THE PLANTING, CULTIVATION, AND EXPRESSION OF COCONUTS, KERNELS, CACAO AND EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS AND SEEDS OF COMMERCE. CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LTD., PUBLISHERS. In Medium 8vo. Cloth. Pp. iviii + 133. With many Tables. 78. 6d. net. AIDS IN THE COMMERCIAL ANALYSIS OF OILS, FATS, AND THEIR COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. A L.\I!()K.\TOUV HANDBOOK. By GEORGE FKXWICK PICKERIXG, Formerly Research Assistant to the Late Dr. Lewkowitscli. C'lNTKNT'-'.— Sampling: and Preparatiuii for Analysis.— Physical Properties —Chetni- cal Exuniinalion. Katty Oils. — Miscihle Castor, Boiled Oils, Blown Oils, etc. Chemical Examination : Sulphonated Oils, Neutral Kats, Foots, etc. — Fat Splitting and Distil- lation Products.— Olycorini'.— Resins.— llecovered Products and their Distillation Products. — Oils, Kats, and AVaxes of the British Pharmacopu;ia. — INDEX. "The volume Ik unique, .-iml should be in the library of everyone having to do with the analysiBof oils ami tali.'— Ion mat u/ Indtialritil Engineering and Chfinittry. Skconu Edition. In liarge 8vo. Cloth. With 800 pages and 154 Illustrations. SOs. net. OILS, FATS, BUTTERS, AND WAXE*!;, THEIR PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES, AND THE MANUFACTURE THEREFROM OF CANDLES, SOAPS. AND OTHER PRODUCTS. Bv C. K. ALDER WUKJHT, D.Sc, F.R.S. Thoroughly Revised, Enlarged and in Part Rewritten By C. AIN'SWORTH MITCHELL, B. A., F. I. C, F. C. S. Abridoei) Contents.— General Composition and Nature of Oils, Butters, Kats, and Waxes. — Physical Properties of Oils, Fats, Waxes, etc. — Chemic.il Properties. — Processses for Bxtracting, Rendering, Refining, and l'>leachii)g.— Classification and Uses of Fixed Oils, Fat?, Waxes, etc.- Adulteration.— The Candle Industry.— The Soap Industry.— INI>SX. " will be found AB-'OLCTiiLY INDISPENSABLE."— TA* Anolyit. In Three Volumes. Crown 8vo. With Diagrams. Each Complete in itself and sold separately. A MANUAL OF OILS, RESINS, AND PAINTS, FOR STUDENTS AND PRACTICAL MEN. i; V H .V K li Y 1 X ( ; L E, D. Sc, pR. 1)., F. I. ( '. Vol. I. ANALYSIS AND VALUATION. Price 48. net By HARKV I.NGLt;, D Sc, AND J. A. L. .SLTCLIKFE, A.I.C. Contents op Vol. I.- Intnxluctlon.— Introduction to the Chemistry of the Oils, Oums, etc.— Physical Tests. —Chemical Tests.— Qualitative Tests for Oils.— The Claialflcation of Oils.- The Systematic Examination of Oils, Pats, and Waxes.— Technological Analysis.— Tables of Oil Constants.- INDKX. " A mwlel of brevity, . . . written with ilue caro . . . very valuiible."— £)«;ps. -The Animal l$ful to Mr. Iniflc." — .Vafurc. LONDON : 12 EXETER STREET, STRAND, W.C. 2. Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 witii funding from University of Britisii Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/plantingcultivatOOnewl y. THE PLANTING, CULTIYATTON. ANf) EXPRESSION OP COCOSUTS, KERNELS, CACAO AND EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS AND SEEDS OF COMMERCE. H practical Iban^bool? For Planters, Financiers, Scientists, and Others. BY H. OSMAN NEWLAND, F.RHist.S., F.I.D., &c. FOUNDER AND HON. SEC. BRITISH WEST AFRICAN ASSOCIATION; ORGANISER OF THE WF.ST AFRICAN SECTION, CORONATION EXHIBITION; MEMBER OF GRANI' COUNCIL BRITISH DOMINIONS EXHIBITION, AND MEMBER OF AFRICAN AND ANGLO-FRENCH SOCIETIES ; DIRECTOR OF HARTLEY AND MOORE, LTD. (CHOCOLATE). AUTHOR OP "SIERRA LEONE: ITS PEOPLE, PRODUCTS, SECRET SOCIETIES;" "ROMANCE OF OOMMEKCE," AND OTHER VOLUMES. Timitb jFrontispfece anD otber jMatcs. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, LIMITED; EXETER STREET, STRAND, W.C.2. 1919. [All Rights Reserved.] OTHER BOOKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Epicureanism, ........ 2.s. net. A Short History of Citizenship, . . . .2s. 6d. net. The Model Citizen, 2s. net. Local Government Handbook to Education, . . 6s. net. Sierra Leone : Its People, Products, Secret Societies, 7s. 6d. net. Romance of Commerce, ...... 6s. net. West Africa (in Press), 10s. 6d. net. CONTENTS. chap. page Introduction, 1 I. The Coconut and its Uses, 9 II, Palm Oil and Kernels, 25 III. The Ground Nut, 47 IV. The Shea Nut and Butter, 59 V. The Cacao Bean, 67 VI. The Soya Bean, Cottonseed, and Sesame, 85 VII. Babassu and Paraguay Kernels and Miscellaneous Nuts, . 95 Appendix. List of Societies and Companies, etc., interested in Edible Oils, 107 Index, 109 LIST OF PLATES. No. Collecting Coconuts in Costa Rica Frontispiece. I. Drying Copra To face p. 16 II. Natives Climbing Oil Palms in West Africa, . . ,,26 III. West African Native bringing the Palm Fruit into Store ,28 IV. The Native Preparation of Palm Oil in tlie Congo, . ,, 34 V. Up-to-date Modern Machinery for dealing with Palm Oil and Kernels at La Soci6t6 des Huileries du Congo (Messrs. Lever Bros.), .... 38 VI. Tanks (for Commercial Supremacy) of Palm Oil at Kinshata, Congo, ...... 42 VII. "Craig"ReducingMillforCopra, Palm Kernels, etc., „ 52 VIII. A Cacao Nursery in West Africa ,67 IX. Cacao Beans upon specially pruned trees, ... ,76 X. Cutting out the Banana Shading from Cacao, . . ,78 XI. "Craig" Revolving Box Press for Copra, Palm Kernels, etc., ....... gg The Planting, Cultivation, and Expression OF COCONUTS, KERNELS, CACAO AND EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS AND SEEDS OF COMMERCE. INTRODUCTION. Few people realise hoM' important to us and to the world at large are the products of the oil-yielding trees and plants contained within the Empire. The Germans, although they had wisely accumulated large reserves of the vegetable fats and oils— mostly from our own and their lost African empire— have recently suffered through lack of these precious stuffs, while the British official statement during the war that glycerine was no longer to be supplied to chemists,, showed clearly how want of foresight added to the difficulties of the war on our part. We have in our vast tropical possessions an enormous variety of raw materials which can be exploited with little trouble, and will produce lavish supplies of fats and oil to satisfy our hungry population, and also give the glycerine necessary for the manufacture of high explosives. Soft palm oil, for instance, contains glycerides from which 9 to 10 per cent, of glycerine can be obtained by up-to-date machinery and methods. We have in our Empire vast quantities of this raw material. Before the war the Germans practically controlled and worked up the bulk of the oils and fata from West Africa and in nearly all our tropical possessions •. and margarine and nut butter were largely imported to Britain from abroad. These products, now made in Britain, have I 2 COCONVTS. KERNELS. AND CACAO. tended more and more to replace dairy-butter, which, although far dearer than l>efore the war. is no more nourishing and frequently less palatable. Careful analyses show that the vegetable fats and oils from kernels and copra have a higher nutritive value than most butters, especially thost* imported. Yet there is still a prejudice against " margarine," which it is desirable to remove. More important still, is the necessity for arousing our Government, capitalists, and public alike to the vast find scarcely tapped wealth of our tropical colonies in foodstuffs and other valuable commodities of the Empire. Esj)ecia]ly. perhaps, is it desirable to attract attention to WcnSt Africa. In its wealth of vegetable oils and fatty substances, West Africa stands out pro- minently as an important region of the earth's surface. Only about 5 per cent, of its wealth in vegetable oils has been tap|ied. and although this great commerce has been barely a hundred years in existence, it had already contributed trade to the amount of over fifty million pounds per annum to the world's markets before they were disorganised by the war. Yet, as Sir Harry Johnston has pointed out in criticising the constitution of the Tbm mission appointed by the Government to incpiire into the oil-yielding plants of West Africa, " not a single trained botani.st appeared amongst its memlxrs." Even to-day, our Government scarcely realises the value of Wt«t .Africa, and there is a section which would willingly make over all Togoland and the Cameroona to Prance, or perhaps hand them back to Germany, and would stand by while the independent republic of Lil>eria is aime.xcfl or e.xchanged. or would internationalise all IVopical Africa. INTRODUCTION. 3 Germany, ho\^ever, has always realised the importance of Tropical Africa, and the dream of a Mittel-Ajrika is not yet abandoned. The importance to her of tropical oilseeds alone may be gauged from the fact that on the averages of the years 1912 and 1913, Germany imported the following : — 248,000 tons of palm kernels ; 109,000 tons copra (the dried fleshy part of coconuts) ; 445,000 tons Unseed and linseed meal ; 217,000 tons cotton seed ; 125,000 tons soya beans : and 84,000 tons peanuts (earth- nuts). Considerable quantities of these, especially of palm kernels, are now diverted to this country, and it is of the greatest importance that the British farmer should become familiar with the by-products produced from them. What is known in the trade as the '" hardening "' process vt^ill doubtless, in the future, bring into com- petition ^Adth the principal oils mentioned in this book, many liquid and even low fish oils for soap-making and edible purposes. Tliere will always be a market for the superior oils, but only at a price, and one which may penalise the economic position of the Colonies. Befoi'e the war also, the bulk of our o\\n palm-kernel trade in West Africa went to Germany. In 1913 over 234,000 tons of palm kernels were ex- ported from British West Africa, of which over 181.000 tons went to G«rmany and about 40,000 tons to this country ; and in 1912 over 50.000 tons of the same were exported from French West Africa, of which about 43,000 tons went to Germany and about 3,500 tons to this country. Perhaps \\v were [wrtly to hhime for this .state of things. For example, at Hamburg, according to evidence given to the Edible Nuts ("onimittee, the cost of landing 4 COCONUTS, KERNELS. AND CACAO. palm kernels was 8d. yxiv ton. and at Liverpool 38. 3d. Thus, the English importer s^tarted with a handicap of 2rt. 7d. Anotlier witness put it at 3s. 9d. At Hull there are no quay charges ; and, as a consequence, large oil- crushing mills have been started there. Other reasons are stated in the chapter on Palm Oil and Kernels. However, as a result of the aforesaid Committee's inquiries, an ex|)ort duty of £2 per ton has been recom- mended, although it is not regarded with favour by the natives or their journals on the Coast. The result of this export duty of £2 a ton, equal to £4 a ton on the oil, should be : ( 1 ) Germany should pay the duty of £2 a ton to our West African possessions on the kernels she requires for her own consumption ; (2) British manufacturers should make and sell to Holland the oil for their margarine trade instead of the kernels, as that country has no duty on the oil ; (3) in Great Britain we should have the power to crush what we require for ourselves and do an export trade to Canada, the United States, the River Plate, and many smaller markets. One of the large Dutch margarine makers has already given out contracts for the construction of a very large factory indeed on the lower reaches of the Thames, to l>e rapidly pushed forward as soon lus building o{wrations are possible, and it is almost certain that when one large producer finds it to his int^Test to maniifacture here, hLs com|H!titors will follow. Another result of the publication of the Report of the Colonial Office Committee has boon a desire on the part of the pubhc for further knowledge concerning oil-seeds and oil nuts. INTRODUCTION. 5 I have, therefore, been prevailed upon to Lssue as a separate book the chapters on " Ground Nuts," '" Palm Oil and Kernels," " Cacao," and ' Shea Nuts," which originally formed part of a volume on West Africa — in preparation for pubUcation after the War — and, while enlarging the same, to add chapters on Coconuts and other edible oil-nuts found throughout the Empire. Special reference is made to planting, cultivation, and expression. I am indebted to the publishers of my '' Sierra Leone : Its People, Products, and Secret Societies," for permission to quote from that volume and for the illustration of a Cacao tree ; also to The Producer, the organ of the Co-operative Wholesale Society, for extracts from my articles to that paper, the pubhshers of my West Africa, for the chapters mentioned, and to the Belgian Govern- ment, Messrs. Cadbury, Lever Bros., Craig & Co., and the Eastern Palm Estates, Ltd., for some of the photo- graphs. H. O. NEWLAND, Capt. Authors' Club, Whitehall Court, S.W. 1, February, 1919. THE COCONUT AND ITS USES. CHAPTER I. THE COCONUT AND ITS USES. The coconut is perhaps the most popular and beat known of all the valuable oil-bearmg plants; but although so well known, it is only quite recently that its value in making butter and other edible fats was discovered. Perhaps it was due to the Right Hon. Lord Leverhulme that the boom in this commodity, which has not yet reached its zenith, was first foreshadowed, if not begun. That great soap magnate and philanthropist recorded his opinion that " there is no field of tropical agriculture so promising, and no industry in the whole world offering so lucrative an investment of time and money as that of coconut cultivation.** Every year about ten thousand million coconuts are cultivated, besides the vast numbers which grow wild. In 1914 the value of the world's exports of copra and coir fibre (two products of the coconut) was estimated to be nearly 50 per cent, greater than the value of the world's output in rubber, and only 40 per cent, less than the world's output of gold ; and companies, whose speciality is coconut butter, have paid as much as 200 per cent, dividend. Hence the coconut deserves a first place in a book of this character. Further, unlike many oil-bearing trees, it is found on most of the islands and coastal regions of the tropica up to 20° or 25° north and south of the Equator. Its greatest successes have been achieved iu New Guinea, Malay, Sumatra, Panama. Java, the Philippines. CVylon, 10 COCONUTS. KERNELS, AND CACAO. the West Indies, the Malabar Coast, British Guiana, and it is now being cultivated in India and East Africa. The coionut Is an important commercial product for exploita- tion in West Africa, but it requires careful liandling ; for, althouiih coconuts are found all along the coast, they are not in any one area so numerous as to make by themselves a good paying proposition. In most cases — excepting here and tliere in a part of Sierra Leone, in Togoland, or in Liberia— they are scattered and under the control of different families or tribes, and only those who know the country and its laws and have obtained the con- fidence of the people can successfully combine various lands and planted areas for commercial working. Only since the author ♦ di'ew attention to the possi- bilities of coconuts in the Sierra Leone Littoral h£i8 the Government seriously taken up coconut growing there, importing the seeds from Malay. Previously the authori- ties had failed, owing, among other causes, to native antipathy, the natives neglecting to water the young trees because " the nuts themselves contahied liquid." Smiilarly, about seven years ago the Agricultural Department of the Gold Coast Government rejwrted that the natives were making extensive plantations of coconuts, and that many were giving the trees very careful attention and taking a greater interest in the preparation of copra. These developments are now commencing to ^•ield their beneficial results. l*|) to 1905 the coconut had not l>een energetically cultivated in West Africa, but copra is now commanding such abnormally high prices that there is every inducement to stimulate the industry. After the war immense developments will take place ; • ' Siorra Leone: Its rco|tlf, Producta. ami Secrot Societio«." THE COCONUT AND ITS USES. U soil, climate, etc., are so favourable that the palms flourish naturally, and could be brought to a higher level of productivity by scientific, up-to-date methods : native labour is abundant and cheap ; land is available at moderate rates ; West Afi-ica is much nearer the prin- cipal Eurojiean markets than most other coconut -growing regions, consequently freightage is cheaper, the copra arrives in a better condition, and commands a higher price ; the coast is outside the hun-icane zone, and thus escapes the destnictive storms from which those \\'ithin the hurricane zone so frequently suffer. During the four years pre\aous to 1916 an average of over half a million nuts per year had been exported from Dominica, and as the local consumption is considerable, over one million nuts are probably produced annually {Rep., Agric. Dept., Dominica, 1915-16, p. 13). In the Lassoye district about 500 acres were planted with coconuts during the years 1913-14 to 1915-16. In British Guiana the area under coconuts continues to increase, and there were in 1916 over 18,000 acres under this crop compared with 5,140 acres in 1914. Over .SO tons of copra and 3,000.000 nuts were exported in 1916 from this colony. Coconuts produced on several plantations on the coast and adjacent islands of Nicaragua have long been noted for their size, tine flavour, and good keeping qualitie^s. An American enterprise has now acquired the planta- tions, exteudhig for 32 miles along the coast below Monkey Point, between the Indian and ('orn rivers. The soil best suited to the coconut palm is a deej) and fertile sandy loam, such as is found in alluvial flat.-4 alone; the sea coast at the mouths of river., or in wide 12 COCONUTS. KERNELS, AND CACAO. river valleys. It is in such aituations and on such soils that the coconut palm is most commonly found to flourish, but it can ho grown inland, especially by the banks of a tidal river, the ebb and How causing ideal conditions. The principal products derived from the coconut palm are : — Coconuts, copra (the dried kernel of the nut from which coconut oil is expressed), desiccated coconut (prepared from the fresh kernel, and largely used for confectionery purposes), and coir fibre, which ia prepared from the husk of the fruit. In tropical countries where the coconut palm ia grown, nearly every part of the tree is utilised by the natives. The roots are used as an astringent in native medicine, and are sometimes chewed as a substitute for betel or areca ntits, sometimes interwoven with fibres to form baskets. The trunk, which, when mature, develops a very hard out«r shell, is used to form rafters and pillars of native buildings. The injier jxjrtion of the trunk is too soft to be of value ah timber, but the out^r portion Is capable of taking a fine polish, and is sometimes used in this country in marquetry work and cabinet-making. FVom its peculiar markings, consisting of ebony-like streaks or short lim^ irregularly disponed over a reddish- brown ground, it is known as " porcupine wood.' The loaf-bud or " cabbage " is much appreciated as a vege- table or sala- remain for many months to soften. Then tiie fibre is freed from the non-fibrous matter, . dried, cleaned, sorted, and baled for export.. In sorting, •' fibre " consists of the finer fibres used for spinning purposes and for mats or ropes ; " brush " fibre is coarser and stitfer, and is employed in the manu- facture of brushes and brooms. Short - curled " fibre or tow is used in upholstery as a substitute for horse- hair, and the dust or refuse for bulbs and garden pur- posJs. Twelve thousand coconut husks yield one ton of coir fibre. Copra is the matured kernel of the coconut broken into pieces and well dried, either in the sun, or, more fre- quently now, perhaiis, by mechanical means in hot-air evaporators, where the shell does not fall away at the time when the nuts are broken. The high value of copra is due to the oil it contains. To extract the oil the early method was first to pound the copra into a meal and then to cast this meal into a vat of boiling water, whereupon the oil. released by the heat and rising to the top of the water, wa^ recovered from the surface by skimming ; but to-day oil is " ex- pressed •• from the copra, the entire process being ]^t- formod by machiuery. The copra is pro|>erly miUed, the n^u\tim\ meal Unng steamed an0, snperintcndence £600, medical and contingencies £250, .... 1,500 THE COCONUT AND ITS USES. 21 Third Teor. — Weeding, £750, superintendence, £500, medical and contingencies, £25(J, Fourth Year. — Weeding only £450, . Fijth year.— Weeding only £400, . Sixth year.— Weeding only £450, picking £40, curing transport £150, ..... Seventh Year. — Witli extra cost picking, . Eighth Year. — ,, , £1.50, £1,500 1,200 1,150 1,500 1,900 2,200 It is assumed that the production of copra will be on the average of 220 nuts to the picul of copra (1.33^ lbs.), the average yield per tree of five years of age in Malay and Ceylon being 1^ lbs. In East Africa palm lands vary from about 4s. to £1 per acre ; clearing and weeding during the period before trees arrive at the producing stage is estimated at £25 per acre. Full bearing takes place at the tenth or twelfth year ; and an annual yield of three-quarters of a ton of copra to the acre has been obtained. The following is an estimate of revenue, expenditure, and profit from 2,000 acres of \Ti-gin lam" in West Africa. Capital outlay, £20,000 : — Gross Protit. I'pkeep. Net Profit. Eighth year, . £12,280 £2,60<.» £9,680 Ninth year, 18,800 3,.500 15,300 Tenth year. 27,320 4,.300 23,020 Eleventh year, 36,080 5,500 30,580 The above estimate is baaed on copra at £21 per ton and coir fibre at £10 per ton. thus leaving a very large margin on present values. Another authority gives the following figures of the 22 rOCOM'TS. KERNELS. AND CACAO. revenue, expenditure, and ]irotit from copra alone from 500 acres in Malal)ar. Capital outlay. £4.000 :— Gross Profit. Expenditure. Profit. Sixth year, 20 nuts per tree. Seventh year, 40 „ Eighth year, 60 £n.2(Hl 28,(KMl :i9,2(X» £2,800 £8.400 7,000 21,000 9,800 29,400 Valuation lm> always been taken as seven years' purchase of the estimated profits, and a fair investment valuation may be taken as ten J•ear^/ ]nnvhase of esti- mated profits, as there is not the same fluctuation in the price of copra as there has been in rubber. In some parts of the world coconut estates are many but small, and in. dififeient hands. The question of co-operative milling has, therefore, arisen. In this con- nection it may be said that it is estimated a minimum of 7,200 tons of copra per year, or 14,000 acres of coconuts in bearinjr. would be required to justify the erection of a co-oi>erative mill. After S per cent, had b(.>en set aside for interest to shareholders and fair depreciation allowed on machinery, the j)rofit accruing would Ih' divided amongst the contributing estates according to the quantity of cojjra delivertvl. PALM OIL AND KERNELS. CHAPTER II. PALM OIL AND KERNELS. First, perhaps, in commercial importance, among the oil products of West Africa, is that of the oil palm ; there is an enormous supply of this commodity in the country which at present rots on the ground, and which might be turned to profitable account by very shrewd enterprise, working on more economical lines than the majority of present plantation companies in ^A'est Africa. The oil palm,* which is indigenous to West Africa, from Senegal and Bissagos on the north to the Congo Basin and Angola on the south, is most prolific from Sierra Leone to the Cameroons from tlie seaboard to- wards the interior, diminishing in those districts where the climate becomes drier, or where rocky and moun- tainous tracts intervene. It is rarely found beyond 200 miles from the coast. The most suitable situation is where the soil is generally moist. 8wampy, ill-drained land is not favourable. In those parts of the country where there is gravelly laterite over a deep substratum of syenite, trees may abound in consitlerable numbers, but the trunks of such trees do not acquire the same thickness as those growing in damper or lighter ground. No distinct varieties are recognised by the natives, although distinctive names are applied to the same fruit in different stages of de\elopinent. Yet there is great disparity between oil palms, both in yield and quality, to the extent of 30 per cent. Some have thin pericarps, * See " Sierra Leone : lt« People, Products, and Secret StX'ieties. ' " 26 COCONUTS, KERNELS. AND CACAO. yielding less oil and more kernels — e.g., in SieiTa Leone — others have thin-shelled kernels and thicker pericarps. The oil pahn does not thrive in heavy forest, bnt in open valleys with Iom- undergro\vth. The seeds or nuts, which are large and heavy, are distributed by the agency of birds and mammals. The full-grown oil ])alm attains a height of about 60 feet, and consists of a stem covered throughout its length with the bases of dead leaves, and bearing at the apex a crown of large, pinnate leaves, each of which may be 15 feet long, with leaflets 2 feet or 3 feet long. Tiie tree is very slow gi'owing, reaching a height of 6 inches to 9 inches in three years, 12 inches to 18 inches in four or five years, 8 feet in ten years, 13 feet to 14 feet in fifteen years, and attaining its full height of 60 feet in about 120 years. The fruit is borne in bunches termed " heads,'' " hands," or " cones," which are small and numerous when the tree first begins to bear, from the fourth to the eighth year, and larger but less numerous as the tree becomes older. The oil palm requires little cultivation ; where- ever natives settle in previously uncultivated spots, they plant oil palms, and, as they rarely cut these down when subsequently clearing their fallow ground, the number of such trees increases from year to year. Whore, however, the oil palm has received the atten- tion of the plantation, as in French Guinea (and in the Krobo district of the Gold Coast before the cocoa boom set in), the palm groves are in a more flourishing con- dition, and have yielded better results. The cocoa trees in the Krobo district were lirst planted as catch-crops Coconuts, Kernels, etc. — Capt. H. O. Newlaxd. I^ Ij JL T E II [To face p. 26. Natives climbing Oil Paluis in \\ est Africa. PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 27 between the palms, but, pro%'ing more lucrative, have become the main crop. In French Dahomey every encouragement is being given by the Government to the oil palm industry among the natives, and the result has been to make this one of the most flourishing of the African colonies which France possesses on that continent. In Nigeria, the British Government has encouraged more careful planting of palms, with the result that oil from these districts fetches the best price. In Liberia, a British syndicate is interesting itself to produce good results. On a plantation, the distance between palms should be not less than 25 feet, and catch-crops should not be grown after the tenth year. Permanent crops such as cocoa and rubber are hardly suitable for interplanting with the oil palm unless the palm trees are at least 45 feet ajmrt. when funtumia elastica and cocoa may be grown satisfactorily. A rota- tion of crops may be caiTied out where the palm trees are 25 feet apart with the following products : — ^laize, manihot (cassava), ginger, ground nuts, tobacco, chillies, yams, native beans, and pine-apples. But before planting a large area of any one product the demand of local and European markets should be carefully studied. It is worthy of note, too, that local markets in West Africa are to-day woi'tli attention, good prices being often realised for maize, cassava, ginger, native beans, and yams. The returns from the sale of the catch-cro}) pro- duce should help to pay for the necessary attention required by the i)ermanent crops until they come into bearing, as wtill as to meet other working expenses of the estate. 28 e'OCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. Each tree from about 10 to .')(> feet in height is calculated to bear at least seven cones of fruit, and in full bearing under good conditions the yield is from 8 to 10 bunches.* A record bunch has weighed 56 lbs. and contained 1,445 serviceable oil nuts. The yield per acre would be from 536 to 670 launches from the eighth year, where i)aim trees are planted 25 feet apart, which gives 67 trees to the acre. The yield of oil per acre by European method of extraction would be from one to one-and-a-half tons of oil, exclusive of kernels. The quantity of kernels obtainable per tree would vary from 26 to 35 lbs. according to tlie variety, or from 15 to 21 cwts. per acre. The natives remove a few of the lower leaves around the crown of the tree each year. This practice is supposed to increase the yield from 25 to 50 per cent., and is worth trial by Europeans. To secure the cones, the natives have become expert climbers. The cones are cut with sharp knives, in order to detach the fruit. This fruit consists of (a) an outer covering or pericarp, which contains the palm oil of commerce, and (h) the palm nut. The pericarp often holds about 60 per cent, of its own weight of oil, and as this part is 40 per cent, of the whole, the amount of oil is about 24 j)er cent. The fruit, when freed from the cone, is placed in the sun for a few days and fermented ♦ AccortlinR to Adam (Le Palmier n huile, pp. 1 18-121), an average yield of about 10 fruit headH, each weighing 13-2 lbs., and t^quivalont to 80 lbs. of fniit jxjr tn-o p«T unnuni, may 1k^ count«!«l on in di.strict.s favour- able to th«' oil palm, such an I»\v»!r Dahomoy. Farquhar {Tfw Oil Palm and iti Varieliejs, p. 20) nays that an average of fivt- bunchca is obtainable in favourablo diHtricts in Nigeria, each bunch weighing 31 Iba., but that the bunches arc omallrr in the dry z»)nu and in dcnw? forent. There is no doubt that thu yield.-* of fruit vary considerably in iliflcront localities. Coconuts, Kernels, «A;.— Capt. H. O. Newland. [To face p. 28. IPLJ^TE II T. \\ osl Atii.aii nalivi' lMiii.;inL: tiu> piilni Inm ml., store (illusuatiiii; tiie oone). PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 29 by being stacked in heaps and covered by leaves for some days more. The release of the fruit from its fibrous case is thereby easier. In consequence of the fermenta- tion, the glycerine (now worth £200 per ton), of which the palm oil, when produced from fresh fruit, contains as much as 10 per cent., is reduced to 5 or even a lower percentage, making, as may be imagined, a very serious difference in its market value. The Germans were keen on introducing European methods of improvement. At the Agu plantation in Togoland, for example, the process employed there extracted the best palm oil obtainable, containing only 5 to 6 per cent, of fatty acid. And only as late as July 4th, 1914, Direktor Hupfield, of Togoland, told the Third International Congress of Tropical Agriculture that increase in exportation might be attained by (1) an extension of the districts capable of exporting by improvements in the means of transport ; (2) a more intensive utilisation of the existing palms through better methods of cultivation : (3) a better utihsation of the crops obtained through improved methods of prepara- tion ; (4) an increase m the existing number of palms by increased activity of the present producers or the introduction of fresh producers ; and (5) methods of preparing the crop by machinery which have been elaborated within the last decade. Both British and French are now taking up the matter more seriously, and several British lirms. notably Lever Bros, and the Co-operative Wholesale Society, have taken up large concessions under European management . Several important organised efforts have now^ been made to supplant the wasteful native method for re- 30 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. covering the yellow oil from the pericarp, by establishing modern ])lants within the area in which the oil palm tloiirishes. These modern plants offer one of the most favourable opportunities for the investment of capital, as the native labourer will soon find that the collection of fruit for these establishments is easier and more pro- fitable than attempting to extract the oil himself. At the same time, users of palm oil in Europe will be fur- nished with a product which, on account of the large proportion of glycerine it contains and better average condition, will be of greater value than the variable and uncertain product that is now shipped by the West African native. The cost of extraction by the native methods is from £10 to £12 a ton. Half that estimate should cover the cost by machinery imder European management. The problem of the mechanical extraction of palm oil has been approached from two standpomts — (1) the construction of small, cheap, portable machines capable of being worked by hand and of being transported from place to place as required ; (2) the erection of central factories dealing with large quantities of palm fruit by means of heavy, power-driven machines. At least two hand-operated machines, \-ery similar in principle, have been patented for the preparation of palm oil, in both of which the palm fruits are placed in a cylinder with hot water and submitted to the action of beaters, the oil and water being afterwards run off through a grid or sieve. The " Gwira " machine patented by Eglen {English Pat. 3357/1009) has been experi- mented with on the Gold Coast. The other machine, in which the palm fruit ia beaten in hot water for extrac- PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 31 tion of the oil, is that of Phillips, a native of Lagos ; an early model of this machine was patented in 1907 {English Pat. 9733), and an improved form in 1912 {Erujlish Pat. 18370). It consists of a smooth cylinder mounted inside a cylindrical casing and around a shaft bearing beaters. The outer cylinder carries a water tank with a valve to control the flow of water, while the inner cyUnder carries on the lower side a sliding sieve to separate the oil and water from the nuts and fibrous waste ; this arrangement of the sieve allows its removal so that the exhausted material can be discharged through a space in the iimer cylinder. This machine was exhibited at the International Ptubber and Tropical Products Exhi- bition held in London in 1914, and according to the advertisements issued at that time, it cost £5. Although little is known with regard to the efficiency of oil extrac- tion by this macliine, it should prove useful in econo- mising time and labour in the preparation of palm oil on a small scale by natives. The fii-st power-di'iven machinery for cracking palm nuts is believed to have been introduced into West Africa in 1877 by Mr. C. A. Moore, of Liverpool, and was devised by Messrs. Mather t Piatt, Ltd., of Salford. Hand machines were introduced about 15 or 20 yeai's later. In 1901 a prize offered by the Kolonial Wii-tschaft- lichen Kommittee of the German KolonialgeseUschaft {VerJiaml. Kol. Wirt. Kom.. 1009, No. 1, p. 54) wtis awarded for a complete set of small machines constructed by the firm of F. Haake in Berlin and designed to ex- tract palm oil from the fruit and also to crack the nuts and liberate the kernels. Plant made bv this turn was 32 COCONUTS, KERNELS. AND CACAO. exhibited in 1909 in Berlin, and afterwards erected at Mamfe on the (Voss River (Canieroons). Similar j)lant was also erected at Victoria in the Cameroons, and at about the same time a French firm erected a plant of French make at Cotonou in Dahomey. These early factories were all on a small scale, working about 5 tons of palm fruit per day. Subsequent power machinery falls into two classes — (1) those in which the whole fruit is pressed without removal of the nuts, and (2) those in which the fruit pulp is removed from the nuts and pressed alone. Noteworthy among the former are (a) the machines devised by Poisson and constructed by Louis Labarre, of Marseilles : (6) the mill devised by Hupfeld and con- structed by Messrs. Humboldt, of Cologne ; (c) the machine patented by Hawkins. The most }>rominent of the second class was, before the war, that of Haake, of Berlin. Other machines have been patented by Buchanan and T\Tell, and by Dyer and Innes-Ward. Complete plant for tiio preparation of palm oil in which the pulp is removed from the nuts and then pressed is made by A. K. Craig & Co., Ltd., Paisley, Scotland; A. Olier et Cie., Argenteuil, France ; and Louis Labarre, Marseilles. The plant constructed by tlie first -mentioned firm is known as the Cabdonia dry plant, and ditlers in method of working from most of the existing processes in not steaming or boiling the fruit or pulp with water before expression of oil. It is claimed for this process that noitlier the fruit nor the oil comes in contact with water, so that even if fatty arid and glycerine occur in ovor-ri|)o fruit no glycerine is lost. The process of PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 33 depericarping is effected by a machine patented by H. G. Fairfax {English Pat. 18050/1914). The oil, after being boiled, yields a pleasant and yellow- coloured fat, which is sometimes eaten and relished by Europeans residing in West Africa. Most of it, however, is exported to Europe and used for various purposes by the soap-maker and the chandler, not to speak of war purposes. Some oil is harder than others, notably that from thin pericarps ; the softer oil is of two qualities, (a) Lagos and (6) ordinary soft oil, both of these oils fetching from £3 to £4 per ton more than the harder quality . Soap-makers and other users of palm oil are now demanding a contract for their requirements, based on purity and on the first grade of oU containing not more than 18 per cent, of free fatty acids. Many of the inferior grades wiU thus become unmarketable, except at a seriously depreciated price. The softer the oil and the more glycerine therein (which varies in inverse proportion with the acidity) the greater its value. The chemical and physical constants of the palm oil of commerce are : — Specific gravity at ' , . 0-9209 to 0-9245 Melting point. Saponification value. Iodine value. Reichert-Moiasl value, Hohnor value. 24° to 42-5° C. 196 3 to 205-5 53 to 57-4 0-86 to 1-87 94-2 to 97 Solidifying point of fatty acids varies from 35-8° to 46'4" C, usually 44-5° to 45 0° C. The kernels or seeds contained in the nuts or " stones " of the oil palm are obtained by cracking the nuts by hand or by the aid of a nut-cracking machine, after the orange- 3 34 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. coloured palm oil has been extracted from the outer pulpy portion of the fruit. In Sierra ly^one, this is, principally, the work of thousands of small farmers in the Colony and Hinterland, who, with wives and families, work at this industry dm^ing the season. Their produce is collected by agents and sub-agents repre.senting the large trading firms. Tlie kernels are exported, and the expression of the kernel oil carried out in Eurojje. Palm kernel oil is white in colour and of rather softer consistence than palm oil. The kernel, when it reaches the mills, is treated either by the crushing or chemical extraction processes to obtain this oil. Tho oil forms about 50 per cent, of its contents, and has a very high commercial value, being sold at about £40 per ton in peace time, and at a much higher figure diu'ing war. Formerly employed solely in the manufacture of soap, candles, etc., palm kernel oil has latterly been more and more in demand among the makers of edible products, such as " nut-butter," choco- late fats, etc. Before the great World War, most of our supplies of this oil were imported from the Continent. Now that the question of the people's food supplies has become one of vital moment to the country, the production of largo quantities of wholesome nut-butter, sold at almost one-third the price of ordinary butter, and manufactured entirely within our own borders from pro- duce supplied by British Ck)lonic8, may be regarded as a factor of no small importance in furthering the national policy by facilitating domestic economy. liofore the war the Germans imported kernels from LaverpK>ol, and then scmt the oil back to that {)ort and undersold the Liverpool crushers. PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 35 This was done by Germany putting a heavy tariff of £6 a ton on refined edible oils, importing the palm kernels free, and charging her own manufacturers and countries with whom she had special treaties, an extra price which enabled her to undersell the British market. She also captured the Canadian market, although Liver- pool enjoyed exceptionally low freight to Canada. Before the war, also, Britain imported margarine to the extent of 1,518,297 cwts. in 1913, value £3,917,701. Of this amount 1,483,417 cv.ts. came from Holland. Now Britain is making her own margarine from her own raw material, and as it was being bought retail at from 7d. to Is. per lb., while butter was costing 2s. to 2s. 6d., the gain to the consumer at home is great . Messrs. Lever now have their own steamers running between West Africa and Liverpool for their trade in kernels and oil. In Sierra Leone alone, the palm kernels exported in 1917 reached the record figure of 58,000 tons. The following table gives the range of the principal constants of commercial palm kernel oil. The corre- sponding figures for coconut oil are added for com- parison : — Coinincrcial Palm Kernel Oil. Coconut Oil. 0-874 SO to 10-0 Specific {gravity OQ^/IS, Iodine value, por cent.. OS73 lOa to 17-5 Saponification value, . 242 to 25,'> 246 to 268 Titer test, . 20 0° r. to 25rr'V. 21-2H'. to26-5''('. Hehner value. 911 S2-4 to 90r, Reichort-Meissl value. r>o to (i-8 ti-G to 7-5 Polensko value. 18-0 Yield of oil. 4G-7 to 52-. 64 -fi to 74-7 When the weight of a cask of palm oil is ascertained. 36 COCONUTJS, KERNELS. AND CACAO. and in invoicing the same to the buyer in this country, 16 lbs. per cwt.. or one-seventh of the whqje, is deducted as representing the weight of the cask. This is an agreed figure and applies onlj' to such casks as are termed '" regular.' and comply with a certain measurement. In the case of palm kernels, if these are shipped in bags, the actual weight of the l)agfl is ascer- tained by trial, and this weight is deducted from the gross weight of the kernels. The usual tare is 1.3 lbs. for five bags ; when shipped in bulk there is no tare. An ingenious and simple nut-cracking machine has been devised recently by J. O. Drews. It consists of a pair of finely corrugated steel jaws, one of which is fixed vertically to the frame of the machine, while the other is moved by means of a sj)ecially constructed cam. The moving jaw has its corrugated face formed at a slight angle to the face of the fixed jaw ; the space between the jaws is, therefore, wider at the top than at the bottom, so that larger nuts dropped between the jaws lodge near the top and small nuts near the bottom. In working, the moving jaw takes up three consecutive positions : (1) discharging, fully open, allowing the broken nuts to fall through ; (2) feeding, partly closed ; (3) cracking, a small auxiliary cam mounted on the main cam engages with the o[>erating rod of the moving jaw, causing tlu- latter to take a short, sharp movement and to crack the nut-shells without breaking up the kernels. The nuts are fed to the jaws by means of a sloping tray ending in a aeries of J-aha|>ed bars mounted at right angk^s to and al)ove the faces of the jaws. A series of J shaped bars mounted on a shaft rotate between the bars on the feed tray, pick up a row of nuts, and throw PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 37 them between the jaws. The machine is light, simple, and strong, aftd seems to work well. The working of another new palm-nut-cracking machine devised by Mr. Kent Johnston has been demonstrated recentl}^ in Liverpool. This machine works on the centri- fugal plan, but differs from other centrifugal machines in that the nuts are flung from one ribbed rotating disc or drum into or against another disc rotating in the opposite dkection. The machine is said to work satis- factorily, and weighs 130 lbs., being of convenient size for transport. Every such effort to get the most out of kernels will probably be welcomed by merchant and native ahke, especially as soap-makers and margarine-makers, and other users of kernel oil are calling for a contract in which kernels will be valued according to their oil con- tents, anything containing less than 48 per cent, of oil to be penalised. Palm-kernel cake is the residue from the kernels of the nuts of the West African oil palm after expression of the oil.* More than one-quarter million tons of nuts have been for the past few years aimually exported from West Africa, but until the outbreak of the war. and the consequent closing of the German ports, this huge trade was almost entirely in German hands. A small quantity of the nuts was imported into Britain, but almost all the cake left from the extraction of these was exported to the Continent, where it has always commanded a considerably higher price than in this country. * " Expiijssion " is thi- rnorx^ cornTt t<>rm when the mivtorial is crubJied iu a press unil the oil squeozwl out, ■ cxtniction " when oil is titssohed by suitable solvents (e.g , benzine). SkWvent oxtract<.>us«s. 38 rOCONTTS. KKKNKL.S, AND CACAO. • As far luick iis lsr»l. at tho Royal Agricultural (Allege, Cirencester, it was cxperimoutally established that kernel cake was good stutt' for cattle, but the CJerniauH tlis- covered that palm kernel cake given to milking cowa would increases the {irnouiit of butter fat by as much as over } per cent., so that by giving it to their cattle they were able to get as much butter from nine cows as Ix^fore it took ten cows to produce. For that reason throughout the German Empire for many years palm kernel cake has been more valuable than it has been in England. At the end of 1914 there were only two mills in Britain dealing witli i)alm kernels, and their combined capacity amounted to only 70,000 tons per annum. Since then, however, a considerable development in this industry has taken place, and new mills {e.g., at London and Hull) have been erected capable of dealing with large quan- tities, so that, in the near future, very large stocks of l>alm-kernel cake will lu; at tho disposal of the home feeder. For the purposes of ex|)eriment, 2 tons of the cake were supplied by Messrs. lx?vcr Hrothers. l*ort Sunlight, who. in connection with their industry, crush a con- siderable (piantity of palm ktnnels. These o.xiKjrimcnta have shown that palra-kernel cake is very highly digest- ible, and that its productive value is much higher than its chemical analysis alone woiihl lead us to believe. For this reason three cakes were used in equal ([uantitiea throughout the ex|>eriment. For the pur|K)8es of tho experiment, thirty IunkI <»f cattle, eighteen heifers, and twelve buUfK-ks, all cross-bred two- year-olds, were used. Thefl<5 were divided into three lots of ten each each lot consi.sting of six heifers ;ind four bulUKtlcs. For a PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 39 short time before the commencement of the experiment they underwent a preparatory period of feeding, in order to accustom them to the experimental foods — Lot I. getting linseed cake, Lot IL decorticated cotton cake, and Lot III. palm-kernel cake. The cakes were fed in mixture with locust-bean meal, and were from the first taken readily by all the animals. The experimental period, which extended to eighty-four days, was divided into three periods of twenty-eight days each, the animals being weighed at the commencement, and again at the end of each period. The final conclusions reached were : — "I. Fed in the same quantities, palm-kernel cake may be expected to give equally as good a return in live weight increase as linseed cake or decorticated cotton cake, and at present prices it gives a better monetary return than either of these. "II. Fed in mixture with locust-bean meal, it is taken readily by stock, and no difficulty need be experi- enced in storing cake containing a comparatively large percentage of oil." The County of Northumberland Education Committee has issued a very valuable report on palm-kernel cake and meal, and coconut cake compared with Soya cake for fattening cattle and sheep. The trials were carried out at the County Agricultural Experiment Station, Cockle Park. The summary results were : — Bullocks, . Heifers, . Average, . standard Palm Kernel Ration. | Cake Raliun Palm Kernel Meal Ration. Coeonat Cake Ration. Lbs. I Lbs. Lbs. 16-60 12-44 1419 8-92 , 1000 1 9-25 12-7! ! 11-22 11-72 i '■ Lh8. 15-70 7-42 11-56 40 COCONUTS, KERNELS, .\ND CACAO. The cakes and meal weie kept in the granary and were in quite good condition after being stored for some months. In some previous trials palm-kernel cake gave the cattle more glossy coats and more " bloom," but in these trials no such effect was produced on the fattening cattle or on the young stirks. Better average gains were given by those wintered inside than those wintered outside, but at the end of March practical valuers attached 30a. a head more value to those wintered outside, as they had better coats of hair and were more promising grazing cattle. Palm- kernel me^l gave better results than palm-kernel cake with these young cattle, although the meal contained less than 2 per cent, of oil and the cake nearly 6 per cent. The gains per week were quite satisfactory for such store cattle in winter, and each lot went through the winter well. The sheep used were three parts bred hogs and had been bred near Rothbury in 1915. All the lots made satisfactory gains, which indicated palm -kernel cake and palm-kernel meal as suitable foods for fattening sheep. Again palm-kernel meal gave a better result than palm- kemel cake. The fattening bullocks made average net gains of from £3 to £6 a head. Their live weight value increased from 478. to 62s. a cwt. during the fattening period. The fattening heifers made average net gains of SOs. to 64a. a head. The net gains per head for the stirks varied from lOfl. to 238., and their value as stores increased from 428. 6d. a cwt. at the beginning of tlie winter to 488. at the end. The fattening hogs made net gains per head PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 41 of from 3s. to 5s., and improved in live weight value from 5|d. to 6|d. a lb. during the fattening period. Palm-kernel meal is found to be an excellent basis for a pig meal, and as more oil is obtained from palm kernels by means of the extraction process of which palm- kernel meal is the by-product, it was also of the greatest importance to test extracted palm-kernel meal as a feeding-stuff. The following table gives the composition of palm- kernel cake in comparison with coconut, linseed, and cotton-seed cakes : — Constituents pkk Cent. Soya Egypt Cotton Coconut Palni- Nut Palni- Kernel Maize. Cake. Cake. Cake. Meal. Moisture, 10-40 11-60 11-65 i 11-00 12-40 14-30 OU, ... 6 03 4-07 8-37 1 5-40 1-35 4-54 Albuminoids, . 43-85 24-30 21-75' 21-00 18-81 9-89 Carbo-hydrates, 29-97 34-33 41-96 i 4312 40-94 68-20 Fibre, . 4-60 2015 10-75 1 15-78 22-60 1-47 Ash, Nitropen. 515 5-55 5-52 3-70 3-90 1-00 10000 100 00 100-00 10000 100-00 100 00 7-02 3-89 3-48 3-36 3 01 1-58 Sand, 0-65 0-70 1-05 0-75 0-80 none Digestible oil, . 5-5 3-8 81 5-2 1-3 4 0 Digestible tme albu- minoids, 37-7 19-9 16-5 17-5 15-6 6-7 Digestible carbo-hy- drates and fibre, . 21-6 28-6 41-5 461 49-4 65 4 Starch equivalent, . 67 47 80 75 66 82 Another product of the oil pahu which is not so gener- ally known is fibre ; this fibre is of very good quahty, and realises as much as £60 a ton on the Liverpool market. It is the only fibre that is sufficiently fine and strong 42 (^OCONUTS. KERNELS, AND CACAO. to make tiahiug lines, and tliis is the only use to which it is put l)y the natives. It is obtained from the young pinna?, the older leaves being too strong and coarse to permit the hand-extraction of the fibre. The process of extraction is laborious, and. therefore, unremunerative. the cost of the production being as high as £75 a ton. There remains, however, a possi- pility that a mechanical or a chemical process may be introduced to separate the fibre from the pinnae cheaply. The tendency in the palm oil and kernel trade is to have large factories and mills on the spot for treating the material, and. therefore, a few words are necessary on this subject. First, the selection of a site for an oil- palm factory necessitates a careful examination of the productivity of oil ]ialms in the vicinity. Secondly, factories requiring large supplies of palm fruit near at hand will probably have to resort to plantation raethofls. in which case the choice of the best variety of palm for planting will be essential. Thirdly, a factory requii'ing 5 tons of palm fruit daily and producing from about 2 to 1 ton of palm oil. will require about :ji),()00 trees (say 80 to the acre). This ia based upon the calculation that, as the fruit heads con- sist of only ()4 per cent, of fruit (the remainder being useless fibrous stem, bracts, etc.), it would be necessary to collect and transport to the factory nearly 8 tons of fruit heads daily, or, taking the number of working days in the year i\s 200, and thus allowing for the fact that the palms do not bear fully throughout the year, over 1,50() tons |)er annum. Smart {('tjtnmittee on Edible atid Oil-producing Nuts and Seeds, Minvte^s of Evidence, 1916) states that an area PALM OIL AND KERNELS. 43 of 14 square miles (about 9,000 acres) would be desirable for the establishment of a factory working 10,000 tons of fruit a year, but that such an area in full bearing would produce over 25,000 tons of fruit a year, or 1,000 tons of fruit per annum from 360 acres, which agrees closely with the figure arrived at above. It is obvious that large factories would require considerable areas even under plantation conditions, but that under the present conditions, where the trees are largely wild and irregularly distributed and where it is necessary to allow for bad seasons, the loss of fruit owing to animal and human depredations and other eventualities, a much larger area would be required. From the above con- siderations it is evident that even a moderate-sized factory must be located in the centre of a large oil-palm area, and that considerable quantities of fruit must be collected and transported over long distances, necessi- tating a good supply of cheap labour and adequate transport facilities. Finally, one word about the packing and transport. Care should be taken that kernels do not cause a tire on board ship. In Nigeria six sacks of palm kernels were submitted by the police department for investi- gation as to the cause of a fire which occurred in the hold of a ship loading in the Lagoon. The fire seems to have broken out in several separate places in the cargo, which consisted of baas of kernels solidly packed. The kernels had been stored some time in the bags. and it was the dry season. There had been a blazing sun and little breeze for several days pre\'iously during the period of loading, and so not only was the fibre of the sacking made very dry, but also it would liave become 44 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. more oily from the heated kernels exuding oil and there was very little chance of the heat being reduced in a cloaed full hold. Such oily fibre would absorb oxygen from the air very readily, and in these circumstances the temperature would rise so high as to cause oily vapours to inflame and so start the fires. The sacks showed that the fires started at the outside fibre, and not inside among the kernels, and after the fire the fibre of the sacks held from 20 to 25 per cent, of oil. THE GHOUND-NUT. CHAPTER III. THE GROUND-NUT. The high price of butter in this country is leading now to the establishment of a new industry in Great Britain — i.e., the crushing of monkey-nut or ground-nut kernels for the extraction of a pale yellow oil, which is of great value in the manufacture of margarine, for which, with butter at so high a price, there is an increased demand. Ground- nut oil is also used for preserving sardines and as a lubri- cant and illuminator. Inquiries are being made at the leading seed-crushing centres for the establishment of his new branch of the oil-extracting industry, and a movement has also been started to erect mills in Scotland to forward the industry. The kernel of the monkey- nut contains about 50 per cent, of oil, which belongs to the non-drying class of oils, of which up to 40 per cent, can be extracted by crushing macliinery. As India, Egypt, the West Coast Protectorates, both British and French, East and Central Africa, Rhodesia, etc., are able to supply large quantities of these monkey-nuts, there is every promise of the development of a large export trade in the commodity. The annual exports from India and West Africa alone amount to about £5,000,000 ; and in the United States, every large town has its " pea-nut " factory. Our French Allies pay great attention to the cnishing of monkey-nuts, and extensive crushing businesses are established at 47 48 COCONUTS. KERNELS, AND CACAO. Maraeillea, und they will probably do their utmost to encourage the Colonial industry. Other countries which express this oil are China, Java, the United States, and Japan. The ground-nut, earth-nut, monkey-nut, or pea-nut, as different nuts of the same species arc variously called, is the fruit of a yellow-flowered herbaceous plant belonging to the Nat. Ord. Leguminosce, \vhich is cultivated ex- tensively in Gambia, Senegal, Hong Kong, India, Nigeria, East Africa, and the United States. The value of the nut largely depends on its oil content, which in a good sample will average 40 per cent, of the seed by weight after extraction. At the same time, the leaves and branches of the plant form an excellent fodder for cattle and sheep, and should always be utilised after harvest. The flowers are jjeculiar and worthy of consideration, as they have a considerable bearing on the successful cultivation of the crop. After fertilisation the torus or seed stalk of the flower becomes elongated, rigid, and deflexed, and forces itself into the ground where the ovary at its extremity begins to enlarge and develop into a yellow wTinkled one to three-seeded pod. If the ground be so hard Jis to prevent the seed stalk from burying the develo[)ing ovary, the whole part withers and no fruit is formed, hence the necessity for keeping the soil in a friable condition until the flowers bo set. The highest percentage of marketable nuts is produced in sandy loams ; soils deficient in lime, if rich in nitrogen, will produce luxuriant plants but little fruit, and clay soils arc always unsuitable, producing small pods of low quaUty. In ordinary field conditions, the soil should not be THE GROUND-NUT. 49 cultivated to a greater depth than 6 inches, but the tilth must be thorough ; deep cultivation adds con- siderably to the cost of harvesting. If the soil be carefully selected, little after-cultivation m necessary ; three hoeings before the crop covers the ground are generally sufficient. The plants should be so close as to completely cover the ground when full growai, and protect the soil and roots from direct sun; 15 inches by 15 inches is a suitable distance . The quantity of shelled seed required per acre depends on the system of planting, but 30 to 35 lbs. per acre is ample with a planting distance of 15 inches by 15 inches. The proportion of shell to kernels varies, some varieties of nuts give 66 per cent, kernel and 34 per cent, shell, and others up to 80 per cent, kernel and 20 per cent, only of shell. A good ground nut should give, apparently, 48 per cent, to 50 per cent, of oil in the kernels. The follo\nng table of yields of dried nuts per acre is given by the Imperial Institute Bulletin : — Crop. Carolina running. „ „ (selected), Gambia, Gambia (three-soeded). Local variety. Red Tonessoe, Virginia running, I'lO. Lbs. 1,706 1,548 1,479 1,254 1,670 2,438 2,041 2,027 1,78U 1,846 1,836 The sandy plains in Bida or Kano in Northern Nigeria, according to its able Director of Agriculture, offer an ideal soil for ground-nut production. A yield of over a ton of freshly harvested nuts per acre was being 60 COCONUTS, KERNELS. AND CACAO. generally obtained at Kano, anil at Bida at least 1,400 lbs. oi kernels j)er acre were obtained in the 1912-13 season. A superior variety of ground-nut is grown in the neighbourhood of Pategi, llorin Provuice, which might be useful to draw upon for sc^d elsewhere. In the Gold Coast Colony, where the Hongkong as well as the native variety is cultivated, at least in some of the centres, crows and rodents seem able at times to secure more than their fair share of the crop, in spite of its being underground. In Gambia, ground-nuts — which form by far the most important article of cultivation in that colony — alter- nated with the staple food crops of the country — \iz., guinea corn, maize, millet, and cassava, offer a fairly usefid form of rotation. At the beginning of each season, " strange farmers " appear in Gambia, and take up the cultivation of the ground-nut area, doing planting and harvesting on a percentage system, so much going to the owner of the land. After harvesting and selling, the strange farmer disappears with his good profit, and may not perhaps be seen again. There is never, however, any dearth of such farmers. Harvesting the crop is by far the most exjjensive operation, and no system yet devised can do away with the large amount of hand labour necessary for gathering the crop. In Nyassaland it is dug and gathered in a manner very similar to that employed for the Irish potato crop. After liarvesting, the nuts are tiaually sun-dried for about a week, and not shelled until required for ship- ment, but machines can now be se('urcd (o dry the ruits artificially. THE GROUND-NUT. 51 Under ordinary field conditions 4 acres to the ton of shelled nuts would be an average for Nyassaland, and the following figures, taken from a 6|-acre block grown at Namiwawa on unmanured land in 1915, show the cost of production and value of the crop, the figures being based on actual working expenses : — Cost of Production per Acre axd Value of Crop. s. d. Ono ploughing, . . • .28 One cultivation. One harrowing. Three hand hoeings at 7id., Harvesting and shelling, 0 8 0 4 1 lOi 12 8 18 2| The total crop from 6| acres was 7,318 lbs. of un- shelled nuts, which on shelling gave 4,024 lbs. of sound shelled nuts, or a yield of 619 lbs. of exportable kernels per acre, and at £13 10s.* per ton represents a value per acre of £3 14s. 6d. Experiments in the East Africa Pi'otectorate with two varieties of ground-nuts, Chinese and Shu-ati, gave yields of 2,700 lbs. and 2,600 lbs. of nuts (ui shell) \^eT acre respectively. In the latter case the crop was only sown as a catch crop, and was planted too far apart for profitable cultivation. The ground-nut, being less sensitive to climatic varia- tions than cotton and much freer from disease, is worthy of the attention of the larger land companies, who could, if interested, encourage their tenants by distributing selected seed and guaranteeing to purchase the crop ♦Average price on homo market 1914. The price durinu 1917-18 rose to £70 to £90 a ton. 52 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. at one lialffXMiny per pound after deducting the weight of the aoed issued. Tlie nut contains 50 per cent, of fat, 24-5 per cent, of protein, and 11-7 per cent, of carbohydrates, these being the })rincipal nutrient components of vegetable foods. It makes an excellent substitute for peas and beans, possessing several preponderant advantages. In Nigeria a nutritious and appetising soup is made from the nut. In the United States, where the pea-nut is extensively used, its value is already being recognised. It is said to fatten more rapidly than any other diet, and if eaten regularly in moderation, to be capable of sustaining life indefinitely. An excellent bread and biscuit may be made from the nut, in the making of the latter no lard bemg required. It may also be used as a beverage, either alone, when it resembles chocolate in flavour, or mixed with pure cotiee, when it is better than many of the coffee mixtures now on the market. The oil of the nut is highly esteemed, being regarded as an alternative to sweet or ohve oil. Small quantities of selected grown nuts have been used in England in confectionery as a substitute for almonds. In India they are extensively eaten roasted, and are now made into sweetmeats, l>eing mixed with palmyra, palm, or sugar-cane jaggery. By far the greater part of the worlds production of ground-nuts is, however, used for the expression of oil, and for many years Marseilles has been the great centre for the ground-nut trade for oil. Oil is prepared in West Africa by moans of crude native wedge presses, or i)estlo and mortar mills ; such oil is, however, only employed for local use. An ad- Coconuts, Kernels, etc.— Caipt. H. O. Newlanu. [To Jace p. 52. Craig" Reducing Mill for Cojira. Talm Kernels, etc. THE GROUND-NUT. 53 vantage of local extraction is that oil can be prepared from nuts in a fresh condition, freight charges are lessened, and the residual cake becomes available for local use. A short description of the machinery and processes for more scientific extraction of the oil may here be desirables In preparing ground-nut oil, the outer husk is generally removed, although oil can be expressed fi'om unshelled nuts. Where native women and children are available this labour can be done by hand, but small hand machines are obtainable and more effective. Such machines break the husks between rollers set at such distance as to prevent the crushing of the kernels in the process ; the husks and as much as possible of the red " skin of the kernel being removed by a blast of air. The husks can be blown to the engine and used as fuel, or, mixed with meal, they may be made into cakes. The cleaned kernels are ground between rollers, then placed in hydraulic presses. The first pressing takes place at ordinary temperature, yielding as much as 30 per cent, of pale-coloured oil. This " cold-drawn " oil is known as " huile surfine " de Rufisque, Gambia, etc., according to the origin of the nuts. This is used for edible purposes. A further 6 or 8 per cent, of oil inferior in quality, but still useful for edible purposes, can be obtained by moistening and warming the cake in steam kettles at a temperature of 30"" to 32*^ C. An atlditional 5 to 7 per cent, of oil, unfit for edible use, but very good for soap, can be obtained by a third expression at a temperature of from 48° to 50° C. The second and third expressiftus are usually made in open Anglo- American presses, which employ bags or cloths to hold the cake. 54 COCOXTTS. KHllNELS. AND CACAO. The following are approximate yields obtained from ditferent kinds of ground nuts : — Kind. Kroin riulecorticated Nuts. From Decorticated .NuU. RuH.squf. ..... Gambia. ..... Egypt, Mozambique, .... Bombay, Coromandel, .... Per cent. 31-5 31 31 o .. Percent. 45 to 46 42 to 45 37 to 38 36 to 37 The last three kinds are ship|ied decorticated, and consequentlv undergo changes rendering the taste in- different and the cake inferior. The cake left after the expresaion of the oil is a valuable feeding stuff for cattle and other animals. The following analyses of various feeding cakes are stated below : — Oround-nut Cake. Ck>tton-B«ed Calce. Linseed Cake. Soya )0 5-20 5-05 Oil. . 7-73 1 717 1 1 -38 li-.'>6 9-50 11 07 Protein. 49-31 1 28 fA) 43-78 24-62 29.50 38-82 Carbohv'lnites. 21-71 : 28-06 23 -.")(> 29-28 35-54 26-51 Crude libn-. . 1 4-70 ' 18-97 r,-is 2119 910 5-85 In Senegal, where, with one set of six decorticating machines worked either by a locomotive or a jwrtable engine, 5 tons of nuts in the shell were decorticated per hour, with the nwult that out of "Jso tons treated 109 tona THE GROUND-NUT. 55 of kernels were obtained. This was so satisfactory that extensive plant is to be erected in various parts of the Senegal colony. Natives are also beginning to decorticate by hand, on account of the large j^ecuniar}^ advantage to be gained. The company are also prepared to erect plant in Bathurst or other parts of the Gambia, and it is to be said that a saving of 50 per cent, in freight space is effected if the ground nuts be shipj^ed after being decorticated. The rate of freight should vary for the nuts in their different states. The difference in the freight would enable the trading firms to pay an encouraging price to the natives for decorticating nuts, and, as a conse- quence, the demand on shipping space would be greatly reduced, but if the idea is to be encouraged as it deserves, prompt steps should be taken by the Shipping Controller in order that they may materialise in time for the opera- tions of the next crop, first to encourage the natives to decorticate the nuts, and secondly, to facilitate the installation of plant by the various firms to commence the decortication. The yield of decorticated nuts per ton is : — 8 c\\i:s. of oil, 12 cwts. of cake, and that of nuts in the shell is about 5 to 6 cwts. of oil, 8 cwts. of cake, 6 cwts. of empty shells (which have no nutritive value), and which are useful only as a combustible. Decorticated nuts luive been shipped from India for many years past. These generally reach Euroix' in poor condition, partly owing to faulty methods of decorti- cation, causing damage to the kernels, and partly to the long voyage through hot regions. For the la.st few years decorticated ground nuts have betMi shipped from 56 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. Northern Nigeria, and in spite of the rail journey to the coast of about 700 miles and a sea voyage of about tliree weeks, these reach Europe in good condition, and can be used for the production of edible oil of good quality. Ground nuts properly decorticated in Senegal should reach Europe in excellent condition, as the average distance of transport by rail would only be about 120 to 200 miles, followed by a sea voyage of ten to fourteen days, mostly in temperate regions. The chief points against the decortication of the nuts in the country of origin are ( 1 ) the demand for oil of high quality prepared from nuts shipped in the shell, and (2) the interference with the native custom of selling nuts in the shell. THE SHEA NUT. CHAPTER IV. THE SHEA NUT. The shea-butter tree was originally brought to our notice by Mungo Park, and named after him, Bviyrospermum 'jxirkii. The shea-butter grows everywhere in West and West-Ceintral Africa, where the oil palm does not. In Northern Nigeria especially, it flourishes over large areas. Vast and unexploited supplies exist also in the North of Ashanti beyond the evergreen forest. It is content witli less rain than the oil palm requires. The vegetable fat from the nut of this tree is used by the West African natives as a food, and has been employed in this country in the manufacture of candles, and mixed with other oils, in soap-making. It is now within the scope of modern chemisti'y to find some means of preparing and preserving this vegetable fat so that it is an exjDortable form of butter. It Ls far nicer in taste, and far more wholesome than some of the present substitutes for the fat derived from cow's milk. The shea tree grows to a height of 45 to HO feet or e\en more. The trunk reaches a diameter of 9 feet or o\'er, and is covered with rough greyish bar]<. The reddish- coloured wood is hard, heavy, and dithcult to work, but is used by the natives for making {M^siles. mortars, and other implements. The leaves are elongated, grab- rous when fully develo[>ed, but downy when quite young, and measure from 4 to l(> inches in length and 1| to 2^ inches in width, each leaf V)eing borne ox\ a |>etiole from 60 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. 1^ to 6i inches in length. The flowers appear from January to March, accc»rding to the climate and the situation of the tree. The white scented flowers are borne in globular corymbs at the extremities of the branches. The fruit ripens from May to September, but principally in the latter part of July. It is spherical or ellipsoidal in shape, somewhat resembling a plum, and measures from H to 2 inches in length and from l\ to If inches in diameter. The fruit consists of an outcsr succulent pulp, of a yellowish or blackish-green colour when ripe, enclosing usually one, or sometimes two or three nuts. The pulp has a pleasant flavour, and is largely eaten by the natives as a fruit. When ripe the fruit falls to the ground, the pulp being then oft^n consumed by sheep and swine. The nuts generally measure rather less than IJ inches in length and 1 inch in diameter. The shell is usually of a light brown colour, and resembles the shell of a Spanish chestnut : on drying it becomes hard and brittle, and can then be easily removed. The kernel is soft and yellowish when fresh, but when dry it becomes firm and turns a dark chocolate- brown colour. The dry kernels vary in size and weight ; Lirge kernels generally have an average weight of 4| to 5 grains, whilst small kernels may weigh only 2| grains each. The fresh fruit is composed of from 40 to 65 per cent, of i)ulj), and 35 to 60 |>er cent, of fresh nuts, the average being about 49 {)er cent, of nuts. The freah nuts yield on drying 57 per cent, of sun-dried nuts, or 39 per cent, of sun-dried kernels, containing 5 to 6 per cent, of moisture, and in a condition suitable for export, /\ native must giithi^r and work up nearly 5] tons of fruit in order to j)repare 1 tun of kernels for export. THE SHEA NUT. 61 The shea tree requires a deep soil rich in humus, and is particularly abundant on soils composed of sandy clay or of lateritic detritus. It does not grow in marshy land, or in land liable to be flooded, or on heavy clay soils, but prefers the slopes of hiUa, and rocky or sandy plains. Although the tree is found in the forest or in the bush, it does not reach its maximum gro\\i;h under these conditions, since it is often stunted owing to bush fires and the shading effect of more rapidly growing plants and trees. The tree flourishes best in open situations, such as the clearings round villages, and attempts are being made in Northern Nigeria and elsewhere to induce the natives to clear away the bush around the trees with a view to prevent damage by fire. Laws have also been made in the Upper Senegal and Niger region to prevent the cutting down of this valuable tree when land is being cleared for the planting of crops. Although the tree does not appear to be culti- vated in the full sense of the word in any district, it is usual for the natives to leave the matm'e trees when clearing land. The tree is easy to propagate from seed, but grows comparatively slowly, taking about thirty years to reach matm'ity, whilst it does not bear fruit until from twelve to fifteen years of age. It is evident, therefore, that the estabhshment of plantations would be a tedious operation, and in view of the irregular yield of nuts, it might also be unprofitable. Such considerations would, of course, be most im- portant in the event of attempts being made to establish oil mills on the spot in West Africa. A native is able to gather 100 lbs. of fruit \>o.t day of nine hours in a good season ; but any estimate must, of course, depend largely 62 COCONUTS, KERNELIS, AND CACAO. on the nature of the district and the productivity of the trees. The fruit, when ri])c. (h'ops to tho ground and is col- lected : the succulent pulj) is then removed by washing or by allowing the fruit to rot in pits dug in the ground. The nuts are dried in the sun, or in a rough kiln or oven built of earth. The sheila are then removed by crushing in a mortar and vanning. A native is able to shell 250 lbs. of .nuts per day. Altliough nuts in the shell have been exported, it ia better to shell the nuts on the spot, as the shells are valueless, and comprise about 30 per cent, by weight of the dried nuts. Probal)ly sun-dried kernels will be found best, as the ]iative process of drying in ovens is rather liable to cause damage to the kernels, with consequent deterioration of the fat. Generally speaking, the collection and preparation of nuts and of shea butter is carried out by women, the men being employed in transporting the kernels or butter to the local markets. The question as to whether it be better for the natives to sell the kernels, or to prepare and sell shea butter, depends almost entirely on local conditions of labour and transport. In districts remote from railways or navigable rivers it appears that the preparation and sale of shea butter will give the greater profit ; but, in view of the fact that the native methods for the pre- paration of the l>utter are inefficient, it appears better on the whole that the native should be encouraged to sell the dried kernels. The transport of the butter on a largo scale is also a matter of some difficulty, as it must be packed in caHks before l)oing placed on board ship. THE SHEA NUT. 63 A French firm tried the experiment of sending out to West Africa thin tinned sheet-iron which could be folded into boxes. In this case the cost of material for packinf^ 1 ton of butter is said to have been only 13s. The fact that the residual oil- cake fi-om shea kernels does not fetch a high price in European markets renders it possible that it may ultimately be found more profit- able to prepare the fat in West Africa. The preparation of the fat or butter from the kernels as practised by the natives is a tedious and wasteful process : one native can prepare about 8 lbs. in one day, but more than half the fat is not extracted from the kernels, and is thus altogether wasted. After the removal of the nut shells the kernels are roasted in a kind of oven built of earth, in which the kernels are placed upon grids of sticks. This roasthig appears to sei-ve two purposes — that of rendering the kernels easier to grind, and also of coagu- lating the latex and preventing it from being extracted with the fat, which it would contaminate. The roasted kernels are then crushed m a mortar or between two flat stones, and the crushed mass is boiled with water, the fat being skimmed off as it rises to the top and purified by treatment with water and by strauiijig. The methods employed in different localities are the same in principle, but vary in detail. The prepared butt€>r is generally stored in large empty gourds, in which it is allowed to solidify. Wlien required for transport it Ls removed from the gourds and wTapped hi leaves, forming a spherical or ovoid mass usually weighing 40 lbs. and upwards. THE CACAO BEAN. To fact fi. G7.] Cdcotni/s. /u'nif^In, etc. — Cajit. H. O. Nkwi.aM). i^^ A Ciicao Nursei\' in \\\-st Afiiia. CHAPTER V. THE CACAO BEAN. Cocoa, one of the few natural products which serves equally well as food or drink, was, not inappropriately, described by Linnaeus as " the food of the Gods." Tlie British Navy recognises its nourishing and stimulating qualities by serving it out daily. The British Army also suppUes it to its men almost as frequently. The powder or essence, which is in domestic use, is the dry cake (ground into flour) of the kernel of the cacao bean, after it has been separated from the bean itself, and after the greater percentage of its natural oil or butter has been extracted by crushing, and pressing under a hydraulic press. The separation of the kernel or " nib " from the bean is obtained by roasting the beans, then passing them through a cooling chamber, and, finally, cracking them by a machine which winnows the shells and dust by a powerful blast. In the making of chocolate, the butter is not extracted, but the sugar and other flavourings are added to the " nibs ' and all ground together. The chemical analysis of cacao nibs and cocoa essence is : — Cacao Nibs. Cocoa Esse nee. ( 'ocoa- butter, .... 50 parts Albuminoid substances, ... IG ., < 'arbohydrat<>s, .... 21 ,, Thoobrominc, . , l-o ,, Salts, 1 3-5 „ Other conatituonts. . 8 ., j 30 parts 22 „ 30 ,. 2 5 ',', n 67 68 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. Cocoa-butter is one of the most delicately flavoured and expensive edible fats known to science. When clarified, it is of a pale yellow colour, and only becomes rancid when subjected to excessive heat or light. In ordinary times it is far too expensive to be used as a food, except for making the finest chocolate and the most expensive confectionery, where ordinarj^ fats like lard, suet, margarine, or buttei* are too impure and coarse to use. For the same reason some of the most valuable ointments and toilet preparations are made from the cocoa-butter. During the \\ar. however, when the scarcitj'^ of sugar restricted the making of chocolate, and lard — the ordinary housewife's cooking fat — soared to Is. 6d. and more per pound, cocoa-butter came into use for cooking any article from sweet pastries to fried fish and chipped potatoes. The })ecuhar fiavour of the uncooked product, distasteful to most adults, can be eliminated, not only by the addi- tion of a little essence of lemon (an important fact to remember when the fat has gone slightly rancid, owing to long storage in factories), but also l\y the process of cooking. When the fat has been heated for a short time it almost entirely loses its yellow colour, and also its flavour, and becomes a white neutral fat. Hence, if it is essential not to have any flavour of any sort in the resulting articles, all that has to l>e done Ls to heat the oil for a few minutes in an ordinary saucepan. It will be found that the resulting fat can be used for frying fish, making chip jX)tatoe«, and puddings of all sorts without any trace of cocoa flavour \tc\ng apparent. THE CACAO BEAN. 69 One pound does the wo'k of 1| to 2 lbs. of lard or suet, because it is far finer and purer than these, and also is free from all moisture. The pastry produced is much finer and lighter than pastry made from coarser fats. The output of cacao in British possessions amounts to over 40 per cent, of the world "s production, and the proportion is increasing. In the years 1913, 1914. and 1915 the total world's production was respectively 255,400 tons, 273,600 tons, and 288,400 tons. British colonies produced respectively 87,528 tons, 100,169 tons, and 123,966 tons. The Gold Coast alone produced in 1915 77.41S tons, equal to 25 per cent, of the total amount. Brazil, Guayaquil in Ecuador, Grenada, and Trinidad are the principal cacao-producing centres in the New World. Of these, the Trinidad bean is said to be the largest and finest flavoured, the oldest estates (almost all in the hands of the original Spanish and French families) lying in the Northern Valleys of Santa Cruz. Maracas, and Aiima. Montserrat and Naparima are also gi'eat cacao districts. Charles Kingsley in his .4^ iMst describea the cacao plantations in Trinidad. Grenada produces a smaller bean than Ti'inidad, possibly owing to the prevalence of closer platiting and want of artificial shade. The cacao of Guatemala was once monopolised for use by the Spanish Court, and "Soco- nosco " is still of excellent quality. Para and Bahia in Brazil produce some of the smalle^^t beans, but their flavour is mild and pleasant. Columbia. Venezuela. Jamaica. Dominica, St. Lucia, Tobago. Guadalouiie. (hiba, Martinique. San Domingo. British. Dutch, and Fi-ench 70 cocoNi'Ts. ki<:rxels. and cacao. Guiana also cultivate this product. In the la-st-named colony, a forest of the wild plant was discovered about 1 7:54 on the i)anks of a tributary of the Yari River. From this forest seeds were taken and the industry started. Just before the present war considerable areas, amount- ing to about 5.000 acres in all. Mere planted with cacao in Uganda, and the planters were very hopeful of results, judging by previous experiments on a smaller scale. During the past four years, however, such results as have been forthcoming have not fidtilled exj)ectations, the yields not coming up to what had been exjx^ct^. Uganda, however, hke most other planting countries, has suffered during the war from the fact that consider- ai)le numbers of plantation owners and managers have been on active service. In addition, labour has been considerably atfected, and planters in the meantime have been attracted by the apparently better prospect* attaching to Para rubber. In the Old World Robert Louis Stevenson was an early pioneer of the cacao industry in Samoa.* The Dutch East Indies and Ceylon also produce large quan- tities. In Africa, the islands of S. Thome and Princi|>e were for many years the most famous, and Messrs. Cadbury at one time bought most of their cacao from this source. From 190H for some years, however, these islands \\ere l)oycottod by many firms, owing to the conditions (»f slavery said to exist. The Portuguese rk)vernment have now improved all faulty conditions. From HHI. however, British West Africa (esijecially the CJold Coast Colony) l)Ocame the principal cacao-producing country in tlie world, the quantity produced that yrar • i'aWinui letters. THE CACAO BEAN. 71 being 44,828 tons. Messrs. Cadbury and Fry now have cacao plantations of their o\^ti in Ashanti. The birth and growth of the cacao industry in the Gold Coast reads like romance. Totteh Quarshie, of Christianburg, towards the end of the nineteenth century, brought a few beans from Fernando Po, where he had been working as a blacksmith. Planting them, and nursing the seeds, his little enterprise soon became profitable. Others soon imitated him. In 1891 the first shipment of about 80 lbs., valued at £4, was made to this country, since when it has leaped rapidly to about 80,000 tons, valued at about four milhons sterling — more than a-third of the total cacao production of the world. Every pound has been gro\vn by native farmers, and the family incomes of cacao-growers have been multiphed a hundredfold or more, many amounting to between one and two thousand pounds sterling yearlj^ a few being even larger. Cacao is now also being gro^vn in Togoland, Cameroons, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria. In Nigeria, the export of cacao has increased from 99,000 cwts., valued at £172,000, in 1914, to over 200.000 cwts., valued at about £400,000. Ibadan is the largest producing centre, and three native cacao instructors are employed in the Calabar and Abeokuta provinces and in the Agege district. In the first-named, cacao- planting competitions are encouraged by the Govern- ment. In the last-named, tests made \nth the Hamel Smith drying machine, to compare the etfects of sun- drying and machine-drjdng, showed the percentage of alkaloids in the artificially-dried product to be 2 05 as compared with 1-92 in the sun-dried, but the cost was three times as great. 72 COCONUTS, KERNELvS, AND CACAO. Owing to the restrictions upon the imports of cocoa into Europe during the war, the figures give no accurate estimate of the enormous growth of the cacao industry. We have, therefore, only given below the imports into New York during 1915-17 inclusive, which speak volumes : Imported into New York- January- December. 1917. 2,490,237 1916. 1915. All growths, 1,567,484 1,441,517 Including — Guayaquils, . 391,530 265,812 208,183 . Trinidads, 182,449 157,277 160,991 Caracas, 180,091 111,749 156,101 Bahia, 596,513 248,740 272,586 Sanchez, 322,001 319,238 265,348 St. Thome, . 93,508 59,071 27,646 Other African, 593,782 304,783 203,109 Delivered for Consumption — All growths. 2,276,111 1,384,769 1,192,922 Including — Guayaquils, . 348,808 157,893 171,045 Trinidads, 174,905 155,467 144.978 Caracas, 136,303 106,317 115,090 Bahia, 558,633 235,863 206,221 Sanchez, . . 328,138 284,136 202,212 St. Thome, . 87,809 58,500 33,004 Other African, 543,091 300,971 185,330 During the summer of 1!)1. I'rodiu-t-:. ami Socrrt Socictio.-j." p. .>.'>. 74 t 0( UNUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. The ForasUro ( ' foreign ") is long and deeply furrowed, but regular in shai:)e and rough surfaced, flatter iis a rule than the criollo. Then* cotyledons are usually purple. The CaJabacilla ('' little calabash ") is generally smooth and round. Otherwise there is little to distinguish it from the Forastero, thf^ hardy character of which it also shares. Where the Criollo and Forastero varieties are cultivated in close proximity, cross-fertilisation takes place between them, and the character of each ty|)e may be found merged in the progeny. This is particularly noticeable in Ceylon. The seeds are either sown in a nursery or " at stake."' (The author participated in the planting of cacao in West Africa, both on a modern plantation, controlled by Europeans, and on a more ])rimitive one maintained by a native c^hief. He was thus able to compare the two methods.) The native practice was (and still is, where the Govern- ment have not succeeded in inducing the i)eople to adopt newer methods), after felling the forest, to sow the seed " at stake '" in small patches at the beginning of the rainy season, in roughly i)repared beds close to the water. Gajw are not filled, and two or three seeds are sown together, the weaklings ))eing cut out not later than the second or third year. Even then the remaining plants are too close together — fi feet intervals being frequent — and often in very irregular lines: while the exces.'iive shade caused by close planting often prevents the fruit from forming well, and sometimes produces rot, owing to w.int of eva|K>ratiotj of moistiire. On the other THE CACAO BEAN. 75 hand, the dense foUage makes \veeding unnecessary, and is therefore economical from this point of view. In Grenada and British West Indies, where planting at stake is fi-equent, 8 feet of space only is given bet^^•een each plant, thus forming a denser foliage and dispensing with any other shading. Five hundred trees to the acre can thus be raised, but the method is not so suitable to open vallej^s or ])lains as to hillside plantations. Seeds " at stake " are protected bj' a palm-leaf or similar covering, and except in purely native plantations, all but the strongest plants are removed when the seed- lings reach 1 foot in height. Sowing " at stake" is not recommended where frequent periods of dry weather occur during the rainy season, as the young cacao trees demand a moist soil during the first four or five months of their existence. If not sown " at stake," cacao seeds are planted either in a nursery made of wicker and palm-leaf, or in bamboo pots on the spot upon which they are definitely intended to grow. The seeds are planted 4 inches apart in rows at intervals of 9 inches, the stringy centre of the pod being planted downwards. When the seedlings are about a foot high they can be planted out, an unl^voken wall of earth being taken up with each seedling. A month or two before transplanting takes place holes about 3 feet square and 2 feet deep are dug. the sub-soil being thrown into a hea]) alongside the hole. On stwp hill-slopes this soil is best placed on the lower side of the hole. If water stagnates in tlie holes this indicatec^ tliat cb'ainage is necessary and must receive attention before planting commences. 7fi cor'oxrTs. kernels, and cacao. A few (lays j)revious to trunsplanting the young cacao plants, the holes are filled with any rich surface-soil ill the neighbourhood, or. should this not be available, a good layer of animal manure is placed at the bottom of the hole. The beat time for planting cacao is at the commence- ment of the rainy season, as this gives the young plants sufficient time to liecome thoroughly established before the dry weather appears. Having partly accustomed the young nursery plants to the conditions of the open field, by removing aU shade from them, transplanting commences during a s|t<'ll of wet or cloudy weather. The soil is lirst thoroughly saturated with water in the baskets or pots, to facilitate the subsequent removal of the plantfl. The roots are disturbed as little as ])ossible, and not buried too deeply in the ground : it is sufficient if the surface-soil is on a level with the top of the ball of earth taken from the pot or basket. Should this ball be broken, the roots in the ground are buried so that the surface-soil just reaches the point where the stem issues from the soil in the pot. Large luimbers of young cacao plants fail to grow satisfactorily if they have been })lant(^d too deeply or too far out of the ground. The soil is firmly presscMl around the ball of earth enclosing the roots : but it is almost impossible to cany out trans- planting without slightly disturl)ing the roots. Ivt^ufy twigs or palm leaves bent over in the form of a cage, provide the necessary shade until the young ])lant8 start into growth. Shotdil n. sj)ell of dry weather sot in before they l>e- com(^ established. ;ih many as .'^0 per cent, of the plantfl jM^rirth dining the tirsl year following the estnblishment Coconuts, Kenuds, ftc — Capt. H. O. Xkwlanij. ^^ I. JL T IE I zx:. [To f'v.f. p. 76, Cacao lit-ans upon spci i.illy pnnu-il trcei THE CACAO BEAN. 77 of the plantation. As the greatest percentage of organic matter is almost invariably found in the uppermost layers of a soil, unless this surface-soil is protected the organic matter is liable to be washed away by heavy rains. There is, however, less loss of organic matter occurring on an estate where the soil is held to- gether by a mass of fibrous roots — e.g., where all the vacant spaces between the trees are occupied by catch- crops. Some planters affirm that the soil is best pro- tected by allowing weeds to grow, and by cutting them down at intervals. There is something to be said in favour of tliLs practice, especially on hilly lands, for the surface-soil is prevented from being washed away by the network of fibrous roots formed by grasses and similar weeds. When they are cut do^\^l, the plant- foods which they have extracted from the soil are in a measure returned as soon as decomposition sets in. The best season to prune is when tlie sap is least active, and this frequently coincides with the end of the principal crop season. Most cacao trees carry more or less fruit all through the year, but they produce more towards the end of the rainy season. The removal of large branches is very rarely necessary from cacao trees which have been always properly pruned ; indeed, the best pruned trees are those from which all undesirable growths have been removed with a pocket pruning- knife. In Trinidad, where cacao plants are planted about 12 feet apart, large forest trees used to be planted for shade purposes — usually the Bois Immortelle — while in Samoa trees are often left standing for this purpose at intervals when the forest is being cleared. Rubber and bread 78 (oroNT'lS. KERNELS, AND CACAO. fruit for permanent sliade, and smaller " catch-crops " or " si(l(vcro|)s " for temporary shade, are now frequently iidod a.*^ being more remunerative. In West Africa tjie banana is used for temporary shade purposes, and givea a profitable; local return while the cacao tree is growing. Cassava or tapioca is also employed, but is not recommended, as it takes too much nourishment from the soil. Manurmg, except for delicate plants, and upon soil lacking necessary chemical constituents, is not actually necessary until after the first crops, although a moderate application often quickens growth and production. As s(wn, however, as the crop-taking has begun, regular manuring is necessary to ensure permanent and im proving crops. The leaves of the plant, at first a tender yellowisli- Itrown, ultimately turn to a bright green. They often grow to 14 or IS inches in length. Scale insects attack the leaves, and grubs will quickly rot the limbs and trunks, unless attended to. If left to nature, lichen, int^ss. ferns, and vin«'S will encroach upon liie tree. The greatest iniMihci- of Mowrrs are produced on the stem and princi})al branches, and a tree may continue to bear flowers and fruit from the same areas for many ccmsecutive years. The flower is small, considering the svw of the fruit. Flowers may be found on the trees throughout the year (and clusters of the pink and yellow blossoms may often be found on the trunk itself), but the greatest number are usually present about six months U^fore the priiu ipal crop season. Civcao flowers are so constructed that outside aid appears THE CACAO BEAN. 79 to be essential for pollination. Many insects are doubtless instrumental in this connection. Five or six months usually elapse between flowering and fruiting. The first flowers are not allowed to produce pods, as this exhausts the tree. The average number of pods which a healthy cacao tree matures per year is approximately seventy, so that only about 1 per cent, of the flowers yields mature fruit. The beans are found in the pods in five longitudinal rows ; ten beans may be traced in each row, but rarely more than 45 properly developed beans are found. During the last months of ripening, squirrels, monkeys, rats, deer, and birds will frequently harass the beans, but if snakes abound, as they usually do in the cacao regions, they wiU destroy and prevent more of these depredators than a hunter's gun. Cacao produces when about four years old. From the twelfth to the sixteenth year it is at full maturity. The cacao-tree bears nearly all the year round after it has reached the age of five years, but only two harvests are, as a rule, made. The crop varies from 1 to 7 lbs. per tree, and as much as 4 cwts. per acre. Eleven pods produce about a pound of cured beans, each pod con- taining from 36 to 42 beans on a fully mature tree. The fruit is yellow and red on the side nearest the sun, the rind thick, the pulp sweet, the seeds numerous, and covered with a thin brown skin or shell. The native cacao-grower too frequejitly collects the pods at a time when he can gather the maximum quantity, and often, in consequence, takes over-ripe and under- ripe fruit. He also is inchned to pull ott' the pods, often 80 COCONUTS. KERNELS. AND ( ACAO. thereby tearing aiul injuring the cushion, from or near which the successive crops of flower and fruit proceed, hence the l)earing capacity of the tree is subsequently diminished. The correct method is to cut the pods with a knife or cutlass, and only when fully ripe. The pods shoukl sound hollow when tapped with the knuckles. The native often leaves his heap of collected pods for two or three days without further attention, he then breaks them open, and the medley of beans and pulp are washed and dried in the sun. On a careful cacao estate, the beans are shaken out of the pods or extracted with spoons — usually by women — as soon as collected. Then they are piled in heaps and covered by sand and banana leaves, or placed in box- like bins with perforated sides and bottoms, and similarly covered with leaves for fermentation. Every twenty-four hours these bins are emptied into others, so that the contents are thoroughly mixed, or, if in heaps, they are turned o\er daily for four or five daj's, until the pulp becomes darker, and the temperature raised to about 140° F. Tlie object of this " sweating," as the process is called, is to remove the dark, sour, sticky hquid, a kind of dilute acetic acid. The beans become duller in colour and the skin is expanded. They are next laid out in trays or on mats to dry in the sun, or are specially machine-dried. In Oylon and in West Africa, they are also washed or s])rinkled over with moisture and i)oli8hed, the latter process being done by machine in the more modern plantations, and by natives treading upon the beans in more primitive cacao (States. THE CACAO BEAN. 81 In Venezuela, in some parts of West Africa, and in other cacao-bearing regions where Spaniards have been dominant, there is a practice of " claying " the beans by dusting over them a fine red earth during the drying pro- cess. The, bean is said to be protected thereby from mil- dew, and the aroma is supposed to be preserved. Often, however, this practice degenerates into a mere " weight- ing " of the cacao. Many brokers and manufacturers do not favour " claying," but others do. The beans are exported to Europe in bags. The process of their manufacture into cocoa or chocolate in this and other countries the author has described else- where.* The cost of planting and producing cacao varies, of course, Uke its yield, according to the country, and also according to the labour obtainable. In Trinidad, for example, land may be obtamed for about £1 per acre, and labour costs from 50 to 100 cents per day, while estates are usually planted on the contract system — i.e., the land is cleared at the owner's expense (25s. to £2 per acre), and handed over to a contractor, who drains and plants for his own profit. When he handi? it back, the proprietor pays Is. 3d. per bearing tree, and about half-price for non-bearmg ones. In Samoa the Vice-Consul estimates about £2,800 to start a plantation, and £30 to £40 as the cost per acre from the clearing to the first crop. The Governor of Fernando Po says that capital in- vested yields interest in five to six year^, and in seven or eight years the whole should be reimbursed. A native farmer, writing in the Oold Const Lemkr in * " Romanoo of Modern Coramerce " (Soeley v^ Co., Ltmdon). 6 82 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. 1916, gave the following estimate of initial expenses on a small native estate of 200 feet by 400 feet : — To Clbab akd Maintain.* 1st year, clearing of bush, Felling large trees, .... Planting young cacao trees. Clearing weeds, .... . £4 0 0 8 0 0 2 0 0 8 0 0 £22 0 0 £3 0 0 6 0 0 12 0 0 £21 0 0 The trees generally yield as foUows 4th year, 3 loads at 20s., 5th year, 6 loads at 20e., 6th year, 12 loads at 208., During these years payment to overseers for plucking and drying is Ss. a load, and transport for 20 miles about 48. a load. The future lies with the producer of high-grade cocoa at tho lowest cost. Speeding-up and efficiency must be the watchword on the tropical estates as well as in the factories at home. * The cost, of course, has gone up since this was written, but so also has the price. THE SOYA BEAN, COTTON SEED, AND SESAME. CHAPTER VI. THE SOYA BEAN, COTTON SEED, AND SESAME. The Soya hean comes from a leguminous plant originally found in a wild state in the region from Cochin China to the south of Japan and Java. It has been cultivated from very ancient timea as a food plant, principally in China and Japan ; but although grown in these countries for such an extended period, its cultivation seems to have spread very slowly to the surrounding countries, and has only been introduced into India during com- paratively modern times. In the Southern part of the U.S.A., where it is now extensively grown, numerous experiments are being carried out to ascertain the vaiieties best suited to the different soils and climates. It is also gi'OAvn in various parts of Europe, but not to any great extent. The plant has branching hah'y stems, with more or less hairy leaves, broad flowers pale hlac or violet-coloured, and three to five seeded pods covered like the stem with stiff hairs. The seeds vary in colour fi-om whitish and yellowish to green, brown, and black, and in shape from spherical to elliptical. Under favourable conditions the plant may rej^ch a height of 4 feet or more. Very often more than 100 pods have been obtained from one plant, but in a field crop a good average would be 40. The flowers are self polli- nated ; thus the yield is entirely independent of insects 85 86 COC'ONL^TS. KERNELS. AND CACAO. and the plant free from an important obstacle in the way of introduction to new regions. A crop of seed is ensured wherever conditions arc such as to allow the plants to make the proper vegetative growth and reach maturit3\ There are over 200 varieties of Soya bean, which are distinguished according to the colour, size and shape of the seed, and the time required for the plants to reach maturity. This large number of varieties can be formed into six gi'oups — yellow, greenish -yellow, black, brown, green and white. The yellow variety has the largest giowth. and is rich in oil (17 to 19 per cent.), albuminoids, carbohydrates, and nitrogen. Under average conditions it grows from 3 to 5 feet, and requires from 120 to 150 days to mature a crop of seed. The average yield should be 30 bushels per acre (600 kilograms). Under no circumstances should this seed be planted more than 2 inches deep. The crop can be readily harvested with machinery, and ia frequently gathered with a grain- binder. One of the yellow varieties, the " Southern," has given very good results in Natal and in the Northern Transvaal. In West Africa also progress has been made, and a larger amount of oil has been obtained there than in Manchuria, Japan, or the United States, and, just before the war, this variety was l)eing experimented witli in East Africa and the Smlan. The greenish-yellow, a medium lat43 variety, is vigorous but not coarse, growing 3 to 4 feet high with numerous branches, none close to the ground. The green is grown extensively in N. China, and, containing al)oul 17 petter than cow-peas or even maize. 88 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. The Soya bean is especially adapted to the maize and cotton belts, where the later varieties grow exceptionally well. Generally speaking, the Soya bean requires the same temperature as maize, the soil requirements being much the same ; it will make a good growth on poorer .soil than maize requires, provided that inoculation is present. The Soj-a bean makes the best development on fairly fertile loams. Where the soil is good and a crop of hay or green fodder is desired, good results may be obtained by sowing broadcast. If, however, a crop of beans is desired it is best to plant in drills from 2 to 3 feet apart, according to the quaUty of the soil. When sown broadcast, about a bushel of seed is required, and when put in with a di'ill, from half to three-quarters of a bushel is required. When a seed crop is required, enough seed should be used to give five or six plants per foot in the row, the rows being on an average 2i feet apart. The Soya bean can be planted any time from early spring up to midsummer. Generally, early plantings require more time to matm*e than late plantings, the difference in the same variety often amounting to as much as three weeks. Under ordinary conditions, 25 to 40 bushels of seed per acre (from 1,280 to 2,100 kilograms per hectare) would be an average yield. On comparatively poor soils 20 bushels of seed per acre can generally be obtained. Average AnalymH of the Seed of the Hix Varieties of Soya Beans. Water 7-70 /Fibre 4-60 Frosh or | Fat, .... 20-35 air-dry < Nitrogen free extract. 2615 substance }*rotein, .... 36-40 Aah 5-79 100-0 SOYA BEAN, COTTON SEED, AND SESAME. 89 In harvesting, it is better to cut the pods before they are quite mature. If too ripe, they are inclined to burst during the process of driving and carrying. This bean is an invaluable crop in all planting districts. It can be planted in coconut plantations, to enrich the soil, give fodder to the working cattle, and be a source of profit in supplying food to the natives ; it also helps in keeping down the weeds. Soya bean meal or cake has been found to be a most excellent food for dairy cows. It increases the quantity of the milk and improves the quality of the butter, giving it a firm texture and thus improving its keeping qualities. Two pounds of meal per day is a fair ration for a dairy cow ; the cake or meal should be first softened in water and well mixed with lucerne or any other forage given. The following is an analysis indicating its nutritious qualities : — Cake. Meal. Water, Oil, . Albuminoids, Digestible carbo-hydrates, Woody fibre. Mineral wat«rs, . Sand and silica, . 12-70 1107 38-52 26-51 5-80 5 05 0-35 3-80 11-33 43 05 30-77 5-45 5-35 0-25 Total, 100-0 100-0 Cotton-seed oil belongs to the class of semi-drying oils, but has recently come into use as a salad or table oil, as a substitute for lard, and in the manufacture of oleo- margarine, the cheaper qualities only passing to the soap factory. 90 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. The Americans first bestowed the care on cotton-seed oil which brou«jht it into prominoiice. As the seed is ginned it is removed to splendid storage accommodation in the mills. Raised to the top of the store by bucket elevators, a screw " conveyor " distributes it wherever available. As required, it drops into another di.stri- butor. which transfers the seed to the revolving " boll screen," a cylinder perforated with holes sufficientl)'^ large to pass the seed, and retain the bolls, stalks, or other large impurities. From the screen the seed passes to anotlier revolving perforated screen, which separates smaller impurities — e.g., sand, dust, etc. The clean seed is next conveyed to the " linters," a saw-gin which removes the short lint, thence to the " hullers," an outer cylinder and an inner drum with knives set in both. The " hullers " ha\'ing broken the shells and partly cut up the kernels, a revolving screen and an oscillating separator or " shaker " eliminate the hulls. The remaining kernels are crushed between heavy rollers, heated, and shaped into cakes, which, wi'apped in hair cloths, are packed into presses. The squeczed- out oil is pumped into a setthng tank, where any impuri- ties sink to the bottom. The oil cake, which fetches about a quarter of the price of the oil. is used for fattening cattle and exported. Demargarinated cotton- seed oil is sometimes called " winter oil." Kapok oil from the silk-cotton tree is similarly expressed for butter substitutes, but this is largely a Dutch industry. Sesame or " ginqeUy " oil, also a semi-drying oil, is bland, nearly colourless, and without smell. It comes from the flat seed of an herb or plant which grows from SOYA BEAN, COTTON SEED, AND SESAME. 91 2 to 4 feet high, in India, Palestine, Siam, China, Asia Minor, and other sub-tropical countries. The plant is said to have come from the Indian Archipelago, its flowers are yellow or pink in colour, and its seeds vary from white to reddish-brown or black. The seeds contain 50 per cent, of oil, which is used in India for cooking purposes, anointing the body, for illumination, and soap manufacture. Being edible, the oil is used in many tropical countriee to flavour bread and cake. The soot obtained in burning the oil is used as one of the ingredi- ents of Indian ink. The Palestine seed is said to be the finest. In Europe it is used as a substitute for olive oil, although it is commercially more import- ant than the latter oil. Marseilles is the greatest importer. Hempseed. — Among minor edible oils, but of the drying class, those from hempseed and candlenuts deserve a brief notice. Hempseed oil is produced in large quantities in Russia, and as there is a considerable demand for it on the Continent, deserves greater attention from those of our colonies which could cultivate hemp. The seed contains from 30 to 35 per cent, of oil, yielding from 25 to 30 per cent, after the extracting process. Of a light gi*een or greenish-yellow colour when freshly extracted, it changes, when kept, to brownish -yellow. The cold-pressed oil only is edible, the remainder is used for burning or for soft soaps, paints, And varnislies. The cake is a highly nutritious cattle food, containing 32-30 of protem. Candlenvts. — Candlenuts {Aleurites triloba), coming chiefly from Mauritius and Hong Kong, have been found 92 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. to contain over 60 per cent, of pale brownish-yellow liquid oil in their kernels, and a aeed-cniahing firm has estimated that the value of this oil should be almost equal to that of palm oil, while the residual cake could be used as a fertiliser. The shells are valueless, therefore the kernels alone should be exported. BABASSU AND PARAGUAY KERNELS AND MISCELLANEOUS OIL-NUTS. CHAPTER VII. BABASSU AND PARAGUAY KERNELS AND MISCELLANEOUS OIL-NUTS. A RECENT type of kernel, known as Coco babassu and bassoba, is derived from a species of Attalea, possibly A. funifera, Mart. The tree is stated to be abundant in the State of Maranham, Brazil {Dipl. and Cons. Reps., Ann. Ser., No. 5,526 ; Report on the Trade of Para, 1914). Considerable quantities of Babassu kernels have been exported lately, the quantity in 1916 amounting to nearly 1,500 tons. The gi-eater part of the kernels appear to have been obtained by hand-shellmg, the nuts being placed on end in a hole in a board and struck with an axe ; but British machinerj^ for shelling the nuts is stated to have been introduced. The kernels have been crushed on a faii'ly large scale in this country, and there seems to be every prospect of increased supplies being brought here. They are said to have been sold at about £2 per ton less than the price paid for good copra. The fruit weighs on an average about 45 grams, and consists of an outer fibrous pericarp enclosing a hard- shelled nut containing several kernels. A single fruit examined at the Imperial Institute contained five kernels, but, from the size and formation of the kernels as exported from Brazil, this is perhaps an unusually large number. The kernels are reddish-brown, and of a charaot^ristic i)5 96 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. elongated shaj^e pointed bluntly at the ends : they weigh on an average about 3 grams, and are 40 to 50 mm, long and about 13 mm. broad. They are easily distin- guishable from Cohune kernels, which are shorter and rounder. The kernels as received contained 4-2 per cent, of moisture and 67-2 per cent. (70-2 per cent, expressed on the dry kernels) of fairly hard, cream-coloured fat, resembling palm kernel and coconut oils in general appearance. The results of examination of the residual meal show that it should possess a feeding value about equal to that of coconut cake and somewhat superior to that of palm kernel cake. Tucan kernels contain 6-5 per cent, of moisture and yield 48-6 per cent, of fat (52-0 per cent, expressed on the dried material), and weigh on an average 3-6 grams. They are tougher than palm kernels or copra. The kernels of the large Panama nuta contain 7-1 per cent, moisture and 37-6 per cent, of fat, while the residual meal contains only 10 per cent, of protein. The kernels sold at from £1 to £2 per ton below the price of tine palm kernels. Paraguay kernels are smaller than, but otherwise indistinguishable in appearance from, gru-gru kernels {A. sclerocarpa) from the West Indies ; the former, however, contain a somewhat higher percentage of fat of decidedly softer consistency and higher iodine value. Comparatively little is known of South American palms and of the difficulty of identifying the species by the seed or fruit alone ; it is quite probable, therefore, that gru-gru and Paraguay kernels are not identical in origin. KERNELS AND MISCELLANEOUS OIL-NUTS. 97 The Paraguay kernels are roughly spherical, about 12 mm. in diameter, and weigh about 1 gram each ; the skin is almost black and the flesh softer than that of the West African oil-palm kernels. The kernels as received contained 6-0 per cent, of moisture and 65-2 per cent, of fat (69-4 per cent, expressed on the dried material). The fat is decidedly softer than either coconut or palm- kernel oils, being only semi-soHd at ordinary temperature : the iodine value is higher than that of either of these oils or of the oils derived from the other kinds of palm kernels examined. The residual meal of Paraguay kernels is richer in proteins than coconut cake, and should have a high feeding value. The kernels are stated to have been sold recently in Liverpool at prices between those of fine palm kernels and copra. CHEjncAL Chabacter3 of the Oil. Babassu Keruels. Tucan Kernels. Paraguay Kernels. Melting point, .... Solidifying point of fatty acids, . „ .„ ., ^ 100° C. Specific gravity at ^ rC > • 26° C. 23° C. 0-868 30-5° C. 27° C. 0-867 21° C. 0-865 Acid value, .... Saponification value, . Iodine value, per cent. (Hiibl, \ 17 hrs.), . . . . / 5-6 249 15-6 2-9 249 11-6 26-1 247 28-5 Unsaponifiable matter, per cent.. Volatile acids, soluble. 0-3 5-8 0-3 3-8 0-3 6-5 „ insoluble. 10-2 5-9 10-2 These kernels are, therefore, valuable additions to the oil seeds now utiUsod as sources of fat in the edible fat industry. The Tucan and Paraguay nuts do not offer any particular difficulty in the way of exploitation, as 98 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. the shells can be cracked by machinery such as is already used for ordinary palm nuts in West Africa. In the case of Babassu nuts, however, like Cohune nuts, the problem of extracting the kernels is more difficult, as the fruits have a fibrous pericarp, the removal of which is generally regarded as necessary before the nuts can be cracked. For cracking " Babassu " nuts a machine has been constructed by Messrs. Hind & Lund, of Preston. In this machine the nuts are crushed endwise between a fixed steel anvil with a concave depression on the surface and another anvil operated by means of an eccentric device attached to gearing which may be worked either by hand or power. The machine is stated to deal \^^th 40 nuts per minute, and is sold at £25, f.o.b. Liverpool (if 100 machines are ordered at one time). The Downie machine, designed by Wotherspoon, con- sists essentially of a depulping device for removing the fibrous pericarp, a centrifugal nut-cracker working in conjunction with an oscillating riddle, and also with a brine bath or with water for separating the broken shell from the kernels. The machine is driven by means of a 5 H.P. oil engine. Another nut-sheUing machine, designed to shell " hard nuts, such as the Cohune nut," has been patented by Dyer and Innes-Ward {English Pat., 5687/1913). This machine can deal with 8 to 10 tons of Cohune nuts per day, and requires l\ H.P. Both of the last-named machines are devised for Cohune nuts, but the " Babassu," being very similar in hardness, could doubtless be handled by the same machinery. The StrtTphonema Nut.- —Three now oilseeda from Tropical Coconuts, KerneU, etc. — Capt H. ( ). Ni;\vi,am>. [ To foce p. 98. 1= Ij J^ T E ix: I. Craig" Kcvolviiiu' H<'x I'lvss tor Copra, I'alni KeineLs etc. KERNELS AND mSCELLANEOUS OIL-NUTS. 99 Africa have been reported as having been received and ex- perimented on by the Imperial Institute during 1917-1918. The first is the kernel of the Strephonema, a tree or shrub confined to Tropical West Africa, and particularly abundant in the Belgian Congo, The sample consisted of very dark hrovm. kernels, roughly hemispherical in shape, and measuring from 1 to 1| inches in diameter. Internally the kernels were hard, and of purphsh-bro\TO colour. They were found to yield 38-6 per cent, of a bright yellow, rather soft fat, equivalent to a yield of 41-8 per cent, from the dry kernels. The fat was free from unpleasant smell or taste. The report states that the low saponification value is unusual for a fat of this character. This feature is pro- bably due to the presence of a considerable amount of fatty acid having a low saponification value, and not to the presence of di-glycerides. The yield of glycerine is somewhat low, and would be much higher if di-glycerides were present. The residual meal left after the extraction of the oil was of chocolate colour, and had an unpleasant astringent taste. It was analj^sed with the following results : — MoistuK, .... Crude proteins, . Consisting of — True proteins, Other nitrogenous substances, Fat, Starch, tannin, etc. (by difference), Fibre, .... Ash, ..... Per oen:. 7-3 9-6 8-2 1-3 M-9 69-9 91 3-3 No alkaloids or cyanogenetic glucosides were present. A considerable quantity of tannin is present, as the 100 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. following results show, and the astringent taste of the meal is no doubt due to this : — Per cent. Moisture, . . . . . . .7-3 Matter insoluble in water, ..... 44*3 Extractive matter (non-tannin), .... 17'7 Tannin 30-7 Ash 3-3 Tinometer readinps for a 0-5 per cent, i Red . 7-4 tannin solution in a 1 cm. cell, . J Yellow, . 15-9 The meal thus contained a fairly large amount of tannin, but the extract was of a dark purplish-red colour, and would yield a dark coloured leather, so it seems unlikely that the meal would be of commercial value either as a tanning material or for the manufacture of tanning extract. This investigation indicates that the yield of fat from these kernels is sufficient to make them of commercial value. For oil seeds, however, to sell readily, especially in the Unit€>d Kingdom, it is necessary that they should yield a good feeding cake, and the presence in the meal of a considerable amount of dark coloured tannin would prevent its use for feeding purposes without special pre- liminary treatment for removal of the tannin. The N'gore Nut. — The next is the N'gore nut, almost spherical-shaped, bluntly pointed at one end, and meas- uring from \ to 1 inch in diameter. The kernels are brown externally, mostly of pale cream colour within, and of soft consistence. They yielded 66-2 per cent, of a reddish-yellow viscous oil, equivalent to a yield of 70-7 per cent, from the dry kernels. The oil, which haa an unpleasant odour, possesses an unusually high specific gravity. It is partially soluble in alcohol and completely so in ether, but is not soluble KERNELS AND MISCELLANEOUS OIL-NLTS. 101 in light petroleum, although it absorbs this solvent to some extent. In respect of its high specific gravity, viscosity, and behaviour with solvents, it is somewhat similar to castor oil, and the acetyl value shows that, like castor oil, it contains hydroxylated acid. Although the oil has a high iodine value it does not dry on exposure to air in a thin film. The unpleasant smeU and viscous nature of the oil, together with its dark colour, would prevent its use for edible purposes. It yields a dark-coloured soap, but could no doubt be used for making certain kinds of soap. It might also prove useful as a lubricating oil, and could probably be utilised for several purposes to which castor oil is applied. The residue after extraction of the oU consisted of a cream-coloured meal, having a faint but somewhat unpleasant garhc-like taste. The meal was submitted to chemical examination with the following results : — Per cent. Moisture, ........ 6-8 Crude proteins, . . . . . . . 43"4 Consisting of — True proteins, . . . . . . 37*6 Other nitrogenous substances, . . . 5-8 Fat 7-0 Starch, etc. (by difference), . . . . .26-9 Fibre 8-8 Ash, 71 Nutrient ratio, . . . . . .1:1 Food units, . . . . Iu3 No alkaloids or cyanogenetic glucosides were present in the meal. The report adds that the above results indicate that this N'gore meal has a high nutiitive value, but owing loii COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. to ita peculiar character further examination and feeding trials would be neca>?aary in order to ascertain whether it could be used safely as a feeding atuff for animals. The N'gore kernels furnish a large yield of oil which is of unusual tj^, but may prove to be of considerable technical value. The y'kamba Nut, called the Kamha Nut. — This sample consisted of pale brown nuts, measuring 1^ inches in length and 1 inch in diameter. The kernels yielded 14-5 per cent, of a yellow hquid oil, equivalent to a yield of 16-3 per cent, from the dry kernels. The oil is of a non-drying character, and could no doubt be used for various industrial purposes. The yield from the kernels is, however, so small that the latter would be of Uttle value aa a commercial source of oil. The residue after the extraction of the oil from the kernels consisted of a cream-coloured meal having a pleasant and rather sweetish taste. It was submitted to chemical examination, with the following results, which are shown in comparison with those recorded for a sample of palm-kernel meal : — N'kan)bA Palm-kernel ' iXeoX. Meal. Per o<-tit. Per rent. Moisture, ..... «-2 l.-)0 Crude prot«in.s, .... 18-9 190 Consifltinp! of — Truo proteins. 15-5 Other nitrogenous subntancea, 3-4 Fat 1-3 2 0 Starch, etc., (by difference), . 68-4 51 0 Fibre, 2-4 9 0 Arfh 2-8 40 Nutrient ratio, .... 1 : 3 8 1 : 2-9 Food unitfl, .... 119 104 KERNELS AND MISCELLANEOUS OIL-NUTS. 103 No alkaloids or cyanogenetic glucosides were present in the N'kamba meal. The above results indicate that N'kamba meal should have a nutritive value about equal to that of palm- kernel meal. The meal appears, howe^^rer, to contain saponin, as it causes frothing when shaken with water, and an attempt to gain further evidence on this point wiU be made. There appears to be no record of the use of Heisteria meal as a feeding stuff, and as it may contain saponin, which is an undesirable constituent, it cannot be recommended for this purpose. A further sample of these kernels received in July, 1917, was found to contain 18-1 per cent, of oil, calcu- lated on the dry kernels, as compared with 16-3 per cent, in the case of the first sample. Two specimens of nuts from the Belgian Congo, which were very similar in appearance to N'kamba nuts, have also been received at the Imperial Institute ; they contained 15-6 and 13-2 per cent, of oil respectively, expressed on the dry kernels. In view of the low yield of oil and the doubtful quality of the meal it is improbable that these kernels would be of value in this country, at any rate under present conditions. The N'kula Nut. — Another nut, less known, but which the author found in abundance in the Liberian forests, and which is not only of pleasant taste but remarkably oily, is known scientifically as Coula eduUs. This has nothing whatever to do with the stimulating kola nut. The scientific name (rather a foolish one) is a corruption of the native term Nkula, given to this tree in the Gaboon. The nut would, I believe, be a valuable addition to our sources of vegetable oils and materials for food producta. 104 COCONUTS, KERNELS, AND CACAO. The Kamoot Nut. — Very similar ia that of the Kamoot or Butter and Tallow tree, which the autlior experimented with in Sierra Leone, The fruit of this tree closely resembles the kola acuminate, and is often placed among genuine kola nuts as an adulterant ; but it does not contain thoiiie like the kola, and it yields fat and tannin, neither of which are to be obtained from the genuine kola. The fat is edible, and can be profitably used in candle-making, margarine, and soap manufacture. As much as 41 per cent, of oil has been obtained from the seeds, and £10 a ton in pre-war times has been obtained for the commodity. The Sierra Leoneans and the Mendis do not use the tree, but the Temnes, from whom the name Kamoot is borrowed, express the oil for food purposes in the same way as palm oil.* They dry the seeds, parching them over a fire, then pound them in a mortar, add wat€>r, and boil, skimming off the fat or oil as it rises to the surface. The tree is propagated by means of seeds, and is usually found near streams, being plentiful in the Savannah districts of Sierra Leone, and particularly in the neighbourhood of the old Christineville Rubber Estates between Rokelle and Waterloo, where it is called by the Mendis " Jorrah " or " Black Mango." It is also plentiful on the Niger River and Congo district, where the natives call it " Ngoumi,'" and a trade ia done in it with Europe from French West Africa, where it is called by the name of " Lamy." Dika Nuts. — Another oil-bearing product is the Wild Mango, the fruit of which is like but very inferior to the ordinary Mango. • See also " Sierra Leone : Its People, Produota, and Secret Societiei." KERNELS AND MISCELLANEOUS OIL-NUTS. 105 The natives eat it, but they attach greater importance to the kernel, from which they make the so - called *' Dika " bread, which consists of the bruised kernels warmed and pressed into a cake. It is used largely, when scraped or grated, in stews, and forms a staple article of food amongst the natives. Decorticated Seeds. — Sun-dried kernels contain 54-3 per cent, of sohd fat, having a specific gravity of 0-914 at 40° C. The fat is considered suitable for soap and candle- making, for which purposes its value is regarded as equal to that of palm-kernel oil — £27 5s. per ton — and if it could be obtained perfectly fresh and pure, it might also equal some of the present substitutes for butter and lard. The commercial valuation of the fat from aun-dried kernels has been given at from £25 to £27 per ton, and that of the kernels probably £10 to £12 per ton. Messrs. Miller Bros.' machine for cracking palm nuts has been tried with success at the Imperial Institute with Dika nuts. It is not considered advisable to ship the nuts whole. APPENDIX COMPANIES AND ASSOCIATIONS INTERESTED IN EDIBLE OILS AND CACAO. African Association, Liverpool. African Oil Mills, Liverpool. American Commerce Co., Bride Street, London, E.G. Atlantic Coast Development Co., 8 Copthall House, London, E.G. Benabu, Messrs., London, E.G. Blandy Bros., London, E.G. Bridge, R., & Co., Gastleton, Manchester (Machinery). British West African Association, 68 Coleman Street, London, E.G. Brunner, Mond & Co., London. Cadbury Bros., Bourneville, Birmingham. Cargo Supervisors, Ltd., Liverpool. Co-operative Wholesale Society, 1 Balloon Street, Manchester. Craig & Co., Paisley, Scotland (Machinery). Eastern Palm Estates, 38 Mark Lane, London, E.G. Elder, Dempster & Co., 4 St. Mary Axe, London, E.C. Frame & Co., Mincing Lane, London, E.C. Fry, Messrs., Bristol. Hartley & Moore, Ltd., 66 Victoria Street, London, S.W. Hind & Lund, Preston (Machinery). Les Huileries du Congo, Brussels. Lever Bros., Port-Sunlight. Lipton, Messrs., London. Miller Bros., Liverpool. New Ivory Coast Co., Ltd., 7/8 Great Winchester Street, London, E.C. Palmine, Ltd., Moorgate Street House, London, E.G. Rose Downs Thompson, Ltd., London and Hull. Scott & Sons, Ltd., 72 Oxford Street, London, W. Tin Areas of Nigeria, Giltspur Street, London, E.G. Wray, Sanderson Si Co., Hull. 109 INDEX. Analyses of cacao nibs and cocoa essence, 67. of ground nut cake, 54. of palm kernel oil, 33. of residual meal of Strephonema nut, 98. of Soya bean, 88-89. B Babassu kernels. Crushing of, 95. Description of, 95. Feeding value of, 96. nuts, Machinery for cracking, 98. Cacao bean, The, 67-92. ! Cost of planting and pro- ducing, 81-82. Cultivation of, 73-80. imports into New York, 72. Preparation of cocoa from, 67. of, for export, 81. Principal producing centres of, 69. nibs and cocoa essence, An- alyses of, 67. Candloniits, 91-92. Catch crops, 27. Chemical and physical constants of palm oil, 33. characters of Paraguay kernel oU. 97. examination of N'gore nut moal. 101. of N'Kamba nut meal, 103. Cocoa butter. Uses of, 68. Coconut, The, and its uses, 9. cultivation, 9. Prospects of, in West Africa, 17, 22. estates. Planting of, 17. fruit. Description of, 19. . palm. Utilisation of, by natives, 12. Cohune nuts. Machinery for crack- ing, 98. Coir fibre. Preparation of, 15. Composition of palm kernel cake, 41. Co-operative milling of coconuts, 22. Copra and coir fibre. Export of, 9. Preparation of, 16. Cost of landing palm kernels, 3. Cotton seed, 85-92. Preparation of, 90. Crushing of Babassu kernels, 95. of ground nut kernels, 47. Cultivation of ground nut, 49, 50. of Shea tree, 61 . of Soya bean, 87-89 D Dahomey, Erection of palm oil extraction plant in, 32. Decorticated and undecorticatod ground nuts. Yields from, 54. Desiccated coconut. Preparation of, 14. Dika nuts. Commercial valuation of, 105. Decorticated seeds of, 105. Description of, 104. Uses of, 105. Drews nut-cracking machine, 36. Ea DUE DATE 11 ] 1 FCRESTRY AG^CULTURE LIBRARY C6 Ni