J^ COLUMBU UBRAMES OFFSfTE HEALTH SCIENCES STANDARD - -- -- 11 iiiii iiiii iiiii ilii' HX00026492 X KJ1.\JU\J HARVARD ,/? X^^. c- V. Y WILLIAM TOWNSEND PORTER, M.D. TB PROrr HARTAl 7" PHTSIOr^GT IK THE AL SCHOOL d&CON]^ EDITION THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1903 !CL\^i^ PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD BY WILLIAM TOWNSEND PORTER, M.D. associatp: professou of physiology in the harvard medical school SECOND EDITION THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1903 Copyright, 1903 By William T. Porter PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION This book is written to explain a new method of teaching, sound in theory and feasible in practice ; to provide the Harvard Medical School with a precise account of the work done by each student in Physiology ; and to create for stu- dents and instructors alike a working-plan by which they may find their way unvexed through much detail. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Columbia University Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/physiologyatharv1903port CONTENTS I The New Method The Mew Method ^ Ways and Means 4 CouESES Offered in 1902-1903 8 II The First-Year Course Instruction given each Student 9 Peogram 11 Instructions to Students 12 Laboratory Experiments 14 Pairing — Distribution of time — Experiments performed. General Physiology, including Muscle and Nerve . 17 Methods of electrical stimulation — Stimulation of muscle and nerve — Chemical and mechanical stimulation — Irri- tability and conductivity — The electromotive phenomena of muscle and nerve — The change in form. Additional Experiments on Muscle and Nerve . . 20 Methods of electrical stimulation — Chemical and mechani- cal stimulation — Irritability and conductivity — The electromotive phenomena of muscle and nerve — The change in form. Spinal Cord and Brain 23 VIU CONTENTS SlMPATHETIC 24 Cutaneous Sensations 24 Sensations of temperature — Sensations of pressure. General Sensations 24 Tickle — Pain —Motor sensations. Taste 25 Smell, Hearing 25 Physiological Optics 25 Introduction — Refraction in the eye — The schematic eye — Accommodation — Ophthalmoscopy. Vision, Fermentation, Digestion, Absorption, Lymph, Blood, Secretion, Respiration, Metabolism . 27 The Circulation of the Blood 29 The pressure -pulse — The innervation of the heart and blood-vessels. Apparatus 31 Laboratory Note-Book 32 Conference 32 "Written Tests 33 Special Demonstrations 35 Recitations 36 Theses and the Reading of Investigations ... 37 Instructions for thesis. Treses to be Discussed in 1903 ....... 40 Theses to be Written but Not Discussed in 1903 . 42 Bibliographies for the Theses to be Discussed in 1903 45 Lectures 65 Calendar. Optional Lectures 65 Special Experimental Work 66 CONTENTS IX Examinations 67 Practical examiaation — Written examination. Ill The Advanced Course 74 IV Physiological Research 75 V The Summer Course 80 APPENDIX Apparatus 81 Requisition Blank 90 First Issue of Apparatus 91 Second Issue of Apparatus 93 First Return of Apparatus 94 Third Issue of Apparatus 95 Fourth Issue of Apparatus 96 Fifth Issue of Apparatus 96 Second Return of Apparatus 97 Third Return of Apparatus 99 Apparatus Liable to be Broken 101 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD THE XEW METHOD The new method of teaching physiology proposed in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,^ December 29, 1898, and more fully explained in the Fhilaclelphia Medical Journal,^ September 1, 1900, was adopted by the Harvard Medical School in 1899. The traditional method of teaching physiology consists of a systematic course of lectures illus- trated by occasional demonstrations. For thirty years or more, especially in England, this didactic teaching has been further illustrated by certain experiments performed by the students them- selves. Laboratory experiments, therefore, have long been a valued part of the instruction in physiology in many universities. When the new method of teaching was introduced in the Harvard Medical School, and two hundred stu- dents worked daily in the physiological labora- tories, it was said that this was only doing in a large way that which had been done in a small 1 Porter, "W. T. : The teaching of physiology in medical schools, Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, December 29, 1898, pp. 647-652. '^ Porter, W. T. : The teaching of physiolog}', Phila/J.elphia Medical Journal^ September 1, 1900. 1 2 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD way for many years. The enterprise was held to he valuable because it showed that large numbers of first-year medical students could be carried simultaneously through a long series of experi- ments many of wliich had been thought beyond their powers ; it was a lesson in faith and an example of administration, but nothing more. It will be obvious that this criticism is based upon a misapprehension. The new method is not an extension of the old. It is a fundamen- tally difierent process. The old method is chiefly didactic. The new is a systematic course of exp)erimeut and observation by the student him- self. In the old the student rests upon the dic- tum of the professor and the text-book. In the new he relies upon the fundamental experiments done with his own hands. In the old his experi- ments follow the lecture and attempt to verify its statements. In the new the lecture follows his experiments and discusses them in relation to the work of other observers. In the old the stress is upon the didactic teaching. In the new the stress is upon observation. Under the old method, students in the Harvard Medical School used to ask, "Who is the authority for that statement?" Under the new, they ask, " What is the experimental evidence ? " The old method insensibly teaches men to depend upon authority, but the new directs them to nature. In the old method the experiments performed by the students are almost exchisively such as are quickly and easily done, for example, the simpler experiments in the physiology of muscle and of the circulation of the blood. They are THE NEW METHOD 6 intended to illustrate physiological experimenta- tion rather than to disclose step by step the groundwork of the science of physiolog}'. In the new method, on the contrary, the fun- damental experiments and observations which form the solid ground in every field of physiulogy are divided into sufficiently small groups and arranged in the most instructive sequence. With the fundamental experiment of each group are placed the accessory data. The meaning of this term will be clear 'from the following example. Consider the function of the roots of spinal nerves. The fundamental experiment here_ is Johannes Muller's well-known section and stim- ulation of the nerve-roots. The accessory data are such of the observations and opinions of his successors as are necessary to give a clear picture of the present state of knowledge of this subject. The student makes for himself the fundamental observation, and immediately afterward considers the accessory data provided in text-book and lec- ture. He proceeds systematically from the funda- mental experiment 'and accessory data of one group to those of the next, in an ordered and logical series. The fundamental experiment and the accessory data are taken as directly as possible from the original sources, and the reference is given in each case. It should be observed that this new method serves for the instruction of all students, from beginners to those engaged in research. The beginner performs the fundamental experiment in^each group and studies the accessory data. 4 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD The advanced student performs the fundamental experiments and as many of the accessory experi- ments as may give him the special training he desires. The research student has before him the classical observations and the original sources of the problem he has chosen. It should be noticed also that the new need not violently push aside the old method of in- struction, but may replace it chapter by chapter as the means and the energy of the instructors shall permit. It has been urged against the new method that there are fundamental experiments which require more time than the student can possibly give, or which are too complicated to be successfully performed by him. The number of these has certainly been much exaggerated, and is daily lessened by inventions that secure ' simplicity without loss of accuracy. Pending such labor- saving inventions, the experiments which con- sume much time may well be done by committees of students, and the results reported to the entire class, who will compare them with the account given by the original discoverers. Ways and Means The new method requires : 1. Printed accounts of the fundamental experi- ments and observations in physiology, taken from the original sources, and arranged in the most instructive sequence. The reference to the origi- nal source should be given in each case. 2. Accessory data grouped about the fundamen- THE NEW METHOD 5 tal experiments. The accessory data should also be taken as directly as possible from the original sources, and tlie reference given in each case. 3. Apparatus of precision designed with the utmost simplicity upon lines that permit its manufacture in large quantities at small cost. It is obvious that these conditions cannot be met without prolonged labor. Collections of fundamental and accessory experiments in sev- eral fields have been printed in an abbreviated form for the temporary use of Harvard Medical students and other interested persons.^ These collections are being completed and improved as rapidly as possible, and the data for the remain- ing fields are beincr brouorht tocrether. In its final form this material will constitute " A Labo- ratory Text-book of Physiology." ^ Especial consideration should be given to the apparatus for the laboratory teaching of large numbers of students. The making of physio- logical apparatus distinguished by simplicity of design, sound workmanship, and low cost is at 1 Porter, W. T. : An Introduction to Physiology. Part I. The Physiology of ^[uscle and Nerve, pp. 1-235. Second edition, January, 1901. Part II. The Circulation, pp. 237- 314. Parts I and II are bound together in green cloth. Part III. The Spinal Cord and Brain, in preparatwn. Part IV. Physiological Optics, pp. 1-99. Bound in gray paper. Pend- ing the publication of the remaining parts of the Introduction to Physiology and of the Laboratory Text-book of Physiology, the experiments not mentioned in Parts I, II, and lY, of the Introduction, and now performed by students in the Harvard Medical School, are printed in Experiments for Harvard Med kal Students, 1903, third edition. These deal more or less fully with the spinal cord, brain, cutaneous sensations, taste, vision, metabolism, respiration, blood, and fermentation. ' This title is cojiyrighted by W. T. Porter. 6 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD present of high importance to the development of physiology. The ordinary student of physi- ology is essentially a book man, while the pro- fessional physiologist is essentially a laboratory man. Student and professor should go the same path, — the only road that ever has led or ever will lead to a sound knowledge of a natural science. Few steps can be taken along this road without apparatus of precision. Physiological apparatus has heretofore been made upon the "model" plan, each piece for itself, without regard to the num- ber of mechanical " operations " required, and with little or no thought as to the subsequent maintenance of the apparatus in good condition. The Harvard Medical School requires more than one hundred duplicates of each apparatus, for example more than one hundred kymographs, more than one hundred inductoriums, etc. The course now given requires the issue of at least twenty-five thousand articles, and this number increases steadily with the increase in the experi- mental work. It is clear that the cost of such an equipment made on the old lines would be beyond the means of any large school. Hence, the sound training of large classes in physiology depends absolutely upon the invention of appara- tus that shall serve for exact experimentation, i.e. the repetition of classical experiments, and that shall also be designed with reference (1) to its " manufacture," (2) to its storage and issue, and (3) to its maintenance in good condition. By " manufacture " is meant technically the mak- ing of a number of pieces of the same apparatus consecutively, by preference upon special lathes THE NEW METHOD 7 and with special tools. Thus in the machine shop of the Harvard Physiological Laboratory the parts of five hundred moist chambers were made at one time. For economy, the number of steps or " operations " should be the fewest possible, as each operation must be repeated many times, — five hundred times in the example just given. The labor of setting a turret lathe which will make eight consecutive operations upon the same piece of metal is as ^reat for one piece as for a thousand. Astonishing economies may also be secured by the use of special automatic tools. Further, it is essential that the apparatus be compact, and that important parts be protected so that they may not be injured when the appara- tus is handled rapidly by persons of small ex- perience. Storage and issue must be carefully studied to prevent hopeless confusion and the rapid deterioration of the plant. Finally, the apparatus should be designed with special reference to durability and cleanliness ; otherwise there will be a heavy charge for maintenance. The supply of apparatus of this type bears the same relation to the advance of physiology that the commissariat bears to the advance of an army.^ 1 The Harvard Physiological Apparatus has been especially devised for the laboratory teaching of large numbers of students. It has been described in part in a catalogue entitled "The Harvard Physiological Apy)aratus, n)anufactured by the me- chanics of the Harvard Laboratory of Physiology under the direction of Professor W. T. Porter :" also in Science, 1901, xiv, pp. .^67-.o70 ; and also in the Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the American Physiological Society pub- lished in the American Journal of Physiology, 1903, viii. 8 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVAKD Courses offered in 1902-1903 1. First- Year Course. 3. Eesearch. 2. Advanced Course. 4. Summer Course. THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE II THE FIKST-YEAE COURSE The first-year course is required of all students. It is designed to give the general introduction to physiology that every Doctor of Medicine should possess. It is valuable also to biologists not in- tending to become physicians. The medical stu- dents who take this course have spent the first four months of the collegiate year in the study of anatomy, histology, and embryology. The morn- ings of the second four months, February, March, April, and May, are given to physiology, and the afternoons to physiological and pathological chemistry. The instruction in physiology given each stu- dent is shown in the accompanying tables, which are followed by a description of the several exercises. 10 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD TABLE I Showing the Ikstruction given Each Student in THE First- Year Course Number of Exer- cises. 79 79 79 16 50 15 15 50 24 Character of Exercise. Laboratory experiments. Professors Porter and Cannon, and Dr. Maxwell. Daili/, except Saturday. Conference. Professors Porter and Can- non. Daily, except Saturday. First to sixteenth week, inclusive. Written tests. Daily, except Saturday. First to sixteenth iceek, inclusive. Written tests. Mondays. First to six- teenth week, inclusive. Lectures, with demonstrations. Profes- sors Porter and Cannon. Daily, except Saturday. Sixth to fifteenth week, inclusive. Special demonstrations. Professors Por- ter and Cannon. Saturdays. First to fifteenth iveek, inclusive. Recitations. Professor Bowditch. Sat- urdays. First to fifteenth week, inclusive. Discussion of theses. The entire class and the Staff. Daily, except Monday. Sixth to fifteenth week, inclusive. Optional lectures. Professors Porter and Cannon. In May. (For dates and subjects, see page 65.) Thesis. Written by each student from the original sources. Reading of investigations. The reading of one or more investigations in the original source and the discussion of these when the theses upon the same subjects are discussed. Bibliography. The making of a bibli- ography of one of the subjects listed under " Theses not to be read," p. 42. Special experimental work. Optional during the fifteenth and sixteenth weeks, for selected students. Hours of Instruc- tion. 168 40 26 11 25 15 15 40 18 THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 11 TABLE II rnoGUAM OF First-Yeau Cour.se SECOND HALF-YEAR. Physiology. February 3 to March 7. Monday. Tuesday. Thursday. Wednesday. Friday. Saturday. 9-9.30 Conference. Room A. Conference. Room A. 9 30-9.50 Written Test. Rooms B and H. Written Test. Rooms B and H. 9.50-12 Laboratory Experiments. Rooms B and H. Laboratory Experi- ments. Rooms B and H. 10-11 Recita- tion. Room A. 13-1 "Written Test. Rooms B and H. 11-13 Demon- stration. Room A. March 9 to May 25. 9-9.30 Lecture. Room A. Lecture. Room A. 9-9.45 Discus- sion of Theses. Room A. 9.30-10 Conference. Room A. Conference. Room A. 10-10.30 Written Test. Rooms B and H. Written Test. Rooms B and H. 10-11 Recita- tion. Room A. 10.30-13.15 Laboratory Experiments. Rooms B and H. Laboratory Experi- ments. Rooms B and H. 13.15-1 Written Test. Rooms B and H. Discussion of Theses. Room A. 11-13 Demon- stration. Room A. May 26 to Junk 1. Laboratory experiments. Rooms B and H. 12 physiology at harvard Instructions to Students Four weeks before the beginning of the course the following letter is sent to each student : ^ Form A. Department of Physiolooy, Harvard Medical School, January 1, 1903. Dear Sir : — Since many of the laboratory experi- ments in physiology require two men for their successful performance, the class will be divided into pairs. Students may work with whom they please, provided those desiring to work together give written notice to Professor "\V. T. Porter not later than January 24. Where no preference is expressed the pairing will be made from an alpha- betical list. The distribution of the pairs at the laboratory desks will be posted on the bulletin board January 30. Students are advised to pro- vide themselves with the following articles : 1. A dissectincr case, includinfj scissors, one large and one small forceps, and a seeker. 2. A small towel. 3. A piece of cotton cloth about 40 x 40 cm. 4. A microscope with a hinged standard allow- ing the stage to be tilted to a perpendicular posi- tion. One member of each pair may rent a microscope by applying to the Department of Histology. Students now using a microscope of the required kind may there arrange to keep it 1 Letters, lists of apparatus, and similar matter for the use oi students are piinted upon the Rotary Neostyle. THE FIIIST-YEAR COUUSE 13 oiui their microscope locker during the second half-year 5. The pamphlet entitled "Physiology at Harvard." 6. The rhysiological Laboratory Note-book. 7. An Introduction to Physiology, Parts I and II, bound together in cloth. To be had from W. B. CLarke Company, corner of Park and Tremont Streets, Boston. 8. Experiments for Harvard Medical Students, Third Edition, bound in gray paper. 9. An Introduction to Physiology, Part IV, bound in gray paper. 10. The Physiological Thesis Book. Articles 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10 are sold by the Co-operative Society. First-year medical and dental students, ad- vanced students, and students taking the course a second time, will meet Professor Porter in Ptooni A, February 3, at 9 a.m. At 9.30 A.M. the students will find their desks in Rooms B and H. Each desk bears the names of the owners upon a printed slip. Each student will receive a key to the locker in his desk. For each key a deposit of one dollar will be required, to be refunded when the key is returned. Within the cupboard and drawers of the locker will be found the apparatus necessary for the first work of the course, together with a printed list of the apparatus (see Appendix, Form G, page 91). Articles marked* will be found in the small wooden boxes. The list should be veri- 14 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD fied and signed by each student. This receipt will be retained by the Department. Tlie apparatus is issued in good condition, and students will be held responsible for its return in good condition. The cost of cleaning, repairing, or replacing articles which become damaged will be charged to the students to whom they were issued. A list of the articles liable to be broken beyond repair is posted in the laboratories, with the cost opposite each (see Appendix, Form O; page 101). Students desiring additional apparatus must present a signed requisition for the desired article (see Appendix, Form F, p. 90). Frogs and tortoises will be issued on the presen- tation of signed requisitions. Students using more than the average number of animals will be charged ten cents for each additional medium- sized frog, and twenty-five cents for each large frog and each tortoise. Every charge will be divided equally between the two members of the pair represented by the name on the requisition. You are advised to keep this letter for reference. Very truly yours, W. T. Porter. Laboratory Experiments The student works in the laboratory fourteen hours a week during six weeks, and ten hours a week during the ten other weeks of the course. Pairing. — Many of the experiments cannot be done by one person. Others are performed more rapidly and with better results by two THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 15 workers than by one. Moreover, discussion and mutual criticism are valuable. The class is there- fore divided into pairs. Students are urged to select their comrades for themselves. Those who fail to choose are paired by lot. The pair usually decides to divide the experimental wort so that upon one day the preparation of the frog, or other material, shall fall to one student, while tlie ar- rangement of the apparatus shall fall to the other ; the next day, these duties are exchanged. Distribution of Time. — The sixteen weeks of experimentation are divided as follows: February 3-March 6. General physiology, in- cluding muscle and nerve. March 9-17. Spinal cord and brain. March 18-19. Cutaneous and general sen- sations. March 20-24. Taste, smell, hearing. March 25-30. Physiological optics. March 31-April 2. Vision. April 3-17 and April 27-May 1. Fermentation, digestion, absorption, lymph, blood, secretion, respi- ration, metabolism. (April 19-25. Spring recess.) May 4-29 and June 1. Circulation. May 30. Memorial Day — a holiday. June 2-5. Practical examination. General physiology, including the physiology of muscle and nerve heads the list, for the logical reason that contractility and irritability are the primary attributes of living tissues and should be studied first, and for the practical reason that no field has been so thoroughly worked as this, and 16 PHYSIOLOGY AT HAKVArvD none is so well adapted to train the beginner in physiological technique and the physiologist's habit of thought. It will be observed that the time given to this subject is relatively greater than that given to any of the others. The greater training power of the physiology of muscle and nerve accounts for this in part. But the student's lack of skill and knowledge is the chief cause. When the stu- dents begin the study of general physiology they are as a rule unacquainted with experimentation upon living tissues. During the first two weeks they are slow and awkward. During the third week a remarkable change begins. At the fifth week it may be said without exaggeration that most of the students are rapid and fairly accurate experimenters. The experiments upon general physiology, which require the mornings of five weeks at the begmning of the course, could at the end of the course be easily done in three. The experiments upon the circulation, which require four weeks in their present position, would re- quire at least six if placed at the beginning of the course. It should be said, further, that the work upon muscle and nerve includes certain experiments that are commonly taught under the heading of the nervous system. The students who enter the physiological course have already studied the special anatomy of or- gans the structure of which would otherwise be described by the physiologist.. This rational prep- aration materially shortens the time required for certain chapters in physiology. THE FIKST-YEAR COURSE 17 The space a«sigued the vegetative functions is small because the laboratory work in the chem- istry of the carbohydrates, fats, proteids, bone, cartilao-e, muscle, and of some other portions of chemiclxl physiology is pursued at present in the Department of Chemistry. Experiments Performed. — Following is a com- plete list of the experiments performed. Students are not permitted to pass to a new experiment until the one in hand has been performed to the satisfaclion of the instructors. Only work well done is accepted. General Physiology, including Muscle and Nerve Methods of Electrical Stimulation. — The prep- aration of the gastrocnemius muscle, p. 4.^ The nerve-muscle preparation, p. 6. Galvani's experi- ment, p. 12. Make and break induction currents as stimuli, p. 40. Tetanizing currents, p. 42. Exclusion of make or break current, p. 43. Stimulation of Muscle and Nerve. — Opening and closing contraction, p. 61. Changes in inten- sity of stimulus, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 62 and 63. Polar stimulation of muscle, Experiment 5, p. 68. Tonic contraction, p. 70. Physiological anodes and cathodes in rectus muscle, p.^ 72. Law of contraction, p. 75. Changes in irritability, 1 The pa^'e numbers refer to "An Introduction to Physiol- orrv " It ha"s been found that students usually require four days for the methods of electrical stimulation ; ten days for the stimula- tion of muscle and nerve, and for irritability and conductivity ; ten days for the electromotive phenomena, and for the change in form. 2 18 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD Experiment 1, p. 79. Changes in conductivity, Experiment 2, p. 85. Stimulation of human nerves, p. 89. Stimulation of motor points, p. 92. Polar stimulation of human nerves, p. 93. Eeaction of degeneration, p. 97. Influence of duration of stimulus, Experiment 2, p. 101. Rhythmic contraction, Experiment 1, p. 103. Polar fatigue, p. 108. Polar inhibition by the galvanic current. Experiment 1, p. 114. Chemical and Mechanical Stimulation. — Effect of distilled water, p. 124 Strong saline solu- tions, p. 125. Drying, p. 125. Norm.al saline, p. 126. Importance of calcium, p. 126. Constant chemical stimulation may cause periodic contrac- tion, p. 126. Mechanical stimulation, p. 127. Irritability and Conductivity. — The iudepen- dent irritability of muscle ; curare experiment, p. 132. Minimal and maximal stimuli ; threshold value, p. 137. Summation of inadequate single stimuli, p. 138. The same nerve fibre may con- duct impulses both centripetally and centrifugally, Experiment 1, p. 144. Speed of nerve impulse, p. 146. The Electromotive Phenomena of Muscle and Nerve. — Polarization current, p. 25, and Experi- ment 1, p. 106. Demarcation current of muscle, Experiment 1, p. 150 (omit last three lines). Uninjured muscle, p. 153. Stimulation by de- marcation current, Experiment 1, p. 153. Meas- urement of electromotive force of demarcation current; compensation method, p. 158. Demarca- tion current of nerve, p. 159. Action current of muscle. Experiments 1 (rheoscopic frog) and 2, p. 166. Action current of heart, Experiments 1 THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 19 and 2, p. 173. Secretion current from mucous membrane, p. 183. The Change iu Form. — Volume of contracting muscle, p. 194. The duration of the several periods, p. 19G. The excitation wave, p. 199. The contraction wave, p. 201. Influence of load on height of contraction, p. 204. Influence of temperature on form of contraction, p. 205. Superposition of two contractions, p. 209. Super- position in tetanus, p. 210. Graduation of iso- metric spring, p. 218. Isometric contraction, p. 219. Artificial tetanus of human muscle, p. 221. Natural tetanus of human muscle, Ex- periments 1 and 2, p. 221. Spontaneous con- tractions of smooth muscle, p. 221. Influence of load on work done, p. 223. Absolute force of muscle, p. 224, Time relations of developing energy, p. 226. Elasticity and extensibility of a metal spring, p. 229. Of a rubber band, p. 230. Of skeletal muscle, p. 230. Fatigue of skeletal muscle of frog. Experiments 1 and 2, p. 232. Fatigue of human skeletal muscle, Experiment 1, p. 23.3. Students better prepared than the average will finish the experiments on muscle and nerve in less than the prescribed time. Such men may perform the additional experiments on muscle and nerve provided below. 20 physiology at harvard Additional Experiments on Muscle and Nerve [^To be begun only in case the first list is finished in less than the prescribed five weeks. These additions comprise the experiments in "An Introduction to Physiology," Part I, not included in the first list.]] Methods of Electrical Stimulation. — Surface tension, p. 15. Surface tension altered by elec- trical energy, p. 16. The cell, p. 21. Electrolysis of potassium iodide, p. 27. Graduation of the electrometer, p.. 28. Magnetic induction, p. 30. Magnetic field ; lines of force, p. 33. To pro- duce electric induction, the lines of magnetic force must be cut by the circuit, p. 33. Elec- tromagnetic induction, p. 33. Make and break induction, p. 34. The inductorium, pp. 35-37. Empirical graduation of inductorium, p. 38. The extra currents at the opening and closing of the primary current, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 41-42. Induction in nerves, p. 43. Unipolar induction. Experiments 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, pp. 44-49. Changes in intensity of stimulus with indirect stimulation, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 63-64. Polar stimulation of muscle. Experiments 1, 2, 3, and 4, pp. 65-67. Polar stimulation in heart; monopolar method, p. 74. Changes in irritability, Experiments 2 and 3, pp. 79-81. Changes in conductivity. Experiment 1, p. 82. Galvanotro- pism, p. 98. Influence of duration of stimulus. Experiments 1, 3, 4, and 5, pp. 100-102. PJiyth- mic contraction ; skeletal muscle, p. 104. Con- tinuous galvanic stimulation of nerve may cause the periodic discharge of nerve impulses, pp. 105- THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 21 106. Polarization current; positive variation, p. 107. Opening and closing tetanus, Experi- ments 1, 2, 3, and 4, pp. 108-110. Polar excita- tion ill injured muscle, p. 112. Polar inhibition in veratrinized muscle, p. 116. Stimulation affected by the form of the muscle, p. 117. Effect of the angle at which the current lines cut the muscle fibres, p. 118. The induced cur- rent, Experiments 1, 3, and 4, pp. 119-121. Polar stimulation by tlie induced current. Ex- periment 2, p. 120. Chemical and Mechanical Stimulation. — Idio- muscular contraction, p. 127. Irritability and Conductivity. — Nerve-free mus- cle, p. 130. Muscle with nerves degenerated, p. 131. The nerve-free embryo heart, p. 131. Irri- tability and conductivity are separate properties of nerve. Experiment 1, p. 134. Alcohol, Experi- ment 2, p. 136. Threshold value independent of load, p. 138. Eelative excitability of flexor and extensor nerve fibres ; Eitter-Eollett phenomenon, p. 139. Specific irritability of nerve greater than that of muscle, p. 141. Irritability at different points of same nerve, p. 142. The excitation wave remains in the muscle or nerve fibre in which it starts, p. 143. The same nerve fibre may con- duct impulses both centripetally and centrifugally, Experiment 2, p. 145. The Electromotive Phenomena of Muscle and Nerve. — Demarcation current of muscle, Experi- ment 2, p. 151. Oblique section, p. 152. Stimu- lation by demarcation current. Experiments 2, 3, and 4, pp. 154-155. Interference between the demarcation current and a stimulating current ; 22 PHYSIOLOGY AT HAHYARD polar refusal, p. 155. Measurement of electro- motive force of demarcation current, Experi- ment 1, p. 157. Nerve may be stimulated by its own demarcation current, p. 160. The action current in tetanus; stroboscopic method, p. 168. Eheoscopic muscle tetanus, p. 169. Action cur- rent of human muscle, p. 172. Action current of heart; the action current precedes the contrac- tion, p. 174. Current of action of human heart, p. 175. Action current of nerve. Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 178 and 179. Positive variation, p. 179. Positive after current, p. 180. Contraction secured with a weaker stimulus than negative variation, p. 180. Current of action in optic nerve, p. 181. Errors from unipolar stimulation, p. 183. Nega- tive variation of secretion current, p. 184. Elec- trotonic currents, p. 186. Negative variation of electrotonic currents ; positive variation (polari- zation increment) of polarizing current, p. 188. The electrotonic current as a stimulus, p. 191. Paradoxical contraction, p. 191. The Change in Form. — Relation of strength of stimulus to form of contraction w^ave, p. 203. Influence of veratrine on the form of the con- traction, p. 208. Muscle sound, Experiments 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, pp. 211-214. Relation of shorten- ing in a single contraction to shortening in tetanus. Experiments 1, 2, and 3, pp. 215-217. Simple contraction of smooth muscle, p. 222. Tetanus of smooth muscle, p. 223. Total work done ; the work adder, p. 224. Total work done estimated by muscle curve, p. 226. Extensi- bility increased in tetanus, p. 231. Fatigue of skeletal muscle of frog. Experiment 3, p. 233. TIIR FIRST-YEAR COURSE 23 Fati;:^ue of human skeletal muscle, Experiment 2, p. 234. .-1 Spinal Cokd and Brain The spinal cord a seat of simple reflexes, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 1. Influence of afferent impulses on reflex action, p. 2. Threshold value lower in end organ than in nerv^e trunk, Experi- ments 1 and 2, pp. 2 and 3. Summation of affer- ent impulses, p. 3. Segmental aiTangement of reflex apparatus, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 4. Re- flexes in man ; from the skin, p. 5. Cornea reflex, p. 5. Throat reHex, p. 6. Pupil light-reflex, p. 6. Consensual reflex, p. 6. Accommodation reflex, p. 6. Knee jerk, p. 6. Aukle jerk, p. 7. Gower's experiment, p. 7. Eflect of strychnine on reflex action, p. 8. Eemoval of cerebral hemispheres, p. 8. 'Posture, "brainless" frog, p. 9. Balancing experiment, p. 10. Eetinal reflex, p. 10. Croak reflex, p. 10. Apparent purpose in reflex action, Experiments 1, 2, and 3, p. 12. Eeflex time, p. 13. Eeaction time, p. 13. Eeaction time with choice, p. 14. Inhibition of reflexes through peripheral afferent ner%^es, p. 15. Inhibition through central afferent paths ; the optic lobes, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 16. The roots of spinal ner\'es, p. 17. Localization of movements at differ- ent levels of the spinal cord, p. 18. Distribution of sensory spinal nerves, p. 19. Muscular tonus ; Brondgeests's experiment, p. 20. 1 Expei-iments for Harvard Medical Students. TMrd edi- tion, 1903. 24 physiology at harvard Sympathetic [Experiments will be announced later.] Cutaneous Sensations ^ Sensations of Temperature. — Mapping of hot and cold spots, p. 21. Outline, p. 21. Mechanical stimulation, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 21. Chemi- cal stimulation, p. 21. Electrical stimulation, p. 22. Temperature after-sensation, p. 22. Balance between loss and gain of heat, p. 22. Eatigue, p. 22. Eelation of stimulated area to sensation, p. 23. Perception of difference, p. 23. Eelatively insensitive regions, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 23 and 24. Sensations of Pressure. — Pressure spots, p. 2-4. Threshold value, p. 24. Touch discrimination. Experiments 1 and 2, p. 26. After-sensation of pressure, p. 27. Temperature and pressure, p. 27. Touch illusion ; Aristotle's experiment, p. 28. General Sensations ^ Tickle. — 1. Irradiation. 2. After image. 3. Topography. 4. Summation. 5. Eatigue. Pain. — 1. Threshold value. 2. Latent period. 3. Summation. 4. Topography. 5. Individual variation. 6. Temperature stimuli. Motor Sensations. — 1. Judgment of weight. 2. Sensation of effort. 3. Sensation of motion. 1 Experiments for Harvard Medical Students. Third edi- tion, 1903. 2 Ibid. THE FIUST-YEAR COURSE 25 Taste 1 1. Threshold value. 2. Topography. 3. Eela- tion of taste to area stimulated. 4. Electrical stimulation. Smell, Hearing [Experiments will be announced later.] Physiological Optics ^ Introduction. — Construction of the path of a ray passing through a prism, p. 11. Eefraction by convex lenses : principal focus, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 14. Estimation of principal focal dis- tance, p. 15. Conjugate foci, p. 16. Virtual image, p. 17. Construction of image obtained with con- vex lens, p. 17. Eefraction by concave lenses, p. 20. Eefraction by segments of cylinders, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 20-21. Eefraction through combined convex and cylindrical lenses. Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 22-23. Spherical aber- ration by reflection, p. 24. Spherical aberration by refraction, Experiments 1, 2, and 3, pp. 25-26. Dispersion circles, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 27. Mvopia, p. 28. Hypermetropia, p. 29. Chro- matic aberration, p. 30. Aberration avoided by a diaphragm, p. 32. Numbering of prisms, p. 33. Numbering of lenses, p. 33. 1 Experiments for Han-ard Medical Students. Third edi- tion, 1903. , . •, . 1 2 An Introd action to Physiology, Part IV, Physiological Optics, pp. 1-99. 26 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD Refraction iu the Eye. — The eye as a camera obscura, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 35. The Schematic Eye. — Cardinal points of the cornea (^System A). Construction drawing of System A, p. 38 Principal focal distances, p. 39. Determination of principal foci by construction, 2, p. 41. Construction of image, p. 41. Cardinal points of the crystalline lens {System B). Con- struction drawing of System B, p. 43. Optical centre, p. 44. Nodal points, p. 45. Principal surfaces, p. 46. The point s, p. 47. Principal points, p. 48. Principal focal distances, p. 48. The cardinal points of the eye (^System C). Prin- cipal surfaces, p. 49. Xodal points, p. 51. Prin- cipal foci, p. 52. Calculation of the situation and size of dioptric images, Constructions 1 and 2, pp. 54-56. Pteduced eye, p. 56. Belations of the visual axis, p. 61. Visual angle, p. 62. Apparent size, p. 62. Size of retinal image, p. 63. Acute- ness of vision, p. 63. Smallest perceptible image, p. 64. Measurement of visual acuteness, p. 64. Accommodation, p. 67. Scheiner's experiment, p. 67. Dispersion circles, p. 68. Diameter of circles of dispersion, Experiments 1, 2, and 3, pp. 68-70. Accommodation line, p. 70. Mechanism of accommodation. Narrowing of pupil, p. 71. Eelation of iris to lens. Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 72-73. Changes in the lens. Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 73-75. Measurement of accommodation. Ear point, p. 77. Determination of far point, p. 77. Near point, p. 78. Determination of near point, p. 78. Piange of accommodation, p. 79. Ophthalmoscopy. — Picflection from retina. Ex- periments 1, 2, 3, and 4, pp. 82-84. Influence of THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 27 angle between light and visual axis, Experiments 1, 2, and 3, pp. 85-86. Intiuence of size of pupil, p. 86. Intiuence of nearness to pupil, p. 86. Ophthalmoscope, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 87. Direct method. Emmetropia, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 88-90. Ametropia; qualitative determina- tion, p. 91. Measurement of myopia, p. 91. Measurement of hypermetropia, p. 93. Measure- ment of astigmatism, p. 93. Indirect method, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 94-96. Vision ^ 1. Diagnosis of color-blindness. 2. Mapping the field of vision. 3. Mapping the blind spot. 4. The yellow spot. (Additional experiments will be announced later.) Fermentation 1. Isolation of unorganized from organized fer- ments (torula ureae). 2. Hydrolytic action. 3. Eate of zymolysis affected by {a) temperature, (h) chemical reaction, (c) accumulation of prod- uct, {d) concentration of enzyme, (e) condition of material, (/) presence of salts. 4. Specific action {a) ptyalin, (b) pepsin, (c) trypsin, {d) ren- nin, (e) steapsin, (/) fibrin ferment, {g) amylolytic ferment of liver. 5. Zymogens. 6. Reversible actions. 1 The experiments on vision, fermentation, digestion, blood, respiration, and metabolism are at present described in " Exper- iments for Harvard Medical Students." Third edition, 1903. 28 physiology at harvard Digestion 1. Expression of stomach contents. 2. Length of time food remains in the stomach. (Additional, experiments will be announced later.) Absorption. Lymph [Experiments will be announced later.] Blood 1. Specific gravity. 2. Separation of morpho- logical constituents from plasma : (a) sugar fil- tration, (b) salted plasma, (c) cooled horse-blood. 3. Eelative volume of corpuscles and plasma. 4. Hydraemia. 5. Counting red and white cor- puscles. 6. Estimation of haemoglobin : (a) anaemia, (h) haemorrhage, (c) regeneration. 7. Freezing-point. 8. Alkalinity. 9. Permeability (resistance) of corpuscles. 10. Haemolysis : {a) bloods of different species, (b) peptone, (c) snake venom. 11. Visible changes in coagulation. Secretion [Experiments will be announced later.] Eespiration Mechanics of Respiration. — 1. Measurement in millimetres of mercury (with artificial scheme) of the intra-thoracic and intra-pulmonary pres- sure in (a) inspiration, (h) expiration, (c) normal THE FIRST-YKAR COURSE 29 respiration, (d) forced respiration, (e) obstructed air passages, (/) asphyxia, (g) couohing and sneezing, {h) hiccough, and (i) perforation of the pleura. Chemistry of Respiration. — Estimation of oxy- gen, carbon dioxide, and water. Metabolism 1. Estimation of respiratory oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water: (a) in quiet respiration, (h) during muscuhnr exertion. 2. Nitrogenous equi- librium. 3. Effect of exercise upon nitrogenous metabolism. (Additional experiments will be an- nounced later.) The Circulation of the Blood ^ Conversion of an intermittent into a continu- ous flow. Experiments 1, 2, and 3, pp. 244-248. The relation between rate of flow and width of bed, p. 248. The relation of peripheral resistance to blood-pressure, p. 250. The curve of arterial pressure in the frog, p. 251. The effect on blood- pressure of increasing the peripheral resistance in the frog, p. 253. Changes in the stroke of the pump f inhibition of the ventricle, p. 253. The effect of inhibition of the heart on blood-pressure in the frog, p. 254. The opening and closing of the valves, p. 255. The period of outflow from the ventricle, p. 256. The visible change in form, 1 An Introduction to Physiology, Part II, pp. 239-314. 30 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD p. 257. Graphic record of ventricular contraction, p. 258. All contractions maximal, p. 258. Stair- case contractions, p. 259. The isolated apex ; Bern- stein's experiment, p. 259. PJiythmic contractility of heart muscle, p. 260. Constant stimulus may cause periodic contraction, p. 260. The inactive heart muscle still irritable, p. 261. Eefractory period; extra-contraction; compensatory pause, p. 261. The transmission of the contraction wave in the ventricle; Engelmann's incisions, p. 262. The transmission of the cardiac excitation from auricle to ventricle; Gaskell's block, Experiments 1, 2, and 3, pp. 263 and 264 Tonus, p. 265. The in- fluence of " load " on ventricular contraction, p. 265. The influence of temperature on frequency of contraction, p. 266. The action of sodium, cal- cium, potassium in heart muscle, pp. 266-268. The heart sounds. Experiments 1, 2, 3, and 4, pp. 269-271. The Pressure-Pulse. — Frequency, p. 271. Hard- ness, p. 272. Form, p. 272. Volume, p. 273. The pressure-pulse in the artificial scheme, p. 273. The human pressure-pulse curve, Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 274-275. Low tension pressure-pulse, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 277. Pressure-pulse in aortic regurgitation, p. 278. Stenosis of the aortic valve, p. 279. Incompetence of the mitral valve, p. 280. The volume pulse, p. 280. The Innervation of the Heart and Blood-Vessels. — Preparation of the sympathetic, p. 283. Action of the sympathetic on the heart, p. 284. The preparation of the vagus nerve, p. 286. Stimula- tion of cardiac inhibitory fibres in vagus trunk, p. 287. Effect of vaf^us stimulation on the auriculo- THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 31 ventricular contraction interval, p. 289. Irrita- bility of the inhibited heart, p. 289. Intracardiac inhibitory mechanism, p. 290. Inhibition by Stannius ligature, p. 290. Action of nicotine, p. 291. Atropine, p. 292. Muscarine, p. 292. Antag- onistic action of muscarine and atropine, p. 292. Inhibitory centre of the heart nerves, p. 292. Augmentor centre, p. 294. Eeflex inhibition of the heart ; Goltz's experiment, p. 295. Eeflex augmentation, p. 296. The bulbar vasomotor centre. Experiments 1 and 2, pp. 296 and 297. The vasomotor functions of the spinal cord. Ex- periments 1, 2, and 3, p. 298. Effect of destruc- tion of the spinal cord on the distribution of the blood, p. 299. The vasomotor fibres leave the cord in the anterior roots of spinal nerves. Ex- periments 1 and 2, p. 300. Vasoconstrictor fibres in the sciatic nerve, p. 302. Vasodilator nerves, Experiments 1 and 2, p. 303. Eeflex vasomotor actions, p. 304. Appakatus A complete list of the articles used in the first- year course, including the additional experiments, page 20, will be found in the Appendix, pages 81-90. The desk assigned each pair of students is 155 cm. long and 61 cm. wide. A ledge 7 cm. high guards the farther side. At one end are placed a locker 35 cm. wide, and two drawers ; a single lock secures the three. Xot all the appa- ratus used in the course can be placed in the locker and drawers at one time. That used in 32 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD the earlier chapters is issued first (see Appen- dix, Form G, page 91). From time to time, articles of the first issue no longer in use are re- turned to the instructors (see Appendix, Form I, page 94). The department finds it advisable to maintain a stock of apparatus large enough to enable broken articles to be replaced at once from the reserve. Thus the student is not delayed while repairs are making; moreover, the repairing for the entire course can then be done in the sum- mer, after the instruction is finished. The ex- pense, per instrument, is thereby diminished. Laboratory Note-Book Each student is required to keep in a labora- tory note- book an account of his own experiments and observations. The details of the experiment given in the laboratory publications should of course be omitted. Where the experiment in- cludes a graphic record, such as a muscle curve or a curve constructed upon coordinate paper, the record should be fastened in the laboratory note- book with gummed paper. Diagrams should be employed whenever necessary, but time should not be spent in needlessly detailed drawing of apparatus. The note-books will be collected every Friday and examined by the instructors. Conference The conferences are held in Room A for half an hour five times a week during fifteen weeks. They are devoted to questions and explanations THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 33 concerning the work of the course, and are in fact a combination of recitation and lecture. The matters discussed are suggested by the written tests and by the questions placed by the students in question boxes, one of \vhich is set in each laboratory. AYritten Tests The written tests are exercises of twenty min- utes' duration, held daily during sixteen weeks. On Mondays there is an additional written test, an hour in length. In all cases the student is re- quired to cite the experimental evidence for his statement. The answers are written upon ruled paper of uniform size, 24.5 x 19.5 cm., printed as follows : Form B. Harvard ^rEDiCAL School, Department of Physiology. Name r>ate 190 Desk Room Each day's papers are filed in a case, in which a pigeon-hole is provided for each student. In the lame pigeon-hole are placed in their turn the student's thesis, laboratory note-book, and final examination papers, constituting a complete record of his work. The written tests form a most valuable method of instruction. They teach the student to state with precision and brevity the experimental evi- dence for many of the fundamental conclusions 3 34 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD in physiology. At the close of the first month of instruction men whose work the written tests show to be poor are personally consulted regard- ing their difficulties, often to their great benefit. The following questions illustrate the written tests : State experiments to prove where stimulation becjins on closure of the oralvanic current. Ex- plain the difference between the stimulating elec- trodes and the physiological anode and cathode in stimulation of human nerves. What is the reaction of degeneration ? What chemical changes take place in dying muscle ? Draw the curve ex- pressing the absolute force of muscle from the beginning to the end of the phase of rising energy and state how it is obtained. Mark on the intra- ventricular pressure-curve the moment of open- ing and closing of the mitral and aortic valves. Give the experimental basis for an explanation of the auriculo-ventricular interval. Describe the action of the vagus nerve upon the heart. Give evidence to show that afferent impulses are trans- mitted by the posterior roots of spinal nerves. What evidence is there that the fibres passing through the white ramus communicans arborize about a sympathetic cell? Cite experiments to prove that the crystalline lens changes its shape in accommodation. Give evidence that the semi- circular canals are concerned in equilibrium. State the evidence for the existence of hot and cold " spots " on the skin. State the difference between voice and tone. Give a brief account of the digestion of fat. Give proof of the exist- ence of internal secretion. What proof exists THE FIRST-YEAR COURSE 35 that hoemoglobin and oxygen are in loose chem- ical combination in the blood ? How may a nitrogen equilibrium be established? Special Demonstrations A special demonstration is given every Satur- day during sixteen weeks. The subjects during 1903 will be as follows: Feb. 7. (1) Surface tension altered by energy. (2) Extra currents at the opening and closing of the primary current. " 14. Eeaction of degeneration in man. " 21 . Action current of the human heart. " 28. Electromotive properties of an " arti- ficial nerve." March 7. (1) The muscle sound; experiments of Helmholtz. (2) Total work done by muscle ; the work-adder. " 14. Stimulation of the cerebral cortex. " 21. (1) The action of the sympathetic on the smooth muscle of the hairs. (2) The pigeon deprived of cerebral hemispheres. " 28. The pigeon with severed external semicircular canals. April 4. The innervation of the sphincter of the iris. 36 PHYSIOLOGY AT ITAKVARD April 11. Movements of the stomach and in- testines. " 18. The flow of lymph from the thoracic duct. May 2. The action of the chorda tympani and the sympathetic nerves on secretion hy the submaxillary o;land. " 9. The action of the vagus and the superior laryngeal nerves upon the respiratory movements. " 16. (1) The action of the valves in the ox heart. (2) The inhibition of the mammalian heart. " 23. (1) The action of the depressor nerve upon the vasomotor centre. (2) The vasomotor fibres in the cervical sympathetic. 30. A holiday. The demonstrations are made to not more than ten students at one time. Care is taken that every student shall see the experiments clearly. Recitation A recitation is given weekly during fifteen weeks. The recitation is not an examination ; its only purpose is instruction. The questions are asked in an order that will systematically develop the subject treated. the first-year course 37 Theses and the Eeading of Investigations Each student is reqiiired to write a physiologi- cal thesis, the material for which must be taken directly from the report of the original investi- crators. The subjects chosen are as a rule such as will supplement the instructi(m given in other ways. In 1903 tifty theses will be discussed by the class. Each student is also required to prepare from the original sources the bibliography of one other subject, and to verify his references, so far as the literature is accessible to him. Students chosen to read their theses are further required to acquaint themselves with the litera- ture of three other subjects in the list to be dis- cussed by the class. These students will open the discussion upon the subjects which they have thus especially studied. Before the beginning of the course the follow- ing letter of instructions is addressed to each student : Form C. IXSTRUCTIONS FOK THESIS Harvard Medical School, Department of Physiology, Boston, February 2, 1903. Dear Sir : — , . i In the first-year course in physiology, each student is required to write a physiological thesis, the material for which must be taken directly from the original investigations. As many of the investigations are in German or French, you are 38 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD requested to state upon the enclosed card (Form D) whether you can read one or both of these lan- guages. On pages -40-45 of the pamphlet entitled '• Physiology at Harvard " you will find a list of sub- jects for theses which will be discussed by the class in 1903, and a second list of subjects for theses to be written but not discussed during the present year. Your record during your first term in the Medical School assigns you to the {^'"cond} list. Your sub- ject will be given you five weeks before your thesis is due. If in the first list, you will find references to the original literature of your subject on pages 40-42 of the pamphlet ''Physiology at Harvard." If in the second list, you will receive an envelope bearing the subject of the thesis and the references to original sources. The names of the Boston and Cambridge libraries which contain the physiologi- cal journals and other sources may be had from the " List of periodicals, etc. currently received, in the principal libraries of Boston and vicinity," published by the Trustees of the Boston Public Library. Your receipt for the reference card will be taken (Form Ej. The card must be returned when the thesis is handed in. Your assistance in the correction of errors and omissions in the refer- ences will be much appreciated. The thesis should not exceed two thousand words. It should be written with ink in a Physio- logical Thesis Book. Every statement not the writer's own must be accompanied by a reference to the original source, giving author's name, name of journal or title of book, year of publication, number of volume, and the page upon which the statement appears. The thesis should begin with a brief outline of the problem and the way in which investigators have attacked it, and should end with a summary of the results attained. THE FIRST-YEAK COURSE 39 You are also required to write upon Farm B a bibliography which you yourself will prepare from the •• Centralblatt fiir Physiologie," the " Jahres- bericht fiir Physiologie," the reviews in the " Jour- nal de physiologie et de pathologie generale," and the original sources. The subject for your bibli- ography will be placed upon Form E. Students whose rank entitles them to read theses will further be required to acquaint themselves with the literature of three other subjects in the list to be discussed by the class. References to this literature are given on pages 45-63 of the pamphlet " Physiology at Harvard/' The subjects assigned to you will be found upon Form E. Each thesis sub- ject, therefore, will be studied in full by the author of the thesis, and by three disputants. When the thesis is read, the three students who have each prepared that subject will open the discussion. Very truly yours, "W. T. Porter. Form D. Harvard Medical School, Boston, Dear Sir : — I {ctn""'} read French and German. My prefer- ence of subjects for a thesis is as follows : 1 2 3 Very truly yours, 40 PHYSIOLOGY AT HARVARD Form E. Harvard Medical School, Departmest of Physiology, Boston, I have received this day the S^ences for the thesis on This thesis, together with the reference card, is to be delivered to Professor W. T. Porter not later than I have also been notified to prepare a bibliog- raphy upon the subject This bibliography, written upon Form B, is to be delivered to Professor W. T. Porter not later than June 1, I have further been notified to prepare for dis- cussion the original literatures of the three sub- jects the theses upon which are to be read upon the following days (See " Physiology at Harvard," pages 45-63) (Signed) This form is issued in duplicate. The student will retain one copy. Theses to be Discussed ix 1903 March 10. The physical nature of protoplasm. " 11. The functions of the cell nucleus. " 12. Tnfiuence of light on protoplasm. " 13. Chemotaxis. " 14. Phacjocvtosis. " 17. Bacteria in health. " 18. Xature of the nerve impulse. " 19. Xature of muscular contractility. March 20. (( 21. (( 24. « 25. « 26. (( 27. <( 28. <( 81. April 1. « o it 3. it 4. tc 7. t( 8. a 9. t( 10. (( 11. :n, '68, Flimmerbewe- gangiu, Leipzig. Wyman, '71, Am. nat., v. 611. Bow- ditch, '76, Boston m. and s. jour., xcv, 159. Engelmann, '77, Pfluger's Arch., xv, 493 ; '80, ibid., xxiii, 505. Gaule, '81, Arch. f. Physiol., 153. Grutzner, '83, Cbl. med. Wiss., xxi. 7S8. Martius, '84, Arch. f. Physiol, 456. Just, '86-7, Biol. Cbl., vi, 123. Kraft, '90, Pfliiger's Arch., xlvii, 196. Verworn, '91, Pfluger's Arch., xlviii, 149. ScHAFER, '91, Proc. rov. soc, London, xlix. 191. Jensen, '93, Pfluger's Arch., liv, 537. Weinland, '94, Pfliiger's Arch., Iviii, 105. Parker, '96, Bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology at Harvard College, xxix, 113. Ver- worn, '99, GeneraVPhysiology, London. Berg el, '00, Pflii- ger's Arch., Ixxviii, 441. Lillie, '01, Am. j. physiol., v, 56; '02, ibid., vii, 25. THE FIRST-YEAR COUKSE 49 The neuron theory. — Torkl, '87, Arcli. f. Psychiat. u. Nerveukraukh., xviii, 162. Waldeyer, '91, Dcut. med. Woch., xvii, 1213, 1244, 1267, 1287, 1331, 1352. Cajal, '94, Proc. roy. soc, Loudon, Iv, 444. Golgi, '94, Duter- sucliuiigeii ul)er den fciuereii Bau des ceiitralen uud peri- plierisclicu Nervensystems, Jena. Huber, '97, J. comp. ueur., vii, 73. Soury, '97, Arch, de nour., second series, iii, 95. Apatiie, '97, Mittiieiluufjen aus der zoologischen Station zu Ncapel, xii, 495, 748. Held, '95, Arch. f. Anat. u. Eutwick., 396; '97, ibid., 204. Fish, '98, J. comp. near., viii, 99. Meyer, '98, J. comp. ueur., viu, 113, 249. Hellwig, '98, Arch. f. Physiol., 239. Barker, '99, The nervous system, New York. v. Ruzicka, '99, Arch. f. mikr. Anat., Yin, 485. Verworn, '00, Das Neuron in Anatomie uud Physiologic, Jena. Bosentual, '01, Biol. Cbl., xxi, Nerve cells in rest and activity. — Hodge, '88, Am. j. psychol., i, 479 ; '89, ibid., ii, 376. Korybutt-Daskiewicz, '89," Arch. f. mikr. Anat., xxxiii, 51. Hodge, '91, Am. j. psvchol, iii. 530; '92, J. morphol., vii, 95; '94, ibid., ix 449 ; '94, J. physiol., xvii, 129. Mann, '94, J. anat. aud physiol, xxix, 100. Eve, '96, J. physiol., xx, 334. Nissl, '96, Allg. Ztschr. f. Psychiat., Iii, 1147. Pugnat, '97, C. r., cxxv 736. Hodge and Goddard, '99, Am. j. physiol , ii, p. xiii. Wabrington, '99, J. physiol, xxiii, 112 ; xxiv, 464. GuERiNi, '99. Arch. ital. de biol., xxxii, 62. Muhlmann, '01, Arch. f. mikr. Anat., Iviii., 231. Halliburton, '01, The chemical side of nervous activity, London. Pugnat, '01, J. de physiol. et path, gen., iii, 183. r^.^ f a a Trophic nerves. — Lewaschew, 83, Obi. i. a. med. Wiss. xxi, 193. Joseph, '87, Virch. Arch., cvii, 119. Mendel, '88, Neur. Cbl, vii, 401; Samuel '88, Vircli. Arch., cxiii, 272. Laborde. '89, C. r. soc. de biol 126. Gley, '91, C. r. soc. de biol, 173. Gaule, 91, Cbl. t. Physiol V, 689. Eckhard, '92, Cbl. f. Physiol, vi, 328. GaVle, '92, Cbl f. Physiol, vi, 361 ; '93, ibid., vii, 646. Sherrington, '94, J. physiol, xvii, 211. Durdufi, 94 Cbl f all'' Path. u. path. Anat., V, 509. Hofmann, 97, Virch. ArclL, el, 161. Morat, '97, C. r., cxxiv, 1173. 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