UNIVERSITY OF B.C. LIBRARY

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PINE PLANTATIONS

ON THE

SAND-WASTES OF FRANCE.

COMPILED BY

JOHN CROUMBIE BROWN, LL.D.,

Formerly Government Botanist at the Cape of Good Hope, and Professor
of Botany in the South African College, Capetown, Fellow of the
Royal Geographical Society, Fellow of the Linnean Society, and
Honorary Vice-President of the African Institute of Paris, etc.

EDINBURGH:

OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.

LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.

18 78.

Kirkcaldy : Cra^^toed & Walker, Peintb^s.

[All rights of Translation and Reproduction are reserved.]

CONTENTS AND ARGUMENT.

PAGE.

Index to Authorities Cited, . . . . y

Preface, --.-... yii

States circumstances in which the volume is published.

Chapter I. — A2-)2jearances Presented hy Plantations on Drift-
Sand, --..-.. \

Cites the appearance presented by plantations seen from the bell
tower of the Cathedral at Antwerp (p. 1) ; and by vineyards in
M^doc and the vicinity of Bourdeaux (p. 2) ; by Landes adjacent
(p. 3) ; by Arcachon (p. 4), and the pignadas in the vicinity (p. 5).

Chapter II. — A2:>pearances Presented hy Landes adjacent to the

Pine Plantations on Gascony, - - - . 9

There are given Mangin's description of the Landes (p. 9), and of
the Dunes (p. 13), of Dartmoor (p. 17), as corresponding to scenes
in Brittany (p. IS) ; of the swampy land of Montoir resembling
the Fen country of England (p. 21) ; and there follow notices
of what has been done to reclaim the adjacent sand -wastes (p. 2-i).

Chapter III. — Legislation in Regard to the Planting of the

Landes luith Trees, - - - - - 1'7

There are given excerpts from the laws issued on 13th Messklor an
IX {2nd July, 1801) ; on 6'nl Jour coiaplemtntaire, an IX (p. 27) ;
12th July, 1808, llth December, 1810 (p. 28) ; oth February,
1817 (p. 29) ; and 29th April, 1862 (p. 30).

Chapter IV. — Literature Relative to the Arrest and Cidtivation

of Drift-Sands in France, - - - - 32

Works in French are specified (j). 32) ; works in German (p. 33)';
and works published in Hungary, America, and England are
referred to (p. 34).

IV CONTENTS.

Chapter V. — Gtdture of the Maritime Pine on the Landes of

Gascony, - - - - - -36

The preparation of the ground is described (p. 36) ; the zone ad-
jacent to the sea is described (p. 37) ; dayonnages (p. 39) ; sowing
and planting (p. 40) ; account given by M. Bagneris (p. 42) ; and
by M. Boitel (p. 45) ; thinning (p. 46) ; pruning (p. 48).

Chapter VI. — Exploitation of the Phi e Plantations of Gascony, 51

Account of the exploitation of resin, by Bagneris (p. 51) ; of the
manufacture of charcoal, by Boitel (p. 57), and that of charcoal
dust (p. 63) ; products exhibited in English museums (p. 66).

Chapter VII. — Sylvicultwe on the Landes of La Sologne, - 69

Account of the Landes of La Sologne (p. 70) ; of their soil (p. 72) ;
woods (p. 74) ; culture of pine woods (p. 75) ; reclaiming land by
plantation (p. 80).

Chapter VIII. — Inland Sand-Wastes, and Sand-Wastes on the

Coast, - - - - , - - 81

BiflFerences seen in sand-wastes (p. 81) ; "Wessely's account of sand-
wastes on the coast (p. 82) ; account of the impermeable alios by
M. Faye (p. 84) ; capillary attraction of sand (p. 86) ; absorption
and retention of moisture (p. 88) ; absorption of vegetable nutri-
ment (p. 90) ; peat lands in sand-wastes (p. 92) ; composition of
sand (p. 92) ; sand-wastes of the tertiary formation (p. 96) ;
woods on such sands (p. 97).

Chapter IX. — Natural History and General Ctdture of the

Scotch Fir in France, - - - - - 100

Description of the Scotch fir by MM. Lorentz and Parade (p. 100) ;
account of arboretum at Barres by the founder, ^M. Vilmorin
(p. 103) ; his observation on the Scotch fir (pinus syhestris)
(p. 107) ; the Riga jjine (p. 115) ; pine of Smolensk (p. 117) ;
Wibia pine (p. 117) ; pine of Tschernigoff (p. 118) ; pine of
Volhynia (p. 118) ; varieties of the Riga pine (p. 119) ; Scotch
fir (p. 122) ; intermediate varieties (p. 123) ; instructions given
in School of Forestry at Nancy in regard to the exploitation of
the Scotch fir (p. 131) ; in regard to its economic uses (p. 137) ;
and the collecting and preservation of its seed (p. 138), and
sowing (p. 141).

Chapter X.— Natural History and Genercd Culture of the

Maritime Pine in France, - - . - 143

CONTENTS. V

Section I. — Commendations bestowed on the Maritime Pine, - 143

Commendation by M. Boitel (p; 143) ; by M. Samanos (j). 145) ;
and by MM. Delamarre, Crinon, and others (p. 147).

Section II. — General Culture and Exploitation of the Maritime

Pine, ------- 148

Instructions given at the School of Forestry at Nancy relative to
its natural history (p. 149) ; its economic uses and mode of
gemmage (p. 151) ; sowing (p. 152) ; exploitation (p. 154).

Chapter XI. — Diseases and Injurious Inflxiences to which the

Maritime Pine is subject, - - - - 157

Section I, — Choking by an Over-grmvth of Local Vegetation, - 157

Section II. — Destructive Ravages by Birds, and Sqtd?rels, and

Insects, ...... 157

Mode of destruction (p. 157) ; accounts of lignivorous insects by
M. Perris (p. 159) ; destruction of the chenille processionaire
(p. 161).

Section III. — Destructive Consequences following the Effects of

Charcoal Burning, - - - - - 163

Evils pointed out by Professor Bagneris (p. 163), and accounted for
by M. Boitel (p. 163).

Section IV. — Destructive Ravages occasioned by the Mole, - 167

Natural history of tlie mole by M. Boitel (p. 167) ; destruction of
moles (p. 169).

Section V. — Destructive Ravages by Forest Fires, - - 170

Prevention of forest fires mentioned by M. Samanos (p. 170) ; by
M. Bartro (p. 171) ; by M. Boitel (p. 171).

INDEX TO AUTHORITIES CITED.

Andresen, 86. Bagneris, 42, 51, 163. Bartro, 171. Baude, 1, Boitel, 37,
41, 45, 46, 51, 57, 63, 71, 74-79, 143, 157, 163, 167, 171. Chambray (Marquis),
159. Clav6, 91, 98, 99. Cotta, 100. Courreges,.39, 40. Crinon, 148. Dela-
marre, 147. Edinburgh Re-\dew, 34. Faye, 84. Forchhammer, 86. Grouven,
90. Haddington (Earl), 109. Hartig, 100, 138. Hauer, 93. Heyer, 88.
Janin, 20. Javil, 66, 84. Kedzie, 34. Keruer, 89, 95. Laurent, 87.
Lorentz, 100, 132. Mangin, 9, 13, 16, 21, 24, 70, 98. Marchand, 88. Marsh, 34,
86, 96. Mayer, 89. Nanquette, 135. Parade, 100, 139, 149. Perris, 159.
Samanos, 51, 145, 170. Schuebler, 88, 89, 93, 94. Thurmann, 87. Vilmorin,
103-130, 157. Weld, 1, 2, 3, 5. Wessely, 82, 88, 92, 99.

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PRE FACE.

The preparation of this volume for the press was undertaken in con-
sequence of a statement in the Standard and Mail, a Capetown
paper, of the 22nd July, 1876, to the effect that in the estimates
submitted to Parliament £1,000 had been put down for the Cape
Flats, it was supposed with a view to its being employed in carrying
out planting operations as a means of reclaiming the sandy tracts
beyond Salt River.

In view of the success which has followed the planting of the Landes
of Gascony and the Gironde with the maritime pine, it might seem
that nothing now can be required in order to arrest and utilise drift-
sands, but to plant them judiciously with that tree. But, happily, I
may say, the failure of such plantations on the Landes of La Sologne
comes to warn us against any such rash generalisation. And the
observation of sand downs in Britain, and sand plains elsewhere, show
that herbs, carices, reeds, and grasses have operated extensively in
arresting eflfectually, and, according to their measures, in utilising
what otherwise would have been barren and destructive sand-
wastes.

Looking at the subject generally, all that I consider established by
the pine plantations on the sand-wastes of Fi-ance is the practicability
of arresting and utilising sand-drifts by means of plantations of trees.
What has been accomplished there we may legitimately infer may be
effected elsewhere, not necessarily by the same means, but by means
as appropriate, if they can be discovered. But while this may be all
that is established there is much more suggested.

And still more might be found to be suggested by a study of the
whole of the sand-wastes of Europe, and of the natural history of
sand, its composition, its formation, and its aggregation on the shore,
in dunes, in drifts, in sand-wastes, and in sand plains, and of the
various genera and species of plants growing upon it, and of planta-

viii PREFACE.

tions of broad-leaved trees which have succeeded in other conditions —
the poplar, the willow, and the aspen, the elm, the elder, the ash,
the acacia, the oak, the hazel, and the dogwood, the birch, and the
wild pear. There has been prepared a twin volume, in which these
subjects have been discussed.

This volume was originally compiled in view of what seemed to be
required at the Cape of Good Hope. It has been revised, and printed
now, only as a conti'ibution towards a renewed enterprise, to arrest and
utilise sand-wastes which stretch from Table Mountain to the
Hottentot Holland Mountains ; and additional information is forth-
coming if it should be desired.

Appended to reports of the Colonial Botanist for 1864 is a letter
on grasses adapted to arrest drifting sand (pp. 99-102), and appended
to report of the Colonial Botanist for 1865 is a letter on the arrest of
drifting sand, and planting the same with trees (pp. 83-93).

.Haddington, 10th Ajyril, 1878.

PINE PLANTATIONS ON THE SAND-
WASTES OF FRANCE.

CHAPTER I.

Appearances Presented by Plantations on Drift Sands.

Within the last eighty years much has been accomplished in the
arresting of Drift Sand, and in utilising Sand Wastes by a judicious
combination of sylviculture and agriculture.

" A spectator placed on the famous bell tower of the cathedral of
Antwerp," says Baude in an article in the Revue des Deux Mondes,
January, 1859, one of an interesting series of articles entitled Les
Cotes de la Manche, " saw not long since on the opposite side of the
Schelde only a vast desert plain ; now he sees a forest, the limits of
which are confounded with the horizon. Let him enter within its
shades. The supposed forest is but a system of regular rows of trees,
the oldest of which is not yet forty years of age. These plantations
have ameliorated the climate, which had doomed to sterility the soil
where they are planted ; while the tempest is violently agitating their
tops, the air a little below is still, and sands far more barren than
the plateau of La Hague have been formed under their protection
into fertile fields."

A similar description of landscape effects, produced by the planting
of the Landes of the Gironde in Gascony with pines occurs in Weld's
tour through the Pyrenees.

Writing of this district he says : — " Opposite to Blaye, and extend-
ing for a considerable distance up and down the Gironde, is the
M6doc district, unlovely in appearance, being a vast plain composed
oS. stones and sand, the deposit probably of the river in long past
ages. But no smiling valley,

' Deep meadowed, happy, fair with orchard lawns,
And bowery hollows crown'd with summer sea,'

is so fruitful as is this seeming waste : for it is the nursing mother
of those vines, which, stunted though they be, produce the far.

A

2 APPEAEASCE PRESENTED BY PLANTATIONS,

famed claret grape. Who, ignorant of these facts, would suppose
that an acre of Medoc land is a fortune !"

Writing of Bourdeaux, the capital port of the district, he says : —
" Grand indeed is the water avenue to the great city of Bourdeaux.
Flowing beneath the softly wooded heights of Floirac, the tawny
Garonne, here upwards of 2,000 feet wide, sweeps in a semi-circle
past handsome quays three miles long, bearing all kinds of crafts,
from the jaunty felucca from the Mediterranean, to the stately India-
man ; for the tide at Bourdeaux, though the city is seventy miles
from the sea, rises twenty feet. Looking at all this beauty and com-
mercial grandeur, I thought of our Thames, and what it might be if
properly embanked and provided with capacious quays.

" Long to be remembered is an afternoon which I spent at Floirac,
where one of the great wine merchants resides. After an early
dinner, consisting of many delicacies, we adjourned, ladies as well as
gentlemen, to an arbour in the pleasure ground, situated at the edge
of the wooded heights. Within the arbour a large table was covered
with an endless variety of delicious fruits, all grown on the estate ;
and while we sat round these abundant products of the rich south,
the distant views, which are of the most exquisite nature, were illumed
by a sunset of great glory.

" On a day remarkable for an extra allowance of caloric — Bourdeaux
is exceedingly hot in summer — I visited the far-famed claret vaults
of Messrs Barton & Guestier. Oh, how delicious was the wine I
tasted in these deliciously cool regions — tasted ! no, drank ; for it
would have been nothing short of an insult to that rare old nestar to
have acted according to the advice given when you enter the London
Dock wine vaults — taste but do not swallow. Here, within the cool
precincts of the cellars, if you have the good fortune to be favoured
by being allowed to taste famous vintages, you will be made aware
how little, how very little, the middle classes really know what good
claret is. The stuff which, impudently assuming that name, is generally
our potion at a dinner party, is no more like the prime first growth
clarets of Medoc than sloe juice and brandy is genuine port; but
when we remember that a hogshead of good claret, the produce of a
first-rate vintage, frequently fetches a thousand francs on the spot,
we at least I, who am of the middle classes, can understand that
the chance of making acquaintance with prime claret is very small.
The more then, if you are a middle man, will you enjoy a tasting visit
to the Bourdeaux claret vaults, and especially if you entei^ them after
a lionising tour through streets baked with a temperature of about 90°

WELD S DESCRIPTION OP THE LANDES. 3

. . . Lighted by huge wax candles, I walked long and wonderingly
through alleys lined by hogsheads, or harriqii^es^ as they are called.
The value of these, as I was informed, was ^120,000. There
are generally 10,000 havriqxies in store, for the most part cob-
webbed and venerable vessels emitting a peculiar aroma, something
like that of new hay ; for your first-class claret requires to be kept
many years before it is ripe for post-prandial honours."

But sterile as seem the lands of the M^doc, where such treasures
are produced, they come short in this respect of the appearance
presented by the Landes of the Gironde, which have no such
tales to tell of fruit and wine.

" A few miles from Bourdeaux," he writes, " you enter the Landes,
across which the line is carried to Bayonne. Nothing can be more
dreary than these apparently interminable wastes. Your passage
across them suggests ideas of the ocean, with this great difference
however, that whereas the latter is rarely at rest, the vast tract of
the Landes, comprising 600,000 hectares, equal to 1,482,600 acres,
except when swept by hurricanes, presents a still and monotonous
surface. The soil is sand — endless sand — vertically as well as
superficially. Ai*tesian wells have been sunk to nearly the depth of
1,000 feet, and then a scanty supply of wretched yellow water has
been the only result. As may be supposed, the lives of the inhabitants
of this unpromising region are short, feverish, and sickly. The
Landais have a proverb —

' Tant que Landes sera Landes
La pellagri te demande.'

The said jjellagri, being a fatal disease occasioned by malaria
and bad water. Amidst these wastes, lying to the east of the pine
forests which fringe the sea coast, the Landais, who are with few
exceptions shepherds, spend the long summer days with their flocks
of sheep, each animal being as well known to them as their dogs.
The Landais shepherd is a primitive being, fond of solitude, rarely
venturing near the railway ; when he does, he gazes wonderingly at
the passing train — so to see him, you must penetrate into his wilder-
ness. There, amidst the great wastes, clothed in sheeps' skins, and
wearing the Navarre cap, you will find him mounted on tall stilts,
become, from long habit, like a second pair of legs, for he has been
accustomed to them from childhood ; probably knitting while his
flock cross the scanty herbage. There he stands, resting against his
pole, a strange tripod-looking figure— stranger still when he strides

4 APPEARANCE PRESENTED BY PLANTATIONS.

across the Landes in hot haste after a wandering sheep. He has
a small hut, sometimes a wife who aids him in cultivating a small
patch of ground, from which he obtains a little corn and a few
vegetables. A miserable existence is this, but the dawn of brighter
days has, we may hope, appeared for the poor Landais."

Some two hours journeying by rail takes the traveller from
Bourdeaux through clouds of dust and forests of pine to Arcachon.
*' Here," writes an English tourist, " houses, like Indian bungalows,
with broad verandahs, and often of only one storey, run for more
than a mile along the water's edge, each surrounded by its own
* compound,' to keep up the Indian phraseology, and each with its
bathing-house and steps leading down to the beach. From these the
lightly-clad inmates emerge at all hours, and pass the greater part of
their time either paddling barefoot on the shore when the tide is out,
or dancing in groups in the sea, which has the merit, in the eyes of
the nervous part of the population, of always being as smooth as a
mill-pond. I never saw a place so absolutely and completely given
over to bathing. . . But the real charm of Arcachon lies in its pine
forests, covering sand-dunes sometimes three or four hundred feet high,
and stretching back over the landes, where fresh-water lakes glimmer
in the blue distance. Pictui*esquely grouped within these resinous
groves are perched the villas and cottages of the winter town, to
which consumptive patients resort in the colder months to breathe
turpentine mixed with the soft sea breeze. The extraordinary
advantages of this hygienic compound seem to be getting more and
more recognised, and each year the number of visitors increases.
The high dunes completely shelter the winter town from the violence
of the gales, while there is a life and purity in the atmosphere which
have worked marvellous results. With a compass one may explore
the recesses of these forests for miles on horseback, for there is
scarcely any underwood, and one can therefore steer through them
in any direction ; though in fact there is not much danger of being
very seriously lost, for the forest abounds with the wooden shanties
of the collectors of turpentine, who are perpetually at work gashing
the trees and emptying the little pots tied on to them, and which
contain the sap, into the small tanks prepared to receive it. In the
centre of the basin are a couple of sand-banks, one of them partially
dry at low water, and on which any number of rabbits may be shot ;
and on the other an oyster-park, with an old hulk stranded upon it.
Large parties of merry-makers sail to this moist and oozy spot, and,

DESCRIPTION OP THE PIGNADAS. 5

taking off their shoes and stockings, catch their own shrimps, gather
their own cockles, and knock the oysters off the tiles upon which
they are growing, for themselves ; and then retiring to the hulk,
where sundry articles of diet may be purchased, make their cannibal
pic-nic with the addition of these living creatures. . . . Another
pleasing entertainment, much resorted to by both sexes, is spearing
fish by torchlight. On a dark night the bay is sometimes brightly
illuminated with the glare of the pine-splinters flaming from the
prows of boats in iron cradles, and the shouts of laughter tell of un-
successful prods with many-pronged spears at the eels and mullet
which wriggle or dart round the bright reflection on the water. It
requires considerable skill and practice to bring home a large basket-
ful, but some ladies become tolerably expert at this sport."

And here, amidst all the gaiety of a fashionable watering-place, the
residenter or the forester may find a solitude, for which he might
seek in vain elsewhere, in the forest of pines. " This, indeed," writes
Weld, " is the characteristic feature of Arcachon. The great pine
forest of the Landes, locally called pignadas, extends from the Adour
to the Gironde, and is an extraordinary monument of man's skill and
perseverance.

" Prior to 1789 this vast forest area was —

' A bare strand
Of hillocks heaped from ever-shifting sand,
Matted with thistles and amphibious weeds,
Such aa from earth's embrace the salt ooze breeds. '

The sand was so fine as to be wafted by the faintest bi'eeze ; while
the great sea storms raised huge sand waves, which overwhelmed
vegetation, and, rolling inland, frequently carried desolation and
destruction among far distant villages and fields. Such was the
state of this part of the country when M. Bremontier, an officer in
the Government department of the administration of forests of
France, conceived the idea of erecting wattle hurdles and boards
near the sea, so as to break the storms ; and of sowing in narrow
zones, leeward and at right angles to the prevailing wind, seeds of
the Finns Pinaster and common broom, in the proportion of five
pounds of the former to two of the latter per acre. The area sown
was then covered or thatched with pine branches, care being taken
to prevent these being blown away, by pinning them to the ground.
In about six weeks the broom seeds produced plants six inches high,
which attained the height of two feet at the close of the year. These

6 APPEARANCE PRESENTED BY PLANTATIONS.

now afforded excellent shelter to the pine plants, which were but
4-inch striplings, and under their fostering protection the pines grew
and flourished, until at length, with an ingratitude not unhappily
confined to the vegetable world, they suffocated their infantine
protectors, and rose high, defiant of the raging sand-storms.

" So effective was M. Bremontier's process that, in 1871, a com-
mission, appointed by Government to examine the Landes, reported
that 12,500 acres were covered with thriving and profitable pines;
and the Landais, who had lived to see their howling wastes clothed
with far-stretching forests, were enabled to gain a livelihood, less
precarious and perilous than that obtained by fishing in the stormy
waters of the Biscay Bay.

" Twenty-five years passed, and then the hand of man was busy
among the pines. Good as the pinaster is for domestic purposes, La

Fontaine says :

' Sera-t-il Dieu, table, ou cuvette ?

it is far more valuable for the great quantity of resin, tar, and lamp-
black which it produces. As you ride through the pines you will
meet the resin-gatherers, resiniers, as they are called, who during the
summer months live in the forest ; for the most part a rude set of
men, speaking a strange patois, from which, however, you may gleau
some information. When the resin-harvest is at hand, the resinier
goes forth provided with a short ladder and a curved axe. His
manner of testing the fitness of a tree to be tapped is by throwing
his arms around it. If the trunk be so thick that he cannot see his
finger ends, the pine is ripe for the operation. This is performed
with great quickness and dexterity. A longitudinal cut or groove is
made in the trunk, down which the resin flows, and is caught at the
bottom of the stem, in a little trough fashioned in a few moments
from the bark removed by the cut. Weekly the wound is re-opened
but not widened, and the operation is renewed yearly, until the
entire trunk is scored in such a manner as to make you wonder how
the maimed bole can support the superincumbent weight. But,
stranger still, the pine is not injured by this scoring process ; for, if
the operation be judiciously performed, by the time that the resinier
has gone round the tree, the first wound has healed, and the trunk is
ready to be bled again. Wonderful too is the quantity of resin which
exudes from these bountiful trees. You may know where the
resiniers have lately been, by the palsamic odour proceeding from
the wounded pine. A resin-gatherer told me that after a season's
practice — from the first of May to the end of September — a good

OOLLEOTING OP RESIN. 7

hand could score 2,400 trees, scrape the resine molle, which encrusts
the trunks, into the troughs with small iron rakes, and carry the
resin to the pits where it is boiled. I saw a resinier frequently score
a tree to the height of 15 feet, and make a trough in two minutes
and a quartei". Such a proficient earns 25 francs weekly, a high
wage in this part of France. Indeed, the resinier is far better off
now than the small vineyard proprietor, who generally, destitute of
capital, is ruined by a failure of his crop. . .

" When the pines have been scored and re-scored, those destined
to make tar — called pins perdus — are cut down. The tar, com-
mercially known as goudron des Landes, not so good, however, as
that derived from the Scotch pine, is made by burning the roots and
thick portion of the trunk very slowly in cavities made in sloping
ground, and the tar is caught in cast-iron pans and run into barrels.
An inferior kind of lamp-black is deposited from the smoke of the
wood, but a better description is obtained by burning the straw used
in straining the resin.

" Besides these products, the resin of the Finns Pinaster yields
common turpentine, and is used extensively for pills. Glaring
placards and advertisements at Arcachon further inform the visitor
that ' S^ve de Pin Maritime est recommandee contre les affections de
poitrine, catarrhes, bro7ickitis,' &c., by the Fi'ench Faculty, — a revival
by the way, in another form, of tar-water, whose varieties were
extolled by Bishop Berkeley long ago, in his curious book, entitled
' Sevis'. . . .

" And even now the economical uses of resin are not exhausted ;
so the Frenchman did not exaggerate when he asserted that, resine
est I'or en barriques.

" Many and delightful were the hours that I spent in the Pignadas,
generally on horseback, for the country around Arcachon is very
favourable for riding, and the small Landais horses are excellent.
Arab blood runs in their veins.

" As all the agremens of Arcachon are not yet chronicled in guide
books, I may mention that by far the most enjoyable excursion is
that to the Pointe du Sud, about six miles south of the town. Start
early, when the tide is ebbing, so that you may enjoy the fine, broad,
hard sand. At the Pointe du Sud you have the mighty Atlantic before
you, the great Biscayan waves breaking at your feet ; while behind
dark pines fringe the coast. Keturn through the forest ; avenues,
called Gardes-feu cut through the pines to prevent the spread of fire,
extend to Arcachon ; and when you are on the right track, you will

8 APPBARANOB PRESENTED BY PLANTATIONS.

do well not to stray from it, as it is quite possible to realise in these
pignadas the unpleasant feeling of losing your way, particularly when
the sun has set.

" Few places are more impressive than dark pine forests, now scream-
ing when the wind sweeps through to the trees, and now filling the
solitude with murmering voices, when stirred by gentle breezes, and
yet not a solitude ; for as you pass through them in the noontide the
air trembles with ceaseless hum. Pines are always a favourite home
for insects; and here, in the warm south, they exist in countless
multitudes, making even silence vocal ; for, flashing through the air,
or sluggishly basking in the summer sun, they are endowed with the
power of making the forest resonant with strange sounds. By far the
most remarkable of these noisy animals is the Cicada, which attains
a great size in the pine forests in Southern France, and emits a loud
sound, according to my observation, always increasing in intensity as
the temperature rises."

Agriculture, as from the first was intended, has followed in the
wake of sylviculture.

" After innumerable futile attempts to reclaim and fertilise portions
of this desert, two joint stock companies (Gompagnie des Landes, and
Compagnie d'Arcachon), have succeeded in reclaiming a considerable
portion of the Plaine de Cazaux.

" Sheltered from the prevalent west winds, by the great maritime
pine forest, the Plaine de Cazaux, situated to the east or leeward,
as may be said, of that forest, is not so liable to the destructive effects
of the great sand storms as other parts of the Landes. Rice, tobacco,
and the topinambour or Jerusalem artechoke, for which the soil is
admirably adapted, are the chief crops. The improvements are in a
great measure due to a M. Pierre."

From these pen and ink sketches some idea may be formed of the
appearances presented by the pine plantations on the Landes of the
Gironde. The forest-like character of these will bear comparison
with that of the plantations seen from the tower of the cathedral of
Antwerp. And a knowledge of the general appearance presented by
the district may lead to the conclusion that the transformation
cannot have been less complete.

CHAPTER II.

Appearances Presented by Lands Adjacent to the Pine
Plantations in Gascony.

To appreciate aright the eflPect produced by the planting of the drift
sands of the Landes with pine trees, it is necessary to know some-
thing of the appearance presented by the land thus utilised, and of
the land around which has thus been transformed into what in com-
parison therewith is a paradise — a garden of delight. A description
of the district, which may be reckoned one of the most dreaiy and
dismal in the land, one altogether at variance with the ideas called
up by the designation La Belle France, is given in a work by Arthur
Mangin, entitled " The Desert World," from an English translation,
of which I cite the following description :

" The department which borrows its name from the Landes of
Gascony is divided by the Adour into two wholly dissimilar parts.
To the south of the river lies a rich, undulating, vine-bearing country,
rich in pasturage and harvest, sown with pleasant villages and smiling
country houses, and watered by full streams and little rivers. To
the north the appearance of the country changes abruptly. When
the traveller has crossed the alluvial zone of the Adour he sees before
him a thin, dry, sandy level of a comparatively recent marine for-
mation. Its only products are rye, millet, and maize j its only vege-
tation, forests of pines and scattered coppices of oaks ; beyond these,
and they do not extend far, all cultivation ceases, and the soil is
stripped of verdure \ you enter upon the Landes — seemingly vast as
a sea — occupied by permanent or periodical swamps ; and where,
over a space of several square leagues, in an horizon apparently
boundless, you perceive nothing but heaths, sheepfolds or steadings
for the flocks of sheep that traverse these deserts, and shepherds
keeping mute watch over their animals, living wholly among them,
and having no intercourse with the rest of humanity, except when
once a week they seek their masters' houses to procure their supply
of provisions. It is these shepherds only (Landescots and Aouillys),
and not, as is generally supposed, all the peasants of the Landes, who
are perched upon stilts, so as to survey from afar their wandering
flocks, and to traverse more safely the marshes which frequently lie
across their path. b

10 APPEARANCE OF THE LANDE8.

" Wild and uncouth are the figures which these stilt-walkers
present, as they move rapidly over the country, often at the rate of
six or seven miles an hour ; occasionally indulging in an interval of
rest, by the aid of a third wooden support at the back (curved at the
top, so as to fit the hollow of the body), while they pursue their
favourite pastime of knitting. The dress of the Landescot is singu-
larly rude. His coat or paletot is a fleece; cuisses and greaves of the
same material protect his legs and thighs ; his feet are thrust into
sabots and coarse woollen socks, which cover only the heels and instep.
Over his shoulder hangs the gourd which contains his week's store of
provisions : some mouldy rye-bread, a few sardines, some onions and
cloves of garlic, and a flask of thin sour wine. From sunrise to sun-
set he lives upon the stilts, never touching the ground. Sometimes
he drives his flock home at eventide ; sometimes he bivouacs s%ib jove
frigido, under the cold heaven of night. Unbuckling his stilts, and
producing his flint and steel, he soon kindles a cheery fire of fir-
branches, and gathering his sheepskins round him, composes himself
to sleep 3 his only annoyances being the musquitoes, and his fears of
the evil tricks of wizard or witch, who may peradventure catch a
glimpse of him in the moonlight, as they ride past on their besom to
some unholy gathering or demon-dance.

" An English traveller has sketched in vivid colours the landscape
of the Landes. Over all its gloom and barrenness, he I'omarks, over
all its * blasted heaths,' its monotonous pine-woods, its sudden
morasses, its glaring sand-heaps, prevails a strong sense of loneliness,
a grandeur and intensity of desolation, which invests the scene with
a sad, solemn poetry peculiar to itself. Emerging from the black
shadows of the forest, the pilgrim treads a plain, ' flat as a billiard-
table,' apparently boundless as the ocean, clad in one unvaried un-
broken garb of dusky heath. Sometimes stripes and ridges, or great
ragged patches of sand, glisten in the fervid sunshine ; sometimes
belts of scraggy young fir trees appear rising from the horizon on the
right, and sinking into it again on the left. Occasionally a brighter
shade of green, with jungles of willows and water weeds, giant rushes,
and 'clustered marish mosses,' will tell of the 'blackened waters'
beneath—

* Hard by a poplar shook alway,

All silver-green with gnarled bark ;
For leagues no other tree doth mark
The level waste, the rounding gray.'

" The dwellings which stud this dreary, yet not wholly unpoetic

DESCBIPTIGN OF THE LAXDES. 1 1

landscape, are generally mere isolated huts, separated oftentimes by
maHy miles. Eound them spreads a miserable field or two, planted
with such crops as might be expected on a poor soil and from
deficient cultivation. The cottages are mouldering heaps of sod and
unhewn and unmortared stones, clustered round with ragged sheds
composed of masses of tangled bushes,- pine-stakes and broad-leaved
reeds, beneath which the meagrest looking cattle conceivable find a
precarious shelter.

" The Landes are divided into the Little Landes, near Mont-de-
Marsan ; and the Great Landes, stretching to the north and west of
the department of which that town is the capital, and uniting unin-
terruptedly with those that occupy the vast country situated south of
the Gironde. The total superficial area of these plains is estimated
at upwards of 2,400,000 acres, of which two-thirds belong to the de-
partment of the Landes, and the remainder to that of the Gironde."

Again — " In shape, the Great Landes may be compared to an
immense rectangular triangle, having for its base the coast, which,
from the mouth of the Gironde to Bayonne, or for a length of more
than sixty leagues, is almost rectilineal. But they are separated
from the sea by a long parallel chain of lakes and water-courses —
a waste pf shallow pools — a labyrinth of g^ilfs and morasses, and then
by the continuous chain of the Dunes.

" That which is commonly called the Great Lande is bounded on the
north by the etan;^, or lake, of Cazau. It is a sandy, treeless plain, and
upon which, for a traject of several leagues from east to west, not
one habitation worthy of the name is perceptible untU the traveller
arrives at ^Mimizan, near the southern point of the lake of Aureilhan.
This lake on the south-west pours its waters into the sea. To the
north it communicates, through the canal of St. Eulalie, with the
lake of Biscarosse, which is itself connected with that of Cazau.
East of this chain of lakes lies the Lande ; west of it stretches the
range of Dunes, or sand hills.

" The lake or pool of Cazau is a small sea of fresh water, perfectly
clear, profoundly deep, and fourteen to fifteen thousand acres in
extent. It has its whirlwinds and its tempests, so that in certain
seasons it is perilous to embark on its surface. And were its banks
clothed with rich woods, or raised aloft in irregular or precipitous
cliffs, it would surely attract as great a throng of tourists as the
mountain-tarns and lochs of Scotland or Cumberland, or the Arcadian
waters of Northern Italy. The lake of Biscarosse, in form a triangle,
with one side formed by the Dunes, covers about twelve thousand

12 APPEARANCE OF THE LANDES.

acres. It derives its name from a village situated at its northern
angle, on the bank of the canal which connects it with the lake of
Cazau. The lake of Aureilhan is the smallest of the three ; the St.
Eulalie canal, which links it to the preceding, traverses a series of
peat-bogs bounded eastward by gloomy pine-forests, and westward
by the interminable Dunes, which, by arresting the flow of the rain-
waters, have really created these so-called lakes and extensive
swamps. Enormous quantities of rain fall every year in the Landes,
— which district the Romans would certainly have dedicated to Jupiter
Pluvius, — and find beneath the thin superficial stratum or crust of
sand and earth, a sub-soil of tufa and allios — in other words, of com-
pact chalk and sand agglutinated by a ferruginous sediment. Fre-
quently this tufa possesses all the hardness of stone, and its
imperviousness is its fundamental property. Hence it follows, that
a portion of the heavy annual rainfall remains in the receptacles
provided by the hollows and depressions of the soil, and in due time
accumulates into marshes and lagoons, until gradually evaporated by
the heat of spring.

" When of old the scared peasants beheld the irresistible advance
of these strange ministers of destruction, they had no other resource
than to fell their woods, abandon their dwellings, and surrender their
* little air to the pitiless sand and devouring sea. What could avail
against such a scourge? Efi"orts were made to repel it. It is
said that Charlemagne, during a brief residence in the Landes, on
his return from his expedition against the Saracens, employed his
veterans, and expended large sums of money in preserving the cities
of the coast from imminent ruin ; but whether the means employed
were insufficient, or whether the imperial resources failed, and other
urgent needs diverted the population and their leaders from this
struggle against nature, the works were wholly abandoned."

But in more propitious circumstances the work has been resumed
with better success.

" The reader," says the writer I have quoted, " must not believe
this country to be a desert in the popular acceptation of the word ;
it has its forests of pines, where the extraction and preparation of
resinous matter are carried on with considerable activity. It has its
small towns, its pretty villages, its factories, and even its handsome
villas. Finally, modern industry has cut the Landes in two by the
Bordeaux railway, which traverses them from north to south, and
bifurcates at Morans to throw ofi' a line to Bayonne, and another to
Tarbes."

DESCRIPTION OP DUNES. 13

Of the Dunes which have been so transformed M. Mangin gives
the following description : — " The Dunes form the extreme line of
the Brittany coast for nearly two hundred miles, from the Adour to
the Garonne. They are hills of white sand, as fine and soft as if it
had been sifted through an hour-glass. Their outline, therefore,
changes every hour. When the wind blows from the land, millions
of tons of sand are hourly driven into the sea, to be washed up again
on the beach and blown inland by the first Biscay gale. A water
hurricane from the west will fill up with sand square miles of shallow
lake, driving the displaced waters into the interior, dispersing them
in shining pools among the * murmurous pines,' flooding and fre-
quently destroying the scattered hamlets of the people, and inun-
dating their fields of rye and millet.

" Their origin is due to the prevalence of the sea-winds on those
points of the coast which are not protected by rock and cliff, and
whose slopes of sand descend very gradually to the margin of the
waves. Their formation is easily explained. The sand of which
they are composed is a silicious material, reduced to minute grains,
generally rounded, by trituration. These grains, nevertheless, are
often too big and too heavy for the wind to take them up and scatter
them afar, like the dust of the highways or the ashes of volcanoes.
But at low tide the sand, dried by the sun's rays and the action of
the wind, off'ers to the latter a sufficient holdfast to be dragged up
the slopes which descend seaward, and deposited at a certain distance.
This process being constantly repeated, the heaps are daily increasing
in dimensions.

" It will easily be understood that this accumulation along the
shore cannot have taken place where the force and direction of the
sands experience periodical or capricious changes ; for then the sands
cast upon the beach by the winds of the north and west would be
driven back into the sea by the winds of the south and east. This is
noticeable in many places where the nature of the coast is favourable
for the production of such a phenomenon. But on other shores — as
on the Atlantic littoral of France — the winds which blow most
frequently and most violently are from the west and south-west. And
it is there we encounter the Dunes. Those of Gascony are by far the
most remarkable. Northward, they extend as far as the Point de
Grave, which shuts in the mouth of the Gironde ; southward, to the
bank of the Adour, and even further, to the cliff's of Beam. Here
the basin of Arcachon constitutes one vast hollow ; and some open-
ings exist, moreover, in the department of Laudes, between that basin

14 APPEARANCE OF THE LANDB8.

and the Adour, for the overflow of the waters which descend from the
interior. To the north and south of the Teste de Buch the chain of
sand hills measures from 4^00 to 6,600 feet in width. At other
points it is still wider ; but it narrows towards its extremities, and
both at the Point de Grave and near Bayonne does not exceed 450
yards.

" Owing to their extreme shiftiness of soil, the Dunes can attain no
considerable elevation. The sand deposited by the wind on the sum-
mit of the hill is always in a state of precarious equilibrium. It has
a constant tendency to be precipitated down the other side, and the
higher the summit the greater is tliis tendency, so that there comes
at last a moment when no further accumulation in height is possible.
The Dune may then extend its basis, may even increase twofold in
dimensions, but it no longer rises.

" Let us note, moreover, that owing to its density the sand cannot
be carried even by the most violent winds into the higher regions of
the atmosphere ; and that the Dunes, when they have reached a cer-
tain elevation, oppose to them an insuperable obstacle, ■ This circum-
stance would consequently have a salutary effect, and the accumulation
of sand would be determined by a law of its own, if the Dunes, once
formed, had time to cohere. But this is not the case. Incessantly
does the wind undo or modify its work ; and the loftiest hills being
the most exposed to its violence, are quickly reduced to the common
level. In general, the greatest elevation of the Dunes corresponds to
their greatest breadth. Thus the culminating point of those of Gas-
cony is found in the belt situated between the lakes of Cazau and
Biscarosse, where the chain is from 7,500 to 9,000 yards across.
Tlieir average height is 180 feet to 200 feet above the sea-level ; but
some of the hills in the forest of Biscarosse attain an altitude of 320
feet. In the neighbourhood of the mouths of the Gironde and the
Adour, where the chain is considerably narrowed, the height of the
Dunes is only thirty to forty-five feet.

" The reader must not suppose that the Dunes consist of a single
series of sand hills ranged along the shore. He will, however, have
conjectured, from our statements respecting their width, that they
really compose a chain of several more or less regular ridges. The
hills are separated from one another by valleys, locally named laites
or lettes. These valleys, where the pluvial waters flow and accumu-
late, exhibit a striking contrast, in their freshly-blooming verdure, to
the naked, barren Dunes. The general aspect of the landscape may,
therefore, be compared to that of the ocean. There is the same

DESCRIPTION OF DUNES. 16

broken surface, the same extent of undulation, the billows of sand
being upheaved by the wind like the billows of the sea, and sharing
in their mobility. You must see, says a writer, in order to form an
idea of those colossal masses of fine sand, which the wind incessantly
skims, and which travel in this way towards the inland country ; you
must see their contours so softened that they look like mountains of
plaster of Paris polished by the workman's hand, and their surface so
mobile that a little insect leaves upon it a conspicuous track ; their
slopes, at every degree of inclination ; their everlasting sterility —
not a blade of grass, not an atom of vegetation ; their solitude, less
imposing than that of the mountains, but still of a truly savage
character. You must see, from the summit of one of these ridges, the
ocean on your right hand, and on your left the extensive lakes which
border the littoral ; and, in the midst of this tumultuous sea of tawny
sand, green grassy valleys, rich and fertile pastures, smiling oases of
verdure, where herds of horses graze, and cows, half-wild, guarded by
shepherds scarcely less wild than they.

" The marked characteristic of the Dunes, as we have already said,
is their mobility, which renders them a constant menace for the
neighbouring populations. To the wind which creates them they
owe their frequent changes and their inland movement. While the
sea eats into the coast, assisted by the breezes which gradually sweep
clear the ground before it, the Dunes extend, and drive before them
the shallow lakes : these in their turn encroach upon tlie Landes, and
until now man has been constrained to recoil, step by step, before his
threefold enemy. It is in this phenomenon, rather than in the un-
grateful soil of the Landes, that we must seek the cause of the curse
which has seemed so long to rest upon this country-side. You must
go back some twenty centuries to trace the origin of the Dunes of
Gascony. Fourteen or fifteen hundred years ago the coast north of
the Adour was inhabited, and comparatively flourishing. Mimizau
was then a town and a sea-port, from which were exported the resinous
products of the neighbouring forests. The Normans disembarked
there on several occasions. Under its walls, in 506, was fought a
great battle between the allied Goths and Ostrogoths on the one side,
and the Bearnais, commanded by a bishop of Lescar, on the other.
Both town and port to-day are buried under the sands. ' Full fathom
five ' lie church and convent, and the busy street, the noisy mart, and
the once peaceful home. The present village has nearly perished :
the Dune was not three yards from the church when its progress was
recently arrestef^. Other cities, laid down in old charts of the country,

16 APPBARANOB OP THE LANDBS.

but of which not a trace remains, have in this manner disappeared,
and entire forests have been ingulfed, now under the sands of the
Dunes, now under the sands and waves of the sea.

" Some parts of the chain have been rendered to a great extent
immovable by the vegetation which has gradually covered them, and
these have opposed a formidable obstacle to the encroachments of the
sands. Yet here and there the barrier has been defied. For example,
in the forest of Biscarosse the movable Dunes, actually sweeping over
the ancient hills, have not only filled up the valleys, but ingulfed a
great number of pines, and i-aised themselves several yards above the
crest of the oldest trees, planted on the summit of the highest hills."

The name Dunes is traced etymologically to Dun, a hill, and in the
designation we may trace the origin of the designation downs given to
extensive districts in England. The designation lande is given to
waste lands and moors ; and thus may the larides of the Gironde be
associated in thought with Dartmoor and Exmoor, and with Howns-
iow Heath and other places bearing similar designations in England.

But if associated in thought differences in their character must not
be lost sight of. Of Dartmoor, the extensive and romantic table land
of granite, which occupies the south-western part of the country of
Devon, it is stated in the work from which I have quoted — " In its
recesses still linger the eagle, the bustard, and the crane; its solitudes
are broken by the hoarse cries of the sparrow-hawk, the hobby, and
the goshawk ; and the Cyclopean memorials of Druidism which cover
its surface — cromlechs and kistvaens, tolmens and stone-avenues —
invest it with a peculiar air of mysterious awe. It extends in length
about twenty-two miles (from north to south), and in breadth twenty
miles (from east to west). Its total area exceeds 130,000 acres. It
rises above the surrounding country like * the long, rolling waves of
a tempestuous ocean, fixed into solidity by some instantaneous and
powerful impulse.' A natural rampart is cast around it. Deep
ravines, watered by murmuring streams, diversify its aspect, and
lofty hills of granite, locally called to7's, of which the principal. Yes
Tor, has an elevation of 2,050 feet above the sea. Its soil is composed
of peat, in some places twenty-five feet deep, underneath which lies
a solid mass of granite, occasionally relieved by trap (a volcanic rock),
and traversed by veins of tin, copper, and manganese.

" Nearly in the centre of this dismal wilderness lies an immense
morass, whose surface is in many places incapable of supporting the
lightest animal, and whose inexhaustible reservoirs supply the foun

DESCRIPTION OF DARTMOOR. 17

taias of many a river and stream — the Dart, the Teigu, the Taw, the
Tavy — all clear as crystal iu the suniaier mouths, but, after heavy
rains, ruuniag redly through the ' stony vales.' The roaring of these
torrents, when angry and swollen, is sublime to a degree inconceiv-
able by those who have never heard the wild impressive music of
untamed Nature.

" The tors are remarkable for their quaint fantastic outlines, which,
like the clouds, suggest all manner of strange similitudes — 'to dragons,
and griffins, and hoary ruins, and even to human forms of gigantic
size, apparently confi'onting the traveller as the lords and natural
denizens of the rugged waste. The principal summits are Yes Tor,
Cawsand Beacon, Fur Tor, Lynx Tor, Rough Tor, Holne Ridge, Brent
Tor, Rippen Tor, Hound Tor, Sheep's Toi% Crockern Tor, and Great
Mis Tor. Not only must their variety of form delight the artist, but
his eye rests well pleased on their manifold changes of colour — purple,
and green, and gray, and blue — now softened by a delicate vaporous
shadow, now glowing with intense fulness in the sun's unclouded
light.

" Dartmoor is traditionally reputed to have been anciently clothed
with forest. The sole relic now existing is the lonely Wistman't
Wood, which occupies a sombre valley, bounded on the one side by
Crockern Tor, on the other by Little and Great Bairdown ; the slopes
being strewn with gray blocks of granite in ' admired disorder,' as
if the Titans had been at their cumbrous play. Starting from this
chaos of rocks, appears a wood or grove of dwarf weird-looking oaks,
interspersed with the mountain-ash, and everywhere festooned about
and garlanded with ferns and parasitical plants. None of these trees
exceed twelve feet in height, but at the top they spread far and wide,
and ' branch and twist in so fantastic and tortuous a manner as to
remind one of those strange things called mandrakes.' Their branches
are literally covered with ivy and creeping plants, and their trunks
so thickly embedded in a coating of moss that at first sight, says
Mrs. Bray, * you would imagine them to be of enormous thickness in
proportion to their height. Their whole appearance conveys to you
the idea of hoary age in the vegetable world of creation; and on
visiting Wistman's Wood it is impossible to do other than think of
those " groves in stony places " so often mentioned in Scripture as
being dedicated to Baal and Astaroth.'

" That heathen rites were celebrated here in the pre-historic era
seems very probable, the best etymologists agreeing that the name is
a corruption of Wise-man, or Wish-man ; that is, of the old Norse god

C

18 APPEARANCE OF THE LANDE8.

Woden, who is still supposed to drive his spectral hounds across the
silent wastes of Dartmoor. Celtic or Cymric memorials, as we have
previously hinted, are very abundant and very various. There are
cromlechs, where the Britons buried their dead ; stone pillars, with
which they commemorated their priests and heroes ; avenues of
upright stones leading up to the circles, where, perhaps, their priests
celebrated their religious rites ; kistvaens, or stone-chests, containing
the body unburned ; tolmens, or holed stones, whose meaning cannot
be determined, but which may probably have had some astronomical
uses; bridges, huts, and walled villages, all bearing traces of the
handiwork of our * rude forefathers.' "

For the counterpart of this we must go considerably to the north
of the Landes ; but we find it in Brittany, which, geologically speak-
ing, may be regarded as a prolongation of our English mountains, to
which, with all the north-west coast of France, they were formerly
united. " Brittany," writes Mangin, " belongs to what geologists call
the primitive and intermediary formations. It is divided into three
belts or longitudinal trenches : those of the north and south consist
of primitive rocks, granite, and porphyry ; the central appertains to
a more recent formation, to the group of intermediary or secondary
rocks, composed in the main of schists and mica-schists, quartz, and
gneiss. Schist prevails over a considerable ai'ea, and is prolonged to
the very extremity of the peninsula. These hard, compact, imper-
vious rocks, are entirely bare in many places ; elsewhere, and over a
great extent, they are covered but by a thin layer of clayey and
sandy earth, where the sudden slopes of the soil do not allow the
rains to settle.

"Here are the plains, often of considerable dimensions, which,
bristling with rocks, and broken up by ravines, water-courses, and
marshes, constitute the Landes of Brittany. True deserts these,
relieved at distant points by an isolated hut, or by a wandering herd
of swine, lean cows, and meagre-looking horses, which obtain a scanty
subsistence from the heathery soil, sown here and there with tufts of
furze, broom, and fern.

"Under a sky of almost continual sombreness, like that which
impends over the pottery districts of England, these landes present a
sufficiently sinister and uninviting aspect. The traveller, as he crosses
their sepulchral wastes, will hardly marvel that they were anciently
a chosen seat of Druidical worship. Like Dartmoor, they would
seem to have offered a peculiarly fitting arena for the rites and
ceremonies of a creed which we know to have been mysterious in

DESCRIPTION OF BRITTANY. 19

character and sanguinary in spirit. They are covered with its gray
memorials : the masses of granite of different shapes known as Maen-
Mrs, or 'long stones/ and peulvens, which appear to have been
employed as sepulchral monuments j dolmens, or ' table-stones ;' and
cromlechs {crom, bowed or bending, and lech, a stone), which anti-
quaries are now agreed to regard as the remains of the ancient
cemeteries or burial places. At Camae, near Quiberon Bay, may be
seen a truly remarkable example of the Parallelitha, or avenues of
upright stones, forming five parallel rows, which extend for miles
over the dreary moorland. What were their uses it is impossible to
determine, for there seems little ground to believe, as some writers
would have us believe, that they were * serpent temples,' where the
old Ophite worship was celebrated. We can only gaze at them in
wonder : mile upon mile of gray lichen stained stones, some twenty
feet high, laboriously fashioned, and raised in their present places by
the hand of man some twenty centuries agone.

" On these very dolmens, where the priests of the Tentates were
wont to immolate their human victims to their unknown god, the
mediaeval sorcerers and sorceresses celebrated the Black Mass, or
Mass of Satin, in terrible burlesque of the Eoman Catholic sacrament,
concocted their abominable philtres, and performed their dreary
incantations, Alas for human natux'e ! In every age it is a prey to
the wildest credulity. Even in the present day more than one
superstition hovers around the monuments of the Celtic epoch.
The Bretons believe them haunted by demons called povJpiq^uets, who
love to make sport of the passing stranger, but wiU sometimes give
both counsel and encouragement to those who know how to address
them in the prescribed formulas ; who, like the Ladye in the * Lay of
the Last Minstrel,' at their bidding can bow

' The viewless forms of air. '

For, in the Breton mind, the superstitions of Druidism have not been
wholly uprooted by the teachings of Christianity, still less by those
of science and reason. Many a dark and dismal legend flourishes in
the lonely recesses of the landes.

" Brittany, like England, has its Cornouaille, or Cornwall, and it
is here, particularly in North Cornwall, that we see it under its most
desolate aspect, with its chains of black treeless hills covered with
heath and furze ; with its deserts of broom and fern, its ruins scat-
tered along the winding roads, its attenuated herds wandering at their
will across the moors, and its savage, ignorant, and scanty population.

20 APPBARANOB OP THE LANDBS.

The Bretons of Cornwall, according to a French writer, are elevated
but a little above the true savage life. Those who dwell upon the
coast live on the products of their fishing, except when the fortunate
occurrence of a wreck provides them with temporary abundance.
At bottom, they possess the qualities and defects of characters
strongly tempered, but absolutely uncultivated. They are as hard
and bare as their own granite rocks. Persevering, courageous,
resolute, they make excellent sailors, the best which France can
find ; the sea is for them a second country. Progress, which they
do not understand, inspires them with a sort of terror, a gloomy mis-
trust. When the railway surveyors first intruded upon their solitudes,
these rigid conservatives assailed them with volleys of stones, and,
when the railroads were laid down, flung beams across the lines to
overthi'ow the hissing, whirring trains which threatened to disturb
their prescriptive barbarism. They asked but to be left alone — to
be suffered to live as their forefathers lived — to be spared the
ingenuities, successes, vices, and virtues of the New World. But
modern civilization, like Thor's hammer, or Siegfried's magic sword
Balmung, will break down the last barriers raised by ignorance and
superstition. It will shed its light upon the wilds and wastes of
Brittany, and compel their inhabitants in the course of years to
acknowledge its value and accept its benefits."

There is not a little in the ethnological remarks made which I am
not prepared to homologate. I consider the Parallelitha and similar
erections had no connection with Druid ism, that they were more
probably connected with the worship of Baal in some of its forms,
having their counterpart in the high places spoken of in the .Jewish
Scriptures, while the Druids represented the worshippers of the
" groves." But referring thus to this in passing I gladly, and with
gratitude, avail myself of the topographical description.

Ere we reach that stony region in travelling north wai-ds from the
Landes of Gascony, we must pass across the peat bogs of Montoir
and the Grand Briei'e, near Savenay, in the department of the Loire
Inf6rieure. They occupy a considerable area of a vast desolate plain,
where a few lean sheep crop an insuflScient food from the scanty
herbage, and whose sole product is turf. " This country," says
Jules Janin, " has no other harvest, no other wealth than its peat ;
neither fruit, nor flowers, nor corn, nor pastures, nor repose, nor
well-being ; the earth is wild, the sky one of iron. It is a region of
stagnant waters, pestiferous exhalations, decrepit men, famished
animals."

THE SWAMPS OP MONTOIR 21

" The swampy levels of Montoir form the natural vestibule to the
Armorican Peninsula, which of all the French provinces has the
longest and the most vigorously withstood the advance of civiliza-
tion, its ideas, and its modern institutions, and has the most rigidly
preserved its primitive character. There are many nooks and cor-
ners in Brittany scarcely changed in outward aspect or inner life
since the remote days when it was a valued appanage of the English
crown. They seem to have been plunged in a sleep of centuries,
from which the shrill whistle of the steam-engine is only just awaken-
ing them. The country is undulating and broken ; in the central
districts it assumes quite a mountainous character. It is true that
its heights are only of moderate elevation, the loftiest not exceeding
2,000 feet ; but they are ban-en, rude, and sombre in appearance.
The coast is picturesque enough to delight the most zealous artist,
bordered with high and abrupt cliflfs, and lined, as it were, with a
beach where the waters of the Channel ever break in floods of spray
and foam, and where masses of rock lie scattered of immense size
and the most fantastic forms."

The counterpart to this we find in the English fen country,
which extends inland, around an arm of the North Sea called the
Wash, into the six counties of Cambridge, Huntingdon, Lincoln,
Norfolk, Northampton, and Sufiblk, with an area of upwards of
420,000 acres. Inland it is bounded by an amphitheatral barrier of
high lands, and touches the towns of Bolingbroke, Brandon, Earith,
Milton, and Peterborough. Into this great basin flow the waters of
the greater part of the drainage of nine counties, which gather into
the rivers Cam, Glen, Lark, Nene, Great and Little Ouse, Stoke, and
Welland, these being linked together by a network of natural and
artificial canals.

" Anciently, the Fens were pleasant to the eye of the lover of the
picturesque ; for they contained shining meres and golden reed-beds,
haunted by countless water-fowl, and strange, gaudy insects. ' Dark-
green alders,' says Kingsley, ' and pale-green reeds stretched for miles
round the broad lagoon, where the coot clanked and the bittern
boomed, and the sedge-bird, not content with its own sweet song,
mocked the notes of all the birds around ; while high overhead hung
hawk beyond hawk, buzzard beyond buzzard, kite beyond kite, as far
as eye could see.' What strange transformations must this wild
region have undergone ! There was a time, in all probability, when
a great part of the German Ocean was dry land, through which, into
a vast estuary between North Britain and Norway, flowed together

22 APPEARANCE OP THE LANDES.

all the rivers of North-eastern Europe — Elbe, Weser, Rhine, Scheldt,
Seine, Thames, and all the rivers of east England, as far north as the
Humber. Meanwhile, the valleys of the Cam, the Ouse, the Nene,
the Welland, the Glen, and the Witham, were slowly ' sawing them-
selves out' by the quiet action of rain and rivers. Then came an age
when the lowland was swept away by the biting, corroding sea-wash
still so powerfully destructive on the east coast of England, as far as
Flamborough Head. ' Wave and tide by sea, rain and river by land ;
these are God's mighty mills in which he makes the old world new.
And as Longfellow says of moral things, so may we of physical, —

* ' Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they griud exceeding small ;
Though he sit and wait with patience, with exactness grinds he all. " '

These ever-active causes have converted the dry land into the fens.
The mud brought down by the rivers cannot get away to sea ; and,
with the debris of the-coast, it is constantly swept southward by tide
and current, and deposited within the great curving basin of the
Wash, between Lincolnshire and Norfolk. There it is kept by the
stroug barrier of shifting sands coming inwards from the sea ; a
barrier which also confines the very water of the fens, and spreads it
inland into a labyrinth of streams, shallow meres, and bogs. The
rainfall, over the whole vast area of dull level, has found no adequate
channels of escape for centuries; and hence we may understand how
peat — the certain product of standing water — has slowly overwhelmed
the rich alluvium, and swallowed up gradually the stately forests of
fir and oak, ash and poplar, hazel and yew, which once spread far
and wide over the blooming country.

' Many a green isle needs must be
In the deep wide sea of misery,'

sines Shelley ; and this dreary outcome of mudbank and bog and
mere had its wooded isles, very fair and lovely to behold, redeeming
the desolation of the landscape. Such were Ramsey, Lindsey,
Whittlesea, whose names remind us of their whilome characteristics
lea, ey, an island). In these green places the old monks loved to
build their quiet abbeys, rearing their herds in rich pastures, feeding
fat fish in their tranquil streams, and dreaming in the shadow of
green alder and stately ash.

" But these Eden-isles were few, and the surrounding marsh was
black and dismal enough to scare the boldest spirit, and pestilential
enough to sap and undei-miue the strongest frame. The Romans had
attempted to drain and embank it, and their vallum may still be

DESCRIPTION OP THE FENS. 23

tracked along the surface of the marsh-lands, marked to this day by
the names of Walsokeu, Walton, and Walpoole. In the Middle Ages,
however, it returned to its primeval desolateness — a waste and
wilderness, haunted by the foul legends of an unwholesome super-
stition. In the immediate neighbourhood of the great monasteries
of Crowland and Ely, and of the thriving towns, the good work of
drainage went on slowly; but elsewhere the land was given up to
the bittern and the heron."

By Dukes of Bedford much was accomplished in the earlier half of
the seventeenth century, and by Rennie, the great engineer, some
hundred and fifty years later, to fit these fens for agricultural opera-
tions. '* Works are now in progress," says the writer from ^vhom, in
furtherance of my work, I have quoted so largely, " for rescuing a
further portion of the basin of the Wash, to be formed into a new
county, and named after the Queen. So that now, in tracts once
covered by the sea, or knee-deep in reedy, slushy, pestilential slime,
the grass grows luxuriantly, the crops wave in golden abundance, or
the breeze takes up and carries afar —

' The livelong bleat
Of the thick-fleec6d sheep from wattled folds.'

" But the dominion of labour has not yet been established over the
the whole Fen-districts. There are still dreary nooks, and gloomy
corners, and unproductive wastes ; wild scenes there are, which few
Englishmen have any conception of as contained within the boun-
daries of their own ' inviolable isle.' Romantic scenery, remarks Mr.
Walter White, must not be looked for on the Lincolnshire coast. In
all the journey from the Wash till you see the land of Yorkshire,
beyond the Humber, not an inch of cliflf will your eyes discover.
Monotonous is the prospect of— ^

' A level waste, a roimding gray'

of sand-hills, which vary but slightly in height, and bristle with
marimi. ' But tame though it be,' continues our authority, ' the
scene derives interest from its peculiarity. Strange perspective
effects appear in those irregular hills : yonder they run out and form
a low dark, purple headland, against which the pale green and yellow
of a nearer tongue look bright by contrast. Here for a few furlongs
the range rises gray, cold, and monotonous ; there it has a warmth
of colour relieved by deep shadows, that change their tint during
the hours ihat accompany the sun while he begins and ends his day.
Sitting on the summit of those dry hills, you will remark the con-

24 APPEARANCE OF THE LANDES.

trasted landscape : on the one side, the level pasture land, league
after league of grassy green, sprinkled with villages, farms, churches,
and schools, where work and worship will find exercise through ages
yet to come ; on the other, league after league of tawny sand, sloping
gently outwards to meet the great sea that ever foams or ripples
thereupon. On the one hand, a living scene bounded by the distant
wolds; on the other, a desert, sea and shore alike solitary, bounded
only by the overarching sky. More thoughts come crowding into
the mind in presence of such a scene than are easy to express.' "

Such as are these English Dunes and Moors and Fens are the
Landes, with which the sand dunes which have been reclaimed to
man are associated, and of which they form a part. The special
characteristic of them is the sand of which they are composed; the
second characteristic of them is the superficial aspect which the hill-
like accumulation of the sand gives to the contour of the country ;
a third characteristic is the constant onward movement of the sand
landward, covering up valuable fertile land with sterile sand and
stagnant waters ; and the last, but not least remarkable characteristic
is the forests which now wave over extensive areas thus I'ecovered.

Of these the writer I have quoted, — I am unable to say whether M.
Mangin or his translator, — for the latter states that he has made
copious additions to the original work, with the view of rendering its
scope more comprehensive and complete, and of adapting it specially
to the requirements of the English reader — says : — " The works of
Charlemagne, on which he employed his veterans to preserve imperilled
cities, have been resumed, and with greater success, by a skilful
agriculturist, M. Desbiey, of Bordeaux, and an able engineer, M.
Bremontier, who have called in nature herself to assist man in his
war against nature. Their system consists of sowing in the driest
sand the seeds of the sea-pine, mixed with those of the broom
(genista scoparia), and the psamma areiiaria. The spaces thus sown
are then closely covered with branches to protect them from the
action of the winds. These seeds germinate spontaneously. The
brooms, which spring up rapidly, restrain the sand, while sheltering
the young pines, and thenceforth the Dune ceases to move, because
the wind can no longer unsettle its substance, and the grains are
held together by the roots of the young plants. The work is always
begun on the inland side, in order to protect the farmer and the
peasant, and to withdraw the infant forest from the unwholesome
iuflueuce of the ocean- winds. And, in order that the sown spaces

THE FEATURE OP THE LANDE8. 25

shall not themselves be buried under the sands blown up from the
shore, a palisade of wicker-work is raised at a suitable distance,
which, reinforced by young plants of sandwort (psaoima areiutria),
check the moving sands for a sufficiently long time to favour the
development of the seeds. Finally, the work is completed by the
construction of a substantial wall, or rather an artificial cliff, which
eflfectually prevents the further progress of the flood, or directs it
seaward, to be arrested on its course by the barrier of the sand-hills.
Unable to force a passage through these natural ramparts, they have
excavated certain basins, more or less extensive, and more or less
deep, which have formed inland seas, communicating with the Atlantic
by one narrow issue.

" It is a noteworthy fact that, owing to the encroachment of the
Dunes, these lakes have been constantly forced back upon the inland
country. Fortunately, this menacing invasion of the sands has been
checked by the great engineering works executed a few years ago ;
which, on the one hand, have fixed, and, as it were, solidified the
Dunes, and, on the other, have provided for the regular outflow of
the waters. The Landes have thus been opened to the persevering
labours of the cultivator. The culture of the pine, and the manu-
facture of resinous substances, have largely extended, and the time,
perhaps, is not far distant when these deserts will almost completely
disappear; when these desolate and unproductive plains will pleasantly
bloom, transformed into shadowy woods or verdurous meadows.

" To so fortunate a result nothing will more powerfully contribute
than the embankment of the Dunes. These have been, in reality, the
true scourge of this country ; these were the moving desert, the con-
stantly ascending sea, which had already engulfed forests, villages,
even towns, under its billows of sand, and driven before it the ter-
rified inhabitants of the coast."

The expressions employed in this intimation of what is expected
remind a Scotsman of his Scottish paraphrase of the predictions of
Isaiah —

" With joy and peace shall then be led

the glad converted lands ;
The lofty mountains then shall sing,

the forests clap their hands.
Where briers grew 'midst barren wilds,

shall firs and myrtles spring ;
And nature, through its utmost bounds,

eternal praises sing."

26 APPEARANCE OP THE LANDE8.

I have not seen these plantations, but I have in France had much
conversation in regard to them with others of similar tastes who have
resided in the midst of them. The accounts given to me were vague,
but not more so than conversational statements in general are. They
left on my mind the impression that on the sea margin there is a pretty
broad beach, and some 100 yards or more from this — 200 it may be,
or 300 — the trees have been planted in a belt following, to some ex-
tent, the line of the coast, and extending in breadth irregularly from
half a mile to a mile, it may be, or more, beyond which the planta-
tions are continued in strips of some breadth, crossing each other at
right angles, and thus enclosing quadrangular patches or fields, which
have been brought under cultivation. Upwards of 100,000 acres of
land were reported to me as having been reclaimed, and to a con-
siderable extent covered with trees.

CHAPTER III.

Legislation in Regard to the Planting of the Landes
WITH Trees.

The planting of the Laiides with trees was begun in 1789, under the
direction of the Minister, AI. Necker, (father of Madame de Stael).

On the 13th Messidor an /X(2nd July, 1801), there was issued the
following Arrete, or Order, relative to the plantation with wood of
the Dunes on the coast of Gascony.

"The Consuls of the Republic on the report of the Minister of the
Interior, the Council of State having been heard, order :

" Art. 1. Measures shall be taken to continue to fix and to plant in
wood the Dunes of the coasts of Gascony — beginning with those of
La Teste — according to the plans presented by the citizen Bremon-
tier, engineer, and the Prefect of the depai'tment of the Gironde.

" 2. To this effect there shall be established a commission, composed
of the chief engineer of the department, who shall preside, a forest
administrator, and three members taken from the agricultural section
of La Societe des sciences, arts et belles-lettres de Bourdeaicx, who shall
be appointed by the Prefect on presentation by the society.

" The said commission shall direct and superintend the execution of
the works, together with the employment of the funds which shall be
appropriated thereto. The whole under the authority, and with the
approval of, the Prefect," . . .

By another order, issued under date of t\iQ 3rd Jour complemenfaire,
an IX, it was ordered :

" Art, I. The measures prescribed under Order of the 13th Messidor^
an IX, for the fixation and plantation of the Dunes on the coasts of
Gascony shall, in what relates to wicker hurdles and other artificial
works which they shall require, be discussed on the plans of the
citizen Bremontier, Engineer-in-chief, and approved by the Prefect of
the department of the Gironde j and in what relates to sowings and
plantations these must be arranged with the Administration of Forests.

" 2. The expenses for hurdles and other artificial works shall be
made from the funds of the department of the Interior, and those for
the plantations and the salaries of forest agents from the funds
appropriated to forests."

ao LEGISLATION RELATIVE TO

By decree of 12th July, 1808, it was declared : "Art. 22. There
shall be established in the department of the Landes a commission
for the plantation of the Dunes.

" This commission shall be organised in the same manner as that
established at Bordeaux in execution of the decree of the 18th
Messidor, an IX"

On the 14th December, 1810, the following decree was passed by
Napoleon :

" Wapoleon, &c. — On the report of our Minister of the Interior,
our Council of State having been heard, we have decreed and do
decree as follows :

" Art. 1. In the maritime departments there shall be taken measures
for the sowing, the plantation, and the culture of vegetables known
to be the most suitable for the fixation of Dunes.

" 2. To this effect the Prefects of all the departments in which are
Dunes shall cause to be prepared in their respective departments by
the Ingenieurs des Fonts et Ghaussees, a chart of the Danes which are
susceptible of being fixed by plantations appropriate to their nature ;
they shall cause to be distinguished on their charts the Dunes which
belong to the domains, those which belong to communes, and those
which are the property of private persons.

" 3. Each Prefect shall draw out, or cause to be drawn out, in
support of these charts, a memoir on the most advantageous manner
of proceeding, according to localities, in the sowing and planting of
the Dunes ; they shall annex to this report a draft of regulations,
which shall contain the measures of administration the most
appropriate to his department, which can be usefully employed to
effect the end desired.

" 4. The charts, memoirs, and drafts of regulations, got up and
drawn out in execution of the foregoing articles, shall be sent by the
Prefects to our Minister of the Interior, who can, on the report of our
Director-General des Fonts et Chaussees, order the plantation if the
Dunes do not include any private property ; and, in the contrary case,
he shall make his report to us, to be by us decided in Council of State
in the form adopted for regulations of public administration.

" 5. In the cases in which the Danes shall be the property of private
persons, or of communes, the charts shall be published, and posted
up in the forms prescribed by the law of 8th March, 1810; and if
the said private persons or communes find themselves incapable of
executing the works commanded, or refuse to do so, the public

PLANTATIONS ON THE DUNES. 29

administration shall be authorised to see to the plantation at their
expense ; thej shall retain possession of the Dunes, and collect the
proceeds of the fellings which may then be made, until complete
recovery shall have been made of the expenses which have been
incurred in the case, and of interest thereon ; after this the Dunes
shall return to the proprietors, under burden of maintaining satis-
factorily the plantations thereon.

" 6. In time coming no felling de plants d'oyats, of mat grass epines
maritimes, pine trees, silver firs, larches, and other arenaceous plants,
ministering to the conservation of the Dunes, shall be made without
the special authorisation of the Director-General des Fonts et
Ghaussees, and on the advice of the Prefects.

" 7. There shall be established Guai'ds for the conservation of the
plantations actually existing on the Dunes, or which shall be made
there in time to come ; their appointment, their number, their duties,
their salary, their uniform, shall be regulated after the mode in use,
for the guards of communal woods.

" Offences shall be prosecuted before the tribunal, and punished
conformally to the provisions of the Penal Code.

" 8. We do not design, by the present decree, to innovate aught on
what is practised for the plantations which are being executed in the
Dunes of the departments of the Landes, and of the department of
the Gironde.

" 9. Our Ministers of the Interior, and of Finances, are charged
each in what concerns him, with the execution of this decree."

After the restoration there was decreed the following Ordinance :

*' Ordinance of 5th February, 1817, relative to the fixation and the
sowing of the Dunes on the departments of the Gironde and the
Landes.

" Louis, &c. — On the reports of our Ministers, Secretaries of State
in the departments of the Interior and of Finance, our Council of
State being heard, we have ordained, and do ordain as follows :

" Art. 1. The works of fixation and of sowing the Dunes in the
departments of the Gironde and of the Landes shall be resumed in
1817.

" These works shall, in regard to execution, be directed by our
Director-General des Fonts et Ghaussees, under the authority of our
Minister of the Interior.

2. The necessary funds for this operation shall be charged in the
budget des Fonts et Ghaussees, the yearly credit must not exceed
9 0 ,000 francs for the two departments.

30 LEGISLATION RELATIVE TO

3. The works shall be executed, the expenditure made, and the
accounts rendered, according to the mode adopted for the service
des Fonts et Chaussees.

" 4. In succession as the sowings reach an age which shall be
afterwards determined, they shall cease to be entrusted to the
Director des Fonts et Chaussees ; but he shall transfer them to the
General Administration of Forests.

" 5. The General Administration of Forests shall furnish, free of
charge, to the Direction des Fonts et Chaussees, the seeds, young trees,
and boughs, yielded by the forests which they administer, which
shall be necessary for the fixation and sowing of the Dunes.

" 6. The Ingenieurs des Fonts et Chaussees are authorised to require
assistance of the forest agents and guards in the tours of inspection
which they shall have to make over the whole extent of the Dunes.

" 7. It shall subsequently be decided what special measures shall
be taken to prevent and to repress the ofi'ences which tend to destroy
or to injure the works of sowing the Dunes.

" 8. A regulation of our Director-General des Fonts et Chaussees,
approved by our Minister, Secretary of State for the Interior, shall
determine the advance of the works, their range and their surveillance.
(This was done by a regulation dated 7th October, 1817.)

"9. The orders of 2ad July, and 20th September, 1807, are
abrogated, together with all other provisions contrary to the present
ordinance.

" 10. Our Minister, Secretary of State for the Interior, is charged
with the execution of the present ordinance."

On 29th April, 1862, was issued a decree, which places the
superintendance of the Dunes within the duties of the Minister of
Finance. * The provisions of this are as follows :

" Art. 2. The works of fixation, of maintenance, of conservation, and
of exploitation of the Dunes in the maritime coast are placed within
the range of duties of the Minister, Secretary of State of Finance,
and they are entrusted to the Forest Administration.

" 3. These provisions shall come into operation on 1st July, 1862.

" 4. Our Ministers of State, of Finance, of Agriculture, of Commerce,
and of Public Works, are charged each in what relates to his de-

* A law appears to have been issued in 1857, enjoining the draining and
planting of all lands belonging to communities within the district of the
Landes, but this I have not seen.

PLANTATIONS ON THE DUNES. 31

partment with the execution of the present decree, which shall be
inserted in the Bulletin des Lois.

These enactments tell this much of the history of the work :
that the views of M. Bremontier commended themselves to the
execution of the Republic, and that he was entrusted with the
execution of the work at the public expense, under legitimate
restriction ; that the work was ordered to be begun at the Dunes
of La Teste in Gascony, in the first year of the present century, and
seven years later they were begun on the Landes ; that the work was
carried out with if possible greater energy under Napoleon the 1st,
and subsequently under Louis XIV ; and that, carried out previously
under the Minister of the Interior, they were in 1862 transferred to
the control of the Minister of Finance, and entrusted to the Forest
Administration.

CHAPTER IV.

Literature IIelative to the Arrest axd Cultivation op
Drift-Sands in France.

The work of planting the Landes of Gascony, as has been stated, was
begun in 1789.

In 1790 was published a Memoire sur les Dunes, d-c, by M.
Bremontier, by whom the work was projected and begun under the
direction of M. Necker. In this memuir M. Bremontier describes the
formation of the sand-dunes, and of the measures which had been
adopted to arrest the drifting of the sand.

In 1806 appeared a Rapport sur les cliff erents Memoirs de M.
Bremontier, by M. M. Laumont, et mitres.

In 1827 was published Historique de la creation d^une Richesse
Millionaire, par la adticre des Pins, by M. Delamarre ;

In 1831, a Notice sur les travaux de la fixation des Dunes, by M.
Lefert, Ingenieur des Pants et des Chaussees, in Annates des Fonts et
Chaussees, 1831, 3nd Semestre.

In 1833, in Annates des Ponts, d:c., 1st Semestre, were reprinted
the Memoire by Bremontier, and the Rapport, by Laumont and others,
mentioned above.

1842, a Notice sur le pin Maritime, by M. Lorentz, appeared in
Annates forestiere.

1847, a Memoii'e sur les Dunes de Golf de Gascoyne, par M. Laval,
Ingenieur en chef, Directeur des Ponts et Chaussees, appeared in
Annales des Ponts, tf-'c, 2nd Semestre.

This is spoken of as a very remarkable Memoir, which, though
less extensive and comprehensive in subject than that of the dis-
tinguished Bremontier, fully and perfectly explains the formation of
Dunes, and the latest and most approved methods employed to fix
them.

In 1857 was published a second edition of Mise en valeur des terres
pauvres par le Pin Maritime, by Am6d6e Boitel, Inspecteur de
r agriculture.

In 1862 appeared an interesting article entitled, Le littoral de la
France, hy Etissee Reclus, in the Revue des Deux Mondes, for
December, 1862.

FRENCH AND GERMAN LITERATURE. 33"

In 1864 was published Traite de la Culture du Pin Maritime dans
les Landes, by Eloi Samanos, Paris. 8vo.

About this time, I presume, was published '' The Desert World,"
by Arthur Mangin, from a translation of which, published by Nelson
and Sons, I have quoted so largely ; and Weld's " Tour through the
Pyrenees," to which I am also so greatly indebted.

In 1870 an interesting report on the Landes of Gascony was made
to the academy, by M. Faye.

These works I cite as bearing chiefly upon the planting of the
Landes of Gascony and the Gironde.

The literature thus cited relates only to one aspect or department
of a wider subject : The natural history of drift sands, and means
of arresting and utilising them.

The literature on this subject is voluminous. It is chiefly in con-
nection with sylviculture in Gascony that the students of the natural
history of Dunes in France have published the results of their obser-
vations. It may be, and probably it was the case, that the planting
of the Landes with trees called then for the study of the subject, and
supplied, at the same time, the oppoi'tunity of careful observation.
But much as we may owe to French writers on the subject, it is not
to them alone that we are indebted for information on the subject ;
and none will be more ready than they, with the courtesy of their
nation, and the honourable feeling of men of science, to admit that it
is not to them or to their countrymen, but to others, we are indebted
for information on many points surpassing in importance in their
relation to physical geography what they have communicated,
relating as this did chiefly, though not exclusively, to the cultivation
of these Dunes when formed, and the practicability of doing so
advantageously to all concerned.

While they were thus employed, in other nations the subject in
other aspects of it was commanding and receiving attention. In
1832 appeared Aideitung ziim Aiiban der Sandflaehen ; and in 1838
was published a work entitled Over den Oorsprong en die Geschiedenis
der HoUandsche Duinev, by Hull. The latter relating to the origin
of the Dunes, the former to the planting of them.

In 1841 appeared a paper, by G. Forchhammer, entitled Geognostische
Studien am Meeres Ufer, in Leonhard imd Bi'oun's Nexies Jahrbuch
fur Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologic, &c. Jahrgang, 1841.

In 1846, was published Die Inseln und Marschen der Herzogthiimer
ScJdeswig und Holstein. Dresden and Leipsig. 3 vols. 8vo.

E

34 LITERATURE OP THE SUBJECT

In 1850, Der Di'menhmi, auf Ostsee, Kusten West-Preussens, by G.
C. A. Krause, 1850, appeared; aad subsequently there was publisbed.

lu 1854, Ansichteii uber die Bnwcddung der Steppendes Europaischen
Ricsslands, by J. von den Brincken. Braunschwieg. 8vo.

In 1856 was published at Haarlem De Boden von Nederlanden, by
W. C. H. Staring.

In 1861 was published at Copenhagen Oni Klit formationen og
Klittens Behandliyig, og Bestyvelse, by C. C, Andreson.

And in 1873 was published at Vienna Der Euroixiische Flug sand
und sdne Kulhcr, by Josef Wessely, in which is given a list of upwards
of 100 books and papers on subjects pertaining to this department of
forest science in Hungarian, Latin, and German, published in
Hungary alone.

In our own language valuable information in regard to the natui-al
history of sand, and of sand dunes, is given by the Honourable Mr
G. P. Mai'sh in his volume on " The Earth as Modified by Human
Action ;" and by Professor R. C. Kedzie of the Agricultural College
of the State of Michigan, in a lecture delivered at the College, in
September, 1870 ; which will be printed in the appendix.

It does not come within the scope of my purpose in this volume
to enter upon the consideration of the more comprehensive views of
the subject thus opened up. The discussion of these is for the pre-
sent postponed ,

In accordance with what has been advanced in a previous chapter,
is a narrative of the operations given in an article on pine trees,
which appeared in the Edinburgh Review in October, 1864:,

From this it appears the Landes, in Gascony in 1789, covered 300
square miles, ever shifting, and ever encroaching on the productive
land beyond this sand. M. Bremontier, in the administration of forests,
set himself to fix, and, if practicable, so to utilise this as to make it
productive.

" In his report of proceedings, he compai'ed this sandy tract to a
billowy sea. It oSered nothing to the eye but a monotonous
repetition of white wavy hillocks perfectly destitute of vegetation.
When violent storms of wind occurred, the surface of these downs was
entirely changed — what were hills had become valleys, and valleys,
hills. The sand on these occasions was often blown into the interior
of the country, actually covering cultivated fields, villages, and
even entire forests. This was done so gradually by a shower of
particles as fine as the sand used for hour glasses that nothing was

IN THE " EDINBURGH REVIEW." 35

destroyed. The sand gradually rose amongst the crops as if they
were inundated with water ; and the herbage and the tops of trees
appeared quite green, and healthy even at the moment of their being
submerged. On this moving and shifting sea, M. Bremontier sowed
seeds of the common broom mixed with those of the pinaster, com-
mencing on the side next the sea — or on that from which the wind
generally prevailed, and sowing in narrow zones in directions at right
angles to that of the wind. The first zone was protected by a line
of hurdles, and after it was established, it protected the second, as
the second did the third, and so on.

" To prevent the seed being blown away before it had germinated
and become firmly rooted, he protected it by various ingenious modes,
such as hurdles and thatching, and he had at last the gratification,
after conquering many difficulties, of seeing his first zones firmly
established. The rest was then comparatively easy ; and by degrees
the trees covered the whole of these sandy downs, not only providing
the interior country with a barrier against the incursion of the sands,
but turning the downs themselves from a desolate waste into a source
of productive industry. Although the timber is of little value, the
manufacture of tar, turpentine, and other resinous products furnishes
sufficient occupation for the inhabitants, who are thinly scattered
over large spaces. Among the efforts of man to control the elements
and the powers of nature the conquests of the Landes from the desola-
tion of the desert is entitled to a place beside the recovery of Holland
from the empire of the sea.

"An agricultural genius, who, having studied agriculture, and
particularly drainage, under scientific teachers, devised a system of
reclaiming and husbandry, which has been very successful.

" Prosperity is rapidly following these improvements, and, what is
better, malaria no longer poisons the reclaimed district. The
peasantry enjoy better health, and M. Pierre firmly believes that the
terrible pellagri will soon be unknown in the Landes."

CHAPTEK V.

Culture op the Maritime Pine on the Landes op Gascony.

M. BoiTEL, in his volume entitled Mise en valeur des Terres pauvres
par le ^jmi maritime, supplies much of the information which is
naturally desired in proceeding to enquire what steps should be taken
in carrying out similar measures elsewhere.

The following is a resum6 of the details of operations followed in
Gascony, as reported by him. Having referred to the circumstance
that these two distinct forms of sand-lands, the one situated more in
the interior of the land, immobile, or at least settled, and ranked by
geologists amongst the formations of the tertiary period ; the other
found in the neighbourhood of the sea, and belonging to the dune
formations still going on, mobile, and affected by the winds ; he
describes, first, the formation of pineries, or plantations of pine on
the fixed sands.

Operations are carried on generally thus on lands covered with
heather, or heather brooms, and whins : If the land be capable of
tillage they begin by enclosing it, so as to exclude cattle, which, but
for this precaution, would over-run the plantation, and do great
damage to the seedlings or plants. This is effected by the formation
of what is locally called a barradeau, composed of an exterior ditch,
the inner bank of which is furnished with a wall of earth covered
with sods about a metre, or 40 inches, in height. It is constructed
entirely of earth dug in the formation of the ditch, and is almost
vertical on the outside ; on its inner side it is formed of the sand
furnished by the same ditch, leaning against the wall to a height of
45 m.m., or 18 inches.

This done, advantage is taken of the weather to set fire to the
bush, taking necessary precautions against the extension of this
beyond the enclosure to the bush, or pineries adjacent. If the ditch
be not deemed sufficient, a band of 1 or 2 metres in breadth is cut
with a scythe along the outside of the barradeau, and the bush and
brushwood thus obtained is thrown into the interior of the enclosure.

When the growth of bush is strong and near a tile-work, it is often
advantageous, instead of burning it on the ground, to sell it for use
in the kiln.

f

boitbl's account of operation. 37

Some careless proprietors sow the pine seed on the land amongst
the bush, without any preparatory work. In such cases the seedlings
push their way with difficulty, and the young pines remain long in a
miserable and languishing state, if they do not altogether succumb in
the struggle. In the district of Orleans a careful preparation of the
soil is necessary, but in Gascony it is enough that the heath be
mown or burned.

It is found advantageous to sow in September, but it may be sown
on till May, and in favourable spots till the end of that month.

When the ground is free, five or sis seeds are deposited in holes
made with a small wooden trowel, 60 m.m., or 2 feet apart, and 10 or
12 inches deep. Where the ground is hard or covered with sod,
the holes are dug with a pick-axe or a hoe. Brooms are sown at the
same time to give shade and shelter to the seedlings, which are very
sensitive, both to sunshine oud to cold,

By Bremontier, first hurdles or wicker work, and afterwards trees
were employed in his successful undertakings to arrest the drift-sands
of the Landes, and the two appliances are used conjointly; while not
a little is accomplished by the natural, or aided, spread of the
indigenous vegetation, the different kinds of which, in accordance with
the laws regulating the distribution of plants, grow well in their own
domains.

" On the very margin of the sea," says Boitel, " that is at the limit
reached by the waves on the slope of the coast directly opposed to all
the marine influences, we admire the robust vegetation of the
calamagrostis arenaria, (a species of small reed), called there gourhet ;
of the triticum junceiim, (a species of Couch grass) ; and of the
Festuca sdbulicola (a species of Fescue grass). These are the three
species of plants which, by their vivacious condition, their long, wide-
stretching and resisting roots, their numei'ous and persistent leaves,
and the length of their stipes, or stalks, contribute most powerfully to
arrest the sands. Some other herbaceous plants also are feeble
auxiliaries to them in doing so — such are the convolvulus soldanella
(the sea convolvulus), the arenaria jjej^loides (ovate leaved Honckenya),
the cahile maritima (sea rocket), the galum arenaria (a species of
lady's obedstraw), the eryngiimi maritimum (sea holly), and the
eiiX)horhia jmralis (sea spurge).

" Leaving this little slope battered by the sea, and mounting the
terrace which dominates the sea there for a breadth of from 400 to
500 metres — ^ligneous vegetables are as yet unable to maintain them-

38 CULTURE OP THE MARITIME PINE.

selves against the sea-breeze, — we find only a herbaceous vegetation,
which comprehends the species which have been mentioned, and with
them the following : — Elychrysum stoechas (a species of everlasting),
carex arenaria (sand carex), linarla serpyllifolia (thyme-leaved toad
flax), thymus serpyllum (wild thyme), hceleria cristata (crested koeleria),
aira canescens (gray hair grass), lotus corlatus (nicurd's foot trefoil),
jasione montana (common sheep's bit), silene bicolor (a species of
campion, or catchfly), alyssum arenariuiii (sand alyssum), hieraceicm
prostatum (a species of hawkwood), anthyllis vulneraria (lady's fingers),
astragalus hayonensis (a species of milk vetch), medicago maritima
(seaside medick), diaiiihus gallicus (French pink), ononis spmosa
(prickly rest-harrow), sedum acre (biting stoncrop), diotis candidissiam,
(white cotton weed), thrincia hirta (hairy thrincia), crithmum mariti-
mum (sea camphire), artemisia crinthmifoliitm (camphire leaved worm-
wood)."

It is the zone which succeeds this last, extending from Bayonne to
Cape Breton, which has, by the care of the Government, been devoted
to the culture of the maritime pine.

In regard to outlying portions of the zone of plantations, he says :
— "It is interesting to visit the maritime pines, which look like
advanced posts, planted there to withstand the sea, and arrest the
winds and the sand. Although they are under the shelter of an en-
ormous screen of sand accumulated by the waves, they are all mutil-
ated and deformed ; no one has kept his head ; they have the trunk
laid against the ground, the branches are covered up with sand, and
having assumed the appearance of young pine layers. The sea winds
have levelled up the sand on them to a depth of 1.50 meters, or 5 feet.
The grains of sand driven by the tempest give to the leaves violent
and multiplied strokes," which make them become yellow and dry,

" In proportion as the distance between them and the sea is in-
creased, being numerous and varied, they give mutual support ;
they also increase in size, and resume by degrees their natural form.

"Beyond this zone of deformed and stunted pines we find at about a
kilometre, (two thirds of a mile) from the sea, beautiful pineries
which furnish in abundance wood and resin. But it must always be
born in mind that these pines never acquire the dimensions, the
regularity, and the vertical growth of the pineries farther inland ;
the influence of the sea makes itself be felt over a radius of from 2
to 3 kilometres (or two miles)."

Sometimes a spontaneous and vigorous vegetation fixes and consoli-

ACCOUNT GIVEN BY COURREGES. 39

dates the sand on level spots which present little hold to the violence
of the wind ; but it is the maritime pine which plays the most im-
portant part in effecting this.

Two principal things have to be attended to by the forester to
whom it is entrusted to sow the pines in these mobile lands. He
must seek first to prevent the adjacent sand from invading and
annihilating the sowing ; and, second, to prevent the wind carrying
away or otherwise modifying the surface of the ground sown : that is,
in other words, he must fix down the adjoining sand, and protect the
ground sown. The first must be done by plantation of Gourbet,
calamagrostis arewxria (sand small reed), or by dayonnages, lines of
wickerwork. We are indebted to Courreges, a careful observer,
early lost to forest science, for the following notes preserved in the
Auiudes forestiere for 184:7, which relate to the employment of these
■wickerwork fences and the subsequent sowing of the seed.

" The clayonnage is the best means to employ to consolidate the
drift-sands and prevent their displacement on parts exposed to the
wind ; and this is the first thing to do before proceeding to sow the
seed.

" Clayonnage may be eflfected in three ways — first, with planks or
beams ; second, with stakes dressed with branches ; third, with
heather or other bushes.

" It is can-ied out in such a way as to receive at an angle of 45',
the winds coming from the north-west or from the south-west, which
are the most violent winds, and those most to be feared for the
sowings. It takes the form of a triangle of which the base is parallel
to the shore, and the two sides form, with this base, an angle of 45°,
the exact direction of the aforesaid winds."

The employment of planks and beams, in the structure of these, is
almost abandoned. It is the most expensive of the three modes
of clayonnage, and it does not appear to me that it would be of any
use to describe it.

" The Clayonnage of stakes, is composed of poles, about 2 metres
(or nearly 7 feet) long, planted in lines some 20 inches apart. They
are united by branches of heather, or other bushes placed as closely
together as possible

" The Clayonnage of heather is formed of four parallel ranges of
bundles of Erica Scoparia (small green-flowered heath), or of other
bushes growing on the land, such as whins, brooms, &c. These
bundles may be 9 or 10 inches in girth ; they are planted — quincunx,
fashion 6 inches apart — in lines 10 inches distant.

40> CULTURE OF THE MARITIME PINE.

"The moving sand striking against this is stopped, and it gradually
fills up all the intervals, and forms thus a slope with two sides. In
proportion as the dune rises, care is taken to raise, from time to time,
all the bundles of the four ranks until it is judged that the dune is
sufficiently elevated to protect the sowings on the adjacent zone.

" The costs of the two are about the same ; but the latter lasts
longer, and is more easily maintained. Nevertheless, the former is
perferred for points on which the wind acts with more force and
violence."

Of the sowing, M. Courreges reports —

"They sow by hand broad cast 16 kilogrammes (about 351bs.) of
pine seed, and 7 kilogrammes (15 J lbs.) of broom seed to the acre,
sowing the one after the other, because, being of different weights,
they would be ill sown if they were mixed.

" They immediately cover up the surface sown with brushwood,
composed of heather, whins, and other bushes, laid with the root to
the wind, that they may be less easily raised by the action of the
wind, and fixity is given to the covering by loading it with some
shovelfuls of sand.

" Branches of the pine are little esteemed as a covering, because
they very soon become despoiled of the leaves with which they are
clothed.

" When the covering up of the ground is completed, it is well to
cast over it 4 or 5 kilogrammes (9 or 10 lbs.) of pine seed, which
falling between the branches, may come to replace seeds buried to
too great a depth by the treading of the workmen.

" The broom and the maritime pine appear above the sand about
the same time, but the broom developes more rapidly, and soon covers,
with its shade, the young pines, the vegetation of which shows itself
pretty promptly and pretty vigorously under the protecting shelter."

In the Landes they value the cork oak, and not without reason,
because of its pi'oduct, and it is often grown along with the maritime
pine, under the shade and shelter of which it grows up erect, yielding
its bark in good condition for sale, whereas otherwise it is apt to be-
come bushy. It is sown in a similar way two years after the sowing
of the pine.

In some cases, but not generally, pines produced by natural sowing
on marshy land, are cut out with a sod of such size as to contain all
the rootlets, and planted in holes dug for them of the same size, with

ARREST OF THE SAND. 41

the same exposure, arranged iu lines, and from 6 to 7 m^res, (20 to
24 feet) apart. This cannot be done with seedhngs in sandy soil,
as the soil would not cohere to the roots. When done quickly it
often succeeds well; but with sundry disadvantages.

The trees yield resin as well as the others, but they do not grow so
regularly as to yield equally useful wood.

By Boitel it is intimated that it is well that the young pines which
grow in the vicinity of the sea should be numerous and closely grown,
as they can then resist with greater efficacy the shock of the winds
and storms, and, through the mutual support which they give, they are
less likely to bend and break under the load of snow cast upon them
in winter.

The expense being greatly increased by the covering of branches,
to avoid this in many cases after the preliminary step of securing
shelter by an artificial duae, raised by clayonnage, they wait till the
sand is fixed by a spontaneous vegetation, or a plantation of gourhet
(calamagrostis arenaria), in spots a metre, or 40 inches apart ; and
when this has been done the grain is sown or planted in accordance
with the method adopted on old inland sands. This is found to
do pretty well.

When none of the measures described are practicable, the seed is
sown on the bare and mobile sand, and covered with branches of
pine obtained from the thinnings and prunings of the nearest pineries.

In this case, the branches are disposed north and south ; along-
side of the first branch is laid a second ; along-side of the second a
third, and so on till the summit of the dune is reached. The
branches are cut of equal length, somewhere between 3 metres, or
3-50— or 10 and 12 feet.

The first line of branches being formed, a second is laid down, and
a third, the one to the right, and the other to the left, in such a way
that the branches intercross.

And to fix the whole, there is laid on the ends of the branches
a pine pole of about 8 centimetres, 3 or 4 inches in circumference,
which is fixed in the ground at the end with small hooks of wood.

If any part of the duue be firm, then this covering is dispensed
with.

The expense of covering is great, but this need not be grudged, as
the drift sands, once covered with pines, produce vigorous forests,
which in a few years furnish wood and resins in abundance. And
thus have these drift sands been arrested, and kept from carrying
destruction to fields, and forests, and villages more remote , as may

42 CULTURE OF THE MARITIME PINE.

be seen to have happened near the little lake of L6on, and at Vielle, a
village of the Landes, where even the church disappeared under the
sand borne thither by the wind.

In accordance with this account is the following given by M.
Bagneris, Inspecteur des Forets, et Professeiir a I'Ecole foresti^re
de Nancy, who visited the plantations in 1873 : — " In the month of
January last," says he in a supplement to a volume published by him,
entitled, Manuel de Sylviculture, " I made an excursion through the
district of the Dunes, from Bayonne to Tremblade, accompanied by
M. Nanquette, Director of the School of Forest Science, and my
colleague, M. Broilliard. I can thus give an account of the means
used for their fixation and reboisemeiit. I also studied the treatment
of the maritime pine as regards the collection of resinous products.'

" On the low and sandy shores which skirt the sea between the
mouths of the Adour and the Gironde, every tide bears along a very
fine sand. At low water this sand is conveyed inland by the wind,
making constant encroachments and it is always succeeded by more,
whence result moving heaps, sometimes 70 metres high (upwards of
230 feet), sloping gently on the side next the sea, and steep on that
next the land. Sometimes these heaps take the form of continuous
hills lying in straight lines with valleys between, sometimes they
appear without any order. This depends on the coast line. The
former arrangement is met with between the Adour and the Gironde,
whilst at the Point de la Coubre the second form I found to prevail.

"These moving sand hills are called Danes. It is ascertained that
their progress landward is at the average rate of 4*30 m. a year
(15 feet), and that the quantity of sand thus transported is about 75
cubic mfetres to the running mfetre of the length of the Dune. (In-
formation given by M. Dutemps du Gric, Conservateur at Bourdeaux).
The valleys there called lettes are of variable size, the bottom is flat
and usually marshy where the Dunes are bare, or dunes blanches as
they are called in that country.

" It may easily be imagined what an interest is taken in reclaiming
and fixing these Dunes whose advance threatens to swallow up all,
even menacing human habitations, which more than once it has been
necessary to move inland from before them. In the first place the
sand is temporarily arrested by means of clago7inages and stone,
rooted plants, such as the gourhet, the spurge, the fesgue grass. The
maritime pine follows to fix it and make it valuable. This last is
admirably suited for such local conditions as there prevail. It grows
naturally in mild climates, and its tap root is furnished with strong

RBPOBT BY BAGNERI8. 43

lateral branches, which throw off throughout their length numerous
secondary tap-roots. Along with these valuable properties it possesses
the advantage of supplying valuable and abundant resinous products.

" The maritime pine has long been used in the Dunes. The forest
of Teste must be several centuries old. But it will only thrive quite
close to the sea. After the works carried on by Bremontier, which
were begun in 1787, it was planted quite up to the brink of the
beach. I shall state how this is done.

" Before putting in the seed a protecting barrier must be erected
to prevent the sand from burying the seed and young trees. This
barrier is nothing but an artificial Dune, called the dune littorale ;
it is formed by erecting a palisade parallel to the shore, at about
100 metres from the high water mark. For this purpose planks are
employed of about 1"60 metres in length, 3 centimetres in thickness,
and from 12 to 15 centimetres broad ; a furrow, 40 centimetres deep,
is dug in the sand, in which the planks are sunk to a depth
of 20 centimetres, the lower ends being cut in a tapering form.
In this way, when the furrow is filled up, the planks are buried
to a depth of 60 centimetres, 1 mfetre being above ground. They
do not touch each other, a space of 2 centimetres being left
between.

'' The sand arrested by the palisade arranges itself in heaps
sloping gently towards the sea; the interstices allow a certain
quantity of sand to pass through, which increases the base, and
consequently the solidity of the Dunes. When the palisades are
almost covered, the planks are extracted by the help of a lever with
claws, and the Dune goes on increasing. It should not increase too
rapidly, because, if so, it might be destroyed by a wave.

" The better to secure its base behind the palisade a barrier is
formed of stakes, of 2*50 metres, between which flexible branches are
interlaced. The stakes are driven in to a depth of 50 centimetres,
and the clayonnages at first are only one metre high ; the height is
increased as the Dune rises, and when it reaches the top of the
stakes a new barrier is erected as the stakes cannot be removed as was
done with the palisade.

" The whole is then consolidated by plantations of gov.rbet, which is
arranged in tufts of from 5 to 6 stems, with 50 centimetres between
each. The gourhet has this advantage, that as the sand increases in
depth, the stalks rise, and produce roots which form a perfect net-
work; 300 bundles of gourhet of 10 kilogrammes each, besides 6
kilogrammes of seed are required per hectare. The seed is sown

44 CULTURE OF THE MARITIME PINE.

broad cast ; the operation of planting, and the feet of the workmen
assist in covering it.

" The palisade costs from 2-50 francs to 3 francs per mhtre, it lasts
five years when made of pine which has not been injected. Its
keeping up and removal cost about 50 centimes a year. The
barrier costs about 30 centimes per running mfetre, and it should be
renewed nearly every year.

" If there be any danger of the littoral Dune being injured by the
wind, other palisades should be erected, at a certain angle with the
first, on the sand which has been dislodged. At present there is a
well kept up dune littorale, more than 200 kilometres long, from the
bar of the Adour to the mouth of the Gironde.

" When once a shelter from the wind is provided rehoisement should
be begun. This is done by scattering a mixture of the maritime
pine, broom, whins, and gourhet. For example, in the operations
carried on by the State, 10 kilogrammes of the seed of the maritime
pine, 9 kilogrammes of broom, and 4 kilogrammes of gourlet seed are
used per hectare. It is then covered by faggots of brushwood, broom,
and whins. One man unties the bundles, two others spread them
out, and a third places a spadeful of soil at every 50 centimetres to
secure the covering which is absolutely necessary to prevent the seed
being carried away, and especially to keep the sand in its place. For
this purpose rushes are better than broom, because they furnish a
better manure when decomposed,

"The seed should be sown, and the covering put on, simultaneously.
At the close of each day additional earth should be laid on the last
laid brushwood to protect it from the wind. Cave should also be
taken to arrange it equally and close to the ground, so as to leave no
air holes, for in a single night the labour of several days may be lost.
'* Pines, broom, and whins will grow together, and it is remarked
that pines thrive best where the two last abound. When these are
sparse much care must be taken in watching over the covering, as
protection is necessary for four years. It should even be renewed,
and this is one of the chief things to be done in maintaining the work.
" After some years the rehoisement of the dune littorale may be pro-
ceeded with, by erecting a wide palisade nearer the sea, but whetlier
this be done or not, the dune littorale must always be kept in good
order, otherwise the works would be inevitably buried by the con-
tinual advance of the sand.

"Such is, in short, the kind of work to be done. It is often
tedious, and, in certain circumstances, difficult. To consolidate and

ACCOUNT GIVEN BY BOITEL. 45

plant with trees the Dune, will cost, at least, 500 francs per hectare.
This outlay ceases, however, to appear exorbitant when we consider
the protection which it provides. Almost the whole is laid out on
the erection and keeping up of palisades, and chiefly in the transport
from long distances, across moving sands of great depth, of the
required planks and faggots of brushwood."

And it is stated by him that one effect of the rehoisement — or, as
that word is scarcely applicable though the word employed, the
growth of the pineries — has the eflfect of drying up the stagnant
water in the lettes, " either," says Boitel, " by the evaporation con-
nected with vegetation, or more likely by the formation of mould, by
which the moisture is absorbed and retained, or by some unknown
operation."

Such artificial sowing as has been described may be necessary in
taking in new ground, and it is practised elsewhere; but in the
Landes natural reproduction is sufficient to maintain the pignadas.

" The pine," says Boitel," produces cones with impricated scales.
These scales, compactly arranged, varnished, and of bone-like consis-
tence, form a covering for the seed which may seem to be indestruc-
tible ; but by an organisation which calls forth manifested admira-
tion of the Providence, the scales which man could scarcely break by
artificial means open as if by enchantment when they attain a
certain temperature.

" The heat in dilating them, causing them to bend backward,
separates them one from another, and in the new position thus taken
they offer an easy exit to the winged seed which they had previously
held imprisoned,

"Let it be borne in mind that the cones remain attached to the tree
beyond the period of their maturity, that they are persistent and
pendent on their peduncle, or stalk, and it will be seen that they are in
a position admirably adapted for favouring the escape of the seed, and
this, yielding to its weight, detaches itself freely from the opened
out scale, and immediately by its wings it comes under the disseminat-
ing influence of the winds.

" The seeds thus sown germinate under the shade of the old trees,
and form a young repeujilement, or new generation of trees, to take
the place of the old when they shall pass away; and destined to be
productive when the time shall come for the final and complete
exploitation of the older trees reserved for this purpose.

" These natural sowings are, so to speak, the only means of produo

48 CULTURE OP THE MARITIME PINE.

ing the repeuplement of the pineries of Gascony required. The
maritime pine finds in that land conditions so favourable to its
development that it goes on reproducing itself indefinitely on the
same ground, without any necessity for man to trouble himself about
the sowing of fresh seeds. Often, in order that a sandy surface may
cover itself spontaneously with young pines, it is enough to surround
it with an enclosure, which shall keep out from the pasturage which
it supplies cattle left without surveillance in the pineines."

An illustration of the importance of this occurs in one of the earlier
works by Darwin. It is stated, if my memory serves me right, that on
a piece of waste land or heath a common having been enclosed, forth-
with, to the surprise of many, there began to grow up vigorously
seedling pines, though pines had never been grown there before.
And, on examination, it was found that all around, growing amongst
the grass, were decapitated seedling trees, which had sprung up from
self-sown seed, but been broken over by cattle grazing there ; and
appai'ently nothing more was required in order to the whole becoming
a forest of pines than that this destructive operation should be
prevented by a fence to exclude the cattle.

When the pineries become fairly established on the Dunes in
Gascony, or on fixed sands more inland, which belong to the tertiary
formation, they require, as the trees increase in size, to be subjected
to periodical thinnings, and in some cases to moderate pruning
judiciously executed.

" In thinning, attention is given to removing the worst of the
trees, and to leave to the better trees the air, light, and space
required for their perfect development. Pineries which are not
thinned at the proper times suff'er from this, as do crops overgrown
by weeds from neglect of hoeing suffer from these injurious plants.
The best sowings are those which are neither too sparse nor too
dense; pines which have much space for growth develope more in
breadth than in height ; they present a dwarfed trunk, irregular and
full of knots, and they are loaded with strong and vigorous crowns,
conditions which are as unfavourable to the operation of tapping for
resin as to the production of useful timber. If the plants remain
too numerous and too close they famish one another, shoot up
beyond what is desirable, and fall into an emaciated condition, in
which they succumb to every injurious influence. The stems are
slender ; and the crowns, weak and few in number, fall off of them-
-selves, leaving stumps, which disappear. But they recover them-

ACCOUNT GIVEN BY BOITBL. 47

selves easily, and protect one another in the pineries which have been
moderately thinned during the first twenty years of their growth.
Beyond this general observation it is difficult to lay down precise
rules in regard to the best means of executing thinnings. If germina-
tion have produced many more seedlings than was expected, it will
do good to remove, by hand, a certain number of these at the age of
3 or 4 years, or as soon as they are seen to be injuring and starving
one another ; on the contrary, in a sowing which has come up badly,
and which does not sufficiently cover the ground, the first thinning
should be deferred till they have attained the age of 15 or 16 years.
In ordinary circumstances pines require to be thinned when they
have reached the age of 7 or 8 years. At this age the expense of the
operation may be covered by the produce in faggots and charcoal
wood. But in every case it is less the value of the produce than the
future of the pines which should determine the time at which this
first operation is to take place. That man would ill understand his
own interests, and would imperil the continued existence of, and the
revenue to be derived from, a young crop of seedling pine, who did
not clear it of diseased and dying plants, on the ground that the
expense of the work would not be entirely covered by the sale of the
produce of the first thinning.

" The subsequent thinnings, eclaircies, as they are technically called
in France, are determined by the kind of products which it is desired
to obtain, regard being had to the nature of the soil and the state of
the markets. In Sologne, for example, where the maritime pine does
not grow well above 25 years, but where it furnishes faggots, for
which there is a ready sale in Paris and Orleans, it is subjected to
periodical moderate thinnings, carried out much as are the fellings
of the coppice wood of deciduous trees. On a deep and firm sand where
the maritime pine may form a timber forest fit for tapping for resin,
and for the production of workable timber, the earlier thinnings ought
to be somewhat more energetic, in order that they may favour more
especially the trees destined to form the standing wood.

** In any case there is a risk of disappointment if there be a lack of
prudence and moderation in the management of these successive
thinnings. The maritime pine is a tree which, especially in youth,
is very sensitive to cold winds, to hail, and to coups de soleil ; it
suffers greatly when, by excessive clearing or thinning, it is exposed
suddenly and extensively to the air and the heat of which it has been
deprived.

" Grown up piuea of a slender trunk, terminating in a heavy and

0*33 metres.

■66 to 1 metre.

1-33 metres.

1-66 „

2-

2-33 „

2-66 „

48 ACCOUNT GIVEN BY BOITEL.

bulky head, succumb easily to the action of strong winds, if there
be removed, all at once, neighbouring trees which had served to
shelter and protect them.

" The space which should be allotted to pines depends on their age,
the vigour of their vegetation, and the nature of the products which
it is desired they should yield.

" Delamarre, in Normandy, allows the following spaces round the
trees :

Ist eclaircie at the age of 7 years,
2nd „ „ 8 „

3rd „ „ 12 „

4th „ „ 16 „

5th „ „ 20 „

6th „ „ 24 „

7th „ „ 28 „

A metre is equal to nearly 40 inches.
" In Gascony pines destined for tapping for resin are allowed a space
all round them.

At 20 years of age, ... ... 3 metres.

,, 25 „ ... ... 4 „

„ 40 „ 5-50 „

„ 35 to 60 years of age, ... ... 7 „

" Timber woods of pines submitted to a definitive tapping contain
about 200 trees to the hectare of nearly 2| acres."

MagageoY pruning, in its application to the maritime pine, consists
in removing one or more couronnes or tiers of branches, beginning
with the lowest. Although the maritime pine appears to support
amputation better than do most other resin yielding trees, *' I have
always observed," says Boitel, " that the removal of a certain number
of couronnes was hurtful to the vigour and the health of the trees.
The leaves play an important part among the nutritive organs ; and
if pruning do more harm to resinous trees than to broad leaved trees,
which put forth new buds on the old wood, this must without doubt
be attributable in a great measure to this — that the growing trees do
not produce in place of the amputated branches young sho ots, the
leaves of which might discharge the functions of those which have
disappeared by the operation of pruning. Pruning has, moveover,
the inconvenience of leaving in the trunks running sores, which are
healed with difficulty, and are the occasion of a pretty considerable
loss of sap.

I

ACCOUNT GIVEN BY BOITEL. 49

"It is remarked that the pines most loaded with branches and with
leaves are those which give the greatest bulk of wood and the most
abundant crops of resin. JSTotwithstandiug this, pruning, objection-
able in theory, becomes useful in certain peculiar cases. If there be
seedlings with too much space around them, shooting out more in
circumference than in height, and loading themselves with heavy and
vigorous lateral couronnes, which absorb the greater part of the sap,
then there is removed gradually the lower branches in order to
concentrate the sap upon the stem, which is the part of the tree
which it is of most importance to cause to increase in size and in
length. As for sowings which are sufficiently stocked, instead of
employing pruning to force the trees to shoot upwards, it is now ad-
vantageous to get the same result by moderating the thinning, and
leaving on the ground as many trees as may be necessary to induce
development in height, and one knows not how sufficiently to
blame proprietors who, giving no attention to their seedlings for
eight or ten years, all at once subject the reserved trees to a
vigorous thinning, accompanied by an excessive elaqage or prun-
ing. This great mutilation, joined to a too immediate action of
air and light, occasions a state of disease, from the injurious eflFects
of which the pinery suffers throughout the whole period of its
growth.

" Elagage is also proper on grown up pines, the lower couronnes of
which, enfeebled by age, finally die and fall, leaving long stumps,
which, in decaying, produce in the wood perforations which diminish
much its value. This serious inconvenience is avoided by prunino-
away at a proper time languishing and dying boughs ; and, in place
of cutting them off close to the stem, leaving a stump 5 to '6 centi-
metres, or 2 and 2\ inches long.

" Such spikes, hardened by the action of resin which accumulates
in them, embody themselves without difficulty in the trunks, and
produce no other inconvenience than that of obstructing the tools in
the working up of the wood. Spikes in parts of the trunk destined
to be tapped for resin should not be above half-an-inch in length ;
otherwise, they arrest and blunt the hatchet of the resinier when he
comes to make gashes where they are. The good of attending to this
is experienced in the pineries of Gascony.

" At Belle-Isle M. Trochu prefers, on the contrary, pruning close to
the trunk, and leaving no spike, executed in the beginning of winter,
as being the method most favourable to the production of planks
without knots and without holes.

O

50 CULTURE OP THE MARITIME PINE.

" Both Eclairdes, or thinnings, and Elagages, or prunings, are deli-
cate operations, which should only be entrusted to conscientious
and skilled workmen. The woodman who is engaged on piece work
works without other consideration than how he can increase the
number of his faggots and of his carts of charcoal, and it is to be
feared that in his precipitation he might sacrifice trees which in
every respect deserve to be preserved."

I

CHAPTER VI.

Exploitation of the Pine Plantations of Gascony.

In the exploitation of forests there are two methods of procedure which
have come down to us from times preceding these, in which the
practical application of science to the management of forests has led
to a more complicated, but more advantageous method, being adopted.
In the one, single trees are cut down here and there, as required,
leaving the others standing; in the other, extended areas are
successively brought under the axe, and completely cleared. To the
former method of procedure in France the designation Jardinage is
given.

" Exploitation by Jardinage," says Boitel, " appears to me to be that
most used by the inhabitants of the Landes. In the tapping for
resin, and in the felling of trees, they give less attention to the tout
ensemble of the pinery than to the special condition of the individual
tree ; on the same ground are seen very often numerous distinct
generations of trees : some young, and good for removal in thinning
the wood ; others full grown, and regularly tapped ; and others, in
pine, more aged, and disappearing in proportion as they become less
fit for yielding resin, and better adapted to yield workable timber or
fire-wood. In these pineries it is by the natural spreading of the
woods that the ground finds itself constantly clothed with trees, and
it is the same in the pineries of Corsica and Spain."

But a more important feature of the pineries than the felling of
the trees, is the collecting and manufacture of the resinous sap
which they yield.

Full details of the various operations connected with this are
given by M. Eloi Samanos, Memhre de la Societe d'agrictdUire des
Landes, in his volume entitled " Traiti de la culture du Pin
Maritime." The following more succinct account of these is given
by M. Bagneris in his account of these plantations already cited.

"It seems to be well-known," writes M. Bagneris, "that resinage is
not remunerative except where the maritime pine is indigenous, which
is only in mild and warm climates. This tree is found in abundance
on the ocean seaboard between the mouths of the Adour and the
Gironde. To the north of the latter, between Royan and Rochefort,

52 EXPLOITATION IN GASCONY.

it is less vigorous, produces less resin, and is of a smaller size ; and
the woods are not so thickly planted. Farther north, and especially
in the basin of the Loire, where, as I think, foolishly it has been
extensively introduced, it is not in its element. It does not
reproduce itself naturally, it is short lived, its wood loses all its good
qualities, and it is not possible to tap it with advantage.

" Resin never abounds unless the trees have plenty of room, are
vigorous, and have thick foliage ; it is thus a good plan to thin
plantations at the age of from six to eight years. Till the age of
twenty, the thinnings should be repeated every five or six years, so as
to leave at that period no more than 600 or 700 trees per hectare.
Those intended for felling should now be tapped. This is why
200 or 250 trees to be felled are now marked beforehand. When the
plantation is thirty yearsold, only 250 or 300 should be left per hectare.
This number is further reduced to 200 or even 150, which remain till
nearly seventy or eighty years of age, when the pinery should be
renewed, that is to say, if resinous products are not the chief object,

" This renewal may be effected either by means of- the self-sown
plants which have sprung up in later years, or by artificial planting.
According to M. Eloi Samanos, this is usually done by seed in the
Landes. As to the mode, he advises lines from 4 to 6 metres distant
from each other to be marked out, according as the trees are to be
placed ; this should be deeply trenched, either by the mattock or
plough, for a breadth of 60 centimetres ; 6 kilogrammes of seed should
be allowed per hectare, which should be covered in by a slight
harrowing.

"While the early thinnings are going on, before beginning the
gemmage or tapping, the lower branches are lopped, so as to leave a
bare trunk of at least 5 metres high ; this is to hinder the formation
of dead branches which interfere with the flow of the resin. The
incisions can be made more easily and regularly in the layers of
wood covering these old wounds. Experience has proved the benefit
of this, but, on lopping branches close to the stem, care should be
taken not to enlarge the wound unnecessarily. It should always be
remembered that a tree never has too many leaves, and therefore too
many branches should never be lopped at once.

" It may easily be supposed that in thinning the young plantations
and in lopping the lower branches, the soil is left without sufl&cient
shelter. The sparse foliage of the pine adds to the evil. But there
immediately appears a thick vegetation of grass, whins, heath, broom,
thorns, &c. ; this is a very valuable source of litter and manure. But

COLLECTION OP RESIN. 53

the forest does not profit thereby. Under the name of soutrage, this
brushwood vegetation is collected and sold at 50 centimes per cart-
load, containing about two cubic metres. One hectare may produce
from 5 to 12 cart-loads.

"It is evidently a loss to the forest that the vegetable mould
should not be allowed to accumulate, but it clears paths for the
resiniers, and diminishes the danger from the fires, which desolate the
country in the summer months. This danger is so great that at
certain distances large trenches are dug from 10 to 20 metres broad,
which are kept open for five years. In new plantations, and
especially in the Dunes, these are made at every 1,000 metres distant,
so as to enclose squares containing 100 hectares.

" There are two methods of tapping, le gemmage d, vie and le
gemmage d, mort. In both the quarres are opened thus : after having
cut away part of the bark, it is pierced as far as the wood ; at about
ten centimetres from the foot of the tree an incision is made with a
hahchat, a kind of hatchet, the head of which is slightly hollowed out,
and the handle is bent to the right. Once or twice a week the
workman scarifies the wound, and increases its height by one
centimetre. In the forests under the forest regime, the height of
4 metres, 14 centimetres, should never be exceeded. The regulations
also stipulate that the quarres should never exceed 12 centimetres in
size, or one centimetre in depth.

" Trees to be gemme cl vie, should have only one incision made at a
time, and it will tend to prolong the life of the tree that that should
be only 8 centimetres in size. The same incision is kept open for
five years, and is raised vertically, the first year 55 centimetres,
the three following, 64, the fifth, 67 centimetres. When the five
years are expired, another incision is made in the same way, and so
on, till the time when the tree is gemme cl mort, previous to being-
felled. The gemmage a vie begins when the tree is one metre in cir-
cumference. According to M. Lamarque it is good, especially at the
beginning, to tap for four years and then to allow the tree to repose
for one. The old incisions soon heal up, and after a certain time
others may be opened above them, on the protuberances of bark
■which have formed, and which are called ourles.

" Here and there old pines may be found with a great number of
quarres. It frequently happens that the old incisions are exposed
owing to a want of adherence in the ourles. The latter shrink and
causes swelling, so that the foot of the tree resembles a spindle.

54 EXPLOITATION IN GASCON Y.

One would think it was going to give way under the weight of its
branches.

" In private woods the incisions are sometimes 4 or 5 metres long,
and 2 or 3 are opened at once on the old trees. This is a mistake,
because, if more resin is obtained for the moment, the longevity of
the tree is materially diminished.

" As has been said, gemmage d, mort is practised on old trees which
are to be felled, and upon those which are to be removed, so as to give
more room to the others. With the latter, it is done so soon as they
can bear a qnarre, which is when they measure from 50 to 60
centimetres round, this they usually do at about twenty years of age.
The quarres are opened as in the gemmage d, vie, only they are en-
larged more rapidly, and several are made on the tree at once. It
usually takes three or four years to gemmer ct, mort, or to bleed them
to death,

" When a quarre is opened or scarified the sap is seen in the form
of drops on the exposed wood ; some runs down the wound, the rest
solidifies and forms a crust, this is the Galipot. In former times the
gemme was allowed to run down to the foot of the tree, where it was
collected in a little trough cut in a root or hollowed in the ground, A
great deal was lost, especially during the first year, as much of it
was absorbed by the sand. Now small earthen pots are hung on the
tree, and are gradually raised so as to be on a level with the incision.
To direct the gemme into the pot there is a little zinc spout slightly
attached to the tree ; the pot is kept in its place between this spout
and a nail fixed below it on which it rests. To prevent any loss the
pot may be covered by a piece of wood. The resinier or resin collector
examines the pots when he scarifies the wound, and he empties them
when full. The Galipot is scraped ofi" once or twice in the course of
the year.

" The use of pots and spouts is known as the system of M. Hughes.
The outlay at first is greater, but the gemme is purer and in larger
quantities, the diff"erence being as four to three, so says M. Samanos.
It is much employed in the Dunes, at Cape Breton, at Mimizan, at
Biscarosse, at La Teste. It is less usual in Dax, and still less so at
Mont de Marsan. The gemmage is there inferior, because, to prevent
loss by absorption in the ground, the woi'kmen lead the gemme from
several quarres into the same trough. Now to do this they are obliged
to cut spouts in the foot of the tree which pierce the wood almost
completely round the tree, and this causes a rapid decay, Gemmage

COLLECTION OF RESIN. 55

is only performed between the 1st March and 15th October, but the
bark may be begun to be removed from the 10th January, A pine
gemme a vie yields about three litres, or quarts of gemme when at its
best, that is to say when its diameter is a least forty centimetres.
It may also be alleged that taking into account the decreasing num-
ber of trees a hectare yields nearly a cask of 340 litres of resin
yearly, whatever the age of the trees may be. It is more difficult to
reckon the yield of the gemmage a mort. But it may be admitted
that 200 to 250 trees of 20 centimetres in diameter yield about a
harriqiie or hogshead yearly, and that for three years. At Biscarosse
I have seen in a wood belonging to M. Marcellus, a pine 4 mfetres in
circumference, and with a bare trunk 11 metres high, on which
were 4 active quarres, which produced yearly from 7 to 8 litres
of resin,

" The price of resin varies considerably. It is sometimes as low
as 40 francs per harrique or hogshead, which is very little. During the
American war it rose to 290 francs,

"At present (1873) raw resin brings 120 francs per harrique 2it
Mont de Marsan, where it is manufactured. The resinier is paid at
so much per harriqxie. His wages vary from 30 to 35 francs, which
represents an average day's wage of from 4 to 5 francs.

" I have visited several manufactories at Mont de Marsan, in one
of which essence of turpentine is distilled. It is done thus : the raw
resin is put into a large reservoir ; but as it always contains much
foreign matter, according to the greater or less care taken in collecting
it, earth, chips, bits of bark, leaves, &c. To separate these the raw
resin is heated in coppers, taking care that the temperature does not
rise so high as to disengage the essence. It is then filtered through
rye straw and received in a trough in a state in which it is called
terebenthine. From this trough it passes into an alembic by a valve
which opens when necessary. During the distillation a thread of
water is introduced by means of a pipe, and this becoming vaporised,
it conveys the essence of turpentine along with it through the room,
where both are received, in a liquid state, in a bucket, and separation
is effected by decantation.

" "What remains in the Alembic is made into resin, dry pitch, and
yellow resin. It runs off through an* opening below it to a pipe which
leads it to a trough. The resin is obtained by filtering it through a
very fine brass sieve placed ever a box, Diy pitch is nothing but
the residuum, which is at once run into moulds made in fine sand.
It is formed into bricks of from 45 to 90 kilogrammes in weight. To

56 EXPLOITATION IN GASCON Y.

obtain yellow resin the residue is washed up warm with a tenth of
water, and is also run into sand moulds,

" All these products are useful. The essence is used in making
varnish, in painting, in polishing, and iu cleaning furniture, &c. It is
also used in medicine. Solid resin is used in making paper, soap,
stearine candles, torches, and sealing wax, and it is also used in
caulking vessels.

" The residue of the first filtration of the raw resin is burned in
furnaces constructed for the purpose, the products being pitch and
tar.

"One barrique of resin will produce 100 kilogrammes of essence of
turpentine which at present is worth 125 francs. The other products
cover the expense of manufacture, and yield a small profit. Dry pitch
sells at 18 francs the 100 kilogrammes. The same weight of yellow
resin fetches 20 francs. In another manufactory in the same town,
by exposing the dry pitch to intense heat, a double decomposition is
effected, and by different processes there are produced ethei'eal oils
for making varnish ; fixed oils, which are used for lamps, for greasing
the iron-work of carriages, and for injecting wood, and in making
printers' ink.

" All these products conjointly constitute the principal value of the
maritime pine. But where there are means for removing it, the
product of timber becomes important. There are different opinions
as to the respective qualities of timber which has been gemme or
tapped, and not gemme. In pines which have been gemme the
current of resin, owing to the evaporation of the essence, always
leaves a good deal of concrete resin in the tissues, which increases
their durability. The annual growth decreases in thickness; but
data are awanting for making comparisons, as pines are rarely found
which have not been tapped, and these have generally been left to.
serve as boundary lines between properties. They grow to a great
size, but they are seldom felled till they begin to decay.

"One thing is certain, that the portion of the trunk which
contains the incisions is too much broken up to be useful for the
saw pit, but it furnishes very valuable and desirable vine poles ; it
is quite gorged with resin, which ensures their preservation. It
will also make staves for casks to hold solid resinous matter.
But the upper part of the tree is always free from breaks in the
continuity. At Cape Breton I have seen planks seven feet long by
seven inches broad, and five lines in thickness. In reducing these
measurements to the metrical system it will be seen that 100 of

MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL. 57

these planks are equivalent to 2 cubic mfetres. They are sold at
70 francs per hundred.

" Railway sleepers can also be made. When injected they are
worth 2 francs 10 cents each, delivered at the railway station.
One may judge of the importance of this when we remember that
the Southern French Railway and those of the north of Spain are
laid on pine sleepers.

" To conclude, charcoal for forges is also made from the maritime
pine. The cubic mhtre of this charcoal weighs from 200 to 220
kilogrammes, and in the forest it brings from 18 to 20 francs."

In regard to the manufacture of charcoal, which occupies an
important place in the exploitation of pine forests, M. Boitel reports :
" Branches and very young trees are not saleable as fire-wood, but
may be profitably converted into charcoal. In certain localities, where
the roads are bad, and the centres of population are at a distance,
the manufacture of charcoal is the only way of profitably employing
wood, which, if in the form of cotrets or faggots, would cost a great
deal for transport.

'' Usually pieces of wood of from 4 to 5 centimetres in diameter
are made into charcoal. Smaller ones are made into hourrees, small
faggots ; larger, into cotrets or hois de service.

" The first fellings, which are from six to ten years old, furnish wood
for charcoal and hourrees. When the pines are older, charcoal is only
made from the branches and upper parts of the stem.

" The best pieces f n- making charcoal are straight, not very thick,
and sufficiently dry. They should not be more than from 0'75
metres to 0"80 metres in length. The crooked branches are cut
into two or three pieces, the lateral twigs are cut off" close, and the
ends are round and smoothly cut. Twigs hinder the wood being
properly arranged, and when the ends are ragged there is a good deal
of charcoal lost. Green and dead wood are avoided. The first yields
very little charcoal, the second only ashes, which may ignite the
furnace after the workman believes it to have been completely
extinguished — a great inconvenience, which spoils a great deal of
charcoal and occasions conflagrations. The maritime pine is fit for
the furnace six months after being felled.

" Spring and autumn are the best seasons for making charcoal.
In summer it is dangerous to make it when there is no water. When
possible, the charcoal maker should always have plenty of this at

hand.

H

68 EXPLOITATION OF THE MAKITIMB PINE.

" In choosing a site for a furnace, the position of the timber to be
used should be considered. A central position is best, so as to
diminish the expense of land carriage. The ground is first levelled,
and all heath and shrubs removed to prevent the chance of fire.
The maritime pine is easily injured by the heat and smoke of a
furnace, and it is best to place the kiln either outside the forest or
else in the centre of a considerable clearing, as dead trees become a
nursery of insects destructive to trees.

" Where old sites are conveniently situated, it is a good plan to
make choice of these.

" When a new furnace is made the first bed should be laid on a
layer of horizontal branches. This is called a planckQr^ a platform or
floor.

" The size of the furnace varies according as the charcoal is for
domestic or for other uses.

"For kitchen use, experts recommend that 15 or 18 sieves or
cubic meters of wood should be burned at a time, and 30 or 35
when it is to be used in forges. Small furnaces occasion less waste,
but sometimes they are apt to fail.

" The site of the furnace being prepared, a large post is placed
vertically in the centre, the wood to be carbonised is placed round it
after its being surrounded by twigs and dry wood which will ignite
easily ; the faggots are placed on end, but inclining gently ; the first
layer being made, a second, third, and fourth are added. In doing
this the largest and greenest pieces are used for the lowest and most
central part of the furnace, because there the fire burns most fiercely.
The small dry pieces are placed on the outside and top of the mass.
The faggots should be pressed closely together, and the interstices
filled with twigs. If several kinds of wood are used at once, the
hardest should be placed in the centre.

"The cone completed, the central post is withdrawn, and this
leaves a chimney in the centre, the whole is then covered with leaves,
twigs, earth, and moss, more or less mixed with sand. This layer of
earth should be 5 or 6 centimetres thick. Fire is then set to the
lower part of the chimney, which remains open a certain time so that
the mass may be ignited. The chief fire is thus in the middle of the
chimney, and the workman takes care to feed it with wood when a
vacancy is produced. Whenever the mass is sufficiently ignited, the
opening is stopped, the moment for doing this is regulated by the
colour of the smoke, which, white at first, becomes blue and
transparent when the flames acquire strength. The entrance and

MANUFACTURE OP CHARCOAL. 59

exit of air must be regulated so that the heat may not be too great
or too low. When too low, the charcoal is of inferior quality ; when
too high, there is great waste, and the yield of charcoal is small.

" The skill of a charcoal maker is now seen in ascertaining what
progress the fire makes in the interior, in such a way that it can be
moderated in some places and increased in others. It is by the
smoke and cracks on the surface that this can be judged of. The
fire is moderated by stopping the openings, or increased by making
others.

" The bad efi'ect of currents of wind is prevented by pallisades, or
botiTTees, arranged like a wall, or by a simple clayonnage of branches.

" The best constituted charcoal furnace is the one which, remaining
uniform and homogeneous throughout the operation, sinks and
breaks in regularly, allowing the smoke to escape in the same
quantities from all the openings disposed round the furnace.

" The fire extends from above to below, and from the centre to the
circumference. At the end of 36 hours, in furnaces of the usual size,
the whole covering becomes incandescent. This is the time of the
^ grand feib^ When this point is reached, M. Thomas says, that
a good charcoal burner will make it blaze furiously, and then put it
out dexterously. This, when done at the right time, produces a
great deal of charcoal. But to prevent failure, the furnaces should
be sheltered from currents of air, otherwise there is a chance of
considerable loss.

" After the violent blaze, the charcoal making may be considered
finished. The fire is moderated by degrees by making openings
which allow the air to pass, and by replacing the warm dry earth of
the covering by earth which is cold and damp. The fire is
extinguished in five or six hours ; but another day is required
before the charcoal becomes cool and is fit to be carried away.

" To obtain a good yield of charcoal one must guard against
raising the temperature too much at the beginning of the operation.
The first part of the time is spent not in carbonising the wood, but
in getting rid of the moisture. If the faggots are strongly heated
before the water is dispelled, the latter being decomposed, two sorts
of gas are created, which, combining with the charcoal, issue from
the furnace in the form of carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide, and
carburetted hydrogen. From thence results a real loss of carbon,
which in this case is consumed in the same way as in our kitchen
stoves. The water decomposed by the fire acts on the incandescent
charcoal with more force than would the atmospheric air.

^ EXPLOITATION OF THE MARITIME PINE.

" Well burned charcoal may be known by its hardness, and the
sound it emits when struck. If nothing is lost in the furnace, 42
kilogrammes of charcoal are yielded by 100 kilogrammes of wood, but
even in the most favourable cases this is never done. The most perfect
operation does not yield more than 25 per 100. By the usual
methods, only 15 or 20 per 100 are obtained.

" In Sologne the usual cord of charcoal is of the following dimen-
sions : —

Height, ... ... 30 inches, or 0*82 metres.

Breadth, ... ... 30 „ or 0-82 „

Length, ... ... 16 feet, or 5*33 „

Cubic measurement of a cord of charcoal, 3 stores, 58, or 3'58 cub. „

" According to the success of the operation, a cord of charcoal pro-
duces from 4 or 4|, to 5 bags, containing 230 litres each.

The stere of dry pine weighs, 250 kilogrammes.

The cord of the same, ... 895 „

The hectolitre of dry pine charcoal, 19 „

The bag, ... ... 43 „

" The yield of 4 bags per cord is equivalent to 18 per 100 metres
weight. The yield of 6 bags per cord is equivalent to that of 24 per
100.

" Pine charcoal sells in the market at from 5 to 6 francs, oak
charcoal from 10 to 12 francs. To give the charcoal burner an
interest in the operation, his wages are regulated by the supply of
charcoal he gets — 45 cents per bag. Some propi-ietors who have
confidence in their workmen, in place of paying by the bag, give
them 2 francs for every cord of wood which is carbonised. Pine
charcoal is lighter and of less value than that of the oak ; the last
weighs a quarter more, about 25 kilogrammes per hectolitre.

" The different kinds of charcoal are distinguished with difficulty.
Merchants often fraudulently mix them.

" In Sologne, when pine charcoal is worth from 1*75 to 2*25 francs
per bag, that of the oak is worth from 3 to 4 francs.

" Some years ago there was established at Sologne a manufactory
where the pine was carbonised in air-tight vases. The volatile
products were condensed, and produced by distillation tar and
pyroligneous acid. Besides these articles, which are usually lost,
the yield of charcoal was much greater. The death of the proprietor
put an end to this interesting manufacture.

" There is in Sologne an encumbering kind of forest produce
which it is difficult to get rid of. I refer to the bourree, a. soH o

I

MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL. 61

faggot bound by a single cord, exclusively composed of fragments
from the saw-mill, or the clearings of the woods. In the Landes
there are bourrees of a peculiar kind, formed of heath, broom, and
whins. Whatever it is made of the hourree is from 1 metre to 1"33
metres in length, and from 0"80 to 0-85 metres in circumference.
Sologne furnishes a great quantity of these bourrees, which are not
needed for fuel, except when within reach of the great centres of
population. They rarely pay the cost of being carried farther than
12 or 16 kilometres.

" When they are not sold to the poorer classes for fire-wood it is
necessary to get rid of them in such a way as to reimburse the
proprietor for their collection. Rather than make an article which
costs from 1 franc to 2 francs per hundred, and which it is difi&cult
to sell, he would prefer to leave the twigs to rot on the spot so as to
produce a sort of compost for the trees. In this case he should copy
the Gascoyne farmer, who litters his cattle with the smaller twigs,
which act as absorbents.

" In Sologne this is not the custom, and the bourrees are used in the
manufacture of bricks, tiles, and lime. The manufacturers buy
them at from 2 francs to 2 francs 50 cents the hundred, which leaves
the proprietor a clear gain of 50 cents. The making of bourrees is a
good employment for the idle season.

" Unfortunately, brick kilns are not able to use all the bourrees
supplied by making cotrets, or faggots, of pine, and it would be im-
possible to sell all if they could not be converted into other articles
made use of in various manufactories.

" For several years the bourrees have been burned in air-tight vases ;
petite braise, or charcoal cinders, is produced, and a more powdery
sort of charcoal called charcoal dust. The experiment leaves nothing
to be desired, for the bourrees are carbonised so perfectly that with
care they may be withdrawn from the furnace in the same shape in
which they were put in. Pine needles, leaves of heath, are perfectly
carbonised, undergoing no physical change except in the colour,
which changes from grey to black. Twigs of a certain size furnish
braise, which is used in the same way as ordinary charcoal, but this
article is of secondary importance beside the charcoal dust, which is
the chief product. This is used in many manufactories. M. Popelin-
Ducart uses it for the preparation of the cylindrical charcoal, known
as Charbon de Paris.

" Such is the power of science. Bourrees, which would not repay
the cost of transport to warm the inhabitants of Sologne, are,

62 EXPLOITATION OF THE MARITIME PINE.

after a chemical change, able to rival the ordinary charcoal iu the
furnaces and kitchens of Paris. This new article has to malie its way
against the prejudices of servants, but it may be hoped that at length
it will be justly appreciated.

" Charcoal dust is used largely in the manufacture of artificial
manures. It is known that carbon disinfects and solidifies the
material. It is used for this purpose in several important towns.
It is to be wished that this process of disinfection of drainage were
more general. If it were so, what great services would be rendered
to agriculture and the public health ! In the first place, it opens a
market for charcoal dust, which it is difficult to dispose of at present ;
and it preserves, for the benefit of agriculture, a great quantity of
useful substances, which in towns are wasted, while at the sametime
the air is vitiated and the public health endangered.

" Of two almost worthless articles, the hourrees of Sologne and the
drainage of large towns, is thus composed a powerful manure, each
hectolitre of which represents at least a hectolitre of wheat. When
viewing the numerous advantages of such a manufacture, one is
surprised that there has not been established long ago an interchange
between Sologne and Paris of charcoal and disinfected and solidified
sewage. What could be better than the carbonised heath being
saturated in Paris with fertilising nature, and again restoring in
Sologne fertility to the sterile soil which had produced it !

" If Sologne exchanged charcoal dust for disinfected drainage, the
Landes which only require manure to be productive, would be cleared
as if by enchantment, and would soon be covered with rich harvests.
" The improvement in the healthiness of the country which follows
the progress of agriculture and this marvellous result, would both be
attained by the use of fertilising substances which would otherwise
be a powerful cause of disease.

" It would be a bold thing to say that such an end can be attained
without difl&culty. In the first place, there must first be invented a
simple and easy way of making charcoal dust.

" When the dust is made, negotiations must be entered into with
municipalities. Finally, to extend the sale, the resistance and
prejudices of farmers must be subdued ; but these men have been
so often deceived by pretended artificial manures, that they stand
aloof from any new substance."

There are given, by M. Boitel, the following details of the manu-
facture of charcoal dust :

MANUFACTURE OP OHABCOAL DUST. 63

"At the Imperial Castle of La Motte-Beuvron, Sologne, the
carbonisation of bo2irrees is carried on in a brick oven placed in a
central position in relation to the Forests or the Landes which are to
yield the material, and special regard is had to the roads as it is
desirable the oven should be near the best roads. Water also is
required to extinguish the charcoal when drawn from the oven. It
should therefore be of easy access.

" In such ovens or kilns the upper apei'ture of the oven, into
which the hourrees are thrown, should be easily reached, and also
the lower opening, from which the carbon is withdrawn. This double
condition is attained by placing them where there are two surfaces
with unequal levels. The upper opening on a level with the
higher surface, while the lower is also on a level with the ground.
This arrangement is to be seen in many lime kilns. The earliest
kilns were not made in this way. The upper opening was above the
ground by the whole height of the kiln. The workman could not
throw in the hourrees at once, but was obliged to carry them up a
scaffolding. This additional labour increased the expense.

" This inconvenience is prevented by erecting kilns of the kind
described : In default of a suitable slope, the kiln may be placed on
the ground, piling up earth to the half of its height and forming two
inclined planes, one leading to the upper opening, the other leading
down to the inferior one. Care should be taken to prevent rain from
collecting in the oven.

" The hourrees are collected in isolated heaps in the neighbourhood
of the oven. It is considered that these should not be massed
together for fear of their taking fire ; and that they should as much
as possible be sheltered from rain. Wet hourries are difficult to
carbonise, and yield less powder, especially if they have been exposed
to damp for any length of time.

" The workman throws in the hourrees either by hand or with a
wooden fork. Thirty hourrees are enough to fill a kiln. It is lighted
by the lateral opening ; immediately it ignites this opening is carefully
stopped with clay so as to exclude the air. The upper opening is
left half open, from which issues a thick white smoke chiefly formed
of vapour. So long as the smoke continues white, the workman
throws no more botcrrees, but whenever it loses a blueish tinge he
hastens to feed it up, as this is a certain indication of an advanced
degree of carbonisation.

"He continues to work all day without withdrawing the charcoal,
and before leaving at night he puts in a fresh supply of hoxcrrees.

64 EXPLOITATION OF THE MARITIME PINE.

At this time he covers up the upper opening entirely, but without
hindering altogether the entrance of air and the issue of smoke :
small apertures being indispensable. On the other hand, much air
must not be admitted during the night, as then the moisture in the
wood is entirely evaporated, and the charcoal powder may be
converted into ashes.

"The carbonisation is completely finished when the workman
returns to his kiln on the following morning. Although the kiln has
not been hermetically sealed during the night there is but a slight
loss of charcoal ; the upper part only being affected by the air which
is moveover surcharged with carbonic acid,

"The workman now hastens to withdraw the charcoal, and to
extinguish it as completely as possible.

" By the lateral opening, he, with a little iron rake, draws out 2
hectolitres on to the inclined plane ; he then shuts the opening
instantly, and extinguishes the burning powder by watering it with
a gardener's watering pan. He applies one litre of water to the
hectolitre of powder ; this quantity is not enough to extinguish it
completely, but it is known that the powder is of better quality when
subjected to roidage, instead of employing an operation to be
immediately described, than it would be if more water were employed.
The workman then takes a wooden rake and spreads the charcoal
over an extent of about ten metres. The charcoal is extinguished
all the sooner by coming in contact with the cold earth, and an
atmosphere composed of carbonic acid and steam. By this roulage
the powder is exposed to the air in thin layers. The workman being
careful to extinguish any sparks of fire.

" This operation is long and hurtful to the workman, he breathes
a dry powder which incites him to drink, and injures his lungs. The
workmen who drink abundantly of the bad water of the country often
fall victims to fever.

"A workman spends three hours in extinguishing by roidage
20 hectolitres of powder,

" The kiln of the Couscwadiere consumes in a summer day, when
supplied by two workmen, from 350 to 360 botcrrees, and when
supplied by only one workman, 260 or 280 ; 360 hourrees yield from
18 to 22 hectolitres of powder, which contain hi'aise in the proportion
of 6 to 15.

" This braise is separated from the powder by an iron sieve, the
interstices being 2 centimetres across. The yield of braise varies
according to the composition of the bourrees. The oak yields more
than the birch, and the latter more than the maritime pine.

MANUFACTURE OP CHARCOAL POWDER. 65

"As to the yield of powder, pine bourrees take the highest place.
Cai-eful carboaisation also affects the yield, a certain quantity being
converted into ashes if the admission of air is not properly regulated.
" To prevent the necessity of continual superintendence, the work-
man is paid according to the yield. At La Motte-Beuvron he gets
15 centimes per hectolitre of powder.

" 100 bourrees may be carbonised at the following cost : —
Price of 100 bourrees, ... 2 francs 0 cents.

Carriage, ... ... 1 v ^ „

Cost of manufacturing 6 hectolitres

of powder, ... ... 0 ,, 90 „

Total, 3 francs 90 cents,

" From these 100 bourrees are obtained 6 hectolitres of powder,
which is worth on the spot 50 cents the hectolitre, or 4 francs for
6 hectolitres. The net profit is 60 centimes per 100 bourrees. In
this calculation I do not include the kiln, which costs very little, and
lasts for a number of years. If the work be done by proprietors, it
will be seen that their bourrees will bring them 2 francs 60 cents per
100.

" The expense of manufacture, at present 15 cents per hectolitre,
would be very much diminished if several kilns were made at the
same place. Whilst the bourrees are burning, the workman has a
good deal of spare time. When he has the care of two kilns he can
feed one while the bourrdes are burning in the other. He can roll
and extinguish the powder from one while attending to the fire in
the other. But it must be kept in mind that a collection of kilns
in one place increases the expense of carriage. If the roads be bad
the kilns should be isolated, and built at equal distances. The
expense of manufacture would be greater, but this would be largely
compensated by the reduction in the expense of carriage. A kiln
costs little, especially to proprietors who make their own brick and
lime.

"The tools required by the charcoal burner are simple in the
extreme.

" 1st, a wooden fork to put the boitrrees in the oven ; 2ud, a long-
handled iron rake to draw out the charcoal ; 3rd, two gardener's zinc
watering-pans ; 4th, a wooden rake ; 5th, a wire sieve ; 6th, a half
hectolitre measure ; 7th, a large square shovel of sheet iron bent up
at the side, eauh side measuring 0*38 metres, with a wooden handle

0*80 metres in length.

I

Q6 EXPLOITATION OF THE MARITIME PINE.

*' Of all these tools the only one requiring improvement is the sieve,
or riddle. It is of a rectangular shape, the longest side measures 1
m^tre, the shorter 65 centimetres, 4 pieces of wood about 25 centi-
metres high form the frame. The net- work meshes are 2 centimetres
in diameter, and are strengthened by transverse pieces of wood. It
is fixed to a post by a hook and a double handle, which serves for
putting in motion. It is with this sieve that the braise and the
charcoal powder are separated.

" These two articles vary according to the composition of the
bourrees."

In the Industrial Museum of Edinburgh, and it may be in other
similar institutions situated elsewhere, there have been exhibited
specimens of the products of the Landes, before and after having
been reclaimed from the conditions of wastes of moving sand, and
specimens of the implements employed in collecting the resinous
products of the trees. They were presented by M. Leopold Javal,
Deputy of the French Empire.

From a statement accompanying the specimens referred to, it
appeared that the operations carried out on the ground where they
were obtained were conducted by planting seedlings to the leeward
of the older plantations, in intersecting narrow belts, and sheltering
these with hurdles till they had taken root and begun to grow. This
they soon did, and, thriving well in such situations, they very soon
became strong enough to withstand the wind, and form live fences
enclosing squares of considerable extent.

These enclosures were then sown with rape, mustard, and other
rapid-growing crops, advantage being taken of wet weather to do
this. When the seed produced by these had been collected, the
remainder of the plant was ploughed in to produce vegetable mould,
and the process was repeated until sufficient vegetable mould to
support grain and other more valuable crops had been produced.

There were exhibited specimens of the sand, and of a bog iron ore
found about three feet below the surface, known as alios, with
specimens of the products of the land before cultivation. These con-
sisted chiefly of the common brake (Pteris aqxdlina) ; heather, or ling
(calluna vulgaris), which was used there, as elsewhere, for making
brooms ; the tree heath (erica arhorea), a heath indigenous in the south
of Europe, and there found with stems measuring about an inch in
diameter ; and the furze, or whin (idex eurojocea).

Of products raised by cultivation there were exhibited white maize,

I

BOONOMIO PRODUCTS OP THE LANDES. 67

yellow maize, millet, little millet, buckwheat, rye, oats, wheat, and
tobacco. There were exhibited sections of the cork tree (quercus
suher) ; of the black oak (Q. nigra), a native of North America ; of
the holly leaved oak (Q. gramiintia), which is indigenous in France ;
and of the cluster pine (jnmis pinaster), or Spardenny, of which the
maritime pine (P. maritima) is conjectured to be a variety ; there
were exhibited specimens of this cut into railway sleepers, railway
fencing, drain pipes, hop poles, shingle for roofing, and pavement
for streets, stables, and footpaths ; all of these had been infiltrated
with blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) by the process of Bouchard,
recommended as a prevention of rot and decay ; and there were
exhibited specimens of the following resinous products of the trees :
Soft resin, collected in covered vessels ; gallipot, or white resin,
obtained by scraping the trees ; barras, a coarse resin ; sun turpen-
tine, prepared by exposing soft resin to the action of the solar rays,
and used in the manufacture of perfumery and of varnishes ;
bala turpentine, similar to the sun turpentine, but of inferior
quality ; Venice turpentine, which oozes through the joints of casks
filled with soft resin ; spirits of turpentine j rectified spirits of
turpentine; resin, residuum of the distillation of rough turpentine
or resin ; tar, a product of the distillation of rough turpentine, and
of the destructive distillation of wood ; empyreumatic oil, obtained in
the distillation of resin ; lubricating grease, a mixtui-e of resin and
vegetable oils ; and torches of resin used chiefly in Bretagne.

Of implements there were exhibited a common hatchet, a hatchet
for making the broad shallow vertical grove in the bark and outer
concentric circles of the trunk, to allow of the escape of the resinous
sap, and for making the cut into which a zinc spout for collecting
that sap is fixed : the edge was, an arc of a circle about 3J inches
broad, and the head and handle formed an angle of about 135°; a
course earthenware vessel in which the resinous sap is now genei'ally
collected : it would hold about f pints, and was shaped like an
earthenware milk pan, or coarse flowerpot of equal width and depth ;
a shovel for detaching gallipot and digging holes : it was like a hoe in
shape, but solid ; a second of the same of about 2 inches in breadth ;
a scraper for the same purpose, of the same breadth, but bent round
like a crook to scrape downwards ; a ladder made of the side of a
young tree, with the edge cut into projecting angular steps.

The resins and the cereal products, exclusive of the fire-wood and
timber, were said to suffice to cover the expense of management
and to supply a satisfactory return for the capital invested in the

DO EXPLOITATION OP THE MARITIME PINE.

enterprise, and of the reclaimed land brought under annual culture.
And as regards the charcoal manufactured, it is remarked by M.
Boitel :

" This would evidently be a source of possible wealth if the forests
were easily accessible, but they are not so as yet at least in the
Dunes, and will not be so until the newly planted trees arrive at a
valuable age.

" Good roads ai'e being made at present, and in future the maritime
pine may be cultivated for the sake of its timber as well as for its
resin.

" The culture of the maritime pine has conferred invaluable benefits.
A considerable extent of low lying marshy land has been brought in,
once a focus of pestilence which decimated the population. It has
made it healthy and productive, and has introduced industiy and
comfort into districts which seemed doomed to misery. The
maritime pine has also arrested the advance of the Dunes and pre-
vented them from overwhelming houses and arable land. Its
importance must increase. In the department of the Landes alone,
the extent already planted is more than 500,000 hectares. In the
Gironde there is almost as much, and very soon barren wastes and
sandy dunes will be things of the past."

CHAPTER VII.

Sylviculture on the Landes of La Sologxe.

Besides the Landes of Gascony and the Landes of the Gironde which
are near the coast, we meet with Landes in inland situations in
France, arid regions, supporting but a sparse population, being
covered with heaths, and whins, and brooms, and other plants, which
take possession of waste and uncultivated lands, and yield little
nutriment for the support of man. Such are the Landes of La
Sologne, of which mention has been made in connection with details
given of the manufacture of charcoal ; such also are the Landes of
Le Brenne, and of Le Limousin — with solitudes broken only by the
visits of poor shepherds tending or searching for their sheep,
contrasting strangely with the animation and bustle prevailing in
districts adjacent.

In these we meet with another phase of sand dunes and drifting
sands, and of the culture of the maritime pine.

There, as in many other places elsewhere, the growth of the
maritime pine is less luxuriant than it is in the district to which our
attention has hitherto been given.

In the Landes of the Gironde the maritime pine propagates itself
by natural reproduction by self-sown seeds. There, all conditions are
peculiarly favourable to its growth. It is otherwise in the Depai't-
ment of Maine and in La Sologne.

In Sologne it is very rarely the case that a pinery is reproduced by
self-sown seed. In the first place the trees never attain to great age,
and they never furnish aught but a small quantity of seed. In the
second place a repev.2')lement, when it does make its appearance, soon
perishes under a dense covering of timber trees, which deprives it of
air and light. In fine, young saplings, which may have withstood
the injurious effects of too dense a shade, become oft-times the prey of
flocks of sheep, which the people have the bad custom to lead into
pineries, from which they should be strictly excluded.

Of the Landes of La Sologne and of La Brenne, it has been
remarked that they are less known than are those of Gascony,
because they do not lie upon the old great lines of communication.

70 SYLVICULTURE IN LA 80L0GNE.

They were once covered with a forest 1,200,000 acres in extent,
but this having been cleared away, they have relapsed into what
was their earlier condition, a barren sand waste, diversified by marsh
land, and marshes in abundance.

In writing of the " Desert World," M. Mangin, or his translator
into English, introducing his subject, says, " To those whose
imaginations have been kindled by glowing pictures of the African
Sahara and the Arabian wilderness, it will be, perhaps, a matter of
surprise to leara that even fertile and civilised Europe includes
within her boundaries regions which are scarcely less cheerless or
desolate, though happily of far inferior extent.

" In France, so richly cultivated, so laborious, and so blessed by
genial Nature as she is, there are, nevertheless, a few districts where
her sons may wholly forget — nay, almost disbelieve in the existence
of — her cities stirring with ' the hum of men,' her vineyards and her
gardens, her grassy pastui'es, her prolific meadows, her well ordered
highways, and those * iron roads ' which are the incessant channels of
such restless energy, movement, and vigorous life."

And after describing mountain solitudes in the gigantic ranges of
the Jura, the Vosges, and the Ceveunes ; the first an outlying spur
of the great Alpine system, and situated on the border of Switzerland ;
the second separating the valley of the Rhine from that of the
Moselle ; the last separating the valley of the Loire from that of the
basin of the Rhone, he goes on to reckon among the uncultivated
regions of France, the marshes of the Bresse of Forez, and, with others,
those of the Sologne.

The Landes or heaths of the Sologne appear as a desert surrounded
by a magnificent girdle of cultivated land, fully developed in the
fertile valleys of the Loire nnd the Cher. And, as is the case in
Gascony, the heath is surrounded on all sides by valleys, vineyards,
and gardens, in the highest state of cultivation, While in Corsica,
another sandy desert, the orange, the olive, and the chesnut adorn
spots sun'ounded with maquis, veritable heaths, with this, as the only
difi'erence between them and the heaths of the Sologne, that under
that southern climate the whins and the meagre heaths are replaced
by the arbutus, the myrtle, arborescent heaths, cistuses, and
lentisques.

In all of the places mentioned, in Sologne, in Brenne, and in
Gascony, it is not rare to see farms of from 1,500 to 2,000 hectares,
in round numbers, 4,000 and 5,000 acres, with only from 150 to 200

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 71

hectares under cultivation ; and in Corsica nine-tenths of the island
are covered by the maquis, or heaths. In Gascony, to one who would
urge the destruction of the heath, the agriculturist of Chalosse, or
of Beam would reply — No heath, no maize ; exactly, as elsewhere, one
would say — No dung, no wheat. And in that climate it is impossible
to carry out a rational and profitable culture excepting on the bases
of two hectares of heath for one under culture.

And there, by students of agricultural economy, it is deemed proper
to seek the improvement of the poorer land by rearing trees upon it,
instead of attempting to introduce at once the appliances of what is
known as high farming. But even for woods the land here requires
preparation, and the preparation which is found to be most appropriate
is the culture of certain cereals, alternating with a growth of the
maritime pine, without which it would be hazardous to attempt the
growth of the Scots fir, the Corsican pine, and the Norway fir, and the
oak, and the birch, all of which have been cultivated here with the
best results.

But the land improver must wait many years before he can say
whether the land will bear the other coniferae ; and the oak, and
other broad-leaved trees, it is alleged grow but slowly and require
shelter. And even when the time has come to attempt the growth
of such, it is not uncommon to grow a mixture of the maritime pine
with the other coniferae, the oak, the birch, and the chesnut ; as,
should the others fail, it at least will grow ; and if all succeed it is easy
to sacrifice any one kind for the promotion of the growth of the others ;
and in any case it will give shelter to those which might suffer from
frost, and it will yield marketable products, while the oak and the
birch are still too young to be subjected to exploitation.

In Sologne we have a well-defined geological district, about
440,000 hectares, or above a million of acres in extent. The
superficial strata have been designated by geologists specifically as
the Sands and Clays of the Sologne, a formation reckoned amongTthe
upper layers of the middle range of the tertiary period.

It may be i-epresented, says Boitel in his volume entitled " Mis^
en valeur des Terres Pauvres par le Pin Maritime," as a vast
calcareous basin, filled by alternate deposits of sand and of clay.
This basin, the wall of which crops out at a great many points along
the circumference of La Sologne, presents naturally different depths
at different localities.

In two borings, within yards of each other, at Savigny (Loiret)

72 SYLVICULTURE IN LA 80L0GNE.

we have in one a depth of 270 feet, and the other only 226| feet ;
and a third at Vannes (Loiret), we have only 168 feet. And owing
to accidental disturbances, and to the general inclination of the
surface from east to west, one and another of the layers of which the
deposit consists appear on the surface with a very great variation
in breadth, giving rise to superficial ground of silicious sand, of clay,
and of those elements associated in different proportions ; and the
sub-soil, which may be considered the true soil of the trees, presents
modifications not less important in character and in depth.

All the layers which appear have, as a common character, that
they are poor in lime and in fertilizing substances.

" In Sologne," says Boitel, " the lack of lime, the natural sterility
of the country, the ignorance of those who exploit its products, the
want of capital, the deficiency of labour, the undivided state of the
property, whether held by communes or by individuals, and the strik-
ing ruin of some inexperienced innovators, are the main obstacles which
have retarded the utilisation and improvement of the greater part of
the uncultivated land."

Following out the natui'al division of the layers into sandy, clayey,
and mixed lands, he says of these :

" Sandy silicious soil is formed of sand, more or less coarse, and
more or less white ; it is light and easily worked. Damp does not
make it cohere, or change it into a thick oily paste. If it lies on an
impermeable clay bed, without any fall, it becomes, in winter,
saturated with water, and almost inaccessible to animals, who would
sink into it up to their chests.

" But if there is a slight declivity it drains itself of its own accord,
and is liable to become too dry in summer. Farmers sow it only
with rye and buckwheat ; turnips and red clover also succeed pretty
well. In farms where no hoisement, or planting with trees, has
taken place for fifty years, it is often still arable. Old fashioned
farmers prefer it, because it is easily worked, and because the effect
of manure soon becomes apparent on the buckwheat and rye.

" Intelligent farmers, on the contrary, dislike it because of its
rapid exhaustion, and because old manure can never be stored up in
it, so as to yield a good return. Even supposing that lime could be
had, it would be unsuitable for wheat and oats, it being poor in fertiliz-
ing substances, and because these cereals would suffer from drought
before coming to maturity. Farmers subject these sandy soils to a
fallow of lengthened duration ; it then becomes covered with a
whitish hair-grass (aira canescens), with a species of woodruff

SOILS IN LA SOLOaNB. 73

(aspemla cynancMca), and sheep's bit (jasione montana). After a
repose of several years, a gi'een compact moss follows, which is con-
sidered an indication that it will now bear one or two crops of barley
without manure. Isolated plantations of chestnuts also succeed when
the ground is deep and damp enough, also the oak and birch, but
the maritime pine is most suitable. All the sapinieres, or fir planta-
tions, established in Sologne for the last twenty-five years have been
planted in such ground.

" Clay Soil. — In Sologne sandy silicious soil covers the greatest
extent ; then comes clay, which is very different. When dry it
contracts, cracks, and is difficult to work. When wet it is
impermeable, and forms an oily tough paste or clay, suitable for the
manufacture of tiles and bricks. These should not be made either
in very dry or very wet weather, but only at times of a certain degree
of dampness. Such soil is less easy to work than is sand ; it
requires stronger ploughs and more perfect implements. These
considerations made old fashioned farmers exclude it from the list of
arable soils. It is covered with oak woods and ponds, or is kept
as pasture for sheep.

"The white oak easily becomes fit for exploitation, either as coppice
or as timber trees. If the clay is pure and compact the chene rouvre,
or red oak, the variety chiefly grown in France, is to be preferred.

" Clay soil produces a stronger and richer vegetation. The smaller
heaths being overtopped by the erica scoparia, vulgarly called
hremaille, which obtains the height of 1"50 metres. The dwarf whin
is also found (idex nanus), some junipers and some grasses (molinia
cosrulea, agrostis vulgaris, and dantJionia deciimhens). Clay soils, al-
though more difficult to work, are more profitable than are sandy
ones; when drained, limed, and well manured, they are neither too
hot nor too dry; the compost is not wasted, and it gives a good return.

" At the same time where argilo-silicious soils, which are better for
cultivation, are to be had, clay soils should be wooded. The mari-
time pine will not thrive on it, the oak and pine should be chosen.

" Soils Composed of Sand and Clay. — This class comprehends all
soils composed of mixtures of sand and clay, but such are rare in
Sologne, and this is unfortunate for its agricultural future.

" If in place of elementary soils, pure sand and pure clay, the soil
in Sologne were like the average ground in France, the farmer would
be more frequently successful.

" The soils in Sologne are infinitely modified in composition ; and
then also modified through their connection with subterranean

K

74 SYLVICULTURE IN LA SOLOGNB.

springs. Before planting a firwood pinery it is necessary to ascertain
if the soil and sub-soil are suitable to the maritime pine, as this
tree pines in argilaceous, stiff, cold, and damp soils, and thrives in
such as are deep, sandy, and well drained."

M. Boitel supplies also the following information on the compara-
tive extents of wooded and arable ground in La Sologne ; " About
1836 the forests covered an extent of about 38,730 hectares, which
included those belonging to the state, to communes, and to private
individuals. Since that time much sandy unproductive arable land
has been planted with maritime pines, and I am not far from the
truth in fixing the total extent so occupied in Sologne at 50,000
hectares. Forests thus cover one-eighth of the whole surface. The
forest of Bruadan, lately uprooted, was famed for its size and for its
beautiful oaks. The forests of Boulogne and Chambord take a high
place. In the interior of Sologne may be mentioned those of Villette,
Chaon, and many others lately planted with pines. The oldest forests
are composed of white oak copse, growing under large timber of the
same tree. These usually occupy a stiff clay. The pedunculated oak
presents also a luxuriant appearance, reminding one of more fertile
countries. The good success of deciduous trees proves that they have
not so many requirements as herbaceous plants ; for, while the latter
cannot procure nourishment, the former, on the contraiy, appear to
derive from the sub-soil and the atmosphere everything necessary for
their welfare.

" Such differences between these two classes of plants are often
apparent. The marl so useful for crops seems positively hurtful to
certain trees. The upper soil, exhausted by frequent cropping,
appears equally favourable to the germination and the development of
trees. The Solognese peasant says that sand is ripe for trees when-
ever barley refuses to grow.

" Trees with deciduous leaves, the oak in particular, are certainly
the greatest improvement to the landscape; and when under the shade
of these magnificent specimens scattered here and there on the edges
of the farms, one questions whether the soil should be called sterile.
Every domain, and, it may be said, every farm, has one part of wood-
land assigned to the proprietor. The oldest forests are coppices of oak
and birch. The pedunculated or stalk-fruited oak occupies the
argilo-silicious soil, whilst the oak with sessile acorns, is found on
stiff clayey soil, where it succeeds as coppice better than any other
tree. The new forests, planted within the last thirty years, are usually

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR SYLVICULTURE. 75

formed of maritime pines. Isolated portions often look neglected,
because the bad habit prevails of pasturing cattle in oak-coppice
woods. There are even proprietors who tolerate this abuse in les
haux. Plantations of maritime pines ai'e better protected, but care-
less shepherds often allow their flocks to brouse on the young shoots.

" It may be remarked that hoisements, or plantations of trees, are
gradually encroaching on the arable ground. It is more than thirty
years since this invasion began. The soil, naturally poor in lime and
fertilizing elements, is rapidly exhausted by the prevailing bad farm-
ing. What can be done with such soil 1 Simply to sow three or four
francs' worth of the seed of the maritime pine, and to wait for the
growth of the young forest. Such an insignificant outlay preparing
for a certain return being obtained from soil absolutely useless for
agriculture.

" These improvements often take place on land otherwise unproduc-
tive, because it is the interest of the proprietors to do this. Subse-
quently a portion is cleared and made arable, and when exhausted by
fifteen or twenty years' culture, it is again planted with wood. In
this way in sandy cantons the farmer, or small land-holder, succes-
sively clearing and planting, becomes an important agent in
re-converting the lands into forests."

In regard to the formation of pine woods in La Sologne, M. Boitel
supplies the following information :

" Preparation of the Ground. — The extension of sylvicultui'e, which
would fall to be deprecated if it implied that the land planted with
trees was land withdrawn from agriculture, comes to be desirable
when it is carried out on laud fit for the growth of trees alone, and
which has become so only after a few years of temporary cultivation.
In Sologne nothing is more difficult than to convert a Lande at once
into a forest. The most experienced men carefully avoid attempting
to do so ; as when the soil of the Lande has been carefully prepared
to receive the seed, it is at once covered by a vigorous vegetation of
heath, broom, and gorse or whin, which never fail to choke the young
trees. Immediate boisement, or plantation with trees, succeeds rarely,
and only on very dry soils, where the heaths are stunted. Except in
such rare conditions, it may be said the natural growth (heaths,
broom, and gorse or whins) are stronger than the maritime pine, the oak,
and the birch ; when the seedlings come into collision, victory accrues
to the indigenous growth of the soil. Sologne, in this respect, is
very different from Gascony, where the maritime pine, by natural

76 SYLVICULTURE IN LA SOLOGNE.

sowing, invades the heaths when these are not under pasture ; and fur-
thex", on the Danes of Gascony broom is employed successfully to
shelter the infant pines !

*' Choice of Ground. — Either arable ground or Landes may be
planted. The latter cannot undergo the operation at once without
being subjected to cultivation for several years.

" The arable land employed must of course be of the worst kind.
Sandy, permeable, light soil is generally destined to hoisement. Only
special circumstances ever induce a proprietor to plant with trees all
his property, whatever may be the nature of the soil ; but planting
may have to be carried on at the same time on pure sand, and on
sand which is more or less mixed with clay.

" Before fixing on the trees to be used, the nature of the soil, and
the requirements of convenience, must be consulted, and the selec-
tion should be of whatever will yield the highest and most permanent
annual return.

" Boisement in Sologne is either permanent or temporary; per-
manent where it is in contemplation to farm a copse or a timber
forest ; temporary, when intended to prepare the soil for agriculture ;
and this may determine the choice of trees.

" For temporary boisement, trees which soon attain maturity
should be chosen. The maritime pine, which in favourable circum-
stances attains the age of eighty years, rarely lasts more than twenty-
five in Sologne. After this age the bark is covered with lichens, the
growth is feeble, and it is at a loss if the exploitation be delayed.
The ground which is cleared will then yield excellent crops without
further expense than that of the working of the ground — thanks to
the organic remains with which it is enriched by the trees grown
upon it,

" In this way a rotation may be carried on according to the
following formula :

Maritime pine, ... ... 20 to 25 years,

Idem, ... ... ... „ „

Rye and buckwheat, ... ... so long as rye and

buckwheat continue to thrive without the addition of manure.

" The soil when again exhausted, is again replenished with
maritime pine, and so on continuously.

" In this rotation the pine plays the part of a doubly productive
fallow, because, besides its commercial value, it restores to the soil
the elements which are required in agriculture. We cannot too
much admire the marvellous property of trees whereby they collect

TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT B0I8EMENT. 77

and restore to the exhausted soil, the substances withdrawn from
the air by their leaves []] or from the subsoil by their roots. It
supplies us with one of the main iustauces in agriculture in which
time is of more value than money. With a great outlay in fertilizing
a poor soil, the return may be uncertain or even ruinous to the
cultivator. If, on the contrary, it be expended on hoisement, or plan-
tation of trees, where time is money, you attain your end by improv-
ing the fertility, and at the same time you produce the amelioration
by a money return. It is only in the case of very good soil that
time is here worth more than money.

" Permanent ov definite boisement. — Temporary boisement makes the
poor soil of Sologne produce every year, pines, rye, and buckwheat.
Permanent boisement excludes agriculture, and the annual produce is
exclusively that of the forest. This is obtained by mixing the oak,
birch, and chesnut, with the pine, the coppice regime of which trees
follows the exploitation of the last named tree. In Sologne both
systems have both advocates and assailants. Unfortunately, discus-
sion will not decide the point, and we do not as yet possess sufficient
data to enable us to do so. But if we look at the subject from a philan-
thropic point of view, the first is to be preferred, because, instead of
producing alone fire-wood and charcoal, it furnishes cereals, over and
above, to a population at present obliged to have recourse to the im-
portation of these from a distance.

" Sowings of pines along with other trees. — The maritime pine when
grown by itself is treated as has been already detailed. When
mixed with other trees there are no very important modifications
of this. It acts as a shelter to coppice woods of oak, birch, and
chestnut. These coppice woods continue growing while the pines
remain, but they do not become really productive until after the
exploitation of these. Instead of passing abruptly and completely
from the culture of the pine wood, to that of the coppice woods of
deciduous trees, there are sometimes left haliveaux, or standards,
of maritime pines. In this way we have there a coppice of oak and
birch under a timber forest of pines. This method is only to be
adopted on soil which is very favourable to the pine.

" For mixed boisements it does not signify whether the soil is quite
suited to the pine or not. The good of the trees which will per-
manently occupy the soil is more to be consulted. In any case,
where the sand is shallow, Scots firs should be preferred.

" The trees to be mixed with pines should be, first, the red oak, on
stiff clay ; second, the white oak, on argilo-silicious soils ; third, the

78 SYLVICULTURE IN LA SOLOGNB.

birch, in poor, damp, and deep sand ; fourth, the chestnut, on rich,
damp, and deep sand. The oak is very hardy ; in poor soils it is
the most productive.

" To conclude, it is not always easy to apply the rules laid down,
on account of the varieties of soil ; but to ensure success two kinds of
deciduous trees should be associated with the pine — for example, the
oak and birch.

" Fine coppice woods of chestaut are rare in Sologne, which seems
to prove that tbe soil is unsuitable. Nevertheless, solitary specimens
of chesnut trees of great beauty occur, but only in the neighbourhood
of the farms, where they have had the benefit of manure and culture.

" The year in which the pines are sown may not always be a good
year for acorns. In this case the latter may be pricked in later
among the young pines.

" When the pines and acorns are sown at the same time, the acorns
are first scattered in furrows, and when the ground is harrowed they
are covered to the proper depth. The pine seed is then sown and
covered by being slightly harrowed. Chestnuts are sown like acorns.

" Birch seed is not sown in Sologne ; young plants, three years old,
collected in the neighbourhood of the old trees, are preferred."

M. Boitel goes on to say : " Having pointed out the trees to be
employed on hoisements, we may now consider the respective merits
of forests and agriculture as regards the general good.

" It is impossible to bring a poor soil at once into cultivation, and
it may be considered as proved beyond a doubt that rehoisement is the
best way of improving land, and at the same time securing a speedy
return.

" In Sologne, agriculture can only be profitably carried on in
certain favoured spots where the soil, argilo-silicious or silicio-
argillaceous, has been drained and manui'ed ; but it is evident that
expensive improvements, in which the outlay exceeds the return, can
only be carried out on a very small scale in Sologne. A farm of 100
to 150 hectares will only contain 20 or 30 hectares which have been
treated in this way.

" It is impossible to establish the relative proportion which ought
to exist between agriculture and hoisement — local circumstances and
the position of the proprietor differ so very much.

" The most experienced men devote to hoisement, first, exhausted
land which is usually sandy ; second, Landes exceptionally poor.

" We have already said that these Landes cannot at once be

3

) J

0

>j

4

)>

50

»

2

>>

50

»

2

>>

50

)}

EXPENSE OP SOWING. 79

changed into forests ; but when grubbed out, and subjected to the
action of black cattle during two or three years, they yield crops,
which repay the expense of grubbing, and which destroy the weeds.

" I have tried boisements on a large scale on the Imperial domains
of Sologne. The following is the cost of sowing a hectare of
exhausted land :

10 kilogrammes of maritime pine seed

(winged) at 40 cents, ... 4 francs 0 cents.

1 kilogramme of Scotch fir seed

(winged) at 3 francs,
150 litres of acorns at 3 cents,
50 litres of chestnuts at 5 cents,
Scattering the seed, ...

Total, 16 francs 50 cents.

"The expense of draining, levelling, enclosing, and weeding,
varying according to locality, amounts, at the least, to 15 francs per
hectare, so that the rehoisement of a hectare will cost about 32 francs
50 cents, partly the seed, partly for hand labour. The expense of
ploughing and harrowing must be added, but usually this is not
great in these sandy soils. Land left in furrows only requires to be
harrowed after the seed is scattered.

*' This system of hoisement is perfect and permanent, and free from
risk.

*' If the Scots fir does not germinate, wbich often happens, it
should be replaced by the maritime pine, and vice versa. If resinous
trees fail, the oak, birch, and chestnut will cover the ground
sufficiently.

" Some boisements cost only 4 or 5 francs per hectare instead of 32
francs 50 cents, in which case the seed of the maritime pine is sown
along with rye and buckwheat. The seed costs little, and the produce
of the mixed culture pays for the ploughing and harrowing. This
method has the drawback of risking all on a single tree, which may not
succeed. On the other hand, it is to be supposed that the ground is
not too far exhausted to be able to produce at least one other crop of
rye and buckwheat ; this is not usually the state of a field abandoned
by farmers or small land holders.

" The young pineries, called here sapinieres, are treated according
to the method alx'eady described."

In the reclaiming of these Landes of La Sologne, we still find the

80 STLVIOULTURB IN LA 60L0GNE.

maritime pine playing an important part ; but it is a subordinate
rdle. It is employed here not as the one important culture, but as a
means of preparing the soil for the culture of some of the poorer of
the cereals, or as a manure to other trees, for the growth of which it
has to make way, having secured its purpose, and in doing so
exhausted its growth. In this respect, as in others, the Landes of
Gascony and the Landes of La Sologne differ greatly ; and thus a
fuller study of these, more especially in particulars in which they
differ from each other, may be desirable.

1

CHAPTER VIII.

Inland Sand-Wastes, and Sand-Wastes on the Coast.

The different conditions of the maritime pine grown on the Landes of
Gascony, and of that tree grown on the Landes of La Sologne, indicate
that there must be some great difference in the conditions of the
sand-wastes themselves ; and I deem it of much more importance to
have this fact recognised by those who, without previous experience,
may contemplate the reclaiming of sand-wastes by sylviculture, than
to have the difference referred to precisely specified. All sand-wastes
are not alike : there ai'e sand- wastes ; and there are sand-wastes ;
and there are trees which will grow luxuriantly upon one, which upon
another will pine away and die.

Climate has to do with such results as well as soil. Sea air, and
saline constituents of the soil, destructive to some trees, may be, like
elements, life to others. The mobility of a drifting sand dune on the
coast may be a condition of life to one tree, while the comparative
fixity of an inland sand-waste maybe essential to the growth of another.
Something has been gained by the discovery that even the maritime
pine, which has produced such wonderful results on the Landes of
Gascony and of the Gironde, will not grow everywhere, even on sand-
wastes in France. And the teaching of this is, that in every case in
which it is sought thus to arrest and utilize sand-wastes, the culture
must be determined by a special acquaintance with the case.

A. previous study of the natural history of sand drifts and sand
dunes might facilitate the acquisition of such an acquaintance with
any one case as is referred to. But this comes not within the scope
of this volume, which is limited to the single chapter of that subject
indicated by its title. And it is the appearance presented by planta-
tions on drift sands, and by lands adjacent to the pine plantations in
Gascony alone, which have as yet been detailed. Points of similarity
and of difference between these sands and the sands of La Sologne
have only come before us incidentally.

With the fact before us, however, that there are differences in the con-
ditions of sand-wastes, we may find it satisfactory to advance a little
further in the study of these sand-wastes of France, less with a view
of ascertaining the difference between the sand-wastes of the coast

L

82 SAND-WA8TE8 IN FRANCE.

and those of the interior of France, than with a view to becoming
acquainted more extensively with the less superficial conditions of
these sand-wastes than those previously detailed, whether common
to all or peculiar to certain localities-
According to Herr Wessley, to whose work, entitled Ber Europdische
Flugsand und Seine Kultur* I have already had occasion to refer,
the "Landes" covering 270 German square miles (5,550 English
square miles) of the province of Gascony, form the area of the basin
of Bordeaux, a triangle bounded by the Atlantic, and formed by the
land lying between the lower portion of the beds of the Garonne and
of the Adour.

On the coast are the " Landes Sauvages," or coast dunes, covering
an area of 19 German square miles, (nearly 400 English square
miles), which, through drifting, have extended to a breadth which is
unusual, and thereby has it frequently happened that the river courses
far inland have been stopped up, and thus, through their waters
penetrating into the Kehlen, or bared grooves, and hollows amongst
the dunes, which cover more than half the land, have these waters
been converted into lagoons and marshes.

The inland portion of the " Landes " forma a kind of plain from 250
to 300 feet above the level of the sea, an extensive sand heath
covered with dunes, very much cut up, and of a composition so
unfavourable to vegetation that in many parts it is throughout the
year perfectly barren. It is only of late, as he says, that by extensive
sylviculture, chiefly of the maritime pine, a considerable extent of
forest has been produced, following mainly the water courses, and
thereby a better produce from the land has been obtained.

The superficial covering of these heaths is composed principally of
a very poor sand, devoid alike of clay and lime from 1*9 to 2*5 feet in
depth, resting on an impenetrable under stratum, from 11 to 15
inches in thickness, which consists of sand cemented by calcareous
and vegetable matter and is almost identical with the so-called
German " Ortstein." Under this stratum of ortstein again lies sand,
and although in some places they have dug to a depth of 63 feet
the lower extremity of this sand layer has not been reached.

In the summer season there is neither spring nor brook to be seen
in these Landes. In the winter, however, being so near the sea, there
is a plentiful fall of rain ; and formerly, because of the little slope of

*Vieiina : Fraesy and Freck. 1873.

\

RETENTION OF WATER. 83

the gi'ound preventing a flowing off on any side, and the ortsiein
preventing its sinking into the ground, they were frequently flooded,
and in this state they continued till the water was finally evaporated
by the summer heat ; and then things went to the other extreme,
namely, a drought, because the vapour of the subterranean water
could not pass through the stratum of ortstein. But here and
there, where the ortstein was awanting, or had been broken through,
places might be seen which were not so water drenched ; on these
grew wood very well, and showed that the barrenness was not
attributable to the composition of the superficial layers.

The level of the subterranean water is about 3| feet below the
surface. Water for drinking brought from that level is yellowish in
colour, and harsh to the taste ; it is only when brought from a depth
of from 12 to 15 feet that the water begins to be drinkable.

In the wet localities described no oak can grow, for during the
season of spring the whole heat is required for the evaporation of
the water lodged there, and the oaks then expand their buds, and if
these retain vitality at all it is only in the end of May, when the
excess of moisture has disappeared, that they can burst forth, and
then the delicate buds are exposed to the summer heat, and they
succumb to the scorching sun of July.

The maritime pine has also its buds ; and the period of its vege-
tation is also reduced by about two months by the stagnant waters ;
and by the ground ever passing through the alternation between exces-
sive drought and excessive moisture, this tree also suffers in its growth,
and on spots which do not become dry until the middle of summer
it does not grow at all.

The importance of effects produced by the ortstein, of which men-
tion has previously been made, under its local designation, alios, calls
for some additional information being given in regard to it.

In writing of the Water Supply in South Africa, I have had occa-
sion to refer to an impermeable layer in the sands of Namaqualand and
other districts operating as does the ortstein here. There travellers,
when driven to extremity for water, have found, on hollowing out a
basin in the sand, that at a little depth they I'eached a layer of other
matter ; and after a time, more or less protracted, water collected in
this basin, draining thither from and through the permeable sand, and
retained there by the impermeable stratum, often not thicker than a
penny, formed probably of clay, lime, and other matter washed down
from the superincumbent sand. It is impermeable to water ;

84 SAND-WASTES OP FRANCE.

but great care has to be taken not to fracture it, as whenever this
happens the water is lost, draining oflf to a lower depth.

In the Landes the stratum of impermeable matter spoken of by
Herr Wessley, and there known as alios, contains iron in its composi-
tion ; it has been spoken of as bog-iron-ore, and has been mentioned
(ante p. 66) under this name among the products of the Landes
exhibited by M. Leopold Javal.

The origin of this has been discussed by M. Faye, Director-General
of the Administration of Forests in France, in a paper which appeared
in the translation of the Academie des sciences, from a notice of
which, in the Athenceum, it appears that M. Faye was engaged to
level a portion of the Landes between the lakes on the coast
and the basin of A.rcachon, and made use of the opportunity to
study the peculiarities of the soil. According to this notice : " At
about three feet below the surface of the Landes, there lies every-
where an impermeable stratum called alios, a stony substance of a
brown colour, variable in thickness, which is nowhere great, and
covering an indefinite bed of sand, identical with that which lies above
it. This invisible waterproof stratum has always had a great influence
on the health of the inhabitants of the country. Eetaining the pro-
ducts of vegetable decomposition from the upper soil, where there
was scarcely any slope, the alios has for centuries fixed intermittent
fever in and around the Landes; but reclamation has driven away
the fever, and the alios seems now to have no other effect than that
of forcing the roots of the marine pines to grow horizontally instead
of vertically. The sand of the Landes is white, intermixed with a
few black grains, containing peroxide of iron and oxide of manganesia.
Washed; first by the water of the ocean, and afterwards by rain for
centuries, it holds no soluble matter, and the alios, which is of a dark
reddish brown colour, sufl&ciently compact to require a pick-axe to
break it up, is a stratum of the same sand cemented together by some
organic and slightly ferruginous substance. In the summer a hole
made in the soil down to the alios fills gradually by lateral infiltration
with yellowish water not fit for drinking ; but if the alios is pierced
an abundant supply of perfectly limpid water is obtained.

" The question is — How is this alios formed 1 It is evident that it
was produced in situ, and the presence of the organic matter already
mentioned leads to the supposition that the latter plays some part in
the formation ef this peculiar stratum.

" The alios is found everywhere in the Landes except in the marshes,
on the banks of ponds, and in the downs, even when the latter.

FORMATION OF THE ALIOS. 85

protected by old forests, have never been swept by the winds for
centuries. Soundings, and the knowledge of these exceptions, led M,
Faye to the discovery of the mode in which the alios was formed.
In winter and early spring the nearly level surface of the Landes is
covered with rain-water, but during summer the level of this water
descends by evaporation, to the depth of one or two metres, a level
which also corresponds with that of the ponds which border the chain
of downs. If now we take into consideration the decomposition of
vegetable matter which takes place in the water, and the deposit
which must be produced at the lower level, it is easy to see why an
agglomeration of sand and organic matter should take place at the
depth already mentioned. This operation being repeated annually
during many centuries, an increasing stratum of alios is naturally
formed, which doubtless continues to grow at the present moment.

" It is not surprising then that no alios is to be found in the
marshes which are always under water, nor in the downs which are
not inundated, like the Landes, by a periodical sheet of water carried
off regularly by evaporation, the rain as it falls being carried away
by the slopes to the sea.

"But Whence come the traces of ferruginous matter which aid in
the agglomeration of the alios and in "giving it its red tint 1 It was
shown long ago that the decomposition of roots and other vegetable
matter brings the peroxide of iron contained in the soil into a state
of inferior oxidation, and renders it liable to be attacked by the weak
acids resulting from vegetable decay; more recently, M. Daubr^e
attributed the formation of the limonitic iron of the Swedish lakes to
this chemical action, showing that iron thus rendered soluble over
great areas is collected together by springs and rivulets, re-assumes
its primitive oxidation, when the waters come in contact with the air,
and is then deposited in the form of slime, and forms mineral strata
of great richness. The same effect, but produced on the spot, would
account for the small quantity of iron found in the alios. Vegetable
decay has, in fact, produced in places the identical effect on the
blackish portions of the sand of the Landes ; where a fall in the level
has caused a great accumulation of water there has been a concen-
tration of iron, and in past times a certain number of furnaces worked
up the iron, which is now exhausted.

" M. Faye, having explained the origin of alios, showed what effect
an impermeable subsoil has on the salubrity of a district ; the escape
of the water is stopped, the subsoil becomes a centre of putrefaction
and infection, and endemic malaria devastates the country. In the

86 SAND-WASTES OP PRANCE.

Laudes the evil has beeu remedied by cutting rather deep drains to
carry off the water, and the roots of fern and other plants, which
partly perish every year, have been replaced by those of the maritime
pine. Thus the contamination of the air by the subsoil has been
stopped, and with it the intermittent fevers which had given to the
inhabitants a peculiar character of debility. M. Faye, after much
observation, arrives at what he believes to be a principle, namely,
that wherever an impermeable subsoil is found at a depth of two or
three feet from the surface there will always be intermittent fever if
the soil be contaminated by vegetable putridity, and fevers of a
typhoidal character if animal decomposition be present. As to the
remedy, it consists evidently either in draining, as adopted in the
Landes, or in the removal of the vegetable or animal decomposition."
But of this stratum, Marsh says : ** The alios, which, from its
colour and consistence, was supposed to be a ferruginous formation,
appears from recent observations to contain little iron, and to owe
most of its peculiar propei'ties to vegetable elements carried down
into the soil by the percolation of rain-water. See Bevue des Eaux et
Forets, for 1870, p. 301."

Whatever the source of the material and the process of its forma-
tion, the effects of its presence on the moisture of the sand-wastes
and on vegetation there is great.

And from what has been advanced it appears that, in so far as
moisture is concerned, dunes and sand plains are not always so
devoid of water as they seem, and as the common expression Dry
Sand would suggest.

Marsh, in connection with a remark made by himself, in which he
says in regard to sand hillocks : " it is observed that from capillary
attraction, evaporation from lower strata, and retention of rain-water,
they are always moist a little below the surface," cites in a foot-note
the following observations : " Dunes are always full of water, from
the action of capillary attraction. Upon the summits one seldom
needs to dig more than a foot to find the sand moist ; and in the
depressions fresh water is met with near the surface. Foechhammer
in Leonhard und Bronn for 1841, p. 5.

" On the other hand, Andresen, who has very carefully investi-
gated this as well as all other dune phenomena, maintains that the
humidity of the sand ridges cannot be derived from capillary
attraction. He found by experiment that a heap of drift sand was
not moistened to a greater height than eight and a half inches, after

ABSORPTION OF WATER. 87

standing with its base a whole night in water. He states the mean
minimum of water contained by the sand of the dunes one foot below
the surface, after a long drought, at two per cent. ; the maximum,
after a rainy month, at four per cent. At greater depths the quantity
is larger. The hygroscopicity of the sand of the coast of Jutland he
found to be 33 per cent., by measure, or 21-5 by weight. The
annual precipitation on that coast is 27 inches, and, as the
evaporation is about the same, he argues that rain-water does not
penetrate far beneath the surface of the dunes, and concludes that
their humidity can be explained only by the evaporation from
below. Om Klit formationen, pp. 106-110.

" In the dunes of Algeria water is so abundant that wells are
constantly dug in them at high points on their surface. They are
sunk to the depth of three or four metres only, and the water rises
to the height of a m^tre in them. Laurent. Memoire sur le Sahara,
pp. 11, 12, 13.

" The same writer observes (p. 14), that the hollows on the dunes
are planted with palms which find moisture enough a little below the
surface. It would hence seem that the proposal to fix the dunes
which are supposed to threaten the Suez Canal, by planting the
maritime pine and other trees upon them, is not altogether so absurd
as it has been thought to be by some of those distinguished philan-
thropists of other nations who were distressed with fears that French
capitalists would lose the money they had invested in that great
undertaking.

" Ponds of water are often found in the depressions between the
sand hills of the dune chains in the North American desert."

I have had occasion, in the volume on " Reboisement in France," to
refer to certain experiments by Thurmann, in which cubes of different
minerals, thoroughly dried, weighing each 100 grammes, were im-
mersed in water for five minutes. He states that these gave the follow-
ing results : — Liassic triassic, compact Jurassic, liassic triassic, and
oolithic limestones, granite, serpentine, basalt, dolerites, trachytes,
&c., gave a mean absorption of 0"50 grammes of water. Similar mine-
rals, including gneiss and compact marl schist somewhat disinteg-
rated and changed, gave a mean absorption of 1*50 grammes; lime-
stone still further decomposed, ferruginous oolites of Mt. Jura, liassic
schists and grits from the Vosges, and eruptive rocks perceptibly
changed, a mean absorption of 4 grammes ; variegated grits, green
coloured grits, calcareous chalks, gravelly clay, and sands, 7 grammes ;
and clays, Oxford marls, and kaolin, an absorption of from 10 to 30
grammes.

88 SAND-WASTES OP FRANCE.

These observations, I there stated, Marchand considered indi-
cative of the absorption of water being proportional to the state of
sub-division of the material composing the rock ; and this effect he
resolved into their hygroscopicity and their capillarity — the former,
the power of each molecule of the rock to retain around it a layer of
moisture difficult to withdraw — the latter, the px'operty possessed by
many molecules of earth, to retain, in interstices by which they are
separated, small globules of water.

From experiments and observations cited by Wessley, it appears
that, of all the constituents of soil, sand manifests the least capa-
bility of absorbing water into its composition.

According to experiments by Schuebler, recorded in his Agricultur-
Chemie (1830), a cubic mhtve of the following substance contained of
water the quantities stated :

Kilogrammes.
Quartz sand, 499

Pure grey clay, 875

Fine carbonate of lime, 808
Humid acid, 935

Field earth, 745

Garden earth, 821

The size of the grains of sand has an influence, and the capability
of absorbing moisture is inci'eased with the fineness of the grains, —
but much more by the admixture of clay and lime, and most of all by
the addition of humid acid.

Pure quartz sand has no power of attracting moisture from the
atmosphere, but it gains this power by the admixture of other sub-
stances ; and the operation is promoted by the reduction of the size
of the grains.

According to statements in Heyer's Forstliche Bodeiikunde, founded
on investigations by Schuebler, 5 grammes of the following sub-
stances spread out over 360 square centimetres, attracted from the
air in 72 hours the affixed number of centi-grammes ; and the pro-
portions would have been the same whatever weight had been taken :
Pure quartz sand, ... ... ... 0*0

Pure grey clay.

Powdered carbonate of lime,

Humid acid.

Field earth.

Garden earth,

In Weight.

In volume

•25

•50

•70

•87

•85

•81

1-90

•94

•52

•75

•89

•82

24-5

17-5

60-

11-6

26-

MOISTUEE OP SAND, 89"

Again we find the eflfect intensified most of all by the admixture
of humus, the opei'ation of which is some three-fold that of clay and
lime. Sand again is desiccated more rapidly than the other sub-
stances mentioned.

According to Schuebler, of 100 parts of absorbed water, reduced
to the extent of 90 parts by exposure to a temperature of 15°, these
substances yielded it up in the following times stated :

In one hour. In four hours.

Pure quartz sand.

4-07

88-4

Pure clay,

11-28

31-9

Powdered lime,

12-83

28-

Humid acid,

17-55

20-5

Field earth,

11-25

32-

Garden earth,

14-82

24-3

Further, it has been found by experiments by Kerner, that the
finer the sand the longer does it retain moisture. And the observa-
tions cited show, that while this property is increased by an admixture
of clay or lime, it is increased most of all by an admixture of humus.

The rainfall sinks quickly into porous sand. When rain falls
slowly we find no puddles ; the rain is drawn off" to feed subterranean
waters, while, when it falls in deluges, it falls faster than it can sink,
and, instead of flowing away over the surface, it flows away, carrying
the sand with it, and often depositing this on ground at a lower level,
to its utter devastation.

The coarser the sand the more quickly is it permeated by water.
Kerner, in experiments, found the time to vary with this from two to
twenty minutes.

With sand soil manured for agriculture it is otherwise. Grouven
found, on experiments with turnip ground of diluvial sand, that in
two hours 72 grammes of water dropped through an 8-inch layer, but
he found the quantity in five other specimens to range from 15 to 62
grammes only ; while in five others it was doubled, ranging from 117
to 119 grammes; while in four other specimens it was fourfold as
much, ranging from 261 to 286.

The capillary attraction manifested by sand is remarkable. It not
only operates quickly, but more quickly from below upward than
water sinks from above downward when it falls in quantity.

According to Meister, quoted by Mayer in his Agricultur-Chemie,
1871, the ascent of water by capillary attraction in difierent sub-
stances was as follows :

M

BAND-WASTES OP PRANOB.

In 4

an hour.

In 2^ hours.

In 21^ hours.

Clayey soil,

34

115

200

Humus,

40

114

177

Garden ground,

29

98

161

Quartz sand,

44

97

117

Peaty soil.

27

57

114

Sandy soil,

45

66

90

Chalky soil.

6

54

70

In consequence of this, it is remarked by Wessley, the level of the
subterranean water stands high in drift sand layers ; and standing or
running waters can with ease diflfuse themselves sideways in sand
layers.

The power of absorbing nutritive elements of vegetation is
possessed by sand in a degree remarkably limited in comparison
with the degree in which it is possessed by other soil. According to
experiments by Grouven, 1,000 grammes of pressed northern diluvial
sand, field soil absorbed :

Of potash, ... ... ... 24-1

Of ammonia, ... ... ... 18*6

Of phosphoric acid, ... ... 6 '4

And the same quantity of loamy northern diluvial sand, field soil
absorbed :

Of potash, ... ... ... 22-5

Of ammonia, ... ... ... 21'5

Of phosphoric acid, ... ... 2 1 '5

While 22 samples of turnip field soil of different kinds absorbed :
Of potash, ... ... from 66 to 137

Of ammonia, ... ... from 35 to 134

Of phosphoric acid, ... from 32 to 135

The power of absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere is, we see,
possessed in the lowest degree by sand. Clay, mergel, and humus
surpass all other soil in this. It is the same with the power of
absorbing carbonic atmosphere from the air possessed by all of these
substances in a wet state ; this is least of all in sand, but it exists
in the greatest degree in humus.

This power of the sand increases with the fineness of its particles ;
it may be observed to be proportional to the minute sub-division
of the bodies operated on, and this property may be intensified
in the sand by the admixture with it of the other substances
mentioned.

COMPOSITION OP SAND. 91

The size of the grains of sand is very diflferent in different places.
The largest grains measure about a cubic millimetre, but the averages
in different drift sands vary from 0'02 millimetres to 0"47.

The coarsest sands in Europe are those of the Northern Binnen
Sands ; those of the strand are disproportionately finer ; in sand
basins the particles are finest in the direction in which the diluvial
waters found their exit ; the sand is finer in dunes than in the blown
out hollows between them; and in an extensive sand-waste the
particles are finer at the extremity towards which the wind blows
than at that by which it comes. The size of the particles has an
influence, we have seen, not only on the degree to which it is liable to
drift, but in the degree in which it may manifest many properties
important to soil, amongst others, those of retaining moisture, one
which is absolutely necessary to vegetation.

In accordance with what has been advanced is the testimony of
CIav6 :

"Composed of pure sand resting on an impermeable stratum
called alios, the soil of the Landes was for centuries," writes Clav6,*
" considered incapable of cultivation. Parched in summer, drowned
in winter, it produced only ferns, rushes, and heath, and scarcely
furnished pasturage for a few half starved flocks. To crown its
miseries, this plain was continually threatened by the encroachments
of the dunes, vast ridges of sand thrown up by the waves, for a
distance of more than fifty leagues along the coast, and continually
renewed, were driven inland by the west wind ; and as they rolled
over the plain they buried the soil and the hamlets, overcame all
resistance, and advanced with fearful regularity. The whole
province seemed doomed to certain destruction when Bremontier
invented his method of fixing the dunes by plantations of the
maritime pine."

The mobility of the sand is also most effectually arrested and
prevented by moisture, and it is only renewed as desiccation takes
place.

It may have been remarked that the sand on the sea-shore does
not begin to drift so long as it is moist — that it only does so when it
has become thoroughly dry ; and that it ceases so soon as it is again
moistened, whether by rain or by the rising tide. But what is
mainly contemplated here is simply to show how it comes to pass

* Etudes Forestieres, p. 250. See also Recltjs. La Terre, I., 105-106.

92 SAND-WASTES OF PRANCE.

that vegetation can be extended over sand-wastes — even moisture
existing there.

The alios is met with in the sands of the Landes of the Gironde,
at a depth of about three feet below the surface. It is often about a
foot in thickness, and underneath this is sand of unknown depth.
Diggings have been made to a depth of upwai'ds of 60 feet without
reaching other material. In the winter season these Landes are
covered with water which has no fall, and cannot sink through this
layer ; but in summer neither pool nor moisture is to be seen, the
water having been evaporated, and the layer preventing an ascent of
moisture from below. But, as has been intimated, there are spots
where this stratum is awanting or has been broken, and on these
grow bushes and trees, the ground neither being drenched in winter
nor altogether devoid of moisture in summer.

Both in connection with notices of the drift sands of the Landes on
the coast, and of the sand-wastes of La Sologne, mention has been
made of peat lands and of marshes. These are found on sand-wastes
in so many lands that the existence of them in such lands appears to
be the rule, and the absence of them the exception. SuflBce it here to
state that a sand ridge may prevent escape of the waters by flow,
and a stratum of alios or ortstein, or clay, or other impervious substance,
may prevent escape by percolation.

From the treatise by Herr Wessley entitled, Der Europaische
Fhigsand und seine Eultur already cited, much information may be
gathered in regard to the composition and condition of the sand-
wastes of Europe.

In regard to the general appearance and composition of the drift
sands of Europe, he says that in all places they consist in a vastly
preponderating degree of fine somewhat rounded grains of quartz,
with which only a small percentage of other materials are com-
mingled.

The admixture consists primarily of felspar, which in old sand has
for the most part experienced the disintegrating and decomposing
effects of weathering, of lime, mostly fragments of shells ; of mica ; of
magnetic, or Titanian ironstone ; and finally, of different other
minerals, hornblend, augite, hypersthen, basalt, and carbon.

The separate grains are more or less covered with a fine mould,
on which depends next the fertility of the drift sands. For this
depends in general on an admixture of products of the weathering
just spoken of, or on those which the sand, the natural vegetation

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OP SAND. 93

and watering, or the culture, produces or attracts, of appropriate
nutriment of plants.

The drift sand, strictly speaking, though variegated by a sprinkling
of somewhat rare grains of darker coloured substances, is a mass of
a light colour. Amongst the lightest coloured is the washed out sand
of the north, which is of a greyish white. Amongst the darkest is the
drift sand of the Bannat in Hungary, covered with a strong mould
containing iron, which is of a yellowish light brown. In a wet
state all drift sands are of a dark hue. So far as the surface is
acquiring or has acquired a covering of vegetation of some years
standing, it appears of a darker colour, varying with the kind of
plant, with the richness of the vegetation in humus, and with the
age of this, varying, for example, from a light grey brown to a
black brown hue.

Many drift sands have also an admixture of a coarser form of
sand, which on sea strand dunes is as lai'ge as pearls, and in inland
situations goes indefinitely beyond this : round pieces, even to the
size of blocks ; concretions of lime of the most varied forms ; shells of
snails and of mussels; cemented clods; and the whole layer is hardened
like stone. These larger sized materials are altogether absent in the
wind-raised dunes. Such is the European drift sand in general. In
individual cases, however, the character varies with the district,
the origin and the thickness of the layer, and the transformations
occasioned by geological changes, by vegetation, <fec.

He reports the specific gravity of the different constituents, which,
with the exception of the humus, which, on the authority of experi-
ments by Schuebler, recorded in his Agricultur-Cheniie, he gives as
1*370, ranges from 2"468 to 2"722 ; and he shows that the differences
between 1*370 and 2*468 of specific gravity in sands, may be attri-
buted to varying quantities of humus or products of vegetable decay
in their composition.

As the result of numerous detailed experiments cited in an
appendix embracing the composition of sands existing in numerous
parts of Germany and Austria, he gives the specific gravity of the
sands of North Germany as 2*5-2*9; average, 2*7; of the sands of
Hungary, as 2*1-2 "65 ; average, 2*5 : attributing the greater weight
of the former to the smaller quantity of lime, and the greater
quantity of iron-ore, and mica in their composition. And, for
comparison, he gives, on the authority of M. Schuebler, the specific
gravity of arable land generally as 2*401, and of garden ground as
2*332 ; and on the authority of Hauer, that of the celebrated fields
of Banat as 1*8-2*5 ; average, 1*18.

94 SAND-WASTES OP FRANCE.

The coherence of sauds of varied composition, as determined by
Schuebler and others, give the following result :

" Taking perfectly dry, pui*e quartz sand as zero, a mixture of 4 per
cent, of water gives it so much consistency that it may be pressed in
the hand and cease to be driven of the wind ; and this latter result
follows an admixture of 4 per cent, of clay or 16 per cent, of lime,
or 10 per cent, of humus. But what is thus gained by an admixture
of humus, clay or lime, is lost by its being frozen in a moist state,
on its being thawed, a peculiarity which it shares with all soils.

This, if it be so, may be attributable to the afldnity of these sub-
stances for moisture, of which sand has little or none, leading to their
absorbing all the free moisture, and leaving the quartzose sand dry
and free to be blown away.

The commixture of lime and of clay with sand, so beneficial to
the latter, has also this bad efiect when it is considerable — that after
heavy rains, followed by rapid desiccation, sometimes there is left
on the surface of the sand a crust detrimental to vegetation.

Pure sand does not shrink in bulk in drying.

The following table, prepared in accordance with observations re-
ceived by Schuebler, will make apparent the difference between pure
sand and other earthy matters :

Pure sand loses in bulk in drying.

Fine carbonate of lime,

Pure clay.

Humid acid, ...

Field earth, ...

Garden earth,

The latter numbers are indicative of there being contained in these
bodies, as found on sandy regions, an admixture of humus or of clay.

Reference has been made to the effect of moisture in arresting and
in preventing the drifting of sand. In view of the effect of heat in
desiccating sand, and also in view of the effect of temperature on
vegetation, the degree in which the properties of absorbing and
of transmitting heat are possessed by sand deserve consideration.

The following results of experiments by Schuebler show the com-
parative capability of becoming heated possessed by sand. In the
month of August, with an atmospheric temperature in the shade of
from 22° to 25° R., 81° to 88° Fahr., the temperatm-e of the following
substances exposed to the bright sunshine were, according to the
scale of Reaumeur :

?, 0

Der cent.

5

18-3

20

12

15

Wet.

Dry.

37-2

44-7

37-4

44-6

39-7

47-4

36-9

44-2

37-5

45-2

TEMPERATURE OP SAND. 95

Quartz sand, pure yellowish grey in colour, 37'2
Pure clay, yellowish grey,
Humid acid, brownish black.
Field earth, grey.
Garden earth, blackish grey.
This table shows, first, that the power of becoming heated
possessed by pure sand may be appreciably increased by an admix-
ture of humus, apparently in consequence of the dark colour of this
substance. The dry sand becomes heated some 21°, and the wet
13° R., 79° and 61° Fahr. above the temperature of the atmosphere;
and while the sand is a bad conductor of heat, the heat does not
penetrate to a great depth ; much more is communicated by conduc-
tion and radiation to the superincumbent stratum of air. Kerner
found on still warmer days than these on which Schuebler experi-
mented that the temperature of drift-sand at Pesth half an inch
below the superficial stratum was only 40° odds, and at three inches
deep only 25° odds.

The faculty of retaining heat, or, in other words, the rapidity with
which it is discharged, is something different from the capability of
absorbing it, and the result of experiment by Schuebler, shows that
representing the time required for cooling by lime as 100, the time
required by other substances compared with it was as follows :
Quartz sand, ... ... ... 96

Pure clay, ... ... ... ... 67

Fine carbonate of lime, ... ... 61

Humid acid,... ... ... ... 49

Field earth, ... ... ... ... 70

Garden earth, ... ... ... 65

After sunset the temperature of the superficial layers of the drift
sand sinks very rapidly. Kerner saw on a broiling day in June, on
the drift sand at Pesth, a thermometer sunk half an inch deep, which
at sunshine showed 35|'^, within three hours had sunk to 16°,
from 112^ to 68^ Fahr.

The most superficial layer of the Hungarian drift sand shows
the extraordinary great variation of temperature of from 40° to 45° R.,
122° to 133'^ Fahr. But at the depth of only three inches the
variation is only 25", or 88*^ Fahr., and at four inches, at which
depth the temperature in winter does not sink below the freezing
point, the variation of temperature does not exceed 20*^, 77° Fahx".
But at the depth of three fathoms the annual variation does not

96 SAND-WASTES OP PRANCE.

amount to |° or 1^ Fahr., and at that depth, at the elevation of about
300 feet above the sea level, the temperature is almost stationary at
10° R., or 541" Fahr.

By directing our attention to the sand drifts of Sologne, and the
sand drifts of the Landes of Gascony, we find we have had two
diflferent phases of sand drifts brought under our consideration ; and
as these two phases of these are to be met with again and again,
sometimes in the same countries elsewhere, or the one and the other
of them presenting themselves in lands which are far apart, the
opportunity may be taken, before proceeding further, to consider
at some length an important point in which they diflfer.

Of the two forms of sand deposit thus brought under considera-
tion, " The one," to quote Marsh, " is that of dune or shifting
hillock upon the coast ; the other that of barren plain in the
interior. The coast dunes are composed of sand washed up
from the depths of the sea by the waves, and heaped in more
or less rounded knolls and undulating ridges by the winds. The
sand with which many plains are covered appeal's' sometimes to
have been deposited upon them while they were yet submerged
beneath the sea ; sometimes to have been drifted from the
sea coast and scattered over them by wind currents ; sometimes to
have been washed upon them by running water. In these latter
cases, the deposit,' though in itself considerable, is comparatively
narrow in extent, and irregular in distribution, while in the former
it is often evenly spread over a very wide surface.

" In all great bodies of either sort, the silicious grains are the
principal constituent, though, when not i-esulting from the disintegra-
tion of silicious rocks and still remaining in place, they are generally
accompanied with a greater or less admixture of other mineral particles,
and of animal and vegetable remains; and they are also usually
somewhat changed in consistence by the ever varying conditions of
temperature and moisture to which they have been exposed since their
deposit. Unless the proportion of these latter ingredients is so large
as to create a considerable adhesiveness in the mass, in which case
it can no longer properly be called sand, it is infertile, and, if not
charged with water, it is partially agglutinated by iron, lime, or other
cement, or confined by alluvion resting upon it. It is much inclined
to drift, whenever by any chance the vegetable network which in
most cases thinly clothes it, and at the same time confines it, is broken.

" Human industry has not only fixed the flying dunes by plan-
tations ; but by mixing clay and other tenacious earths with the

TERTIARY BANDS. 9T

superficial stratum of extensive sand plains, and by the application
of fertilizing substances, it has made them abundantly productive
of vegetable life."

From the information supplied, it appears that many inland expanses
of sand di'ifts may be considered a resuscitation of sand deposits,
which may have been quiescent for ages, fixed naturally by a similar
mantle of vegetation to that by which man is artificially arresting
and utilizing the same sand drifts or others situated elsewhere.
With sand drifts on the sea coast it is to a great extent otherwise,
though in some, even of these, there may be seen a resuscitation of
sand previously partially fixed by vegetation in some of the earlier
stages of the operation whereby extensive regions of sand dunes have
for ages been confined.

Several of these are spoken of as belonging to the Tertiary forma
tion, in explanation of which term it may be stated :

Geologists, in classifying the stratified layers of mineral substances
covering the granite, consider that those of gneiss, and schist, and
clay slates, were first deposited, and these are described by them as
primaiy formations. Following these in order, and in many cases
superimposed on them, are sandy slates, silurian limestones, and
what is isnown as the old red sandstone. These are described by
them as transition formations. They are followed by mountain lime-
stone, coal beds, magnesian limestone, new red sandstone, shell lime-
stone, lias limestone, oolite limestone, chalk beds, and green sand ;
and these are designated secondary formations. Above these are
found blue and plastic clays, marls, and limestones, sands, and
calcareous grits ; and these are spoken of as tertiary formations ; and
above this, indicative of a later deposit, are diluvial clay deposited
from seas or lakes, and boulders, alluvial clay deposited by rivers,
and sand and gravel ; and overlying these, the vegetable soil resulting
from the decomposition of vegetable mould, and the admixture of the
products with the superficial mineral layer.

From this it appears that the sand now spoken of is supposed to
have been deposited in times long past.

An account has been given, cited from Boitel, of the way in
which, on the Landes of La Sologne, heaths on these old sands are
planted with the maritime pine. In other inland situations we find
these sands of the tertiary formation throughout extensive districts
covered with forests of trees of other kinds, varying according to
conditions and circumstances — such, for example, is the famous forest

N

98 SAND-WASTES OP PRANCE,

of Fontainbleau, visited constantly by many of the visitors to Paris.

The forest of Fontainbleau covers an area of about 64 square
miles. But it by no means corresponds with the idea generally
entertained of a forest ; it is anything but an old, shadowy, leafy,
and almost impervious forest. To quote the description given of it
by Mangin : " Despite its enormous trees, its rudely broken surface,
its stags and roebucks, reserved for imperial sport ; despite its few
adders and problematical vipers, it is now little better than a rendezvous
for amateur artists and listless idlers. Its well-kept avenues resound
with rapid wheels, and you can scarcely stir a step without finding
the associations of the place interrupted by the stalls of vendors of
cakes, or the apparatus of itinerant gamblers — a profanation to be
regretted, for the forest exhibits many landscapes of surpassing
interest in the rocks of Franchart, the glens of Apremont, and, above
all, that Sahara in miniature, the sands of Arbonne."

An article by M. Clav6 in the Revue des Deux Mondes for May,
1863, on La Foret de Fontainbleau, contains much valuable and
interesting information in i-egard to this forest, and in regard to
matters connected with it. " Oaks," says he, " mingled with birches
in due proportion, may arrive at the age of five or six hundred years
in full vigour, and they attain dimensions which I have never seen
surpassed ; when, however, they are wholly unmixed with other trees
they begin to decay, and die at the top at the age of forty or fifty
years, like men old before their time, weary of the world, and long-
ing to quit it. This has been observed in most of the oak planta-
tions of which I have spoken, and they have not been able to attain
to full growth. When the vegetation was perceived to languish, they
were cut, in the hope that the new shoots would succeed better than
the original trees ; and, in fact, they appeared to be recovering for
the first few years. But the shoots were attacked with the same
decay, and the operation had to be renewed at shorter and shorter
intervals, until at last it was found necessary to treat as coppice-woods
plantations originally designed for the full grown system. Nor was
this all : the soil, periodically bared by those cuttings, became im-
poverished, and less suited to the growth of the oak. ... It
was then proposed to introduce the pine, and plant with it the
vacancies and glades, ... By this means the forest was saved
from the ruin which threatened it, and now more than 10,000 acres
of pines from fifteen to thirty years old are disseminated at various
points, sometimes intermixed with broad-leaved trees, sometimes
forming groves by themselves,"

INDIGENOUS FORESTS. 99

The soil of the forest of Fontainbleau is composed almost entirely
of sand, interspersed with ledges of rock. The sand forms ninety-
eight per cent, of the earth, and it is almost without water ; it would
be a drifting desert but for the trees growing and artifically propa-
gated upon it.

In reference to such superficial sand formations, the following
remarks are made by Wessley :

" It is scarcely to be supposed that all inland sand drifts have
been lying exposed, and drifted about since anti-diluviau times. On
the contrary, we find almost everywhere that diluvial sands, by a
slow but ever advancing natural process, become gradually covered
with herbage, and ultimately with bush or forest, whereby they
become so fixed as to be unmoved by the wind. And this process
goes on all the more rapidly if man do not disturb it — if he do not
promote it.

" And what has been efi'ected thus in pre-historic times, is both
denser and more during that what has been effected in later years :
as the soil of that is richer in humus than is any planted by the hand
of man. And these oldest plant-bearing sands may be described, as
we sometimes describe nations, as the aboriginal vegetation of the
ground on which they are found." Such seems to be the case with
the oak forest of Fontainbleau.

Other forests growing indigenously on sands of the tertiary
formation might be cited ; but it is considered that one case of such
is sufficient to show that forests may be produced and grow
permanently on sands, and to give some idea of appearances pro-
duced by these.

What was at one time in the world's history, the natural state of
these lands of La Sologne, a country more or less covered with forest
trees, is what sylviculture is seeking to reproduce there, and to pro-
duce artificially on the Landes of Gascony and elsewhere ; and what
has been effected by self-sown seed may be effected again by artificial
culture, if the natural history of the trees employed be known.

We have seen the good effect with which this has been done in
Belgium, and on the Landes of the Gironde and of Gascony ; and with
what similar effect it has been done on the Landes of La Sologne. By
Jules Clave, a student of forest science of world-wide fame, it is stated
in a paper in the Revue des Deux Mondes for March, 1866, that the
district of Sologne, flat and marshy as it is, was salubrious until its
forests were felled. It then became pestilential, but of late years its
healthfulness has been restored with its forest plantations.

CHAPTER IX.

Natural History and General Culture of the Scotch Fir in

France.

Of the trees spoken of as cultivated on the sand-wastes of France,
the principal are the maritime pine Qntms maritima), and the Scotch
fir {pimis sylvestris), the former on the new dunes aod drift sands of
the coast, the latter on the more consolidated old sand-wastes of the
tertiary formation in the interior of the country. Besides these have
been mentioned several varieties of the oak, the birch, and the
chestnut, as grown on spots of greater or lesser extent within these
sand-wastes ; and in other countries a much greater variety of trees
are raised upon sands and sandy soil. But it is the pine plantations
alone of which this volume treats.

Mention has also been made of the modern system of forest
management having been adopted in France ; the Fachiverke Methode
of Hartig and Cotta, known in France as La methode des compartiinents,
whereby are secured in combination a sustained production of
material by the forest, a progressive improvement of the state of the
forest, and a natural reproduction of it from self-sown seed. As this
method of forest management, now practised generally on the continent
of Europe, and of late years introduced into the management of
forests in the Indian Empire, differs entirely from the system known
as Jardinage, followed in some of our colonies, and in what are called
policies in Britain, and from the method a tire et aire, previously
practised in France, resembling in some respects the method adopted
with plantations of coniferous trees in Scotland, the following details
are given in view of its application to the difi'erent species of pine
trees grown on the sand -wastes of France.

And on the assumption that it may be more acceptable to my
readers, as well as in more perfect keeping with all besides advanced
in the volume, that I should give the natural history of the trees
mentioned as this is given in France than as it is given elsewhere,
I shall follow this course.

Of the Pinus Sylvestris, the Pin Sylvestre of France, M M., Lorentz,
and Parade, wrote in a volume entitled, Cours elementaire de culture

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE. 101

des Bois cree a VEcole Forestiere de Nancy. " This tree, the Pimis
sylvestris, of Linnseus, is known under numerous names — the wild
pine, the pine of the north, of Riga, of Hagenau, and of Geneva,
the pinasse, &c., and it is one of which the red pine or Scotch pine is
only a variety, recognisable by its shorter leaves, by its cones being
smaller and grouped in whorls, and by the reddish tinge of its young
shoots. It constitutes the principal tree in a great many forests of
considerable extent in which it is found mixed with the oak and birch.

"Climate, Situation, and Exposure. — The temperate chmates are
those in which it manifests greatest vigour of gTowth ; but cold coun-
tries are not inimical to it, for in the north of Europe, in Russia more
especially, and in Sweden, it acquires most valuable qualities and
dimensions, and by itself alone covers great extents of country. It
grows on the plain as well as on slopes ; but high elevations do not suit
it. In these situations the snow and hoar-frost accumulate in great
quantities on its leaves, and that to a greater degree than on the
other resinous trees of cold countries, whereby often branches are
torn off, and sometimes the trunk itself is broken.

" It succeeds on all exposures, not exclusive of the full south, when
it is undertaken to replenish wide spaces, or deteriorated forests with
a south exposure. It is a tree greatly in demand, not only because
it is satisfied with a poor and dry soil, but because the young plants
better sustain the sun's heat than do those of the other coniferae."
But they remark that in saying this they are only speaking of the
more tempei-ate districts of France ; that the departments in the south
of France have other trees which grow there, such as the maritime
pine, and the Alleppo pine ; and that it is probable that the /)m
sylvestre would succeed ill there unless at elevations at which the
heat is less intense. It is mentioned that in the Pyrenees it is found
at an altitude of 1,200 metres.

" Terrain, or Soil. — It demands a deep light soil, it is found even
on sand entirely devoid of cohesion, and the wood produced on such
ground is of better quality than is that grown on more substantial
soil ; compact earths are unfriendly to it ; and, although it does
succeed on marls, its growth on these is much inferior to what it is
on silicious ground.

" It is sometimes found on moist and turfy spots ; but its vegetation
there is in a languishing condition, and it there presents itself
ordinarily in so peculiar an aspect that it has been taken for a totally
different species of tree.

" Flowering and Fructification. — The flowers are monoeceous ; they
appear in April or in May, according to the temperature.

102 NATURAL HISTORY OF SOOTOH FIR.

'* The strobile or cone remains very small during the first year of its
appearance. In the following spring it begins to enlarge, and it attains
its full development towards the end of summer. It is ripe in the
beginning of November ; but it does not open its scales to allow the
seed to escape until the spring following, so it requires in all at least
eighteen months to ripen, or about two years to mature and drop
the seed.

" The first warmth of the spring acts on the cones ; the scales open
without detaching themselves from the axis, and thus they allow the
seed to escape ; this is small and winged.

'' The tree attains its complete fertility towards the fortieth year of
its age ; the fruit appears about every two or three years.

" Young Plants. — These are very robust from their first appearance;
but they do not stand a protracted shade. In general they may be
reared without shelter ; but on ground which is very dry, or with a
complete southern exposure, it would be beneficial to have them
shaded during the first year of their growth,

" Leafage. — The leaves are somewhat long ; but as they rarely re-
main on the tree above three years, it follows that it creates only a
lightish shade.

" Roots. — These are strong and disposed to bury themselves.
When the soil permits the tap-root descends a mfetre or more, although
a less depth can suffice to ensure the tree a pretty fine vegetation.
In ground which is moist, or poor, or deficient in depth, the tap-root
disappears almost entirely, and the lateral roots run along the
surface and manifest a disposition, as do some other coniferae, to
introduce and fix themselves in the fissures of rocks ; but this super-
ficial growth of the roots is not so favourable to the growth of the
tree.

" Growth and Longevity. — The vegetation is very rapid from the
first years of its growth ; when the soil is adapted to it, it lengthens
sometimes in its youth a mfetre or more per annum. It lives for 200
years, and attains to a height of 33 metres and more, with a diameter
of from 1 metre to 1 m5tre 20 centimetres at the base."

I have met with few trees more extensively difi"used over Europe
than is this. I have met with it in different countries under diff'erent
names, but the tree was the same, and the botanical designation
everywhere the same. The specific sameness of varieties or sub-
varieties presenting very different appearances, has been demonstrated
by M. de Vilmorin, on property belonging to him at Barres, in the

l'eOOLB FORBSTIBRB DBS BARRE8. 103

department of the Loiret, which is now maintained by the Govern-
ment as LEcole Forestiere cles Barres. This, strictly spealiing, is a
Forest School ; while that at Nancy, strictly speaking, is a School
of Forestry.

The designation Ecole Forestiere, or Forest School, was given to
the establishment apparently in contradistinction, on the one hand,
to Nursery, a designation borrowed from domestic life ; and in contra-
distinction, on the other hand, to a plantation or forest, it being a
collection of trees raised from seed obtained from forests, or from
nurserymen and seedsmen of note, and reared with a view to the
study of their habits, their identity, and their diflferences.

The design of M. de Vilmorin and the results of his operation
we learn from himself. He died in March, 1862, a venerable man,
full of years and of honour, — Memhre de la Societe Imperiale et
Centrale dl Agriculture de France, and Correspondent de Vlnstitut.

The Bureau de la Societe dJ Agricidture, in collecting documents, of
which they might avail themselves in preparing a historical notice
of their honoured colleague, learned that he had written a history of
his experiments, and procui*ed from his family a copy of this docu-
ment, with permission to publish it in their memoirs.

In the introduction to this record, which related exclusively to
this establishment, which was only one of many experiments and
related researches with which his valuable life was occupied, he
says : — " The work or treatise, of which this is but the first part,
has for its object to report collected observations made during a
long course of years on the trees composing the collection forestiere,
which I have made on my estate of Barres. Studies of this kind
have at this day a much greater interest for France than they ever
have had before.

" The forests which, in a former day covered a great part of her
territory, are, if not entirely destroyed, at least so much reduced
that the products are far below her actual requirements.

" For a long time now France has been dependent on the foreigner
for a considerable portion of the timber requisite for the maintenance
of her navy, and more especially for wood suitable for masts.
Throughout nearly the whole of the last century masts for the navy
were only to be found in the Baltic ports, and chiefly in Riga, and
now that timber of very great dimensions fit for this purpose is only
to be obtained at great price, we find it necessary to draw a great
portion of our supplies from the United States.

104 NATURAL HISTORY OP BOOTOH FIR.

" This condition of things is not only a heavy burden on the
treasury, but it may become matter of grave concern in case of
eventualities against which it is necessary to provide.

" France, by the single fact of her geographical position, with her
two hundred leagues of coast on two seas, with her colonies, and
Algeria, and her distant commerce to protect in all parts of the
world, cannot avoid being a maritime power of the first order — it is
one of the necessaries of her existence. She can no more relieve Jier-
self of an imposing naval force than of an army,

" But for the construction and maintenance of numerous vessels of
war, it is needful that she be able to find on her own soil the needed
timber,

" Those portions of the soil which have been conquered from the
forest by agriculture cannot be recovered. But France still
possesses considerable resources besides these. For instance, a large
extent of the mountains have been despoiled of forests ; the
re-covering of these with trees is acknowledged by every one to be
an urgent and indispensable measure ; besides, there are hundreds
of thousands of hectares in one district of the west and of the south
central France which have continued hitherto in a state approaching
utter unproductiveness, which are capable of bearing beautiful timber
forests of resinous trees. It is on these lands, and by the employ-
ment for the purpose of resinous trees, and more particularly of
pines, that we must operate to restore our forests. And it is at this
point especially that a knowledge of the different species of pines,
and of their principal varieties, becomes important ; we may, indeed,
according as we employ one or other of these, create on the same
soil forests of the poorest or of the greatest value.

" This holds true especially of the Pinus Sylvestris.

" In the greater part of the woods of resinous trees formed on a
pretty large scale in Maine, in some parts of Brittany, and more
recently in Sologne, it is to the Pinus Maritima that a preference has
been given, because its growth is rapid, successful culture is easily
ensured, and the seed is abundant and cheap ; but, as is known to
all foresters, the Pinus Sylvestris is capable of furnishing products
infinitely superior in quality, in dimensions, and in value to those
■which can be obtained from the Pinus Maritima. And in connection
■with this subject there is a question which it is very important should
be resolved, it is that relating to the relation of the Riga pine and
the varieties of the Pinus Sylvestris. The comparative culture, on
the same land, of trees, of which it is desired to determine the

L'foOLB PORESTIERE DES BARRES. 105

identity or the difference, is what I have undertaken and carried into
execution, as may be seen by statistical details relative to these
species.

" I have brought together, in clumps more or less extensive,
according to their importance, the pi?i?<s sylvestris of every variety
indicated by authors, and all those which, by whatever name known,
it appeared to me might prove useful in this collection. In regard to
the Riga pine, I have not been confined to a solitary lot : independent
of seeds which I procured from the north, from sources the most
certain, wherever I had knowledge of old plantations in France,
known or presumed to have had the same origin, I have managed to
obtain seeds or plants which, added to the lots introduced, directly
furnished the means of studying further the question.

*' These plantations have had for their special object the solution
of numerous questions of botany and of forest economy, of which
some are of great importance to France.

" Commenced thirty years ago, and with this view, and augmented
every year since, they form now perhaps one of the most interesting
and most useful collections of this kind in any country. They com-
prise, amongst other species, an assemblage of more than thirty lots
of the pimcs sylvestris, obtained from as many different quarters and
sources, for the study of the varieties of the species, and more
particularly of the mast pines, or Riga pine, of absolutely certain
origin, planted to admit of comparison with other varieties of the
pimis sylvestris, by means of which might be cleared away the
doubts which have hitherto existed in regard to this tree, so im-
portant for naval architecture ; an ecole of pinus mugho, pinus
2nimilio, and jnmis uncinata, a necessary complement to the other
in view of forest study ; all the pines of the series of the Laricios,
trees of great interest in sylviculture, but trees in regard to which
there exists at this time in books great confusion. The clumps of
this series constitute one of the most beautiful portions of the plan-
tations at Barres ; one variety hitherto little known, the Laricio of
Calabria, commands attention by its great vigour and beauty, as does
also the Pine of the Pyx-enees, a very beautiful tree of recent intro-
duction ; a plantation of Cedar of Lebanon, growing rustically among
the pines, is thriving well ; a collection of the forest oaks of South
America, amongst which the most important, such as the Quercitron,
the Red Oak, &c., have established themselves in massive plots;
plantations of American Nuts, of Bouleau d, Canot, of the Ahius
Cordifolia, and of other exotic trees, the qualities of which and their

o

106 NATURAL HISTORY OP BOOTOH FIB.

vegetation on the soil of France cannot yet be known, from the
limited numbers under cultivation ; plantations of various oaks,
particularly schools of oaks of Europe and of Asia, amongst which
are worthy of note, Quercus Fastigiata, Cerris, Ta%zi, Aegilops or
Yelani, in the avenues and borders ; some new and remarkable
poplars, &c.

" These plantations, if not complete, at least very extensive, will
furnish to the man of science and to the practical man great means
of study. The opinion, on this subject, of foresters and of dis-
tinguished agrinomes who have visited them have almost made it
obligatory to publish the results I have obtained ; and, having to
some extent anticipated this, I fulfil the duty now with the more
satisfaction, seeing that my conviction has always been in accordance
with that which has been expressed to me. To make plantations of
this sort fulfil the design of them, or to have the chance of doing so,
supposing they should exist their full terms, it is necessary that the
lots of which they are composed should be found with ease and with
certainty when those who have created them shall be.no more: for
this every necessary arrangement has been made."

As has been stated, the one principal object aimed at by M.
Vilmorin in the establishment of this Experimental Forest was to
determine the varieties of the pinus sylvestris and the properties of
each, with their adaptation for culture in different districts of
France ; but other trees received also a large share of his attention.

I had the privilege of visiting the plantation and seeing it
under the guidance of M. Henri Vilmorin, grandson of the founder,
the honoured representative of three successive generations of
noble-minded men, who distinguished themselves in this field of
labour.

Of the Scotch Fir (Pinus Sylvestris) there were rows of trees, raised
from seed or seedlings received from different parts of the Continent
and from Scotland, representing, thirty varieties or sub-varieties of
the tree ; and rows of other coniferae, representing the products of
nearly a hundred different parcels of seeds or seedlings received from
various pai-ts of the world ; rows of oaks, representing the products
of upwards of sixty different parcels of acorns and seedlings collected
from all quarters ; and rows, or one or more single trees, representing
upwards of a hundred and fifty other hard-wood trees. There were
in all some two hundred and twenty-five different species and varieties
of trees, and numerous specimens of some of these, selected, some for

l'ecole forestiere des barres. 107

their worth, some for their renown, and some for purposes of com-
parison and experiment ; and they were planted alone or in _^ clumps
as might be necessary to bring out their characteristic points.

Since the death of M, Vilmorin, the founder, the portion of his
estate containing the experimental forest has been purchased by the
Government, that it may be maintained as a national establishment.

Of the pinus sylvestris, M. Vilmorin reports : — " Of the different
questions which I have proposed to myself to solve, by means of the
Barres plantations, none is more important from a practical point of
view than that concerning the varieties of pinus sylvestris.

" At the sametime there is not one on which more contradictory,
and sometimes inexact, notions are to be found in books ; so I shall
be obliged, before proceeding to the direct observations which I give,
to enter into rather full preliminary observations in regard to it. It
is an unhappy necessity, but circumstances render it inevitable.

" It being of importance that this should be well understood, I
shall first speak of the pine and whence it comes. I shall then show
the principal opinions advanced on this subject, stopping at those
which, establishing errors essentially hurtful in practice, demand dis-
cussion ; then, lastly, I shall arrive at the special work which is the
object of this memoir — viz., the examination of the collection which
I have gathered together at Barres.

" The pinus sylvestris, the most widely diffused of those which form
the pine forests of Europe and the north of Asia, is at the same time
one of the best and most useful. Robust, and somewhat indifferent
in regard to soil, it succeeds in sands too damp, and in situations too
much exposed to frost for the maritime pine, and, by a remarkable
contrast, on lime and chalk soils, where the latter cannot live.

" Its wood, strong and durable, at the same time light and elastic,
is much used in civil and naval constructions, for it is principally it
which furnishes the excellent pine masts of the north, of which no
other pine offers the equivalent.

" But with these remarkable qualities this tree has one peculiarity
which tends to diminish its value, and which has created much con-
fusion, in reports concerning it — viz., its being liable to change and
vary to such a degree that perhaps nothing similar exists in any
other species.

" Thus, whilst in the forests of Russia aud Lithuania it attains the
size of the largest firs, and furnishes admirable trunks, which sell in
our ports and in those of England for from 1,000 to 5,000 francs and

108 NATURAL HISTORY OF BCOTOH FIB.

more. A large number of the trees which grow ia Switzerland and
Germany are middling trees, badly formed, often incapable of fur-
nishing even a passable plank ; in short, having no resemblance in
anything to those of which we have just spolieu. This great
diversity of the 7:)«Mfs sylvestris, noticed in the middle of the last
century, has given place to questions and doubts regarding it on which
opinions are still much divided. Some have thought that the
pine or Scotch fir, as it was then called, did not form a single species
as was pretty generally believed, but formed several which had been
mistakenly united till then ; two or more have been described and
named accordingly ; others have explained this diversity in the species
by the existence of varieties or races which are reproduced in suc-
cessive generations. Others rejecting every distinction of this nature
have maintained that the differences, however great they may be,
which are to be seen in the pinus sylvestris are entirely owing to the
soil, to the climate, and to the influence of exterior circumstances.
These contrary opinions have been often reproduced for nearly a
century, without deciding the question. It has even become more
confused and complicated through the discussions, and it remains still
almost entirely yet to be resolved.

" As a fact, it is now almost generally admitted that the species is
one, and that of this there are varieties. To every one is known, at
least the names, Riga pine, Haguenau pine, and Scotch fir, &c., but
if one seeks in books for the differences between these, they are not
to be found ; there are also vague descriptions, or rather, what is
worse, botanical descriptions which, under their precise and scientific
form, are inexact and contradicted by the trees themselves, when
one tries the application on a suSicient number of specimens which
are unlike. Such an uncertainty is evidently troublesome and iuj urious
on an essentially practical subject. It is more so than ever now, when
the condition of forests in France naturally entails that the culture of
pines should be considerably increased, and that, on the other side,
the pinus sylvestris, more appreciated than formerly, begins to be
associated with the maritime pine, or even to replace it in the
construction of composition of woods of resinous trees. It is then
evidently necessary to arrive at some notions more precise than those
which have existed till now in regard to it.

" The English have advanced far before us in the culture of the
pinus sylvestris. It is in England also that the remarkable differences
between the individuals of this species have been remarked. The
first printed notice is to be found in a treatise on forest trees,

l'^colb forestierb des barres. 109

published in 1760, by a great Scottish proprietor, the Earl of
Haddington.

" Here is what he says on the subject :

" ' Although I have been assured that there is only one species of
Scotch fir, and that the differences which are to be found in the wood
of these trees are due only to their age, and the soil in which they
have grown, I am nevertheless convinced that it is otherwise, and
here is the reason. When I ordered the pines planted by my father
to be cut down because they were too near the house, several men
still lived who remembered to have seen them reared. The seed
had been sown in the same bed, removed to the nursery, and after-
wards planted on the same day. Then I saw that when I cut the
trees, I found that some had white and spongy wood, and others red
hard wood, and they were examined within a few days of each other.
This observation has had such an effect on me that I have ordered
the cones to be only gathered from the reddest trees.'

"It is a very remarkable thing that the first observation which was
made on this question has pointed out the solution, the truest, in my
opinion at least, first as to the principle that natural varieties exist
independant of the soil and climate, and then as to the practice, that
in choosing between two varieties, the one good and the other bad, only
the first should be chosen for reproduction.

" One might say that these two ideas of the Earl of Haddington
contain a complete theory and practice in connection with this great
question of the spontaneous variation of species applied to the wants
of man, and to the advancement of rural economy.

In France, where the question was opened rather later than in
England, it has been much more discussed : the botanists have
interfered, and each has settled it in his own way. Bosc, in studying
the pimis sylvestris, thought he had discovered four very distinct
types, which he has described as so many species : first, the j^miis
sylvestris, properly so called ; second, the Scotch fir ; third, the
Riga pine, or pine suitable for masts; fourth, that of Geneva or
Tartary. This opinion not having been adopted by any one, except
in regard to the Scotch fir, I will not discuss it. But another
opinion, which it is more necessary to combat, is that which places
the 2}inus sylvestris on the one side, and the pimis rubra of Miller on
the other. It has been supported principally by M. Deslongchamps,
and by AI. de Candolle. With the authority which these two names
give to it, especially that of M. de Candolle, or rather because of this,
I feel that I must combat it, being convinced that it is an error.

110 NATURAL HISTORY OP SCOTCH FIR.

" The first remark to be made is, that Miller never pretended in
establishing his species, pimis rubixi, to make any distinction from the
pinus sylvestris of the authors who preceded him ; it is only a new
name, which, for some reason, he has given to this species. The
sentences from Ray, from Bauhin, from Duhamel, which they quote
as synonymous, leave no doubt as to this. Nevertheless, the piiius
rubra of Miller, by a singular error, has been regarded as a second
species, made by him in the jt)w«<s sylvestris. This fact may be
explained naturally enough by the following circumstances : At
the same time that he established the pinics sylvestris under the name
pinus rubra, Miller almost beside it described another species under
the name pinus sylvestris, and among the numerous synonymes which
he assigns to the latter is to be found pi?ms sylvestris. No. 471,
Bauhin, wild pine of Geneva. For all readers, a little hasty in
forming a judgment, and there is no lack of such even among
botanists, there was here an indication, or even an evident proof that
Miller had established two species in the pinus sylvestris. Now, when
one reads the text even of the article relative to his No. 1, he sees
that the latter is no other than the maritime pine, or pine of Bordeaux.
In spite of the evidence of this fact, the contrary version has
prevailed, and some botanists, having to treat of the pines, have
adopted as distinct the two species, pimis sylvestris and 2>i>ms rubra.
This basis adopted, it was necessary to find characteristics for the
latter ; now Miller did not furnish any, as with him the pwiz^s rubra
being identical with the innus sylvestris of all authors, he had applied
to it the characteristics of the latter.

" Hence have come distinctions which I will not call imaginary,
for doubtless they are applicable to individuals, but certainly not
to all, nor do they possess the generality or the comprehensiveness
of specific descriptions.

" This may be judged of by the examination which I am going to
make of the characteristics attributed to the P. rubra in the new
Duhamel and in the French Flora.

" Difibrences between P. sylvestris and P. rubra. — Let us quote the
new Duhamel :

" First, the wood of the first is rather reddish — no observations
to make on this point.

" Second, the leaves are in general of a more glaucous green.

" There are in my plantation several lots of the P. rubra of the
north, coming from different provinces of Russia, and as well
characterised as possible. Their leaves are plainly less glaucous than

L'foOLB PORESTIBEB DBS BABRES. Ill

those of the common P. sylvestris of France and of Germany, planted
comparatively near them,

" Third, their cones are almost always arranged in whorls of three,
four, and five ; according to the same author, in the sylvestris they
are often by twos. I have many times, in all the lots of sylvestris in
the school, counted as many cones.

" I have constantly found in all, however diflferent they may be,
some individuals with one, two, or three cones, very rarely with four ;
nay more, this variety is often to be found on the same tree, some
branches bearing single cones, whilst on others they are grouped by
twos or threes. I have also noticed that this varies decidedly on one
tree in different years, apparently according to whether the flowering
has taken place during favourable weather or not. This characteristic
then is of no use whatever.

" Fourth, the projecting part of the scales form a more decided
pyramid in the P. rubra, and the lozenge formed by its base has its
greatest diameter in the vertical direction.

" In the P. sylvestris, on the contrary, the greatest diameter of the
lozenge, according to the same author, is horizontal.

" I have made, with a view to recognise the characteristics, nume-
rous examinations of the cones coming from different trees belouginw
to the two supposed species, and here is what I discovered — first,
that the projection of the scales, though variable in both, formed a
much less decided pyramid in the cones of the P. rubra than in those
of the P. sylvestris, which is precisely the contrary of what the author
says ; second, that in the same lot, either of P. sylvestris or of P.
rubra, and sometimes on the same tree, the greatest diameter was
sometimes in a vertical and sometimes in a horizontal direction, so
that this characteristic is useless as a means of specific verification.

" Fifth, Bosc and De Candolle give as characteristic to their Scotch
fir, or P. rubra, that it has the young sprouts red.

" Now the most freely planted lots of the red pine of the north in
my school are, on the contrary, distinguished by the tender green of
their sprouts in the spring. I have besides amongst my lots a con-
siderable number of Scotch firs coming directly from Scotland. The
trees in it are extremely varied in character. One finds among them
types of all the P. sylvestris possible, except the specimens with red
sprouts, which, far from being in the majority, are only met with as
rare exceptions ; the great mass have green shoots.

" Besides, if Miller had recognised this as a characteristic of his P.
rubra, he would have given it, and he says nothing of it. It is not

112 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIR.

then from this that the author must have taken this specific name.
Apparently it was for him only a translation and introduction into
botanical language of the name of the pine or red fir (red deal),
under which it is generally known in the trade, and in the ports of
England, and the Baltic, the wood of the P. sylvestris coming from
Russia and Lithuania. The result of this description is that the P.
rubra cannot be admitted as distinct and separate from the sylvestris."

There follow details of the varieties of trees composing VEcole des
Pins sylvestre, with the observations made. Of these details the
following is a free translation in which I have deemed it expedient to
alter in some places the order iil which some of the trees are
described, and to abbreviate or abridge in some cases the details
given :

" This collection is composed of all the specimens of the pinus
sylvestris of different districts and countries I could procure. I sought
especially that it should comprise those in regard to which doubts
and discussions have arisen, and still more especially those which
having received the names of varieties are moi-e generally regarded as
distinct. The Pin de mdture, or red pine of the north, and those of
Hagenau, of Scotland, and of Geneva, have supplied in this respect
the first foundation of the plantation ; and the first of these (le 2yin de
mdture), mast pines, the red pine of the north, those of Hagenau,
of Scotland, and of Geneva, the basis of the plantation. The first of
these (le x>in de mdture) being the most important, is that in regard
to which I have exerted myself to multiply as much as possible the
means of studying. Through the assistance of my connections, and
the obliging co-operation of many French and Russian amateurs,
I have obtained from different provinces of Russia, and of Lithuania,
celebrated for the production of these pines, seeds, the products of
which are to be seen in the plantation. To these lots obtained thus
direct from the localities have been added many others produced from
plantations made in France, at previous times, the Russian origin of
which was well established ; and further, with a view to multiplying
as much as possible the means of comparison, I have added specimens
of the x>'^n sylvestre from different parts of France.

" The whole presents a collection of some thirty lots, but to prevent
the formation of an exaggerated idea of these, it may be stated that
they are not all equal in strength, age, or extent, nor are they in
some other respects susceptible of exact comparison ; they are on
the contrary, unequal in the extreme. Some form masses more or

l'^COLE FOEESTIERE DEa BARRES. 113

less considerable, while others consist only of some single trees ; their
ages range from that of ten or twelve years to that of thirty years
and upwards. This inconvenience is inevitable in a creation of a
plantation of this kind. To reduce as much as possible the dis-
advantages of this inequality, I shall take care to indicate in the
details given of each lot the differences which may have au influence
on the actual appreciation of their character,"

In regard to his practical classification of the varieties in I'Ecole,
he says : " The differences, be it between individuals or between
masses growing together, sufficiently marked to enable one to find
on them the distinctions of vaiieties are of two kinds : those which
relate to the appearance and conformation of the tree, and those which
relate to the botanic characters furnished by one or more of these
characteristics, or to the appearance and conformation of their organs,
cones, flowers, leaves, <fec.

"Botanists who have taken up this question have in general given
a preference to this last basis of classification. This, however, I
have not adopted, and that for the following reason : Varieties
founded on differences which are exclusively or principally botanical,
may not be such when viewed from the stand-point of forest economy.
Thus, for example, let aj9Wi sylvestve have the summit of the scale
formed in the manner of that of the P. miigho, or have three
leaves in place of two in the sheathe of a cone more or less pro-
jecting, bent as in a hook ; let the greater diameter of the losenge
formed by the sides of the cones be horizontal or vertical ; let the
side of the anthers in the male flowers be more or less projecting —
that would be a curious variation, very interesting botanically in
being a departure from the general character of the species ; but if,
besides this, this tree and those reproduced from its seed did not
present in their vegetation and in their physical qualities marked
differences from those amongst which they were growing, the exis-
tence of this variety would remain outside of every useful practical
application ; it would be only an interesting fact of natural history.

" It is altogether otherwise with distinctions founded on the bear-
ing and conformation or habit of the trees. In these, diffei-euces
represent qualities or defects, or rather they are, in reality, the one
or other. Between a pine of an elongated trunk perfectly straight,
with a regular head, and one with a crooked trunk, knotty, with head
diffuse and spreading, there is all the difference between a very good
tree and a bad one.

P

114 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIR.

" This mode of determining varieties is then one in direct relation
with the views of forest culture, and may contribute eflficaciously to its
good result. It is in this respect one, for our purpose, very much pre-
ferable to that of which I have spoken as adopted by the botanist.
But this is not its only advantage ; instead of minute characteristics,
often difficult to catch by the eye without the assistance of a lens,
there are thus given characters of an order less recondite, call them
even vulgar, if you will, but they are easily caught by anybody and
everybody. And, in fine, another consideration in favour of the
adoption of them is, that they are at least as constant as those of a
nature more strictly, and essentially scientific, or botanical. But by
this remark I mean not to condemn these last."

These reasons, says he, have led me to adopt the mode of classifi-
cation described in comparing together, and grouping according to
their analogies, the numerous lots constituting VEcole ; and proceed-
ing to detail the classification of the pin sylvestre, in the collection
formed and studied by him, he says :

" The direction taken by the branches, according as this may be
ascending or horizontal, has ever appeared to me to be the character-
istic most generally connected with the good or bad quality of the
trees, and I have adopted this as the basis of the classification of
the lots.

" From this have resulted two principal divisions — first, that of
trees with ascending branches ; and second, that of trees with
horizontal branches.

" Then, some sub-divisions being still required to bring together
trees presenting analogies of secondary importance, and to obtain
groups less comprehensive, I have introduced three into the first and
two into the second of these grand divisions, and these give the
following five series or divisions :
" I. Branches ascending corresponding to P. sylvestris var-ruhra.

" A. Ascending, close, and pyramidal branches.

" B. Ascending, scattered branches, with a regular crown.

" C. Ascending, scattered branches, with an ir-regular crown, and
the branches often gourmandes, or overgrown, as if feeding rapaciously
on the sap of the tree.
" II. Branches horizontal corresponding to P. sylvestris var-vulgaris.

" D. Horizontal branches in successive tiers or stages,

" E. Horizontal branches, thick-set and regular."

These five divisions correspond to local varieties geuerally recog-

CLASSES OF PINES, 116

nised ; and he gives again the same divisons under the names of
these as shorter and more precise :
" Ascending branches.

" A. Pin de Riga, pyramide-elance, elongated tapering pyramidal.
" B. Pin de Riga, pyramide-elarge.

" C. Pin d'Raguenau ; Pin d'Allemagne, irregular expanded
pyramidal.
" Horizontal branches.

" D. Pin de Geneve elanci-etale, tapering, but straggling.
" E. Pin de Geneve ramassd, Pin des Hautes Alpes, ou de Briangon,
thick-set and compact."

Of the first of these types, the Pin de Riga pyramide elance,
elongated tapering and pyramidal, he gives the following characters :
" The trunk is very vertical, sustaining well its great size, often
almost cylindrical through upwards of half its height. The branches,
of moderate strength, manifestly of equal growth amongst themselves,
form a series of regular and symmetrical crowns the tout ensemble,
of which, by its pyramidal form, recals the habit of the Italian poplar.
The bark is of a decided reddish yellow, from 1 or 2 metres above
the base."

Under this type he places in his pinetum, pines raised from two
different parcels of seed of the Riga pine, received by him from
Russia, and a Witepsk pine, raised by him also from seed received
from Riga.

Of this he writes :

" Of the diflferent lots which I have received directly from Russia,
the Riga pine, raised from seed furnished by M. Zigra, is that which
offers the most complete type of the elongated tapering pyramidal
variety. The mass presents the following characters : The trunk is
in almost all perfectly vertical, sustaining well its great bulk, and it
is often almost cylindrical throughout half its height or more, the
crown is regular and symmetrical, composed of branches somewhat
strong, and of manifestly equal growth ; the general form recalling
the habit of the Italian poplar. The bark is of a decided reddish
yellow from about 1 or 2 metres from the ground, and scaling off;
that of the base is not so good, and it is not so rent with cracks as
is the case in the greater part of the other lots.

"The shoots are more forward in spring than those of the Haguenau,
and much more, to the extent even often of fifteen days, than those of
the Geneva pine, the pine of Ard^che, and their analogies. It is of a
pale green and in no way of a reddish hue, the leaf is not so glaucous,

116 NATURAL HISTORY OP SCOTCH FIR.

not SO long, and not so straight as that of the Haguenau, and it stands
more erect against the branches.

" It is, on the contrary, longer and narrower than are those of
the Geneva variety,

" The cone is smaller and shorter than that of some others, more
particularly than that of the Geneva pine and some of its analogies ;
it is generally grey, and sometimes, but rarely, of a somewhat purplish
hue.

*• The bud or young shoot varies in hue from yellowish to reddish —
it is smaller and less resinous than it is in the greater part of the
lots of the varieties having horizontal branches ; the colour of the
male catkin varies from a yellowish hue to that of a pale red."

Of Riga pines, raised from seed obtained from Riga through M.
Helmond, he writes :

" This is identical, or almost absolutely so, with those just described,
with which I could with all propriety have united it, but I mention
it apart, because it forms on the grounds separate very marked
clumps of trees, of the same origin, but of different years' growth ;
the proportion of trees with scattered branches, or even horizontal
ones, is much greater than in those just described. I shall have
occasion to revert to this fact of which the Russian series of pines
presents other examples."

In 1838 he writes : " M. Wagner, nurseryman and seedsman in
Riga, sent to me some cones produced in four of the provinces of Russia
known to furnish beautiful pine masts. Although the trees raised from
them are few in number and younger by ten or fifteen years than
my older Russian pines, I consider that I ought to classify them,
provisionally at least, according to their actual appearance." And of
one of these lots, that of the pine of Witepsk, he says : " By the
regularity and the very decided ascending direction of its crowns, and
by the tout ensemble of its characteristics, it belongs evidently to the
section of the elongated tapering pyramidal varieties ; it will probably
prove identical with the Riga pine first described.

" Intermediate between this class and the second, are the Smolensk
pine, the Wilna pine, the Tschernigoif pine, and the Volhynia pine
from another province of Russia, Riga pines raised from seeds collected
at Barres from trees raised from the first mentioned parcels of seeds
received from Russia, and a pine tree raised from the seed of a
pyramidal tree at Verrieres, near Paris, which, from its port or
bearing, might be included in the first section, and from its bark in
the second."

EXPANDED PYEAMIDAL RIGA PINE. 117

The second division is described under the head of the expanded
pyramidal Riga pine, of which he writes :

" The principal characteristic by which this section differs fi'om
the preceding consists in this, that the branches, longer, stronger,
and more separated from the trunk, form a more expanded pyramid.
The trunks in the greater part of the lots of this series are larger at
the same age than those of the elongated pyramids, and they are at
least as high; but the proportion of trees perfectly straight and
regular is less than in these. The colour of the bark is also less
uniformly reddish. In fine, in the tout ensemble of their characters
the natural grown trees are less elegant, less perfect in general in
their proportions than those of the elongated pyramids, but more
vigorous, and appeared destined to acquire greater dimensions ; it
is amongst them more especially that we should find trunks of the
exceptional dimensions, which serve for masts to vessels of the first
rank. They present then, in this respect, as much interest as do those
of the first section."

The pine of Smolensk was raised from some of the cones ob-
tained from M. Wagner. " This," says M. Vilmorin, " was dis-
tinguished from the others thus obtained in having the direction
taken by its branches very much diversified. Of the nine individuals
of which the lot consists, three have these horizontal, and very
prolonged ; of the six others, two are excellent types of the elongated
pyramidal series, and four belong to the series of regular expanded
pyramidal form. Notwithstanding these differences, all, with perhaps
one or two exceptions, present thus far the essential characteristics
of the best Pins du Nord, the trunk is clean and elongated, the
crowns regular, the bark, in fine, is thin, delicate, and of a decided
reddish colour.

" The mixture of trees with horizontal branches," he adds, " gives
to the lot, limited in number though it be, a particular interest for
subsequent study."

Of the Wilna pine, raised also I suppose from the seeds supplied
by M. Wagner, there were only seven specimens. " Their crowns,''
writes M. Vilmorin, " are in general regular, but they are manifestly
stronger, larger, and more clothed with leaves and branches than is
the case with any which have been yet described. The base of the
trunk is more clumsy and covered with a bark more brown and more
cracked ; altogether, it is a very vigorous pine, but one which, if au
opinion may be based on the observation of a number so small, will
furnish a smaller proportion of perfectly regular trunks than will
these already mentioned.

118 NATURAL HISTORY OP SCOTCH FIR.

" Its proper place should have been towards the end of section B,
amongst those which constitute a connecting link between that
section and the pines of Haguenau (section C, with crowns too ir-
regular for comparison with one another), but I have thought that it
would be better to keep together all the lots obtained directly from
the Russian produce."

The pine of Tschernigoflf is another of these. The lot consists of
12 trees, generally good or very good. They come near to the
Witepsk pine, and I had, says AI. Vilmorin, in my first verifications
placed them next in order amongst the elongated pyramidal pines,
but their crowns, although remaining regular, having latterly assumed
more strength and extension, the tree finds or would find now a more
appropriate place amongst the expanded pyramidal shaped pines of
which it may be taken as one of the good types.

Of the pine of Volhynia, he writes :

" Volhynia being one of the Russian provinces, which, according to
information for which I am indebted to M. de la Roquette, furnishes
the most beautiful pines for masts. I am delighted to have met
personally with a proprietor from that country, M. Camille Petrowski,
an enlightened and obliging amateur student of the pine, who has
kindly sent to me seeds from the district.

" The trees raised from these are by far the youngest of those
raised from seed received directly from Russia. They have now
been but ten years planted, but it may already be foreseen that they
will be amongst the best in the collection. In the first years of their
growth they presented so striking a resemblance to what had been
the appearance of the Riga pines already described when they were of
the same age, that I had then no doubt of their being of the same
race ; but within the last two or three years they have begun to
assume an aspect peculiar to themselves. From having an appear-
ance of feebleness and sufiering, which they presented at first, they
have become extremely vigorous, their leaves have become greatly
elongated; their tint, which was of a pale green, has become on the
branches of the year's growth of a decided glaucous shade ; and
many, the first crowns of which had been very symmetrical, have
produced of late years very vigorous feeders, gourmandes, and this
to such an extent as to show a tendency to deform the trunk.

" I attribute this change to this, that the roots must have passed
through the bed of pot clay, which is very near the surface in this

EXPANDED PYRAMIDAL PINE. 119

ground, and come to a sandy sub-soil, eminently favourable to their
growth; it may be also attributed to this, that, planted as they have
been in a long row directly facing the south, this position may have
helped to give to one portion of the branches an extraordinary
development. Notwithstanding these unfavourable circumstances,
the greater number have thus far preserved in their trunk, their
crowns, and their bark, the characteristics of the best Pin du Nord ;
and in view of everything, while regretting much that they have not
been planted in a close clump, I do not doubt that one portion of
them at least may one day be the most beautiful pwis sylvestres in the
school. On the other hand, this lot will be all the more interesting
to examine in their after growth — that it exists in sufficient extent to
supply studies somewhat conclusive ; it comprises about 400 trees."

Under this second head he classes a Riga pine raised from seed
which had been sent to him by M. Noel, gardener of the Jardin
botanique de la mai'lne, which had been gathered on a plantation at
Guiparaz, near Brest, which again had been raised from seeds brought
from the north in 1802 by an officer of marine ; a Riga pine raised
from seeds brought originally from the north by the late M. Penna-
nech, of Alorlaix, with which he formed a plantation on his property
at Bretagne ; a Riga pine from seed raised by M. Pousson, d'HoUande
of Bergerae ; a Riga pine from seed raised by M, Batelat, of Vie ; and
trees of P. sylvestris, raised from the seed of a tree in the garden
of M. Picot-Lapeyrouse.

Of Riga pines, raised from seeds yielded by trees grown from seed
obtained from Russia, he writes :

" When my Riga pines, raised from seed obtained directly from
the forests, began to yield seeds, I caused these to be collected, with
a view to ascertain whether the race would reproduce itself with its
peculiar characteristics. The plants which have been thus produced,
though they cannot be yet judged with certainty, have in general a
decided analogous appearance to that of their parents. A certain
number, however, presenting some defects in the trunk, or having
their crowns too strong, I do not wish to place them in the first
series, but would rather put them provisionally in the second series,
which contains many lots which are still young, and upon which an
approximate judgment only can be formed. Whatever may be the
definite place of these, the mass promises thus far to be very good."

The second series, Riga pines of expanded pyramidal outline,
have the branches ascending and spreading, and the crown regular.

120 NATURAL HISTORY OP SCOTCH FIR.

Of the first of these, the Riga pine, from a plantation at
Guiparaz, near Brest, of which there were in the school several
clumps, he says : " Their trunk is in general very vertical and
elongated, but the branches are perceptibly longer and stronger than
are those of the first and second mentioned Riga pines, described as
of elongated pyramidal outline. The crowns are, however, rpgular in
the greater part of them. The red coloured bark begins a little
higher than in the elongated pyramidal series. It is of a tint rather
more pale, but sufficiently decided to show that the pine certainly
belongs to the red pines of the north. It is, moreover, remarkable
for its great vigour, and it constitutes in its tout ensemble one of the
good samples of a variation from the elongated pyramidal type. The
leaf is longer and more glaucous than those of the specimens referred
to, and resembles somewhat those of the pine of Haguenau ; the cone
also is more elongated and narrower in the upper half."

The Riga pine, furnished by M. Pennanech, is like the last, a pine
of Russian origin, raised by culture in Brittany, and resembles it in
most particulars. It differs from it chiefly, that amongst the trees
raised horizontal crowns are more numerous, and the bark is more
uniformly and more decidedly red in hue, and it approximates that
of the two first mentioned.

During the first years of growth the lot of Riga pines had a
marked resemblance to the Scotch fir, obtained from Aberdeen, which
will be afterwards described.

Amongst the variations seen in the lot, which are numerous,
more particularly in regard to the direction of the branches, one
meets here and there individuals which are perfect models of the
elongated pyramidal type. Altogether, the mass is very good, not-
withstanding the want of uniformity which has just been noticed.

Of the Riga pine from Bergerae, he writes : " The sowings of
Russian pines, made by M. Pousson, de Hollande, on his estate near
Bergerae have been known long from the mention made of them
by M. Delamarre, in his work entitled, Traite Pratk^ue de la Culture
des pins. His son has had the kindness to give me seeds gathei'ed
from the trees thus raised, and it is of trees produced from these
that I write. These pines, planted in 1840, cannot yet be classed
with certainty. They are very vigorous, too vigorous even, and
belong probably to that variety of the Pins du Nord, which seed,
through excess of strength, and tend to approximate this race to that
of Haguenau. The proportion of regular specimens in that is at all

l'^COLE F0RE3T1BRB DBS BARRES. 121

times, as at present, sensibly greater than in this. This lot, when it
shall be older, it appears to me, is likely to approach nearly in its
quality that of Guiparaz."

Of the j^wi sylvestre, supplied by M. Picot-Lapeyrouse, M. Vilmorin
writes : " This lot, which does not consist of above a dozen of trees,
though not numerous, deserves a somewhat detailed notice in
consequence of the interest attaching to itself, and of the uncertainty
attaching to its forest origin.

" At a time when I was much occupied with researches on the
genuine pinus %t,ncinata of Raymond, I addressed myself amongst
others to M. Ferrieres, chief gardener of the botanic garden at
Toulouse. He replied that he could certainly procure it for me,
seeing that in the garden of M. Picot-Lapeyrouse there was a tree
of this species brought back by that botanist from one of his
excursions in the Pyrenees, and which was producing cones. I
accepted his offer, and he sent me some. These cones resembled in
every respect those of the 2nnus sylvestris ; but I sowed them, and,
when the plants made apparent that there must have been a mistake
somewhere, I planted a row of them in the school. The trees, which
are now twenty-eight years of age, and about 15 metres (50 feet)
in height, are very beautiful red pines of the north, and of the
section expanded pyramidal. They resemble much the Riga pines
of Guiparaz, to which they may be likened.

*' Notwithstanding the disappointment which they have occasioned
to me, I have always felt a great interest in these trees, and that
more especially from the question to which their first origin has
given rise. It may be supposed that the tree in the garden of M.
Picot-Lapeyrouse had been brought by him from the Pyrenees, as
believed by M. Ferriei'es, in which case it follows that on some place
on these mountains there were pins sylvestres, in every respect like
those of Russia, and belonging to the same race. If, on the contrary,
the tree was produced from a plant of the Fins du Nord, received by
M. Lapeyrouse, it matters not whence, (he had, as director of the
botanic garden, widely extended connections with establishments of
the same nature, and with amateurs), the consequences which would
follow would not be less important, namely these : that a pine of this
race, planted and reared in the climate of Toulouse must have so
preserved sufficiently its original character, that trees produced from
it are at this day in the plantations at Barres bearing comparison
with the good lots produced directly from Russia.

122 • NATURAL HISTORY OP SOOTOH FIR.

"These questions, it may be seen, touch closely upon practical
applications, and so warrant my pausing to give these details.

" It so happens that an accidental circumstance adds to the interest
awakened by these pines. They are planted contiguous to a small
clump of 'pines of Briangon, or of the High Alps, to which they
present a most striking contrast. A glance at these two clumps
planted on the same day would suffice to convince the most
incredulous that there exist of the pin sylvestre well marked varieties,
independent of the diflferences due to the effects of soil and of
climate."

Intermediate between this class and the third class he places
a pin sylvestre from a plantation near Louvain, presumed to be
of Russian origin. Of this he writes : " The seeds from which this
lot was produced were sent to me by an amateur at Louvain, M.
Stuppaert, as the produce of a very beautiful plantation, the produce
of seeds brought from Russia. The character of the trees confirms the
probability of the account.

"Of two parcels sent to me at different times, one has produced
trees which stand much too far apart, occasioned by numerous blanks,
which are veritable Haguenaux, of a very strong trunk, but often
deformed by enormous overgrown branches ; the other, sown where
they grow, has, on the contrary, generally the trunks very straight
and elongated, well proportioned, the crowns also large and strong,
but symmetrical, and the bark fairly reddish ; in fine, the characters of
those pins du Nord, which the excess of vigour renders very
unequal, but which evidently belong fundamentally to the race ; and
therefore the tree has found its place in this series."

Intermediate between the same class, and the fourth class, he
classes a Scotch fir, the seed of which was furnished by Mr James
Reid, of Aberdeen ; and another, the seed of which was furnished by
Mr W. Malcolm, and a pin sylvestre, from the seed of a tree with
semi-horizontal branches growing at Verrieres, near Paris.

Of the first of these he writes :

** The Scotch fir ought necessarily to make part of the collection
of which I am here giving a report, since it is considered the type of
the species, at least it is that which has furnished the common
name under which for a long time it has been known, a name
still much used, especially in England. I have accordingly obtained
seeds and plants from Scotland. These have not by any means all

l'eCOLE PORESTIERE DES BARRBS. 123

grown. The principal lot has been raised from seed furnished by Mr
James Raid, a highly esteemed nurseryman in Aberdeen.

" Of all the lots of sylvestris in the school, this is perhaps the most
difficult to class. It does not conform itself well to any of the divisions
■which I have established. It shows ah intermixture of elongated
pyramidals, but these in but a small pi-oportion, and of expanded pyra-
midal, some I'egular, others with strong gourmandes crowns, and
finally, of those of the race of Geneva, with horizontal branches ; the
bark in a pretty great number of specimens is of a questionable red
mixed with grey, a slightly preponderating proportion approach more
to the expanded pyramidal type than the others, and those I class
amongst the last lots of that division, in which I have been influenced
by this, that notwithstanding the extreme diversity seen in them
the Scotch firs have pretty generally the vertical trunks, and the crowns
of these, though strong, are rarely deformed by gourmandes as in the
Haguenau. In regard to quality this is upon the whole rather good
than bad.

" Such is the estimate as exact as I could form it of the principal
lot of Scotch firs at Barres. I must however repeat what I have said
elsewhere, and speaking only of those trees which I have under my eyes,
I do not intend by any means to express an opinion in regard to all
the pines on Scottish soil, nor even of those of the county of Aberdeen
whence these were obtained."

The Scotch firs, raised from seed furnished by M. Malcolm, and also
lots, consisting one of the ordinary pines, and the other of the
horizontal pine of Europe, which he has classed here, were all too
imperfect to warrant the expression of an opinion in regard to them.

Of the trees raised from the seed of a pyramidal specimen grown
at Verri^res, and of another lot which he has classed among the lots
intermediate between the first section and the second connecting
itself with the first by its habit, and with the second by its bark,
he says :

" These were planted with a special view to determine by experi-
ment if the natural variation seen in individual trees would reproduce
themselves in their descendants in proportions so considerable that
there might be deduced from this useful applications in practice. It
is generally so in nature, but all species do not comport themselves
absolutely the same in this respect, and one cannot be assured in
regard to how it will happen with each but by direct proof.

*' This I had in my power to try with two trees of very different

124 NATURAL HISTORY OP BOOTCH FIR.

habits which I had under treatment in a garden at Verriferes near
Paris ; the one forming a pyramid a little heavy and spreading, but
going up well and regular ; the other, extending its branches
horizontally in such a way as to leave the trunk bare between the
crowns. I caused to be collected and sown separately the seeds of
these two trees, and their produce, planted opposite each other, are
now to be seen in the school. Both have preserved their original
characters in a very marked degree. Two thirds and more of the
individuals have the crowns ascending and pyramidal in the first
lot, while they are horizontal and spreading in the second. This
result being by much the most interesting aspect of the experi-
ment, I shall enlarge but little on what concerns it beside.

" The pyramidal pine, from Verriferes, presents generally good and
promising trees, with a straight trunk and a regular crown ; the
bark is only one degree less marked than on excellent Rigas, which
approximates it to the pine of Guiparaz, or perhaps still more to
selected specimens of the Scotch fir, raised from seed supplied by Mr
Reid."

The third series, the German pine and the pine of Haguenau, is
characterised by having the branches ascending and extended, the
crowns irregular, and the branches often overgrown gourmandes.

Of the typical tree of this series he writes : " Though more
vigorous than those of the preceding series, the Haguenau pine is
not so good as they. Its crown is too dense and too strong, often
intermixed with overgrown branches, which tend to destroy the regu-
larity of its trunk. It also frequently shows knees or defects which
greatly diminish its value.

" The bark is reddish in most specimens, but it is not so uniformly
80 as it is in the first section, or even as it is in the greater part of
the lots in the second ; that of the base is more brown and more rent.

" The leaf is longer, more glaucous, and less pressed against the
twig than that of the elongated pyramidal section. The bud is less
forward in spring by eight or ten days."

Under this third head he classes a pine from the forest of Haguenau
2k pin sylvesty'e from Darmstadt, and a pinus sylvestris maritima received
also from Darmstadt.

Of these he writes :

" There are many clumps produced from seed obtained directly from
Haguenau, some sown, others planted, from 1823 to 1831,

l'^cole foeestierb des barres. 125

" The characteristic feature and the principal defect of the Haguenau
pine consist in excess of vigour, and, above all, of a vigour ill distri-
buted, which is carried often into the branches, to the detriment of
the trunk. It is in this that it differs essentially from the true Riga
pines. Its trunk is in general much less vertical and less regular,
often crooked, warped, or abruptly falling off in size, in consequence
of the enormous overgrown branches, which grow out to a great
distance, and destroy all regularity in the tree. In one variety
which is often met with the tree is more compact, and the general
habit more regular ; but the crowns, much too strong, transform the
summit into a pyramid excessively dense and bushy, in the middle of
which the trunk is almost lost. On the other hand, the reddish
colour of the bark is less uniform and less decided than in the good
lots of the Riga pine ; it commences generally 1 or 2 metres higher ;
pretty often indeed the bark throughout the whole body of the tree is
grey, or much mixed with grey rather than reddish. That at the
base of the trunk is more brown, more thick zoned, and more full of
rents.

" Such are in general the Haguenau pines in the school of Barres.
And from this it may be seen that this variety is not identical with
the mast pine of the north, as has been thought by Bosc, and many
foresters with him; and that, on the other hand, notwithstanding
its superiority in vigour and in rapidity of increase, it is much
inferior to it in quality.

" Truth requires it should be stated that thei-e are to be found in
the mass of the Haguenaus some individual trees which constitute
an exception to the rest, being quite regular in trunk and in crown, with
a bark fairly red, and retaining, at the same time, the superiority of
vigour belonging to the race. These may be compared to the best
pines of the north of the series of strong crowns (those of the
elongated pyramids). Also, when one shall come — if that happen
— to create, by choice of individuals, the best possible races, certain
varieties of these may present, at a pinch, very good points of
departure from the characteristics of the most to lead to that
result.

" Independent of the differences which I have indicated above, the
pine of Haguenau is distinguished from the Rigas, and from those
more especially of the first series, by its having the leaf longer, more
spreading from the branch, ordinarily a little curved or rounded
ofi", of a more glaucous green about the shoot, and later in spring to
the extent of about eight days. The bud is a little more coloured,

126 NATURAL HISTORY OP SCOTCH FIR.

the cones of a less uniform grey, often of a slightly violet coloured
tint, dull or reddish; but the characters, be they taken from the
buds, be they taken from the cones, are not sufficiently marked, nor,
above all, sufficiently constant to furnish good^means of distinction —
at least I have not found them such.

" It is then essentially on those characteristics which I have given
above that I have founded my separation of the Haguenau from the
Rigas, and made it the type of the third series.

"Of the pin sylvestre of Darmstadt some were sown in 1831 and
others planted in 1838. They have the same faults and the same
qualities as the preceding ; form disorderly and irregular ; trunk
thickened and vigorous, but often knotty and deformed by gour.
inandes ; the bark scarcely red, sometimes even grey, throughout the
whole height. As in the Haguenau, so in this, there are individuals
exempt from the faults of the mass, and promising for the future
very fine and good trees, or which are such already ; but these are
few in number.

" Of the 'pimis sylvestris var-montana, received also from Darm-
stadt, a row was planted in 1833.

" These, from their descent, and the greater part of their characters,
it appears to me, cannot be classed otherwise than amongst the
Haguenau, but in a rank below both of the preceding.

" Although their crowns may be less gourmandes than theirs, their
trunk is still more faulty — not so large in the first place, and very
much bent in half and more of the trees, and the bark is grey or
brown in almost all. This pine is one of those which show clearly
that there exist local varieties and bad varieties of the pin sylvestre,
which it is of importance to avoid in the formation of woods of this
pine."

Intermediate between this class and that which follows, he places
a pin sylvestre from Champagne, of which he writes : " Two rows
were sown in 1831. The seeds were given to me by M. le Vicomte
Rinnard, one of the principal planters of pine forests on the chalk
soils of Champagne, and were the produce of these plantations. The
trees produced from them have not the character of the race, and
cannot be classed in any one of the series which I have established.
At first sight they look like a mixture of not very vigorous Haguenau
pines and pines of I'Ardeche. Examined more closely, it is seen that
the greater part are rather intermediate between the two. In regard

l'^colb fokestiere des barres. 127

to trunks, crowns, and bark, they are in general rather passable, or
mediocre than good, or very good."

The second grand division consists of those with horizontal
branches,* among which we find the fourth section, designated the
horizontal tapering, of which the type is the expanded elongated pine
of Geneva, of which M. Vilmorin gives the following characteristics :

" The branches, spreading horizontally, sometimes even depressed ;
generally very much elongated and flexuous ; united in regular
crowns, which leave the trunk bare in the intervals between these.
This is rarely very straight ; the curvations not so acute as on the
Haguenau ; but, on the other hand, its grossessement is much less.

" The bark is tolerably red in some of the lots of this race, but
more commonly grey, or very much mixed with grey.

" The leaf is larger and shorter than in all the preceding series.
The bud in spring later by from eight days to a fortnight in ex-
panding."

Under the fourth head, the horizontal elongated but straggling
Geneva pine : a section of the trees having horizontal branches, he
classes — The Ard6che pine ; the Geneva pine ; the Tarare pine ; the
pin sylvestre du Maine ; pines raised from the seed of a specimen,
having straggling branches, growing at Verri^res ; a pin sylvestre, given
as a Riga pine by M. Leblond, of Bordeaux ; and a pinus sanguinea,
received from M. Barthude, of Toulouse.

Of the three first mentioned he writes : " Though of diflFerent ao-es,
the first so\7n or planted in numerous masses from 1823-1831, the
second planted in mass in 1840, the last planted in row in 1833 and
1835, they have always appeared to me identical ; I include, there-
fore, the whole in the same description. I give the preference to the
Ardfeche pine, because, being the eldest of the three, and by far the
most numerous in the school, it best represents the series to which
it belongs, and may therefore give of it the best idea.

" The trunks in this race are in about half of them pretty straight and
elongated, but too much swelling out and drawn out in rat-tail form.
The other half present knees more or less decided, but less strongly
so, than in the bad types of the Haguenau pine, and in the sylvestre
of the High Alps previously described. The branches, excepting those
of two or three of the higher crowns, are very generally horizontal, and

"Corresponding to the Pitiua Sylvestris VulgarU.

128 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIR.

at times even declining, not very strong, very much elongated, and
often flexuous ; those of the inferior stages almost naked, ramifying
themselves in feeble twigs, which carry at their extremity little tufts
of short and outspreading leaves, while those of the ascending
branches are, on the contrary, very closely pressed towards the branch.
The crowns, by reason of their being somewhat equal, are in regular
stages, so that they show the trunk bare between them.

" The bark is in general more grey than red, very often of an unde-
termined shade between the two. That of the base is manifestly less
thickened, less brown, and less rent than that of the Haguenau.
In regard to enlargement, this pine is inferior to the Rigas raised
from Russian seed, and much more so than some of the Rigas raised
from French seed, but, above all, than those of the lot of Haguenaux,
•which, at the same age, have almost double the magnitude ; and its
increase in height is in a similar measure less than in all those
named. It does not, in this respect, surpass any but its analogue
the pine of Briangon, to be afterwards described.

" A botanical character, somewhat constant in the pines of this
series, is, that the leaf is shorter, broader, and firmer than in the
others, and especially than in the Haguenau. Their bud in spring
is behind that of these, and especially that of the Russian pine, by
from eight days to a fortnight.

" The exceptions to the general characters, which I have just noted,
consist principally in the following : A small number of individuals
are elongated pyramidal, and as regular as some of the best Riga
pines first described; others somewhat more numerous are expanded
pyramidal, some regular, others with strong gowmandes branches.
The individuals of these variations, almost including the last, have
a pretty marked advantage over the others in regard to increase
in height, but more in regard to enlargement of trunk ; the bark of
these is not sensibly better than in the mass. There are found here
and there, but far separated, trees of which the bark is of a marked
and uniform reddish tinge ; but this exception is not more frequent
amongst the pyramidal than amongst the horizontal.

" To sum up the whole, the Ardfeche pine is, or at least appears for
the present, inferior in every respect to the red pines of the North,
both those raised from Russian, and those raised from French seed.
It does not nearly equal in value the Scotch fir, so unequal as these
are compared with the Haguenau ; this may be doubted, because it is
exempt from the great defects of that race, but it has not the good
equalities of that tree ; and, in view of the whole, the first appears to

L':fcOLE PORESTIERE DES BARRES. 129

me, in default of a better, preferable for most cases, and that more,
especially when it is proposed to plant or sow the pin sylvestre in
poor dry lands, whether sandy or chalk."

Of the pin sylvestre du Maine, of which there is a clump in four
rows planted in 1830, he says :

" The jyin sylvestre does not exist in Maine but as a cultivated tree,
and the plantations of it which are there met with have necessarily
diversified origins, and do not constitute a local race. But the
desire of multiplying the points of comparison led me to plant one
lot of them, for the seed producing, which I am indebted to the
obliging disposition of M. V6tillard.

" These pines belong to the race of Ard^che and of Geneva, but they
present a very large proportion of good, and of pretty good, trees, and
the bark is more frequently of a pretty decided reddish grey. It is
a good type of the race, apparently improved in Maine by successive
selection of individuals."

Of the ^:)m sylvestre, raised from the seed of a specimen with
spreading branches, existing at Verrieres, of which there were four
rows planted from 1832-1835, he says, in reference to the account
given of his design in planting these, and others of a pyi-amidal form,
that this also has produced many trees like the parent. Those of
this lot have the decided characters of the Geneva pines j the branches
of almost all are horizontal, the bark grey, or very little reddish ;
they are further pretty vigorous, and are of the number of those
which promise to be the best of this series.

Under the fifth head, the Thick-set horizontal pine, he classes a
pine from Briangon, and a Scotch fir obtained from Mr. Lawson,
of Edinburgh.

Writing of the Briancon pine of the High Alps, of which he had
planted three rows in 1826, he says : "The tree, which constitutes
by itself the fifth section, was given to me by M. Faure (of Briangon),
who had the kindness to get seed gathered for me, as being the Pinus
suffis of the Briangonnais. This should have been — if Duhamel be
not misled in the application of the name — a P. mugho. But, be
it a mistake of Duhamel, or of the men who had gathered the cones,
the pines produced from this seed are true Sylvestres. On this point I
have no regrets, for I am thus supplied in my collection, with the two
extreme types (this and the elongated Riga pine), which exist in

B

130 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIR

the species of pinus sylvestris, a comparison of which shows most
manifestly the existence of local varieties and the necessity of dis-
tinguishing them. A trunk, thick and knotty, and thick-set, covered
with a bark, coarse and much cleft, brown in the lower part, and grey
on the rest of the tree ; the crowns horizontal, very much drawn to-
gether, lining the tree from its base, composed of strong branches
often flexuous, which famish and at times annihilate the trunk, and
the ensemble of which forms an enlarged and diffused head ; such are,
with about five or six exceptions, among the thirty individuals of
whioh this lot is composed, the pins sylvestres of the High Alps.

" It may be seen from this that they are amongst the lowest rank
of the species to which they belong, and that in the formation of pine
woods they should be avoided. But this exclusion ought not to
extend to all possible cases ; there is one in which the Briancon pine
may not only be useful, but better than all others of the species ; it
may be so where plantations are formed on the brows of mountains,
or on their plateaux exposed to the violence of winds. The little dis-
position manifested by it to attain height, the thickness of its base,
the strength of its lower branches, which are persistent for a length
of years, almost carpeting the ground, make it more suitable than
any other of the pins st/lvesires to hold on and grow in such situ-
ations ; also when one is re-clothing mountains with woods, the Brian-
9on pine may be employed with great advantage conjointly with the
Mugho — the former to garnish the middle region of the declivity, the
Mugho for the higher zone — for these are the respective places which
Nature has assigned them on the brows of mountains."

In writing of the fivefold series, which he had formed, M. Vilmoriu
says :

" These five divisions are not by any means equally good, or nearly
BO. The first and the last (the elongated pyramidal Riga pine and
the pine of Briancon) present the only two types absolutely distinct ;
the others have characters much less decided. This could not be
avoided, and pertains to the very nature of the species in which the
individuals as well as the local masses differ — one may say indefinitely.
And thus between the two opposite types which I have just named,
the lots in the school form an unbroken chain, which binds together
these two extremes. The sub-divisions, as I have said, were necessary,
as may be seen indeed by the definition of the five series adopted.

" The outline, such as I have been able to give it, does not yet
sufl&ce for a convenient classification of all the lots. A certain nam-

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OP FORESTET. 131

ber present intermediate characters, but too ill-defined to allow of
them being taken as typical forms, and thus to increase the number
of divisions ; others have no characteristics of their own, but a mix-
ture of many types, without a marked predominance of any. In
these two cases I have placed these lots, under supplementary
titles at the end of the series to which they most closely ap-
proached.

" In this mode of classification, the two extreme types, the elongated
pyramidal Riga pine on the one part, and the Brian^on on the other,
are perfectly distinct ; a third and intermediate type, the Haguenau
pine, although less characteristic, is yet sufficiently so to allow of my
admitting it as such."

The following are instructions given in the School of Forestry in
regard to the exploitation of a forest of Scotch firs ; but there are
employed several terms not in general use in speaking of the manage-
ment of woods and forests in England, of which it may be well to
give some explanation. One of these terms is revolution. This is
applied to the time occupied in the complete reproduction of a forest
in the state in which it may be at any one time, as, for example, from
the sowing, or from the felliug of one crop to the sowing or felling of
a second. Fellings executed at difi'erent periods of the growth of the
trees, with a view to the effecting of different objects have different
designations given to them. Amongst these are the following : coupe
d'ensemencement, a designation given to a thinning of the seedlings or
saplings, and of trees left to give shade to seed in germination, and
to seedlings in the early stages of their growth ; coupe secondaire, a
designation given to a second thinning of the same kind executed
seven years later j and coupe definitive, a designation given to a third
felling of the same kind, when all trees of the previous crop left
growing to supply shade and shelter to the rising crop are felled,
leaving of that crop only such as are destined for the production of
seed by which the ground may again be sown, to which standards the
designation Baliveaux Anglice, staddles, is given.

There are other technical desiguations given to fellings or thinnings
in other circumstances, with a view to the accomplishment of other
objects; but with these we do not here come in contact. There are,
however, other terms which it may be well to explain, such as Bois
hlanc, Morts-hois, and Gucdis. The first designation is applied to
wood of little value, such as that of willows and poplars, etc., the
second is applied to worthless brush-wood, or undergrowth, junipers,

132 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIR.

hazles, elders, cornels, etc. ; the last, to perches and poles, from which
the lower branches have fallen through want of nourishment.

To resume then our account of the instruction given in the School
of Forestry at Nancy, in regard to the exploitation of a forest of
Scotch fir.

" In countries in which this tree, ^Jt/«(s sylvestris, is very common,
they do not allow it to become aged. In effect the annual increase
of forest masses of this tree attains its maximum when it attains
the age of 60, 70, or 80 years ; then, after maintaining this for some
20 years, it begins to diminish with the advance of age. When then,
the primary object is to procure firewood, it is best to fix the revolution
cycle, or crop, at from 80 to 90 years. And this may be worth
attending to in countries in which this is the perdominating tree ;
but even in such a case, parts of the forest should be submitted to
a more protracted revolution to get useful timber of good quality.

" In France, where timber is more scarce than firewood, the State
cannot fail to profit by delaying the exploitation of the pine. At the
period of its maximum increase, its wood is not of the best quality.
It is only at a later period of growth that the grain of the wood
becomes compact, that it becomes charged with condensed resin, and
thus acquires the elasticity and durability which makes it valuable in
the construction of great works, and more especially for the navy.
In view of such considerations, it would be well to apply to it a
revolution of 120 years on lands on which its growth is active, and
not to exploit it till it have attained the age of from 140 to 160
years in dry soil of sufficient depth, like the siliceous sands in which
this tree delights, and acquires more especially the qualities which
fit it for employment in great works.

*' It must howevex', be remarked, that protracted revolutions have
this inconvenience, they compromise the fertility of the soil. After
a time, in the course of this protracted cycle, the pine forest no longer
constitutes a close mass, and it comes at an advanced age to be
converted into something like a glade. It follows that in course of
time it becomes covered with hurtful undergrowth, the wind disperses
the bed of dead leaves, and at the termination of the cycle the ground
finds itself sodden, dry, impoverished, and in circumstances most
favourable for the multiplication of very hurtful lepidopterous
insects, the caterpillars of which only earth themselves in the
driest soils.

"When then a cycle of 120 years or upwards is decided on, not
only should aU deciduous broad-leaved woods, which naturally come

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 133

up under the pines, be carefully preserved, but it may be well to
introduce towards the middle of the cycle a subsidiary tree, designed
to protect and to ameliorate the soil. The yoke elm, the beech, or
the Norwegian pine, would prove well adapted for fulfilling this
function. The last mentioned especially, placed in a second range,
gives to the growth of the pine a magnificent upward growth.

"Fellings preparatory for a succeeding crop. — With a view to a
natural resowing of the soil, it is not necessary that a deep shade be
preserved, and, without disadvantage, the trees left standing may be
so dispersed that the branches of them may be from 5 to 6 mfeires
distant.

" In selecting trees to be reserved, it is not the straightest and
tallest which are to be preferred ; it is more advantageous to reserve
those which are of a medium height and branching; such are
ordinarily more fertile in seed, and they better resist the winds. In
the actual state of the forests in France there is as yet little room
for choice ; but it is expected that after a time, when the forests
shall have felt the effect of regular management, there will be found
not only on the outer skirt of the forest, but over the whole area,
trees of a medium height loaded with branches.

*' In spacing out the trees to be reserved, precautions must be taken
against the havoc of the winds, and the invasion of herbs or hurtful
plants. The pine sends down a tap-x-ooL, and otherwise roots itself
firmly ; but, nevertheless, on parts very much exposed to the wind,
and where experience has proved that this tree with difficulty resists
it, it may be well to leave a pretty dense reserve. The second in-
convenience is frequent in pine forests, and on some grounds almost
unavoidable. It may, however, be mitigated by not making the
coupe d'ensemenceme)it, or first felling, excepting when assured of an
early and abundant fructification, which, in the case of the pines, is
pretty frequent, and may be foreseen eighteen months in advance.
Further, in the autumn or the winter preceding the scattering of
the seed, it may be well to proceed to the extraction of the stumps,
and to till the ground in rays, or in narrow furrows, at the bottom of
which it may be stopped, and shall find a mobile fresh earth favour-
able to the germination of it and to the growth of the young plant.

" In the majority of cases these labours will not be unremunerative,
for the stumps of pines, from the resin which can be extracted from
them, are a more lucrative product than are those of other trees.

" After the coicj^e d'e?isemenceme)it, when the replenishing is com-
plete, and the young plants have attained to near the height of from

134 NATURAL HISTORY OP SCOTCH FIR.

16 to 24 centimetres, it maybe proper to proceed to the coiq^e de-
finitive. It may be imagined that the vigorous nature of the young
plant renders unnecessary the coupe secondaire, and that it is necessary
to hasten the withdrawal of the covering which is altogether contrary
to its requirements.

" In despite of the prudential measures taken to re-produce a pine
forest by self-sown seed, we are driven to acknowledge that it is
extremely rare that we meet with complete and satisfactory replen-
ishings in forests of this pine. To such an extent is this the case
that many foresters are disposed to renounce coupes d' ensemencement
in pine forests — to make a clean sweep, and to have recourse to
artificial sowings, which succeed readily and well.

" In view of the general facts, it is necessary to say that this
opinion is not without good foundation. Let the reserves from the
coupe d' ensemencement be numerous or otherwise, let the coiqye de-
finitive be expedited or delayed, one often sees the best and most
complete natural re-sowings come into jeopardy at the end of some
years — diminish and disappear in places to such an extent as to give
access to the mort bois and to the hois blanc. The cause of this it
is rather difl&cult to ascertain. Some writers attribute it to insects,
such as the worm of the Maybug, the Fissode note, and the HylobCy
which attack, the one the stems and the other the roots of the
young pines. Mr. Berg thinks, with reason according to my judg-
ment, that we must seek the cause or occasion of the evil in the
superficial position of the roots of the old pines, the very abundant
fibrous tufts of which cover and penetrate the soil in every way,
and absorb thus in its entirety the nutritious moisture, being
manifestly much more vigorous than the feeble rootlets of the
young plants.

" Accepting this opinion, one is led to conclude that natural
replenishings have no chance of success excepting in ground pretty
wet and pretty deep, in which the pine, advancing in age, may extend
its roots to a lower depth than the layer in which the young plants
throw out theirs during the early years of their growth. Bat it is
well known that pine forests occupy in general the less fertile soils,
and thus we can account for natural replenishings being rarely satis-
factory and complete.

" Were it not the important consideration of the expense of replen-
ishing artificially through the purchase of seed, which is dear, and
the expense of labour, and further, the risk ran of not always pro-
curing good seed when it is purchased, one would be led, from what

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OP FORESTRY. 135

has been stated, to lay it down as a principle that the reproduction
of this pine ought to be carried on by making a clean sweep of the
trees, followed immediately by artificial sowing ; and that coupes
d'ensemencement ought only to be practised in exceptional circum-
stances, as, for example, on ground on a declivity. Forest science
counsels the former mode of procedure ; but financial considerations
enforce most frequently the adoption of the latter."

M. Nanquette states in a note that the most important forests
of the 2^^^ sylvestre were formerly subjected to the mode ci tire et aire.
Thus were they treated till 1820, when the system des compartiments
was substituted for this, in so far as the principal fellings were con-
cerned. In these feHiugs there were reserved a certain number of
trees, with a view to securing a re-sowing of the ground, and in
order to render more certain the natural reproduction. There is laid
upon the purchaser the burden of pulling up bushes and mosses, and
giving to the soil a slight tillage in alternate bands.

"Such is, in few words, the treatment formerly given to those forests
in which we find to-day woods produced by self-sown seed perfectly
complete, and of all ages anterior to 1840.

" The power of imposing works in connection with fellings having
been suppressed, now well nigh forty years ago, they ceased to cultivate
le parterre of coupes d' ensertiencement. But soon they perceived that the
fellings were hot replenished, or were replenished badly — or at the
least that they must wait too long a time before obtaining a sowing
sufficiently complete, and at that time they adopted the plan of
recovering them by artificial replenishings.

" The easy execution, and the so to speak assured success of this
operation on the one hand, and the unsuccessful issue of co^ipes d'ense-
mencement on ground not prepared for them on the other hand
gradually gave rise to the conviction that it was for the general
interest to substitute in a general way artificial for the natural
replenishing. But they were not long in discovering that the new
mode of replenishing gave no better results than that it had super-
seded, and, as it is much more costly, they returned quite naturally
to the old practice of coupes d'ensemencemoit, and the preparation of
the ground for these fellings,

" A very light tillage, a simple scraping of the moss which spreads
over dry ground, the opening of strips or of furrows in the soil too
strongly covered with herbage or bushes, suffices to ensure the
natural replenishing of fellings with a little delay.

136 NATURAL HI8T0HT OF SCOTCH FIR.

" The replenishinga thus obtained are not generally so thick and
so good as can be obtained by hand sowing ; but they offer many
important advantages which these do not : in point of fact, the young
plants of the ^^m sylvestre are very robust, and grow with rapidity in
their first youth if they be rather sparsely sown ; their lower branches
display themselves, the foot of the trunk becomes thick and strong,
and by degrees the forest mass forms itself, and becomes so compact as
to give a very complete replenishing before arriving at the state of
gaulis.

" The natural sowings, probably because they are less dense,
escape almost entirely the gi'ave evil of defoliation which generally
comes upon artificial sowings, and often retards their development
during many years.

" Finally, in despite of the advantage which may be had from
practising a great clearing amongst the saplings, the difficulty of
carrying out this delicate operation on an extensive scale prevents
recourse being had to it ; and the artificial sowings, too thick at the
first, do not present more when they arrive at the state of gaulis
than long weak stems, and often they have not a future because the
young pines are liable to bend or break under the weight of snow
or of hoar frost, on account of their branches being spread and their
leaves long, and also it may be from the snow often falling in large
flakes, and in great quantities at a time in the climate inhabited by
this tree ; hence it may be concluded that they will stand only a very
partial clearing. But this tree, after it has passed the stage of gaulis,
sustains but badly a dense mass : branches which cross each other
lose their leaves, and are not slow to perish ; the head of the tree,
instead of developing, becomes lanky, narrow, and, when this ab-
normal condition continues long, most of the tops become deformed,
the trunks themselves contract diseases, and the whole mass becomes
at times unfit to attain an advanced age or fine dimensions. To
prevent this last and grave inconvenience, without at the same time
exposing the young pine forest to being destroyed by the snow, the
most certain method, the efficacy of which has been tested by ex-
perience, consists in executing the first thinning, contrary to the
general theory, while the wood is still in the state of thicket at the
time when the lowermost branches begin to dry, and in carrying
this out unsparingly. In point of fact, it may come to pass in this
way that the produce so abundant in the first youth of a pine forest,
may find itself restricted or at least diminished ; but this incon-
venience will only be temporary, till the remaining stems, having

INSTBU0TI0N8 QIVBN IN SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 137

more room to extend their branches, in a short time give to the
ground a thick cover, while, on the other hand, they form a fine
conical head, such as ensures a good ultimate growth, and at the
same time a stem more thick and short, and strong enough to bear
up under the weight of the snow.

" The subsequent thinnings ought to succeed each other at
moderate times apart, which will have effect of rendering them less
productive ; but in their entirety they will yield more, and exercise
on the vegetation of the stems, destined to grow to the completion
of the cycle, the salutary influence for which such thinnings are
designed.

" The wood of the pin sylvestre is used both in building and in
manufactures, as balks, beams, boards, planks, staves, shingles, etc.
When it has attained its maturity it is considered as solid and as
durable as that of the oak. In ship carpentry and wooden bridge
building it is used as flooring ; and it is almost the only tree of which
masts are made. For this use it is obtained in France from the
north of Europe. It is only in the higher regions of the principal
mountain ranges, where the growth is slow, and the ligneous fibre very
dense, that there is a hope of timber being produced of the degree of
suppleness and elasticity required for masts. And attention is being
given to the seeking out sheltered spots in these regions where the
tree will be comparatively safe from snow-loads and hoar-frosts, with
a view to the cultivation of forest masses destined to meet this
important public requirement.*

" The firewood furnished by this tree is very superior to what is
supplied by some others of the coniferae ; and charcoal produced by
it is in demand for forges.

" The pin sylvestre produces one portion of the pitch and tar made
use of in the French navy.

" It is the stumps and roots which yield most of this, which is
abstracted by subjecting them in furnaces to a slow and gradual
distillation.

" The wood thus deprived of resinous matters is reduced to a
charcoal which is used for various purposes. And there are in many
countries very productive contract sales of the stumps of this tree,
with the privilege to erect such furnaces.

* A valuable memoir on this subject by MM. Bravais and Martins appeared
in the second volume of the Annalcs Foresti^res, 1843, pp. 369-561.

S

138 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIR.

" In some localities marauders have a practice of cutting deeply
notches in the trunk of the tree to remove some portions richly
charged with resin which they recognise by a deep yellow colour, and
by a strong odour which is exhaled. These portions cut into small
pieces are very inflamable, and are sold in place of matches and fire
quickeners. It is scarcely necessary to say that this practice is most
prejudicial to the trees."

The authorities of the Forest School of Nancy give the following
instructions relative to the collection and preservation of the seeds ;
" The collecting of the cones should take place from the month of
November till that of March. When it is requisite to make great
provision for sowings this should be done as soon as they have
attained maturity ; in other cases it is preferable not to collect them
until after the cold, as the nearer this action approaches to the period
of natural dispersion of the seed, with the greater facility is this
extracted.

** The extraction of the seed may be effected either by solar or arti-
ficial heat, but the former is preferable, as thus are obtained seeds of
a superior quality ; but the latter is more generally employed, as it is
more expeditious and better admits of making collections in great
quantities."

Hartig, the father of Modern Forest Science in Germany, has
given a description of the ai-rangements adopted in such cases, of
which the following is a ti'anslation :

" There is used an apartment in the lower storey of a stone
building. There are placed in such an apartment one or more stoves,
fitted up with grates that they may be heated by the combustion of
emptied cones ; and there proceed from these stoves a circuit of
pipes conveying heated air as in green-house, hot-house, or stove,
that in every part the room may be heated to a sufl&cient temperature.
In this hot-house there are constructed against the walls and in the
centre scaffolding on which may be placed trays of wooden lattice
work, or of wire work from 1 metre 66 centimetres, to 2 metres in
lenfyth by 82 centimetres in breadth, in stages of about 16 centi-
metres between. Under the lowest range of trays are placed drawers
to receive the seed.

" They then charge the trays with cones, and heat the stove to as
high a temperature as a man conveniently can stand, (20' to 25° R.)
80° to 90° Fahr." ; and Cotta, who followed Hartig, says that the

DESCRIPTION OP SifiOHERIES. 139

temperature may be raised to 30°=100° Fahr., or even 35°=112°
Fahr., without injury to the germinative power of the seed. "This heat
is maintained until the cones open, they are then stirred or shaken
briskly in all the trays, commencing with the highest series, that
the seeds may fall from tray to tray till they reach the drawers
under the lowest tier. To facilitate this shaking of the trays, they
have been made moveable on rollers in two grooves, so that, by pulling
and pushing the tray, all the cones contained in it may be easily
moved.

" When all the cones have opened as extensively as possible they
are withdrawn, and the seeds still remaining in them are collected.
For this purpose they are placed in a vessel like a churn, in which
there is a suitable opening by which the seeds may pass and be
received into a vessel placed beneath. The cones are thus briskly
agitated until they are completely emptied of seeds, and the empty
cones are employed to feed the fire.

" When solar heat is to be employed, the scaffolding is supported
against the wall of a building on a southern exposure. On this the
trays are disposed at such a height between that the sun'a rays may
fall on all, the highest and lowest alike. Under the lowest trays are
drawers, provided with coverings of thick cloth, that if rain fall the
seed may be easily covered and kept dry.

" The whole apparatus is covered with a light roof, the slope of
which is towards the north.

" When there is a powerful sun and great heat the cones are
shaken, commencing with the trays in the upper tiers, and proceeding
in regular succession to those of the lowest row ; and the seeds are
then collected in the drawer. At last, when it is considered that the
cones have opened as much as possible, they are taken away and put
in a churn such as has been described for the extraction of those seeds
which may remain in them."

MM. Parade, etc., say " that the apparatus employed in connection
with solar heat has been practically perfected by attaching to each
tray a moveable cover which is closed during the night, and when it
rains, and can be opened to varying extents according to the heat of
the sun. And that this cover may better reflect the sun's rays upon
the cones, the lower surface is painted of a white colour or is varnished.

"To these houses constructed for the drying of seeds, the
designation Secheries is given in France.

" The Forest Administration of Forests in France has in the forest

140 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIR.

of Haguenau (Bas-Rhin) an establishment of this kind, which annually
supplies seeds of the pine which are shed in the forests of the state.

" When it is desired to divest the seeds of their wings, they
moisten them, and after having put them into a sack, filling it only to
the extent of one fourth, they rub it until the wings are detached.
Then, after having spread them out in a well-aired place, to expedite
their desiccation, they are cleaned completely by means of a winnow-
ing fan.

" Moistening the seed may be avoided, which it is preferable to
do, by spreading out the sacks filled, as has been described, on a thrash-
ing floor, and thrashing with a flail to beat the seed.

" The divesting the seeds of wings is advantageous, as it facilitates
transport by diminishing both bulk and weight ; and further, seed so
treated sows better, and runs less risk of being dispersed by the
wind. But, in general, the seeds which have not been subjected to
this operation, especially such as are obtained in commerce, keep
better than those which have been so treated. In the establishments,
more especially those of Germany, where they prepare immense
quantities of seed for sale, they sometimes put the seed into a heap
after having well moistened it, and leave it there until, on the
insertion of the hand, there is felt a slight heat, and then the wing
may be detached with the greatest ease. It may readily be seen
that such a process pre-disposes the seed for germination ; and if the
sowing be delayed it may be found that there are a great many which
have lost their power of germination.

" The seed of this pine designed to be sown may be preserved for
three or four years ; but when this is to be done it should not be
divested of its wings. And it will be preserved still more certainly
if it be left enclosed in the cones, and if these be not gathered till
the end of winter.

" Seed of the pinus sylvestris, when of good quality, is firm and well
filled ; its smell on opening it is fresh and resinous. When crushed
on the nail, the small kernel leaves there a greasy substance with
an oleaginous smell. The seeds of the pine are black or white.

" A greater number of empty ones are to be found amongst the
latter than amongst the others. It may therefore be well, in purchasing
seed, if the white be in excess, to test them with the more care.

'■'Seed of the Scotch fir should weigh from 120 to 140 grammes
per litre if winged ; and from 440 to 500 grammes if divested of the
wing."

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OP FORBSTRY. 141

In regard to the sowing of the seed, the following are the
instructions given : " The seed may be sown on alternate bands, of
from 66 centimetres to a metre in breadth, or by placing a few seeds
each in a shallow hole somewhat sheltered, but not much shelter is
requisite. In southern slopes covered by heaths, on which the pine
is often sown, it is necessary to adopt a particular precaution in
preparing the soil, namely, to dig the bands or the holes to the layer
of soil below the blank soil found on the surface, and which is
generally designated heath soil [peat ?] In sowing the seed on heath
soil, which has no firmness, which is incapable of retaining moisture,
and which, from its colour, absorbs heat in a high degree, the seeds
almost always fail ; and frequently the heath soil contains an acid
principle which makes germination completely abortive.

" It is stated that this is acetic acid, and it has been proposed to
neutralise it by employing ecohuage, or burning the turf, which, by the
ashes which it produces, would accomplish this end. This operation
may sufl&ce to prepare for the culture of certain plants which require
little moisture, and for the growth of such as return to the soil
almost the whole of the mineral elements of their structure, in such
a way as to mix with the layer of earth the mineralogical element
of the soil. But for forest trees it would not be the same, for in
abstracting from the ground one noxious principle, the ashes would
add to the lightness of the soil already too great, and to its
defective power of absorbing moisture from the air.

*' The seeds ought not to be covered to a greater depth than from
4 to 6 millimetres ; it may even suffice to mix them with the eai'th
by means of a rake. Ordinarily the young plants appear at tlie end
of from four to six weeks, when the sowing has taken place in spring,
which is most advisable; but it also often happens when the seeds have
been too deeply buried, or too much heated in the extraction, that
they do not germinate till the second year.

" In some parts of Germany, where the seeds of the pine are very
abundant, they are accustomed to sow simply the cones in the bands,
or in the holes prepared for this purpose ; then, as the heat of spring
begins to act on the scales, they shake the cones roughly with a rake,
to cause the seeds to fall out and to distribute them as equally as
possible. This proceeding has first the advantage of saving the expense
of extraction and divesting the seeds of wings ; in the second place,
the seeds are generally of the best quality ; and the cones which cover
the soil may give some protection to the sprouting plants. But, on
the other hand, a portion of the seeds are lost, for they can never

142 NATURAL HISTORY OF SCOTCH FIB.

succeed in getting all out from the cones ; they are not so equally

spread over the ground ; and the cones are more cumbersome

for transport.

" The quantity of seed to be employed for a partial sowing per

hectare are :

Winged seeds, ... ... 12 to 14 kilogrammes.

Seeds divested of wings, ... 9 to 11 „

Cones, ... ... ... 18 to 20 hectolitres."

CHAPTER X.

Natural History and General Culture op the Maritime Pine
IN France.

Sect. I. — Commendation bestoived on the Maritime Pine.

The success which has followed the endeavours of M. Bremontier to
arrest and utilise the dunes and sand-drifts of the landes of Gascony,
by planting them with the pinus maritime, has led to the name of
this pine being closely associated with thoughts of these landes, not
only there, but in lands far remote, in which attention has been given
to the subject.

The growth of the maritime pine in France is not confined to
Gascony, but is carried out elsewhere as a temporary application of
sylviculture to prepare the soil for agriculture, or for the intro-
duction of trees better adapted to the climate, or to the wants of the
inhabitants of the country adjacent, or more remote. In some of the
districts in which this is done the trees do not attain so great an age
and size as they do on the landes of the Gironde and adjacent dunes.
This is the case on La Sologne, in the district of the Loire and the
Cher, where they generally have to be felled after a growth of
twenty years, at which age the trees may supply supports for tele-
graphic wires, and wood which may be applied to similar uses ; but
it is chiefly as firewood that the produce can command a sale, and
in such districts special attention has been given to the conversion of
these products into fuel.

M. Boitel says of the maritime pine : " The rapid growth of this
evergreen tree has made it a favourite with foresters. What other
tree becomes productive at seven or eight years of age, and even
then exhibits a strength and beauty which completely changes the
aspect of the country by changing desert ground into a forest !

" Add to these advantages that it thrives in light poor soil unfit
for any other purpose, and we can easily comprehend how much it is
prized.

" The forester of the Landes or of Sologne exhibits with pride
heaths turned into forests by the labour of his hands. So a desert

Hi NATURAL HISTOay OF MARITIME PINE.

inhabited by a few wretched sheep has succeeded an immense timber
forest, supplying in abundance timber, firewood, and resinous sub-
stances.

" Many are the villages which owe their foundation to the intro-
duction of the maritime pine, before which there was a dearth of
timber and of firewood for baking the bricks and tiles, which are
indispensable for building purposes in a country devoid of means of
transport.

" I cannot enumerate here all the beaefits to mankind rendered by
this tree; let it suffice to briefly notice some of the chief uses of the
tree.

" Immense sandy plains in Gascony, Orl^anais, Touraine, and
Maine have become profitable through its culture.

"Certain cantons, formerly desert ani uninhabited, owe their im-
provement to the maritime pine, which furnishes materials in-
dispensable for houses and workshops ; its timber and resin are
useful for domestic purposes ; the baker needs firewood, the painter
turpentine and varnish, and the sailor tar for ropes, timber and pitch
for his vessels and boats ; and by this tree all these are supplied.

" On the sea-shore the growth of the Bordeaux pine is the only
means of arresting the invasion of the dunes, which, like an ocean of
sand with moving waves, lays waste the fields and carries misery and
desolation into important populous centres.

" Its protecting shelter from the caustic action of the salt winds
permits cultivation to be carried on in spots where this would other-
wise be impossible, and it withstands tempests better than any other
tree.

" The maritime pine is met with all over France ; in fertile ground
where it would be the reverse of profitable, it occupies an important
place in landscape gardening.

"To sum up, in cleared land it appears as the first symptom of
civilisation and progress, and is connected with one of the most
wonderful discoveries of the age, for with two of its relatives it shares
the privilege of supporting the wires, which in a second convey human
thought to the ends of the earth."

In another connection he writes thus on the same theme :

" The maritime pine is at home in Gascony, there it attains the

largest size, and, provided that sheep are absent, itj multiplies

indefinitely when once introduced. Sologne does not suit it nearly

so well, it suffers from the inclemency of the climate and the badness

REMARKS BY BOITEL. 145

of the soil. "Without culture the pine would never have formed
forests in that district, and it may be asserted that the plantation
would soon disappear if they were not kept up artificially. This tree,
which lives for a hundred years in the south of France, often in
Sologne, reaches maturity at 25 or 30 years. This great difference
naturally involves important modifications of its culture and ex-
ploitation.

" The inhabitant of the Lander who can count on the longevity of
his pines, expects them to produce resin and timber, firewood being
only a secondary consideration.

" The Solognese, on the contrary, knowing that his pines are rarely
large enough for timber, or to be subjected to regular ^remma^ye, values
them chiefly as firewood, Cotrets boiiiT^es, charcoal, and charcoal
powder are the most important productions in Sologne. Only here
and there do some woods situated in deep moist soil furnish trees
fit for the carpenter.

" Of late years, quantities of telegraph poles are supplied by Sologne,
for this purpose trees are required about the age of 20 or 25 years.

" Although wood that has not been tapped appears to last a shorter
time under water, not long ago some of the finest trees in Sologne
were selected to form piles as the basis of a new bridge lately built
at Mayeune.

" I am led to conclude, from some recent experiments, that
it would seem to be advantageous to tap the pines in Sologne,
especially those which are to be felled.

" Gemmage should be practised in Sologne with prudence and
circumspection. We must remember that the tree so far north
generally lacks strength and vigour.

"Too great a gemmage practised on feeble, sickly trees would
certainly shorten their lives, and a loss of timber would result, for
which the resin obtained would not be compensation.

" Only trees on the point of being felled should be subjected to
the process. As to others, they should be let alone to grow before
it is attempted.

" So soon as the trees appear strong enough to support the operation
they should be carefully operated on, only one incision made on each
tree, and this incision a small one, this being essential to the health of
the tree."

M. Samanos, in the introduction to his Traite de la Culture du Pin
Maritime, says : ** There has long been realised In the district of our

T

146 NATURAL HISTORY OF MARITIME PINE.

landes the importance of creating a plantation of the maritime pine ;
and yet, for all that, it may be said that but a few years separate
us from the time when the Landes of Gascony, veritable French
Savannahs, presented to the eye of the saddened traveller ouly a
picture of desolation and of death. Far as his eye could reach he
could see only heart-sickening monotony and gloom ; and it seemed
to him as if on this bare and naked land sterile Nature had cast her
heavy curse.

"While the whole of France elsewhere expanded herself under
the rays of progress, the Landes remained there — always uncultivated
and unproductive — always immersed in their unmeasured sadness —
giving shade in the brilliant picture of the fruitful conquests of
civilisation, and presenting to all men the great and gruesome
spectacle of a fatal neglect ; for, as Viscount Izarn-Freissinet remarks,
in his Coicp d'oeil sur les Landes de Gascogne — ' parce que tout y etait
d, faire, rien n'y a ete fait.^ Because everything in connection with
it had to be done — nothing at all in connection with it has been done.

" Such neglect and such abandonment of the land could not last
always. There came at length the day when societies were formed
for the clearing and cultivation of these lanies. But those who
took the direction of the measures to be adopted were mainly imbued
with notions essentially and exclusively agricultural. They wished to
establish on a grand scale the culture of vegetables which the
geological conditions of our sand-wastes could not support. They
were foiled. Advancing with giant steps they landed themselves
the more precipitately in ruin, and they were forced to stop, buried
as they were under the weight of failure, so much the more over-
whelming that it was unexpected.

" Behold then once more our landes abandoned and uncultivated
and alone in their immensity ; they seemed to be for the future
doomed to everlasting sterility.

" But if there had been a want of success it was the fault of man,
not of the landes. To change all that, it was only necessary to act
more wisely. This has been done, and now it has come about that
the four hundred thousand hectares of these desolate landes have
become four hundred thousand hectares of young and vigorous
forests. Almost everywhere the plough has produced its furrows,
and the hand of man has stocked these savage deserts with maritime
pines, which will become for the country a fruitful source of wealth,
and supply some day the wants of the whole of France.

** Writings on the maritime pine were for a time quite the rage.

CRITIQUE BY SAMANOS. 147

Societieg being formed for the clearing and sowing of the landes it
was needful to give instructions to the shareholders or capitalists of
these companies, and show to them the great advantages which they
might derive from this — to make palpable to them the supposition
which might engage them to lay out on uncultivated and arid lands
money, of which the interest would be invested on their hopeful
promises — to remove from their minds the unwarranted prejudices
which seemed to exist against our landes, and to prevent their
receiving the attention they deserved ; and it was necessary, in fine,
for the success of the enterprises, that by descriptions, always
exaggerated, our country should be shown to be another Louisiana,
which should be exploited by another law. And this is what our
economists have done. The question relating to the improvement of
our landes was almost always treated of by men to whom a creative
imagination supplemented the lowest modicum of knowledge in regard
to the forest culture of our maritime pine ; and these, seizing with
itching hand the pen dipped in vapouring exaggerations, extolled
the sterile plains which they described, and, by aid of subtile logic,
they insinuated into the ideas of their readers ideas which had only
for the greater part of the time absurd and incoherent foundations.
With them our maritime pine was the veritable tree bearing apples
of gold."

To expose the fallaciousness of these writings he cites some passages,
for which, says he, common sense alone may supply pitiless refutations.

Delamarre thus writes (Trade de la culture des pins d, grandes
dimensions; page 306; third edition): "The culture of pines
supplies the means of acquirino; wealth. As the proprietor of unculti-
vated grounds, a hundred Parisian arpents for example (correspond-
ing to thirty-four hectares) in extent, more or less uufit for every
other crop, may, by a moderate advance of two or three thousand
francs, and such attention as should be a work of pleasure, may
flatter himself, not only to be reimbursed the outlay, capital, and
interest in some ten, twelve, or fifteen years, but of obtaining from it
from the first pretty considerable profits, and ultimately, in some
fifty or sixty years from the commencement of the enterprise, a
wealth to be reckoned by millions for himself, and perhaps as much
for those whom, from the very nature of the undertaking, he will
find he has associated with himself in the maguificent and honourable
benefit which he has given ; for even in localities in which the price
of wood does not exceed twenty sous per cubic foot, his personal
benefit should exceed fiftee n hundred thousand francs."

148 NATURAL HISTORY OP MARITIME PINE.

And again in the same work he writes, (page 289) : " Thus
one may say explicitly that in maritime pines the creator of woods
is more than remunerated his advances, that he is even, in the benefits
obtained during twelve years, reimbursed his first advances. I might
even say that he is so within from eight to nine years ; for, in the
examples I have given, the net produce of the two first thinnings
executed, the one at seven years and the other at eight years from
the sowing, has been three hundred francs, while at this moment the
advances, capital, and interest, have not come to this amount."

Such statements M. Samanos ridicules, and goes on to say : " J.
L. Crinon, in his work bearing the title le Forestier praticien, (page
50) writes in these terms: 'I see amongst these, pines which would
measure from ten to fourteen cubic decisteres, and which have not
been planted more than from forty-five to fifty years. These trees on
an average scarcely occupy twenty-five centiares of ground. If we
estimate their value at forty francs each — they cannot be less than
this in value — and, reckon that there are to be found four hundred of
them in a hectare, we shall find that a hectare planted in pines
will avail for seventeen thousand francs worth of wood, after from
fifty to sixty years ! What is the kind of wood which offers like
advantages to this % ' "

" Evidently," says M. Samanos, "it has not an equal ! " But he says
it ironically, and goes on to say :

" I might go on to cite a host of opinions by many authors, such as
Emile B6res, Baudrillard, Ballet-Petit, etc, all marked by numerous
errors.

" 'Although the value of these woods,' said, in 1826, M. Bilaudel to
the shareholders, ' vai'ies according as the situation is more or less
near to the cultivated lands, still, and that according to calculations
in which there is nothing taken for granted, there is not even in the
actual state of things any speculation in agriculture more sure and
more probable than this is.' "

All such statements M. Samanos condemns. I cite them as views
which have been advanced, founded it may be upon isolated cases,
but I cite them with the qualification of the critique by M. Samanos,
whose treatise is valued highly by my correspondents in France.

Sect. II. — General Culture and Exploitation of the Maritime Pine.

The maritime pine, so exclusively cultured on the landes of the
Gironde, is nearly allied to the Spardenny, or cluster pine (Pinus

IN8TBUCTI0NS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 149

pinaster), grown at the Cape of Good Hope, and they have several
characterstics in cominon. By some these trees are considered
varieties of one species.

Much valuable information in regard to the natural history and
artificial culture of this tree is given in the volume just cited by
M. Eloi Samauos, Memhre de la SocUte cC Agriculture des Landes*
But the treatment of the subject in that volume is complete in itself;
and I deem it more expedient to refer the student to this in its
entirety than to cite passages apart from the connection in which
they occur ; and I give here information I have gleaned from other
sources.

The following is the information embodied in the " Cours elemen-
taire de Culture de JBois," at the School of Forestry at Nancy :

" Le Pin Maritime, the maritime pine (Pinus maritima, LamarTc) ^
forms portions of considerable forests in the Laiides in Provence, in
Languedoc, and in Corsica.

" Climate, Situation, and Exposure. — Although this tree belongs
more especially to warm climates, it is nevertheless cultivated
successfully in the western Departments of France ; but if it be
exposed to frosts it does not live long, and the wood is worthless,
its height and size are curtailed, and its usefulness is impaired.
This is the case with sowings of it made at Fontainbleau, and in the
suburbs or neighbourhood of Paris. There is no doubt that the
maritime pine could not be acclimatised if planted farther north, as it
is very sensitive to cold.

" In a suitable temperature it thrives on plains, on hills, or even on
mountains of medium height. Its tap-root and lateral roots give it a
strong hold of the ground, and enable it to resist storms which make
it so much the more useful on the sea-shore, where it is planted
extensively.

" Soil. — The maritime pine will grow on poor soil provided there be
depth enough. It will even thrive very well on pure quartz sand,
such as is brought down by rivers or heaped up on the sea-shore.
Stiff and marshy soils are injurious to it.

" Flower and Fruit. — The blossom is monooceous, It flowers in
March and April in the South of France, and in May in more temperate
regions. The seed is larger than that of the Scotch fir, and is furnished
v?ith a wing proportionate to its size ; it is ripe about the same time
as that seed, and it also falls at the same season.

* Tr aiti de la Culture du Pin Maritime,

150 NATURAL HISTORY OP MARITIME PINE.

" The fertility of this tree is extraordinary ; it bears fruit almost
every year, beginning at the age of twelve or fifteen, sometimes earlier ;
to ensure, however, the goodness of this, seed should always be
collected from older trees.

" i^oung Plants. — The maritime pine is hardy from the first ; and
all prolonged shelter is hurtful. It is only on the burning dunes of
Gascony, and in the warm exposures of the south of France, that shelter
is needed for the first few years,

" Foliage. — Although the leaves of the maritime pine are very long
they only cast a feeble shade. They fall in the third year like those
of the Scotch fir,

" Roots. — This tree has a tap-root which buries itself deeply in the
ground ; it has besides creeping roots which all along their length
throw out loug tap-roots; this tendency, along with its rapid growth,
makes it very suitable for binding the moving sand on the Danes.

" Growth and Length of Life. — The maritime pine grows very rapidly
and it attains a large size. In one district of the Dunes of Gascony,
where the soil is deep and nutritious, several trees, from which the
resin has not been extracted, are to be seen about from 27 to 30
metres in height by about 2, 3, and 4 in circumference, at the height
of one metre above the ground. The size is well proportioned and the
trees have a cylindrical form. They reach an age of 150, or 170,
years without showing symptoms of decay. We may therefore believe
that the maritime pine may reach an age of 200 in suitable soil.

" Qualities and Uses. — The wood of the maritime pine is cousidered
inferior to that of the Scotch fir and many other resinous trees. But
it is not the less made use of for various structures. In dock -yards
it is made into props and stays to support vessels during the process
of building. It is also sold for vine props and planks.

*' The firewood and charcoal of this pine are of indifferent quality.

** We may, however, be deceived regarding the value of the mari-
time pine. In order to the formation of an authoritative judgment,
it ought above all things to be grown in suitable conditions of soil and
climate, and to be treated according to the best methods of exploi-
tation, besides which, it should be protected from pruning and the
extraction of resin.

" Now, in the department of the Gironde and of the landes, this
extraction, called gemmage, and gentmer, has been carried ou on the
Dunes for several centuries ; and in districts elsewhere called landes,
where the soil is usually poor and gemmage unfrequent, the maritime
pine is exploited when very young, either for joiners' work, orfortrel-

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OP FORESTRY. 151

licing vines. In both these cases it is therefore impossible to know
accurately the qualities of this tree.

" The process employed in order to extract the resinous juice of
this tree will give an idea of the injury thus inflicted. Gemmage is
usually begun when the tree is twenty-five yeai's old, and goes on
from April till September. The first thing is to remove a strip of
bark from 12 to 16 centimetres in breadth, extending from the foot
of the tree to a height of from 33 to 50 centimetres. The incision is
deep enough to cut through the alburnum, for the resinous juice
issues chiefly from the ligneous trunk, and from between the bark
and the wood. Every week the wound is re-opened. These incisions
in following years are carried upward to a height of from 4 to 5
metres. A new incision at the root of the same tree is then begun.
It is parallel to the first, from which it is separated only by a width
of from 5 to 6 centimetres ; it, as well as later incisions, extends to
the same height. These incisions are carried all round the tree, and
are called quarres.

" This method of gemmage is the most gentle ; it is called gemmage
d, vie. When it is wished to go to greater lengths two incisions are
made simultaneously, one at the top the other at the foot, the first
is called quarre haute, the second basson. Sometimes incisions are
made all round the tree at the same time. This operation is called
gemmer d, mort, or ct pin perdu. Up to the present time the maritime
pine is chiefly cultivated for its resinous juice, which furnishes
articles of undoubted value, consisting of turpentine, pitch, tar, and
lamp-black. As a source of revenue there is no doubt that the
present mode of exploitation is the most profitable, and is therefore
quite justifiable. But in the departments of Gironde and the Landes
they go further, and assert that the maritime pine, if it is to be of
any use at all, ought to be resine. It is even affirmed, despite of
examples quoted to the contrary, that the extraction of the resin is
indispensable for its prosperity and even its existence.

" We may easily see that gemmage must interfere injuriously with
the growth of the tree. Nature has not given it a resinous juice for
nothing, and this juice, independent of the sap, seems, in combination
with the latter, to promote nutrition and growth. As a proof of this
when pines which have been gemme are felled, they exhibit very
narrow annual layers, which bear witness to a retarded growth, whilst
the opposite has been seen in pines which, without having been
gemmi, have grown in precisely similar conditions ; but it has been
ascertained that the timber of resinous trees is more solid, and has

152 NATURAL HISTORY OP MARITIME PINE.

more resisting power, in proportion as the layers are close and
compact. Farther, gemmage promotes an active current of turpen-
tine from the centre to the circumference, which leaves a considerable
quantity of concrete resin behind in the wood tissues which it has
traversed. It can thus be understood that gemmage, by retarding the
growth, imparts at the same time to the wood qualities which it would
only in a state of nature have acquired at a much greater age."

In regard to semis, or sowings of the maritime pine, it is stated
generally that these have to be conducted in every respect as are
sowings of the ]muts sylvestris, or Scotch fir; and the following
details are given in regard to the pinus maritima :

" Examination of the Seed. — The seed of this pine is much larger
than that of the Scotch fir ; it is grey or brown upon one side, and
shining black on the other ; otherwise it possesses the same character-
istics as the seed of the Scotch fir.

" Putting in the Seed. — All the various methods of cultivation with
which we are acquainted are applicable to the maritime pine. The
plough is usually employed for preparing the earth, and the harrow
for covering the seed ; the seed being larger requires to be covered
with a greater depth of earth.

" The quantity of seed employed per hectare varies much. In
Sologne, for example (as reported by M. A. Brongniart), for a full
sowing, about 10 to 20 kilogrammes are used. The difference is
owing doubtless to the quality of the seed, or it may be according
as the trees are to be close together, or the reverse. We think
that from 15 to 18 kilogrammes of seed with the wings on, and 12
to 14 kilogrammes of seed with the wings off, will be enough, bearing
in mind that the seed of the maritime pine is usually of very
good quality. For partial sowings these quantities should be
diminished by one third.

" The maritime pine has been cultivated much more extensively
lately in several districts in the west and centre of France on account
of the peculiar pi'oducts of this tree. But it is more especially in
the Landes and in the La Gironde that it is of chief importance. It
is well known that in these departments along the sea-shore from the
mouth of the Gironde to that of the Adour, there extends a district
called the Dunes of the Gulf of Gascony, which occupies an area of
about 240 kilometres in length, by an average breadth of 5 kilometres.
The soil of this district, composed exclusively of a very fine quartzose
sand deposited on the strand by the waves, becomes so light when

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OP FORESTRY. 163

dry that the winds carry it to a great distance. The smallest obstacle,
Buch as a little hillock of soil, a tree, some tufts of broom, or of bent
grass (arundo arenaria) are enough to stop the sand ; it then
accumulates much faster and forms larger heaps than when deposited
by the waves, as the winds blow for a long time in the same
direction. Such is the origin of the Dunes, of which the height and
form vary like the conditions which have created them. Some are
to be found from 20 to 30 and even 50 or 100 metres in height.

" It is by a mixed system of wicker-work barriers and rehoisement
with maritime pines that the inroads of the sand which threatened
the neighbouring communes have been nearly everywhere arrested ;
and it is one of the triumphs of the Corps des Fonts et Chaussees, to
whom the Government entrusted this great and important work, and
who have not only completed the undertaking, but they have by
degrees improved and simplified the work and operations required,
and have thus brought it within the power of any one to carry on
similar work elsewhere."

To render intelligible to those who are unacquainted with the
more advanced system of forest management followed on the
Continent of Europe, the additional statements to be made, it may be
well for me to state, that it differs considerably from the arboriculture
which is generally practised in Britain, and from the Jardinage, and
Sartage, practised in British Colonies and in the United States of
America, and to supply here the following information in regard to it ;
and to repeat in substance what I have already said in speaking of
the culture of the Scotch fir :

In the general management of forests on the Continent, in accord-
ance with the most advanced forest science, three things are aimed
at, and so far as practicable each is sought to be attained without
detriment to either of the others : the sustained production, natural
reproduction, and progressive amelioration of the forest. In prosecu-
tion of this there is determined, according as quantity, quality, or
pecuniary profit may be mainly sought, at what age the trees shall
mostly be felled. This in French is spoken of as the exploitability
of the woods. But before this age is attained there are several
successive thinnings executed, each with a special object, in accordance
with which it has a specific designation.

The wood being the product of natural reproduction, or self-sown
seed, there is often required a thinning out of the seedlings. This is
known as the coupe d^ ensemencement.

There may be required one or more successive thinnings as the

154 NATURAL HISTORY OF MARITIME PINE.

growth of the tree advances. These are known as coupes d'ameliora-
tion. There are subsequently thinnings executed to leave sufficient
ground cleared and open for the reception of seed cast from, the trees
left standing. These are designated coupes de regeneration. After
which follows the final felling, or coup definitive, in which only trees
required to give shade to the young seedlings, etc., are left standing.
But there are exceptional cases, in which artificial sowing is deemed
preferable. In these cases coupes de regeneration are not necessary,
and the coupe definitive takes the form of a clean sweep, known in
technical phrase as la coupe d, hlanc etoc.

In regard to the treatment of the maritime pine, the instruc-
tions given at Nancy are in several points founded on those given in
regard to the exploitation of the Scotch fir.

In these instructions we meet with the two terms co^ipes de regenera-
tion and coupe d^ amelioration, in addition to the similar designations
formerly explained. The former of these designations is applied to
all the fellings or thinnings to which the forest may be subjected in
the coui'se of its reproduction ; and the latter is applied to fellings or
thinnings carried out with a view to the improvement of the forest in
any way.

The corresponding instructions given in regard to the treatment
of the maritime pine are these :

" Exploitahility. — To ascertain what size this tree may attain, and
at what period its exploitahility should be fixed, it must first be
cultivated without any injury being done to its growth, for until we
gain light from experience we can only judge by analogy.

" Trees which grow rapidly when young generally attain their
maximum development sooner than do others. This is particularly
true of the maritime pine. Nevertheless, in the south, where the
climate is favourable, it continues to increase in size for a long time,
and on this account it ought not to be exploited for 100 or 120 years,
according to the nature of the soil, that the timber may acquire the
desired solidity for building and other purposes.

" Of course, in adopting this revolution, gemmage is not permissible.

" Coupes de regeneration. — The maritime pine never having as yet
been subjected to systematic culture, the method to be followed is
uncertain. But from the nature of the seed, the constitution of the
young plant, and the arrangement of the roots, we may conclude that
it ought to be exploited in the same way as the Scotch fir. At the
same time, at the coupe d'enseme/icement there maybe left fewer plants
as this pine is better able to resist the wind. Indeed, the seed is a

INSTEUOTIONS GIVEN IN SCHOOL OF FORESTEY. 155

little larger and heavier than that of the Scotch fir, but the mem-
braneous wing is also larger, which favours its dispersion to a distance.
The secondary coiq^e will be unnecessary, on account of the hardy
constitution of the young plant and the extreme rapidity of its growth,
which lead us to believe that the coupe definitive should follow the
cori2:)e (T ensemencement as soon as possible, that is to say, in the year
after the rejoeuplement, or within two years at the latest.

" Coupes d! amelioration. — What we have said on this head regarding
the Scotch fir, equally applies to the mai'itime pine. The first
thinning should be expedited on account of the rapidity of its growth,
and the intervals between those which follow should be abridged.

" The rules we have laid down for the exploitation are only
applicable when the trees are not subjected to gemmage. When trees
are to be gemme these rules should be modified. For, on the one
hand this operation diminishes the growth and shortens the life of
the tree, and on the other it is not timber, but resin which becomes
the chief product of the forest. The first cii'cumstance renders much
shorter revolutions necessary ; the other, that the thinnings should be
made at very short intervals, according to a method practised in the
south of France, of which an account has been given.

•' It being evidently the interest of the propi'ietor to hasten the
period of gemmage as much as possible, it is of great consequence to
promote the growth of the stem and summit in every way. For this
end the young trees are thinned for the first time, at the age of seven,
and afterwards the operation is repeated every six years until they are
twenty-five years old, at which age they are supposed to have attained
a suitable size. In these operations the pines are isolated by degrees.
After the two first fellings the mass, although thinned, should still be
preserved so as to promote the development of height ; but after the
third the number of trunks is reduced to 700 or 800 per hectare ;
and after the fourth only 500 remain; five years later these are again
reduced to 400. The 100 trees doomed to fall in the fifth thinning
are gemmes cb mort, between the fourth and that, the others are
gemmes cl vie.

" These 400 pines remain standing from thirty to sixty years, and
are gemmes every five years. At the expiry of sixty years, 100 trees
are marked to be gemmes ct mort, and are then cut down, while the 300
still remaining stand until the final co7ipe at the end of seventy or
eighty years, sometimes of one hundred years, according to the state
of the timber and the quality of the soil.

" We have already described how coupes de regeneration should be

166 NATURAL HISTORY OF MARITIME PINE.

made. But it is believed that usually la coupe ct, hlanc etoc, followed
by artificial sowing, will be preferred. Indeed, in both systems
the plough is indispensable, for, on account of the great distance
between the pines, the ground cannot fail to be covered with all sorts
of bushes and weeds ; besides, the seed of the maritime pine costs very
little and is easily gathered and winnowed, the quality is almost
always good, and the sowings succeed well ; everything tends to make
the artificial way the preferable."

Both in the treatise by M. Eloi Samanos,* and in that by M. Am^d6
Boitel,t are given details in regard to the culture and exploitation of
the maritime pine in Gascony, and in regard to the general culture
of it elsewhere, additional to what has been given in this volume,
inclusive of what relates to the gemmage or collection of the resinous
sap, and the distillation and manufacture of the different products
yielded by it.

• TraiU de la Ctdture du Pin Maritime,
t Mise en valeur dea Terrea Pauvres par le Pin Maritime.

CHAPTER XI.

Diseases and Injurious Influences to which the Maritime Pine

IS Subject.

Sect. I. — Choking hy an Over-growth of Local Vegetation.

Besides failures in the culture of the maritime pine, attributable to
bad seed, and to unsuitable soil, it often succumbs to other injurious
influences, which operate, not always singly and alone, but in com-
bination, and one preparing the way for another. It suflFers from
cold, from hail, from snow, and from wind. When the tap-root comes
upon a subterranean sheet of water, a layer of compact clay, or
rocks somewhat coherent and continuous, it becomes covered with
mosses and lichens, and it languishes, and dies ; and yet subterranean
aridity is not less opposed to its healthy growth.

In Sologne, where the natural shrubs are destructive to young
seedlings, the precaution is taken of sowing the seed on newly cleared
land ; and recourse is had to some of the usages of husbandry, and
the growth of annual crops, efloctive in themselves or their culture
in cleaning the land, to destroy the noxious plants which might
defile the ground to be converted into pineries.

M. Vilmorin has recorded that in his experience the couch grass,
and some other of the grasses, such as the agrostis stolonifera, marsh
bent grass, the holcus mollis, creeping soft grass, the agrostis vulgaris,
fine bent grass, and many species of festnca, or fesque grass, may so
take possession of the ground as to prove destructive to the young
produce of sowings of pine trees ; and in Sologne the growth of
hromtis, or brome grass, starves and kills the seedlings of the mari-
time pine, while in Gascony the broom is sown with this pine to
shelter and protect it in infancy against the sunshine and the sea
breezes ; but there the seedling pines are stifled by a vigorous growth
of heaths, such as the erica cinerea, the fine leaved heath, and calluna
vulgaris, the ling or heather of Scotland.

Sect. II. — Destructive ravages hy Birds, and Squirrels, and Insects.

Many birds, remarks Boitel, are destructive or injurious by eat-

168 INJURIES TO MARITIME PINE.

ing up seed not completely covered ; and the squirrels which abound
in pine woods gnaw the cones and destroy the seed while it is yet on
the tree. But these do also still greater damage, by eating away the
bark near the sprout, whereby not only is the growth arrested, but
the stem enfeebled at this point is often broken across by the wind.
But, contrary to what occurs in Sologne and some other districts in
which the tree is of feeble growth, and the ravages of the squirrel are
most detrimental, in some places on the coast, where the growth is
luxuriant, the finest trees are found on places where the squirrel
abounds. This is attributed to their destroying the cones which are
so abundant as to enfeeble trees by their production, and these being
destroyed, the vigour, which otherwise might have gone out in pro-
vision for reproduction, is directed to the self-development of the
tree. Sheep also are destructive to young seedlings, by browsing on
the sprout and the more tender buds ; this is the work of a few
seconds, but the seedling, deprived of the sprout on the main shoot,
remains ever after irregular in its growth, stunted and bushy.

But the most destructive effects are found to be connected with
the appearance of certain insects on the trees. It is open to question,
however, whether these insects be the cause or the effect of the evil
done, or whether, as I think not unlikely, judging from what I have
seen in similar cases, with other insects and other trees, their increase
be not a result of disease, and the cause or occasion of death. Under
the ravages of insects sometimes whole forests suffer, and the entire
destruction of all the woods in a province seems imminent, while
man is powerless to arrest the evil; and the maritime pine, like other
trees, is subject to such damage.

M. Perris, of Mont-de-Marsan, in the Landes, an eminent French
entomologist, who for years found occupation in observing the habits
and transformations of insects which there prey upon this tree, so
early as 1864 had recorded in the Annates de la Societe entomologique
of France, that upwards of 120 species of insects live upon it
parasitically.

Certain of these insects attack the leaves or the terminal buds of
shoots, and so produce physiological effects, which enfeeble the tree,
and induce a state of disease. Amongst these are the caterpillars of
the Bomhyx pityocamjya, of the Tortrix huoliana, and of the Hylurgus
piniperda. Others attack the wood, and betake themselves to the
wood and the bark. Amongst these are the Tomicus stenographus,
laricis and hidens, the MelanoiMla tarda, and the Pissodes notatus. It
is alleged to be indisputable that the former class attack trees in a

RAVAGES BY INSECTS. 159

state of health ; it is in regard to some, if not all, of the latter class
alone, that there is any question.

" Authors," says AI. Perris,* *' seem generally disposed to admit
that insects, the larvae of which are developed in the trees, while
they are yet growing, are the primary cause of the death of these.
There has thus been attributed to the Fissodes notatus the loss of an
immense quantity of pines, which covered, in 1835, 190 hectares of
the forest of Rouvray.

" The Marquis of Chambray, in his beautiful work on the resinous
trees, speaks of an insect of the genus Bostriche, which, when it in-
creases in great quantities, can destroy entire forests of the maritime
pine. We read in the Histoire de V administration en France, par
A.nthelme Costaz, t. I., p. 248, that in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries the pine forests of Germany were so ravaged by the scolyte
that the Hanoverian province of the Hartz feared a total loss of fuel,
and was delivered from the fear mainly by the effects of several cold
and wet winters, which caused the insects to perish in great numbers.

" As for myself," says he, " I cannot admit that these insects are
the primary cause of the death of the trees which they attack, and in
fifteen years, during which I have, without intermission, studied their
habits in one of the best wooded countries in France, I have observed
a sufficiency of facts to justify me in expressing my opinion, which is,
that insects in general (not including those which attach themselves
solely to the foliage, as miners, etc.) do not attack those trees which
are in good health, but they only address themselves to those whose
health and functions have suffered, from some cause or other ;" and
he subsequently expresses it as his painful conviction, that lignivorous
insects are only to be dreaded by sickly trees. They are like some
mosses and lichens which only attach themselves to enfeebled trees,
while healthy, well-growing trees, preserve a smooth bark, and
repulse tlaese vegetable parasites.

" In the department of the Landes," says he, " where we reckon the
pine trees by millions, I have never witnessed, and tradition has not
preserved the recollection of a single case of these forest razzias which
have afflicted other countries. Now the pine is exposed to a crowd of
enemies, and the number of individuals of the most injurious of these
is incalculable, and yet it is but seldom the case that one of those trees
perishes, and I have still to find one which has been actually killed

* Annal Soc. Ent. France, 2mo Series, X, 513.

160 INJURIES TO THE MARITIME PINE.

by insects. This comes about, according to my views, from this ; the
maritime pine being there in its true home, it there developes itself with
vigour, then lives in good health, and thus braves the innumerable
enemies which surround it,

" But let the pines become sickly through the effect of a hail storm,
or of an insect having destroyed the leaves or the bud, and when,
in consequence of the sickliness aflfecting the roots and spreading
itself from one to another, this may invade the whole forest, if by
a circular ditch the contagion be not arrested, then those lignivorous
insects, divining the morbid condition of these sick trees, even while
no external indication betrays the existence of the evil, throw
themselves in mass upon their victims, and finish them off in a few
weeks. . . .

" The insects most destructive to the maritime pine," writes M.
Ferris, " are first the Bombyx pytiocampa, the caterpillar of which
devours the leaves of this tree, and may, if it multiply beyond measure,
occasion such physiological derangements that there may result a
disease, the consequence of which, through the ravages of the
xylophages, or woodeaters, shall be fatal ; second, the tomicus steno-
graphies, laricis and hide/is, the melaiiojyhila tarda, and the pissodes
notattis, which destroy with great rapidity every so diseased tree.

" There has been recommended, as precautionary measures against
these last mentioned insects, the destruction of all dead woods, the
removal of stumps, the working up, or at least the removal of the
bark of all felled trees, the placing in different parts of the forests
attractive trees to allure the matured insects to lay their eggs there^
and then destroying the larvae ; but how can it be effected that
these measures shall be carried out simultaneously, that is to say, by
everybody at the same time, throughout the whole extent of a
department, with many conterminous departments ? Moreover,
would the results be very appreciable, when there are in the higher
and almost inaccessible parts of trees so many dead or diseased
branches ] And, furthermore, in practice it is impossible to carry out
a really successful raid upon the insects ; and this is indisputable
with those who are acquainted with the management and exploitation
of our forests, with the inadequacy of our agricultural population,
and the indifference which, born of abundance and security, ignores
all proceedings which involve trouble.

" With regard to the chenille processionaire, the local name given to
the larvae of the Bombyx, which passes the winter in numerous com-
munities in large nets of silk attached to the branches, it may be

DESTRUCTION OF THE CHENILLE PROCESSION AIRE. 161

said that it might be easy to master it. The legislative arrange-
ments, -which relate to the destruction of other larvae, might with
all propriety be extended to this ; and as there are four months
during which the work might be carried on, there appears to be no
reason why it might not be effected. But, it is well it should be
known that the greater proportion of the nests are situated on the
extremities of the upper branches of high trees, where it would be
almost always impossible to reach them, and always dangerous to
make an attempt to do so ; it must also be told, that in order to get
these nests it is necessary to cut down the branches which bear them,
and that if each branch have one of them, as may be seen, it would
be as well to fell the tree at once, as to subject it to the deadly
operation of cutting off all its branches.

" We ore then obliged to let things take their course, and to leave
it to the birds, to the numerous parasites, and to meteoi'ological
phenomena, to bring, and to maintain within proper limits, the multi-
plication of devastating insects.

" There have been some years in which the vast forests of pines, in
the department of the Landes, have been invaded by the chenille
processiomdre in numbers so prodigious that every branch and almost
every twig had its nest of these. Before winter a great portion of
the leaves had been devoured, and in spring the larvae coming out
of their winter's torpor, finished by browsing on the rest ; so that in
the month of March one might have said that a fire had swept over
the whole.

'' These ravages, which nothing could be done to prevent, were
continued two yeai's, and caused many trees to perish. The people
were in a state of excitement ; and for my own part I did not hesitate
to declare that if this went on for two or three years longer, this
would probably be the case with the greatest number of our pines,
the enfeebled condition of which would be followed by organic
derangements sufficiently grave to attract the bostriches, the buprestes,
the innumerable lignivorous insects always ready to throw them-
selves upon diseased trees, and the attacks of which are a signal of
death.

" So, as I have said, this condition of things continued two years.
In the third year, what was our astonishment to see that there was
scarcely a nest upon the trees ! The Chenilles had, so to speak,
disappeared. The titmice, the magpies, the cuckoos, and other birds
had doubtless destroyed great numbers, and doubtless some millions
had become the prey of carniverous and parasitic insects ; but, in

162 INJURIES TO MARITIME PINE.

reckoning up all the partial destructions of them, we would be far
from accounting for what had happened : some general plague must
have fallen upon this innumerable race of devastators, and the
following is my conjecture :

" In the month of May the Cheyiilles processionaires bury them-
selves in the ground, there to be transformed into the chrysalis state ;
but they bury themselves at but little depth, in order that the
butterfly may experience no great difficulty in taking its flight. The
process of organic metamorphosis which takes place in the chrysalis,
requires,' as is known, that the insects be protected against too great
aridity; now the months of May and June in that year were
remarkable for very intense heat and unbroken drought ; the sandy
soil of the pine woods became desiccated to a great depth ; it was
broiling hot, and the chrysalises, being unable to develope in that
medium, became almost all abortive. Birth was given to few butter-
flies ; and thence it followed there were few chenilles. Two circum-
stances appear to me to justify fully this explanation : these are,
first, in woods which were somewhat colder than others, and on
margins adjacent to moist places, in the following year there were
found nests in pretty great numbers ; second, since then, two other
years, 1848 and 1849, have been marked by an aridity which was,
so to speak, exceptional ; and one result of this was, in the winter
1849-1850, great distances might be traversed without finding a
single nest. In 1851 they ceased to be so rare, and I remember I
prognosticated that this would be the case, in consequence of some
rains which fell in June and July, 1850,

" Thus a drought has sufficed to put an end to disquieting devasta-
tions, against which man had no remedy, and to-day (1851), the
number of chenilles 2^'>'ocessionaires is reduced to one of no great
magnitude ; they are, moreover, surrounded by so many enemies that
they have for a long time ceased to be redoubtable,

" Apart from drought or other meteorological accident, the chenilles
processionaires might have found, as has happened with other species,
in their excessive multiplication itself the cause of ruin and mortality.
The number might have been so great that food would have failed
them before their complete development, and then they would have
perished of hunger before transformation."

Such were the views advanced by M. Perris, Vice-President of the
Societe d' Agriculture des Landes, and distinguished as an entomologist
who had given special attention to the insects living on the maritime
pine.

DESTRUCTION OF TREES FOLLOWING CHARCOAL BURNING. 163

According to the views of M. Perris, in the destruction of many of
the trees, they wei*e enfeebled by the destruction of leaves and leaf-
buds ; they were thus brought into an abnormal condition, and then,
having become food attractive to lignivorous insects, they died in
consequeuce of their ravages. And when other means than the
primary ravages of the leaf devouring insects produce like effects
to those thus produced by them, like consequences may follow.

Sect. III. — Destructive Conseqtiences following the Effects of
Charcoal Burning.

Professor Bagneris remarks in regard to a disease to be found in
certain plantations :

" Frequently a pine is seen to wither and die, and the disease then
seems to spread in a circular form, the diameter of which gradually
increases. I have not been able to find out the cause. In Sologne
origins more or less imaginary were assigned to this. May not this
disease be caused by a fungus attacking the woody tissue 1 The form
it assumes would lead one to suppose so, and the curative means
employed strengthens the belief. In the Landes, a trench of
0'70 metres in depth is dug all round the place attacked, and the
circle of disease spreads no farther."

The following observations throw additional light upon the
phenomenon, and seem to reveal the origin of the evil ; if they do
not determine also the question raised as to the possibility of a
fungoid growth contributing towards the destructive result :

" In the district of Orleans", says M. Boitel, " the maritime pine does
not present that vigorous production which in the south it owes to a
soil and a climate which are particularly favourable to it. The sands
of the Sologne ai-e often deficient in depth, and when thence it comes to
passthat the tap-root of the maritime pine comes uponabedof tenacious
and impermeable clay, the tree begins to languish, and its trunk and
branches become covered with mosses and lichens. A good many pine
woods find themselves in this condition when only fifteen years old.
The trees stand out against the evil till they reach the age of twenty or
five and twenty years ; but beyond that they become stationary, and
if they do not necessitate exploitation they are liable to be invaded and
destroyed by insects which become developed in innumerable swarms
in the bark and the wood.

" It has often fallen to my lot to ascertain and verify ravages thus

164 INJURIES OP MARITIME PINE.

committed in the pineries of the Sologne, and more especially in the
imperial domains, the forests of which have been under my direction
for some time. In the Grillaire, an imperial domain in the vicinity of
Motte-Beuvron, the lignivorous insects have carried out their ravages
in the middle of an immense forest of pines from twenty to twenty-
five years of age. The ravages had taken place simultaneously on
a great number of points which served as centres to lacunes in the
forest, the extent of which went on augmenting year by year in circular
zones concentric with the primal circle ; and in the radii of these
concentric circles the trees were more diseased in proportion to their
proximity to the centre.

" At the centre the trees had fallen and strewed the ground with
heaps of their debris ; farther away they remained standing, but
dried up in all their parts ; finally, at the extreme points of the
circumference the leaves and the buds were beginning to get yellow,
which announced the invasion of the insects ; and the presence of these
it was not difiicult to ascertain otherwise, on examining between the
wood and the bark, where the wood was literally ploughed up by
numerous gallei'ies which the myriads of lignivorous insects had dug
and inhabited. In the middle of these gaps, where not a maritime
pine was left standing, there were to be seen here and there some
Scotch firs, pinus sylvestris, which, respected by the insects, mani-
fested an astonishing vigour alongside of the languishing condition of
the maritime pine.

" This fact," says he, " corroborates the opinion of M. Ferris, who
does not admit that lignivorous insects attack the trees in a healthy
state. I accept willingly this opinion, supported besides, as it is,
by numerous observations conscientiously made ; and I think, with
the distinguished entomologist of Mont-de-Marsan, that the pineries
of La Sologne would be spared by these insects if the pines found
themselves in circumstances more favourable to their develop-
ment.

" In the Grillaire the circular lacunes ravaged by the insects pre-
sent often an area of several hectares. The entire forest would have
disappeared under the destructive action of these parasites if measures
had not been taken to exploit them at once, and to forward the pro-
duce to Paris.

" It is noteworthy that there is found generally in the centre of
each lacune charcoal debris, which marks the site of an old charcoal
furnace. The pine is very sensible to the effects of fire and of smoke.
In the forest of Villette (Loiret) the maritime pines are dead, from

DESTRUCTION OP TREES POLLOWlNa CHARCOAL BURNING. 165

having been exposed to the smoke of a brick kilu, from which they
were distant about 50 metres.

" Invariably, when there is established a charcoal kiln in the
middle of a pinery, there are seen many circular ranges of pines,
which, through the effect of the fire and of the smoke, become
diseased, and they are not slow to dry up and perish.

" These diseased and languishing pines become the cradle of
lignivorous insects which invade the forest throughout its extent,
if after having completed the work of destruction on the first trees in
which they were developed, they find themselves in the middle of a
miserable pinery, covered with mosses and lichens, the diseased con-
dition of which is so favourable to the propagation of these parasites.

" Sometimes, however, the ravages of the lignivorous insects
manifest themselves notwithstanding that there are no charcoal
furnaces there, or these are far distant. In these exceptional cases,
in Sologne, the primary cause of the disease of the pineries can be
attributed only to the humidity or to the unfavourable nature of the
soil.

" After the enfeebling influence which reduces the trees to an
impoverished condition, comes that of the vegetable parasites, which
carry on farther the enfeebling of the trees ; then come the insects
which seize possession of a prey incapable of offering any resistance.
According to some observations which I have made, it seems to me
that the lignivorous insects occasionally allow themselves to precede
those which betake themselves to the leaves, and buds, and young
shoots. If this be the case, one may be struck with the harmony
which ranges among the causes which tend to destroy a vegetable
from the time that it is in other than the normal conditions of
development. First, the soil produces its effect, then follow the
parasitic vegetables, and then the lignivorous insects, which, in arrest-
ing the circulation of the sap, bring the final coiip to the vegetable
attacked in its every part.

" There come into operation in Sologne yet other causes to favour
the invasion of the pineries by insects at the periods of the first
thinnings. Great negligence is manifested in the operations carried
on with a view to giving to the pine the air and light favourable to
its development.

" Pines growing too densely in their infancy famish one another, the
more vigorous destroy the more feeble, which become thus the food
of the insects ; at a later period, in the expectation that the expense
of the thinning will be covered by the faggots obtained, or by the

166 INJURIES TO MARITIME PINE.

manufacture of charcoal, there are carried on simultaneously and
vigorously thinning and pruning, which give to the pine in super-
abundance the air and the light of which up to that time it had
been deprived. Is it astonishing that trees so ill-treated and
mis-managed should experience a physiological disturbance which
renders them diseased and accessible to the numerous insects, which,
after having multiplied in the faggot, the cords of charcoal, and the
twigs with which the ground remains strewed, find later on subjects
perfectly prepared to receive them 1

" In all the circumstances of the case, the proprietors would find it
for their interest in every way to secure to the trees that vigour and
that health which defends them so well against the attacks of insects.
They would ensure thus the duration of their piuei'ies, and not expose
them to premature decimation, which compels them to exploit them
at an age at which it would be advantageous to maintain their con-
servation.

" Independently of these indirect evils occasioned to proprietors by
insects, it is necessary to reckon also amongst the damages done by
them those dead trees which rot upon the place, which can no longer
serve for the making of charcoal, and it would be reckoned fraud to
introduce that dead wood in the making up of the faggots, which, to
possess the combustible qualities sought for by bakers, should be
composed exclusively of living wood."

He goes on to say : " The forester has an interest in making him-
self well acquainted with the parasitic insects most hurtful to the
pine, and in appreciating correctly the ravages committed by them,
and the causes which tend to augment or to diminish these. The
study of these will show to him that it is useful to give to the pines
those periodical attentions which will ensure their vigour and success-
ful growth ; and as soon as a devastating insect may appear on his
pinery, he will know what redoubtable enemy he will have to combat,
and what are the urgent measures imposed upon him with a view to
the restriction and diminution of damages very prejudicial to his
interests." And he speaks in high terms of the work by M. Perris
as supplying requisite instructions.

Amongst other specimens of the products of the Landes. under the
system of sylviculture adopted, exhibited in the Industrial Museum
in Edinburgh, were specimens of wood cut up into galleries by the
Bombyx pytiocampa, &Mdi other liguivorous insects, and specimens of
the same restored to healthy growth by a process devised by Dr.

DESTRUCTIVE RAVAGES BT THE MOLE. 167

Koberts, with specimens of wood treated by M. Courval for similar
defects.

Sect. IV. — Destructive Ravages occasioned hy the Mole.

Another source of trouble in such plantations of the maritime pine
is the subterranean galleries created by the mole. In regard to this
M. Boitel writes :

" The mole is to be found everywhere in sand or clay, in dry or
damp soil. Its operation seems to be measured by the opposition
which the ground makes to its efforts. In light sandy ground it
makes very long galleries ; it makes shorter ones where the clay is
tenacious. It does not, however, dislike the latter kind of ground ;
on the contrary, it prefers it, either on account of the solidity which
it confers on the galleries, or on account of the abundance of earth
worms in it. Although it can swim, and can easily protect its retreat
from water, it does not inhabit low wet places, unless it finds some
elevated spot in the midst of the surrounding moisture, such as the
edge of a ditch, where it can construct a healthy and convenient
nest. It delights in the soil of oases, sometimes found on the edge
of bogs, which abound in earth worms. In general it does not care
for bare exposed places; it prefers spots sheltered by walls, bushes, or
trees. It seems to know instinctively that it is safe where its runs
are hidden by vegetation. Moles hidden in the banks of ditches are
hopeless to catch. It is easier to catch ten in a field than one under
a hedge, or on the wooded banks of a ditch.

" The mole is remarkably watchful and active. Its hearing is
very acute, although its ears are hardly visible amidst its fur. It is
frightened by the least noise. The mole-catcher, or the dog that
wishes to capture it, must walk very gently else it will instantly dis-
appear. It sees perfectly with eyes no larger than the head of a pin.
It does not fear water, and can swim in order to reach a desired
point. This explains how gardens surrounded with water are not
exempt from its ravages. It is a solitary animal when adult. It is
said that the female drives away the male from her nest. Moles
only pair at one season, when two may sometimes be caught in the
same trap. The female takes care of her brood for some time.
With these exceptions the mole is eminently solitary. I have tried
in vain to induce two moles of different sexes to live in a box filled
with earth. They fought continually, and there was no peace until
one was killed and partly eaten. The male wars against every in-

168 INJURIES TO MAKITIMB PINE.

trader, and fights to the death with other moles, also with weasels
aud field mice. It is uncommon that both combatants survive.
The weasel ever falls a victim.

"Besides the runs and ordinary mole-hills, moles make large
heaps of earth, under which ai-e a kind of special nest, measuring
from 0*15 metres, to 020 metres across.

" These are made of the leaves of trees, dry grass, and the green
leaves of cereals or other plants within their reach. When they can
make a selection they prefer the withered leaves of the oak. They
do not, as some say, pull down grass by the roots. They always put
out their snouts to collect materials for their nests. They are wise
enough to bring their materials from a distance for fear of discovering
their retreat, especially when they cut down green corn. It is
perfectly proved that everything required for their nests is brought
from above ground, and that roots of plants ai'e never made use of.

*' What is called improperly the mole's nest is only a warm and
comfortable retreat, where it lives permanently and habitually. The
males have their nests as well as the females. This habitation is
the central point of all its operations, it is the spot most frequently
visited. The mole reaches it by all kinds of runs, both horizontal
and vertical ; it contains its food magazines abundantly supplied with
pieces of earth-worms still in life, so as to preserve them for a longer
time. This animal, so active and strong in scraping, is never long
without visiting its nest, it sleeps and eats there generally. It is
often found warm when uncovered by the mattock. The most able
mole-catchers have never surprised the mole in its nest. At the first
sound they disappear in their deepest and best concealed runs.
The nest is often renewed without the position being much changed.
Under the same heap of earth may be found three or even four nests
of different ages. The same mole has sometimes several central
dwellings which it occupies irregularly so as to escape the snares of
its enemies. The heap which conceals the nest is always larger than
the usual mole heap, they are 0-50 metres in height, nearly 1 m^tre
aci'oss.

" The nest is not always under one of these large heaps which are
so easily seen. Sometimes it is placed under an adjoining ordinary
sized hill. The female usually makes use of this ruse so as to
conceal her young. Nests placed under very large hills are what
mole-catchers call false or male's nests.:

" The experienced mole-catcher can easily distinguish the nest of
the female, because, not being so strong, they cannot throw up so

DESTRUCTION OF MOLES. 169

much earth, and their mole-hills are smaller and flatter. The mole-
hills famish valuable indications. An experienced man can divine
the sex of the animals from the appearance of the mole-hills ; amongst
the numerous runs they can fix on the chief road between two im-
portant centres, and the mole can hardly escape a trap placed where
it must be passed a thousand times in a day. From these indications,
the mole-catcher can deal with the females and young ones so as to
suit his own interest, which he never fails to do when he is paid at
so much per head. The female has in the year two litters of four
or five each. Young moles produced in spring have a litter before
the end of the first year. The first litter is produced in the month
of April, and it is of great consequence to catch them at that time,
as one mother caught means four or five less on the estate. The
real nests can be easily detected, as we have said above.

" I will now point out the best way of getting rid of them. Only a
man trained specially will do any good ; others will not pursue the
moles with the order, regularity, and intelligence necessary. The good
mole-catcher knows the habits and instincts of the animal, and that
preliminary knowledge will suggest modes of destruction which would
escape any other person.

" I am acquainted with one skilful mole-catcher ; three times a
year he comes from Normandy to work on some of the important
estates in Sologne. From his zeal and activity, he seems born for the
trade. He undertakes to destroy the moles at so much per head, or
so much per hectare. If he receives 25 centimes a head (the usual
price), he cares more for the number of his victims that for doing his
work thoroughly. He tries to catch males rather than females, who
are the hope of the future. On this point I may relate what happened
to one of my neighbours with the mole-catcher in question. The first
time he was employed, it was fixed that he should receive 25 centimes
per mole. At the end of two days he brought eighty-nine moles, of
which seventy-two were males. It was evident that the females had
been spared. It is better to make arrangements by the quantity of
ground. In Sologne 1 franc 50 centimes are given per hectare without
food.

** The skilful mole-catcher, when visiting his traps, keeps an
attentive eye on the mole-hills and runs. Whenever he sees a mole
disturbing the ground, he approaches slowly, with one stamp he inter-
cepts the new run in such a way as to cut off all retreat, and one blow
of the mattock secures his victim. The mattock is also used in getting

Y

170 INJURIES TO MARITIME PINE.

at the nests with young ones ; and it is used for sounding the earth
and finding out runs."

Sect. V, — Destructive Ravages hy Forest Fires.

M. Eloi Samanos, in his volume entitled Traitd de la Culture du
Pin Maritime, to which reference has been made, remarks : " One of
the greatest scourges to which a pine-wood plantation is exposed is
beyond contradiction that of fire ; it reaches a height with such
facility, and spreads with such fearful rapidity.

*' There is pi-eserved in our district (appai-ently that of Cape Breton)
the memory of a fire which devastated our forests, on an extent of
from five and twenty to thirty kilometres; such occurrences may well
sufl&ce to create a most reasonable fear in proprietors, and to urge
upon them the adoption of the greatest measures of precaution.

" Such occurrences are almost always occasioned by workmen
who light fires in the forest without seeing to these being completely
extinguished ; they may also be occasioned by storms falling upon a
forest, as happened in the imperial domain of Solferino.

" One precautionary measure against fire, adopted by some care-
ful foresters, consists in separating resinous woods by planting broad
bands of deciduous trees between them.

" This has been carried out by the intelligent engineer, M.
Crouzet, in the imperial domains of Solferino, under his direction, in
which he has plantations of deciduous trees dividing the woods of
maritime pines. By this means the fury of the fire at least is
diminished, and it becomes easy to circumscribe and confine its
ravages.

"Besides this, ^'lore i-; o'^e m-^ans employed in our district to combat
conflagrations, known under the name of contre-feu. It is this : when
the inhabitants have been congregated on the scene of the disaster,
and they judge the extinction of the fire by direct means impossible,
they go in the direction in which the fire is advancing, and at some
distance from it, having armed themselves with well clothed pine
branches, they form in line, and burning there the thorns, heaths, or
other dry woods between them and the fire they prevent this fire
from spreading in the diff'erent directions and smother it ; and this
being done, the conflagration, on advancing to that place, finds no food
for its continuation, and often dies out."

To rely entirely on such means, M. Samanos considers inexpedient,
and he says : " Plantations of deciduous trees ought also to be em-

DESTRUCTION BY FOREST FIRES. 171

ployed amongst the precautions taken for the conservation of forests,
and it is impossible to do too much to make known and to introduce
such a measure."

In accordance with this account of the contre-feu is the following
statement by M. Bartro, in an article on the maritime pine in the
Adour, a journal of Bayonne :

' " Resin-yielding forests ai-e extremely combustible. Their soil is
strewed with ferns, with brooms, and with dried leaves ; it is covered
with trunks of trees, which distil resin, drops of which are seen every-
where ; a single spark, or the wadding of a gun, may suffice to set
the country on fire. When this misfortune happens the tocsin is
sounded in the adjacent communes. The population arm themselves
with shovels and hatchets ; they march under the leadership of the
mayors, who direct the operations and compose a guard, the duty of
which is to work themselves and to prevent desertion by the other
workers. They note the wind under which the conflagration spreads,
and regulate their procedure accordingly. By this combination of
labours the fire finds itself encircled by the population of the different
communes, who proceed to extinguish it, and, unless the wind be
very strong, and carry the burning flakes behind the workers, in
which case they are very much exposed to be themselves surrounded
by the fire, they find it pretty easy to master it, and that they do
thus :

"The workers, one after another, furnish themselves with green
and branching boughs ; they take their place at what is deemed a
proper distance in line in front of the advancing fire ; they set fire
to the ferns and other combustibles in front of them, which they
extinguish, as they progressively advance toward the fire, by smiting
them with their green branches, and covering them with earth by
means of their shovels. This is what is called making a contre-feu
When the fire comes it finds no food, and it is forced to go out. This
is the only means of which use is made to stop the conflagration in
forests of resinous trees."

Boitel, in reference to this, compares it to the homoepathic treat-
ment of disease by physicians acting on the principle — Like aires Like
— it is fire extinguished by fire, and he goes on to say :

" Forest fires would be less common if the police were less negli-
gent ; if herdsmen, shepherds, resin-collectors, and woodmen did not
take pleasure in lighting fires in the heart of the pignadas, or pine

172 INJURIES TO MARITIME PINE.

forests, for the most trivial objects, the embers of which they keep
constantly glowing to supply them with fire for their pipes, for their
meture, a preparation of Indian corn, and to broil their salt fish and
their sardines, culinary operations which ought to be attended to
before leaving their homes. These fires in the open air are left
burning on ground covered with combustible matter while the work-
men go about their work. Is it surprising then that there should be
80 many fires 1

" Insurance companies bring themselves with difficulty to insure
2)ignadas ; moreover, they cannot do otherwise than require a high
premium, which the greater part of proprietors will not agree to pay.

" The provident cultivator, who wishes to protect his forests against
a general conflagration, takes the prudent precaution to interpose in
his forest masses cultivated clearings sufficiently large to form a
barrier which cannot be overleapt by the destructive scourge. This
preventative costs less than the premium of insurance.

" Forest fires occasion more damage in young pineries than in those
which are in a state of decadence ; for the old trunks are not con-
sumed by the fire, and they have lost nothing of their fitness to yield
wood for carpentry work, and the employment of them in this way
affijrds some indemnity to the proprietor ; it is otherwise with young
pineries, which the fire destroys without giving any compensation."

Lately Published,

FORESTS AND MOISTURE;

OR

EFFECTS OF FORESTS

ON

HUMIDITY OF CLIMATE.

COMPILED BY

JOHN CROUMBIE BROWN, LL.D.,

Formerly/ Government Botanist at the Cape of Good Hope and Professor
of Botany in the South African College, Capetown, Fellovj of tht
Royal Geographical Society, Fellow of the Linnean Society, and
Honorary Vice-President of the African Institute of Paris, etc.

EDINBURGH:

OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.

LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL AND CO.

18 7 7.

CONTENTS AND ARGUMENT.

FAOB

Ibdex to Authorities Cited, . _ . li

Preface, -.-_-_- xiii

hrrRoiiZ'Tnoy , . _ _ _ _

States snbjeds to be diaeuageJ as being more paitieolailf the effect of
forests on tibe bmniditf ci tbe dnnate, indnding the """fall ; bat
fieatiiig this onij as aecesaaiy to other effects, and these sodi as
WMj be prodoeed by eraj hUde of habage aecofding to its

PAET I. — Phexome?? A OP Vbgetatiok ox which the Meteob-
ouxjiCAL Effects of Forests affectixg the Humiditt

OF CUMATE DEPEJTD, . _ . . -

Chapter L — Primary Phenomena of Vegetation^

Piintaij pbeBomeBS of vegetatitm aze expounded as serai in tbe Bed
&IOW, the Teast idant, Caofeme, and Algn (p. 3), and thus is
ilhwtiited the afasotption of moistiiie bj emdosmose (p. 5), whieh
proeesiisiiMHefiiltf detBiIed(p.6). The liqidd absotbei is tzaeed
horn the rootlets to the leares ^. 10^; the nse of the sap is ex-
^ained in aeeotdanee with the sapposition of its bdng attdbntable
to emhnune aetioa (p. 12). The diflaeace between this and
capiOaij attzaetioB is explained (p. 13X and the di&renee between
this and what is called vis a tergo (p. 15). Tbe stnicUite oi the
leaf is desoibed (p. 17), and the process oi the evaporation of the
Btoistare hj the stomates of the leares is Ulnstiated (p. 19).

CONTENTS. II

Chapter II. — On the Quantity/ of Moisture Evaporated through

the Stomates of the Leaves, - - - - 21

Facts illustrative of the quantity of moisture evaporated through the
stomates of leaves are cited from Marsh and others, embracing
observations on the oak by Marshal VaiUant (p. 21), and on the
maple and the birch in America (p. 22).

Chapter III. — Disputed and Secondary Phenomena of Vege-
tation, - - - - - -25

Section I. — On the Ahsorj)tion of Moistxire hy Leaves, - 25

It is alleged that there is a lack of evidence of moisture being absorbed
by leaves in great quantity (p. 25).

Section II. — On the Production of Water hy Plants, - - 26

A reference is made to quantities of water found in the KaflBr iron-
wood (p. 26), the pitcher plant and the teazle (p. 27), to water
secreted by ants (p. 28) and by the cuckoo-spit (p. 29) ; and it is
intimated that it is not unreasonable to suppose that water may be
secreted by vegetables (p. 31).

Section III. — On the Dropping of Water from the Leaves of

certain Trees, - - - - - -31

Beference is made to observations on a celebrated laurel in Fervo
(p. 31), and it is suggested that the dropping of water from its
leaves may be attributable to a copious deposit of dew (p. 32), and
this is again referred to in explanation of similar phenomena ob-
served in Madeira (p. 35) and in Europe (p. 37).

PART II. — Effects op Forests on the Humidity op the

Climate, - - - - - - 38

Chapter I. — Immediate Effects of Forests on the Humidity of

the Atmosphere, - - - - - 38

Reference is made to controverted views on this subject, and these are
discussed (p. 38).

Section I. — On the Hxi^midity of Atmosphere in the vicinity of
Trees, indicated by the dampness of houses overshadowed
hy Trees, or situated in close proximity to a Wood, - 39

This is attributed to the moisture evaporated through the stomates of
the leaves being absorbed or retained by the walls (p. 39).

Section II. — On Clouds occasionally seen surmounting Woods

while the Atmosphere around is comparatively clear, - 40

There is discussed a statement by Marsh in favour of the popular
view that mountains attract clouds (p. 46) ; and phenomena seen

\y CONTENTS.

on Table Mountain, at the Cape of Good Hope, are adduced to
show that these, like the alleged attraction of clouds by forests, are
attributable to a reduction in the temperature of the air (p. 48).

Chapter II — Effects of Forests on the Humidity of the Ground^ 51

Section I. — O71 the Wetness of Roads where these are over-
shadowed by Trees, - - - - - 51

While the profuse evaporation from the trees through the stomates
of the leaves is not overlooked, the wetness of roads is traced to the
effect of the shadow occasioned by the trees preventing evaporation
from the overshadowed portion of the road (p. 51) ; in illustration
of which effect of shade are adduced experiments and observations
made at the Cape of Good Hope (p. 52), and observations on the
effect of shade on ponds in England (p. 55).

Section II. — On the Desiccation of Ground by Drying Winds

being 2}revented by the Shelter afforded by chimiis of Trees, 55
Illustrations are given of the effect of shelter in arresting evapora-
tion, and of the extent to which even bush may act as a wind-
brake (p. 56).

Section III. — On the General Phenomena of Evaporation from

Forests, - - - - - - 57

There are given indications of evaporation being retarded by forests
(p. 59), observations on the quantity of rain arrested by leaves
made by Marshall Vaillant (p. Gl) and by M. Mathieu (p. 62),
observations by the latter on the different quantities of water
evaporated in woods and in adjacent open land (p. 63), and notices
of corresponding observations made by Risler (p. 64), with the con-
clusion from the whole that under the same measure of rainfall the
soil of the forest retains notably more water than does uncovered
ground (p. 65).

Section IV. — On the Moisture being attracted from the Atmos-
phere, or otherwise retained in the Ground by Vegetable
Mould, - - - - - - 65

It is stated how it may be seen that there is a greater quantity of
moisture in the soil of a forest than in the soil of open country
(p. 65) ; illustrations are given of the process whereby such mois-
ture is absorbed (p. 65) ; the difference between this and the
deposit of dew is pointed out (p. 66) ; the property is stated to be
possessed in a high degree by clay and by vegetable mould (p. 67);
the latter is shown to be a product of forests, and a mode of deter-
mining the quantity of it in the soil is described (p. 70), and the
humus is shown to be liable to decomposition when exposed to the
rays of sun, imshaded by herbage and trees (p. 71).

C0XTENT8. V

Chapter III. — Effects of Forests on Marshes, - - 73

Section I. — On the Brying-np of Marshes on the Growth of

Trees, - - - - - - 73

It is stated that what is evaporated through the stomates of the
leaves is derived from the ground (p. 73), and that the quantity
often exceeds many times that of the rainfall (p. 74); that to a great
extent what the atmosphere thus gains the earth loses (p .79) ; and
an illustration of the effect in drying up wet ground is given (p. 80).

Section II. — On the occcasional appearance of Marshes on the

destruction of Forests, - - - - - 81

Cases of the appearance of marshes on the destruction of forests are
cited, which are attributed to the interruption of the withdrawal
of excess of moisture from the soil by the trees (p. 81).

Section III. — O71 the occasional Destruction of Forests hy the

Creation of Marshes, - - - - - 83

The destruction of forests by marshes is attributed to the damming- up
of water outlets at a lower level (p. 83), and illustrative cases are
given from Bussia (p. 83), Canada (p. 85), and the United States
of America (p. 88).

Section IV. — On the Desiccating Effects produced on Marshes

hy Forests in ^^rolonged periods, - - - 90

The gradual conversion of marshes into habitable and arable land is
discussed (p. 90), and Ireland and Denmark are referred to in
illustration (p. 91).

Chapter IV. — On the Effects of Forests on the Moisttire of a

wide expanse of Country, - - - - 93

Section I. — Cases in which the extensive destruction of Forests
does not appear to have 2^6rce2Jtibly affected the qiiantity of
the Rainfall over a wide expanse of Country, - - 94

The difference between moisture and rainfall is pointed out (p. 94) ;
and illustrations of little effect having been produced on the quantity
of rain falling over a wide expanse of country having been produced
by an extensive destruction of forests are given from France (p. 95),
and from the United States of North America (p. 98).

Section II. — Cases in which the extensive destruction of Forests
appears to have been followed hy a marked desiccation of
Land and ai'idity of Climate, - - - 99

It is stated that the extensive destruction of grass and herbage and
trees in South Africa has been followed by drought (p 104); and
there are cited statements in regard to corresponding observations

Vi CONTENTS.

elsewhere by Marsh (p. 106) ; by Hooker (p. 108) ; by Schleiden
and Fries (p. 108) ; Fraas (p. 109) ; Becquerel (p. 110) ; Laurent,
&c. (p. Ill); Humboldt (p. 112); Boussingault (p. 113) ; and
Hough (p. 115).

Section III. — Gases in xoMch the Destruction of Trees have been
folloiced hy desiccation ; and the j^lanting of Trees has been
followed hy the restoration of humidity, - - 117

St. Helena fp. 117) and the Mauritius (p. 124) are adduced as cases
in which the destruction of trees has been followed by desiccation ;
and the replanting of trees with restoration of humidity. The
Island of Ascension is brought forward as a case in which the
absence of trees was accompanied by aridity, and the planting of
trees was followed by humidity (p. 128) ; the measures adopted are
detailed (p. 134) ; and the successful results are reported (p. 141).

Section IV. — Cases illustrative of Effects of Forests on

Humidity corresponding to such as have been addxiced, - 144
Accounts are given of climatal changes on the Island of Madeira
(p. 144) ; and reference is made to alleged changes in Alexandria
and in Egypt '^p. 146^; South Africa (p. 148); South America, &c.
(p. U9).

Chapter V. — Local Effects of Forests on the Rainfall and on

Rivers, ...... 150

Section I. — On the introduction of Rain, - - - 151

The production of rain is traced to the deposit of moisture in excess
of what can be retained at a reduced temperature by air by which
it had been absorbed ; and in view of this there is detailed the rise
of the Trade Winds (p. 151), the course of currents of air from
the polar to the equatorial regions, and their return thither deposit-
ing moisture absorbed while proceeding toward the equator (p. 152).
Reference is made to the quantity which must have been so absorbed
(p. 153). The production of clouds by eddies and whirlwinds is
described (p. 156) ; and the production of rain as detailed by Sir
John Herschel (p. 158).

Section II. — The Effects of Forests on the quantity of the Local

Rainfall, - - - - - - 159

There are brought forward the views of Boussingault and Becquerel
that forests increase the Iccal rainfall (p. 159). Observations by
Mr Draper are again brought forward, but with them an illustration
of the effect of forests by Coultas (p. 160) ; and statements of the
viesvs of Marsh and the observations of Mathieu in accordance with
the views of Boussingault (p. 161); with remarks on the same by
M. Cezanne (p. 162).

CONTENTS.

vii

Section III. — -Effscts of Forests and of the Destriictio)i of

Forests on Rivers and Streams, - - - 165

Cases are cited from America North and South (p. 166), from France
(p. 167), from Germany and from the Cape of Good Hope (p. 172) ;
illustrative of the flow of streams and rivers varying with the exist-
ence and destruction of forests. A resume is given of a treatise by
Herr Wex on the diminution of water in springs and rivers, with
augmentation of floods (p. 175) ; with reports on the same by the
Academy of Science of Vienna (p. 199), and by the Academy of
Science of St. Petersburg (p. 203) ; and a resume of observations
reported by Dr Ernst Ebermayer (p. 204).

Section IV. — Immediate Effects of Trees in Arresting the Flow

and Escape of Rainfall, - - - - 212

There are cited objections to the views of M. Becquerel in regard to
the effects of trees advanced by Marshal Vaillant (p. 212) ; but
with these, observations reported by M. Coute-Grand Champs, and
M. d'Arboise de Jubainiville (p. 214), by Mr Marsh and by M. Jules.
Clave (p. 216), showing that trees have the effect of arresting the
flow and escape of the rainfall ; observations by Mr Marschand on
the increased hydroscopicity, capillarity, and permeability of soil
occasioned by the growth of trees (p. 217); and additional
illustrations of the same supplied by Cezanne (p. 221), by
d'Hericourt, and by Marsh (p. 223).

Section V. — -Secondary Effects of Trees in Arresting the Flow
and Escape of the. Rainfall, and thus Equalising to some
extent the Flow of Rivers, .... 225

The secondary effects of trees in arresting the flow and escape of the
rainfall, and thus equalising to some extent the flow of rivers, are
illustrated by reference to the effect of floods in washing away
earth, and sometimes covering fertile land with infertile earth, in
connection with which are cited statements by Marsh in regard to
these effects (p. 226) ; and statements by Surell in regard to the
prevention of them by the growth of trees (p. 237) ; statements by
Cezanne in regard to natural arrest of torrents by forests (p. 242) ;
and by Costa de Bastelica on the effect of trees in increasing the
humidity of the soil and consequent drainage of water to subter-
ranean reservoirs (p. 244) ; of Marchand on the occasion of storms
in the Alps (p. 249) ; with a historical narration of the application
of reboisement to arrest and prevent the effects of such storms
(p. 251).

Chapter VI, — On the correspondence between the distribution of

the Rainfcdl and of Forests, . - - - 265

There is stated the course to be followed in this discussion (p. 255).

Viii CONTENTS.

Section I. — On the Measure of Correspondence bettveen the

D^istribiction of the Rainfall and that of Forests, - 256

This is illustrated from statements by Dr Brandis ia regard to India
(p, 256), by Mr Maclaren in regard to America (p. 259), by a ccm-
parison of report on the rainfall in North America, issued by the
Smithsonian Institution (p. 262), with the account of the forests
of North America given by M. Marny (p. 264) ; and a statement
in regard to the destruction of forests in South Africa (p. 269).

Section II. — On the Distribution of the Rainfall dependent on
Geographical Position, being determined by the Contour of
a Comitry, - - - - - -271

An illustration of the distribution of the rainfall being affected by the
altitude of a country is given in the effects of a wind-virave which
passed over Europe in September 1S66 (p. 272) ; with an illustra-
tion of the same operation in the production of a " mackerel sky" ;
and of the Table Cloth on Table Mountain (p. 273). Which are
followed by an exposition by Cezanne of his doctrine that it is
determined in a great measure by the rapidity with which the
atmospheric current rises (p. 27i) ; and illustrations of this being
the case supplied by Raulin (p. 280).

Section III. — On the Distribution of Forests Affected by the

Distribution of the Rainfall, - - - - 283

There is cited a statement by Marsh relative to a tendency manifested
by ligneous vegetables to secure the universal occupancy of land
(p. 283). The operation of laws regulating the dispersion of
vegetables is illustrated (p. 286) ; and the operation of those on the
dispersion of trees is seen to depend in part upon the rainfall
(p. 289).

Section IV. — On the Local Effects of Forests on the Distribu-
tion of the Rainfall ivithin the Forest District, - - 293
The general effect of forests is shown to be to retard the flow of the
rain-water precipitated (293), and so in prehistoric times to have
converted torrents into peaceful streams (294), while the same effect
is shown to be produced by them still (p. 295). There are cited
observations adduced to prove that apparently they influence some-
what the quantity of the rainfall and the local distribution of it over
the year (p. 299) ; and the reconciliation of conflicting observations
and opinions (p. 302) is shown to be possible (p. 303).

Conclusion, . . . . . 307

Lately Published,

REBOISEMENT IN FRANCE:

Or Records of the Replanting of the Alps, the Cevennes, and
the Pyrenees with Trees, Herbage, and Bush,

WITH A VIEW TO AfiEESTING AND PaEVENTING THE DESTEUCnVE COiJSEQDEXCSS AND
EFFECTS OF TOKRENTS.

COMPILED BY JOflN CROUMBIE BROWN, LLD.,

F'ormeiiy Gcyoernment Botanist at the Cape of Good Hope, and Professor of Botany in
the S'/ii.th African College, Capetovm, Henarary Vice-President of tlie African
Institute of Pans, Fellow of the Eoyo.l Geographical Society, Fellov: of the
ZiiTmecvii Society, ct-c.

LONDON: HENRY S. KING & Co.

CONTENTS AND ARGUMENT.

PiGE.

Preface, ........ 1

In this i3 stated the exigence existing in the Cape of Good Hope, and by inference
existing elsewhere, for the adoption of measures similar to what have been
adopted in France to avert tlie destructive effects of floods and inundations

(p. 1;.

Inteoductiox, ....... 7

llie application of the terms rehoisement and gazonnenient is stated ; illustrations
of the evils which the operations so designated have been employed to remedy
are given in citations descriptive of Devoluy and other places in the High
Alps (p. 7) ; and in further illustration of the same there are cited cor-
responding cases from Abyssinia, India, Switzerland, and Italy (p. 11); an
account is given of the foihn, the wind occasioning the torrents of the Alps
(p. 13).

PART I. — Resum^ of Surell's Study of Alpixe Torrexts, . 1.5

States the position assigned to Surell's work (p, 15).

Section I. — The Pheiwrnena of Alpine Torrents, . . .15

Gives the di.^tingnishing characteristics of rivers, of torrential rivers, of torrents,
and of mountain streams ; of different classes of torrents, of glacier torrents,
and of torrents blanc (p. 15) ; detailed information is given in regard to the
beds of torrents, and the continuation of these in the ravines of the mountains,
and in regard to the thalwey or inclination of the valleys, and to the operation of
flowing water in the formation of these (p. 17); in regard to Bassins de re-
ception, or basins drained by torrents (p, 21); to Canaux d'ecouleraent, or water-
courses ; to Lits de dejection, or beds of deposit (p. 23) ; and in regard to
torrential fleods of water ; to the occasion of these, and to the avalanche-like
effects produced by them (p. 25).

Section II. — JVatural Hisiort/ of Alpine Torrents, . . .30

It is stated that there may be seen in the Alps old bfids of torrential deposit
covered with vegetation of many years growth, wliich proves that the torrKnts
forming them have long ceased to flow ; and that such may be seen in various
stages of advancement, indicating different periods of extinction of torrents of
a former day (p. 30) ; that in view of these and other facts observed, the his-
tory of a torrent may be considered as marked by three periods — that of the
creation of the curve of the bed, that of the deepening and enlarging of this, buc
with the course inconstant, and that with this stable and fixed, — followed in the
cases referred to by the extinction of the torrent (p. 33) ; tliat many torrents
have originated from mountains, or mountain sides, having been denuded •
by the clearing away of forests ; and that they have owed their development
to the combined operation of deluges of rain (d. 34), the nature of the soil, and
the consequent contour of the country(p. 36)— the latter an effect as really as a
cause of the flood (p. 38).

ii CONTEXTS.

Section III. — Hemedial Appliances to prevent the Destructive Conse-
quences of Torrents, . . . . . .41

What were sought to he prevented were inundations, the washing away of lands,
and the ruin of fertile fields by the deposit on them of the detritus washed
away (p. 41). Embankments were employed to prevent inundations, but
without success (p. -44). The other evils were not less serious, of which illus-
trations are given, and the remedies at first employed were retaining walls,
palisades, wears of varied structure, and coffers, but the evils still prevailed
(p. 4o). It having been observed by M. Surell that the origin of many
torrents might be traced to the destruction of forests, and that the extinction
of torrents was attributable to tlie extension of forest (p. 46), he laid do^vn as
established facts — (1) that the existence of a forest on a soil prevents the for-
mation of a torrent there, and v"2) that the destruction of forests leaves the soil
subject to become the prey of a torrent ; and he recommended, (p. M), as
appropriate remedies for tlie evils experienced, extensive properly directed
plantation of trees, the exclusion of cattle from properly selected spots to allow
of the growth on these of herbage and bush, and in subordination to the
carrying out of these measures such artificial structures of defence as might be
called for,— which measures are detailed.

PAET II. — Literature relath-e to Alpine Torrents, and Re-
medial ^Measures proposed for adoption to prevent the

DISASTROUS consequences FOLLOWING FROM THEM, . . 55

Contains notices of treatises and proposals by Fabre, 1759 (p. 5b) ; Lecreulx, 1804
(p. o9) : Hericart de Thury, 1806 (p. 59) ; Ladoucette, 1834 (p. 60) ; Dugied
(p. 60), ScKELL (p. 65). Delafout (p. 66), Jousse de Fontaniere (p. 66), Labecke
(p. 67), Chevalier (p. 69), Blanqui (p. 70), Bonville (p. 7>), Belgrand (p. 73),
Valles (p. 74), Pelbergue-Cormont (p. 75). Kozet (p. 78), Scipion Gras (p. 79),
Breton p. 82), Culmann (p. 84), Hevtie des Deux Mondes (p. 91), Marschand, who
treats of the hydroscopicity, capillarity, permeability, and impermeability of
soil (p. 94), Cf'zanne, in a .supplement to Etude des Torrents by Surell, with
notices of phenomena referred hy him to what he calls a torrential era
following the glacial period in pre-Adamite times (p. 101); Costa de Bastelica,
who treats of what he designates Torrentiality, or torrential phenomena, in
contradistinction to the tlow of limpid water, and alleges that by this may
phenomena referred by Cezanne to glacial action be accounted for (p. lU);
explains the phenomena of stones bounding in advance of a torrent wave
(p. 117) ; discusses the extinction of torrents by boisement (p. 118); hy gaxonm-
ment (p. 1"21); and hy bamigcs (p. 123) ; treats of Colmatage or warpage in
connection with these, and applies his views of torrentiality to account for
geological phenomena (p. 127). And there is given a list of other works on the
subject in French (p. 129), in German (p. 132), and in Italian (p. 133), and
quotations from works in English by Marsh (p. 134), Arthur Young (p. 136),
and Duile (p. 136).

PAET III. — Legislative and Executive Measures t.\ken by the
Government in France, in connection with Reboisement
AS A remedial application against DESTRucTm; Torrents, . 137

In the 14th century edicts were issued and other means were employed to arrest
the destruction of forests, as a means of arresting the destruction which was
being -wTought by torrents. These are referred to and there are given trans-
lations of the text and of copious extracts from the Act-Decree of the 4tk
Thtrmidor an XIII. relative to the torrents of the department of the High
Alps (p. 138) : Act of 16th September 1806, and law of 16th September 1807,
relative to the execution of works required to prevent destrnctive effects of
such torrents (p 140).

The State of matters about the time of the publication of M. Surell's work, and for
some years thereafter, till the destructive inundations in 1856 led to the issue
of a letter from the late Emperor Napoleon, desiring attention to be given to
the cause or occasion of such inundations, with a view to the employment of
appropriate remedies (p. 147) ; and there are given translations in whole of (1)
the Eeport given in reply to the Emperor by the Minister of Finance, pub-
lished 3rd February 1860 (p. 147) : (2; Law founded thereon, promulgated on
2Sth July 1860 (p. 152) ; (3) Circular in relation thereto, addressed to Con-
servators of forests by the Director-General of the Forest Administration on
17th August 1860 (p. 154) ; (4) Decree embodying the Statute of the Public
Administration for the enforcement of the said laws issued 27th April 1861 ;

CONTENTS. iii

(5) Circular addressed to Conservators of forest by the Director General of the
Forest Administration communicating explanations of said decree, issued 1st
June 1861 (p. 163).

Translations in whole or in part are given of (1) Eesum^ of First Annual Conference
of Agents employed, instituted by Ministerial decision of 21st November
1861, and held on the 9th, 10th, and 11th December, at Valance for the
region of the Alps, at Aurillac for the region of mountains in central France,
and at Tarbes for the region of the Pyrenees (p. 171); (2) Keport for 1861
(p. 180) ; (3) Eesumd of the Second of the Annual Conferences of forest
agents specially charged with the replanting of mountains with woods in the
different districts of France, instituted by Ministerial decision of 21st Nov.
1861; held on 8th September 1862, and days following, at Clermont Fer-
rand for the region of the mountains of central France ; at the same date, at
Carpentras for the region of the Alps; and on 15th Sep. and days following, at
Foix for the region of the Pyrenees (p. 181) ; (1) Report for 1862 (p. 200) ; (5)
Report for 1863 (p. 203) ; (6) Report for 1864 (p. 206) ; (7) Report for 1865-66;
(8) Report for 1807-68.

To meet ditSculties arising out of popular opposition to the operations, a mixed com-
mission was appointed to carry out in combination this law and a land-improve-
ment act which had been passed at the same time, under the title Loi du 28
juillet 1860, relative a la mise en valeur des Marais et des Terres inculfes appar-
tenantaiix Communes; but this measure having failed to meet the case (p. •208),
additional legislation was required; and there are given translations of (1) Expose
des Motifs, or reasons assigned for the legislation (p. 209) ; (2) The Supple-
mentary Law of 8th June 1864, completing in regard to qazovnement the law of
28th July, in regard to the retoiscwew^ of the mountains (p. 2 15); and (3) The Decree
embodying the regulations of the Public Administration of the two laws of the
28th July 18G0 and the 8th June 1861, in regard to the rehoisemcnt and rjazonne-
ment of the mountains (p. 216). In 1865 this law came into operation, and
there is reported what was done in the years 1865 and 186G (p. 223), Some
delay had occurred in the opening of this report, and the Administration was
enabled to embody in this a report of the success of the operation, as tested by
extensive inundations which occurred in the autumn of 1866 (p. 224) ; and a
report on the diifei-ence between the expense of the works of reboisement and
works oi gazonnement, and the cause or occasion of this difference (p. 239). In
August 1866 there was issued by the Director-General of the Adminis-
tration of Forests a circular containing instructions and directions in regard to
all matters pertaining to the work (p, 231). And with the report of operations
in the years 1867 and 18G8 was given a tabulated statement of the areas upon
which operations had been carried out in the several years which had elapsed
from the publication of the law of 28th July 1860, with a statement of the
expenditure involved (p. 231)

PART IV. — Past, Present, and Prospective Aspects of the Work, 234

Chap. I. — Past History of Alpine Torrents, . . . 234

Information supplementary to what had been given in connection with the con-
sideration of the literature of this subject is supplied in regard to the views of
Marsh (p. 235), of Marschand (p. 236), and Gras (p. 237) in regard to the past
history of torrents in France.
Chap. II. — Existing Forests, ..... 238

There is cited the testimony of Becquerel in regard to the extent of existing
forests in France, and of Marschand in regard to the position of forests in the
mountain ranges (p. 238).

Chap. III. — Laivs Regulating the Reboisement Effected and Meas^tres

Adopted, . . . . . . .239

There is cited an abortive law submitted to the Chamber of Deputies in the Session
of 1847, and in connection with a reference to the cause of its failure to effect
anything is stated wherein the law of 1860 differed from it (p. 240) ;
and there are enumerated and described the kinds of works by which the object
of this law had been accomplished during the first decade of the operations
carried on (p. 241).
Chap. IV. — Devastations occasioned hy Torrents which it was sought to

Arrest and Prevent, and Measures employed, . . . 242

Details are given to show, as was subsequently seen by ihe population of the moim-
taius, that in the operations carried on they had a beneficiary interest as real as
that of inhabitants of the valleys and of the plains, for which they considered
that their interests were being sacrificed (p. 242) ; a brief but detailed descrip-
tion of the measures employed is given (p. 249); and of the kinds of trees and
bushes made use of in different situations (p. 254), and different localities (p. 256).

iv CONTENTS.

Chap. V. — Devastations and Restorations, . . . . 257

la this chapter are given detailed information in regard to the work being carried
on in different localities within the first decade, showing what was undertaken
and what had been effected in different departments of France, embracing the
following :—

Skct. I.— The High Alps, . . . . . .257

There is given the description of the state of devastation which moved Surell to act
(p. 258), cited by the Director-General of the Forest Administration, with
details of what had been effected in remedying the evil, given by M. Gentil
iu a report to CoiiseU General des Hautes A'pes in 1869 (p. 259), and a corres-
ponding report given in 1868 by a commission appomted hy that body (p. 260);
and this is followed by details of what had been the state of the valley of the
Durance (p, 261), and of what had been done (p. 264), and with what
results (p. 265).

Sect. II. — Department of the Isere, .... 267

There is given an account of Dauphiny and Provence by Marsh, based on a work
by Charles de Ribbe (p. 267), and detailed information of what had been done
iu the perimetre of the Bourg-d'Oisans (p. 268).
Sect. III. — Department of the Drome, .... 271

Tills department was formerly included in the Independent State of Dauphiny.
There is detailed what had been done in the perimetre of Luc in the arrondisse -
ment of Die (p 271).

Sect. IN ,— The Lower Alps, . . . . .272

Details are given of what had been done in the perimetre of Labouret in the
arrondissement of Digne (p. 272), and notices of what had been effected by
Jourdan, a simple forest warder (p. 274).

Sect. V. — Department of the Ardeche in Central France, . . 275

Information in regard to this district is supplied in the words of M. Marsh, founded
on statements by M. Mardigny (p. 275), and corresponding information supplied
by M. Ce'zanne (p. 278).
Sect. VI. — Dejmrtment of the Gard, . ... . 279

Details are given of works undertaken and executed in the p^rimbtre of Ponteils
(p. 279).

Sect. VII. — Department of Lozere, ..... 280
The sad condition of the district, and the benefits of boisenient are described as de-
scribed by the prefect of Lozfere (p. 280).

Sect. VIII. — Department of the Loire and of Haute Loire, . . 283

The practicability of improving the.basin of the Loire by boisement, as described
by M. Cezanne (p. 283).

Sect. IX. — Department of Heraidt, .... 284

Details are given of works executed iu the pc^rimfetre of Riols (p. 284).

Sect. X. — The Pyrenees, . . . . . .285

The French Pyrenees are described by Weld (p. 285-291), and there is reported the
rehoisement in pi^rimfetre of Bareges (p. 297).

Sect. XI. — Department of VAude, ..... 307
Details are given of operations in the perimfetre of I'Argente-Double (p. 307).

Chap. VI. — Local Feeling and Public Op>inion in regard to Rehoise-
ment, . . . . . . . 311

There is given information in regard to proceedings in different sessions of the
Conseil Gdn^ral of the High Alps (p. 312), to change of tone after 1865 (p. 313),
to testimony of M. Sequinard, Conservator of Forests in the district (p. 314),
to testimony of commissioners appointed by the Conseil G^n^ral (p. 316), to
proceedings in the Conseil Gen^raux of other departments (p. 317), to testimony
of M. Fare, Director General of the Administration of Forests (p. 318), and of
the National Assembly (p. 319).

Chap. VII. — Present Position and Prospects of the Enterprise, . 320

There are cited anticipations by M. Surell (p. 321), description of the present by
M. Cezanne (p. 323), and details by M. Gentil of what has been effected (p. 324).

Conclusion, ....... 328

There is given an account of the inundation of Toulouse (p 329), and of Hankey
(p. 337), and Port Elizabeth in South Africa, as illustrative of a phase of tor-
rents, common to many lands, which rehoisement may meet, and the first men-
tioned, the inundation of Toulouse, is studied in the light of what has been
effected (p. 339).

Lately Published.

WATER SUPPLY OF SOUTH AFRICA,

AND

FACILITIES FOR THE STORAGE OF IT.

COMPILED BY

JOHN CROUMBIE BROWN, LL.D.,

Formerly Government Botanist at the Cape of Good Hope, and Professor of
Botany in the South African College, Capetoion, Fellow of the Royal
Geographical Society, Fellow of the Linnean Society, and Honorary Vice-
President of the African Institute of Paris, etc.

EDINBURGH:

OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.

LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.

1877.

PREFACE

Appended to the Report of the Colonial Botanist at the Cape of
Good Hope for 1866 was an abstract of a Memoir prepared on the
Hydrology of South Africa, which has since been embodied in a
volume which has been published on that subject, and an abstract
of a Memoir prepared on Irrigation and its application to agricul-
tural operations in South Africa, which embraced a Report on the
Water Supply of the Colony — its sources, its quantity, the modes
of irrigation required in diflferent circumstances, the facilities for
the adoption of these in different districts, and the difficulties,
physical and other, in the way of works of extensive irrigation
being carried out there, and the means of accomplishing these
which are at command.

U PREFACE.

In the following volume is embodied that portion of the Memoir
which related to the Water Supply, and the existing facilities for
the storage of this, with reports relative to this which were sub-
sequently received, and similar information in regard to lands
beyond the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, which it has been
sought to connect with the Colony by federation, or otherwise ;
and the information relative to irrigation has been transferred to
a Report on the Rivers of the Colony, and the means of control-
ling floods, of preventing inundations, of regulating the flow of
rivers, and utilising the water by irrigation or otherwise.

In the series of volumes to which this belongs its place is im-
mediately after that on the " Hydrology of South Africa," which
contains details of the former hydrographic condition of the Cape
of Good Hope, and of causes of its present aridity, with suggestions
of appropriate remedies for this aridity. And it has been prepared
to show that, not in a vague and general use of the terms, but in
strict accordance with the statement, the severe, protracted, and
extensive droughts, and destnictive floods and inundations, recoi'ded
in the former volume, find their counterpart in constantly alter-
nating droughts and deluges in every district of the Colony, — and
that, in every so-called division of it, notwithstanding the deluges,
there were protracted snfierings from drought, and, notwithstanding
the aridity, there was a supply of water at command, with existing
facilities for the storage of the superabundant supply which at pre-
sent proves productive of more evil than good.

Occasion has been taken to show that the statements are advanced
in full view of all that relates to the case ; occasion has been taken
to show that crime, and more especially sheep-stealing, increases
with drought, and decreases with an abundant or moderate water
supply ; and when occasion presented itself for supplying informa-
tion in regard to the local character of the coloured population
this has been done, in the knowledge that this is an important
element in the estimate to be formed of the expediency or inex-
pediency of adopting expensive measures to store up the water
supply in some important districts.

Haddington, IstJOctober, 1877.

CONTENTS AND ARGUMENT.

FAGE.

Preface, --..... v

Introduction, ------ 1

States the primary and secondary causes of the aridity of South
Africa to be the draining off of the rainfall and the promotion
of evaporation by the destruction of trees and herbage (p. 1) ;
cites pecuniary losses by floods, amounting to hundreds of
thousands of pounds (p. 2) ; gives a succinct statement of
what has been effected in China towards preventing such
waste (p. 3) ; and alleges that much might be done towards
preventing such waste in South Africa (p. 8).

PART I. — Meteorological Observations, - - 10

Chapter I. — The Hiimidity of the Air, and Rainfall, - 10

Shows that local observations of these do not supply all the infor-
mation required (p, 10). Records of observations of rainfall
are given (p. 11) ; and reference is made to conditions by which
the rainfall may be influenced (p. 16). Eecords of local obser-
vations on the humidity of the atmosphere, with a statement
of reasons for attaching more importance to this (p. 19). It is
shown that the rainfall is determined by humidity and temper-
ature (p. 23) ; and the relation of it to barometric pressure is
explained (p. 25) ; with a tabulated statement of observations
on these in different parts of South Africa and elsewhere in the
Southern Hemisphere (p. 30).

Chapter II. — Clouds, - - - - - 31

Dr Button's theory of clouds is given (p. 31), with remarks by Dr
Dalton and others (p. 33), by Howard and Kirwan (p. 35). A
tabulated statement of observations on the extent of cloudy
sky at the Cape (p. 39) is followed by explanatory statements
(p. 40), by Ruskin's description of clouds in general (p. 41),
accounts of cloud phenomena at the Cape (p. 43), and of similar

iT OONTIWTS.

phenomena observed elsewhere (p. 45) ; Sir John Herschel's
description of clouds, according to the generally accepted classi-
fication of clouds by Howard, is given (p. 41) ; and this is
followed by Ruskin's description of the blue sky (p. 49), and
clouds of the upper region, the Cirrus (p. 53), and Sir William
Thomson's theory relative to the formation of these (p. 59) ;
Ruskin's description of clouds of the central region, the Cumulus
(p. 60), and of those of the lower region, the Rain Cloud (p. 66).
Information is given in regard to reeking ground (p. 71).

Chapter III. — Winds, - - • - - 72

Reference is made to the connection between wind and rain (p. 72),
to rains being produced by different winds in different localities
(p. 75), and tabulated statements of observations on the wind
at the Cape (p. 77), followed by a description of the Hemi-
spherical Cup Anemometer (p. SO), and directions in regard to
the position desireable for such instruments (p. 81).

Chapter IV. — Thunder-Storms, - - - - 83

The connection between thunder and rain is explained (p. 83), and
tabulated statements of observations made at the Cape are
given (p. 87).

Chapter V. — Tahidated Abstracts of Extensive and Long-
Continued Meteorological Observations, - - 89
The history of these is given (p. 89), with a description of the most
improved rain-guage, employed in the Meteorological Observa-
tory in the Central Park, New York (p. 92), descriptions of
hygrometers (p. 94), of thermometers (p. 97), of the barometer
(p. 99), and tabulated observations (p. 104).

PART II. — Sources from which is Derived the Supply
OP Water which is at present Available for Agri-
cultural Operations, etc., in the Colony op the
Cape op Good Hope and regions beyond, - - 109

Chapter L — Suppli/ of Moisture in the Atmosphere, - - 110

Illustrations of the deposit of moisture from dry air are given
(p. 110), with statements of the comparative quantity, and of
the greatness of the absolute quantity, of vapour in the atmo-
sphere (p. 112), any portion of which may be employed in
the promotion of vegetation (p. 114).

Chapter II. — Sup>ply of Water Afforded by the Rainfall, - 116
It is intimated that the rainfall is an infinitesimally small portion of
the moisture in the atmosphere (p. 116); but the quantity is
great, and can be approximately ascertained (p. 117), and of
this illustrations are given (p. 118).

CONTENTS. T

Chapter III. — Supply of Moisture as Affected hy Rivers, - 121

It is stated that rivers operate primarily as drains rather than as
sources of supply, but the water carried off by them may be
arrested and utilised (p. 121). A Cape river is described
(p. 122), and the quantity of water drained off by such rivers
is referred to (p. 123).

Chapter IV. — Supply of Moisture as Affected by Fountains, - 130

It is shown that, as in the case of rivers, it is only a portion of the
rainfall elsewhere which is thus brought into a district (p. 130).
The connection of this with geological phenomena is enlarged
upon (p. 131). In illustration of what has been observed in
connection with a subterranean river flowing in the Mooi River
in the Transvaal Territory, there is described Weyer's Cave,
near Lexington, in Virginia (p. 135), and the like appearance
presented by the cave at Wonder-Fontein (p. 140), and the
Cango Caverns, near Oudtshoom (p. 141). Attention is called
to the characteristics of such caverns in Limestone formations
(p. 145), to the description of limestone rocks given by Ruskin
(p. 146), and of caves in Limestone rocks by Mr Boyd Dawkins
(p. 147). There are cited cases of salt-pans in South Africa
(p. 148), subterranean rivers in South Africa, in Yorkshire,
and in Ireland (p. 149) ; with detailed accounts of researches
in the Ingleborough Cave (p. 153), and Hellen Pot (p. 156) ; a
description of the time occupied in the formation of stalactites
and stalagmites, and the quantities of water thus lost (p. 161),
and of the quantities of water brought by fountains into a
district (p. 164).

Chapter V. — Supply of Moisture from Subterranean Streams

and Reservoirs, - - -._ . -165

These are described as similar to fountains in their source (p. 165).
A few indications of subterranean streams in South Africa are
given (p. 167), with a reference to the number of such pointed
out at the Cape Colony by jVIr Kohl, the professional water-
finder (p. 169), and the opening up of "eyes" in Italy is
described (p. 172).

Chapter VI. — Stipply of Moisture in the Sea, - - 176

The sea is referred to as being generally considered the primary
source of aU water ; but there is raised the question — Whence
came the sea? (p. 176). There is cited the cosmogony of the
Hebrews (p. 176), and the view advanced by modern astronomy
in connection with the study of the phenomena presented by
Jupiter (p. 177), Saturn and others of the planets (p. ISO), and
the accordance of the two is referred to (p. 188) ; while the
atmosphere is shown to be the source of the sea (p. 189). The
magnitude of the ocean reservoir, and its contents, is given

COSriKSTS.

Oupm TIL— Afply flf r«fa

Uk tf Mmm, mUdi is m[ ammmmd, - 194

B is ibwm to k. a Smtk A&ia ad ckev^Bte, odbf tkii poKtan

totteaa<^19Q.

- ~ far ike

-» V » 1 ^ -' U -»■ . 'i 3 ■- • iAC 'w

1 .--.-- 196

r fhe ailffy Mt a EiOe Mj be daw lij

—-^-^a of loEesiB (pu 19S), and liy ^rit-

.r: oc zrras ia Saod aaek ^easBRB

- 7 rzoBoe, JBrd teBtiao^ to the

a IST), aad tesBBKBj to &e

' : siaage(p. 19^

71 — ' ' * for ^ Sbmge

:^sM €f fke Cdomjf

7—7 -» •^ae C^e

- : ^p. 2101, m ISB (PL 213). Ifajuiuk at Sea Fan*
to iaiB a &Bfc a^ vi^BbUe ^Bdoi A
^219). rwil iiilirf»aatet|L2gg»aadaf
(PL233). l^i^Tlj a* vmmmamA. (pt 227), aa*
(PL329I. Tilwlrtrd ftrnmheir
afc Ss^ OhaBvatarf (PL 2aS), aft W^akag <pu 23%
faT»«m^23Q.

'O.—JJUmmm i/ffilaiiiil ^ tfe i^a«^ mmi Urn

fteBMd,Di MliBriiia, ReaABoc^
(PL 2i^ and Sodas ^ 2391. Tdabtod
MeaetWe^(p.9e).

aft
(p.2i6).

COyrENTS. TD

ClanwiUiam (p. 249), report on the capabilitiea of the Olifant'a
Eiver, by ilr Fletcher (p. 254), and remarks on the same
(p. 259). Notices of the population (p. 262). Later reports by
the Civil Conmiiasioner (p. 269). Reports from Xamaqnaland
by Mr Bain (p. 270), and by the Surveyor-General and others
(p. 274), and later reports by the Civil Commissioner (p. 2S6).
Tabulated meteorological observations at Concordia (p. 2S9).
Notices 01 the population (p. 290) ; notices of Great Xamaqua-
land by Dr Moffat (p. 295), and Mr TyndaU (p. 299). Notices
of the Kalahari by ilr Fox Wilson (p. 305), by 'SLc Galton and
others (p. 310), and of the population by Dr Mofiat'(p. 315) and
by Dr Livingstone (p. 31S), and contrast of appearance pre-
sented by Ovampoland, lying between the Kalahari and the
sea (p. 320).

Chapteb III. — Supply of Water, and Facilities for the Storage
of it, in the Inland Western Divisions of the Colony of the
Cape of Good Hope, - - - - - 321

Sectio:?? L — Dii'isioiui of Calvinia, Tulbagh, and Worcester —
Describes the region (p. 321) ; Eeports from Calvinia (p. 322), from
Tulbagh (p. 324). Reservoir at Noodgedacht (p. 325). Con-
tinuation of reports from Tulbagh (p. 32S). Reports from
"Worcester (p. 331). Water leadings from the Hex River
(p. 332), Goudine and Brand Tley (p. 334). Evidence by Mr
Munnik (p. 335). Continuation of reports from Worcester
(p. 342). Meteorological observations (pp. 345-348).

Sectios n. — Divisions of Beaufort, Fra^erhurg, and Victoria West —
Account of the district and of the Karroo (p. 349). Report from
Beaufort by ilr Kinnear (p. 352). Evidence by Mr Molteno
(p. 353). Formation of dam (p. 355). Continuation oi reports
from Beaufort (p. 360). Meteorological observations (p. 363).
Bushmanland (p. 364). Reports from Fraserburg (p. 365).
Sinking wells (p. 368). Reports from Victoria West (p. 373).

Sacnos HL — Divisions of Prince Albert and Oudtshoora —

Evidence in regard to Prince Albert by Mr Molteno (p. 377). Re-
ports from Prince Albert (p. 378). Account of the Karroo
(p. 381). Reports from Oudtshoom (p. 382). Evidence by Mr
Walter (p. 383). Letter on facilities for irrigation (p. 387).
Continuation of reports (p. 389). and report by Hydraulic
Engineer (p. 393).

Chapter IV. — Supply of Water, and Facilities for the Storage
of it, in IXvisions along the Sauth Coast of the Colony of
the Cape of Good Hope, ... 395

Section I. — Divisions of Caledon, Bredasdorp, avd SKelkndam —
Reports in regard to the division of Caledon (p. 395). Works at
Gnadenthal and Hemel-eu-Aarde in 1S23 ^>. 400). Reports in

Viii CONTENTS.

regard to division of Bredasdorp (p, 403). Meteorological
observations (pp. 407-408). Reports in regard to division of
Swellendam (p. 409).

Section II. — Divisions of Robertson, Riversdale, and Mossel Bay —
Reports in regard to Robertson (p. 412) — of a tour of observation
(p. 416) — and of a visit to Montagu, and district around it
(p. 418). Evidence by the Hon. J. Barry, M.L.C. (p. 422), by
Mr Woodifield, Assistant Commissioner of Roads (p. 423). Re-
ports by Civil Commissioner (p. 424). Reports in regard to
the division of Riversdale (p. 425). Meteorological obser-
vations at Amalienstein (pp. 432-433). R.eports in regard to
diAdsion of Mossel Bay (p. 433). Meteorological observations
(pp. 444-446).

Section III. — Divisions of George, Knysna, and Htimansdorp —
Reports in regard to division of George (p. 446). Reports in regard
to division of Knysna (p. 448). Account of capabilities of dis-
trict, by Mr C. L. Stretch (p. 452). Reports in regard to the
division of Humansdorp (p. 454).

Chapter V. — Supply of Water, and Facilities for the Storage
of it, in the South-Eastern Division of the Colony of the
Cape of Good Hope, - - - - - 461

Section I. — Divisions of Port Elizaheth, Uitenhage, and Alexandria —
Scheme of the Zwartkops Land Irrigation and Water-Works Com-
pany, for supply of Port Elizabeth (p. 461), and of supply from
Van Staden's River (p. 465). Reports in regard to division of
Port Elizabeth (p. 464). Meteorological tables (pp. 467-471).
Division of Uitenhage (p. 472). Hydraulic Works at Enon
(p. 473), and at Wheatlands (p. 475). Reports in regard to
division of Uitenhage (p. 476). Re^jorts in regard to district
of Jansensville (p. 478). Dam of Mr Hobson, at Ebenezer
(p. 482), and accounts of others (p. 483). Opinion expressed
by the Colonial Engineer (p. 486). Reiiorts in regard to division
of Alexandria (p. 487).

Section IT. — Divisions of Albany and Bathurst —
Reports in regard to division of Albany (p. 489). Observations by
Mr Kohl (p. 493). Reports of the division of Bathurst
(p. 496).

Section III. — Divisions of Victoria East, Peddie, King Williamstown,
and East London —
Reports in regard to division of Victoria East (p. 497). Reports in
regard to division of Peddie (p. 501). Notice of King Williams-
town (p. 503), and of East London (p. 504).

CONTENTS. IZ

Chapter VI. — Supply of Water, and existing Facilities for the
Storage of it, in Inland Eastern Division of the Colony of
the Cape of Good Hope, - - - - 505

Section I. — Divisions of Fort Beaufort and Stoclenstrom —
Reports in regard to Fort Beaiifort (p. 505). Evidence by Mr
Upton, M.L.A. (p. 506). Evidence by Mr Ziervogel, M.L.A.
(p. 508). Reports by Civil Commissioner (p. 508). Reports in
regard to division of Stockenstrom (p. 511).

Sectiok II. — Dinisions of Bedford and Somerset —
Reports in regard to division of Bedford (p. 511). Reports in regard
to di\4sion of Somerset (p. 522). Testimony of Mr Leonard
(p. 524). Notices in Somerset Courant (p. 525). Testimony of
the Rev. ^Mr Pears (j). 528). Reports by Civil Commissioner
(p. 531).

Section in. — Divisions of Cradoch and Queenstown —
Reports in regard to di^nsion of Cradock (p. 532). Notice of Mr
Kohl (p. 533). Reports by Civil Commissioner (p. 533). Report
in regard to Queenstown (p. 534).

Chapter VII. — Supply of Water, and existing Facilities for
the Storage of it, in Midland Divisions of the Colony of
the Cape of Good Sope, - - - - 538

Divisions of Gi-aaff-Beinet, Middlehurg, Murrayshiirg, and Richmond —
Reports in regard to division of Graaff-Reinet (p. 538). Evidence
by Mr Ziervogel, M.L.A. (p. 539). Notice of Mr Kohl (p. 548
and p. 550). Reports by Civil Commissioner (p. 548). Report
by Hydraulic Engineer (p. 552). Meteorological observations
(p. 553-555). Reports in regard to Middleburg (p. 555). Reports
in regard to Murraysburg (p. 559). Report in regard to Rich-
mond (p. 563).

Chapter VIII. — Supply of Water, and Facilities for the Stor-
age of it, in North-Eastern Divisions of the Colony of the
Cape of Good Hope, - - - - - 567

Divisions of Hopetown, Colesberg, Albert, Aliwal North, and District of
Wodehouse —
Testimony of Mr Wylie in regard to temperature near Hopetown
(p. 567). Reports by Civil Commissioner (p. 568). Reports in
regard to Colesberg (p. 570). Notice of iSlx Kohl (p. 575).
Reports (p. 576). Reports in regard to Albert (p. 582). Evi-
dence by Mr Ziervogel (p. 584). Reports (p. 586). Reports in
regard to Aliwal North (p. 586). Meteorological table (p. 591).
Reports in regard to district of Wodehouse (p, 592).

Z CONTENTS.

PART IV. — Supply of Water, and Facilities for Storage,
IN Colonised Lands adjacent to the Colony op the
Cape of Good Hope, - - 592

Chapter I. — Bamtoland, - - - - -592

Description of Basutoland (p. 592). Account, by Rev. M. Arbousset,
of the Mont anx Sources (p. 594) of the Caledon (p. 595), of the
Upper Orange River (p. 596), of the Namagari, or Vaal (p. 597
and p. 600), of the Putiatsana, or Saule (p. 59S), of Knening
and the Tlotse (p. 600), of the Lekua (p. 603), and of the Enta
(p. 604). Reports by the Governor's Agent (p. 606).

Chapter II. — The Orange River Free State, - 606

Description of the country (p. 606), and water supply (p. 607).

Chapter III. — Grriqualand West, - - - 608

Description of the country (p. 60S).

Chapter IV. — Transvaal Territory; . - . . 609

Description of the country (p. 609), and of the different districts of
it, by the Transvaal Agricultural Society (p. 610), by the Trans-
vaal Argus (p. 612), by Mr Chas. Jones (p. 613). Excerpt from
Report of Colonial Botanist for 1S66 (p. 614), and from volume
on "Hydrology of South Africa" (p. 615). Notices by Dr
Livingstone of regions beyond (p. 621).

Chapter V. — Zululand, and Inter-Colonial Region of Nomans-

land, ------- 623

Account of the district given by a writer in TJie Colonies (p. 623).

Chapter Yl.—A^atal, - . - - - 629

Description of country (p. 629). Meteorological tables (p.p. 631-636).

Chapter VII. — Transheian Territory, - - - 637

Description of the Transkei country (p. 637). Reports from East
London (p. 639). Reports from King Williamstown (p. 642).

Conclusion, ..--.. 647

to. this is stated the connection of the subject discussed with sub-
jects discussed in other volumes of the series ( p. 647 ), — the
views of a coUaborateur in the same field, advanced in 1861
{p. 649), — and what matters related thereto have still to be
discussed (p. 651).

INDEX TO AUTHORITIES CITED.

Anderson, page 320. Arbousset, 593.

Bache, 16. Backhouse, 615. Bailie, 235. Bain, 252, 270, 282. Baird
Smith, 169, 172. Baldwin, 311, Barry, 382, 422. Beaumont, 149.
Bell, 274, 279, 281. Bennet, 325. Berang6, 138. Berzelius, 192.
Betancourt, 26. Blake, 564. Blore, 14, 213, 217, 218. Borchards, 378.
Bougeur, 36. Bourne, 199. Bowker, 491. Boyd Dawkins, 145, 147,
150, 154, 160, 162. Boyes, 555. Brown, 368. Burnet, 586.

Calderwood, 497. Cameron, 211. Campbell, 381. Cape Argus, 222, 223,
225, 227, 230. Cape Monitor, 239, 649. Cezanne, 75. Cornhill Maga-
zine, 176, 191. Challenger, 189. Chapman, 148, 167, 617, 618. Chahners,
421. Chase, 472. Colesherg Advocate, 575. Tlie Colonies and India, 623.
Cox, 455. Cromar, 583.

Dalton, 26, 33. Davy, 369. Deakin, S7S. De Wet, 332. Davidson, 447.
Draper, 92, 98.

Eastern Province Herald, 461. Emmet, 511. Eyde, 501.

Farquharson. 219. Fichet, 448. Fitzroy, 80. Fletcher, 213, 254, 262, 278,
290. Ford, 253, 262, 283. Forster, 45. Fox Wilson, 305, 307. Free-
man, 141. Fritsch, 168.

Galileo, 100. Galton, 310. Gamble, 221, 364, 372, 376, 380, 393, 444, 552.
Gird, 240. Godman, 284. Ch-aaff-Reinet Herald, 550. Graham, 489.
GraTiamstoion Journal, 493, 495. Green, 580.

Haddy, 280, 312. Hall, 124, 201, 320, 321, 350, 381. Halbeck, 400. " Hand-
book of South Africa." Hamond, 467. Hardy, 281, 283. Hare, 237,
252. Haw, 395. Henderson, 560. Herschel, 46, 162. Hobson, 482,
484. Hoffineyer, 403. Howard, 29, 35. Hutton, 31.

Innes, 425. Jesner, 170. Jones, 613.

Kinnear, 352. Kennedy, 455. Kirwan, 35. Kohl, 170, 493, 533, 548, 560,
564, 575.

Le Brun, 412. Leitner, 400. Leonard, 524. Leppan, 491. Le Seur, 331,
414. Liddle, 618. Livingstone, 148, 168, 318, 420, 621.

Maclear, 13, 40, 89, 96, 118, 178. Malcolm, 454. Marsh, 11, 16, 17. Mas-
kew, 522. Matteucci, 193. May, 404. Meurant, 632. Moffat, 84, 295,
315, 615. Molendorf, 143. Molteno, 353, 357, 377. Munnik, 199, 324,
335. Murchison, 311. Murray, 134, 145, 615. Muschenbrook, 37.

XU INDEX.

Owen, 454. Parkes, 475. Pascal, 101. Pears, 528. Phillips, 153, 161.
Phillpott, 487. Pilkington, 461. Pinchin, 465. Pole, 454.

Rainier, 243. Reid and Mathieson, 135. Robinson, 486. Rubidge, 198,
239. Ruskin, 41, 49, 52, 66, 71, 146.

Saussure, 37, 95. Schmidt, 26. Schmitt, 473. Scholtz, 382. Schonnberg,
246. Shelley, 57. " Sltm-Kinj-Kin-Kein," 3. Smyth, 177. Solomon, 638.
Somerset Courant, 526, 527. South African Commercial Advertiser and,
Mail, 259, 261, 464, 476. Stretch, 452, Stringf allow, 505.

Tindall, 2S1, 290, 299, 313. Torricelli, 101. Transvaal Agricultural Society,
610. 2'ransvaal Argus, Q12. Truter, 322. T. W., 220, 260.

Upton, 50!). Van REG^^:vELD, 235. Van Breda, 403. Van Oudtshoom,
409. Vincent, 435, 437.

Wax, 3, 123. Wilmot, 490. Woodifield, 423. Wordsworth, 51, 56. Wylie,
567. ZiERVOGEL. 539, 584.

Meteorological Tables, 11, 15, 20, 21, 26, 30, 39, 77, 78, 79, 87, 88, 104,
105, 106, 107, 108, 118, 119, 232, 233, 234, 242, 246, 278, 289, 345, 346,
347, 348, 363, 407, 408, 431, 432, 433, 444, 445, 446, 467-471, 553-555,
591, 631-636.

BIBLIOTHECA CAPENSIS.

When Dr Brown was appointed Colonial Botanist at the Cape of
Good Hope he was informed that the office, originally established in
the year 1858, was created with the two-fold ohject — 1st, Of ascer-
taining and making generally known the economic resources of the
Colony as regards its indigenous vegetable productions, and its
fitness for the growth of valuable exotic trees and other plants ; and
2ud, Of perfecting our knowledge of the flora of South Africa, and
thus contributing to the advance of botanical science.

In prosecution of this two-fold object he has prepared reports on
the following subjects, some of which reports have been published,
and others are forthcoming as they may be required :

I. Hydrology of South Africa ; or, Details of the former Hydrographic
condition of the Cape of Good Hope, and of causes of its present aridity, with
suggestions of appropriate remedies for this aridity. — In which the desiccation
of Soutli Africa, from pre-Adamic times to the present day, is traced by indica-
tions supplied by geological formations, by the physical geography or general
contour of the countiy, and by arborescent productions in the interior, with
results confirmatory of the opinion that the appropriate remedies are irrigation,
arboriculture, and an improved forest economy : or the erection of dams to
prevent the escape of a portion of the rainfall to the sea, — the abandonment or
restriction of the burning of the herbage and bush in connection with pastoral
and agricultural operations, — the conservation and extension of existing forests,
— and the adoption of measures similar to the rehoisement and gazonnement
carried out in France, with a vaew to prevent the formation of torrents and the
destruction of property occasioned by them. — London : Henry S. King & Co.
1875.

II. Water Supply of South Africa, and facilities for the storage of it. — In
this volume are detailed meteorological observations on the humidity of the
air and the rainfall, on clouds, and winds, and thunder-storms ; sources from
which is derived the supply of moisture which is at present available for agri-
cultural operations in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope and regions
beyond, embracing the atmosphere, the rainfall, rivers, fountains, subterranean
streams and reservoirs, and the sea ; and the supply of water and facilities for
the storage of it in each of the divisions of the Colony in Basutoland, in the
Orange Eiver Free State, in Griqualand West, in the Transvaal Territory, in
Zululand, at Natal, and in the Transkei Territory. — Edinburgh : Oliver and
Boyd. London : Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. 1877.

///. Rivers of South Africa, ivitJi notices of inundations by which they are
character lied, and of irrigation works by which they might be utilised, and of
difficulties, physical and other, in the way of works of extensive irrigation being
carried out at the Cape, and the means of accomplishing these which are at
command.

rV. Reboisement in France ; or. Records of the re-planting of the Alps, the
Cevennes, and the Pyrenees with trees, herbage, and bush, with a view to
arresting and preventing the destructive consequences of torrents. — In which
are given, a resume of Surrel's study of Alpine torrents, and of the literature of
France relative to Alpine torrents, and remedial measures which have been
proposed for adoption to prevent the disastrous consequences following from
them, — translations of documents and enactments, showing what legislative
and executive measures have been taken by the Government of France in con-
nection with rehoisement as a remedial application against destructive torrents,
— and details in regard to the past, present, and prospective aspects of the
work. — London : Henry S. King & Co. 1876.

V. Forests and Moisture ; or, Effects of forests on humidity of climate. — In

which are given details of phenomena of vegetation on which the meteorological
effects of forests affecting the humidity of climate depend, — of the effects of
forests on the humidity of the atmosphere, on the humidity of the ground, on
marshes, on the moisture of a wide expanse of countrj^, on the local rainfall,
and on rivers, — and of the correspondence between the distribution of the rain-
fall and of forests, — the measure of correspondence between the distribution of
the rainfall and that of forests, — the distribution of the rainfall dependent on
geographical position, determined by the contour of a country, — the distribu-
tion of forests pffected by the distribution of the rainfall, — and the local effects
of forests on the distribution of the rainfall within the forest district. —
Edinburgh : Oliver & Boyd. London : Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. 1877.

VI. Chemistry of Verjetation, and consequent Meteorological effects of Forests
on the adaptation of the constituents of the atmosphere for the s2(pport of animal
life and producing saluhrious effects ; on the humidity and the temperature of the
atmosphere, and the reflex influence of these effects on each other ; and measures
adopted in different countries to secure these effects by tJie conservation and exten-
sion afforests.

VII. Arboriculture in South Africa; or. Facilities for the planting of trees
existing in different districts at the Cape oj Good Hope, ivith reports on the natural
history, cidtu7-e, and exploitation of the trees which have been recommended for
culture in the Colony.

VIII. Sand- Wastes of Europe ; or, RepoH on the arrest of drift sands and the
utilisation of sand plains by sylvicidture in France, Belgium, Germany, Russia,
Hungary, and other lands, ivith a view to showing the p)racticability of arresting
and utiiising drift sands and sand plai7is in South Africa ; with notices of the
natural history of sand : its composition ; its formation ; and its aggregation on
the shore, in dunes, in drifts, in sand-wastes, and in sand plains,

IX. Pine Plantations on Sand-Wastes in France. — In which are detailed the
appearances presented by the Landes of the Gironde before and after culture,
and the Landes of La Sologne ; the legislation and literature of France in
regard to the planting of the Landes with trees ; the characteristics of the
sand-wastes ; the natural history, culture, and exploitation of the maritime
pine and of the Scotch fir ; and the diseases and injurious influences to which
the maritime pine is subject. — Edinburgh : Oliver & Boyd. London : Simpkin,
Marshall, & Co.

X. Modern Forest Science and Forest Economy of Continental Europe; its
application to the management of forests in the East Indies ; and its applicability
to the management afforests at the Cape of Good Hope.

XI. Forest Laws and Forest Management in Great Britain.

XII. Fo7X'St Lands, Forest Trees, and Forest Treatment in South Africa.

XIII. Ferns, Gra-^ses, and Herbage of the Capie of Good Hope.

XIV. Agricidtural Capabilities of the Cape of Good Hope, and measures
adapted to promote the development of these.

Additional works by Dr Brown :

Translation of "Narrative of an Exploratory Toiir to the north-east of the
Colony of the Cape of Good Hope," by the Revs. T. Arbrousset and F. Daumas,
of the Paris Missionary Society. Second edition. London : J. C. Bishop.
1852.

The Schools of Forestry in Europe : a Plea for the creation of a School of
Forestry in Edinburgh. Edinburgh : Oliver & Boyd. 1877.

The School of Forestry in the Polytechnic School of Carlsruhe. The School
of Forestry in the Eoyal Wurtemburg Academy of Land and Forest Economy.
The School of Forestry in the Escurial of Spain. The School of Forestry at
Evois in Finland. Opinions of Continental Foresters and Professors of Forest
Science on the location of a School of Forestry. London : J. & W. Rider. 1877.

On Schools of ForestrJ^ Reprinted from Transactions of the Scottish Arbori-
cultural Society. Edinburgh : M'Farlane & Erskine. 1877.

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