PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ESSAYS: . TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL LATIN ••//» ' OF ' , y • ' SIR TORBERN BERGMAN, KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF W AS A,t PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT UPSAL, fcc. he, *c. TO WHICH ARE ADDED, NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, BY THE TRANSLATOR, VOL. III. EDINBURGH: rMNTED FOR O. MUHIF, fiOUTM-PRl^OE STREET, j. Sc ]. FAIJID.AIRN, HUNTER'S SQJJARE; AND J. EVANS, NO* 32* P AT E R T.'OSTE H-ROVV, LONDON. M UCC XCi. or, a-/ .BS ,. :- • LOAN STACK Gift Mr*. H. C Holton PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR. O name is jnore illuftrious in the annals of Chcmiflry than BERGMAN: — none has contri- buted more than he, to the rapid advancement which this fciencc lias made in the prcfcnt cen- tury.— Nor has any other philofopher applied the principles of Lord JJACON with greater (kill or attention, in the invelligation of nature. Ardent; enthufiafm, and patient afiiduity in the purfuits of fcience, candour, modcfty, clcar- ncfs of judgement, and comprehend r. of inind, qualities the union of \v;*ich conflli ,ues the tiuc pMl-jfopher, appear f> h:;vo r-en hap}>ily con- joined in tins great m,.n. The n\mibcr and the accuracy ot his experiments, the fimpliciry rnd ingenuity of )iis j^roceiles, the beauty and plaufibility of his tlicorics, command the admi- ration and refped of every intelligent reader of his works. His writings arc already very generally known through Europe. They have moil of them been tranflatcd into various languages. An Lng- lifh t re filiation of two volumes of liis Effays was, fome years fince, publifhed. They met with the favourable reception which they deferred : a ami 813 it PREFACE. nnd there is reafon to think that they have been of great utility. The pieces which compofc this volume are not inferior in value to thofe already before the Englifh reader : The Hillory of Chemif- try is no where traced with greater erudition and good fenfc, than in the two firfl of thefe Eflays. The Arrangement of Fulfils, the Com- bination of certain Metals, the Analyfis of fome Swedifh mineral Waters, with a few other mat- ters, perhaps of Hill higher importance than any of thefe, are the fubje.ds which occupy the reil of the volume. Whether confidercd as original records of a number of chemical facts, communicated up- on the very bell authority, or viewed as models of philofophical inveiligation, the reafonings and procelles of which may be imitated with ad- vantage in either of thefe lights, — the contents of this volume will be acknowledged to have been worthy of the tranllator's rfciiris. Their u- tjlity may perhaps be the greater, becaufc the propagation of a new theory, formed to pervade the whole fcience of Chemillry, renders it of confequence for the Undent to examine that \\hich has fo long prevailed, in all its parts, and to view it in connection with every fad which lias been di (covered ; in order that he may determine whether to adhere to the doctrine of STAH'L, or to cUlopt the opinions of LAVOISIER, CONTENTS. 1. Of the ORIGIN of CHEMISTRY. 5 i. Of the flow Progrefs of Natural Philt)' fiphy page i 1. Origin of Chewical Arts - 5 3. State of Chcmijlry in Kgypt - 15 4. State of Chemijlry among the Greeks 54 5. Traces of Cbemijlry {lift over a Me in dif- ferent parts of the world ji 6. Synopfis of things tinknoivn in Cbewif- try during the fir ft Period. - 90 II. HISTORY of CHEMISTRY during the MIDDLE AOK. , 5 J. General Idea of this Period 93 2. Of the great Work 129 3. Of the Univerfal Medicine - 143 4. Of the chief Difcoveries in Chcwijlry made during this period - .14$ III. ANALYSIS of LITHOMARGE. 5 I. General Char after of Lithomargc 15$ a 2 * 2. Of iv CONTENTS. § 2. Of Lemnian Earth * page 161 3. Of Ofmundic Earth 171 4 . Of HampJInre Ea rth - 174 IV. Of ASBESTINE EARTH. 5 I . Of Tarentalfian slfiejhs 1 8 2 2. Of the slflejlos ofSwartvick - 186 3. Of the AJl>eJl>//>/ Bodies ibid. 7. Liquid Relics ibid. 8. /7///W £0i'//V/ - 208 9. The Utility of this Dijlinftion ibid. 10. The continued Series of Natural Bo- dies - - ibid. 11. 77^ ncceffity of a Sv/lem in Natural Hijfary 209 12. Criteria cf natural Bodies - 210 j ^. Conjliuit and perpetual Forns of orga*. r.ifed Bodies - 210 14. Mon/lroas Productions - 210 15. Fojjils - an 16. Mineral Kingdom - 17. Generation of FoJJUs - Jo. Variable and inconjliint Form of Fojfils 212 19. Oryctohgy - 214 20. I'aricus Svftems of Qryctokgy - 2/5 11. The bcjl Arrangement - j'Z>/V. 22. /// it'/w/ Manner tbtCompo/ilion ofFof- Jits may may be br/l after tained - 216 23. External Criteria - i£/J. 24. Uncertain and deceitful Size of FoJJils 2 1 7 2^*. y///^/ Colour - - !*£/'/. 68. IVhcthcr neutral Salts are to be refer- red to a diftinEl Genus - ibid. 69. Mixed neutral Stilts - . 24-2 70. Analogous Salts - - 243 71. Other Combinations of Salts - ibid. 72. Doubtful Genera of Salts - 244 73. Genera of Earths - - #/*,r - 248 79. Compound Earths are not united me- chanically only - - 249 So. Centra of ' Metals - ibid. 1 1 , Increafcd within a few years ibid. 82. Arrangement of mixed Metals 250 83. Genera of pbhgijtic Bodies - 251 84. Sulphur - 252 85. Petroleum - -> ibid. 86. Amber - - ibid. 87. Diamond - ibid. 88. Pyrites and Molybdena do not conjli- tute peculiar Genera - - 253 89. Properly fpeaking there is but one Ge- nus ufPbfogiftU Subftancet - ibid. 90. F'u'Ji slppendi\ - - ibid, yi. Four Genera of Foffilf mixed mechani- cally - - 254 fj2. Fifjl Genus - » ibid. 93. Second Genus - ibid. /V/. ico. CONTENTS. is JOG. Belies impregnated with fli lumen page 257 Jo i. Pctrifatlion of organic Bodies ibid. rc2. Organic Bodies penetrated with metal- lic particles - 258 103. Nuclei - - ibid. 104. Remaining imprejflons of organic Bo- dies 259 105. OJleocolla - - ibid. 1 06. Luriijlnted organic Bodies - 259 107. Spfc[fa Character of Salts - 260 i o 8 . Spi \ ies of Acids ibid. 109. l-'egeUible slfids ibid. no. minimal -/t.-V/f - - 261 in. /ffiW/ common to fever at Kingdoms of Nature - a'/>/W. 112. C/r^v/r number of Acids - 262 11$. Species of alkaline Salts - /£/W. j 14. /V.v«/ Alkalies . - |7;/V/. 1 15. Neutral Salts - . 263 1 1 6. Itnpetjl cl double Salts . 117. Triple Salts - I xH. Inipcrfccl trip tr Suits - - 264 119. Qttadritple Salts - - //;/>/. 12&, Species cf analogical Salts - ;7;/W. 121. ^ff/>j- vf liable perfett earthy Salts ibid. 1 22. Double iw^ifcii earthy Salts - 265 • j 23, Triple curtly Salts . . //,/r/. 1 24. Lat thy alkaline Salts - - ibid. 125. Species of metallic Salts - 265 § 126. Metallic a CONTENTS; §126. Metallic Salts, with an Excefs of me- tallic Bafe - ;*,v. - page 127. Triple metallic Salts - ibid. 128. Qiuidruple metallic Salts - 267 129. Alkaline metallic Salts «.v . ibid. 130. Synopjis tf Salts - . V; ibid. 131. Species of Earths of & double Charac- ter - y 269 132. Mixed Species of Earths , * i£/t;. 133. 0« oc;^i/ Arguments their Diverjity is founded - - « i^/V/. 134. The Necejfity of conjidcring the Pro* portion of every Part - , ibid. 135. Method of invejligating the fcveral Species of Earths - - 270 136. Continuation - - ibid. 137. IVhy this Method is imperfect V 271 138. In ivhat Manner can this Defecl be corn-tied or f applied? - 272 139. Enumeration of double Species ibid. 140. Enumeration of triple Species •- 273 141. Qiadruple Species * * 274 142. S>uin tuple Species - - ibid. 143. si mount of the Species - 276 144. Further Explanation of the Formula ibid. 145. Species of Metals ,.v » - 277 146. Native Metals - , •'.-. . 278 147. Mine rail fed Metals . . • 279 148. Miner alijing Subftances - ibid* 149. Metal* mine rail fed by Sulphur ibid. $, 151. Vitriols CONTENTS. xt §151. ritriols page 280 152. Metals miner alifed by the muriatic Acid - - 281 T53- Met ah miner alifed by the aerial *dcid ibid. 154. Metals miner alifed by the pbofyboric slcld - - 281 155. Metals miner alifed by the arfenical Acid - - ibid. 156. The different Species of Metals admit of alrnojl number lefs Variations - 182 157. Species of Pblogiflic Subjlances ibid. izfi. Specie* of tbt Diamond - - ^83 159. Speeies of Sulpbur ibid. 160. Species of Petroleum - ibid. 161. Spedcs of Amber - ibid. \(>2. Origin of phlogijlic Subjlancts - 284 16^. Species of Yo fills ml\ed mechanically 285 164. The feverul Species e.\preffed by Letters ibid. 165. Continuation - 286 1.66. The Pojition and Situation of mixed Fofllls ' 287 167. Species of organic Fojfils ibid. 168. Species of organic FolJJils miner alifed by Salts 28 g 169. Species of organic FoJJils miner alifed by Earths - ibid. 170. Species of organic Fojjilt impregnated ivltb metallic Particles ~ 290 171. Species ofp^log ijlicatcd organic FoJJils 291 VAJL- xii CONTENTS. VARIETIES. 5172. Ordinary Confufon of Varieties with Species - page 292 173. Criteria of Varieties to It: taken from external Appearances - - ibid* 174. llhijl ratio n of external Ma rks 293 175. Amorphous Fojjils ibid. 176. Cbr \Jluline Fojjils - ibid. 177. External Marks taken from the Tex- ture of Fojjils - - 294 178. from the Colour ibid. 179. Plnjical Marks - -295 180. Varieties of organic Fojjils ibid. «8i. Epilogue ibid. Of GIVING NAMES to FOSSILS. 182. The Utility of Names Properly adapted in Mineralogy - - . 2(jf» 183. IHJhry of Names in Natural Philofv- phy - ibid. 184. Of reforming the Names of Fojfils 297 185. Names that that are evidently abfurd c light to expunged 300 186. Andfalfe names Jikewife Hid. 187. JVhat then are the Names to be adopt- 301 ed ? 301 1 8 8. IVbat ore the Names to be tolerated? ibid. % 189. Nunfies CONTENTS, xiii 189. Names Jignifying lefs than the tbing de- fined ought to he ab'jlifljcd page 302 190. How are ivc to proceed without proper emphatic Names - 303 191. Name* derived from the Authors of new Difcoveries 303 192. By what Means the C/qffct of Fijfih arc to be defined 304 193. Denominations of Genera - 305 194. Of applying Names to the fun pie Fojllt, and efpecinlly to the Salts 307 195. Ntuna of Species hi the Cafe of Salts 308 196. Trivial Namrs of Salts 3 1 r 197. Of the Specific Names of Earths, Me- ta/f, and pblogijlic Subjlanrcs 314 f9S. Conclttfion. - 31^ VJ. Of the Co MCI NATION of MERCURY \\\\\\ the MARINE ACID. 5 I. Introduction - 317 3. Corro/ive mercurial Sublinuite 319 3. Whether corrojivc mercurial Sublimate can be prepared by the Mixture of the marine Acid and Mercury - 320 4. The various Proceffes by which corro- fivr Mercurial Sublimate is prepared. and I. The Mixture of Bodies contain- ing Mercury and muriatic Acid 322 5. II, What is the Importance of the ni- trous Iv CONTENTS. trtus Acid fn the Preparations ofmcr- curid Sublimate - page 315 § 6. III. How far is tbe Vitriolic *4cid Ser- viceable in this Preparation. - 326 7. IV. IVbat are tbe Effetts of tbe Vitrio- lic and Nitrous Acids ufed together to tbisPurpofe? - . 379 8. IVbat Mode of Preparation is tbe bejl 332 9. Tbe external Appearance of corro/ive mercurial Sublimate - 335 10. Its Cbarafler in nfyecl of stir and Wa- ter 336 1 1 . Corrojive mercurial Sublimate diffblved in Spirit of Mine - - 337 12. Diffokfd in mineral Acids - 338 13. United ivitb alkaline Salts and caujlic Lime - - 340 14. . witb Metals - ~ 342 15. Tbe Quantity of Acid and Mercury in corro/ive Sublimate, and itsfpecific IVeigbt 344 z6. Corrojive Sublimate adulterated witb Arft-nic 347 17. IVblte mercurial Precipitate 349 18. Modes of Preparation. 350 19. JVbite mercurial Precipitate d(ffilved in Water 357 20. The Quantity of Acid contained in ivbtte Mercurial Precipitate 358 £ I . Adulteration of ijubite Mercurial Pre- t \fiti\tc - - • 535 21, Sweet CONTENTS. xv $ 22. Sweet Mercury ^ page 359 23. Methods of preparing it 360 24. In 'what Way the ancient Chcmijls pro- ceeded in refpett to fweet Mercury 365 25. P by fical Qualities offwect Mercury 366 26. Siveet Mercury diffbhed by various Fluids 368 27. Procefi for preparing corrojive Mer- cury from fweet Mercury 369 28. How it happens that the cor ro five Force offaJited Mercury it not a! ways the fame 37° a 9. The various fffei of the Mercurial fain 373 VII. PROCESS for BURNING BRICKS. 5 I. Circumtlances which fuggejled the fol- low iig Experiments, and the Dpfgn with which they are communicated 376 i. The different Sorts of Bricks - 377 3. The ordinary Faults of Tiles - 378 4. Pure Clay '. V 379 5. Common Clay - • 380 6. 7/ou; Bricks fiould he formed and burnt 381 7. Attempts to im^iyve Clay by the inter- mixture of other Subjlanccs are of no Service - * - 383 8. Experiments of the Author - .. 384 f). Advice relative to the burning of bricks 385 {o. Methods ofajfiiying C/ayfor Tiles 386 VIII. Of *vi CONTENTS. VIII. Of the ACIDULATED WATERS of MEDVI. §. Hi/lory of the acidulated Waters of Medvi - - page a . Difioveries by former Experiments of the peculiar Virtues of the Water* of Medvi 391 3. Phyfical futilities 392 4. Chemical A nahfu of this IVater 395 5. Of the internal Ufe of the Water 399 6. In Ufe in Baths 401 JX. Of the MEDICINAL SPRINGS of LOKARNE. §. i. Hijlory if the Lokarne Springs 403 2. Pbvfical Qialities 404 3. Chemical Analvfu 4-^ 4. Earth of Lokarne - . • .411 5. Salubrious Powers - 412 X. Of COBALT, NICKEL, PLATINA, and MAN* CANESE. § i . Circumftances which fu Experiments - 2. Examination ofPlatina by Precipita- tion - -' 4 '7 3. Precipitates of Nickel - 42° 4. Precipitates of Cobalt * 42- 5. Precipitates of Manganeft 4-4 6. Corollaries XI. OBSERVATIONS on URINARY CALCULI. OF or T H x O R I G I • N o r C H E M I S T R Y.* In art'ibut etfcifnfiif, tanquam in met alii fodlnis, omnia novit op ril/ut tt ullcrtonlut progrrJJiLus circurnjlrepcrc dclcnt. BACO DE VERVLAMIO. 5. I. Of the Slow Progrcfs of Natural Pbi J\ S the qualities of bodies can never be known by rcafbning a priori^ it is not to be wondered, that the progrcfs of Natural Philofophy unto its . prefcnt height fliould have been fo flow, when we confidcr, that every thing mud be atten- * lively obfcrvcd, compared, and put to the tcil ; of experiment. The fallibility of our fenfcs, too, is one great caufe of delay: For, whenever A fubftanccs * T'aia difTcrtation was publicly read at Upfal, ia the IIJJ, 4ih Jucc 2779. * OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. fubftanccs below a certain fkc are to be exa«« mined, they are either feen confufedly, or va* nifli from the fight; and things that arc in them- felvcs fuflicienlly obvious are often reprcfented very obfcurely. The great number and variety of characters likcwilc of the productions of na- ture is fo great, tlr.it I will venture to fay, not only the fagacity of Newton, employed during the age of Methufalem, had failed in afccrtain- ing but flightly the qualities of a fingle object; but that the united indufhy of many, employ- ed during a long fcrics of age-j, had not been more fucccfsful. Nature may be compared not improperly to an iininenfe book, written in an unknown lan- guage. In order to underilund the text of which, it is ncccflary that the letters ihouhl lie known, ib that by attentively obferv ing the refcmblance and difparity of bodies, their dif- tinguifliing characters, and natural qualities, may be difeove;ed. — This conftitutes Xutunil Hijiory. Then the fyllables are to be form- ed : — And this allegorical language points out general properties to be determined by proper experiments. And, as in focicty, the genius ai'id fecret difpofition of the mind and aUcctions arc rendered more cbnfpicuous in ftuiationi of diiliculty and diflrefa; Ib, in the fume manner, the fecrets of nature arc more unfolded by the nioleftations of art than when they are fuftered to remain undiflurbed. — Fromliencc Pbrfcsunfe. Next, OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 3 Next, the fcnfe and connexion is to be gather- ed from the words, as to the proportion and va- rious modifications : — Which conilitutcs Cbcurif- try. If then we confidcr thcfc three vafl fields of phenomena and experiment, and thc-fmall num- ber of l hole who have attended to their cultiva- tion ; and if we contemplate the ncecflary fup- ply of felcd apparatus, llie fingular fagacity rc- tjuifitc for militating proper trials — and view the unwearied patience, dexterity, and exquiiltc at- tention, in carrying on, repeating, and varying tlie fcvcral proccflcs; and finally, the mature and penetrating judgement required to form a true refult, we fhali ccafe to wonder at the flow ad\anccs of Natural Philofophy. Lord Vcrulam juftly remarks, that the hu- man undcrflanding is not a mere faculty of ap- prchcnfion, but is affcclcd more or Icfs by the will and the pufiions. What man illics to be true, thru he caiily believes to be fo. From impatience he rejects every difficult enquiry;— irorn pride and arrogance, he difdains the light of.cxperienee, left he fliould appear to be wholly abforbcd. in particulars iubjcd to the fcnfes. — He dcfpifes moderate purfuits, bccaufc they li- mit his hope;— avoids paradoxes, on account of the oprnionof the vulgar; — and flights the beau- tiful difcovcrics of others, from envy. The hiilory of Natural Philofophy muft there- fore in z great mcafure confiil of errors, falfe-' A 2 Iwods, 4 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. hoods, and conje&urcs : For in nil crofs ways w« feldom arrive at the truth by the fhortcfl path ; nor do we reach it at latt but by many circui- tous wanderings, and after every other read has been tried unfuocefsfully. But, ncverthelds, the view of the errors of the human underfta ,ding is exceedingly ufe ful, and thr caules of them be- ing laid open in the examples of others, the mind is improved ;— like a failor, who, from different charts, learns to navigate through dangerous feas, and from the track of former voyagers, to c-fcape the rocks and fhorils around him. Hence then it appears, in what manner the under- ltanding,rcfcued from dark nefs, reflects the light of truth, and refumes its true direction. The hiilory of chemillry »s properly divided Into the mythologic, the obfcure, and the cer- tain. The firft period exhibits it from its in- fancy, deformed by fictions, until the deftruC- tion of the library of Alexandria by the Arab:. — The fecond, though freed in fome meafure from thefc abfurdities, yet is Hill clothed in num- berlcfs enigmas and allegorical exprcilions. — The third period commences at the middle ot* the feventeenth century, with the firft eftablilli- rncnt of focicties and academics of fciencc ; of which the wife aflbciates, in many places unit- ing their efforts, determined to purfuc the ilu- dy of Natural Philofophy by obfen-ation and experiments, and candidly to publifh their at- tempts in a general account of their t ran fac- tions. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. £ tions. In the following pages, we fliall give a ilight fketch of the firft period,— trufting to the mild criticifm of our gentle readers.— To treat of every part at large would exceed the limit* tf one volume. § II. Origin of Chemical Art** Tun concatenated Tories of truths on which feience depends, arifes from a more frequent and accurate companion of many phenomena.— In order to acquire this knou ledge, it is nccef- lary to prepare a number of experiments and observations with judgement and attention. The properties of foine bodies, porhaps, were known immediately; but neceflity, or the love of gain and convenience, the moll powerful in- citement to genius, taught their ufe and appli- cation.—Hence iprung arts and artificers ; but, as yet, there appeared no vcftigc of true fcience. Sagicif.y and fedulous invciligation were requir- ed to perceive the relation of various phcnc.no- n;i, and to reduce them, in fonu* mcafure un- folded, to a necellary arrangement. We arc, however, to far from wiihing to tie- tract from the merit of the tirft ditcovercrs, that we contend, they were men of the grcateft in- genuity ; for who will not allow, that in order to ^udge truely of their claim to honour, both the times in which they lived, and their fituations, A 3 njufl. fi OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. mud betaken into the account. — If Newton, the great Newton, the glory and ornament of thw hu* man umlei Handing; he who determined fo won- derfully the law's of motion of the planetary tyf- tern ; who, to t lie aftonilhment uf all mankind, di- vided a ray of light, and reduced almoil infinity it- fell" to calculation;— if thi; hero of philosophers had lived among the Laplander*, he would fcarce? have been the inventor of decimal arithmetic. — Or had the fublime Stahl cxilled before the ilood, he had, perhaps, riot furpailed Tubalcaiu in dexterity, Hence it may, in fume meafure, be conjectur- ed, why, in remote times, divine honours were paid to the firR difcovcrcrs of the works of na- ture ; and why to thofe who had deferved well in t;ivil allairs, the dignity 'of heroes only wa. granted. — The benefits of the firll a tied all the Jiuman race, and extend their hi'ppy inlluences • through every age; while the operations of the latter is confined to certain iituutious, and limit- ed to a few years. Jiclides, it rarely happcm th-'.t any improvement takes place in fociety, without fume violence or commotion; but the noble diicoveries in the great book of nature bleii \vhvrc\cr they proceed, and bear their fu- lu:;iry fruits without lorrow or diflurbance *. The truths of every part of philoibphy, whe- ther they are worthy of admiration, and extol the \vifdom of the fupreme aut!;ority of naturu, Ck\ * Lord Jhcon. * OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 7 or whether they arc actually beneficial to the purpofcs of a ftatc, do ftill intitlc it to the fame degree of cftimation. — But, ncvc^hclcfs, there arc not wanting many cultivators of fcicnce who, nut content with this Inure of commendation, feck in the dull of antiquity fcr traces of invert* tjons they conceive to have been meritorious, dr to have been more amply difcufied. And I am forced to acknowledge, that many among ihc earlier chcmifts cfpccially, have attended too much to tins fludy, labouring to reduce to their favourite iyftem the fublimcil arts almoft coeval with our own globe. In this view anci- ent monuments are ranfackcd, and diligent fearch i'» every where made for the vefligcsof their bc- Joved a^e ; and if, in the tcilimonics they arc able to produce, any thing fhould be deficient, they are at no lofs to fupply the vacancy with reaibning and conjecture. Let us attend a little to thcfc patrons of fucli high nntiquity. — Surely they apprehend, that from this enquiry into the character and hillory of mankind, it \vill appear, that the firft intimations of arts and fciences were received partly by divine, and partly by diabolic infpiration. The lioly writ- ings make mention of fevcrol interviews with God and angels ; nay, even in cxprcfs words, it i? faid, that Hezalcel, the fon of Uri, was endu- ed with the fpirit of the Lord, and with /kill to *-ork in gold, (ilver, brafs, marble, in precious A 4 ft ones, 8 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. flones, and feveral kinds of wood *. They adduce Enoch the patriarch, as a firfl evidence, who relates that the Egrcgori (*>r/»f-« adminiftrcd antidotes a- gainft poifons to men and women, and verfcs that fhould preferve them from difeafes. And they quote llexaele the tenth prince of the Egrcgori, who taught the art of making fwords,breafi-plates, and all warlike inilrumcnts, and the methods of \vorking gold and lilver, to make them appear beautiful to the women; and indruclcd them in painting their faces, and in wearing precious flones f . The fame thing ulmofl is advanced upon the faith of ancient monuments by Clemens Alex- andrinus J, Tcrtullian §, and Eufcbius |{. £u- polcmus in Kufebius relates of Enoch himfelf, that he was taught by angels, and transmitted the fcience of allrology, through Mcthufalcia and his podcrity, down to Abraham. Zofimus of Panopolita aflcrts, th.it the works of nature were revealed by demons unto the daughters of men, in return for their love ; and he adds, that the firfl account of thcfe arts was called ,v/*«. as well as the book itfclf; and hence the nrt * Exod.xxxi. 3. •f- Frajjmcn apud Synctllum. t Strom. 5. $ DC iduKilria dc virgin, vchnd. ct cultu I! Prarp. cvantj. lib. 9* cap 17, 18. OF THE ORIGIN' OF CHEMISTRY. ? an came to be diftinguifhcd by the name *»*••«*. By rmgcls or demons, and Egrcgori, as the/ are called by fome, many underftand, with Bor- richius, the poftcrity of Seth and Tubalcain, (the children of God) the wicked offspring of righteous parents, who being initiated by their fathers in the fecret myflevics of nature, pro- fancd the majelly of their truft, by an- ill-timed loquacity with the daughters of Cain, with wliofe charms they were captivated.— By this and other crimes they drew upon themfclves the anger of the Deity f. Who could believe that morofe philofophers.fliut up, for the great eft part of their lives ami Jit the coal- and furnaces of their laboratories would lerioully leek the origin of their fciencc in the tender paflion ? But they did not flop here. Almoil every where in their writ- ings they allude to love fports ; one while to thf^ nuptials of a philofophit king, then to the not of Vulcan, and many other llcrics r/f a iimilar nature ; which, as they fay, are all to receive a myftic interpretation. Wherever Homer itu- ' X.f*TM T«VT»CI/» i i< T-«»T« r* »*< f r, 6i < r»»r* ra ^en- Conf. Scaligcr in notis ad Kufcbii ciirunicont •j- Dificrtat. Jc oitu ct pro^cfTu climcix* xo OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY, dioufly dcfcribcs the Helen embraces of Mars anc| Venus, thcfe fkilful profelTors of the art arc furc to dil cover fume chemical fccrct, fome com- bination of copper and iron, painted in glowing colours. When they menu to fignify the mule, ing of gold, which they call the great work, they fpeak of broken conjugal iakh: — They had perhaps erred leis, liad they thus inierpretcvl conjugal fidelity unbroken. But we have dwelt fulliciently on thefe things. It is however truly to be lamented, ihat thofe who cultivate the ingenious arts, as well as the ignorant vulgar, fhould plcafc them- ielves with ridiculous opinions, which they af- terwards venerate and defend, with us. much 'zeal as they would the interell of their country and religion; fee-king cut arguments every where, by which they may be fuppoited. For, fuch is the force and obtlinacy of prejudices, that whoever fuller themfelves to be led away by them always maintain thofe very errors of which they an* confdous, a practice moil un-t worthy of, and prejudicial to ai; iiivefligator of truth. He who delires truth tranu'llly, will a! , ways feck it, with Horace : 4 ^ Si quid nwljli reflius ijllf^ Candulus imperti. All that can be faul \vith certainty of the origin of chemhlry, is refolved limply into this, that the various arts depending upon it are of the liif'lieit j;:.Ju|irity. Tlie ilriptuves call Tvibafcain, OF THE ORICIX Ol« CHEMISTRY. i* Tubalcain, the eighth man from Adamf thcr worker and hammerer of iron and copper*; the fame whom the heathens jccm to have wor- fhippcd under the name of Vulcan. We arc not acquainted with any proofs of his (kill; and indeed it is inoft likely they would be of the rudeft kind. — The title of chcmift, however, with which he appears to have been honoured by many, would have applied fully as well to every fmith and melter of metals. — Some indeed inlift,that neither brafs nor iron couidbc wrought and varioufiy moulded, unlcfs the method of in- vcfiigating the nature of minerals, of burning, purifying, and fcparating them, were prcvioufly uncle rfloocl, If ratals however were found native in the neighbourhood of Paradiic, there could be no occafion for all ihcfe proccfies. Mention is ;nade of gold (liicc the beginning of the world f; and in the time of Abraham many tilings were bought and fold by determined weights of filvcrj. Tliemoft ancient monuments clearly denionllratc the great quantity of thefe metal.-*; and il is* not unlikely that the ingenious Tubalcainlhould obferve they were capable of extension under the liamrner, and of fufion by ilre§; and that hg * Gen. ir. 22. f Gen. ii. 1 1, 12. ^ Gen. xxiii. 16. § Tlicrc was once a time, \vncn Tnankltxi were totally itrnr,- jcrs to the ufc of Arc; and they fcc:n to l:r.vc learnt its mture it OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. he would fearch for thefe properties in other bodies, anddifcovered them in iron and copper, h alfo very probable. The and Its property of heating and deflroying bodies, from volca- nic eruption*, and from ll;c effects of lightning. Jt will be cafily f.ppofcd, that, on iu fir/I difcovery, fire would be at- tentively and anxioufly prticrvtd, and that cure would be b-!» Jlov.'td to nourifh it, in proportion as its great utility became known. Hence, it ii beyond all doubt, that the office of fup« porting it »a. given, a* an honourable re.vard, ty thole, illul- trious men who Iu4 ckfcivcd well of the Hale. The authority of religion loo became attached to it, and the fuperilitious vcnvration of perpetual firCicithcrwoifliipped in the name of ihr Deity, or coniVcratcd to the godj ; ui.lil, by degrees, it was ciilcovcrcc1, that firfc could be excited at will j — with which, howvver, few only wcic »»l fiift *ce any dlfliculty in okfcrv. jfg, that Hones rubbed ngninil rach other produced fparki of f.ro. Theattil.cc ol Pninictiieiif, fo celebrated in the fongj of poets, appear.** to have been nothing tl/e than tire produced in tlr!s rniuncr fiuro ftoiJK**, rxct-pt that lie fall flu- wed how it iJiovjld he nouriflicd.— To this* applies tie account of Pliny : ': i'yrodis the- fon of Cilex fn ft obtained fire from ^lints OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 15 Tlie Siberian iron examined by Pallas wac> found to be malleable, though cold, or mode* rately 41 anil Prometheus taught firft to prcfcrvr it in a reed," L. 7. C. 57. And clfe where, " It is well known, that f»re is bed chc- *• rilhi'd in reed*, and Ui.it thofe in Egypt excel all others." Lil>. 13. e. 22. The vulgar opinion fnppofes Ariftophancs to be the firfl who made any mention of burning-glades. But if thofc vcr- fcs are gcn\iine, which arc attributed to Orpheus, it will ap~ pear that this prince of poets, who lived long before Arifto- phancs, had dcfcnbcd the effect of the folar rays received into cryflaT, in the f« Ilowing lines : •' Take into yorr hands a fplcndid and pellucid cryftal, " A ftonc pofTcfTing fuch divine brilliancy, *' As docs the hearts of the immortal gods delight, ia hcav'n " cntliron'd : " This, if to the temple then you bear, " No god upon your vows (hall unpropitious frown. '* The virtue of this wond'rous Hone attend and learn : *' Should you, without b-.rning fire, chufe to excite a flam<% •* To f»t^gots dr) M approach it near. " Upon the wood anon a gentle ray appears: M Which, when once the dr)' and fat materials it hat fuVd, " Smoke fnft, then fire and dreadful flame " Afcend : Earth's facr d fire by the ancients nam*d. " With other flame than this, facritices to the god» " Acceptable, I hope, will never b rn. •* Moreover, of tins wond'roi:s cryil il ad iuuncdiatcly communieatcd tv> 44 foinc dry fuel, of fungus or leaves. For tliis puipofc no- •' tiling h better than tlitf laurel and ivy. The \vood-\iuc •* alfo may be employed ; not \vlat ii c.iHcd \vild-viue, from *' \vhuh it differ*, by twitting iUtlf round irccs in the ir.anncr « of ivy." By a fimilar proc^fi of rubbing pieces of wood together, the Arabs, und the iflauoVr* cf America, obtain all their lire. * Gen. ix. 20, 21. f Gen. x:. 3. J lierofus tlic Annian rcbtes that Noah had olfcrved ^»-7 cf the ferret \voiks of nature, which \v<">• <••!*-", ••-'« f »' /I«>.I«TW u r»* K«T«i*A.v*i«9v f«. r»f tiff /i«A.i«r.Xu^ne,{, nai w'*»ri >i/rt» it ^ M^««f * r« rv AX'^ fM«» **r,o< /l f« T«r, it ro«f a/vrtic T*»» ii^»-f Ai)rfrifc-». f Baum^artcn in Elrl. dcr Alien Gtfch. torn. I. p. u» 407. The Scriadic land U, by its fi^nificntion in tl»c Coptic tongt:<-t to be the f.imc as the land of the fun, or HtKopolius* Sjncollui in clircno^r. i8 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY; lius Africanus, from Africanus Eufebius, philius, and from Eufebius Synccllus, have fc* verally made extracts; — and from the preface of Diogenes Laertius, it appears plainly, that he had made ufe of the *»»««• IT«T./« of Manethus. The hieroglyphics of the Egyptians reprcfent natural bodies entire, as well as in part, andalib mathematical figures. Thcfc are perhaps the letters which were attributed to Hermes; ex- pelling things rather than founds : But how- ever likely it is, that fuch fliould be the rude inventions of antiquity, yet \ve (hall prefently fee, they were reckoned more ingenious than later improvements. Whatever might be the mode of writing tlrat Hermes is faid to have in- vented, although as yet rude and imperfect, it was clectily of the greatefl importance. Hitherto the fciences, equally with the vulgar arts, de- pended entirely on the uncertainty of oral tradi- tion ; whereas, by the affiltance of letters, the ob- fervations of ingenious men would be mere ccifily <;ollocted, compared, and reduced into order,' and the firft foundations of inrtruction be tila- blifhcd. Many circumftances lead us to apprehend that the cxillencc of both the Ilermefes was not merely imaginary, as Urfinus and Corringius do. For although it was the cuftom of the an- tients to difguife the actions of their heroes in the ornaments of fiction, yet arc we not to in- fer, that fuch perfons are altogether fabulous. There OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 19 'There would he an end to all hiflorical truth, if, from the difagrcc men t of records in rcfpeclto form *,we were to deny the exiftcncc of the tilings themfclves. But, liowevcr, who they pofuivcly were remains dill infome obfcurity. Many agree- ing with J. C. Kricgfman, fuppofe the firft to be Canaan the fon of Cham*. Others, again, with Kirchcr, imagine him to be Enoch. With Hu- ct, he is called Mofes ; by Philo, the fon of Miz- raim (Mifor) f. Nay, fomc of the moft modern writers think they difcovcr Abraham under that appellation J ; who, from the united tcftimonies of Jofcphur, §, Eupolcmus, and Artapanus ||, intruded the Egyptians in the ufe of numbers, and aflronomy, and dwelt among them for twen- ty years. There is no doubt, that the defccndants of Scth knowing that Adam had foretold the ge- neral deftrudion of every thing, atone time by the flood, and at another by a conflagration, wrote all their inventions and difcoveries upon f./o columns, left the knowledge of them fhould pciifn. Jofcphus, who, upon the faith of others, relates, that fuch a flone iiill cxiftud in his time B 2 in * On the Smaragdinc table. f PLilo BiLlius rcporti from Sanchuniaton, that Mifor had tSon named Taaut, called by t lie li^ypiiant Tho)th, the in- »e;.tor of the lit A elements uf \vriting. t Koclu Pharos dei Chron. } Antiq. I. i, C, 2 1,' Euftdm Pt«p. £v. ix. c. 17, l8« 2* OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. in Syria, is thought, not improperly, to have a£* plied to Seth the above-mentioned account of Hermes, by Manethus. Sanchuniaton calls Hermes a Phoenician, which agrees with the o- pinion entertained of Abraham. Many of the moderns * difcovcr another Her- mes in Jofeph the fon of Jacob, from the autho- rity of antient monuments; from which it ap- pears, that Faimus (Hermes) was infidioufly be- trayed by his brethren to the children of Cham ; among whom he was highly honoured, clothed in garments of gold, and worshipped as a god, from his knowledge of future events |-. In the f cries of Theban kings, extracted with fuch fingular induflry, under Ptolemy the Third, from the facred books by Erutofthencs, the firlt is Menes, perhaps Mifraim the fon of Chum, cal- led elfewhere Oiiris. Then follow the brothers Athotis I. and II. of which the latter, the To- forthrusof Manethus, was /killed in letters, and various arts. Here, urlcf. I am deceived, we find the firft Hermes. Siphoas, or Memnon, the thirty-fifth in order, is diftinguUhed cxprefs. ly by the firname of Hermes. This is the Pro- • teus of Herodotus and Diodorus, thcAmentph- thes of Manethus, and probably, the Agamem- non of Homer, as he \\as not left remarkable for perfona! ftrength, than for his extraordinary inventions. * F. J. V. Schroder* Bibl. fur die ho here Katu^-ifT. t. I- f Ccdrtni Hifl. It Chr. Alex. Conf. Gen. xxxis-xli. 01' THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 21 inventions. Have we not, then, found Her. uies II. ? The great variety of names that occur in 'the hiftory of Egypt, have rendered it ex- tremely confufcd ; as every king received a new iirname as foon as he was initiated in the myite. rics of his religion. Scfoftris is decorated with the name of Mer- cury, on account of his wifdom, by Cicero; and by fomc is imagined to be the fame with Cad- mus, who, having received letters from the He- brews, was the firil who communicated them to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Phoenicians. If it ;s really To, then, as C, W. Beyer with great ftu- died arguments endeavours to dcmonftrate, it will be calily underftood, that the letters invent- ed by the firft Hermes were fymbols of 'things only, and that the fccond Hermes fccms to have been the author qf thcfe figns of founds, which arc at this rime properly denominated letters. That it may appear in what manner thcfe fe- vcrally ogrec, if will be right to attend to the following circumilanccs. According to him, the deluge was 2289 years before the birth of Chrift; — the arrival of Cham in Egypt, and be- ginning of the reign of the gods, 2188 years;— the coining of Abraham, 1922 years;— the death of Cham, end of the government of the gods, and Mcncs king, 1857 years. Scfoflris 987 years; — andSiphoa, 889 years*. B 3 However * Baumgartcn, I. c. Syncillni Jia^ prcfcrvcd the arrange- picnt of Eratofthcncs. 22 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. However it may be decided with regard t« thefe Hermefes, it is evident, that they far fur* palled their cotemporaries in learning and faga- city, and that the Egyptians were indebted to them as the authors of tint wifdom for which they were afterwards fo much renowned. Ac- cording to Herodotus, the Egyptians were the wifeft of the human race. The tilings mod wor- thy of b?ing known were retained by the priefb, of whom there were three communities, in the time of Diodorus, at Heliopolis, Memphis, and Thebes. Among th?n^ diilcrent faiences flou- riihed, cultivated by ditlereut perlbns*; but lo folicitoufly were they kept a Uxrct, that not even the Hierophanti, or the Kings, v.howerr: often chofenfrom the facerdotal order f, were ad- mitted to the knowledge of the fublimcr fludicrr, unlefs they were riril ilrictly examined. They were unwilling that their fecrets fhouklbe com- municated to many, and punillied thofe who ever revealed them. The letters called facred were known to them only, having learned them privately from their ancellois { . The people they amufed with fables, but philolbphifed them- feives under the names of deities $. It is now proper to inquire, whether thefc myfterieu bore anv iclution to the intinmc nature of bodu-s. Tl.::t • Herod, lib. t'v. f Plutarchus tic Jfide. J Clemens Alex. Sir. 1. i. ci contra C :ifum, 1. j, OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 23 That the chief of their religious opinions were involved in enigmatical obfcurity, and allegori- cal fymbols, is beyond alldifpute: But it is by no rneans a confcquence, that they each took their rife in phyficui qualities, taken from the very heart of natural philofophy, although it is pofri- ble that they came to treat Afterwards of things more abftracfc, and lefs obvious to the fcnfes. — We arc furprifcd at the author of Atlantica, \vhofe very fertile genius, fupportcd by great fhew of erudition, has ventured to tranfport the ifland of Plato to the north ; but we are not Jcfs aftoniihcd at the grc.it undertaking of thofc, who pretend to difcover, in a myflic fenfe, the . pliiiolbpher's (lone, the making of gold and fil- vcr, in the mythologic fables of the Greeks and Egyptians. — Certainly, whoever has confidercd thcfe attempts will wonder at the extraordinary coincidence of fQ many monuments, even tho jnoft trifiiing*. — But the limits that we havepre- cribed to ourfelves do.not permit a more particu- lar examination. Pliny, fpcaking of the Egyptian obcli/k, in the great circus «ind Campus Martius, adds :"Infcripti f'ambo rcrum nature intcrpretationemEgyptio- " rum philofophia continent." Some, inflcad of "phifophia/'rcad "opera philofophia:." Which- ii 4 ever * Sre the various wrltin^a of BornchJup,— alfo the Chc» mical Heaven of Tollius in all the f<:nfc of madncfv and Di Pcrncty, who, like all the rclt, h:ia h.imilcd this fubjcc^, in a book lately publiflied, entitled, " lablcs Ejypticnncc ct Grrc« " quc§ dcvoilcds. *< OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY- ever reading is preferred, the fenfe will be near* ly the fame, as it grants that natural philofophy was written in thcfc hieroglyphics *. In the following pages, the tefiimonies of ma-, jiy will be found to corroborate the received o- pinion, that their phyilcal tenets were expref- fed in fuch fymbo!$. — But, as no ftranger was capable of reading and explaining them, there can be no authority for further conjectures. — Following the fentiments of Julius Finnicus Maternusf, a writer of the 4th century, many as yet contend that the faccrdotal art, orfucrcd and divine icienee, as it is called, conliiled chief- ly of magic and alchemiilry J. By magic, how- ever, they do iiot here underllund tliofc diaboli- cal and forbidden pracliccs, which obtained even in the time of Moles Jj, but merely an attention to the works of nature, and the particular qua- lities of bodies, whofe fecret modes of operation, diflingutrticd commonly by the epithets fympatfiy aud antipathy, enabled them to difplay all their miracles.— Hence the difference between magical medicine, hermetic or pbilofonhic, and empiric ; for the former, reiling folely upon oblervation, confiders thecaufes of difeafe, the figns of bodies, and virtues of remedies.und which Ifocrates think* fo defenring of praile, as to give to the Egyptian^ the * L. xxxvi. 9. f Matth. L. Hi. c. 15. conf. Pi-xf. 1. ii. iii. iv. v. ^ Schri dcr, 1. c. . vii. and viii. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 25 tjic fupcriority in all the arts*. Their fkill has indeed been greatly admired by many writers f; but, it muft be confcfied, their remedies bore often the appearance of ridiculous mummery. — Galen afiirms, that King Nechcpfus, 630 years before Chrift, had written, that, if a green jaf- pcr, cut into the form of a dragon furrounded with rays, was applied externally to the pylorus, the ftomach would be ftrengthened. Have we not here the traces of amulets and talifmans? Under all the changes in their government, under all their kings, and under the yoke of the Perfiaus, Babylonians, Grcpians, and Romans, though fciencc did not llourifh among the E- gyptians with equal vigour, yet did it continue to be cultivated and protected, until the dcftruc- tion of Alexandria by the Arabians. Ptolcmeus Soter had collefted a library in Bruchius, which by the care of his f jcccflbr, 1'hiludclphus, in- creafod from 100,000 volumes to 400,000; with which number it was fo cnuulccl, that it became . neceflury to creel a new hall at Sera pis, iufli- ciently large to receive thofe who were daily coming to it. This olVspring of the old library, in a few years, could boaft of 300,000 volumes. The fiift collection was reduced to afhcs, by ac- cident, in' the war with Julius Ciefar, but die Sc- ruple * Conf. Cclfus, L, XXXTI. c. 2, 5, ct 4. ia Uudibui Buf.r. i* Apuleiut in Apol. '. f Diodoiut t 26 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. rapic was continually augmenting, and poflfcfled, at the taking of Alexandria, in 642, above 700,000 volumes, John Fhilopon. a philo- fopher, petitioned the general of the Saracens, Amri Ebnol-As, that he would fpare him purt of this library; but he dared not to comply with his entreaties, without perniiilion from Omar, the feccnd caliph; who, when it. was requeued of him, returned for aniwer, that the books could not be faved ; for, if they arrced with the tenets of the Alcoran, they were ufclefs, if they diilcred from them, they v/ere dangerous *. From this blow the grea.teil trealure of the knowledge of the ancient world wa> totally deflroyed, and the barbarians employed, for above fix months, all its various manuicripts to kindle the fires of their baths, of which there were above 4000 in the city. Cambyfcs, indeed, carried oiTthc fac red vo- lumes, but the priefts either fecreted ibme, or recovered them afterwards, or compofed others again from the monuments; for both Herodo- tus and Diodorus, and Erutoftheues law icveral; and the latter diilinguiihed the genuine from the falfc. — But it is not unlikely, that the hiilo- rical books were ofVafier cojnpoiition,and writ- ten in smother manner, a<» Jiratollhcncswas able to understand them. Candidly, however, it mud be acknowledged, that doubts may yet be entertained of all th'^ proof* ii Hid. Dynaft. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 27 proofs that we have brought, especially when they relate to the periods of the greateft anti- quity. For, if we examine into circumfiance:;, that preceded the age of writers of. the i5tli and iGtli centuries, and which \\orcrccordexlbyforcigncrs; if we ccnfider the enigmatical (lylc of thofc times; and, hilly, if we attend to the impeded! ft ate of writing, the uncertainty of various rela- tions and book:, and the errors and alterations in manuicripts, it will be impolliblc not to hefi- tatc in our belief. Some authors fpcak of one Mercury only, others will have two; Abulpha- ragius names three, Ladlantius four, and Cicero infills on producing five. — How, then, if their number is as yet undetermined, (hall their ac- tions be defined, and dates aliigncd to their ex- iftcnce? Let us pafs therefore to the arts of the Egyptians, which may probably be involved in left darknefs. Dicdorus Siculus, who vifucd Egypt under the reigns of Julius .and Oclaviu.s Cxfar, at a time when arts were in full fplendorin the Ro- man empire, ingcnuoufly confdics, that they were highly cultivated among the Egyptians, nnd brought to the greatcfl degree of perfection. He mentions, that cggr» were not hatched there by the birds; but that the Egyptians, contrary to the cuilom of any other country, were able, by their ingenuity and fame x;atural prcccfc, to bring ** OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRT. bring forth the foetus into life *. But here lei us rather examine the Uate of thofe arts which floiiriihed in Egypt upon chemical principles.— * Of thefe proofs may be procured fur Icfs fufpi- cious, as they are yet to be found by thofe who travel into that country. Their pharmacy fecms entirely to have con- fided of extracts, infulions, decoclions, and mix- tures.— From Diofcorides and Pliny we learn, that they uied the cy perns papyrus, burnt to allies, inlicad of cauftics t,— Galen J afcribes to the Egyptian priefts the compofition called cy- pbeos, confirtingpf myrrh .cinnamon, turpentine, Jj>ice, cy penis, juniper, and bdellium, the per. , fume of which they ufed as being acceptable to the gods; and we are told by Diofcondes§, that this mixture was confideredas an alexipharmic, and lerviceable in aflhmatic compluints. Galen allerts, that the competition of Kcnnon, the fa- cred fcribe, which is called allo //?/, wa; taken put . J rom thelacred depoiiti in the temple of Vulcan ||. liciidcs turpentine, this receipt contained Hakes of copper, mil of brafs, fal ammonaic, burnt uilum, and feveral other things. They had vajrious plaiilers formed of litharge, as uftum, diphrygis, mify, lory, calx of (ilver, and other metallic fub- ilances; and which were known before the timft Of * Lib. ii. ^ ii. N. xxv;. 2. t l)r Ant. 1. ii. c.2 6 I. i. c, 24. * |; Cump ir.i !. 1. v. c. I. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. a> of Hippocrates. — Thefc and other examples, though they do not indicate a very profound knowledge of pharmacy, yet they arc by no means contemptible. That fculpture in all its branches flouriflied a- mong the Egyptians, is evident from thofc won- derful edifices of hewn ftone, the Pyramids, which have fo long withftood the ravages of time ; and from the marbles, ftatucs, obclifks, and tem- ples, which we every where meet in Herodotus^ Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny, and Marcellinus; and are to be feen in Rome at this day. It fccms highly probable, that Panopolis was the chief and moil ant ient/Wr/?r# x^o^,. Strabo* makes mention of it; and it was hither without doubt, that the moft famous Grecian flatuarics refortcd. In the earlicfl periods they were acquainted with the method of burning bricks |-, of forming va- ies for ointments out of alabaflcrj, and of mak- ing mortars for medical purpofcs from granite, the Pyrrhopoecilus of the anticntsj. They hud ibmc mortars al fo of black marble ||. Pliny mentions, that common fait was obtain- ed from a lake in the neighbourhood of Mem- phis*]", and nitre at Naucratis and Memphis. — Strabo * Geogr. xvii. f l'I>;od. v. £. $ Pliuius, I. xxxvi. c. 8. § Diofcoridc% 1. v. c. 102. U PlJn. xxxvi 17. Strabn, 1. xvii. 5| Flin. 1. xxxi. c. 17* Wlu; he relates iu tliu chapter vf tl.c 30 OP THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY; Strabo fpcaks of two placed beyond Momcm- phis, where nitre is produced. The Egyptian nitre, according to Pliny*, was dark coloured, and hard like a Hone; and the proccfs of mak- ing it fimilar to that of fait, except that the fea was let into the fait pans, while the Nile only entered thofefor nitre. As the Nile retired they became dry, but were kept moift tor forty days, "by being fprinkled with the nitrous folution. If rain fell, they diminiflicd a proportional quanti- ty of the Nile, and removed the nitre from the pits as fooi i as it began to thicken, loll it Humid be uj'.ain diflblved. In this oily rtatc they ap- plied it as a remedy for the fcab in animals. — When laid by in large mattes it becomes hard. They reckon the lighteft part of nitre, and con- fequemly the frothy part, the beft; but the roarfe dregs are ferviceab'le in dying purple and all other colours. — -The Memphitic nitre was foul in its concretions; from whence the ftony iuaiFes of which vafes were formed, and fome- t hue's reduced to a coal by means of ignition \vith fulphur. The aphronitrum, or fcum of ni- tre, w:is brought in veflels covered with pitch, letl it ihould clillblve by contact with the air.— Nitre was adulterated with lime, which was ca« lily difcovcred by the tafle; the genuine melt- ed readily in the mouth, but the fpurious was extremely the flower of kit, fcems to apply properly to tlie fairer* of fal ammoniac. * L. x\xi. c. iu. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 31 extremely pungent, and emitted a powerful o- dour. They were ditlinguifhcd alfo by burning them in the fire; the adulterated being always in a clofe vcilcl, that it might not ily out; the genuine not requiring that precaution. From other circumflanccs it appears, that the nitre of the Egyptians was mineral alkali, in fonic de- gree cauflic, combined with nitrated volatile alkali*, Pliny commends the Egyptian aluinf. Di- xion in his commentary on Athenreus, thinks, that fal ammoniac was fcnt from Egypt into 1'erfiaJ. The Egyptians obtained oils from the rlcheft olives, from radifhes, graft, fefamy, nettles, and other vegetable fubflanceb§. The mummies which are yet found entire, afibrd fpecimens of the mod perfect fkill in embalming. Ilcroda* tus, * Boyle received in a prcfent from the En^liih ami>afTaf!or at the Porte, a piece of Nitre from the river Nile, which do llqucfccd in the open aii as readily as fait cf tartar, and cfier- vcfc d violently wiili the acetous and maiinc acids. Sec D<: Produc. Chem. Princ. f 3. Barkhufcn reports, that llic fjlt extracted from the Nile, when mixed with lime, has nn urinoui fmell, Acroam. 1 34. To the fame fait mui\ be attributed *-lut we rend of the Nile in Profpcr Alpinus, in Hift. -cEg. that it pttfTtflci a falinc lade, is purgatire, cmmcna^oguc, and diuretic. f L. Ixlcxv c. i^. $ Dipnof 1. ii. c. 29. f Pliniuj, xv. 7. xix, 5. 3t OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. tiis*, and Diodoms Siculusf, relate, that thd Ethiopians formerly inclofed their dead bodies? ing/afs; but which Gefner contends is to be un- derftood as amber \. As to what we arc told of their perpetual lamps, from Arabian authority, if they are not wholly fabulous, they can have been nothing clfe than threads of amianthus (or earth flax,) and finall dreams of bitumen, with which thole regions abound. Diodorus mentions a place in which were fe- veral large golden mines, that were wrought by many thoufanc! men in chains; and he fpeak£ :tlfo of the working of gold and bra is at Thebes §; It is worth while to attend to the defcription he gives of their operations, and of the minerals on the confines of Arabia, with which, he fays, the kings were acquainted in the earlieft ages. The foil is black, and produces \vhite veins of marble. The mineral, rendered brittle by cal- cination, is firft broken and then divided int? imaller pieces, and pulveriied in mills ; the cftr- thy part is fepu rated by wafhing on an inclined plane; and then certain proportions of IcaJ, of lult, tin, and a flux being added to the reliduum, the whole was put into covered crucibles, and expofedto the lire for rive iiycbtbemera;u.ivl thus pure gold without any fcori^ was obtained. Here w*? * Thalia. f L. xv. $ Aa GovltiMg, 1. 2. i L ill OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 33 we fee the fame procefles as are yet employed by the moderns. They did not engrave, but painted Anubis on their (ilver veflels * ; and Heliodorus records, that Chariclca the daughter of the Egyptian prophet wore at her brcall golden ferpents of rin azure colour ; that the fplendor of the gold had been deitroycd by art, to imitate the rough and va- rious fcales, and reprefcnt the fkin fpottcd with black and yellow f* From this, then, it appears that the art of colouring metals by fire was not unknown in fhofe days.— The Egyptians made glafs of a dark colour, fometimcs tranflucid, cal- led ob/idinnurn, in imitation of that which was clifcovcrcd by Obfidius in Ethiopia |. But their magnificent cups betray a confidcrable know- ledge in the art of making glafs; and of which the Emperor Adrian, then rcfiding at Alexan- dria, thus writes to the conful Scrvius: " I have " fent to you fomc Alaffian cups of various co- 11 lours, given to me by the pried Of the tem- '* pie : They are dedicated to you, and particu- 41 larly to my fitter; and I dcfirc that you will 44 always produce them at your fcafts on holi- days§." Bcfidcs thcfc proofs of their ikill, we have tcftimonies of their being able to imitate the emerald. Pliny mentions, that in Ixh time C the * Plin. 1. xxxlit. c. 9. ^ ^f-thiop. 1. v. J Plin. 1 xxxvi c *G. J Lib. Phl;gonti>. M OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. there was (till extant in an Egyptian labyrinth a Colofllan Scrapis of emerald, meafuring nine cubits high: And Tlicophrallus ulfodcicribes an obeliik in the temple of Jupiter, funned of four emeralds, that was 40 cubits in length, and in fome places four, in others two, in diameter*. — That, therefore, the Egyptians had very fuccefs- fully imitated the emerald, is beyond a doubt ; for there fcarcely, or perhaps never, was found real (tones of fuch magnitude. They reprefent- ed the turqueois alto, as we learn from Thco- phralhis; and the merit of giving it the blue colour is afcribed to one of their kingbf. Were they acquainted with cobalt J? Pliny aliens, that * II. N. xxxv 1.5. f Of Stones, 98. $. The celebrated PauW afiinns that the Egyptians ufcd finaft, and the Romans alfo, if we believe Lehman, were not igno- rant of this mineral. Fcibcju* aiid Dclaval entertain the lame opinion, which the one iuppoi'*, by appealing to the fmali Egyptian im:i;jt* incruilcd with blue glafi, aud the o- •her from the little blue Hones th:it tire cwry where iuuml in the fepv.Ha ted works and pavements of the ancients. The illuitrious Gmellin, Prof. Gottin^. liowc\er, t!ci:k^ that the account given of it by Pliny can puflibly apply to cobalt, and <.)iufe» lather to uuvlci iiand from the writings of this naturalilk the native blue calx of copper, called ultramarine. 12cfidc«, he thinks that tl»e blue colour of Egyptian glali was imparted to it without tire; or, if ii. deed lire had been employed, that it wa* obtained fiom Tome otlitr mttal than cobalt. Kxpeii- mtiitt coiiiiim tlti',, opinion. K^t li-.r from mount Ptligiird, :\ *«v/ )c;\u iuu'C) loinc 1'cpcllatfd pavement vt'variou^colo OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 35 that their opaque red coloured glafs, called H;c- matinos, the white and murrbinc, and the ims C 2 tations floncs was dug out of the earth. Some of thofc that were blue Gmcllinus diflolvcd in aqua rcgia ; and, having made a. perfect fululion, he dlfcovercd evident marks of iron. Had there been any cobalt, it would have formed the fympathctic ink. There is no mention made of cobalt among ancient authors ; for what is called cadmia by Pliny feems to have been zinc, or rather arfcnic.— I have not heard of any one yet who ha» found cobalt, either in Egypt, Arabia, Kuinidia, or Ethiopia. And, as to the mineral of which Lehman fpeaks, that was brought fiom mount Atlas, and poifcifed the property of tinging glafs of a blue colour, it was probably the ore of iomc other metal. If you except Picdcmont, there is no appear- ance of cobalt in all Italy. It was certainly found however in Picdernont after the time of the Romans : and the inhabitants of that country were fo ignorant of the art of making it into imalt, that they fold the cobalt but rudely calcined to the peo- ple of Nurcmbi-rg.The iflandof Cyprus fo celebrated for its vein* of topper, produced no cobalt. Thii mineral, however, was firil Jug up in Liter times in the country of the Grifuns, in France, and in Spain. It is well known, that the Chinefe, Japancfe, and Indians ufe a blue pigment in colouring their porce- lain, and that they have long poflcflcd this art ; but, it is pro- bable that they took the lapis lazuli for tin's purpofr, with which the northern provinces of China every where abound. Delaval, by fomc particular procefs, made a blue glafs with iron, which he mixed with other glafs that was white and pellucid, and thus obtained various degrees of colour, but not all thofc which arc difcovcrcd iu the ancient monuments. Iron is found every where; and it is not pofliblc, that thofc who knew how to make jwrcclain (hould be ignorant of its ufc. The Egyptians were acquainted with the hxmatiics, »jjj with red ochre, from both of \vliich ochre is now extracted ^6 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY tations in other colours of hyacinths and Tap- phires*, nay, even the true precious flones could f-rarce be dirtinguifhcd from the falfef. Betides wines, the Egyptians prepared a li- quor from* barley, in flavour and talle very little inferior to the juice of the grape; and which they call Zytbus^ and fuppofe to be invented by Oiiris}. Tlieir vinegar is extolled as the bell, by Chryfippus in Athenxus ; and fuch was its acidity, that it immediately diilblved the great- efl pearl Cleopatra had in her poflefllon§. % Of their (kill in colours we have many beau- tiful examples. They were acquainted with native minium. The words of Pliny upon this fubjecl are worthy of attention: " Fingunt," he fays, " et vefles in yEgypto, inter pauca mi- 44 rabili gencre, Candida vela poiUjuam attrive- 44 re, illinentes non coloribus, fed colorcm for- 44 bentibus medicamcntis: hoc cum fecere non 41 apparet in veils ; fed in cortinam pigment! 44 fervcntis merf.i poll momentum extrahuntur 44 pidu. Mirumque, cum (it unus in cortina 44 color in Ntumdia. And they mud neccfTarily luve known tlie Llut fcorire, alfo, t lint covcu the furfacc of iron, obtained by Fire from thole ores. From fuch arguments as thefe, Gmclin contends that the blue ^l.tGi of the ancients was not coloured, witli cobalt, but with iron. Vid Gotting. gel. Anz 1776^ St. 42. * Lib. xxKvi. 26. f Lib xxxvi. 12. * | Diudoru* Siculuff !. i. c. 2O. 34. „ } Pliu. ix, 3;. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 37 **' color, ex illo alius atquc alias fit in vcfte, ac- ** cipicntis medicament! qualitate mutatus, nee ** poftea ablui poteil *." Surely this is a de- fcription of the colouring of filks. But let thcfe proofs fuflicc. Some of them are indeed not quite fo accurate, and others are ra- ther exaggerated: But we arc not therefore to conclude, that though many chemical arts were not invented by the Egyptians, they were not cultivated fuccefsfuUy by them. Indeed, if we credit Zoiimus, they were acquainted with dif- tillations; for which lie defcribcs various vcfle Is and apparatus, although he paints them in the rudelt manner. Of the fir ft ufe of pitch Pliny fays : " Lignum (trcda) concifum furnis undiquc " igni extra circumdatq, fervet: primus fudor 14 aquas .mod o iluit canuli: hoc in Syria ccdrum " vocatur; cui -tanta vis eft, ut in Egypto cor-, " pora hominum dtfunclorum eo perfufa fer- 44 ventur. Sequens liquor jam craiHor piccm 44 fundit |." Of this we may underftand a clif- tillation per defccnfum. In what manner oil is obtained from pitch he defcribcs clfcwhcrcj; that while it is boiling, fleeces of wool arc fprcnd over it to receive the vapour, which is afterwards exprciTcd from -them. No doubt this is a pro- cefs of diil illation in its infancy. Whether they undcrftood ^t^™*™ we cannot •learn from the antient monuments. Some au- C 3 lhoi;> * L. xxxv. n. f L. xvj. ii. } L. xv. 7. 38 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. thors infift, that is naturally to be inferred from the immenfe wealth and power of the Egypti- ans. So many huge pyramids, obeliiks, col- lofll, extenfive cities, and hanging gardens ; fo many fepulchrcs, labyrinths, fubterraneous ca- verns, and other works of Herculean labour, which were formerly found, and of which part remains yet entire, could never have been erect- ed but nt an incredible expence. In Diodorus Siculus we find, that Sefoflris co- vered a (hip of cedar with gold; that on the top of the fepulchreof Ofymandua, there is a circle of gold of 365 cubits; and that, in the time of Ofiris, ftatues, and even entire temples, were made of gold. But we dare not vouch for the truth of thefc relations. However great might be their riches, we arc certain, that they had no gold mines in the time of Hermes; and that thofc which were afterwards difcovered were wrought with great colt and labour, and with very little profit: So that many are of opinion, the Egyptian kings worked thefe mines as a co- lour and pretext for the treaiurcs they had o- therwife amaflcd. Herodotus and Diodorus both make mention of a temple at Memphis that was dedicated to Vulcan; and the latter adds, That the invention of all the operations relating to copper, filvcr, and gold, and of eve- ry other fubflanc'c th.it is prepared by fire, was attributed to this deity*. Under the n:nnc of Vulcan » Eibl. Hift. J. v. !. j. c. 13. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 39 Vulcan, they worshipped fire itfelf, for they believed that it was eflentially ncccflary to the creation and perfection of all matter*. Zofimus calls Panapolis the fchool of chcmiftry ; and Sy- nefius confirms this fentimcnt. Cedrenus in the eleventh century throws more light upon this queftion, for he fays, That " Faunus, named " clfcwhcrc Hermes, r«u Xr"» »« f **' (in ot^crco- 41 pics rmyffi»rff)i;f«Fnpf«/iir«AKci»f." But neverthclefs, all that has been faid does not, in my opinion, prove that the Egyptians undcrftood the &>*•*•* t'»t or art of making gold; and we know from daily experience, that whole Hates, ignorant of this art, rife to wealth and power by induflry alone. However, in ancient times, it is well af- rcrtaincd, that vaft quantities of pure gold were concealed in that quarter of the globe, which had been CN traded from the foil there, or im- ported by commerce, or wars with the neigh- bouring nations, and thus had increafed their trcafurcs. This extraordinary rage of converting every thing into gold fcizcd all the chc.mifts of the fourrh century. As gold had b^cn long confi- dcred as the medium of exchange in the pur- chafe of every commodity, the chemifts, who were bettor acquainted with the various quali- ties of bodies than others, and who faxv mira- cles riling daily under their hands, and alJurcA C 4 aljb * Ibid. 1. ii. c. 2. Y HifL Comp. fit OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. alfo by the love of gain, and perhaps by vanity and arrogance, unanimoufly turned their atten? tion to the making of this moil precious metal. They knew that art could eflTec~l various changes in the appearance of metallic fubftances; and \vherefore fliould they think it not competent, by proper experiments, to form them in this mod perfect character? This problem, however difficult it may ap- pear, no one had then.dcmonllrated to be inca- pable of folut ion ; and, it may be added, that not, even in our times, has its abfurdity been proved. Therefore, not without fome profpecl of fucccfs, did thefe alchymiits employ number- lefs means to attain their objecl. But, it is evi- dent that they toiled in this occupation under no good aufpices ; for their conllant perfeverance, labour, and expcnce, were not only employed without fucccfs, but they themfclvcs wandering from the true paths of philofophy, and loll in vi- lionury dreums, began to entertain conceits hoi- tile to the principles of fciencc. Encouraged by the wiflied-for gain, they bent ull their thoughts, and every faculty of the mind, to tiic foltition of this myilerious problem; fothat, had any one been fo fortunate as to have obtained the reward of hi> labours, he would have defer- ved the appellation of 3 covetous ^W»«»«»/,T;, ra- ther than th:it of a fkillful chemiil. Under the dominion of fordid avarice, and miferably envi- s, t!;ey iinpoft J upon thcinlelves u ridiculous fileocc, OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 41 filence, and, althowgh they poflcflcd fcarce any lecrcts for carrying on what they called the great work, yet did they involve that art, which they pretended to dcfcribe, in fo many abftrufe hieroglyphics, figns, and cxprcffions, as not only to prevent others from receiving information, but alfo to conceal their own ignorance under the thick covering of fuch darkncfs. Some wri- ters imagine, that the table of Hermes alludes to this art, and that jt is concealed alfo in the gol- den chain of Homer. Others, with more pro- bability, believe it to exifl metaphorically in the Golden Fleece of the Argonauts. — Johannes of Antiochus, who lived during the reign of Hera- clius, and after him Suidas, are cxprefsly of opi- nion, that it is undcrftood in the Golden Fleece. »ru; Ji7 /.* £•><"*<• ^»"-9» *f)-affif$ai yiyrxufin)*. BciUlCS, it is well known, that the ancients did not fpeak only of books, under the name of ikins ; but, as we are informed by Plutarch, 200,000 books*, that were taken from the libraries of the kings of Pergamus 'ind which Anthony prefcntcd to Cleopatra, were all written on the hides of goats. The prbfeflbrs of this art explain to us the way, alfo, in which the knowledge of their great work reached as faras Colchis.— According to Strabo, Sefoftris did not overrun Ethiopia, Trogloditica, and Arabia, only, but he pafled through all Afia, like wife, and crc&ed temples in various places*. From hence the antiquity of chemiftry among the ? Ccogr. 1. xvi. 4^ OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. the Chinefe derives its origin : And further, It is added, on the authority of Herodotus, Diodo- rus Siculus, Strabo, and Marcellinus, that the Colchians were the remains of his army. Jn confequence of finding cinnabar, (the bafis of their great work), they determined to fix their refidencc at Colchis ; and afterwards, according to Pliny, having obtained the virgin earth, they extracted from it fuch confiderable quantities of gold and filver, that they furpafled even the fu- perbSefoflris intheirdifplayof theirriches,and in all the fplendor, which thofe metals could give to their apartments, their pillars, and various orna- ments *. The leaders of thefe new fcttlers, initiated in the facred rites of the Egyptians, now torn away from their native country, foon grew inattentive to that fecrecy, in which, according to the cuftom of the Egyptian priefts, the art of chemiflry was inviolably prcferved, and revealed the whole, under the myftic representation of the Golden Fleece. They repented, however, too late of their loquacity, when it led the Grecian plun- derers to undertake the Argonautic expedition. Happily as all thefe relations fecm to coincide, yet the account Strabo gives is worth the atten- tion of every one who makes the attainment of truth the objecl of his enquiry. He fays, that the Iberians, near neighbours of the- Colchians, ufedto receive the gold brought down from the high lands by the torrents, intofievesand fheep- fkins, * Lib. xxxiii. c. 3. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 43 fkins, and from thence arofc the fable of the Golden Fleece. The feigned antiquity, there- fore, of the art, if it is not deflroyed altogether, is at lead rendered very fufpc&cd. But although MM* *on'v, or ro">t"3<"t may, in a literal fcnie, mean the making of gold from its firft principles, yet, with many writers, it fignifics nothing elie than the feparation of this metal from its ores. •So, in the Latin tongue, he is called tf7/r//I\v,who makes vcflcls or other utcnlils of gold. To make oil furcly can mean its cxprefllun only ; andfo on as to other things. If Suidas is to be credited, many records of this art were dellroycd by lire in the third century *. Six hundred years be- fore him, Paulus Orofius, a Spamiii pried, relates the fame Aory f . Tije emperor Diocletian is faid to have treated the Egyptians very cruelly, bccaufc they rebelled againll him, and to have burnt all their books of the chemillry of gold and filvcr, left they flioulil draw fuch wealth from that art, as to enable them, at a future period, to oppofc the authority of the Romans. From this account, however, we are not led to any conclu- fions: One thing only we will venture to aflert, that chcmiilry, at firft fceming to fignify the in- timate knowledge of bodies, came afterwards to denote the making of gold and filver ; then af- fumcd ™-™r, the name of a facred and divine art ; and laftly, with a foolifli ]>ridc, was enti- tled * In Icxico. t Hift.1. tii. c. iC. 44 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRT. tied akbemiftry, as if ««r i^,, chemiftry. The \vord alchemiftry is firft mentioned by Julius Firmicus Maternus, a writer of the fourth cen- tury, and then in a remarkable manner. His language, which favours much of aflrologic in- fanity, is as follows ; "Si fuerit domusMercurii, *' dabit allronomiam; fi Vcncris, cantilenas et 44 kctitiam ; fi Martis, opus armorum ct inftru- 44 mciitorum ; ii Jovis, divinum cultum fcien- 4* tiamque in !ege ; fi Suturni, fcientiam alchc- ** mia?*.w It occurs, however, but fcldom be- fore the ninth century; but, after that period, indeed very frequently. In the mean time, it L» proper to obferve, that in Suidas, as above ci- ted, as well as in John of Antiochus and Cedre- nus, quoted before, the word ahbennjlry never makes its appearance, but, inflead of it, x>n»i*( only, which, in the times of thole authors, ad- mitted various fignifications. Let us now coniider the wanner in which the Egyptians treated ourfcience. Proclus Lycius commends them for preferring their inventions upon columns f. And Galen {, and Jamblic!ms§ ail'ert, that every new difcovery was firrt ap- proved by the common voice of the priells, and then engraved without the authors name upon the flones of the temple. Of the obcliiks above-mentioned * Matth. !. iii. c. i j. •{• Conun. i. in Timxum. I I,, i. coi.trd J>jl. DC limp. mcd. fac. 1. iv. * § DC my:1cri:» ^r.}'?-- OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 4; :- ftry. As to the works of other authors which relate to this fubjecl, none have as yet appeared ex- cept fome written in Greek, or tranllations from that language, and all of them alchemical. Ma- ny of thefe are fpurious, as the Kffays of Ifis, fiddrejftd to her fon Horuf, and the Lhemijlry of Horus. Of Moles and Maria, Jew*; ol'b'ophur from Perfia; of Democ-iitus the Abdcritc; and other Greeks, we fliall fpcak in another place. Leo Allatius, a Grecian, and with him Eoni- chius, both condemn us fuppofititious the works of Comarus, or Coinanus, a prieft, inflrucling the Queen Cleopatra in the fccrct of the philo- fopher's rtonc ; alfo the works of the Qj-ieeu her- felf on weights and meafures, on the making of' gold, and the prefervation of beauty. The au- thors of thefe productions have attempted to gain. both credit and attention by the fplcndour of illuilrious names. '^> We • (EJipui. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 51 We fhall proceed to make fomc few obfcrva- rions on the theory of the Egyptians refpcding the principles and com pofition of bodies; as \vcll as the mutilated fragments and enigmatical man- ner of writing will permit, and the various alle- gorical cxprcifions, wliich allow fuch different interpretations. Not Oedipus himfelf would be able to explain many of thcfc. In Philo Biblius we find the following extrads by Sanchuniaton from the commentaries of Taaut on the origin of the world: " Principium hujus univerfitatis 44 ponitaerem tencbrofum ac fpiritu fcetum, feu 44 mavis tcncbroii aeris flatum ac fpiritum chaof- 44 quc turbidum, atraque caligine circumfufum. 14 Hajc porro infinita cffe, nullumquc nifi longo 44 Hcculoruni intcrvallo terminatum habcre. Ve- 44 rum, ubi fpiritus amore principiorum fuorum. 44 flagrarc cccpiffet, eumque fimul cffet mixtio 44 confecuta, ncxum hunc motuum Cupidincm 44 appellarunt. Is quidcm rcrum omnium pro- *4 crcationis principium fuit. Spiritus vero fuam 44 ipfius procrefitioncm minime agnofcebat. Ex 44 hac illius conjundionc prodiit MOT, id quod 44 lirnum nonnulli, alii aquofae mixtionis corrup- 44 tioncm effe volunt, ex qua fccutx produdlionia 14 femina, ipfaqueadeo rcrum univcrfarum gene- 44 ratio extitcrit. Ccterum animantia quacdam 44 crant omni fcnfu carcntia, qiu-c poflmodum 44 intelligcntia prxditos animantcs procrcarunt. 44 Eos illi Tiophafcmin, hoc eft, cocli contcmpla- D 2 " tores 51 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. •• tores nominarunt, in figuram ovi conformatos. 44 Illico autem MOT, cum fole, luna, flellis, ac " reliqua majorum aflrorum multitudinc cmicu- 44 it. Cum igneum fplcndorcm aer emifiiTet 44 ex ardenti maris ac terrarum inflammatione, " venti nubes, magnoque nientium impetucce- 41 leilium imbrium ac nimborum effullones cx- 44 flitcre : Cum autcm hicc omnia, qure diiiincla 44 paullo ante, ac propter vehementiorem foils 44 arftum a propria fcde disjunda fuerant, in eo *4 committcrentur, tonitrua funul ac fulgura pe- 44 pcrerc; quorum ad tonitruum iragorcm, dc- " fcripti antca intcllcdu pncditi animantcs ve- 44 kit a fomno excitati, liorrendoquc fonitu cx- *4 tcrriti, mares pariter ac fccniiiur, tarn in ter- -" ra, quam mari, movere .corpere."* Here we find fome appearance of a tradition concerning the creation of the world, which, though fo near the period of which it treats, is loaded with fictions, and difguilcd with peribm- flcations. Cofmogony, which has, in a wonder- ful manner, furpajlcd all the powers of nature, muiV necefTurily be a great obllacle to the mod fugacious invciligation, not founded upon the principles of divine revelation* lieiides, they feeiu to have attributed a triple nature to all bo- dies, which they indicated hieroglyphic-ally, .under the names of Ofiris, His, and Typhon, or of God, Air, and Night, iignifying, gerhaps, the . . * Eufcbli Pnrp. Ev. I. i.e. ic. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 53 the active Caufe, the pafllve, and dead terrcftriai matter*. By divine energy they undcrftand fire and rhe fpirit of the world; by the pailive aether, they mean fomething eternal, immaterial, and homogcncousf; and by mortuum malum, the inert matter of the earth. By the intervention of this fpirit, they apprehend an uninterrupted communication is maintained between fupcrior and inferior beings J. This fyftem is affigned to Hermes, as lie produced every thing by the means of two elements, Fire as acting, and Earth as acted upon §. They taught, that, by fome internal reparation, fermentation, or putrefac- tion, all bodies fprung from their feeds, were changed, incrcafcd, rendered perfect, and de- ftroyed ||. In thefe. opinions fomc traces of a more intimate acquaintance with nature may be discovered : From which, it may be inferred, much light would be thrown upon natural phi- lofophy from their doctrine, if we poilciled it entire, and unclouded with fictions. The un- connected fragments only of it have reached us, and thefc collected by foreign writers; who, ig- norant of the relation of the different parts of the fyftcm, have fupplicd many things from D 3 conjecture, * Plutarch us c!c Ifidc ct Ofiride. f Plato. Pythagoras. J Porphyrius in vita Plotin. § Burgravc in Bibl. I! Diodorus, 1. i. c. 1 3. 54 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. conjecture, and given to others a falfe interpre- tation. § iv. The State ofCbcmiflry wnwg the Greeks. ' THE Greeks, after they were inftrufted in the ufe of letters by Cadmus, cultivated various fci- ences; but, for a long time they paid no atten- tion to Natural Philofophy, being more occupied in fpeculation and debate, than in obfervation and experiments. From hence fprung that va- riety of fedls and philofophers, fome of \vhom wandering about, difplayed their wifdom thro* feveral cities, with a view to profit; others, how- ever, influenced by nobler motives, had a fixed abode, opened public academies, and taught their doctrines freely and without reward. But they were both led into a fubtlety of difquifi- rion and argumentation, highly inimical to the defign of difcovering phyfical truths. There- fore, the priefl of the Egyptians of Sais fays : " Oh Solon, Solon, ye Greeks will be always " children: There is not one grey head among " you, nor any ferious kind of inilitution *. " They refemble boys in their loquacity and in- ability to propagate: And, although wifdom " falls from their tongue, their aclicns arc weak "and puerile f." The words ofDiodorus are remarkable : He fays, That " Orpheus, MuHeus, 14 Melampus, • Plato in Timco. . | Bacon. * OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 55 '* Mclampus, D;cdalus, Homer, Lycurgus, So- 44 Ion, Plato, Pythagoras, I^udoxus, and Demo- 14 critus the Abdcritc, all went into Egypt, and 44 they doubtlcfs learned there all thofe things •' which rendered them afterwards famous a- '* mong the Greeks*. Plato and Eudoxus aflb- 44 elated during thirteen years with thofc pricfls " in Egypt, who molt excelled iu the knowledge "•nf celellial things: But, for a long while, they 41 kept it in the greatefl fccrecy, and would not *4 deign to impart it to any one. At length, " fubducd by time and humble intreaty, they 44 difcovered fome few things; but the greatell •4 part they concealed entirely from the barba- 44 rians f." Pythagoras fullered himfelftobe 44 circumcifcd, that he might have accels to the fecret depofits of the Egyptians, and learn their myftic philofophyj, lambh'chus (hews clearly, that Pythagoras and Plato both had acquired a variety of knowledge in Egypt, from the co- lumns of Mercury §; and Tliales the Milcfian firft brought geometry and aftronomy into Greece from Egypt, about 530 years before Chrifl || . Before the time of Pfarnmitichus, 660 years before our Saviour, tJje Greeks were not permitted to enter Egypt ^[; but, D 4 afterward* * L. ii. 0.4. i. c. 69, 8 1, 96. f L. xvii. j Clemens Alex. Sir. i. § DC myrt. Ejrypt. ji Diogcne* Licrtiu*. * Herodotus. Strabo. 56 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. afterwards, many of them vifited that coun- try, and even chofe their refidence in it ; and foU licitoufly endeavoured to open an cafier com- munication with their fecrets: when, through Alexander the Great, Egypt became fubjecl to the Macedonian yoke, 332 years before Chrift, under the reign of the Lngidi, the moil celebra- ted were received into the new academy of Alexandria. But it was the rate of all thofe, who travelled into Egypt to be but little cfleemed in their own country ; for, whatever fublimity of knowledge they pofllfled, they communicat- ed it at home fo very myflerioully, as to be in- telligible to a very few. In the mean time ju- dicial aftrology, nuific, and agronomy, were cultivated by them with great fuccefs ; and, though they were obliged to yield to the Egyp- tians in art's great undertakings, and in the magnitude of their works, and immcnfe labour and expence; yet were thefe, in their, turn, forced to acknowledge the fupcriority cf the Greeks, in the elegance and form which their artuls^ave to every thing, ftriclly imitating na. ture; and in every work that depends upon fun- cy and imagination. In natural philoibphy they laboured with k-fs advantage, unltfs in- ilrudcd by the Egyptians. An Alexandrian feft being cfhiblifhcd among the Greeks, in the third century, the fecrets of chemiilry were ftill more cbfcured in tlarknefs, and became dai- * \y OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 57 Jy more involved in new enigmas, parables, and numberlefs Platonic and cabaliilic modes of ex- prcflion. Greece and Egypt being equally fubjccl- cdtothc power of Rome, fcicnce alfo was reduced to flavcry, and was, at length, almoft finally extinguifhed by the conquefts of the Saracens. Chemical arts made a much flower progrefs among the Greeks than among the Egyptians. Ores were found in two places only. Thofe of the ifland of Thafo, in the Egean fea, yielded gold, and thofe difcovcrcd in Laurus contained filver. But the Corinthians were acquainted with three metallic competitions, formed in a particular way, by fire, and remarkable for their colour; one had all the white fplendor of illvcr, another the yellow hue of gold, and the third contained an equal proportion of both *.- They fccm to have carefully concealed thefe prepara- tions, which were no other than of zinc and copper,f. Copper takes its name from the i- iland of Cyprus, in which it was firft difcovered. Pliny reckons the ccrufc of Rhodes to be by far the bed }. According to Thcophraftus, mi- nium (cinnabar) was known to Callia, the Athe- nian, about five hundred years before Chrift, who * Plin. xxxiv. cap. 2. f The preparation of orichtlcus, with copper and lapit ca- luminaris was known to the ancients :|V id. Pliny, 1.34. Diofco- lid. l.v. c.$5. I'hcprocef* of making (led, by healing iron a- mong coals is mcotioru-d by A nit otic, met. iv. c.6. aud Pim, 1. xxxiv. \ L, xxxiv, 8. 50 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. v.ho imagined that it contained gold; but, from making ievcral experiments without iuccei?, he learned the life ot' it as a pigment *. Philippus Comicus, writing ot' thofe times be lore the origin of the Grecian monarchy, ai- ferts, that Daedalus took ww **»«« to animate a wooden itatuc, the knowledge of which metal he no doubt owed to the prieiK ot' Memphis ; but, that Hermes ever obtained it from cinna- bar, we can fcarcely believe. Thcophrallus Ere lius and Arillotle fpeak allb of this metal ). Sculpture and ilatuary, though, perhaps, they did not owe their rile, yet were they indebted for the'u* perfection to the images of the gods. Dibutates, tlie Sicyon potter, was the fir It that \vroiiglit clay, at Corinth, into various figures and likenefles. Some indeed are ot opinion, that Rhecus and Theodoras, in Samos, had in- ver.ted the plallic art, long before the Bacchia- diu were driven from Corinth J. J-Jeiore the ta- king of Troy, Dadahis the Athenian carved figures on wood ; bur. Dipocnus and Scillis, born in the ifle of Crete, about the fiftieth Olym- piad (570 years before Chri(l) \\cre the firll \vho iignali/.ed thcmfeJves by fculpiurc in mar- ble 5, The moil anciejit feais oi' the Cricks bear % DC LpMibin. { Met. 4. 8. Dcauima, I. i *. Pliity xxxiv. 1 2. • Piinv xxxvi. 4. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 59 bear a ftrong rcfemblance to thofc of the Egyp: pans, as Pliny writes; from whence it appears clearly, where they had been taught: although, following the footftcps of Phidias the Athenian, who lived 450 years before our Saviour, they carried this art to the greatcft perfection *. They did not cut and engrave ivory, pearls, corals, and marble only, but they worked in bafaltcs, porphyry, and the hardell gems. On agates and cornelians they engraved chiefly concave figures; on onyx they railed them convex, of- ten forming the head or image of the opaque flratum, lying on a furfacc more pellucid, and which they could darken at will, by a little pig- ment placed below it. Their later works of fculpture and engraving an* what we now call antique, and arc in high cilimation; and, on ac- count of their pcrfed form, and exquifitc polifli, have become models for the imitation of modern artifts. Long before the age of Homer, the Greeks knew how to melt, temper, cart, engrave, and cement metals. Rhcecus and Theodorus fecm to have fully underfloojl the art of calling copper; which, according to Pliny, took its rife along with painting, under Phidias f. He reckons 366 mailers in this art |; and dcfcribcs various temperatures * Piinyxxxiv. 8. f Pliny, xxxvi. j. S*c Hcyne. t 6o OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. temperatures of metals •. The carting of fla- tties reached its height in the time of Praxitelis ; although he is reported to have been more fuc- cefsfui in marble than in copper f. The name of Chares the Lindian is rendered immortal by the coloflus of the fun at Rhodes, which mca- fured 70 cubits in height. This immenfe fa- bric, compleated in 12 years, at the expenceof 300 talents, (about 274 years before ChritV) was hollow within, and filled with (tones; and with- out doubt mull have been call at diilercnt inter- vals of time. After (landing 56 yuars, it was overthrown by an earthquake ; and lay proftrate where it fell, for nine centuries, until A. 0.651, when it was fold in lots. Nine hundred camels were loaded with the different pieces {; and if we fuppofe each camel to carry 8co pounds, the weight of metal in the whole flatue will amount to the enormous fum of 720,000 pounds. Tychius a Boeotian is faid to have invented the art of preparing leather §. • Chemical filtration through wool is clearly de- feribed by Plato ||. Hippocrates underflood cal- cinations *[. Galen gives an account of the bal- neum * Ib. xxxiv. 9. I Ibid, xxxiv. 8. $ Pliny, xxxiv. 7. CeJrcnus. 9 Pliny. (• In Gympofio. *[ DC Iizruorrhoidibu3, and clfcwher?« OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 6t ncum Mar'nc, where he ufecl oil inflcad of water*. He fpcaks of fublimation f , ami di/lillation per defcer.fnm like wife J. Diofcoridcs, who was the great friend and follower of Cleopatra, the mod luxurious of women, appears not to have been wholly unacquainted with diftillation, as he fpcaks very plainly of <.^«*«, to which afterwards the Arabian particle al was added §. On look- ing into Pliny, we find a dcfcription of a fimilar procefs forcxtradingquickiilver from cinnabar: " Patinis fidilibus impofitum (minium) fcrrca " concha calicc («*c,o coopcrtura, argilla fuper- " illita ; dein fub patinisaccenfum foilibus con- " tinuo igni, atque ita callicis fudore deterfo, qui ** fit argcnticolorectaquicliquore." But certain- ly Calcn knew nothing of this art; for he fays: " Non mul turn abciY, omnia vcllem fubire peri- •" cula, fi quam machinam, artcmve invenirc liccat, " ficut in lacle contrariumpartium, fie ct in ace- 41 to, fcparandi j} ." He thought, however, that A lixivium could be made with waflicd aflies; and therefore had fome idea of alkaline fait, c- ven of the caullic kind. But he fccms to have been wholly ignorant of reducing them to a dry ftate^. — In the iflandof Lefbos they had a ma- nufadory of glafs **. In "* De fanitatc tucnda, 1. ir. c. 8. •f De nu-dic. fmjp. fac. 1. ix. \ De facile parabilibus. f Mat. mcd. 1 v. c. 1 10. ^ DC mcd. (imp. fac. 1. i. c Ibid. c. 14. ** AiLcnxui Dcip. 6i OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. In this place may be remarked the invention ulfo of CtiHinicus the architect, \vlio, when he had fled from Heliopolis in Egypt toConflantino- ple, difcovered the marine Jire, (*»?***••'•»•) whic !i they call Greek like wife; and burnt during win- ter tlie lleet of the Saracens at 'Cyzicus *. This lire, when thrown into the water, acquires great- er force, flies about violently in all directions, confumirig every thing in its way that is the lead combuftible. Conftantinus Pogonatus, who was then on the throne, and his fuccelTbrs, ufed it with advantage iri their wars with the Saracens. It was reckoned one of their valua- ble fccrets; and as fuch has been faithfully kept, for we are not in the lealt acquainted with its competition.' Among the writers on chemiftry I fliall not reckon Orpheus f, Homer, or Pindar, and feverul others of the fame kind; as no one has demon- ftrated, that the fable of the golden apples of Hcfperis, of the Hydra conquered by Hercules, of the Phounix rifmg from its own allies, of the golden * Ccdrcnus. f Orpheus is the reputed author of the Argonautic hymns, and a Hngular book, entitled »«/" *•$*», which treats of the fccrct nature of (lones, and explains their viitues in the offer- ing of facrificcs, and rendering the gods propitious. The Hones mentioned in this book are nearly the following: OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. fleece, and funihir (lories, contain any ullufions to the fciencc of chemiflry. In thofc works which arc attributed to Pytha- ;;oras and Plato, many fubjccls of chcmillry are fo be found ; but they relate more to theory Than experiment. Of the Greeks fcarcc any one had imbibed fo much knowledge from the Egyptians as Democritus, \vlio was born about 458 years before Chrifl at Abdcra in Thrace. Seneca reckons him the mod ingenious and acute of all the unticnts; as he difcovered the method of dillblving iloncs; of making artificial emeralds and tinging them with any colour; of foftcning ivory; and was the author of many o- ihcr ufeful inventions*. And Pctronius allb fpcaks of him, that he exprcffed the juice of all plants, and that he patted his whole life in mak- ing experiments on the different properties of fulfils and vegetables f. Often laughing at the follies of mankind, he- \vas confidered by the vulgar to be difordered in his underftanding; and Hippocrates being called in to cure him, foon found him to be the \vifeft man of the age. In his prcfence he determined the colour of an animal by looking at its milk only; and did many other things equally won- derful, if we admit the veracity of Diogenes Lacrtias. With fo much carncftncfs did he ap- * L. xiv. cp. 41. *• In Salyrico. 64 OF THE OHIGIN Ofr CHEMISTRY. ply himfelf to the ftudy of nature, that he de- clared, he would prefer the difcovery of one caufe in the works of nature, to the pofleflkm of the PcrJIan monarchy*. Syncellus fays, that lie obtained the celebrated name of Natural Philofopher from Oflane the Mede, w!io \vus fent by the kings of Pcrfia for the government of religious affairs into Egypt. - IJy him Democritus was initiated, and intruded in the facred writings, in the temple of Memphis, a- mong priefts and philofophers; with whom was Maria, a Hebrew woman, (killed in all kind of learning, and Pammencs. He wrote of gold, of filver, of (tones, and of purple colour, in the fame enigmatical manner that Maria did, Yet both Democritus and Maria are praiicd for this myderioiis and dark (lilc, in which they have buried the art ; while Pammenes is blamed for having written fully, and with perfpicuity j-. Diogenes Luertius aflcrts, that he wrote »,,, alib *tf» >.i>« : Of which Zofimus ipeaks thus : Yet may it be doubted, whether Demo- critus ever treated of the phttofopher's (lone, when fomc will have the title of the work (land, »•/! x.>«». And bcfidcs his treat ife th foils ct tu~ ncc tinfturis, et purpura, there is another attri- buted * Dionyf. Alex, apud Eufcblum, xiv. 27. *. f Chron. p. 248. Vid. Eufcbiui. . OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 65 butetl to him, dc Inpidibns pretiq/is. Others al- fo believe the PbyficannA Myjlica to be his: But it is not yet afcertained that any of thefe are genuine, and which is entitled to his name.— Vitruvius fpcaks of ^«/»*;u»r« *, which arc fo cal- led on account of the waxen marks (lamped with a ring which he ufed to put to all thofc paradoxes that he had found to be true ; or be- caufc he inferted nothing into that book but from his own obfervation and experiments. Arillotlc the Stagy rite, in his third and fourth book of Meteorologies, treats of fotlils, dividing them into opwr* and *rr«*.xivr*. His difciplc The- ophrailiH Ilrcilus wrote »v *•&-»• and although he was ignorant of chemical analyiis, yet he dcfcribes fevcral qualities, and fomctimcs their condition by fire. Diofcorides of Anazarba, in the firft century f, and Galen in the fecondj, enumerated all thofe minerals that were ufed in medicine. There is yet extant a manufcript chemical trcatife of Porphyrius in the third century, a work of lamblicir. in the fourth, and an Iambic poem of Heliodorus, to Thcodoiius the Great, Of the myjlcriwt Art of Pbihfopbcrs. The filth century produced tbc tinclurcs of Per/tan cop- per and Indian iron, by Philip of Sides; the E E.ffay * I.xi. c. ^. j* Mat. mcd. J Simp, mcd fac. 66 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. of Dbfcorus, the high priefl of Sera- pis in Alexandria, and the Letter of Synefius to the fame Diofcorus; being a comment on the Tindure of gold and iilver of Democritus. 7.ofimus mentions this, who, therefore mufl have lived after thefe pbilofophers ; but it is impof- iible, in a general Iketch only, to lix the age of every one with pcrfccl accuracy. '/.ofimus of Panopolis, fo highly eftccmed by the alchemifis, was alfo referred to the fifth cen- tury. His work, Of the Compojhion cf Waters; of the facr cd and divine Art ; of Finite, and In- tcrpr elation ; of Injlnnnents and Cbimnies ; of the AJbtjlos; and his mylHc trcatife and writing to Thcolcbia, are all prcfcrvcd in diflcrent libra- ries: None of them however have yet been printed. Olympiodorus, who lived a fhort time before the emperor Thcodolius, lias commented upon the practical treatilc of T.oilmus, of the manner ofivorkinjfi and upon thole which are attribut- ed to IIcrrnes,and other.-, rcipccling tlie making of gold. Thcophrartus the philofopher, on the facred and divine Art ; Hicrotheus on the Pbih/lj- pbcrs/hnc, on the facred Art% and the Method of making Gold ; Archelnm on the chemical Art,; Anepigraphvu on CbnftjMiea, and the way to ivbiten divijie Water ; Pelagins on the divine and fared Art ; Eugc-nius on the fared .•uly tlii;. '.voiUt wai made by number, wci/.ht, and nva- ture, but that there was a iingular p. Lapis hie (magncs) ctinCun- " tabiiu nafcittir, non il!c magnet vcrus cautc continuo, fc<\ •' fparf.i bubhationc : ita appellant : ncfcio an vitro fundcndo '* pcrindc utilij : noniium cnim cxpcrtus cH quifquam/1 J. xxxiv. 14. 76 OF THE ORIGIN OP CHEMISTRY, fa, Alexander the Great found in the royal trcn- furc purple to the value of 50,000 talents, which • had lain there 192 years, and Hill retained its original beauty. We ure told by Pliny in what manner they ufed the coccus amttbvjlinus and byfginus for the purpofe of dying cloths *. Men- tion is often made in Exodus of argaman, which is generally underitood to mean purple. Herodotus relates, that the Pha-niciuns fetch- ed tin and amber from diftant countries. From the colonies which they hud fettled in Spain, and other places, they drew vail quan- tities of gold and iilver. In Greece alfo, the Phoenicians were the fufl who fought for ores, and extracted their metals. Among others, Mofchus of Sidon is efteem- <*! as the mod antient interpreter of nature; and Pofidonius in Strabo, and SixtusEmpiricus tell us, that he invented the doctrine of atoms. ' Cadmus, who is not celebrated for any know- ledge in phyfics, is imagined to have brought thofe letters from the Phoenicians, which they had obtained from Aflyria, into Greece, and had adapted them to the Pclufgian tongue f. Of Sunchuniaton, an author fufpc'clcj by many, and who is believed to have lived before the full of Troy, we have fpokcn at fulKcient length already. According to Diodorus, Babylon, in the time of 9 l», ix. €.41. 4 Biuker, I.e. OF THE ORIGIN 0? CHEMISTRY. 77 of Scmirarrm was removed from Egypt into Chaldea, by Belus, who afterwards inftituted there a faccrdutal college. But it fhould ap- pear, that the fcicnccs had flourifhcd among the Chaldeans long before; and were entitled as much, if not more, to the praife of antiquity with them, than among the Egyptians. They confulcr 7,oronfter as the founder of their philo- fophy ; of whofc name the Greeks were entirely ignorant until the time of Pythagoras *. But, indeed, any account of him is involved in fo much obieuiity, that \ve are hardly authorifed to afiign to him a place among the learned. Pic is reported to have difcovcrcd the principles of the world, and magical arts, and diligently to have attended to the motions of the planers f. In the following pages we /hall perhaps men- tion a few things, of which we are not certain whether they relate at all to this Zoroailcr. Zardus, or Zaradut, or, as he is called, Mog, was celebrated among the Perilans as the inven- tor of magic. Pliny infills, that this art took iti rile in Pcrfia from 7.oronftcr, who was in- itructcd in it by A'/.onace}: And that it fccm- ed more properly to lay claim to Inch an ori- gin, as he is reported to have laughed on the very day of his birtli ; and it is faid of him, thut the palpitation of his brain was fo great, as to rcpt'l * Cicm. Alex Sir. f Plato in AlciblaJc pjioru Jufliniu:, 1. I. i L. xxx. c. (. 78 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. repel the hand of any pcrfou applied to his head. Theie uncommon circumflances were confidcred as prefages of future \vifdom *. Be- fides, we are told, that he lived twenty years in defarts upon checfe, and was of fuch a con- ftitution as not to be feniible of old age f ; and that he had compofcd two millions of vcrfes. He is the reputed author of many writings on aftrology, pbylics, magic, chcmiilry, and po- litics J. It was an ancient cuftom among the PerHans, to diilinguifli metals by the names of the planets. AndCelfus, in his writings againft Origen, men- tions fomc Pcriian ceremonies which eftablifli this account. In the following words he defcribcs the heathen wor/hip of Mithni under thofe figns: " Eft in eo duarum cceli revolutionum fignifica- 44 tio, turn ejus, qua Itellcu fixae fcruntur, turn " ejus, qua planets, et animne per cas tranfitus d'ty, by the names of the planetary bodies. On a principle fomc- what fimilar, we find the triangular iigns in th* theory of Plato. As the ftars held dominion over time, fo the vanity of aftrologcn led then-. to fuppofe, that fome, more than other?, had an influence on certain days of the week; and, thxr 8o OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. that they could impart to thole metals corrc- fponding to them, conlulerable efficacy upon their particular days. But we fhall give pre- fently an example of this extraordinary folly. From the Athenian ambafladors we learn, that among the Perfians, before the time of A-. Icxander the Great, c^.,»^,^»r». (vcflcls made of glafs) were daily ufccl *. Of the eftablifhrncnt of the fuccrdota! college at Pcrfopolis, according to the Egyptian princi- ples, we have th«: following account from Dio- dorus. Pliant";, a certain Halicumallian, hav- ing infmuated himfelf into favour with King Amafis, obtained from him the knowledge of the Egyptian myftcries, with which he fled in- to Perfia, and betrayed them to Cambyfes.— Temj)ted from what lie thus knew, with the defirc of learning Hill more, the King of the Perfians marched immediately ugainfl Pfammi- nitu^, the fen of. AmalU; from whom he did not take away his trcafures only, (about 525 years before Chrift,) but the Ilierophauti alfo, With regard to them, however, he failed in his deiign; as they obllinately refufed to commu- nicate any knowledge of their myftcries, until after his death they imparted them to his fon "barms Hyflafpcsj. We have already mention- ed, from Syncellus, that Oilancs was fent by ..^ Xcixe;, * Arulophanes, Achanu i. a. • BH.I. I-iiil. !. i. 0.. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 81 Xerxes into Egypt. The letter written to Pc- talius, dc fact' a ct tlivina arte, commonly afcrib- ed to him, is without doubt entirely fpurious. Equally unfounded arc many other writings un- der his name. The fame fentcnce may be puff- ed upon that work too which bears the iliuilri- ous name of Sopharis, who is faid to have been the preceptor of Oflanis. Mow far the inhabitants of the Indies had proceeded in their enquiries into the operations of nature, it will be dillicult for us at this day To determine, as we are not in the poilefiiou of any accounts fufiiciently authentic. — The fol- lowing quotation, however, from Philoilratus prove**, that they cultivated equally with other nations of the EaR the fcience of metallic ailro- iogy : He Jays, " Apollonius cum Jarcha Brach- "' mane fecreto philofophatus, imuieris loco ab 4i co lulit annulos feptem, tolidem planetaruru 44 diclos nominibus, quos iingulos geilaret per 44 fubjcclos planctis dies ; fc. ut annulum aurc- " uiTi ^eflarct die folis, argeuteum die lunre, fcr- " rruni die Martis, hydrargyrinuni die Mcrcu- " rii, die Jovis Jlanneum, leneum die Vencris, '* ct plumbcum die Saturni, quod fingulis pla- '* netis lingula refpondcant metalla *.ff The Chinefe, according to Martini the Jefuit, had been long acquainted with chcmiilry ; and arc even faid not to have efcaped the rar;c of al- F chcrniftiy; * Life of A 8i OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. chemiftry, 2500 years before our Saviour : Tho* it muft be confefied, they have left no writings on this art behind them, to fupport fuch an opi- nion*. But if China, as D. de Guignes alledges, is a colony from Egypt, the dilliculty is not fo great : And it is beyond all doubt, that many excellent chemical arts and inventions had flou- riihed long in China before it was vilitcd by the Europeans. Among their chemical preparati- ons it may be fuflicient to reckon nitre, borax, alum, copperas, corrofive fublimate, calomel, mercurial aethiops, mercurial ointment, fulphur, explofive powder, fplendid fire-works, various dyes in filk and linen, and veflels of porcelain painted in elegant colours. Befules a great num- ber of metals, as gold, filver, quicklilver, lead, copper, iron, and tin, they cxtracl zinc, nearly pure from the mines; and, with it and copper, niccolum * Hift. Sin. Lc Comptc, a Jcfuft mifllonary, in hi', ac- count of Chinefe chemiils, makes mention of one celebrated by his knowledge ot the philolopher* (tone, who lived 633 years before the Chriftian x-ra, and 150 before the time of Con- fucius. Barchutcnius calls him Li-Lio-Kim or Li-Lao- Kiuru In the Chincfe Atlas Martini has placed a lake near the city of Pukiang, in the neighbourhood of which king Houang-ti \vho lived 2500 years before our Saviour, is fuid to have prac~tifcd alchcmiilry. The fame writer met with a large mafj of gold on mount Zukin, which was reported to have been prepared by the art of chemiftry, and to poflfefs the virtue of curing ma- ny dif.afcs. He relates alfo a flory of nine virgin fillers, who pafled their live* in celibacy intuit on-alchemical purfuits. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. S3 niccolum and iron, they compofc what is cal- led •white copper. It was not until long after the Romans had iubjcclcd the Greeks and Egyptians to their yoke, that they became acquainted with the fcicncc of chcmidry, as we learn from the tefli- inony of Jofeph Scaiiger. They made war their OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. were at firil cloied with a tranfparent flone, a kind of gypfum ; and afterward1? they uied glafs: And liicronymus and 1, acanthi1 mention, that the* windows in the fourth century were all made with it. PtMih and (\eins were hii-hly valued by them, and were often pulilhcd, carved into various figures, either concave or prominent. Nonnius, a ieiiator, v. hen Hying from Rome, carried with him, of all his wealth, a p--a:l alone worth 2r,cco fcflerces. Pliny, with great propriety, expreflcs lii:; furpiife ar the cruehy of Anthony in profcribinft a man for the i\ke of a finale jewel, and at the fully of Nonnius ibr chiil'mr banifhmcnt rather than part with it ; when, even \vild beails would i're- quently fave their livesby biting from tliemfehes thole parts ibr \vhich unly they knew they were puifucd *. Under the rci/rn of Nri ro, ti\e art of making f.lalV, whieh hud been long known in Spain and Caul, v.;i!i clifcovered at Rome; but it was yet fo f«.arce, that two fnvall cups niadv of Dial's, cal- lei! ptcrotii told fertile iiinnenfe fuin of i'ccc t'v fteru.i |. — M:my other example:: (A tlr.ir lu.\i.r\ CiJ^l proiiilion, occur in ic viral author*1. On the conyciilc,!! of CoinlantiP-e rl»c Cin a" to Chriilianity, a fatal blov/ \;';:', rue.vto tlir fuptiftitious darknefs of i:n thul'.^y, arui the * I., xxxvii. c. 6. < I I'iiuv, 1, XAXVJ. c. 26. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. $7 arts and fcicnccs began to wear a more favour- able afpcdt *. Nor * By way of fupplcmcnt, we fhail add here fomc few obfer- rations on the preparations of medicine known to the ancients. \5iracidcs,c.xxxviii. fays "Dominusnicdicarncntacieiccrc facit, " tt ille, qui ungucntaprxparat, indc rnifcelas couficit." la the Scptuagint vcrlion ointments arc called fc*i*u**it vid. i Kings, x. 1 5. Exod. xxx. 25. 35. xxxvii. 29. The word /3»oTiXrf fignific* properly, a man engaged in .ill kiud* of com- merce, as alfo a perfumer. Among the ancient authors we find mention made often of perfumers and dealers in ointments. Thus, for example, Hcrmxus is fuid to be a Perfumer* whofe rich widow was afterwards married to yEfchincs : HUB of Thcfprotia in Kpirc, who refuted poifon to Ulyflcs which lie afterwards obtained from King Anchilaus; was called an Apothecary: Nicomachus the Siagyritc alfo was named a O^uack : Ariftophilus a Quack of Platxa : Antonius is defcrib- cd as a Quack by Galen ; and many others who we need not mention. Ariflotle himfeif, if we can give credit to jfclianui and Epicurus, had profcfled the trade of a pcifumcr before he turned his mind to the iludy of philofophy. But, in general, the practice of tins art was confidered as \cry rucan and con- temptible ; and therefore Solon diovc all the perfumers out of Athens, and Lycur^us was notlefs feveic to them at Sparta : Under this idea too, Antony reproached Augullus that hii great grand-father hat! kept a perfume (hop. Formerly thcpicpa- rattonof nlrnod every medicine was in the hands of the perfum- ers ; and it appears from Hippocrates that the ancient phyfi- clans paid but little attention to pharmacy. It muft, however, he acknowledged that chcmiilry is indebted for m*ny inven- tions to the perfumers of old, and Greek phyficians, and ef- prcially to thofe i/f a later period. In thu vicvr we may con* iidcr the various compofitions of medicines, of which we mull enimmcratc thofe only that were moil cUccrned. Diofcotide* fakilbct tlf method of extracting the oil from pitch j that ir F ui *3 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. Nor irfthe mod remote times were the che-, jnical arts wholly unknown to the northern re- gions. Pythcas of Marieillcs relates, that the in. habitants of Thule even made a beverage of grain Teas collected in clean fleeces fpread over the vapour of boiling pitch. He alfo fpcaks of th<- dilUIlation of quick-filver from •/'.«* (native cinnabar) and the burnt drofs of wine (fait of tar- tar) which xvcre judged to be well prepared, if they were while, and acrid to the tafte. Galen, Oribafti.s, Paulus ALgin- rta, and JEttm txtol much a Gallic fo.ip : ./Etiiu menlions a bl.ick foap alfo. yEgincta prepared an extemporaneous foap from oil, the burned dregc of wine and nitre. The oil of fulphur alfo i* mentioned by him, which was probably a fpecies of balfam cf fulphur. The lixivium frot oft aflum of wfcgincta is nothing clfc tl.an the cauftic alkali, yttiu-. di fcribes the diilil- Jation j>cr dtfi<*f#* of flunking oil, and relates the preparation ofbrafsand pttrilicctwin c»f antimony. Various phtillen alfo of which mention \» made fic ; and again, a trrtrtin kind of paib'K. Undtr th. ;,..: r of troc^iiSi paflils were formed of varioui figures. — Oi I rt< r- they hail fcvcral kinds, as powdm, pilii and tletrtiur:c:,. 'J'l,.ii acidulated medicine?, infufions ct Imbs, and mixtures of vin. rgar and watrr were prrpnred by cxpodire to the f'm, \\'h:i» li called nt'igmaly thr Greek'., the Arabian* rail Av:A and •.v»'t!j Li ;s lin.iu:. OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. tfp grain and honey *, many ages before the birth of Chrill. For iheir inftruments of agriculture, as well as for their arms in war, they required both the life of metals and artificers : But they involved all thofc arts in fables and myfterics, fully as much as the nations of the foulh. They be- lieved that the bed fwords were made by cer- tain pigmies, who were concealed in the moun- tains f. It is related alfo of the All, that, in Idavail, (a wood in Vcrmelandia, which derives its na'tie from Edda) tliey had conllrucled fur- naces, and made pinchers, inftrumcnts, and ////, digeilions, and decoclions were alrnoil the only operations in their chemitlry. Perhaps, indeed, they ufed fomc varieties of e- lixation, evaporation, and infpiil'ation ; as like- \vifenfcryftallization, fublimation, calcination, dirtillation per defcenfuWt fuiion, eliquation, VN trification, and fermentation. From the authorities, therefore, already cited, k may be naturally inferred, that, at the peri- od under confideration, the dawn only of che- rniftry had made its appearance ; and that it -was rather a collection of unconnected and ill- founded axioms, the rcfult of obtcrvation and remark, than a fcicncc cflabliflied upon the brnad bafis of an infinite variety of experiments. At this time they were in want ulfo of the pro- per inflrumcnts, and unacquainted with the ne- ccf]hry llcps by which the principles of natural bodies can be cxaclly feparated, collcclctl, and properly defined. They were, therefore, with- out thole means fo nccefliiry to the evolution of truth, and the conflruftion oi.' a genuijie-'fyilem. TJIU THE HISTORY O F CHEMISTRY, During the Obfcurc or Middle Age, from the Seventh to the Seventeenth Century.* £.\iftimarf vfortct naturam inu.'ta ct varia a rebut ipfn tt coaSam ffff i rat ion fm vtro i J, qua ab ilia Jill mandala et traJita futrant) bojltriut aJcunttiora ft pditiora reJJiJffi, ft aJJiJiJJi-t in nonnult'u citiust in aliit tarditis. LA CRT i us. 5- i. General Idea of this Period. T MLS period may be reckoned from the de- ilrudlion of the Alexandrian library by the A- nibs about tlie middle of the fcvcnth century, unto the firil inilitution of fcicntitic focicticr, a little beyond the middle of the fevontccnth cen- tury; * This Diflcrtation was publicly delivered in the Hal], on the ntliof June, 1782. 94 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, tury; 'comprehending in all about a thoufand years. In the year 1651 the Academy del Ci- mcnto was founded at Florence; in 1660 Charles II. cflabliJhed the Royal Society of London. The Academy of Inquirers into the works of nature, in 1664, and the Academy of Sciences, in 1666, botharofc at Paris under the aufpices of Lewis XIV. From the dark obfcu- rity in which the hiilory of chemiflry remained buried during all this interval, we 'arc naturally led to compare it with the civil hiilory of the fame time, and perhaps to allign to it fimilar features : And, indeed, the circumilances to be related in the following pages will fully explain the character of this period, and furnifh fuflici- ent reafon to call it by the name of Hermetic or Alchemiftic. At the firll view, we find the political con- ilitutioa of thofe countries where chcmiilry re-" ccived its earlielt growth, in a flate of the great- eft barbarifm. The inhabitants of Arabia Felix whom Ptolemy long ago calls Saracens *, were for many ages fubject mollly to the Roman au- thority, and i'erved occasionally as mercenaries in the armies of that empire. But about the beginning of the fcvcnth century, under the reign of the Emperor Heraclius, they overran Egypt, which they had been threatening with an invafion for three years. A fliort time be- fore * * Ccogr. vi. 7. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. $$ fore, they had embraced the Mahometan reli- gion, and had laid wafle all Syria under the banners of Mahomet. In Egypt thcfe new Lords deftroyed, with indifcriminating hand, c- very monument of Icience, every abode of learn- ing. Ptolemy Soter, who founded the acade- my at Alexandria, had begun to coiled a very confiderable library alfo ; which, at the dcatlf of his fon Ptolemy Philadelphia, contained al- ready 100,000 books; and which incrcafed loon after to the immcnfe number of 700,000*. Mauufcripts were collected from every quarter; and being accurately and neatly copied, the o- riginals were prcfcrved in the library, and the copies were exchanged for them, accompanied fometimes with large prcicnts. The firfl collec- tion amoun ted to 400,000 books, in that part of the city called Brucmon ; the other confided of 300,000, and was kept in the Scrapcum. The former was accidentally confumed by fire, while Julius Crcfar was beficging the city; and the latter, though often plundered, recovered fo much from its misfortunes, that it became at length greater than the Bruchian collection }, To this were added 200,000 volumes alfo from Pergamus, which Mark Anthony had prcfented to Cleopatra. But when this incftimabie libra- ry fell into the hands of the victorious Saracens in * Strabo L xvii. Eufcb. Chron. f Plutarch jn the life of Julia* C%fa>. 06 THE HISTORY OF CULMISTRY, in the year 1642, a certain philofophcr, named John Philopbnus, who was high in favour with their leader Aniri Kbnol-As, requeued of him tofparehima part of it. The Caliph Omar, however, without whofe permiflTion Amri dared not to favc a tingle volume, ordered them all to be deitroyed ; adding, at the fame time, that fliey were ufelefs if they agreed with the Alco- ran, dangerous if they differed from it. Du- ring fix- months almoll four thoufand baths were daily heated with thefe valuable munufcripts '. How little learning was eileemed by the heroes of thofe days iulficieritly appears in this unfor- tunate example. In afimilar manner the Goths, and other wandering tribes, fpread terror far and wide, and depredated entirely the nations they had vunquiflied. lint we ihall not enter into the unpleaiant detail of the etfecls of barbarifm and ignorance ; as the fate of Egypt, where chemillry hud fixed her throne, too clearly il- lufl rates the melancholy condition of the fci- erices. Although the firfl influence of the Mahome- tan dominion was fatal to letters, and the conlti- tution of that religion even afforded no profpeft o!*a Iiappier iituution; yet loon after, under the Achernidic dynutly, the fmilet> of fortune in- fpircd them with fome new hopes. Abu-Jaafer- A I man for, the fecond of this family, who, in * the- * Abulpharagiut, hlft. I)y». x. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 97 the eight century made Bagdad the feat of the .Babylonian empire, whether from thoroughly undei (landing the Alcoran, or from the affec- tion he bore to the fciences, became famous for learning, and for his (kill in aftronomy efpeci- ally, to which he had always given a preference. After him the encouragement given to fciencc daily incrcafcd. Harun or Aaron Rafchid, who \vas cotcmporary with Charles the Great, lived in liabits of intimacy with feveral philofophcrs, mul took great delight in their convcrfations. But, of all the princes of Arabia, his fon Abdal- la Almamun was by far the mod diflinguiilicd. This Prince held the reins of government from the year 815 to 831, not icfs celebrated for his clemency than for the ardour with which he cn- rouraged letters. At groat pains and cxpcnce he collected books in all languages, and had them accurately tranflated, and carefully pre- fcrvcd. Negotiating a peace with Michael the III. among other conditions, he ilipulatcd for permiifion to collect and export in Greece what- ever books he wanted. From this period we find the fciences protected every where in the Eaft, and in Africa. The Arabs highly ho- noured thole who cultivated learning, and in- ftituted academics for the propagation of know- ledge. But they fecmed to fet the highcft va- lue on aftronomy and alchcmiftry, which \vcrc Jit this time abfolutcly infeparabjc. Indeed, it G was •& THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, was not until long afterwards, that thcfe fcicnct* were found independent of each other in Eu- rope. The celebrated Tycho Uruhc, not only uttcndcdto the motions of the planets, hut had a laboratory alfo, in which he tried experiments upon eurtby fubftances by fire. The great Newton, too, when roiling from his hnmcnfe labours, .employed bimfolf occasionally in che- mical operations. There are, belidt"-., many other iniiances which we need not mention. In the mean timeeurope overrun with f warms of bnrbruians, whole fava^e third of wealth led them to ravage and dellroy v, hcrevrr they came, w;r< lilmolt wholly ibrfakcn by the liberal UIIN. 'I he Mufes iiy from Gotii^ uud Vuiulals. Ciluuies ihe Gicnr, however, \\\c m*»ll powerful priiio: Ht that time, offered them h:^ protcclioa ; and ir is in a '^rent ineafurc to liie expeditions under - taiicii lor the lake of religion, that \\e urc in- debted for t)u ir utcovory. Thcfe v.t-re begun about the end uf the i ith century; and piin- jnij; liii entry amoti^ ihe Arabian4!, uiibrdcd tin: t'.i:r«>pviius an (.pportunily of c^mcrting their liteiary trtiifures lo thoir o\vn ule. \Vhe;i Coa- ilantiiH.pie was taken by the Clirhlianu in the yen;* i -C5, a coniiderable number of inuimfcripLs .^ade tiieir \\ay into Lur^pe, where a '.'/eat puit .-»jf thrill wasgradiKilly tranllatcd into a more ge- neral h'.ncMiage. About tin; >car ;^^c,thc Km- Kior 1'rcderii; II. turiud }:i-i atlei;u.u to th*; DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 99 cultivation of the liberal arts. Several princes followed his example : So that they Teemed now to be quitting their former habitations, and to feck more and more for fheltcr and protection in our quarter of the globe. But the fuperfli- tion under which Europe groaned, retarded for a long time the progrcfs of natural fcicncc. For every one who attempted to explore the works of nature, or had acquired the lead acquaintance with her, was deemed a conjuror, and agent of infernal fpirits, and fcntenccd to be burned to death. By degrees, however, the thick clouds of ignorance and cnthuiiatm were diflipatcd, and men of fciencc and of genius were permitted to purfuc their ftudics in a wider field. And this change was efpccially remarkable in the i6th century, when the zeal of Luther freed the church from that load of abfurd and ridiculous garments with which it had been long disfigur- ed and opprciied. If we coniidcr ftcp by ftcp the progrcfa of chemical fcience, we mall find indeed that various properties of bodies were difcovcrcd, but that they were neither fo accurately de- termined, nor exactly compared together, as was nccellary ; and formed only a rude and undi- gcflcd mafs, arranged into no fyftcm : In fuch myftcry and confufion was true fcience as yet obfcurcd. The vaft number of experiments that were made about the end of this period, with- G 2 out too THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, out order or regularity, were not unlike to a confufecl heap of dones, lime, fund, beams, and rafters, rcquilite for condrufting an edifice; but which, being combined with no Ikill, fail in pro- ducing the propofcd cil'ed. Tlie falfe and per- verfe opinions likcwiie which were entertained by many, contributed in a great meafure to thicken this darknef*. Several liad pcriuaded themfelves, that gold could be compofed from its principles by art ; and that medicines en- dowed with the virtue of curing all difeafes, and of rendering man immortal could certainly be found. Thus they were perpetually grafping at wealth, and defirous to piotrad life beyond its natural limits. This was the goal to which every fearcher into the works of nature ran with all his might. Truth, however, they unxiouf- ly avoided, led it fliould fugged any thing that might enable others to folve thefe problems, which they coniidered of the greatdl import- dnce. In order, therefore, to died their my. derious purpofe, they made uie of particular characters and %ns, and employed a ridiculous and metaphorical manner of fpcaking, that their words and their writings (hould be undcr- dood by themfelves only. But notwithdanding, a cortfiderable number of books were produced; though to what purpofe is not fo eaiily deter- mined, as they had fparcd no pains to render them as obfcure as poflible. Our furpofe, how- eve* DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. ipt ever, at this rage for writing is greatly increaf- cd, when they tell us, that the art of making gold is beyond the reach of human capacity, and that it is made known by God to thofc only whom he favours, and whom they call Adepts. They aflert alfo, that dire misfortunes will a- light upon his head, who, poflcfling this know- ledge, ihall in any way communicate it to o- thcrs. During almoft the whole of this dark period, the art of printing was unknown ; and hence we may imagine the labour bellowed upon tranf- cribing all their books. Great, however, as it was, the number brought forth was not affected by it: For which we cannot othcrwifc account, than by fuppofmg them to have produced an a- dequate gain to the authors. They feldom put their own names to their writings, but ufcd o- thcrs, anticnt or feigned, to obtain perhaps a credit they Could not of themfelves have ac- quired. In the mean time the number of cbryfipoci incrcafed almoft every where ; but the favour of the public did not keep pace with them. This divine art had been fo propitious to the in- habitants of Africa, that it could not be retrain- ed at Fez. Some of them were in qucft of a certain elixir that fliould convert all common metals into gold. Many, who .were a mailing wealth by adulterating the coin, paid the penal- f- 3 */ 102 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, ty of their difhonefly with the lofs of their hand*. Pope John II. in the fourteenth century, pub- licly condemns them in his bull as impoftures : Spondent qua tion exhibent, &c. Henry IV. of .England, in the fourteenth century, and the faculty of medicine at Paris in 1609, followed the example of the Pontiff. But we will not dwell longer upon the fufterings and miifor- tunes to which they were now expofed. Towards the dole of this period, the fociety of Roficrucians, an inflitution congenial to the fpirit of the age, begun to dillurb the rcpofe of Germany. While academies of fcicnccs were eftablifhing a fhort time after, for the purpofe of exploring the fecrets of nature by proper ex- periments, and of publifhing an account of their tranfaclions, and were thus gradually fub- verting all bold and obfcure myltcries; tliis fo- ciety not only chimed to itfelf the tranfmuta- tion of metalSj and an univerial panacea, but af- ferted likewiie, that by the cabulu and numbers every thing was made known to the adepts, and to thcfc that were kept by the peculiar care of the Deity, by invifible unknown beings ; and that even thoughts could not be concealed from them. They had iikewife many o- ther opinions equally as abfurd and ridiculous. From the year 1609 to 1630, an incredible num- ber of books were poured out from this frater- nity; though it is not left to be doubted whether „ it . * Johannes Leo proper name by the wife men of that country, though they had never feen him before, and they related every thing that had happened to him, during all his life. He was initiated by them m their myflcries. On his return to Ger- many, he inflrurlccl fcvcral difcipJcs, until the year 148.4 ; when, at the «i^c of 150, he volun- tarily choie to depart this life. Some one or Im uicccfibrs, 1604, difcovcred his tomb, in which, bcfidcs various remarkable infcriptions, was it book engraved in golden letters. J)ut here we ran learn nothing further. Their own confei fion has furnifhed u^ with the above circum- flancc-b. They had for their general conduct. J;x fundamental rules: Ky thefnft they were to heal the iic.k \vherever rlu-y met them; the fc- rond dirccled them to atTume the cloathing of the country in which they happened to be; the third obliged theia to attend the annual jjene- r..'i meeting, unlcfs they could allign fomc law- nil -raufc of abfence; tlie fourth enjoined every hrolhcr, ar> loon as he chofe tu die, to nominate .t v;orthy fucccifor; the fifth ordained the rofy crofs to be their fyml>ol ; the fixth dirct^eJ C 4 ^Ij.it 104 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, that the fraternity fhould be concealed care- fully for 100 years *. In France this fo- ciety gained but little ground; and, after 1630, it pafied almoft wholly into oblivion. In this year one Mormius offered to reveal the whole ofjts fecrets to the magiftracy of Hoi- land; but his propofal was treated with con- tempt. It was not to be expected, that fcience whol- ly occupied in the purfuit of other objects would contribute to the improvement of chemical arts, They were however rendered gradually more perfect, partly by accident, as the artifls difco- vercd fhorter antd better procefles, and partly by experiment, as they fometimes chofe to rilk a path unbeaten by their teachers; — and in fome meafure, by the unfuccefsful attempts of the alchemifts. For tfiefe laborious invefligators, though they feldom gained their propofed end, yet often brought to light much ufeful know- ledge, which had otherwife perhaps lain conceal- ed to this moment. As to medical chemiftry, and the principles upon which its theory was eftablifhed during this period, we fhall explain them feparately further on: Here it rnay be proper to take no- tice of a few things relating to the pharmaceu- tical part of this fcience. The prolix competi- tion • * Morhofius in Polyhiftorf, « Mormiui, in arcany fecrrtiflimii, may chiefly be confultrd. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. tion of Mithridatc, theriaca, and antidotes fufn- cicntly demonftrate the low eftimation of fim- pler medicines, which ftill fell more into difre- pute, as the Greeks and Arabians vied fevc- ral ages with each other in ufing the longcil formulne. At the time the knowledge of the Arabians firfl enlightened the wcilern part of Europe, it was ihroudcd with fuch impenetrable darkncfs, that neither rcafon nor perception could form the lead probable conjecture of its future improvement. From Ariflotle we learn, that medicines were divided into the warm and cold, the dry and humid, which were combined according as circumftanccs required. Hippo- crates was the author of the attenuating, in- craffating, debilitating, and allringent qualities, and feveral others, in which Erafiilratus and his followers committed wonderful atufes. As we have many medicines that ad particularly on certain parts, as the cephalic, ftomachic, diure- tic, hepatic, Sic. an opinion was afterwards entertained, that others aflecled equally the whole fyftcm. They divided every quality in- to four degrees, and each degree into three parts. All compounds they examined with attention; and, if they found them faulty, fomething to correct them was added : That their force might not be impaired by digcftion, they were defend- ed by fome particular ingredient from the ac- tion of the ftomach ; to thofe that operated too hrulily ic6 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, iiaftily, they -added fomethins to occafion der lay; to others rather fluggiih, they joined a ftimulant ; and, thofe that wore to ad on a certain part, they accompanied with Tome medi- cine that was to perform the ollicc of a conduc- tor. Others were compounded according to' the conftitution of th'j patient. With fuch a- rithmetical precifion was the healing art prac- tiled in thole days. Thofe perfons who were intruded with the preparing of medicines, about the middle of the fifteenth century, and were called pbarma- y the Greek-, it rr.u!\ be confc'T'.-d they nndc u much greater ufc of ii in the practice o(j»hy fie than U»cir prcccptori t!ii!: Hut it cannot be denied that thvj'alfo invented many cither inert or even clan- ^CTOUR mctliCincS. It i!oc» not \\ry cliinly .ijipcur that the Arabians were the inventors of fu;;;»r ; ycl there ii, no doubt they were the frft who employed it in th" in ttcri.i iiiflic-i, un- der the name of £•*$> cffjne. The inet!iri:ie-( of Kf:a/ij wtre chiefly galenicals. — Pills, powtkrr, t!e^\u;snes, decoct io;.:., iroclic:, OmtmefiUf and jilaiilere. Oils lie dij.',eiltd ctihor hy i-.folation or fand heat, lie luixcd lead in fevtr.;! ofhrV-luiil- DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 107 the end of the fame century, Nicolaus Prevoft, a phyfician of Tours, wrote a general pharma- copoeia, rn. The /Egyptian ointment, oil offcorpioni, diachylon plaifters, and others of Arabian origin, arc dill ufcd at this day, under the fame names, and with very little change of com- poiiiio*i. We know nothing of the preferred litharge, the white fulphur, the earth of mercury, &c* cf Rhazis. He commends much a martial vinous elixir, by the title of a pre- paration of the fcoria of iron with wine, and watci of rtifcs alfo ; but whether he prepared it by fimplc infufion or by dif- tillation we arc not told. Of the fyrups, he mixed fome with honey, others with fugar and honey, and fome with manna. The infpifiatcd juices of plants the Arabians called rob ; and they reckoned among their fyrups whatever was piefcrvcd with aromatic*. The names of oxymcls and oxyfacchari they ufed indifcriminatcly; from which it might be conjectured that fugar and honey were equally common to them. Rhazis con- trived various mixtures of fugnr ; fuch ai the fugar of water lilly, of voilet*, of rofes, AT. He is faid to be the firft who exprcficd oil from rggp, and Friend fufpefls, that the oil of brick* was his invention. Albucafi:., who probably lived af- ter Rhaxi's furpaflcd all his countrymen in chemical know- ledge Of all his remarkable, and in fome mcafur«: volumi- nous, work on the unvctful materia modica, we have the 2yth book only remaining, entitled Servitor, and which con- tains all the precepts of pharmacy, concifc indeed, but fufH- cicntly clear and intelligible. Bcfides other things, arc to be fuiind rnthisbook, the preparation offal titimoniacj three modes of diftillitior, of vinegar, of wine, &c. It defcri!)cs four kinds of alembics and cucuibits, — ofglaf*, of earth intruded with glafs, of lead, and of braf*. Albucalls has a decoction of hiera ; which \7as a tirdurc prepared in the fun ; and various rxtmds from Die juices of plants infpifiatcd in the folar heat. He difTolvcd £ums in water or acetous acid, and filtrated the fo- Jution through courfc. hempen clothes. He defcribcs the prc- of alkaline fait in the fame manner with Dioicori- de.S loS THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. copcein, which contains more formula? than any other,' efpccially of antidotes *. Afterwards, many of the fame kind made their appearance : But Valerius Cordus publifhcd a difpenfatory, compofed of extrads from all the others, which was functioned by the law, and recommended by a decree of the State of Nuremberg, in 1542, to be the guide of the apothecaries. Many of . i. falls coinmunis, lib. f . et " falis petnr, lib. ^. tcic totum, et incorj)orat'jm fublima, ct " r.clligr ftlbum, denfum,- tlarum, et poiultrufum, ^c." He appears to have had fom«: idea likewife nf aqua regia, and of its property of difToIving gold. Crocus Marti1;, too, was pre- pirtd by calcination, and by coriofion with the acetous acid. Lime obtained from the flulli. of iggs w;:s reckoned j)nfcru- blc to tliat of burnt Hones or marine fhcllM. Mcfuc?, whom fomc* authors imr.gine to have lived before the time of Rlia- zis and AlSuoaHs, acquired ^?reat reputation from the inven- tion of fcvvral medicines, and the diltinguiftiing tit!*- r»f Ev**gtRf& PLirmacr,pcccrum. Some of his compohtionr arc .'i ufc to t!iis day, as confiftio a/ltritnrft and various others. * Entitled, De compofitionc mcdicarr.cr.t'jrum particu!a- in 410. * DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 109 of the compofitions were only mixtures, or more fimple preparations, as extracts, decodions, e- lecluarics, fyrups, and fuch like. Pie defcribcs however very clearly the method of making e- thcr (which he calls oleum vitrioli dukc)\ of which we find only obfure traces in Balilius Va- Jcntinus. Medicines that required the aid of more pro- found chemiftry were at the beginning of this period very rare, though not altogether un- known. The emperor Conitantinc IX. fur- named Porpbyrogcnetcti who died in the year ^59* relates in the life of Bafilius of Maccdon, his grandfather, that the emprefs, when juil dy- ing, was recovered by mrw^;* r-^ar.. Conrad Gefner lias taken great pains to prove, that the fyrupum rofatum is underitood here; for he flip- pofes that rbodoftagma is the fame as rhodoftac- turn ; but, from the preparation of it defcribed by Paulus of yEgina, there is no doubt of its be- ing the fyrupum rofatum. But although many ages paft, the fame thing was cxprefied under two ditlercnt names, it by no means follows, that they were afterwards confidercd as fynony- mous. Actuarius alfo makes mention of rhodo- ftagma; but, from its ufc, it is evident, that undtr this appellation he means the water that drop- peth from rofes. How could it happen that diftillation was not known, when the utcnfils for Ir THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, ir had been fo long defcribcd by Geber? We arc indebted to the Arabian ph yficians, not only for our knowledge of fe vend purgatives, as man- na, fenna, rhubarb, tamarinds, caflia, and myro- bolan ; but alfo of muflc, nutmegs, mace, clove giliiflowcr, and other aromatics ; and from them we learned the ufe of fugar, which they em- ployed in (lead of honey, in fyrups, juleps, con- lervcs, and fomc confcdtions. Rhazis fpcaks of corrofive fubliniate, in the ninth or tenth centu- ry; and Avicenna mentions not only it, but likcwilc fublimecl arfenic, dillilled water of ro- fes, and the diftillation of bones and huir. Johan- nes Mefues, the younger of Damafcus, writes of the diflilled water of rofes, and the oils of am- ber, barley, and bricks, in the twelfth century, as if they were well known to the antients. In the thirteenth century, however, chemiflry be- came of more importance to medicine. Thad- dieus a Florentine, who died in 1270, at eighty years of age, among chemical preparations, be- llows great commendations on the virtues of fpi- ritofv/ine. Baiilius Valentinus prepared vari- o'us kinds of antimony, which he ilrongly recom- mends in practice. As to what is faid by fomc, that it derives its name of antimony from its bad eflecls on the monks of his fociety, as tfanli'/iona- cbal, is entirely without foundation, as Bafilius himfelf makes ufe of that appellation, which o- thcrwifc he certainly would not liavc done. DURING THi; MIDDLE AGE. ui Thcophraftns Paracelfus drew the attention of every body fo much by his chemical medicines, that lie was the iirfl. who was appointed to teach pubiicly che?viiitry at jfciiil, in the year 1527. lit' was fo violent in his hatred at all fcholailio and Arabian productions, that in a rage he-burn- ed the writings of Avicennu and Galen at his lirll lechire ; fwearing, that full as much learn- ing \vjis contained in his cap. ]>y his induftry, tlic difference between chemical remedies and ;.V'ier,ioal was chilly -increaied. It i> reported, tiiat he cured many difcafcs by the means of o- pium andquicklilvcr. The fmgubr manner of Jiving praclik'd by this man gained him c(jiml enc'mics and admirers, ills followers jofcph du C'iiefnc, commonly called Qucrceta, Theodore (!«-• Mayonnc, and fcvcral others, proclaimed tht: nnivciial cxcciicncc of chemical medicines. In flic year 1609, Crollius publiihed a method of preparing incrcurius duicis. Many ditilcultics, hov.'cvcr, attended as yet the progrcfs of fcience. 'I'iic life of antimony was prohibited by the fu- ]>rcme council of Paris, by an edict in 1566: which was renewed in 1650: And Befnier \vas cxpeiicd the faculty of medicine in 1609, for having given antimony in his practice. In the year 1590, the Faculty of Paris publifhcd a col- Icdlion of all the proper medicines to be ufcd. The edition of 1637, contains vimtm antimonia- turn : B*it tiiis diipcnfatory was not fan&ioned by it'4 THK HISTORY OK CHEMISTRY, by the fupreme council, until the loth April, 1666. I. Schrocder gave to the world in 1644, a chemico-mcdical pharmacopoeia, which was printed, for the third time, with many addi- tions, in 1649. It delineated exactly the phar- macy of thofe times, and enumerated almoft all the chemical medicines that were kno\in to- wards the clofe of this period. About the lame time, the Auguftan aud London difpcnfatorics were publifhed. The Copenhagen difpenfato- ry did not appear before 1658. — All of them wonderful performances, coniidcring the ilateof phyfic at that day. The diieoverics and im- provements fubfcquent to thefe do not come within the limits of the oblcufc period. It was long before (hops for the fale of medi- cines were eftablifhed in Sweden. When Guf- tuvus I. was on his death-bed, Johannes, the Ordinary of Stockholm had the charge both of his body and mind. In (lead of an apothecary, Lucas was employed ; but it i> probable he was- not furnifhed with any medicines of his own, but rather preferred and prepared, when neccilary, thofe for the ufe of the royal family. Tiling4; were fo circumflanced at the time, that John III. granted on the 2 ill March, 1575, to An- thony Bufenius, the power of felling medicines, thnt they might not be fpoiled with age; on condition that a proper and frcfh aflbrtment wan always rcr.dy. The records of that time DURING THE MIDDLE ACE. 11.3 make mention of a Simon Waldcr, an upothcca-* ry, living near the great market. Towards the t-nd of this century, the number of apothecaries Ihops at Stockholm were much increafcd ; and by degrees they were eitabliflicd in the other ci- ties. But it was not until the year 1686, that pharmacy was lanftioncd by the voice of the legiflaturc. Scarce any thing certain can be advanced with refpcd to the Hate of ordinary chcmiftry, and the attention that was paid to it in thcfc times ; nor have we better intelligence of that part of the fcicncc that relates to the various arts, except fome account of metals, and a few others. Metallurgy was cultivated long before the birth of Chriit. Gold, lilvcr, lead, copper, iron, and tin, were cxtraclcd from their ores ; but in what particular manner is yet unknown to us. Without doubt the procellcs employed until the eight century mufl have been exceedingly rude and fimplc. From that date, however, all the writings (peak frequently of metals. The ftatute published by Charles the Great about the year 800, mentions " argcntum de noftro labo- 44 ratu, fcrrarias, et fcobcs." The chart of di- vifion alfo of Lewis the Pious, in 817, fpeaks of metals. Ofrcdus, a monk of Weifenbcrg re- lates, that in his country, filver, copper, and H iron, ii4 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, iron, were dug out of the earth, and gold ob- tained by wafhing the fund. After this we perceive metallurgy gradually afluming the form of a fy Hematic fcience. In that manner was it treated by G. Agricola. H'rj twelve books on metallurgy were firft nubliih- ed at Balil in 1546; though it appear, from his epiftlc dedicatory, that they had been pre- pared for the prefs ever lince the month of De- cember of tiie year 1500. As they contain much of the knowledge of the prefent day, we think it confident with our plan, to enumerate them fingly. In his dedication he complains, that he had received no aiMance from the anci- ent writers, except a little from the fecond Pli- ny. Not one of them attended futlicicntly to a part, and much lefs to the whole art. Of the Greeks he found no writers, except Strato of Lampfacus, the fucceflbr of Theophralhis, who \vas the author of a book (iince loll) on metal- lic machines and inilrumcnts ; unlefs, perhaps, the poet Philo in his MetuUicus treated upon this fubjecl. But this woik too has not clcap- ed the wreck of time. He mentions t\vo books written in the German language, one anony- mous, on the experiments on metallic bodies and metals ; but which he fays is very confufcd : The other is by Calbus Fribcrg on veins; on whom he make* this obfervation : " Venter cam 41 quaui fumiit, pattern UbiUlvit." He fpcalis of DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. itj VannonBiringuccius, as of the moft modern au- thor who writes in Italian, on the fufion, fcpa- rution, and foldcring of metals ; though not ve- ry perfectly. Upon all this lie remarks: " Quo " autcm minus multi funt, qui cle re metallica " fcripferunt, eo magis mihi minim videtur, tor. 11 chcmillas cxtitiflTe, qui compofucrint artifici- " urn dc mctallis aliis in alia mutandis." The firft book refutes nil the objections that are commonly made againft the cxfpcclation of any public or private advantage from the ftudy of metallurgy, and vindicates all the honour due to fuch labours, In the fecond, he treats of thofc places abounding in veins of metal, and of the marks by which they may be diftinguifhed; and of the rod of divination, of which he fays the learn- ed mountaineer has no need. The third book contain? an account of the metallic veins and ttrata of the mountains. The fubjcct of the fourth is the limitation of the mines. In the fifth we find a trcatifc on the cxti a-fling of ores, on pits, on cutting of mines, on drains- nnd on fub terraneous geography and architec- ture. In the £xth arc dcfcribcd the various im- plements, as ballccts, tubs, and machines for taking away the different materials; as cap- fterns, ladders, hand batkets, hydraulic and pneumatic machines, pumps; and, la'uly, all the inconveniencies, but chiefly the difeaies to *Ahich the miners are expofed. The feventh H 2 tic* u6 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, treats on the docimaftic art. In this are de- fcribcd the docimaftic furnaces, ovens, dilh- es, cupels made of burnt bones or aflies, alfo Ihades, melting furnaces, crucibles, iron hooks, fcalcs, buckets for \vafliing the ore, and various kinds of weights: It teaches the method like- wife of afcertaining how much gold, filver, quickfilver, lead, copper, iron, tin, or bifmuth, is contained in every ore; and in what manner gold or lilver coin may be examined on the Ly- dian itone, by proof needles; the invert iga- tion of the qualities of gold by the nitrous acid, quartatkm, and the increafe of weight from the filver rcfiduum; and many other things. We meet in this book with almoft every thing now in life in the docimuftic art, and the fame kinds of procefles ; except that the inilruments and methods of operating are become more fimplc and accurate. The lead of Villachia is laid to contain no lilver. In the eighth book we have an account of the feparating ores from the rock, of calcining and pounding them; and alfo a par- ticular method of purifying them through a iievc, or by waflimg in fome other manner. The ninth enumerates the various forts of furnaces, with their bellows, and the leveial methods by which, from the greater portions of minerals, $;old, lilver, lead, copper, iron, tin, and bifmuth, may be extracted by the means of fire. The tc:;:h relates in \vh:it way gold and i'ilvr may DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 117 be feparatcd from each other by acids, or, in the dry way, by fulplmr, antimony, and cementa- tion. The eleventh fliews the method of fepa- rating filvcr from copper and iron, by cliqua- tion with lead. The twelfth dcfcribcs the pre- parations of common fait, nitre, alum, martial vitriol, bitumen, and glafs. From all thefe ac- counts, therefore, it appears, that the chcmiftsof thofe days proceeded in their operations as we do at prefent, except that we have learned, in a a more cultivated A ate of the fciencc, to rcjed many things as ufclefs, and to form (horter pro- ceflcs. In his book on the nature of foflils, A- gricola treats particularly on minerals. He di- vides all earthy bodies into two claflcs, thofc which flow out from the earth, as water and fubtcrrancous air, and foflils; which he agaiu arranges under five heads : i/?, Earths are en- numerated according to the ufe that is made of them': the earth of hufbandmcn, of pot- ters, of fullers, painters, artificers, and phy- ficians. 2///v, Concrete juices: fait, nitre, a- him, vitriol, chryfocolla, ultramarine, Armeni- an ilonc, mil, orpimcnt, fundanicha, fulphur, bitumen, afphaltus, camphor, pifiafphaltus, a;n- pdlites, jett, fofiil coal, and amber. 3//, Metals: gold, filver, quicklilver, copper, white lead (tin), black lead (common lead), alh -coloured lead (bifmuth), and iron. Al- though this minerulogical efl'ay is not without inany faults, yet they fliould be fafe from the feverity cf criticifm, when we confider that A- gricola was the fir ft who attempted fuch a fyf. tem. The progrefs of metallurgy, after the time of Agricola is fully illuftrated by a comparifon of his writings with thofc of others; as of C. En- cellius fie re mttnliua, in 1557; of Modcrtinus J'lichs, whofcJ^driin/j/Ja, though written in 1567, did not appear until 1595, publiflicd by his ion; of L. Ercker in auhi Jubterranca, in 1575; and of Muthtfius of Sarptiat, 1578, and a few others. White vitriol begun to be manufactured at Ruinmein>erg, anno 1574. About the time that the light of the Chri- tfian faith had difpelk-d the idolatrous gloom of f he northern regions, it is moll likely tlwt the people DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. -people turned cither to open the inward trea- furcs of the earth, or to apply them with more ikill to purpofcs of utility. At a convention of the dates of the kingdom at Stockholm, in the year 1282, during the reign of Magnus Ladu- la>, all the mines and their produce were afliga- cd to the public trcafury. Before this time we have no authentic writings that give any account of metallurgy. King Magnus regulated by a law, in 1354, the mine of Norbcrg: The privi- leges of the mine of Atvidabcrg, and of the me- tallic focicty, were granted by King Erie in 1413. In 1420, the mines of Norbcrg, Bitf- berg, Vik'tbcrg, Silfvcrberg, Tunaberg, and Skinikatteberg, obtained their privileges. Some privileges, indeed, are mentioned of a more an- tient date ; but the original manufcripts have fallen in the general ravages of time, which re- quires not many ajrcs to overturn and deflroy things far more durable. At a time when no- thing but what was antient was held in any ef- timation, many pcrfons of Ikill in thefc matters, contended, that the mine of Sahlberg \va.? open- ed a fliort while after the birth of our Saviour: But no papers or records fpcak of it fooncr than the time of Suantc Sture. Otto liiihop of Aro - fien, in his letters to him, dated about the be- ginning of the year 1511, folicited a part of this mine. He founded his claim, firft on his right as bifliop ; and fccondly, on a plea of hi- II 4 ' damnification MO THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, demnification for the lofs he ha4 fuflained of the tenths of the field in which the mine had been . Laclan- tius is the firil of them all, who has given any certain account refpecling this matter. Hcfcyi, 44 Verius et maniicilius eit mcntcm cllc, quit per 11 oculos ea, qu:c funt oppoiita tranfpiciat, quu- "ii * ICcpcnh. Sal/!:. Hand!. 7 del. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. m 44 fi per fcncflras lucente vitro aut fpcculari la. 14 pide obduclas *." Not Icfs dcciiivc arc two paiTagcs in Hicrony. mus. In the firft of which he fays: u Fcncftrx " crant fadx in modum rctis, ad inftar cancel- *4 loriin, ut noii fpcculari lapide, ncc vitro, fed " Jignis interraiilibus ct vcrmiculatis include- rcnturf." In the other he fpeaks of " fcnef- " tris, quru vitro in tenucs laminas fufo obduclx " erant." Windows made with glafs were known towards the end of the third century : But this application of it did not become general until fevcral ages after. Some churches in France were furniOied with windows after this manner, in the time of Gregory of Tours J. The Greeks bcftow great praifes upon the vail number of glafs windows that adorn the round tower, com- monly called the cupola, of the great church of St. Sophia built at Gonflantinoplc, and which was dedicated to our Saviour by Juflinian §. In the feventh century manufactories of glafs were cilabliihed in France ; from whence, to- wards the end of it, fcveral artificers migrated into England, where the art was hitherto un- known || . The eight century curried the in- vention into Germany and Italy, and the ninth extended it to the northern regions, On read- * DC opificio Dc*i, c. 8. f In Hcf. xlJ. 1 6. 4. DC gloria marljrrum. $ Paulas Silcnliarius. (I Hcury hiil. ccclcf. THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, ing of the fmgular effecls which the rays of the fun, transmitted through the windows of the cupolas, are reported to Iiave produced within the churches, it would appear, that the glaG then ufed was tinged with various colours; al- though we do not find it mentioned to be fo any where. In Italy, long before the birth of Ghriit, we meet with fepellated works, compoled of vari- ous kinds of Hones, and pieces of glut's of dille- rent colours, the art of which the Italians had acquired from the Greeks. And yet, until the right century, coloured glafs was never ufed in ornamenting the windows of their churches. After that time, however, they had windows conP.rii'fled with bits of variegated glafs, under the form of flowers, crowns, and other devices. And at length, in order to give encouragement to pious meditations, art ills were employed to reprefent upon them ilorics from the holy fcrip- turet, or the traniaclions of faints. At firit, and even as late as the end of the twelfth century, black figures only v/erc burned in upon red glaft, which afterwards became rather ferirre. In the thirteenth century the art was commu- nicated through Germany, Holland, and Italy. About the end of the fourteenth century, g!uf» was flnined with many other colours than red, • ;\ving chiefly to the pain.-, and induilry of John vm Kick, orvon Jirugges ; and by degrees the * art DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 123 art was carried to perfection in the 1 6th centu- ry: From which time it lias fallen infenfibly into decay; in fo much, that there is reafon to fear, it is now totally lofl. The method of painting in enamel is nearly the fame as in glafs. Raphael Sanzio and Mi- chael Angclo Buonarotti were the firfl in Italy who carried this anticnt art to any height. Ne- ri aflirms *, that pictures were made in this man- ner by the means of ji Limp, in the year 1601; jmd that John Toutin a French goldfmith ren- dered them afterwards much more perfecl f. The art of imitating gems engaged confidc- rably ihc attention of the alchcmifts. R. Lulli- us is fuppufed to have made great proficiency in it, and Ifaac J Jollandius ilill more about the be- ginning of the fcvcnrh century J. Ncri labour- e-d yet further in this purfuit. He collected all the various procefTes of others, examined them rarcfully, and publiflied thofc that he thought were moft likely to fuccccd. He knew in what manner red glafs was prepared with gold, and taught how to ftain it with any other colour. He delcribcs the preparation of ultramarine and lac, and makes mention of the Picdmontcfe magnefia. Some of the more anticnt amaitfa§ of a bluifli colour * Arn vitr. c. 42. •j- Diet, dcs arts cl.Jrj metiers. ^ Op rr.in 1, i. c. 7'^ ii. c. 89. § A ki;ul af femi-iifllucid ftouOi of which the anticnta vafus and other vrifcit. THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, colour, from Egypt, and pieces of glafs of tht fame dye from the ruins of Herculaneum, are yet in exigence. Hence it has been concluded by fome, that the uie of cobalt was known to the antients: Though the more modern che- mitts* rather queflion it ; as by all the trials to which they have fubjected the fpecimens of their art, they difcovcred traces of lapis lazuli, iron, or copper, but no cobalt. Among the collecflion of ftoncs in the academy of Upfal, are preferred fome glafs checquers, found in Herculaneum, which have an azure tint, arc tranfparent, and feem to owe their gold co- lour to a thin plate of yellow glafs, to which they are very ikillfully united. But they are by no means coloured with cobalt. For having only -4 flight bluiih tint, if they are examined by the re- fracted rays of light, the redncfs characleriflic of cobalt will not be found in them. Befidcs, when fmull pieces of thefechecquers are melted by the blow-pipe upon charcoal, either alone or with borax, the red and opaque hue of copper is eaii- ly difcovcred. The ores of cobalt, which, together with fil- ver, contain bifmuth, ftiould have fuggefled the application of the blue fcorta to fome ufeful purpdc f : But they were long reckoned amon;? the refufe only; until Seb. Prcufder ellablimeii a mari'^faclory for giafs with cobalt, in Bohemia, in * Ccl. Grncl.'r.. in Aftis Goctin. * t Encclius dc re n:etd!ica. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 125 in 1571, and John Jcnitz. and Jofeph Harrcn, followed his example, in 1575, in Saxony. In the year 1564, David Hcidler, in Bohemia, and Hicr. 7,urch in Mifnia, had already found pro- ccfies for collecting arfcnic from them. From the paintings in Hcrculancuin we fee, that all the colours that arc prepared with wa- ter were known long before the year 79. With thcfe the ancients painted on walls frefh plaifter- cd. The art of mixing colours with oil, it is com- monly believed, was invented by John Von Bruggcs, about 1431; though it is fuificient- Iy evident that it was pradiifcd in the nth century. Very little improvement wfas made in the art of dying, for many ages from the beginning of this period. The Greeks and Saracens of Eu- rope ufcd the purple of the Weft ; but at length this colour fell into difcflccm, and the more brilliant red was preferred : In fo much that, in the nth century, the fccrct of ftaining with the purple periflicd likewife in the Eaft. By the expeditions of the crufades, many artifls,and with them various arts found their way into Italy ; and the chief of them took up their residence at Venice, to which port moil of the vcileis from the Eall rcforted. As early as the year 1194, 1198, and 1306, mention is made of the grana dc brafilc, braxitts, and indigo : Though they certainly did not mean thofc fubAaru.c^ which 126 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY; which were afterwards furnifhed by America. The name braxilis no doubt was derived from fome other place than the IkufiU, which in thofe days was yet undifcovered; and the in- digo feems to be the fame pigment with what is called imUcum by Pliny *. - About the year 1300 a Florentine merchant difcovcred by accident that the mofs of Roehelle (called by the Englifh manufacturers cudbear) gave a blue tinge to urine ; and, making repeated experi- ments, he learned to ufe it fo fuccefsfully in dy- ing this colour, that it not only procured wealth to himfelf, but was fo advantageous to the Florentines, that his dependents all went by the name of Ruce/fianf. In 1429 the Venetians pre- fcribed rules to their dyers; which were render- ed more perfect, and rcpublifhed in 1510 by John Ventura Rofetti, under the feigned namcof Plich- tus. With thefe i nit ruction? tho art improved clfewhere, and was daily extending : iiut the materials afforded by the difcovery of America, of which the principal were the indigo and co- chineal, ccntributed more than any thing die- to its great increufc. Indigo, however, \\.is not altogether trufled, and, for a long time, was not in fuch eilirhation as woad ; and the ufe of log- wood too was often prohibited. During the reign of Francis I. of France, Cillcs Gobelin at- tempted thy dying of fcarlct. His iirft cilliy* * JI. K. 1. xxxvl. c. 6 DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 127 v;crc confiderccl as madncfs ; and when, con- trary to expectation, they proved fuccclsful, he was robbed of the praifc due to his genius by ihe fuperllition of the age, which attributed tin:' difcovcry to the interference of the devil, with whom he was believed to be in league. I1. Kloeck, a Dutch painter, acquired great (kill in the ulc of colours in the Kail ; which he car- ried to great perfection in his own country, and died there in 1550. In England and in Germa- ny, about the fame time, tins art was making great progrcfs ; though it was itill generally in- volved in rudcnefs and obfcurity ; until tho patronage of Colbert in France gave it new powers, and threw light on ail its operations*. The mortar employed by the ancients in their buildings, isoffuch conlidcrable hardncfs, thar many have been led to fufpcct it was prepared in fomc way with which we are unacquainted. Though there can be no doubt that the mate- ii;ds that compote it were better mixed in thofc days than at prelim ; yet, as hard lumps of the fr/.c of a pea or a bean arc cfi.cn found in it, there mull furcly have been fume error, cither in the burning or flaking of the lime, or in the mixture itfelf. On examining narrowly the mortar of the anticnts, it is found to contain more land than the mortar cf the prcfcnt day. The authority o£ * iiifchoS GcCcb. dcr Firbcrkunft. THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, of Pliny4, andVitruvius f, confirms this obfer- vation ; for they both direct, that when it is made with pit fand, a fourth part of lime mould be iifcd ; and, when with river or fea fund, a third pa^ according to the bulk. From expe- rience, however, we are taught, that the pro- portion of the materials mufl be varied, accord- ing to their quality, and to particular circum- ftances. The antionts burned their lime on the, fpot where they were building ; and it is cer- tainly of the greatefl importance to ufe it quite frefh. But, even as it is, the common mortar employed at prefent hardens in a feries of years, and will become a perfect (lone, unleis local ob- flacles arife to the abfbrption of the aerial acid, or counteract its effects. S ii. Qf + H. N. 1. xxxvi. c. 23. f Arch. 1. ii. c. 5. J Not many years ago it has been difcovered, that the pc- trcfaftion of mortar requires a much larger proportion of fand than is generally given, viz. about three to one (according to the obfcrvation of Pliny) ; and that by ufing lime hot from the kiln, without tempering it, the mortar binds atid confo- lidatcs to the hardnvfsof ftbne. It is not a little extraordina- ry, that this confirmation of antient occonomy in raafonry fliould have brcn fo litcly cflabliflicd. Kott of the Tr an/later. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. § ii. Of the Great Work. BEFORE we take into conficlcration the mak~ ing of gold, a fubjecl on which the alchcmifts laboured with the great eft y.cal and induftry, two qucflions naturally prcfcnt thcmfelvcs, and demand our immediate attention. The firft is, Whether the problem is capable of a folution ? The next, Whether any one has really ever made gold ? Let us examine them fepuratcly. Firft of all, it is neccflliry to determine the precife meaning of the "making of gold/* be- fore we can venture to hazard an opinion, or purfuc the enquiry. Cold, as well as all other metals, is com poled of a proper metallic earthy and the principle of inflammability. There- fore, if we do but find the former, and cxpofc it to a fuflicient degree of heat, we arc prefently in pollcflion of pcrfcft gold. If then this ope- ration is called making of gold, by the fame pa- rity of reafoning, we may beftow that appella- tion on the daily proccflcs of reducing metal- lic calces; which is repugnant to the ufual mode of cxprcffion. Let us then trace the mat- ter from its fource. There can be no doubt, that the Almighty only is equal to the taik of creating the original elements and principles of bodies; but, it is fo far from being iuconiift- I ent THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, cnt with this idea, thru, by a due examina- tion- of the laws of attraction obferved by na- ture, chemiitry Ihould be able, from thefe prin- ciples varioufly connected and prepared, to com- pofe numerous inorganic fubftances, either re~ fembh'ng the Spontaneous productions of our globe, or wholly new and different from them; that it is rather in fuch operations, and the pro- fecution of fuch deiigns, that the fcienceof che- rniftry is at this day employed ; and, in proper tion as the conflituent parts of bodies and their properties are previoufly known, will always be the fuccefs of its labours. If therefore the prox- imate principles of this golden earth are phlo- iAon and a certain acid, which may be caiily Tuppnfcd, the queflion then Is reduced limply to the obtaining this acid in a fullicient quanti- ty; for the phlogifton is every where to be found. By the means of the latter, the acid be- ing fixed and coagulated, the earth is procured, and the reft of the proceis is carried pn without any difficulty. As it is molt probable, that the acid of gold has fo powerful an attraction forphlogiitonthatit cannot exiil long without it, it may be queition- od, whether more of this acid can be found ia the bowels of the earth than what has already aflumed the form of gold, or at leaftof the earth. In this opinion, however, though we arc fate from contradiction, it docs not' imply tlr.it, if * the DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 131 the acid were found in a fcparate ftate, it would be either impoflible, or beyond the powers of chemiftry to faturateit with phlogiilon. The alchemilis contend, that the principle of gold, though corrupted by various caufes, is contained in all the metals ; and that, if proper- ly purified and freed from extraneous matter, it may be brought into its perfect ftatc. From what has been faid before, then, this is as much as to declare the original acids of all metals to be the fame; from which, cither by varying tho proportion, or by the admixture of heterogene- ous fubftances, nature produces fuch dirtcrent effects, that, by the addition of a certain quan- tity of phlogifton, according to the capacity of the fubftance, not only gold, but various kinds of metals are in the ufual manner produced. To correct the errors of thcfe proportions and combinations, by the means of their elixir, or philofopher's ftone, was the great aim of the al- chemifls; fo that all the bafcr metals might be converted into gold, or, in their own language, to tinge the imperfect, in fuch a manner, as to render them all the moft perfect of metals. If we attend to the experiments hitherto known, and made with the greateft care, we fliall find but little or no encouragement to be- lieve in the tranfmutation of metals or other more fimple bodies. In thofc days, when the inveftigationof philofophcrs were not made with I 2 the 132 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, the fame prccifion as they are at prefent, the e- vent of many experiments fometimes alTumed fuch appearances of change; but thefe illuflons no longer exift. For fubllances which are not fuppofcd to contain any gold, may ilill conceal a very fmall portion of it in their compofition; as we know that, except iron, no metal is more frequently to be found, though, from its ex- treme minutcncfs, it often efcapes our obferva- tion. Let then fuch a fubilance be expofed to a. continued and violent fire, which nothing will refill, except the grain of gold. At the light of it, the operator, believing it to be created by his (kill, not extracted (as it really is) from the fub- jlance he employed, is traniported with joy. Difcouraging, however, as this may appear, no one, who has at all explored the fecret paths of nature with induitry and penetration, will deem that impoflible, which docs not militate againft u known and eilabliihed truth. In the queftion now before us, no fuch dilliculty has been dif- covered. Daily experience furnilhes eflcch a- nulogous to thofc, of correcting and purifying bodies mentioned by the alchcmiils. For, do we not fee, that a fin all quantity of leaven is fuflicient to ferment a large quantity of new wine; fo that the vinous fpirit, which was before, contained in the grain, or entirely concealed, is evolved and liberated from tliofe particles with which ic was in intimate union, or compound,- DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 133 cd, by a clue proportion of its conftitucnt prin- ciples. Who then \vill be bold enough to af- fert, that no change can be wrought upon the baler metallic acid, by any additainent however fmall, cither by adding, fubtrading,tranfpoiting, or in any other way, ib that it may be convert- ed into a nobler kind ? The opinion that bodies formed by art arc lefs firm and perfect than thofc of the fame kind produced by -nature, is to be received with fomc •limitations , as art has given birth to many fub- flances, that agree perfectly in their qualities, with thofe of natural growth. Cannot neutral falts, and fuch like fubfianecs, perfectly ilmilar to thofe that ore native and pure, be prepared by art ? And may not many other bodies likewife? Jffomctimes, indeed, the combination fecms to be rather looter, it is to be afcribcd to the great- er quantity of moifture retained in them, and which natural productions have loll through time. From all, then, that has been already faid, it is evident, that the impoflibility of making gold, or tranfmuting metals by art, cannot bedcmon- ftrated : Yet whoever thinks therefore, that the •pofiibility is proved, will find himfclf greatly miflakcn. Between two fuch extremes the in- terval is very wide. Or if it be imagined, that any certain conclufion can be drawn a priori, ir will be found, that a. more perfect knowledge I 3 of THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, of nature is required, than has as yet been clifcovtred. But even granting the poftibili- ty, it remains next, to curry it into execu- tion: For it does not follow, that every tiling that is poilible to be clone is within the power of art to perform. Should the experiment fuo ceed by a fair procefj, all further enquiry about the poilibility of it is at an end ; for the fact un- der fuch circumflances is abiblutely djciiive. We are i;ow, in the next place, to coniider, •whether, of the great number who called them- fclves adepts, any one lias actually compofed gold. The folution of this que'liun is entangled in many diilicuhies, owin^ to the want of pro- per and faithful defcriptioiib of tlie many tranf- mutations. 'J'he teltiinony of ignorant inecta- tors is as little to be depended en as the after- tions of the writers themfelves. In the prorelc many deceptions have been praclifed: (Juld hue been concealed in the vdlols, in the inflrumcnts, in the. reals, and in oilier ir.atciiak. liut tho' this may ))e fuid of ninety-nine oi a Iiundred fuch afl'irtions concernin.^ the tranfmutation, it niny be alic;!fred, triat it does not apply indefi- nitely : Vv here, however, fuch afiertions arc nor fupported by abfolute prooi" they mult remain inadmi/lible. But ibine accounts are entitled to u greater ^retr of credit. .For, doubtlefu, if a perfon who has no faith in the clranges of a fTi'jiill cbti'.ia by chance it Imall piece t,f thr philofcpher'f; DURING THE MIDDLE AGE; 'philofophcr's flone, and, on making the cxpc- .riment alone in his clofet, procure a quantity of gold heavier than the weight of the (lone; will jr. not be difficult to explain .in what manner he was liable to be deceived. — Something iimilar to this fcems to have happened to Dr. Ilclvc- tius at the Hague. He was a conflant oppofer of the great my fiery that was to cure all difea- •fcs ; and declared his opinion of it in a work he .publiihcd again ft the fympathetic powder of Digby. On the 27th December, j666, a flran- . ;gcr paid him aviiit; who after difcourfmg fomc time on the nature of an univerfal .medicine, produced the philofophcr's Hone, of the colour offulphur, and live pieces of gold; dcfcribing the manner in which they had been prepared. Helvetius carneftly petitioned for a fmull piece of the (lone in remembrance of him; or clfe that he would difplay its virtues in the fire. The ilranger rcfufed both rcqucils, but promifed to return in three weeks. Accordingly, he kept his word ; but it was with 4grcat diiiiculty that he would part with a bit of the (lone not larger than a grain of rape-feed : And Helvetius doubt- ing, whether fo fmall a quantity was fufiicicnt to change four grains of lead into gold, the ilrangcr c:ut oil' more than the half of it, aflur- ing him the remainder would be more than wa* neccllary. At their firft meeting, Helvetius had f<:rnped oil* with his nail, unknown to the tfran- i 4 5C14 I36 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, ger, a fmall particle of the ftonc, which he af- terwards threw into ibmc melted lead; but the whole almofl evaporated, leaving behind only a kind of vitreous earth. On his relating this difappointment, the alchcmiil candidly acknow- ledged the deceit ; but direded him in future to inclofe the (lone in wax, that it might not be aHeclcd by the fumes of the lead. He in- flrucled him in other circumftanccs likewiie ; told him that the whole proccis could be com- pleated in a few days, and that two florins would defray all the ex pence. In order, however, to teach him the method of performing the ope- ration, he promiied to be with him again the next day. The appointed hour came, but no flranger; and Hclvetius having waited for him with fome impatience, but to no purpofe, re- folved on making the experiment in preicnce of his wife and his fon. To fix drachms, of lead melted in a crucible, he added the piece of Aone he had received the day before, wrapped up in yellow \v^x ; then covering the crucible, he left it for a quarter of an hour cxpoicd to the £re ; at the expiration of which he found the whole mufs converted into gold. At firlt, it ap- peared of a gu-enifh colour; but being poured out into a vcilcl of a conical fhapc, it a Homed a tinge like blood, and afterwards, as it grew cold, the true golden hue. This gold was examined by a ftoldlmilh, who found it fovery pure, th:*t DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 137 he reckoned an ounce of it to be worth fifty florins. Porellius, the general aflaycr of the coin throughout the province of Holland, rc- quefted, that he might be permitted' to make trial of it; and examining two drachms of it by quartation and aquafortis, he found it had in- crcaied in weight two fcruples. This change he attributed to the cficcT: of the great abundance of colouring matter, which had tranfmuted fo much of the lilver he had employed. Sufped- ing, however, that the filvcr was not firmly u- nitcd with the gold, he melted it again, with levcn times its bulk of antimony, and treated it in the ufual manner; but without producing any alteration on its weight. »Such, then, is the account given by Hclvc- tius; and as the man who furniilicd this ex- traordinary (lone never entered hi> laboratory, or Was even prefent at the operation, no fraud could be pradifcd .by him ; and it will not be cafily proved in what way he might have de- ceived himfelf. The whole argument, therefore, refts on the credit of Helvetius. For, if he has concealed any one circumilance relating to the procefs, or added others that are falfe, the quef- tion will be juft ns obfcurc as it was before. His dcfcription, to-be fure, betrays the ar- dour of his dcfire to learn the chryfopoictic art ; nor can any one anfvver for the probity of an- other : Yet it would be highly unjuft to accufc any i38 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, any one of adefign to deceive all mankind, un- lefs upon better grounds ; as the impolllbility of the tranihiutation in qucilion can never be demo nitrated. Berigardus of Pifa, gives an ac- count of Ibmething limilar that happened to himielf. Pie defcribes it in the following words*: 44 Rcferam, quod olim inihi contigit, cum velie- 44 menter ambigerem, an auruin ex hydrargyro " fieri poilet, accepi aviroinduftrio, qui huncmihi 44 icrupulum aufcrre voluit, ilrachmam pulveris, ;> colore non abiimilis llori papaveris fylvcflris, 4< odorc vero lal marinum adullum icierentis, 14 atque, ut abellct omnis hiipicio jocoliu iYaudis, •' vafculum c multis venalibus acccpi, carboncrn 4< et hydrargyrum, quibus nihil auii occuite, ut " fit a circulatoribus, fubjeclum ellet. Decem " L^lius drachmis pulvercin injeci, fubjedo igni " fatis valido, (latirnque omnia, cxiguo inter. 41 trimcntoin jo fere drachmas auri optimie na- *' tune coaluerunt : quippequod aurificumjudi- 4* cio nullam non lubiit tentatiunem. Hoc mi- 44 hi in fulo loco et rcmoto ab arbitris niii corn- '; probalTem, fufpicarer aliquiJ fu belle fraud is : 44 nam fideiiter tefl-iri poilem rein ita cflc." I. E. \ran Hclmont thus expix-rTes himfelf : 4t Co- " gor credere lapidem aurificum et argentificum, 44 qui diilinclis vicibus manu mca unius grani 44 pulverh fupcr aliquot millc grami argcnti vivi " projectionem feci, aflanteque mul».oreni corona 44 noilr: s r;r. 75. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 139 " noftri omnium, cum titillante admiratione ne- 44 gotium in ignc fuccefiit." And in another place he lays, " Dabat ijiilii forte femigranum illius " pulveri-s et inde uncut 9 atque i argenti vivi " tranlmutatcc iunt. lilud autcm aurunv dedit " mihi peregrinus unius vcfperi arnicas *. It is related of the Emperor Ferdinand like- wiic, in 1648, and of the Eledor of Mentz, in 1658, that they both made trials of the philo- fopher's ilonc with tlie greater! attention, re- moving every tiling that might in the leafl coun- tenance impofition: But the mcafurcs they took ;*re not cxprefsly dcfcribed f : From the nature of the evidence, however, in fupport of this re- lation, there can be no rcafon to fufpect the truth of it. With regard to other accounts of tranfmutations, of -which the liil is fo nume- rous, foine beurfuch ilrong imprcfiions of fraud, as to betray the means even by which they were cfleclcd ; while others have been conduct- ed in fuch a manner, that though their fallacy cannot be inconteflibly proved, yet there is e- vcry reafon to apprehend they are equally doubtful and uncertain. As to the flory of fix drachms of lead changed by one drachm of the philofopher'.s ftone, into a mafs of gold ccjual to the weight of 147 golden ducats, by General Otton Arnoldus Paykull, when in prifon in the year * DC arborc vit*. | Moncony's travels. Sec alfo in § 6. uadcr the name Ricblhaufca, i4o THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, year 1707; fame circumflanccs in it nrc men- tioned by Dr. U. UU-rne *, formerly the King's phylician, which, though different from any in the former accounts, do not altogether ex- clude fufpicion. There is no doubt, that Colonel Hamilton faw the preparation of the powder to be employed in giving the necef- 'iary colour, and that, -unknown to Pay k nil, he had made it from materials he purchafcd him- iclf, and which he was certain contained no £old ; but the colouring powder was thrown in by Paykull; and it does not appear that the crucible was ever carefully examined, in which gold might have been concealed in various ways, ik'lides, the very circumftance of the weight occafions doubts. For, fuppofing that the whole of the fix drachms of lead, and one of the co- louring powder was converted into gold, how are we to underftand, that the weight of the gold iliould exceed that of the materials in the cru- cible more than twenty times, without uflum- ing the power of the Almighty, who alone L equal to the talk of creation? Arnoldus of Vil- la Nova, at Rome, is reported to have tranfinu- ted iron into gold. The fame Ls faid of R. Lul- iius, who performed this change before King Edward at London, who ordered fome rofe- nobles to be coined from the metal. And we read of L. Thurnciferus exhibiting in 1587, be- fore * Su. Magaz. part i, p. 220. — 2:7. DUttING THE MIDDLE AGE. fore Ferdinand I. Grand Dukcof Tufcany; and of Cofmopolita, in the prefencc of the Duke of Saxony; and Sendivogius before the Emperor Rudolphus II. and fnnilar (lories of many o- then. Hut from all thefe various accounts, the truth is not rendered in the lead more obvious. Nay, by the difcovery of the fraudulent mea- fures of Thurneiferus, it is evident he took pains to conceid it. There is a report of a tranfmutation perform- ed in Pomcrania, before king Guftavus Adol- pluis, and that ducats ilamped with the ligns ot* mercury and copper \vcrc coined iVoin the gold produced by it *. Alfo, a (lory is told of u merchant of Lubec giving in a prcfent a hun- drcd pounds of chemical gold, to the fame king, from which ducats were made bearing the figna of mercury and fuiphur. One of thefe pieces of money, ilruck at Erfordia, in the year 1634, is ilill to be fecn in. the royal cabinet of medals; but no conclufion can be drawn from it, as we have other coin of Erfordia, called grofcben, with fimilar imprcffions. After the Saxons made peace with the emperor, the Erfordians were no longer permitted to coin money with the Swedifh armsf. Among ail the various inftanccs of tranfmu- tation fo warmly fupportcd by the believers in « alchcmillry * Borrichius dc ortu ct progrcfiu chemise, r.d hnem. •f Bcrchi Bcikiifn. om Suenfka myot ocl) Skadcp. p. i. M* THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, alchemiftry, the greater number are fallacious, manyuncertain ; and fomc are of fuch a nature, that, while the faith of hiilory is admitted, they cannot well be called in queftion. The harfh- eft fentence, therefore, that wer can pronounce upon them is, that the perfons who made the ex- periments may poflibly have been deceived themielves; and that, as the different fteps they took are not very clearly related, we ought to fufpend our judgement, until fuch time as we can have an opportunity of repenting the expe- riments under our own immediate obfervation. It mull be acknowledged, however, that more circumfpeclion will be necettary in the invefti- gation of a f abject of this kind, on which parti- cular phyiical opinions are eftablifhed, than of a fact on which every witnefs of common fenfe is able to give a determination *. S HI- Of * It is now almoft five ycais fincc the eye* of all the wcrlj were attracted by the experiments of Dr. James Price, F. R. S. of London, which fccincd to vcvive the fpirit of of alchc- millry, fo lon^ neglected by every genuine chemitl He produced a red and a white powder that he had prepared him- fclf; with which he boalted he couVJ convert mercury into gold or filver. And th.it he might prove the truth of hid afTer- tions he made fcven different experiments before a number of refpeftablc pcrfuns affcmhled for the purpofe. Sec, " Account 41 of fotne Experiments on Mercury, Silver, andGulJ, made at " Onilford, in May, 1782, in the Laboratory of James Price " M. D. F. R. S. Sec. Oxford, 1782. 410.'" Likewifcthe London Clironicle, i^th Oclobcr, 1782, an I "Crell's Ncucft«J •' Entdcckun^en in dcr Chemic, th. 8. 17^3. ^275." But 211 DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 143 § in. Of the Univerful Medicine. AGREEABLE to the plan of this work, the hiilory of an imiverfal medicine oftcrs itfclf next to our confideration: And from the great pati- ence and induflry with which the fludy of it h«is been proiecuted, equally with the making of gold, by many chernilts, it becomes a fubjcct more worthy to be inveftigated. Although as all the powder he had prepared was ronfumcd in thcfc c» , pcrimcntS) and as he declined making any more on account of the tedious and unwholcfome proccfs, the qiieftion remains yet to be decided. Probably, though in other rcipc&s a man ot leaining and Integrity, yet he was not proof again ft the inii- nuation* of vanity and the dcfirc of fame, through which lie was led to declare he had discovered the cryfopoictic art. Hi» unfortunate end in foinc mcafurc authorizes this conjecture. For when preffed on ail fides, by thedoubtsand interrogation* cf his adverfarie*, to renew hi< pQ\vder,and repeat his cxperimenti before men of flcill and fclencc, he fccms to have thought it ca* fitrto piit an end to his own exigence by laurel water, than to create gold for their fatitfa&ion. Crcll's Chcm. Ann. 1784. Kott cfthe Traijlator. Sir Kcnclm Digby at a meeting of the Royal Society, foca after its inilitution, produced a fmall piece of gold, which hr afiertedto have been made by the greatproc«f*oftranfmutatum; faying, " Gentleman, I afTure you I was formerly fo great an ** infidel that I could not have bclirvcd it, except I had fccn " the facl with mine own eyes." " Marry come up '(aid Sir " Tliomas Brown of Norwich) I am perfectly of Sir Kcnclm'* *• opinion ; nor will I give credit to tht making of goM, ur»;il ** I behold it wilh my own eyes." r44 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, Although from the remotcft period an opi- nion has obftinatcly prevailed, that a medicine endowed with the property o'f defending the body from dileafe, and rendering old age vigo- rous and chcarful, might certainly be difcover- ed; yet we do not find any of the celebrated phyficians make mention of fuch a wonderful medicine except Acluarius *, Of the virtue of the philofopher's itonc, and the preparations of gold in the cure of difeafcs, we have the firfl account from the Arabians. Geberus long ago faid, " Elixir rubeum omnes infirmitates chro- " nicas, cle quibus medici defperarunt, curat, 4i et facit homincm juvencfcere ut aquilum f ." And Morienus fays, u Lapis noiler perfechi me- 41 dicina eft, habens virtutem pnc omnibus me- 44 dicinis et potionibus, fanandi univcrlas infir- 44 mitates hominum J.M The ilory of Arthephi- us, who faid he had lived 1000 years, by means of an univerfal tincture, is known to every bo- dy. Roger Bacon propofed a iiinilar medi- cine to Pope Clement X. which he extolled highly, as the invention of Petro de Maharn- court. Afterwards authors frequently infertccl feveral things in tlicir writings ref peel ing this univerfal medicine; and of thefe Arnoldus de Villa Nova, R. Lullius, Joh. de Rupcfcifla, Ba- filius * Meth medendi. I. iv. c 6. •}• Summa Pcrfcctionis Magitlerii* ^ Jn Dialogo ciun Rcgc Calid, * DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 145 Tilius Vaientinus, and J. Hollandus, were the moft remarkable. . Hence aroie the abfurd and dangerous notion, that, all difeafcs could be cu- red by one medicine, health preferred without interruption, and old age protect cti from infir- mity unto the Jail hour of cxiilcnce. In thn manner, though the practice of medicine was icndcred exceedingly fimple, yet it was erro- neous and inconliilent with its true principles : For phyilcians neglecting the ncceflkry invcili- gation of laufcs, milled entirely to the gene- ral virtues of their fpcciiics, and rendered their art dependent uponchemiflry ; which Bocrhaavc lays, " Egregiu illiu:; ancilla eft, non alia pcjor " dominu." But of all thofe who were remark- able for fupporting this opinion, thc-moil extra- vagant were Theophraftiib Paracelfus, and Joh. JJ Helmont ; wlio not .futisficd with having by means of their remedies protiacled the term of life to a good old ngc, carried their folly fo far, as to infill it might be extended conlidcrably beyond the limits affigned by nature. They indeed performed feveral cures by their violent ..Micdicines. But neither could Paracclfus, with Iiis " Elixirum Proprictads," defend himfelf againll the king of terrors ; uur Hclmont, with his Alkahcft, difarm the fury of that fub- Uc fpirit, to which he attributed every difeafc : .For both dying before they were old men, af- ibrdcd a ftrong inilancc of the vanity of their K doctrine THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, dodlrine, and ineflicacy of tlieir practice. Sucfy then, were the chief opinions of authors on the fubject of an univerial medicine, which prevail- ed fo long, and with fuch extenflve influence; nor ceaied until the nature of difeafes, and the powers of remedies were better underftood. What it was that occafioned gold to be con- fidcrcd as an univerfal medicine is perhaps not fo eafy to determine. Probably it was indebt- ed for this character to the metaphorical lan- guage of the Arabians ; who, coniidering all the media they believed neceflary to the tranfmu- tation of the bafer metals into gold as medi- cines, diftinguifhed gold by the appellation of a ftrong and healthy man, while the other me- tals were in general defcribed as men labouring under difeafe and infirmity. The chemifls of the fucceeding age reading this language, would probably apply it literally to the human bpdy. And it is not unlikely, from the high opi- nion they entertained of the power and adlivity of the philofopher's (lone, and the moderate temperature of gold, with regard to heat and cold, that they conceived fomc hopes of its efficacy in difeafes of a very oppofite nature. The great virtues afcribed to the univerfal tincture, wore believed to arife from its agree- ment with thofe elementary and general prin- ciples on which the phenomena of life and death depended ; and, from its great purity, that * could DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 147 could not fuficr the prefcnce of any earthy, grofs, or unclean Jubilance in the human body ; but confuming them, as it were by a fecret and in- ienfible fire, difcharged them by the ordinary natural duds. They imagined, that it did not act: like other medicines, but fpread its influence chiefly on the natural heat and vital fpirits, preferred the radical moifture, averted every thing noxious from the heart, moiilencd the ar- teries, and purified the blood. Such were the wonderful qualities they attributed to their tine* turc, that they recommended it in all difeafes, ex- cept thofe that were conftitutional, coeval with our birth, or that required chirurgical afTiftance. There can be no doubt, therefore, that its fuc- ccfs was wholly imaginary. For let it be ad- mitted, that it had the power of effecting the tranfmutation of mctuls, furcly it will not fol- low, that it fliould polTeisthc fame influence on the human body. The immcnfe difference be- tween animated exigence and unorganifcd maf- fcs, mud convince us of the abfurdity of fuch an opinion. Amidft the numerous band of dif- enfes to which the human race is cxpofed, fume arife from obftnitfcd vifccra, from debility, from ;i defect in the nervous fyflcm, from redundcn- cy of bile or blood, or from various other caufes; and each, according to its peculiar character, requires a particular method of cure, and me- dicines very often exceedingly oppofitc. It is K a therefore 14* THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, therefore fufliciently obvious, a priori, that little faith can be given to the virtues of any one me- dicine, which is expected to fubdue inflanta- neoufly all dilbrders,t hough arifing from very dif- ferent caufes; and fo both to excite and reprcfs eva- cuations;— that is required to cure thole difeufes that fpring from a too rapid circulation of the blood, as well as others occafioned by a circu- lation too flow;— that is to reilore parts affect- ed with gangrene to their former health and vi- gour ; — and perform many other things equally as ftrange and contradictory. The want of pro- per experiments prevents our reafoning a po/le- rio/i. As to the various accounts of Artcphius, of the Hone of Butler, and of the furpriling cures performed by Polcmannus and Burrhus, they are fo vague, and repugnant to the general cha- racter of truth, that the ignorant and the cre- dulous only can Men to them. 5 iv. Of the cbitf Difcoveries in Cbcmiftry made during tbis Period. To throw fome light upon the progrefs of this fcience, we fliall now take notice of the various new preparations, of the inflruments employed, ciiid the different operations. In Salts the greatefl variety has been produ- ced. And to the acetous acid, which was for- * mcrly DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. merly the only one known, many other acids have been added. The method of extracting an acid from vitriol of iron is dcfcribcd by Baf. Valcntinus, \vlio calls it oleum vitrhli\ and Mill better by Dorna:us, who occasionally makes mention of oleum fulphuris per campanam. R. Lullius obtained an acid from nitre ; and B. Va- lcntinus, when about to difl.il the aquam nitri, as he calls it, put a triple proportion of the pulve- rifed fragments of unbaken earthen veflcls with the nitre into the retort, and half a proportion of water into the receiver. But Glauber was the firft who employed the flronger vitriolic acid for this purpofe ; and by means of which he pro- cured the acidum nitri finnans. With the fame agent he extraclcd the acidum muriaticumfu- mans from fca fait. B. Valentinus in diililling vitriol with common fait, obtained what he calls, aquafortis. Aqua rcgis, or as Valentinus chufes to name it, liquor ftkm fohcns, was prepared by Jlollandius, by diililling nitre with brine. And menftrua were generally called, aqua; "jalentcs> nut fortes ; and various fubitanccs were propofed as neceilary to their preparation. Beccher throws out fomc obfcure hints on the nature of the Sedative Salt, which combines like an acid with Borax. Lullius fpcaks of the didillation of Tartar. They appear to have been no lefs acquaint- ed with Alkaline Salts likewifc. Gcberus dc- K 3 icribe* I5o THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, fcribes the proccfs of rendering alkali of tartar cauflic by means of lime ; and Lullius men- tions its delumefcence. Ceberus takes fome notice alfo of the Salt of Soda. Lullius fpeaks of the production of Volatile Alkali. by putre- fadion ; and we find in Valentfnus the method of fcparating it from Sal Ammoniac, by the fix- ed alkalies. Molt of the neutral fairs were known to them. But they apprehended that the Alkali vf£. vitriohittun^ which they diftin- guiilied by various names, retained always fomr quality peculiar to the manner of its preparation. The direcl union of Alkali of Tartar and Vitri- olic acid is called by Crollius Tartarus vitriofa- tt/s, while the fame fait, obtained by precipita- tion with the Alkali of Tartar, from vitriolated Iron, he denominates Speclficum purgans Parc\- cclfl ; that procured by the detonation of Sul- phur and Nitre, is the Nitrumfixum of Schroedcr ; and what remains in the retort, after the diftilla- tion of Aquafortis, is the common Panacea //&/- Jlitica, the slrcanum duplicatum of Schroeder, and the NitriiinvitriGlatum of Rolfirtckius. The word Nitre, which formerly fignified the mine- ral Alkali, was in this period applied to the At- kali vcg. nitratum, and it Hills retains this figni- fication. The sllkali vcjf. falitum, which Jac. Sylvius, called Sal digc/livm, was alfo in their lilt of neutral falts. Vitriolated mineral Alkali received from its inventor, Glauber, tha name of DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. i$t of Sal miralrilc Glauber i. Of the Alkali min. nitratum there is no account, and the brine mentioned by Pliny was properly common Salt. Borax is mentioned by Gcber. The vi- triolatcd volatile Alkali, invented by Glauber, was called Sal fccrctus. Of the Alkali vciat. nitratum they fcem to have had no knowledge, though Sal Ammoniac was difcovcrcd long be- fore the beginning of our period. The Alkali I'cg. acetatum is celebrated for its many virtues by Pliny, though it was afterwards Hill more extolled by Mullcr, under the name of Terra foliata fecretijjima. Crollius makes mention of the Salt of Amber, and Bartholetus of the Su- gar of Milk. The Sal Scignctti was prepared at Rochelle very near fifty years before its compo- fition was generally known. Among the middle falts, with bafes of earth, they were acquainted with few except Alum, although they diilblved corals and pearls in the muriatic or acetous acid. Hollandus gave the name of Sal air.mon. Jixut to muriatic chalk. Moil of the metallic falts were known and ex- amined in this period. The combination of iilver and the nitrous acid, under the name of Magijlcrlnm Argcnti, vcl Chryftalli Diana ; and the fame fait rendered cauftic, by being melted in the fire, and called Lapis infernally are dc- fcribed by Angelo Sala. Crollius gave the ap- pellation of Luna cornua to filver and the mu- riatic acid. Mcrcurius fublimatut conofivits is K 4 mentioned i$2 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, mentioned by Avicenna and Rhazis; and curius dulcis by Crollius. B. Valentinus hints obfcurcly at the Mercurius pracipitatus ruber, to which Crollius gives the name Arcanum Co* raUliutm Paracfljl. Crollhis defcribes the .SW Jovh a lfot a Salt of tin and acetous acid. In B. Valentinus \ve find an account of the Salt oi* Lead In chrylYuls, being a combination of lead and acetous acid, and which he names Siiccba- rwn Saturn!. lie likcwifc makes mention of the Butter or* Antimony. The white Precipi- tate obtained from antimony by water, h the Mcrcurlum l''iirt of Puracelius, and the Puhis' iittgettcits of Algaroth. The fume Butter of Antimony, dephlo^ifticated by means ot the ni- trous acid, gives a powder which CrolUus cal- led slntiiH'jnhim diapbomiann, and Begninus jRezwirdicum mineral?. 7'armntm emeticum v. as i}rii ufed by Mynllcht. J>. Valcptiims and i'aracelfus obferved, that Sal Ammoniac com- bincd with metallic fubflanccs, and fublimed, produced flowers containing metals. Of the Vitriols, the principles of the blue were known to Galcnus, thoie of the green to B; Valenti- nus ; and the white alfo, though its compofition was not well underflood, yet was certainly made in this period. Of the earths very little was known, and' even that liitlc was unfupported by the princi- ples of cheniiflry. They difcovcred, however, DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 15.3, th.it it was ncccffary to burn calcareous carthr before it could be employed in making mortar. In the Pharmacopoeia of Schroeder we meet with, ' Cnl\ viva and Lixivium Culcis, commonly cal- led Lime-water. Clay was iliflinguifhed from fand, bur not according to its genuine cha- racter ; and various kinds of Hones were defin- ed in the fame fuperficial manner. Fine and coloured earths were iludioufly fought for the purpyfes of medicine ; and that the genuine, might not be confounded with the fpurious, they were inclofcd on the fpot that produced tliem, and fcalcd by the governor or chief ma- gin rate; from whom they palled into the fnops of the apothecaries. Among the phlogillic bodies, they were ac- quainted with Sulphur and its Flowers; and L. Valentinus mentions a iblution of it in iixcd al- kali, and Bcguiiuis dcfcribes it as diflblvcd in volatile alkali. Vigcncrus fufpccled that it was compofcd of phlogifton and vitriolic acid. Kf- fcntiul oils were very early di/Hllcd, as well as. philofophic and cmpyrcumatic, from undluous fublhinccs, but with a flrongcr fire. Beccher difcovcred the vitriolic acid dulcified with fpi- rits of wine. B. Valentinus mentions the Vi- triolic and Nitrous ^Ethers but very (lightly. Crollius however has tranfmitted very diflindly tbe art of preparing the former. The analyfis of Soot was attempted by Vigcneru-*. Of thclc v.*ho ' 154 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, who give any dcfcription of Spirit of wine, the principal arc TImddicm, Villunovanu*, and Lul- lius, who calls the ftrongeft, sllcabol; and (hews how it may be freed entirely from water, by means of fixed alkali; which B. Vale minus af- firms is done more cilcdually by lime. The fait known under the name of Oj/li Helmontii, and which was long fince defcribed by Lullius, is nothing elfe tlum the aerated volatile alkali. Fr. Sylvius prepared the fame under the name of sllkaH Qleofwn. All the metals pofleiTing maleability, except Platina, were known before this period; but the brittle were yet undifcovercd. G. Agricola is the firil who mentions IJiiinuth. As to white Arfcnic, it is tlillicult to fuy when it was fnfl reduced to a regulus. Schroeder defcribes the procefs of reduction, in his Pharmacopoeia of 1649. — In the former edition of this buok it is not to be found. Albertus Magnus fpcaks of 7,i nc, by the name of Marcajita aurea. G. Fa- bricius reckons Stibium, or Antimony, in the number of metals ; but B. Valentinus had long before related the method of -extracting the re- gulus from the crude ore, and compared it af- terwards with lead. Whether more of the femi- metals than thefe four were difcovered during this period, is a queflion yet to be determined. Thofe metals that are calcinable by fire, even Mercury, were very early mentioned by Goberus. DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. r$; Gcbcrus. Hclikcwifc gives an account of facti- tious Cinnabar; and B. Valcntinus makes men- tion of the Cinnabar of Antimony. Under the name of Pitlvis albus Antimonii, and Vitrunt /Intiinonii, Valcntinus dcfcribes the detonation of Antimony with Nitre. The calcination, fublimation, fufion, digcllion, folution, precipi- tation, and amalgam of metallic fubftances, af- forded a great variety of preparations, chiefly calculated for medical ufc. Bcfuies thofc al- ready defcribed, fuch arc the Pur pur a miner alit, durum fulminant, Fhrcs So/is, slurum fotabilt, Luna potdbilis, Turpetbum mincralc, Mcrcunut prtrcipitatus albus, lutcus, incarnatus, Coralttnus corallatus, liridis, Arcunum CoruUinum, minium, Litbargyrium, Colcvibar, Crocus Martis, Lilium Paracclji, Crocus Metalhrum, slntimonium dia~ pboreticum, Ceniffa slntirnonii, and many others, as magiftcrics, flowers, oily, and tinctures, though not equally of all metals. With regard to waters and aeriform fubftan- ccs, their peculiar properties and different cha- radcrs, very little, if any thing, feems to have been determined during thi's period. It was not, however pofliblc to avoid obfcrving the fub- tlc claftic air produced by cffcn?efcence, fermen- tation, and combuftion. They gave it the name ofSpiritufJytvc/lrif,aT\d it was confidercd byPa- Eaccirusandhiscotcmporaricstobccxadlylimilar to rcfpirablc air. Helmontius probably was the firft, who thought this fubftancc worthy of more minute 156 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, minute attention, and called it Gas, or Gas fy^ vejlre. In his account of it he lays, it could neither be lluit up in vettels, nor diicerned by eyes, but that it was fixed in bodies, and as it were coagulated. He imagines, that in this air, \vhich is very different from utmofphere air, lie* the caufe of all thefe phenomena that are ob- fervedin the Grotta del Cane, in fermentation, t'ilerveieence, exploilon, and epidemic difeules. It had been long known that the weight of me- tals increaied by calcination ; but Key was the firft, who ventured to account for this change by the abibrption of air. The number and variety of furnaces, inflru- ments, veflcls, and modes of operating, of this pe- riod are altogether iurprifing. Luliius mentions the Athanor as being long in ufe. Geberus de- icribes particularly various diftillations. Agri- cola was acquainted with the crucibles of Ypfen- iia, and veflels oi Waldenburgh. Aludcls a lip were employed, and apparatus of feveral kinds for the purpofe of continued digeitions, cohoba- lions, circulations, volatilisations, cementati- ons, fublimations, and reverberations, were contrived. From this view, by no means very minute, that we have taken of the progrefs of chcmif- try during anieraof obfcurity, we may, by com- paring it with that formerly prefented of timer: DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 157 more remote, have a very .diftind idea of the in- creafe of chemical knowledge within a period of a thoufand years ; and obfervc it to be fully c- qual to any expectation that could be formed. But our ellimation of its importance is confide- rably diminifhcd, when we turn our attention to the improvements and difcovcrics of the lad ten years, in which chemillry, puriuing a fub- limer path, has not only foarcd into regions of iuviiihlc aerial fubflanccs, but has dared, with a perfcvcrinrr fy'mt, to explore the nature of thcfe fubflances, and fearch into their conftitu- cnt principles. Such, however is the conilitu- tion of tilings, that in order to attain the fum- :nit, it is ncccflary to afcend the fide of the hill by flow and flcady paces ; and the progrefs of fcience, however great and attorn/king, claims no exemption from this general law. In the dawn and infancy of chemillry our experiments are too rude, and attempts too feeble, to afford any certain conclufions ; but in proportion as they arc often and diligently repeated, and va- ried when ncccflary, our flrcngth incrcafcs, and truths arc unccafmgly evolved, But very fre- quent and accurate trials are required to cfta- blifli the purity and perfpicuity of genuine fci- encc. The more truths, therefore, that arc collected, the more readily and happily will o- thc-rs be difcovcrcd. But in the period now be- fore I53 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, ficc. fore us, the progrefs of chemiftry was much in- debted to two fuch powerful (limuli, as the de. lire of wealth and of long life ; by which it was enabled to remove all the obftacles that igno- rance and fuperflition could oppofe, and attain to that height at which we have now beheld it, THE THE A N A L Y S I S OF LITHOMARGE. igitur not corfrribitt circum undiquc fepti i* dtcut ac for mam t txttrnutnquf nltoremt Jlfiramur tantumt fummofjue in certtct rerum LuA'imm f Intcrnam cur non penetramut in *dcm Natur*, atquf adyt'u immitti pofcimut tftfit ? ANTI-LUCRETIUS. §. i. The general Cbarattcr of Lithomargc. JL HE celebrated A. F. Crondftcdt, in his Mi- neralogy tdiftinguifhes among argillaceous earths, a particular kind under the name of Litbomarge^ to which he afcribes the following characters * : j/?f When dry its furfacc is flippcry and fmooth like hard foap. 'idly, On being thrown in fmall portions fucceffively into water, it feparates in a few 160 ANALYSIS OF LITHOMAIIGE. few feconds into little bits not unlike curdled cheefe, or coagulated fubftances ; but it is not fo minutdy (Jivided as to become plaftjc. $dlyt Jt is eafily reducible by fire into u white or red,, dilh flag, which, by frothing up, is conlideiably encreafed in bulk. *tbly. Its fractures are ir- regularly concave or convex. JZe Cefcribcs -three varitties only, the Cl- mundic, the Tartarian, and the Lcmnian ; but according to thefe criteria, lie fhould have ad- ded that from Hampihhe, which is a genuine fuller's earth. This however ho never law, as the exportation of it is prohibited ; and, truft- ing entirely to the defcription of others, he has ranked it in general amonjj the ubilergents. Specimens , of all thcie, except the Tartarian, are in the collection of minerals at the academy of Upfal ; and it is their compofition and proper- ties that we arc now going to explain, in order to determine wtcrherthcy conflitute more than one fpecies of argillaceous earth, hi our exa- mination of fuller's earth we have bellowed par- ticular attention; as, from its great ufe in the preparation of woollen cloth, it is of importance to uiulcrdund it thoroughly, that, whenever it is wanted, the proper kind may be readily dillin- guiflicd. ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. i6< §n. Of the Lcm n la n Ea rth. FROM the ifland of Lcmnos in the Egcan Tea, \vhcrcthiscarth was firft difcovercd, it has ob- tained its name ; and which, though the ifland is now called Stalimcnc, it Hill retains. It was called Sigi/fum Cnpritium (rr^y/f «»>of) ; for when taken out from the ground, the pricfls of Ve- nus, in the time of Diolcorides, ufcd to mix it with the blood of a goat, and moulding it into fcvcral pieces, ftamped upon each the figure of that animal. Thefe rites were abolifhcd while Galen lived ; but others equally abfurd and ri- diculous fuccccdcd to them. When Bdlonius vifitcd the illand, it was the praclicc to open the vein annually on the 6th of Auguft; and, after prayers faid by the priciii, as much of the earth was taken out as was thought fuflicicnt for the enfuing year: The entrance to the vein was then clofed, and the inhabitants threaten- ed with the hcavicft punifhmcnts, if they mould venture to open it. The greateft part of the earth obtained in this manner was fent to Con- flantinople to receive the feal of the Emperor; and from this circumftancc it has often been named Terra Turcica. The remainder was fold by the governor of the illand, cither in its rude ftarc, or ilamped with his feal. From tbc time of Homer and Hcfiod this earth was held in fuch L eftinvatiun, i(5j ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. eftimation, that it was never dug up without great parade of religious ceremonies: And they .'dlert, that whether ufed internally or external- ly, it was a medicine endowed with nlexiphar- mic, diaphoretic, detedive, and healing vir- tues *. As to its outward appearance, it is dillinguifli- ed by its colour more or lefs refembling clay : for as yet we have not feen any of a flefh colour. The furl ace of it is ihiooth and fhining, fomc- fhing like agate, and efpccially in recent frac- tures, which arc alme'ft always concave ajul convex. When applied to the lip it adheres clofely. The form of its mallls is rude and fliapclcfs, rather angular, but not regularly de- termined. The fmall particles, of which it is compofed are fo very fubtle and minute, that they efcape both the touch and the Ji^ht. It is of fuch a texture as to be. fc raped with the nail ; has an earthy inicll, but no talle ; and feels between the teetli like tallow, and a little filiceous. Old liilures often become black. This is the defcription of the common kind not fcaled, fuch as is found in the (hops, and which we have examined by the following experi- ments. When a lump of this earth is thrown into •water, it divides fpontaneoufly into feveral pieces, and with fome degree of a cracking noiiV. * * Ceoffrwi Traitc dc h Mal-erc Mcd ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. iCj rioife. Thcfc pieces fepanitc again into others Hill fmaller, but the diviilon does not go fo far as to render the particles impalpable, for the/ remain always viiiblc and fcnfiblc to the touch. This earth, when pulvcrifcd and boiled in iix- teen times its weight of water, for half an hour, the mixture paries calily through a doubled flicet of filtering paper, almoil perfectly clear, except u fmall degree of whitenefs communi- cated by the fufpended argillaceous particles. This liquor neither reddens paper that is dipped in the tinchirc of turnfolc, or dcftroys the red colour it may have acquired; from which it has neither the property of an acid, or an alkali. The nitrous folutipn of filver poured into it oc- cafions little white clouds, which afterwards, on being cxpofed to the light, turn quite black. The nitrous folution of quickfilver produces al- nioft immediately fmall white particles; and the terra ponderofa, diflblved in muriatic acid, does not aftcci it in any manner. On rubbing this earth between the hands in water, it generates no froth like fo;»p, but it re- moves impurities, though not fo readily as the o- ihcr kinds. Pulverized Lcmnian earth, cxpofed in a glafs veffel to the fire, gradually raifed to a red heat, emits aqueous vapours, and a grateful aromatic odour. Papers, qualified for reagents, cither dyed red with Braiil wood, or blue with thr b 2 turn foil? i64 ANALYSIS OF L1TITOMARG2. turnfole, arc a little aftefled by thefc vapours? tlie firll becoming ycllowilh, the other inclin- ing to reel ; thus indicating the prefence of a very weak acid. While the fund that iurrounds the vcilel approaches to a red heat, the powder within uiTunics a black colour ; but as the firt* vncreafcs, thi> oblVwity gives way, and the. ori- ginal colour returns. From this appearance of black, and itsfubfequent deltrudion by the lire, it might- be fuppolcd, that ionic oily fubftanco was contained in the powder, which being firlt reduced to a coal, was again confumed by a greater heat. After tho opcrat ion was finiihed, and the powder cooled, it was found to have loft 17 per cent, of its weight. A fmall piece of this earth placed upon char- coal, and expofed to the ilume of a blow-pipe, does not decrepitate, but turns black, melt J with ebullition, and is converted into a dark frothy cinder. Willi the microcofmic fait, it dcfolves partially at lirlt, and with eflfcrvefce nee; but afterwards, the remainder is fcarcely dimin- illied. Borax acts moil etleftually upon there- iiduum, but it is fome time before the whole is confumed. The fait of foda occufit-ns a conli- derable eilervefcence with noile. Henco, then, it would appear to contain a portion of aerated earth, 'though the greatefl part of it i* filiceous. The little glais globules are tinged in the (liglit- cil degree with a colouring of iron. > When ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMAUCE. 165 When cxpofed to tlie action of acids, no cf- fervefcence is produced. The powder, indeed, excites a degree of motion in the mixture ; but not greater than when water is poured upon it, throwing out a few air bubbles. . In order to be well acquainted with the prox- imate principles of this earth, it is ncceilary to learn by a few judicious experiments, what, and how many they are *. After this difcovery the next llep is, to purfuc the proper method for determining their fcparatc quantities. In the prdent cafe, we have judged the following mode of analyfis the moil convenient. — A centenary, or a hundred docimallic pounds of the earth, be- ing reduced to powder, and inferted in a fmall glafs cucurbit, with twice the weight of highly concentrated vitriolic acid ; an alembic with a receiver was adapted, andclofely luted, and the whole apparatus placed in a land bath. By a gentle heat an acid vapour was firil expelled ; which being examined, was found to contain muriatic acid, that had doubtiefs arifen from decomposed lea fult. A greater degree of heat brought over no ammoniacal ilowcrs. The fu- L 3 perlluous * If a fma!I quantity only of calcareous earth is prcfcnt, it will ho in vain to expect a precipitation by the tartarizccl vege- table alkali. The water* of Uplul, in which thcleailgrain of the cryllalhzcd acid of fugar occafions white clouds and ilrcaks, in a fc;v fccon if, arc not in the fmalleit decree affected by the tar- larizcd vc;j. alkali, though a hundred times their weight ; but remain perfectly clear without any dcpofition. ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. perfluous acid being poured off, and the refidu- um throughly wafhed in diftilled water, and af- terwards dried, it weighed 47 pounds; one fourth of which was u fine white iiliccous powder, and the reil, a powder rather courier, and of a co- lour inclining to purple. The colour was poili- b!y obtained from the muriatic acid, and owing lo a portion of iron. That the folution, containing argillaceous c;uth, calcined iron, magneiia, and chalk, re- quired an excefs of acid, is evident from the few former experiments. But that thcfe fubltances might bci procured fcparate, and their weight afcertained, the fo- lution was divided into two equal parts. The firft was employed for the inveiligation of the chalk and magneiia, the other icterved to exa- mine the argillaceous and ferruginous matter. The firfl being made very warm, was gradu- ally faturatcd with aerated chalk, with fuch prcciiion, that neither too much nor too little of the precipitant was ufed; fo that the argillace- ous earth and the iron only being alVecled by it, the whole of the magncfia, which burnt lime, not aerated chalk, precipitates, might remain un- diiturbed. The fcdimtnt was then collected in- to a nitre, and was wafhed with warm water, until all the gypfum was diflolved. The iolu- tion being evaporated to dryncfs, difcovered yjtriolated chalk and mugnclia, which were fe- ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. 167 paratcd from each other by a little warm water. ]>ut as it was fcarcc pofliblc to prevent fomc of the gypfum alfo from being taken up, another evaporation and folution became nccettary to get rid of" it entirely. In this experiment, the iolution of vitriolatcd magnolia, when precipi- tated by aerated fixed alkali, gave 3.1 ; and that of vitriolatcd chalk, by the fame medium, 2.7 ; the weight of the aerated chalk employed as a precipitant being fubt rafted. Twice the amount of thele fums indicates the quantity of each con- tained in a hundred weight. J5ut it mull be ob- fcrvcd, that the liquors remaining after the pre- cipitations made by aerated alkali, hold a por- tion of the fedimcnt in folution, by means of the aerial acid; but this may be recovered from them by boiling them during a quarter of an hour *. It is ncceilary, however, to add this L 4 to * Tli.it argillaceous earth may be diflolvcd by the acri.il a- cid, ii affinal in the til vol. of thde Kfl'iys. BiU a certain proportion of phlogifton mi^ht perhaps aflV.l the folution licre, in the fann* manner it dots when the calces of fome metals arc lo he difl'iilvcd. 'i'in ought LobcdephlogiAicatcd to a certain point, l)ffore the aeid mcnflruacan aC\ uj)on it ; hut if it is too much dcpritcd of its pldogirton, tlie acids lufe all their power, i'hloginon therefore affilU tlte folation, but doej not direcAly. creation it *, nnlcfs we chufe to a ffccl novelty of cxprcfTion. Rut if any one thinks otherwjfe, let him defcrihc t!»c method hv which argillaceous earth c ui be difTolrcd in water with ' O j)!ilo^il\on only. When argillaceous earth is roaflcd in the Tire, in give* out a quantity of aerial acid. i ft ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. to the precipitate, to afccrtain the true weight of it *. To examine the other half of the folution, the phlogifticated alkali was employed ; and from it was obtained 12 Ib. of blue icdimcnt, con- taining 2 of iron in its metallic Hate, and 2.7 of the calx of that metal. In a hundred weight therefore, there is 5.4 Ib. of ferruginous matter, befidcs that portion to which the liliccous earth owes its colour. The liquor being puffed through a filtre, con- tained argillaceous earth, magneiia, and chalk, all combined with the vitriolic acid; but we were now inquiring after the firil only. To the folution, then, reduced to the bulk of fix cubic inches, and heated to 90 degrees of the Swedilli thermometer, was added gradually as much ae- rated magnefia as would be fuilicient to dcilroy entirely the excels of acid, fo that the paper flained with the turnfolc gav^ no lign of any remaining unfaturatcd. In order that the quan- tity of nujgnt fia JLould not exceed the proper li- mits, every bit thrown in was fullered to diilulvc bcfore more was added. The futuration being then compleated, the liquor was boiled for half an * Calcareous earth is precipitated by the faccharatcd fxcil vcg. alkiili. As laccharatcd ma^nefia remains tlillulvtii it; an excefb of acid with pure argillaceous earth; it ib therefore to be m.'ulc perfectly dry by rutlAtiig ; and in 01 Jcr t«-» Jcilrov the *cM cf fj^ur, mull Lc bur:il in A ilron^ lire. ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. 169 jn hour, and the fediment collected proved to be the argillaceous earth, exactly faturatcd with vitriolic acid. Alum, it is. well known, requires an cxccfs of acid ; without which it lofes its fo- lubility with its other properties. Of this excefs it may be deprived in various ways, and the ar- gillaceous earth precipitated, cxaclly faturated, but iafol.ublc *. If tlic fedimcnt is fufliciently digcRcd * Tlic cxccfi of aud in alum may he dellroycd by alkali, iinu1, magncfia, pure argillaceous earth, iron, or /inc. la the lii'll volume of thcfc lilf.iys, pn;^e 334, aerated chalk j* employed to fcparatc alum from vitriolattd ma^ccfia ; and this medium never fails unlcfs its fucccfs is purpofely obfiatcd. If any one, with an intention to miflead, fhould dilute llic folution too imch, and ufe largo pieces of the chalk inllead of its powder, lie will certainly be difappointed in his ddign, for fcurce any fenfiblc eflecl will be produced. Too gnat a quan- lity of w.itcr removes the particle? of alum fo far from any contjifi with the chalk, that no dccompofition can lake place. I>etiiicM the pieces employed pufcnl a much fmullcr furfacc than when they are reduced to powder. Whoever h really bent on [jiviii;^ a fallacious appearance to this experiment, will not confider the remarks made here as worthy his atten- tion. But fhouM any one be defirous of certain conviction, let him mix a known weight of r.lum and vitriolatcd ma^ncfia, ;*nd diifviiVC them in as much tepid water as is neeeiTary, and add aftcnvards gradually fmall portions of powdered chalk un- til fueli time as the folution ccafcs to redden the tindure of turnfolc. If the cfied ia required very foon, cxpofe the fo- lulion to a iUong digcftin^j heat, othcrwife a lef^ decree of temperature will be fuificient. The acid bcin<; thus dell roved, pafa tiie li«jtjor through a filtre, and wafli the inaf* with pmc water ; evaporate the whole of the liquor that paflcd through tin- filt re to i!r-ncf», aud the rcfult will be the true weight of vitfiolatcd i-o ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. cligeftcd in a folution of aerated alkali, pure ar- gillaceous earth is obtained ; and which, in the cafe before us, being waflied and dried, weigh- ed 10.5 ; therefore equal to 21 Ib. in a hundred weight. This method of determining the quantity of argillaceous earth, is equally accurate and con- venient. And, when a hundred weight of pure cryilaline alum, diilblved in lixteen time* it> weight of dillilled water, and deprived, in a tem- perature of 90 degrees, of the excefs of acid, by means of aerated magncfia, depofits 36 Ib. of argillaceous earth cxadlly faturatcd with the vi- triolic acid, by calling the given weight of the precipitate a, the quantity of the earth will 18. ico a a be found s= = — . After the point of 36.100 2 faturation is attained, the folution mufl be eva- porated to a third of its bulk before the ledi- mont is collected on the filrre. The precipita- tion may be cfiecled like wife by fmali phtes of v.inc, extended very thin under the hammer. The folution of alum, though ilowly evaporat- ed, depofits no fcdimcnt until reduced to near- ly an eighth part; but if the water carried of}' in vapour vitriolatcd magnefu without any admixture of alum, aiul a fmUl quantity only of gypfuin that had remained undifiolvcd ;n the water of the folution. If the experiment is properly inilitutcd in this manner, he will not be in the Icait influenced by any opinions that may be advanced to the contrary. ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. 171 vapour is replaced by an equal quantity, the whole folution immediately becomes turbid, and the argillaceous earth exactly faturated, falls to the bottom. This procefs, however, is liable to objection : For as the vitriolatcd zinc alfo re- quires an exccfs of acid, the proper criterion for regulating the operation is yet to be afccrtain- cd. From what then has been faid, we may con- clude, that a centenary of Lcmnian earth con- tains 47 parts of filiceous earth, 5.4 of aerated calcareous earth, 6.2 of aerated magncfia, 10 of argillaceous earth, 5.4 of calcined iron, and 17 of a moill volatile fubltancc. The fum of the experiments taken fcparatcly, amounts to 102 ; but this fmall excels is owing to the diffi- culty of rendering the argillaceous earth pcr- dr. 5 in. Of tbc Ofmundlc Earth, Tins earth is the produce of Mount Oihuind, in the parilh of Rattvik, in £ail Dalecarlia, where it forms a flratum of three feet thick. The rock of the mountain is calcareous, hard, and interfered with ftrata of argillaceous mat- ter and fchiilus. Petroleum is found in fcvcral places of it, but efpecially in the fchiftus. But a more particular dcfcription and delineation of the 17* ANALYSIS OF L1THOMARCE the mountain will be fcen in the Tr an fusions of the Stockholm Academy *. The colour of the earth is more or left com- pletely cineiitiuus ; its furface tomcuhut lough, ami feds usifgreaied, It is pompofcd of incgulat particles. Though it appears llratilied,yet it can- not be fcparatcd into regular lame-Ike, but breaks always into large pieces with acute angles, refcm- bling almoil the concave and convex fractures of filiceous fubilanccs. It cxcclls in liardnefs the Lemnian earth. When a fulid piece of it is ap- plied to the lip, it adheres very llrongly. Old fillurcs in it are covered with a yellow ochre. It has an earthy fmell ; no tafte ; but feels bu- twcen the teeth more filiceous than the Lem- nian earth. When immerfed in water, it feparates in the 1:1 me manner as the Lemnian earth, but rather into fmaller particles. JJeing moiltened and rubbed between the hands, it creates no froth, but it is notwhhiiandiug detergent* When pulverifed, and boiled for half an hour in dillilled water, it paillrs perfeclly clear through a double filtre, ajid docs not allecl the papers employed as reagents. 'J'he nitrous fo- ]ution of iilver occafions a fmall precipitation, ^vhicli blackens by expofure to the light of the Am. if -• D. Tibs in Adis Stockh. 1739. ta^- *- • ', ANALYSIS OF LlTIIOMARGE. 173 If expofed in powder to the fire raifcd gradu- ally to a white heat, it emits aqueous vapours, and an cmpyreumatic odour. The papers of re- action indicate the prcfence of an acid. Juil before igniiion the mafs' becomes of a black co- lour, but afterwards this colour difappcars. When cooled, the centenary is found to have loft I 3 pounds. A fmall piece placed on a coal, and receiving the ilame of the blow-pipe, decrepitates, turns black, and melts with ebullition, leaving a white frothy Hug. With the microcofmic fait, it ex- hibits the fame phrenomena as the Lcinniau earth ; but a grain of it thrown into a folution ofth'j fait becomes white. It cficrvcfccs lefs with the fait of foda. We purfued the fame method of analyfis as \vith the Lcmnian earth. From the fmall ex- periments, indeed, a trillling quantity only of jra^nelia was difcovered; but, that itr, pro- portion might be more accurately afccrtained, we examined half of the folution with the pow- der of chalk, and the refill t was not more than a quarter of a pound of magnelia. Collecting all thcfe circumftanccs then toge- ther, it appears, that a centenary ofOfmundic earth contains about 60 parts of white filiccous powder, 5.7 of calcareous earth, 0.5 of magne- lia, i J.I of argillaceous earth, 4.7 of calcined iron, and i3 of a nioiil volatile matter. The 174 ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. The experiments taken fcparately gave 14.1 of argillaceous, and 5.7 of calcareous earth; but this excefs of 3.8 feems to arife chiefly from the imperfect drying of thefc fubftunces. S iv. Of tie Hampjbirc Earth. THIS earth is a native of the county of Hump- fliire in England ; but, as the exportation of it is prohibited, it cannot be procured in larger quantities than are required for inineralogical collections. Fullers huve long ufed it in their trade, although in feveral manufactories in Eng- land, the proccfg of fulling cloths is carried on by treading them under feet with the dung of f\vinc and warmed human urine. The colour of the Hamplhire earth is dark, a little inclined to green, and faintly marked with yellowish veins. Jn Jubilance it is opaque, and appears in foine degree fl ratified, although it does not feparate in llrata. As to hardnefs, it is not e- qual to thofe already defcribed. Its particles arc without fhape, but capable of being poiifh- cd by the nail. Its fractures are rather rough, with dark pointed eminencies. It has an earthy fincil, but no tulle ; adheres to the lip; and be- 'tween the teeth feels a little filiceous. When immeried in water, it falls to pieces like the other earth. Rubbing it in water pro- duces ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. 17$ (luces no froth ; but it is exceedingly detergent* Being pulverifed, and boiled for half an hour in dillillcd water, ir will pafs through a filtre of fevcral folds, ilill turbid, with many fubtle par- ticles floating in it, that diminifh its tranfparcn- cv. If to this water a few drops of the fulution of muriated terra ponderofa be added, no pre- cipitation is obferved ; from which it may be in- ferred to contain neither vitriolic acid, gypfum, or i:ny fait combined with that acid. But if the nitrous folution of filvcr be poured into it, a milky fedimcnt foon makes its appearance, which, on being expoied to the rays of the fun, immedi- ately becomes black; an undoubted proof of the prcfence of the muriatic acid. If fubjedcd, in its pulverifed flate, to a fire gradually raifed to a white hcat.it becomes black juft before ignition, but afterwards refumes its natural appearance as the fire increafes. While in this fituation, it emits aqueous vapours, a lit- tle acid. On being cooled, it is found to be 15 J Ib. in the centenary lighter than before. A final! bit expofcd to the flame. of the blow- pipe, on a piece of coal, decrepitates, but not in fo great a degree a^ the Ofmundic cartli ; it turns black, and melts with ebullition into a dark coloured fpongy inafs. With borax, mi- crocofmic fait, and mineral alkali, it exhibits the fame character as the Lemnian earth. Its analyiis was obtained in the fame way as thai i76 ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. that of the two former earths ; and, in a cente- nary of it was found 51.8 of a filiceous powder, tinged yellow with iron ; 3.3 of calcareous earth; 0.7 of magncfia ; 25 of argillaceous earth ; 3.7 of calcined iron, and 15! of moift volatile mat- ter. An excefs of one pound only we attributed to the argillaceous earth. By a volatile matter is undcrftood here, as well as in the preceding experiments, not only the dcftrucYton of an oily Jubilance, but alfo the expuUiori of the muriatic acid from its bale, by means of the vitriolic. What this bafe may be is not eafy to determine with fuch fmall quanti- ties; but certainly traces of fea fait appear, how- ever faint, in fomc of the varieties examined by boiling in water, and filtration. We difcovered no fal ammoniac. Perhaps, indeed, it would be neccflary to employ larger malles of earth to procure a more perfect fublimation than has been yet attained. § v. Corollary. FROM a comparifon of the foregoing defcrip- ttons and anulylis the following concluiions may be drawn : That, as to the external cbaraftcr, the varie- ties examined are fo perfectly fimilar, that they differ in degree only. The greatcfl difparjty ob- vious ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. 177 vious to the fenfes, is in the colour, and fmooth iliining furfucc of the Lcmnian earth. Tiic fame obfervation may be made on their properties, cither in fire or water. With regard to their competition, the differ- ence in that rcfpccl ulfo is milling. They have all the fame proximate principle*;, and va- ry in nothing but the proportions of them. But that \ve may prefent a clearer view of their fe- vcral qualities and relations, we have drawn up the following table in which the weights of each principle are cxprcffed, in hundred parts, under the head of its particular earth. TABLE. A Centenary J Lcmnian Ofmundic Hampfhirt contains of 3 carth- carth* earth- Siliceous Powder 47.0 <5o.o 51.8 Aerated Lime • 5.4 5.7 3.3 Aerated Magncfia 6.2 0.5 0.7 Argillaceous Earth 19.0 xi.i 25.0 Calcined Iron 5.4 4-7 3-7 Moid voiat. matter 17.0 18.0 15.5 In the natural fyflcm therefore, ofCronftedt, the Hthomargaj are ranked as a particular diilindl fpccies of clay ; although the proportion of mag- nefia in two varieties in exceedingly fmall. But M this i78 ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE* this name of Lithomargae docs not feem to be art important diflinclion. The character of this fpecies bears a (Irong refemblance to the zeolite ; nor do they diller in compolition, except in the Jmall portion of magncfia which the zeolite wants. There is fome analogy between it and marles alfo. But in the lithomarge the combination of the different principles is not merely mechanical, as in the marie, which eftervefces more readily with acids, although it contain lefs calcareous and magnefutn earth than the lithomarge now under coniiderution. Notwithllanding, in the varieties examined, the great eft proportion of argillaceous earth does not equal a fourth part of their weight, and that the filiccous earth generally exceeds the half; yet neither Cronlledt, nor any other mineralogill, have thought proper to refer them underthe head liliceous; and for the very bell reafon; as fuch is the inteniity and prevailing quality of clay, that though it were ihll in a much lefs proper- tion, it would yet determine the charader of the whole mafs. As the clay of Hampfhire is muchufed in the trade of fullers, we may learn from this analylis- what are the properties it is required to pofleft. In the operation of fulling, twothingschiefly are necefiary ; firfl, the witfningaway all impurities \ and fecondly, the thickening and confolidating at ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARCE. of the \vcb by the curling or intermixture of the fibres on its furfacc. Any kind of clay will an- fxvcrthcfc purpofcs, provided it is free from quali^ ties pofitivcly noxious. The filiceous part of it mud be very finely divided ; for large particles would wear the threads with their angles, or even cut them under the hammers : The argil- laceous proportion alfo mull not be too fmall, that it may readily diflblve in water, form the ncccfiary confiflcncc, and be eafily waflicd a- way when the operation is fmiflicd. It mud not be combined with any colouring matter, ci- ther vitriolic, or any other that is capable of af- fe cling the dye of the cloth. It fhould contain a fmall proportion of chalk; but if that propor- tion is cncreaied, the mafs becomes too thin, looting not only its tenacity, which is ncccflary to form the pile or map, but its grcaiincfs alfo, by which the threads arc prcferved againft all external violence. Nothing of the kind of py- rites ought to be in it. But that it may contain the calx of iron not combined with any mcnf- truum without prejudice, is evident from the Hampfliire clay, which is an excellent fullers earth. We have no doubt but the Ofmundic likcwife might be very fcrviccablc, if it could be procur- ed in fufficicnt quantity, and of the fame quality as tjiat examined here. Soaps would indeed be M 2 preferable i So ANALYSIS OF LTTHOMARGE. preferable to earths for the bufinefs of falling, if they did not generally afled the colour of thr cloths. For cleaning linen, clay free from every co- louring matter may be fucccfsfully ufed. It is true it creates no froth like foap, but it doe? not the lefs remove impurities. OF or THE ASBESTINE EARTH. n fffitnt oculi njturam nnfc.re rerum. LUCRETIUS. S-** v_>RONSTEDT, in his mineralogy, reckons nine fpecies of earths, which, as he had never analyfed, he confidcred as fimplc and primitive fubftanccs. By analyfis, however, we have learned that the mod of them arc compounded, as the Granatic, AHcatwus, Zcolitic, and F/uo- ratic, and that the Mflgnefian is to be altogether excluded from the clafs of earths, and ranked ;»mong metals. Our knowledge of the aibeftine earth lias been hitherto uncertain and fupeifi- ciiil. Some of the varieties have been rcfolv- ed by mcnilrua into more fimplc principles; while others, that fccmed the pureft, have not nudergone the Icaft alteration. In hopes there- M 3 fore 1 82 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. fore to throw fome light upon a fubjeft hitherto not well undcrftood, we have inftitured many and various experiments, which we fhall now oiler to your attention. According to Cronftcdt, the Afbeftos is diflin- guiflied by fcven different characters. Firft, When pure, it is very difficult to be fufed. Second, The flexibility of its fibres. Third, Its furface. Fourth, It becomes brittle by ignition. Filth, It is not fufliciently hard to flrike fire with Heel. Sixth, Is infoliible in acids. And Seventh, It melts cafily with borax. How far we may trull to this ddciiption, relating almofl to its external properties only, we fhall now pro- ceed to determine. 5 iv. Of the Tarcntaijlan AJleflos. THIS fpecies, called Tarentaifian, is the pro- duce of Savoy in Italy. As to its outward cha- racter, it is of a pure white colour, and can be divided into the fuftcit threads of a tolerable length, fhiningnnd opaque. When ex poled to the fire, it exhibits the fol- lowing qualities : Ex P. I. By a long continued calcination, it fcarcc lofes fome liundred parts of its weight. In an intenfe heat it liquefies, and, when cool- OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. i53 ing, and, when cooling, concretes into a filamen- tous mafs; but, if this is melted much longer, it becomes a grccnifli glafs, cafily penetrating the crucible. EXP. 2. When the extremity of a thread is expofed to the flame of the blow-pipe, it melts into an opaque globule, that grows dark colour- ed, if the ilamc continues to adl upon it. It diflblvcs with borax and the microcofmic fait, and eficrvcfces with the mineral alkali. Though reduced to fo fine a powder that it •cannot be mechanically further divided, yet it is but little folublc in any mcnitrua. EXP. 3. A hundred docimafUc pounds were gently boiled in ten times the weight of aqua, rcgia, until a fmall quantity only of the liquor remained. The menftruum diflblved no more than 12, and the refiduum had undergone no change. The folution being precipitated by fixed alkali, yielded an earth iimilar to the terra pondorofa, fome calcareous earth, and the reft magnefia. EXP. 4. An hundred pounds, treated in the fame way, with eight hundred of concentrated vitriolic acid, four only were diflblved, and which appeared to be calcareous earth and mag- nefia. M 4 EXF. i*4 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. EXP. v. As it was pofllble too great an abunr dance of filiccous earth might prevent its being more foluble, one hundred pounds, with four hundred of vegetable fixed alkali, were kept in a red heat for two hours, but were not brought into fuiion. After this operation, the vitriolic acid extracted twelve, but the rcdduitm was not in the leaft ufTeded by it. It fcemed, there- fore, to be owing to the prefence of the vitrio- Juted terra pondcrofa that it Hill refilled all at- tempts to decompound it. Accordingly the following method was purfued, with a view to fcpuratc all the primitive earths it might con- tain. EXP. 6. ico Ib. of albcilos, well mixed with icoofveg. alkali, and 100 of powdered char- coal, were ignited for two hours; and then being boiled for" fume time in loco of aqua regia, af- forded a complete fulution. What remained umliilblved was tranfparent, like jelly ; and, being collected, and thoroughly waflied in diililled water, and afterwards dried, weighed 64. It was now white and opaque, and not to be ailecled by any acid menilruum, except the iluurilic; but melted with cfier- vefccncc with half its weight of vcg. alkali, and exhibited a perfect gluis. The clear liquor being concentrated by eva- poration, the vitriolic acid was dropped into it, and occafioned a precipitate cf 6 Ib, of a wli^te powder. OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 185 powder, which proved to be the fpatbcum pon- der of um. The evaporation being carried Aill further, 12 of vitriolatcd lime were obtained, of which 6.9 were aerated chalk. By means of the phlogiflic alkali, 7 of Pruf- fian blue were precipitated, which anfwcrs to nearly 1.2 of calcined iron. From the liquor yet remaining, the fixed al- kaii produced 18.6 of aerated magnolia. It ought to well obferved, that the water poured oil* from the precipitate Ihouldboil near an hour, as it always holds a portion of magncfia, and fomctimcs of lime diilblvcd in the aerial acid. This volatile incnftruum being diflipated, the neratcd lime falls almoft immediately, but the fcparation of the magncfia is flow, and not com- pleted until the whole is evaporated to dry- nefs. The fcdiment, containing magnefia a- lone, difiolvcd in the vitriolic acid, being in- fpiflatcd, and afterwards ignited for a quarter of an hour, is Aill wholly foluble in water; what- ever alum may be in it remains burnt and de- prived of its excels of acid ; if gypfum, that ulfo remains; \inlefs wafhcd away by a large quantity t/f water. To dilcover the argillaceous earth, the aerated magncfia, as ilfewhcre ex- plained, is mail fuccefsfully employed as a pre- cipitant of the folution already deprived of its iron. 18* OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. iron*. This method is very convenient: For, fliould the magnefia be added in too large a quantity,. the excefs will fubiide to the bottom whiter and heavier than before, fo that the a- lum, which is neither lo heavy or fo light co- loured, may eafily be feparated from it by vvalhing. In the experiment that was made in this manner, we obtained 3.3 of r.rgillaceous .earth. In the analyfis of the following varieties this method was continued. § in. Of AJbcftK tf Swartvlk, MANY remarkable varieties of this afbeflos occur at Swartvik, in the parifli of Swerdfio in Dalecarlia; two of which we fliall now proceed to confider, Thefirft is wiiite, anddivifible into the fineft flexible fibres. Mixed with which are found lit* tie bundles harder arid ferruginous, that were however feparated from them, uj> more impure, and more charged with iron. Cronilcdt's Mineralogy, g 106. 2. Its character on being expofed to the fire, Exp. 7. By calcination it becomes rather whiter in the crucible.— With a greater heat it runs into a general mais of a martial colour. Analj-lls of Lithomargc. OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 187 EXP. 8. In the flame of a blow-pipe, whe- ther alone or mixed with alkali, microcofmic fait, or borax, it exhibits the fame appearances as the Tarentaifian ; except that it difcovers a greater proportion of iron in its compolltion. EXP. 9. Purfuing the method of analyfis de- cribcd before, Exp. 6, the centenary produced, of terra ponderofa nothing; but 13.9 of chalk; 17.2 of aerated magnciia; 27 of clay; 64offl- Jiccous earth; and 2.2 of calx of iron. § iv. Of the Jljleflos of Siuartvik rcfcmbling Steatites^ Wz are now to gi ve our attention to another va- jricty of the Swart vik afbcflos, which forms as it were a link between the afbcflos already dcfcrib- ed, and the flcutitcs which is found in the fame place. It refemblcs the ftcatitcs in its green colour, but which is rather a little paler; its furface is fmooth andfliining ; can be fcrapcd with the nail into a white powder; it differs however in the ar- rangement of its parts, being ftriated parallel and longitudinally, and capable of divifion into the fined white threads, which were before fo clofc- ly united, that their joining was not percepti- ble. EXP. s.8,8 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. EXP. JO. In a violent heat, in a crucible, it hardens and becomes white. EXP. n. The flame of the blo\v-pipe produ- ces the lame eflecl upon it as on the foregoing. EXP. 12. Treated in the fame manner as the former experiments, \ve procured by ana- Jyfis, — of terra ponderofa, o; calcareous earth, 7.7; aerated magneiia, 13.6; argillaceous earth, 2.7; liliccout; earth 74; and calx of iron, 2. § v. Of the Steatites ofSwartvik. As thefteatites of Swartvik refemMes in ma. ny circumllanccs the aibclli found at the fame place, we have thought it would be attend- cd with fome advantage to determine by annlyfis the extent of this iimilitude. The llcatiteb is of a gretn colour, with a fur- face fmooth and ihining ; forms a compacl folid mais, here and there interfered with irregular fjflures, that are frequently concealed. Its con- fiftence is fuch, that it can be fc raped with the r.ail ; and it turns into u white powder. Cronfledt's Mineralogy, §81. zt. Ex?. 13. A fmall thin lamella, weighing 355 OF THE ASBESTINE EAftTH. 355 Ib. being cxpofed to a white heat for two hours in a crucible, was found, when thorough-' ly cold, to weigh no more than 333 Ib. fo that in this operation a lofs was fufhiined of 22 Ib. which accounted for feveral pounds of humidi" ty as well as aerial acid. The whole of it became white, and though fomcwhat harder than before, yet could flill be fcraped with the nail. In a fevcrc fire of many hours, it changes .1 little from yellow to a darkifh colour, and ac- quires a degree of hardnefs capable of ftriking fparks of fire from a flint. If a folid piece of it could be obtained free from chinks, of a proper fi7.c, nothing would excel it for the purpcfc of fculpturc, and efneciully for the carving of heads and fmail figures. For it may be eafily wrought with a chi/.cl ever fo blunt ; and when finifhecl, being properly hardened in the fire will defy the kccneft tooth of time. To melt it requires the ftrongeft pofilblc de- gree of heat. Exr. 14. The powder of ftcatitcs roafted in a pneumatic apparatus gives out about 6 llh of aerial acid in. a centenary . Exp. 15. In the flame of a blow-pipe it be- comes white, but is not melted j— unites with cftervcfcenee J9» OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. effcrvcfcencc with the fait of foda ;— diflblves with borax, but not with the nticrocofmic fait. EXP. 16. 100 Ib. of it being reduced to a fine powder, were boiled in 1200 Ib. of aqua re- gia. To the folution filtrated, and concentrat- ed by evaporation, vitriolic acid was added, but no muddinefs appeared in it, nor was any gyp- fum depofitcd, although the evaporation was carried farther. But that it might not efeape by being (Defended by the iilicious earth, as much vitriolic acid was poured into the fulutiun as would be more than iuiiicient to take up the foluble eartlis ; and the whole was then evapo- rated to dry nets. Being afterwards thoroughly wafhed in wa- ter, there Hill remained a reiiduum of iiliccous earth equal to 80. Phlogiflicated alkali diilurbed the liquor, and produced 4 of Prufllan blue; which anfvvcrs to 0.9 of calx of iron. The remainder, when filtrated was found tot contain magnolia. But that it might be afcer- tained whether it held any argillaceous earth, a precipitation of 4 was obtained by means of the aerated magncfia; and it was obfervcd, that the greatcil part of the precipitate fell before the ex- ,cefs of acid was completely deflroyed. The fedi- raent was faturatcd exadly with vitriolic acid; and the OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 191 the proper cxccfs of which being rcftored, a ge- nuine alum was produced. It appears, therefore, that a centenary of fteatites contains, of terra pondcrofa, o; of cal- careous earth, 6; aerated magncfia, 17.1; ar- gilaceous earth, 2 ; iiliceous, 80 ; and calx of iron, 0.9. § vi. Of tbc Aftcjlos of Bajlnccs. IN the mine called Baftnrcs, at Riddarhyttan, js Ibund an ulbcllos of agrccnilh grey, with ve- ry fine, foft threads, caiily broken ; mentioned by Cronftcdt in his Mineralogy, § 105, A. 2. and *vhich often fcrves as a matrix of copper pyrites. EXP. 17. Roafted in a crucible, in a fire it exhibits the fame character as the afbcftos in general. EXP. 1 8. Nor does the blow-pipe occafion a- ny extraordinary phenomena. EXP. io. By the ufual analyfis, from the cen- tenary was obtained, of terra ponderofa, c; chalk, 6; aerated magnefia, 16.8; argillaceous •arth, 6 j filiceous, 67 ; and calcined iron, 4.2. $ vii. 192 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. § vn. Of the Ajbejlos ofCorias. THIS kind is found at Corias in Auftria, re- fembling very much the albeltos of Tarentaife, is white, foft, and divifible into the fmeil threads. Cronfledt's Mineralog. § 105. i. EXH. 20 and 21. In the crucible, and with the blow-pipe has the lame qualities with the other afbelti. EXP. 22. $y analyfis, the centenary produ- ces, of terra ponderoiu, o; aerated chalk, 10.5; aerated magnelia, 12.9; clay, 3.3; iiliccous earth, 72; and calx of iron, 1.3. § vin. Of tbc AJlcJlos of Crete. • THIS fpccies of afbcftos, brought from Crete, is white, of a rough irregular texture, with fliort broken threads, laid over each other like tiles on the roof of a houfe. Cronftedt's Mineral. § 106, . EXP. 23 and 24. In the fire it exhibits no- thing different from the others. OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 193 Exp. 25. Its analyfis yielded, of terra pon- dcrofa, o; aerated chalk, 14.3 ; aerated mag- nefia, 28.8; clay, i ; filiccous earth, 53.9; and calx of iron, 2. § ix. The AJbeJlos of Sablbcrg, commonly called, Mountain Cork. THIS is dug out of a filver mine at Sahlbcrg; it is white, compact, and claftic like cork, and with its fibres varioufly interwoven. EXP. 26 and 27. It has the ufual character in the lire : Hut it Is worthy of remark, that when properly heated in the flume of a blow-pipe, it aflbrds a transparent globule, which fcldom hap* pens to the other afbdli. Cronfledt's Mineral. § 104. i. a. EXP. 28. By analyfis the centenary produced, of terra pondcrufa, o; aerated chalk, 10; aera- ted magncfiu, 22; clay, 2.8; iiliceous earth, 62 ; and calx of iron, 3.2. § x. Of tbe AJbeflos of Sablbcrg, known by tbc Name of Mountain Leather. IT differs from the foregoing variation in its N laincllatcd I94 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. lamellated mafs only, and its confidence, which is not fo firm. Cronitedt's Miner. $ 103. i. EXP. 29 and 30. It agrees perfeclly with the former afbcfios in its apj>carance irvthe fire. EXP. 31. A centenary of it yielded by analy- fis, of terra pondcrofa, o ; aerated chalk, 12.7; aerated magnefia, 26.1 ; clay, 2; liliceous earth, 56.2 ; and calcined iron, 3. $ xi. Oftbcfafiiculatcd AJbeJlos of Grange. THIS fpccics is found in the parifh of Grange in Dalecarlia, and confifls of grey parallel fibres, rather ri^id, not very diftincl, and collecled in- to little bundles, which are not parallel in rela- tion to each other, but crofs in various direcli- ons. Cronftedt's Mineralogy, § 106. EXP. 32 and 33. In the fire it appears as ufual. EXP. 34, Analyfis difcovcrs in the centenary, of terra ponderofa, o; aerated chalk, 12.8; aera- ted magnefia, 16; clay, 1.1 ; filiceous cartli, 63.9; and calx of iron, 6. S xii. OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 195 § XII. OfthcdJl'cJlosofPchrfbcrg. AT Pehrfbcrg in Vcrmcland, we meet \vith an afbeftos of a dark colour, with rigid parallel fibres, that can fcarcc be feparatcd, or admit of being further divided. Cronftedt's Mineralogy, § 105. EXP. 35 and 36. In the flame of a blow-pipe it becomes white, and leaves a white feoria ; which is rather extraordinary, as it contains a- bove Vo j of iron. EXP. 37. By analyfis we obtain, of terra pon- dcrofa, o; aerated chalk, 12; aerated magnc- fia, 13.7; clay, 1.7; lilieeous earth, 62; and calcined iron, 10.6. § xin. The fibrous Schorl of Grange. As the fibrous Shorls very often bear fo ftrong a rcfemblancc to the afbefti, that they arc with difficulty diilingui/hed from them by their exter- nal appearances, it may not be improper to ex- aminc the competition of both the one a?nd the other variety, which, from their outward cha- radcr, ought naturally to be referred totheclafs of fchorls. In the parilli of Grange, fuch a fpe- ]NT 2 cies i9<* OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. cies occurs of a greenifh white, with flender parallel threads, tranfparent, and brittle like glafs, and in other rcfpecls very fimilar to the albedos of Baftnxs already defcribed. Cronfledt's Min. 5 74- "• EXP. 38. It is converted by fire, in a cruci- ble, into a white fcoria. EXP. 39. In the flame of a blow-pipe, it melts with ebullition into a Hag; dittolvci with borax and with the microcofmic fait, but with the latter more ilowly ; and eftcrvefces in its uni- on with the mineral alkali. EXP. 40. The analylis of it produces in a centenary, of terra ponderofa.o; aerated chalk, 6; aerated magnefia, 12.7; clay, a; filiceous earth, 72; and calx of iron 7.3. § xiv. TJJC fibrous Schorl of Zittcnbal. AT 7illerthal in Tyrol is found a beautiful fchorl of a green colour, with prifmatic fibres, brittle, tranfparent, not quite parallel, but com- bined in fevcrai little bundles, diverging from a centre. Small pieces of it cut glafs. Cronftedt's Min. § 74. b. OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 197 Exi>. 41. and 42. Whether tried by fire in the crucible, or by the blow-pipe, it difcovcrs the uiual qualities of ichorL Exr. 43. liy analyfis, the centenary produ- ces of terra ponderoia, o; aerated chalk, 9,3; aerated magncfia, 20; clay, 2.7; filiccous earth 64 ; and calcined iron, 4, Having proceeded thus far, it may perhaps be not altogether u fold's to defcribc more par- ticularly the method by which the different a- nalyfcs were conduded. The it ones intended for examination being firll reduced to the fined powder, and exactly weighed, were thoroughly mixed with fixed vegetable alkali and powder- ed charcoal, and then ignited for two hours in a covered crucible ; at which period the cover being removed, they wrre calcined until the charcoal was completely dephlogiilicatcd. The lleatites alone was not expofed to this proccfs, as its folubility was fullicicntly proved by other experiments The alkali employed was the pure fait of tartar. In all the trials, both the quantity and quality of the charcoal being the fame, there was no realon to apprehend the ad- mixture of any foreign fubflancc. A centenary of this coal yielded no more than z| ofafiies. After the calcination, the powders became more or lets blue or green, and communicated dired- Jy to a fmall quantity of water poured upon N 3 them I98 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. them, a green, or bright red. If an acid was poured upon the green liquor, it \vas changed to a red ; it* upon the red liquor, the colour was at firft much heightened, but afterwards affuming a yellowifh tint, became gradually fainter, and at length wholly difuppcarcd. To the fmall portions of magnefin, which almofl always ad- heres to the charcoal, we may attribute all thefe phenomena, as will be found explained elle- \vhcre *. The powder thus prepared was boiled in aqua regia, until all the foluble part of it was diflblv- ed. The filiceous part remaining \\as collcded in a filtre, and waflied in warm water. To the folution concentrated by evaporation, fome drops of flrong vitriolic acid were added ; and, if after a quarter of an hour there were no figru of terra ponderofa in it, a quantity cf the fame acid iull'icicnt to faturatc the calcareous earth was then pcurcd in, and, by a gentle evapora- tion, almoit the whole of the gypi'iim was lepa- ratcd. This being collected, the folution was again difturbed by aerated alkali, and received on a filtre : The precipitate was then wafhed; :md, while yet moid, vitriolic/acid was gradual- Iy added to it, umil none of it remained ex- cept perhaps a fn tall portion of gypliiin that fonictimes eluded the firfl icparatic;n. On boil- ing the water of the precipitation, it depofu ^ ted 2 Vol. ?C 220, OF THS ASBESTINE EARTH. 199 ted fome magnefia diflblvcd in the acrid acid; and, if there was flill any quantity of aerated chalk, it would be cafily feparated by means of the vitriolic acid. The two precipitations a- bovc related were found ufeful folutions in the •vitriolic acid, for the purpofe of expelling the a- qua regia, and depoiiting the alum in its turn. The new folution in the vitriolic acid is there- fore firft to be precipitated by the phlogiftic al- kali, and then, the i'ruilian blue being collccl- ed, the alum may be dcpofitcd in the remain- ing clear liquor, by means of the aerated mag- ncfia. § xv. Corollary. In order to Icficn the difficulty of comparing together the fevcrai varieties examined, we have exhibited here at one view the proportion- al contents of a centenary of each of them. N4 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH, Terf a pond. (Vcir. M.p.ncfi*. Clay. SiHerout Calx t f •VII triw au. Call lh. can n. iron. Steatites 0 .0 O .0 17- I 2 .0 80 .0 c.o Albert. Steatiform C .0 7 •7 13.6 *> •7 74 .0 2.0 — — Swartvik o .0 '3 •9 17.2 2 •7 64 .0 2.2 » Ccrias 0.0 ID •5 12. 9 3 •3 72 .€> '•3 Crete o.o M •3 28. 8 1 .0 53 •9 2.0 — Corium o.o 12.7 26.1 2 .0 5* .2 3-° Cork-like 0 .0 10 .0 22. 0 2 .3 62 .O 3-2 Baflnxs o .0 6.0 16. 8 i .0 67.0 4-2 • CJra-n^c C .0 12 .8 1 6. 0 i •3 63 •9 6.0 — — Pchrfbcrg o.o 12 .0 !3* 7 i •7 62 .0 10.6 •' Tarcntaifc 6.0 6 •9 18. 6 3 •3 64 .0 1.2 Schorl Grange 0.0 6.0 12. 7 .0 72 .0 7-3 ZillcrthaJ 0*0 9 •3 20. 0 2.7 64 .0 4.0 Having well confidercd thcfe circumflances, it is plain, That no fuch earth cxifts as a peculiar fimple nfbcftine earth. For every one of thcfe varieties contains, befides a fmall portion of iron, other known principles, four of which arc primitive, as the calcareous, the maf\nefian, argillaceous, and filiceous; and, although the fecoiul is by no means info great a proportion as the hill, yet ir Hill deter- mines the character and genus. As in the Scia- graphy of the Mineral Kingdom, digefted and arranged according to proximate principles, the genera of compounded fubftances are not defi- ned by the excefs in quantity cf any one parti- cular ingredient; fo, in the cafe now before us, certainly OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. certainly no one, from the character of a (lone, foft, fibrous, and flexible, would be led to ap- prehend fuch an abundance of filiccous matter. In the conipnfitioh of the nine fpeeics, reckon- ed, with the confent of all mineralogifts, under the name of aibelli, which have hitherto been chemically examined, the filiceous earth is found to conllitutc the greater part, making never lefs than the half, and fometiiiies three fourths of the whole. In relation to quantity, magnefia holds the fecond place between the limits of iz.y and 28.8 in the centenary. Then follows the aerated chalk, fluctuating from 6.0 to 14.3. Argillaceous earth is in the fmall proportion of 1.6 in the centenary. Calcined iron is found in all of them from 0.9 to 10.6. The fpecific difference therefore fccms to be thus determin- ed: AJl>eJlos — compofcd of filiccous, magncfian, calcareous, and argillaceous earth, with fomc admixture of ferruginous matter. Metallic fub- itances arc indeed extraneous ; but, as earths of the purcft kind arc fcldom entirely free from iron, it mull ftill be confidercd as a fpccics of alloy. In this order the materials of the com- poiition being enumerated, according to their fc- veral proportions, illuftratc clearly the fpecific diflercnces. As to what relates to thofe fubflanccs that bear different degrees of rcfemblance to the af- beiti, fio* OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. befli, the Tarentaifian approaches fo near to the genuine, that it is a quetlion whether it fliould be feparated from it. It lias the fame principles, arranged in the fame order, with the addition of vitriolated terra ponderofa only, and which does not fcem to have been combined by the hazard of neighbouring iltuation, but by a more inti- mate and perfect union with all the parts, as it efcapes the penetration even of aifiiled viilon. The albedos of Taremaife, then, conftitutes the ninth fpccies of the Magnefian genus; to which perhaps the inilgnificant name of amianthus a p. plies, thai would orherwife be fuperfluous. But ive will now attend to a fpecific difference. The amianthus — compoftrd of llliceous, mag- neiian, and calcareous earth, terra ponderolu, vitrioldta, argillaceous earth, and a portion of iron. Whoever has had an opportunity of exa- mining this fubflance in large quantities, on the fpol where it is found, fliouUl have iuvciligated whether the mixture of the terra ponderola is merely mechanical. For were it no otherwise united, it would fcurcely remit fo much the ac- tion of acid menflrua, a> we ilud b> experience that it does. The progreOion from the ilcatites, through the lleatiibrm ufbeltos, to the foftcft variety of albedos, defcribcd under the third and fifth heads, is ibmething remarkable. The firfl diilers folely by its wanting the cal- careous earth ; which feems in fome meafure lo imply a conlideiablc power in this tfarth to form OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. form its fibrous texture. On the other hand, again, it not only difcovcrs an obvious refcm- blancc to the tibrous fchorl, but a fpeciiic agree- ment even is dcmonilrated by analyfis. But this cannot be affirmed of all the varieties of the fibrous fchorl, as hitherto l\vo only of them have been examined ; though, with regard to the reft, the probable conjecture is very great. From the corroborating tcftimqny, therefore, of thcfe experiments, we may correct, the fpeci- fic differences laid down in the Sciagraphia of the Mineral Kingdom. For, at the time that this paper was written, no perfect analyfis of the afbcftos had as yet been made, and two only of its principles were known. We would, however, hope to (latter ourfclvcs, that we have determined the fpccific difference of the afbcf- tos among eleven varieties, both as to their a- grccmcnt in external characters as well as inward competition* The afLcfti have been hitherto applied to lit- tle or no ufc. Formerly, indeed, cloths made of the foftcil kinds were employed to wrap up the bodies of the dead, that, by its qualities of refilling lire, their allies might be prcferved. But on the abolition of funeral piles, the utility of the afhcllos ccafed. And as to its being calculated for garments for the living, the continual and intolerable irritation of its liarfli and fhort fibres wuuld render it certainly not very dcfirublc. Paper OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. Paper made of afbeftos is both brittle and abfor, bent; and fo little adapted to the purpofe of writing, that as yet it has never been otherwife confidercd than as a curious phenomena in phyfics. Perpetual mutches, or wicks for lamps not confumable by fire, may indeed be formed with the proper kind of albellos ; but they require to be occationally cleaned, otherwife the oily mat- ter, that nouriihes the Hume, depolits a carbo- naceous refiduum on the top of the match, and accumulates in fuch quantity as finally to ex- tinguilh it. Beiides, feveral of the varieties whole fibres are fuiliciently detached, to draw up the oil or fatty fubilance, run fo clofely to- getherinthe hottcft part of the dame, us to pre- vent the necellury fupply. Various llories are related of ruilles made of the albedos, by the Chinele, and worn at the end of their linen llcevcs; that they were finely wrought, and, when dirty, were readily and thoroughly cleaned by throwing them into the lire. But the fpecimen lent to the collection of minerals in the academy, a few vears lince, doe* by no means anfwer this. defer! ptiou; For on examining it, it wns found to be nothing elfe than a flight open cloth made of tome vegeta- ble fubilance, and therefore ealily deilrudi- blc in the fire. THOUGHTS THOUGHTS O N A NATURAL SYSTEM O F FOSSILS. J\fs arJua, wtiiftu titruitatem dart, uovif auflorilaUm • • • Jubiij , omniltuvtro naturam tt nelur* fu* cmnia. PLIMIUS. PART I. ARRANGEMENT OF FOSSILS. NATURAL BODIES IN GENERAL. ' § I. Principal Divijion of Natural Bodies. J\ LL bodies which nature fpontaneoufly pro- duces upon the furface of the earth may be properly divided into organifed and unorga- nifcd, } n. Organifrd 200* ON A NATURAL SYSTEM J ii. Qrganiftd Bodies. THESE are pofiefled of a number of internul veflels, by which, from the nouriflimcnt they take in, the particles ncceflury to the increafc, fupport,and propagation of fuch bodies, are ex- traded, prepared, conveyed, and diilributed. § in. Claffes of organifcd Bodies. THESE bodies are diftinguifhed by the epi- thet living ; and, whether they poflefs fenfibi- lityor not, they conllitute two immcnfe eludes, the tinimal and the vegetable, whicli are com- monly coniidered as two diflincl kingdoms in nature. § iv. Unbrgatrifed Bodies . THOSE bodies are termed unorganifed that arc entirely without any organic (Iruclure, and feem to be formed by the accumulation of par- ticles united folely by the external force of at- traction. } v. Vuriws OF FOSSILS. 207 $ V. Various ConJ\Jlenc\€s ofunorganifed Bodies. THESE did or in many refpeds, but we (hall here take notice of the degrees of dcnjity only, which has commonly been deiignedby the name of confidence. C vi. Solid Bodies. CONSIDERING thcfc, then, according to this rule, we fmd fome bodies fofolid, that their par- ticles are fo firmly united as not to be fcparated but by a very confidcrable force. Of this kind are mofl of the foilils. 5 vii. Liquid Bodies. SOME again are // has no eilect upon them, at leail fo as to be viiiblc. What has been thus briefly dated may be fuflicient to fatisfy us, that, from the external qualities of follils, no proper judgement can be formed of their internal compoiition. OF THE SEVERAL CRITERIA OF FOSSILS. § x I x. Oryflology. OKYCTOLOGY, or Mineralogy, are names giv- en to that fcience, which fo arranges all the known foilils, that they may be accurately di- ilinguiflied from each other. I [OF FOSSILS. § xx. Various Sterns As'zoologifts, in their arrangement of animals, have chofcn diilcrent parts; foinc the feet, o- thcrs the teeth, the becks, and other parts, ac- cording to the agreement or difagrecmcnt of which tlicir dillcrcnt fyllems were cftablifhcd ; and, as botanifts have diilcred in the principles of their fciencc, one preferring a leaf, another the petals, a third the Aamina and pcilillum, while a fourth maintains the fuperiority of the fruit; — c- ven fo is it with mincralogifts, who have often purfucd very different paths,intheircndcavourlo illuftratc and confirm the fame objccT:. Such a view of natural bodies, taken as it were from many different points, has however its advanta- ges, as it incrcafes the number of accurate com- parifons. But, as every method cannot equally anfsver the end propofed, it becomes ncccluiry to felccl that wliich is the mod perfect and con- venient. § xxi. The bejl Arrangement. As, in order to undcrftand the nature of ful- fils, and apply them to purpofes of utility, it is iK'ceJlary to arrange them in fomc kind of fyile- matic order, the preference is certainly due to that method, by which buth their internal cha- Q 4 radtcr OM A NATURAL SYSTEM. racier and compofition may be made equally c- vident. I llential properties depend on the qua- lity of the parts th.it enter into compofition, and their mutual proportion ; and, unlefs we are well aquanucd with thele parts, we fliall la- bour to little purpjie, in our attempts to mould them to our own dciires : Nay, we often meet with diiappointments, becaufe we have not con- fidered that our views are inconfiilcnt with the very nature of the materials fubjecled to experi- ments. } xxn. In ivbat manntr the Compofition of FoJJils may be after taincd. HAVING fettled thefc points, it remains yet to be determined in what manner we are to judge of the compofition of fo(Fils : Whether the con- nexion between fupcrficial marks,and the intrin- lic character, is fo intimate and confcqucnt, that the former cannot be known, without the other being revealed ? whether it may be nectflary to proceed . by a chemical analyfis in the dry \\;iy ? c.r, llic.uld this not be fufficient, aie we to have lecoiu.e to the -nn^ift way? We will ecu iidci thcie queilions fcparutely. § x x 1 1 1 . E\tenml Criteria . IF, tluoiigli the means of criteria colleeled from OF FOSSILS. 217 from the external appearance, and obvious to all, we were able to obtain the object ofourre- fearch, no method could certainly be more fim- ple ; tor, with the ailiftance of our fenies only, we might liiipcnic with the tedious precedes of experiments : Jiut we have already difcovercd the fallacy of relying on many of thefe marks, even the mod principal, as they are liable to be aiicctcd by various circumilunces of iltuation, and diveriiiicd \vitliout end, (§ xviii.). It may be proper, therefore, to enter a little more mi- nutely into the coniideration of this queflion. § xxiv. Uncertain and deceitful Size of FofftJs. IN no criteria can we poflibly have lefs faith than in that of magnitude ; and \ve cannot fuifi* ciently exprefs our aftoiiifhment at the violence ofiercd to nature, when a larger piece of ftone, referred to its proper genus, if reduced to a pow- de, is net only exiled to fome other, but is not even permitted to remain under the fame clafs. § xxv. And Colour. Tun vulgar proverb, that cautions us againft belief in colour, in not inapplicable to ory do- logy. It is well known, that there arc icvcn primitive colours; and, in order that a body appear coloured, it is rccjuiiitc that fonv.» parti- cular 21 SI ON A NATURAL SYSTEM cular kinds of rays be reflected ; would we en- quire into the caufe of this phenomenon, we mud feck it in the quality of the furface, which is indeed often fu tranlk-nt, that the colour may be changed, or entirely dedroyed by the heat of boiling water, or even by the influence of fo- lar light. A tranfparcnt colour arifes from tranfmittcd rays, and feems to indicate a fpecies of attrac- tion; while, on the other hand, an opaque co- lour implies rcpuliion. Both without doubt fug- ged the idea of tome relation between the light and the given body ; but which is of fuch fub- tlety, that though it alone were varied, the cha- racter of the matter remains altogether unalter- ed ; at lead the difference is hot obvious to the fc nil's. We have fccn, that tranfparency de- pends upon the difpoiition of the particles ; and this once didurbed, the tranfparency vanilhes, and with it all the effect produced by tranfinit- ted rays. Thefe fe\ eral appearances feem to a- rife from the phlogiitic molecules, \\hich vary ei- ther as to quantity, magnii ude, or eladicity. Ve- locity even determines the difference of colours. 5 xxvi. Internal Texture ami Form. WE have already touched on interim! te\ture and form in the foregoing divifions, ($ xviii.) Determinate OF FOSSILS. 219 Determinate figures bear a refemblance to geo- metric bodies, and it is not without fomc degree of probability that they are faid to be derived from the 'nature of the matter : An opinion that has long influenced many to believe, that cer- tain figures were proper and eflemial to diuc- rent fubflanccs. The folly of this doctrine I have elfewherc demonstrated at large *. If therefore regular figures, and thofe bell defined, arc fallacious, we arc furely not to rely on any fuperficial characters which arc very often com. mon to fubilances of the moil oppoiite qualities, and never uniformly conilant in the fame fpe- cies. § xxvn. Pbyfical Marks of Eartbs. NOR. arc we wholly to neglect the ' plyfical rnarhi which, though they cannot be fully efti- mated by the external fenfcs alone, yet may be afccrtaincd by eafy experiments, without the trouble of dccompofition. Such, in the firit place, are hardncfs and fpeciiic gravity; to \vhich, indeed, we may add the relation to the magnet. § xxvin. Haninefs. DEGREES of hardncfs may be determined in various ways, by the nail, the knife, or by ilccl; and, *aEflays, vol. 2. ON A NATURAL SYSTEM and when they arc more intenfe, by a ferics of gems, cut exprcfsly for this purpofc. But this property indicates lefs the matter, and its mix- ture, than the various exficcutions aritlng from different circumflances, the fubtlety and cohc- fion of particles, dcniity, and iuch like. Soft clay dried gradually, and afterwards expofcd to an cncreafing lire for ievcral hours, until it i* brought to a white heat, becomes harder and harder, and is at length capable, like a Hint of finking fparks from ilecl. In all this procefs, however, tlie matter is no otherwife alfeded than by a contraction of its bulk, which is di miiiiihcd about one half. 5 xxix. Specif c Gravity. SPECIFIC gravity is determined by the hydro- (latic balance, which properly indicates nothing ' elfe than the deiiitty or quantity of matter in a given volume. A knowledge of this property is of confidcrable utility, elpecially in the exa- mination of metals, whether pure, or of known mixture ; but with refpedl to other fofllls, the diilcrence is fo very trifiling, that their nature and compofition can fcarcely ever be this way -ifcertained. § XXX. OF FOSSILS. § xxx. Examination ly tbe Magnet. IRON, unlefs it is dcphlogifticated below a certain point, is ever obedient to the magnet; but this mark is particular. Various phenome- na likcwife authorife a fufpicion tluit many o- ther iubftanccs arc attracted by it ; therefore no reliance can be had upon this as a diilinguifhing character. § xxxi. Real Utility of external and pbjfical Marks. ALTHOUGH fuperficial criteria contribute no- thing to the true knowledge of foffils, and that the obfcrvation of Juvenal, fronti nutiajidtt,TNHy bo well applied to them, cvcnthoughthc phy- fical properties be at the fame time underllood, (} xxviii. xxx.) yet we arc not altogether to pafs them over in contempt. By Tuch accurate de- terminations as the celebrated Werner fo fuc- cefsfully attempted, they are rendered very pro* per for diflinguifliing varieties ; and when the eye is once habituated to them, they often lead it direclly to diacritic experiments. Perhaps the compofuion being thoroughly afcertained by a. nalyfis, an exact comparifon may allift confi- dcrably in drawing a juft inference. § xxxu, ON A NATURAL SYSTEM $ xxxii. Nature of Fofflh dlfcwcrabk by tbe Aid of Cbemijlry. IN order to difcover the proximate principles of folliis, it is necellary to have recourie to che- mical experiments. But \vill not the fimpier kinds be fuflicient, in which the foffiis, whether alone, or with the addition oi' proper fluxes, are niched in the fire and treated in various ways? This indeed ii the path purfued with indefatiga- ble zeal by the celebrated Pott, and which no one iince him has extended uirh more fucctfs than the renowned Monfieur D'Arcet. Iio\v far it is connected witli our delign we fliull pie- fen tly have occalion to obitrve. J xxxni. Tbfir Cba rafter in tbe Fire. A Tiioftouci! knowledge of the effects produ- ced by lire upon ibflllsisof the ^reaitfl importance in the cultivation ot * many arts. For if we re* collect that bricks, tiles, crucibles, gluts, a- mtiufu, earthen and china velleb, cliquation 43 borax, produces a quadruple fait ; and it is not unlikely, but that the induitry of future ages will difcover combinations of five principles, and per- haps of Hill more; the difpofttion and order of which may be determined by the character and quantity of the feveral ingredients. 5 LXX. slnahgout Salts. FOSSILS of the fee on d and third clafs become true falinc fubftances, by combination with any fait; and inthiscomlitbnthey are baniihcd from their original claifes. Salts, fuch as thcfe, are called, an.ilogous ; and according to the charac- ter of their bafcs, arc of two kinds, cither earthly or metallic. Whatever imparts the faline na- ture ought to determine the genus. § LXXI. Other Combinations of Salts. ALL earths almoft as well as metals arc not only taken up by acids, but feveral fulfils befides, of both claflcs are cliifolvrd by -alkaline falts, and fomc even by neutral .falts ; nay, it happens occafionally, that t\vo double falts will unite in- to one, and form a fait of four principles. From fuch multiplied and various combinations pro- coed, alkalis and acid* charged with earths and metals; double neutral falls, or falls of more principles, containing earths and metals; double earthy falls' united with double metallic fairs, 2 which 244 , ON A NATURAL SYSTEM which, according as. the faline mutter is either the fame or dillbrcnt in each, generate triple or quadruple compounds. § LXXII. Doubtful Genera of Salts. IN tlie clafs of falts it often happens, that iome principles are never found in a lingle and independent llate, hut united always with others. Such are, for example, the nitrous, the muria- tic, and arfenical acid, it may be doubted, therefore, whether thefe fubilances are to be COiiiiderctl under their iimpic genera. As, how- ever, it does not feeiii improbable, that they were once free and uncombined, we are hardly authorized to exclude them ; though it may bet at the fume time, obfcrvcd, that they have ne- ver yet been found otherwiic than inthis itate of combination. At all events, the iaveiligation of iiinple Jubilance* \\ili throw light, upon the fcveral compoJhion:;, § LXXII i. Genera of Earths. SOME genera of earths have hitherto refilled all attempt* to reduce them into limpler princi- ples; while other*, by a proper analyiis, have difcovcrcd two or more. The former arc called primitive, the latter, dtrivati vc earths. * § JLXXIV. O F F 0 S S I L S. S LXXIV. Primitive Earths.. CRONSTEDT has eftablifhed nine primitive earths, but accurate experiments have lincc flicwn that the greater number of them were compounded, fo that the account is reduced to three only; the calcareous, iiliccous, and argilla- ceous. We have however to add new earths, with which he was not acquainted, the terra pon.dc- rofa and ma^ncfia. We reckon therefore live primitive earths. § LXXV. Of the common Origin of Earths. ALTHOUGH the powers of chcmiflry have not yet been able to decompofe thefe five earths, the reduction of them all to one fpecies, or, at lead, to a fmallcr number than the prefent, may pofTibly be the reward of future induftry. I acknowledge myfcjf of this opinion, and I think with fonic foundation. Clay, for exam- ple, is nothing elfe than calcareous earth, fo Ariclly combined with fomc unknown acid, that the fcpuration of them has hitherto been attempt- ed in vain. No one certainly could have fuf- peclcdthe calcareous bafe in the lapis pwhlerofus, which has been dtmonil rated by amilytis. In like manner, other fubftanccsmay be invcfiigat- ed. But until proper experiments ihall have ful- ly developed the nature of fuch compolitions, 24<5 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM they nui ft be, in reflect to our knowledge of them, coniideicd r.s primitive fubilaiices : 1'uri.'. is wholly inconlhli-nt v.ith the cauti-n ;«iul dif- tide-net; of natural philosophy to ad\ -.mce any •pofition npcn a bare pollibility. Daily experi- ence fulliciontly trachcs, that thole thiricr, v. hit!) ;:t (.nc time appc.ir highly jjrt-bablc, 111:17 at another be tillcuvcrcd to be entirely unfounded. § LX.\VI. ]\t'i'J-J/lJ •*.£•/' V /'>(' Yt'l'l'il Vt.llJtT'f.l ^fr-/'f t'j be f'ij\ t t't'il t<; ii dijLr.cl (Jt ;/:;/. Tin: ponderous curlli, on a* count of it •-, jrrcat fpeciile ;.^ra\iiy, ii defcrvingot' partieuiar uiren- (ion, and h-;u! , u^ narurally to ap]>ahend it to be ci incr::l;:c on;',in. Other ;:i !',unK-?its allo f'.!T>port tlii, h\ iM^rl.ili-,. It i, admitted, with tb'j f-.-rce ('[ an axiom, tluit p!i!'.)i;:iH(.uied alka- li precipitates ir:cta!!ic fo!i».ti'.)n«> only : Hut Jt this alkali is dropped into a {uluti -»n <•: acctatcd j;';ndercus eaith, it i> immc\liatc! v ihilurbed, and a \\hite n^wdcr is prct'ipitar'.*d ; T\ iith, on f'\;tminat.i':n. ir: f'.:V!::d to mniiil (.f tlr.it earth viJiiohiT'jd, fi"!!! t!ie vitriolic Jici.l ir.I'.erei'.r in l!:r rriiflltin biue. If the pf.v.der i'. !lr:ir:;tid by ir.car'.s cf a nbro, ;./.v! u ir.:\v pf.-iti.-:! ofacetntcd ^-ind-.-nni-J <^r;fi added to t!:c liquid, (-TI c\pi*!i:u; •r to i!i'- f.v} t!:;; i'.lution, t!'or;-]j c kar bef )i'ff d'-pofjts ar.fytlier ^ hite ».-»v. der, roiira:?::!:;.'; th" pni-.d,, r.-iir, earth "nitcd with the p!',!o;;iiVie ,:!k:- - Ji. '.!'}:c rri'iJ1 ;s the f.Di:^ if thi- iv'iulcroj, «; . t OF FOSSILS. 147 earth, faturatcd with the nirrous acid is treated in a fimilar manner: Therefore it fccms rather to refcmble a metallic ealx than an earth, by thcfc properties. Among tiie metallic calces, that which arifes from load corrcfponds with the ponderous earth in its weight, its white colour, and peculiar at- traction for the vitriolic acid, by which that a- cid is torn away from alkaline falts ; but there is notwithilnnding a remarkable difference be- tween them. Acctatcd lead is diihirbed wholly in the cold by phlogiflicatcd alkali, anddepofits a fediment, which neither is folublc in water, nor in the vitriolic ncid ; but theacctatcd ponderous earth yields its genuine precipitate by heat on- Jy, and which is folublc both in the vitriolic a- cid and in boiling water. Bcfidcs, this earth has hitlierto refilled all efforts to reduce it to a mefallic (late. Therefore, although there may appear a con- fidcrable affinity between the ponderous earth and a metallic calx ; yet, as long as it is incapa- ble of reduction, its metallic nature is certainly nut fullicicntly demon (Ira ted, and it mull ilill retain a place among tlic earths. § LXXVII. Five Genera JJwnhl be eonjlituted of the five primitive Earths. As we have enumerated already five primi- tive earths, they naturally become the heads of < five a43 ON A NATUHAL SYSTEM five diflinft genera. It is very rare, if ever, that they are found in n fimple ftate, being either combined with one or more of the other earths. The moil ealy method, therefore, would be to de- termine the genus of every fuch compofition, according to the heaviell principle ; but the cafes before ieparately ilated, in 5 Ixuii are often objections to this plan. § LXXVIII. Exceptions. WERE this rule once admitted, we fliculd lofe altogether the magnellan and argillaceous ge- nera ; fur, in the compolhious hitherto examin- ed, into which thofc earths enter, the filiccous lias been always found to outweigh the others, although, from their character and properties, they hud both the fupcriority. Common clay contains above half its weight of iilicccus earth, ibmetimes above three fourths, and yet the ar- gillaceous qualities arc fo dirtincl, that thele com- petitions are unanimously denominated argilla- ceous. The fume richnefsund pre-eminence of quality, with rcfpccl to the filiccous earth, are found in magnciia, and oilier fubflances. All earthy competitions, tlierefore, may be determined by the genus cf tliat ingredient, which exceeds the others in weight, unlcfs ir be flliceous, and not equal to fevcn-eights ot the whole. In fuch cafes, the genus ought to be afcertained OF FOSSILS. 249 nfccrtaincd by whatever ingredient aproaches ncarcft in weight to the fuiecous. 5 LXXIX. Compounded Earths arc not united me- chanically only. Bt;r perhaps, all earthy compofitions are no- thing elie than many fubtlc mechanical mix- tures ? At the very firll view indeed there fecms Ibine foundation for fuch an opinion; but a more minute invcfligation furniihcs evidence of a cloicr union conilrudcd on ether principles. The earth of alum immcrfed in lime-water, and entering into fo livid a combination with the lime as not to be feparablebut by chemical art, teaches us, that among primitive earths mu- tual attraction has a real exillcnce. Betides, as almoft all thcie mixtutcs generally form cry- ftaline concretions, we have another proof, not only of the minutencfs of their particles, but of an union perfectly homogeneous. } LXXX. Genera cf Metals. IK the third clafs we arc to conftitutc as many genera, as we have known diilind metals. § LXXX i. Encreafed within a few Tears. AT the beginning of the prcfcnt century, eleven ON A NATURAL SYSTEM eleven metals only wereknown ; butithadfcarcc grown forty years older, before the diicovcry \vas made of platinu, a noble and 'ductile metal, find of three or four others, that were not mal- lenble, as cobalt, r.iccolum, magnefium, and fi- clerum, which lad has hitherto appeared to dif- fcr from all the red *. The fifth in molybde- jw is not yet diffidently explored, to determine whether it fliould be reckoned among thofe al- ready known, or conllitute a new fpcues ; and to the fixth, in the acid of the lapis pondcrofus, we may apply the fame obfcrvation. Of thcfe two, however, we are in hopes the c ha racier of the full will be Loon dilplajed by the indullry of Mr IJiclm. The genera of rnctuU, therefore, of which we can be certain, amount to iixtcen, or fifteen at lead ; and it is not unlikely that this number will be increufed by future diicove- ries. § LXXXII. Arrangement of mixed Metals. IN feet ion Ixiii. we have a queilion refpeding the genera of minerals containing two metals, the one of which is more valuable than the o- ther, but in lefs quantity. Examples of fuch minerals we find in the golden pyrites, which hold * Meyer am! Khprotliius have proved it to be iron joined to the phofphoric acid ; and our author, convincccfby their arguments, changed l«u opinion* OF FOSSILS. 251 hold a fniall proportion of gold united with a large proportion of iron ; among the galena?, that arc far richer in lead than in filvcr; among the copper pyrites, always producing more iron than copper; and fo on of many others. Ac- cording to fyftcmatic 'rules, the more valuable and (career metal, although it defray the ex- pence of cliqtmtion, mould yet be referred to the genus of the more abundant, though of lefs eftimation. But if the ufe and aim of any fyftcm is confidercd, there can be no doubt that the preference mould be niligncd to the metal of the llighcft value. In fomc degree, however, the determination of this point may be a mat- ter of indifference, provided no dilVmcl genus is thereby dcftroyed ; a circumilancc that would probably aficcl the fiderite, in cafe it were de- cided in favour of fuperiority in weight, as that metal has never yet been found fcpnratc from iron ores, to which it always bears the fmallcft proportion. § L x x x 1 1 1 . Genera of Pbkgifllc Bodies. THE fourth clafs contains the fcwcft genera, fulphur, petroleum, amber, and perhaps dia- mond. $ LXXXIV. ON A NATURAL SYSTEM. § LXXXIV. Sulphur. SULPHUR is an inftance of the mod fimple compofition, confiding of two principles only, acid faturated with phlogifton. § LXXXV. Petroleum. IN petroleum we difcover an union more com* plex ; a final! portion of water combined, by means of an acid, with the principle of inflam- inability. § LXXXVJ. drnber. THE origin of amber is evidently from the ve- getable kingdom, for, befidcs its peculiar acid and oil, we obtain tjie acetous acid by diftilla- tion. The earthy refiduum may be coniideied as a matrix. § Lxxxvji. Diamond. WITH regard to the diamond, 1 have hitherto found no place fo proper for it as this clafs. In a fufficient degree of lire, it is entirely con- fumed, and with an appearance of cloud or rlame; and, in the focus of a burning lens it difcovcrs iigns of a footy matter. § LXXXVJ 1 1. O F F O S S I L S. 153 5 LXXXVIII. Pyrites and Molybdena do not con-* Jlit ute peculiar Genera* I HAVE referred pyrites, or fulphuratcd iron to the genus of iron. In like manner, molybdena, \\hi-.h is nothing elfe than a metallic calx mi- ncrali/cd by fulphur, provided its genus were known, ought to be aflribcd to the clais of me- tals. /\s to the foflil confidcrcd by Cronftedt as fixed plilogidon, and which he calls brandertzt its compntition lias not as yet been fufliciently invciligated. § LXXXIX. Properly f pea king, there is but one Ge- nus ofpbhgijlic Subjlances. IN the flridncls of language, all the genera of this clafs might be reduced to one, as the fame principle of inflammability prevails in each of them. § xc. Firjl Appendix. iNthefirft appendix to the clafies, arc treated thole foiftls of various and mechanical combina- tion, and which for the mod part is obvious to the fight. ON A NATURAL SYSTEM 5 xci. Four Genera ofFofft/s mixed mechanically. ANSWERING this clcfcripiion, we have four genera only, which arc denominated according to the clafs of the molt predominant ingredient in their compoiitiun. } xcn. Flrjl Genus. THE firft genus in which the fulinc charac- tcr prevails occurs fometinies in the neighbour- hood of volcanoes. In gyp I inn alto other foflils intimately mixed arc occafiorially found. The fubflunces likcwifc contained in natural waters may perhaps be referred to this genus. They are indeed held by water in folutioii, but their union is generally merely mechanical, of which the fixed principles arc collected in the reildua, after .the evaporation of the liquor. } x c n I . Second Genus. To the fecond genus we uflign allthofe foflils in which the earthy principle abounds. Such are thofe placed by Cronfledt in his full appen- dix under the name of J}t\a. Under this ge- nus may be arranged fcveral matrices of metals as well as of inflammable Jubilances; for lithan- * . thrax, OF FOSSILS. shrax *, aluminous fchiftus, aluminous ore of La Tolfa, and many others, contain fome extra- neous earthy matter, and in confiderable quan- tity. § xciv. Third Genus. IN the third genus, the metallic nature is pre- dominant. It has been long obfcrved, that ibmc metals ailed a difpofhion to aflociate with each other; ib that if one is discovered, it may be properly conjectured that the other is not ve- ry tar diilant. Relations fuch as thefe, as arc ob- vious in this genus, arc worthy attention and enquiry, as they prciniJc no Imall advantage to the inhabitants of mountainous countries. § xcv. Fourth Genus. IN the fourth genus we meet with variou3 mixtures of fofllls, of which this ruling principle belongs to the lail clafs. V $ xcvi. DlJllnCl and mixed Particles of FcJJih. To this appendix likewife, the diftinft and mixed particles of foil i Is may conveniently be referred, inferting them under their proper ge- nera, according to circuiullances. Such, for example • Pit coal. 256 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM example are the marlcs, moft of the common clays, mixed funds, and feveral other*. } xcvn. Four Genera of organic Fqffils. LASTLY, Organic foflils nre divided into four genera, as the diverfity of their nature fuggefts, whether they are found impregnated with and compofed of lalts, earth, metals, or phlogiilon. § xcvin. Fifth Genus of Cr on/led t. CRONSTEDT adds a fifth genus, and perhaps with great propriety, in which are included all the dead remains of once living fubftanccs, which, .by gradual putrefaction, have loll their original (truchnr, though they Hill retain fuch flrong marks of it as are not obliterated entirely but by the lapfe of many years. To this genus belongs the earth of dctlroyed animals or vege- tables. J xcix. Organic Bodies mineralized by Salts. THIS operation mud vary according to the na- ture of the fublhince. Bodies immerfed in a fait folurion are fometimes penetrated by it, and in- durated. In this manner the entire bodies of men, that had fallen by accident into the vari- olated water of the mine ofFahlun were found OF FOSSILS* 257 after fcveral years, fo little changed to the eye,- that the -individual could be remembered by( his countenance : In other rcfpecls however thejr were rigid like a ftatue, formed of falinc mat- ter. When expofed to the free air they began to crack. By a fimilar procefs, no doubt, even. lofter fubftances may be fo hardened, as to pre- ferve their ilruclure a long time, exempt from putrcfadioii. $ c. Bodies impregnated with Bitumen. IN like manner organic bodies, impregnated with bituminous matter arc enabled to prefcrvci thcmfelvcs from decay, and retain their figure and flruclurc* $ ci. Petrifaction of organic Bodies. NEITHER the bodies of animals nor of vegeta^ tales can be wholly penetrated by fiony particles* The harder parts only, as the bones, fliclls, ex- . tcrnal covering, roots, woods, fruit, and fimilar fubflances, are liable to this change; which, if I miftakc not, proceeds in' the following manner: j At firft, the parts of foftcfl texture putrefy, and , leaving feverul empty fpaces, through which water loaded \\ith earthy particles paiTes, and , in its courfe depofuing them, the vacuities are nt length filled by their gradual accumulation. Then follows the deft rucl ion of the more iirm confidence, to be penetrated in the fame order. R -If 258 ON A NATUR \L SYSTEM If the later dcpofitions diflcr in their colour and properties from thofe of an earlier date, yet the. original organic llruclure is beautifully difplayed by fmooth and polilhed fcdlions of the diifercnt bodies. All the particles, however, of the bo- dies fo dellroyed are not always carried off; for it often happens in dill illation, that fuch are ex- pelled as fhcw iigns of an organic con A rail ion, J en. Organic Bodies penetrated with metairu Panicles. TJIE moft fubtle'mctallic molecules, that can poffibly be canicd along by water, may in the fame manner penetrate and change the harder organic parts. § cm. Nuclei. FROM the fubilances already defcribed, nu- clei have, with great propriety, been confider- ed as quite dillinct. They are produced by two diiferent proceilcs. Any body pollening a ihell or firmer covering, and depoiitcd in a loft ftra- tum, is gradually attacked in its llefhy parts and foft inteilincs, \\ hich are either wholly de- llroyed, or contracted by exficcation ; fo that room being made in this manner tor the parti- cles flowing in, the (hell is at length filled with a nucleus, bearing the marks of its internal fur- iacc. If a body is involved in iediment, and after the exliccation of the (Iratum is any way dellroyed OF FOSSILS. 3eAroycd or carried off, a nucleus will be form- ed in the cavity, dcfcribing its external fca- :ures. $ civ. Remaining ItnprrJ/ions of organic Bodies. IN any foft fubflancc, imprefllons are left by rockles, fnails, infects, fiflics, and other fmall a- limals of the firmer kind, cither of their extcr- lal furfacc, their bones, or Ikelctons. cv. OJIcocolla* Ix particular foils, living roots arc by degrees :overed with ib hard a cntll, as to prevent the ibforption of the necellary juices. \Vlien a ve- getable attracls nioillurc every \vhcrc in the icighhourliood of its root, the fubtile, calcarc- >us, argillaceous, filiceous, and even oclircous nolecules, that accompany ir, produce this ef- cd. The fluid in which they were borne being iblbrbcd by the roc»ts, they fix thcmfelvcs on .he furfacc, and there forming a covering impcr- ,'ious to water, tiie roots decay, putrefy, and cave this crufl, which is commonly culled oflco* § cvi. Incrjijlated organic Bodies. WATERS loaded with earthy particles fre- quently cover with a cruft, reeds, fmall bran- R ^ ches, itfti ON A N ATUIUL SYSTEM dies, and other fubRances immerfed in theuv without any alteration of their original form. Or THE DIFFERENT SPECIES. } cvn. Specific Characters of Salts. SPECIFIC characters :irc to be determined by the difference in the nature of thole 11 m pic falts, which art has not been able to compofc from their principles. Of thefe, t\vo dillincl genera only are known ; the acid and the alkali alrea- dy mentioned. § cvni. Species of'Aclth. THE genus of acids is very extenflve. The vitriolic, nitrous, and muriatic, have been ex- tracted from foinis.for many ages pad ; but the difcovery of others diilering evidently from thefe has been made within a much later period. The. acidoftiuor, borax, arfenic, ilderitc, molybdc** na, and lapis ponderofus, are of this defcrip- tion *. § cix. Vegetable Acids. WE have the profpeft as yet of a more cxten- five field in the acids of the vegetable kingdom. Befides, 41 For metallic aci&> fee EfTuys, t. ill. x OF FOSSILS. Be fi tics the acetous, which was the onl}r one formerly known, it has produced to us already the acids of fugar, forrcl, tartar, benzoin, citron, amber, and feveral others. {ex. Animal Acids. THE animal kingdom is the poorcft of the three; for except the acid of ants, and of fat, we know of none other proper to it, although, •without doubt, it contains many highly deferr- ing of notice. As for example, the acid which the larva phakenac vinuhc of Linnaeus throws out in its defence, clear as water, and colour- lefs, which rcfcmblcs the concentrated acetous acid in fmell and tafle, coagulates blood, and thickens fpirit of wine ; reddens blue paper for a fhort time; but the original colour returning afterwards, affords proof of its great volatility *. The fcarcity of this very fmgulur lujiior has per- haps delayed fo long its farther invciiigation. 5 cxi. Adds common to fercral Kingdoms of Nature. OTHER acids arc common to all the kingdoms of nature, as the phofliboric, which had been falfcly amVncvl to the animal kingdom alone ; but which has been found, though rarely, in the foflil f , and in great plenty in the vegetable R 3 kingdom. * Ocuvrcs do M. Bonnet, v. iii. 8vo, p. 28. f ElTayS| vol. ii page 4:6. ON A NATURAL SYSTEM kingdom. Under this head we may arrange the aerial ucid. § cxi I. Great Number of Acids. IF we confidcr, that probably the exiftcnce pf all metals depend upon their peculiar radical acids ; that vegetable* evidently contain a num- ber oi* unknown acids ; and that, perhaps, the fume may be laid of anin.als alfo; we have rea- fon to wonder at the abundance and variety of this fubltanee, and to let a high value on its u- tility and importance in the a-conomy of na- ture. 5 c x u \ . Species of dlku line Sa Its. THE extent of the other genus is confined within very narrow limits, i'or a long time three fpecies only of alkaline falls were known; two of which could bear a flight ignition, and were therefore denominated fixed ; while the Other was diilinguiihcd by its volatility. 5 ex iv. Fixed sllkalies. Or the fixed alkalies the one feems to prevail in the vegetable, and the other in the mineral kingdom; from which they. both derive their names. cxv. OF FOSSILS. § cxv. Neutral Salts. SALTS formed by the cxatl faturation of acids wkh alkalies amount to iixty double fpccics, on the fuppofition that the acids do not exceed twenty in number. A confulcrablc part, how- ever, of the combinations of thcfc are as yet un- known, or at lead but impcrfedly examined. § ex vi. Lnperfccl double Salts. MANY imperfect double falts have been dif- covered. The acids of vitriol, arfenic, tartar, and for re 1 unite in cxcefs with the vegetable al- kali ; and the acids of vitriol and tartar with the mineral alkali. The labours of poilcrity will probably add a greater number. Borax retains an excefs of alkali ; and the arfenicatcd miner- al alkali like wife r capable of a Ilmilar combin- ation. § ex vi i. Triple Salts. THE fult of Seigncttc, and tartar faturatcd with volatile alkali, furnifli examples of the neu- tral triple faits. K4 Jcxvnr. ON A NATURAL SYSTEM § cxvin. Impcrfefl Triple Salts. AMONG the triple imperfeft falts, we know oi' the union of tartar with the acid of borax. Here is an excefs of uciJ. § cxix, Qwclruple Salts. TARTAR and borax combined, are an in- fiance of the quadruple falts. 5 cxx. Species of analogical Salts. EARTHS and metals, although fingly they re* fufe every combination with water, yet by the admixture of a fait they become for the inoft part foluble, and are then called analogical falts. S cxxi. Species of double perfc ft earthy Salts,. FOUR primitive earths uniting with twenty a- cuh, produce eighty double perfect earthy falts; that is falts compleatly faturated. The fifth earth, the filigeous, isfolublein the fluor acid only. CXXII, O F F O S S I L S. 5 cxxn. Double imperfctt earthy Salts. OF all the double imperfect earthy falts, with an cxcefs of acid, the fait of alum is the moft ") confpicuous. 5 cxxiu. Triple earthy Salts, THE principle triple compounds, arc the vo- latile alkali, either vitriolated or muriarcd, and magnclia, with which even nitrated lime readi- ly unites. — Vitriolatcd magnelia combines with clay ; and both the vegetable and mineral alka- li faturatcd with the acid of fluor, admit an uni- on with iiliceous earth* § cxxiv. Earthy alkaline Salts. FIXED cauflic alkalis, 1 know for certain af- fed no other earths than the argillaceous and filiccous. No triple alkaline falts have as yet been difcovercd. j cxxv. Speciei qf metallic fahs. ANALOGICAL metallic falts arc by far the moft numerous. From a combination of the fixteen metals with the twenty acids, we ob- tain. three hundred and twenty double falts; but ON A NATURAL SYSTEM "but which can be fcarccly fo perfectly faturatcd, as that there fliould not be fume finull excels of acid. { cxxvi. Metallic Saltf, ivitb an Excefs of the metallic Baft. THERE are fomc inflances alfo of the union of metals and acids, highly deferving of notice, iu which tlie exccfs is on the part of the metal. To this head we refer the turpith mineral, .and red precipitate of Mercury, v/hich though ever fo well waihed, yield a finall quantity of a- cid on dillillation. The fame remark applies equally well to the pulvis algarothi. Mercurius dulcis retains its metal partly calcined and part- ly perfect*; and nitiatcd lilver, in like manner can take up a portion of lilver, without dcphlo- gitlicuting it. Muriatcd copper, deficient in its iicid, couiiitutcs a peculiar fait hitherto unclif- cribcd. J c\\vn. Triple metallic Suits. WH hp.vc long been acquainted with a con- fiderable number of metallic triple falts, that are nut feparable but by dccompoiiiion. Of this ddcription are tlie combinations of tartar with iron and antimony ; of the vitriolated ve- getable ^ Schcclc iu Adis Stockh. OF FOSSILS. 267 Actable alkali with iron ; of the muriatcd vcgcta- \)\>. alkali with platnu.m; of the variolated vo- latile alkali \\itli ci'^ptr; of the muriatcd vola- tile alkali with platinum, quicklilver, copper, and iron; of vitriohitedand acctated quickiiiver with iron ; of vitriolatcd iron with magnciium, with copper, and with /.inc. § c x x v 1 1 1 . Quadruple met a Ulc Salts. THE quadruple metallic fairs are formed by the union of ial an.nu-niac \\ith nitrated iron, with nitrated copper, ar.d \\ithboracicquick- filvcr; of the viuiol of iron, likewite, with the vitriols of copper and ^inc together. { cxxix. Alkaline metallic Salts. MOST of the alkalis alfo combine readily with metals, efpecially the volatile alkali; which fometimes forms beautiful cryllals, with a me- tallic bafe, as with iilver and copper. The nu- merous family of thefe falts are dcfcrving of mucli greater attention than has ever yet been paid to them. § ex xx. Synopjts of Salts. FROM what has been faid, I am of opinion, there can be no doubt of the extcuiive 'influence and 168 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM and variety of the clafs of falts, in which vrt have here confidence! all thofe prepared by art, as -well as thole produced by nature. In fa- vour of the halurgic fyftem, I lhall fubjoin a table, prefcnting at one view all the chief varie- ties, with which I am acquainted. A greater number of proper experiments would certainly add many more to the account. Properly fo called SALTS. Simple « Double Triple Acid Alkali. Neutral Imperfect. £ Neutral C I ni perfect. . C Neutral Quadruple J Jmi>cricct. earthy Ana- i lo^ic double? with an alkali double » cloubli metallic < with an acid Imperf. with cxccf* of acid Irnpcrf. by .defect of acid. w quadruple I, with an alkali double cxxx. OF FOSSILS. $ cxxxi. Species of Earths of a double Cbnraftcr. In the clafs of cartlis different fpccics frequent- ly occur, pofleffing two characters. To the fird belong the falinc earths; which, on account of the limits before nttigncd to them, arc not rec- koned in the clak of falls, although they refera- ble them in their nature, and conflitutc but an ; imperfect fpccies of earths. Of thcfe fubiianccs^ • however, a few only are known, §51. § cxxx 1 1 . Mixed Species of Etirtbs. GENUINE fpccies of mixed earths arc produ- ced by the intimate union of two or more. Of the exidcncc of fuck au union we have clear c- vidcncc, in § 90, > cxxxin. On what Arguments their Diverjity is . founded. Not the quality and number only of the in- gredients, but even their relative weights im- ply a fpccific divcrfity. § cxxxiv. The NcceJJity cf confide ring tbc Propor- tion of every Part. In the Sciagraphia Rcgni Mineralis, lately publilhcd ON A NATURAL SYSTEM published, I have overlooked the mutual pro- portions; hut, on further reflection, I find the confideration of them abfolutely neceffary. § cxxxv. method of invejligatingtbc/trviral Spt* ties tf Earths, IN order to determine with accuracy the fpe- cics of earths, which hitherto feem to have red- cd on no very certain foundation, it will be re- quire to explain carefully this doctrine. Ijct the five primitive earths be indicated by five initial letters, the ponderous b> p, calcareous by r, magnefian by m, argillaceous by a, and iili- ceous by /. J cxxxvi. Continuation. AT firft we will attend to 'the character only and number of principle*; and, by means of the doctrine of comi,inatiun$, it will be eaiy to af- certain how many fpc-cific coniociations can arife from thefe five letters. For example, />, r, ///, u, and /, can produce nt more than ten double ipecies — pc, />/;/, pa, fst cut, ca, cst inn* ins, as. Of OF FOSSILS. 27* Of triple fpccics we have as follows :— pern, pea, pcs, pma, pms, pas, cm a, cms, cas, mas. Quadruple : — pema, perns, peas, prnas. Laftly, One quintuple only : — pcmas. In this manner, from the whole clafs of rarths, bcfides the five funplc fpccics, contain- ing the primitives alone, we can obtain but twenty-fix different combinations; which, toge- ther with the five fmiplc, amount in all to thirty- •nc. j cxxx v 1 1 . IVby this Method is impcrfccl. IN thispbn, lunvcvcr, the number of the fpe- cies is too much limited, and our conclufions liable to error. It \\ ill caiiiy appear that pa, for example, mull be feparaled ; iur the character of the mafs, with an cxccfs of ponderv^us earth, \\ill be by no means the fame as with an excels of clay. In like manner puc ihouid be referred to three dillinift genera, according as the liril, the fecund, or the third principle bear thcgrcat- •3il flure in the conipofition, ($ 78.). The fame, indeed 27* ON A NATURAL SYSTEM. indeed, will be obferved in whatever formula is employed. Therefore it is neccflury, together with the number of the principles, to coniider the weight of each. } cxxxviii. /// ivlat Manner can this DC- feel be J applied or corrected. THAT they may be all fymbolically defined, and rendered obvious to the fenles, a certain lo- cal value mull be ufligncd to every letter; To that whatever principle occurs full in combina- tion, that fhould be underilood to be the heavi- cflof the whole mufs: livery intermediate prin- ciple \\ill yield to the p cceding one, but ex- ceed thofe that follow it, and the lull oi'all will be of the leail importance. 5 c xx xix. Enumeration of double Species. ACCORDING to this fyilein then \\efliall have twenty double fpecies : pct pm, pa, ps. cp, cm, at, cs. 111 pi vie, inn, MS. ap, ac% ttmt as. fa /'. /'"• >• OF FOSSILS. 173 $ CXL. Enumeration of triple Species. EACH of the five letters in fortning triple compofitions, may be arranged in twelve dif* ferent ways. Five multiplied by twelve, there- fore produce fixty fpecies as follows : pent, pea, pcf, pma, pmft pmc, pa/I pac, pant, pfc, pfm, pfa. cpmt epa, cpf, cmp, cma, tmf, cap, cam, caf, , cfm, cfa. mpc, mpa, wpf, mcp, men, mcf, map, mac, maft wfpi mfc% r??fa. « ape, apm, apf, acp, acm, acf, amp, amc, amf, *$• nfc* fifm. Jpc, fpm, fpa, fcp, fern, fcat frtp, fmc, firla, § ex LI. Quadruple Species. As the double fpecies amount to twenty ; and thefe, with the remaining three letters can be combined in fix different ways, in the quadru- ple fpecies, it will be eafily fcen, that fix times twenty, or one hundred and twenty, will ex- prefs the amount of this divifion S pcma, 374 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM pcma, pcam, pcrnf, pcfm, pcfa, pcaf, pmat, prnca, pmaf, pmfa, pmcf, pmfc, pacm, fame, pacf, pnfct parnf, pafm, pfcm, pfntc, pf*c, cpma, cpam, cpmf, cpfm, cpaf, cpfa, cmpa, cmap, cwpfi cmfp, cmuf^ cmfii, ctij>mt camp, caff, caff, caiiif, ccifm, cfpm, cfmp, cfpa, cfupt cfnial cfum. mpca9 Tupac, wpaf* mf/<** Mfijt mf>fc rncpa, pt mcpf, mcfp, me of, me fa, rnacp, mapc, i nw/c, luaff^ waff, mfcp, rnfpc, mfap, mfpa, mfac, mfca. apcm^ apmc, apmf, af/m, apef, apfcy acpm, ^ acmpi acm/, acfm> acff, ae/jp, arnpcy amcp% ampf, amfpt armf, amfc% afpc^ afip, afpm, afmpt a/l/n9 afmc* fpcm, fpmc, fpim, fpma% fpca, fpac^ fcpm, fcmp* fcam, fcma^ fcpa% /cap, fmcat J'mac^ jmt>*t fmap, fmep, fmpc, fapc> Jacp, facm, fame, famft fapm. } CXLII. Qyintuph Species. triple fpccies being fixty in number, (§140.) and each of thcfc admitting of two changes only with the other two letters, it fol- lows OF FOSSILS. 27$ lows, that, under this head, we may reckon one hundred and twenty fpccies. pcmaf, pcmfa, pcamf, pcafm, pcfam, pcfma, prncfa, pmcaf, pmafc, prnacf, pmfca, pmfuc, pamfc, pamcf, pafmc, pafcm, pacfm, pacmf, pfcma, pfcam, pfmca, pfrnac, pfumc, ffacm. epmaf, cpmfa, cpafm, cparnf, cpjlim, cpfma, cmpaf, cmpfa, cmapf, cmaf}), cinfya, cmfup, ca*nfp, camhf, capmf, capfm, cajpm, cnfmp% cfmpa, cfmap, c/pma, cfpam, cfapm, cfamp. mpcfa, mpcaf, mpacf, mpafc\ mpfca, tnpfac, mcpaf, mcpfa, mcapf, mcafp^ mcfpa, mcfap, mupcft mtipfc, macpf, macfp, mnfcp, mafpc^ mjpca, mfpac, tnfcnp, mfcpa, tiifacp, nifapc. npcmf, apcfrn, apmcf, apmfc> apfcm, (ipf'nc, ucpmf, acpfm, acmt>f, actnfp, ac/f>m, acfinp, awpcf, amffc, amcpf, amcjpt awf[>c, awfcp, ajpcm, aJpmC) afcpm, afcmp, (ifnpc, af/ncp. fpcma, fpcam, fprnra, fpmac, fj)cicm, fcpma, fcparn, fcmpa, fcmnp, fcamp, fiaprn, frnpca, fmpac, fmcpa, fmcap, fmacp, fmapc, , fapmC) facpm, facmp, fumpc^ farncp. S 2 § CXLIII; ON A NATURAL SYSTEM $ CXLIII. Slmounf of the Species. IF the primitive earths are five in number,, rhen tire preceding paragraphs exhibit the formula? of all thofe fpccics that can poflibly a- rifc from their various combination ; and to which, adding the fise fimple earths, we fliull find the amount to be thus, 5+20+604.120 + 120=325, the amount of the whole. $ CXLIV. Further Explanation of the Formula. I HAVE fo contrived thefe formula? as to make it evident to what genus every combination is to be referred. — The firfl letter determines the character of that genus, j- only crxceptcd ; as, though it exceeds in weight, yet its other qua- lities do not always prevail, ($ 89.) . If at any time the number of the primitive earths i* diminifhcd, whether by decompoiing them into others more limplc, or by diicovering them to be of a metallic nature, yet the fame formuke may be prcfervcd after making the ne- ceflary correction. For example, Suppofc^ were referred to the third clais, the quintuple formulae, (J 142.) would then become quadruple, that ieries being deihoyed entirely where /> begins, and from all the others would it be taken away. In this cafe» OF FOSSILS. 277 lofe the whole of the firft genus and the ;fame formuke are repeated four times in each of the remaining genera, and constitute one fpecies only; fo that V = 6 fpecies is of each genus and 4x6=24 the number of all the quadruple fpe- rics. Let -us take another example, and remove al- together a, the formuLe of that genus are imme- diately annihilated, and the eighteen in the three other genera arc reduced to 2X3=^6. In the fame manner, that the corrections are made in the formula of -the lait order, can they be applied to thofe preceding. For it is evident that in reducing quadruple to triple fpecies, it is impoflihle when p is deilroyed, that the re- maining feries fliould be quadruple, and arc therefore to be removed entirely. Let n reprefent the number of primitive earths, and the number of the double fpecies beexpref- fed by n. n. — i. of triple fpecies by n. n — i. n — 2, of quadruple fpecies by /;. n — i. n — 2. n— 3, and that, of the lad order by n. n—i. rt—2. — // — n — 2. { CXLV. Species of Metals. HAVING determined thefe points, we now proceed to the third clafs, in which, on account •of the greater number of genera, we fliall find .the fpecies alfo to be far more numerous. S 3 Metalo ON A NATURAL SYSTEM Metals occur generally either complete, mi- neralized, or deprived of their phlogifton. i c x L v i . Na five Metals. WHATEVER pofleflesa complete metallic form, js denominated native. Into this (late no heterogeneous Jubilances are admitted, unlefs they are perfectly metallic. Hence arife various fpecies; — the metal native andfimple; — combined with fome other;— or with feveral together. Native fimple metals are very rare, and, as far as I know, have never yet been difcovered perfectly pure. Mod metals are occafionally found native, as gold, platinum, filver, quick-filver, copper, bifmuth, niccolum, arfenic, cobalt,, and anti- mony ; but fearce anyone of them occurs quite pure. Cold is mixed with filver or copper; (il- ver with gold or copper; platinum with iron; niccolum and cobalt with arienic as well as iron; antimony with iron or zinc; and further expe- riments will without doubt difcover other com- binations. The exigence of native lead, iron tin, and 7/i nc has been always much qucflionrd by ma- ny. Magncfium and fiderite have never yet been found in a native Hate. OF FOSSILS. j CXLVII. Mincralifcd Mctalt. A MINERALISED metal appears to me to be £ metal intimately united with fomc foreign fab- ftance that deftroys more or lefs the genuine metallic form. J CXLVIII. Mincralifing Suljlancef SUCH are fulpher and acids. CXLIX. Metals mincralifcd by Su/pbur. SULPHUR can be direclly united with all the metals, except gold, platinum, and zinc; and thcfe mineralifations arc found in the bowels of the earth. Sulphurated tin alfo occurs in Si- beria *. Some mineralizations arc ailcftcd, both a* to chnntdcr and appcanmcc, nccording to tho quantity of fulphur. Tin, combined with twen- ty hundred parts of fulphur, forms a minerali- fation, white and fibrous; but, with twice that proportion, the compound is micaceous, and of the colour of gold. Sulphur ading on perfect metals feparates a portion of their phlogifton ; and is even capable of uniting with many calces like wife. 84 The * Eflayt| vol. tii. p. 158. ON A NATURAL SYSTEM The combination of gold with fulphur, by the intermedium of iron ; is not yet made fuflicient- ly evident; for that which is found in pyrites feems to be rather mixed than diilblved; as in a folution of pyrites, in the nitrous acid, the gold is depoiited in molecules, not in powder, but diil'ering from each other both in lize and fi- gure *. As to 7.inc, that metal appears in the pfeudo galena to be joined T uith iulphur by means of iron. § CL. Miner alifing Acids. OF mineralifing acids there are fevcral, asthd; vitriolic, muriatic, phofphoric, aerial, and pro- bubly the arfciiical. } CLI. Vitriols. VITRIOLS of copper, iron, and zinc, are the fpontaneous productions of nature. Combina- tions of the fame acid with lead, niccolum, and cobalt, are likewife fometimes found ; and they feem generally to be the refult of decompofed mineralifations. ictii, •* EfTayi, vol. ii. p. 412. •\ JbiJ.p. 329, an OF DOSSILS. J CLII. Metals miner atifed by tbe Muriatic Acid. THE muriatic acid is more rarely found unit- ed with metals. As yet it has nut been difco- vered in any other than filver, quickfilver, and copper. The two firft contain with it the vitri- olic acid likewife *, { CLII i. Metals miner alifed by tbe Aerial Acid. THE aerial acid is often prefent in calciform metals. We meet wkh it in lead, copper, iron, and zinc. Of its connexion with oiiiu* mculs we have no certain intelligence. § CLI v. Metals mineral'* fed by tbe Pbofpboric Add. OF all the acids, that of phofphorus is the fcarceft, and has hitherto been found with a fpataceous kind of lead only. j CLV. Metals mincraliftd by tbe Arfenical Acid. THE arfcnical acid, if I miftake not, is the true mcntlruum of the red cobalt, that is fome- times beautifully cryflailifed. It is certain, that a red colour is ouing to an acid, and that, from all the experiments as yet made, no other has .been difcovercd. § CLVI. * Woulfc, Philof. Tranf. ON A NATURAL SYSTEM J CLVI. T&e different Species of Met ah admit of a/mo/l fiumberlefs Variations. WHOEVER, confidcrs, that we arc acquainted already with fixteen metals, and that of theft the greater number of the perfed can be in fe- veral ways combined together, as well as thofe mineralifed by fulphur and various acids, will naturally exped that, by means of accurate ana- lyfes, many more fpecies might be difcovered, which have as yet probably efcaped the re- fenrches of the laborious philofopher. Were we to purfue the plan applied to the earths, (Scxliii.) the number would be really aftonifhing ; but I am almoft of Pliny's c pinion, who ibmewhcrc confcflcs : " Mihi contucnti fcfe pcrluafit re- " rum nutura nihil incrcdibilc exillimare de ca." FormuLT, indeed, point out to us what may be done; but whether, and where, they are employ, ed, mu ft be learned from a faithful analyfis ; which aflifls us, beiidcs, better to underftnnd thofe of them that prcfcribe the true limits to our invefligations. J CLVII. Spifcies fjf Fbhg \Jlic Sub/lances. THE fourth clafs is exceedingly poor both in genera and fpecies. tCLVIJI. OF FOSSILS. } CLVIII. Species oftbc Diamond. WE are acquainted with many differences of the diamond, but with hone that are fpecific. J CLIX. Species of Sulpbur. THE fpocics of fuiphur are diflinguiflied by the diveriity of their acids, and we know ot two only ; the common farmed by the vitriolic acid, and plumbago, containing the aerial acid iutura- fed with phlogiilun. 5 CLX. Species of Petroleum. THE varieties of petroleum, in colour and te^. nuity, depend for the moft part on the degree of exiiccation, and on the matrix or heteroge- neous fubftanccs mechanically mixed with it; fo that they can be confidercd but fcldom as fpe- cilic. Exficcation produces a mafs thick and tough, or folid and dry. § CLX I. timber. THE fame obfcrvations nearly will apply to amber. In refpeft of tranfparency and colour, we meet with many varieties in the European ipecies. Tte 2*4 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM The Indian fpccics agrees in all thing with the European, except its being fofter, and want* ing the volatile fait*, which lad circumftance feems to eilablifh a fpecific difference. Cop;il, commonly fo called, is to be diilinguifhed from the gum rciin of tbat name fold by the apothe- caries. $ CLXJI. Origin of PbJogi/llc Sub/lances. DIFFERENT opinions are maintained by phU lofophers, refpecling the origin of phlogiilic fub- ftances. Some contend, that thefe bodies arc proper to the foflil kingdom; while others, pro- bably with more reafon, afcribe them to thofe organic fubilanccs which abound in various oi- ly and fat juices, and iirc not fo much ailcclcd by time, as they are gradually changed in the bowels of the earth by neighbouring pyrites and other foilils, until they acquire a bituminous quality. Heterogeneous fubilanccs encloled within them are cxident proofs of original flui- dity. The dittcrcnt degrees of purity of naptha, coagulation performed by time, acids, or other media, and various urcumiliinces bciidcs in the great laboratory of nature, all influence the dcn- fity, colour, clcarnefs and other properties. As to ambergrife, Aublet infills, that it is the juice of a tree growing in Guiana, and there called X * I*chman, Chcm. SchnTt. OF FOSSILS. called Cuina. He fays, that after heavy rains, large inafics of it are waflied into the rivers. The fpecimcns examined by Koflcllc arc faid to refemble ambergrife in their odor and prin- ciple qualities *. Long ago, Rumphus makes mention of a tree called nanarius, containing a juice fimilar to ambergrife. Lately, however, in Kngland an opinion has obtained, that this Uib- Aance is the excrement of a cetaceous filh. Ob- fcrvations made on the phy fetor macrocepha- ius,(thc fpermaceti whale) have given rile to this Idea, as the excrement in the intcftincs of that animal, is found on diileclion pcrfeclly harden- ed, and containing the beak of the repia oclo- podia, on which it feeds, and in every refpecl refembling the ambcrgrife of commerce, 5 c L x n I . S peeler of Fofflls mixed mccba nlcally. Or foflils mechanically mixed, that fall un- der confidcration in the liril appendix, we have conilituted four genera only,(j 91.) their fpecies, however, are numerous. \ clxiv. The federal Species cxprcffcd by the Fvnnulcv of Letters. LET J denote fait, / earth, m metals, and i phlogillic fubftances; and let the fama local valua * HiA. del plantci dc la Cuyanc, 177^. 386 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM value be afllgned to thefe letters as in the fore. going examples, (§ 138.) and we fhall obtain the following double fpecies. jr/, /;/if /i. //, tmt /j, in/, wt, mi. is, it, im. Triple fpccics. stm% //, smtt //, , ///, //T//, /;/, tmi, t i/f fpecies. sttni, ///;/;, , WI/lV, 77///V, 7/I///, 7///V/, , J/OT/f iV/W, ;VW/, I/ff//, 5 CLXV. Continuation. WE are, however, not rafhly to conclude that all the fpccics are cxhaufled in thefe formula? ; for every letter may be varied in many ways, according to the diverfity of the fcveral fpecies. For example, / can be multiplied more than 325 times, (§ 131, 143). /, indeed, prcfents but O F F O S S I L S. 387 but few variations, and /like wife ; as the num- ber of the falts proper for thefe mixtures, is ex* ccedingly limited; but / furpaftcs even m, ({ *5fy > f° that \vc huvc here another occafion of admiring the exhauiliblc Aorics of nature. SCLXVI. The Pojiilon and Jit nation cf mixed I r is by no means to be expected ; that every fpscies of thefc mixed tbilils, wliich to me appear tobe/wtf/vr, flunild be equal to the production of huge mountains. The grcatefl number of them have hitherto been found in veins orfmall flrataonly; many of which, though of different characters, when combined, give birth to rocks. The fame may be faid of the fcparatc particles, which, in the aggregate, form large and- conti- nued ridges of hills. But thefe a 1 mo fl always fpring from the ruins and decompofuiorU of mountains. S CL\VII. Species cf organic Fojfilf. ORGANIC foffils conditutc fourgcncra, (§97.) ; but the fcver.il fpccics of fulfils, whether poffciT- ing an organic form only, or with it an organic Aructure, arc diflinguifhcd by fpecific marks. 5 CLXV1IJ. 288 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM § CLXVIII. Species of organic FoJJils mineral!/- ed by Salts. OHOANIC foffils, penetrated with fulinc mat- ter, are but fcKlom found. Gypfum, indeed, fometimcs contains the lefs perilhable remains of animals and vegetables ; but thefe fubftances are fcarce ever found quite gypfeous. Entire animals are occafionaly to be met, filled with vi- triol, (* 99.) and Rill oftener the harder parts of vegetables, or their roots, fecni to rciill putrifac- tioii by the means of ilii* fult. $ CLXIX. Earths. THE fecond genus, comprehending earthy foflils, is by far the riche h Innumerable cal- careous nuclei of fliell full and marine infecls daily occur in calcareous llrata. Sometimes, an animal covering, or ihcll, which \vasbefore cal- careous, being changed in its internal texture only, become fpataccous. Argillaceous nuclei of marine animals are com- mon in aluminous fc hill us, but very rare in any other bed. Frequently the covering of the a- iiimalcule (lill remains. Marine exuvhu are obvious in marie alfo. If lime predominates, often the Skeletons alone of the fifh are feen. Of Olleocollu we have alrea- dy fpoken fuflkiently, J 105. Siliceous OF FOSSILS. 286 Siliceous nuclei frequently fill entirely the in- ternal cavity of organic fofiils, and fomctimes even the fame matter furrounds their external furfact*. I am in poflelTion of an cchnitcs, the Jhell of which is filled witli cainmon flint, and Ihcws upon the lurface of the nucleus all its na- tural inequalities ;' the (hell itfeif, however is calcareous and fpataceous, although it was iin- heded in (iliceous earth on both fules. Small Ihells occur fomctimes in jafper, but very rarely *, and are not more frequent in petrolilex. Organic bodies, themfelves aifo are found penetrated with iiliccous matter. Siliceous pe- trcfadions of the trunks of trees are often clif- tindly marked with the growth of every year. Siliceous mulcles and cockles alfo frequently occur, and final 1 corals even arc fometimcs clear- ly to be dillinguiflicd in common flints. I have fee n the marks of leaves accurately exprelled in quartz, and the cpitomium of Blan- kcnburg is often quartofe. Nuclei of land are fometimcs to be met with; but the figure of their furface is generally fo ob- I cure, that it is very difficult to determine from what organic body they were produced. In the fand pit at iMaeftricht was found not long ago the (keleton of a crocodile, fome teeth of which were lent to me. T i CLXX. * 1'VrWr iu Epiil. property is not limit- ed to them, as crytialline fulfils are found in aU' moil every genus of earths, metallic, and phlogif- tic fubflunccs., $ CLXXVII. -External Markt taken from the Texture -of FoJJUs. THE texture of fofiils is not eafily determined by the form of the particles ; as when they arc intimately combined with each other they are always mutilated by fractures ; we may, how- ever, dillinguifh many varieties. The molt fub- tile;ihapelefs molecules ulually called impalpable, give rife Lo an equal texture : while others larg- er, and more dilccrnablc produce a granous, fi- lamentous, fcaly, and fpataceous competition, 5 CLXXVIII, From the Colour. COLOURS, efpccially the gradual fhades ol them, can fcarcc be fo defcribi-d l>y language, as to convey any clear idea, Hardly any other method, therefore, than that of companion can be uied by always referring to thofe colours Juf- ficiently undcrflood. § CLXXIX. OF FOSSILS. § c L x x i x . Fhvfical Marks. 1'nvsiCAL marks alfo, as hardncfs and gravi- ty, arc to be employed for afccrtaining varieties, ivhenever they are found to throw any light. } CLXXX. Varieties cf organic FoJJiIs. THE varieties of organic foflils arc to be deter- mined from the fpccics of vegetables or animals, which fcrvc as guides ro our judgement. And •ill living bodies being defined by their external appearance, the fame rule maybe obferved in fliN as in the otlicr dalles. 5 CLXXXI. F.pihguc. A iYSTLM ofil.flils, arranged according to the foregoing method, I think is to be recommend- ed for its variety, order, and utility; for tin; number of fpccie:> and varieties, the manyfbld combinations of principles, the feries of agree- ment and difcrepancy,thc harmony and oppofi- tionot internal and external characters, and many other important rcafons: And 1 hope it will be found to anfwcr better, not only on account of its extenlive view, but ulio bccauic the riches and phenomena of the organic kingdoms are in it more properly difphiyed than in any other. T 4 \ CLXXXI. +$6 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM • ' ' * LATTER PART. Or GIVING NAMES TO FOSSILS. $ CLXXXII. Tbe Utility of Numes properly ed in Afihefafofj. IF foffils arc rightly and juflly arranged and denominated, agreeably to flic nature of tilings, \ve find a harmony in them not k-fs grateful than advantageous. SCLXXXIII. Ill/lory of Names in Natural Phi- hfipby, THE fcicnccs cultivated during the early a- ges, as chcmiflry, and all thofe depending on it, had unhappily adopted certain fchemes and modes of ipeech, of which the greater part were not only puerile and abfurd, but often altoge- ther falfe, and leading to erroneous conclufions. Many cireumflances contributed to the fupport of this mummery. At firil, in thofe days of darkell ignorance, names were required to de- fcribe new difcovcries and phenomena, atiaptcd to the unfkilfulncfs of their authors. By de- grees the knowledge of natural bodies, as well as of artificial, being extended, the profeflors of chemiflry began to entertain fuch lofty kleas <\f their OF FOSSILS. their (kill, that they did not hcfitatc to promife thcmfclvcs the miracles of an univerfal medi- cine, and the making of gold, Hence arofc the ridiculous flruggle betwixt the immoderate bondings, through \\hich they were endeavour- ing to difpofc ad van tagcoully of their difcove- ries, and tlie moti i'olicitous attention with which they wiihcd to keep them concealed. What the names they employed could be, when depending on the moil abfurd theories, the (lighted appearances, and mod abilrufc me- taphors, we arc at no lofs to apprehend. To thcfe were added afterwards of hers produced by any fortuitous flight occurrence ; and we per- ceive in fome meafure a language peculiar to the early operations of chemiilry. § c i.x x x I v . Of reforming the Names of Foffih. THE inditution of academies of fcicnce gave rife to the gradual introduction of a founder theory, founded upon more accurate experi- ment, which tended confidcrably to limit the barbarous and mydical ailcclation of fecrcfs; and occalionccl a more rational denomination of new cUfcoveries, though as yet not built upon gene- ral principles. HeJides, the rude and indigedcd mafs c\f antiquity was Hill preferred for the greatcd part, and chiefly for the following rea- fons. 1'rom the reformation of names and phrafes 39* ON A NATURAL SYSTEM phrafes, it was apprehended that the fcience would be involved in great confufion, and that their number would create confident ble difficulties ; and it was like wife alledged, that the moll ancient writings would, by thu mems, be tendered unintelligible, and all the fcience they contained condemned to oblivion. lint fuch evils, at leall not all of them, fctin not to be a ncccfliiry confequence. The oldefl Writings, efpeciully thole on alchemy, are aliuoll all of them incomprehcniiblc: \Vhatcver there- tore will anfwer to probable conjecture, or will admit of a certain and determinate explication* might be more eafily underllood, if t run I poled according to the nature of the fubjecl, — and the fenfc of this or that denomination being once extracted, it might be prefcrved in a book ap- propriated to the purpole. As to what relates to the dread of the introduction of new names, it would undoubtedly be well grounded were not all writers to fuller them to be regulated in the fame manner. In this cafe the new names adapted to the nature of things would readily infmuiite themfelvcs, and be uiuveriitHy jeceiv^ cd. Surely, it is highly improper that the noblell fcience, which conllitutes, as it were, the very efience of natural philofophy, ihould deliver truths of the greateil importance in the moil ubfurd of all languages, livery country jn.Eu- OF FOSSILS. rope has thought the cultivation and perfection of its peculiar language an objccl highly \vorthy of attention; andihall the fcicnces alone be dif- tinguifhed lor rudcncfs and barbarity ofililc, while they arc daily requiring new names to cx- prcfs new difeovrries cor. flruclccl upon rational principles; ,md which, if they arc not all wifely and methodically ordered, would fomotimcs by their number occafion the dcilruclion of thofo very difcovcries they wore intended to prcferve. In but:my, fuch a reformation lias long taken, place ; and what is there that iliould prevent i*o ialu'ary a plan fruin being extended to the other fcicnccs ? Hut nr>t with (landing the obvious nccefllty of reform, as well r.s of foinc fixed ilandard, accord- ing to which all the new names nViuld IK* regu- lated, then: are ilill many diflicultics that op- pole their frc-e introduclioii into the republic of letters. From the very nature of the propofal it is expofed to the influence of particular opi- nions ; ;md every one, pavli.il to his own, and chuiing diilcrent data, it will be imppfiible in the beginning at lcail,to unite, in one common conlent, fcritinicnts fo adveife and contradicto- ry. We arc not however to defpair; for, if t he- voices of all do not combine, perhaps the grea- ter number will, to ftifiie the dr.mour of pcr- filling cavillers. Every reul iVicnd to chcmif- fry, therefore, fiicuid wifn for a happy illue to the 3P0 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM the plan of Monf. Morveau, to be attempted in the new Encyclopedia. In the mean time, it may be permitted inc. to offer a few curfory re- marks, which I think are relating particularly to mineralogy, and fubmit them to the judge- ment of the public. The end of the whole lyf- tem is doubtlefs to exprefs with truth, perfpicu- ity, prccilion, and brevity, every thing of \\ Inch an idea caii be conveyed by words. New names, therefore, become neceflary to new things ; and to render thefc the mod convenient is the chief aim and object of this undertaking. 5 CLXXXV. Names that are evidently abfurd, am^ o//fj/'/ to be expunged. I AM of opinion, that all abfurd names, and, fuch as betray oftcntatious vanity, are to be en- tirely fet afule. Of theft' we have examples in the ful niirabilc Glauberi, fal fecrctum Glaube-, ri, fal polychreftum Gluferi.arcanHin corral'mum, arcanum duplicatum, ful de du^bus, and fcvc^ rai others. 5 CLXXXVI. Andfitlfi Names likewift. IN like manner, names that are falfe ought tr\ be removed. Of this description arc the follow- ing, fuggdling ideas that are erroneous : Oleum Of FOSSILS. Oleum vitrioli Spiritus vitrioli Oleum tartari Sul tarturi Terra foliuta tarta- ri Butyrum antimunii Scmi-metallum j f Concentrated vitrio- lic acid. Diluted vitriolic a- cid. Spirit indicates properly an inflam- mable liquor miiciblc with water. Vegetable alkali dif- folvcd by delujucf- cence. 1 j Alkali of tartar. ! Acetous acid fatura- tcd with the vegeta- ble alkali. Muriatic acid fat uni- ted with antimony* Fragile metal. $ CLXXXVII. IVlnit then arc the muncs^to be a- dopted? THOSE names which indicate ionic cdcntial property or compoiltion are of all others the bell. CLXXXVIII. What arc the Names to be tolerated? THOSE which admit a more cxtcnfivj fi c.itioii may be fullered, if others evidently bet- ter cannot be fubflitutcd, And thefc indeed arc ON A NATURAL SYSTEM nre true names ; for although, from the power of the words, they will apply to mnny Jubilan- ces, nothing prevent* them from heing »•/!;«*" upplicd to the one or the other. In this way ucidum ncrium was ufed in the. year 1772, for aer fixum ; which is not abiblutely advancing a falfehood, as it poflellcs a proper acid, and in an aerial form ; but it is objectionable, becaulc thcfe qualitiei arc diicoverablc in other fubftan- ces. Let therefore fome other denomination be fubflituted more exact and determinate, as, gas, or acidum mcphiticum, or clfe there will be no end to the various changes. But if it be iinpoiH- ble to find one more accurate, it will be attend- ed but with little inconvenience, to apply it to that fubilance which we know for certain to be the acidum aerium of the anticnts, § r.i.xxxix, NwncjJ*gn{ffmg Icfs than (be Thing defined fj tight to be a WHATEVER names exprcf* too 1 i mi ted a fen fe fhould certainly be expunged, if a choice can be made among thole that arc fynonijnous, ofpeci- nlly thole recommended by long time; as they convey fulfe and inadequate ideas. Thus mine- ral indicates properly an ore ; but in the vul- gar fenfe it fignifies every inorganic body found in the bofom of the earth; although this idea is •more accurately expreiUrd by the word f'-JIU. In OF FOSSILS. 303 In like manner, orycloht-ia implies a more cxaft denomination of the fciencc of fulfils than mine-' rafagra, Pctrefaclum QV petrlficatitm^ falls near- ly under the lame criticifm. But as here we have no better fynonimous word to fubftitutc, \ve mull be contented with fueh as cullom has eftabiiihed. Words, like coin, owe their cur- rency to prefcription. {. cxc. How ur (ire to proceed without proper em- phatic Names. As it is not cafy to apply names exacflly txprcflive of the thing defined, we arc to adopt fuch as having no determinate meaning may have their ienle afcertained by definition. 5 cxc r. Names derived from the Authors of n civ Difcoveries. AMONG botaniAs and anatomifts the memo- ry of difcovcrcrs is perpetuated in particular de- nominations ; it may, therefore, be a qucClion, whether among chcmhts, where the reward of •new fads is attended with greater inconveni- ence, it would be proper in the fame manner to teilify a grateful fcnfe of obligation? Tome, indeed, it fecins to be practicable, and without: «ny impropriety ; but as it often happens, that the fame difcovcry has been made by different individuals ON A NATURAL SYSTEM individuals at the fame time, it might, upon the whole, he better to mitt the fame of all, to the impartial records of the hiiloric page. This ex- ception, however, need not extend to names of little importance in chemillry. 5 cx£ii. By what Means are the Citifies of Fof- Jlls ib be defined ? EACH clafs of fotTils fhould, if pollihle, he de- fined by one lingle word. Such as, — Salts, Earths, Metals, and Plilogillica. True, indeed, the lail is an adjedive ; but «wj»r of the Greeks was t ran f- lated into Latin by Pliny hydrargyrum, and why may not t\\splathia of the Spaniards be adopted into the fume language, with a neutral termina- tion? According to this propoial,weihallhavcthe following generic names, aurum, platinum, argen- tum, hydrargyrum, plumbum, cuprum}ftrrum,Jlan- ncnm, vifmutum, niccolum, arfinicum, cobalt //;//, zin- cum, antimonium, magntfium, and fulcrum, if this laft diilers at all from iron. Each of them are to indicate the metal in its complete (late. De- phlogiflicated metals, commonly called calcin- ed, or metallic calces, reiemble indeed, in fome meufure, burned chalk, from their attrac- tion of the aerial acid, from their becoming cau- Ilic \\iih tlie volatile alkali, their fuiceptibility of pulverifation, and ot!«cr properties. ^ ' Of phlogiilic bodies, the generic names are fo well cuiiilrucled that we have no remarks to of- fer upon them : Mainafijulpbur, petrdtum, and fuccinwn, are recehed with propriety. The four genera ut petrfuc- cineuw, galuclicuni, formicate ifibnccum, phofyho- reum, and atreum. Phlogillicatcd vitriolic :icid mi^ht be named fulphitreum, and plilogiilicuted nitrous acid nitreuw. In like munner, in the genus of alkalies, the veg?uiMc will be potnjli- iium ; tlie mineral natrum, a mine by which it has fomctimc been already knov.n; and the vo- latile will be ammoniticuni. Tlie gr:at advan- tage of this fimplicity, as we /hall Ice p relent Jy, will be obvious in giving names to compounded Jubilances ; which, if they confirt of more tlr.ni two or three words, will give rife to a diilule and circuitous llile, bjth in fpcakin^ and writing. All names certainly proceeding from the defi- nition of lev oral words are by far the moil im- proper. r) cxcVi Names <*f Species demon]] rated in tbe Cafe of Suits. SPEC if ic differences, that can ferve as di- flindl names, arc ufed with confiderablc advan- tage. Admitting what has been already pro- pofed in tlie preceding paragraph, thi* very ea- fily OF FOSSILS. fily obtains in the clafs of faltst as to all the fpc- dcs pcrfin'lly faturated, That earthy and me- tallic falls oui.',ht to he arranged under the head of their mcnilrua, \vc have fecn in j 70. ; but, with rcfpeft to the perfect neutral falls, it is not fo clear, § 68. It feems indeed more conveni- ent to refer them to the genera of their feverai bafcs ; and in this way alfo 1 -have proceeded. But we fliall have more agreement with the a- nalogical falts, moft of u Inch are properly af- figncd to the acid, if the neutral falls are fub- jccled to the fame arrangement. According to this iiK-thod we (hall have names fiulkientiy apt by combining the acid with the adjedivc of the balls. As lor example, ir . ,. „. ^ (Tartarus vitrio- Vitnolicum potalTmatum, for< jatuin XT. r \ Nit rum cubi- ISitrofum natratum, — < ., . . C Sal ammonia- Munaticum ammomacum, — < cus „, C Terra foliata Acctum potafunatum, — < t'irtari Vitriolicum calcarcatum, — Gypfum. r C Sal catharticus magncfiatum, -£ amarus^ argillatum, — Alumen. XT-* r t ^ Barytes nitra- Nitrofumbarytatum, — < ' ... C Calcarcum ni- argillatum, -£ Uatum< m* . . r S Barytes muri- Munaticum barytatum, 6tc.«— < a^cus U 3 Metallic 3io ON A NATURAL SYSTEM Metallic double falts alfo. may be treated in the fame manner ; as, Vitriolicum auratum, &c. Nitrofum argentatum, &c. Muriaticum plumbatum, &c. Arfenicalc cobaltatum, Stc. anil many others. No one can object to thofc adjcclives derived from the names of the metals, as Pliny ufes the word f erratum ; and it is according to this plan that they are here applied, Analogical falls, containing an alkali, may be cafily arranged in the fume manner. Thus, T> rr { Annllatum, Potaffinum -H c r , c £ Silicatura, &c, Arentatum. Ammonhcum i rgentatu — < Cupratum, ( Zincatum, Double falts, in which cither principle pre- vails can alfo be denominated in fuch a manner us to exprtfs an imperfecl; faturation, } 127. For example, — '1'artar, with an cxcefs of acid, can be defined by a combination of its generic name with the genitive of its bale, as turtareum p'.titflini ; but, when perfeclly faturatcd, may br called tartartum pot ttjjimi turn. In like manner we fliall have GXti/inum potti[]uii, but, when ex» aclly liituratt'd, it will be o\tiHnum potaj/inatum j •uitrwlicurn natri, and Vttrio/icum nutmtum; na- tntm bur acini, and boracinum natratumj and fo on of others. * This OF FOSSILS. 5ti This method, however, is not applicable in ci- ther clnflcs, not even to the double fpecies. Sa- line earths, \vith fuch an cxccfs of earthy matter as nearly to obliterate their faline character, ought thus to be exprcfled. Barytes vitriolatus, for Spattim pondcrofurrL Calcarcum fluoratum, — Fluor mineralis. Calcarcum aeratum, — Calcareum vulgare. The character of the remaining follils diflers more confiderably from tlic falts, and requires auxiliary illuilration. $ cxcvi. Trivial Names (jf Salts. FOSSILS, containing three or more principle* appear capable of the cleared definition by means of the trivial names. The celebrat- ed Linnaeus firft made ufc of fuch, in his Spe- cies Plantarum of 1753, by which every fpecies could be conveniently cxprcflcd, without a repe- tition of the fpccific diflcrenccs. The language of botany became thus remarkably cafyand in- telligible ; and zooiigifts and mmcralogifts have to thank the lame author for the happy intro- duclion of them into their fcicnccs.— But, al- though thcfe names may be aflumcd from the inventor, fomc virtue, ancient appellation, pro- perty, or accidental circumilancc rcfpccTmg the fpecies; yet Aiould they be generally limited to one word, and very .fcldom indeed extend to two. They may be coniidered as furnamcs dif- U 4 tinguilhing ON A NATURAL SYSTEM w tinguifliing the individuals contained in the lame genus. The triple falts are, by means of thefe trivial names, denominated with great facility. Of which we have the following examples : * Epfom fait united to \ the volatile alkali; Yitiiolicum fal!a$ — / ealily producing j an apparent ine- C quality of attract. C Epileptic fait of , cpilepticum, -J \V(.irni;in. .. i Anti-epilepticum Mimaticumanti-epilep- N pucwruniuffioeN ticum, ^ haavc. , alembrot, — Sal alembrot. dulce, — Mcrcuriub dulcis. r Sugar of milk, fird Gah'flicum Bartoleti, — < deicribed by Bar- C toletus. 0 . . ( Sal polychrcftum Tartarura Seignetti, — £ Seignetti. - .. C Tartar joined to the LafoniJ, -j fclbl-lv(. 1Uit. S Tartar fat ura ted with volatile alkali, — • loiuuiic, -^ coniiucmly ci tartarus — Mynfichti*, — Tartarus — Clobuii nurtialcj. Phoiphorum nucrofmu_) Sa] microcofir4icus; cum, 5 Compound * KlTuyi, vol. i. p. 340. OF FOSSILS. 313 Compound falts, produced by rcgalinuin (a- qua rcgis) never bccumc triple, at lead not all of them. The nitrous acid fceins to be ncccila- ry for the purpofeofdcphlogillication only; and the muriatic generally exhibits the lame combi- nations as the regulinc, by which, if the muria- tic is not in fuii.cient quantity, a double fait is obtained, charged with the nitrous acid, The fame observation is equally applicable to the quadruple fails. rr, r. • ' ^ Tartar united to bo- lartarum Fevri, — < C rax» Nitrofum Kunckclii, — Rubini Kunckclii. r . . C Sal ammoniac with Ompnthicum, -j nitialcd coppcf. This fait exhibits cryflals, that alllnnc a yel- low colour when heated, but become blue in a moderate tempeiature. If a folution of them fufticicntly diluted is ufed for writing, the let- ters will be found to difappcar entirely, by the application of heat ; and, if cxpofcd to the va- pour of cauftic volatile alkali, to change to a beautiful blue colour. Thus, then, 1 have pointed out a method, as I apprehend, both eafy and fimple, by which all the known falts, about fifty in number, may be each denominated in one or at moil in two words. — According to the firfl diviiion, we have the genus only. — Of the fecund, the double falts completely fa tn rated are indicated by the nd- jcdivc of their bafe ending in atus. In the third, the impcrfeft falts arc known by the genitive ON A NATURAL SYSTEM genitive of their bafc. — The fourth contains the triple falts and thofe of fcveral principles, which are exprefled by the trivial names ; and as in them we neither find the adjecYive- of the bafe atits, nor the genitive, it is not pofliblc that any ambiguity can arife.— The whole compofition of the triple falts could not be fignified in two words, unlcfs the double falts were defined in one only ; and if the fame brevity were expect- ed of the quadruple, the triple mud have necef- farily been denominated by one. But it may be a queftion, whether it is more difficult to invent fuch a number of new and fimple names, or, if invented, whether they could poflibly be retain- ed by tlu memory. § c x c v 1 1 . Of tbf fpecific Na mes of Ea rtbs, Me- tah\ and Pbhgijlic Sub/lancet. IF we confider every thing that has been faid in the foregoing lections on the fubjccl of the falts hitherto known and inveftigatcd, we fliall find, that we have in fome mcafurc laid the foundation of a general fydemof mineralogy. With regard to the earths, and the following clafTes, the denomination of the double and more compounded ipccies may be conveniently expreflcd by the trivial names in two words. Thus, for example, under the genus magnefia, a fpecies occur, in the formula, finca, compofcd * of OF FOSSILS. 315 of filiccous, calcareous, and argillaceous earth, with feme admixture of iron *, which in fyfte- matic authors is denominated afbeilos, and treat- ed as a peculiar genus. To this, indeed, the trivial name of afbeilos maybe properly applied, as it feems to be fo well undedlood, that the youngeft mineralogift is in no danger of being milled by it. The fame may be faid of fchocrl, granate, zeolite, and many others, that are dif- tinguifhcd by names known to every body, and highly proper. In the compofitKm of earths, iron is by no means a neccrtary ingredient, al- though it is generally fuun I in them; and we therefore conlider it as an alloy, or heterogene- ous fubflancc. § cxcvnr. Conchifion. I CANNOT finifli my remarks on the denomi- nation of ibflils more to my own fatisfaction, than by pointing out what is yet wanting to the improvement of fcience. I would wifli that in the cftabl ifhing of new names, a preference Humid be given to the Latin language. This is, or at lead was formerly the mother tongue of the learned ; and being now not the living lan- guage of any nation, it is no longer liable to innovation or change. If therefore, the reform we propofc is made firil in Latin ; it may be cafily carried * Pidcrtation on the albedos. 316 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM, &e. carried into execution afterwards upon the fame model in the modern languages, as far as their pe- culiar genius and conltruclion will admit. — In this manner, the language of chemiflry will become every where uniform ami conlillent, and confi- dcrable advantage will be derived not from the reading only of foreign publications, but the facility alfo with which they can b«: tranflated. 1 have fccn an excellent ellay of Monf.de Mor- vcau on the reform of the L'rcnch names', and I am not a little flattered by the agieeincnt I find between many of the alterations he pro- poles and thofc that 1 have oilcrcd on that lub- jecl. From this, perhaps, we rnuy venture to hope, that by making it an object of further atten- tion on bo:h iides, the difference* yet iubiiiting may be removed, to the great benetit ot luencc; and to the permanent cltablilhing and advance- mcnt of which all our views mould be dirccled. * Diary of Monf, Rokirr. or OF TUB COMBINATION o t M E R C U R Y WITH THE MARINE ACID* tefiit vanis fpfctt/ationibttt, ft fjtiicyuiJ inane el flcrilc rfl, con- m fjl ac Jrutlurjum, BACO. § I. Introiluttion. J\ TRKATisEonthc preparation ofcorroflvc mer- curial i'ublimatc in the humid way, and fcnt to me by the celebrated Monf. Monnet, and which 1 delivered to the SwcdiHi academy of fcicnccs, firil fuggcllcd to me the idea of giving the hifto- ry of the mercurial falls, arifing from the mu- tual * This diflertation was rc.iil In tlie S\rcJi/h Acndcmy of Science*, and publifhcd in the Acli of ilic nid academy, 17691 iu the liwodiili 318 COMBINATION OF MERCURY tual combination of mercury and the marine acid. The relation betwixt menftrua and the bodies they didblve, is eilabliihed by a conflant and univerfal law of nature, in fuch a manner, that they reciprocally fa titrate each other ; that is, are mutually diminished in their eilicacy and a- crid properties. From this combination, a ne\f form of each mixt body arifes* ; whole qualities, although they are generally to be attributed to the character of the condiment parts, and the confullon of the properties of each, yet they fometimesdiirer entirely from the characlerof the menftruum, and of the body diflblvcd. An ex- cefs of either principle gives birth to another genus of mixture, under which the true nature of the combined fubltance is often concealed. By taking away this excefs of the one, or fup- plying the deficiency of the other principle, the obfcurity is removed and the mixt body aflumcs its proper character. This is commonly the cafe in the union of acids with lixivial falls, earths, or metals. But fuch is the peculiar nature and condition of mercury combined with the marine acid, that it fometimes unites with a lef*, fume- times a greater proportion of acid ; and can with great difficulty be forced from the mixture into which it has once entered, to make part of another. There are three forms under which WITH THE MARINE ACID. 31* tiiefe mixtures or combinations prcfcntthcmfelvcs, and which dcfervc to be fcparately confidcrcd. § ii. Ctrrtjivc Mercurial Sublimate. WHEN mercury is completely faturated with the marine acid, the [alt refuhing from fuch an union is generally fignificd by the name off o/r0- Jivc mercurial fubliniatc. This name it derived from i's corroding pt-wcr ; and it was called likc- \vife th? tnulltus uii'talfarum, from its fingular cilLvcy in tlie foiution of metals. Gftlr: firit inventor of this metallic fait we I'.ie cnthely i^iioi.tnt. The anticnts, however, ll'em tu have had fomc knowledge of it. Avi- ccnna, (who died, us it is laid, an. 1036, p. L. N.) makes mention of it; and, even a century before his time, it was known to Abubcker-al- Khafi, commonly called Rhafcs *. That the Chincfc were acquainted with the preparation of corrofivc fublimate, ajypears evident from a Chinefe nianufcript on tlio inedSt-al art, a tranf- Jati »n of which by C. A. Vandermondc into French is prcfe»ved in the library of B. Juflieu \. >Jut whether the Chinefe and the Kuropcans derived their knowledge on this fubjccl from the J'amc fourcc, or whether it was invented by fc- vcral •* Mcmoirc pour fcr Jr a I'liirtoirc He 1'uiV.gc interne du •\crciiro fubiimc corrofif, par M. Lc Brguc Uc Prcflc. | Cbcmic medic, tic Mulouin, 1736. 320 COMBINATION OF MERCURV vcral in different parts of the world, is a qucf- tinn I dare not venture to determine. It is well "known, that the profefTors of alchemiilry fought for the bafis and fupport of their art in mercu- ry, which, with tlr.it view, they made the fub- jed of every poflible experiment. While they were thus employed, therefore, it is not unlikely that chance made them acquainted withcorro- live mercurial fublimatc; the preparation of which they feem, from the beginning, to have long reckoned among their fecrets ; or, at lead, to have difcovered it in vague ami enigmatical language. According to Junker, this metallic fait war, called by the ancients Mercurium, and qtiicldllvcr was iignificd under the name of Ar- gentum vivum. I in. Whether Co rro/tve Mercurial Sublimate can bt prepared by the f At: Mixture .of the Marine Acid and Mercury >' THJ: marine acid poured upon Mercury does not difTolve it without the alTilluiicc of heat. Until the prefent day, therefore, corrofivc mer- curial fublimate has always been prepared by the means of fire, in a tedious procefs of fepa- rations and compofitions. It is not abfolutely certain, that J. C. Barchufen polleired the art of combining mercury with the muriatic acid, without employing fuch complicated precedes. * The WITH THE MARINE ACID. *2i Tiic following words of the celebrated author fecm to have fome reference to this particular art : " Tan-Jem fieri potcll idem (mcrcurius) confiderable merit. E- qual weights of crude mercury and itrong vi- triolic acid are dillilled together ; an exceeding volatile and fetid fpirit puttcs over into the re- ceiver, leaving behind in the retort a white la- line matter, commonly named Turpcthum al- bum, but which would be more properly cal- led, vitriolated mercury. This fait combined with the common fait exficcated, and put into a fubliming vcflcl, produces mercurial fubli- ijiatc. If the operation is rightly conducted, it js not requifite, as Kunkel would perfuadc us, to diflblve and fublimc repeatedly this fait in the muriatic aJn, Clicmie medic. Diftionnairc dc Chcmic. JL-bor»t. Clicm. 1716. WITH THF, MAIUNE ACID. 329 muriatic acid. ]>ouUluc junior recommended this proccfs to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris in the yr;r 1730; not knowing, as it fccms, that it had been already employed and made public by Kunkel. i iv. IV. What are tbe Eft-els of tbe Vitriolic and Nitrous A: ids itfcd together to this Purpofe ? THE united powers of tlic vitriolic and ni- trous acids may be varioufly directed to the prc- paragon of the c >rroiive mercurial fubliniatc. And, in l he fir ft place, the procels may be in- flituted \\ith any acid united to its bale; and mercury, vitriol, common fait, and nitre, may be triturated together, and the fublimation pro- ceed afterwards very fucccfshilly. The object of this method is the expullion of the nitrous acid from its bafe by the vitriolic ; fo that being thus free, it may immediately con ode the mer- cury ; and that the muriatic acid, unequal in force to the other two, may unite with the mer- cury, after the corrolion with the nitrous acid is complete. Tachenius *, Junker t, and others, recommend this preparation of corrofive mer- cury. For the fake of promoting the extincti- on of the mercury, 7,wclfer {, Jac. le Aiurt }, and the * Hlppocr Chcm. f Coulp 'hern. :£ Pharm. Ki-p i^>7?. | Them. Mid Phyf. 1618. 33* COMBINATION OF MERCURY the authors of the London Pharmacopoeia direcl an addition to be made of one twelfth of corro- flve fublimate. The pure and uncombincd nitrous acid, with which Junkenius orders the mixture of mercu- ry, vitriol, and common fall, to be moiltcned, is applicable to the fame purpofc. But he pro- pofcd likcwife another procefs, viz. equal weights of common fait and vitriol are to be calcined together, fomc of the mixture to be fpreud on the bottom of a veflcl, and then mercury filter- ed through leather ; and thus alternately to be placed layers of mercury and of the mixed falts. As much nitrous acid then, as is fuflicient to moiilcn the mafs, is poured upon it ; the liquid is expelled by diftillation, and the dry matter remaining is fublimcd *. When vitriulutcd tartar is added to a nitrous folution of mercury, a powder is precipitated, which, when cxpofed to the fire with common fait, very eafily produces corrofivc fublimate. Stahl fecms to have mentioned this mode of proceeding, but in obfcure language f. Pott has explained it with more prccilion J ; and has proved with the pcrfcvcrencc of Baume, that vitriolic acid can be feparatcd, by means of the nitrous, from the falts to which it adheres. Ac- cordingly, * Lex Pharm. Chcm. 1699. f Von lialzcn, 1738. <"';* 1 Mifccll. Ctrolin. t. v. WITH THE MARINE ACID. 331 cordingly, although the affinity of the nitrous acid is weaker than that of the vitriolic, there is nothing fo wonderful in the circumftancc juft now related. We arc to confidcr the propcn- fity of mercury towards the vitriolic acid, as o- pcrating to incrcafc the influence of the nitrous, and from hence it proceeds that we obtain a vitriolatcd mercury but little foluble in wi.ter, and, on account of the fmall quanti- ty of the menflruum, falling to the bottom of the vcflcl in the furm of cryilals ; while, on the other hand, the nitrous acid uniting with the Jixivial fait produces a perfect nitre. Further, if this vitriolated mercury is mixed with common fait, and fubmittcd to the fire, a new exchange of parts takes place: for the mercury combining \\itli the muriatic fait is fublimed under the form of corrofivc mercu- ry, the matter remaining at the bottom of the vcilel being a Glauber's fait, generated by the acccfllon of the vitriolic acid to the mineral al- kali. The rcfiilt is nearly the fame, if you employ nitrated mercury, common fait, and vitriol. The ufc of this preparation is preferred by Bcgui- nus *, Boerhaave j, Scnac {, A. C. Ernfling §, J.H. % Tirocin. clicm. 1^15. i Klrm. clicm. torn. ii. \ Cours l, torn ii. 1623. § Lex. chtm. 8765, 33* COMBINATION OF MERCURY J. II. Schuhe*, Malouinf, H. Ludolf}, A. "Rudigcr §, Macquer |j, J. R. Spiclmann ff, Baume J{, L. J. D. Suckow {$, and feveral o- thcrs. § viii. What Mode of Preparation is the be/I. WE have thus enumerated ulmofl all the chief methods of preparing corrofive fublimate; but, if we compare them with each other, in refpcft of profit and expence, we (hall find them not all of equal merit and importance. We fliall take no notice of the late boa fled difcoveriesof a IV rifian apothecary, in the preparation of this me- tallic fait with the acid of milk, as their incon- Jiilency with known principles in nature is their flrongell condemnation. In Sweden, but a fmall quantity of corruiive fublimate is prcj)ar- ed, which is a circumllance much to our difad- vantage, as we are not only obliged to purchafe it from abroad, but alfo ex poled to the rilk of re- ceiving it adulterated with arfcnic, the mod dangerous of poilbiib, than which nothing can t« * Clicm.Vc-fucliC. f Ciicm. medic. "J: Einlcit. in t!ie chcm. 1752. § Syfumat. Aril, zur allgcm. chcm. 1756. J| lilcmcns de chcraie prstujuc, torn i. f f Eltm. chcm. 1763 |t Manuel dc clian-c, I 763. CJ rh)Turclic Stlniduikunfl, 1769. WITH THE MARINE ACID. 3j- be more fatal, whenever, for the purpofcs of me- dicine, corrolive fublimate is di Helved i'i fpirit of wine, or a portion of crude mercury is add- ed to moderate its corrofive quality. Of this cruel and diabolical fraud mention was made by the writers of the lad century; and we arc therefore furprifed at the ill-judged and much too late delicacy of Dollie, who thought him- felf not permitted to reveal cxprefly the poi- fonous fubllancc with which corrolive fublimatc might be adulterated. We fiiall have occalion, a little fulher on, to fay more upon this fub- jcd ; at prcfent we have it in view to (hew, as fur as we are able, in what manner corrolive mercurial fublimate ought to be ])rcpared in our laboratories. It mull be acknowledged, however, that the greater number of methods f"" this purpofc are exceedingly tedious and ev- penlive, and replete with danger. The labour required to mix three or fuur fubflunces is ex- ceedingly great, and does not fuccced properly, except in very large vefiels, winch, during the progrefs of the operation, are very often broken. And add to this confederation, that the vapours of the nitrous acid are exceedingly noxious, and frequently produce rucmoptylis, and other dif- ordcrs, in thofe who infpirc them. The danger is however not of fuch u nature, as that it malt always attend tlie preparation of mercurial fub- nmate. Tiiat method which requires the leu'l. tubour 334 COMBINATION Oi- MERCURY labour is no doubt the bed. Mercury diflblved in the nitrous acid precipitates all thofe falts containing vitriolic acid. Therefore turpcth mineral, or vitriolated mercury, can be prepared at a very (mail expcnce, if vitriol is added to a nitrous folution of mercury, or if even the ar- canum duplicatum is employed, which is ob- tained from the diftillers of aquafortis at a very low rate. In this procefs there is little ground for appreheniion from the vapours of the nitrous acid, which may be entirely avoided by fepa- rating the vitriolic acid from the mercury by means of did illation, (vide § 8.). When tur- peth mineral is triturated with common fait, it throws off afli-colourcd vapours, highly often five to the lungs ; but thcfc may be borne much more eatily than the nitrous vapours, and efpe- cially if the mixture is made quickly and in fmall quantity. If the mats is now cxpofed to the fire, corrofive fublimutc of the molt perfecl kind wiJl be collected in the head of the fub lim- ing veflel : The rcfiduuiu at the bottom is a Glauber's fait, which, for the purpofcs of medi- cine, mull fuller again the action of fire, in or- der to expel any portion of mercury that may be yet adhering to it. It is not ncccfTary for this operation to purify the common fait of all the earthy falts that are combined with it, of which we have already fpoken above, ($6). Hence it is only required to dry the mixture, ib WITH THE MARINE ACID. 335 as to carry off all the fuperfiaous water ; the a- cid is carefully to be preserved and retained. S ix. The external AWmrancc of corrojtve mer- curial Sublimate. Co!\Rosiv«: mcrcvrkl fubli«mte is collected cither in the form of claftic fmall needles, or a (Bryftalline mats. On being difTwlved again, and the water afrcr.vanls evaporated, it accretes in- to various lvin«I-i of cryllal*?, according to the difference of n»rticu!iu circuinflances. If boil- ing water is taturatui \vit.h it, and the folutiou cxpofcd immediately to ihecold air, nccdlc-likc cryflals are produced. It' the evaporation is con- dmlcd gradually, \ve perceive cryiials in the fhape of cubes or oblique parallelepipeds *. Mo- net dcfcribc? cryflals uii('er yet other appear- ances. JUit fuch is the nature of falts that each affects a certain form peculiar to itfclf, ar> an architypc, unlefs its courfe is interrupted by the accidental iinpulfe of external things*. Cor- rofivc mercurial iubliniate is governed by the the fame law. In general, if fallicient fpacc is allowed it, it aflumcs the form of quadrangular prifms, with alternate narrower tides, and with uniform terminations of two inclined planes. ix. * Mem. dc 1'acod. dti fcienccs, 1753. A See Di He nation eo the furmi of cry Hals, F. flays, r ii. COMBINATION OF MERCURY 5 x. /// CbaraVer in rcfictt of Air and Water: CORROSIVE mercury does not attract moifture from the air. For tho purpofo of diflolving it, more or Icfs water is requifue, according to the increale of tli* temperature of the water. Speil- inan allorts, that an ounce of water, of the temperature of 30 degrees of Fahrenheit's ther- mometer can ditlMve thirty grains of it*; hence, h-ilf an ounce of water at is degrees of the Swedifh thermometer, will take up a lixtcenth part of its own weight. The cxpeiiments of Macquer are f>mewlut diUerent from this; for, if we follow him in his conclu lions, we lhall be- lieve, that half an ounce of water, at the tem- perature of 16°, will diilMve a twci tietij part; and, at the boiling point, even mure than a half of its own weight. it is, however, to be ohferved, that on mix. ing this fult with warm water, the heat of the mixture is railed beyond the looth degiee of the b \vedilh thermometer, but at the very time of the fulution no change of tcmperatuie is ob- ferved. If (id ammoniac is added lilieuife, we have noinconliderable degiee of a foiution ; al- though Dollie is of a dillerent opinion f. Mac- quer knew by experiment, that three ounces of water impregnated with ful anuuoniac, were ca- pable * lufl. chcm. f Laburutory laid open, 1758* WITiI THE MARINE ACID/ 337 pablc of diflolving five ounces of corrofivc mer- cury; and that, during the folution, the heat was incrcafcd fix or fcvcn degrees. When the folution becomes cold, a part of the fait is formed into cryftals ; to prevent which the corrofive mercury mould be added very gradually, and as each particle diflolves ; arid thus all increafe of heat will be avoided. Thefe falts once combin- ed in this manner are infcparable by any art, and conflitute a particular compufition known by the name offal alcmbroth, highly extolled by the alchemifts ; if we believe Kunkel, Dip- pel, and others, on account of its wonderful power to diilblvc gold and other metals. 5 xr. Corrofive Mercurial Sublimate dijjolvcd in Spirit of Wine. AMONG the ancient profcflbrs of the chemi- cal art, by whom the mixture of corrofivc mer- cury and fpirit of wine had been made, we reck- on R. Lullius, Bafil Valentinus, Salomon Trif-*" mofinus, and many others. Pott alfo obfcrved that this fait was altogether * deliquescent in that mennruum ; but a fuller illuilration of it has been given by Macqucr. Half an ounce of fpirit of wine, of the temperature of 20 degrees, diilblvcd three-eights of its weight of corrofivc mercury, or when of a boiling heat it took up Y 195 * Di(T. cle fptrtu falii vinofo, in Obf. Chcm. Coll, I. 33* COMBINATION OF MERCURY ' 195 Ib. Troy, the greateft part of which concret- ed into cryftals on the cooling of the folution. Spirit of wine, futuratcd with fal ammoniac, of 20 degrees of temperature, will diflblve dou- ble the quantity of corrolive mercury, or three- fourths of its own weight. Being fct on lire, it bums at iirfl with a flame of the ordinary colour; but changes afterwards gradually to a yellow, throws olFblue Harry fparks, and at length ex- ploding is extinguifhcd *. 5 xii. Difflhed in Mineral Adds, NEITHER arc the mineral acids avej-fe to an union with corrofive mercury. The muriatic a- cid diflblves it the moil readily ; and, if it is em- ployed in confidepable quantity, no cryflals arc formed, but when fparingly ufed, needle-like cry- Aals are produced. The nitrous ucid occaiions vapours fuch as a- rife from aqua regiuf. It is therefore to be con- cluded, that this acid lias fei/.ed upon Ibme part of the mercury. By the means of heat the whole fait is diflblved ; and, on the evaporation of the fluid, is formed into cryilals, and fullers no alteration cither in weight or character {. With * Macquer in Mem. dc PAcaJ. dc Turin. 1766. •f Pott, dc Sale communi. WITH TtfE MARINE ACID. 33$ With the afMancc of heat, the vitriolic acid is capable of diflblving corroiive mercury ; but cannot retain it after the folution is become cold. It is an obfervation of Pott, that the vi- triolic acid occafions a precipitate in the form of powder from a folution of corrofivc mercury, .which is afterwards rc-dillolvcd on being heated. Allowing this to be fact, it implies neither a de- compofitionof the fair, nor a greater affinity to mercury in the vitriolic than in the muriatic acid, which P. A. Marherr apprehended to be the cafe*. When warm water was poured upon the precipitate, it was immediately diilolved, leav- ing behind no turpeth mineral. There is no precipitation therefore of vitriolated mercury, but of corroiive or muriutcd, which had been deprived of part of its water by the vitriolic acid. But Pott himfelf found, that common fait occa- iioned a precipitate from the vitriolic folution of mercury, which could not happen unlcfs from a combination of the metal and the muriatic acid. Corrofive mercury, prepared in the ordinary way with vitriol and nitre, gives a yellow colour to dillilled vinegar. A red powder is obtained from the folution by evaporation, which is con- ceived by many to be a mercurial fulphur. The opinion of Junker, however, that it is a martial earth fublimed by the violence of the Y 2 fire, * DiiT, Uc affimiatc corporum Vicnn. 1762. 34o COMBINATION OF MERCURY fire, is certainly the mod probable. For the fame red powder clearly appears, although the corrolive mercury be repeatedly fublimcd with the fame matter, or caput mortuum that remain- ed after its former fubliination, or even though the procefs is renewed with vitriol and nitre *. We arc told by Becher, that corrolive mer- curial fublinuite diiloJved in water, precipitated by an alkali, digeftcd withditlilled vinegar, tlien exficcated, and afterwards macerated iguin and again by a long digeilion in fphit of wine, is reiblved after all this labour into a milky Iio4uor which depofits a fediment,and aiiumes at lait the form of a fwcct llavoured oil. The truth of this relation, and the principles on which it rolls re- quire the investigation of repeated experiments before they can be cilabliihcd. Pott f howe- ver aflerts that corrolive mercury mixed with triple the quantity of fal ammoniac, cxpolcd to d(»liquefcence in the air, and afterwards cxficcat- ed oa bibulous pupj;-, yielded by dillillation a water, v, hicli being again diililled, contracted a ixvect imeil, and was wonderfully calculated to dillblvc various bodies. § x 1 1 1 . United with alkaline Salts and caujlic Lime. ON the addition of fixed alkali to a folution of *Confp.Chcm. 0 f DC SulpUurc McuUorum. 1716. r> WITH TOE MARINE ACID. 311 of cor*ofivc mercury, a red powder is precipi- tated. If the acid is in considerable quancity, the colour of the precipitate will be proportio- nally paler, and will become perfectly white if the cxccfs of acid is very £rcat. The fmallcft particle of lixivial fait, although the acid be in a large proportion, will precipitate fome of the corrofive mercury, which is however in a fhort time again dilfolved. Petermaa * is of opinion, that the red colour is owing to martial vitriol ; but Teichmeyer conceives it fliould be attribut- ed to the fulphureous parts of the falts. It is certain indeed that a red powder can be prepa- red without any vitriol. Volatile alkali alfo decompofes the folution of corrofive mercury. If it is pure, it precipitates a white powder; but, if it is charged with any fatty fub fiance, (as in the vinous ipirit offal ammoniac,) the precipitate is of an afh-colour f. From the plogifton in the volatile alkali, it fomctimcs happens, that a dark afli-coloured or black powder is precipitated. According to Meyer t, an ounce of lime-wa- ter is capable of precipitating two grains of cor- rofive mercury of a yellow colour, which, on being dried, changes gradually to black. This Y 3 is * Chcmia, 1708. I Zimmerman in Zuf.U7.cn zu Ncumaru Chcmifchcn Vor- kfungen. i Abhandlung vom ungclofchtcn KalcK. 34* COMBINATION OF MERCURY is a mild phagedicnic water, with two grains only of corroiivc mercury to the ounce. The fixed alkali produces no eiVect on it ; but the vo- latile feparates a very fmall portion of a white powder. The pharmacopoeia of Paris and Straf- burg have both this formula of the aqua pha- ged;enica ; but it may be more eilicacioufiy pre- pared, if necefliiry, when it is exactly known \vhut quantity of corrolive mercury can be ei- ther diflolved or precipitated by lime-water. For the purpoie of determining whether an Alkali is prefent in any fluid, and of what kind it is, the corroiive mercury may be convenient- ly employed. As foon as a fmall portion of this fait is thrown into it, it is tinged according to the nature of the alkali with a yellow or red co- lour, or is clouded with u white powder; if it contains no alkali, it remains unchanged. An infufion of galls mixed in a folution of corrofive fublimate renders it thick and black. The precipitate on being dried ailumes the co- lour of umber. $ xiv. IViib Metals, MOST metals decompofc corrofive mercury. Stuhl has obfervcd that it deliqucfces, ii' pow- dered tin or iron are fprinkled on it, and that theic metals arc corroded with the muriatic a- cid *. Junker alfo informs us, that if a fojution of * Spec. Bcch. 1703, 1720. WITH THE MARINE ACID. 343 ofcorrofive mercury is boiled in an iron vcflcl, the vcffel will be affccfled with its acrimony, and quickfilver will be collected at the bottom of it. If copper or brafs is immcrfccl in the folution, they are covered with a (liming pellicle of quick- filver. 7.inc alfo detaches mercury from the muriatic acid, and forms with it an amalgam*. From the combination of various metals with corrofivc mercury, and fubfcqucnt did illation, arife the butters commonly to called, or thick fluids, the greater! part of which is more or lc(s impregnated with metallic matter. Of this kind arc the butters produced by the diflillation of the ores of lead, tin, bifmuth, 7,incf,or rcgulus of antimony, with corrofive fublimate. Silver, lead J, and copper, cflcd a fcparation of the mer- cury from the muriatic acid. The red powder, occafioncd by expofmg equal quantities ofcor- rofive mercury and iron to the fire, infpiflating, and afterwards fubliming them, as fccn by Car- diluccins, has been fmce dcmonflrated from the repeated experiments of Pott; who however adds, that he was lefs fucccfsful in his attempt to afcertain what had been bcfides remarked by Cardiluccius in this procefs, that the rcfiduum being expofcd to the air, and again fublimcd, yielded a talcy fubflancc ; and that from what Y4 ftiU * Pott dc zinco, in Obff. Coll. II. f Pott dc fair, &c. J Brand in A& Acad. Bucc. 1753. COMBINATION OF MERCURY fttll remained, a fnowy-like fait could be extract- ed, by pouring upon it the diftilled acetous a- cid *. 1 am unwilling to relate any more ex- periments refpedling the various combinations of metals with corrofive fublimate, led I fhould feem to have forgot the juft limits of this diflertation. 5 xv. The Qiantity of 4 cid and Mercury in cor. rofwe Sublimate, and its f pec [fie II 'eight. CORROSIVE fublimate was held by the ancient chcmilb in great ciVunation, chiefly becaufe they believed that in it were united all the mi- neral acids. Barchufcn was very properly of o- pinion, that it contained the acid of fait only : The arguments on which he founds this idea will be related as we proceed. Among the more modern chemills, Gellcrt apprehended that the nitrous, as Well as the muriatic acid, en- tcred into the compofition of corrofive fubli- mate -f. But although, from the different modes of preparing this fait, we do not deny that it may fomctimcs be corrupted with the vitriolic, or with the nitrous acid, yet thefe acids are neither always prefcnt or absolutely requi- Jite, and corrofive fublimate can be very well prepared without the ailiilance of cither, (^3. 4.) It appears, therefore, that mercury can be alto- gether * Pott dc fa Je com muni, f Mctallurgifche chymie, WITH THE MARINE ACID. 345 gcthcr united with the acid of fait alone, of which the metal can take only a limited quan- tity. From the experiments of Rouelle, it is ma- nileft, that, neither by a greater proportion of common fait, re-iterated fublimations with it, or repeated folution of corrofivc mercury in the muriatic acid, it is poffible to combine an ex- traordinary quantity of the acid with the metal*. As to the account given by Homberg, of the liquefaction of corrofivc fublimate, charged with a fupcrabundance of acid, and its refemblance in confidence to the butter of antimony, we conceive it is to be explained by the folution of the fait in the cxccfs of acid. The acid in corrofive mercury is fo faturatcd as to become quite taftcicfs. Monf. Rouclle writes, that a folution of corrofivc mercury changes the fyrup of violets to a green, but that it docs not in the leall ailed the tincture of tur- ncfol. As often however as I have made the experiment, cither with the fait that 1 purchaf- cd, or with fome of it prepared by myfclf, wafii- ed even in the purcit water, I have always feen it redden the tindure of the turnefol, but it produces no figns of an acid with the blue ve- getable colours -J-. It is not yet fufliciently afccrtaincd what is the proportion of acid and mercury in the compo- fition, * Mem. dcl'Acad. clcs Sc. dc Par's, 1754. t Baumc affcrta the contrary in his Manuri dc Chymjr. COMBINATION OF MERCURY fition of corrofive fublimate. Tachenius, whom I mentioned above with fome commendation, aflerts, that 280 pounds of mercury will produce 360 pounds of corrofive fublimate ; from which, if it is true, it follows, that the metal will be in. the proportion of 3^ to i of the acid. On the other hand, if we are to believe Lemery, who obtained 19 ounces of corrofive fublimate from 1 6 ounces of mercury, the parts of the mix- ture will give a ratio of 5! to i. Maccjuer, how- ever, rightly obferves, that more mercury is loll if the procefs is inilituted with a fmall than with ?i large quantity. Le Mort errs coniiderably in flating the weight of the acid to be triple that of the mercury *. The proper weight of this fait is yet undetermined, as it is varioufly de- fined by different authors. According to Core- far, the fpeciiic gravity of corrofive fublimate is to the fpecific gravity of rain water as 6.325 to JCGO; while, on the contrary, Mufchenbroek eflimatcs their weights in the proportion of 8000 to i. Hence, then, it appears, that the bulk of the two ingredients, and efpecially of the mercury, is greater when combined toge- ther, than when taken feparately. § xvi. * Facie* Chcm. pun'f. On a more accurate invi-f- tigation, our author afterwards found, that the proportions of acid and qmckfilver in a centenary were as 24,5 : 75,5. S« PifTcrt. df miner, tlocimafw huniiJa, Opufc. v. ii p. 42*3. WITH THE MARINE ACID. 347 § xvi. Corrofivc Sublimate adulterated with Ar- fcnic. I HAVE formerly mentioned the adulteration of corrofivc fublimatc with arfenic. Somechc- mifts, however, have denied that thefc two fub- rtanccs can be united by fublimation*. Indeed, if we arc to believe Glaferf and Sperling J, we (hall be pcrfuadcd, that when arfenic is mixed with corrofivc fublimate, and expofcd to the lire, the acid of the arfenic is expelled, and a butter i< formed; the mercury, at the fame time freed from bondage, being rcllored to its metallic itatc. The experiments of Pott $, Gmclin ||, and Spielman ^[, arc in direct oppolition to this opi- nion ; in which the combination of mercury and true arfenic was cilecled. But in order to re- move all doubts on this fubjcdt, I took three parts of corrofivc fublimatc, and two of arfenic, and triturating them both together, put the mix- ture into a retort, and fubjcdled it to a violent heat. At the end of the proccfs there was no appearance of any butter ; but all the matter was { Kcuman in pr.rlc&. | Cour* tic ChcmiCf 1663. $ DifT. dc Arfcnico. § DC Sale comm. |I DifT. dc fpccif. can. fanandi mcthodis, Tubing. 1757. f Iuft Chcm, 34? COMBINATION OF MERCURY was collected in the neck of the vefTel. After breaking the retort, a portion of arfenic and cor. rofivc fublimate was found, but fo fur fcparate from each other, that they could be diilinguiih- ed by the form of their cryflals. The reft of the mafs was in powder, and uniform. From this experiment, therefore, unlefs I am deceiv- ed, it may be concluded, that arfenic and CON rofive fublimate, in the proportions I have di- rected, can be united by fublimation, and con- nected in the greateft part into a folid mafs. Du Mon flier ", Doffie, and many others af. firm, that the prefence of arfenic is indicated in the black colour produced by pouring an al- kaline lixivium into a folution of corroilve fub- limate* But Barchufen f, and Boulduc, fenior f, have long aflertcd, th«rt xhis experiment is fal- lacious and ill-founded. Gnieliu contends, that a folution of corroilve fublimate adulterated with arfenic yields, on the addition of the vo-. latile alkali, a black precipitate. To me, how- ever, when making this triul, the event did not fcem to anfwcr my expectation. For in thof<» particles which were abfolutely under the form of arfenic and cor rofivc fublimutc, no change of colour was produced by the fpirit of fal ammo- niac prepared with quicklime. The remaining iohd * Inannotat. ad Chcmiam Glaferi Si Le Ftfvre. f Pyrofophia, 1698. t Mem. del1 Acad. dcsSc. a. 1699. WITH THE MARINE ACID. 349 folid and uniform mafs aflumed a dark and ra- ther an afh colour, but not in the lead a black. But further, I diilolvcd fophirticated corrofivc fu'oliinatc in diflillcd \vatcr of a boiling heat; which folution, \vhen 1 added to it the cauftic fpirit of ful ammoniac, dcpolitcd thin flakes, and in a f/iort time aftcnvard* fccmcd here and there to become of a green colour. The change of colour \vi»s ftili lefs when I employed the fpirit of luirtfliorn. The trial with ilie volatile alka- li is therefore uncertain ; but we can determine much more eafily, and with greater prccifion, the prefen.cc of arfenic, if a finell of garlic is e- inittiHl from corrofivc fublimate fprinklcd upon burning coals. 5 xvn. IV bite Mercurial Precipitate. THE white powder clcpofiterl in the nitrous folution of mercury, on tiie admixture of com- mon fait or muriatic acid, is named white mer- curial precipitate. By fomc it is called cofinc- tic mercury, or milk of mercury ; and Potter gives it the appellation of the cakinatum wajiif. Its colour, and the mzihod of ufing and prepa- ring it have given rife to various names, which were for the moft part very imliftincl, and have been transferred to fubftanccs of a very different nature. The preparation of it fcems to have been COMBINATION OF MERCURY been known for fomc centuries part, but we have no information refpecling the peribn by whom it is invented. } xvm. Modes of Preparation. THE moft common method is to pour a quan- tity of fait- water into a nitrous iblution of mercu- ry after which the mixture becomes ilreakcd and cloudy, and a white mucilaginous matter gra- dually fubfidcs to the bottom of the veflel. The water is added as long as any thing is pre- cipitated ; afterwards when the white mafs is collected, the clear liquor is poured oil* the rc- fiduum is well wafhcd in pure water, and being then inclofed in bibulous paper is dried either in the air «, or over the fire. The fire employ- ed fhould however be very moderate, leail by too great heat the powder acquire a yellow co- lour -j-. In this procefs a double Reparation or decom- polition of the i.igrcdients takes place. The mercury is feparated from the nitrous acid, and unite* with the acid of the common fait, form- ing a fait but little foluble in water; and the ni- trous acid quits the mercury, and with the mine- ral alkali of the common fait, produces cubic nitre. * Barchufen Elem. Chcm. 1712. f MietiinCollca. Chcra. Lcydcnf. WITH THE MARINE ACID. 35 1 nitre. As the mcnftruum, however, in which this mercurial fait is diflblved is not in fufiicicnt quantity, the fait is tumultuoufly coagulated and precipitated in the form of a mucilage. In- ftead of common fait, ammoniacal or other falts containing the muriatic acid may be employed for this purpofe ; the acid itfelf uncombined with any fubftancc might be ufed with advan- tage, if it were not too cxpcnfive. It is, howe- ver, to be obfervcd, that according to Junker, Geoffrey, and Pott, the muriatic acid in its ftatc of fcparation, precipitates a fait from the nitrous iolution of mercury, poficfling more folubility in water *. Freih urine added to this folutiou occaiions a mercurial precipitate of a flefli co- lour ; for which appearance we can readily ac- count, if we confider, that befides common fait, it contains digellivc and ammoniacal falts. The red colour is owing to the admixture of fomc extraneous matter. Lcmcry is of opinion that this mercurial precipitate is milder than the white -j-. If on the addition of .common fait, a faturatcd Iolution of mercury is dccompofed, it follows, that the nitrous acid ft* pa rated from the mercu- ry mull be either capable of faturating the alka- line fait, or incapable, or in excels. Which ever of thcfe cafes occurs, may be cafily afccr- tained * Macqucr di&. y any intcnfity of heat, unlcfs perhaps by that of the burning glafs. D'Arcet found it to un- dergo no change in the heat .of a porcelain fur- nace. In the lire, however it becomes fo hard tn to give fire with ftccl. This is owing to the incrcafc of its denlity, for it IbfcValmofl one half of its bulk. Pure clay is hot Aifiblc with quicklime, in a- ny proportion. But the addition of even the fmalleft quantity of filiceous matter brings the niafs to iufion. And the fufion takes place very readily if to one part of pure clay, and one of lime, two or three parts offiliceous earth be ad- ded ; a larger proportion offiliceous matter is un- favourable to the fulion of the mixture ; and the addition of five parts renders it almoll infu- lible. A mixture of equal parts of clay and lime fullers wne half lefs diminution in bulk than the fame quantity of pure clay would fuller. But, if in the mixture, the clay be only in the pro- portion of one to five, or one to fix, it produces Icarce any alteration on the character of the, lime. Clay is not fufiblc with pure qurirtz; but, according to Pott, it melts without great difficulty with tluor mineral. Fcldfpath, or il luting ipar, often fufes l>y it felt* in the lire, suut 380 , tROCKSSFOR and even affifb the fufion of clay. The Petitrl- tfc of the Chinefe, ufed in making their porce- lain, is a mixture of this latter ibrt ; and it is by this means that they reduce their clay to fu- iion. J v. Common Clay. CLAY of various degrees of purity is found iii many places on the furface of the earth, but fcarce any where in perfect purity. For fuch of the common clays as have been examined, have been found to contain a large proportion, fometimcs no lei* than fevcnty in an hundred parts of iilicious fand. Warning, indeed, de- taches the fand, but a very fubtile iiliceous dull dill remains, and cannot be feparated unlds by the folution of the clay. Hence it appears, why the mixture of clay and lime commonly known by the name of marl, is fufible in the fire. It is thought to be the lime that oc- cafions the fulion, whereas it is the . Iiliceous earth. The Swedifli clays are fufible without lime ; but the rcafon of this cannot be precifcly ex- plained. Some have thought that the iron ia the Swedilh clay promotes its fulion. But Rinmunn difcovcrcd by a feries of expcrimentsr that clays contaminated with a large propor- wonof ircn, are more refractory than thofe in \vhich BURNING BRICKS. 381 which there appears no indication of the pre- fence of this nictai. Perhaps the true rcafon is to be looked for in the fund intermixed, which may he often fufpccled to contain many par- ticles of fcintillating fpar. I fufpcdl alfo, that it fometimes participates of the nature of gypfum or fluor mineral. One thing certain, is, that vitriolic acid is ahnoft always intermix- ed with the clay : and hence the fulphureous fmell that is always felt in the neighbourhood of brick-kilns. And, if lime be intermixed with the clay, it mud unavoidably abforb the acid : for which rcafon an examination with acids will always be found fallacious. If the iron be combined with vitriolic acid, the colour appears in the burning. For as the violence of the fire incrcafes, it aflumcs firft a yellow colour, then a red, then a dark grey, and at length a deep black. The colour is darker or lighter in proportion as the quantity of iron intermixed is greater or lefs. If the burning docs not expel the whole of the vitrio- lic acid, the acid often attracts moifture from the air, and cfllorcfccs in the form of alum. 5 vi. How Bricks JJjould be formed and burnt. HRICKS confiil univcrfally of clay and filice- ous earth. The clay renders the mafs duclilr, find fufceptiblc of induration. But as clay, by itJelf. 31 1 PROCESS FOR • itfelf, is contracted and cracked, as well as burdened by the aclion of fire, an intermix- lure of land is therefore rcquifitc, \\hich, as it is expanded by heat, and diminifhcs the quantity of the clay, ruull render the whole brick lei's liable to contract. But we mull beware of add- ing too much fund, as that would be unfavour- able to the denfity and folklity of the mafs. In making bricks, therefore, as much fund ought to be intermixed as may be nccefl'iry to prevent the bricks from drying and cracking; unlefs particular circumitanccs may recommend a different proportion, of which hereafter. Na- ture, in many places, prefents clay with fuch a Tpixture of faiid, that no addition whatever Is re- cjuifUc. And as it is no cafy tafk to mix clay and fand in the due proportions, that where the mixture has been performed by the hand of na- ture ought always to be preferred. Art cannot imitate the perfection in which nature intermixes thcfe two fub fiances, but produces a rude une- qual mafs, which is variouily affected by the ac- tion of fire, and i* liable to have its deniiry great- ly impaired. Hut when an artificial mixture is fobc made, the (and ought to be chofen fine, and coiiiifling of minute particles rather than thick, and contaminated with earth, and to be painful- ly mixed with the clay. The heat mull be fuflicicntly intenfe to melt (the bricks on the furface. This renders them lo BURNING PRICKS. 383 rompacl as to exclude water. But if too great \iolencc of fire be applied, there will he danger that the bricks, efpccially in the low eft and the middle lira turn, be cither entirely melted, or at leaft, run together. 4 vii. Attempts to improve Ch wf hy the intermix- tine if ttber Sitblliinccs, arc tf no Service. Tin; makers of bricks difapprove of mixing poor clays with a large proportion of fand, earth, and lime : for experience has ihcwn that thcfc fubftances are of no ufe whatever in the prepa- ration of bricks. Yet it is often nof fo much the fubdancc, as the method of preparation followed that i^ faulty. The burning is frequently con- dueled in fuch a manner as to reduce the lime to quick-lime, in which ft ate it abforbs moilture from the atmofphcrc, and caufcs the bricks to crack and form chinks for the reception of walcr. But a more entire burning will obviate this in- convenience, by blending the lime thoroughly with the fand and clay, and producing a fort of vitrification. In this cafe, the lime, inftcad of doing harm, is even of advantage, contributing, in no fmall degree, to the fulioii of the clay. When, fhcrcforc, there happens to be marl in the neighbourhood of a brick kiln, it ought to be preferred to any other fort of earth. But rnarl is liable to various impcrfcclibns which render 3*4 PROCESS FOR render it Icfs fuitable as a material for brick?. The chief of thefe, its containing too large a pro- portion of lime, may be remedied by the addi- tion of clay. Another fault of marie is, when its parts have too great a tendency to vitrifica- tion; but the addition of filiceous earth rcclifie* this*. Care muft likewife be taken, that the lime be fufliciently pulverized. If it be in lumps, the .procefs is more likely to milcarry. vin. Experiments of tie slutbor. I AM now to give an account of a ferics of ex- periments which I made upon common clay, without any admixture of lime, and two dille- rent forts of marl both dug near Upfal. Of ihefc earths I had bricks formed and burnt, fome without any fund, others with one-fourth of fund to three-fourths of clay. Thole in which there was no fand did not crack as they were dried; from which it appeared that the fubftancc of which they were compofed, was of itfclf, without any addition whatever, fufficiently fuitable as * material for bricks. Of the bricks fume were burnt till they became red, and toother* a more intenfc heat was applied, which gave them a dm k brown colour and rendered them hard on the furface. But the hardeil were thofc into the compofltion * f iv. v. BURKING BRICKS. 38$ compoiltion of 'which a fourth part of fund had entered. Others which had been cxpofcd to the moll intcnfe heat, (Veiled and afllimed the form of a black fibrous Hag. The bricks, after being burnt and cooled, were caft into water, which, after abforbing copioufly, they were removed, and e.xpofed for three whole years, to the open air. Thole which had been cxpofcd for the ihortcfl time to the fire, were almoft totally dc- llroycdand crumbled down by the aftion of the air; fuch as had been more thoroughly burnt, fullered lefs damage; and upon thofe which were formed folely of clay, and had been half vitrified on the furface by the action of a very ftrongfire, not the flighted alteration was produced by the influence of the air and weather* 5 ix. Advice relative to tie burhing tf Bricks. •FROM thcfe experiments in the fmall way a judgement may be formed, how far any clay is proper 'as a material for bricks. The more clay is liable to contract ion in drying, the greater ad- dition of fand docs it require. The bed clays are thofe which need no fand. For, with fuch, the labour is abridged, and the bricks are ofafu- pcrior quality. The colour, after burning, fliews whether there be any iron in the bricks. The nature and appearance of the matter varies with the degrees of the heat to Which it is expofcd ; B b and 386 PROCESS FOR and hence we haver indications by which we nr diltmguifh when bricks ;rrc thoroughly burnt in the kiln. Every pcrfon is ready to obferve that brick? are too foft, and imperfectly burnt : but few have (kill enough to difcern the blunders whicli are liable to be committed in the proceiV of preparing bricks, or how far t!ie burning ought to be carried. For tlh: apyrous clay or" which bricks are fumetimcs computed is not vi- triliuble merely by burning: and indeed no vi- triiication is neceilary when they can be render- ed hard enough iblely by the violent aclion of fire, If, however, a vitreous cruJl be thought ne- ceiftry, it may be formed v/ith great eufo, and almoit no expence, by liitfvinUhing the fire for a little, throwing in a fmall quantity of fait, and ilmttiiu1; up the kiln immediately. The bricks v. ill thus infallibly acquire u vitreous crufl, and That in the reudieil manner poilible. It only re- mains to determine the |>roportion of f.ilt necef- lary. j > 5 x. Method ofaffliyin^ Ckiyfor.Tik.r. To infurc fuccefs, it will be highly proper to examine the nature of the clay before proceeding to form it into bricks. This may be moll expe- diltoufly done in the following manner: nitrous ;n:i»l. p ->urcii upon un burnt clay, dete^U the pre- fence, BURNING BRICKS. 387 fence of lime by producing an effervefcencc. Calcareous clays, or marie of this character arc ofrcn the littc.l materials for bricks. Farther, take a lump of cl.iv, of a given weight; mace- rate it in water, and flrakc the mixture; then, fullering the heavier parts to iink to the bottom, pour the liquid into a different vcfiel; mix the refiduc with anew quantity of water, and repeat this proccfs, till the whole become perfectly limpid. The clay is now all diifulved, and what remains is nothing but fancl. What- ever matter may be found to have fubfided in ihc different vclll-ls, may alib be reduced by re- peated wafhings to the fmell (and. Again, to fe para te the lime which may be intermixed with the clay, pour upon a quantity of clay in any vcflcl fpirit of nitre to the depth oi'a few inches; ditrcft the fpirit of nitre upon the clay, then after the eilcrvefcencc has ceafed, let the clear liquor be poured on the land previoufly fcparated, which is fomctimes equally contaminated with lime. An additional portion of clay mult be from time to time added to the aquafortis, till the cflervef-. cence entirely ceafe. The clay and fand arc then taken hot, and wafiied apart. It is ncedleis to burn the clay in thefe experiments, ai that would diiVolve a part of it. But, let fpirit t>f volatile alkali be dropped into the folutkm of lime in nitrous acid, till the lime be precipitated; pour the pure liquor into a different vcflcl; and B b 2 \vafli 33t PROCESS FOR, &c. wafli the refidue with liot water. At lengt.fr/ when the clay, the lime, and the fund are all ful- ly dry, weigh them fcparately, that their propor- tions in the mafs may be afcertained. The land may be examined with the mierofcope, in order to dillimjuifh whether it contain any filiccoiia matter, feint illating fpar, &-c. After making the allay, it will be eafy to dif- tingiiifli the pecular nature and the competition? of the clay; whether an addition of fund be rc- qiiifitcto render it a Jit inatcikil for bricks; what. kind of fund it may be proper to add; and by what indications we are to know whether tbo bricks be thoroughly burnt. ,o f r 11 ^ ACIDULATED W A T E R O F M E p y r, rfluf tjvifrjuf re/iflijt Ntturam frtmumjlvtlent co^nnfc erf rcrum. i. II[ftory of the acidulated waters ofMcdvi. I i*. fmiatcd in the dioccfc of N- kyrkc in Gothland. The medicinal fprings arc at the dirtance of a quarter of a .Svvedifli mile. They owe their celebrity to Guflavus L. B. Soop, fenatorof the kingdom, and Lord of the Manor, who firll difcovcrcd them in the year 1677. That nobleman Tent a fampleofthc water to Ulbanus iliiLTne, who was at that time royal archiatcr; and he, after examining its nature, and vifitin^ (he fprings next year in perfon, pronounced it fa- iubrious. There were then three fprings, com- monly known by the names of Ihgbrwit Dal- B b 3. hritti, 5vo ACIDULATED WATERS brun, and Rodbrun% — the Upper, the Nether, and the Red Spring; the two firil five and twenty paces diftant from each other, the third an lum- drcd paces diflant from the firih The Upper fpring, on account of the fuperior excellence of its water, as well as its iituution, was lirll op?n- cd, inclofed with a (tone and lime wall, covered above, and folemnly confccruted on tlie 25th of July, 1678. It is remarkable, that tlr; octangular build- •* ing with which it was inclofed, ilill Hands en- tiro ; and the original roof is Hill a fuJlicient Ihelter from the rain, although furroumled \\ith tall branchy trees, and expolcd from its litua*' tion to uncommon quantities of rain and con- tinual dampnefs. \Vyell> have not yet been dug at .the open- ings of tlvj other two fpring^ : — The netbert or hiver fpring, fo called from its low fituution ; sind the red fpring, which owes its dhtiiiguilh- ing epithet to the ochre with which its waters are mixed. It is more than probable, that the virtues of thofe waters had been long known to the neigh- bouring inhabitants. To the red fpring parti- c.ularly farriflccs appear to have been ollerctl, and religious veneration paid. Whether t licit? fprings retained their celebrity during the reign of popery, we know not. In the Colleclanca Of- Urogothica of Pal mil-hold mention is made, fhut. OF M E D V I. 3-;r '/of. CwflaHtitt an Italian phyfician had fecn in the Vatican library nn old manufcript concern- ing tlic fauibrious virtues of certain acidulous \valers in Gothland, which I take to have been thofe of Meilvi. 5 ii. JVbat has been difiwercd by firmer F.\l*eri- ments concerning the peculiar I'irtucs <>file II 'a- ft'is.of MiJi'L HM-IKNF. made fonic experiments on the water of the upper fpring, the refult> of which, though they did not iiulii-ate \\'itli certainty or prccifion \vhat dillcrcnt matters it contained, or in \vhaf 4|iiantities or proportions; yet induced that au- thor to think, that there exiiled in the water a certain univerfal acid, capable of acting upon crude iron ore, richly impregnated with iul- phur, and of producing by tliis operation vola- tile vitrfot, and a portion of fcrrcous fulphur. JJixrii'j thought farther, that a portion of this univerfil acid, fatiirated with calcareous mat- ter, formed the alum, which he imagined, he difcovcrcd in the waters of Medvi. A^ the waters of IMedvi Iiave been fo long and lo generally celebrated lor medicinal vir- tues fuperior to thole of any otlu?r mineral waters in Sweden, it is furprifing that no pcr- fon, before me, lias l>een induced to attempt ^ more accurate analyfis of them. In the year 3<;i ACIDULATED WATERS 1778, indeed, the illudrious L. R. Aldroemfr. Couniellor of the Palace, and Comniendator of the order of Vafu, Tent me twelve pints of the water of Medvi, and half a pint of a liquor that remained after the evaporation of ten pints and an half of the lame water, with a brief de- tail of experiments made upon it by Dr Dubb; and at his dcfire I immediately fct about ana'- lyiing it. I have el (c\v here related wliat I then obicrved *. But having myfolf, in this very year, had occafion to vilit that watering place, I availed myfelf of the opportunity to make ntw and more accurate experiments upon the mineral waters of Medvi, of which I (hall hcni give an account. * § in. Pbyjical Qialitifs of tbc Waters of Medvi. THE water of the mineral fprings of Medvi, is indeed limpid, but not fo clear as common fpring water. In the month ot'Augult, I found the tempe- rature to be, at the bottom of the well, 6 ) de- grees above zero in the Swedish thermometer, and 7dcgrecsofthe fame thermomcterat thelur- face. At the ufual hour of drinking the water, the temperature of the well was fomc dt-gr^es a- bove'tliat of the open atmofphtre ; but this, as well as the difference between the temperature of the furfuce and that of the bottom of the well, might- * Opufc. C!icm. v. r. p. 755. OF M>:D v i. 393 might probably be owing to the building which covered and inclofed the well being at that time crowded with people. When water was brought tome, in my room, I found its tempe- rature 8 degrees. Any perfon wifhing to have it as cold as pollible, fhould therefore drink it at the well, and take care to have what he drinks drawn from the bottom. There is alfo another reafon for this, which I fhall mention by and l>ye. It tafles fomcwhat of iron, though not difa- grccably ; but has nothing of that pungency which is peculiar to aerated waters. In drinking it, the noftrils are oiTended with a hepatic fmcll, like that of rotten eggs. Thi* fmelJ, however, is not very ftrong, for it was not felt by any of thofe who were prcfcnt at the fpring when I firil obfcrvcd it, till I mentioned it to them. Hepatic air is the moil powerful principle in mineral waters: to it the mineral waters of Lokarne and others in Sweden owe their virtues. " And no wonder that the princi- ple of thofc virtues was not earlier difcovercd, as vcJTcls for receiving and collecling aeriform bodies have been but lately invented. From what was above faid refpecling the wa- ter of Medvi being warmed at the furfuce, it is plain that the hepatic gas will be fooner dilen- f;aged there. A perfon whofe fenfe of fmcliing h but moderately acute, will readily perceive ; ' « •• • the ACIDULATED WATEKS the difference between water drawn from th<; bottom of the well, and water taken from th« furface. And this is the other reafon to \vhich 1 above alluded, for drawing water for drinking rather from the bottom than the furface of the well. This may be done with a veflcl in the fhnpe of an inverted cone, made of tin or pure lilver, truncated on the under part, and clofed with a folid bottom, fo contrived that it may rife upon a hinge, when the vcllel is immerf- cd, and may be again (hut by the weight of the water when it h taken up. With this veilel fixed to a long wooden handle, water may be taken up from any depth. A fmall iron rod may be fixed to the brim of the veilel, in order to clear the bottom of the well, and the water may run out from the narrow part of the cone into a different Veilel. This mode of drawing the water will be adapted, I prefume, by all v/ho willi to have it as cold and as flrongly iiru prcgnutcdjwith hepatic air aspoilible ; although [ mean not to aflert that it is of no uie when drunk in the common way. This mineral water appears to be lighter than common. water : but not having an hydroflatic balance at hand, I could not determine its f pa- cific gravity. A pint of it weighed. an hund- red and ninety four drachms. Jiv. OF MED VI. 39; {, iv. (Mtnical Analyjls of this ll'ntcr. \ rous'D \>y experiment that the water of Mcdvi contained two volatile principles, aerial acid, and hepatic gas. It contains alfo iron di- folvcd in aerial acid, or aerated ; a little tali ted !iinc ; as alfo a final! (juantity of common fait, and mucilaginous extract. The pa-fence of the aerial acid is detected nor by the taile, but by the infulion of lime water, or tinchire of lurnfole. There are fcarccly ever more than fix cubic inches in a pint of water. The fmell again betrays the prefcncc of he- patic air : but fo final 1 is the proportion in which it is contained in thcfc waters, that no fulphur is produced upon the infuiion of fuming fpirit of nitre. Collected with the aerial acid, it fills a fpace of 14 cubic inches ; but when abiorbcd by lime-water, its mcafure is only eight cubic inches. Tinclure of galls, and a lixivium of blood, indicate the prefcncc of iron: Or, if the water be fullered to remain for a few days in the open air, the iron falls to the bottom without any addition being made. From which it appears to have been maintained in folution by aerial acid. it is fomc time fincc I propofed a proccfs for whether martial water be fit- tor medical 39$ ACIDULATED WAFERS medical ufcs, or crude and contaminated witty vitriol. Yet for the fatisfadion of fome wh^ have lately queftioned me on that head, I am induced to repeat here briefly what 1 formerly advanced* Let thfi water be boiled for a quarter of an hour in a clean kettle ; then let it cool, ami pour it into a glufs velll'l. Into another cup pour frerti fpring water. Into each of thefc veflcls pour & few drops of fpirit of wine, in which a quantity of powder of galls has becrj previoully macerated in a clofe vellel. If the boiled wateraflbrd not the fame quantity of precipitated fediment as the frefli water, ir. may be concluded to have contained iron diflolved in aerial acid, and to be, of confequence, an acidu- lated water. But if the fediment be the fame in both vcflels, or only a little fcaqtier in that which contains the boiled water, tbe boiled water may then be concluded to contain a mi- neral acid, and be unfit for medical purpotes, till its nature be farther invHlii^ated. I'luch pint of the waterof Medvi contains three gi.iins of iron. This water contains no extraneous matter bolides the principles now enumerated ; and «11 of them are of lingular efficacy. The quan- tity of fulited lime intermixed, ii fo very trilling. lhat the laccharine acid fcurce detects its pre- tence at the end of four and twenty hours ; ap(L -jft Jio fixed alkuli can be obtained. The nitrou-j OF MED Vt. w? nitrous folutiun of iilvcr fhcws the lime to be united with fait. Only half a grain of falitcd lime cxills in each pint of water. A lew minute particles of common fait, fcarcely viiiblc, appear in the rcflduum, after the boiling, but the whole are fcarce equal to one fourth of a grain. A folution of ponderous earth hath not the e fie ft to render water of Medvi turbid ; whence it appears, tliat this water contains no mixture of vitriolic acid. Kxtraftive mucilaginous matter precipitated with vinegar of litharge, the folution of filvcr being previoufly fe pa rated with marine acid, is obtained in the proportion of three grains for e- very pint of water. There mud therefore be a grain of pure mucilage for every pint. Upon comparing thefe experiments with thofe of llucrnc, it appears, that Hiaernc's univcrfal acid, which he regards as exifting in a fmaller proportion in the Mcdvi than in the Spa water, is the fame principle which we denominate ae- rial acid; — that his ferrcous fulphur is hepatic air;— and his alum, falitcd lime. Although there be in Sweden other acidulous. "Waters endowed with medicinal virtues, yet we know of none, as yet, equal to thofe of Medvi. It may therefore be proper toinilitute a com- parifon between the Mcdvi waters and thofe of Pyrmont and Spa, which have been long, im- ported ACIDULATED WATERS ported into Sweden, and celebrated as fupcrior to the mineral waters or* our own country. In this companion it appears, j. That in the waters of Medvi there is a fin all proportion of aerial acid, fuflicient indeed for the folution of iron, but not in fo large a proportion ,as to give that agreeable pungent taile which is peculiar to frcfli Pyrmont water. 2. The Medvi water contains hepanV air, not a particle of which can be detected in the mineral waters of Spa and Pyrmont, in the (late in which they are commonly brought into Swe- den. 3. The water of the Upper fpring of Medvi aOords nearly the fame proportion of iron as the water of Spa or Pyrmont, — about one fourth of a grain to the pint. 4. The water of Medvi contains none but medicinal principles ; but the foreign waters of Spa and Pyrmont have many other principles intermixed in them, which are either dellitute of all virtue, or dircclly pernicious ; no Ids, for inflance, than 18 or 20 grains of lime and chuik in every pint. Nay Pyrmont water is found to contain about 3 4 grains of gypfcoii* matter, to which many who drink it in large quantities find their conilitutions unequal. v. OF MED VI. s«;y S v. Of the internal tfft of ibc Water of Medvi. 1 HAVE heard many who were in ufc to ilrink the waters of iVIedvi 30 or /p years ago complain that it* ftrength and \irtucarc no longer the fame; but its taftc more inlipid, and a larger quantity ncceiFary to be drunk at onre, in or- der to produce the proper eileil. Hut. it is by no means a fure tell, to talle after a long inter- val, \shat you had tailed once before, forage impairs the fenfibility of the tongue. Again, as to this water being drunk in larger quantity now than formerly, that is no proof of its loiing irs virtues. Iliiirne relates, that on the firil tlifcovcry of the fpring of Medvi, a certain per- Ion who had loft the ufe of his feet, drank a whole firkin of the water every day, and at night, too, called for water whenever he awaked. So far, however, was this pcrfon from being hurt by drinking it in fuch enormous quantities, that he was in the fpaec of a few weeks, rcltorcd to perfect health. I can readily grant, indeed, that but few, and thofc pcrfonsof a llrong frame and a vigorous conilitution, could drink fo much water without being injured by it. But what I want to prove, and that is plain from IlktTnc's relation, is that no inference can be drawn a- the ilrcngth of the water, from the cir- cumftunco ACIDULATED \VATMKS cumftanceofits being drunk in larger quantities! now than formerly. Mineral waters may happen, however, to lofe their virtues jn the courfe of* time. Many fprings have, iridved, retained their lalutary virtues tor *#es : but there are others whole medicinal powers have generally declined. Even of Med- vi the tafte and ellicacy have not been uniform- ly the fame. Hkurne himfclf bears witnefs, that he hud found its taile fometimes fwect, fomc- times bitter; probably as the proportion of the hepatic air varied : and that fo frequently, that it could not be referred either to the changes of the moon, or the feafons. I inyfelf obierved ic to undergo a limilar change in the end of the month of Augull. All who had been before at the fpring found it to taile ftronger than lifual then of iron. That the waters of Mcdvi arc endued with reJ rnarkable healing powers, appears from numer- ous inftances of perfons, who both in former times, and in the prefent age, liave recovered their health by drinking of them. Many upon drinking it, immoderately have in a week or two found their llomach oppreilcd, their head ren- dered giddy, their knees infecbled, and have felt it impoflible to refill llccp after dinner. Our water contains lefs iron than that of Pyr- inont ; but this very quality renders it the fit- ter for llrengthening a weak ftomach, which is often OF ME DVT. 401 often unable to bear much iron, ancl is much more benefited by the daily life of a moderate portion. I found myfclf furprifingly better for the Mcdvi water. And from many years expe- rience, I can declare, that I have received lefs benefit from journies into different countries, for the fake of health, than from excrcife, and the ufe of tliis mineral water. For the ufe of thofe \vhofe cafes may require a mineral water more flrongly impregnated with iron, I would advife the lord of the manor to o- pcn the Red fpring, and inclofe it. The water of this fpring contains a proportion of aerated iron, at lead equal to that of the water of Pyr- mont : — every pint affords 4 j. grains. It con- tains alfo no fmall quantity of hepatic air, and of aerial acida mode rate proportion, not difccrn- ible by the tailc. It therefore rcfcmblcs the water of the Upper fpring ; only, has more iron in its competition. It may, accordingly, be of" great fcrvicc to men of a ilrong conftitution ; or even to thofe who arc weaker, if they ufe it on- ly when recovering from illnefs, or drink a cup a day after drinking firlt of the water of the Upper fpring. $ vi. Ufe of the Mcdvi IVatcrs in Baths. MANY of thofe who vifit the mineral wells of Mcdvi, bathe in cold water from the upper C c fpring ,;02 ACIDULATED WATERS, &c. fpring, the earth ufed in the baths is found near the red fpring. It i* fine, black, and free of fand, yet affords, in a flight degree, the fame hepatic odour, as the mud of the waters of Lo- karne; hence the pimples and itching of the (kin produced in the bath of the water of Lokarne are not obierved here. I my felt* received the the fame beneficial effecls from this batli which many had experienced before me. OF T II £ MEDICINAL SPRINGS OF L O K A R N E. • juvat interns actedcre fontes. LUCRET. $ i. Hi/lory of the Lokarne Springs. i N the parifli of Grythytte, and the dill rift of Ocrcbroevc, is a marfhy vale, lying in the midll of high hills, with two lakes called the lakes of Lokarnc, upon one fide. In that vale arc three fprings, which from the contiguous lakes, have been denominated Loka-kalor, or the Lokarnc fprings. It is probable that one of thcfe knowia by the name of Old fpring, was in days of old, reforted to as medicinal by the adjoining inha- bitants ; and that they aflcmbled round it, par- ticularly MEDICINAL SPRINGS ticularly on John BaptifVs eve, a cuitom not yet entirely gone into difufe. But it had been long negletftcd, till about iixty years ago, it was open- ed anew, and incloied with a ilone and lime- wall. The water of this fpring is now ufcd on- ly by the lower clafs of people. Another to which people of middling circumilanccs re fort, is na- med the new well. It is lituated near the Inn, and was lirll opened and inclofed with a build- ing in the year 1767. The third, called the Bath-well, is at fome diltance from the Inn. Th« water of this well is drunk at table in the Inn, and is ufed in bathing. Thcfc three wells arc arranged nearly in a triangle; the old well be- ing about eight and thirty fathoms diilant from the new,w and thirty from the bath-well ; the bath-well "again being eight and forty fathoms from the new well. § ii. Flnfical qualities of the Lokarnc tt'atcr. IN June 1783, I made the following obfcrva- tionson the Lokarne water. 1. It is clear as cryilal : and mufl therefore contain either no mucilaginous matter, or at lead very little. 2. It is pleafant to drink; tafting nearly like common fpring water. But it dries the mouth j whereas common fpiing-water rather caufes the faliva to fecrete more copioully. 3- Tim OF LOK ARNE* 405 3. This water, new out of the fpring has no peculiar fincll; but violent agitation makes it at- ford an hepatic odour. This odour is Wronger in the water of the new than in that of the old fpring; and again in that of the old than in that of the bath -fpring. 4. This water feels cold. In the new well the mercury ftood in the thermometer at fix one- fourth degrees; while the temperature ofthcat- mofphcrc was at the fame time no Icfs than thir* teen degrees, The fame thing was obfcrvcd of the old well. On the wall inclofmg the latter, I found an infcriptiou bearing, that on the 25th of June 1757, the thermometer which had flood in the open air at twenty one-half degrees above 7.cro, fell in the well to eight degrees ; and that at five in the morning on June i, 1758, the tem- perature oftiic atmofpherc, being nineteen and a half degrees, that of the water in the well was only fix. Between this lafl obfcrvation and my own there is only one-fourth of a degree of diffe- rence. Tim difference might be owing to a faul- ty eon ft ruction of the thermometer. Bcrge has •alligned the fame degrees of temperature to the mineral waters of Lokarne. As to the mercury tailing in the thermometer only to the eighth degree in the old fpring; that might happen in confequence of the inftrument not being fuf- ficicntly immcrfcd in the water, or being too haf- tily taken out. Whofc were the obfervations C c 3 inicnbed 4c6 MEDICINAL SPRINGS infcribetl on the wall I knew not, till the keeper of the wells informed, they were written by the celebrated Odelflierne, director of the mines. In the bath-well the mercury flood at fevcnty. It is fcarcely a fathom deep. The water, as a- bove mentioned, is both drunk at meals and ufed for bathing. It is alib conveyed into that called the Englifh bath, which is but of late date, and is 9 one-half fathoms long, three one-half broad, and two deep. The water in this bath is con- llantly frefh ; it being fo conftrufted that new water from the well runs runs it, while that which has been made ufe of is conveyed off. Hence its temperature is often eight degrees colder than that ufed in the common baths. It is not fo eafy a matter as is commonly ima- gined to afccrtain the exaft temperature of the water with the thermometer. Although the thermometer when immerfcd in water indicates thctcmpcratuieof the water with fuflicient accu- racy ; yet when taken out to be examined, it is liable to be aileded by the breath, and by the temperature of the atmofpherc ; and conclufions formed concerning the temperature will of conic- qucncc be uncertain and indcciiive. To avoid thcfc inconveniencics, 1 put the thermometer in a perpendicular pofture, into a glah vcllel, fo fil- led with faikl,that the j-io'mtof the|!calc is at the brim of the vctt'el. 1 then wrap up thrinilrumcnt with a thick cord ; and then immerfe it fufpcn- dcd .OF L O K A R N F. 407 ilcd by the rope into the \vell ; in the bottom of which it is left for half an hour. With this ap- paratus, 1 obtain what I want: I can now dif- ccrn the pfccife heat of the water by the thermo- meter, without fear of the mercury falling when it is taken out. In the cave of the Royal Obfcrvatory at Pa- ris, the mercury of the thermometer Rands through the whole year at the fame degree, cor- rcfponding to the twelfth in our Swcdifh ther- mometer. The waters of Medvi and Lokarnc, therefore, and of other perennial fp rings which have come under my obfcrvation, exceed that temperature only by one degree. The fame temperature is found to prevail in fubterraneous cavities. Now, as the water on the furfacc of the earth is fupplied by lakes and fubterraneous citterns, at Icaft asdittant from the centre of the earth as thcfe fprings ; it follows that the fourcc of thofe wells mufl be extremely deep, whofc temperature is only fix degrees. Bclides, the openings of fuch fprings are ufually inclined to the horizon. In general, however, the heat of water on the furfacc of the earth is different at different feafons in the year. In natural cuvitcs in mountains, although on the fame level with the adjacent plains, water cannot but be uncom- monly cold. But I can fcarcc think there arc many places in which it can become fo cold in fu miner 4oS MEDICINAL SPRINGS fummer as to reduce the mercury to fix degree's in the thermometer. 5. The water is not always in equal quality. The new fpring gives 142! pints in the hour; the old fpring 465; and the bath fpring 517, one-half. 6. I could not determine the fpecific gravity of the water of Lokarne, for want of inllruments. § HI, Chemical dimly/if. FROM the account above given of the phyfi- cal qualities of the waters of Lokarne, it -ap- pears, that they contain in their compofition, but a fnvall proportion of extraneous and mine- ral matter. The fame thing appears from ex- periment. i. A pint of this water afforded by evapora- tion only two pennyeights and twenty-eight grains apothecary's weight. Nearly a fourth part of this refidue was fine liliceous powder; the retl calcareous earth in combination with marine and aerial acid. 1 have never indeed met with any fpring-watcr entirely free of fali- ted or aerated lime. Hut the infulion of a few drops of the nitrous folution of lilver foon dilco- vcr the pretence of the marine acid, by commu- nicating to the water, if it contains any of that acid, au opaline colour. In a few days the fedi- incnt OF LOKARNE. 4^9 incnt is found in the water, in the form of a thin purple plate. When the fediment is more co- pious, the nitrous folution produces a violet co- lour in the water; and when in flill greater plenty, tinges it black. The calcareous earth, when in no larger proportion than in the wa- ters of Loknrnc, is fcparated in twenty-four hours by the faccharinc acid. The falitcd ponderous earth intermixed in the Lokarnc water difcovcrs no mark of vitriolic a- cid ; nor does tinclure of galls detect the pre- fence of iron. In the reiiduc, like wife, which remains after the evaporation, no iron appears ; unlcfs the acid employed be prcvioufly tindtur- ed with iron. I meant likewife, had not ill health prevent- ed me, to have examined the water of the old and the bath fpring by evaporation. But, by the ufe of reagents I found the water of thofc fprings to contain the fame principles as that of the new fpring, only in an inferior proportion. JU'rgc obtained only two grains rcliduc for eve- ry pint of the water of the old fpring. 2. There is but very little volatile matter in the water of Lokarne. The tallc gives no indication of the prcfence of aerial acid : yet that every pint contains two or three cubic inches of this aeriform fluid, ap- pears from the circumftance of a red colour be- ing 4,o MEDICINAL SPRINGS ing produced in this water ; when tinclure of turnfole is poured into it in equal quantity. I have obferved above, that the Lokarne wa- ter contains hepatic air. But, fuch is its fubtili- ty and volatility, that it efcapes, although the glafs veflel, in which the water is contained be corked and fcaled in the moil careful manner. A bottle of Lokarne water, the temperature of which was 107, being clofely corked and kept by me in my bed-chamber, loll in the fpuce or* four hours all its hepatic air, Ib that even when fliaken, it exhibited no appearance of having e- ver contained any. And, in water newly drawn out of the fpring, was not above a cubic inch to the pint. From what has been faid it appears, that the water of Lokarne is not mere fpring water, though but very flightly mineralized. Moll mi- neral fp rings owe their healing virtues either to aerial acid or hepatic air. Aerial acid, unlcfs contained in a pretty large proportion, in water, produces but little alteration in its nature. Such as in the proportion of eight or ten cubic inches to the pint: whence it. may be inferred that the water of Lokarne is lei's indebted to the aerial acid than to the hepatic air which it contains for its virtues. Hepatic air is a much more powerful agent than aerial acid : two pints of cold water that had abforbed only two cubic inches of hepatic air, retained the peculiar o- ilour OF LOKARNK. 4ir dour of that gas for, at lead, two days. But far- ther obfcrvations arc required, to determine how far the mere internal ufe of tliis 'water may be beneficial : for at prefent all who drunk the Lo- karnc water, bathe at the fame time. § iv. The earth of Lokarne. THE earth ufcd in bathing by thofe who fvc- (juent the Lokarne wells is foundonthc fide of a rivulet at a fmall di (lance from the wells. It is fine, tenacious, contains very little fand, and is often infected with a hepatic fmcll. In the baths this earth fcrvcs two purpofes — it lubri- cates the (kin by friction; and keeps the body cool. Any fort of fine earth, or foft muddy clay would do the fame thing. But if the mud con- tain hepatic air, an irritation of the fkin is pro- duced, and an itch breaks out. This earth, ufed in the baths of Lokarnc does not unfrc- qucntly produce this effect, after the bath has been fcvcral times ufed. /The vitriol intermixed with it co-operates with the cold in contracting the veJFelsof the ikin. Bcrgc has proved, by various arguments, that this earth is produced by putrefaction from the fyhagnum palitflrc. Its fpongincfs and lightnefs I take to be owing to nothing but the dry cha- racter of that mofs. But, in order to invcitie transformed into fomc other. A variety of co- lours too, red, yellow, green, mure, brown, and others are produced in iron by different modes of treatment, although not precifcly the fame as arc obierved in the above three metals. It is, how- ever, exceedingly diilicult to fcparate iron from nickel, cobalt, and nianganefc ; as 1 have elle- •\vhere fhewn particularly, in the inftance of nic- kel. Of regulus of nickel I have obierved, that the more painfully it is purified, the more docs it come to refemble iron in attraclability by the magnet, and even the very fragments of the re- guli then attract one another. I know that fomc reguh of nickel are not fufceptible of magne- tic at trad ion. But fuch need only to be puri- fied in order to acquire this quality, efpecially nickel precipitated with liver of fulphur, mull be freed of all extraneous mixture before it can become fubjccl to the power of the magnet. There has not, as yet, been in much pains ta- ken to purify cobalt and mangancfe as to puri- fy nickel. But the experiments which have been madelhew clearly that iron adheres to thclV me- f:ils with great obilinacy, and is often attracted by them from among other matters. There is alfo another argument which mews how great the affinity of nickel and cobalt with iron is. The pure reguli of thefo metals, though e- vuporatcd to drynefs with acids yield n ) ochre; which, OF COBALT, &c. , however, always appears when cither iron •If, or iron mixed with any other metal U edin an acid. m thcie particulars it appears, that there a remarkable and fmgular fimillitude be- > cobalt, nickel, manganefc, and iron; yet .milarity is by no means fo great as to induce hink all thcie only are one and the fame me- or this can be demonftratcd no other way, 43o OF COBALT, &c. 3. From a comparison of nickel, cobalt, arid manganefe, it appears, that when pure of arfenic, thcfe metals will fcarce melt in the fire; when combined with arfenic, with which they enter very eagerly into combination, they are no longer iubjecl to the attraction of the magnet : it like wife appears, that they can fcaree be entire- ly iVee of iron if attrachibility by the magnet be the tell of the prcfcnce of iron; when carefully purified, they become ductile, and precipitate lu- ruratediblutiomof niver/thusdinering Jrom iron. Thefe qualities,- jull mentioned are, therefore, common to tliefe three metals; but in other par- ticulars they plainly ditler. For manganefe dif- fers fo far from the rctt in its fpeciilc gravity which is 6,850, and in other qualities peculiar to itfelf, that uny peribn \\liu makes experiments upun it, can have no doubt of its being a pecu- Jiur fubtlunce. As to whut 1ms been lately af- iertcdby a celebrated chemill, that nickel and cobalt ave one metal, only indifferent forms, that has indeed Tome ihew of probability, if what I have above related concerning thole metals be taken into conlideration. Yet proofs of their diverilty arc not wanting. Nickel, when impreg- nated with cobalt, cannot, without great dif- ficulty, be feparatcd from it, and viceverjli; this circumflance alone might be fullicient to produce the miflakc. But nickel, when feparat- cd from cobalt, canuor, with any addition of ar- fenic, OF COBALT, &c. 43* fenic, be converted into a green glafs; neither is it a lit ingredient for fympathctic ink, nor doc1? it allord red folution with acids, or a green calx limilar to that of cobalt. Befides, pure nickel \vill melt niuf run into a mafs with filvcr, but not cobalt; and to precipitate an hundred weight of iiivcr, twice as much of nickel as of cobalt i« required. I^cad and bifmuth are much liker to each other, yet no body doubts their diverfity. Although Brandt flic wed by experiments, fifty years fincc, that cobalt is a peculiar metal; yet: iome perfons, chiefly in Saxony ,have fmcedenicd that part of cobalt which ftainsglafs to be metal- lic. They have referred, too,to a certain ore of co- balt (cobalt-muhttt) which communicates a green tinge to glafs, and yet affords no rcgulus of co- balt. But, although I have not, asyet,citherfcen or examined this ore of cobalt, I fufpecl its pu- rity to be the caufc of its ailbrding no rcgulus. For, from what I have faid above it appears, that, pure cobalt, without any intermixture of arfe- nic is extremely difficult to melt. In allaying many j'.lallcs tinged with cobalt, with an addition of black flux, I ulwuyx obtained a rcgulus of that metal, although but a very fmali quantity is nc~ ccflary to ftain a large piece of glafs. The preci- pitate too, produced in folutions of cobalt by the admixture of phlogiilicated alkali afforded, upon reduction, a regulus fit for ilaining glafs, and was iu OF COBALT, Sec. in all other refpcds very like pure cobalt. No\vf fin cc experiments have fliuwn, that none but me- tullic matters are precipitable from folutions by phlogifticated alkali, when the fhturation is com- plete ; it follows neceflarily, that the part of co- "bait with which glafles arc flawed, mull be SOME SOME OBSERVATIONS ON URINARY CALCULI. Cujus rei nnttira in pnrltonibus tjus mimmis optimr ctrmtnr. ARISTOTF.LIS. BOUT the time when the celebrated Schccle was making his experiments oji urinary calculi, I, not knowing that he was To engaged, had en- tered upon the fame tafk. In the proccfs of my experiments I not only difcovcrcd with Schcele, that thoic calculi contain a peculiar acid in a concrete folid ftatc, but made fome other obfcr- vations not corrcfponding to his ; but the diffe- rence might poffibly bo occafioncd by a diver- fity of nature in the matter on which our expe- riments were made. I was unfuccefsful in all my attempts to dif- folvc calculi entirely in diflilled water, or nitrous acid. Indeed, the more minutely the matter is pulverifed, the fcanticr is the rcfiduc. But, L e fomc 434 OBSERVATIONS Otf fome part (1111 remains undiflolvcd: as any per* Con may fee, if he attempt the folution of a pret- ty conllderable quantity of the matter of the calculi in a finall vellcl. In that cafe, what remains undiflblved, gathers into one place, while the liquor cools. IJut a flill better tefl is to put finall bits of calculus to the weight of a few grains, into a copious proportion of men fir u urn, and expofe it to a heat nearly equal to that ot boiling water; the greater part will then'bcdif- folvcd ; but there will remain a very final! por- tion of a fine white matter, almort infoluble in water, fpirit of wine, acids or cauilic alkali. In- creufe the heat to a boiling temperature ; and the fubilance which has hitherto refilled the ac- tion of the iblvents, will be reduced into flakes, and will almofl difappcar, but will not even yet be abfolutcly diflblved. 1 have not been able to procure a fuflicicnt quantity of this matter for a more accurate feries of experiments. Jiut 1 know that a coal which is fcarce combudible and not foluble in nitrous acid, remains. Saccharine acid produces no precipitate in a nitrous folution of calculi. Hence it is plain to any perfon, that thofe calculi contain no calca- reous earth ; otherwife it would be inftantauc- oufly deteclcd by the Saccharine acid. Buf, having obferved, in the profccution of my expe- riments on elective attraclions, that on the addition of a third body to two already in com- bination. URINARY CALCULI. 435 buiation,the third body, in (lead of cfiecYmg the reparation of the twoprcvioufly combined, often added itfelf as a new ingredient in the compofi- tion ; I was induced tofufpecl that in the pre- font indunce a fimilar event took place, and uith the greater confidence, as 1 was certain fomc, although but a very fmall, portion of unc- Uioiu matter was always joined with fugar. The facl confirmed my conjecture. For by the tho- rougii combuftion of urinary calculi, 1 obtained a white aib, evidently calcareous, which ctter- vefccd with acids, and acquired on tlic infulion of \itriolic acid, a gypfcous characler ; was ealily prccipitablc by faccharinc acid, and was to a certain degree, folublc in water, £c. There Aill remains, however, nearly an hundredth part which is infolublc in nitrous acid. But the rcfi. due above-mentioned, forms in conjunction with the concrete acid, the fubilancc of the calculus. The matter of the calculus may be obtained by evaporation from a nitrous folution of it; and if burnt to whitencfs, will allbrd a calcareous pow- der. Pure vitriolic acid not being contaminated with any unctuous matter, 1 hoped to fuccced in examining the calx with it: and it proved fo. For on pouring into a nitrous folution of calculi a few drops of flrong and limpid vitriolic acid, I perceived a few cryilals detached, which upon a particular examination, and chiefly by prcci- K e 2 cipitation OBSERVATIONS ON pitation with fncclmrinc acid proved to begypfe- ous. In a diluted folution of a calculous matter, no change was at firft obferved ; but after a conii- derable part of the inniihirc was evaporated, try. flals began to appear. Kroin thefe circumilanccs if appears, that there is actually quick-lime in urinary calculi; but in a very finall proportion, as one hundred weight fcarce everallords more than halfa pound. Strong vitriolic acid diflblves calculous mat- ter, with the help of heat, and with ellervd"- cence. The folution is of a black colour ; and if a little water be poured into it, fcems in foine degree to coagulate; but on the addition of a, larger quantity of water, recovers its limpidity, and afliuncs a brown colour. Muriatic acid feems to be incapable of difiol- ving calculous matter; yet, I know not but it may feparate a part of the lime. The rcihicfs which fometiincs arifcsin the ni- trous folution of calculous matter is remarkable. When the folution is faturated, it gives no indi- cation of the prcience of the nitrous acid by its fin ell ; and when evaporated in a large open vef- fel, it is changed into a darkened liquor, in which tinfture of turnfolc can fcarce dctcft any re- mains of nitrous acid. Any acid deftroys the redncfs; and neither the infufion of alkali, nor any other addition can re do re it. If the moi- ihire be more fpeedily evaporated, the folution fwclh URINARY CALCULI. 437 f wells with innumerable aerial bubbles, and forms a froth which is at firft ruddy, and when more entirely evaporated, becomes black. This black matter tinges a great deal more water than the weak folution, and is foluble even by thofc acids which act not upon the calculus, and always the Ilronger the acid infufcd, the fooncr does theco- lour difappcar. Even alum, in which there is but a final 1 proportion of acid, dcilroys the colourof this froth. Nitrous acid acls in a fmgular manner on in- flammable matters; and as inflammable matter is the principle of colour, hence it is eailly undcr- ilood wliy none but the nitrous acid extracts the colour from the calculus. A due proportion of the acid ist however, rcquilitc to render the co- lour permanent. Diluted nitrous acid fhould therefore be employed to avoid the inconveni- ence of an excels; for an excels docs not produce too flrong a red, but dellroys the colour by the abforption of all the phlogillon, Strong nitrous acid, mixed with calculous matter, is, after a fliort interval, converted, without the application of heat, into froth. The acid of the urinary calculi is calily fepa- raleil from the nitrous acid by evaporation; the nitrous acid being rendered more volatile by combination with phlogitlon. Alkaline iults do not feparatc thefe acids; for it almolt always happens in the cafe of two acids being mixed, E c 3 that 438 OBSERVATIONS ON that no difunion is produced, but the alkali at- tracted into the competition. The red matter which is obtained by infpiflation, is evidently dif- ferent from the concentrated acid which exilb in calculi ; its faturated colour, the force with which it attracts moifture from the atmofphere, tin* rofe colour which it communicates to water, its folubility in the muriatic and other acids, which fooner or later deprive it of all heat, thcfe particulars murk fulliciently the peculiari- ty of the red matter. That remarkable change is produced, as I have obferved, not fo much by the reiidue of the nitrous acid, as by its cflicacy in dilllpating phlogiflon. A folution of this mat- ter produces rofy fpots on the (kin, as alfo on bones, glafs, paper, £c. but on theie latter, the reclrefs docs nut appear fo foon unlefs heat be applied. 1 forbear an account of my other experiments on calculi; as their refults were the fame with thofe which Scheele has laid before the world. I /hall only add, that the chemical analyfis of the ftone in the bladder may be of great benefit to nudicine. lor -we can fcarce hope to find any remedy \\hich may ailbrd a certain relief to the evils of this dreadful cafe ; unlefs we firil difco- ver the nature of the Hone. Experience has flicun that lime-water and lixiviated cauilic al- kali are a medicine for this complaint; uliich might UR1NAUY CALCULI. 439 might indeed be difcovcrcd, had it not becnpre- vioufly known by confidering the competition of the calculus. But, whether all calculi be of the fume nature, I cannot prefumc to deter- mine. New experiments are ncceflfary to decide this qucilion. E c 4 IN- A I N D E X. P**. CIDS, fpccics of - r. • f ,?• Acids, vegetable *>, , •= • • ••„ • *bid. • Animal • * » 261 Agricola, his writings on metallurgy mentioned » 114 Arabian phylicians, purgatives In (I recommended by them no Adepts • • • • 101 A i it!s, common to feveral kingdoms in nature • > . 261 Adulteration ofcorrofjvc fublimate with arfcnic _> •., 332 Alchemy, whether known to the Egyptian*, &c. - 40 Alkaline falls, fpecics of • • • 26; Alkalis fixed - - V ' . i()jtj. Alum, Egyptian, commended by Pliny ;V > 2 - • 216 Corrolive mercurial fublimatc • • • 3*9 Coma, albedos of f-'1 - - 19* Chincfc poflefTcd of coafidcrablc chemical knowledge 8 c Chcmiflry metaphorical character of • - » 3 Chemical arts, origin of - r ^ , ^ Chcmills, their defence of antiquity blamed - 7 . fond of tracing an allegorical hillory of their fci- cncc in the fables of antiquity - - "9 Chemillry, nature of fofGls difcernablc by its acid 22 z Chemirtry, its progrefs flower among the Greeks than a« mong the Egyptians - - ,- i1 • 57 Copper firil tlifcorcred in Cyprus - - • 57 Crete, afbcltos of * - ; - • - • 19* Corinthian compofitions of mctali * *if • ^7 Cyplic«)8, an akxipharmic compofition of the Egyptians 2S Cudbear, the fir ft difcovery of • . •• - 126 Cronlltdt, his merit as a foflilill • *;; • • tlj Compound earths, how united - * •'' • 149 Crocodile, (kelcton of, found in thcfand-pit at MacftricLt 286 Diamond - * '*' ' '"• "'' • - • 251 fpccics of * • - 283 Difpenfatory of Valerius Cordus - • 108 DoHie, his delicacy relative to the adulteration «f corrofivc fublimatc with arfcnic • " * •. * 333 Double 442 INDEX. Double per fed earthy fait 5 • . • • 264 Double imperfect earthly falls • • 265 Earth* • ;• • • • • 169 Earths, their al&nites witU nirtali . . » 23$ Earthy fubflances, experiments with fire tried on them by Tycho Brahc ... 58 Earths, dillinguiflting marks of • 228 — 232 Egypt, Hate of chcmillry in V • 15 Earthy alkaline fulls ... 365 Enoch, his account of the Egregori quoted . 8 External criteria of fulfill *., • • • 217 Fixed alkali* • • • *&* Fibration through wool tkferibed by Plato •. » 60 Flexible glafs exhibited by an art ill to Tiberiui • 84 FofTtls, thoughts on a natural fyllem of • 205 . charaftcr of - • • 2 1 1 . examination of them in the humid way 2 if Genera of fulls • • • ., V- * »» * * 34° Gcyfer in Iceland, filiceous earth diHblved by the water of that fjning - • • 2jl Glafs, manufactories of it clUblifhed in France in the 7th century - ^_ ?^.. . ..•, ,t 121 Gold mines of Egypt ,; ?,., • 32 Grxnge, albcllou of • ^•f.. . 194 Gravity fpccific of earths • • • 220 Creeks indebted Jto the Egyptians for the rudiments of fcience %, • • • 55 Hampmire earth • • • 174 Helvetius Dr. what happened to him • 135 I It-n ii'jut mn, pieces of gl:iU found in its ruint • 1 24 Hcrme*, the (nil, the fame as Thoyth • 1 6 . the fr«ond * . • *; • • ltj Hermcfcs, both of them great inventors in the art* 2* s, ttu buulo uttdcr hi» fume not hi* 46 Hidory INDEX. 443 Page. I Jiftory Natural, what • • • 2 Iliiloiy of tlic acidulated wntrn of Mcdvi • jfc^ Jcrom, his evidence rcfpcc~ling glafs - 121 Imperfect double falls - - • 263 Incniitatcd oi^p.nic bodies • • 259 Imperfect triple falu • - . 264. Invelligation of fulfils by fire fallacious • 224 Ingredients in the mineral waters of Mtdvi • « 39^ Iron native of Siberia, malleable - • « 13 Laftantius, his evidence rcfpccling glafs • • 1 20 Leather, mountain • • • 193 Lemnian earth • - • 161 Library of Alexandria founded by Ptolemy Sotcr 95- Lithomargc - - * *59 J^okame mineral fprings . • 403 Magnet, examination of earths by it - - 221 Making gold, meaning of tilit cxprcffion - 129 ^Tcdvi, acidulated waters of • • 388 Metals, fulphurcous character of • • 335 Metals tltc ufc of, very ancient - • 1 1 Mctah, diflinguiOiing marks of • • 228 Metallic falls - 26^ Metallurgy cultivated before the birth of ChriH • 113 Metallic falls with an excefs of metallic bafe • - 266 Mixed neutral falts «... 242 Mincrali/cd metals - - 179 Mortar prepared by the ancients with a larger proportion of land than at prcfeut • • • 128 Mincrali/.ing fubdanccs - • 279 Metals minerali/ed by fulphur ibid. Mofes (killed in chemiilry 72 Metah mineralised by the arfenical acid 381 Mountain cork 193 Mixed fufiiU, pofition and fitualion of 287 Mcrcuriel .144 INDEX. Page. Mercurial fublimate prepared by various procefTct 322 Mixture of bodies containing mercury and muriatic acid 321 Mineral acids, their aft ion on corrofive mercury 338 Mercurial Cdts, their various ufcs 373 Maugantfe, precipitates of - - - 424 Names derived froni the authors of new difcovcries 303 Native melals ., • ,. . . 2;3 Neutral falls - - - - 263 Neutral falls, whethe* referable to a diftinft genus 24 ( Nickel, precipitates ot - • * * 41* Nitre was found in Egypt flt a very remote period 29 Nil rons acid, its importance in the preparation of mercurial fublirnalc - • . • • * • 325 Nuclei » • - » - - - 258 Origin of phlogillic fubflances - - 284 Organic fulfils, fpecies of •", '• -":<,: • 287 Organic fofliU • • » • - • 236 . bodies mineralized by falls • » , ;.« i 256 pet refaction of • • • 257 — pencil ated with metallic particles - 25$ Ory&ology » • . 214 Ofmundic earth • r* * 171 Oilcocolla . . . 259 Pet nr, what -i • t ::•»*>;. ..•£•. '* 304 Pchr(l)eig, afbeflos of ; * n • 19^ Petroleum • • . . 252 fpcclea of » . . 2 3\ I'htina, examination of it by precipitation • -417 Pharinacopaia of Nicolaui Prcvoil U7*', 266 • Triple fall* • - 363 Triple earthy falls • • . • - ••••£'•*•* }^$ Tubalcain made difcovcries concerning metals [*1^* II Umbrians, a full extracted by them from the afhci of reeds an-1 bulruflics • « *': 83 Unlvcrfal medicine • ** '"•••' •' 143 Varieties of organic fofTils * • * '• ; • 295 Volcanic produflions » • ";-••' 237 Waters of Mcdvi, their phyfical qualities -: *•'.;' 391 White mercurial precipitate • • »; 349 preparation of it • •• '•' '*'• 350 diflblvcd in water » • ' 357 . adulteration of it • • ' •* V'"' :"'v "'' 35^ Zillcrthal, fchorl fibrous of • •'*' il'- K/> Zoroafter, the reputed author of many writings on chc- miftry, &c. • ,: • "• ?* r i N i s. 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