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13

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

PHYSIOLOGICAL

RESEARCHES.

LONDON :

SPOTTISWOODES and SHAW,
New-street- Square.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

RESEARCHES,

EY

SIR BENJAMIN C. BROKE, BART., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OP THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.

COLLECTED 'AND KEPUBLISHED FROM THE
« PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS."

LONDON:

LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS.
1851.

ADVERTISEMENT.

THE following papers, which were published
many years ago in the Transactions of the Royal
Society, are now for the first time collected, and
republished in a separate volume.

I have availed myself of the opportunity thus
afforded to offer, in the form of notes, some ad-
ditional observations, which appear in some in-
stances to confirm, while in others they have
led me to modify, the conclusions at which I
had arrived formerly.

Having been long engaged in the duties of
an arduous profession, I have not had it in my
power to continue the pursuit of those physio-
logical inquiries to which I was able to devote
a considerable portion of my time during the
early part of my professional life. However,

M37S998

VI ADVERTISEMENT.

whatever loss this may have occasioned to myself,
it has caused no loss to the public. A part of
these inquiries at least, has been most success-
fully pursued by others, and especially the
labours of Orfila, Christison, and Taylor have
extended our knowledge of the destructive
agency of poisons far beyond the limits of my
original investigations.

October 23. 1851.

CONTENTS.

I.

Page

The Croonian Lecture, on some Physiological Re-
searches, respecting the Influence of the Brain on the
Action of the Heart, and on the Generation of Animal
Heat - - 1

II.

Further Experiments and Observations on the Influence
of the Brain on the Generation of Animal Heat - 17

III.

Experiments and Observations on the different Modes
in which Death is produced by certain Vegetable
Poisons - - 37

IV.

Further Observations and Experiments on the Action
of Poisons on the Animal System - - - 75

ADDITIONAL NOTES - - - - - -105

TO THE BINDER.

The ENGRAVING to face page 20.

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES.

I.

The Croonian Lecture, on some Physiological Re-
searches, respecting the Influence of the Brain on
the Action of the Heart, and on the Generation
of Animal Heat.

[From the Philosophical Transactions for 1811.]

HAVING had the honour of being appointed by
the President of the Royal Society to give the
Croonian Lecture, I trust that the following
facts and observations will be considered as tend-
ing sufficiently to promote the objects for which
that Lecture was instituted. They appear to
be of some interest as throwing light on the mode
in which the influence of the brain is necessary
to the continuance of the action of the heart;
and also as shewing that the integrity of the
nervous system is in some way necessary to the
production of animal heat.

In making experiments on animals to ascer-

2 ON THE INFLUENCE

tain how far the influence of the brain is neces-
sary to the action of the heart, I found that
in an animal in which the spinal chord had
been divided in the upper part of the neck, re-
spiration was immediately suspended, while the
heart still continued to contract circulating dark-
coloured blood, and that, in some instances, from
ten to fifteen minutes elapsed before the heart's
action had entirely ceased. I further found that
when the head was removed, the divided blood
vessels having been secured by a ligature, the cir-
culation still continued, apparently unaffected by
the entire separation of the brain. These experi-
ments confirmed the observations of Mr. Cruik-
shank* and M, Bichatf, that the brain is not
directly necessary to the action of the heart, and
that when the functions of the brain are destroyed,
the circulation ceases only in consequence of the
suspension of respiration. This led me to con-
clude, that, if respiration were produced arti-
ficially, the heart would continue to contract for
a still longer period of time after the removal of
the brain. The truth of this conclusion was
ascertained by the following experiment.

EXPERIMENT I.

I divided the spinal chord of a rabbit in the
space between the occiput and atlas, and having
made an opening into the trachea, fitted into it

* Philosophical Transactions, 1795.

t Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 3

a tube of elastic gum, to which was connected
a small pair of bellows, so constructed that
the lungs might be inflated, and then allowed
to empty themselves. By repeating this pro-
cess once in five seconds, the lungs being each
time fully inflated with fresh atmospheric air,
an artificial respiration was maintained, I then
secured the blood-vessels in the neck, and re-
moved the head, by cutting through the soft
parts above the ligature, and separating the oc-
ciput from the atlas. The heart continued to
contract apparently with as much strength and
frequency as in a living animal. I examined
the blood in the different sets of vessels, and
found it dark-coloured in the venae cavaa and
pulmonary artery, and of the usual florid red
colour in the pulmonary veins and aorta. At
the end of 25 minutes from the time of the
spinal chord being divided, the action of the
heart became fainter, and the experimenws
put an end to.

With a view to promote the enquiry instituted
by the Society for promoting the Knowledge of
Animal Chemistry respecting the influence of
the nerves on the secretions*, 1 endeavoured to
ascertain whether they continued after the in-
fluence of the brain was removed. In the com-
mencement of the experiment I emptied the
bladder of its contents by pressure. At the end
of the experiment the bladder continued empty.

* Philosophical Transactions for 1809.

B 2

4 ON THE INFLUENCE

This experiment confirmed the expectation
that the action of the heart might be made to
continue after the brain was removed, but at
the same time tended to show that, under these
circumstances, there was a suspension of the
secretion of urine. It appeared, however, de-
sirable that the experiment should be repeated,
and it occurred to me that in repeating it. it
would be well to ascertain whether, under the
same circumstances, the animal heat was main-
tained at the natural standard.

EXPERIMENT II.

The subject of this experiment was a middle-
sized dog. The temperature of the room was
63° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. By having pre-
viously secured the carotid and vertebral arteries,
I was enabled to remove the head with little or
no hemorrhage. The artificial respirations were
made about 24 times in a minute. The heart
acted with regularity and strength.

At the end of 30 minutes from the time of
the spinal chord being divided, the heart was
felt through the ribs contracting 76 times in a
minute.

At 35 minutes the pulse had risen to 84 in a
minute.

At one hour and 30 minutes the pulse had
risen to 88 in a minute.

At the end of two hours it had fallen to 70,
and at the end of two hours and a half to 35
in a minute, and the artificial respiration was
no longer continued.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 5

By means of a small thermometer with an
exposed bulb, I measured the animal heat at
different periods.

At the end of an hour the thermometer in the
rectum had fallen from 100° to 94°.

At the end of two hours a small opening having
been made in the parietes of the thorax, and the
bulb of the thermometer placed in contact with the
heart, the mercury fell to 86°, and half an hour
afterwards in the same situation it fell to 78°.

In the beginning of the experiment I made
an opening into the abdomen, and having passed
a ligature round each ureter about two inches
below the kidney, brought the edges of the
wound in the abdomen together by means of
sutures. At the end of the experiment no urine
was collected in the ureters above the ligatures.

On examining the blood in the different ves-
sels, it was found to be of a florid red colour
in the arteries, and of a dark colour in the veins,
as under ordinary circumstances.

During the first hour and a half of the ex-
periment there were constant and powerful con-
tractions of the muscles of the trunk and ex-
tremities, so that the body of the animal was
moved in a very remarkable manner on the
table on which it lay, and twice there was a
copious evacuation of faeces.

EXPEEIMENT Til.

The experiment was repeated on a rabbit.
The temperature of the room was 60°. The re-

B 3

b ON THE INFLUENCE

spirations were made from 30 to 35 times in a
minute. The action of the heart at first was strong
and frequent : but at the end of one hour and 40
minutes the pulse had fallen to 24 in a minute.

The blood in the arteries was seen of a florid
red, and that in the veins of a dark, colour.

A small opening was made in the abdominal
muscles, through which the bulb of a thermo-
meter was introduced into the abdomen, and
allowed to remain among the viscera.

At the end of an hour the heat in the abdomen
had fallen from 100° to 89°. At the end of an
hour and forty minutes in the same situation the
heat had fallen to 85°, and when the bulb of the
thermometer was placed in the thorax in contact
with the lungs the mercury fell to 82°.

It has been the generally received opinion that
the heat of warm-blooded animals is dependent
on the chemical changes produced on the blood
by the air in respiration. In the two last experi-
ments the animals cooled very rapidly, notwith-
standing that the blood appeared to undergo
the usual changes in the lungs, and I was there-
fore induced to doubt whether the above men-
tioned opinion respecting the source of animal
heat is altogether correct. No positive con-
clusions, however, could be deduced from these
experiments. If animal heat depends on the
changes produced on the blood by the air in
respiration, its being kept up to the natural
standard must depend on there being a certain
quantity of air inspired, and a certain quantity of

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 7

blood propelled through the lungs in a given
space of time : in other words, it must bear a
relation to the fulness and frequency of the pulse,
and the completeness of the respiration. It
therefore became necessary to pay particular
attention to these circumstances.

EXPERIMENT IV.

The experiment was repeated on a dog of a
small size, whose pulse was from 130 to 140 in
a minute, and whose respirations, as far as I
could judge, were performed from 30 to 35 times
in a minute.

The temperature of the room was 63°. The
heat in the rectum of the animal at the com-
mencement of the experiment was 99°. The
artificial inspirations were made to correspond
as nearly as possible to the natural inspirations,
both in fulness and frequency.

At 20 minutes from the time of the division
of the spinal chord, the heart acted 140 times in a
minute with as much strength and regularity as
before : the heat in the rectum had fallen to 96^°.

At 40 minutes the pulse was still 140 in a
minute : the heat in the rectum 92^°.

At 55 minutes the pulse was 112, and the heat
in the rectum 90°.

At one hour and 10 minutes the pulse beat
90 in a minute, and the heat in the rectum
was 88°.

At one hour and 25 minutes the pulse had
fallen to 30, and the heat in the rectum to 85°.

B 4

8 ON THE INFLUENCE

The bulb of the thermometer having been placed
within the pericardium, the mercury stood at 85°,
but when among the viscera of the abdomen it
rose to 87^°.

During the experiment there were frequent
and violent contractions of the voluntary muscles,
and an hour after the experiment was begun,
there was an evacuation of faeces.

EXPERIMENT V.

The experiment was repeated on a rabbit,
whose respirations, as far as I could judge, were
from 30 to 40 in a minute, and whose pulse
varied from 130 to 140 in a minute. The tem-
perature of the room was 57°. The heat in the
rectum, at the commencement of the experiment,
was 101 J°. The artificial respirations were made
to resemble the natural respirations as much as
possible, both in fulness and frequency.

At 15 minutes from the time of the spinal
chord being divided, the heat in the rectum had
fallen to 98^°.

At the end of half an hour the heart was felt
through the ribs, acting strongly 140 times in a
minute.

At 45 minutes the pulse was still 140 ; the
heat in the rectum was 94°.

At the end of an hour the pulse continued
140 in a minute ; the heat in the rectum was
92° ; among the viscera of the abdomen 94° ;
in the thorax, between the lungs and pericar-
dium, 92°.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 9

During the experiment the blood in the femoral
artery was seen to be of a bright florid colour,
and that in the femoral vein of a dark colour,
as usual.

The rabbit voided urine at the commencement
of the experiment; at the end of the experi-
ment no urine was found in the bladder.

EXPERIMENT VI.

I procured two rabbits of the same colour,
but one of them was about one-fifth smaller than
the other. I divided the spinal chord of the
larger rabbit between the occiput and atlas.
Having secured the vessels in the neck, and re-
moved the head, I kept up the circulation by
means of artificial respiration as in the former
experiments. The respirations were made as
nearly as possible similar to natural respira-
tions.

In 23 minutes after the spinal chord had been
divided, the pulse was strong, and 130 in a
minute : the bulb of the thermometer being placed
among the viscera of the abdomen, the mercury
stood at 96°.

At 34 minutes the pulse was 120 in a minute ;
the heat in the abdomen was 95°.

At the end of an hour the pulse could not be
felt, but, on opening the thorax, the heart was
found acting, slowly and feebly. The heat in
the abdomen was 91° ; and between the lobes of
the right lung 88°.

During the experiment, the blood in the ar-

10 ON THE INFLUENCE

teries and veins was seen to have its usual
colour.

In this therefore, as in the preceding experi-
ments, the heat of the animal fell rapidly,
notwithstanding the continuance of the respira-
tion. In order to ascertain whether any heat at
all was generated by this process, I made the
following comparative experiment. The tem-
perature of the room being the same, I killed
the smaller rabbit by dividing the spinal chord
between the occiput and atlas. In consequence
of the difference of size, cceteris paribus, the heat
in this rabbit ought to dimmish more rapidly
than in the other ; and I therefore examined its
temperature at the end of 52 minutes, consider-
ing that this would be at least equivalent to ex-
amining that of the larger rabbit at the end of an
hour. At 52 minutes from the time of the smaller
rabbit being killed, the temperature among the
viscera of the abdomen was 92°, and between
the lobes of the right lung it was 91°. From
this experiment, therefore, it appeared not only
that no heat was generated in the rabbit, in
which the circulation was maintained by arti-
ficial respiration, but that it even cooled more
rapidly than the dead animal.

At the suggestion of Professor Davy, who
took much interest in the enquiry, I repeated the
foregoing experiment on two animals, taking pains
to procure them more nearly of the same size
and colour.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 11

EXPERIMENT VII.

I procured two large full grown rabbits, of
the same colour, and so nearly equal in size, that
no difference could be detected by the eye.

The temperature of the room was 57°, and
the heat in the rectum of each rabbit previously
to the experiment was 100^°.

I divided the spinal chord in one of them,
produced artificial respiration, and removed the
head, after having secured the vessels in the
neck. The artificial respirations were made
about 35 times in a minute.

During the first hour, the heart contracted
144 times in a minute.

At the end of an hour and a quarter the pulse
had fallen to 136 in a minute, and it continued
the same at the end of an hour and a half. At
the end of an hour and 40 minutes the pulse
had fallen to 90 in a minute, and the artificial
respiration was discontinued.

Half an hour after the spinal chord had been
divided, the heat in the rectum had fallen to 97°.

At 45 minutes it was 95^-°.

At the end of an hour the heat in the rectum
was 94°.

At an hour and a quarter it was 92°.

At an hour and a half it was 91°.

At an hour and 40 minutes, the heat in the
rectum was 90^°, and in the thorax, within the
bag of the pericardium, it was 87^-°.

The temperature of the room being the same,

12

ON THE INFLUENCE

the second rabbit was killed by dividing the
spinal chord, and the temperature was ex-
amined at corresponding periods.

Half an hour after the rabbit was killed, the
heat in the rectum was 99°.

At 45 minutes it had fallen to 98°.

At the end of an hour the heat in the rectum
was 96^°.

At an hour and a quarter it was 95°.

At an hour and a half it was 94°.

At an hour and 40 minutes the heat in the
rectum was 93°, and within the pericardium it
was 90£°.

The following table will shew the comparative
temperature of the two animals at corresponding
periods.

Rabbit with artificial
Respiration.

Dead Rabbit.

Time.

Thermometer

Thermometer

Thermometer

Thermometer

in the

in the

in the

in the

Rectum.

Pericardium.

Rectum.

Pericardium.

Before the
experiment

} iooi

- -

1001

30 min.

97

-

99

45 „

951

-

98

60 „

94

-

961

75 „

92

-

95

90 „

91

-

94

100 „

901

87i

93

901

In this experiment, the thorax, even in the
dead animal, cooled more rapidly than the abdo-
men. This is to be explained by the difference
in the bulk of these two parts. The rabbit in

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 13

which the circulation was maintained by artificial
respiration, cooled more rapidly than the dead
rabbit, but the difference was more perceptible
in the thorax than in the rectum. This is what
might have been expected, if the production of
animal heat be not immediately dependent on
respiration, since the cold air by which the lungs
were inflated, must necessarily have abstracted a
certain quantity of heat from the whole body,
and a still larger quantity from the parts with
which it came into actual contact.

Still, it was plain that some animal heat might
have been generated, though so small in quantity
as not to counterbalance the cooling powers of
the air thrown into the lungs. It is difficult or
impossible, to ascertain with perfect accuracy,
what effect cold air thrown into the lungs would
have on the temperature of an animal under the
circumstances of the last experiment, indepen-
dently of any chemical action on the blood :
since, if no chemical changes were produced, the
circulation could not be maintained, and if the
circulation ceased, the cooling properties of the
air must be more confined to the thorax, and
not communicated in an equal degree to the
more distant parts. The following experiment,
however, was instituted, as likely to afford a
nearer approximation to the truth, than any
other that could be devised.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

I procured. two rabbits of the same /^^^^
colour. The temperature of the room was 64°.

14

ON THE INFLUENCE

I killed one of them by dividing the spinal chord,
and immediately, having made an opening into
the left side of the thorax, I tied a ligature
round the base of the heart, so as to stop the
circulation. The external wound was closed by
a suture. An opening was then made into the
trachea, and the apparatus for artificial respira-
tion having been fitted into it, the lungs were
inflated, and then allowed to collapse as in the
former experiment, about 36 times in a minute.
This was continued for an hour and a half, and
the temperature was examined at different pe-
riods. The temperature of the room being the
same, I killed the second rabbit in the same
manner, and measured its temperature at cor-
responding periods. The comparative tempe-
rature of the two dead animals, under these
circumstances, will be seen in the following table.

Dead Rabbit whose Lungs

Dead Rabbit whose Lungs

were Inflated.

were not Inflated.

Time.

Thermometer

Thermometer

Thermometer

Thermometer

in the

in the

in the

in the

Rectum.

Thorax.

Rectum.

Thorax.

Before the
experiment

| 100

- -

100

30 min.

97

-

98

45 „

951

-

96

60 „

94

-, . .

941

75 „

921

. •

93

90 „

91

86

91J

881

In this last experiment, as may be seen from
the above table, the difference in the temperature
of the two rabbits, at the end of an hour and a

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 15

half, in the rectum, was half a degree, and in
the thorax two degrees and a half ; whereas, in
the preceding experiment, at the end of an hour
and 40 minutes, the difference in the rectum
was 2^- degrees, and in the thorax 3 degrees. It
appears, therefore, that the rabbit in which the
circulation was maintained by artificial respira-
tion, cooled more rapidly, on the whole, than the
rabbit whose lungs were inflated after the cir-
culation had ceased. The explanation is suffi-
ciently obvious. In the last case the cold air
was always applied to the same surface, but in
the former it was also applied to fresh portions
of blood, by the circulation of which its cooling
powers were communicated to the more distant
parts of the body.

I have selected the above from a great number
of similar experiments, which it would be need-
less to detail. It is sufficient to state, that the
general results were always the same ; and that
whether the pulse was frequent or slow, full or
small, or whether the respirations were frequent
or otherwise, there was no very perceptible dif-
ference in the cooling of the animal.

From the whole it appears to me that we may
deduce the following conclusions :

1. The influence of the brain is not directly
necessary to the action of the heart.

2. When the brain is injured or removed, the

16 ON THE INFLUENCE

action of the heart ceases, only because respira-
tion is under its influence, and if under these
circumstances respiration be artificially produced,
the circulation will still continue.

3. When the influence of the brain is removed
the secretion of urine is suspended, and no heat
is generated; notwithstanding that the func-
tions of respiration, and the circulation of the
blood, continue to be performed, and the usual
changes in the appearance of the blood are pro-
duced in the lungs.

4. When the air respired is colder than the
natural temperature of the animal, the immediate
effect of respiration may be not to generate, but
even to diminish animal heat.*

* In the original publication a postscript was added to the
Croonian Lecture, detailing an experiment which shewed
that carbonic acid was generated in considerable quantity
during the respiration of a decapitated animal. This is
omitted on the present occasion, the necessity for introducing
it being superseded by the more exact experiments related
in the following paper.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 17

II.

Further Experiments and Observations on the
Influence of the Brain on the Generation of
Animal Heat. Communicated to the Society
for promoting the Knowledge of Animal Che-
mistry, and by them to the Royal Society.

[From the Philosophical Transactions for 1812.]

IN the Croonian Lecture for the year 1810,
I gave an account of some experiments, which
led me to conclude that the production of animal
heat is very much under the influence of the
nervous system. Some facts which have since
fallen under my observation illustrate this sub-
ject, and seem to confirm the truth of my former
conclusions.

In an animal which is under the influence of
a poison that operates by disturbing the func-
tions of the brain, in proportion as the sensi-
bility becomes impaired, so is the power of
generating heat impaired also.

If an animal be apparently dead from a poison
of this description, and the circulation of the
blood be afterwards maintained by means of
artificial respiration, the generation of heat is

c

18 ON THE INFLUENCE

found to be as completely destroyed, as if the
head had been actually removed.

Under these circumstances, if the artificial
respiration be kept up until the effects of the
poison cease, as the animal recovers his sen-
sibility, so does he also recover the power of
generating heat; but it is not till the nervous
energy is completely restored, that heat is pro-
duced in sufficient quantity to counteract the
cold of the surrounding atmosphere.*

In the experiments formerly detailed, as well
as in those just mentioned, I observed that the
blood underwent the usual alteration of colour
in the two systems of capillary vessels, while car-
bonic acid was evolved from the lungs at each
expiration ; and hence I was led to believe, that
the respiratory function was performed nearly as
under ordinary circumstances, and that the usual
chemical changes were produced on the blood.
It appeared, however, desirable to obtain some
more accurate knowledge on these points, and I
have therefore instituted a series of experiments,
for the purpose of ascertaining the relative quan-
tities of air consumed in breathing, by animals
in a natural state, and by animals in which the

* The poison employed in this experiment, should be the
essential oil of almonds, or some other, the effects of which
speedily subside. If the woorara be employed, so long a
time elapses before the poison ceases to exert its influence,
that it becomes necessary that the experiment should be
made in a high temperature, otherwise'the great loss of heat
which takes place, is sufficient to prevent recovery.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 19

brain has ceased to perform its office ; and I now
have the honour of communicating an account of
these experiments to the Society.

It has been shown, by Messrs. Allen andPepys*,
first, that every cubic inch of carbonic acid re-
quires exactly a cubic inch of oxygen gas for its
formation ; secondly, that when respiration is
performed by a warm-blooded animal in atmo-
spheric air, the nitrogen remains unaltered, and
the carbonic acid exactly equals, volume for
volume, the oxygen gas which disappears.

There is therefore reason to believe, that the
watery vapour, which escapes with the air in
expiration, is not formed from the union of hy-
drogen with oxygen in the lungs, but that it is
exhaled from the mucous membrane of the mouth
and pharynx, resembling the watery exhalation
which takes place from the peritonaeum, and
other membranous surfaces, when exposed ; and
this conclusion appears to be confirmed by the
experiments of M. Magendie, lately communi-
cated to the National Institute of Paris.

These circumstances are of importance in the
present communication, which they render more
simple, as they show, that in order to ascertain
the changes produced on the air in respiration,
it is only necessary to determine the quantity of
carbonic acid given out from the lungs. This
becomes an exact measure of the oxygen con-
sumed ; and the nitrogen of the air and the watery

* Phil. Trans. 1807, 1808, 1809.
c 2

20 ON THE INFLUENCE

vapour expired need not be taken into the
account.

For the purpose of examining the changes pro-
duced on the air, by animals breathing under the
different circumstances above mentioned, I con-
trived an apparatus, which, although simple in
its structure, thas been found very well to answer
the intended purpose. It is represented in the
accompanying plate, by referring to which the
construction and application of it will be easily
understood.

Description of the Apparatus.

A is a wooden stand, in which is a circular
groove, three-fourths of an inch in depth, and
the same in width.

B is a bell-glass, the rim of which is received
in the circular groove of the wooden stand. In
the upper part of the bell-glass is an opening,
admitting a tube connected with the bladder C.

D is a bottle of elastic gum, having a brass
stop-cock, E, connected with it.

F is a silver tube, of which one end is adapted
to receive the tube of the stop-cock, E, while the
other extremity, making a right angle with the
rest of the tube, passes through a hole in the
wooden stand, and projects into the cavity of the
bell-glass, where it makes a second turn, also at
a right angle, and becomes of a smaller diameter.
In the upright part of the tube is an opening G.

The tubes are made perfectly air-tight, where

To face pa£e £0.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 21

connected with each other and with the rest of
the apparatus, and the circular groove is filled
with quicksilver.

The capacity of the bell-glass, allowance being
made for the rim, which is received in the groove
with the quicksilver, is found to be 502 cubic
inches. The capacity of the gum-bottle is 52
cubic inches, and in the calculations after the
experiments, two cubic inches have been allowed
for the air contained in the different tubes, and
for the small remains of air in the bladder after
being nearly emptied by pressure.

Mode of using the Apparatus.

In order to ascertain the quantity of air con-
sumed under ordinary circumstances, the animal
was placed on the stand under the bell-glass, the
bladder having been emptied by pressure, and
the gum- bottle distended with atmospheric air.
During the experiment, by pressing occasionally
on the gum-bottle, the air was forced from it
into the bell-glass. On removing the pressure,
the gum-bottle became filled by its own elas-
ticity with air from the bell-glass. Thus the
air was kept in a state of agitation, while the
dilatation of the bladder prevented it from being
forced through the quicksilver under the edge of
the bell-glass. At the end of the experiment, the
gum-bottle was completely emptied by pressure,
and allowed to be again filled with air from the

c 3

22 ON THE INFLUENCE

bell-glass. This was repeated two or three times,
and the air in the bottle was then preserved for
examination. The proportion of carbonic acid
having been ascertained, and the capacities of
the different parts of the apparatus, and the
space occupied by the animal being known, the
total quantity of carbonic acid formed, and con-
sequently of oxygen consumed, was easily esti-
mated.

When the experiment was made on an animal
in whom the functions of the brain were de-
stroyed, and in whom therefore voluntary respi-
ration had ceased, the narrow extremity of the
tube was inserted into an artificial opening in
the trachea, and the animal being placed under
the bell-glass, the lungs were inflated at regular
intervals, by means of pressure made on the gum-
bottle. The tube being smaller than the trachea,
the greater portion of the air in expiration escaped
by the side of the tube into the general cavity of
the bell-glass, while the gum-bottle filled itself
by its own elasticity with air through the open-
ing G. At the end of the experiment, a portion
of air was preserved for examination, and the
quantity of carbonic acid was estimated in the
way already described.

The animals employed in these experiments
were of the same species, and nearly of the same
size. Attention to these circumstances was
judged necessary, that the results might be as
little liable to error as possible. The chemical
examination of the air, was made by agitating it

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 23

in a graduated measure over quicksilver, with a
watery solution of potash. My friend Professor
Brande gave me his assistance in this part of the
present investigation, as he had done in many of
my former experiments. It will be observed, that
in estimating the proportion of carbonic acid, no
allowance has been made for that contained in
the atmospheric air; first, because the quantity is
so small that the omission can occasion no mate-
rial error; and, secondly, because the object was
to ascertain, not so much the absolute, as the
relative quantities, of carbonic acid evolved by
animals breathing under different circumstances.
The experiments which I shall first notice,
were made on the respiration of animals in a
natural state.

EXPERIMENT I.

Thermometer 65°, barometer not noted.

A young rabbit was allowed to remain under
the bell-glass during 30 minutes. The respired
air at the end of this time was found to contain
-£Q of carbonic acid.

It was ascertained that the rabbit occupied the
space of 50 cubic inches.

The capacity of the bell-glass =502 cubic
inches.

That of the gum-bottle— 52 cubic inches.

The air in the tubes and bladder =2 cubic
inches.

Then 502 + 52 + 2-50 506_2- *

~W~ = 20~253' The

c 4

24 ON THE INFLUENCE

rabbit, therefore, in 30 minutes, gave out 25*3
cubic inches of carbonic acid, and consumed the
same quantity of oxygen gas, which is at the
rate of 50*6 cubic inches in an hour.

EXPEKIMENT II.

Thermometer 65°, barometer 30-1 inch.

A somewhat smaller rabbit was allowed to
remain under the bell-glass during 30 minutes.
The respired air contained T^ of carbonic acid.
The animal occupied the space of 48 cubic inches.
502 + 5242— 48_508 9R 99
TS" =18 =

The carbonic acid evolved, was therefore equal
to 28-22 cubic inches in half an hour, which is at
the rate of 5 6 -44 cubic inches in an hour.

EXPERIMENT III.

Thermometer 64°, barometer 30*2 inch.

A young rabbit, occupying the space of 48
cubic inches, was allowed to remain under the
bell-glass during the same period as in the two
former instances. The respired air contained
y1^ of carbonic acid.

5024-524-2—48 508 9Q 99

T8- 'T8 =

The results of this were therefore precisely the
same as those of the last experiment.

These experiments were made with great care.
The animals did not appear to suffer any incon-
venience from their confinement, and their tem-
perature was unaltered.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 25

The next order of experiments was instituted
for the purpose of ascertaining the quantity of air
consumed by animals in which the circulation of
the blood was kept up by means of artificial
respiration, after the brain had ceased to perform
its functions.

EXPERIMENT IV.

Thermometer 65°, barometer not noted.

Having procured two rabbits of the same size
and colour, I divided the spinal chord in the
upper part of the neck of one of them. An open-
ing was made in the trachea, and the lungs were
inflated at first by means of a small pair of bel-
lows. Two ligatures were passed round the
neck, one in the upper, and the other in the
lower part, behind the trachea. The ligatures
were drawn tight, including every thing but the
trachea ; and the nerves, vessels, and other soft
parts between them were divided with a bistoury.
Eight minutes after the division of the spinal
chord, the thermometer in the rectum had
sunk to 97°. The animal was placed under a
bell-glass, and the lungs were inflated by pressing
on the gum-bottle about 50 times in a minute.
When this process had been continued for 30
minutes, a portion of air was abstracted from
the bell-glass, and preserved for examination.
The heart was found acting regularly, but slowly,
the thermometer in the rectum had fallen to 90°.

The second rabbit was killed by dividing the
spinal chord about the same time when the

26 ON THE INFLUENCE

experiment was begun on the first rabbit. Being
in the same temperature, the time was noted
when the thermometer in the rectum had fallen
to 97°, and it was placed under another bell-glass,
that it might be as nearly as possible under the
same circumstances as the first rabbit. At the
end of 30 minues, the thermometer in the rectum
had fallen from 97° to 91°.*

The air respired by the first rabbit contained
^V of carbonic acid. The bulk of the rabbit was
foundzr50 cubic inches.

502+52+2-50 506 ™ 0.
-25- =25-=20'24-

20*24 cubic inches of carbonic acid were there-
fore extricated in 30 minutes, which is at the rate
of 40*48 cubic inches in an hour.

The carbonic acid given out in the same space
of time, was less than in the former experiments;
but it is to be observed, first, that in consequence
of the ligatures, the extent of the circulation was
diminished ; secondly, that in this instance one
of the ligatures accidentally slipped, and an
ounce of blood was lost in the beginning of the
experiment.

As it was desirable to avoid any circumstances
which might occasion a difference in the results,

* In measuring the heat of the rectum in these experi-
ments, care is necessary that the thermometer should always
be introduced to exactly the same distance from the external
parts, otherwise no positive conclusion can be drawn relative
to the loss of heat, as the more internal parts retain their
heat longer than the superficial.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 27

in the subsequent experiments I employed animals
which had been inoculated with the poison of
woorara, or the essential oil of almonds ; by which
means, while the functions of the brain were
completely destroyed, the extent of the circula-
tion was uridiminished, and the chance of acci-
dental hemorrhage was avoided.

EXPERIMENT V.

Thermometer 65°, barometer 29'8 inch.

Two rabbits were procured, each occupying
the space of 45 cubic inches. They were both
inoculated with the woorara poison.

The first rabbit was apparently dead in nine
minutes after the application of the poison ; but
the heart continued to act. The lungs were
inflated for about two minutes, by means of a
pair of bellows, when the thermometer in the
rectum was observed to stand at 98°. The
animal was then placed under the bell-glass, and
artificial respiration was produced by means of
pressure on the gum-bottle, as in the last experi-
ment. At the end of 30 minutes, a portion of
air was preserved for examination. The ther-
mometer in the rectum had fallen to 91°. The
heart still acted with regularity and strength.

The second rabbit died in a few minutes after
the inoculation. The time was noted when the
thermometer in the rectum had fallen to 98°,
and he was placed under another bell-glass. At
the end of 30 minutes, the thermometer in the
rectum had fallen to 92°.

28 ON THE INFLUENCE

The air respired by the first rabbit contained
2\y of carbonic acid.

502+52+2—45 511 0, K- , . . -, -
"*" —= - =25-55 cubic inches of

carbonic acid evolved in 30 minutes, which is
at the rate of 51*1 cubic inches in an hour.

EXPEKIMENT VI.

Thermometer 66°, barometer 30 '1 inch.

Two rabbits, each occupying the space of 48
cubic inches, were inoculated with woorara.

In one of them, when apparently dead, the
circulation was kept up by means of artificial
respiration. He was placed in the apparatus
under the glass-bell, and the lungs were inflated
from 50 to 60 times in a minute. At this time
the thermometer in the rectum stood at 97°. At
the end of 35 minutes, a portion of air was pre-
served for examination. The thermometer had
now fallen to 90°. The heart was still acting
regularly.

The second rabbit was allowed to lie dead.
When the thermometer in the rectum had fallen
to 97°, he was placed under another bell-glass.
At the end of 35 minutes, the thermometer had
fallen to 90-5°.

The air respired by the first rabbit, contained
•Jg- of carbonic acid.
502+2+52-48=508 31.?5
1 o lo

ETC. 29

carbonic acid evolved in 35 minutes, which is
at the rate of 54*43 cubic inches in an hour.

EXPERIMENT VII.

Thermometer 60°, barometer 30*2 inch.

The experiment was repeated on a rabbit which
had been inoculated with the essential oil of bit-
ter almonds. When he was placed under the bell-
glass, the thermometer in the rectum stood at
96°. In a few minutes he gave signs of sensi-
bility, and made efforts to breathe ; but as these
were at long intervals, and not sufficient to
maintain life, the artificial respiration was con-
tinued. In half an hour he breathed sponta-
neously 40 times in a minute. The thermo-
meter in the rectum had fallen to 90°.

The air being examined, was found to contain
T^ of carbonic acid.

The rabbit occupied the space of 47 cubic
inches.
502+52+2-47^509 28.275 ^ ^ Qf

18 lo

carbonic acid evolved in 30 minutes, which is
at the rate of 5 6 '5 5 cubic inches in an hour.

The animal lay as if in a state of profound
sleep. At the end of two hours and 20 mi-
nutes, from the time of the poison being ap-
plied, the thermometer in the rectum had fallen
to 79°, and he was again apparently dead ;
but the heart still continued acting, though
feebly, and its action was kept up for 30 minutes

30 ON THE INFLUENCE

longer by means of artificial breathing, when the
thermometer had fallen to 76°. The carbonic
acid evolved during these last 30 minutes
amounted to nearly 13 cubic inches.

From the precautions with which these ex-
periments were made, there is reason to believe
that there can be no material error in their re-
sults. They appear to warrant the conclusion,
that in an animal in which the brain has ceased
to exercise its functions, although respiration
continues to be performed, and the circulation
of the blood is kept up to the natural standard ;
although the usual changes in the sensible qua-
lities of the blood take place in the two capillary
systems, and the same quantity of carbonic acid
is formed as under ordinary circumstances, no
heat is generated, and that (in consequence of the
cold air thrown into the lungs) the animal cools
even more rapidly than one which is actually dead.

It is a circumstance deserving of notice, that
so large a quantity of air should be consumed
by the blood passing through the lungs, when
the functions of the brain, and those of the
organs dependent on it, are suspended. Per-
haps it is not unreasonable to suppose, that by
pursuing this line of investigation, we may be
enabled to arrive at some more precise knowledge
respecting the nature of respiration, and the pur-
poses which it answers in the animal economy.
It would however be foreign to the plan of the
present communication, to enter into any spe-
culations on this subject, and I shall therefore

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 31

only remark, that the influence of the nervous
system does not appear to be necessary to the
production of the chemical changes which the
blood undergoes in consequence of exposure to
the air in the lungs. *

The facts now, as well as those formerly ad-

* This conclusion is directly contrary to that deduced by
M. Dupuytren, from a series of experiments, made with
a view to ascertain the effects which follow the division
of the nerves of the par vagum, and it is an object of some
importance in the present investigation, to ascertain in what
manner the apparently opposite facts, observed by M. Du-
puytren and myself, are to be reconciled with each other.

It was observed by this physiologist, that in an animal, in
which both the nerves of the par vagum are divided, the
blood returned from the lungs has a darker colour than na-
tural,, and that the animals, on whom this operation is per-
formed, die sooner or later with symptoms of asphyxia, not-
withstanding that the air continues to enter the lungs ; and
hence he concludes, that the changes which are produced
on the blood in respiration, are not the result of a mere
chemical process, but are dependent on the nervous influ-
ence, so that they cease to take place when the communi-
cation between the lungs and the brain is destroyed.

M. Proven9al, in prosecuting this inquiry, ascertained that
the animals subjected to this experiment, give out less car-
bonic acid than under ordinary circumstances.

M. Blainville observed, that the frequency of the inspira-
tions is much diminished ; and M. Dumas restored the scarlet
colour of the arterial blood by artificially inflating the lungs ;
and from these and other circumstances, he has arrived at
conclusions very different from those of M. Dupuytren.

My own observations exactly correspond with those of
MM. Dumas and Blainville. After the nerves of the par
vagum are divided, a less quantity of carbonic acid is evolved,
the inspirations are much diminished in frequency, and the
blood in the arteries of the general system assumes a darker

32 ON THE INFLUENCE

duced, go far towards proving, that the tem-
perature of warm-blooded animals is considerably
under the influence of thenervous system. But
what is the nature of the connection between
them ? whether is the brain directly or indirectly
necessary to the production of heat ? These are
questions to which no answers can be given,
except such as are purely hypothetical. At
present we must be content with the knowledge
of the insulated fact : future observations may,
perhaps, enable us to refer it to some more
general principle.

We have evidence, that when the brain ceases
to exercise its functions, although those of the
heart and lungs continue to be performed, the
animal loses the power of generating heat. It
would, however, be absurd to argue from this
fact, that the chemical changes of the blood in
the lungs are in no way necessary to the pro-
duction of heat, since we know, not only that
there is no instance in which it continues to take
place after respiration has ceased, but that re-
spiration is necessary to all the vital functions.

hue ; but its natural colour may be restored by artificially
inflating the lungs, so as to furnish a greater supply of air
to the blood circulating through them.

We may suppose that, on the division of these nerves, the
sympathy between the lungs and the nerves of inspiration is
either very much impaired, or altogether destroyed, so that
the animal does not experience the same impulse to draw in
fresh air as under ordinary circumstances. In consequence
his inspirations become less frequent than natural, and hence
arise the phenomena produced by this operation.

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 33

It must be owned, that this part of physiology
still presents an ample field for investigation.

Of opinions sanctioned by the names of Black,
Laplace, Lavoisier, and Crawford, it is proper to
speak with caution and respect ; but without
trespassing on these feelings, I may be allowed
to say, that it does not appear to me that any
of the theories hitherto proposed, afford a very
satisfactory explanation of the source of animal
heat.

Where so many and such various chemical
processes are going on, as in the living body, are
we justified in selecting any one of these for the
purpose of explaining the production of heat ?

To the general theory of Dr. Black, there is
this unanswerable objection, that the tempera-
ture of the lungs is not greater than that of the
rest of the system. To this objection the in-
genious and beautiful theory of Dr. Crawford is
not open ; but still it is founded on the same
basis with that of Dr. Black, " the conversion of
oxygen into carbonic acid in the lungs;" and
hence it appears to be difficult to reconcile either
of them with the results of the experiments which
have been related.

It may, perhaps, be urged, that as in these
experiments the secretions had nearly, if not
entirely, ceased, it is probable that the other
changes which take place in the capillary vessels
had ceased also ; and that, although the action of
the air on the blood might have been the same
as under ordinary circumstances, there might

34 ON THE INFLUENCE

not have been the same alteration in the specific
heat of this fluid, as it flowed from the arteries
into the veins. But on this supposition, if the
theory of Dr. Crawford be admitted as correct,
there must have been a gradual but enormous
accumulation of latent heat in the blood, which
we cannot suppose to have taken place without
its nature having been entirely altered. If the
blood undergoes the usual change in the capil-
lary system of the pulmonary, it is probable that
it must undergo the usual change in the capillary
system of the greater circulation also, since these
changes are obviously dependent on and connected
with each other. The blood in the aorta and pul-
monary veins was not more florid, and that in
the vena cava and pulmonary artery was not
less dark- coloured, than under ordinary circum-
stances. We may moreover remark, that the
most copious secretions in the whole body are
those of the insensible perspiration from the
skin, and of the watery vapour from the mouth
and fauces, and the effect of these must, be not
to raise, but to lower the animal temperature.
Under other circumstances also, the diminution
of the secretions is not observed to be attended
with a diminution of heat. On the contrary, in
the hot fit of a fever, when the scanty dark-
coloured urine, dry skin, and parched mouth,
indicate that scarcely any secretions are taking
place, the temperature of the body is raised above
the natural standard, to which it falls when the

OF THE BRAIN, ETC. 35

constitution returns to its natural state, and the
secretions are restored.

It has been observed, by a distinguished che-
mist, that " the experiments to determine the
specific heat of the blood are of so very delicate
a nature, that it is difficult to receive them with
perfect confidence." * The experiments of Dr.
Crawford for this purpose were necessarily made
on blood out of the body, and at rest. Now,
when blood is taken from the vessels, it imme-
diately undergoes a remarkable chemical change,
separating into a solid and a fluid part. This
separation is not complete for some time; but
whoever takes the pains to make observations on
the subject, can hardly doubt that it begins to
take place immediately on the blood being drawn.
Can experiments on the blood, under these cir-
cumstances, lead to any very satisfactory con-
clusions, respecting the specific heat of blood
circulating in the vessels of the body ? The
diluting the blood with large quantities of water,
as proposed by Dr. Crawford, does not altogether
remove the objection; for this only retards, it
does not prevent, coagulation; and some time
must, at any rate, elapse, while the blood is flow-
ing, and the quantity is being measured, during
which, the separation of its solid and fluid parts
will have begun to take place.

More might be said on this subject ; but I feel
anxious to avoid, as much as possible, controver-

* Thomson's History of the Royal Society, p. 129.

D 2

THE INFLUENCE OF THE BRAIN.

sial discussion. It is my wish not to advance
opinions, but simply to state some facts which I
have met with in the course of my physiological
investigations. These facts, I am willing to hope,
possess some value ; and they may perhaps lead to
the developement of other facts of much greater
importance. Physiology is yet in its infant state.
It embraces a great number and variety of phae-
nomena, and of these it is very difficult to obtain
an accurate and satisfactory knowledge ; but it
is not unreasonable to expect, that by the suc-
cessive labours of individuals, and the faithful
register of their observations, it may at last be
enabled to assume the form of a more perfect
science. *

* See Additional Note A.

EFFECTS OF VEGETABLE POISONS. 37

III.

Experiments and Observations on the different
Modes in which Death is produced by certain
Vegetable Poisons.

[From the Philosophical Transactions for 1811, Part I.]

I. THE following experiments were instituted
with a view to ascertain, in what manner certain
substances act on the animal system, so as to
occasion death, independently of mechanical in-
jury. I was led to the inquiry, from the subject
of it appearing to be of considerable interest and
importance, and from a hope, that, in the present
improved state of physiological knowledge, we
might be enabled to arrive at some more satis-
factory conclusions than had been deduced from
any former observations.

The substances which act as poisons when
applied to the animal body are very numerous.
In the experiments which I have hitherto made,
I have employed vegetable poisons only. Of
these I have selected such as are very active and
certain in producing their effects, believing that,
on this account, the exact nature of those effects
would be more readily ascertained. The prin-
cipal objects which I have kept in view have been
to determine, on which of the vital organs the

D 3

38 EFFECTS OF

poison employed exercises its primary influence,
and through what medium that organ becomes
affected. .1 have also endeavoured to ascertain
by what means the fatal consequences of some
poisons may be prevented. With some of the
conclusions which I have ventured to draw, as
far as I know, we were not before acquainted ;
and others of them, though not entirely new, had
not been previously established by satisfactory
experiments.

I shall relate first those experiments in which
poisons were applied internally, that is, to the
mucous membranes of the tongue or alimentary
canal, and afterwards those in which poisons were
applied to wounded surfaces.

II. Experiments with Poisons applied to the Tongue, or
Alimentary Canal.

EXPERIMENTS WITH ALCOHOL.

When spirits are taken into the stomach, in a
certain quantity, they produce, not at once, but
gradually, that kind of delirium which constitutes
intoxication : when taken in a larger quantity, it
is well known that they destroy life altogether,
and that in the course of a very short space of
time. Intoxication is a derangement of the
functions of the mind, and, as these are in some
way connected with those of the brain, it seems
probable, that it is by acting on this organ, that
spirits, when taken into the stomach, occasion

VEGETABLE POISONS. 39

death. In order to ascertain how far this conclu-
sion is just, I made the following experiments. *

EXPERIMENT I.

I poured two drachms of proof spirits down
the oesophagus of a cat. Instantly he struggled
violently ; then lay on one side, perfectly motion-
less and insensible ; the breathing was laboured
and stertorous, and the pulsations of the heart
were very frequent. He continued in this state
for seven or eight minutes ; then began to re-
cover; the respirations became easier, and pre-
sently he stood up, and was able to walk.

EXPERIMENT II.

I injected an ounce and a half of proof spirits
into the stomach of a large full-grown rabbit, by
means of an elastic gum tube passed down the
oesophagus. The same symptoms took place as
in the last experiment ; but the animal did not
begin to recover from the state of insensibility
until 40 minutes had elapsed from the time of
the injection.

EXPERIMENT III.

Seven drachms of proof spirits were injected
into the stomach of a younger rabbit. Two

* I am indebted to Dr. E. N. Bancroft for his assistance
in many of the experiments which I am about to detail.
Mr. W. Brande lent me his assistance in the greater part of
those which were made. I have been further assisted on
these, as well as on former occasions, by Mr. Broughton, and
by some of my own pupils.

D 4

40 EFFECTS OF

minutes afterwards he evidently was affected by
the spirits, and in three minutes more he lay on
one side motionless and insensible. The pupils
of the eyes were perfectly dilated ; there were
occasional slight convulsive motions of the ex-
tremities ; the respiration was laborious, it was
gradually performed at longer and longer in-
tervals, and at the end of an hour and fifteen
miniates had entirely ceased. Two minutes after
the animal was apparently dead, I opened into
the thorax, and found the heart acting with mo-
derate force and frequency, circulating dark-
coloured blood. I introduced a tube into the
trachea, and produced artificial respiration by
inflating the lungs, and found that by these means
the action of the heart might be kept up to the
natural standard, as in an animal from whom the
head is removed.

EXPERIMENT IV.

I injected into the stomach of a rabbit two
ounces of proof spirits. The injection was scarcely
completed, when the animal became perfectly
insensible. Precisely the same symptoms took
place as in the last experiment, and at the end
of twenty-seven minutes from the time of the
injection, the rabbit was apparently dead; but
on examining the thorax the heart was found
still acting, as in the last experiment.

It has been shown by M. Bichat, and the ob-
servation has been confirmed by some experi-
ments which I have lately had the honour of

VEGETABLE POISONS. 41

communicating to this learned Society, that the
brain is not directly necessary to the action
of the heart, and that, when the functions of
the brain are destroyed, the heart continues to
contract for some time afterwards, and then
ceases only in consequence of the suspension of
respiration, which is under the influence of the
brain.

It would appear, from the experiments which
I have just detailed, that the symptoms produced
by a large quantity of spirits taken into the
stomach, arise entirely from disturbance of the
functions of the brain. The complete insensi-
bility to external impressions ; the dilatation of
the pupils of the eyes ; and the loss of motion,
indicate that the functions of this organ are sus-
pended ; respiration, which is under its influence,
is ill performed, and at last altogether ceases;
while the heart, to the action of which the brain
is not directly necessary, continues to contract,
circulating dark- coloured blood for some time
afterwards.

There is a striking analogy between the symp-
toms arising from spirits taken internally, and
those produced by injuries of the brain.

Concussion of the brain, which may be con-
sidered as the slightest degree of inj ury, occasions
a state of mind resembling intoxication, and the
resemblance in some instances is so complete,
that the most accurate observer cannot form a
diagnosis, except from the history of the case.
Pressure on the brain, which is a more severe

42 EFFECTS OF

injury than concussion, produces loss of motion,
insensibility, dilatation of the pupils ; the respir-
ation becomes laboured and stertorous, is per-
formed at long intervals, at last altogether ceases,
and the patient dies.

It forms an interesting matter of inquiry,
whether spirits when taken into the stomach
produce their effects on the brain, by being
absorbed into the circulation, or in consequence
of the sympathy that exists between these organs
by means of the nerves. The following circum-
stances lead me to conclude that, when taken in
large quantity so as to produce an immediate
effect, they act in the last of these two ways.

1. In experiments where animals have been
killed by the injection of spirits into the stomach,
I have found this organ to bear the marks of
great inflammation, but never found any pre-
ternatural appearances whatever in the brain.

2. The effects of spirits taken into the stomach in
the last experiment were so instantaneous, that
it is difficult to suppose that absorption should
have taken place before they were produced.

3. A person who is intoxicated, frequently
becomes suddenly sober after vomiting, 4. In
the experiments which I have just related, I
mixed tincture of rhubarb with the spirits, know-
ing from the experiments of Mr. Home and Mr.
William Brande, that this, when absorbed into
the circulation, was readily separated by the
kidneys, and that very small quantities might be
detected in the urine by the addition of potash ;

VEGETABLE POISONS. 43

but, though I never failed to find urine in the
bladder, I never detected rhubarb in it.

The including the termination of the thoracic
duct in a ligature does not prevent spirits, when
taken into the stomach, from producing their
usual effects on the nervous system: but sub-
sequent observations, which Mr. Home has already
communicated to this Society, have shown that no
conclusion can be drawn from this experiment.

That a poison may affect a distant organ,
through the medium of the nerves, without enter-
ing the circulation, is proved by the well-known
circumstance of a solution of the extract of bella-
donna, when applied to the tunica conjunctiva
of the eye, occasioning dilatation of the pupil of
the same eye, though no other part of the system
is affected.

It has been formerly supposed by Dr. Mead
and other physiologists, that a poison may
produce death by acting on the extremities of
the nerves of the stomach and intestines, without
being absorbed into the circulation. That it
should by these means be capable of affecting
the brain is in no degree remarkable, considering
the numerous and various sympathies between
this organ and the alimentary canal, evidently
independent of any other communication than
the nerves. *

* See Additional Note B.

44 EFFECTS OF

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE ESSENTIAL OIL OP BITTER
ALMONDS.

EXPERIMENT V.

One drop of the essential oil of bitter almonds
was applied to the tongue of a young cat. She
was instantly seized with violent convulsions;
then lay on one side motionless, insensible, breath-
ing in a hurried manner ; the respiration became
laborious, took place at longer and longer in-
tervals, and at the end of five minutes, from the
application of the poison, had entirely ceased, so
that the animal was apparently dead; but, on
opening the thorax, the heart was found acting
regularly 80 times in a minute, circulating dark-
coloured blood, and it continued to act for six
or seven minutes afterwards.

EXPEEIMENT VI.

I injected into the rectum of a cat half an
ounce of water, with two drops of the essential
oil. In two minutes afterwards, he was affected
with symptoms similar to those which occurred
in the last experiment, and at the end of five
minutes, from the injection of the poison, he was

* The essential oil of bitter almonds does not appear to
differ from the essential oil of laurel. I was furnished with
a quantity of it, first by my friend Mr. William Brande, and
afterwards by Mr. Cooke, of Southampton Street.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 45

apparently dead. Two minutes afterwards the
heart was found acting 80 times in a minute.
On~ dissection, no preternatural appearances were
found either in the internal membrane of the
rectum, or in the brain.

The symptoms produced by this poison, and
the circumstance of the heart continuing to con-

o

tract after apparent death, lead to the conclusion
that it occasions death by disturbing the func-
tions of the brain.

While engaged in these last experiments, I
dipped the blunt end of a probe into the essential
oil, and applied it to my tongue, meaning to taste
it, and having no suspicion that so small a quan-
tity could produce any of its specific effects on
the nervous system ; but scarcely had I applied
it, when I experienced a very remarkable and
unpleasant sensation, which I referred chiefly to
the epigastric region, but the exact nature of
which I cannot describe, because I know nothing
precisely similar to it. At the same time there
was a sense of weakness in my limbs, as if I had
not the command of my muscles, and I thought
that I was about to fall. However, these sen-
sations were momentary, and I experienced no
inconvenience whatever afterwards.

I afterwards applied a more minute quantity
of the essential oil to my tongne several times,
without experiencing from it any disagreeable
effects ; but on applying a larger quantity, I was
affected with the same momentary sensations as
in the former instance, and there was a recur-

46 EFFECTS OF

rence of them in three or four seconds after the
first attack had subsided.*

From the instantaneousness with which the
effects are produced; and from its acting more
speedily when applied to the tongue than when
injected into the intestine, though the latter
presents a better absorbing surface, we may con-
clude that this poison acts on the brain through
the medium of the nerves, without being absorbed
into the circulation.

EXPERIMENT WITH THE EXPRESSED JUICE OF THE LEAVES
OF ACONITE.

EXPERIMENT VII.

An ounce of this juice was injected into the
rectum of a cat. Three minutes afterwards he
voided what appeared to be nearly the whole of
the injection; he then stood for some minutes
perfectly motionless, with his legs drawn to-
gether. At the end of nine minutes, from the
time of the injection, he retched and vomited;
then attempted to walk, but faltered and fell at
every step, as if from giddiness. At the end of
thirteen minutes, he lay on one side insensible,
motionless, except some slight convulsive motions
of the limbs. The respiration was slow and
laboured ; and at 47 minutes from the time of
the injection, he was apparently dead. One
minute and a half afterwards the heart was

-» * See Additional Note C.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 47

found contracting regularly one hundred times
in a minute.

It appears from this experiment, that the juice
of aconite, when injected into the intestine, occa-
sions death by destroying the functions of the
brain. From the analogy of other poisons, it is
rendered probable that it is capable of influencing
the brain through the medium of the nerves,
without being absorbed into the circulation. This
opinion is confirmed by the following circum-
stance: if a small quantity of the leaf of aconite
is chewed, it occasions a remarkable sense of
numbness of the lips and gums, which does not
subside for two or three hours.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE INFUSION OF TOBACCO.
EXPERIMENT VIII.

Four ounces of infusion of tobacco were in-
jected into the rectum of a dog. Four minutes
afterwards he retched, but did not vomit; he
then became faint, and lay motionless on one
side ; at the end of nine minutes from the time
of the injection, the heart could not be felt ;
he gasped for breath at long intervals ; and in
another minute there was no appearance what-
ever of life. I immediately laid open the cavities
of the thorax and abdomen. The heart was
much distended, and had entirely ceased to con-
tract ; there was no peristaltic motion of the in-
testines.

48 EFFECTS OF

EXPERIMENT IX.

An ounce of very strong infusion of tobacco
was injected into the rectum of a cat. Symp-
toms were produced similar to those which
occurred in the last experiment, and the animal
died at the end of seven minutes from the time
of the injection. On opening the thorax imme-
diately after death, the heart was found ex-
tremely distended, and to have entirely ceased
acting, with the exception of a slight tremulous
motion of the auricles.

EXPERIMENT X.

Three ounces of infusion of tobacco were in-
jected into the rectum of a dog. He was affected
with symptoms similar to those in the former
experiments, and died at the end of 10 minutes.
On opening the thorax immediately after death,
I found the heart much distended, and to have
entirely ceased contracting.

EXPERIMENT XI.

Three ounces of infusion of tobacco were in-
jected into the rectum of a dog. Immediately
there took place tremulous contractions of the
voluntary muscles. Five minutes afterwards
the injection was repeated in the same quantity.
The dog then was sick and threw up some of the
infusion, with other matter, from the stomach ;
he became faint, and died 10 minutes after the
second injection. Immediately after respiration
had ceased, I opened the thorax, and found the

VEGETABLE POISONS. 49

heart extremely distended, and without any
evident contraction, except of the appendix of
the right auricle, which every now and then
contracted in a slight degree. I divided the
pericardium on the right side. In consequence
of the extreme distension of the heart, this could
not be done without irritating the fibres with
the 'point of the scalpel. Immediately both
auricles and ventricles began to contract with con-
siderable force, so as to restore the circulation.
Artificial respiration was produced, and the cir-
culation was kept up for more than half an
hour, beyond which time the experiment was
not continued.

We may conclude from these experiments,
that the effect of the infusion of tobacco, when
injected into the intestine of a living animal, is
to destroy the action of the heart, stopping the
circulation and producing syncope.* It ap-
peared to me that the action of the heart ceased
even before the animal had ceased to respire ;
and this was confirmed by another experiment,
in which, in a dog killed by the infusion of
tobacco, I found the cavities of the left side of
the heart to contain scarlet blood, while in those
of the right side the blood was dark-coloured.
This poison, therefore, differs materially from
alcohol, the essential oil of almonds, and the
luice of aconite, which have no direct influence
on the action of the heart. The infusion of

* See Additional Note D.
E

50 EFFECTS OF

tobacco renders the heart insensible to the
accustomed stimulus, but it does not altogether
destroy the power of muscular contraction, since
the heart resumed its action in one instance
on the division of the pericardium ; and I have
found that the voluntary muscles of an animal
killed by this poison, are as readily stimulated to
contract by the influence of the Yoltaic battery,
as if it had been killed in any other manner. At
the same time, however, that the infusion of
tobacco destroys the action of the heart, it ap-
pears to destroy also the functions of the brain,
since these did not return in the last experi-
ment; although the circulation was restored,
and kept up by artificial respiration.

There being no direct communication between
the intestine and the heart, I was at first in-
duced to suppose that the latter becomes affected
only in consequence of the infusion being con-
veyed into the blood. Some circumstances in
the following experiment have since led me to
doubt whether it may not exercise an influence
over the system independently of absorption.

EXPERIMENT XII.

In a dog, whose head was removed, I kept up
the circulation by means of artificial respiration,
in the manner already described in a former com-
munication to this Society. I then injected into
the stomach and intestines nine ounces of infusion
of tobacco. At the time of the injection, the body

VEGETABLE POISONS. 51

of the animal lay perfectly quiet and motionless
on the table; the heart acted regularly 100
times in a minute. Ten minutes afterwards the
pulse rose to 140 in a minute ; the peristaltic
motion of the intestines was much increased,
and the voluntary muscles in every part of the
body were thrown into repeated and violent
spasmodic action. The joints of the extremities
were alternately bent and extended ; the muscles
of the spine, abdomen, and tail alternately re-
laxed and contracted, so as to turn the whole
animal from one side to the other. I have ob-
served, in other instances, spasmodic actions of
the muscles, where the circulation was kept -up
by artificial respiration, after the removal of the
head, but not at all to be compared, either in
strength or frequency, with those which took
place on this occasion. I made pressure on the
abdominal aorta for more than a minute, so as
to obstruct the circulation of the blood in the
lower extremities ; but the muscular contrac-
tions were not lessened in consequence, Half
an hour after the injection of the infusion, the
artificial respiration was discontinued. The heart
continued to act, circulating dark-coloured blood ;
and the muscular contractions continued, but
gradually diminishing in strength and frequency.
I tied a ligature round the vessels at the base
of the heart, so as to stop the circulation ; ne-
vertheless the muscular contractions continued,
though less frequent and forcible than before,

E 2

52 EFFECTS OF

and some minutes elapsed before they had en-
tirely ceased.

In this experiment, the disposition to contrac-
tion in the muscles was very much increased,
instead of being diminished, as in those before
related. If the infusion of tobacco influences the
heart merely from being absorbed into the blood,
and thus coming into actual contact with its
fibres, there is no evident reason why the removal
of the brain, and the employment of artificial re-
spiration, should occasion so material a difference
in its effects. If the contractions of the volun-
tary muscles had depended on the infusion
circulating with the blood, it is reasonable to
suppose that the pressure on the aorta would
have occasioned some diminution of them, and
that the complete obstruction of the circulation
would have caused them to cease altogether.

From these considerations, I am induced to
believe that the infusion of tobacco, when in-
jected into the intestines, influences the heart
through the medium of the nervous system ; but
I have not been able to devise any experiment
by which the truth or fallacy of this opinion
might be put beyond the reach of doubt.

It appears remarkable, that the brain and
nervous system, although not necessary to the
action of the heart, should, when under the
influence of the infusion of tobacco, be capable
of acting on this organ so as to stop its action ;
but this is analogous to what occurs in conse-
quence of violent emotions of the mind. Those

VEGETABLE POISONS. 53

states of the nervous system which accompany
the passions of joy, fear, or anger, when exist-
ing in a moderate degree, have the effect of
increasing the frequency of the contractions of
the heart, and the rapidity of the circulation,
while the same passions, if they exist in a greater
degree, produce the contrary effect, so that
syncope ensues.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE EMPYREUMATIC OIL OF TOBACCO.*
EXPERIMENT XIII.

Less than a drop of this oil was applied to the
tongue of a young cat. Instantly violent con-
vulsions took place in all the muscles, and the
respirations became very frequent. In five
minutes after the application, she lay on one
side insensible, with slight spasmodic actions of
the muscles. At the end of 11 minutes she
retched, but did not vomit. In a quarter of an
hour she appeared to be recovering. I repeated
the application of the poison, and she was again
seized with violent convulsions, and became in-
sensible, breathing at long intervals, and in two

* I was furnished with the empyreumatic oil of tobacco
by Mr. W. Brande. It may be produced by subjecting the
leaves of tobacco to distillation in a heat above that of boil-
ing water. A watery fluid comes over, on the surface of
which is the oil appearing as a thin film of unctuous sub-
stance.

E 3

54 EFFECTS OF

minutes from the second application respiration
had entirely ceased, and she was apparently
dead. On opening the thorax, I found the heart
acting with regularity and strength, circulating
dark-coloured blood. I introduced a tube into
the trachea, and produced artificial respiration.
The contractions of the heart became augmented
in force and frequency, and there was no evident
diminution in six or seven minutes, during which
the artificial respiration was continued.

On dissection, nothing remarkable was found
in the appearance of the tongue or brain.

The symptoms and mode of death in this ex-
periment did not essentially differ from those
produced by the essential oil of almonds. I was
surprised to find the effects of the empyreumatic
oil so entirely different from those of the infusion
of tobacco. Supposing that this difference might
arise from the poison being more concentrated
in the oil than in the infusion, I made the follow-
ing experiments.

EXPEKIMENT XIV.

A drop of the oil of tobacco was suspended in
an ounce and a half of water, by means of muci-
lage of gum arabic, and the whole was injected
into the rectum of a dog. In two minutes after-
wards he became faint, retched, but did not
vomit. He appeared to be recovering from this
state, and in 25 minutes after the first injection,
it was repeated in the same quantity. He was

VEGETABLE POISONS. 55

then seized with symptoms similar to those in
the last experiment, and in two minutes and a
half he was apparently dead.

Two minutes after apparent death, on the
thorax being opened into, the heart was found
acting regularly 1 00 times in a minute, and it
continued acting for several minutes.

EXPERIMENT XV.

A drop of the empyreumatic oil of tobacco
with an ounce of water was injected into the
rectum of a cat. The symptoms produced were,
in essential circumstances, similar to those which
occurred in the last experiment. The animal was
apparently dead in five minutes after the injec-
tion, and the heart continued to contract for
several minutes afterwards.

We may conclude from these experiments,
that the empyreumatic oil of tobacco, whether
applied to the tongue, or injected into the in-
testine, does not stop the action of the heart and
induce syncope, like the infusion of tobacco ; but
that it occasions death by destroying the func-
tions of the brain, without directly acting on the
circulation. In other words, its effects are similar
to those of alcohol, the juice of aconite, and the
essential oil of almonds.

E 4

56 EFFECTS OF

III. Experiments with Poisons applied to Wounded
Surfaces.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF ALMONDS.
EXPERIMENT XVI.

I made an incision in the thigh of a rabbit,
and introduced two drops of the essential oil of
almonds between the skin and the muscles. In
four minutes after the application, he was seized
with violent convulsions, and became insensible,
and in two minutes more he was apparently dead ;
but the heart was felt through the ribs acting 120
times in a minute, and it continued acting for
several minutes. There were no other appear-
ances in the limb, than would have resulted from
an ordinary wound.

EXPERIMENT XVII.

Two drops of the essential oil of almonds were
introduced into a wound in the side of a mouse.
Two minutes afterwards he was affected with
symptoms similar to those which occurred in
the last experiment, and in two minutes more
he was apparently dead, but the heart continued
to contract for some minutes afterwards.

From the experiments which I have just re-
lated, and from others which it appears unne-
cessary to detail, as the general results were the

VEGETABLE POISONS. 57

same, I have learned that where the essential oil
of almonds is applied to a wound, its effects are
not so instantaneous as when it is applied to the
tongue ; but that otherwise there is no difference
in its effects in whichever manner it is used.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE JUICE OP THE LEAVES OF THE
ACONITE.

EXPERIMENT XVIII.

1 made a wound in the side of a young rabbit,
and introduced, between the skin and muscles,
about twenty drops of the juice of aconite.
23 minutes afterwards he was affected with
symptoms, in all essential respects similar to
those which occurred in an experiment already
related, where the juice was injected into the
rectum, and at the end of 47 minutes from the
application of the poison, he was apparently
dead. Two minutes after apparent death, the
heart was found contracting, but very feebly.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE WOORARA.*
EXPERIMENT XIX.

A small quantity of the woorara in powder
was applied to a wound in the side of a Guinea

* The Woorara is a poison with which the Indians of
Guiana arm the points of their arrows. It appears not to

58 EFFECTS OF

pig. In 10 minutes afterwards the animal was
unable to walk ; then he became quite motionless,
except some slight occasional convulsions. He
gradually became insensible, the respirations
were laboured, and at the end of 14 minutes
from the application of the poison, the respiration
had entirely ceased, and he was apparently dead ;
but on opening the thorax, the heart was found
acting 70 times in a minute, circulating dark-
coloured blood, and it continued to contract
for several minutes afterwards. On dissection,
no preternatural appearances were observed in
the brain ; nor was there any other appearance
in the limb than would have arisen from an
ordinary wound.

EXPEKIMENT XX.

I made a wound in the side of a Guinea pig,
and introduced into it about two grains of the
woorara in powder. At the end of 25 minutes,
symptoms took place very similar to those which
occurred in the last experiment, and in 13 minutes
more the animal was apparently dead; but the
heart continued to contract 108 times in a minute,
and by means of artificial respiration the circu-
lation was kept up for more than 20 minutes.

differ essentially from the Ticunas, which was employed in
the experiments of the Abbe Fontana. I am indebted to
Dr. E. N. Bancroft, who not only furnished me with some of
the Woorara which he had in his possession, but also lent me
his assistance in the experiments which were made with it.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 59

The results of other experiments which I have
made with the woorara, were similar to those
just described. The heart continued to act after
apparent death, and the circulation might be
kept up by means of artificial respiration. It is
evident that this poison acts in some way or
another on the brain, and that the cessation of
the functions of this organ is the immediate
cause of death.

I found in these experiments, that the best
mode of applying the woorara is by dissolving
it in water to the consistence of a thin paste.
I first made the wound, and then smeared the
poison over it with the end of the scalpel. It
seemed that the animal was more speedily and
certainly affected, if there was some hemorrhage,
unless the haemorrhage was very copious, when
it produced an opposite effect, by washing the
poison away from the wound. When the poison
was applied in a large quantity, it sometimes
began to act in six or seven minutes. Never
more than half an hour elapsed from the time of
the poison being inserted, to that of the animal
being affected, except in one instance where a
ligature was applied on the limb, as will be
explained afterwards. The woorara which I
employed had been preserved for some years,
which will account for its having been less active
than it has been described to be, by those who
had witnessed its effects when in a recent state.*

* See Additional Note E.

60 EFFECTS OF

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE UPAS ANTIAR.*
EXPERIMENT XXI.

About two grains of this poison were made
into a thin paste with water, and inserted into a
wound in the thigh of a dog. Twelve minutes
afterwards he became languid ; at the end of 15
minutes, the heart was found to beat very irre-
gularly, and with frequent intermissions ; after
which, he had a slight rigor. At the end of
20 minutes the heart beat very feebly and
irregularly ; the dog was languid, sick, and
vomited; but the respirations were as frequent
and as full as under natural circumstances, and
he was perfectly sensible. At the end of 20
minutes he suddenly fell on one side, and was ap-
parently dead. I immediately opened the thorax,
and found the heart distended with blood in a
very remarkable degree, and to have entirely
ceased contracting. There was one distinct and
full inspiration after I had begun making the
incision into the thorax. The cavities of the left
side of the heart contained scarlet blood, and
those of the right side contained dark- coloured
blood, as in a living animal.

* We are informed that the island of Java produces two
powerful vegetable poisons, to one of which the natives give
the name of Upas tieute, and to the other that of Upas
antiar. I was supplied with a quantity of the latter through
the kindness of Mr. Marsden, who had some of it in his
possession.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 61

EXPERIMENT XXII.

A small quantity of the upas antiar, prepared
as before, was inserted into a wound in the thigh
of a young cat. She appeared languid in two
minutes after the poison was inserted. The
symptoms which took place did not essentially
differ from those which occurred in the last ex-
periment, except that there were some convul-
sive motions of the limbs. At eight minutes
after the poison was inserted she lay on one side,
motionless and insensible ; the heart could not
be felt, but the respiration had not entirely
ceased. On opening the thorax, I found the
heart to have ceased contracting. It was much
distended with blood: and the blood in the
cavities of the left side was of a scarlet colour.
There were two full inspirations after the in-
cision of the thorax was begun. On irritating
the heart with the point of the scalpel, slight
contractions took place in the fibres of the ap-
pendices of the auricles, but none in any other
part.

EXPERIMENT XXIII.

The experiment was repeated on a rabbit.
The symptoms produced were similar to those in
the last experiment ; but the animal did not
vomit, and the convulsive motions were less in
degree. He died 11 minutes after the poison was

62 EFFECTS OF

inserted. On opening the thorax, the heart was
found to have entirely ceased contracting. It
was much distended with blood ; and the blood
in the cavities of the left side was of a scarlet
colour. On irritating the heart with the point
of the scalpel, the ventricles contracted, but not
sufficiently to restore the circulation.

EXPERIMENT XXIV.

About a grain of the upas antiar was inserted
into a wound in the side of a rabbit. He was
affected with symptoms similar to those before
described, and died in 10 minutes after the
poison was applied. On opening the thorax im-
mediately after death, the heart was found to
have ceased contracting, and the blood in the
cavities of the left side was of a scarlet colour.

It appears, from these experiments, that the
upas antiar, when inserted into a wound, pro-
duces death (as infusion of tobacco does when
injected into the intestine) by rendering the heart
insensible to the stimulus on which its action
depends, and stopping the circulation. The heart
beats feebly and irregularly before either the
functions of the brain, or the respiration appear
to be affected. Kespiration is performed even
after the circulation has ceased ; and the left side
of the heart is found after death to contain scarlet
blood, which never can be the case, where the
cause of death is the cessation of the functions of

VEGETABLE POISONS. 63

the brain or lungs. The convulsions, which occur
when the circulation has nearly ceased, probably
arise from the diminution of the supply of blood
to the brain, resembling those which accompany
death from hemorrhage.

There remains an interesting subject of in-
quiry, "through what medium do poisons in-
fluence the brain when applied to wounds ? "
That poisons applied in this manner do not
produce their effects precisely in the same way
as poisons taken internally, is rendered probable
by this circumstance ; that some poisons, which
are very powerful when applied to wounds even
in small quantities, are either altogether in-
efficient when taken internally, or require to be
given in very large quantities, in order to pro-
duce their effect, and vice versd.

A poison applied to a wounded surface may
be supposed to act on the brain in one of three
ways :

1. By means of the nerves, like poisons taken
internally.

2. By passing into the circulation through the
lymphatic vessels.

3. By passing directly into the circulation
through the divided veins.

EXPERIMENT XXV.

In order to ascertain whether the woorara
acts through the medium of the nerves, I ex-
posed the axilla of a rabbit, and divided the

64 EFFECTS OF

spinal nerves supplying the upper extremity,
just before they unite to form the axillary plexus.
I not only divided every nervous filament, how-
ever small, which I could detect, but every
portion of cellular membrane in the axilla, so
that the artery and vein were left entirely in-
sulated. I then made two wounds in the fore-
arm, and inserted into them some of the woorara
formed into a paste. Fourteen minutes after
the poison was applied, the hind legs became
paralytic, and in 10 minutes more the animal
died, with symptoms precisely similar to those
which took place in the former experiments with
the same poison, the heart continuing to act
after apparent death. On dissection, the nerves
of the upper extremity were very carefully ex-
amined, but not the smallest filament could be
found undivided.

I made the following experiment to ascertain
whether the woorara passes into the circulation
through the lymphatic vessels.

EXPERIMENT XXVI.

I tied a ligature round the thoracic duct of a
dog, just before it perforates the angle of the left
subclavian and jugular veins. I then made two
wounds in the left hind leg, and introduced some
of the woorara in powder into them. In less
than a quarter of an hour the animal became af-
fected with the usual symptoms, and died in a
few minutes afterwards.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 65

After death, I dissected the thoracic duct with
great care, and found it to have been perfectly
secured by the ligature. It was very much dis-
tended with chyle, and about two inches below
its termination its tunicks had given way, and
chyle was extravasated into the cellular mem-
brane. The lymphatic vessels in the left axilla
were distended in a very remarkable degree, and
on dividing them, not less than a drachm of
lymph issued from the divided ends.

Since neither the division of the nerves, nor
the obstruction of the thoracic duct interfere in
the slightest degree with the effects of the
woorara, there was presumptive evidence that it
acts on the brain by entering the circulation
through the divided veins. I next endeavoured
to ascertain, by a more direct experiment, whether
this is really the case.

To apply ligatures to the large vessels of a
limb only, would evidently lead to no satisfactory
conclusion, since the anastomosing vessels might
still carry on the circulation. The only method,
which I could devise, of obtaining the desired
information, was to include all the vessels, small
as well as large, in a ligature.

EXPERIMENT XXVII.

In order to make the experiment more satis-
factorily, I exposed the sciatic nerve of a rabbit
in the upper and posterior part of the thigh, and
passed under it a tape half an inch wide. I then

GG EFFECTS OF

made a wound in the leg, and having introduced
into it some of the woorara mixed with water, I
tied the tape moderately tight on the fore part
of the thigh. Thus I interrupted the communi-
cation between the wound and the other parts
of the body, by means of the vessels, while that
by means of the nerve still remained. After the
ligature was tightened, I applied the woorara a
second time, in another part of the leg. The
rabbit was not at all affected, and at the end of
an hour I removed the ligature. Being engaged
in some other pursuit, I did not watch the
animal so closely as I should otherwise have
done ; but 20 minutes after the ligature had been
removed, I found him lying on one side, motion-
less and insensible, evidently under the influence
of the poison. The symptoms however were less
violent than in most instances ; and after some
time he recovered, with the limb perfectly warm
and using it as well as before.

EXPERIMENT XXVIII.

I repeated the last experiment with this dif-
ference, that after having applied the poison, I
made the ligature as tight as I could draw it. I
removed the ligature at the end of an hour and
20 minutes, but the animal was not at all af-
fected either before or after the removal of the
ligature, and on the following day he had re-
covered the use of the limb.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 67

EXPEBIMENT XXIX.

I made the experiment a third time on a rabbit,
drawing the ligature very tight. At the end
of 45 minutes, he continued perfectly well,
and the ligature was removed. I watched him
for three quarters of an hour afterwards, but
there were no symptoms of his being affected
by the poison. On the following day he died,
but this I attribute to the mechanical injury
done to the limb and sciatic nerve, as there
was the appearance of inflammation in the parts
in the neighbourhood of the ligature.

o o

These three experiments were made with the
greatest care. From the mode in which the
poison was applied, from the quantity employed,
and from my prior experience, I should have
entertained not the smallest doubt of the poison
taking effect in every instance in less than
20 minutes, if no ligature had been applied. In
two of the three, the quantity of woorara was
more than had been used in any former experi-
ments.

I have not judged it necessary to make any
more experiments with the ligature on the limb,
because the numerous experiments of the Abbe
Fontana on the ticunas coincide in their results
with those which have just been detailed, and
fully establish the efficacy of the ligature, in pre-
venting the action of the poison. It is not to be
wondered at, that the ligature should sometimes

F 2

68 EFFECTS OF

fail in its effects, since these must evidently
depend on the degree in which the circulation
is obstructed, and on the length of time during
which the obstruction is continued.

There can then be little doubt that the woorara
affects the brain, by passing into the circulation
through the divided vessels.* It is probable,
that it does not produce its effects, until it enters
the substance of the brain, along with the blood,
in which it is dissolved ; nor will the experiments
of the Abbe Fontana, in which he found the
ticunas produce almost instant death when in-
jected into the jugular vein of a rabbit, be found
to militate against the conclusion, when we con-
sider how short is the distance, which, in so small
an animal, the blood has to pass from the jugular
vein to the carotid artery, and the great rapi-
dity of the circulation; especially in a rabbit
under the influence of powerful excitement, in
whom the heart cannot be supposed to act so
seldom as three times in a second.

I have made no experiments to ascertain
through what medium other poisons operate
when applied to wounds; but from analogy, we
may suppose, that they also enter the circulation
through the divided blood vessels.

IV. The facts already related, led me to con-
clude that alcohol, the essential oil of almonds,
the juice of aconite, the oil of tobacco, and the

* See Additional Note F.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 69

woorara, occasion death simply by destroying
the functions of the brain. The following ex-
periment appears fully to establish the truth of
this conclusion.

EXPERIMENT XXX.

The temperature of the room being 58° Fah-
renheit's thermometer, I made two wounds in
the side of a rabbit, and applied to them some
of the woorara in the form of paste. In seven
minutes after the application, the hind legs were
paralysed, and in 15 minutes respiration had
ceased, and he was apparently dead. Two minutes
afterwards the heart was still beating, and a tube
was introduced through an opening into the
trachea, by means of which the lungs were in-
flated. The artificial respiration was made re-
gularly about 36 times in a minute.

At first, the heart contracted 100 times in
a minute.

At the end of 40 minutes, the pulse had risen
to 120 in a minute.

At the end of an hour, it had risen to 140
in a minute.

At the end of an hour and 23 minutes, the
pulse had fallen to 100, and the artificial respira-
tion was discontinued.

At the commencement of the experiment, the
ball of a thermometer being placed in the rectum,
the quicksilver rose to 100°; at the close of the
experiment it had fallen to 88^°

r 3

70 EFFECTS OF

During the continuance of the artificial respi-
ration, the blood in the femoral artery was of a
florid red, and that in the femoral vein was of a
dark colour, as usual.

It has been observed by M. Bichat, that the
immediate cause of death, when it takes place
suddenly, must be the cessation of the functions
of the heart, the brain, or the lungs. This ob-
servation may be extended to death under all
circumstances. The stomach, the liver, the kid-
neys, and many other organs are necessary to
life, but their constant action is not necessary;
and the cessation of their functions cannot there-
fore be the immediate cause of death. As in this
case the action of the heart had never ceased ; as
the circulation of the blood was kept up by ar-
tificial respiration for more than an hour and
20 minutes after the poison had produced its
full effects ; and as during this time the usual
changes in the colour of the blood took place in
the lungs ; it is evident, that the functions of the
heart and lungs were unimpaired : but that those
of the brain had ceased, is proved, by the animal
having continued in a state of complete insen-
sibility, and by this circumstance, that animal
heat, to the generation of which I have formerly
shown the influence of the brain to be necessary,
was not generated.

Having learned that the circulation might be
kept up by artificial respiration for a considerable
time after the woorara had produced its full
effects, it occurred to me, that in an animal under

VEGETABLE POISONS. 71

the influence of this or of any other poison that
acts in a similar manner, by continuing the arti-
ficial respiration for a sufficient length of time
after natural respiration had ceased, the brain
might recover from the impression which the
poison had produced, so that it would be re-
stored to life. In the last experiment, the rabbit
gave no signs of returning sensibility ; but it
is to be observed, 1. That the quantity of
poison employed was very large. 2. That there
was a great loss of animal heat, in consequence
of the temperature of the room being much below
the natural temperature of the animal, which
could not therefore be considered under such
favourable circumstances as to recovery, as if it
had been kept in a higher temperature. 3. That
the circulation was still vigorous when I left off
inflating the lungs, and therefore it cannot be
known what would have been the result, if the
artificial respiration had been longer continued.

EXPERIMENT XXXI.

A wound was made in the side of a rabbit.
One drop of the essential oil of almonds was in-
serted into it ; and immediately the animal was
placed in a temperature of 90°. In two mi-
nutes he was under the influence of the poison.
The usual symptoms took place. In three mi-
nutes more, respiration had ceased, and he lay
apparently dead, but the heart was still felt
beating through the ribs. A tube was then intro-

F 4

72 EFFECTS OF

duced into one of the nostrils, and the lungs
were inflated about 35 times in a minute. Six
minutes after the commencement of artificial
respiration, he moved his head and legs, and
made an effort to breathe. He then was seized
with convulsions, and again lay motionless, but
continued to make occasional eiforts to breathe.
Sixteen minutes after its commencement, the
artificial respiration was discontinued. He now
breathed spontaneously 70 times in a minute,
and moved his head and extremities. After this
he occasionally rose, and attempted to walk. In
the intervals he continued in a dozing state, but
from this he gradually recovered. In less than
two hours he appeared perfectly well, and he
continued well on the following day.

The inflating the lungs has been frequently
recommended in cases of suffocation, where the
cause of death is the cessation of the functions
of the lungs : As far as I know, it has not been
before proposed in those cases in which the cause
of death is the cessation of the functions of the
brain.* It is probable that this method of treat-

* Since this paper was read, I have been favoured by the
Right Hon. the President with the perusal of a Dissertation
on the Effects of the Upas Tieute, lately published at Paris
by M. Delile, by which I find that he had employed artificial
respiration for the purpose of recovering animals which were
under the influence of this poison, with success. M. Delile
describes the Upas Tieute as causing death by occasioning
repeated and long continued contractions of the muscles of
respiration, on which it acts through the medium of the
spinal chord, without destroying the functions of the brain.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 73

ment might be employed with advantage for the
recovery of persons labouring under the effects
of opium, and many other poisons.

Y. The experiments which have been detailed
lead to the following conclusions.

1. Alcohol, the essential oil of almonds, the
juice of aconite, the empyreumatic oil of tobacco,
and the woorara, act as poisons by simply de-
stroying the functions of the brain; universal
death taking place, because respiration is under
the influence of the brain, and ceases when its
functions are suspended.

2. The infusion of tobacco when injected into
the intestine, and the upas antiar when applied
to a wound, have the power of rendering the
heart insensible to the stimulus of the blood, thus
stopping the circulation ; in other words, they
occasion death by syncope.

3. There is reason to believe, that the poisons,
which in these experiments were applied inter-
nally, produce their effects through the medium
of the nerves, independently of their being ab-
sorbed into the circulation.

4. When the woorara is applied to a wound,
it produces its effects on the brain, by entering
the circulation through the divided blood-vessels ;
and from analogy it appears probable that other
poisons, when applied to wounds, operate in a
similar manner.

5. When an animal is apparently dead from
the influence of a poison which acts merely by

74 EFFECTS OF

destroying the functions of the brain, it may, in
some instances at least, be made to recover, if
respiration is artificially produced and continued
for a certain length of time.

From analogy we might draw some conclu-
sions respecting the mode in which some other
vegetable poisons produce their effects on the
animal system ; but I forbear to enter into any
speculative inquiries, as it is my wish, in the
present communication, to record such facts
only as appear to be established by actual ex-
periment.

VEGETABLE POISONS. 75

IY.

Further Observations and Experiments on the
Action of Poisons on the Animal System.

[From the Philosophical Transactions for 1812.]

SINCE I had the honour of communicating to the
Royal Society some Observations on the Action
of certain Poisons on the Animal System, I have
been engaged in the further prosecution of this
inquiry. Besides some additional experiments
on vegetable poisons, I have instituted several
with a view to explain the effects of some of
the more powerful poisons of the mineral king-
dom. The former correspond in their results
so nearly with those which are already before
the public, that, in the present communication,
I shall confine myself to those which appear
to be of some importance, as they confirm my
former conclusions respecting the recovery of
animals apparently dead, where the cause of
death operates exclusively on the nervous sys-
tem. In my experiments on mineral poisons, I
have found some circumstances wherein their
effects differ from those of vegetable poisons ;
and of these I shall give a more particular
account. Whatever may be the value of the
observations themselves, the subject must be

76 EFFECTS OF

allowed to be one that is deserving of investiga-
tion, as it does not appear unreasonable to ex-
pect that such physiological investigations may
hereafter lead to some practical improvements in
the healing art. This consideration, I hope, will
be regarded as a sufficient apology for my pursu-
ing a mode of inquiry, by means of experiments
on brute animals, of which we might question
the propriety, if no other purpose were to be
answered by it than the gratification of curiosity.
In my former communication on this subject, I
entered into a detailed account of the majority of
the experiments which were made. This I con-
ceived necessary, because, in the outset of the
inquiry, I had been led to expect that even the
same poison may not always operate precisely in
the same manner. But I have since had abun-
dant proof that, in essential circumstances, there
is but little variety in the effects produced by
any one poison, when employed on animals of
the same, or even of different species, beyond
what may be referred to difference in quantity,
or the mode of its application, or of the age
and power of the animal. This will explain the
reason of my not detailing, in the present
communication, so many of the individual ex-
periments from which my conclusions are drawn,
as in the former. At the same time I have not
been less careful to avoid drawing general con-
clusions from only a limited number of facts.
Should these conclusions prove fewer and of less
importance than might be expected, such defects

VEGETABLE POISONS. 77

will, I trust, be regarded with indulgence, at
least by those who are aware of the difficulty of
conducting a series of physiological experiments,
of the time which they necessarily occupy, of the
numerous sources of fallacy and failure which
exist, and of the laborious attention to the mi-
nutest circumstances which is in consequence
necessary, in order to avoid being led into error.

II. Experiments ivith the Woorara.

In a former experiment, I succeeded in reco-
vering an animal which was apparently dead
from the influence of the essential oil of bitter
almonds, by continuing respiration artificially
until the impression of the poison upon the brain
had ceased ; while a similar experiment on an
animal under the influence of the woorara, was
not attended with the same success. Some cir-
cumstances led me to believe that the result
of the experiment with the woorara might have
been different, if it had been made with certain
precautions ; but I was unable at that time to
repeat it, in consequence of my stock of the
poison being exhausted. I have since, however,
been able to procure a fresh supply ; and I shall
relate two experiments which I have made with
it. In one of these an animal apparently dead
from the woorara was made to recover, notwith-
standing the functions of the brain appeared to
be wholly suspended for a very long period of

78 EFFECTS OF

time ; in the other, though ultimate recovery
did not take place, the circulation was main-
tained for several hours after the brain had
ceased to perform its office.

EXPERIMENT I.

Some woorara was inserted into a wound in a
young cat. She became affected by it in a few
minutes, and lay in a drowsy and half sensible
state, in which she continued at the end of an
hour and 15 minutes, when the application of
the poison was repeated. In four minutes after
the second application, respiration had entirely
ceased, and the animal appeared to be dead ; but
the heart was still felt acting about 140 times in
a minute. She was placed in a temperature of
85° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and the lungs
were artificially inflated about 40 times in a
minute.

The heart continued acting regularly.

When the artificial respiration had been kept
up during 40 minutes, the pupils of the eyes were
observed to contract and dilate on the increase
or diminution of light ; saliva had flowed from
the mouth, and a small quantity of tears was
collected between the eye and eyelids ; but the
animal still continued perfectly motionless and
insensible.

At the end of an hour and 40 minutes from
the same period, there were slight involuntary

VEGETABLE POISONS. 79

contractions of the muscles, and every now and
then there was an effort to breathe. The in-
voluntary motions continued, and the efforts to
breathe became more frequent. At the end of
another hour, the animal, for the first time, gave
some signs of sensibility when roused, and made
spontaneous efforts to breathe 22 times in a
minute. The artificial respiration was discon-
tinued. She lay, as if in a state of profound
sleep, for 40 minutes more, when she suddenly
awoke, and walked away. On the following day
she appeared slightly indisposed ; but she gradu-
ally recovered, and is at this time still alive and
in health.

EXPERIMENT II.

Some woorara was applied to a wound in a
rabbit. The animal was apparently dead in four
minutes after the application of the poison ; but
the heart continued acting. He was placed in a
temperature of 90°, and the lungs were arti-
ficially inflated. The heart continued to act
about 150 times in a minute. For more than
three hours the pulse was strong and regular ;
after this it became feeble and irregular ; and at
the end of another hour the circulation had
entirely ceased. During this time there was no
appearance of returning sensibility.

The circulation of the blood may be main-
tained in an animal from whom the brain has
been removed for a considerable, but not for an

80 EFFECTS OF

unlimited time. We may conclude that, in the
last of these experiments, the animal did not
recover, because the influence of the poison con-
tinued beyond the time during which the circu-
lation may be maintained without the brain.*

III. On the Effects of Arsenic.

When an animal is killed by arsenic taken in-
ternally, the stomach is found bearing marks of
inflammation ; and it is a very general opinion,

1. That this inflammation is the cause of death;

2. That it is the consequence of the actual con-
tact of the arsenic with the internal coat of the
stomach. But in several instances I have found
the inflammation of the stomach so slight, that
on a superficial examination it might have been
easily overlooked ; and in most of my experiments
with this poison, death has taken place in too
short a time for it to be considered as the result
of inflammation : and hence we may conclude
that the first of these opinions is incorrect, at least
a general proposition.

Many circumstances conspire to show that the
second of these opinions also is unfounded.

In whatever way the poison is administered,
the inflammation is confined to the stomach and
intestines : I have never seen any appearance of
it in the pharynx or oesophagus.

* See Additional Note G.

MINERAL POISONS. 81

Mr. Home informed me that, in an experiment
made by Mr. Hunter and himself, in which
arsenic was applied to a wound in a dog, the
animal died in twenty- four hours, and the sto-
mach was found to be considerably inflamed.

I repeated this experiment several times, tak-
ing the precaution always of applying a bandage
to prevent the animal licking the wound. The
result was, that the inflammation of the stomach
was commonly more violent and more immediate
than when the poison was administered inter-
nally, and that it preceded any appearance of
inflammation of the wound.* Some experiments
are already before the public, which led me to
conclude that vegetable poisons, when applied to
wounded surfaces, affect the system by passing
into the circulation through the divided veins.
From this analogy, and from all the circum-
stances just mentioned, it may be inferred that
arsenic, in whatever way it is administered, does
not produce its effects even on the stomach until
it is carried into the blood.

But the blood is not necessary to life, except
so far as a constant supply of it in its healthy

* Since the greater part of my experiments on this subject
were made, I have seen an account of an inaugural Disserta-
tion on the Effects of Arsenic, by Dr. Jaeger of Stutgard.
Dr. Jaeger has come to conclusions similar to those above
stated, that in an animal killed by arsenic, the inflammation
of the stomach is not the cause of death, and that the poison
does not produce its fatal effects until it has entered the cir-
culation. I have to regret that I have had no opportunity of
seeing the original of this dissertation.

G

82 EFFECTS OF

state is necessary for the maintenance of the
functions of the vital organs. The next object
of inquiry therefore is, when arsenic has entered
the circulation, on what organs does it operate so
as to occasion death ?

When arsenic is applied to an ulcerated sur-
face, it produces a slough, not by acting chemi-
cally, like caustics in general, but by destroying
the vitality of the part to which it is applied,
independently of chemical action. This led me
at first to suppose that, when arsenic has passed
into the circulation, death is the consequence,
not so much of the poison disturbing the func-
tions of any particular organ, as of its destroying
at once the vitality of every part of the system.
The following circumstances, however, seem to
show that this opinion is erroneous. In an
animal under the full influence of arsenic, even
to the instant of death, some of the secretions,
as those of the kidneys, stomach, and intestines,
continue to take place in large quantity; and
the muscles are capable of being excited, after
death, to distinct and powerful contractions by
means of the Voltaic battery.

EXPERIMENT III.

Seven grains of the white oxyde of arsenic
were applied to a wound in the back of a rabbit.

In a few minutes he was languid, and the
respirations were small and frequent. The pulse
was feeble, and after a little time could not be

MINERAL POISONS. 83

felt. The hind legs became paralysed.* He
grew insensible, and lay motionless, but with
occasional convulsions. At the end of 53 mi-
nutes from the time of the arsenic being ap-
plied, he was apparently dead ; but on opening
the thorax, the heart was found still acting,
though very slowly and feebly. A tube was
introduced into the trachea, and the lungs were
artificially inflated; but this appeared to have
no effect in prolonging the heart's action. On
dissection, the inner membrane of the stomach
was found slightly inflamed.

EXPEEIMENT IV.

Two drachms of arseniac acid, dissolved in six
ounces of water, were injected into the stomach
of a dog by means of a tube of elastic gum,
passed down the oesophagus. In three minutes
he vomited a small quantity of mucus ; and this
occurred again several times. The pulse became

* I have observed, that where the functions of the brain
are disturbed, paralysis first takes place in the muscles of the
hind legs ; afterwards in those of the trunk and fore legs ;
and last of all in the muscles of the ears and face. These
facts seem to show, that the influence of the brain, like that
of the heart, is not propagated with the same facility to the
distant as to the near organs ; and this is further confirmed
by cases of disease which occasionally occur, in which, al-
though the paralysis is confined to the lower half of the
body, the morbid appearances met with on dissection are
confined to the brain.

G 2

84 EFFECTS OF

less frequent, and occasionally intermitted. At
the end of 35 minutes, the hind legs were pa-
ralysed, and he lay in a half sensible state.
At the end of 45 minutes he was less sensible,
the pupils of the eyes were dilated, the pulse had
fallen from 140 to 70 in a minute, and the in-
termissions were frequent. After this he became
quite insensible, convulsions took place, and, at
the end of 50 minutes from the beginning of the
experiment, he died.

On opening the thorax immediately after death,
tremulous contractions of the heart were ob-
served; but not sufficient to maintain the circu-
lation. The stomach and intestines contained a
large quantity of mucous fluid, and their internal
membrane was highly inflamed.

These experiments were repeated, and the
results, in all essential circumstances, were the
same. The symptoms produced were: 1. Pa-
ralysis of the hind legs, and afterwards of the
other parts of the body ; convulsions ; dilatation
of the pupils of the eyes ; insensibility : all of
which indicate disturbance of the functions of
the brain. 2. A feeble, slow, intermitting pulse,
indicating disturbance of the functions of the
heart. Where the heart has continued to act
after apparent death, I have never, in any one
instance, been able to prolong its action by means
of artificial respiration. 3. Pain in the region
of the abdomen ; preternatural secretion of mucus
.from the alimentary canal; sickness and vomiting
in those animals which are capable of vomiting ;

MINERAL POISONS. 85

symptoms which arise from the action of the
poison on the stomach and intestines. There is
no difference in the effects of arsenic, whether it
is employed in the form of oxyde, or of arseniac
acid, except that the latter is a more active pre-
paration. When arsenic is applied to a wound,
the symptoms take place sooner than when it is
given internally ; but their nature is the same.

The symptoms produced by arsenic may be
referred to the influence of the poison on the
nervous system, the heart*, and the alimentary
canal. As of these, the two former only are
concerned in those functions which are directly
necessary to life ; and as the alimentary canal is
often affected only in a slight degree, we must
consider the affection of the heart and nervous
system as being the immediate cause of death.

In every experiment which I have made with

* When I say that a poison acts on the heart, I do not mean
to imply that it necessarily must act directly on the muscular
fibres of that organ. It is highly probable, that the heart is
affected only through the medium of its nerves ; but the affec-
tion of the heart is so far independent of the affection of the
nervous system generally, that the circulation may cease,
although the functions of the brain are not suspended, and
the functions of the brain may be wholly suspended without
the circulation being at all disturbed. In proof of the first of
these propositions, I may refer to my former experiments on
the upas antiar, in which the sensibility of the animal con-
tinued to the very instant of death ; and respiration, which
is under the influence of the brain, continued even after the
heart had ceased to act. In proof of the second, I may refer,
among many others, to the experiments detailed in the
Croonian Lecture for 1810.

G 3

86 EFFECTS OF

arsenic there were evident marks of the influence
of the poison on all the organs which have been
mentioned ; but they were not in all cases affected
in the same relative degree. In the dog, the
affection of the heart appeared to predominate
over that of the brain ; and on examining the
thorax, immediately after death, this organ was
found, to have ceased acting, and in a distended
state. In the rabbit, the affection of the brain
appeared to predominate over that of the heart,
and the latter was usually found acting feebly,
after the functions of the brain had entirely
ceased. In the rabbit, the effects produced by
the arsenic on the stomach and intestines were
usually less marked than in carnivorous animals.

The action of arsenic on the system is less
simple than that of the majority of vegetable
poisons. As it acts on different organs, it oc-
casions different orders of symptoms, and as the
affection of one or another organ predominates,
so there is some variety in the symptoms pro-
duced even in individual animals of the same
species.

In animals killed by arsenic, the blood is
usually found fluid in the heart and vessels after
death ; but otherwise all the morbid appearances
met with on dissection are confined to the sto-
mach and intestines. As this is the case, and as
the affection of these organs is, in many respects,
very remarkable, I shall mention the result of
my observations on this subject.

In many cases where death takes place, there

MINERAL POISONS. 87

is only a very slight degree of inflammation of
the alimentary canal : in other cases the inflam-
mation is considerable. It generally begins very
soon after the poison is administered, and is
greater or less according to the time which
elapses before the animal dies. Under the same
circumstances, it is, as I have already observed,
less in rabbits than in carnivorous animals. The
inflammation is greatest in the stomach and in-
testines; but it usually extends also over the
whole intestine. I have never observed inflamma-
tion of the oesophagus. It is greater in degree and
more speedy in talcing place, when arsenic is applied
to a wound than when it is taken into the stomach.
The inflamed parts are in general universally
red, at other times they are red only in spots.
The principal vessels leading to the stomach and
intestines are much dilated, and turgid with
blood ; but the inflammation is usually confined
to the mucous membrane of these viscera, which
assumes a florid red colour, becomes soft and
pulpy, and is separable without much difficulty
from the cellular coat, the latter presenting its
natural appearance. In some instances, there are
small spots of extravasated blood on the inner
surface of the mucous membrane, or immediately
beneath it, and this occurs independently of
vomiting. I have never, in any of my experi-
ments, found ulceration or sloughing of the
stomach or intestine ; but if the animal survives
for a certain length of time, after the inflam-
mation, has begun, it is reasonable to conclude

G 4

88 EFFECTS OF

that it may terminate in one or other of these
ways.

I am disposed to believe that sloughing is very
seldom, if ever, the direct consequence of the
application of arsenic to the stomach or in-
testines. Arsenic applied to an ulcer will oc-
casion a slough ; but its action in doing this is
very slow. When I have applied the white oxyde
of arsenic to a wound, though the animal has
sometimes lived three or four hours afterwards,
and though violent inflammation has taken place
in the stomach and intestines, I have never seen
any preternatural appearance in the part to
which it was applied, except a slight effusion of
serum into the cellular membrane. The very
copious secretion of mucus and watery fluid
which arsenic speedily produces from the stomach
and intestines, separates it from actual contact
with the inner surface of these organs, even
though taken in large quantity and in substance ;
and, in animals which are capable of vomiting,
by much the greater part is rejected from the
stomach very soon after it has been taken in.
Hence, though a few particles of arsenic are
sometimes found entangled in the mucus, or in
the coagulum of extravasated blood, and ad-
hering to the inner surface of the stomach, I
have never seen it in such a quantity as might
be supposed capable of destroying the vitality of
the parts with which it had been in contact. In
one instance, where a dog had swallowed a large
quantity of arsenic in substance, a brown spot,

MINEBAL POISONS. 89

about an inch in diameter, was observed after
death on the inner surface of the cardiac ex-
tremity of the stomach, having so much of the
appearance of a slough, that at first I had no
doubt of it being so; but on examination, this
proved to be only a thin layer of dark coloured
coagulum of blood, adhering very firmly to the
surface of the mucous membrane, and having a
few particles of arsenic entangled in it. On re-
moving this, the mucous membrane still appeared
of a dark colour ; but this also was found to
arise from a thin layer of coagulum of blood
between it and the cellular coat. The mucous
membrane itself was inflamed ; but otherwise in
a natural state. I have observed a similar ap-
pearance, but occupying a less extent of surface,
several times. In the Hunterian Museum there
is a human stomach, which was preserved to
show what was considered as a slough produced
by the action of arsenic. On examining this
preparation, I found that the dark coloured
spot, which had been supposed to be a slough,
was precisely of the same nature with that just
described.

Although the affection of the stomach and
intestines from arsenic is not the cause of death,
under ordinary circumstances, it is reasonable to
conclude, that it may be so in some instances, if
the animal survives the effects produced on the
organs more immediately necessary to life. Mr.
Henry Earle informed me of an instance, in
which this appeared to be the case. A woman

90 EFFECTS OF

in St. Bartholomew's hospital, who had taken
arsenic, recovered of the immediate symptoms,
but died at the end of four or five days. On ex-
amination after death, extensive ulcerations were
found of the mucous membrane of the stomach
and intestines, which we can hardly doubt to
have been the cause of death.

It is an important matter of inquiry, as con-
nected with judicial medicine, how far may the
examination of the body, after death, enable us
to decide, whether an animal has died of the
effects of arsenic ? On this subject, however,
I have only a few remarks to make.

The inflammation from arsenic, occupying in
general the whole of the stomach and intestine,
is more extensive than that from any other
poison with which I am acquainted. It does not,
as I have already stated, affect the pharynx or
oesophagus, and this circumstance distinguishes
it from the inflammation occasioned by the
actual contact of irritating applications.

In my experiments I have not obtained much
information from the examination of the contents
of the stomach after death. When arsenic has
been taken in substance, small particles of it are
frequently found entangled in the mucus, or in
the extravasated blood ; but where this was not
the case, I have never known, in an animal
capable of vomiting, that arsenic could be de-
tected in the stomach afterwards. As some sub-
stances, when taken internally, are separated
from the blood very soon afterwards with the

MINERAL POISONS. 91

urine, I thought it probable that arsenic might
be separated with the urine also ; but Mr. Brande
(to whom I am indebted for assistance on the
present, as I have been on many other occa-
sions) could never detect the smallest trace of
arsenic in it.*

IV. Experiments with the Muriate of Barytes.

When barytes is taken into the stomach, or
applied to a wound, it is capable of destroying
life ; but when in its uncombined state its action
is very slow. The muriate of barytes, which is
much more soluble than the pure earth, is (pro-
bably on this account) a much more active
poison.

EXPERIMENT V.

Ten grains of muriate of barytes rubbed very
fine, and moistened with two drops of water,
were applied to two wounds in the thigh and
side of a rabbit. In four minutes he was evi-
dently under the influence of the poison. In a
short time he became giddy : then his hind legs
were paralysed ; and he gradually fell into a
state of insensibility, with dilated pupils, and
lay in general motionless, but with occasional
convulsions. The pulse beat 150 in a minute,
but feebly, and it occasionally intermitted. He

* See Additional Note H.

92 EFFECTS OF

was apparently dead in 20 minutes from the
time of the application of the poison ; but on
opening the chest, the heart was found still
acting, and nearly three minutes elapsed before
its action had entirely ceased.

EXPERIMENT VI.

An ounce and a half of saturated solution of
muriate of barytes was injected into the stomach
of a full grown cat, by means of an elastic gum
tube. In a few minutes it operated as an emetic.
The animal became giddy, afterwards insensible,
and lay with dilated pupils, in general motion-
less, but with occasional convulsions. At the
end of 65 minutes from the beginning of the
experiment, he was apparently dead ; but the
heart was still felt through the ribs, acting
100 times in a minute. A tube was introduced
into the trachea, and the lungs were inflated
about 36 times in a minute ; but the pulse
sunk notwithstanding, and at the end of seven
minutes the circulation had entirely ceased.

From these experiments, I was led to con-
clude, that the principal action of the muriate of
barytes is on the brain ; but, in the first the
pulse was feeble and intermitting ; in the second,
although the artificial respiration was made with
the greatest care, the circulation could not be
maintained longer than a few minutes. These
circumstances led me to suspect, that although
this poison operates principally on the brain, it

MINERAL POISONS. 93

operates in some degree on the heart also. Fur-
ther experiments confirmed this suspicion. In
some of them the pulse soon became so feeble,
that it could be scarcely felt ; and its intermis-
sions were more frequent ; but in all cases the
heart continued to act after respiration had
ceased ; and the cessation of the functions of the
brain was therefore always the immediate cause
of death. When I employed artificial respira-
tion, after death had apparently taken place, I
seldom was able to prolong the heart's action
beyond a few minutes. In one case only it was
maintained for three quarters of an hour. I
never by these means succeeded in restoring the
animal to life, although the experiments were
made with the greatest care and in a warm tem-
perature. In some instances, after the artificial
respiration had been kept up for some time,
there were signs of the functions of the brain
being in some degree restored ; but the pulse, not-
withstanding, continued to diminish in strength
and frequency, and ultimately ceased. I shall
detail one of these experiments, as it serves to
illustrate the double action of this poison on the
nervous and vascular systems.

EXPERIMENT VII.

Some muriate of barytes was applied to a
wound in the side of a rabbit. The usual symp-
toms took place, and at the end of an hour the
animal was apparently dead ; but the heart still

94 EFFECTS OF

continued to contract. He was placed in a tem-
perature of 80°, and a tube being introduced
into the nostril, the lungs were artificially in-
flated about 36 times in a minute.

When the artificial respiration had been main-
tained for four minutes, he appeared to be re-
covering; he breathed voluntarily 100 times in
a minute, and showed signs of sensibility. The
artificial respiration was discontinued. The vo-
luntary respiration continued about nine minutes,
when it had ceased, and the animal was again
apparently dead ; but the pulse continued strong
and frequent. The lungs were again artificially
inflated. At the end of four minutes the animal
once more breathed voluntarily 100 times in a
minute, and repeatedly moved his limbs and
eye-lids. The pulse became slower and more
feebk.

In a few minutes the voluntary respiration
again ceased, and the artificial respiration was
resumed. The pulse had fallen to 100, and
was feeble. The animal again breathed volun-
tarily ; but he ceased to do so at the end
of five minutes. The lungs were inflated as
before ; but he did not give any sign of life,
nor was the pulse felt afterwards. On opening
the thorax, the heart was found to have entirely
ceased acting.

A probe having been introduced into the sub-
stance of the spinal chord, it was found that by
means of the Yoltaic battery, powerful contrac-
tions might be excited, not only of the voluntary

MINERAL POISONS. 95

muscles, but also of the heart and intestines ;
from which it may be inferred, that the muriate
of bary tes, like arsenic, affects the circulation by
rendering the heart insensible to the usual sti-
mulus, and not by destroying altogether the
power of muscular contraction.

The muriate of barytes affects the stomach,
but in a less degree than arsenic. It operates as
an emetic in animals that are capable of vomit-
ing ; but sooner when taken internally, than when
applied to a wound. In general, but not con-
stantly, there are marks of inflammation of the
inner membrane of the stomach, but not of the
intestine. In many instances there is a thin
layer of dark coloured coagulum of blood lining
the whole inner surface of the stomach, and ad-
hering very closely to it, so as to have a good
deal of the appearance of a slough ; and this is
independent of vomiting, as where I met with it,
it occurred in rabbits.

The same circumstances, from which it may
be inferred that arsenic does not produce its
deleterious effects until it has passed into the
same circulation, lead also to that conclusion
with regard to the muriate of barytes.

V. On the Effects of the Emetic Tartar.

The effects of the emetic tartar, so much re-
semble those of arsenic and of muriate of barytes
in essential circumstances, that it would be need-

96 EFFECTS OF

less to enter into a detail of the individual ex-
periments made with this poison.

When applied to a wound in animals, which
are capable of vomiting, it usually, but not con-
stantly, operates very speedily as an emetic ;
otherwise, I have found no material difference in
the symptoms produced in the different species
of animals, which I have been in the habit of
employing as the subjects of experiment. The
symptoms are paralysis, drowsiness, and at last
complete insensibility ; the pulse becomes feeble ;
the heart continues to act after apparent death ;
its action may be maintained by means of ar-
tificial respiration, but never for a longer period
than a few minutes : so that it appears that this
poison acts on the heart as well as on the brain ;
but that its principal action is on the latter.
Both the voluntary and involuntary muscles
may be made to contract after death, by means
of Voltaic electricity. The stomach sometimes
bears the marks of inflammation ; but at other
times it has its natural appearance. I have
never seen any appearance of inflammation of
the intestines. The length of time which elapses
from the application of the poison to the death
of the animal, varies. In some instances, it is
not more than three quarters of an hour ; but in
others, it is two or three hours, or even longer.

When a solution of emetic tartar was injected
into the stomach of a rabbit, the same symptoms
took place as when it was applied to a wound.

MINERAL POISONS. 97

VI. On the Effects of the Corrosive Sublimate.

When this poison is taken internally in very
small and repeated doses, it is absorbed into the
circulation, and produces on the system those
peculiar effects which are produced by other
preparations of mercury. If it passes into the
circulation in larger quantity, it excites inflam-
mation of some part of the alimentary canal, the
termination of which may vary accordingly as it
exists in a greater or less degree. When taken
in a larger quantity still, it occasions death in a
very short space of time. I had found, that if
applied to a wounded surface, it produced a
slough of the part to which it was applied, with-
out occasioning any affection of the general
system. This led me to conclude that the effects
of it, taken internally, and in a large quantity,
depend on its local action on the stomach, and
that they are not connected with the absorption
of it into the circulation. The following experi-
ments appear to confirm this opinion.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

Six grains of corrosive sublimate, dissolved in
six drachms of distilled water, were injected into
the stomach of a rabbit, by means of an elastic
gum tube. No immediate symptoms followed
the injection ; the animal made no expression of
pain ; but in three minutes he became insensible ;

H

98 EFFECTS OF

was convulsed ; and in four minutes and a half,
from the time of the injection being made, he
died. Tremulous contractions of the voluntary
muscles continued for some time afterwards. On
opening the thorax, the heart was found to have
entirely ceased acting, and the blood in the cavi-
ties of the left side was of a scarlet colour. The
stomach was much distended. The pyloric and
cardiac portions were separated from each other
by a strong muscular contraction. The contents
of the former were firm and solid, and in every
respect resembled the usual contents of the
stomach ; while those of the cardiac portion con-
sisted of the food of the animal much diluted by
fluid ; so that the solution, which had been in-
jected, appeared to be confined to the cardiac
portion of the stomach, and to be prevented
entering the pyloric portion by the muscular
contraction in the centre.

In the pyloric portion of the stomach the
mucous membrane had its natural appearance ;
but in the cardiac portion it was of a dark grey
colour, was readily torn, and peeled off; and in
some parts its texture was completely destroyed,
so that it appeared like a pulp, on removing
which the muscular and peritonaeal coats were
exposed.

The repetition of the experiment was attended
with similar results. The alteration of the tex-
ture of the internal membrane was evidently
occasioned by its having been chemically acted
on by the corrosive sublimate injected into it.

MINERAL POISONS. 99

When the injection is made into the stomach of
a dead rabbit, precisely the same effects are pro-
duced, except that, as the middle contraction is
here wanting, the appearances are not confined
in the same degree to the cardiac portion.

EXPERIMENT IX.

A scruple of corrosive sublimate, dissolved in
six drachms of distilled water, was injected into
the stomach of a full-grown cat. For the first
five minutes no symptoms were produced. After
this, the poison operated twice as an emetic.
The animal was restless and excited, then gra-
dually became insensible, and lay on one side
motionless, with the pupils of the eyes dilated.
The respiration was laborious, and the pulse
could not be felt. Twenty-five minutes after the
poison had been injected, there was a convulsive
action of the voluntary muscles, and death imme-
diately ensued. On opening the thorax imme-
diately afterwards, the heart was seen still con-
tracting, but very feebly.

The stomach was found perfectly empty and
contracted. The mucous membrane was every
where of a dark grey colour. It had lost
its natural texture, and was readily torn and
separated from the muscular coat. The internal
membrane of the duodenum had a similar ap-
pearance, but in a less degree, for nearly three
inches from the pylorus. In the situation of

H 2

100 EFFECTS OF

the pylorus, the effects of the poison were less
apparent than elsewhere.

The peculiar state of the internal membrane
of the stomach, in this experiment as well as in
the last, appears to have been occasioned by the
chemical action of the poison on it. When I
injected a solution of corrosive sublimate into
the stomach of a dead cat, and retained it there
for a few minutes, a similar alteration of the
texture of the internal membrane took place ;
but it assumed a lighter grey colour. The dif-
ference of colour may be explained by the vessels
in the one case having been empty, and in the
other case having been distended with blood at
the time of the injection being made.

The destruction of the substance of the in-
ternal membrane of the stomach precludes the
idea of the poison having been absorbed into the
circulation. We must conclude that death was
the consequence of the chemical action of the
poison on the stomach. This organ, however,
is not directly necessary to life, since its func-
tions, under certain circumstances, are suspended
for hours, or even for days, without death being
produced. Although the stomach was the part
primarily affected, the immediate cause of death
must be looked for in the cessation of the func-
tions of one or more of those organs whose
constant action is necessary to life. From the
scarlet colour of the blood in the left side of the
heart, in the experiment on the rabbit, we may
conclude that the functions of the lungs were

MINERAL POISONS. 101

not affected ; but the affection of the heart and
brain is proved by the convulsions, the insen-
sibility, the affection of the pulse in both experi-
ments, and the sudden cessation of the heart's
action in the first, and we may therefore be
justified in concluding, that the immediate cause
of death was in both of these organs. As the
effects produced appear to have been inde-
pendent of absorption, we may presume that the
heart, as well as the brain, was acted on through
the medium of the nerves.

That a sudden and violent injury of the
stomach should be capable of thus speedily
proving fatal is not surprising, when we con-
sider the powerful sympathy between it and the
organs on which life more immediately depends,
and the existence of which many circumstances
in disease daily demonstrate to us.

VII. Conclusion.

The facts which have been stated appear to
lead to the following conclusions respecting the
action of the mineral poisons, which were em-
ployed in the foregoing experiments.

1. Arsenic, the emetic tartar, and the muriate
of barytes do not produce their deleterious effects
until they have passed into the circulation.

2. All of these poisons occasion disorder of
the functions of the heart, brain, and alimentary

102 EFFECTS OF MINERAL POISONS.

canal : but they do not all affect these organs in
the same relative degree.

3. Arsenic operates on the alimentary canal
in a greater degree than either the emetic tartar,
or the muriate of barytes. The heart is affected
more by arsenic than by the emetic tartar, and
more by this last than by the muriate of barytes.

4. The corrosive sublimate, when taken in-
ternally in large quantity, occasions death by
acting chemically on the mucous membrane of
the stomach, so as to destroy its texture ; the
organs more immediately necessary to life being
affected in consequence of their sympathy with
the stomach.

In making the comparison between them, we
may observe that the effects of mineral are less
simple than those of the generality of vegetable
poisons ; and it appears that when once an animal
is affected by the former, there is much less
chance of his recovery than when he is affected
by the latter.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

H 4

105

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE A. (Page 36.)

IN the experiments related in my two memoirs
on the production of animal heat, it has been
seen that the animals in which the circulation of
the blood was maintained by means of artificial
respiration after the removal of the brain, or the
destruction of its functions by the agency of a
narcotic poison, cooled more rapidly than those
in which the circulation had entirely ceased.

The general result as to the loss of heat in
animals under these circumstances has been con-
firmed by the observations of other experimen-
talists, especially of Dr. Ghossat, M. Le Gallois,
and Dr. Wilson Philip. It is, however, stated
by M. Le Gallois, that in his experiments the
loss of heat was not uniform, and that while in
some instances it was greater in the animal
under the influence of artificial respiration than
in the dead animal, in other instances it was
the reverse, the latter having preserved a some-
what higher temperature than the former.

I know that my observations were made with
great care, at the same time that they were con-

106 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

firmed by those who assisted me on these occa-
sions ; and I do not doubt that those of M. Le
Gallois were equally correct. Dr. Wilson Philip
has pointed out what is probably one cause of
the difference between us, in the difference in
the quantities of air impelled into the lungs. In
a rabbit in which the lungs were inflated about
30 times in a minute (this being about the ordi-
nary number of respirations in a full-grown
animal of this species), the loss of heat was
greater than in the dead rabbit ; but when the
process was repeated only 12 times in a minute,
the proportion was reversed, and the dead animal
cooled somewhat faster than the other.

One effect of the admission of cold air into the
lungs, whether by the natural process of respira-
tion, or by respiration artificially performed,
must be to carry off from the animal a certain
portion of heat ; and this effect must be produced
to a greater extent if, when respiration is arti-
ficially performed, a larger quantity of cold air
enters the lungs than that which they receive
under ordinary circumstances. It is difficult to
estimate the precise quantity of air which enters
the lungs when they are artificially inflated;
and I must therefore admit that one of the
conclusions which I ventured to draw from
my experiments, — namely, that where the
influence of the brain is withdrawn, no heat
whatever is generated, — may not be strictly and
rigidly correct. The difference, however, in this
respect between these two modes of respiration,

ANIMAL HEAT. 107

where the experiments are conducted with any
degree of care, is certainly but trifling, and not
such as will account for the great diminution of
temperature which takes place. In confirmation
of what is now stated, I may refer to the follow-
ing experiment made by Dr. Chossat.* Having
perforated the cranium of a dog, by means of a
small trephine, he made a section of the brain im-
mediately in front of the Pons Varolii, so as to
intercept the communication of the nervous in-
fluence from the rest of the brain to the last men-
tioned organ. The animal continued to breathe
by his natural efforts, the pulse and respiration
being for many hours as frequent as under ordi-
nary circumstances. Nevertheless at the end of
four hours he had lost 9*7° (centigrade) of heat ;
while, in another experiment, a dog, a very
little larger, which had been killed by the divi-
sion of the spinal chord in the upper part of the
neck, lost 8*8° (centigrade) in the same period
of time. It may be further observed, that my
experiments were all made during the warm wea-
ther of summer, when the cooling property of
the air must have been much less than in the
cold season of the year, and that, whatever might
have been the influence in this respect of the
artificial respiration in my first series of experi-
ments, it must have been very trifling in my
second series, not only because, these last experi-

* Memoire sur Tlnfluence du Systeme Nerveux sur la
Chaleur Animate, p. 15. 1820.

108 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

ments having been made in a close vessel, the
cold air inspired must necessarily have been
always mixed with a certain portion of the air
expired previously, but also because, from the
relative position of the animal and the aperture
in the upright portion of the tube, the air drawn
into the latter by the elasticity of the gum-bottle,
and afterwards impelled into the lungs, must
have had communicated to it a large portion of
the heat which the entire body of the animal
was gradually losing.

According to the then received theory of the
production of animal heat, the loss of heat in
these experiments cannot be accounted for, ex-
cept by assuming that there was a very much
smaller quantity of oxygen consumed, and of
carbonic acid generated, than where respiration
is performed under ordinary circumstances.
Such an assumption, however, even as to my
first series of experiments, is not supported by
the facts. The dark venous blood, after it had
passed through the lungs, underwent the usual
change of colour; and not only the contractions of
the heart were regularly performed, but, in dogs
especially, there seemed to be actually an increased
irritability of the voluntary muscles, continued,
not for a short time, but even for an hour and a
half, and until the temperature of the rectum
had fallen to 15° (Fahrenheit) below the na-
tural standard. These muscular contractions
were most remarkable, in one of the experiments
related in my first paper on poisons, after the

ANIMAL HEAT. 109

injection of the infusion of tobacco into the intes-
tine, keeping not only the extremities but the
whole body of the animal in a state of constant
motion, and lasting for some minutes after the
artificial respiration had been discontinued and
the blood had ceased to circulate.

It was with a view to obtain more exact in-
formation as to the quantity of oxygen consumed
under these circumstances, that my second series
of experiments was instituted. The apparatus
employed in the investigation proved to be well
adapted for the intended purpose ; the experi-
ments were carefully made ; and the air, after
they were concluded, having been always exa-
mined by my friend Professor Brande, there can
be no doubt as to the accuracy with which the
proportion of carbonic acid in it was ascertained.

These last-mentioned experiments were re-
peated, in the year following that in which an
account of them was published in the Philoso-
phical Transactions, by M. Le Gallois ; with some
considerable modifications, however, which I shall
notice hereafter. In his third memoir on animal
heat, this philosopher, after having described his
own want of success in contriving an apparatus
for the purpose of measuring the quantity of
oxygen consumed by animals breathing by arti-
ficial means, observes : " M. Brodie a trouve
le moyen de pratiquer I'insufflation pulmonaire
dans des vaisseaux fermes a une maniere a la fois
sure et commode. L'appareil qu'il a imagine
pour cela est fort simple, et reunit toutes les

110 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

conditions, qu'on pourrait desirer pour le succes
de 1'experience."

In using this apparatus, it has been seen that
I employed rabbits of nearly the same size, occu-
pying the space of from 48 to 50 cubic inches.
My three first experiments were intended to de-
termine the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled
from the lungs of rabbits of this size, breathing
under natural circumstances. In one of them
it proved to be 25*3 cubic inches, in each of the
others 28*22 cubic inches in half an hour, giving
an average of about 27*25 cubic inches of carbonic
acid in this space of time. In my third experi-
ment, a rabbit, in which the spinal chord, nerves,
and vessels had been so divided as to produce the
same effect as decapitation, the circulation having
been afterwards maintained by artificial respira-
tion, generated 20*2 cubic inches in half an hour.
The formation of carbonic acid was, therefore,
less than that by the animal in its natural condi-
tion, in the proportion of about 20 to 27. But in
this experiment an amount of haemorrhage took
place, which, although immediately suppressed,
seemed to afford a sufficient explanation of the
difference. In order to avoid this source of error,
my subsequent experiments were made in a way
in which no loss of blood could ensue, the functions
of the brain being destroyed, not by any mecha-
nical operation, but by means of a narcotic poison.
The result was, that the carbonic acid generated
was fully equal to that which rabbits of the same
size supply under natural circumstances.

ANIMAL HEAT, 111

In the experiments which M. Le Gallois insti-
tuted with my apparatus, he employed very
young rabbits, much smaller than those which
had been employed by myself. Instead of
placing them under the influence of a narcotic
poison, or of decapitation, in some of them he
merely made a section of the spinal chord, imme-
diately below the cranium; while in others, be-
sides dividing the chord, he destroyed the tex-
ture of the brain, by introducing an instrument
into the cranium, through the great foramen of
the occiput. After having inflated the lungs for
30 minutes, he found that the carbonic acid
generated was, in the majority of instances, con-
siderably less than that which was generated by
the same animals breathing naturally ; and com-
paring these experiments with those which I had
made with the narcotised animals, he states that
the results of his experiments do not correspond
with those obtained by myself. I cannot, how-
ever, admit the justice of this comparison. I
attributed the smaller production of carbonic
acid in the first of my experiments to the loss of
blood consequent on the division of the spinal
chord and of the vessels and nerves in the neck.
We know that the section of the spinal chord below
the occiput is in itself sufficient to cause immedi-
ately a certain degree of haGmorrhage from the
muscles of the neck, and from the arteries, veins,
and sinuses within the theca vertebralis. But
where an instrument is introduced through the
foramen of the occiput, for the purpose of destroy-

112 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

ing the texture of the brain, there cannot fail to
be a still larger haemorrhage, from the laceration
of the arterial circle formed by the carotid and
vertebral arteries in the base of the brain. In
either case the hasmorrhage would probably
continue for some time after the artificial re-
spiration was begun, and must considerably
influence the result of the experiment. As I
have already stated, it was to avoid a similar
source of error that I had recourse to the method
of destroying the functions of the brain by means
of narcotic poison, and it is plain that in com-
paring the results of our respective expe-
riments, it is not with these last, but only with
the first of my experiments, that the comparison
should be made.

The experiments of M. Le Gallois having been
made on much younger and smaller animals than
those employed by myself, the question is not as
to the absolute quantity of air consumed where
the influence of the brain is destroyed, but as to
the proportion which it bears to the air con-
sumed by animals of the same kind and size
breathing under ordinary circumstances. Of
his experiments, five in number, the results
were very different. In one instance, a rabbit
which, breathing under natural circumstances,
had generated 142-43 cubic centimetres in 30
minutes, when under the influence of artificial
respiration generated as much as 137 '8 cubic
centimetres in the same space of time ; while in
another the corresponding numbers were 259*8,

ANIMAL HEAT. 113

and 206-5 ; and 209*16 and 109-99 in a third.
This difference is probably to be attributed, in
great measure, to the greater or less extent of
the internal hemorrhage. If we take the average
of the whole of M. Le Gallois's experiments, we
find that the carbonic acid produced by natural
respiration, in 30 minutes, was 233*94, and that
by artificial respiration 181*67 cubic centimetres ;
the proportion of the latter to the former being
actually larger than it was in the corresponding
experiment made by myself. * Taking all these
circumstances into consideration, I apprehend
that the results obtained by M. Le Gallois, instead
of contradicting, must be considered as confirm-
ing those which I had obtained previously, and as
justifying the opinion that if he had conducted
his experiments so as to avoid the disturbing
influences connected with the mechanical de-
struction of the functions of the brain, he would
have found, as I did, that the exhalation of
carbonic acid, when respiration was performed
artificially, fully equalled that which took place
when the animal was in its natural condition.

In pursuing these investigations, I assumed
that the carbonic acid, generated in respiration,
may be taken as the measure of the oxygen con-

* If we suppose 100 to represent the quantity of air
consumed in natural respiration, the proportion borne by
that to the air consumed in artificial respiration in my first
experiment after the division of the spinal chord, nerves, and
vessels in the neck, was nearly as 100 : 74 ; and in M. Le
Gallois' experiments, as 100 : 77.

I

114 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

sumed, this being the conclusion to which Messrs.
Allen and Pepys were led by their carefully
conducted investigations. It has, however, been
stated by others, that a portion of oxygen disap-
pears beyond that which is replaced by the car-
bonic acid, and M. Le Gallois endeavoured to
ascertain to what extent this loss of oxygen takes
place. The quantity, according to his statement,
was so much greater than that which has been
found by others, that it is very difficult to avoid
the suspicion that there was some error in the
observations. However, admitting them to be cor-
rect, as (the experiments having been made in the
same way, and with the same apparatus), what-
ever oxygen was absorbed in his experiments, a
corresponding quantity must have been absorbed
in mine, and as, according to M. Le Gallois's
statements, the proportion of oxygen absorbed by
animals respiring naturally, and by those respir-
ing artificially, though differing in individual
instances, did not, on an average, materially
differ from that of the carbonic acid generated,
the remarks which I have made as to the latter
are equally applicable to the former, so that we
are led to no different conclusion.

It has been seen that, in my last series of
experiments, the animals under the influence
of artificial respiration cooled somewhat more

ANIMAL HEAT. 115

rapidly than the dead animals, the difference
between them, however, being less than in rny
former experiments, probably in consequence of
their having been carried on in a close vessel,
and not in the open air.

It has also been seen that in some of the ex-
periments made by M. Le Gallois with decapi-
tated animals, and described in his first memoir,
the animal respiring artificially cooled more
rapidly, and in others more slowly, than the
dead animal, while in others there was no ap-
preciable difference in this respect between them.
But in those described in his last memoir, and
made with my apparatus, the dead animal always
cooled more slowly than the other, the difference
varying from as little as O3° centigrade to as
much as 2*3° centigrade (that is, from a little
more than half a degree to about 4 degrees of
Fahrenheit), in half an hour.

It certainly may be that the discrepancy in
this respect between these last-mentioned experi-
ments on the one hand, and my own and some
of M. Le Gallois's earlier experiments on the
other hand, may have arisen from the cause
pointed out by Dr. Philip, namely, the greater or
less degree in which the lungs were inflated. It
seems to me, however, that it admits of another
and a more probable explanation.

In fact, M. Le Gallois's last experiments were
not an exact repetition either of my experiments,
or of his own former experiments. In some of
them the spinal chord was divided, and the brain

i 2

116 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

was left entire. In others the brain was me-
chanically disorganised by means of an instru-
ment introduced through the foramen of the
occiput. In the former case it is evident that
the brain must have retained its influence over
the head, and to a certain extent over the rest of
the system, by means of the pneumogastric and
great sympathetic nerves ; and it is by no means
certain that the disorganisation of the brain must
have been always so complete as wholly to destroy
its influence in the latter.* Further experiments,
indeed, are required before this question can be
positively determined. The main fact, however,
remains the same, namely, that under certain
circumstances, there is no relation between the

* Some experiments made by Dr. Enoch Hale (of the
United States), are recorded in the London Medical and Phy-
sical Journal for 1815, in which, having merely divided the
spinal chord immediately below the occiput, and having main-
tained the action of the heart by artificial respiration, he found
that a small degree of heat was still generated. As the brain
and nerves in the neck remained entire, it is plain that these
experiments are liable to the objection which has been stated
above. It may, moreover, be observed that in such experi-
ments it ought to be ascertained afterwards whether the divi-
sion of the spinal chord has been complete, as the result
of accidental injuries shows that even a partial laceration
of the spinal chord may produce total paralysis of the
parts below the seat of the injury. In another respect also
Dr. Hale's experiments cannot be regarded as a repetition of
my own, having been made on dogs ; whereas my compara-
tive experiments were all made on rabbits. M. Le Gallois
found that young cats produced a small degree of heat after
decapitation ; and it may possibly be the same with respect
to dogs.

ANIMAL HEAT. 117

oxygen consumed in respiration, and the heat
generated, while there is a very close relation
between the calorific function and the integrity
of the functions of the nervous system. This is,
indeed, admitted by M. Le Gallois himself, when
he thus expresses himself: " II n'y a pas de
doute que la puissance nerveuse ne joue un tres
grand role dans ce phenomene, de merne que
dans tous ceux qui supposent la vie."* And
again, " C'est sur la conversion du sang arteriel
en sang veineuse, et sur le changement de capacite
qui 1'accompagne, que la puissance nerveuse a
une action immediate. Aussi remarque-t-on que
le developpement du calorique, soit dans tout le
corps, soit dans une partie determinee, est en
raison de 1'energie de cette puissance marquee
par 1'activite de la circulation. "f

At the time when these researches were insti-
tuted the theory enunciated by Lavoisier and
La Place was universally received, and no one
entertained a doubt that the temperature which
a warm-blooded animal possesses above that of
the atmosphere was entirely explained by the
consumption of oxygen in respiration. Since
then further inquiries have been made on the
subject by several distinguished chemists ; and
the observations of M. Dulong, M. Despretz, and
very lately those of Messrs. Regnault and Rei-
set, have confirmed the opinion that this expla-

* CEuvres de Le Gallois, tome ii. p. 53.
Ibid. p. 55.

i 3

118 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

nation is insufficient, and that whatever the effect
of the conversion of oxygen into carbonic acid
may be, there must be some other source of
animal heat.

I shall conclude this note with adducing some
other facts, which lead to the same conclusion,
and which indeed seem to be in themselves suffi-
cient to prove that the production of animal heat
is a subject which requires still further investi-
gation.

1. The various animals of the class Mammalia
have nearly the same temperature, the differ-
ence between them being not more than one or
two degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. There
is, however, reason to believe that there is a
great difference as to the quantity of oxygen
which they consume in respiration. Thus M.
Le Gallois found, that in the space of 3 hours a
rabbit, weighing 947 grammes, consumed only
2724 cubic centimetres; while a dog, weighing
917 grammes, consumed 5503 cubic centimetres ;
and a cat, weighing 634 grammes, consumed as
much as 3963 cubic centimetres in the same
space of time.*

2. In the course of his researches, M. Le Gal-
lois found that living rabbits, merely from being
confined in a restrained position on the back, gra-
dually became of a lower temperature ; and he
observes, that if this experiment were continued
for a considerable length of time, the cooling

* QEuvres de Le Galloie, tome ii.

ANIMAL HEAT. 119

process might be carried so far as even to
occasion the death of the animal. Supposing
that the loss of heat under these circumstances
must be connected with a diminished consumption
of oxygen in respiration, he repeated the experi-
ments, having placed the animals in an apparatus
in which the respired air might be preserved and
examined. The result, however, did not corre-
spond with his anticipations ; the amount of oxy-
gen consumed being found to vary in different
instances, so that it was sometimes much less,
and at other times much greater, than under
ordinary circumstances. M. Le Gallois attributes
the loss of heat in these experiments, partly to
the greater effort required for breathing in the
position in which the animals were placed, and
partly to the exertions of the muscular system
generally made to obtain relief from the restraint.
Neither of these, however, can be regarded as a
satisfactory explanation. The respiration of a
man, or a horse, in rapidly ascending a hill, is
carried on with much greater effort than when
moving on a plain surface ; but the result is not
a diminution but an increase of temperature;
and the very curious researches of Messrs. Bec-
querel and Breschet have demonstrated that there
is actually a development of heat during muscular
contraction. The more probable explanation
seems to be that the loss of heat is the conse-
quence of the state of alarm in which the animal
is placed, operating on him in the same manner

120 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

as the same depressing passion operates on the
human subject.

3. In the experiments of Messrs. Allen and
Pepys*j it was found that when the air used in
respiration was pure oxygen, a very much larger
proportion of carbonic acid was generated than
in the respiration of atmospheric air. A guinea
pig, which furnished 0'88 cubic inch of carbonic
acid per minute when breathing atmospheric air,
furnished 1*48 cubic inch per minute in one ex-
periment, and I'll cubic inch in another, when
breathing pure oxygen. A corresponding dif-
ference, but to a less extent, was observed as to
the results of respiration with atmospheric air
and that with oxygen gas in the human subject.
It does not appear that these experimentalists
observed that the increase in the quantity of car-
bonic acid was attended with any increase of
temperature ; and in some very curious experi-
ments, which were made (by my suggestion) by
the late Mr. S. D. Broughton, and which are
recorded in the Quarterly Journal of Science, it
was found that the temperature of animals,
which breathed pure oxygen, not only did not
rise above the natural standard, but actually
fell considerably below it.

4. While certain laesions of the nervous system
cause a diminution of the vital temperature, the
following history justifies the conclusion that
there are others which may produce the opposite

* Phil. Trans. 1808, pp. 415. 417. 420.

ANIMAL HEAT. 121

effect, and cause its elevation above the natural
standard. A man met with an accident which
occasioned a forcible separation of the bodies of
the fifth and sixth vertebras of the neck, attended
with an effusion of blood within the tlieca ver-
tebralis, and a laceration of the lower part of the
cervical portion of the spinal chord. It is well
known to surgeons, that under such circum-
stances inspiration is always very imperfectly
performed by means of the diaphragm only,
without the assistance of the ribs ; while, in con-
sequence of the paralysed state of the abdominal
muscles, expiration depends altogether on the
pressure of the abdominal viscera acting on the
relaxed diaphragm. The patient in this in-
stance died at the end of 22 hours from the
period of the injury, and for a considerable time
previously to his death breathed at very long
intervals, the pulse being weak, and the counte-
nance livid. At last there were not more than
5 or 6 inspirations in a minute. Neverthe-
less, when the ball of a small thermometer was
placed on the inside of the groin, the quicksilver
rose to 111° of Fahrenheit. Immediately after
death the temperature was examined in the
same situation, and found to be still the same.
The case occurred under my care in St. George's
Hospital, in the year 1821, at which time Mr.
Czesar Hawkins was house surgeon ; and the
facts were observed and noted by Mr. Hawkins
and myself, and witnessed by several of the
students.

122 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

Although the elevation of temperature to so
great an extent may not be a very frequent oc-
currence, cases must be in the recollection of every
physician and surgeon, in which, under certain
morbid conditions of the nervous system, the na-
tural temperature was fully maintained, at the
same time that the respiration was so slow and
imperfect as to indicate that the consumption of
oxygen in that process must have been greatly
diminished. The following observations, illus-
trative of this subject, are taken from John
Hunter's Lectures on the Principles of Surgery,
delivered in the year 1786-1787*, and they are
of so much interest, in connection with the pre-
sent inquiry, that I am tempted to extract the
whole passage.

" It being discovered that the absolute heat of
bodies differs very much in different substances,
and perhaps in the same substances differently
combined, it was thought that this would ac-
count for the production, and continuation, of
animal heat. It is supposed that the air which
we inspire has much more absolute heat than
the same air has when we expire it, and that the
superabundant heat is given to the animal. But
this chemical method of accounting for heat will
not account for all the varieties in the heat of
animals at different times, especially in disease,
when the breathing does not equally vary, or
correspond with the heat of the animal.

* Palmer's edition of the works of John Hunter, vol. i.
pp. 282, 283.

ANIMAL HEAT. 123

" A remarkable case fell under my observa-
tion of a gentleman who was seized with an
apoplectic fit. He lay insensible in bed, covered
with the blankets. I found his whole body be-
come extremely cold in every part, and continue
so for some time, and in a short time become ex-
tremely hot. While this was going on for several
hours alternately, there was no sensible alteration
either in the pulse or in the breathing.

" A man fell from his horse, and pitched on
his head, which produced all the symptoms of a
violent injury. There was concussion of the
brain, and perhaps extravasation of blood, but
no fracture could be seen. The pulse was at
first 120, but came down to 100, and was strong,
full, and rather hard. He was very hot in the
skin, but breathed remarkably slow, only one
half of the common frequency. His breathing,
pulse, and heat, therefore, did not correspond
with this theory of heat.

" February, 1781. A boy, about three years
old, appeared not quite so well as common, being
attacked with a kind of shortness of breathing in
the night. It had become exceedingly oppressed
about five o'clock on Sunday morning, so diffi-
cult that he appeared dying for want of breath.
In this state he lay till two o'clock, when
I saw him. He was breathing so slowly, that
I thought that every breath would be his last
— about 2^ or less inspirations in a minute.
(The common rate of breathing in such a boy is
about 30 inspirations in a minute, and about

124 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

20 in a man.) When he drew his breath, it
was with a jerk ; but his expiration was very
slow, generally continuing 5 seconds. I often
could not distinguish the pulse ; at other times
it was manifest, although very faint and slow,
not more than 60 in a minute. On tying up
the arm the vein did not rise in the least, so
that the blood did not go its round. His eyes
were turned up under the upper eyelid, while
his body had a purple cast, especially the lips,
which is easily accounted for, it being owing to
the blood not getting the scarlet red in its pas-
sage through the lungs, and that whatever it
might get there was lost in its slow motion
through the arteries of the body. He had a fine
warmth on the skin all over the body, although
in a room without a fire, not covered with more
clothes than common in the month of February,
with snow falling at noon."

" Here it cannot be said that the heat of the
body, which was neither great nor deficient,
could arise from the constant supply furnished by
respiration."

But here two questions will present them-
selves. If it be not from respiration, from
what source is the higher temperature of warm-
blooded animals derived ? and where respiration
is carried on without maintaining the vital tem-
perature, what becomes of the heat, which under
other circumstances is the result of the union of

ANIMAL HEAT. 125

carbon with oxygen gas, arid their conversion
into carbonic acid ? Neither of these problems
do I undertake to solve ; my object being, as I
have observed elsewhere, not to advance opinions,
but simply to state some facts which I met with
in the course of my physiological investigations.
I venture, however, to offer the following sug-
gestions : —

It has been shown by Mr. Grove * that there is
great reason to believe that the physical forces
to which we refer the ever varying phenomena of
inorganic nature, such as light, heat, motion,
magnetism, and chemical affinity, are in a state
of mutual relation ; so that under certain cir-
cumstances one of these forces is capable of pro-
ducing, or being converted into, another. And
Mr. Grove has further suggested that the prin-
ciples and mode of reasoning on which his " ob-
servations are founded, may be applied to the
organic as well as the inorganic world, and that
muscular force, animal and vegetable heat, &c.,
may, and sometimes will be shown to have,
similar definite correlations." Supposing these
views to be correct, may it not be that the union
of carbon with oxygen gas, which, under ordi-
nary circumstances, is immediately followed by
the evolution of heat, is, in the living body, pro-
ductive of a different result, (such as the inainte-

* The Correlation of Physical Forces, by W. R. Grove,
M. A., F. R. S., 2nd edition, 1850. See also Dr. Carpen-
ter's Memoir " On the mutual Relations of the Vital and
Physical Forces," in the Philosophical Transactions, 1850.

126 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

nance of the nervous power, or the irritability of
the muscles,) and that it may thus be only indi-
rectly concerned in the calorific function ?

But setting these speculations aside, it may be
observed that respiration is only one of many
chemical processes which take place in the
animal body, some of which may be supposed to
cause an evolution of heat, and others to have a
directly opposite eifect ; and if we refer to these,
as connected with the higher temperature of
warm-blooded animals, we should consider, not
what may be the actual quantity produced by
any one of them, but what is the amount pro-
duced on the whole, after making allowance for
that which is wasted by perspiration, and in
other ways.

If we cannot, on purely chemical principles,
explain why the integrity of the nervous system
is necessary to the maintenance of animal heat,
neither can we explain the result of those very
remarkable experiments lately made by M. Ber-
nard, in which he found that a slight mechanical
injury of a certain part of the medulla ollongata,
causes a secretion of sugar by the kidneys ; nor
why one state of mind augments the secretion of
the lachrymal gland, while another deranges the
secretions of the stomach and liver.

But may not the fact admit of another ex-
planation ? However unsuccessful the attempts
actually to identify the nervous power with elec-
tricity may have proved to be, there can be no

ACTION OF POISONS. 127

doubt that in many respects these two forces
bear a considerable resemblance to each other.
The generation of the nervous power as a con-
sequence of the circulation of arterial blood in
the grey matter of the brain and spinal chord ;
the instantaneous transmission of it through
the nerves ; sometimes affecting the secretions,
and causing the blood to undergo changes in
its chemical composition in the various glands,
at other times exciting violent contractions of
the muscles, — these things are very analogous
to the effects produced by a voltaic battery ; and
there seems to be no reason, d priori, why the
resemblance should not extend still further, nor
why the evolution of heat should not be one of
the results of the operation of the nervous power
as it is of electricity.

NOTE B. (Page 43.)

In my papers on the mode in which death
is produced by poisons, I have stated various
circumstances which led me to the conclusion
that poisons which are applied to wounded sur-
faces produce their effect by passing into the
circulation ; and that certain mineral poisons
when introduced into the alimentary canal, have
a similar mode of operation. There is no doubt

128 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

that various deleterious (as well as medicinal)
agents of vegetable origin, when administered in-
ternally, also affect the vital organs in the same
manner, by entering the vascular system, and
being mixed with the circulating blood.

But I have further stated, that there is much
reason to believe that some of the more active
poisons operate in a different manner, and that
when applied to mucous membranes they are
capable of affecting the nervous centres through
the medium of the nerves, and independently of
absorption.

On this last point, other physiologists have
arrived at a different conclusion, and are of
opinion that even those poisons which are the
most active, and which seem to produce their
effect almost instantaneously, do so, not by an
influence transmitted through the nerves, but
solely by penetrating the solid tissues, and thus
contaminating the blood.

The arguments in favour of this view of the
subject have been well stated by Mr. Blake, in a
memoir published in the 53rd volume of the
Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal. They
are founded on the facility with which the tissues
are penetrated by fluid and gaseous bodies, and
on the great rapidity of the circulation.

The facts advanced by Mr. Blake are equally
interesting and important. There can be no
doubt that poisons applied to the tongue may
enter into the blood in a very short space of
time; and that this must at any rate be one mode

ACTION OF POISONS. 129

in which they act ; and that most of the pheno-
mena which occur may be in this manner suffi-
ciently explained.

Nevertheless, other facts may be adduced,
which render it doubtful whether the whole of
the phenomena admit of this explanation, at the
same time that the analogy of what happens under
other circumstances justifies us in regarding the
agency of the nerves in transmitting the influence
of certain poisons to the vital organs as no im-
probable hypothesis.

1. The rapidity with which the poison operated
in some of my own experiments, in those of Dr.
Christison made with the active principle of
Hemlock, and of M. Magendie and Mr. Taylor
with the hydrocyanic acid, is even greater than
can be well accounted for otherwise, however
rapid the circulation, and however easy the trans-
mission of the poison may be through the sub-
stance of the mucous membranes and the tunicks
of the blood-vessels.

2. In the first of my experiments on alcohol
the introduction of two drams of proof spirits
into the stomach of a cat immediately affected
the nervous system to such an extent as to cause
total insensibility with laboured and stertorous
respiration ; nevertheless after the lapse of eight
minutes these symptoms began to subside, so
that presently the animal was able to stand arid
walk. In another experiment, in which as much
as an ounce and a half of proof spirit had been
injected into the stomach of a full-grown rabbit,

K

130 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

the insensibility which it occasioned began to
subside at the end of 40 minutes. It is easy
to understand that the effects of the impression
made by the poison on the sentient extremities
of the nerves, like those of a concussion of the
brain, should thus subside, but it does not seem
very probable that so large a quantity of spirit
should have been absorbed into the circulation
and then ejected from it in so short a space of
time ; nor does this at all correspond with what
happens where intoxication is gradually induced
in the human subject, and where there can be
no doubt as to the alcohol having entered the
circulation.

3. That poisons may have a local action on
the nerves, so as to affect distant organs, in-
dependently of their admission into the blood,
is proved by the well known fact to which I
have adverted elsewhere, of the pupil of one
eye becoming dilated in consequence of the ap-
plication of the extract of belladonna to the
conjunctiva of the same eye, or the neighbour-
ing part of the integuments, while the pupil of
the other is wholly unaffected by it.

4. There are numerous examples of mecha-
nical impressions on the sentient extremities of
the nerves, the influence of which can be propa-
gated only through the medium of the nerves
themselves, affecting the brain so as to occasion
a temporary suspension of its functions. Every
practical surgeon will recal to his mind numerous
instances of a common, simple, and bloodless

ACTION OF POISONS. 131

operation being followed by syncope, and even
by stupor, with dilatation of the pupils, and
stertorous respiration, and continuing for several
minutes ; and there is, d priori, no evident reason
why the impression made on the nerves by so
powerful an agent as the hydrocyanic acid, or
the essential oil of bitter almonds, should not do
in one case what a slight mechanical injury does
in another.

5. In another publication I have referred to
another class of cases, the phenomena of which
cannot be well explained except by attributing
them to an influence transmitted through the
medium of the nerves. Thus, in one instance, acid
in the stomach caused a severe pain in the foot,
which was immediately relieved by a dose of
alkali neutralizing the acid. In another instance
a violent pain in the ankle, with inability to
move, subsided immediately on the rejection of
some indigestible food from the stomach. *

6. I have elsewhere adverted to the analogy
which exists between the operation of the
nervous power and that of electricity. The in-
fluence of volition is transmitted instantaneously
from the brain to the muscles, and impressions
on the sentient extremities of the nerves are
communicated to the brain, the nerves them-
selves answering the same purpose as the con-
ductors of an electric apparatus. The agent
in both instances is invisible, intangible, and

* Lectures illustrative of certain Local Nervous Affections,
page 11.

K 2

132. ADDITIONAL NOTES.

known only by the effect, which it produces ;
and, these things being considered, it seems to
be not contrary to what analogy would lead us
to expect, that in like manner as the electric
force, generated by chemical decomposition at
one end of a metallic wire, directs the needle of a
telegraph, or causes the explosion of gunpowder,
at the other extremity, so a substance, such as
the hydrocyanic acid, which powerfully affects
the vital properties of the part to which it is
applied, should be capable, through the medium
of the nerves, of disturbing, and even of arrest-
ing, the functions of the brain.

I would not, however, be understood as affirm-
ing that the facts which I have now stated, or
the suggestions which I have offered, are to be
regarded as conclusive. Further observations
may be required before the question is finally
determined. In the meanwhile, in this as in
numerous other instances, (which occur not much
less frequently in the strict pursuits of science
than in the common affairs of life,) some indi-
viduals will be inclined to one opinion, and
others to another, accordingly as one or another
order of facts may more especially have engaged
their attention.

As connected with this subject, I may take the
opportunity of noticing a circumstance which
came under my observation as long ago as the
year 1809, and which seems to show that the
influence of certain poisons admits of being pro-
pagated to distant parts by the mere continuity

ACTION OF POISONS. 133

of structures, independently either of the nerves
or of the vascular system. A man was admitted
into St. George's Hospital who had been bitten
by a rattle-snake on the thumb and finger of one
hand. The immediate effect of the injury was
great constitutional disturbance, from which he
gradually recovered. Then the limb became
inflamed, and there was sphacelus of the cellular
tissue as high as the middle of the arm, followed
by suppuration. But, in addition to all this,
there were large spots of extravasation of blood
in the subcutaneous texture, far beyond the
limits to which the inflammation had extended.
These were observable on the back as low as
the hip-joint, and on the anterior part of the
chest, over the pectoralis major and serratus
anticus muscles, but they were confined altogether
to the side of the body on which the injury had
been inflicted, not extending over the median
line. The case has been recorded by Sir Everard
Home, in the Philosophical Transactions for the
year 1810.

NOTE C. (Page 46.)

The following observations are extracted from
the 27th volume of the Medical and Physical
Journal, in which they were inserted, as I have

K 3

134 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

reason to believe, in consequence of a communi-
cation from trie late Mr. John Pearson, who, as it
appears, had made some experiments, showing
the rapidly fatal effects of the poison extracted
from bitter almonds, in the year 1806.

" In following Mr. Brodie through his inves-
tigations we have been struck with the eifect of
the essential oil of almonds. The improbability
(d priori) of finding such a deleterious substance
in that fruit, its instantaneous and vivid effects
on the vital principle, not leaving time for ab-
sorption, but travelling like the electric fluid
along the nerves to the brain, are circumstances
not less important than they are astonishing. A
gentleman who had the hardihood to apply a
particle of the oil to his tongue describes its
effect to be like that of a blow on the brain. To
the shock succeeded instantaneous mental con-
fusion, and the rapid approach of insensibility.
The accuracy of Mr. Brodie both in observation
and in detail is remarkably borne out by the
coincidence of his experiments with those of
Mr. John Pearson, of Golden Square, in 1806."

In addition to what I have stated elsewhere, it
is worthy of notice that the effluvium of the
essential oil of bitter almonds partakes of the
deleterious quality of the oil itself, as was proved
by giddiness and other uncomfortable sensations
experienced by myself and some of my pupils,
who assisted me in my researches, after we had
been for some time exposed to its influence.

I may take this opportunity of observing that

ACTION OF POISONS. 135

the strength of the oil, as a poisonous agent,
differs considerably. I suspect that the first
portion of the oil, which during distillation
passes into the receiver, contains more of the
poison than that which is obtained afterwards ;
arid that this explains why the oil which had
been prepared as an article of commerce was
much less active than that which had been spe-
cially prepared for the purpose of my experi-
ments.

NOTE D. (Page 49.)

The mode of death in which the cessation of
the action of the heart precedes the cessation of
that of the muscles of respiration, is not so
frequent as that in which the circulation con-
tinues after respiration has ceased. I found,
however, that some poisoned arrows brought
from Mozambique by the late Mr. Salt, pro-
duced death in the first of these two ways,
thus resembling in their effects the Upas
Antiar and the infusion of tobacco ; and Dr.
Christison has shown that the oxalic acid in a
diluted state has, when taken into the stomach,
a similar mode of operation.

It is worthy of notice that when death is
suddenly produced by exposure to intense cold,
the phenomena which occur are very similar to
those which follow the exhibition of the above-

& 4

136 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

mentioned poisons. The action of the diaphragm
continues after that of the heart has ceased, and
the animal dies with scarlet blood, in the left
cavities of the heart and in the aorta. This
fact has been ascertained by Dr. Chossat and
myself, and may be of some practical importance,
inasmuch as it has been proved by one of my
experiments with the infusion of tobacco, that
under these circumstances there is a possibility
of the action of the heart being restored, which
never can happen when the circulation of dark-
coloured blood has continued after respiration
has ceased.

In the true angina pectoris, depending on ossi-
fication of the coronary arteries, it is probable
that death takes place in the same way. The
supply of scarlet blood to the muscular structure
of the heart by these vessels is sufficient for ordi-
nary purposes, but when, under the influence of
mental emotion, or from other causes, the heart
is required to make any unusual exertion, the
supply is insufficient, and its action ceases. Mr.
Hunter, however, who laboured under this dis-
ease, supposed that on one occasion he kept him-
self alive by a forced or voluntary act of re-
spiration, after ordinary respiration had been
suspended.

The most marked symptom of ordinary
syncope is the failure of the pulse, and it is not
improbable that in some instances the heart
entirely ceases to act, though it resumes its
action afterwards.

ACTION OF POISONS. 137

NOTE E. (Page 59.)

Since these experiments were published, I have
discovered another effect of the woorara, which
illustrates in a striking manner the powerful
influence which it exercises over the nervous
system, affecting the nerves of motion not less
than it does those of sensation. It is well known,
that if the spinal chord be divided transversely,
although the parts below the division are de-
prived of sensibility, nevertheless powerful con-
tractions of the muscles are produced by the
mechanical destruction of that portion of the
spinal chord from which their nerves are derived.
But if an animal be rendered insensible by the
woorara, and the circulation be then maintained
by artificial respiration, the same effect is not
produced by the same injury, the muscles being
as wholly unaffected as they would have been in
the dead animal.

It has been shown by the Abbe Fontana, that
the poison of the viper, virulent as its effects are
when applied to a wounded surface, may be taken
into the stomach with impunity. A similar ob-
servation respecting the woorara has lately been
made by M. Bernard and M. Pelouze. The same
thing occurs in the case of some animals as to
opium. I injected a strong watery solution of
opium into the stomach of a rabbit, but no poi-
sonous effect was produced ; although a similar

138 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

solution injected into the cellular membrane
occasions stupefaction and death. I presume
that the opium is digested by the stomach of
the rabbit, although it is not so by that of a
carnivorous animal.

Some poisoned arrows from the Andaman Is-
lands, with which I was furnished by the late Mr.
Wilkins, were found to act precisely in the same
manner as the woorara ; and I conclude that all
the more concentrated and more powerful nar-
cotic poisons have a like operation, and destroy
life by paralysing the muscles of respiration,
without immediately affecting the action of the
heart. But it is otherwise when, either from
the more feeble action of the poison, or from it
being more diluted, or more gradually adminis-
tered, the period of death is protracted. In the
case of a patient, who survived the being poi-
soned by the tincture of opium for more than
twenty-four hours, the whole of the vital powers
seemed gradually to become exhausted ; and from
the failure of the pulse, it appeared that the
contractions of the heart must have ceased nearly
at the same time with those of the muscles of
respiration.

The phenomena of death from drowning, stran-
gulation, or confinement in an atmosphere in
which there is too large a proportion of carbonic
acid, are very similar to those produced by a
narcotic poison. The heart continues to act after
the animal is apparently dead, and he may be
restored to life, if artificial respiration be had

ACTION OF POISONS. 139

recourse to before the circulation has ceased. It
is worthy of notice, that under these circum-
stances the animal does not recover his sensi-
bility, nor his power of locomotion, until some time
after he has begun to breathe spontaneously ; and
hence we may conclude, that the transmission of
dark-coloured blood to the brain has not merely
a negative but a positive effect, in fact operating
on it in the same way as a narcotic poison. In
some instances the affection of the brain thus
produced continues so long that ultimate re-
covery does not take place ; the animal (if I may
be allowed the expression) dying a second time,
in consequence of the muscles of respiration
again ceasing to perform their office. These
observations are applicable to the human subject,
as well as to the inferior animals.

I have elsewhere * recorded some experiments,
showing in what manner death is produced by
the discharge of an electric battery. It is not
out of place for me to refer to them on this
occasion, as the phenomena bore a very near
resemblance to those produced by the more
powerful narcotic poisons.

* Lectures illustrative of various Subjects in Pathology
and Surgery, 1846, page 101.

140 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE F. (Page 68.)

When these observations were communicated
to the Royal Society, there was not the same
uninterrupted intercourse with other countries
as at the present time ; and hence it was that I
was not acquainted with the very important
researches respecting absorption by the veins,
an account of which had been previously given
to the Institute by M. Magendie. Holding the
opinion, which was then universally received,
that absorption, in the physiological sense of the
word, is performed only by the lymphatic
vessels, I was led to believe that as the poison
did not enter the circulation by the latter channel,
it could have done so only by the wounded veins.
With the knowledge of the facts established by
M. Magendie, it is scarcely necessary for me to
add, that I do not at present doubt that the
division of the veins is not necessary to the
admission of the poison into these vessels.

Although it is satisfactorily proved that certain
poisons affect the system through the medium of
the blood, there are nevertheless some facts which
seem at first to be incompatible with this view
of the subject. I refer more especially to the
experiments of M. Magendie, in which he found
that when the blood of a poisoned animal had
been transfused into the bloodvessels of another
animal, the latter was in no degree affected by it.

ACTION OF POISONS. 141

The probable explanation is, that the poisoned
blood of the one animal was rendered innocuous
by being diluted with the healthy blood of the
other.*

In the second volume of the Philosophical
Transactions there is the history of an experi-
ment, in which several ounces of the blood of a
mangy dog were transfused into the jugular
vein of a healthy dog, without the latter being
affected by the disease. But, on the other hand,
I was informed by the late Professor Coleman,
of an analogous experiment which he had made,
but in a more complete manner, with a different
result. Professor Golem an's statement was, that
having abstracted so much blood from a sound
horse as to induce either complete syncope, or a
state approaching to it, he transfused into him
the blood of a glandered horse ; the result being
that the sound horse recovered from the syncope,
but some time afterwards was affected by the
glanders.

* The same observations may be applied to some experi-
ments recorded by Dr. Addison and Mr. Morgan, in their
work on poisons. Indeed it is evident from the way in which
these experiments were conducted, that the transfusion must
have been very imperfect, and that if any blood actually
passed from one animal to the other it could have been only
a very small quantity.

142 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE G. (Page 80.)

The cat which was resuscitated, after being
apparently dead under the influence of the
woorara, was given to a friend, and lived, as I
have been informed, for some years.

Not long after this experiment was made, I
repeated it on an ass, with the assistance of Pro-
fessor Sewell, at the Veterinary College. The
animal lay in a state of total insensibility (the
lungs being inflated by means of a pair of bel-
lows and a tube introduced into the trachea) for
more than an hour. He then recovered, and
seemed to suffer no inconvenience afterwards.
The poison used on this occasion had been given
to me by Mr. Waterton, who had himself brought
it from America. The ass had been purchased
for the purpose of the experiment, by the late
Duke of Northumberland (then Earl Percy),
and was afterwards given by his Lordship to
Mr. Waterton, in whose island he was allowed to
range, and where he was alive many years after-
wards.

The method of resuscitation, which is here
described, is evidently applicable to all cases of
apparent death, in which the action of the heart,
so as to maintain the circulation, continues after
respiration has ceased. The success of the treat-
ment depends, 1st, in cases of poisoning, on the

ACTION OF POISONS. 143

dose of the poison, a limit to the period there being
during which life can be maintained by means
of artificial respiration ; 2ndly, on the inflation
of the lungs being carefully made* ; 3dly, on the
animal being kept in a temperature of not less
than 85 or 90 degrees of heat of Fahrenheit's
thermometer. This last precaution is of course
a matter of greater importance where the animal
is of a small size (as in the case of a cat or
rabbit), than where it is larger; still it is not
to be neglected even in the case of the human
subject ; otherwise the animal heat gradually
diminishes until it reaches that point at which
the action of the heart can no longer be main-
tained, when we have the singular result of
an animal perishing from cold in the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere. I have not
myself known the circulation to continue where
the temperature of the interior of the thorax
has been below 78° of Fahrenheit ; but an ex-
periment is related by Dr. Chossat, in which it
had fallen still lower.

It is needless to multiply examples of the
kind. I am, however, induced to record the
following experiment, as it derives a peculiar
interest from the circumstance of the use of
ether and other anesthetic agents having been
lately introduced into the practice of surgery.

* On this subject I have offered some observations else-
where. See Lectures illustrative of various Subjects in
Pathology and Surgery, page 7.

144 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

February 5. 1821.

A guinea-pig was placed under the bell-glass
employed in my experiments on animal heat.
The bell-glass was left open above, while a small
retort containing sulphuric ether was adapted to
the tube communicating with the lower part of
the apparatus. A lamp was placed below the
retort, so as to make the ether boil. The vapour
of the ether thus became mixed with the air in
the bell-glass, a portion of it becoming con-
densed on the inner surface of the latter, and
on that of the wooden stand on which it was
placed.

In two minutes after the experiment was
begun the animal moved about briskly, as if
affected by the first symptoms of intoxication.
In two minutes more he lay on one side in a
state of insensibility, but still breathing. He
continued in this state, breathing at longer and
longer intervals, for six minutes, when respira-
tion had entirely ceased. After two minutes
more he was removed from underneath the bell-
glass. Though he was apparently dead the heart
could be felt beating feebly through the ribs.
An opening having been made in the trachea,
the lungs were now artificially inflated. Only a
few seconds had elapsed before there was a spon-
taneous effort to breathe, and the pulsations of the
heart were more distinct. When the artificial
respiration had been kept up for some minutes
longer it was discontinued. The animal now
breathed naturally, and gave some slight indica-

ADDITIONAL NOTES. 145

tions of sensibility when touched. This was
followed by a tremulous motion of the limbs,
and soon afterwards by complete recovery.

NOTEH. (Page 91.)

The researches of modern toxicologists, and
the application of a more exact chemistry to the
detecting of poisons, not only in the alimentary
canal, but in the different tissues, and even in the
blood itself, afford a sufficient contradiction of
the observation, that where death has been pro-
duced by arsenic "but little is to be learned
from the examination of the contents of the
stomach." The fact is, that, in pursuing these
investigations, the object which I had imme-
diately in view was to determine the operation
of poisons on the various vital organs, and the
mode in which they occasion death ; and that
my attention was only incidentally directed to a
subject, which, notwithstanding its great prac-
tical importance, is not that which is of the great-
est interest to the physiologist.

The world is deeply indebted to those whose
successive labours have brought the art of tracing
the existence of these mysterious agents after
they have done their work of death, to the state
of comparative perfection which it has now
attained, and especially to M. Orfila, with whom

146 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

these inquiries may be said to have originated,
and who still, after the lapse of forty years, con-
tinues to prosecute them with not less zeal than
formerly, and with no less success than that
which rewarded the efforts of his early life.

THE END.

LONDON :

MrorriswooDEs and SHAW,
Ne\v- Street- Square.

LIST of WORKS in GENERAL LITERATU RE,

FUBLISHED BY

XTJ-C-OOJ. fj* J.JV-/-L1 VJ! 1.TJ.XA— i-l « J-/JLll\~/ Tf -i-1 j V-1 J-V-l-*J^i-i-^ y j_* v-r j- 1 v-i -fc-u-^-JU^. i sy^ tV.U4.Vl. J-V \«/ -L-7 JLJJ.V J. NJ • '

39, PATEBNOSTEB BOW, LONDON.

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

Agriculture and Rural

Maunder's Treasurv of History - 15
" Natural History - - 15

Roget's English Thesaurus - - 18
Russell's Life of Lord W. Russell 19

Affairs. Pages.

Piesse's Art of Perfumery - - 17

Schmitz's History of Greece - 19

Bayldon on Valuing Rents, &c. - 4

Fiscator's Cookery of Fish - - 17

Smith's Sacred Annals ... 20

Caird's Letters on Agriculture - (•

Pocket and the Stud ... £

Southey's Doctor - - 20

Cecil's Stud Farm - - - 6
Loudon's Agriculture - 1*

Pycroft's English Reading - - 18
Reece's Medical Guide - - 18

Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
" Lectures on French History 21

Low's Elements of Agriculture - 13

Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18

Sydney Smith's Works - 20

Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 18

" Select Works - 23

Arts, Manufactures, and
Architecture.

Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - - 18
Roget's English Thesaurus - - 18
Rowton's Debater - 18

" Lectures - - 20
" Memoirs - - 20
Taylor's Loyola ' - - - 21

Arnott on Ventilation - - - 3

Short Whist 20

" Wesley - - - - 21

Bourne on the Screw Propeller - 4
Brande's Dictionary of Science,&c. 4
" Organic Chemistry- - 4

Thomson's Interest Tables - - 21
Webster's Domestic Economy - 22
West on Children's Diseases - - 22

Thirl wall's History of Greece - 21
Thornbury's Shakspeare's England 21
Townsend's State Trials - - 22

Chevreul on Colour 6

Willich's Popular Tables - - 24

Turkey and Christendom - - 23

Cresy's Civil Engineering - - 6
Fairbairn's Informa. for Engineers 8
Gwilt's Encyclo. of Architecture - 8
Harford's Engravings after Michael
Angelo *
Herring on Paper-Making - - i
Humphreys's Parables Illuminated 10
Jameson'sSacred & Legendary Art 1'

Wilmot's Blackstone - 24

Botany and Gardening.

Hooker's British Flora - 9
" Guide to Kew Gardens - 9
" " " Kew Museum - 9
Lindley's Introduction to Botany 13
" Theory of Horticulture- 12

Turner's Anglo-Saxons - - 22
" Middle Ages - 22
" Sacred Hist, of the World 22
Vehse's Austrian Court- - - 22
Wade's England's Greatness - 22
Whitelocke's Swedish Embassy - 24
Woods 's Crimean Campaign- - 241
Young's Christ of History - - 24

" Commonplace-Book - 11
Konig's Pictoaal Lift of Luther - 8
Loudon's Rural Architecture - 13
MacDougall's Theory of War - 14
Malan's Aphorisms on Drawing - 14
Moseley's Engineering - 16
Piesse's Art of Perfumery - -11
Richardson's Art of Horsemanship It
Scrivenor on the Iron Trade - - 19
Stark's Printing - 23
Steam-Engine, by the Artisan Club 4
U re's Dictionary of Arts,&c. - 22
Young on Proe-R.affaellit I'm - 24

Loudon's Hortus Britannicus - 13
" Amateur Gardener - 13
" Trees and Shrubs - - 13
" Gardening - - - 13
" Plants - - - - 13
" Self Instruction for Gar-
deners, &c. - - - - 13
Pereira's Materia Medica - - 17
Rivers's Rose-Amateur's Guide - 18
Wilson's British Mosses - - 24

Chronology.

Blair's Chronological Tables - 4

Geography and Atlases.

Arrow-smith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible 3
Brewer's Historical Atlas - 4
Butler's Geography and Atlases - 5
Cabinet Gazetteer - 6
Cornwall : Its Mines, &c. - - 23
Durrieu's Morocco - - - 23
Hughes's Australian Colonies - 23
Johnston's General Gazetteer - 11
Maunder's Treasury of Geography 15
M'Culloch'sGeographicalDictionary 14
" Russia and Turkey - 23
Milner's Baltic Sea - - - 15

Biography.

Brewer's Historical Atlas - - 4

•' Crimea - - - - 15

Bunsen's Ancient Egypt 5

," Russia .... 15

Arago's Autobiography - - 23
" Lives of Scientific Men - 3

Haydn's Beitson's Index - - 9
Jaquemet's Chronology - - 11

Murray's Encyclo. of Geography - 16
Sharp's British Gazetteer - - 19

Bodenstedt and Wagner's Schamyl 23

Johns& Nicolas'sCalendarofVictory 11

Wheeler's Geography of Herodotus 24

Buckingham's (J. S.) Memoirs - 5
Bunsen's Hippolytus 5

Nicolas's Chronology of History - 12

Juvenile Books.

Amy Herbert - 19

Clinton's (Fvnes) Autobiography 6
Cockayne's Marshal Turenne - 23
Dennistoun's Strange & Lumisden 7

Commerce and Mercantile
Affairs.

Cleve Hall

Earl's Daughter (The) - 19

Forster's De Foe and Churchill - 23
Fulcher's Life of Gainsborough - 8
Harford's Life of Michael Angelo - 8
Haydon's Autobiography,by Taylor 9
Hayward's < hesterfield and Selwyn 23
Holcroft's Memoirs - - - 23

Gilbart's Treatise on Banking - 8
Lorimer's Young Master Mariner 13
Macleod's Banking ... 14
M'Culloch'sCommerce& Navigation 14
Scrivenor on Iron Trade - - 19
Th'omson's Interest Tablef - - 21

Experience of Life - - - 19
Gertrude - - - 19
Gilbart's Logic for the Young - 8
Howitt's Boy's Country Book - 10
" (Mary) Children's Year - 10
Ivors ...... 19

Lardncr's Cabinet Cyclopaedia - 12
Maunder's Biographical Treasury- 14
Memoir of the Duke of Wellington 23
Memoirsof James Montgomery - 15
Merivale's Memoirs of Cicero - 15
Rogers's Life and Genius of Fuller 23
Russell's Memoirs of Moore - - 16
" Life of Lord Wm. Russell 19
St. John's Audubon - 19

Tooke's History of P. ices - - 22
Tuson's British Consul's Manual- 23

Criticism, History, and
Memoirs.

Blair's Chron. ana rfistor. Tables - 4
Brewer's Historical Atlas - - - 4
Bunsen's Ancient Egypt - - 5

Katharine Ashton - - - 19
Laneton Parsonage - - - 19
Margaret Percival - - - - 19 |

Medicine and Surgery.

Brodie's Psychological Inquiries - 4
Bull's Hints to Mothers - 5
" Managementof Children - 5
Copland's Dictionary of Medicine - 6

Southey's Life of Wesley - - 20
" Life and Correspondence 20

" Hippolytus 5
Burton's History of Scotland - 5
Chapman's Gustavus Adolphus - 6

Cust's Invalid's Own Book - 7
Holland's Mental Physiology - 9
" Medical Notes and Reflect. 9

Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
Sydney Smith's Memoirs - - 20
Taylor's Loyola - 21
tt Wesley - - - 21

Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul 6
Erskine's History of India - 7
Gleig's Leipsic Campaign - - 23
Gurney's Historical Sketches - 8

How to Nurse Sick Children - - 10
Kesteven's Domestic Medicine - 11
Pereira's Materia Medica - - 17
Reece's Medical Guide - - - 18

Waterton's Autobiography & Essays 22
Wheeler's Life of Herodotus - 24

Haydon's Autobiography, by Taylor 9
Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions - 11

West on Diseases of Infancy - - 22
Wilson's Dissector's Manual - 24

Books of General Utility.

Johns & Nicolas'sCalendar of Victory 11
Kemble's Anglo-Saxons - - 11
Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia - 12

Miscellaneous and General
Literature.

Acton's Bread-Book 3

Macaulay's Crit. and Hist. Essays 13

Carlisle's Lectures and Addresses 23

" Cookery - ... 3
Black's Treatise on Brewing - - 4
Cabinet Gazetteer - 5

" History of England - 13
" Speeches - 13
Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 14

Defence of Eclipse of Faith - - 7
Digby's Lover's Seat 7
Eclipse of Faith - 7

'• Lawyer - ... 6
Cust's Invalid's Own Book - 7
Gilbart's Logic for the Million - 8
Hints on Etiquette ... 9

" History of England - 14
M'Culloch'sGeographicalDictionary 14
Maunder's Treasuryof History - 15
Memoir of the Duke of Wellington 23

Greg's Political and Social Essays 8
Gurney's Evening Recreations - 8
H assail on Adulteration of Fcoi - 9
Haydn's Book of Dignities 9

How to Nurse Sick Children - - 10

Merivale's History of Rome - - 15

Holland's Mental Physiology - 9

Hudson'sExecutor's Guide - - 10

" Roman Republic - - 15

Hooker's Kew Guides - 9

" on Making Wills - - 10
Kesteven's Domestic Medicine - 11

Milner's Church History - -15
Moore's (Thomas) Memoirs, &c. - 16

Howitt's Rural Life of England - 10
(Visitsto RemarkablePlaces 10

Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia - 12
Loudon's Lady's Country Compa-

Mure's Greek Literature - 16
Normanby's Year of Revolution - 17

Jameson's Commonplace-Book - 11
Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions - 11

nion - .... 13

Raikes's Journal - - - - 18

Last of the Old Squires - - 17

Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge 15

Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian 23

Macaulay's Crit. and Hist. Essavs 13

" Biographical Treasury 14

Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - - 18

" Speeches - - - 33

" Geographical Treasury 15
Scientific Treasury - 15

Roberta's Southern Counties - 18
Rogers's Essays from Edinb. ReviewlS

Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 14
Memoirs of a Maitre-d'Armes - 23 i

2

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

Maitland's Churchin the Catacombs 14
Martineau's Miscellanies - - 14

Martineau's Christian Life - - 14
tf Hymns * - 14

Moseley'sEngineering&Architecturel?

Pascal's Work*, by Pearce - - 17
Pillans's Contributions to Educationl?
Pinney on Duration of Human Life 17
Printing : Its Origin, &c. - - 23
Pycroft's English Reading - - 18
Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18
Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - - 18
Rowton's Debater - 18
Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwreckl9
Sir Roger de Coverlej - 20
Smith's (Rev. Sydney) Works - 20
Southey's Common -place Books - 20
" The Doctor &c. - - 20

Milner's Church of Christ - - 15
Montgomery's Original Hymns - 15
Moore on the Use of the Body - 16
" " Soul and Body - 16
" 's Man and his Motives - 16
Morinonism ----- 23
Neale's Closing Scene - - 16
Newman's ( J. H.) Discourses - 17
" on Universities - - 16
Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian 23
Readings for Lent - - 19
" Confirmation - - 19
Robinson's Lexicon to the Greek

Our Coal-Fields and our Coal-Pits 23
Owen's Lectureson Comp. Anatomy 17
Pereira on Polarised Light - - 17
Peschel's Elements of Physics - 17
Phillips's Fossils of Cornwall, &c. 17
Mineralogy - 17
Guide to Geology - 18
Portlock's Geology of Londonderry 18
Powell's Unity of Worlds - 18
Smee's Electro-Metallurgy - 20
Steam-Engine(The) - - 4
Wilson's Electric Telegraph- - 23

Souvestre's Attic Philosopher - 23

Testament 18

Rural Sports.

" Confessions of a Working Man 23
Spencer's Psychology - - - 21
Stephen's Essays - - - - 21
Stow's Training System - - 21
Strachey's Hebrew Politics - - 21
Thomson's Laws of Thought - 21
Townsend's State Trials - - 22

Saints our Example - 19
Sermon in the Mount - - 19
Sinclair's Journey of Life - - 20
Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy 20
" (G.) Sacred Annals - - 20
." Harmony of Divine Dis-
pensations ----- 20

Baker's Rifle and Hound in Ceylon 3
Elaine's Dictionary of Sports - *
Cecil's Stable Practice - - - 6
" Stud Farm - ... 6
The Cricket-Field - 7
Davy's Piscatorial Colloquies - 7

Willich's Popular Tables - - 24
Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon - 24

" (J.) Voyage and Shipwreck
of St. Paul - - - - 20

Ephemera on Angling - 7
Book of the Salmon - 7

« Latin Gradus - - 24
Zumpt's Latin Grammar - - 24

Natural History in general.

Catlow's Popular Conchology - 6
Ephemera and Young on the S almon 7
Gosse's Natural History of Jamaica 8

Southey's Life of Wesley - - 20
Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
Tayler's (J. J.) Discourses - - 21
Taylor's Loyola - 21
" Wesley - - - - 21
Theologia Germanica 5
Thomson on the Atonement - - 21

Hawker's Young Sportsman - - 9
The Hunting-Field - 9
Idle's Hints on Shooting - - 10
Pocket and the Stud - - - 9
Practical Horsemanship - 9
Richardson's Horsemanship - - 18
Ronalds's Fly-Fisher's Entomo-

Kemp's Natural History of Creation 23
Kirby and Spence's Entomology - 11
Lee's Elements of Natural History 12
Mann on Reproduction - - 14
Maunder's Natural History - - 15
Turton's Shells oftheBritishlslands 22

Thumb Bible (The) - - 21
Tomline's Introduction to the Bible 22
Turner's Sacred History- - - 22
Twin ing's Bible Types- - - 22
Wheeler's Popular Bible Harmony 24
Young's Christ of History - - 24

Stabie Talk and Table Talk - I 9
Stainton's June - 21
Stonehenge on the Grevhound • 21
Thacker's Courser's Guide - - 21
The Stud, for Practical Purposes - 9

Van der Hoeven's Handbook of

" Mystery - 24

Veterinary Medicine, &c.

Von Tschudi's Sketches in the Alps 23

Poetry and the Drama.

Cecil's Stable Practice - - 6

Waterton's Essays on Natural Hist. 22
Youatt's The Dog - - - - 24

Aikin's(Dr.1 British Poets - - 3
Arnold's Poems 3

" Stud Farm ... 6
Hunting Field (The) - - - 9

" The Horse - 24

Baillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works 3

Miles's Horse-Shoeing - 15

1-Volume Encyclopaedias
and Dictionaries.

Bode's Ballads from Herodotus - 4
Calvert's Wife's Manual - 6
" Pneuma 6

" on the Horse's Foot - - 15
Pocket and the Stud - - - 9
Practical Horsemanship - - 9

Arrowsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible 3
Blame's Rural Sports - 4

Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts 11
Goldsmith's Poems, illustrated - 8

Richardson's Horsemanship - 18
Stable Talk and Table Talk - - 9

Brande's Science, Literature, and Art 4
Copland's Dictionary of Medicine - 6

L. E. L.'s Poetical Works - - 12
Linwood's Anthologia Oxoniensis - 13

Stud (The) ----- 9
Youatt's The Dog - 24

Cresy's Civil Engineering .. . 8

Lynch's Rivulet - - - - 13

" The Horse - - 24

Gwilt's Architecture ... 8
Johnston's Geographical Dictionary 11

Lyra Germanica 5
Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome 13

Voyages and Travels. .

Loudon's Agriculture - - -13

Mac Donald's Within and Without 14

Auldjo's Ascent of Mont Blanc - 23

Rural Architecture - 13
" Gardening - - 13
" Plants - 13

Montgomery's Poetical Works - 15
" Original Hymns - 15
Moore's Poetical Works - - 16

Baines's Vaudois of Piedmont - 23
Baker's Wanderings in Ceylon - 3
Barrow's Continental Tour - - 23

Trees and Shrubs - - 13

•' Epicurean - - - - 16

Barth's African Travels - 3

M'Culloch'sGeographicalDictionary 14
DictionaryofCommerce 14

" LallaRookh - 16
" Irish Melodies - 16

Burton's East Africa 5
" Medina and Mecca - - 5

Murray's Encyclo. of Geography - 16
Sharp's British Gazetteer - - 19

" Songs and Ballads - - 16
Reade's Man in Paradise - - 18

Carlisle's Turkey and Greece - 6
De Custine's Russia - - 23

Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c. - - 22
Webster's Domestic Economy - 22

Shakspeare, bv Bowdler - - 19
Southey's Poetical Works - - 20

Eothen t- - 23
Ferguson's Swiss Travels - - 23

Religious & Moral Works.

" British Poets - 20
Thomson's Seasons, illustrated - 21

Flemish Interiors 8
Forester's Rambles in Norway - 23

Amy Herbert - - - - 19
Arrowsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible 3
Bloomfteld's Greek Testament - 4

Political Economy and
Statistics.

" Sardinia and Corsica - 8
Gironiere's Philippines - 23
Gregorovius's Corsica - - - 23

Calvert's Wife's Manual - 6
CleveHdll 19

Caird's Letters on Agriculture - 6
Dodd's Food of London - - 7

Halloran's Japan - 8
Hill's Travels in Siberia - - 9

Conybeare's Essays ... 6
Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul 6

Greg's Political and Social Essays 8
Jennings's Social Delusions - - ll

Hope's Brittany and the Bible - 23
" Chase in Brittany - - 23

Cotton's Instructions in Christianity 7
Dale's Domestic Liturgy - - 7
Defence of Eclipse of Faith - - 7
Discipline - - 7

Laing's Notes of a Traveller- - 23
M'Culloch's Geog . Statist. &c. Diet. 14
" Dictionary of Commerce 14

Hoivitt's Art-Student in Munich - 10
" (W.) Victoria - 10
Hue's Chinese Empire - - - 10
Hue and Gabet's Tavtary & Thibet 23

Earl's Daughter (The) - - - 19

'* London - - 23
Tegoborski's Russian Statistics - 21

Hudson and Kennedy's Mont

Eclipse of Faith .... 7
Englishman's Greek Concordance 7

Willich's Popular Tables - - 24

Blanc 10
Hughes's Australian Colonies - 23

*•«. •". , THeb-&Chald-Concord. 7
Etherids-e's Jerusalem - 7
Experience (The) of Life - - 19
Gertrude - jo

The Sciences in general
and Mathematics.

Humboldt's Aspects of Nature - 10
Hurlbut's Pictures from Cuba - 23
Hutchinson's African Exploration 23

Harrison's Light of the Forge - 8
Hook's Lectures on Passion Week 9
Horne's Introduction to Scriptures 10

"" Popular Astronomy - - 3
Bourne on the Screw Propeller - 4
" 's Catechism of the Steam-

Jerrmann's St. Petersburg - - 23
Kennard's Eastern Tour - - 11
Laing's Norway - - - - 23

Abridgment of ditto - 10

Engine ----- 4

" Notes of a Traveller - 23

Humphreys's Parables Illuminated 10

y01"8 19

Brande's Dictionary of Science, &c. 4
" Lectures on Organic Chemistry 4

M'Clure's North- West Passage - 14
Mason's Zulus of Natal - - 23

Jameson's Sacred Legends - - 11
Monastic Legends - - 11

Brougham and Eouth's Principia 4
Butler's Rolls Sermons 5

Mayne's Arctic Discoveries - - 23
Miles's Rambles in Iceland - - 23

Legends of the Madonna 11
Lectures on Female Em-
ployment - 11

Cresy's Civil Engineering - - 6
DelaBeche'sGeologyofCornwall,&c. 7

Pfeiffer's Voyage round the World 23
" Second ditto - 17
Scott's Danes and Swedes - - 19

Jerernv Taylor's Works - - - 1]
Kahsch-s Commentary on Exodus - 11
Katharine Ashton - . .19
Konig's Pictorial Life of Luther - 8
Laneton Parsonage - - 19
Letters to my Unknown Friends - 12
" on Happiness - - - 12

Faraday^Non^IeUllIc Elements 8
Grove's Correla. of Physical Forces 8
Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy 9
Holland's Mental Physiology - 9
Humboldt's Aspects of Nature - 10
" Cosmos - - - 10
Hunt on Light - 10

Seaward's Narrative - - - 19
Weld's United States and Canada - 22
Werne's African Wanderings - 23
Wheeler's Travels of Herodotus - 24
Wilberforce's Brazil & Slave-Trade 23

Works of Fiction.

Lynch's Rivulet - 13

Kemp's Phasis of Matter - - 11

Arnold's OakfieM - 3

Lyra Germanica _ 5

Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia - 12

Macdonald's Villa Verocchio - 14

Macnaught on Inspiration - - 14
Maitland's Church in Catacombs - 14

Mann on Reproduction - 14
Marcet's (Mrs.) Conversations - 15

Sir Roger de Coverley - 20
Southey's The Doctor &C. - - 20

Morell's Elements of Psychology - 16

Trollope's Warden - - - 22

ALPHABETICAL CATALOGUE

of

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WALFORD'S HANDBOOK of the GREEK DRAMA Fep. 8vo. 6j.

" The results of the learned labours ofSos, Donald-
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