Viewed from above, the back has no inconsiderable resemblance to the markings of the shells of some species of tortoise, from the peculiar ar- rangement of the colours, and the equality of the spaces be- tween each cluster of spots. The face, sides of the neck, and both sides of the legs, are thickly studded with small black spots. The ground-colour of the lower part of the body and inside of the thighs is dull-yellowish white; but the belly is spotted with large, black, irregular marks. The hair of the tail is not glossy: its upper part is marked with a zigzag pattern, as in the init ; and its lower part is annulated with two or three broad blackish-brown rings, sepa- rated by dull yellow stripes. There are two distinct sets of vibrissze; the first of which are the longest, and are placed two or three inches before the scanty hairs of the other set. The teeth are very large and strong. ‘The whole animal had * The drawing was made by Mr. Alexander Mosses, a young artist of great merit, who was employed by me for this purpose, and has succeeded admirably in giving the character of the animal. an 376 Dr. Traill on American Animals of the Genus Felis. an appearance of activity and strength, which fully confirm- ed the accounts of its prowess collected by Humboldt. Fetis Puma. For this animal I would propose the following specific cha- racter, which appears necessary to distinguish it completely from Felis unicolor, described by me in the third volume of the Society’s Memoirs. Fe.ts, corpore diluté badio ; auribus nigris; caudd claviformi, apice nigricanit. Car, with a light-bay body ; black ears; a claviform tail, brownish-black at the tip. I had an opportunity of inspecting several skins of this ani- mal, the property of Mr. Edmonston, who had killed them in the interior of Demerary. None of them were without the marks indicated in the specific character. The whiskers of all arose from a dark-coloured spot on the face. The blackish tip of the tail measured five inches; and, from the length and po- sition of the hairs, made the extremity the thickest part of the tail, or gave it a claviform shape. One of these animals was a female, shot while searching for prey in a lofty tree: its whelp was at the bottom, feeding on a monkey, which had probably been killed by the mother. The young one was also shot. ‘The body of the latter measured, from nose to tail, two feet, and the tail one foot one inch. The upper part of the body was not of an uniform colour like the dam, but it had three chains of blackish-brown spots along its back, with se- veral scattered markings of the same colour on its sides, neck, and shoulders. ‘The crown of the head had several obscure stripes; but the blackish spot at the roots of the vibrissee, and the black backs of the ears, were very conspicuous. The lower part of the body, and the insides of the limbs, were of a dirty yellowish-grey, with dull brown bars. These marks disappear in the full-grown animal. _ The largest of Mr. Edmonston’s specimens seemed an ani- mal of prodigious power. It had a much larger head, in pro- portion to its size, than the figures of Buffon and Shaw; and its canine teeth were enormously large. ‘The dimensions are as follow: Feet. Inch. Length from nose to tail s+. ses oo ov ev 4 9 ——— of tail 00 ave ove ven cee vee one 2 6 Total leneth tar < "ell, dis ewes 5° cee ons mente See Length of the head... ase vee eee “oes =vee 1 O Circumference of ditto vestihedsl viene: (mae 2 eeuhl Ae Length of the large canine teeth aboye the jaw... O 17 Liverpool, November 1822. LXXV. On = [ maz. 7 LXXV. On the Adjustment of the Line of Collimation of the Transit Instrument. GENTLEMEN, Bath, November 10, 1823. ] HAVE recently met with a description of a mode of ad- justing the line of collimation of the transit instrument, which, although published upwards of thirty years ago, does not seem to have been generally (if at all) practised; but which appears capable of great accuracy. It is to be found in a work entitled Lixarum precipuarum Catalogus Novus, by F’.de Zach, published at Gotha in 1792; in page 18 of which he directs the observer to note the exact time’ of the transit of a star (near the pole) from the fist to the middle wire of the telescope (M. Zach’s telescope having only three wires) : which being done, he is then to invert the telescope, end for end, and note the exact time of its passing the dast wire, which is obviously the very same wire as that which was called the Jirst in the former position. If the two intervals correspond, the line of collimation may be considered accurate: but, if not, the proper corrections must be made to bring them so. As this method is very simple, and must be well known to many persons, I am surprised it has not been more generally adopted. The same author, who has, I am informed, written other works on Astronomy, adds that a similar method may be suc- cessfully pursued with stars not near the pole. In this case, two stars must be selected which differ but little from each other in declination, and which can be observed. without moving the telescope. As to their difference in right ascen- sion, all that is required will be sufficient time for inverting the telescope. ~Let this difference in right ascension be well ascertained, either by actual observation, or deduced from the best catalogue. Let the transit of the first star be ob- served: then, after inverting the telescope, let the transit of the second star be observed. If the interval between the two transits made in this manner corresponds with the difference between the correct right ascensiotis of the two stars, the line of collimation is, in this case also, accurate: if not, it must be corrected as before mentioned. I am not aware of any ob- jection to either of these methods: but, as I have not had much experience in practical astronomy, I submit them to such of your readers as may be curious in these matters: in order that, by a more general circulation, the method may have a fairer chance of being tried; and, if found successful, of being universally adopted. I am, gentlemen, your very obedient servant, ZENO. Vol. 62. No. 307. Nov. 1823. 3B LXXVI. List L Bye. 4 | LXXVI. List of Occultations for the Year 1824, computed for the Meridian and Parallel of Greenwich. By M. InaurraMi | of Florence. [Concluded from p. 279.] Dist. | Dist. im. | Fur. Im. | Em. Day.| = Star. [Mag Cat. | AR | D SEPTEMBER. ail loyal hm{ hm 7 F 3 Sagitt. | 7°3|L 13/291 57/21 46S] 8 20! 9 12| 78 |13S = 8|L 13/292 1)21 43 8 25} 9 27] 4S }128 4] eCapric.| 5 | P 142}304 22/18 28 8 8} 918] 3S |12S = 7:8) P 1441304 24/18 31 8191 911} 7S ]15S ate 6°7| P 145 |304 24/18 5 8 56} 9 20/15 N|/ 10N 5 se | oF | Ly Si 92G025t4 19 9 42\11 O] ON] 48 ie _ _—. 7. \1a- SSG 2A 14 4 9 44} cont. _— 7|L 81/317 8/13 52 [11 43/12 56] 4N} 9S 6 Aquarii| 7°8|L 10/326 37/10 33 6 341 713) 7S |%4S8 —_ 7-8|L 10/327 58} 9 30 | 10 36/11 49/12 N| 38 8 | 9Piscium | 6|P 84/349 15] 0 2N| 8 30] 9 23} 5N] 3N _ 9 |P119/351 2) 054 | 13 31/14 45) 5N/118S — | 16—— | 6 | P 132/351 33} 1 © | 15 13/15 22/11S |138 11 |104 6-7|P 136] 22 8/13 16 6 20; 710} 4S |16S 12 Arietis | 6-7} P 112} 35 37/17 59 8 54| 9 32) 15N| 8N 13 Tauri | 67/L 8] 51 36/21 58 | 15 28/16 4/15N/12N 14 7\L 13] 64 27/23 6 | 12 40/13 23} 9S 1138S 15 |- 6|P 135] 80 49)23 54 15 36/16 37} 5S 6S _ 8 |Z 332| 80 43/24 9 | 15 49/16 41/10S] as 17 | 61Gemin. | 7°8} P 98/108 47/20 39 12 30/13 20} 5S 258 29 Sagitt.| 9|P 81/274 33/24 1kS| 7 9| 8 16] 8N/ 2N ——}| ae 7|P 99|275 15)24 14 8 46) 9 39} 5S /11N _ 6°7| P 105 |275 25/24 10 9 8/10 6| 3S8S/10S = —— | 8] P 103/275 24/24 15 9 12) 9 52} 98/148 = —— | 67/L 13/275 25|24 10 9 29)10 21} 5S }11S 30 —— | 7:8)/L 13/287 4/22 10 6 14) 6 35) 15 N]13N = —— | 7/L 13/287 25/22 27 6 34] 7 36} 58/128 = 5 13 |287 52122 8 7 46| 8590| 6N| 4S = — | 8/L 13}288 23/21 56 9 6/1016 7N] 2S — | 50 6°7 | P 103/288 36/22 9 9 21} 9 50| 9S /148S — 8 288 39/21 38 ‘ OCTOBER. : | ok ey hea) hh, na ; ! 2 Capric. 7\L 8 313 52114 45S/12 7/13 0! 3N/ 7S 3 | Aquarii | 7-8/L 10 325 19] 10 24 |12 27/13 32| 4N/10S — 78|L 13 325 19} 10 18 |12 31/13 37] 8N| 58 — 78\L 13 326 38] 9 34 |15 44/16 31/12 N| 2N AY6S —— 8/16 eR) 166/336 51] 5 15 |13 44/14 38/313 N] 1N 5 | 8Piscium] 5°6|P 83/349 10] 0 10N/16 52/17 47| 6N]/ 6S 8 }101 6 |P 118} 21 16/13 38 |12 18|cont. 9 Arietis | 6°7|P 112) 35 37/17 59 |16 18/17 26| 3S | 4S 10 | 98 7 |P 261! 44 28/19 59 | 7 6} 731/158 /11S — | 58— 5 !P 11} 45 51] 20 18 9 26/10 22} 9N|] 2N 11 Tauri | 78,;L 11} 59 6/22 32 | 9 2/ 9 40/13N/| 8N oa ; 7 61 52)}23 5 |14 46/15 40/11 N] 7N 13} 1Gemin.| 5 |P 307! 87 59| 23.16 | 8 32} 915| 3S | 7S — Wiel, 8 |P 53] 91 48} 23 20 |15 31/16 10/12 N/13N 14 —— 7 |L 9/104 25) 21 36 | 12 35} cont. — | 56 - | 5°6|P 69/107 32) 20 48 |18 16/19 24) 3S | 7N 15 Cancri | 8 | P 295/118 28]18 11 |11 25112 15! 4N! 2N Occultations of the Fixed Stars for 1824, oto Del) sen Ming|Cal | et | im, | Em, | Soe {Re Ae: a oy h m| hm A } 17 |16Sextant. | 6 | P253/149 41] 7 9 |18 18/18 29) 16N| 13 N 19 | Virginis | 6 | P 167/175 12) 4 138/15 17|15 52}158 | 68 20 5°6|L 10|190 51) 10 30 {18 50/19 39| 2N|14N 26 | Sagitt. 71L 13/268 1| 24 24 451] 5 27/15 N]|12N = | 7 | P 342 |268 14] 24 24 4 56| 5 35|14N/12N 27 6°7 | P. 255 |282 23) 22 58 5 34] 643} 2N] 5S 28 8 |L 13/298 48] 19 49 749| 8 0|14N/|12N 29 Capric. | 6°7| P 240307 19) 16 49 4 45| 5 47|12N| 3N 30 | Aquarii | 7°8| P119'318 53] 12 56 418} 532) 7N] 58S — 9 | P: 1301319 18] 12 47 5 25] 6 42| 3N| 1N = 10 | P: 131/319 19) 12 58 5 29} 621) 58 /]148 — | ——— |:78| P126'319 12| 12 31 6 4| cont. NOVEMBER. = ! hm{hm /j 4 2 |19Piscium | 6 |P 182/354 3} 2 238/10 19/11 34] 7N] 8S 3 145 6/P 65| 351} 635 | 7 5| 8 6/13N] 1N 4 7-8\L 11| 16 53/12 1N/i0 44/11 46)14N] 2N 5 | (Query?) 7/1L 8] 39 43) 18 17 5 23 | cont. — | Arietis 7{L 10] 29 28/16 14 |11 16/12 27;}10N| 15S _ 7 |P 261] 44 28) 19 59 |15 27/16 23) 4S | 9S — [58 5/P 11| 45 51/2018 |18 12/19 2] 3Nj 15 7 Tauri 7 |P 166} 54 33 21 37 7 6; 8 1] © 58 = |p 6 |P197| 56 16 21 53 |10 38/11 23} 8S | 13S 8 ed 78|\|L 11] 70 16 23 11 {10 0/10 52) 6S |108 — 8 |Z 279| 71 15/23 37 |11 51)12 41/11 N| ON — 7 | P 243| 71 25}23 37 {12 12)13 5|/10N]| 7N 9| Orionis | 8 | P192| 82 48/23 6 | 615) 656| 48/| 58 — Tauri 7\L 84 46, 23 19 9 35110 27; 4N; 1N — | Gemin 5 | P 307) 87 59, 23 16 |15 54/16 54| 3N! 7N —|3 6 | P 340} 89 24 23 8 |18 49}19 30} 8N/12N | 4 7 |P 344| 89 35 23 1 119 8119 58) 3N} 8N 10 7|L_ 9} 98 48, 21 54 8 23| 912) 1N}] 2N — |36 —— | 67] P 247) 99 53 21 59 9 58 |19 42) 9N/10N ee 6 |P 194 113 38 18 59 8 51/9 38) 5S |1S = 5 7|L 9114 3 18 51 9 49 |10 21;11S | 8S — 67/L 13/114 5 18 51 9 52/10 24)/11S} 8S o 7|L 13/114 11 18 42 | 10 25 |cont. 12 Cancri 7 |P 225 131 58 18 54 |17 251/18 421 3S | 10N 13 Sextant.| 7|L 10/142 31) 9 46 |113 4/|13 53) 4N|14N —_ 67\L 10|144 2) 9 32 |14 3/15 6| 3S ]10N me ee a LOA 57! 9) GO, AO 717 GL VAS ALIN 15 | Leonis | 7°8/L 10|169 37) 1 505/12 58/13 45| 12 N| o — |87 45|P 89|170 1) 154 |13 20:14 10| 8N| 6S 16 Virginis 8 | Z 847 |185 16) 8 21 |17 36'18 13] 68/158 19| Libre 7°8\L 10|227 38 22 8 {19 5\19 45|15S |] 8S 24 | Sagitt. 78/L 13|290 48 21 13 7 LVS 3210'S. tas 27 | Aquarii | 7°3/L 13/326 38, 9 34 617! 712|.5N/415S 28 163 6 P 166 336 51, 5 15 3. 37.}9 4) 45) 14.N) (25 >= 7:8 | P 183|337 37) 4 38 6 51 cont. | , = 6:7| P 1911337 56 4 31 7:18 | 8 36) 14N| 1N = 7\L 13|339 5° 3.48 |}1054\)11 39) 14N) 5N 29 | 8Piscium | 5°6|P 83|349 10 0 1ON) 7 44) 8 23) 7 N)14N — | 9—— 6|P 84134915 0 2 | 8'15 Rese DECEM- 380 Mr. A. H. Haworth on Plante rare Succulente. Dist. | Dist. Star. | ag, Cat. | R | D Im. Im--{) Em. 8 DECEMBER. os 3 ~ Up aote m|h / 2 Piscium 7|L 8] 21 45}13 I3N] 3 34) 4 22) 38 | 48 3 | Arietis | 6:7|P 112! 35 37/17 59 6 29| 713}14N] 7N 5 Tauri 78|/L 11] 62 33|22 28 5 2) 5 47) 48 |10S — 7|L 13] 64 27/23 6 8 34) 9 31)10N |] 4N _ 7|L 13] 64 40|22 53 9 0] 950|/ 78/128 — 67\/L 13] 68 16/23 14 | 16 41/17 25} 9S} 9S 7 | ~Gemin 3|P 74| 92 43122 36 5 26) 6 3) 8N/] 8N = 7|L. 9| 96 37/22 12 | 12 37/13 39) 8S | 48 — 7|\|L 9] 98 48/21 54 17 4/17 58} 2N| 8N ——— 8|L 13/106 7|20 24 6 25) 6 55,12 N/15N —_| — 7|L 13}109 18/20 3 8 8} 9 0} 6S | 48 — | — |78/L_ 13}109 30} 20 15 8 33) 9 10} 11N/{14N — /81——. 6 | P 194}113 38/18 59 | 16 37/17 42) 7S | 4N — Ale of als hee LS IONS Rizipe $1P | QUOTE tytn 5 “i F c Gt pe e9GG, pice hess OF wer; tts es lh. {Ts ses i y | vs | eis Mas ut ie t { fo alee *O8g) Cisse a ly Pati PIES pony PACH ee pron | tory Ro ~— LNiL [ 407 ] LXXXV. Observations concerning a Method of defending Ships and Fortifications against Cannon Balls, and of causing them to fly back again on the Enemy. By Lewis Gom- PERTZ, Esq.* AVING made some experiments on a plan which I had designed for rendering ships and fortifications shot-proof, and of causing several of the balls which might be fired against them to return upon the enemy; and having found my ex- periments, which were on a small scale, to answer my expecta- tions, I have here to explain the nature of the plan, with the hopes that it may be further considered by those whose scien- tific and practical information qualifies them for judging how far it might succeed on a large scale. But before I enter into this description, I think it proper to observe that the chief utility it may promise, is in its ap- plication to merchant vessels, ships of passage, &c., and for fortifications ; but for ships of war (as it could be adopted by both parties) its effect would become neutralized, though it seems that even in this case it would save the men from in- jury, and would always be in favour of the weak and defen- sive side; its nature being that of defending itself and of re- turning the blows, but without any power of attacking, un- less furnished with guns also. Figs. 4 and 5 show two views of a ship made on the plan. Fig. 3 is a section of a side drawn larger, the form of it being apparent by the drawing, in the three figures 3, 4 and 5; the same letters refer to the same parts. NWAL is a concave curve to return the balls which strike it: and PCO is a triangular piece (extending beyond NM and LK) which goes all round the ship to protect the most perpendi- cular part of the curve WA from being struck directly (other- wise it would be easily perforated), and which triangular piece, on being struck somewhat horizontally, evades the balls, and ides them properly to the return part NWAL, so that they follow the shape of it, and return. The part NM above the curve where the port-holes are, and the part LKQ below it, are made oblique, to evade those balls which strike them, the part NM sending them upwards, and the part LKQ di- recting them into the water, though it must be confessed that some of the former would thereby occasionally be thrown into the rigging; there are a number of supports shown near P, fig. 4, and also faintly expressed in fig. 5, which fasten the triangular piece to the ship, and the more acute the out- ward angle be, the less force will it generally be struck with. * Communicated by the Author. Vig. 408 Mr. L. Gompertz’s Method of defending Fig. 1 is also a section of a side of a different construc- tion, but inferior, and less applicable, though being more simple and on nearly the same principles, I will describe the nature of that first, or rather both together; the same rea- soning applying to each. BC is the side forming an acute angle with the water, and extending some way under the water, but not far, as balls do not generally penetrate that part of a ship which is far below the surface of the water; ST is a board placed as shown, so that there shall be a va- cancy existing between itself and the side of the ship ; this vacancy grows progressively less upwards, till there is only room left for a ball to pass, and the board is fastened by dif- ferent supports in places to the ship, but these are not put in this figure, as they would hide the operation. The part W is so curved as to return the balls after they have struck the inclined part; but as in this construction the return part might be struck by balls coming directly against it, without their having struck the inclined part, it might be required to make the most perpendicular place of it near P strong enough to resist the balls, this portion of the curve being very small. The effects then will vary in different cases, and will depend on the hardness and on the elasticity of the material ‘of the side of the ship, and of the ball; also on the force with which the balls are fired: the following results, it seems, would then be produced. Case 1. If the ball and the side were perfectly elastic, and of sufficient hardness not to be broken, or if only the side were perfectly elastic, then, according to the established law, the ball would be reflected backwards and forwards in fig. 1, between the side CB and board ST, and in fig. 3 between IC and IH, at equiangles, and would not follow the shape of the curve; and if the force of the ball should not be too much destroyed by the operation, it would at last be reflected off, though most likely not in a proper direction to reach the enemy. Qdly. If neither the side nor the ball should possess any elasticity, and the side were perfectly hard, whether the ball should be hard, or whether it should be soft (so as to indent), it would be turned out of the direction, and would in fig. 1, if struck at H, proceed up the inclined side BC, and would follow the shape of the curve W (the motion of the centre being shown dotted at IPQ), and it would then return to X and in fig. 3, if it should strike at H, it would proceed in the ‘direction of the whole shape NWAL (the motion of the cen- tres being shown dotted at HIJR); and it would return as the arrows point: but if, in fig. 1, it should strike at V, or in fig. et Se wht - sy: Ships, Se. against Cannon Balls. 409 fig. 3 at G, the respective balls would, after sliding or rolling up the boards TS fig. 1, and IC fig. 3, strike each of the curves in such a direction as to follow their shapes and re- turn, without any reflection taking place; and in fig. 3, those balls which entered at G would return at X, and wice versd. Case 2.—If the force of the ball K, fig. 1, should only be so far evaded by the inclination of the side, as to penetrate to about half the depth of its own size or less (shown large at xy, fig. 2); and if there were no elasticity in the substances; there would, it seems, then arise a great force to repel the ball beyond what is immediately caused by the inclination of the side, on account of the rotary motion the ball would have acquired by its action against the inside of the indentation: thus suppose BAHQ, fig. 2, be a section of the ball going nearly in a parallel direction CB, and suppose IKLQ be the indentation, in which place we will fancy the substance of the side to be so hard as not to give way any more, the effect, it seems, would then be, that the centre of the ball B would begin to describe part of a circle BN, about the centre I (the point where the indentation and the remainder of the side meet, and of the size of the ball itself). Then if the indenta- tion should be deep, and the velocity great, the ball would be forced completely out of it, and fly far above the top of the ship, because the part of the cirele BN, which the centre B of the ball would begin to describe, would be nearly perpen- dicular to the side SD; and as there would be nothing to -change the direction of the ball after it has once acquired this new motion, it would fly off in the direction of the most per- pendicular part of the circle BN, and continue in this direc- tion, though not of the continued circle BN, but in a straight line BR: if; however, the indentation should be small, the line BR would be more nearly parallel to the side SD, in which case the motion of the ball would not be caused to differ so much from the direction of the side, but that it might strike the flat board 'TS, fig. 1, in a direction KV, which would prevent it from flying away and direct it to the side again, so that it followed the return part and flew back again, after having been reflected backwards and forwards, not by means of any elasticity, but by the reaction of the inside surface of the indentation against the ball (as before described); and as there would be a loss of force at every blow, each indentation would be less than the preceding one, and each angle of re- flection would be more obtuse, as is shown in fig, 3, till the ball arrived at the return part WA, so as to follow the shape of it, ceasing sensibly to rebound when the indentation ceased sensibly to take place: but as the indentation and point I Vol. 62, No. 308. Dec. 1823. 3F would 410 Mr. L. Gompertz’s Method of defending would not beso hard as assumed, the effect would not be exactly as described; though as there would be a continual tendency for it to be so, according to the hardness of the side, it would be produced to a certain degree, and the ball would accord- ingly continually widen the indentation, and come out at some other point T, instead of I (fig. 2); and as the new di- rection would, by the yielding of the substance, be less per- pendicular than when the material was extremely hard, the ball would be the more inclined to follow the curvature of the side, and to return, and the less inclined to fly over the top of the ship; as the angles of reflection would thereby be- come still more obtuse every time that the indentations it would produce in its course would widen, as just alluded to. It seems that the tendency of being reflected by the reaction of the indentation would exist in some degree till the ball was ‘completely buried, allowing the material of the side of the ship to be as deep as the ball; because, suppose the ball to be partially buried to HM, fig. 2, (above the diameter,) and al- lowing even that it should still be as much inclined to go in its original direction CB as it was at first (though it is evi- dent that it must have acquired some tendency to alter its direction by the blow, &c.), then, to see this clearly, to the diameter xy, which is parallel to the side of the ship, draw another diameter VK perpendicular to it; it will be obvious that as the ball continued to penetrate, it would be opposed at its whole buried surface HK ; and it is also plain that, if the resistance to the part of the ball between x and K tended to press the ball upwards, resistance above this line between x and V would tend to bury it still deeper: but as the whole of the arc « K would be greater than part of the arc x V (HV being by hypothesis unburied), arc zV would always cause most resistance; there would consequently be more than a balance of force to press it upwards, which would exist till the ball was wholly buried, but would then cease. But both in this case and in case 1, the ball has two modes of acting, either in going up the side, or out of the indenta- tion, that is, by rolling or sliding, both of which would rob the ball of some of its force, by the friction produced ; but the less should be the impediments which cause friction, the more would it be inclined to slide, and the more of them there should be, the more would it be inclined to rol in its course; but even this would also rob the ball of:some of its pro- gressive force, and would be spent in giving a new motion (of rotation) to it, which would assist it to roll up the side of the ship or to roll out of the indentation: but it must be par- ticularly observed, that either the rotary motion of the ball, or the Ships, §c. against Cannon Balls. 411 the action of its curved surface in sliding, would tend to force the centre of the ball out of the indentation in the same man- ner, as it is easy to be perceived that the centre would de- scribe the same curve if it were to roll or to slide. It is moreover evident that ¢his power of turning the ball from its direction would be added to ¢hat derived immediately from the obliquity of the side, though this would be the cause of it all; or, in other words, the effect would be different (what- ever was the hardness of the side) from what it would be if the ball were a mere point or flat body acting against another flat oblique surface or indentation. Case 3. If the force should be so great that the ball en- tirely buried itself, there would even then be two circumstances in favour of this construction; first, that the ball would have to perforate through a greater substance than if the side were perpendicular to the motion, the distance of which is shown at HE, fig. 1, and the oblique distance shown at HO; and secondly, because the change of motion which would take place before the ball was quite buried (as above described) would still further increase the length of substance to be per- forated by it, and the course of the ball might be so much changed that it should (after it was quite sunk) have to per- forate the side through the remainder of its length upwards, instead of through its direct thickness. . It would be possible, however, for the balls to come in a perpendicular direction to the side, and to go through it di- rectly; but it is improbable that this should frequently be the case, and it seems that it would be less likely to happen if it were fired at from a short distance than from a great one, as then only a moderate elevation would be required ; whereas, when the distance was small, the elevation of the guns would become so great that it would be extremely difficult to take an aim so that the balls should come down upon it. It remains to be observed, that neither of the cases would exist altogether as described; but as all substances possess a certain degree of hardness and elasticity, there would be a mixed effect produced, though I do not conceive the elasticity of wood to be sufficiently great to alter the cases materially : the results would therefore, it appears, be nearly as stated when the elasticity was not supposed to exist, but with some very sensible difference. I have also to add, that since having made the preceding observations, I tried the experiments relative to them on a small scale, and found them precisely according to my ideas. The side, fig. 1, was represented by a deal board, 3-8ths of an inch thick; the return part W = was of plate-iron, and the 3F2 inside 412 Defence of Ships against Cannon Balls. inside of the board ST was (perhaps improperly) coated with iron; the bullets were of lead, and about one-third part of the weight of a musket-ball, and they were fired from a blunder- buss well charged. They made very slight long dents not 1-8th of an inch deep in the deal; and when the additional board TS was not used, they flew upwards and perforated the iron return part W; but when the board TS was added, they each made a dent also near the narrow part I, and fol- lowed the return part W; and then they returned against a deal board placed behind the stock of the blunderbuss, and left moderately deep impressions on it. I also made experiments on the plan of figs. 3, 4, 5, though on a still smaller scale, and on a model which was made of deal, but with the same accordant results to the remarks I have made. I rather think that a thin coating of iron on a wooden side would not be advantageous, as the iron would bend away from that part of the ball which it should be in absolute con- tact with, and the ball would then be improperly directed : therefore, whatever substance be employed, it should be of such a nature as to fit the ball as it goes, and the grain of the wood, of which the side &c. is made, should be in the direc- tion of the motion of the ball, no¢ transversely. It is scarcely necessary to notice, that if the object of re- turning the ball be dispensed with, the side may simply be formed into a triangle COP, fig. 3, 4 and 5, without the concave part NWAL; and in fig. 1, without the return part W, and board TS, though the balls would be thrown more into the rigging by this means. The lower part L should perhaps rather bend upwards to cause the balls to fly a litthe upwards in returning, because those which come against the side H, fig. 3, 4 and 5, will not only be lowered the whole distance between H and L, but, as they will return rather more slowly than they came, they will also be attracted downwards with more force by the power of gravity; the curve will likewise be more effective if made smaller at the entry NL, than at the other part WA. I have also to add that a coating of grease on the side &c. is, it seems, of service. But I am fully aware, that however the experiments might have succeeded in miniature, the great force of a cannon ball might defy them all, though it is known that slight obstruc- tious affect their motion when opposed to them obliquely. It also remains to be further tried, whether the balls would be returned with sufficient force. Any person repeating these experiments should (in order to Mr. Faraday on Fluid Chlorine. 413 to avoid danger) stand at the side of the gun at a great di- stance, and tie a string to the trigger, and of course must not place himself either behind or before it. These observations are meant also to apply to fortifications, where it seems that the plan would be as effectual, or more so than for ships. LXXXVI. On Fluid Chlorine. By Mr. Farapay, Chemical Assistant in the Royal Institution. Communicated by Sir H. Davy, Bart. Pres. R.S.* [¢ is well known that before the year 1810 the solid sub- stance obtained by exposing chlorine, as usually procured, to a low temperature, was considered as the gas itself reduced ito that form; and that Sir Humphry Davy first showed it to be a hydrate, the pure dry gas not being condensible even at a temperature of —40° F. I took advantage of the late cold weather to procure cry- stals of this substance for the purpose of analysis. The results are contained in a short paper in the Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. xv. Its composition is very nearly 27-7 chlo- rine, 72°3 water, or 1 proportional of chlorine, and 10 of water, ; < The President of the Royal Society having honoured me by looking at these conclusions, suggested, that an exposure of the substance to heat under pressure would probably lead to interesting results; the following experiments were com- menced at his request. Some hydrate of chlorine was pre- pared, and, being dried as well as could be by pressure in bibulous paper, was introduced into a sealed glass tube, the upper end of which was then hermetically closed. Being placed in water at 60°, it underwent no change; but when put into water at 100°, the substance fused, the tube became filled with a bright yellow atmosphere, and, on examination, was found to contain two fluid substances: the one, about three-fourths of the whole, was of a faint yellow colour, hay- ing very much the appearance of water; the remaining fourth was a heavy bright yellow fluid, lying at the bottom of the former, without any apparent tendency to mix with it. As the tube cooled, the yellow atmosphere condensed into more of the yellow fluid, which floated in a film on the pale fluid, looking very like chloride of nitrogen; and at 70° the pale portion congealed, although even at 32° the yellow portion * From the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, Part II, did 414 Mr. Faraday on Fluid Chlorine. did not solidify. Heated up to 100° the yellow fluid ap- peared to boil, and again produced the bright coloured at- mosphere. By putting the hydrate into a bent tube, afterwards herme- tically sealed, I found it easy, after decomposing it by a heat of 100°, to distil the yellow fluid to one end of the tube, and to separate it from the remaining portion. In this way a more complete decomposition of the hydrate was effected, and, when the whole was allowed to cool, neither of the fluids so- lidified at temperatures above 34°, and the yellow portion not even at 0°. When the two were mixed together, they gra- dually combined at temperatures below 60°, and formed the same solid substances as that first introduced. If, when the fluids were separated, the tube was cut in the middle, the parts flew asunder as if with an explosion, the whole of the yellow portion disappeared, and there was a powerful atmosphere of chlorine produced; the pale portion on the contrary re- mained, and when examined, proved to be a weak solution of chlorine in water, with a little muriatic acid, probably from the impurity of the hydrate used. When that end of the tube in which the yellow fluid lay was broken under a jar of water, there was an immediate production of chlorine gas. I at first thought that muriatic acid and euchlorine had been formed; then, that two new hydrates of chlorine had been produced; but at last I suspected that the chlorine had been entirely separated from the water by the heat, and con- densed into a dry fluid by the mere pressure of its own abun- dant vapour. If that were true, it followed, that chlorine gas, when compressed, should be condensed into the same fluid, and, as the atmosphere in the tube in which the fluid lay was not very yellow at 50° or 60°, it seemed probable that the pressure required was not beyond what could readily be ob- tained by a condensing syringe. A long tube was therefore furnished with a cap and stop-cock, then exhausted of air and filled with chlorine, and being held vertically with the syringe upwards, air was forced in, which thrust the chlorine to the bottom of the tube, and gave a pressure of about 4 atmo- spheres. Being now cooled, there was an-immediate deposit in films, which appeared to be hydrate, formed by water con- tained in the gas and vessels, but some of the yellow fluid was also produced. As this however might also contain a portion of the water present, a perfectly dry tube and apparatus were taken, and the chlorine left for some time over a bath of sul- phuric acid before it was introduced. Upon throwing in air and giving pressure, there was now no solid film formed, but the clear yellow fluid was deposited, and more daiseieies stil Mr. Faraday on Fluid Chlorine. 415 still upon cooling. After remaining some time it disappeared, having gradually mixed with the atmosphere above it, but every repetition of the experiment produced the same _re- sults. Presuming that I had now a right to consider the yellow fluid as pure chlorine in the liquid state, I proceeded to exa- mine its properties, as well as I could when obtained by heat from the hydrate. However obtained, it always appears very limpid and fluid, and excessively volatile at common pressure. A portion was cooled in its tube to 0°; it remained fluid. The tube was then opened, when a part immediately flew off, leaving the rest so cooled, by the evaporation, as to remain a fluid under the atmospheric pressure. The temperature could not have been higher than —40° in this case; as Sir Humphry Davy has shown that dry chlorine does not con- dense at that temperature under common pressure. Another tube was opened at a temperature of 50°; a part of the chlo- rine volatilised, and cooled the tube so much as to condense the atmospheric vapour on it as ice. A tube having the water at one end and the chlorine at the other was weighed, and then cut in two; the chlorine imme- diately flew off, and the loss being ascertained was found to be 1°6 grain: the water left was examined and found to con- tain some chlorine: its weight was ascertained to be 5:4 grains. These proportions, however, must not be considered as indi- cative of the true composition of hydrate of chlorine; for, from the mildness of the weather during the time when these expe- riments were made, it was impossible to collect the crystals of hydrate, press, and transfer them, without losing much chlorine; and it is also impossible to separate the chlorine and water in the tube perfectly, or keep them separate, as the atmosphere within will combine with the water, and gradually re-form the hydrate. Before cutting the tube, another tube had been prepared exactly like it in form and size, and a portion of water intro- duced into it, as near as the eye could judge, of the same bulk as the fluid chlorine;+this water was found to weigh 1-2 grain; a result, which, if it may be trusted, would give the specific gravity of fluid chlorine as 1°33; and, from its appearance in and on water, this cannot be far wrong. Note on the Condensation of Muriatic Acid Gas into the liquid Form. By Sir H. Davy, Bart. Pres. RS. In desiring Mr. Faraday to expose the hydrate of chlorine to heat in a closed glass tube, it occurred to me, that one of three things would happen: that it would become fluid as a ; hydrate ; 416 Mr. Faraday on the Condensation hydrate; or that a decomposition of water would occur, and euchlorine and muriatic acid be formed; or that the chlorine would separate in a condensed state. ‘This last result having been obtained, it evidently led to other researches of the same kind. I shall hope, on a future occasion, to detail some ge- neral views on the subject of these researches. I shall now merely mention, that by sealing muriate of ammonia and sul- phuric acid in a strong glass tube, and causing them to act upon each other, I have procured liquid muriatic acid: and by substituting carbonate for muriate of ammonia, I have no doubt that carbonic acid may be obtained, though in the only trial I have made the tube burst. I have requested Mr. Fara- day to pursue these experiments, and to extend them to all the gases which are of considerable density, or to any extent soluble in water; and I hope soon to be able to lay an ac- count of his results, with some applications of them that I propose to make, before the Society. I cannot conclude this note without observing, that the ge- neration of elastic substances in close vessels, either with or without heat, offers much more powerful means of approxi- mating their molecules than those dependent upon the appli- cation of cold, whether natural or artificial: for, as gases di- minish only about ;45 in volume for every — degree of Fah- renheit’s scale, beginning at ordinary temperatures, a very slight condensation only can be produced by the most power- ful freezing mixtures, not half as much as would result from the application of a strong flame to one part of a glass tube, the other part being of ordinary temperature: and when at- tempts are made to condense gases into fluids by sudden mechanical compression, the heat, instantly generated, pre- sents a formidable obstacle to the success of the experiment; whereas, in the compression resulting from their slow genera- tion in close vessels, if the process be conducted with common precautions, there is no source of difficulty or danger; and it may be easily assisted by artificial cold in cases when gases approach near to that point of compression and temperature at which they become vapours. LXXXVII. On the Condensation of several Gases into Liquids. By Mr. Faravay, Chemical Assistant in the Royal Institu- tion. Communicated by Sir Humpury Davy, Bart. Pres. BiS* ] HAD the honour, a few weeks since, of submitting to the Royal Society a paper on the reduction of chlorine to the * From the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, Part II. liquid of several Gases into Liquids. 417 liquid state. An important note was added to the paper by the President, on the general application of the means used in this case to the reduction of other gaseous bodies to the liquid state; and in illustration of the process, the production of liquid muriatic acid was described. Sir Humphry Davy did me the honour to request I would continue the experi- ments, which I have done under his general direction, and the following are some of the results already obtained : Sulphurous Acid. Mercury and concentrated sulphuric acid were sealed up in a bent tube, and, being brought to one end, heat was care- fully applied, whilst the other end was preserved cool by wet bibulous paper. Sulphurous acid gas was produced where the heat acted, and was condensed by the sulphuric acid above; but when the latter had become saturated, the sul- phurous acid passed to the cold end of the tube, and was con- densed into a liquid. When the whole tube was cold, if the sulphurous acid were returned on to the mixture of sulphuric acid and sulphate of mercury, a portion was reabsorbed, but the rest remained on it without mixing. Liquid sulphurous acid is very limpid and colourless, and highly fluid. Its refractive power, obtained by comparing it in water and other media, with water contained in a similar tube, appeared to be nearly equal to that of water. It does not solidify or become adhesive at a temperature of 0° F. When a tube containing it was opened, the contents did not rush out as with explosion, but a portion of the liquid evapo- rated rapidly, cooling another portion so much as to leave it in the fluid state at common barometric pressure. It was however rapidly dissipated, not producing visible fumes, but producing the odour of pure sulphurous acid, and leaving the tube quite dry. A portion of the vapour of the fluid received over a mercurial bath, and examined, proved to be sulphurous acid gas. A piece of ice dropped into the fluid instantly made it boil, from the heat communicated by it. To prove in an unexceptionable manner that the fluid was pure sulphurous acid, some sulphurous acid gas was carefully prepared over mercury, and a long tube perfectly dry, and closed at one end, being exhausted, was filled with it; more sulphurous acid was then thrown in by a condensing syringe, till there were three or four atmospheres; the tube remained perfectly clear and dry; but on cooling one end to 0°, the fluid sulphurous acid condensed, and in all its characters was like that prepared by the former process. A small gauge was attached to a tube in which sulphurous Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. 3G acid 418 Mr. Faraday on the Condensation acid was afterwards formed, and at a temperature of 45° F. the pressure within the tube was equal to three atmospheres, there being a portion of liquid sulphurous acid present: but as the common air had not been excluded when the tube was sealed, nearly one atmosphere must be due to its presence ; so that sulplurous acid vapour exerts a pressure of about two atmospheres at 45° F. Its specific gravity was nearly 1°42.* Sulphuretted Hydrogen. A tube being bent, and sealed at the shorter end, strong muriatic acid was poured in through a small funnel, so as nearly to fill the short leg without soiling the long one. A piece of platinum foil was then crumpled up and pushed in, and upon that were put fragments of sulphuret of iron, until the tube was nearly full. In this way action was prevented until the tube was sealed. If it once commences, it is almost impossible to close the tube in a manner sufficiently strong, because of the pressing out of the gas. When closed, the muriatic acid was made to run on to the sulphuret of iron, and then left for a day or two. At the end of that time, much proto-muriate of iron had formed, and on placing the clean end of the tube in a mixture of ice and salt, warming the other end if necessary by a little water, sulphuretted hydrogen in the liquid state distilled over. The liquid sulphuretted hydrogen was colourless, limpid, and excessively fluid. Ether, when compared with it in si- milar tubes, appeared tenacious and oily. It did not mix with the rest of the fluid in the tube, which was no doubt saturated, but remained standing on it. When a tube containing it was opened, the liquid immediately rushed into vapour; and this being done under water, and the vapour collected and exa- mined, it proved to be sulphuretted hydrogen gas. As the * T am indebted to Mr. Davies Gilbert, who examined with much atten- tion the results of these experiments, for the suggestion of the means adopted to obtain the specitic gravity of some of these fluids. A number of small glass bulbs were blown and hermetically sealed ; they were then thrown into alcohol, water, sulphuric acid, or mixtures of these, and when any one was found of the same specific gravity as the fluid in which it was immersed, the specific gravity of the fluid was taken: thus a number of hy- drometrical bulbs were obtained ; these were introduced into the tubes in which the substances were to be liberated; and ultimately, the dry liquids obtaiued, in contact withthem. It was then observed whether they floated or not, and a second set of experiments were made with bulbs lighter or heavier as required, until a near approximation was obtained. Many of the tubes burst in the experiments, and in others difficulties occurred from the accidental fouling of the bulb by the contents of the tube. One source of error may be mentioned in addition to those which are obvious, namely, -the alteration of the bulk of the bulb by its submission to the pressure re- quired to keep the substance in the fluid state, temperature of several Gases into Liquids. 419 temperature of a tube containing some of it rose from 0° to 4.5°, part of the fluid rose in vapour, and its bulk diminished ; but there was no other change: it did not seem more adhe- sive at 0° than at 45°. Its refractive power appeared to be rather greater than that of water; it decidedly surpassed that of sulphurous acid. A small gauge being introduced into a tube in which liquid sulphuretted hydrogen was afterwards produced, it was found that the pressure of its vapour was nearly equal to 17 atmospheres at the temperature of 50°. The gauges used were made by drawing out some tubes at the blow-pipe table until they were capillary, and of a trum- pet form; they were graduated by bringing a small portion of mercury successively into their different parts; they were then sealed at the fine end, and a portion of mercury placed in the broad end; and in this state they were placed in the tubes, so that none of the substances used, or produced, could get to the mercury, or pass by it to the inside of the gauge. In estimating the number of atmospheres, one has always been subtracted for the air left in the tube. The specific gravity of sulphuretted hydrogen appeared to be 0°9. Carbonic Acid. The materials used in the production of carbonic acid, were carbonate of ammonia and concentrated sulphuric acid; the manipulation was like that described for sulphuretted hydro- en. Much stronger tubes are however required for carbonic acid than for any of the former substances, and there is none which has produced so many or more powerful explosions. Tubes which have held fluid carbonic acid well for two or three weeks together, have, upon some increase in the warmth of the weather, spontaneously exploded with great violence; and the precautions of glass masks, goggles, &c., which are at all times necessary in pursuing these experiments, are parti- cularly so with carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is a limpid colourless body, extremely fluid, and floating upon the other contents of the tube. It distills readily and rapidly at the difference of temperature between 32° and 0°. Its refractive power is much less than that of water. No diminution of temperature to which I have been able to submit it, has altered its appearance. In endeavour- ing to open the tubes at one end, they have uniformly burst into fragments, with powerful explosions. By inclosing a gauge in a tube in which fluid carbonic acid was afterwards produced, it was found that its vapour exerted a pressure of 36 atmospheres at a temperature of 32°. It may be questioned, perhaps, whether this and other si- $:G? milar 4.20 Mr. Faraday on the Condensation milar fluids obtained from materials containing water, do not contain a portion of that fluid; imasmuch as its absence has not been proved, as it may be with chlorine, sulphurous acid, cyanogen, and ammonia. But besides the analogy which ex- ists between the latter and the former, it may also be observed in favour of their dryness, that any diminution of temperature causes the deposition of a fluid from the atmosphere, precisely like that previously obtained; and there is no reason for sup- posing that these various atmospheres, remaining as they do in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, are not as dry as atmospheres of the same kind would be over sulphuric acid at common pressure. Euchlorine. Fluid euchlorine was obtained by inclosing chlorate of pot- ash and sulphuric acid in a tube, and leaving them to act on each other for 24 hours. In that time there had been much action, the mixture was of a dark reddish brown, and the at- mosphere of a bright yellow colour. The mixture was then heated up to 100°, and the unoccupied end of the tube cooled to 0°; by degrees the mixture lost its dark colour, and a very fluid ethereal looking substance condensed. It was not mis- cible with a small portion of the sulphuric acid which lay be- neath it; but when returned on to the mass of salt and acid, it was gradually absorbed, rendering the mixture of a much deeper colour even than itself. Euchlorine thus obtained is a very fluid transparent sub- stance, of a deep yellow colour. A tube containing a portion of it in the clean end, was opened at the opposite extremity ; there was a rush of euchlorine vapour, but the salt plugged up the aperture; whilst clearing this away, the whole tube burst with a violent explosion, except the small end in a cloth in my hand, where the euchlorine previously lay, but the fluid had all disappeared. Nitrous Oxide. Some nitrate of ammonia, previously made as dry as could be by partial decomposition, by heat in the air, was sealed up in a bent tube, and then heated in one end, the other being preserved cool. By repeating the distillation once or twice in this way, it was found, on after examination, that very little of the salt remained undecomposed. The process requires care. I have had many explosions occur with very strong tubes, and at considerable risk. When the tube is cooled, it is found to contain two fluids, and a very compressed atmosphere. ‘The heavier fluid on ex- amination proved to be water, with a little acid and ee oxide of several Gases into Liquids. 421 oxide in solution; the other was nitrous oxide. It appears in a very liquid, limpid, colourless state; and so volatile that the warmth of the hand generally makes it disappear -in vapour. The application of ice and salt condenses abundance of it into the liquid state again. It boils readily by the difference of temperature between 50° and 0°. It does not appear to have any tendency to solidify at —10°. _ Its refractive power is very much less than that of water, and less than any fluid that has yet been obtained in these experiments, or than any known fluid. A tube being opened in the air, the nitrous oxide im- mediately burst into vapour. Another tube opened under water, and the vapour collected and examined, it proved to be nitrous oxide gas. A gauge being introduced into a tube, in which liquid nitrous oxide was afterwards produced, gave the pressure of its vapour as equal to above 50 atmospheres at 45°. Cyanogen. Some pure cyanuret of mercury was heated until perfectly dry. A portion was then inclosed in a green glass tube, in the same manner as in former instances, and being collected to one end, was decomposed by heat, whilst the other end was cooled. The cyanogen soon appeared as a liquid: it was limpid, colourless, and very fluid; not altering its state at the temperature of 0°. Its refractive power is rather less, perhaps, than that of water. A tube containing it being opened in the air, the expansion within did not appear to be very great; and the liquid passed with comparative slowness into the state of vapour, producing great cold. ‘The vapour, being collected over mercury, proved to be pure cyanogen. A tube was sealed up with cyanuret of mercury at one end, and a drop of water at the other; the fluid cyanogen was then produced in contact with the water. It did not mix, at least in any considerable quantity, with that fluid, but floated on it, being lighter, though apparently not so much so as ether would be. In the course of some days, action had taken place, the water had become black, and changes, probably such as are known to take place in an aqueous solution of cy- anogen, occurred. The pressure of the vapour of cyanogen appeared by the gauge to be 3°6 or 3°7 atmospheres at 45° F, Its specific gravity was nearly 0:9. Ammonia. In s¢arching after liquid ammonia, it became necessary, though difficult, to find some dry source of that substance ; and I at last resorted to a compound of it which I had occa- sion 422 Mr. Faraday on the Condensation of Gases. sion to notice some years since with chloride of silver *. When dry chloride of silver is put into ammoniacal gas, as dry as it can be made, it absorbs a large quantity of it; 100 grains condensing above 130 cubical inches of the gas; but the compound thus formed is decomposed by a temperature of 100° F. or upwards. A portion of this compound was sealed up in a bent tube and heated in one leg, whilst the other was cooled by ice or water. The compound thus heated under pressure fused at a comparatively low temperature, and boiled up, giving off ammoniacal gas, which condensed at the opposite end into a liquid. Liquid ammonia thus obtained was colourless, transparent, and very fluid. Its refractive power surpassed that of any other of the fluids described, and that also of water itself. From the way in which it was obtained, it was evidently as free from water as ammonia in any state could be. When the chloride of silver is allowed to cool, the ammonia imme- diately returns to it, combining with it, and producing the original compound. During this action a curious combination of effects takes place: as the chloride absorbs the ammonia, heat is produced, the temperature rising up nearly to 100°; whilst a few inches off, at the opposite end of the tube, con- siderable cold is produced by the evaporation of the fluid. When the whole is retained at the temperature of 60°, the ammonia boils till it is dissipated and re-combined. The pressure of the vapour of ammonia is equal to about 6°5 at- mospheres at 50°. Its specific gravity was 0°76. Muriatic Acid. When made from pure muriate of ammonia and sulphuric acid, liquid muriatic acid is obtained colourless, as Sir Hum- phry Davy had anticipated. Its refractive power is greater than that of nitrous oxide, but less than that of water; it is nearly equal to that of carbonic acid. The pressure of its vapour at the temperature of 50°, is equal to about 40 atmo- spheres. Chlorine. The refractive power of fluid chlorine is rather less than that of water. The pressure of its vapour at 60° is nearly equal to 4 atmospheres. Attempts have been made to obtain hydrogen, oxygen, fluoboracic, fluosilicic, and phosphuretted hydrogen gases in the liquid state; but though all of them have been subjected to great pressure, they have as yet resisted condensation. * Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. y. p- 74. The B. G. Bredberg on the green Garnet of Sala. 4.23 The difficulty with regard to fluoboric gas consists, probably, in its affinity for sulphuric acid, which, as Dr. Davy has shown, is so great as to raise the sulphuric acid with it in va- pour. The experiments will however be continued on these and other gases, in the hopes that some of them, at least, will ultimately condense. LXXXVIII. An Examination of the green Garnet of Sala. By B. G. BrepBera. * HE garnet of Sala, according to Haity’s crystallographical nomenclature, is Grenat trapezoidal, since it is bounded by 24 trapeziums, which are perceptibly striated parallel to the greater diagonal. The crystals are of a brownish yellow, sometimes of a yellowish green colour. Their surface has a resinous lustre; fracture uneven; lustre of the fracture dull; in thin splinters transparent; sometimes the crystals are semi- transparent throughout. They occur in a matrix of com- mon limestone with crystals of calcareous spar, galena, and blende. At present this garnet is only met with in collections, since it has’ not been found for a long time in the mine itself. The specific gravity of a regular crystal was 3°746. Its re- sult before the blowpipe is described in Berzelius’s treatise on the application of that instrument as translated (into German) by H. Rose, p.259.+ ‘The experiments with the blowpipe there mentioned, were undertaken with that species of garnet which is the subject of the analysis No. 2; that which was made use of for analysis No. 1 gave, on trying it before the blowpipe, a perfectly similar result. ‘The analyses were made in the la- boratory of Prof. Berzelius, where I had a favourable oppor- tunity of acquiring the most preferable analytical method. For the analysis No. 1 regular crystals were employed of a beautiful specimen, which, with several others, was found in the old mine by M. Pihl, captain of the mines, in the year 1780. In No. 2, intended as a correcting anaiysis, crystals from the collection of Prof. Berzelius were made use of. The * Originally published in the Trans. Roy. Acad. Stockh., but above from a translation in Schweigger and Meinecke’s Journal, N. R., band viii. p. 11. + In Mr. Children’s valuable translation of this work into our own language the results obtained by subjecting this mineral to the agency of the blowpipe are thus described, at p. 282. “ Fuses (without addition), with strong intumescence, into a black brilliant glass. With boraw fuses slowly and difficultly into a glass coloured by iron. With salt of phosphorus de- composes slowly, and leaves a silica skeleton. ‘The tint from iron disap- pears on cooling. With soda decomposes and intumesces, but afterwards fuses into a black brilliant globule. On platina foil exhibits traces of man- ganese.””—Enir. specimen 424 B. G. Bredberg on the green Garnet of Sala. specimen belonged to such as were found at a later period in the same part of the mine, in 1800, by the mining-master M. Billow. There was no apparent ground to expect so great a difference as the analyses afterwards indicated in the com- position of two specimens so similar in their appearance, their conduct before the blowpipe, and their form, and which had been found in the same mine. Analyses. In No.1, the levigated powder was decomposed by con- centrated muriatic acid, in which it was boiled for three days consecutively, after which the silica remained behind in gela- tinous lumps. In No. 2, on the contrary, the mineral was treated with carbonate of potassa, and exposed to a red-heat in a platinum crucible. In other respects both were proceeded with in the following manner: The acid fluid, after the separation of the silica, was precipi- tated by a trifling excess of caustic ammonia; the precipitate, after the lapse of some hours, was placed on a filter, and washed with boiling water, and then boiled for an hour with caustic potassa. The alkaline solution of alumina was super- saturated with muriatic acid, and the earth precipitated by carbonate of ammonia, washed and exposed to a red-heat. The oxide of iron left undissolved by the caustic lixivium, was dissolved in muriatic acid; the solution mixed with a little nitrous acid was made boiling hot, then neutralised with caustic ammonia, and precipitated with succinate of ammonia. ‘The succinate of iron was converted to a red oxide in an open platinum crucible. The fluid obtained after the first precipi- tation by caustic ammonia was diluted, warmed, and precipi- tated with a solution of oxalate of potassa; the precipitate col- lected on the filter was washed, and exposed to a red-heat in a platinum crucible. In determining the quantity of lime, I tried it, for the sake of certainty, with carbonate of ammonia, and when, after two or three such trials, no alteration in weight took place, the proportion of lime was calculated from the weight of carbonate of lime thus obtained. The solutions, after the separation of the lime and iron, were put together, mixed with a few drops of muriatic acid, in order to keep the difficultly soluble oxalate of magnesia in a state of solution, and afterwards mixed, in a boiling state, with a sufficient quan- tity of carbonate of potassa. After evaporating them to dry- ness, and redissolving in boiling water, they yielded magnesia. In No. 1, a trace of manganese was indicated by this process. In No. 2, on the contrary, the earth was scarcely discoloured after ignition. The ae ne Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. 425 The following were the results of the analyses : No. 1. No. 2. SiliGas sccwarscnecsine soy SOlOl Guns) AOOLTS Allminaterscaessieecace: (2 o Seen ces 2°78 Oxide of iron ... ... 92°18. 42.6, 25°83 NGMING qavabusvecsteasscs LOS Oca woe Magnesia .cesescecee 1:95 » soe 12°44 100:08 99°57 The amount of oxygen, calculating from these results, is as follows : No. 1. No. 2. Eo thie. silica s.daancss BO) sickens 18°47 In the alumina...... 3°51 ; 1°30 In the oxide of iron i te nr ie In the lime......... 8°93 : 5°12 . In the magnesia... mat sched ‘i silat The excess yielded by the analysis No. 1 is probably owing to a portion of protoxide of iron which the fossil appears to have contained together with the peroxide. The calculation from the proportions of oxygen gives reason for this supposi- tion. The mineralogical formula of these garnets of Sala is wiStpts. LXXXIX. Observations on Suspension Chain Bridges ; with an improved Method of forming the supporting Chains or Rods: accompanied with a Drawing. By Mr. J. SEawarp. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. EING some time back engaged in examining the Plans of a Suspension Bridge proposed to be erected in a di- stant part of England, I was forcibly struck with what appeared to me to be a great sacrifice of strength in the mode which is usually adopted in forming the suspending chains of such structures. Under this impression, I was induced to offer a plan for a suspension bridge on quite a different principle; the peculiar recommendation of which is to ensure much greater strength and stability from a given quantity of materials, than what can be obtained according to the present plan. My design was shown to several scientific gentlemen, but a want of confi- dence, I believe, prevented it from being adopted. My views of the subject are however unchanged, and I am satisfied that, Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. P Ben were 426 Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. were the principle of the design clearly understood, it would meet with a favourable reception. The number of chain bridges and piers which are now building or projected, render these structures objects of great importance: the principles of their construction therefore cannot be too fully investigated. In the accompanying design and description which I have the pleasure of handing you, in the hope that it may be found worthy of a place in -your widely circulated publica- tion, I have endeavoured to set the merits of the two plans fairly at issue, so that their respective advantages may be fully appreciated. It is right you should be informed that I find I cannot claim the originality of the idea, as I have learned (but not till long after I had written the accompanying description) that a bridge on nearly the same principles was projected some years back by a gentleman of the name of Anderson, and a similar one by another gentleman of the name of Loudon. The plan of the latter is accompanied by some geometrical references, but which Ido not think are quite explicit, or calculated to place the merits of the question in the clearest point of view. I am yours, &Xc. 12 Walcot Place, Lambeth, JoHN SEAWARD. Dec. 11, 1823. —_—-- Tue first suspension bridges that were ever formed, were probably nothing more than two or three ropes or flexible chains stretched across a river from two eminences, upon which boards were placed, and thus formed a tolerably easy communication between the opposite shores: something of this kind we are informed were the bridges of the Peruvians and other primitive nations. But when suspension bridges became objects of attention to more polished nations, the plan of forming the roadway upon the chains themselves was soon perceived to be attended with many inconveniences; a much more eligible plan was therefore early adopted, namely, the forming the roadway in a perfectly horizontal straight line, and suspending it by means of chains attached to high towers placed at the ends of the bridge. On this plan a suspension bridge has lately been built over the river Tweed: and the noble structure intended to form a communication between the opposite shores of the Menai is proposed to be executed in a similar way. Fig. 1 is an elevation of a suspension bridge of this description :— ACB represents the chain in the form of the catenary curve ; the horizontal roadway EF being supported by vertical rods attached to the suspending chain. Notwith- Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. 427 Notwithstanding the great change that has been made from the primitive plan of the suspension bridge as above described, still the original form of the suspending chain has been in- variably preserved: why it has been so preserved is not easy to determine, because it is quite certain that a suspension bridge can be built equally well without having the suspend- ing chains in that particular form. Fig.2 is the elevation of a suspension bridge, wherein the catenary curve is not employed; the platform of the roadway being supported by straight diagonal rods attached to the tops of the two towers. A suspension bridge may be built on this plan, with the same quantity of materials, that shall possess double the strength of one formed on the common plan, as will be fully demonstrated in the course of the following ob- servations. It is well known that the strain or stress on the chain at the two points A and B (fig. 1.), supposing them to be at the same altitude, is as the co-secant of the angle CBH, formed by the direction of the chain, at the point of suspension, and a horizontal line BH: radius being as half the weight of the whole bridge, including the chains and all adventitious load- ing. Now as it is of great importance to reduce as much as possible the height of the towers, it generally happens that the aforesaid angle CBH becomes very small; and conse- quently its co-secant very considerable, compared with ra- dius; which is the reason that in many cases the strain at the points of suspension is increased to three or four times the absolute weight of the whole bridge. : But what is particularly deserving of notice, is, that it is not the middle part only of the roadway and loading that has to be supported under this small disadvantageous angle CBH; but the whole roadway and loading from end to end (E to F) have to be thus supported. But if, instead of employing the catenary curve, the roadway were to be suspended by a num- ber of straight diagonal rods aB, 5B, cB (fig. 2.), and sup- posing each rod to support an equal portion of the load, it is plain that the stress upon the different rods will vary consi- derably; for although the strain upon @B, bB, &c. (where the angle aBH, 6BH, &c. is small) would still be very great; yet when we come to the rods /B, 7B &c., we shall find that the strain upon them would be reduced to about one quarter of what it ison aB, 6B, &c., which is a most important consider- ation ! And again: supposing (what is not true) that the strain upon the whole of the diagonal rods at B (fig. 2.), taken to- 3h12 gether, 428 Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. gether, were equal to the strain on the catenary curve at B (fig. 1.), yet as the rods /B, 7B, &c. (supporting equal portions of the load) are* much shorter than the others, there would from that circumstance alone arise a very considerable saving. But taking into account the diminution of the strain on the shorter rods, as also the dispensing with the vertical rods al- together, it must be quite clear to every one, on a little re- flection, that the advantages in point of strength must be decidedly in favour of a bridge built on the new plan. But as it will be much more satisfactory to illustrate what has been stated above by a practical example, I will proceed to describe, as far as is essential, a suspension bridge which has been proposed to be erected in a distant part of England on the common principle of the catenary curve: and com- paring it with one recommended to be built on the new plan, with the same quantity of materials, the superiority of the latter will readily appear. The bridge in question is proposed to be 400 feet between the points of suspension A and B (see fig. 1.); the height of the points of suspension from B to F 33 feet; the versed sine or deflexure of the curve H to C 27 feet; and from the ver- tex of the curve to the top of the platform C to D 6 feet; the length of the platform or roadway from E to F about 392 feet. The weight of the timber platform, the tram plates, fencing, vertical rods, the chains between the points of sus- pension, &c., is estimated to amount to about 150 tons; and on an extraordinary occasion, —the passing of a regiment of soldiers, or of a large drove of cattle,—it 1s presumed might throw an additional load of 150 tons weight on the bridge, making in the whole an aggregate weight of 300 tons to be cal- culated for in the strength of the supporting chains. The chains are proposed to be formed of sixteen 1? in. round rods connected together in 9 feet lengths by pins and shackles, and the roadway supported by 1 in. round vertical rods. Now a flexible chain of uniform weight suspended at two points 400 feet distant from each other, and hanging freely with a deflexure of 27 feet, will, according to writers on the catenary curve, make the angle CBH equal 15° 12’ nearly: and the length of the chain will be 404-816 feet. And sup- posing the whole weight to be 300 tons as above stated, the strain at each point of suspension will be equal to 5727105 tons. The strain upon every square inch of sectional area in the sixteen chains will be equal to 14°865 tons, or 15 tons nearly. And Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. 429 And the quantity of metal in the chains, wi Tons. 16 x 404°816 feet x 12 in. round, = 186950 cubic + 29-595 TOC HESS me OO ee ey Pant wed ee Add one-third extra forthe joints. . . . . . 7508 Add for the suspending or verticalrods. . . . 9°500 Total 393 Making in the whole 394 tons of chains and rods to support the roadway, and allowing a strain of 15 tens on every square inch of sectional area of the chains. We will now suppose another bridge to be built of pre- cisely the same dimensions as the one already described ; but instead of employing the catenary curve, the roadway in this case to be supported by means of 20 straight diagonal rods as shown in fig. 11, and let the weight of the roadway, chains, adventitious load, &c., be still equal to 300 tons. Now if the platform from E to F be divided into 21 equal parts, as ab, dc, cd, &c., and the rods aB, OB, cB, &c., attached to the points a, b, c, &c., then will each rod bear a twentieth part of the 300 tons, or 15 tons pressing perpendicularly. But the strain upon every one of the diagonal rods aB, dB, &c., compared with the absolute weight (15 tons) pressing per- pendicularly, will be as the co-secant of the angle aBH, 6BH, &c., to radius: but the co-secant of the angle @BH is as the hy- pothenuse @B of the right-angled triangle anB: therefore it is plain that the stress upon each of the diagonal rods will be directly as the length of the rod itself, radius being equal to Bn=33 feet. And as the equal parts ab, bc, &c., are equal each to 18 feet 8 inches, and Fn is equal to 4 feet; the length of the rods aB, OB, &c., is easily found, and consequently the strain also. Thus the length of aB is equal to 193-46 feet. And as rad. (33 feet): 15 tons:: co-sec. 2aBH (193°46 feet) : 87°93 tons, equal the strain on that rod. Now if we allow 7 tons only of strain upon every square inch of sectional area of the diagonal rods, we shall thereby obtain the requisite di- mensions for the rod, which for aB will be found equal to 12°56 square inches of sectional area. And if the length of the rod be multiplied by the sectional area thus found, it will give the quantity of metal in the rod, which in aB is equal 29°158 cubic inches. In the same way the length, sectional area, and quantity of metal in each of the other rods 6B, cB, dB, &c., may be ascer- tained, as in the following table: Table 430 Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. Table of the Length, Sectional Area, §c., of the diagonal Rods. Sectional Area Cubic inches in square pote of poet in 3 allowing 7 tons each rod, Length of Rod. Strain. per pee inch. Feet. Tons. Inches. Inches. No. 1 rod aB, 193°46 87°93 12°56 29°158 2 do. 6B, 17513 79:12 11°30 23°747 Sida: ery. 156°82 (1:28 10°18 19°157 4. G0... Cb, 138°61 63°00 9: 14°969 i daheat s Vo iter le 120°55 54°79 7°82 11°312 6 do es 102°75 46°70 6°67 8°224 7 Os eB, 85°27 38°75 5°53 5°658 8. do... AB, 68°48 31°13 4°45 3°656 9 / do. “2B, 52°87 94°03 3°43 2°176 10 do. “&B, 40°03 18°19 2°60 1°249 ’ 119°306 And for the two ends of the bridge 2 238°612 Equal to 28°8 tons Add one-third extra for joints 9°6 (N. B. From there being no necessity of having the rods in short pieces, as is the case with the chains, one- third extra would not be required for the joints ; but as there will be.something additional for bolting the rods to the platform, the same allowance is made here.) Add for struts Jc, le, Ji, &c. for keeping \ "dee the, ods, strane pe. 0) aK Meba yom he Jatals 9 $94 tons Making a total of 394 tons of metal in the rods, being the same quantity as would be required for the chains, as already shown ; but with this important difference, that while the strain upon the catenary curve would be equal to 15 tons per square inch of sectional area, upon the diagonal rods the strain would be only 7 tons per square inch. Whence it is mani- fest that, by adopting the new plan, a suspension bridge might be built with the same quantity of materials, and possessing more than double the strength of one built on the old plan of the catenary curve. It is right here to observe, that the plan is not entirely free from objections: several have been made; but the only one which appears to be deserving of particular consideration is the following, viz. ‘* Supposing it to be perfectly true that, by employing the diagonal rods in a suspension bridge, the strain is Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. 431 is reduced one-half, while the load is uniformly distributed over the bridge; yet it is likely to happen that such an accu- mulation of weight may take place at some one point, as would produce a greater strain than could possibly occur in the catenary curve; because under such circumstances the whole weight would have to be supported by cne set of rods only; whereas in the catenary curve every part of the chain would be called into action, and therefore the strain upon the latter would be proportionably much less.” In answer to this objection it is proper to remark, that the greatest accumulation of weight that could possibly occur to affect the suspending rods on the new plan, would most likely be by two heavy road waggons going over the bridge at the same time in contrary directions, and passing each other ; it being presumed that, in such case, the whole weight of the two waggons would be thrown on one set of rods only. Now the weight of two large road waggons, with their load- ing included (as limited by act of parliament), is 13 tons; but which may be stated at 15 tons, to compensate for any casual over-weight: and the weight of every portion of the platform ab, bc, cd, &c. is about 74 tons, making together 224 tons, which, under these circumstances, may be thrown on one set of the rods. But it has already been shown, that a weight of 15 tons passing perpendicularly would cause a strain of 7 tons per square inch of sectional area on the diagonal rods; of course a weight of 224 tons would increase the strain to 103 tons per square inch. Whence it would appear that circum- stances might occur to throw a strain on the rods of 33 tons per square inch more than what it was proposed they should sustain: and thus the presumed merits of the plan would be considerably diminished. Now admitting, for the sake of argument, that the above conclusions are just, it is but fair to remark, with respect to the catenary curve, that it is quite as likely this latter may be affected by a strain of 15 tons per square inch, as that the diagonal rods, according to the foregoing reasoning, may be affected with a strain of 104 tons per square inch. ‘Therefore, allowing the full force of the objection, it is still manifest that the advantages are decidedly in favour of the new plan. But on examining the matter a little more closely, it will be’ found that the objection rests upon two assumptions which are quite inadmissible. In the first place, it is assumed that the whole weight of the two waggons must necessarily be thrown upon one point of the bridge, and bas saga sus- tained by one set of rods only. But the weight of the two waggons never can be so drawn into one point; atiag han iinder 432 Mr. Seaward on Suspension Chain Bridges. hinder wheels of a waggon are generally 7 feet apart from the others; and therefore when the fore wheels of the two wag- gons come in a line with a set of rods, it follows that the whole weight will zo¢ press upon that set of rods only, but a con- siderable part will be thrown on the contiguous rods: and place the waggon in any other relative position, the effect pro- duced will be nearly the same. In the next place, it is assumed that the platform of the roadway will be made of such flexible materials, that a weight coming upon any particular point, that point must necessarily be pressed down, without communicating any motion to the adjacent parts, and thus all the weight would be thrown on one set of rods only. But this is not true of the timber plat- forms of suspension bridges; for it is usual to make them so very firm and stiff, that no point can be borne down without carrying a considerable length each way of the platform with it. The platform of the proposed bridge would be constructed of longitudinal planking, three and four inches thick, spiked down to transverse joists 10 inches deep and 6 inches thick : the latter being supported by four. longitudinal beams, 17 inches deep and 83 inches thick each, reaching from one end of the bridge to the other ;—the whole being firmly bolted and secured together, and forming a strong compages of tim- ber work 27 inches deep and 22 feet wide. If a portion of such a platform 37 feet long were to rest upon its two ends, and without being supported in any other part, it would ad- mit a load of 15 tons to pass over it and not sink in the mid- dle in any sensible degree. It is therefore quite evident, that the whole weight of the two waggons could not bear upon one set only of the diagonal rods; on the contrary, it could be satisfactorily proved that not more than half the load could be thrown, under any cir- cumstances, .upon a single set of rods. Now half the weight of the waggons would be 74 tons, which added to 7} tons, the weight of a portion of the platform, would make 15 tons pressing perpendicularly; and this, as has been already shown, would produce a strain of 7 tons per square inch of sectional area in the diagonal rods. It could be very easily demonstrated, that the objection, if it have any value at all, would apply with equal force against a bridge built on the principle of the catenary curve, in which it is known that all partial sinking of the road, in consequence of accumulated weight, is prevented by the stiffness of the platform, which causes the weight to be distributed over a considerable extent of the chain and vertical rods. It Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 433 It is presumed that what has been stated is quite sufficient to show that the objection is altogether groundless. And now to conclude, with a short recapitulation of the merits of the question: It is to be noted, on the one hand, that in the sus- pension bridge built on the principle of the catenary curve, the weight of the platform, chains, &c. (without any loading), will throw a strain of 73 tons per square inch on the suspend- ing chain; and that this strain may with great probability be increased to 15 tons: while, on the other hand, by employing the diagonal rods, the weight of the platform would produce a strain of only 34 tons per square inch, which strain could never exceed 7 tons per inch. In short, the strain in the new plan would, under a parity of circumstances, be always less than half what it would be in the old plan. XC. Derivative Analysis ; being a new and more comprehensive Method of the Transformation of Functions than any hitherto discovered: extending not only to the Extraction of the Roots of Equations, but also to the Reduction of Quantities from the Multiples of Powers or Products to other equivalent Ex- pressions, by which the Summation of any rational Series may be readily effected. By Mr. Peter NicHo.son. 5 Claremont-place, Judd-street. [Concluded from p. 355.] (TRANSFORM the function 3x*+42—1 into the function 3(@—0°2)?+ B.(w—0°2)+C, or to find an equivalent func- tion in v, where v shail be two tenths of unity less than «, that is r=v+0°2 —02|0:0 —02|]0: 4-0 aay 3x -2=6 | 46 x°2="92 | —08 6 | 5-2 We may here observe, by the by, that since to extract the root of an equation is nothing more than to diminish that root by the whole of itself, that is, by taking away the whole of the ‘absolute number, we have now taken away ‘2 from the root of the quadratic equation 32°-+4c—1=03 and if we con- tinue the same process by taking away a part, we shall at last arrive at the root, or as many true figures of the root as are found. In order to find a second figure in the root, we have only to annex a cipher to the dueclute number ‘08, and di- vide it by the preceding coefficient 52 ; then the number of Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. 3 I integers 434: Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. integers not exceeding wine is the next figure of the root, that is 80-52 gives 1 for the next figure of the root. We must now transform the function 3v?+5°2v—‘08=0 into 3(v—0:01)?+ B,(v—0°01)—0°08 by the same process ; therefore 5°20 —*0800 3 x°01=°03 | 5°23 x -01="0523 | —0277 "03 | 5:26 . Again: 2770-526 gives 5 for the next figure of the root, therefore 5-260 —-027700 3 x°005='015 | 5°275 x :005=:026375 | —*001325 “015 | 5°290 Again: divide_13250 by 5290 gives 2 for the next figure of the root, therefore 5°2900 —°001325000 3 x 0002="0006 | 5°2906 x :0002=-00105812 | —:00026688 "0006 | 5°2912 and so on. The method which is here investigated and exemplified in various applications, is not only more general, more con- venient, more obvious, but also less laborious, than any other yet invented; it groups all the elementary branches of algebra in one general formula. Scholium. The world has been much indebted to Mr. Holdred, as be- ing not only the first who invented a general method of ex- tracting the roots of equations of all orders; but as being also the first to discover the best mode of abridging the labour, when a certain or given number of figures was to be found in the root. In confirmation of this assertion, I have to state, that so early as the year 1810, which was nine years before the publication of | any plan to accomplish the same object, Mr.Holdred submitted his method to me; but my engagements at that time prevented me from entering into the subject. I have never made any pretensions to the discovery of Mr. Holdred, or of any other individual; but I solemnly affirm that upon my seeing his figurate method, I discovered the non-figurate mode from a consideration of my general method of transforming functions, published in my Combinatorial Analysis in the year 1818, which was just before Mr. Holdred had communicated to me his method of extracting the roots of equations. Upon Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 435 Upon my first examination of the figurate method, I per- ceived that the same process which served to transform equa- tions by diminishing their root would also extract their roots, if each root were continually diminished by a figure at a time. It was therefore evident to me, that whether Sir Isaac Newton’s method or my own were applied, the object would be accomplished by either; but as the theorem which I had already discovered was also a theorem for the summation of figurate numbers, I immediately reduced Newton’s method to my own formula, and from this source alone I derived the rule which I have applied to the non-figurate method in my own publications. This general method of transforming functions first oc- curred to me when writing my Introduction to the Method of Increments, published in 1817 by Davies and Dickson. In page 126 of this Introduction, my general method of trans- formation is hinted at; and in the same page an example of its use is given exactly in the same form as it was published in my Combinatorial Essays in 1818, the year following, and as it is now published in the Philosophical Magazine of No- vember 1823. When I first published the non-figurate method in my treatise on Involution and Evolution, as also in the extraction of roots in my analytical essays, I was induced, in order to abridge the operation, to omit the first column, which consisted of repetitions of the figures of the root; and also the columns of the multiples of the successive sums ; but the numerous ob- jections that were made to multiplying and adding in one line, which was rendered necessary by this method, have deter- mined me to give the operation in full, as I had originally published it in my Method of Increments, and more particu- larly in my Essay on Binomial Factors, published along with the Combinatorial Analysis. The application of my method of transformation to the ex- traction of roots I have considered only as an improvement on Mr. Holdred’s figurate mode; and although the principle may be seen in my Intredvaues to the Method of Increments and in the Combinatorial Analysis, which were both published before Mr. Holdred communicated his general method of ex- tracting the roots of equations; yet it is doubtful whether my method of transformation would ever have been applied to the extraction of the roots of equations, had I not previously seen Mr. Holdred’s figurate mode*. * I make this admission, because a similar improvement occurred to Mr. Holdred himself shortly after he had communicated the figurate me- thod to me. 312 To 436 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. To show the application, Let it now be required to extract the square root of the number 3856724. Divide the number into periods of twos from right to left thus: 3,85,67,24. Take the square root of the last figure 3, which is 1, and proceed as if it were required to diminish the root of the quadratic equation 27+ 0x7—3=0 by 1. 2 0) —3 Ixl=1]1xl=1|—2 tT] 2 20+2 gives 10 9 however will only succeed, therefore 20 —285 by annexing 85 to 2 1x9=9 | 29x9=261 | —24 9 | 38 240+38 gives 6, therefore 380 —2467 annexing 67 to 24 1x6=6 | 386 x6=2316 iF —151 6 | 392 1510+392 gives 3 3920 —15124 1x3=3 | 3923 x3=11769 | —3355 3 | 3926 and so on. And hence the common method of extracting the square root. 1 | 3,85,67524( 1963 1 1 29 ieee 9 261 386 | ‘2467 6 2316 3923 | 15124 11769 "3355 The preceding work is placed in such a manner as to ren- der it obvious to inspection, and therefore description unneces- sary. To apply my method of transformation to the extrac- tion of roots, as the multipliers for each distinct figure are the same, Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 437 same, it is quite useless to place them in the operation : I will therefore give another example, and will omit them in the work. Extract the cube root of the number 3. Here we have only to extract the root of the cubic equa- tion 23+02?-+07#—3=0. Now the nearest cube root to 3 is 1; therefore 0 0 =< 1 tweet l,l eee ere: IG ae Divide 20 by 3, and the quotient 6 would be the next figure; but as the work has not yet acquired a state of con- vergency, 6 will be found to be too much, and upon trial it will be found that no higher number than 4 will succeed ; therefore 30 300 — 2000 04 | 34 1361432 1744] . 256 04 | 38 152 | 588 O04 | 42 The work having now acquired a state of convergency, di- vide 2560 by 588, and the quotient 4 is the new figure of the root, therefore - 4.20 58800 — 256000 004 | 424 1696 heed 241984 | 14016 004 | 428 1712 | 62208 004 | 432 Divide 140160 by 62202, and the quotient 2 is the next figure of the root; therefore 4320 6220800 — 14016000 0002 | 4322 8644 | 6229444 12458888 | 1557112 0002 | 4324 8648 | 6238092 0002 | 4326 And therefore the root as far as the work is extended is 1°442; and if we divide the absolute number 1557112 with four ci- phers annexed by the coefficient 62208, we may have the four additional figures 2496, and thus extending the root to the ca figures 1:4422496. If we omit the first, third, fifth, &c. columns, and unite the parts of the other columns remain- ing, the work will stand as follows : 438 Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. Linea 0, 10) —3 1 1 —2 2 3 3 34 432 — 256 38 588 42 424 60496 — 14016 428 62208 432 4322 6229440 —1557112 4324 6238092 And this is the same example as was published in the post- script to my Tract on Involution and Evolution, and it is the same as the operation now detailed, except that the first, third, and fifth columns are omitted. A A B, on D, ue kon eee rstu + &e. ~ A B B, soait-hy BaD 4 Boe Sie: By we Then will B,=Byr—J) +A, C,=B(s—/)+D,, D=C(¢—I) +C, &c. That is, the coefficient of any term 7 is equal to the product of the coefficient of the next preceding term 7—1, and a cer- tain factor plus the coefficient of the corresponding term x—1 of the preceding series. This other factor is the remainder which arises by sub- tracting the last factor of any term of the first side of the se- cond series from the last factor of the (1—1)th term of the second side. For let r—hk=a’ r—1l =a" r—m=a’”’ s—k=V s—1=6” s—m=b” i-—kF=c' t—l=c" t—m=c” Then will k=r—a@’ =s—v =t—c &e. la=r—a=s—b" =t—c' &e. ma=r—av"=s—b"=t— ec" &e. &e. Divide the first side of the equation A=A by 4, and the second side by its equals r—a', s—b', t—c’, u—d' &c. by ex- ample 1 division, page 10, and we have A Cc cs A B D eee eee eee eee — —+ — + eee = + &c. r rs rst rslu To Mr. P. Nicholson on derivative Analysis. 439 To each side of this equation add B, and AEB ow ue oe SBE SH StS + 2+ &e. rst rstu Divide the first side of this equation by 7, and each term of the second side respectively by each of the equals r—a', s—l’”, t—c", u—d’” &c. by example 2 division, page11, and BA, iE Agee C. D; 23 eee be ee a Eee ced tee. Ue ee kl 7a r rs rst rstu To each side of this equation add C, and & +&e. A B B B; ST titgt, bee ae ea oy ese rst rstu Divide the first side of this equation by m, and each step of the second side respectively by each of its equals r—a”, s—b"", t—c”, u—d" &e., and ie OP MCB se 5503 pt Bes Soa foe en a tlie, ne hE PS Without proceeding further from the first division of the equation by / and its equals, we have B,=avA C,=0’B, + See the operation ex. 1 division, | 0 Reed OS page 10. &e. From the second division of the equation by 7 and its equals, we have B,=a"B +A C, =b'B;+B, : See the operation ex. 2 division, D,=c’C,+C, page 11. &e. From the third division of the equation by m and its equals, we have B,=a"C +B C,=)"B,+B, } See the operation ex. division. Dy=c"C,+C, &e. And so on. Now by arranging these in columns, according to the orders of the derived equals, we have B,=d A C,=0’ B, Di=¢.,G, B,=a” B+A | C,=b" B,+B, | D,=c" C,+ C, & Bo=ad”"C+B | C.=b’”B,+B, | Dy=c”C,+C, |“ &e. &e. &e. The application of this theorem may be seen in my Com- binatorial Analysis, under the article Binomial Factors. It applies to fractional infinite series in the same manner as the preceding theorem, which has been sufficiently illustrated by examples, does to whole numbers. XCI. On [ 440 ] XCI. An Account of a new Genus of Narcissex, allied to ~ the Genus Ajax of Salisbury. By A. H. Haworrn, £sq. FE.L.S., &c- To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Gentlemen, AVING recently obtained specimens and a promise of roots of two interesting plants very nearly allied to the Genus Ajazr of Salisbury, not as yet described in the techni- cal language of Botany, I have given to them the name of Diomedes, and herewith transmit to you a correct description of them, as follows, and remain Yours, &c. Queen’s Elm, Chelsea, Nov. 1823. A. H. Haworru. DIOMEDES. Character Genericus. Corolla limbo hexapetalo-partita, tubo clavatim cy- lindraceo valido, corona mediocri poculiformi petalos semizequanti. Genitalia recta. Filamenta subsequalia tubo semi-plusve deorsum connata. Anthere exiguze - lineares erectze. Oss. Herba (Parkinsoni fide) e montibus Pyrenzis, habitu omnino Generis Ajacis Salisb., cui locum in. systemate proximum tenet. Ab Ajace differt filamen- torum insertione, tubz coronzeque forma; Genus Quel- tiam Sadish. quoque approximat, discrepante tubo, stylo, A coronaque. Specierum Characteres. minor. I). filamentis tribus apice solum liberis, stylo corona 1. _breviore. Narcissus totus pallidus oblongo calice serotinus minor. Park. Parad. 73. 4. Descrirtio. Folia viridia semunciam lata obtusa striatula. Scapus uniflorus, florendi tempore peduncu- lum superans. Germen post anthesin compresso-ovale. Tubus 6-7-linearis subcompresso-cylindraceus, superné incrassatus sive latior, e viridi-lutescens. Corolla nu- tans, laciniis 6 subaequalibus elliptico-ovatis albis, basi distinctis luteis, stellatim expansis. Corona cylindrica poculiformis parum angulata laciniarum semilongitu- dine plusque, intensé lutea, ore recto subplicatulatim crenulato. Filamenta inzequalia gracilia lutescentia, superne alba, tria tubo alté connata et libera solim longitudine antherarum : tria dimidiatim libera, priori- bus parum breviora. Anthere tubum paulo supe- rantes Dr. Kaemtz on Electro-magnetism. 441 rantes lineares erectee exiguee albze, quasi imbecilles et forte sine polline. Stylus albus strictus antheras 3-4 lineas superans, at corona humilior, stzgmate obsolete trilobo. Germen triloculare embryonibus pluribus. Floret—Apr. medio. H. Y. major. 1). corolle laciniis oris reflexis, filamentis plus quam 2. semiliberis, stylo coronam aequante. Narcissus albus oblongo culice luteo serotinus maor. Park. Parad. 73. 3. Descriptio. Priore in omnibus triplo major at si- milis, scapo minus striatulo leeviore. Spatha uniflora. Corolle lacinize speciosee incurvo-expansee, ad oras al- tissimé reflectentes, basi imbricantes, tubum cum ger- mine eequantes, vel superantes, coronaque tertia parte longiores. Corona lutea, at pallidior quam priore, ore magis plicatim crenulato. Filamenta zqualia tubum longé superantia, sed humiliora quam corona; tria tubo inferné connata, at superné plus quam semilibera; tria alia aliquantulum altitis tubo connexa. Anthere erecte, externé parum curvatulz, colore subaurantiaco, polline magis conspicuo quam in priore, sed non abundante. Stylus prioris, at major, coronz longitudine. Floret fine Aprilis. H. %. XCII. On the Law according to which the Electro-Magnetic Power of the Connecting Wire of the Voltaic Pile is aug- mented by Schweigger’s Multiplier. By L. ¥. Kaemrz, Phil. Doct., of Halle.* 1, PMMEDIATELY after Oersted’s discovery had be- come known, the idea occurred to Professor Schweigger of increasing the electro-magnetic power of the voltaic pile by winding the connecting wire around the compass; he showed at the time, in his lectures, some experiments, with intent to examine in what degree the electro-magnetic power would be augmented by each additional convolution of the wire around the compass. The experiments, however, which were made here soon after the invention of the multiplier, were unsuccessful as to the discovery of a determinate law for this increase: (see Schrader de Electro-magnetismo, § 2. Schweigger’s Journal, N.R. bd. i. p. 6.) I considered, therefore, that it would not be superfluous to ascertain this law by more exact experiments. 2. Before I proceed, however, to the description of the ex- * From Schweigger and Meinecke’s Nucs Journal, band viii. p. 100. Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. sK periments 442 Dr. Kaemtz on the Augmentation of periments themselves, I will develop a few formule by which the amount of the electro-magnetic power may be found from the given angles of attraction or repulsion of the magnetic needle. M may therefore denote the power of the terrestrial mag- netism ; m the magnetic power of the needle, whose length is = 1. Now if the dipping needle is brought round an angle ¢ out of the magnetic meridian, then the terrestrial magnetism strives to bring the needle into the meridian again, and with a power too which is equal to M m. sin. c. (Compare Hansteen on Terrestrial Magnetism, part i. p. 130. Biot Précis de Physique, tom. ii. p. 26. edit. 2d.) The magnetic power of the connecting wire of the elec- trical apparatus now acts on the needle likewise. If it be required to calculate the amount of the magnetic power of the electrical apparatus, from the angle of repulsion or at- traction, where both powers (the terrestrial magnetism and the electro-magnetism) are in equilibrium, there are two cases to be distinguished: namely, the connecting wire either passes through the magnetic meridian, or forms an angle with it. a) If the electrical stream passes through the magnetic meri- dian below the needle from south to north, and above it from north to south; thus does it pass in SN; then it has on the western side a southerly, and on the eastern side a northerly polarity. The yy north pole of the needle (pole austral of the French) is driven towards the east, and the needle remains stationary in 7s. Now E may denote the mag- netic power of the connecting ,/ wire: this acts in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the wire, towards DE. Therefore we may at the same time take for granted, that DE is pro- portional to the magnetic power. We therefore change DE into DG and GE, in which ease DG is perpendicular to ns. Now the relation is, DE: DG=1; cos EDG, that is, E: DG=1: cos ¢ is consequently DG=E cose. The needle reacts against this power with the power m; the electro- the Electro-magnetic Power by Schweigger’s Multiplier. 443 electro-magnetic power acts at the same time inversely as the distance (comp. Biot Précis de Physique, tom. ii. p. 122. Han- steen in Gilbert’s Annals, bd. Ixx. p.175. Schmidt ibid. p- 248), therefore inversely as DE. But DE = sin. c. is for the length of the needle, which I have fixed above as =1. The aggregate power, with which the electro-magnetism and the magnetism of the needle act upon each other is therefore = Em = =En. cot. c. sin. c. Now if the needle is stationary in ns, then the electro-mag- netism and the terrestrial magnetism balance each other; it is- therefore ? Mm sin. c=Em. cot. c, and from this E= —"= M=sin. c. tang. c. M. (A) cot. c. The same equation is likewise applicable, when the electric stream passes from N. to S., only that the repulsion of the north pole is then a westerly one. b) When the connect- ing wire does not pass through the magnetic meridian, but makes an angle with it NCK=d. Here two cases are to be distinguished. a) Let the connecting wire intersect the mag- netic meridian in such a manner that the north pole of the wire and the south pole of the needle are opposite to each other. Here the magnetism of the con- necting wire acts so strongly upon the needle, that the north pole of the latter is at first drawn as far as to the wire, then passes on below it, and is next repelled again on the other side, so that the needle remains at rest in ns, where < NCn=c is put. Ifone again changes here DE=E into DG and GE, then is DG=E. cos. KCG=E. cos. (c—d). The aggregate power with which the needle. and the con- necting wire react on each other is therefore = Em —— = Em. cot. (c—d), consequently Mm sin. c= Em. cot. (c—d), therefore E= sin. c. tang. (cd) M. (B) 3K2 But N 444 Dr. Kaemtz on the Augmentation of N But the magnetic power of the connect- ing wire may likewise be of such amount only, that the needle remains stationary be- tween it and the mag- netic meridian, and W therefore in xs. In this case we find, in a similar manner, = sin. c.tang.(d—c) M. z (C) B) The connecting wire intersects the mag- netic meridian in such a manner that its north pole is opposite the north pole of the needle, in the direction KZ; therefore, wherethere is in KZ, on the right a north, and on the left a south pole. In this case the needle is im- pelled towards ns. Here we find in the same manner as above, E= sin. c. tang. (c+d) M. (D) s 3) The equations hitherto developed however are not quite exact, as it was taken for granted, that the conneting wire and the needle were lying in one plane. If, however, the needle be very long, and the distance of the wire from it very trifling, they may always be applied, particularly on this account, that the error which is committed by neglecting this di- stance, is generally committed in the comparison of electro- magnetic powers, and is therefore less striking. ‘The more exact equations however, which certainly are not so simple as the the Electro-magnetic Power by Schweigger’s Multiplier. 445 the above, may be very easily developed in the following man- ner. I have here the case in view, K in which the connecting wire passes through the magnetic meri- dian. Let KZ be the wire, NS the direction of the magnetic meri- dian, and the original situation of the needle, which now stands in ms in equilibrium with the terre- strial magnetism, and moves in the plane D'EG. Now let DD’ be the distance of the wire from the plane, in which the needle moves, which distance we will state =X. Now DE is =E; if § we divide this power into DG and EG, then we have iz: Ss DG=EFE. cos. EDG=E. cos. ED’G=E. cos. c. Now the electro-magnetic power acts inversely as the di- stance DE. But it is - DE= ¥v (DD?+D‘E?)= ,/(x?+sin.’ c). The needle and the electro-magnetism act on each other, therefore, with the power ; Em cos. c a/ (x? + sin.2 c) ? And because Em cos. c A (x? +sin.2¢c,’ Then is E = “© 4/(2*+sin.*c) M. (A’) The equations B C D change in the same manner into the following : Woseewe / (07+ sin.? (c—d)).M (B’) cos.(c—d) Mn sin. c= pr ndine / (e+ sin.” (d—c) ).M (C’) cos.(d—c) E= a V (a+ sin.? (¢ +d)).M (D’) 4) The distance of the connecting wire from the horizontal plane, in which the needle moves, can be very easily measured in a mechanical manner; every one may as easily perceive, however, that this method promises little precision. The equations themselves fortunately offer the means of determin- ing 44:6 Dr. Kaemtz on the Augmentation of ing the value of x. It is clear, namely, that E must be equi- persistent for the same electromotor, and for the same fluid. Now if the angle, which the connecting wire forms with the magnetic mer idian, is at one time d, at another d’, in the same manner the angle of repulsion at one time c, at another ¢’; then in the fir se. case : pais sin. c 2 2 fir E= —— Eos, (od) V(2 + sin.* (¢ d))M ; and in the second case jpegs eee Vv (27 + sin.? (c’ —d))M; cos. (c/—d’) therefore sted Vv (27+ sin.*(c—d)) sin. c/ 2s ~ cos.(c’ a + sin.? (c’—d’)) = (3 + sin.? (c—d) ) in.2 ¢ ; +e ee (2+ sin.” (c tif! )) Whence sin.? c sin.2 c/ (Cannes cos.? ae a)t = sin.*c’ tang. *(c’—d’)—sin.* c tang.” (c—d); and therefore {sin ce’. tang. (c! —d’)— sinc tang.2 (c—d)} ont cos. * (c—d). cos. os. *(c'—d!) ve sin, 2c. cos. ? (c!—d')— sin. 2c’. cos.2(c—d) * Now, in order to determine this value of x in my experi- ments, I gave various values to the angle d, and observed the corresponding angle c. My experiments were the following, and were fate with two electromotors. Angled | —20°| —10° 0° +10° | +20° Angle c | 24° 55’ | 22°12} 18° | 14° 38’/| 11° 337) A Angle c | 32° 50’ |.27° 55’ | 22°43’ | 17° 53’ B If the equations for the angles i in A be calculated first, and the equation for d= —20 placed in a series like the others, and the same be done with the angles in B, then we obtain, 0°17881z2*+0:0013134=0°14943 w2?+0°0066736 0°178812?+0°0013134=0°10557 x*+0:0100813 | from 0°178812°.0:0013134=0°077243274.0°013419 A. 0°178812*+0:0013134=0°05520327 +0°015114 0°302192?4.0°018769 =0-24214 «4.0:022915 ) from 0°30219.2* +0°018769 =0:17527 x’ 0'026138 Bi 0°30219x*+0:018769 =0:12070 x*+0:026398 ; Adding the Electro-magnetic Power by Schweigger’s Multiplier. 447 Adding these equations together, there results 1°621812?+0°0615606 = 0°92555627-+0'1207389, Also 0°69626422°=0°0591783 x*=0°084905 5. Setting out from these principles, I made several series of , experiments, in order to develop the law of the relation of the magnetic power of the connecting wire in Prof. Schweigger’s multiplier to the number of convolutions it was made to take. For this purpose I made use of a magnetic needle six inches in length, made by M. Kraft an instrument-maker of this town. Glass tubes had been applied to the compass, at two opposite points, through which the wire was introduced. The limb was divided into half degrees, and I could very well estimate small fractions of a degree, by means of a lens. The compass stood upon a vertical pillar, revolving on its axis, at the foot of which was placed a graduated disk three inches in diameter. In this manner I could put the connecting wire into each azimuth, and vary the angle d asI pleased. I could also use the same needle as a dipping needle; I confined myself, however, to experiments with the variation needle. The electromotor I employed was a simple alternation on Prof. Schweigger’s construction (Gehlen’s Journal, bd. vii. taf. 5. fig. 18: Schweigger and Meinecke’s Journal, N. R. bd. i. p. 7); the strip of zinc being about eight inches long and four wide, and that of copper consequently double that size. The fluid conductor was a solution of muriate of ammonia in spring water, to which was added about 0°01 of concentrated sulphuric acid. For connecting wire I made use of copper harpsichord wire, covered with silk thread, and connected with the electromotor by finer wire (No. 14). To the above I have to add the following observation : Several authors complain, that the results obtained by the electro-magnetic experiments can never be relied upon, be- cause this power rapidly decreases in a short time. ‘The re- mark may be true, but I maintain that this source of error may be entirely avoided. It appears to depend, principally, upon the construction of the electrical apparatus. Ifa vel- taic pile be made use of, the diminution of power takes place pretty quickly; it is much slower with the apparatus consist- ing of a copper vessel in which a plate of zinc is placed; and it decreases slower still with the couwronne des tasses. If the apparatus just described be employed, however, the diminu- tion of power takes place very slowly; but the precaution is to be taken of first bringing the metals into contact with the conducting wire, and then immersing the electromotor in the fluid. ‘ 448 fluid. In this case, as I have convinced myself by experi- ments made for the purpose, the diminution of intensity may be neglected at the commencement. It is also convenient, that the electromotor be always immersed in the acid in an equable manner, not quicker at one time than at another. The diminution of intensity appears to have some relation likewise to the region of the globe in which the electromotor is situated. ‘This however is merely a supposition, to which I have been led by experiment; I will not venture to main- tain that it is an absolute fact. I have also to observe, that the wire had always an equal length in my experiments, which is in all cases important, since the length of the connecting wire greatly weakens the electro-magnetic power. The fluid was always of an equal temperature; for the greatest difference of temperature, which was observed, did not amount to more than 2° R., and I can therefore take it for granted, that the temperature had been equal. 6. In this manner I found the following angles for every convolution of the wire around the compass. ss RE ee ied Dr. Kaemtz on the Augmentation of Angle }1 Convo2 Convo-3 Cito! Convo- 5 Convo-'6 Convo- 26 Convo d. lution. | lutions. | lutions. | lutions. | lutions. | lutions. | lutions. ° ° i ° ‘ ° 4 ° / ° / ° / 0 15 7 |22 5 (|28 30 |30 55 38 12 |41 56 70 20 —20/23 58 |33 47 [40 52 |44.57 46 18 [52 12, | 86 10 —40| 7 39(")|13 54%) 55 16 60 6 |63 15 |67 30 |109 38 — 60 8 5(*)66 12 |76 27 |80 25 |86 50 |130 10 —80 4 20(*)} 5 6(*)) 8 48(*)/13 30()|164 11 —90) 0 0 0 0 0 0 180 +20! 9 33 11454 |19 12 |21 52 |27 15 |30 5 50 16 +40|}5 4 | 910 |12 43 |13 51 |16 23 [19 36 | 36 30 +60 145 758 |10 2 |11 30 21 12 +80 2125 61.3 (6) |. 3,30 1) 3.45 7 +90] 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 This table contains, in the first vertical column, the values for the apie above denoted by d, i.e. for the angle which was made by the connecting wire with the magnetic meridian. The negative values of it indicate that in this case an attraction took place while the needle was repelled at the positive pole. The succeeding columns contain the angle c round which the needle was driven out of the meridian; the angles marked with an asterisk indicate, that the angle d—c, and not the angle c—d, is to be taken, and the equation must be applied. All the angles are at least from ten observations, and I very seldom took that point at which the needle remained statio- nary; but I usually observed several arcs succeeding each other, between the Electro-magnetic Power by Schweigger’s Multiplier. 449 between which the needle oscillated, and took the mean of them. 7. If we now calculate the intensities of the magnetic power of the connecting wire, we find, that if the power of one single convolution is made =1, the power of 2 windings ‘is =n, and that this apparatus may be more appropriately called a multiplier than a condensator. The values found.are as follows : Relative Proportion to one Convolution. Number of Convolutions. Coefficient of M. calculated. observed. 1 0°101749 1 1 2 0°214004 g 2°103 3 0°310509 3 3°052 4 0°408097 + 4011 5 0°4.92592 5 4°84] 6 0°605523 6 5:951 6 2°498289 6 That the law just now established does not exactly apply for 26 convolutions, cannot in any respect be considered as an instance of inaccuracy in it, but is probably an error in the observation of a convolution. The law is confirmed moreover in the following manner: If the connecting wire intersect the magnetic meridian under an angle of 90°, then we know that the needle is turned back, if the electric stream passes from W. to K. After I had pre- viously calculated the intensities for one or two convolutions, I then calculated the number of convolutions for this case. Then we have E=M, consequently the number of the requi- site convolutions = 5.4,;7 = 9°7. 1 \ook therefore at first 9 convolutions, then 10; in both cases the needle remained stationary ; but at 11, it immediately turned back very quickly. It results at the same time from the above, that if the con- necting wire pass through the magnetic meridian, the needle can neyer be repelled at 90°; for in this case, according to the equation (A’), we shall have I= tang. 90° ,/(a*+1) M; but as tang. 90°=, then the magnetic power of the con- necting wire should be infinitely great, therefore the magnetic power of the earth ought to be =0. Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. 8 L XCIIL. Sug- f 450. J XCIII. Suggestions for rendering the Labours of Foreign Astronomers available in Great Britain. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Att persons who are fond of astronomical pursuits must be grateful to those correspondents who occasionally convey important intelligence by means of the Philosophical Magazine. The article Ixxxvii, in the No. for last month, contains much information which probably would have been confined to a few men of science in the metropolis, had not the liberality of the writer communicated it to the pages of your Magazine. The activity of the foreign astrono- mers appears very remarkable; but from their works being principally written in German, and from the difficulty of pro- curing them, the labours of these philosophers remain in a great degree unheard of by many. It would be a subject worthy the attention of the Astronomical Society, to request their Secretaries to communicate any circumstances which may be curious or useful, received from the continent, for the information of the distant members. I beg leave to suggest to this Society, how desirable it would prove, if the occulta- tions which are given in the Philosophical Magazine, from Inghirami, for 1824, could be published, as observed by those experienced astronomers who have accurately verified the po- sition of their observations. But it would be still more grati- fying if the time of some of these occultations as seen at Green- wich could be made known; but this is perhaps too much to ask. It would also be extremely advantagecus to know the culmination of the moon’s preceding limb, in sidereal time, as seen at Greenwich during the early part of the moon, for the purpose of comparing longitudes by means of stars near her course, as mentioned in page 392 of the Philosophical Magazine of last month. ‘The theory of this operation is described at page 854 of Woodhouse’s Astronomy, &c.; and it would oblige many observers if the formulz for the correction of the pro- cess, which are said (page 392) to have been prepared by Ni- colai, Bessel, &c., could be communicated through the pages of the Philosophical Magazine, as the works of these great men are in the hands of few in this country. Dr. Brinkley’s for-~ mula is generally used; but still, without simultaneous co- operation, both occultations and lunar transits become little more than amusing sights; for, unless the observed time at Greenwich were accurately known, much uncertainty must remain; as the calculated time, from the imperfections of lunar tables, could not be implicitly relied on, to seconds, in de- dueing longitudes at distant places. It must be remembered also, Notices respecting New Books. 451 also, that unless the distances were within certain limits, the preceding limb of the moon would not be so proper as the centre, on account of the change in the moon’s diameter. But this would not be necessary for experiments within the shores of our island. Should any gentlemen, in various parts of the country, be desirous of making observations of this kind, the writer would with pleasure prepare a table of the moon’s place corrected, and a few selected stars preceding and following of the same declination, as near as possible, for the early age of the moon, during the beginning of the next year, and transmit it to the Philosophical Magazine. The result of such observations would ascertain to what degree of accu- racy this method would answer the purpose intended. But the observed time at Greenwich is the great desideratum, asa guide to all observers, in a series of experiments of this nature. M. Dec. 9, 1823. XCIV. Notices respecting New Books. SECOND edition of Mr. Tredgold’s Essay on the Strength of Cast Iron is just published; with considerable additions. These additions consist in popular illustrations and examples of the rules; a great variety of new experiments on cast iron, from whence the relation between the quality and the appearance of the fracture has been ascertained, and the qualities of iron fur- nished by different iron works. A new section has been added on the strength of malleable iron and other metals, with many new experiments on the strength of wrought iron, un-metal, brass, steel, &c. Several useful tables have been added, and the extent of the table of the properties of materials nearly doubled. Mr. J. E. Gray has in the press, The Elements of Zoology ; containing, besides an Outline of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, and a Natural Disposition of the Animal King- dom, with an analytical Table of the Genera, an Explanation of all the Terms used in the Science, illustrated by numerous Engravings. ‘This work will be upon the principles proposed by W. S. MacLeay, Esq., and the modern continental natu- ralists. Monographia Tenthredinetarum* synonimia extricata, Auc- tore Am. le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau, Societatis Parisiensis Historize Naturalis Membro. Paris, apud Levrault, 1828. * The appearance of this work may interest the young Entomologist, whose inquiry relative to British Tenthredos is noticed at pp. 155 and ot r. 452 Royal Society. Mr. De la Beche will shortly publish a Selection of the Geological Memoirs contained in the Annales des Mines ; together with a Synoptical Table of Equivalent Formations, and M. Brongniart’s Table of the Classification of Mixed Rocks, in 1 vol. 8vo. Messrs. J. D. C. and C. E. Sowerby are about to publish a Descriptive Catalogue of the Zoological part of their late Fa- ther’s Museum; in five parts, each containing one of the great classes of animals. The first part, including Mollusca or their Shells, will commence in the spring, and will form, when com- plete, a systematic arrangement of all the known recent and fossil species. It will be illustrated by numerous coloured engravings. XCV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. ON Monday, December 1, (St. Andrew’s Day having fallen ona Sunday,) the Fellows of the Royal Society held their Anniversary at Somerset House. At 12 o’clock, when Sir Humphry Davy took the chair, there was a numerous at- tendance of the Fellows, The learned President began the business of the day by reading the list of the newly admitted and deceased Members, and on the last occasion paid a tri- bute of respect to the memories of Dr. Jenner, Dr. Hutton, Dr. Baillie, and Col. Lambton, by describing the characteristic labours, virtues, and talents of these eminent men. He then ‘proceeded to state the award by the Council of the Copley Medal to Mr, Pond, the Astronomer Royal, for his various communications published in the Transacticns of the Royal Society. In a discourse, which was received with the most profound attention by the Fellows, the President gave a view of the im- portant labours which had been carried on in the Royal Ob- servatory since its foundation by Charles II., and which had led to the most important discoveries made in modern times in astronomical science. He entered into an animated pane- gyric of Flamsteed, Halley, Bradley and Maskelyne, and spoke of the glory arising to this country from the immediate or ulti- mate results of these researches, which, illustrated by, and throwing light upon, the mathematical laws of the motions of the heavenly bodies developed by our own illustrious Newton and his school, have given to us the true knowledge of the sy- stem of the universe. He spoke of the benefits which had been conferred, Royal Society. 453 conferred, by the observations made at Greenwich, on naviga- tion, and our maritime interests, repaying a hundred fold the liberal expenditure of Government on this great national esta- blishment. In speaking of the labours of Mr. Pond, he mentioned that the two most important points of research to which he had directed his attention, were the question of the parallax of the fixed stars, and observations which seem to show a considerable apparent southern motion of many of the principal fixed stars. Mr. Pond thinks there is no evidence of a sensible parallax. Dr. Brinkley, on the contrary, is of opinion that this parallax distinctly exists. The Council of the Royal Society, said the learned President, do not mean in any manner by their award of the medal to express an opinion on this subject*; for when two such observers differ, the ques- tion cannot be considered as settled: and he paid the highest compliments to the profound mathematical knowledge, acute- ness and accuracy of research, and extent of view, of Dr. Brinkley; and between his observations and those of the Astronomer Royal, the problem of parallax was now, he said, reduced within very narrow limits; but perhaps more perfect instruments and observations will be required for its complete solution. On the supposed southern declina- tions of the fixed stars it is impossible, said the learned Presi- dent, to form at present any correct judgement—such an im- portant result could only be established by new observations carried on for a great length of time, and confirmed by the experience of the best astronomers in different countries.—He desired Mr. Pond to consider the medal as a mark of the respect of the Society for the zeal and ardour with which he had pursued astronomy, and as showing their confidence in the general accuracy of his observations. He likewise re- quested him to regard it as a pledge, that future important Jabours were expected from him. He exhorted him to emu- late the fame of his great predecessors, and to endeavour to transmit his name to posterity by similar monuments of utility and glory. The Society then proceeded to the election of a Council and Officers for the ensuing year, when the following gentle- men were chosen : Of the Old Council.—The Right Hon. Sir H. Davy, Bart. ; * We are happy to find this sentiment thus publicly announced from the chair, as it at once shows the judgement and impartiality of the President ; and removes every idea that the Council of the Royal Society have, by their vote, declared any opinion as to the existing discussions relative to the parallax of the fixed stars, or as to the recent assertions of the Astronomer Royal relative to their southern motion. -- pit. W. f Ip 454 Royal Society. W. T. Brande, Esq.; the Lord Bishop of Carlisle: Taylor Combe, Esq.; J. W. Croker, Esq.; Davies Gilbert, Esq. ; Charies Hatchett, Esq.; Sir Everard Home, Bart.; John Pond, Esq.; W.H. Wollaston, M.D.; Thomas Young, M.D. Of the New Council.— William Allen, Esq. ; Major ‘Thomas Colby; James Ivory, Esq.; Sir James M‘Gregor, Bart. ; William Marsden, Esq.; W.G. Maton, M.D.; His Grace the Duke of Norfolk; Edward Rudge, Esq.; William Sotheby, Esq.; Henry Warburton, Esq. President.—The Right Hon. Sir H. Davy, Bart. Treasurer.—Davies Gilbert, Esq. Secretaries— W.'T. Brande and Taylor Combe, Esqrs. Foreign Secretary.—thomas Young, M.D. Dec. 11.—A paper was read, On the Nature of the Acid and Saline Matter usually existing in the Stomachs of Ani- mals, by William Prout, M.D. F.R.S.; and the reading was commenced of An Inquiry respecting the supposed Heating Effect beyond the red End of the Spectrum, by B. Powell, M.A., of Oriel College, Oxford. John Bayley and George Townley, Esqrs., were admitted Fellows of the Society; and MM. Fourier and Vauquelin were elected Foreign Members. Dec. 18.—A communication was read On the North Polar Distances of the principal Fixed Stars, by J. Brinkley, D.D. P.R.LA. F.R.S. This paper, as far as we could judge of it, appeared to be a direct attack on Mr. Pond’s recent doctrine relative to a southern motion of the fixed stars. The learned author adduces observations of Bradley in 1728, of Cassini in France in 1740, of Dr. Maskelyne at Schehallien, of Piazzi at Palermo, of Mudge in England in 1802, and of Lambton in Hindostan in 1805; and endeavours to show that the southern motion belongs entirely to the Greenwich instru- ments and observations. The author also complains that his catalogues of 1813 and 1823 are misrepresented by Mr. Pond, in his papers, and that they are even altered from their origi- nal form; for Mr. Pond has diminished the quantities in Dr. Brinkley’s catalogue, by applying Bradley’s refraction, whilst M. Bessel’s are left just as they were; and he is thus enabled to place his own as a mean between them. Dr. Brinkley has subjoined various tables to his paper as con- firmatory of the points here insisted on; and the public await with much impatience, their publication, since every thing which comes from so distinguished an astronomer cannot fail to be interesting and important. A paper was also begun, On the Figure requisite to main- tain the Equilibrium of a homogeneous Fluid Mass that re- volves upon an Axis, by James Ivory, Esq., M.A. F.R.S. LIN- Linnean Society. 455 LINNAN SOCIETY. Dec. 2.—A communication by Mr. David Don, Librarian of the Society, was read, entitled Descriptions of Nine new Species of the Genus Carex, Natives of the Himalaya Alps in Hepa, Nepal. In forming the cliaracter of the species, Mr. Don professes to haye followed as a model the learned Bishop of Carlisle’s Monograph of the British Species of this Genus, Linn. Trans. yol. xi. The species described are : -- 1. C. nubigena, digyna; spiculis subnovenis ovatis confertis, arillis ovatis striatis rostratis bifidis margine denticulato-sca- bris, glumis ovatis acuminatis, culmo striato nudo inferné tereti, foliis involutis.—2. C. foliosa, digyna; .spicd elongata, spiculis ovato-oblongis adpressis; inferioribus subremotis, arillis ellip- ticis rostratis bifidis margine lavibus, glumis ovatis arista- tis, culmo acute triquetro scabro, foliis planis.—3. C. flex- ilis, digyna; vaginis elongatis pedunculo brevioribus, spicis filiformibus cernuis apice masculis, glumis ellipticis acutis, arillis ovatis striatis pilosis rostratis—4. C. macrolepis, di- gyna; vaginis elongatis pedunculo brevioribus, spicis strictis cylindraceis apice masculis, glumis lanceolatis longicuspidatis, arillis ovatis rostratis scaberrimis costatis apice bipartitis. —5. C. longipes, digyna; vaginis elongatis pedunculo 4-plo brevioribus, spicis cylindraceis erectis apice masculis, glumis ellipticis aristatis, arillis ovatis costatis glabris rostratis. — 6. C. aristata, trigyna; vaginis elongatis sulcatis, spicis cy- lindraceis strictis apice masculis; terminalibus omnino mas- culis, glumis late ellipticis aristatis, arillis ovalibus triquetris ‘rostratis scabris. — 7. C. chlorostachya, trigyna; vaginis nullis, spicis foemineis cylindraceis erectis pedunculatis; mas- culis solitariis, glumis ovyato-lanceolatis acuminatis apice scabris, arillis ventricosis costatis apice rostratis bifurcis gluma longioribus. — 8. C. lenticularis, digyna; vaginis nullis, spicis foemineis filiformibus pedunculis patulis; mas- culis solitariis pedunculatis, glumis cuneatis: acumine longo spinuloso, arillis cuneato-orbiculatis papilloso-micantibus compressis marginatis. —9. C. alopecuroides, trigyna; va- ginis nullis, spicis foemineis erectis cylindraceis subsessilibus ; masculis solitariis, glumis ellipticis acuminatis superne scabris, arillis lanceolatis compressis levibus apice truncatis emargi- natis. Dec. 16.—The following communications were read : Observations on some of the terrestrial Mollusca of the West Indies, by the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, B.A. I.L.S. The following are among the species described : Helicina occidentalis, corpore liyido, dorso tentaculisque atris, 456 Linnean Society atris, oculis prominulis.—In montibus sylvosis Sancti Vincentii. — Bulimus hemostomus, corpore olivaceo-nigro corrugato: pede subtus pallido: capite bifariam crenato.—Jn dumetis Antil- larum. — Bulimulus stramineus.—Pupa undulata.— An Ac- count, by the same gentleman, was also read, of some rare West Indian Crabs. The reading of Mr. John Murray’s Account of his Experi- ments and Observations on the light and luminous Matter of the Lampyris noctiluca, or Glow-worm, was concluded on this evening. The writer, after detailing the opinions of various naturalists on the nature and cause of the light of the glow- worm and other luminous insects, proceeds to relate his own observations and experiments, which show that this light is not connected with the respiration, nor derived from the solar light; that it is not affected by cold, nor by magnetism, nor by submersion in water. ‘Trials of immersion in water of various temperatures, and in oxygen, are detailed. When a glow-worm was immersed in carbonic acid gas, it died shining brilliantly: in hydrogen it continued to shine, and did not seem to suffer. Mr. Murray infers that the luminousness is independent not only of the respiration, but of the volition and vital principle. Some of the luminous matter obtained in a detached state was also subjected to various experinents, from which it appears to be a gummo-albuminous substance mixt with muriate of soda and sulphate of alumine and potash, and to be composed of spherules. The light is considered to be permanent, its occultations being caused by the interposi- tion of an opaque medium. The Society adjourned to January 1824. We have to announce to our scientific readers, that the first Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club of the Linnean Society of London, the establishment of which has been for some time in contemplation, was held at the Rooms of the Society on the 29th of November, the birth-day of our cele- brated countryman John Ray. The Club is composed of members of the Linnzean Society devoted to the study of Zoo- logy and comparative anatomy, and has been organized with the view of advancing the knowledge of those sciences in all their branches under the sanction of the present Society. The Club will not have any publications of their own, but will submit all original communications made to them to the Council of the Linnzean Society, to be dealt with as other com- munications made to the Society. The meetings of the Club, at which all the members of the Linnazan Society are entitled to be present, take place at the Society’s Rooms in Svho- Square, ee ee . . Roological Club. 457 Square, at eight o’clock in the evening, on the second and fourth Tuesdays of every month throughout the year. Before the Club proceeded to the election of their Officers and the other business of the day, the followimg opening Ad- dress, explanatory of the views of the Club, was delivered by te Rev. Wm. Kirby, who was called unanimously to the chair. Address of .the Chairman (Rev. Witt1AM Kirsy, M.A. FR. and L.S., §c.) read at the Meeting of the Zoological Club of the Linnean Society held at the Society's House in Soho Square, Nov. 29, 1823. Gentlemen, Before we proceed to business, permit me to address a fe words to you, upon what appear to me to be the principal objects of our association, and upon the best methods of car- rying them into effect. I see many Gentlemen here present who, from their more extended knowledge of every branch of the science from which we take our name, are much more competent than myself to perform this task to your satisfaction, and upon some one of them I could wish it had devolved: but as your kindness has placed me in this chair, I will endeavour to fulfill this part of my official duty to the best of my abilities. I must previously state, however, that particular circumstances and engagements have unavoidably prevented my putting my thoughts together till after my arrival in town. ‘They have, in consequence, been arranged more hastily than I could have wished, and without the a of books. I must therefore solicit your indulgence for any imperfections of style or matter that may strike you in this address. Zoology may be regarded as including several provinces, in every one of which our knowledge is at present very imper- fect; and therefore contributions upon every subject which they include, as your taste and turn of mind may lead you, provided there is no waste of time and talent upon what is tri- vial and uninteresting, or has been already thoroughly investi- gated, will be acceptable and valuable. There is one of these provinces that I think ought to stand high in the esteem of every patriot Zoologist—I mean the study of the animals that are natives or periodical visitants of his own country. An indigenous Fauna is the first desidera- tum in our science; and could a work of this kind be accom- plished in every country, regard being had to natural bound- aries, we might hope to become acquainted with all the prin- pal groups of animals, and get a much more correct idea, than with our present imperfect knowledge we can attain Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823, 3 to, . . % 458 Linnean Society a to, of the genuine Systema Animalium, with all its affinities and analogies as concatenated and contrasted by its Great Author. With respect to Great Britain, in our sister science of Bo- tany a vast deal more has been effected than in Zoology. Our indigenous Floras, if we may form a judgement from the very few new plants, that after a very general investigation of the three kingdoms have been discovered, contain nearly a complete list of its phenogamous vegetable productions. In the cryptogamous department more numerous discoveries may be expected; but still even here the Botanist is before the Zoologist, at least with regard to invertebrate animals. The Vertebrate indeed of our islands, with the exception perhaps of those that inhabit our seas, are already, for the most part, well known and described; and all that seems to be wanted here is a more perfect acquaintance with their manners and economy, and with the varying appearances put on by some of them,—I speak particularly of the birds, in different periods of their growth. But undescribed British invertebrate animals daily flow in upon us in shoals; and perhaps it would not be speaking too largely were I to assert, that, excepting the Lepzdoptera or- der in insects (for a more complete knowledge of which we are indebted to a gentleman near me*) not one in ten, and in some orders not one in twenty,—I speak this with regard to insects, and under theeye of a friend + who can correct me if I have made an overcharged statement,—have been described as British. What is the cause of this difference between the two sister sciences? It has happened, because perhaps the beauties with which Flora allures us, are more open to general view and re- quire less investigation; that Botany has the advantage of first at- tracting the regards of the admirers of nature; and as she started first, so of course she has made the greatest progress. But Zoo- logy is now marching after her with rapid strides, and I trust will in time overtake her, so that the sisters may run the re- mainder of their race, as they should do, hand in hand together. Another cause is the infinite number, even of indigenous spe- cies, of the invertebrate animals, so that it should seem that a complete Fauna, if undertaken by a single individual, must be left as a legacy to a successor for completion. Vita brevis, Ars longa, is a most discouraging apophthegm to the general zoolo- gist, who without Herculean stamina undertakes the labours of a Hercules: but Vis wnita fortior, what one man cannot hope to accomplish in the usual term of human life, may easily and well be done where many unite their forces for that purpose. Did a number of individuals, sufficiently conversant with their * Mr. Haworth. + Mr. Stephens. science, Roological Club. 459 science, combine to produce a British Fauna, each undertak- ing a separate department suited to his talents and previous pursuits, this grand desideratum might at length be effected. It strikes me that this object might be put in train by the means and under the patronage of the Zoological Club. I see now around me a number of Gentlemen sufficiently learned in na- ture, and several who have drunk deeply at her well-spring of knowledge, who, if once they under ‘ls the task, would accom- plish it with the highest credit to themselves and to the great advantage of the science they cultivate. Let the members of our new-born institution, amongst other subjects, discuss this point amongst themselves at their meetings—weigh the diffi- culties—investigate the means—consider the proper persons— apportion the work—set their shoulders to the wheel, and the thing wiil half be done; for most true is that aphorism— Dimidium facti, qua bene ceepit, habet. But let me not be misunderstood on this subject: I do not mean that such a work should be read at our meetings, or ap- pear in the Transactions of our venerable Parent Society. This would be inconsistent with the nature of a Fauna, which ought to be published in a different form, and appeal more directly to the public for support on the ground of its own merits. Another important object of our association with regard to indigenous Zoology is this—That insulated observ: ations made by individuals upon the habits and economy of animals may not be lost. Few persons have an opportunity of tracing the whole proceedings and life of any species of animal; but al- most every one has it in his power to relate some interesting trait, to record some illustrative anecdote, of the beings that he beholds moving around him in every direction. None of these fragments should be lost, since each may lead to im- portant conclusions; and the whole concentrated may often form a tolerable comment, and throw great light on some perplexing text of nature. Under this head I may observe, that peculiar care and caution are requisite in noting the ha- bitats and food of animals, particularly insects; since great mistakes have arisen, and been propagated by high autho- rity”, from collectors being too hasty in torming ‘their opinions on this subject. Bare catalogues of the animals of a district, as such, are of * For instance, Curculio Alliaria \.. (Iynchites Herbst) really feeds upon the hawthorn, from which it may readily be conceived to drop frequently upon Lrysimum Alliaria, which always grows in hedges; and Rynchanus Fragarie ¥. (Orchestes Oliy.) feeds upon the beech, from which it may have dropped upon the strawberry. “3M2 little 460 Linnean Society little interest or utility; but when the localities of the ~Anizma- lia rariora are given, or a district catalogue is worked into a catalogue raisonné, and includes facts before unknown with re- ard to the animals it registers, it becomes a useful document. © note the soil, the kind of country and atmosphere that particular animals affect, makes such a catalogue more inter- esting. The relative proportion, where glimpses of it can be obtained, that different species bear to each other, or their numerical distribution in any given district, is a speculation worthy of the attention of the zoologist; and likewise to ob- tain as full an account as possible of those which are particu- larly detrimental to us either in the garden, the orchard, the forest, or the field. No papers will be more interesting than those which pursue the history of an individual through its different states ; and nothing is more important for the satisfactory elucidation of natural groups of insects, and in many cases to prove the distinction of kindred species, than the knowledge of their larvee. The above, and many others that I might name did the time permit, appear to be legitimate objects of a Zoological Society with respect to our zmdigenous animal productions. What further observations I have to submit to your consider- ation will relate to Zoology in general. No one who wishes to be at home on the subject will confine his attention to the animals of his own country. Doing this, he will acquire only shreds and patches of knowledge, and see nothing im its real station. 7! When we consider the infinite number of nondescript ani- mals, especially of insects, with which our cabinets swarm— the hosts of new forms that meet our eyes in every collection —the zoological treasures that our ships, whose sails over- shadow every navigable sea, are daily bringing into our ports, we cannot help lamenting that these, for the most part, must remain ——— sine nomine turba. But let us flatter ourselves that the society, whose birth we may date from this auspicious day*, will be the instrument of bringing to light and knowledge many a curious and interest- ing group, which would otherwise have remained unknown. Nomina si percunt, perit et cognitio rerum, says Linné. Names are the foundation of knowledge; and unless they have “ a name” as well as “ a local habitation” with us, the zoological treasures that we so highly prize might almost as well have been left to perish in their native deserts or forests, as have * Noy, 29, the birth-day of Ray. : grown Zoological Club. - 461 grown mouldy in our drawers or repositories. But when once an animal subject is named and described, it becomes a urna ¢¢ asl, a possession for ever, and the value of every in- dividual specimen of it, even in a mercantile view, is enhanced. It is extremely desirable, when gentlemen, moved by such considerations, set about naming and describing the animals, hitherto not so distinguished, which their cabinets contain, that they should copy the example of a learned friend near me*, who has done this in a style of superior excellence, and en- deayour to elucidate natural groups; as this will, more than any other method, tend to set wide the limits of our know- ledge in this department: but at any rate we ought to avoid giving insulated descriptions of a single species, unless it be remarkable either for its economy or structure; or belongs to a genus containing few known species; or fills a gap in any group. With regard to indigenous animals, it seems more important that new species should be described as they are discovered, this being a piece of domestic intelligence, which always comes home to us. When we are engaged in the study of animals, and more especially of groups of them, it is of the first importance, if we would avoid mistakes, that our attention should be kept alive to what the friend lately alluded to has said on the sub- ject of affinity and analogy. By his judicious observations on this subject he has opened a new door into the temple of na- ture, and taught us to explore her mystic labyrinths, guided by a safer clue than we were wont to follow. And whoever casts even a cursory glance over her three kingdoms will every where be struck by resemblances between objects that have no real relation to each other. He will see on one side dendritic minerals, on another zoomorphous plants, on a third phytomor- phous animals; and amongst animals themselves, he will see numberless instances of this simulation of affinity where the reality of it does not exist. From this part of the plan of the Creator we may gather, I think, that every thing has its meaning as well as its use ; and that probably to the first pair the Creation was a book of symbols, a sacred language; of which they possessed the key, and which it was their delight to study and decypher. But to return from this digression—LEvery circumstance connected with the geographical distribution of animals is ex- tremely interesting and important, and merits our full atten- tion. There is often something very remarkable in the range of particular tribes and genera. Some animals, for instance, are common both to the Old World and the New, while * Mr, W.S. MacLeay. others 4.62 Linnean Society others occupy a more limited station; some have as it were their metropolis, from which as they recede, they become gradually less numerous. Some again that are found inha- biting the plains of a cold country, take their station on the mountains of a warmer one. Every quarter or principal di- strict of the globe has likewise its peculiar types, so that a practised zoologist can often lay his finger upon an animal that he never saw before, and say confidently, ‘This is of Aszatic origin—this of African—this of American—this of Australa- sian: and even in cases where creatures from these countries are apparently synonymous with those of Zurope, there is, not unfrequently, a note of difference, that speaks their exotic birth. As the importance of assigning their genuine country to our animal specimens is now universally acknowledged, it would be a very useful labour, and form a very valuable communication, would any gentleman, properly qualified, un- dertake the correction of some of the numerous errors, with regard to their real habitat, that zoologists have propagated concerning the animals they have described. I must not pass without notice another branch of our science of the deepest interest and highest importance, and more particularly as we ‘have to lament that hitherto it has been very imperfectly cultivated, especially with regard to in- vertebrate animals, in these islands,—I mean the Comparative Anatomy of animals. France, in which this science has at- tained to its acme, can boast of her Cuvier, Savigny, Marcel de Serres, De Blainville, Chabrier, and others; Germany of her Blumenbach, Ramdohr, Treviranus, Herold, and a host besides; Italy of her Malpighi, Spallanzani, Scarpa, and Poli; Holland of her Swammerdam and Lyonnet: but the only boast of Britain, an illustrious one indeed, nec pluribus impar, in this department, is her Hunter; and even he, if my recollection does not fail me, employed his scalpel chiefly on the higher orders of animals. Medical gentlemen who cultivate this province have usually, perhaps, the human sub- ject too much in their view, and do not always recollect, that to compare one of the lower animals with this, without making a gradual approach to it by the study of the structure of the intervening groups, must inevitably lead them to erroneous conclusions. When it is recollected that- some of the most eminent comparative anatomists have not been professional men, | trust it will stimulate zoologists in general to labour in this field. I beg not to be misunderstood in what I have here stated. I have the highest possible opinion of the medi- cal gentlemen of my country in every branch of their profes- sion; I venerate their skill and science: but the most important duties Zoological Cl ub. 463 duties of their station imperatively call on them to look prin- cipally at the human subject: it is not wonderful, therefore, that they should feel disposed to refer all minor forms imme- diately to that standard. The zoologist has still other objects, and those of no com- mon interest, that merit his attention. The busy world of ani- mals that move around him, does not include the whole circle of his science; there are others that call to him frem the dust, victims of that mighty catastrophe that once overwhelmed our globe and its inhabitants,—antique forms that have not yet been met with by those “ that run to and fro to increase knowledge.” These also, from the giant mammoth and megatherium to the most minute grain of an oolithe, afford a legitimate subject to the zoologist; and amongst our members we number some who have highly distinguished themselves in this vast arena. To conclude. There is one other and great object which ought to stand first with every Naturalist or Association of Naturalists, the mention of which cannot with any propriety be omitted by me, especially upon the natal day of that illus- trious Englishman, the father and founder of Natural History in this our country, whose delight it was to celebrate ‘* the Wisdom of God in the Creation,”—that great object is the Glory of the Omnipotent Creator. “ Finis creationis telluris,” says the immortal Swede, “ est gloria Dei ex opere nature per hominem solum.” We fulfill this great end when we ascribe to him the glory of his works; and more especially when, setting aside, as much as possible, every false bias, our great aim is to discover the truth of things, their real nature and relations. And may we all with patient assiduity walk in this path, “ and proving all things, may we finally hold fast that which is good !” The following members of the Clo were appointed to form the Committee for the management of the. affairs of the Club for the ensuing year: Joseph Sabine, Esq.; Rev. Wm. Kirby; Adrian Hardy Haworth, Esq.; Nicholas Aylward Vigors, Esq.; ‘Thomas Horsfield, M.D.; James Francis Stephens, Esq. ; Mr. Thomas Bell; Myr. Edward Turner Bennet; George Milne, Esq. And the following members were elected Officers for the same period : Joseph Sabine, Esq., Chairman ; James Francis Stephens, Esq., ‘Treasurer ; Nicholas Aylward Vigors, Esq., Secretary. [We are glad to express our satisfaction at this new plan for the promotion of a branch of knowledge not at present 1n a due state of advancement in this country; as it will serve to produce co-operation and increased activity amongst = Ae ‘ ooists, 464 Horticultural and Geological Societies. logists, without detaching them from the general body of the cultivators of natural histor y, and without increasing that sub- division of them into detached and insulated Societies, which perhaps has already been carried to excess among us.—Ep1v.] HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Nov. 4th. The following communications were read : Description of a Pear-tree on which the Operation of reverse Gr afting had been performed. By Mr. William Balfour, Gardener to the Earl Grey, at Howick, Northumberland. Observations on the Effects of the Winter of 1822-3 on tender Exotic Plants growing in the open air at Kingsbridge, Devonshire. By Abraham Hawkins, Esq., F.H.S. On a Method of destroying Caterpillars. By Mr. Henry Ross, Corresponding Member of the Society.’ Additional Notes on the Utility of Graftnmg Wax. By David Powell, Esq. Nov. 18th. The Silver Medal of the Society was presented to William Wells, Esq., F.H.S., for his attention to the im- provement of Horticulture, and for his success in raising new Varieties of Double, Semi-double and Single Dahlias, Speci- mens of which have been shown at the Meetings of the Society. The Silver Medal was also presented to . Frederick Gar- sham Carmichael, Esq., F.H.S., for his attention and skill in Horticulture, as evinced by the Specimens of Fruits shown by him at various Meetings of the Society. Dec. 2nd. The Silver Medat of the Society was presented to Mr. Robert Buck, Corresponding Member of the Society, Gardener to the eerd Bagot, for his skill in the Cultivation of Pine Apples, as evinced in the several Seedling Fruits shown by him at the different Meetings of the Society. The following communications were read : An Account of a new Vari iety of Plum. By the President. On the Cultivation of the Pine Apple in low Temperature. By Mr. Archibald Stewart of Valleyfield, N.B. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Dec. 5. A Paper was read, entitled Remarks on the Geo- logy of Siam and GrchineCuidss and certain Islands in the Indian Archipelago and Parts of the adjacent Continent. By John Craw ford, Esq. M.G.S. “Dec. 19.. A Paper was read containing Geological Ob- servations collected in a Journey through Persia from Bushire in the Persian Gulf to Teheran. By “James B. Fraser, Esq. M.G.S. The author is of opinion that both the east and west sides . of Astronomical and Meteorological Societies. 465 of the Persian Gulf, to a great extent, consist of a calcareous formation, which, it is ascertained, in many parts continues far inland. Ina part of this formation, his route from Bushire commenced; between which place and Shiraz, the hills are composed of sulphates and carbonates of lime, and the strata often much disturbed. Through a large tract of this country, carbonate of lime is intermixed with the gypsum; but in parts rocks of pure gypsum occur, and very frequently accompanied by salt. Streams and lakes of salt abound, and there is a con- siderable one of the latter at Shiraz. Proceeding northward, the route from Shiraz to Ispahan, a distance of about 250 miles, lies over an elevated country, the nature of which is si- milar to that before described, but the carbonate of lime pre- dominates. Between the village of Gendoo and the town of Yes- dikhaust Mr. Fraser found clay slate, and a conglomerate rock inclosing pebbles of quartz, greenstone and limestone cemented by carbonate of lime; strata of this aggregate rock alternate with a finer sandstone. The mountains between Ispahan and Teheran are of a character very different from the preceding; among them clay slate was observed, and the highest region, which reaches a great elevation, consists of granitic rocks. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. Dec. 12.—Two papers were read this evening: the first being a very elaborate and able Preface written by the Foreign Secretary, J. F. W. Herschel, Esq., to accompany and explain a series of Tables for calculating the Places of the principal Fixed Stars, which have been computed by order of the So- ciety, and will be printed in the forthcoming volume of its Memoirs;—and, 2dly, A Supplement to a former paper read before the Society on the Theory of Astronomical In- struments, by Benjamin Gompertz, Esq. F.R.S. and M.A.S. METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY. At the second Meeting of this Society, held on Wednesday, Novy. 12, as mentioned in our last Number, the following gen- tlemen were chosen to fill the offices of President and Treasurer, and to form the Council. President.—Geo. Birkbeck, M.D. M. Ast. Soc. M.G.S., &c. Treasurer.—Henry Clutterbuck, M.D. Council.—John Bostock, M.D. F.R.S.; J. F. Daniell, Esq. F.R.S; William Shearman, M.D.; Thomas Forster, M.B. F.L.S.; C. J. Roberts, M.D.; Luke Howard, Esq. F.R.S.; Richard Taylor, F.L.S.; E. W. Brayley, Jun. Esq. A Sketch of a Code of Laws for the regulation of the So- ciety having been read, a Committee was appointed to revise and amend the same; and it will be submitted for adoption to a General Meeting of the Society, which will be held on Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. 3N Wed- 466 Mr. Pond and M. Bessel.— Astronomical Information. Wednesday, January 14; and which will be resolved, when the legislative business has been concluded, into an Ordinary Meeting, for the reading of papers, &c. XCVI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. MR. POND AND M. BESSEL. N our last Number we referred to a singular rumour, which had been circulated with much industry, relating to the bending of the telescope attached to the meridian circle at Konigsberg: and we ventured to contradict that report, on the authority of the gentleman to whom the communication was said to have been first made. We have since seen letters from M. Bessel himself, of whom inquiries had been expressly made relative to this assertion; in one of which he expresses himself thus: *¢ With respect to my catalogue of the declinations of the principal stars, I think the information which you sent me must be founded on some misunderstanding, since I have not the least suspicion that it is wrong. The effect produced by the bending of the telescope of my circle, appears to me to be so well determined that, in this respect, I can expect no further improvement without running the risk of greater inaccuracies. In my method, both of observation and computation, I have never neglected any thing that could have any influence of consequence: therefore I cannot throw any light on what you say, unless some one would point out inaccuracies at present unperceived by me, which might produce an alteration. ‘The whole of my proceedings are laid open to every astronomer in the 7th number of my Observations: and those who devote to them an attentive examination, will have greater confidence in what I have stated, than by listening to any idle reports.” In another letter M. Bessel expresses himself still more forcibly: but it is unnecessary to multiply this evidence, as we presume the public is by this time convinced of the falsehood of the report above alluded to. ASTRONOMICAL INFORMATION. The Connaissance des Tems for 1826 is arrived; and con- tains, as usual, a variety of interesting papers which have been read at the Board of Longitude at Paris, and which that learned body present annually to the public. The first is a communication from M. Gambart junior, director of the ob- servatory at Marseilles, of nwmerous observations made during the years 1820, 21 and 22, of occultations, eclipses of J upiter’s satellites, eclipses of the moon, comets, &c.; and affords a remarkable Length of the Pendulum at Paramatta. 467 remarkable example of the great good that may be effected by an active and intelligent observer, with even very ordinary instruments. Amongst the other papers we notice a very valuable one by M. Mathieu on some experiments made by the French, on the invariable pendulum, in the southern hemisphere; and in which will be found some new and in- teresting matter. ‘These experiments are compared with those made by Sir Thomas Brisbane in New South Wales (which appear to have been communicated to the Board of Longitude at Paris, as well as to the Royal Society of London): and the result produces nearly the same compression of the earth as that previously deduced by Capt. Kater. Prior to the sailing of the expedition, M. Arago assembled Cap. Duperrey and his principal officers at the Royal Observatory at Paris, and in- structed them in the mode of conducting the delicate observa- tions which they were about to make, and of handling the va- rious instruments that would be necessary for that purpose. In mentioning this gentleman’s name, we observe with much pleasure that he has been raised, in the Board of Longitude, to the class of Astronomes, in the place of M. Delambre de- ceased: whilst MM. Nicollet and Damoiseau are the two new members added to the class. of Astronomes Adjoints. The latter (it may be remembered) has lately made himself cele- brated by his new formule for the lunar tables, inserted in the Connaissance des Tems for 1824; and for which he appears to have been rewarded with the cross of the order of St. Louwzs, and of the Legion of Honour. These facts show that our neigh- bours are alive to the advancement of astronomy, and to the promotion of the best interests of the country. We regret that M. Schumacher’s Astronomische Hiilfstafein for 1824 are not yet arrived. LENGTH OF THE PENDULUM AT PARAMATTA. In Capt. Kater’s account of Sir T. Brisbane’s experiments made with an invariable pendulum in New South Wales, Philosophical Transactions 1823, p. 323, he thus states the general results of them : “Ifthe number of vibrations resulting from Sir Thomas Brisbane’s experiments at Paramatta be compared with the mean number of vibrations made by the pendulum at London, we shall have 39-07696 inches for the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds at Paramatta; ‘0052704 for the diminution of gravity from the pole to the equator; and 3,}.;, for the resulting compression; the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds at London being taken at 3913929 inches. « The experiments at Paramatta being compared with those 3N2 made 468 Preservation of Green-house Plants.—Roman Cement. made by me at Unst, in latitude 60° 45’ 28” north, give 0053605 for the diminution of gravity from the pole to the equator, and ;;}.,; for the resulting compression. “If Mr. Dunlop’s experiments at Paramatta be compared with those made at London, we obtain 39:07751 for the length of the seconds’ pendulum at Paramatta, -0052238 for the di- minution of gravity from the pole to the equator, and 751.,5 for the compression. Or, comparing Mr. Dunlop’s experi- ments with those made at Unst, we have -0053292 for the diminution of gravity from the pole to the equator, and 551.55 for the resulting compression. al ‘« The compressions here deduced must not as yet be deemed conclusive ; for it is well known that a very small alteration in the number of vibrations made by the pendulum would occa- sion a considerabie difference in the fraction indicating the compression. The indefatigable zeal of Sir Thomas Brisbane will, however, no doubt soon furnish additional data.” PRESERVATION OF GREENHOUSE-PLANTS. It has been ascertained, by Mrs. Tredgold, that plants may be completely protected from the depredations of insects by washing them with a solution of bitter aloes, and the use of this wash does not appear to affect the health of the plants in the slightest degree. And wherever the solution has been used, insects have not been observed to attack the plants again. As there is much difficulty in preserving a small collection by the usual methods, this notice of a simple remedy may be very useful. ROMAN CEMENT. According to an analysis lately made by M. Berthier, the component parts of Parker’s cement are: Carbonate of lime ....... °657 ee MIBEDESIA 3S oo) is) OD SEE REET ETA sce ee ee —— manganese,... 019 CO laip EGA ans IE) hives ta ce ee Then (ts ier | Cee a * +066 Water -* sess ee ee eee "013 1-000 M. Berthier is of opinion, that with one part of common clay and two parts and a half of chalk, a very good hydraulic lime may be made, which will set as speedily as Parker’s ce- ment. He concludes from many experiments; that a limestone containing six per cent, of clay affords a mortar perceptibly hydraulic. Lime containing from 15 to 20 per cent. is very hydraulic; and when from 25 to 30 it sets almost instantly, and may therefore be held to be, to all intents and purposes, _real Roman cement. SIR Sir W. Scott on Oil-Gas.—Expansion of Gaseous Fluids. 469 STR WALTER SCOTT ON OIL-GAS. At a late Meeting of the Edinburgh Oil-Gas Company, Sir Walter Scott said, that he had now had three months experience of Oil Gas light in his house at Abbottsford, and he could assure the Meeting that nothing could be more plea- sant, more useful, safe, and economical. He was sure the expense was not the twentieth part of what it had formerly cost him for oil and candles. The light itself was greatly su- perior, was extremely cleanly, saved much trouble to servants, and did not produce the least smell, or the least injury. Not only could it be used in kitchens and dining-rooms, but it was extremely useful in bed-rooms, where a flame could be kept up during the whole night so minute as to be scarcely per- ceptible, which could be enlarged to a powerful light in an instant at any hour when wanted. It was also very safe; at least it was much safer than common lights, for it was not carried from place to place as common lights were, and unless combustibles were brought to it no danger could arise. The light was indeed so convenient, cheap, and delightful, that were it once introduced, he was convinced it would be used within two years in every private house in Edinburgh. — Scotsman, Nov. 29, 1823. EXPANSION OF GASEOUS FLUIDS. According to the experiments of Gay-Lussac, which have _ been verified by Dulong and Petit, the expansion of air and other gaseous fluids is nearly 735 part of the bulk for one de- gree of heat, measured by Fahrenheit’s scale, when the tem- perature is not increased beyond 212°. But, according to Dulong and Petit, the expansion is less in high temperatures. Taking the expansion for the whole range from the freezing point of water to the ee point of mercury, the expansion for each degree would be only <3, supposing it to be equable. If we consider the expansion to be equable, and make A the bulk of the gas at the inferior temperature, and B its bulk 5 at 1 : when its heat is increased ¢ degrees, and — the expansion for ree, we have q4 one degree, we ha m é i Aas 1 £ A(e+t “£8 Or, A+ _ B, when the temperature is increased; and € B 5 as —— = A, when the temperature is diminished. ~ +l If «-=480, the formulz are A(480 +t a+) = B, when the temperature 480 ; «nished, ss increased; nd 430 B at $y Rate — he » fe re 1s ¢ igo 4, = A» When the temper’ u For 470 Earthquake in Canada, For example: Let the temperature of 100 cubic inches of gas be 32°, and it is required to find the bulk at 212°; then 100(480+180) : t=212—32=180,and A=100, hence ee =137:5=B. Again: Let the bulk at 212° be 137-5 cubic inches, required the bulk at 32°. In this case also we have ¢=180, and B= 137°5, hence 480 x 137-5 ———— = 100=A. 480 + 180 Another example may be taken when the temperature of 100 cubic inches is 50° to find the bulk at 60°; in this case t=10°, and A=100, therefore 100(480 + 10) = 102:0833 These will be sufficient to show that the gentleman who has attempted to correct the writers on chemistry, has given a rule which is not perfectly accurate (see Phillips’s Annals of Philosophy for December 1823, p. 415). He makes the bulk, as increased by expansion, in the last example only 102-008. In fact, the rules given by the chemical writers he has quoted, are accurate when the temperature is increased; while his own is only correct when the one of the temperatures happens to coincide with the freezing point. ; EARTHQUAKE IN CANADA. Quebec, Sept. 10. On the 28th of last month, about three o’clock in the after- noon, the inhabitants of the village of Hayotte, in the parish of Champlain, were alarmed by the following extraordinary occurrence :—A tract of land, containing a superficies of 207 arpents, was suddenly moved five or six arpents (about 360 yards) from the water’s edge, and precipitated into the river Champlain, overwhelming in its progress barns, houses, trees, and whatever else lay in its course. The earth thus removed dammed up the river for a distance of 26 arpents. The effect was instantaneous, and accompanied by an appalling sound; a dense vapour, as of pitch and sulphur, filled the atmosphere, oppressing those who witnessed this awful convulsion almost to suffocation. The course of the river being thus obstructed, the waters swelled to a great height, but must rise seven or eight feet more before they can find a passage. Various causes are at present assigned for this singular phenomenon—such as the effect of a volcanic eruption, or an earthquake; and by others 1 :- supposed to have been produced by the water esi erer ace between the strata of clay and the sub- jacent be , LIST List of New Patents. 471 LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To Joseph Bourne, of Denby, Derbyshire, stone-bottle manufacturer, for certain improvements in the burning of stone- and brown-ware in kilns or ovens, by carrying up the heat and flame from the furnace or fire below to the middle and upper parts of the kiln or oven, either by means of flues or chimneys in the sides thereof, or by moveable pipes or conductors to be placed within such kilns or ovens; and also by increasing the heat in kilns or ovens by the construction of additional furnaces or fires at the sides thereof, and to communicate with the centre or upper parts of such kilns or ovens; also by conveying the flame and heat of one kiln more into an- other or others by means of chimneys or flues, and thus permitting the draft and smoke of several kilns or ovens to escape through the chimneys of acentral kiln or oven of great elevation, whereby the degree of heat is in- creased in the several kilns or ovens, and the quantity of smoke diminished. — Dated 22d of November 1823.—2 months allowed to enrol specification. To John Slater, of Saddleworth, Yorkshire, clothier, for certain im- provements in the machinery or apparatus to facilitate or improve the operation of cutting or grinding wool or cotton from off the surfaces of woollen cloths, kerseymeres, cotton cloths, or mixtures of the said sub- stances, and for taking or removing hair or fur from skins.—22d Noy.—2 mo. To Thomas Todd, of Swansea, South Wales, organ-builder, for his im- provement in producing tone upon musical instruments of various descrip- tions.—22d November.--6 months. To Samuel Brown, of Windmill-street, Lambeth, Surry, gentleman, for his engine or instrument for effecting a vacuum, and thus producing powers by which water may be raised and machinery put in motion.—4th Decem- ber.—6 months. To Archibald Buchanan, of Catrine Cotton Works, one cf the partners of the hcuse of James Finlay and Co., merchants in Glasgow, for a certain im- provement in machinery heretofore employed in spinning-mills in the carding of cotton and other wool, whereby the top cards are regularly stripped and kept clean by the operation of the machinery without the agency of hard Jabour.—4th December.—4 months. To Josiah Parkes, of Manchester, Lancashire, civil engineer, for a certain method of manufacturing salt.—4th December.—6 months. £ To George Minshaw Glascott, of Great Garden-street, Whitechapel, Middlesex, brass-founder, and Tobias Michell, of Upper Thames-street, London, gentleman, for their improvements in the construction or form of nails to be used in or for the securing of copper and other sheathing on ships, and for other purposes.—9th December.—6 months. To Thomas Horne the younger, of Birmingham, Warwickshire, brass- founder, for certain improvements in the manufacture of rack pulleysin brass or other metals.—9th December.—6 months. To William Furnival, of Droitwich, salt-manufacturer, and Alexander Smith, of Glasgow, master mariner, for their improved boiler for steam- engines and other purposes.—9th December.—6 months. To Sir Henry Heathcote, of No. 23, Surry-street, Strand, Middlesex, knight, and captain in the Royal Navy, for his improvement of the stay-sails generally in use for the purpose of intercepting wind between the square sails of ships and other square-rigged vessels. — 13th December.—6 months. To Jarvis Boot, of Nottingham, in the county of Nottingham, lace ma- nufacturer, for his improved apparatus to be used in the process of singeing lace and for other purposes.—1 3th December.—.6 months. 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A CID, prussic, formation of, Affinity and Analogy, relations of, 194 Albite, 314 Alcohol, converted into acetic acid by protoxide of platinum and oxygen, 290 Alloy of zinc and iron, 168 Altitude and Azimuth instrument, 15 Ammonia, its decomposition hy heated metals, 285; liquefied, 42) Analysis, derivative, 244, 348, 433; of an acid earth from Persia, 75; of cadmia, 116; of erlan, 242; of cin- namon stone, 355; of chrysoberyl, 357; of boracite, 359; of borax, ibid. of molybdate of lead, 187; of tar- tarus stibiatus, 188; of green garnet, 234 423 Anatomy, comparative, 462 Animals, new species of, 387, 395 Animated nature, natural distribution of, 192, 200, 274 Anorthite, 314 Anthracite, experiments on, 131 Arc of the meridian, measurement of, in India, Are, trisection of, 10 4rfwedson on certain minerals, Ashes of Vesuvius contain carbon, 87 Astronomical instruments, 15, 184, 292, $11, 312, 377, 389, 454; information, 389, 391, 450, 466; notices, 15; tables, 16, 161, 190, 276, 278, 280 Atmosphere, facts respecting, 154 Baily, on occultations of the fixt Stars, 161 Barlow, on electro-magnetic combina- tions, 321 Barometer, air, 214 Beaches, ancient, of Jura, 72 Bears, exuviz of, 112 Becquerel on elect. by pressure, 204, 263 Belzoni’s progress in Africa, 76 Bessel’s astronom. obsery., 185, 454, 466 Black-lead, fusion of, 124 Blowpipe, improved, 9; compound, 121 Bonnet on the series of affinities, 193 Books, new, 66, 142, 218, 300, 384, 451 Boracic salts with fixed bases, method of analysing, 359 Boracite, its composition, 360 Borax, its composition, 359 Botanical notices, 55, 380, 440, 455 Bouesnel on cadmia, 115 Brazilian chrysoberyl, 357 Vol. 62. No. 308. Dec. 1823. Bredberg on the green garnet of Sala, 423 Breguet, (M.) death of, 239 Breithaupt and Gmelin on erlan, 241 Bridges, suspension chain, 425 Brinkley on declination of fixed stars, 183, 296, 459, 454 Brunel on tunneling, 139 Buchanan on mill-work, &c. 218 Buckland on the exuvie of bears, 112 Cadmia, on 115 Cadmium, method of obtaining, 166; its properties, 167; its sulphuret as a pigment, 167 Caloric of gases and vapours, 328 Carbon in the ashes of Vesuvius, 87 Carbonic acid gas, liquefied, 419 Carbonic oxide, converted into carbonic acid by oxidized sulphuret of plati-. num, 291 Carex, new species of, 455 Carnot, death of, 158 Cauliflowers, on the culture of, 404, 405 Ceylon Literary and Agricultural . So- ciety, 147 Chain bridges, 425 Chemical action an effect of motion, S61 Chesnut bark, 152 Chlorine, fluid, on, 413, 423 Chlorine and Chlorate of potassa, medical applications of, 397 Chrysoberyl, its composition, 357 Cinnamon-stone of Malsjo, 355 Circle, quadrature of, 338 ; mural 183, 292, 311, 390, 454; transit, 312 Classification, natural, of animals and vegetables 255, 274 Club, Zoological, 456 Cobalt facilitates combination of gases, 283 Cockburn on cauliflowers, 404 Collimation, line of, of the transit in- strument, ort Comet, Encke’s, 307, 308 Compass, effect of cold on, 74 Condensation of muriatic gas, 415; of gases into liquids 416 Cranberry, cultivation of, $82 Crawford on Pythagoras’s theorem, 310 Crystals, metallic, nat. formation of, 21 Curves, Jopling’s apparatus for deserib- ing, 157, 211, 285 Cyanogene, production of, 153; liquefied 421 30 474 IND Davy (Sir H,) on the condensation of muriatic acid gas, 415; his discourse before the Royal Society, 452 Declination of fixed stars, changes in, 175 Derivative analysis, 244, 348 Diamond, experiments on, 131 Divisibility, infinite, of matter 860 Debereiner’s new experiment on plati- num, &e. 282, 286, 289, 396 Dorpat, observatory of, sIl Drummond on cult. of cauliflowérs 405 Du Faye’s two electrical fluids, 3 Dulong and Thenard on Deebereiner’s experiments 282 Earth, acid, of Persia, 75 Earthquakes, 233, 315, 470; nature of their vibrations, 8a Eclipse, solar, 150; method of observ- ing, 15 Elastic fluids, laws of, 61, 66 Plectric fluids, two ? 3 Electrical plate machine, 8 Electricity, conduction of, delicate me- thod of ascertaining whether a minute body has that property, 20; deve- lopment of, by pressure, 204, 265 Electro-magnetism, 107, 321, 441 Engine-boilers, feeding of, 156 Ertan, description of, 241 Euchlorine, liquefied, 420 Expedition, Polar, return of, $12 Exuvia of bears, 112 Faraday on fluid chlorine, 413; on the condensation of gases into liquids, 416 Fascination, 237 Fat changed in Perkins’s engine, 318 Fauna, British, 459 Felis, American species of, 372; graci- lis, 222 Felspar, 314 Fluids, elastic, their combination facili- tated by metals, 282 Tranklin’s electrie theory 3 Fries, on the natural distribution of Fungi 193, 255 Functions, transformation of, 168 Fungi, natural distribution of, 192, 255 Garnet (green) of Sala, 423 Gas, ammoniacal, ‘inflammability of, 154; muriatic acid, condensation of, 415 Gases, caloric of, 328; condensation of into liquids, 416; inflammable, ab- sorbed by the protoxide and oxidized sulphuret of platinum, 290: expan- sion of, 470 Gay-Lussac, on yoleanos and earth- quakes, 81 Germar, on the petrifactions of Oster- weddigen, 367 Glass, purple tint of, 517 » lt Glow-worm, light of, 456 zibel’s (Dr.) chentieal researches, 187 Gold, its facilitation of the combination of elastic fluids, 285 Gold mines in Russia, 394 Gompertz, (L.) on defending ships ak against cannon balls, Gover nor, for steam-engines, new, auy Graphite, fusion of, 124 Greenwich mural ciel 183, 292, 295, 311, 390, 454 Groombridge’s transit circle, 312 Groups, central and annectent, 255 Gunpowder, fired by fulminating mer- cury, 203 Hamett on Pythagoras’s theorem, 236 Hare’s blowpipe by alcohol, 9; on two electrical fluids, 3; electrical plate machine, 8 Haworth (A. H.) on rare succulent plants, 380; on Narcissez, 440 Herapath (J.) on elastic fluids, 61,66; on the caloric of gases, 328 Herapath (Wm.) on cadmium, 166; on Deebereiner’s experiments 286 Hiatus, in nature, MacLeay on, 198 Hindostan, trigonometr. survey of, 78 Horsfield’s (Dr.) Zoological Researches in Java, 221 House, removal of one entire, 157 Hydrogen, its inflammation by platinum and other metals, 282, 286, 291, 396 Jaguar, [Felis Onca, Linn. | 372 Ice, blocks of, cause of the light elicited by their shock, 274 Impenetrability of matter, 864 Inghirami’s lists of the occultations of fixed stars (for 1824), 161, 278, 378, 450 Infinite, use of the term, S67 Insects and Fungi, natural distribution of, 192, 255. Insects decorticating, 254 Jopling’s apparatus for the description of curves, 157, 255 Tridium, facilitates the combination of elastic fluids, 282 Tron, decomposes ammonia, when heat- ed, 285; soft, steel cut by 317 Jura, ancient beaches of, 72 Kemtz on Schweigger’s multiplier, 441 Keating on cadimnia, 115 Kirby on Zoological studies 457 Kiihloch, cave at, 112 Labrador spar, 314 Lambton, Col. 77 Laplace on the elastic fluids, 61, 66 Lava, in fusion, exhibits no electricity, 91; its heat, ibid.; its saline con- tents, ibid. Lead, molybdate of, 187; carburet of, 189 Light, instantaneous, 73 INDE X. 475 Livonia, measurement of a degreein,311 London Bridge, Telford’s report on, 21, on the taking down, 28 Lynx, varieties of, 75 MacLeay, (W.S.) on the nat. distribu- tion of insects and fungi, 192, 255 Magnetism, effect of heat on, 74 Manuscripts, oriental, 230 Marsh’ s thermo-electric apparatus, 237, 321 Maskelyne’s 36 stars, R.A. of, 16, 110, 190, 276, 346 Mastodon, new locality of, 468 Matler, origin and divisibility of, 360 ; impenetrability of, 364 Meikle onan air-barometer, 214 Mercury, fulminating, gunpowder fired b 203 Meridian, measurement of an arc of, in India, 78 Metallic crystals, formation of in nature, a1 Metals, property of, to facilitate the combination of elastic fluids, 282 Meteors, 238, 315 Meteorology, 80, 160, 238, 240, 320, 400, 472 Milne, on the cultivation of the cran- berry, 382 Mines, temperature of, 38, 94; deep, saline contents of the water in them, 46; new, in France, _ 234 Monticelli and Covelli, on Vesuvius, $O Motion, law of, in planetary orbits, 118 Multiplier, Schweigger’s, 441 Mural circle, Greenwich, 183, 292, 295, $11, 390, 454 Muriatic acid, its presence in volcanic vapours, 84, 91, 93 Muriatic acid gas, liquefied, 415, 422 Murray (J.) on phosphorus, 73; on magnetism, 74; on Rey’s Essays, 93 ; on the glow-worm, 456 Museum, British, 300 Museum, French, ibid. Narcissee, new genus of, 440 Natural arrangement, quinary,192, 200, 255, 274 Natural History, works on, 144, 223,303 Newton (P.) on trisection of an are, 10; on the theorem of Pythagoras, 309 Nicholson, (¥.) on the transformation of functions, 168; on derivative ana- lysis, 244, 348, 433 Nickel, facilitates the combination of elastic fluids, 283, 397 Niger, mission to the, 229 Nitrous oxide, liquefied, 420 Observatory, at Paramatta, 311; in Li- vonia, : 311 Occultations of fixed stars (for 1824), 161, 278, 378, 450 Oil-gas, 470 Oriental manuscripts, 230 Palladium, facilitates the combination of elastic fluids, ¥82, 284 Palmer, on railways, 67 Parallax of « Lyra, 292; annual, ques- tion respecting, 297, 453 Paramatta, observations at, 311; length of pendulum at, 467 Parry, (Capt. ) 312, 393 Patents, new, 79, 158, 239, $19, 398,471 Pendulum, observations on, 151, 230, 393, 467 Petrifactions of Csterweddigen, 367 Phosphorus, 73 Planetary orbits, law of motion in all, 118, 214 Plants, succulent, 380; new species of, 145, 224, 903, 381, 455; to preserve from insects, 469 Platinum, protoxide of, disposes alco- hol to become acetic acid, 289; ab- sorbs every inflammable gas, 290; oxidized sulphuret of, has the same properties, ibid. ; its effect in com- bining elastic fluids, 282, 286, 291, 596 Plumbago, experiments on, 124, 131 Poisson, on the caloric of gases and va- pours, 328 Pond, (Mr.) on the changes of declir. of stars,175; on the parallax of « Lyra, 292; his opinion on the history of annual parallax, 227, 453, 466 Pond (Mr.) and M. Bessel, 389,454,466 Pressure, development of electricity by, 204, 263 Preuss’s steam-engine governor, 297 Pyrophorus, a new, 189 Raia, gigantic species of, 395 Rey's (Jean) Essays, 95 Rose, on felspar and other crystals, 314 Rotation, electro-magnetic, 237, 321 Sabine’s (Capt.) expedition, 151, 230 Saltus, in nature, MacLeay on, 198 Schweigger’s multiplier, 441 Seaward, (J.) on suspension chain bridges, 425 Shells, specific characters of, 401 Siliceous stalactites, mode of their for- mation 71 Silliman, on ammoniacal gas, 154; ex- periments on diamond, plumbago, &e., ) 12! Silver, its facilitation of the combination of elastic fluids, 285 Smyrna, thermometer at, 121 Squire on the solar the eclipse 150 Snart, on quadrature of the circle, 238 Society, Astronomical, 388, 465 ; Geo- logical, 70, 388, 464 ; Horticultural, 295, 304,164; Linniwan, 387, 455 ; 476 Meteorological, 229, 305, 389, 465 ; Royal, 387, 452; Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris, 72, 145, 227, 307; Literary, &c. of Ceylon, 147 Spec. gravity of liquefied gases, 418 Specular iron, formed in the lava of Vesuvius, 86 Sphere, properties of the, 338 Stalactites, siliceous, mode of their for- mation, 71 Stars, R. A. of, 16, 110, 190, 276, 346; zodiacal, catalogue of, 47; fixed, changes in declination of, 1755; oc- cultations (for 1824) of, 161, 278, 378 Steam-engine, report on, 146; governor, 297 Steel, cut by soft iron, $17 Storms, 232, 315 Sulphur, its formation in volcanoes, 93 Sulphurous acid, its formation in volea- noes, 93; acid gas, liquefied, 417 Sulph. hyd. gas, liquefied, 418 Swainson on undescribed shells, 401 Tartarus stibiatus, 188 Tatum on electro-magnetism, 107 Telford on London Bridge, 21 Temperature of mines, 38, 94 Tenthredos, British, 155, 316, 451 Thames, on aroadway under, 139; ef- fects of London Bridge on, 21 Thenard and Dulong on the combina- tion of elastic fluids, 282 Theorem of Pythagoras, question on, 236, 308, 310 Thermo-electric phenomena, 321 IN DE X. Thermometer at Smyrna in 1820, 121 Ziarks (Dr.) on sidereal time, 280 Tides in the Thames, 25, 30 Time, sidereal, on reducing to mean time, 280 Titanium, its metallic properties, 18 Traill,on American species of Felis, 372 Transit instrument, adjustment of the line of collimation of the, 377 Travellers to the East, 232 Tredgold on Jopling’s apparatus, 211 Trees destroyed by insects, 252 Triseclion of an arc, 10 Tunnel under the Thames, 189 Vesuvius, formation of specular iron in its lava, 36; ashes of, contain car- bon, 87; observations at, 90 Volcanic eruptions, agency of water in, 825 vapours, contain muriatic acid, 84, 91, 93 Volcanoin Iceland, 233; eruption of, 151 Volcanos, on, 81, 90 Voltaic pile, power of connecting wire augmented, 441 Voyage of discovery, Kotzebue’s, 231 Usnea, new species of, 155 Utting on a planetary analogy, 118 Water, its agency in volcanic eruptions, 82; of deep mines, its saline con- tents, 46 ; temperature of spring, 42 Water-spouts and storms, 232 Wollaston on titanium, 18 Wright on fulminating mercury, 203 Zoology, 75, 252, 255, 274, 316, 372, 387, 395, 401, 457 EO ERRATA: Page 153, line 8: for “and it may constitute the basis” read ‘“ and to the pro- bability that it may constitute the basis” &c. Page 202, six lines from bottom, the words Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous should be transposed. Page 267, line 20: for * slips” read ‘falls.’ In Mr. Wright’s paper on Ful- minating Mercury, p. 203 &c. for “ Chlorine of potash,’’ read passim “ Chlorate.’’ Page 360, line 5: for “lime” read “magnesia.” Page 283, first note, line 2: for 300°,” read “572° F.” Page 387, line 9: for “the Rey. E. Jenner,” read «Mr. G. H. C. Jenner.” Page 396, line 9 from bottom, for ‘‘a mixture,”’ read ‘‘the mixture.” END OF THE SIXTY-SECOND VOLUME. LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE. 1825. ENGRAVINGS. Papaver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- scriptiveof Mr. Curupert’s improved Hydro-pnenmatic A pparatus, &c. -—A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reilection, Refrac- _ tion,*and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr, Cuarres Bonnycasrie’s Communication respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Mari- ner’s Compass. Vol. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Ieserson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hav’s Percussion Gun- -. hock; of Dr. Kircutner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’se Mooring Blocks.—A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Maram’s im~ proved Gas-Meter.—-A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. Parry in the Polar Sea, Vor, LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess. CErstep and AmpgEre’s Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Com- ©” pressibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamizson’s Marines Thermometer Case, and Mr. Jennincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Platel illustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Moditication of Galvanic Apparatus —A Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- gent’s Canal, by Mr. R.H, Gower; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- netic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr, Gro. Innes’s Calculations of Se Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May 1836.—A Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isatau Lukens and Dr. Coares,—A Plate illustrative of * An Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses,””—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s Lactometer, and of Mr, Joun Murnay’s portable Apparatus for restor-. ing the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porter, illustrative of Mr. Secxoorcrarr’s Account of the Native Copper onthe Southern Shore of Lake Superior ; and of Dr. Mitvar’s Observations and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho.—With a Portrait of the Epiror, engraved by Txomson from a Painting by Frazer ;—and a Plate, by Ports, illus- trative of Mr. Lzxson’s Appendage to. Torrr’s Blowpipe. Vol. LIX. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Inserson's Paper On the Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A_ Plate descriptive of the Instruments enyployed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- . _ metrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshirei—A Plate illustrative of : . \ F : 4 > ’ 4 ; : P - ; 5 t.Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lites inGeometry; Mr. Lrzson’s Safety Swpipe ‘Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr. Reave’s Communication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro. magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isserson’s Paper on the Perspiration alleged to take place in Plants.—A Place illustrative of Mr. Marsn’s Paperon a particular Construction of M. Amprrr’s Row: tating Cylinder. en “Vol, LX: A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Isperson’s Paper on the Polien® of Flowers.—A_ Plate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Nor- wich, on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A Plate illustrative of a’ Paper by F. Barty, Esq. on the Stars forming the Pleiades.—-A Plate illustrative of Prof. Amici’s New Sextant. wt Vol. LXI. Engravings—1. Illustrative of Mr. Trepcoip’s Paper oa ~ the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. Deurzroucg and Nie exoLs’ Apparatus for Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation = —A Plate illustrative of Mr, R. Tavion's Geological Section of .Hun- * stanton Cliff, Norfolk.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Tarum’s Cotimuni- k, ation on Electro-Magnetism, . “) Vox.62. Philosophical Magazine. Juny 1823. a Contents oF NumsBer 303. | I. An Essay on the Question, Whether there be two Electrical Fluids according to Du Fayg, or one according to Franxiin. By Rosert Harz, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. i. 1 wissba)> Sie see ara Seen vies Vin eted n'a afm 8 aut aa - Page 3 II. Description of an Electrical Plate Machine, the Plate mounted ‘a horizontally, and so as to show both negative and positive Electricity. ™_ Mlustrated by Engravings. By Roperr Hare, M.D. Professor of : Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania..........eceee-e22. 8 Ill. Description of an improved Blowpipe by Alcohol, in which . ___ the Inflammation is sustained by opposing Jets of Vapour, without a _. Lamp; also, of the Means of rendering the Flame of Alcohol com- petent for the Purpose of Illumination. Illustrated by an Engrav- ; ing. By Rosert Hare, M.D, Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- R ‘ 2 ES ee Mrersity Ol Lennsylvania ioe ss vce ¥00d emia nine ae eis Raa MRS ae el ae IV. Remarks on the Trisection of a Circular Arc. By Mr, Paut } INI W TIN i yvacs cis uses hese bh rar Cera gag eo bie <.va kinmhen eines hey) V. On a Method of observing Solar Eclipses by means of the Al- titude and Azimuth Instrument. By A CoRRESPONDENT...... ce 1.4 Vi. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MAsKELYNE'S 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1823, at the Time of passing the ; Meridian of Greenwich ..........+2+5+ ivan Coe a ae veveeene 16 VII. On Metallic Titanium. By W. H. Wotraston, M.D. . GE Uitteaiis ees eas wipes s Soewitn ae Rib ainicie se aie bps oe eso geet Tay 3 VIII. Report of Tuomas Tetrorp, Esq. on the Effects which pi produced on the River Thames by the Rebuilding of London % MUG a iahetd moo SU oe ROE Wee ww came Ss acta” See ee 7s IX. Observations on the Project of taking down and rebuilding Hondon Bridge. .6 2 ee a bios Bene is een oe 28. X. An Account of the Observations and Experiments on the Tem- perature of Mines, which have recently been made in Cornwall, and the North of England; comprising the Substance of various Papers on the Subject lately published in the Transactions of the Royal Geo- logical Society of Cornwall, and other Works ............+.+ Co) XI. The Third Portion of a Catalogue of Zodiacal Stars for the Epoch of January 1, 1800; from the Works of Herscuen, Prazz, Bop, and others; with illustrative Notes. Selected and arranged. | by a Member of the Astronomical Society of London.........--- 47 XII. Observations on M. Larvace’s Communication to the Royal Academy of Sciences, ‘* Sur l Attraction des Spheres, et sur la Répulsion des Fluides élastiques.”| By Joun Herapartu, Esq... 61 XIII. Notices respecting New Books: Patmer on a Railway of a new Principle —Dr. Ure’s Dictionary of Chemistry .......... 66-69 XIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies: Geological Society.—. Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris............--+- oo 3 sagen lame , XV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles :—Mr. Murray, On 1 the Combination of Phosphorus with Sulphuret of Carbon as con. . nected with an instantaneous Light, &c. ; and on the Influence of - . Heat on Magnetism, &c.—Acid Earth of Persia.—Varicties of the % Lynx in the North of Europe.—Mr. Betzont’s Progress in Africa. is ~-OBITUARY: Lieut.-Col. Witttam Lampron.— List of New » 4 Patents.—Meteorological Table ....., vecaedhon eveenae ss eum 73-80. *,* Communications for this Work, received by the Editors, == 88, Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention, === + q eo MS betas, ENGRAVINGS. Papaver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in ~ Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A: Plate de- scriptive of Mr. Curuserr’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. —A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac-, tion, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuaries Bonnycast.e’s Communication respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Mari- ner’s Compass. Vol. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Ipserson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Haxu’s Percussion Gun- Lock; of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks.—A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Maram’s im- proved Gas-Meter.—A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. Parry in the Polar Sea. Vor. LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess, CErsrep and Ampere’s Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Com- pressibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamizson’s Marine Thermometer Case, and Mr. Jennincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—=A Plate ~ illustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus —A Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- gent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower ; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- netic Apparatus, by Mr. Tarum. Vol. LVIII. A Pilate illustrative of Mr. Gro, Innes’s Calculations of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May 1836.—A Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isa1aH Luxens and Dr, Coates,—A Plate illustrative of * An Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses.”’—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy’s _ Lactometer, and of Mr. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restor- ing the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porrer, illustrative of Mr. Scuootcrart’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of * Lake Superior ; and of Dr. Mitiar’s Observations and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho.—With a Portrait of the Epiror, engraved by Tomson froma Painting by Frazer ;—and a Plate by Porrsr,_illus- trative of Mr. Leeson’s Appendage to Torrr’s Blowpipe. - Vol. LIX. A Pilate illustrative of Mrs. Iszerson’s Paper On the: ~ Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—A Plate descriptive. ~ of the Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigono- metrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire.—A Plate illustrative of - Mr, lvory’s Theory of Parallel LinesinGeometry; Mr. Lezson’s Safety Blowpipe Appendages; Mr. Moore’s new Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs in Cases of suspended Respiration ; and Dr, Reave’s Communication on Refraction.—A Plate illustrative of a curious Electro. magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isnerson’s Paper on _ the Perspiration alleged to take place in Plants.—A Plate illustrative of _ Mr. Marsn’s Paper on a particular Construction of M. Ampzre’s Ro- _ tating Cylinder. Vol. LX. * Plate illustrative of Mrs. Issetson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers.—A Pilate illustrative of a Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Nor- wich, on Fossil] Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—A Plate illustrative of a Paper by F. Bairy, Esq. on the Stars forming the Pleiades.—A_ Plate - illustrative of Prof. Amici’s New Sextant. Vol, LXI. . Engravings—1. Illustrative of Mr. TrEpGoLD’s Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. Drursproucg and Ni. cHoLs’ Apparatus for Madame Gervais’ New Method of Fermentation. —A Plate illustrative of Mr. R. Taytor’s Geological Section of Hun- stanton Cliff, Norfolk.—A Plate illustrative of Mr, Tarum’s Communi- ation on Electro-Magnetism.—A Plate illustrative of Professor Harp’s meio eouons On Electricity. and on the Self-acting Blowpipe. fs Yet: sce Piloumied Sioa AuGuAT, 1828. a = Contents or Number 304, XVI. Redentions on Volcanos. By.M. Gay-LussaAc. Page 8 XVII. Analysis of a Work; entitled ** Observations and ‘Experi- - ments made at Vesuvius during Part of the Years 1821 and 1822: by T. Monticeti and N. Covert.” By M. Menarp pera Grove 90 XVII: Notice on the “ eek of Jean Rey.” By Mr. JoxuN Munkey FIRS? Mt Wie oo RS i ee 93. XIX? An-Account’of the Observations and Experiments on the Ter 1perature of Mines, which have recently been made in Cornwall, and the North of England ; comprising the Substance of various Papers on the Subject lately published in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and other Works........ ie Soh XX. On Electro-Magnetism. By Mr. J. Tato cs0 oso. 107 XXI. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MasKketyne’s 36 Stars*for every Day in the Year 1823 0... 2c... eck eee ewe es 110 XXII An Account of the remarkable Accumulation ‘of the Ex- uviz of Bears, in a Cave at Kihloch in Franconia: By Professor ‘ Bucy | het fo Oh as BOOS 8 St oa ee oe sendy b XXII. Observations upon the Cadmia found at the Ancram Iron- Works in Columbia County, New York, einpECaly supposed to be ae a new ’Mineral.. By Wa. H. KEATING, J 2... ca 0. Sddee ewe det weir Lhd: 295 XXIV. On a Planetary Analogy; or a Law of Motion pervading and connecting all the Planetary Orbits. By Mr. J. Urtine 4... 119 XXV. State of the Thermometer at Smyrna for every Day in the. Year 1820, taken at 9 A.M., Noon, 6 P.M., and Midnight; Com. municated from Smyrna by a Correspondent to Dr.'T. Forster ... 121 XXVI. Notice of the Fusion of Plumbago, or Graphite, (commonly called Black Lead,) in a Letter from Professor Sirtiman_ to Prof. Rogert Hare, M.D. é oithts Net BERT ER ios Sao shy ste xh DI: XXVII. Experiments 1 upon Diamond, Anthracite, and Plumbago, with the compound Blowpipe: in a Letter addressed to Professor. : Rozert Hare, M.D. by Professor SILLIMAN ......+.+-0.00e.. 1S! XXVIII. Observations on Marquis Lariace’s Communication to the Royal Academy of Sciences “ Sur J’ Attraction des Spheres, et sur la Répulsion des Fluides élastiques.” By Joun Herarartn, Esq. 136 _— XXIX. A New Plan of Tunnelling, calculated for opening a Road- way under the Thames. By M.J. Brunex, Esq. C.8. F.R.S.,. 139 XXX. Notices respecting New Books: Analysis of Periodical Works jon Natural HIStory: <.. oeici:ivuro p> fb gn niecn's ce eee rie 142-144. XXXI, Proceedings of Learned Societies : Royal Academy of Paris—Ceylon Literary and Agricultural Society .........,.. 145-147 XXXII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles: Astronomical — "3 Information—Statistics—On the Solar Eclipse of July —Eruption of Galoengoeng in Jaya—Capt. Sabine’s Expedition—Chesnut-tree Bark—Production of Cyanogene by the Action of Carbon upon ~ Nitric’ Acid—On the Inflammability of Ammoniacal Gas, by Prof. Silliman—New Species of Usnea, from New South Shetland—Re- — medy for the Bite of Serpents—Feeding of Engine Boilers—Ap- ain for describing Curves—Obituary—List of New Patents— a