ee,
AND
BLACKWELL.
| Vee
= cody,
coy
ra
J
~
*
Ph
3
New Zealand Fruits.
Freycinetia Banksii Coprosma, 3 sp.
Astelia Cunninghamii. Dysoxylum spectabile.
ants of New Zealand
BY
Re, ee ING:, - Base.
f.- We BLACK W HEE,
With 160 original Photographs by E. W. and F. B. Blackwell.
Notothlaspi rosulatum (4 nat. size).
LIBRARY
-W VYVORK
= VY VINE
CHRISTCHURCH, WELLINGTON, AND DUNEDIN, N.Z.;
MELBOURNE AND LONDON:
WHITCOMBE AND TOMBS LIMITED.
1906
“ Harth’s crammed with Heav’n,
And every common bush afire with God ;
But only he who sees takes off his shoes.”’
—E. B. BROWNING.
JUN 3=- 1907
LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
iIARDEN.
PREFACE.
The Flora of New Zealand is one of the most remarkable known.
Indeed, it is so highly specialized, that these islands are generally
considered to constitute a distinct Botanical Region. Drude divides
the earth into fourteen such Regions, and New Zealand is the
twelfth on his list.“ This little colony is therefore botanically equal
in importance to districts of much vaster area. In spite, however,
of the fact that our Flora is one of the most interesting on the face
of the earth, there are very few who have any real acquaintanceship
with it. This ignorance is doubtless due to the inaccessibility and
technicality of the literature dealing with the subject. In this
work an endeavour has been made to give an account of our native
plants that will be intelligible to all. As few technical terms as
possible have been employed herein, and those used have been
explained either in the text or glossary. An attempt has also been
made to give as many interesting particulars of the species as the
limits of our space will allow.
It is hoped, therefore, that the volume will be of service to all
who wish to know something more of a vegetation that is unique.
To New Zealand teachers, but especially to those interested in
nature study, it should be of considerable value; as well as to all
colonists who have any love for the wild flowers of their neighbour-
hood. ‘Tourists, also, will find here the means for readily identifying
all the more conspicuous plants that they are likely to meet with,
whilst en route through the colony. Though no new species are
described here, many fresh facts have been embodied in the text,
and a great quantity of botanical information has been culled from
many sources for the book. Hitherto the student has only been
able to obtain much of this material by wide and laborious reading
in English and German publications and journals. Hence the
book will—we trust—be of some value to the botanist who wishes
to procure, in small compass, a suggestive guide for further research.
* Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie.
vl PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
The work is not a Flora, and therefore does not include all known
species. It deals only with flowering plants, and, amongst these,
omits the grasses, and certain less important orders. The grasses
have been dealt with in special publications by Mr. Buchanan.
The other orders omitted are represented by species little likely to
attract the attention of any but the trained botanist. All the more
important and conspicuous flowering plants, and many of the rarer
ones, have been here described, except in the larger genera, such as
Coprosma, Veronica, Ranunculus, Olearia, and Senecio, where we
have been reluctantly compelled to content ourselves with a
selection of the chief types.
Such a book as this must be to a considerable extent a compila-
tion; and we have therefore made free use of the labours of our
predecessors in the field. Amongst these, especial mention may be
made of Sir J. Hooker, Dr. Cockayne, Dr. Diels, and Messrs. T.
Kirk, T. F. Cheeseman, G. M. Thomson, and D. Petrie. Indeed, all
botanical papers in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute”
have been carefully consulted, and all literature obtainable, bearmg
on the subject, has been read. Unfortunately, the profound paper
of Dr. Diels on the New Zealand Flora still remains untranslated,
and so is unaccessible to most students. We have therefore made
free use of it. We have to thank Dr. L. Cockayne for helping
us over many slippery places, and for much generous assistance
freely given. We are indebted to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman for the
identification of many dried specimens, and for other kindnesses.
Assistance has been received from Miss Irene Wilson in the
preparation of the glossary, and from Mr. J. Christie in the proof
reading. We are also under obligations to the following gentlemen
for the gift of photographs for reproduction as illustrations: Mr. J.
Deans, Mr. A. C. Gifford, Mr. A. Hamilton, Mr. H. Larkin, Mr. S.
Page, Mr. J. Crosby-Smith, and Mr. R. Speight.
It should be mentioned that for the first time an endeavour has
been made to bring the classification of the New Zealand flowering
plants into accord with modern ideas. We have therefore arranged
the families according to Engler’s system, and not in accordance
with that of Hooker and Bentham, hitherto in vogue. (Unfortunately
we have been unable to find room for a synopsis of the families, but
this may be obtained in any good modern text-book of botany.)
*These are shortly referred to in the foot notes, as Trans.
PREFACE Vil
The book accordingly starts with the pines,—the lowest group of
plants described,—and ends with the Composites, the most highly
specialized family in the Vegetable Kingdom. This arrangement
is much more in harmony with evolutionary ideas than that usually
adopted.
It is hoped that the book will be found up to date, and, though
its authors are conscious of its many short-comings, they trust
it will be of service to all who wish to learn something of the
fascinating problems in the Plant World around them.
R.M.L.
EK.W.B.
March 30th, 1906.
TAB OF SCONTEN TES:
INTRODUCTION.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION, p. 1. The open country, p. 3. The fern land, p. 6. The
bush, p. 8. The natural permanence of the bush, p.10. The destruction of the
forest, p.12. ‘The Passing of the Forest,” p.13. Types of forest, p.15. Lianes,
p. 16. Epiphytes, p- 20. The scrub, p. 21. Alpine vegetation, p. 22.
THE AGE AND AFFINITIES OF THE FLORA, p. 24. Oceanic and Continental islands, p. 26.
The age of the Flora, p. 27. The affinities of the Flora, p. 30. The Australian
element, p. 32. The Melanesian element, p. 35. South American element, p. 36.
Sub-Antarctic element, p. 36.
BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION, p. 38. Plant Life, p. 38. Root and stem, p. 39. The leaf, p. 39.
The flower, p. 43. The dispersal of seeds, p. 45, Classification, p. 46. Key to the
New Zealand families of flowering plants, p. 49.
THE GYMNOSPERMS.
THE PINE FAMILY, p. 58. The Kauri, p. 60. The Kawaka, p. 66. The Miro, p. 68. The
Totara, p. 69. The Black Pine, p. 69. The White Pine, p. 70. The Red Pine, p. 74.
The Celery-leaved Pine, p. 76.
THE ANGIOSPERMS.
THE MONOCOTYLEDONS, p. 80. The Screw-pine Family, p. 80. The Palm Family, p. 80.
The Lily Family, p. 88. The Iris Family, p. 109. The Orchid Family, p. 109.
THE DICOTYLEDONS WITH FREE PETALS, p. 127. The Pepper Family, p. 127. The Beech
Family, p. 128. The Nettle Family, p. 136. The Mistletoe Family, p. 138. The
Bottle-Brush Family, p. 145. The Sandal-wood Family, p. 148. A Family of Root
Parasites, p. 149. The Buckwheat Family, p. 151. The Beet Family, p. 154. The
Pink Family, p. 156. The Marvel of Peru Family, p. 159. The Mesembryanthemum
Family, p. 159. The Buttercup Family, p. 160. The Magnolia Family, p. 172. The
Pukatea, p. 174. The Laurel Family, p. 175. The Wallflower Family, p.177. The
Sundew Family, p. 180. The Currant-Tree Family, p. 185. The “ Matipo’’ Family,
p. 189. The Rose Family, p. 195. The Pea Family, p. 203. The Geranium Family,
p. 215. The Flax Family, p. 218. The Rue Family, p. 218. The Mahogany
Tree Family, p. 222. The Spurge Family, p. 224. The Maple Family,
p. 224. The Tutu Family, p. 226. Pennantia, p. 230. The Karaka, p. 233.
The Buckthorn Family, p. 235, The Lime-tree Family, p. 242. The Mallow
Family, p. 250. The Violet Family, p. 261. The Passion-flower Family, p. 268. The
Daphne Family, p. 269. The Myrtle Family, p. 270. The Fuchsia Family, p. 290.
The Haloragis Family, p. 295. The Dogwood Family, p. 297. The Ivy Family, p. 300.
The Parsley Family, p. 313.
THE DICOTYLEDONS WITH UNITED PETALS, p.323. The Heath Family, p. 323. The Myrsine
Family, p. 331. The Primrose Family, p. 333. The Olive Family, p. 334. The Nux-
Vomica Family, p. 334. The Gentian Family, p. (336. The Periwinkle Family,
p. 340. The Bindweed Family, p. 342. The Borage Family, p. 346. The Verbena
Family, p. 349. The Thyme Family, p. 364. The Nightshade Family, p. 365. The
Snap-dragon Family, p. 367. The Gloxinia Family, p. 366. The Butterwort Family,
p. 388. The Madder Family, p. 389. The Honeysuckle Family, p. 399. The
Cucumber Family, p. 399. The Canterbury Bell Family, p. 401. The Goodenia
Family, p. 404. The Daisy Family, p. 405.
EkSa
Aciphylla Colensoi
=3 Monroi
Agathis australis (bush)
” ? (cones)
0 a (tree)
Aristotelia racemosa
Arthropodium cirrhatum
Astelia Banksii
», Cunninghamii
», nervosa
Avicennia officinalis
(aerial roots)
Avicennia officinalis (flower)
(roots)
(seed)
” ””
” ”?
Beech Forest
(Photo by A. C. Gifford)
Beilschmiedia Tarairi
Brachyglottis repanda
Cabbage-tree bush
Carex secta
(Photo by J. Deans)
Carmichaelia australis (flower)
ef 7 (seed)
Carpodetus serratus
Cassinia Vauvilliersi
Celmisia coriacea
” ”?
,, longifolia
Clematis indivisa
(staminate form)
Clematis indivisa
(pistillate form)
Clematis indivisa
(seed)
Clematis parviflora
Clianthus puniceus
Coprosma arborea
He lucida
ae tenuicaulis
Cordyline australis (bush)
OF
62
61
D5
152
144
145
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
318
320
61
|
|
|
FIG. PAGE
Cordyline australis (flower) 23 95
Coriaria ruscifolia 69 9-227
Corynocarpus levigata 70 231
0 46 (trees) 71 234
(Photo by S. Page)
Corysanthes macrantha 35 126
Craspedia uniflora 153.434
Cupressoid Types 124 374
(Photo by H. Larkin)
Dacrydium cupressinum 12 Ui
Dactylanthus Taylori 42 150
Dendrobium Cunninghamii 34 = 128
(Photo by A. C. Gifford)
Discaria toumatou 73 240
(Photo by Dr. L. Cockayne)
Dracophyllum uniflorum 108 = 330
Drosera auriculata Spy alisha
», Spathulata 53-183
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)
Dysoxylum spectabile 68 223
Earina suaveolens il eelaley
» » Ba) L2it
Eleocarpus dentatus 76 247
5 Hookerianus i e2e9
Entelea arborescens 74 243
Epacris pauciflora 107 328
Flax, New Zealand 28 105
Freycinetia Banksii (flower) 13 79
a - (fruit) 14 81
Fruits, Group of Frontispiece
Fuchsia excorticata 94 291
Gaya Lyall 81 259
Gaultheria rupestris 106-326
Geniostoma ligustrifolium tt 336
Gentiana corymbifera 112 339
Gnaphalium trinerve 147 425
Griselinia littoralis 95 299
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)
Hedycarya arborea 50 173
Helichrysum bellidioides 151 429
ne erandiceps 150 428
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Helichrysum species
(Photo by H. Larkin)
Herpolirion novae-Zelandiae
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)
Hoheria populnea
(var. angustifolia)
9 ”
Ixerba brexioides
Kahikatea berries
Karaka grove
(Photo by S. Page)
Kauri bush
», cones
3) uree
Knightia excelsa
Kowhai (yellow)
a (red)
Leptospermum ericoides
+6 scoparium
(bush)
” 9
(flower)
Leucopogon fasciculatus
Lianes
(Photo by S. Page)
Ligusticum piliferum
Luzuriaga marginata
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)
Macropiper excelsum
Mangrove (flower)
2 (aerial roots)
5 (stilt roots)
An (seed)
Melicope simplex
PP * (nat. size)
Melicytus ramiflorus
Meryta Sinclairii
Metrosideros hypericifolia
ne robusta (flower)
7 », (tree)
_ scandens
a tomentosa
Microtis porrifolia
Miro berries
Mihlenbeckia axillaris
ne complexa
Myoporum letum (flower)
+e) 99 (tree)
(Photo by S. Page)
44
43
120
119
PAGE
374
Myrtus bullata
108 |
| Ngaio Tree
129
353,
Nertera dichondrefolia
New Zealand Flax
(Photo by S. Page)
Nigger-heads
(Photo by J. Deans)
Nikau (bud in sheath)
,, (flower)
a ,, (nat. size)
,, (Grove of)
,, (abnormally branched)
Nothofagus (trees)
(Photo by A. C. Gifford)
Ve Menziesii (flower)
Nothopanax Colensoi
| Notothlaspi rosulatum
355 |
357
359
219
291
265
310
279
283
278
287
285
113
67
154
153
363
362
(Photo by R. Speight).
Olea Cunninghamii
| Olearia Forsteri
(Photo by H. Larkin)
furfuracea
ilicifolia
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)
insignis
_ (Photo by A. Hamilton)
- nummularifola
a virgata
Orchids (group)
Ourisia macrophylla
(Photo by A. Hamilton)
Paratrophis microphyllus
_ Parsonsia capsularis
_ Passiflora tetrandra
Phormium tenax
Pimelea virgata
Pittosporum cornifoliam
(flower)
ded be)
Ae tenuifolium
Plagianthus divaricatus
Pleurophyllum speciosum
(Photo by A. Hamilton)
Podocarpus dacrydioides
ferruginea
totara
oe)
99
| Pomaderris phylicefolia
Pseudopanax crassifolium
(flower)
(seed)
x1
FIG. PAGE
93 289
135 397
298 105
119 362
2 5
16 85
I7/ 86
18 87
15 83
19 89
a7) alsa
38 135
97 303
Title Page
110 =. 3334
142 415
138 409
139 «410
137 407
140 411
141 413
30. =: 113
130 396385
39137
113 341
83 267
28 105
84 271
57 =6192
58 193
DOmLoN
80 255
143 «417
10 73
8 67
9 71
72 237
99 308
Xl
FIG.
Pseudopanax crassifolium 98
(tree)
(Photo by H. Larkin).
Pterostylis Banksii 32
Ranunculus Lyallii 49
Raoula australis 148
(Photo by H. Larkin)
. mamuillaris 149
(Photo by H. Larkin)
Rhabdothamnus Solandri 131
Rhipogonum scandens 20
Rhopalostylis sapida (grove of) 15
Rhopalostylis sapida 19
(abnormally branched
specimen)
Rhopalostylis sapida (bud in
sheath) 16
Rhopalostylis sapida
(inflorescence of) 17
Rhopalostylis sapida (flower,
nat. size) 18
Rimu (spray of) 12
Rubus australis 60
,, schmidelioides 59
Schefflera digitata 101
Selliera radicans 136
Senecio cassinioides 155
Lyall 156
”
PLANTS OF NEW
PAGE
306
119
169
426
427
387
ZEALAND
Senecio saxifragoides
Solanum ayiculare
Sophora tetraptera (flower)
2 ” (seed)
Stilbocarpa polaris
(Photo by A. Hamilton)
Stypheha acerosa
Supple-jack
Tawhera
Thelymitra longifolia
Totara
(Photo by S. Page)
Tree-ferns
Tupeia antarctica
Tussock Country
(Photo by J. Deans)
Veronica cataractae
f lycopodioides
5 monticola
a salicifolia
. speciosa
Traversii
9)
Veronicas (whip-cord)
(Photo by H. Larkin)
Vitex lucens
Whip-cord Veronicas
(Photo by H. Larkin)
White Pine
(Photo by S. Page)
FIG,
157
121
64
PAGE
439
365
211
213
301
332
91
81
113
(al
7
143
4
ants of New Zealand.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
““Oh, when I am safe in my sylvan home,
I tread on the pride of Greece and Rome,
And when I am stretched beneath the pines,
Where the evening star so holy shines,
I laugh at the lore and the pride of Man,
At the sophist schools and learned clan.
For what are they all, in their high conceit,
When Man in the bush with God may meet ? ”’
R. W. EMERSON.
NiEw ZEALAND is almost in the centre of the greatest water-
surface of the globe. It is indeed the Land’s End of the
world; and as such affords to the geologist, biologist, and
ethnologist, material of the highest interest. But not to the
scientist alone is it full of fascination. Any lover of Nature
will find here an inexhaustible store-house for his wonder and
admiration. Life everywhere is infinite in its variety and
unfailing in its resourcefulness. In New Zealand it has
developed many plants and animals unknown in any other
part of the world. Indeed, two-thirds of the indigenous
species of flowering plants are not to be met with elsewhere.
This is a much higher percentage of local forms than can be
found in any other islands of approximately the same extent.
This unparalleled proportion of endemic species is due, partly,
perhaps, to the long isolation of the islands, partly to the great
2.
a
2 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
variety of conditions they offer, and partly, no doubt, to the
nature of the floras from which their own has been derived ;
but also to unknown factors that have not, as yet, come
within the ken of the investigator.
Not only does the flora contain a unique assemblage of
local species, 1t also shows an unusually varied assortment of
plant families and associations. Nor is this to be wondered
at, if we consider the changes of climatic, geographical, and
geological conditions to be met with every few miles. We
would certainly expect to find many very different kinds of
vegetation between the warm sub-tropical ravines of the
voleanic Kermadecs, and the wind-swept heights of the sub-
Antarctic Auckland Islands; and we are not disappointed in
our search. Hooker, and other early botanists, declared that
the plant covering was constant over wide areas; but this
generalisation was largely due to an imperfect acquaintance
with the distribution of the species, and with the rarer forms
of the flora. It has not been borne out by the work of more
recent investigators. Many New Zealand plants are very
restricted in their distribution.
The altitudinal changes of climate are as well marked as
those of latitude. There is often not more than twenty or
thirty miles distance between the lne of sea-level and that of
perpetual snow. Thus, within a comparatively small area, all
types of plants may be found, from those of the sea-shore, to
those of alpine heights. Great variations in rainfall are also
to be met with in places not far apart. This, of course, is
largely due to the presence of high mountain chains, such as the
Southern Alps, the Kaikouras, and Ruahines. The smallest
average rainfall yet recorded is that of Clyde, with 15 inches,
and the highest, 228 inches, at Puysegur Poimt. The former
place is in Central, the latter in South-Western Otago; and
the distance between them is only 150 miles. Indeed, there
are few districts of equal extent that can show so many
changes of climate, elevation, and surface in such a small
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3
space as New Zealand. It might be expected, therefore, that
not many plants would cover large areas of the country to the
exclusion of other species; and this is the case. Except for
the beeches, the manuka, the tussock-grass, and the bracken
fern, few species monopolise any large tract of country. The
constant changes of surface, altitude, and climate must of
necessity be reflected in the plant-covering of the land. Even
the most careless observer 1s struck by the great differences
in the floras of the eastern and western sides of the dividing
range—differences corresponding in a large measure, to increase
or decrease of average rainfall. In some places, within a
distance of a mile or two, the beech forest of the drier regions
changes into the mixed bush of the moister western area.
New Zealand, therefore, presents a field of unsurpassed
interest to the botanist. Here he may find plants grouped
together into as many different associations as on a continent.
All classes of habitat, from the littoral to the alpine ; from the
arid plain to the lake, from the rock to the peat-bog, from
moorland to salt meadow, are well represented. Plants are to
be met with in an almost endless variety of situations. We
shall, however, at present consider only the plants of the open
plains, the forest (or, as it is locally termed, the ‘‘ bush ’’), the
scrub, and the mountains.
THE OPEN COUNTRY.
‘“*T see again the upland wilds,
Stern, rugged, bleak, and bare ;
The strong winds sweep o’er the hill sides steep
And the tussocks toss in the icy air
Silver and gold in the changing light,
Gold and silver far up on the heights
Of the mountain wild and bare.’’
DAVID MCKEE WRIGHT.
Throughout New Zealand, from Southland to the North Cape,
there are numerous open plains of greater or lesser extent.
In England such spaces would be meadow lands, carpeted with
4 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
a grassy sward, which would in spring and summer be spangled
with flowers. In New Zealand, they are covered with a
vegetation of a very different type. As far north as Lake
Taupo, it consists chiefly of tussock grass, toi-toi, and cabbage
tree (palm-lily). This plant formation is most highly developed
in Canterbury, where wide open tussock-clad plains cover an
area of two and a half million acres. The Englishman, on his
arrival here, is puzzled by the appearance of detached hillocks
of grass, in place of the continuous turf of the green fields to
which he is accustomed. He cannot understand that this dry
Fig. 1—Tussock Country.
hard wiry straw can replace, to a large extent, the pasture
lands of England. This plant association not only covers
much of the flat country, but is found in many places
throughout the South Island upon the hills, especially on the
eastern slopes of the ranges. The chief species of grasses
found in it are Poa caespitosa and Festuca duriuscula, but
some Danthonias are also to be met with in such situations.
The tussock country 1s dearly loved by every New Zealander.
It is full of associations for him. The stock-rider, the shepherd,
the swagger, and even the sun-downer know every aspect of
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 5
it. They have seen it in early morning, when every
tawny thread had its string of clammy mist drops. They
have seen it again at midday, a parched and thirsty land,
that seemed to be covered with broken yellow wavelets,
flying before the fierce squalls of the nor’-wester. They
have stumbled through the entangled tufts at night, too tired
to lift their feet. They have slept amongst them, tying
together adjacent bunches to form a tunnel in which they
might be sheltered from the cutting night winds of the plain.
In many places, particularly near water courses or shingly
river beds, the toi-toi (Arundo conspicua) largely replaces the
tussock. It is the tallest and most conspicuous grass in the
New Zealand Flora. It bears a considerable resemblance to
Fig. 2—Nigger-heads.
the magnificent Pampas Grass of the Argentine, now cultivated
all over the world. It is not, however, so large or so beautiful
as the American grass ; 1t flowers at a different season, and may
readily be distinguished by the more graceful droop of the
flowerstalk. The plumes of the pampas grass are taller,
straighter, and stiffer than those of the toi-toi. The edges of
streams on the tussock-clad plains are often fringed with flax
and bulrush, whilst, in the water itself, stand numbers of
blackened stumps about two feet high, bearing on their summits
drooping brushes of long, coarse, green, or tawny threads.
These are termed by the colonists, nigger-heads.
This plant, (Carex secta) carries out literally the advice of
St. Augustine, and makes of its dead-self a stepping stone to
6 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
higher things, for the lower portion of the stump consists of the
dead roots of past seasons; and by growing on these the plant
eradually raises itself out of the water of the bog in which it
erows, into higher and drier levels.
The edge of the New Zealand swamp has been well
described by Mr. A. H. Adams, in a poem called The Brave
Days To Be
‘*Out in the open, by the swampy pools,
The army of waving grasses went ;
First in the van the hosts of traupo reared
Long lines of ruddy spears ; close following
The green ranks of the ?harakeke came,
Lifting aloft their sullen flashing blades,
And sturdy bronze-brown standards ; and, behind,
The #tois’ white battalions flaunted far
Their dazzling banners and soft silver plumes,
While gaunt and motionless upon the hill,
The naked *cabbage-trees stood sentinel.”’
THe FERN LAND.
North of Lake Taupo, the tussock country ends. In
Auckland the open land is covered with heath or fern. Fern
country is found throughout New Zealand, but becomes more
plentiful towards the North. Here there are large areas
covered with the bracken, (Pteris aquilina ; var. esculenta).
In many places it grows in great luxuriance, rising to the
height of ten feet, and forming miniature forests that cover
the land to the exclusion of all other vegetation.
The rhizome of this fern, as is well known, was used by the
Maoris for food when none other could be obtained. It
therefore held an unportant place in their dietary, though it
can scarcely be described as a staple article of food. To
prepare it for use it was soaked, washed, placed on a flat rock,
and repeatedly beaten by a heavy stone pestle or club (patu.)
1. The bulrush (Typha augustifolia). | 3. Arundo conspicua.
2, The flax (Phormium tenax). 4. Cordyline australis.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION il
During the beating the fibres were picked out. The material
left behind bore some resemblance to arrowroot, but only the
pangs of hunger would induce the European to consider it
palatable.
Though there are no other varieties which cover so wide an
area, yet the ferns form such a prominent feature in the
Flora, that New Zealand is often termed “The Land of
Ferns,” and a fern frond has been taken as its emblem.
Fig 3—Tree-ferns.
Perhaps there is no country of equal size outside of the
Tropics, which has such a large number of different kinds of
ferns as New Zealand, and possibly none could show greater
magnificence of fern-life. Prominent amongst the species are
the tree-ferns. These help to give the forest that semi-tropical
appearance, which will shortly be described. There are,
in addition, a large number of species of Filmy-Ferns,
(Hymenophyllwm), Polypods, Aspleniums, and Lomarias. The
8 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand Club-Mosses (liycopods) are also exceptionally
well developed, and are the largest of the order known. ‘The
discovery of a number of the germinating spores of various
species in New Zealand is likely, before long, to add consider-
ably to our knowledge of the life-history and affimities of this
interesting order of plants.
Ta Buse,
the Tree-God !
Mine are forests not a few—
Forests, and I love them greatly,
Moss-encrusted, ancient, stately.”
DOMETT.
“Tam Tane
The New Zealand bush can scarcely be said to show any
typical aspect. It reflects the prevailing lack of uniformity of
the plant associations. Consequently, it is impossible to describe
ina single epithet its chief characteristic. Indeed, so varied
is it, that one can often find in a single forest, as many
different kinds of trees as there would be in half of Europe ;
and these, not belonging to a few orders as do the European
trees, but to the most widely divergent famihes. Palm and
pine, rata and mangrove, cabbage tree and fuchsia, beech and
fern—the Malayan and South American plant grow here in
apparent, if not real amity. At first sight, it would seem as if
the ends of the earth had been laid under contribution for
strange forms, which were afterwards assembled on these
islands, but a closer examination shows that this has not been
the case; for, though the bush has quite a patch-work appear-
ance, most of our trees, as will be shown subsequently, have
come to us from Malaysia, or at any rate from Melanesia.
There is, however, one undeniable characteristic of the
forests. They are gloomy, though it may be doubted whether
they are more sombre than those of many other regions. The
dark hue and leathery texture of the fohage, is no doubt due to
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 9
the fact that the native trees are evergreen. Leaves that
have to last through several seasons are rarely so soft in
texture, or light in tint, as those that have only to withstand the
storms of a few months. There are but few deciduous plants
of any kind in New Zealand. Gaya Lyallii, Plagianthus
betulinus, Olearia Colensoi, two species of Miihlenbeckia, a
North Island variety of Sophora, the Fuchsias, Discaria
toumatou, are perhaps the only deciduous, or partially deciduous,
plants to be found here. Hence the tender greens and browns,
which in spring delight the eye in the English woods, and
the more brilliant tints of autumn, are almost wanting in New
Zealand. Some few of the evergreens, however, (e.g., Hntelea,
Aristotelia racemosa) in addition to the native deciduous
species, have leaves of lighter green and softer texture than
the ordinary bush tree. Indeed, if a forest is closely looked at
from above, it will be found to show many different shades,
though the prevailing type of foliage is undoubtedly the dry,
hard, glossy, dark-green, simple, more or less oblong leaf.
Nor is the characteristic gloom of the forest relieved by its
blossoms, for the flowers of most of the New Zealand trees are
quite inconspicuous. They are generally small, and oftentimes
green, and completely hidden by the foliage. There are, of
course, exceptions. Among these may be mentioned those of
the whau, the hinau, pokaka, Gaya, Hoheria and the various
species of Metrosideros (rata and pohutukawa). As none of
these except the ratas ever form large forests, to the more or
less complete exclusion of other trees, 1t 1s rare to find the
bush showing any great profusion of bloom. Occasionally,
however, the rata covers with its crimson flowers the flanks of
some great mountain range, and the sight is then well worth
going far to see.
Such brilhancy of colouring, however, is rare. Yet, particu-
larly in the North Island, the beauty of the bush is much
enhanced by the Nikau Palm, the fern-tree and the cabbage-
tree, which are frequently found growing together in great
10 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
profusion. It would then almost seem as if the vegetation of
a tropical island from the warm Southern Seas had been
dropped in amongst our more sombre flora, for these three plants
all bring with them suggestions of a warmer land than this.
Indeed, some have said, basing their statements on this and
similar facts, that the climate of New Zealand has been, in
recent geological times, much warmer than at present. They
endeavour to strengthen their argument by adducing in
support of it, the evidence afforded by the profusion of
climbers and twiners, which often render the bush an almost
impenetrable jungle. However, conclusions as to past climate
based only on present characteristics of mature plants are of
little value. The true explanation of the resemblance between
our forests and those of sub-tropical regions is to be found in
the fact that nearly all our bush trees are of Melanesian
origin. The beeches are the most important exceptions to
this rule.
THE NATURAL PERMANENCE OF THE BUSH.
Another erroneous opinion is that the bush 1s 1mpermanent ;
that it actually flies before the advancing footsteps of civili-
zation. It is said that whenever tracks are cut through it,
decay sets in on both sides, the undergrowth dies, the ferns
and mosses disappear, and even the trees themselves become
gaunt and misshapen, and their leaves few and tattered. This
statement can only be regarded as incorrect. Even in the
drier districts where the trees are struggling against very
adverse conditions, a forest that has been ‘“‘ cut out’ will, in
time, replace itself, if not subjected to the interference of man
and other animals. Surveyors’ tracks through damp bush are
soon overgrown when left undisturbed; and, as Dr. Cockayne
has shown, a burnt area is soon re-forested, in the wetter
districts at least, though not necessarily retaining the same
predominant species.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION dial
Yet, it must be admitted that the limits of conditions within
which the varied life of the forest can maintain itself, are
comparatively narrow. Many of the native trees are
extremely susceptible to frost. Some of the bush-plants of
Otago cannot endure the winters of the more Northern
Canterbury Plains, but this is not because the forest 1s
decadent. The climate of these plains is an extreme one.
Plants that can flourish there must be able to withstand
excess of drought, heat, cold, and insolation. Mr. T. W.
Adams, of Greendale, has shown that there are but few foreign
trees and shrubs which can adapt themselves to these con-
ditions. It is, therefore, scarcely a matter for surprise that
this district and the somewhat similar one of Central Otago,
should be treeless. Undoubtedly, they were both once partially
bush-clad; but the destruction of their forests was probably
not in any way due to an increasing severity of climate. It is
susceptible of quite another explanation. In these districts
the rainfall does not reach thirty inches a year. Now, the
experience of many countries, but particularly of the United
States, proves that forests cannot exist permanently in regions
with a rainfall of less than thirty inches per annum. HU,
owing to a cycle of wet weather, accompanied perhaps by
other contributing causes, they manage to get a foothold in
arid districts, they are always lable to be swept off by fire ;
and, being once so destroyed, it is difficult for them, without
artificial assistance, to become reinstated.
The soil, unprotected by the shade of the foliage,
dries up, and germination 1s soon made impossible. On hull
slopes the spongy mosses no longer retain the moisture.
After rain, the rivers and streams become more quickly
flooded. Hundreds of acres of soil are thus frequently swept
away, and a bare rocky surface replaces the once dense forest.
This process is going on throughout New Zealand wherever
the bush is being artificially cleared, but the devastation is
greatest on the steep hill tops. In America it has been found
12 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
necessary to take special steps at great expense, to re-forest
the upper mountain slopes. In New Zealand, the Forestry
Department, with admirable foresight, has already secured a
number of climatic reserves on mountain summits. These
will have to be fenced off to secure the exclusion of sheep and
cattle, for such animals work irretrievable havoc in the forest
undergrowth, and to them must be attributed much of the
apparent decadence of the natural forests. Wherever they
have secured admission to the dense bush, seedlings and young
trees are soon trodden under foot, broken down, and killed:
hight is let im, and the bush gradually decays and disappears.
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST.
As we have already seen, much of the tussock country of
the South was at one time forest-clad. The evidence of
charred logs on or below the surface of the ground, proves that
some of it, at any rate, was cleared by fire in recent times.
This may have been started spontaneously, or may have been
the work of pre-historic dwellers in the land. The Maoris in
the South Island have a tradition that when the Te Rapuwai
tribe spread over the country, Invercargill was submerged by
water, the forests of Canterbury and Otago were destroyed by
fire, and the Moa was exterminated. Canon Stack put this in
his list of uncertain traditions; but there is at least nothing
inherently mmprobable in the destruction of these forests about
this time. In Auckland, the presence of the kauri gum in vast
areas now treeless, or occupied only by the manuka and
other heath plants, is proof that at one time the kauri forests
were of much greater extent than at present. The cause of
their disappearance is unknown.
Whatever may have been the causes in the past, affecting
the reduction or increase of forest areas, they fall into insig-
nificance compared with the changes artificially wrought since
GENERAL INTRODUCTION ibe
the arrival of Europeans. It is impossible to give any but
the roughest estimate of the area covered by forest, when the
first white men reached New Zealand, but it was undoubtedly
very great. In 1893 the area still bush-clad was estimated at
twenty millions of acres. This acreage is being reduced
annually by an amount of not less than 100,000 to 200,000
acres. Clearly, our forests will last only a comparatively short
time if this rate is maintained. Of course, only a very small
proportion of timber is removed and utilised. Most of it is
burnt on the spot. Much of this destruction has been inevi-
table, but some of it, unfortunately, has been wanton. The
remark of Sir Julius Vogel, ‘that a swagger would burn down
a forest to ight his pipe,” is perhaps somewhat of an exaggera-
tion, though it must be confessed that some of the finest
kauri forests have been destroyed by such acts of carelessness.
Happily, most of the bush is too damp to be in danger of
accidental burning. The bigger trees must first of all be
felled, and the forest afterwards set fire to in the drier season
of the year. However necessary this clearing may be, it can-
not fail to leave with the lover of nature a feeling of sadness.
The Hon. W. P. Reeves (High Commissioner of New Zealand
in London) has well expressed this sentiment in a noble poem.
He has kindly given his consent to its publication here. The
final stanza is, we believe, now for the first time printed.
“THER PASSING OF THE FOREST.”
All cannot fade that glorifies the hills,
Their strength remains, their aspect of command,
Their flush of colour when calm evening stills
Day’s clamour, and the sea-breeze cools the land.
With shout of thunder and with voice of rills,
Ancient of days in green old age they stand
In grandeur that can never know decay,
Though from their flanks men strip the woods away.
14
PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
But thin their vesture now—the restless grass,
Bending and dancing as the breeze goes by,
Catching quick gleams and cloudy shades that pass,
As shallow seas reflect a wind-stirred sky.
Ah! nobler far their forest raiment was
From crown to feet that clothed them royally,
Shielding their mysteries from the glare of day,
Ere the dark woods were reft and torn away.
Well may these plundered and insulted kings,
Stripped of their robes, despoiled, uncloaked, discrowned,
Draw down the clouds with white enfolding wings,
And soft aérial fleece to wrap them round,
To hide the scars that every season brings,
The fire’s black smirch, the landslip’s gaping wound ;
Well may they shroud their heads in mantle grey,
Since from their brows the leaves were plucked away !
Gone is the forest world, its wealth of life,
Its jostling, crowding, thrusting, struggling race,
Creeper with creeper, bush with bush at strife,
Warring and wrestling for a breathing space ;
Below, a realm with tangled rankness rife,
Aloft, tree columns, shafts of stateliest grace.
Gone is the forest nation. None might stay ;
Giant and dwarf alike have passed away.
Gone are the forest birds, arboreal things,
Eaters of honey, honey-sweet of song,
The tui, and the bell-bird,—he who sings
That brief, rich music we would fain prolong.
Gone the wood-pigeon’s sudden whirr of wings ;
The daring robin, all unused to wrong.
Wild, harmless, hamadryad creatures, they
Lived with their trees, and died, and passed away.
And with the birds the flowers, too, are gone
That bloomed aloft-ethereal, stars of hght ;
The clematis, the kowhai like ripe corn,
Russet, though all the hills in green were dight :
The rata, draining from its tree forlorn
Rich life-blood for its crimson blossoms bright,
Red glory of the gorges—well-a-day !
Fled is that splendour, dead and passed away.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 15
Gone are the forest tracks, where oft we rode
Under the silver fern-fronds climbing slow,
In cool, green tunnels, though fierce noontide glowed
And glittered on the tree-tops far below.
There, mid the stillness of the mountain road,
We just could hear the valley river flow,
Whose voice through many a windless summer day
Haunted the silent woods, now passed away.
Drinking fresh odours, spicy wafts that blew,
We watched the glassy, quivering air asleep,
Midway between tall cliffs that taller grew
Aboye the unseen torrent calling deep :
Till, like a sword, cleaving the foliage through,
The waterfall flashed foaming down the steep ;
White, living water, cooling with its spray
Dense plumes of fragile fern, now scorched away.
Keen is the axe, the forest fire streams bright,
Clear, beautiful, and fierce, it speeds for man
The Master, set to changeand stern to smite,
Bronzed pioneer of nations !—Ay, but scan
The ruined wonder wasted in a night,
The ravaged beauty God alone could plan,
And builds not twice! A bitter price to pay
Is this for progress,—beauty swept away !
TYPES OF FOREST.
Though the bush is generally of mixed type, yet, in certain
districts, particular species predominate to the more or less
complete exclusion of others. The Oxford and Alford Forests
consist almost entirely of Nothofagus Solandri. Nothofagus
Cliffortioides often forms the sole species in mountain districts.
In the North of Auckland the kauri is found in groves, and
sometimes even in forests. There are large areas in the east-
central portion of the North Island, in which the totara is the
prevailing tree. Throughout the lowland forests of the South
Island the rimu is plentiful, but the sub-alpine forests of the
16 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
western ranges consist almost entirely of the various species of
Nothofagus. In many districts of the North, particularly in
the south of Auckland Province, the tawa is found in immense
quantities. In swamps in both Islands large masses of
kahikatea (white pine) occur. In other places scattered through
the islands the rata is the prevailing tree. The coastal forests
usually produce a very great variety of trees. The beech,
‘ata, and kauri forests will be described more fully when the
trees themselves are dealt with.
LIANES.
“ Exulting Nature so delights,
So riots in profusion, she
Twice over does her work for glee !
A tangled intricacy first she weaves,
Under and upper growth of bush and tree
In rampant wrestle for ascendancy,
Then round it all a richer overflow
Of reckless vegetation flings,
That here close-moulding on the shrubs below
A matted coat of delicate leaves,
Mantles the muffled hfe whereon it clings,
Into a solid mass of greenery.
There mounting to the tree-tops, down again
Comes wildly wantoning in a perfect rain
Of trailers—self-encircling living strings
Unravellable ; see how all about
The hundred-stranded creeper cordage swings ! ’
DOMETT.
Plants which depend upon others for existence, and theretore
cannot group themselves into associations, are said to form
Guilds.* No description of the bush would be complete
without some reference to the guilds it contains. The chief
of these are the climbers or hanes, epiphytes, saprophytes and
parasites. Of these, only the first two need be considered here.
The climbing and creeping plants have had a special fascination
oD ‘o) de
“Ger., Genossenschaften.
GENERAL INTRODU
Fig. 4—Lianes.
17
18 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
for many writers. The term hane, lke the blessed word
Mesopotamia, seems almost to have been sufficient to bring
tears to the eyes of Kerner. In a rapturous passage he alludes
to it as the “ beautiful word hane”’ the “sweet word liane.”
It is difficult to see why the bush climbers should have
aroused so much enthusiasm. Possibly, it is because they are
comparatively rare in HKurope, and have, therefore, been
looked upon as symbolizing the luxuriance and strangeness of
the tropical forest. In England there are no climbers that
reach the tops of the trees except the ivy and honeysuckle.
Lianes reach their highest development in the Tropics, but
particularly in the West Indies and Brazil. In New Zealand,
both they and the epiphytes are better represented than
in any other extra-tropical country except Chili, whose forests
show frequent resemblances to those of New Zealand.
The advantage of a chmbing stem to the bush plant is
obvious. Little direct sunlight can penetrate into the cavernous
depths of the forest. The interior of the New Zealand
bush is immersed in a cathedral-ike gloom. Few plants,
therefore, can grow upon its floor. Only when some giant of
the forest falls, is there room for another to develop. Such
seeds as germinate must quickly struggle up to the light
overhead or die. There is no time for them to grow into
trees. Many, therefore, have developed a climbing habit,
in order to be able to ascend rapidly to the surface of the
ocean of green boughs, that toss above in the wind under
the ‘sweet flooding sunshine.’ They are careless of the
means by which they climb. Their one cry seems to be,
“more hght, more hght!’’*
Amongst our chmbers many different methods are adopted
for reaching the light. The kie-kie sprawls awkwardly over
* It is easy to be guilty of the “ pathetic fallacy,’ and to read into their upward
struggles our human emotions, as Kingsley has done in a well-known passage in At Last;
but such an interpretation will not help us towards a real understanding of plant nature.
At the same time, in mere description, it is often difficult to avoid the use of words or
phrases which may seem to imply in the plant a human motive. Where such may
happen to occur in this book, they must be understood purely in the descriptive and not
in the teleological sense.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 19
the ground until it falls across a tree. Then it fixes its roots
into the crevices of the bark, and pulls itself up. It often
ends in smothering its living ladder with immense masses
of sword-hke foliage, whose weight must be tremendous.
Similarly, several of the rata vines ascend by ivy-like rootlets.
The large rata-tree, however, strangles its support, putting out
transverse finger-like roots that cannot fail to impress the
ordinary observer with the apparent purposefulness of their
grasp. The lawyer, on the other hand, cat-lke, fixes its
recurved claws into the bark of a tree, and thus drags itself
up. The Clematis and Passiflora climb by tendrils. The
Supplejack, Miihlenbeckias, Convolvult, Parsonsias, Ipomea,
and Senecio sciadophilus twine. None of these are strong
enough to support themselves, though some of them—
particularly the lawyers and Miihlenbeckias—may occasionally
be found in the open, where they form mounded heaps, often
many feet in diameter, and several feet in height.
Wanderers through the bush are often puzzled by observing
cable-like stems that fall pendent from the roof of the forest to
its floor, without support. It seems impossible that these
climbers, with their flexible stems, could have got into such
a position without some external help. Often it will be found
that these rope-hke hanes belong to a species of Rubus, (the
bush-lawyer). They have originally been endowed with hooks
by which they have climbed up a tree. Their weight and
upward growth have finally disengaged them from the trunk
by which they have ascended, and in the course of years
they may be removed by various processes to a considerable
distance from it. If the hane is not a Rubus, then its position
can only be explained by supposing that the tree up which
it climbed has died, probably in an unavailing effort to push up
to the hght. Many young trees throughout the forest must
perish in this way.
The structure of the stem in hanes is of considerable
interest, but for a description of this some text book of botany
must be consulted.
20 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
EPIPHYTES.
““ What a load
That sturdy giant lifts in air!
His mighty arms are strong and broad,
But all with alien growths are furred,
A shaggy hide of creepers rare ;
Their forks are all blocked up and blurred
With tufts of clogging parasites
That crowd till not a spot left bare
Might offer footing for a bird! ’
DOMETT.
The epiphytes constitute another important plant guild.
These are plants which grow upon others, yet receive no
nourishment from them. They must be carefully distinguished
from parasites, with which they are often confused. The
parasite obtains its nourishment more or less completely from
the plant on which it grows. Some of the epiphytes, perhaps,
owe their existence to the same cause as the hanes. They
are plants which have assumed a habitat in the forks, or on the
branches of trees, in order to obtain more light; but this
explanation will scarcely account for the New Zealand species,
as these, without exception, are occasionally found growing on
rocks.
It is obvious that a plant which grows upon the bark of
a tree must often suffer from scarcity of water. Hence most
of our epiphytes have contrivances to protect them from
excessive transpiration, A plant, therefore, which can live
epiphytically, is also adapted for living on such a dry situation
as a rocky cliff. There, however, it may suffer from an excess
of sunshine. The physiological adaptations demanded by the
one situation are not necessarily quite the same as those
required for the other. Hence, though most epiphytes are
more or less commonly found growing on rocks, the converse:
is by no means true.
Epiphytes, lke hanes, are generally supposed to be the
mark of a tropical chmate. In Great Britain epiphytical
GENERAL INTRODUCTION PA
shrubs and trees are unknown, and the chief plants found
on trunks and lmbs of trees are accidental epiphytes, such
as mosses and ferns. The light spores of these are blown
about by the wind, and thus are able to reach lofty situations
on the face of a cliff, or in the forks of a tree. The seeds
of some dicotyledonous epiphytes, such as those of the rata,
may be carried about in the same way, but others are deposited
in position by birds. In New Zealand the number of epiphytes
is very large, considering the latitude of the country. We
must again, as in the case of the lanes, go to Chili to find
forests in a similar latitude with an equal abundance of
epiphytic growths. Diels suggests that this characteristic
is due to large rainfall in the forest regions of both countries.
The following list includes the most important of the epiphytic
species amongst the flowering plants :—Astelia Cunninghamit,
A. Solandri, A. spicata, Earina mucronata, E. autumnalis,
Dendrobium Cunninghamu, Bolbophyllum —pygmaeum,
Sarcochilus adversus, Peperomia Urvilleana, Pittosporum
cornifolium, Metrosideros robusta, M. Colensot, Griselinia lucida.
Diels includes in his list Hlatostema rugosum and Gaultheria
epiphyta, but is surely in error in doing so. EH. rugosum is
found only on the sides of creeks and rivers, and in very moist
places. It is plentiful, for example, on the rocky walls of
the Wanganui River in some parts of its course. G. epiphyta
is misnamed, and the error has apparently misled Diels.
THE SCRUB.
Perhaps some mention should be made here of the Scrub, as
it is strange to the visitor from the Northern Hemisphere.
The light underwood of the English copse or thicket is very
different from the impenetrable shaggy scrub of New Zealand.
In the wind-swept regions of the south, it is sometimes so
22 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
dense that progress through it is impossible. It must be
either avoided altogether or walked over. Anyone who essays
the latter method of advance, does so with the risk of falling
through the uneven floor of rigid branchlets which supports
him. Should this accident happen, he may be much bruised
or scratched, though he is not hkely to be seriously hurt. The
scrub consists chiefly of Coprosmas, but also contains species
of Cassinia, Olearia, Myrtus, etc. The leaves of the typical
scrub plant are small and sparse, the branches rigid, twiggy,
and often pointed. The manuka is often termed a scrub
plant, but its characteristics are rather those of the Heath,
which will be described later.
THE ALPINE VEGETATION.
In the South Island, the mixed lowland forest is generally
replaced at altitudes of from 1,000 feet to 2,000 feet, by the
beech forest. Beyond 3,000 or 4,000 feet this passes into the
the region of sub-alpine shrubs, which are mostly Veronicas and
Compositae. These, again, gradually give way to the alpine
herbs of the mountain meadows, moors, and shingle-slips.
With the line of perpetual snow all vegetation ends. In the
North Island there are only three peaks which rise over
7,000 feet, the volcanic mountains, Ruapehu, Egmont, and
Ngauruhoe. The first of the three is the highest, being
just over 9,000 feet. In the South Island, the Southern Alps,
which culminate in Mount Cook, 12,349 feet high, have
hundreds of peaks which are over 7,000feet. Hence the
alpine vegetation flourishes best on that range. The perpetual
snow-line ranges from about 7,000 feet in Otago, to 8,000 feet
in Nelson. The Kaikoura range on the East Coast also has
several peaks which are never free from snow. ‘There, too,
alpine herbage has been found, but this range has hitherto
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 23
been explored very imperfectly by botanists. The vegetation
of the Southern Alps, thanks to Buchanan, von Haast and Dr.
Cockayne, is now comparatively well known, though there are
doubtless a considerable number of mountain species yet to be
discovered. It is to this range, then, that botanists must turn
to find the best known New Zealand alpine plants. Nor need
they be mountaineers, for many of the species that belong
climatically to higher levels, come down to the lower passes,
and sometimes descend the river beds almost to the plains.
On the top of Arthur’s Pass, on the Canterbury-Westland
coach road, numerous alpine and sub-alpine species are to be
found. Here, in January, the wild flowers blossom in the
greatest profusion, forming a garden whose uncovenanted
beauty might easily put to shame the stately flower ranks and
geometrical foliage beds of many a prized parterre. ‘True,
white is the prevailing colour, broken occasionally by gleams
of yellow, but though there 1s no gorgeousness, there is at
least no disharmony of tone. Ranunculus Lyallii with its
large white cups, and Celmisias of various species, with their
large daisy-lke flowers, are conspicuous in such an alpine
meadow, by the size, beauty, and profusion of their blooms.
Even when these plants are not flowering, there is still to be
seen that wonderful variety of leafage so dear to every
mountain climber’s heart. Ruskin has well described it,
though writing of European forms. ‘The leaves of the
herbage at our feet take all kinds of strange shapes, as if
to invite us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-shaped,
spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed,
serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, in spires, in wreaths
endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same
from footstalk to blossom; they seem perpetually to tempt
our watchfulness, and take delight in outstripping our
wonder.”
The alpine plants and foliage must always have a fascination
for those who delight in beauty and variety of leaf-form.
24 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Their flowers, too, are certainly the most attractive amongst
those of the herbaceous plants of New Zealand. ‘Town
dwellers, in their untravelled and untrammelled ignorance,
frequently say that New Zealand has no wild flowers.
Certainly we have none in the neighbourhood of the cities,
or on the plains, that can compare with those of the fields
and hedgerows of Kngland. One reason for this is obvious.
Where not too dry, the land has, previous to the advent of the
white man, been covered with forest. There have been no
damp meadows or shady lanes to provide a home for annual or
bulbous plants. But though we have no pale beauty of
primrose or deep glow of violet, there is many a handsome
plant and many a _ sweet-scented flower amidst the great
lonelinesses of the Alps, for the pleasure of those who care to
leave the cities, and live for a time in the fresh air and glorious
scenes of the mountain heights.
THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLORA.
The discussion of the relationships of the fauna and flora
of Southern regions has given rise to some of the most
fascinating speculations of modern science. It has provided us
with quite unexpected glimpses into the past history of the
earth’s surface, and of the climatic conditions then prevailing.
We have learnt from it stories of sunken continents,
and of warm seas full of life, where now there are
only barren ice-sheets. However pleasant it might be to follow
the by-paths of Science in the investigation of such questions,
the limitations of our space prevent us from giving them any
adequate treatment here. A consideration of the chief factors
involved in the present distribution of animal and vegetable hfe
in the South Temperate Zone, would require references to strati-
graphical geology, ocean soundings, and to general geological
and astronomical theories quite outside the scope of this work.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 25
At present we are concerned solely with the origin of our
flora. It is clear, however, that such a question can only
be very imperfectly treated, if confined to a discussion of the
present distribution of plant hfe im southern lands. Any
conclusions derived from the study of botanical relations alone,
must be subjected to such modifications as may be demanded
by evidence obtained from the study of the other sciences.
For example, the plants of two widely separated districts often
show closer relationships than the animals do. This apparent
anomaly will be explained, if we remember that stretches of
sea which may prove insuperable barriers to the passage of
land animals, may be crossed by plants. We must, therefore,
in our treatment of the subject give conclusions that have been
based on a wider discussion than is possible here.
Whilst doing this, we shall consider shortly the evidence
of fossil botany, and of the present distribution of plant hfe
throughout the Southern Hemisphere. he first problem that
naturally arises in the discussion, is the connection existing
between the New Zealand flora and the Australian. This
is larger than can be accounted for by mere proximity.
Another question of unusual interest, 1s the origin of the
remarkable South American and Antarctic elements in our
flora. Probably the most complete and ingenious theory, yet
put forward to account for this connection, 1s that of the late
“Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. Some of his views have been
combated by Dr. A. R. Wallace and others ; but undoubtedly
the New Zealand biologist had a much wider knowledge of the
present and past conditions of distribution prevailing in the
Southern Hemisphere, than any of his critics. We _ shall,
therefore, adopt his views here. In one point all are agreed,
and that is as to the past great extension of the Antarctic
Continent into sub-temperate seas. ‘The demonstration of this
has been recently termed “one of the greatest triumphs of
"In the recent death of this distinguished scientist, New Zealand has suffered a loss
that can scarcely be too much deplored.
26 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
modern science.” We are proud to say that this magnificent
generalisation 1s in considerable measure due to the work of
New Zealand botanists. Before, however, considering the
botanical evidence, we must treat shortly of the general
characteristics of our fauna and flora.
OCEANIC AND CONTINENTAL ISLANDS.
For the purposes of the biologist, islands may be divided
into two classes, continental and oceanic. A continental island
is one which has at some period of its existence been united to
an adjacent land-mass. Its fauna and flora contain few
endemic species, and differ little, if at all, from that of the
neighbouring continental area. Great Britain is an excellent
example of a continental island. The British fauna and flora
are simply parts of the European fauna and flora. In quite
recent times the Straits of Dover have been dry land. An
oceanic island, on the other hand, is one that has never been
united to any continental area. Its fauna and flora are often
very fragmentary, and frequently contain a high percentage of
endemic species. Its plants and animals are generally provided
with good powers of distribution ; and have reached the island
from across the sea. The Azores may be taken as an example
of a group of Oceanic islands.
To which of these two classes shall we assign the islands of
New Zealand? It has characteristics both of continental and
oceanic islands, and it is, therefore, sometimes termed
anomalous. However, there is much evidence to show
that it was at one time attached to a land area probably much
larger than that of Europe; and that it is consequently entitled
to rank, geographically speaking, as a continental island.
Yet its fauna, unlike that of most large land areas, is very
fragmentary. The flora, though more complete than the fauna,
has also many gaps in it, and both fauna and flora contain
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 27
a larger proportion of endemic species than a typical con-
tinental island usually does. Nevertheless, there are many
reasons for the belief that the ancestral stock from which New
Zealand plant and animal life originated, was a continental one.
Before attempting to answer more precisely the question:
“Whence has our plant life come?’’ we must try to decide as
far as possible how long the present flora has been in
existence, and whether we must look for its ancestry here, or
in some foreign land.
THE AGE OF THE FLORA.
There is a common but erroneous opinion, that the New
Zealand flora shows marks of exceptional antiquity. There
are perhaps several groups of facts which have led to this
mistake. (1) Many of the New Zealand geological formations
are of great age. New Zealand is an old land. (2) The
almost complete absence of mdigenous mammalia, and the
presence of certain ancient forms of animal life, e.g. Peripatus
Sphenodon, (the tuatara, etc.), prove the unusual age of
the fauna. (3) The remarkable development of fern trees
and of club-mosses, and the comparative absence of large and
showy flowers seem almost to imply antiquity for the flora.
But none of these facts are sufficient to justify the belief.
The high age of part of the rocks and of the fauna is not a
necessary proof of the antiquity of the flora. Plants can
transport themselves over barriers insurmountable to animals.
Few wingless land animals can cross five hundred miles of
sea, yet we have evidence that this has been done by the seeds
of many plants. Hence, a comparatively young flora may
sometimes be found lving in company with a much more
ancient fauna. We must, therefore, rely entirely on the evi-
dence of the plants themselves for determining their antiquity
or otherwise. Hooker, it is true, states that the New Zea-
land lycopods “are the largest of the order, and present nearer
28 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
affinities to the fossil Lycopodiaceae of the coal period, than
any other existing plants*”’ ; but this opinion cannot justify the
extraordinary statement seen at times in the books of popular
writers, that the New Zealand flora is more like that of the
Carboniferous than is any other existing flora. Asa matter of
fact, our species of ferns and lycopods do not show affinities that
tend to prove them older than the ferns and lycopods of other
lands. Further, the evidence of the flowering plants does not
suggest that those of New Zealand are of any high degree of
antiquity. Many ancient forms, that once existed in New Zea-
land, and still exist in other lands, have been replaced here by
plants of a more modern type. One of the oldest orders of the
phanerogams is the Cycadeae. We have now no cycads
in New Zealand, though fossils show that they formerly
existed here. Changes of climate may have driven them out.
At one time they formed a considerable portion of the
vegetation of the globe, and they are still found in
large numbers in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of both
hemispheres. Turning to the Monocotyledons, we obtain
somewhat similar evidence. These plants are generally
supposed to be older than the Dicotyledons, though the testi-
mony of the rocks on this poimt is by no means indisputable.
They are, however, assuredly extremely old, and if our flora
were exceptionally ancient, we might expect them to be well
developed in New Zealand. The contrary, however, is the
case. Throughout the southern hemisphere the monocoty-
ledons are more poorly represented than in the northern.
Again, the facts of fossil botany seem to show that the palms are
one of the oldest orders of monocotyledons. In New Zealand
we have only one species of palm-tree. This paucity of
forms may perhaps be due to climatic or similar conditions.
In the tropics they are plentiful. On the other hand, it is
to be admitted that we have an ancient monocotyledon in
the cabbage-tree (Cordyline).
*““ Handbook of the New Zealand Flora.” (p. 387).
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 29
Amongst the dicotyledons, one of the oldest groups contains
the willow, poplar, oak, hazel-nut, birch, beech, chestnut, and
hornbeam. This group is highly characteristic of the Northern
Hemisphere, but though once well developed in New Zealand,
is now no longer represented here, except by the genus
Nothofagus, 1 which are included the “ birches”’ of the sub-
alpine forests. The most highly developed family of plants, on
the other hand, is the Compositae ; and this, though almost
wanting in the bush, is well represented in the open country
and in the alpine and sub-alpine scrub by more than 230
species. There is, indeed, little if anything in the distribution
of the dicotyledons, to suggest that the New Zealand Flora is
older than the European.
Again, it may be suggested that the large number of
green, inconspicuous flowers and the separation of the
sexes in an unusual proportion of the species are marks
of a primitive floral organization; yet it is doubtful whether
they can be so interpreted. The former characteristic is
obviously to a large extent dependent on local conditions ;
for the foreign representatives of New Zealand genera with small
flowers have often large and showy blossoms. The New Zealand
species of Viola, Passiflora, Myosotis, and of the various genera
Orchidaceae have less conspicuous blooms than the corres-
ponding species in other lands. This lack of brilliancy of the
local forms, obviously cannot be due in all cases, to their greater
antiquity, but is much more likely to be the result of the
adjustment, or lack of adjustment, of the flowers to the insect
hfe of the country. The unisexual condition of many of the
flowers may be susceptible of a similar explanation. It is at
any rate not a primitive but a secondary condition, for it can
easily be shown that most of our dicecious plants were in quite
recent times hermaphrodite. In a word, the long isolation of
New Zealand has certainly resulted in the development therein
of many unique forms, and also perhaps in the preservation of
some antique types, yet it cannot be said there is a sufficient
30 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
mass of facts to justify the statement that the flora as a whole
is of an exceptionally ancient type.
One line of evidence that night help us largely is, unfor-
tunately, not available at present to any large extent. Of the
fossil botany of these islands we know very little. The chief
paper on the subject is by the famous paleeo-botanist, Baron
von Ettingshausen. A translation of this appears in volume
xxii. of the Transactions. If the data contained in it are
reliable, it would seem (1) that the living flora has largely
been derived from the tertiary flora; (2) that the tertiary
flora was part of the original universal flora from which are
descended all plants of the present day; and (3) that only one
part of the tertiary flora has been changed into the living
flora, the rest having become extinct. It would appear also
that at one time there existed in New Zealand, trees similar to
the great redwoods of California, the Norfolk Island pine, the
she-oaks and gum-trees of Australia, the alders, oaks,
elms, and maples of the Northern Hemisphere, and the fig.
With the exception of the gum-trees, and perhaps the fig,
these are all old types, now extinct here, though existing
elsewhere. These identifications have in most cases been
made from fossil leaves only, and in the absence of flowers
and fruit; some of them, therefore, can only be regarded
as tentative.
THE AFFINITIES OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLORA.
The relationships of the New Zealand flora to those of other
lands, have given rise to greater discussion than its affinities to
those of the past. We have obviously much more material for
the investigation of the present distribution of plant hfe,
than for that of times long gone by. Still, many of the
problems concerned are very difficult of solution. Amongst
those who have dealt with these questions may be mentioned
the late Captain Hutton, Dr. A. R. Wallace, Professor Engler,
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 31
Mr. G. M. Thomson, and Mr. W. Bottmg Hemsley. It
is impossible to deal fully with the results of their work, but
an attempt will be made to give an intelligible, though
necessarily brief account of it.
Of the 1,400 flowering plants which New Zealand contains,
some two-thirds are found nowhere else. A considerable pro-
portion of the remainder is confined to New Zealand and
Australia, or to New Zealand, Australia, and other southern
districts. A section of the New Zealand flora shows a most
striking South American affinity. There are a few cosmopolitan
plants, and there is also an element usually termed Scandinavian,
which shows a relationship to a certain portion of the flora of
the Northern Hemisphere. As, however, the endemic species
constitute by far the greater portion of the flora, the foreign
affinities are best shown in the genera. Of these, 80 per cent.
are found in New Zealand, 10 per cent are endemic, and the
remaining 10 per cent are variously distributed. It is clear,
therefore, that the basis of the New Zealand flora has either
been derived from Austraha, or that the element common to
both has come from the same source. As a matter of fact, the
latter hypothesis is best supported by the evidence.
Several lines of argument, as has already been stated, show
that at one time New Zealand was more extensive than it is
now. It then stretched to the northward, through Lord Howe
and Norfolk Island, to New Caledonia, and perhaps even
as far as the Solomons. Another continental arm connected
Queensland with New Caledonia. Through these northern
extensions there passed, though not necessarily at the
same time, southward to New Zealand, and westward
to Queensland, the ancestral forms of much of the
vegetation common to the two countries. In this migra-
tion we have an explanation of the sub - tropical facies
of the New Zealand forests, and also of the fact that nearly
ninety per cent of our forest flora has Melanesian affinities.
It is probable that this northern extension existed in Miocene
a PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
times, but by the Hocene, much of it had disappeared. Thus
far, the problem of the Australian relationships of our flora is
comparatively simple, but on further examination we are soon
confronted with the fact, that, although New Zealand plants
show so many Australian affinities, yet most of the prevailing
and characteristic Australian forms are entirely absent from
our shores. An attempt to explain this anomaly will require
a somewhat fuller comparison of the two floras.
THE FLORAS OF NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA.
Isolation, varied environments, and doubtless other facts,
have been at work for a long time to give New Zealand a
unique flora. A visiting botanist would find here only
unknown plants around him. He would be puzzled, not only
by the strange local species, but also by the large number of
dissimilar plant associations to be met with in a small area.
Perhaps there is no more difficult flora in temperate regions
for the botanical tyro to classify. It seems to be a mixture of
many imcongruous elements. The visitor from Australia
would be little better able to cope with its difficulties, than the
traveller from England. In spite of the fact that so many of
the New Zealand genera are also to be found on the
neighbouring continent, no adjacent floras elsewhere are so
unlike as those on either side of the Tasman Sea. Yet the
distance between the two lands is little more than a thousand
miles. This hkeness with unlikeness constrained Sir Joseph
Hooker to say: “ Under whatever aspect I regard the flora of
Australia and New Zealand, I find all attempts to theorize
on the possible community of feature, frustrated by anomalies
of distribution, such as I beheve no two other similarly
situated countries on the globe present.”
The New Zealand forest is varied and mixed. The
Australian often varies little over immense areas of country.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION Die
The New Zealand bush is generally an inpenetrable jungle,
while throughout a great part of Australia
“The land hes desolate and stripped ;
Across its waste has thinly strayed
A tattered host of eucalypt,
From whose gaunt uniform is made,
A ragged penury of shade.”’
A mixed bush, somewhat similar to that of New Zealand, is
however, found in the wetter regions of South-Kastern
Austraha. But the enigma which baffled the speculations of
the earler botanists, hes in the fact that the most important of
the Australian genera are completely absent from New Zealand.
Hence results the lack of superficial resemblance between the
floras of the two countries. The gum trees, wattles, she-oaks,
bottle-brushes, hakeas, &c., which are so abundant in Eastern
Austraha, are without a single representative here. It might
well have been expected that some of these would have found
means of crossing the Tasman Sea.
It is little to be wondered at, then, that Sir Joseph Hooker
should have found it difficult to theorize concerning the relation-
ships of the two floras. Yet he seems scarcely to have realised
sufficiently that the differences of climate, surface, and geological
conditions existing between the two countries, are such,
that similar plant associations could not be expected to occur in
each. It must, however, be admitted that these differences in
themselves do not constitute a sufficient explanation of the
absence from New Zealand of the characteristic Australian
species and genera. The gum trees, wattles, hakeas, and she-
oaks, flourish as well here as in their native land; and some of
these at least can and do maintain themselves without artificial
aid in our islands. Of course they have been much assisted in
gaining a foothold here by the presence of clearings effected
by civilized man. Yet, their complete absence from New
Zealand, before the arrival of the European, can be
explained only on the assumption that they never before
obtained an opportunity of establishing themselves here. As
4
34 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
we have no large deserts, we could scarcely expect to find in this
country the mallee scrub, the myall, the salt-bush and the
spinifex of the Australian “bad lands”; but we might at least
have anticipated that forms related to these should occur in
New Zealand, modified only by the different conditions obtain-
ing here, though their absence may perhaps be explained on
the assumption that the specialized Australian forms did not
reach the inter-continental bridge, which formerly connected
New Zealand with the great northern land-area.
This answer to the problem may prove to be sufficient, but
there is at present no consensus of opinion amongst biologists
upon the subject. Dr. Wallace, looking rather to an Aus-
tralian than to a Melanesian origin of our flora, has put forward
a highly ingenious theory to account for the anomalies observed
by Sir J. Hooker. This theory, at one time received tentatively,
has more recently been subjected to considerable criticism at
the hands of Mr. C. Hedley and others.* _Onaccount, however,
of its general interest, it will probably be worth while to
outline it here, without attempting to form an exact estimate
of its value. In Cretaceous times, Australia existed as two
islands, an eastern and a western. in. long, veined, sometimes with 1 - 4
spines, keeled. Keel sometimes spiny. 30th islands: common. FI. Nov.-
March.
Fig. 44. Miihlenbeckia axillaris. Fruit (life size).
Chenopodiaceae.
THE BEET FAMILY.
Distribution.—A large family, distributed all over the world. Soda was at
one time obtained from the ashes of those species which grow in salt marshes.
Spinach (Spinacia) and beet (Beta) are used as table vegetables.
Sand-dunes, sea-marshes, deserts, and old lake bottoms are
more or less impregnated with salts of sodium, calcium,
magnesium, and potassium. Plants growing in such situations
THE BEET FAMILY 1p:
are termed halophytes, and it is in these localities that most
of the chenopods are found. Wherever the ground, on
drying, rapidly becomes encrusted with salt, there only
halophytes can grow. Plants usually halophytic may,
however, sometimes be found in soils that do not contain any
specially large amount of alkaline constituents; but in such
positions they often lose many of their chief characteristics.
Key to the Genera.
1. Stem leafiess, cylindrical, jointed. Salicornia, p. 156.
Stem leafy, not jointed. 2
2. Perianth without bracts. Chenopodium, p. 155.
Perianth with bracts, in the female flowers at least. 33
3. Perianth of male flowers without bracts. +Atriplex.
Perianth of male flowers bracteate. 4
4. Perianth fleshy in the fruit. tSuaeda.
Perianth winged or keeled in the fruit. Salsola, p. 155.
+Not further described.
Genus Chenopodium.
Herbs, often covered with a mealy dust, composed of the bladder-lhke, readily
separable cells of the hairs which cover the stems and leaves. Flowers 2-sexual,
small, greenish. Perianth 3-5 partite. A large genus of way-side weeds, the
fat-hens and goose-foots. (Name from the Greek signifying goose-foot). 7 sp.
Chenopodium triandrum (The Triandrous Chenopodium.)
Stems 6 in.-12 in. high, much branched. Leaves { in.-3 in. long, entire.
Flowers minute, fascicled at the ends of the branches. Stamens 2-4. Both
islands, Auckland to Otago. Fl. Noy.-Mar. This species appears to be endemic
in New Zealand. The specific name “ triandrum”’ implies that there are three
free stamens.
Genus Salsola.
Herbs or shrubs, with fleshy, often prickly leaves, extremely saline.
Flowers minute, axillary, 2-sexual. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt).
1 sp.
Salsola australis (The Southern Salsola).
A low woody shrub, 1 ft.-2 ft. high. Leaves hard, sharp-pointed, ovate,
$ in.-f in. long. Flowers inconspicuous. Sepals and stamens usually 5. This
is, perhaps, the same as the northern Salsola kali, which, as its name implies,
was at one time one of the chief sources of alkali.
156 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Genus Salicornia.
Succulent, jointed, leafless herbs. Flowers minute, 2-sexual, sunk in the
joints of the stem. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt-horn). 1 sp.
Salicornia indica (The Indian Salicornia).
Stems prostrate. Branches ascending 6 in.-12 in. long. Joints variable in
size, sometimes bright pink in colour. Branches terminating in cylindrical
cones. Calyx fleshy. Stamens, 1 or 2. Fruit membranous. Both islands :
stony or muddy beaches. Fl. Dec.-Feb.
Caryophyllaceae.
FAMILY OF PINKS.
Distribution.—A large family, distributed over cold and temperate regions.
With the exception of the Pinks and Carnations, the flowers of the order are of
little general interest. Many of them are British weeds, and a number of them
have been introduced into the Colony. The juices possess no active properties
except in the case of Saponaria, which contains the poisonous principle
saponine.
Key to the Genera.
1. Sepals 4 or 5, united or free. ; 1
Sepals 2. Hectorella. p. 158.
2. Sepals free or united only at the base. 3
Calyx 5 toothed and nerved. +Gypsophila.
3. Petals 0. +Colobanthus.
Petals present. 4
4. Stipules 0. Stellaria, p. 156.
Stipules present, membranous. +Spergularia.
(+ Not further described).
Genus Stellaria.
Usually weak, straggling herbs, with small white flowers, found in temperate
and cold regions. Petals and sepals 4-5. Stamens 8-10. Of 80 species, 6 are
endemic in New Zealand. Many others have become naturalized. The chick-
weeds, stitchworts, &c., belong to this genus. (Name from the Latin, in allusion
to the star-like appearance of the flower).
Stellaria Roughii (Rough’s Chickweed).
This is a very distinct species, found only in the alpine districts of the South
Island. It is an erect, succulent herb, not more than four inches in height.
Leaves 4 in.-§ in. long. Flowers 4 in.-? in. across, terminal, solitary, green.
Petals smaller than the sepals. Seeds large, brown, hairy.
FAMILY OF PINKS bot
FLORA OF THE SHINGLE Fans.
The range of mountains known as the Southern Alps is a
very ancient one, and comparatively dry on its eastern slopes.
Consequently, there is not a sufficient amount of denudation
to carry off to lower levels, the broken rock formed by the
winter’s frosts. Immense masses of detritus collect on the
eastern flanks, forming in many places great shingle fans, which
are thousands of feet in height. In these localities have been
developed certain highly specialized plants not to be found
elsewhere. One of these, Notothlaspi rosulatum, is elsewhere
described at some length, others are Stellaria Roughii, Cotula
atrata, Ligusticum carnosulum, Craspedia alpina, Lobelia
Roughw. It is the first of these that we have now to deal
with. It grows at an altitude of from 4,000 ft. to 6,500 ft.,
on the shingle slps in various parts of Canterbury and
Nelson.
It is obvious that the ordinary chickweed of the garden
could not exist for long at such an altitude. Such a flaccid,
weak, prostrate plant would soon be broken and bruised by the
rain of shingle from above, or destroyed by the heat of summer
and the frosts of winter. For few, if any, plant habitats are so
subject to extremes of climate and the violence of storms, as
the shingle ship. In summer, the surface layers are dry, and
burning hot. In winter, they are wet, and even when not
covered by snow, icy cold. At a considerable depth below
the surface is a stream of water, often derived from melting
snow. At all seasons of the year, furious gales blow over the
unsheltered surfaces of the fans. In winter, the south-west
winds drive over them, laden with snow and sleet, and in
summer, they are swept by the no less furious, and sometimes
parching nor’-westers. Only a plant with a constitution of
surpassing hardiness and vigour can live under such rigorous
conditions, One of the strangest features in connection with
them, is that they endure all these hardships with little or no
soil to feed upon.
158 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Let us consider, shortly, how this alpine chickweed has
endeavoured to adapt itself to its remarkable habitat. Like
nearly all the other shingle plants, it has adopted as its colour
the dusky grey of its surroundings. Further, it is the only
erect native chickweeed, and thus, by its habit, it 1s to some
extent protected from moving shingle. Dr. Cockayne has
srown it from seed, and studied its changes of form.* Seeds
collected on Mount Torlesse, and grown at New Brighton
(Canterbury), took more than a year to germinate, and some of
them a year and tenmonths. The first pair of leaves after the
cotyledons, were spathulate, and of rather a glaucous green,
with long petioles. In the adult plant the leaves are sessile
and linear, and thus well protected from excessive trans-
piration. This reduction of leaf surface may also be regarded
as a protection against excessive insolation. Even in the
earlier stages of the plant both surfaces of the leaf are
protected by a thick cuticle, and on the under-surface there is
in addition a two-layered epidermis. Thus the colour, habit,
leaf-form, and leaf-structures are all doubtless adaptations to
environment.
Genus Hectorella.
A genus of one species, which is a small, tufted, fleshy plant, with leathery,
imbricating leaves. The flowers are white, nearly sessile; stems 1 in.-1$ in. in
height. Flowers 7 in. long. Capsule membranous. Named in honour of Dr.
Hector who discovered it in the alpine districts of Otago.
Hectorella czespitosa (The Tufted Hectorella).
This is a curious alpine patch plant of somewhat uncertain position. It is
generally included in the Portulaceae, but as Diels has shown, it should almost
certainly be regarded as one of the Caryophylaceae. It was originally discovered
by Sir James Hector in 1862. The flowers are arranged in circles, on the
flattened tops of the branches. It is probable that the structures which Hooker
considered to be two sepals, are really sepaloid bracts, and that what he termed
the corolla is a petaloid calyx. If these interpretations are correct, then the plant
is closely allied to such a Caryophyllaceous plant as Lyallia of Kerguelen’s
Land.
Trans. XXXIII p. 267.
THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY 159
Nyctaginaceae.
THE MARVEL OF PERU FAMILY.
Distribution.—A small family of plants, principally natives of warm
countries. Mirabilis dichotoma is the garden plant known as the Marvel of
Peru, or the Four o’clock Plant, from its habit of opening its flowers at that
hour of the afternoon. Bougainvillea spectabilis is remarkable for its large
rose-coloured bracts. Pisonia is the only New Zealand genus. The prickly
seeds of P. Brunoniana exude a glutinous substance which adheres to the wings
of small birds, and makes them easy of capture. Another West Indian species
has strong hooked spines on its branches, which render it an annoyance to
travellers.
Genus Pisonia.
Shrubs or trees. Leayes opposite, alternate or whorled. Flowers small,
green or reddish, in terminal corymbs. Perianth 5-lobed. Stamens 6-10,
unequal. 1 sp.
Pisonia Brunoniana (The Parapara).
A small tree, 12 ft.-15 ft. in height. Leaves opposite or whorled, 4 in.-
12 in. long, oblong, weak, entire. Flowers in compound cymes, hairy, 2 in.-4 in.
across. Perianth in. long. Stamens 7. Perianth of the fruit sticky, ribbed,
1 in.-15 in. long. Maori name para-para, sometimes called by the settlers the
Bird-catching plant. North Island: Ngunguru, Whangarei. FI. nearly all
the year round.
Aizoaceae.
THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY.
Distribution.—A family of nearly 500 species, found chiefly in tropical and
sub-tropical regions, notably in South Africa.
Key to the Genera.
Leaves angular. Petals many. Mesembryanthemum.
Leaves flat, petioled. Petals absent. Tetragonia.
Genus Mesembryanthemum.
Xerophytic herbs, usually creeping, often succulent. Leaves opposite,
without stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal. Calyx 5-lobed. Petals and
stamens numerous. Ovary with 5 or more cells. Fruit a capsule opening in
moist air only; seeds minute. (Name from the Greek, in allusion to the time
at which the flower expands.) 2 sp.
160 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Mesembryanthemum australe (The Southern
Mesembryanthemum).
Stems 1 ft.-2 ft. in length, prostrate, rooting at the nodes. Leaves united
at the base, 1 in.-3 in. long, thick, fleshy, shining, Flower-stems short, thick.
Flowers with spreading petals, % in.-1 in. across, white or pink. Petals 50-60.
Styles 5-8. Ovary 5-8 celled. Both islands: abundant on the sea-shore. Fl.
Noy.-March. Called by colonists, pigs’ faces or ice-plant.
Genus Tetragonia.
Herbs, erect or trailing. Leaves succulent, alternate. Flowers axillary.
Calyx 3-5 lobed. Petals 0. Stamens few or many. Styles 2-8. Ovary 2-8-
celled. Cells l-ovuled. Fruit round or angular, fleshy, sometimes horned.
(Name from the Greek, in reference to the angular calyx-tube.) 2 sp.
Tetragonia expansa.
An erect, branched, fleshy herb. Leaves 1 in.-3 in. long, glistening with
papille. Flowers solitary or in pairs, sessile or with very short stalks. Calyx
4-lobed. Stamens 12-16. Styles 3-8. Ovary 3-8-celled. Fruit angular,
usually with 2-4 horns. New Zealand Spinach. Kermadecs to Stewart
Island: on the seashore. FI. Dec. to Feb.
Ranunculaceae.
ButTteRcuP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY.
Distribution.—A family of about 700 species, found chiefly in temperate and
colder regions. It includes about 50 New Zealand species. Most plants of the
order contain an acrid juice which is almost invariably poisonous. Some furnish
valuable drugs, e.g., Hellebore and Aconite. Others are cultivated on account
of their beauty, such as Ranunculus, Anemone, Christmas Rose, Columbine,
Larkspur, and Clematis.
Key to the Genera.
1. Climbing shrubs Clematis.
Herbs. 2
9. Petals none. Caltha.
Petals present, Ranunculus.
BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 161
Fig. 45. Seed of Clematis indivisa (4 nat. size).
““ Clematis, so lovely in decline,
ers, when they cease to shine,
Fade into feathery wreaths, silk-bright,
And silvery-curled.’’
DOMETT.
162 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Genus Clematis.
Shrubs climbing by twining petioles, with opposite compound leaves.
Flowers dicecious. Corolla wanting, sepals petaloid. (Name from the Greek,
signifying a vine-shoot). 9 sp.
Two peculiarities of New Zealand plants are well illustrated
by this genus. (1) A large number of our flowers are green
and inconspicuous, or at least not brightly coloured; (2) an
unusually large proportion of the species have stamens and
pistils on different individuals.
The genus Clematis in other lands contains many species,
which are blue, purple, or yellow. New Zealand has nine
species. Two of these have white flowers; in the remainder
the’ flowers are greenish-yellow or yellowish. In none are
they brightly coloured, and this lack of colour one finds
throughout the flora. The New Zealand violets are white,
the gentians are nearly all white, the flax proper (Linum
monogynum) is white. The corresponding species in other
countries are blue, or brightly coloured. Examples might be
multiphed indefinitely (e.g., most of our Compositae, Veronicas,
Pimeleas, etc., are white).
There is no doubt that the prevalence of white in the Flora
is In some way connected with the paucity of insects in New
Zealand. It has been said, that not only are our insect
species few in numbers, but there are few individuals of each
species. Such a broad statement, as this, is, however,
unwarranted. It is true that we have only fifteen kinds of
butterfly, and that several of these are rare, so that these
insects play a smaller part in the work of pollination here
than elsewhere. However, we have a considerable number of
forms of might-flying moths, several of the familes being well
represented, and it is generally supposed that they pollinate
white flowers, which are more conspicuous in the gloom than
coloured ones. It also seems probable that flies play a larger
part in the work of pollination here than they do elsewhere.
Too little, however, is known at present about the indigenous
BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 163
Fig. 46. Clematis indivisa—Staminate flowers (3 nat. size).
Meek clematis, tree dweller, child of dew,
Nursling of light and air !
Slow trailing stars, or showers of misty suns,
Whence is the hand thou reachest wistfully
Feeling, on earth, for something not of earth ?
JOHANNES ANDERSEN.
164 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
species in the lower orders of insects, to enable one to speak
definitely about them and their relationships to flowers.
Unisexual flowers.
Perhaps in no other part of the world is there such a large
percentage of unisexual flowers to be found, as in New
Zealand. Genera which are hermaphrodite elsewhere, are
often unisexual here. Out of 433 species examined Mr. G.
M. Thomson found 46 per cent.—a remarkably high
proportion—more or less unisexual.* Of the remaining 54
per cent., probably only a few are self-pollinated, although the
flowers are hermaphrodite. ‘There is reason to believe that in
some few cases (e.g., the willow and the oak), the unisexual
condition is the primitive one; but, in many of the New
Zealand plants, the presence of rudimentary organs, and the
hermaphroditism of closely allied forms elsewhere, prove that
suppression has taken place, and that we have here to do with
a secondary and not a primitive condition.
Clematis indivisa (The Entire-leaved Clematis.)
This is one of the best-known of the bush flowers. The leaves are thick
and glossy, and the flowers have no petals, the sepals acting both as protective
and attractive organs. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name P2wa-wananga,
Pikiarero.
Plants of C. indivisa, with their festoons of starry white
flowers, looped from tree to tree, ight up with delicate beauty
the edges of the dark bush in the early spring. It is not to be
wondered at that the northern Maoris gave to this species the
name of Pua-wananga, 1.e., the sacred or sanctified flower. Its.
feathery wreaths of seed are almost as beautiful as the flowers,
each seed in the cluster bearing a long silky, silvery plume,
which enables the wind to carry it to a distance. Pairs of
rudimentary leaves are found beneath each flower-stalk, and
these are believed to remain undeveloped, so that the flower
*Trans. XIII., p. 248.
BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 165
Fig. 47. Clematis indivisa—Pistillate flowers (nat. size).
Fancy could almost declare
That great Ophiucus, down-hurled
From his throne in the skiey star-world,
Had been caught with his glittering gems,
*Mid those giant entangling stems.
DOMETT.
166 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
may not be shaded, or hidden from the sight of the insects
upon which it depends for pollination.
The leaf-stems coil themselves spirally round the branches
of other trees, and so drag the plant up to the sunshine, which
is needed for the expansion of their flowers. When young,
these leaf-stems are remarkably sensitive, and, if gently rubbed,
will turn in the direction from which the friction comes.
They will seize, therefore, and coil themselves around any
twig or branch against which they are blown by the wind.
Clematis hexasepala (The Six-sepaled Clematis).
Very similar to C. mdwisa, but smaller. Found throughout the islands,
but not so commonly as the former. Fl. Sep.-Noy.
Clematis afoliata (The Leafless Clematis).
A remarkable plant, with leafless branches, and yellow flowers ; often
binding together, with its long wiry stems, the bush upon which it grows.
Found chiefly in the South Island: not common. It may still be collected
within a short distance of the foot of Colombo Street, Christchurch. Fl. Oct.
Clematis fetida (The Feetid Clematis) produces fragrant, greenish-yellow
flowers in great profusion, on long sprays. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Clematis parviflora
(The Small-flowered Clematis)—Flowers fewer, leaves smaller and softer than in
C. fetida. Rather local in the North Island, and rare in the South Island.
Fl. Oct.-Noy.
Genus Ranunculus.
Most of the species of this genus are known as Buttercups. Sepals 3-5.
Stamens many. Fruit a head of beaked achenes. 37 sp.
Ranunculus Lyallii (Lyall’s Ranunculus).
Stem erect, without runners. Achenes silky. Leaves peltate, flowers
white. Alpine districts of the South Island. Fl. Jan.-March.
This stately plant is the finest species of the genus. The
leaves, which are kidney-shaped in the young plants, are
circular and concave in mature specimens, thus forming saucers.
In them water often collects, and, as there are deep grooves
over the leaf-veins, Diels considers that moisture may be
absorbed at these places, but the matter has not yet been sub-
jected to experiment. The plant is known to colonists as the
Mountain, Shepherd’s, or Mount Cook Lily. The name is
BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 167
Fig. 48. Clematis parviflora (7 nat. size).
168 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
most inappropriate, as the plant is not a lily, but a large white
buttercup. However, any large-leaved herbaceous native plant
is called by the colonists a lly, especially if it has white
flowers. For another instance of the misuse of the name, v.
Chatham Island Lily, Myosotidiwm nobile.
Ranunculus Lyallit is not unlike the English king-cup in
its habit of growth, having the same large, round, fleshy
leaves and juicy stems. But the flower of the king-cup is
golden, and that of the Mount Cook Lily is of a pure and
waxy white. This Ranunculus grows only in the alpine
districts of the South Island, and at an altitude of from
2,000 to 4000 feet. It may, however, be readily seen on
Mackinnon’s Pass, on Arthur’s Pass, and near Mount Cook,
where it forms dense patches as high up as the Ball Hut on
the edge of the Tasman Glacier. It is one of the most
its white
beautiful plants in the New Zealand alpine flora
anemone-like flowers contrasting well with its large, dark glossy-
ereen leaves which sometimes measure fifteen inches across.
This plant and R. Traversw are the only species with peltate
leaves. It is cultivated with difficulty, as it requires the
ereatest heat possible during summer, and the most severe
cold in winter.
Other species which have extremely showy flowers are A.
Buchanani (Otago lake district), R. Godleyanus (headwaters of
the Rakaia), R. insignis (southern Nelson, 'Tararua, and
Ruahine Mountains), R. nivicola (Mount Kgmont). The only
similar species known outside of New Zealand, is R. Baurii of
the Transvaal mountains.
Ranunculus crithmifolius (Lhe Samphire-leaved Ranunculus).
Similar to the next species, R. Haastii, but with shining green fleshy leaves,
and short 1-flowered scapes. Wairau Gorge. Known only from a single
specimen.
The plant descriptions of many of the earler botanists were
often of necessity very imperfect, and, consequently, later
investigators have frequently had much difficulty in identifying
BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 169
Fig. 49. Ranunculus Lyallii (3 nat. size).
170 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
the species to which these descriptions allude. Sometimes
not a scrap of the original specimens, from which the
characters have been drawn up, is to be found in herbaria.
Under these circumstances, it is a matter of astonishment
how many of the original species have been identified with
certainty. In spite, however, of all the perseverance and
research of modern workers, a few of the forms apparently
known to the earliest explorers, have not been re-discovered in
recent times. In some cases it is probable that the plant has
been redescribed under a fresh name; in a very few cases, it
may be, that, by some lucky chance, the first collectors found
a plant that, on account of its extreme rarity, has never been
seen again. In R. crithmifolius we have a plant which has
not been re-identified since first found by Travers on the
shingle-slips of the Wairau Gorge. Even then only a single
plant was seen. (cf. Cotula filiformis, Senecio perdicioides,
and Pittosporum obcordatum.
It seems more than likely, therefore, that the plant was a
casual variant of some other form, than really a distinct
species. If, however, the original description is to be trusted,
R. crithmifolius is one of the most remarkable species of the
genus.
Like all other shingle-shp plants, it 1s highly specialized ;
otherwise it would not be able to live in the place whence it
was reported.
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LASIANTHERA FAMILY
THE
Fig. 70,
932 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
after running along one of the external faces, enters by a pore
near the apex.
The Kaikomako in Maori Lore.
The story concerning the origin of fire is one of the best
known Maori legends. There are several variants of it.
Maui, the famous hero and demigod, one evening maliciously
extinguished all the household fires, so that, when morning
came, 1t was impossible for his mother to cook the daily meal.
This the hero had foreseen, and it gave him the required
excuse to go to the bowels of the earth, where dwelt the dread
goddess of fire, Mahuika. He thus hoped to discover whence
came fire. He reached the abode of the goddess by a
subterranean path, and begged from her a spark to rekindle
the terrestrial hearths. On receiving this daring request, the
goddess pulled out one of her finger-nails, and with it there
leaped forth a stream of fire. Maui carried off the flame with
him, but, wishing to learn more of its origin, put it out before
he had gone far. He returned to the cavern of the goddess,
and told her that he had accidentally lost the fire. She drew
out a second finger-nail, and Maui carried off the fire and
extinguished it as before. The same trick was repeated by
Maui until Mahuika had pulled out all her nails except that
on one of her big toes. By this time, however, the goddess
recognized that she was being tricked. So, when Maui
returned for the twentieth nail, she tore it out and violently
dashed it on the ground. Immediately her dwelling was filled
with flames. Maui escaped to the upper world, but was chased
by the goddess with conflagration. With great presence of
mind, he turned himself into a bird, but even then he was
likely to have perished, for a pool of water into which he
plunged, was boiling hot. Indeed, he would undoubtedly have
been burned, had he not called to his assistance the gods of
the wind and rain and hail. These quenched the fires, and
Mahuika, appalled by the terrors of the tempest, fled shrieking
to the underworld. As she went, however, Maui saw her
THE KARAKA FAMILY 233
throw the seeds of fire into several trees. Amongst these were
the kaikomako, mahoe, totara, and pate. Thus he obtained
the coveted knowledge, for if a sharp pointed kaikomako stick
is worked vigorously along the surface of a flat piece of mahoe
(Melicytus ramiflorus), or pate (Schefilera digitata), a groove
is formed, which fills with fine dust. This, being gathered to
one end of the groove, will presently smoke; and, if the
worker 1s sufficiently adroit and strong, he will at last be able
to kindle a flame.
Strangely enough, this primitive method of obtaining fire
was the only one known to the Maoris. Those, who have
tried it, alone know what violent exertion and care are needed
to ensure kindling by these means. Smoke is readily obtained
by the vigorous worker, but flame rarely ever.
Corynocarpaceae.
THE KARAKA FAMILY.
Distribution.—A family of two species, one in New Zealand and the other
found in New Caledonia and the adjacent islands.
Corynocarpus levigata (The Smooth Corynocarpus).
A handsome tree, with glossy, laurel-like foliage. Leaves 3 in.-7 in. long,
oblong. Flowers in erect panicles, 4 in. in length. Flowers 4 in. in diameter,
white. Petals concave. Fruit oblong, 1 in. in length, extremely poisonous.
Found in both islands. Fl. Aug.-Dec. Maori name, Karaka. This tree is
often called by settlers the “‘ New Zealand Laurel.’’ The Karaka forms the
chief forest in the Chatham Islands, and was much used by the natives in the
making of canoes.
This is one of the handsomest of New Zealand trees. The
rounded, massive heads of laurel-like leaves are to be seen
rising near most Maori clearings, as far south as Long-
Look-Out Point, on Banks Peninsula. This is its southern-
most habitat, though it also grows in the Chatham Islands,
I34 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
where it is known to the natives as Kopi. It is common in
many places near the coast in the North Island, where it has
obviously been planted by the Maoris; and it is also
sometimes to be found along river-banks, being specially
plentiful in the neighbourhood of the Wanganui River. In
the South Island it is rarer, though Kirk (Forest Flora,
p. 178) is scarcely right in calling it “ very rare,” as it grows
Fig. 71. Karaka Grove.
in great abundance along the coast-line north of Kaikoura in
the neighbourhood of old Maori settlements.
The kernel of the orange-coloured, damson-shaped fruit was
one of the staple articles of diet of the Maori. Consequently,
the tree was much cultivated, and, as the young plants grow
readily from self-sown seeds in the shade of the old, the
karaka 1s very often to be found in groves. These groves,
according to Colenso, were strictly tapu. His account* of the
Trans. IV., p. 317.
THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY I35
manner of preparation of the food, and the action of the poison
is extremely interesting.
Mr. Skey investigated the nature of the poison, and came
to the conclusion that it was probably a glucoside (v., under
Coriaria ruscifolia.) He isolated the bitter principle in
beautifully radiating acicular crystals, and considered that
it was similar to digitaline (7.e., the drug obtained from the
root of the fox-glove). (v., also under Pomaderris.)
THE HoME OF THE KARAKA.
The Maoris state that they originally brought the karaka
with them from their semi-mythical Eden (Hawaiki), but
science contradicts this statement. Until quite recently, the
genus was believed to be endemic, but it has now been found
in New Caledonia and the New Hebrides, so that it is
probable the plant came into New Zealand when there was a
land extension to the north. It is apparently quite unknown
in the Western Pacific, whence the Maoris came to New
Zealand, but a very similar tree growing in Polynesia bears, it
is said, the same name. It is probable, therefore, that the
name karaka was attached to the New Zealand tree by the
Maoris, because of its resemblance to a tree found in their
former home, and not because they brought it with them.
The Maoris wore chaplets of the leaves upon their heads,
when they visited the graves of their ancestors on any
important occasion.
Rhamnaceae.
THE BuckTHORN FAMILY.
Distribution.—A widely-distributed family, occurring in warm and
temperate regions. Some of the species possess edible fruits, while the bark of
others yields a tonic, and is used in medicine. Yellow, green and blue dyes
are also obtained from some of the fruits. The leaves of Ceanothus americanus
have been used as a substitute for tea.
236 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Key to the Genera.
Leafy shrubs. Leaves alternate. Pomaderris, p. 236.
Spinous shrubs. Leaves opposite or 0. Discaria, p. 239.
Genus Pomaderris.
Shrubs, clothed with a hoary stellate down. Leaves alternate. Calyx-tube
divided into 5 lobes. Petals 5 or O. Stamens 5. Flowers in terminal or
axillary corymbs or panicles. About 22 species, found only in Australia, New
Zealand, and New Caledonia. (Name from the Greek, signifying a covering and
the skin, the fruit being loosely covered by the calyx).
Pomaderris elliptica (The Elliptical-leaved Pomaderris).
A branching shrub, 2-10 ft. in height. Leaves 2-3 in. long, shining above,
white with down on the under-surface. Cymes fragrant, many-flowered. Calyx,
white. Petals crisped at the edges, greenish-white. North Island: dry hills.
Fl. Sept. Native name, Kumarahou, from Kwmara, a tuber-like root, and how,
growing deep or strongly.
Pomaderris apetala (The Tainut).
A small tree 6 ft.-20 ft. in height, trunk 5 in.-6 in. in diameter. Leaves,
flowers, and flowering stems clothed with dense soft hairs. Cymes many-flowered.
Petals none. Fruit a capsule. North Island only, rare and local. Fl. Oct.-Noy.
Maori name Tami.
THE DISCOVERY OF THE TAINUI.
This plant was discovered in New Zealand by Sir James
Hector, and described by him in 1879* as Pomaderris Tainut.
It is of special interest because of the Maori legend attached
to it. When Sir James was in the Mokau district in
December, 1878, he was informed by the Maoris, that a certain
tree, which had sprung from the green boughs used in the
flooring of the canoe “ Tainu,” was still growing in_ that
district. The Tainui was one of the six famous canoes of
the Great Heke, and in it the ancestors of the Waaukatos,
Ngatimaniapotos, and other tribes, came to New Zealand some
five hundred and fifty years ago. Sir James expressed a
doubt as to the credibility of this statement concerning the
origin of the tree. The Maoris then offered to show him the
living specimens, which were growing on a spur between the
“Trans. XI. p. 428.
THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY Dot
Mokau and the Mohakatina Rivers. The scientist, on seeing
them, was forced to admit that he had not observed any tree
of the kind in New Zealand before, and the Maoris considered
Fig. 72. Pomaderris phylicefolia (4 nat. size).
this admission was prima facie evidence of the truth of their
tale. Sir James concurred in their view, and suggested that,
“if we could hereafter determine the original habitat of the
tree, 1t might give us a clue to the whereabouts of their
238 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
ancestral home, Hawaiki, the place whence the Maoris originally
migrated to New Zealand.” But, unfortunately for the lover
of romance, there is a sequel to the tale. When the earthen
pot of tradition, and the iron pot of science, go down the
stream together, it is the former which is likely to be broken.
Kirk has shown (Forest Flora, p. 11) that the plant is none
other than the Australian Pomaderris apetala. Moreover, the
genus Pomaderris, so far as 1s at present known, 1s peculiar to
New Zealand and Australia, and does not occur in the South
Seas. It is obvious, therefore, that the story has grown up to
explain the tree, and that the presence of the plant in New
Zealand is no proof of the truth of the legend. Indeed, on
examination of the tale, discrepancies in it soon appear. The
species is not confined to the habitat where it was first found,
nor was the “‘T'ainui”’ stranded near the Mokau, but at Kawhia.
Pomaderris phyliczefolia (The Phylica-leaved Pomaderris).
A strongly scented, heath-like shrub, which grows profusely amongst the
small tea-tree, upon gum-lands. The branches are thickly covered with soft
hairs, and the leaves so much recurved as to appear to be round rather than flat.
The flowers are axillary, in cymes of 3-5, and are of a yellowish colour. North
Island. Fl. Aug.-Oct. Maori name Tawhinw.* (Phylica is an African genus of
the order, consisting of heath-like shrubs).
This plant is often abundant in the open country in the
North Island, and constitutes, particularly in Auckland
Province, one of the chief components of the lowland heaths.
Its structure also is typical of the heath-plant. The small
leaves bear their stomata on the under-surface, in wind-still
tubes, formed by the mrolled margins and the rough hairs.
Transpiration is thus checked, and the plant is enabled to
withstand long continued insolation. Similar leaves may be
found in Olearia virgata, Cassinia retorta, and Celmisia
longifolia.
The roots of this plant were, according to Colenso, some-
times used for fish-hooks, when bone ones were lacking.
*This name is also applied to Cassinia leptophylla.
THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 239
Genus Discaria.
About 14 species, of which 1 is found in New Zealand. Much branched,
almost leafless, usually thorny shrubs, with twisted interlacing stems. Branches
grooved. Leaves 4 in.-f in. long. Flowers axillary, fascicled, small. Petals 0,
or4or5. Stamens4or5. Fruit a dry hard drupe. (Name from the Greek
signifying a disk, from the ovary being situated on a broad disk).
Discaria toumatou (The Wild Irishman).
A spinous bush, sometimes 20 ft. in height. Flower 4 in. in diameter, white;
calyx, downy. Leaves, when present, fascicled or solitary in the axil of
spines. North and South Islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Tumatakurw.
XEROPHYTIC LEAVES.
It doubtless sometimes happens, that, owing to slow move-
ments of the earth’s crust, the climate of a plant habitat
alters. There is reason, for example, to believe that, at some
past time, the climate of the Canterbury Plains, and perhaps
of other parts of New Zealand, was much more arid than it
now is. Under changing circumstances, a plant has either to
accommodate itself to its new environment, or give place to
other and better adapted species. There are many ways in
which a plant can adjust its leaf to the conditions of a
desert climate. The leaf may be set obliquely to the sun,
as in Eucalyptus ; it may provide itself with water-storage
apparatus, as in Mesembryanthemum ; the leaf margins may
be recurved, as in Olearia virgata; the total leaf surface
may be reduced, as in many Veronicas; or again, the leaves
may become spinescent, as in Aciphylla. If all these
methods fail in protecting the transpiring surface sufficiently,
the plant may become leafless. Then the stem has to
take on the functions of a leaf, as in Carmichaelia, Clematis
afoliata, etc.
Now Discaria has nearly been reduced to these straits to
prolong its existence. Such extreme measures, however, are
only adopted by the plant, if other devices for protection against
drought fail, or are unavailable; for a stem cannot be expected
to carry on the work of assimilation as efficiently as a leaf.
240 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
The leaves of the Wild Irishman are fairly abundant in spring,
become fewer in summer, and are altogether wanting in
autumn and winter. Most of the shoots are reduced to green
pungent spines, sometimes with brown tips. These when old
lose their chlorophyll, and become very hard and dry. They
are then so strong and needle-like, that they were often used
Fig. 73. Discaria toumatou (4 nat. size).
(Moist air form on the left, ordinary form on the right.)
by the Maoris for tattooing, when bone or other needles were
unprocurable.
Dr. Li. COCKAYNE’S EXPERIMENT.
The small deciduous leaves, and hard green acuminate shoots
of Discaria at once proclaim it a plant of dry localities. Asa
matter of fact, it 1s found chiefly on sand-dunes, on arid or
clayey hill-sides, and on stony plains. ‘hat it should acquire
such a highly xerophytic structure is therefore little to be
THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 241
wondered at, but the strangest part of the story yet remains
to be told. Dr. Cockayne has studied its development, and has
also shown by an experiment, which is probably destined to
become classic, that Discaria was originally a spineless leafy
plant adapted to a moist habitat.* The seedling plant is erect,
leafy, and bears no spines. After it attains an inch or two in
height, spines begin to develop in the leaf axils, and the
fohage becomes gradually sparse. If, however, the plant is
now put into a warm moist chamber, no more spines will be
developed, the leaves will be retained, and,—in a word,—the
plant returns to its seedling form. Nor is this a temporary
change, for this form will be retained as long as the plant
remains in an atmosphere saturated with moisture. And in
this complete suppression of the spines, Dr. Cockayne’s
experiment is unique. Goebel, perhaps the greatest living
botanist, recently said :—‘“‘ I do not think that up till now any
more has been proved, than that in moist air the formation of
prickles and thorns is retarded; there is no proof that it can
be suppressed.” + Dr. Cockayne seems clearly to have shewn
that complete suppression is possible.
Such a remarkable experiment as this cannot fail to be
profound and far-reaching in its effect on biological ideas of
the species. As will be pointed out (v. Plagianthus betulinus,
p. 256), the seedling often passes through the ancestral forms
of the species in its development. We must, therefore, assume
that Discaria had originally small thin leaves, adapted to a
moist climate, but has changed its characters in response to
the stimulus of a drier atmosphere. Sixty years ago the
dogma of the fixity of species was one of the most sacred
beliefs of biologist and layman. Darwin showed us that
Species are not fixed; and now there are not wanting many
indications, which seem to prove, that in some cases,
individuals even, may show a marvellous plasticity.
*The New Phytologist Vol. IV. No. 4, On the Significance of the Spines in Discaria
toumatou.
}Plant Organography Eng. Trans. Part I. pp. 263, 264.
1L%/
242, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Tiliaceae.
THE LIME-TREE FAMILY.
Distribution.—A family of 40 genera, and 340 species. Tilia is the only
genus found in cold regions. The Knglish Lime-tree (Tilia europea), the
typical plant of the order, furnishes the bast used by gardeners. Bast mats are
made from it in Russia. From Corchorus capsularis, the Jute, the Indian
tribes made their nets and fishing-lines, while another yariety of the same plant
was used by the Egyptians as a vegetable. It is said that one species of
Aristotelia possesses fibres of such strength and toughness, as to be used as
strings for musical instruments. Sparmannia africana, a pretty shrub with
umbels of white flowers, and with evergreen leaves, is cultivated in Britain as a
hothouse plant.
Key to the Genera.
1. Fruit a spinous capsule. Entelea, p. 242.
Fruit a drupe or berry. 2
2. Leaves opposite. Aristotelia, p. 244.
Leaves alternate. Eleocarpus, p. 248.
Genus HEntelea.
A genus of only one species, almost confined to the North Island of New
Zealand. Leaves alternate, flowers regular. Sepals and petals, 4 or 5. Stamens
numerous ; fruit spiny. (Name from the Greek, signifying perfect, referring to
the stamens, as opposed to the wnperfect ones of Sparmannia). Maori names,
Whau, Hawama. FI. Oct.-Nov.
Entelea arborescens (The Shrubby Entelea).
The genus is confined to these islands, and this is its only
species. The tree may, therefore, be regarded as pecuharly
a New Zealand plant. Its large leaves and beautiful white
flowers make it one of the handsomest of small trees. It used
to be common along the coast of the northern part of the
North Island, being particularly plentiful north of Auckland
and in the neighbourhood of Gisborne. It is not found nearer
Wellington than Paikakariki, and in the South Island has been
seen only in the Collingwood district and near the Croiselles.
In some places this tree is called the New Zealand Mulberry,
on account of the shape of the leaves.
These leaves are very large, sometimes nine or ten inches in
length, heart-shaped, and with toothed margins. They are
THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 943
beautifully veined, soft, and fade quickly when gathered. The
flowers are produced in large drooping clusters, and are of a
pure white, with crumpled petals, each single blossom being
about an inch in diameter. The petals are pointed, and are four
or five innumber. The fruit is dark-brown, and rough with
long bristles. These spines are often an inch in length. It 1s
unfortunate that this beautiful tree 1s now becoming rare.
Fig. 74. Entelea arborescens—Flower and Fruit (§ nat. size).
However, it is easily cultivated from seed, and will grow in
any sheltered situation.
The wood is remarkably light, and was used by the Maoris
in the construction of floats for their fishing-nets, and of small
rafts. It is about half the weight of cork, and the whau is
sometimes, therefore, termed “ the cork-wood tree.’ Mr. T.
Kirk suggested that it might be utilized for life-belts.
944 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
This is one of the three large-leaved trees of New Zealand
that by their fohage seem to suggest a tropical origin. The
other two are Meryta Sinclairii and Pisonia brunoniana. Its
nearest relation 1s apparently Sparmannia of the Cape of Good
Hope. It has been suggested that the spinous character of the
fruit is probably due to the need for protection against grazing
animals, in the country whence it originally came. Perhaps
the only other New Zealand fruit similarly protected, is the
nut of Secyos australis.
It seems, however, unlikely, that either of these plants has
indued itself with bristles, as a safeguard against browsing
mammalha. Bitter juices are a better protection than thorny
leaves, and an edible fruit 1s often of more value to the plant,
than one which is inedible. As a matter of fact, the spinous
fruits of the whau form no protection to it, for if stock are
running in the neighbourhood, all the young plants are eaten
up by cattle, before they have time to develop their seeds.
Indeed, were the fruit of the whau edible, the bristles upon it
would be a quite insufficient defence against grazing animals,
as they are often fond of sharp plants. Horses, for example,
will eat dead thistles in preference to grass. Sheep sometimes
eat the prickly leaves of Leptospermum scoparium, and, did
they taste sufficiently pleasant, the sharp tips would not
hinder stock from grazing on the plant. It is the bitter acrid
Juice developed in the leaves which is its chief safeguard.
It seems probable, therefore, that some other reason must be
sought for to explain the spinous coat of the seed of the whau.
Genus Aristotelia.
Small trees, with opposite, deeply-toothed leaves. Flowers in panicles or
racemes. Fruit a berry. (Named in honour of Aristotle). 3 sp.
Aristotelia racemosa (The Racemose Aristotelia).
A small tree 6ft.-30ft. high, with red bark. Flowers in large panicles,
varying in colour from a faint rosy flush to deep claret. Fruit, a red 3- or
4-celled berry. North and South Islands. Fl. Noy.-Dec.
THE LIME-TREE FAMILY
Fig. 75, Aristoteliajracemosa (4 nat. size)
246 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
This is another handsome tree of the same order as the
whau. It is common everywhere throughout the islands at
altitudes from sea-level up to 2,000 ft. In bush clearings, it is
one of the first plants to come up, and would, on this account,
be termed by the Americans a “fireweed.” It goes by
different names in different districts. In Otago, it is the New
Zealand Currant, or Moko-mok’. In Canterbury, it is called
the Wine-berry. In the North Island, it is the Mako-mako.
Its graceful plumes of rosy flowers make it one of the most
attractive objects of the bush in Spring. The red-brown
under-surfaces of its leaves flash into view with every breath
of wind, and the memory of their beauty is one of the pleasantest
recollections of the lover of the New Zealand bush. The genus
also occurs in South America and Australia. Our species,
therefore, perhaps indicate an American connection at some
remote period. |The wood is white, and is much used for
conversion into charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder.
Aristotelia fruticosa (The Shrubby Aristotelia).
A much-branched shrub, 3ft.-6ft. high. Flowers solitary, or in small cymes
or racemes. Leaves linear, lanceolate to elliptic, oblong, entire, crenate or
serrate. Fl. Oct.-Nov. ;
A sub-alpine plant of the most variable habit, and extreme
mutability of leaf form. These changes of form may be due to
the extreme sensitiveness of the plant to alteration of environ-
ment, or it may possibly be due to the fact that the plant
is undergoing mutation (v. Veronica). At any rate, few of
our variable species afford more promising material for
experiment. Like so many other New Zealand plants, in one
of its stages it resembles a twisted Coprosma (v. Plagianthus
betulinus). The leaves of the seedlings are sometimes
similar to those of A. racemosa. he leaf form of the last-
mentioned species, according to Dr. Cockayne, may, therefore,
possibly be regarded as typical of the “common ancestral
stock.”
THE LIME-TREE FAMILY DAT
Fig. 76. Eleocarpus dentatus. (Six flowers life size.)
248 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Genus Hleocarpus.
Soft-wooded trees, with alternate leaves, and long racemes of white or
greenish flowers. The two New Zealand species are endemic. Leaves coriaceous,
serrate. Fruit a drupe. (Name from the Greek, signifying an olwe and fruit,
the drupe resembling an olive in appearance.)
Eleeocarpus dentatus (The Toothed Elaocarpus).
A round-headed tree, with trunk 1ft.-3ft. in diameter, and oblong-obovate
leaves, with recurved margin. The leaves of H. Hookerianus are linear, oblong
or lanceolate, and the margins are flat. This distinction enables the two species
to be separated. Maori name Hinau. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Noy.
One of the most beautiful flowering trees in the New
Zealand bush. In a good season, the whole tree is covered
with racemes of creamy, saucer-shaped flowers, each raceme
having the appearance of a spray of lily-of-the-valley. The
petals are deeply fringed at the edges, and the leaves are
strongly notched. The fruit resembles the damson, and was
used for food by the Maoris, who greatly valued it. A chief who
owned a fine grove of Hinau trees was considered a wealthy
man, while to rob the grove of its fruit was regarded as
a capital offence. The fruit was prepared in the following
way :—It was collected into the hull of a canoe, and soaked in
water. After along steeping, the berries were rubbed between
the hands, the stalks and skins strained out, and the coarse
grey meal, left behind, was made into a cake, baked and eaten.
This cake had a dark appearance, and was too oily for
European tastes.
Rats are very fond of the kernel of this fruit, and bore
cleverly through the shell in order to obtain it.
The bark of the Hinau makes an excellent blue-black dye,
and was used by the Maoris for dyeing the black threads in
their garments. This bark contains over twenty per cent. of
tannin, but is not much used. The wood 1s difficult to burn,
and might be employed with advantage where there is special
danger of fire. In the Maori language hz signifies to bleed or
emit sap; maw is a shrub or tree.
THE LIME-TREE FAMILY YAY
Fig. 77. Eleocarpus Hookerianus (life size).
250 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Eleeocarpus Hookerianus (Hooker's Eleocarpus).
A smaller species, called Pokaka by the Maoris. The flowers do not open
out so widely as those of the Hinau, and are greenish-white in colour. Drupe
blue, small. Found in both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan.
Malvaceae.
THE FAMILY OF MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS.
Distribution.—An important and widely distributed family, occurring
chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Of the 60 genera belonging to the
order, only four are found in New Zealand, and of these, three areendemic. The
Malvaceae are generally mucilaginous, and non-poisonous. The most valuable
genus is Gossypium. The delicate unicellular hairs which cover the seeds of these
plants, form the cotton so largely used in manufacture.
The Hollyhock (Althea), the tree-mallow (Lavatera), the Abutilon, and the
Hibiscus, are much cultivated for their flowers. Hibiscus cannabimus is the
Deccan Hemp of western India. A decoction of the Marsh Mallow is used in
throat affections.
Some of the New Zealand trees of this order are noted for the strength and
beauty of their inner bark, which is used for various ornamental purposes.
Key to the Genera.
1. Ovary 1 or 2 celled. Plagianthus, p. 253.
Ovary 5 celled. 2
2. One ovule in each cell, Hoheria, p. 250.
Two or more ovules in each cell, Hibiscus, p. 260.
5. Ovary 10-12 celled, Gaya, p. 260.
Genus Hoherva.
Trees with tough inner bark. Leaves extraordinarily variable. Flowers
white, axillary, on jomted peduncles. (Hoheria is a modification of the native
name). Maori names Howi, Whawwhi, Howhere. 1 sp.
Plants of both this and of the next genus (Plagianthus), are popularly
known as Ribbonwoods. The bast or inner bark is perforated by the medullary
rays, and this gives to it a characteristic ribbon-like appearance. This genus is
endemic in New Zealand.
Hoheria populnea (The Poplar-like Ribbon-wood).
The varied names given by the Maoris in different districts
to this plant, are all said to spring from the same root. Whaw
MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS Q51
Fig. 78. Hoheria populnea, var. vulgaris (2 nat. size).
252 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
signifies wrapped about, netted,—like lace, and the tree is so
called from the character of its inner bark. The settlers name
it lace-bark, ribbon-wood, or thousand-jacket. This inner
fibre is remarkably tough, and is, therefore, often used for
cordage. It is also beautifully perforated, and has been
employed for many ornamental purposes, such as trimming for
ladies’ hats, basket work, etc. Lace-bark bonnets are said to
have been at one time fashionable in Nelson. ‘The houhere
is one of the most beautiful of the small trees of the forest.
It is covered in autumn with a sheet of white, starry flowers,
which are often developed in such profusion as entirely to
conceal the leaves. There is a large number of recognized
varieties, but, as Dr. Cockayne has shewn, H. angustifolia at
least should be regarded as a distinct species. It is found
only in the South Island, flowers earlier than the North
Island variety, and the seedling stages of each are different.
When several feet in height, it becomes like one of the
twisted shrubby Coprosmas (v. Plagianthus betulinus, p. 256).
The branches are then wiry and interlacing, and the stems
reddish, not dark brown or black as in older specimens.
Thousands of plants in this stage may be seen on the
Akaroa-Flea Bay Road. The North Island form does not pass
through a coprosma-like stage. The two varieties illustrated
will show the difference between H. populnea, var. vulgaris,
and var. angustifolia. The former has broad, ovate, deeply-
toothed leaves, while those of the latter are long and narrow.
The Hoherias sometimes grow to a height of 40ft.
The flowers are very beautiful, with snow-white petals and
numerous stamens. They are produced in fascicles in the axils
of the leaves, sometimes only two or three together, and
sometimes in bunches of from twelve to twenty. The stamens
are curiously arranged, being united, as in all the Malvaceae,
into a tube, but breaking apart again lower still into separate
bundles, each of which contains five or six stamens. The
fruit is dry, and the seeds pendulous.
MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 953
The wood of this tree is white and very tough. It is
occasionally used by cabinet makers, and makes excellent
firewood.
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Fig. 84.
272 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
myrtles, also, have glands in all their parts, which secrete ethereal oils that give
the plants an aromatic odour. ‘This is, perhaps, the most striking character of
the family. The corolla is usually white, and the filaments, which are often a
bright red, serve as the chief organs of attraction for insects. Cloves are the
flower buds of a species of Hugenia. Another species of the same genus
furnishes the fruit from which allspice is obtained. The guava is the fruit of
Psidium guava. The only European species is the well-known Myrtle.
The oil of eucalyptus, obtained from H. globulus, is antiseptic in its action.
This tree is often planted, on account of its rapid growth, for the purpose of
drying up swamps, and thus keeping off malarial fevers.
Key to the Genera.
1. Fruita capsule. )
Fruit a berry or drupe. 3
2. Leaves alternate. Leptospermum, p. 272.
Leaves opposite. Metrosideros, p. 278.
3. Seeds solitary. Eugenia, p. 288.
Seeds 2 or more. Myrtus, p. 288.
Genus Leptospermum.
Shrubs or trees, with alternate, entire leaves. Flowers regular, white or
pink. Calyx 5-lobed, petals 5; stamens numerous. Capsule woody. About 28
species, of which 3 belong to New Zealand, and 20 to Australia.
Leptospermum scoparium (The Manuka Broom).
A shrub or tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height. Leaves leathery, hard, with
sharp points. Flowers scentless, on very short stalks, white or rosy, 4 in.-? in.
across. Capsule bursting by 4 or 5 valves, very woody. Maori names Manuka,
Kahikatoa. Colonists’ name, Tea-Tree. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-April.
This is the most abundant of New Zealand shrubs. It is
the colonial counterpart of the English broom and gorse, and
is as beautiful as either of these. One of the loveliest sights
of the land is a great valley at Christmas-time, clad with
Leptospermum in full flower. From the distance of a mile or
two, the country seems to be spread with a sheet of snow, so
profusely does the plant flower. A variety 1s known which
has the petals splashed with deep crimson. It is often
cultivated in gardens, and vies in beauty with many more
pretentious blooms.
To the Maoris the tree was known as the manuka. By the
settlers it 1s generally called tea-tree. It has acquired this
name because early voyagers and colonists sometimes used its
THE MYRTLE FAMILY 273
Fig. 85. Leptospermum scoparium.
19
274 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
pungent leaves in place of tea. Indeed, the whole plant,
including leaves, flowers, fruit, and young shoots, is highly
aromatic, and the oil which it contains, will perhaps, in future,
be put to some useful purpose.
The flowers are generally hermaphrodite, but are sometimes
imperfect or unisexual. A branch may occasionally be found
bearing flowers which are staminate only, while on the lower
portion of the same branch last year’s seed capsules are borne.
The capsule is hard and woody, of a reddish-brown colour.
Very small specimens occasionally bear flowers. A plant
was once observed, not more than half-an-inch in height,
which bore a flower and duly developed seed. The flower
appeared to be actually lying upon the ground.
The wood of this tree is largely used for fences and
firewood. The Maoris made use of it for their paddles and
spears, and a bunch of the twigs makes an excellent broom.
Leptospermum ericoides (The Heath-like Manuka).
A larger tree than the preceding. Leaves narrow, acute, glabrous or silky,
fascicled. Flowers 4 in. across, white, very fragrant. Maori name Manuwka-
rauriki. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan.
This is nearly, but not quite as common a plant, as the
previous one. Like the former species, at high levels, in
wind-swept localities, it becomes prostrate, and is reduced to a
few inches in height. In suitable positions, however, it grows
to be a larger tree than L. scopariwm, sometimes attaining a
height of sixty feet, and a diameter of one to three feet. Its
timber is hard and durable, and is used for jetty piles, spokes
of wheels, fence-rails, and other purposes. It is also much
sought after for firewood, and this has led to the cutting out
of all the larger trees over wide areas, so that in many places
it is now impossible to procure it. To many old settlers,
however, the odour of burning manuka logs brings memories
of the pleasant winter evenings of times long past.
THE MYRTLE FAMILY 275
Fig. 86. Leptospermum scoparium (life size).
276 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Older trees of both species have their trunks covered with a
light brown bark, that readily strips off, and is frequently
used for fire-kinding. For the camper-out, Leptospermum
provides fragrant bedding, easily collected, and not readily
surpassed for comfort.
There is little undergrowth in the manuka copse, and the
ground below it becomes carpeted with dead leaves, almost as
in a pine forest. There are, perhaps, several reasons for this
lack of undergrowth. The plant often grows on poor ground ;
the resinous leaves may, lke the pine needles, make bad
mould ; and the shrub itself probably exhausts the soil. Yet
sometimes certain orchids are found below it, which are rare
elsewhere, and various other plants seem to prefer the manuka
grove as a habitat.
Mr. G. M. Thomson has discussed the probable origin
of the New Zealand species. L. scopartum, with sharp
leaf tips, is found abundantly in south-eastern Australia ;
but L. ericoides, with less pungent points to its leaves, is
endemic. Mr. G. M. Thomson states that the rigid,
sharp-pointed leaves of the former indicate that the species
originated in a land, where there were herbivorous mammalia,
for he considers that ‘such sharp-pomted leaves are
probably so developed in order that they may be as
obnoxious as possible to grazing animals.”* As the genus
has come to us from a northern land, where possibly
marsupials and other grass-eating animals were abundant,
this explanation seems feasible. It also appears to receive
confirmation from the fact that the endemic species has
less prickly leaf-tips than the one with wider distribution.
However, there is another, and, perhaps, simpler interpre-
tation of such sharp-pointed leaves. They may be due
merely to leaf-reduction, produced as a means of protection
against excessive transpiration (v. |
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432 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
numerous. Achene slightly hairy, Pappus-hairs not thickened upwards.
South Island: Kaikouras, Mount Torlesse, Otago. Fl. Jan. (Selago, a South
African genus of plants.)
Helichrysum grandiceps (The New Zealand Edelweiss).
A tufted herb. Stems 1in.-7in. high. Leaves closely imbricating, silvery-
white on both surfaces, +in.-$in. long, tips often recurved. Heads terminal,
surrounded with leafy bracts, white with wool. Florets numerous. Achene
hairy. Pappus-hairs slightly thickened upwards. South Island: mountainous
districts. Fl. Jan.-March. Very similar to the Swiss Hdelweiss, differg only in
the rounder shape of the leaves and bracts.
Helichrysum is a large genus, found in most parts of the
world. It includes the plants known as Immortelles, which
owe much of their beauty to the scaly bracts collected round
the flower-heads. These involucres may be snow-white,
golden-yellow, or rose-red. The sacred flower, which the
Greek pilgrims bring from Mount Athos, is H. virgineum. H.
arenarium is well known in the Rhine Valley. The genus is
closely related to Raoulia and Haastia on the one hand, and
to Gnaphalium on the other. The New Zealand species are
all endemic, and are usually divided into three sub-genera.
Sub-genus (1) Xerochlaena consists of herbs with daisy-like
flowers; (2) sub-genus Ozothammus consists of shrubs, some-
times of a most extraordinary appearance, while the plants of
sub-genus (3) Leontopodioides much resemble the Swiss
Edelweiss, Gnaphalium leontopodium. H. grandiceps is the
Edelweiss of the Southern Alps. Probably the most
remarkable species of the genus is Helichrysum (Ozothamnus)
coralloides (fig.123). It is a rare, sub-alpine rock-plant, with
thick, fleshy, closely appressed, overlapping, grey, shiny
leaves, which give the plant the appearance of being dead and
withered, though it may be in active growth. H. depressum
presents a somewhat similar appearance. The living plant
might readily be taken by the passer-by for a bush of leafless
twigs, that had been dead for months. In H. coralloides the
tips of the leaves are hard, brown, and scale-like, and suggest
strongly the appearance of the bracts of a pine cone. Indeed,
DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 433
a branchlet of this species might well be taken for a small pine
cone, or for an unusually hard and membranous unopened
catkin. Unfortunately, the leaves have not hitherto received
any close examination, and so no account of their microscopic
structure can be given. The interstices between the bases of
the leaves are closely packed with felted hairs. On the outer
surfaces the tips of the hairs are brown-red; elsewhere they
are white.
Genus Cassinia.
Shrubs. Leaves small, entire, often rusty-coloured below. Heads terminal,
in corymbs or panicles, Florets tubular. Achenes papillose. Pappus-hairs in
1-4-rows, slightly thickened at the tips. (Name in honour of M, Cassini, a
French botanist). 5 sp.
Cassinia leptophylla (The Narrow-leaved Cassinia).
Stems 5 ft.-12ft. high. Branches and under-surfaces of leaves clothed with
white tomentum. Leave ;4‘in.-7jin. long, obtuse, marginsrecurved. Heads in
corymbs, 4 in.-} in. long. Florets 6-10. Both islands. Colonists’ name
Cottonwood, Maori name Tauhinu.
Cassinia Vauvilliersii (Vawvilliers’ Cassinia).
Stems 2ft.-Sft. high. Branches covered with viscid yellowish tomentum.
Leaves $1n.-4 in. long, coriaceous, obtuse, glutinous. Heads in round corymbs
tin. long. Both islands.
Cassina fulvida (The Yellow Cassinia).
Stems 2ft.-5ft. high, with slightly viscid yellow tomentum. Leaves
é in.-} in. long, sessile, obtuse, glutinous above, clothed with yellow tomentum.
Heads $ in.-}in. long, in corymbs. Florets 6-10. Scales among the florets few
or 0. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-March.
Genus Craspedia.
Erect, leafy, perennial herbs, with globose, woolly heads. Leaves radical and
alternate. Florets 5-12, tubular, 5-toothed, intermixed with transparent scales.
Achene silky, oblong. Anthers 2-tailed, Pappus of 1 row of soft feathery hairs.
(Name from the Greek, signifying a fringe, in allusion to the white hairs upon
the margins of the leaves). 1 sp.
Craspedia uniflora (The One-fowered Craspedia).
Stem 4 in,.-20in. high. Leaves chiefly radical, 1in.-8 in. long, fringed with
white hairs. Head rounded like a ball, or disk-shaped, + in.-2 in. across.
Plorets yellow or white. The whole plant is usually clothed with a white, woolly,
or cottony tomentum, but is sometimes glabrous. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-
March. Several species seem to be included under this name.
29
434 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Genus Cotula.
Perennial herbs, often succulent, sometimes aromatic. Stems prostrate or
creeping. Leaves radical or alternate, usually pinnatifid. Heads small,
terminal or axillary. Florets
4-5-toothed. Anthers without
tails. Achenes compressed, some-
times winged. Pappus 0. About
50 species, of which 19 are
endemic in New Zealand. (Name
from the Greek, signifying a
cup, in allusion to the shape of
the involucre).
Cotula Coronopifolia
(The ( ‘oronopus-leaved
Cotula.)
Stems fleshy, creeping, rooting
at the nodes. Branches 3 in.-
10in. high. Leaves $in.-2in.
long, sheathing at the base, lobed
g;
or pinnatifid. Heads 4in. across,
yellow. Ray florets in 1 series ;
corolla 0. Achene flat, winged.
Both islands ; marshy places.
Fl. Sept.-March. English name
Yellow - button. (The English
Coronopus is the Wart-Cress.
The name is originally from the
Greek, meaning raven-footed).
Genus Hrechtites.
Erect, glabrous, or cottony
herbs, 1 ft.-4 ft. m height. Leaves
simple or pinnatifid. Heads in
corymbs. Rays 0. Florets tubu-
lar, 3-5-toothed. Anthers without
tails. Pappus in many series of
Fig. 153. Craspedia uniflora (3 nat. size).
small, soft hairs. About 7 species,
of which 3 are endemic in New Zealand. (A Greek name for groundsel).
Erechtites prenanthoides (The Prenanthes-like Hrechtites).
Leayes 2 in.-6in. long, narrow, hairy or shining, the upper ones sessile, with
toothed auricles. Heads in loose corymbs. Florets about 18 in.-20in. Disk-
florets 4-lobed. Achenes angular. Pappus-hairs rigid. Both islands. Fl.
Oct.-Jan. (Prenanthes is a Kuropean and West African genus of Composites).
DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 435
Genus Brachyglottis.
Shrubs or trees. Branches and under surfaces of leaves white with tomentum.
Heads numerous, in large panicles. Achenes short, papillose. Pappus-hairs
seriate. 2 sp.
Brachyglottis repanda (The Wavy-leaved Rangiora).
Stems 8 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 14in.-6 in. long, soft, dull green above,
milky-white below, wavy in outline. Flower-panicles drooping, usually terminal.
Heads #in.-$in. long, whitish, bracts of involucre shining. North Island
chiefly. Fl. Aug.-Oct.
Fig. 154. Brachyglottis repanda (4 nat. size).
Brachyglottis Rangiora (The Rangiora).
Stems 8 ft.-14 ft. in height. Leaves 6in.-9 in. long, glossy, often unequal at
the base. Flower panicles axillary or terminal, with an entire ovate leaf at the
base of the branch. Involucres purple. North Island chiefly. Fl. July-Sept.
Plants of this genus are well known to the Maoris, under the
name Hangiora. The leaves were much used by them for
application to wounds, and old sores. Possibly the poisonous
principle found in them is antiseptic, and thus the wound was
cleansed by the use of the leaf. Horses are not infrequently
poisoned by eating the foliage of Brachyglottis. The late Mr.
Skey endeavoured to isolate the poisonous principle, but failed
436 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
to do so, though he obtained some curious reactions with the
balsamic exudation from the stem of the freshly cut shrub.*
The leaves of Brachyglottis rangiora are very handsome, and
rival in size those of Hntelea or Meryta. The flowers are
produced in large, heavily scented plumes, and are very
attractive to bees.
Genus Senecio.
Herbs, shrubs or trees, with alternate leaves. Heads terminal; flowers
solitary, or in corymbs or panicles. Florets yellow ; rays rarely white or purple.
Disk-florets tubular, 5-toothed. |Pappus of one or more rows of hairs. Achene
round or angular. (Name from the Latin, signifying an old man, from the white
hairs of the pappus). 30 sp.
Senecio lautus (The Elegant Senecio).
Stem sometimes prostrate, 3in.-24in. long. Leaves fleshy, 1 in.-2 in. long,
often auricled at the base, narrow, toothed, lobed or pinnatifid. Heads in
corymbs, +in.-?in. across. Rays 10-15, yellow. Achene grooved, shining or hairy.
Pappus soft, white. Bothislands: Stewart and Chatham Islands. Fl. Oct.-March.
This is a genus of world-wide distribution, and very varying
habitat, of which the common groundsel is generally regarded
as the typical form. In New Zealand it 1s well represented,
and includes among its species some of our most beautiful
shrubs. The prevailing white of the New Zealand flora is
generally modified in this genus to yellow. here are over
thirty indigenous species, which, with one exception, are
also endemic. As in Olearia, many of these forms, though
provided with excellent means of distribution, are extremely
local. S. glaucophyllus is apparently only known from the
limestone rocks of Mount Arthur in Nelson, and S. Pottsii
froma single habitat inthe Upper Rangitata. S. perdicioides,
originally discovered by Banks and Solander, and then lost for
nearly a hundred years, is found only in the East Cape
district. The remarkable S. Huntit is confined to the
Chathams, S. Muwellert to an island in Foveaux Straits and to
the Snares, S. antipodus to the Antipodes. Perhaps the only
one which can be said to be abundant, is the multiform
S. lautus, though S. bellidioides, and one or two other sub-
alpine species are comparatively common. The handsome
“Trans. XIV., p. 400.
DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY
Fig. 155. Senecio cassinioides (nat.
438 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
S. saxifragoides, supposed by Kirk to be confined to Banks
Peninsula, is undoubtedly the typical S. lagopus of Raoul
(Choix 21. T. 17). It still produces its large-leaved rosettes
on the southern faces of cliffs, where Raoul found it,
near Akaroa. It is also plentiful behind Lyttelton, often
growing in altogether inaccessible localities, and it is the only
Senecio which haunts these situations on the peninsula. It
may be found in flower from early spring to late autumn: but
Fig. 156. Senecio Lyallii (+ nat. size).
its blossoms are produced in greater profusion in summer.
S. scvadophilus is an interesting liane, the only New Zealand
climber of the genus. It is known from only a few scattered
habitats in the South Island. It may occasionally be seen in
the neighbourhood of Akaroa, covering the green top of some
tree with its network of yellow flowers. S. rotundifolius
is the mutton-bird scrub of Stewart Island. Its leaves are
much used by tourists for post cards, the white tomentum of
the underside affording a suitable surface for writing.
DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 439
Fig, 157. Senecio saxifragoides (3 nat size).
GLOSSARY.
ABERRANT, differing from the usual
structure, varying from the ordinary
type.
Abortive, imperfectly developed.
Acerose, needle-shaped, with a stiff
point.
Achene, a small, hard, dry fruit, which
does not open spontaneously.
Acicular, slender, or needle-shaped.
Acrid, harsh, biting.
Acuminate, narrow, tapering to a point.
Acute, sharply pointed, but not drawn
out.
Albuminous, containing albumen, a form
of food material stored within the
seed.
Annual, a term applied to plants which
perish in one year.
Anther, Vv. p. 43.
Apex, the growing point of a stem or
root, the tip of an organ.
Apical, at the point of any organ or
structure.
Appendage, a part added to another, @.g.,
leaves are appendages to a stem.
Appressed, kept under, lying flat for the
whole length of the organ.
Arborescent, attaining the size or
character of a tree.
Aril, a membranous or fleshy seed-
covering, formed by an expansion of
the stalk attached to the ovule,
often brightly coloured.
Assimilation, v. p. 39.
Auricled, having ear-shaped appendages.
Awn, a bristle-like appendage, especially
occurring in grasses.
Axil, the angle formed between the
branch and trunk, or between the
stem and the leaf.
Axillary, growing in an axil.
Axis, an imaginary line, round which the
organs are deyeloped. Floral ais,
that part of the stem or branch upon
which the flowers are borne.
Bast, the inner, fibrous bark of a tree.
Bearded, having tufts of hairs.
Berry, a pulpy fruit containing seeds.
Biennial, a term used of plants which live
through two years.
Blade, the expanded portion of a leaf.
Bract, an undeveloped leaf on a flower
stalk.
CALYX, v, p. 44.
Cambium, a layer of tissue formed
between the wood and the bark,
producing wood on the inside, and
bark on the outside.
Campanulate, bell-shaped.
Capitate, arranged in a head.
Capillary, slender, hair-like.
Capsule, a dry seed-vessel, which splits
open spontaneously for the purpose
of shedding its seeds.
Carpel, v. p. 43. :
Cartilaginous, hard and tough, (as the
skin of an apple-pip).
Catkin, a pendulous spike of flowers, of
one sex only.
Cauline, belonging to the stem, applied
to leaves borne on the stem, as
distinct from those that spring near
the root.
Cell, an independent unit of protoplasm,
usually contained in a membranous
envelope.
Cellulose, the material composing the
cell wall, the carbohydrate which
is the basis of paper.
Chlorophyll, the green colouring matter
contained in plant-cells.
Cleistogamic, having flowers which never
expand, and which are necessarily,
therefore, self-pollinated. v. p. 269.
Compressed, more or less flattened.
Cone, the fruit of a pine tree, formed of
woody bracts.
Connective, that part of the anther which
separates the two lobes.
Cordate, a term applied to heart-shaped
leaves, with the petiole at the broad
end.
Coriaceous, tough, leathery.
Corolla, v. p. 44.
Corona, a series of out-growths from the
corolla, either free or united, which
may appear like an additional ring of
petals or stamens.
Corymb, a flat-topped panicle of flowers.
Cotyledon, a seed leaf, the first leaf
produced by a young plant. v. p. 47.
Crenate, a leaf form in which the margin
is divided into rounded teeth.
Crucitferous, in the form of a cross.
Cupressoid, cypress-like.
Cuticle, the outermost skin covering the
epidermis.
GLOSSARY 44]
Cyme, a broad and flattened branched
flower-cluster of which the middle
flower opens first.
Cymose, bearing, or relating to cymes.
DeEcIpuUOUS, applied to those parts of a
flower which fall when the fruit is
formed, or to trees whose leaves fall
in autumn.
Decompound, several times divided.
Decussate, in pairs, alternately at right
angles.
Defiexed, bent, or turned abruptly down-
wards.
Dehiscent, opening spontaneously when
ripe, as seed capsules.
Depressed, sunk down, hollowed, as if
flattened from above.
Dicotyledon, a plant with two seed-
leaves.
Digitate, fingered, a compound leaf in
which all the separate parts spring
directly from the apex of the petiole.
as in Schefflera.
Dilated, expanding into a _ blade, as
though flattened.
Dicecious, v. p. 44.
Dimorphism, v. p. 292.
Disk, a circular development, usually of
the receptacle within the flower,
sometimes consisting only of a ring of
prominences, which secrete nectar.
Dissected, applied to a leaf, divided into
numerous irregular portions.
Divaricating, spreading asunder at a
wide angle, extremely divergent.
Drupe, a stone fruit, such as a plum.
(The fruit of Rubus is an aggregation
of drupes).
Ecouocy, the study of plant-life in
relation to environment.
Embryo, the rudimentary plant formed
within the seed.
Endemic, confined to a certain locality,
peculiar to a country.
Entire, applied to a leaf of which the
margin is not indented.
Epidermis, v. p. 40.
Epigynous, placed on the ovary, applied
to corolla and stamens.
Epipetalous, seated on the petals.
Epiphyte, v. pp. 20, 21.
Epiphytic, growing on other plants by
way of support.
Exserted, protruding beyond, as stamens
beyond the tube of the corolla.
Exstipulate, without stipules.
FASCICLE, a dense cluster of flowers,
leaves, stems, or roots.
Filament, a slender thread, the stalk of
the anther. v. p. 43.
Filiform, thread-like.
Flaccid, weak, flabby.
Flexuous, bending alternately in different
directions.
Floret, a small flower, one of a cluster of
compound flowers.
Florula, a small flora, the botanic
account of a small district.
Foliaceous, leafy, leaf-like in texture.
Foliate, clothed with leaves.
Foliolate, provided with leaflets.
Follicle, a fruit of one carpel, opening by
the inner or anterior seam.
GLABROUS, smooth, shining, without
hairs.
Gland, an organ for secreting oil or other
liquids on the surface of some part of
the plant. It sometimes ends in a
hair or bristle.
Glandular, bearing glands.
Glaucous, sea-green, covered with a
bloom, as a cabbage-leaf.
Gluten, a tough nitrogenous substance
occurring in grain after the removal
of starch.
Glutinous, covered with a sticky
exudation.
HALOPHYTE, Vv. pp. 42 and 155.
Hastate, spear-shaped.
Herbaceous, a term applied to plants
without a woody stem.
Hermaphrodite, v. p. 44.
Heterophylly, the occurrence of leaves of
more than one form upon the same
stem.
Hoary, grey with fine hairs.
Host, the plant from which a parasite
draws its nourishment.
Hybrid, a plant obtained by the
application of the pollen of one
species to the stigma of another.
Hydrophyte, a water-plant. v. p. 42.
Hypogynous, seated beneath the ovary.
IMBRICATE, Overlapping, like the scales of
a fish.
Indehiscent, applied to fruits which do
not open along regular lines to
liberate the seed.
Indigenous, native to a country.
Inferior, below some other organ; é.g.,
calyx below ovary.
Inflorescence, the arrangement of the
flowers and flower-stalks.
TInosculate, to grow together at points.
Insolation, exposure to the direct rays of
the sun.
4492 PLANTS OF
Introrse, turned inwards.
Involucre, a circlet of bracts,
around a flower-cluster.
Involucrate, having an involucre.
Involute, having the margins of the
leaves rolled inwards.
Irregular, unsymmetrical,
regularity of form.
placed
wanting in
LANCEOLATE, narrow and tapering, like
the head of a lance.
Lateral, fixed on or near the side of an
organ.
Legume, a two-valved seed-vessel, open-
ing down both seams.
Lenticel, an opening occurring in the
bark of a plant through which water
vapour is given off.
Liane, a woody climber.
Ligneous, woody.
Linear, narrow,
than wide.
Lobe, any division of an organ, especially
a rounded division.
v. pp. 16-19.
several times longer
MESOPHYTE, a plant which avoids both
extremes of moisture and drought.
Vv. D. 42.
Moniliform, necklace-shaped,
string of beads.
Monocotyledon, a plant producing only
one seed-leaf. wv. p. 82.
Moneecious, v. p. 44.
like a
NEcTARY, the organ in which honey or
* nectar is secreted.
Node, that part of a stem from which
leaves, branches, or leaf-buds are
given off.
Nodule, a small knot, or rounded body.
Nut, a hard, one-seeded fruit, with woody
covering.
OBOVATE, applied to leaves that are
ovate, with the broader part towards
the apex.
Obscure, uncertain, hidden.
Obsolete, scarcely apparent, almost
vanished.
Obtuse, blunt or rounded at the end.
Orbicular, applied to a leaf with a
circular outline.
Osmosis, the mixing of liquids through a
membrane separating them.
Ovary, that part of the pistil which
contains the ovules. v. Pp. 43.
Ovate, egg-shaped, applied to a solid
body, as a fruit.
Ovule, the young seed in the ovary
v. p. 43.
NEW ZEALAND
PALMATE, applied to leaves with five
lobes.
Papillae, soft superficial glands or
protuberances.
Papillose, covered with papillae.
Pappus, thistledown, the tufts of hairs
on achenes or fruits, the calyx of
composite florets.
Parasite, v. p. 20.
Pedicel, a flower-stalk, the support of a
single flower.
Peduncle, the general name for the stalk
of a flower or flower cluster.
Pedunculate, on a peduncle.
Pellicle, a small skin, the outer cuticular
covering of plants.
Pellucid, partially or wholly transparent,
Peltate, target-shaped, applied to leaves
attached by their lower surface to the
stalk, instead of by the margin.
Perianth, v. p. 45.
Perigynous, inserted round the ovary.
Persistent, remaining till the part which
bears it is wholly matured, as the
leaves of evergreens.
Petal, v. p. 44.
Petaloid, like a petal, having a floral
envelope resembling petals.
Petiole, the footstalk of a leaf.
Phanerogaimic, v. pp. 49, 428.
Phylloclade, a fiattened branch assuming
the form and function of a leaf.
Phyllode, a petiole taking on the form
and function of a leaf.
Pinnate, with leaflets arranged along each
side of a common petiole.
Pinnate-partite, pinnately parted, with
the lobes extending more than half-
way to the mid-rib.
Pinnatifid, cut into lobes extending about
half-way from the margin to the mid-
rib.
Pitted, marked with small depressions.
Pistil, v. p. 43.
Placenta, the organ which
ovules in an ovary.
Placentiferous, bearing placentae.
Plumose, feathery, as the pappus of
thistles.
Pollen, v. p. 43.
Pollination, v. pp. 43, 44.
Pollinia, v. p. 112.
Polymorphic, with several or various
forms.
Pome, an inferior fruit of several cells,
of which the apple is the type.
Protandrous, having the anthers mature
before the pistils in the same flower.
Protogynous, having the pistils receptive
before the anthers have ripe pollen.
Puberulous, minutely downy with hairs.
bears the
GLOSSARY 443
QUADRATE, four-sided, square, or nearly
square.
RACEME, an inflorescence in which the
flowers are born on pedicels along a
single, undivided axis.
Racemose, having racemes, raceme-like.
Radical, applied to leaves or flowers
springing from or very near the root-
stock.
Radicle, the rudimentary root of the
embryo.
Receptacle, the point of the peduncle
(above the calyx) upon which corolla,
stamens, and ovary are inserted; also
applied to the axis upon which a
head of capitate flowers is situated.
Regular, uniform, symmetrical.
Revolute, having the margins rolled out-
wards.
Rhachis, or rachis, the axis of an inflores-
cence, or of a compound leaf.
Rhizome, a stem of root-like appearance,
prostrate or underground, producing
roots below and stems above.
Rosulate, collected into a rosette.
SAGITTATE, applied to a leaf shaped like
an arrow head.
Saprophyte, a plant which lives upon
dead organic matter.
Scandent, climbing.
Scape, a leafless flower-stalk arising from
the ground.
Sepal, v. p. 45.
Sepaloid, resembling a sepal.
Series, a row.
Serrate, with regular pointed teeth, like
a saw.
Sessile, without a stalk.
Simple, consisting of a single piece.
Spadix, a spike with a fleshy axis.
Spathe, a large bract enclosing a flower-
cluster.
Spathulate, oblong, with the lower part
narrow and tapering.
Spike, an inflorescence bearing sessile
flowers along a common axis.
Spinulose, with minute spines.
Sporadic, occurring here and there in a
scattered manner.
Stamen, v. p. 43.
Staminodia, false stamens, bearing no
anthers.
Stellate, star-shaped.
Stigma, v. p. 43.
Stipule, a leaf or scale-like appendage at
the base of the leaf-stalk.
Stoma, stomata, v. p. 39.
Style, v. p. 43.
Sub-quadrate, nearly square.
Sucker, a shoot of subterranean origin.
Superior, growing or placed above, usually
applied to the ovary when free from
the calyx; or to the calyx when it
appears to be above the ovary.
TERETE, circular in transverse section,
eylindric, and usually tapering.
Ternate, in threes, as three in a whorl or
cluster.
Tetrangular, four-angled.
Tetrandrous, having four stamens, free
from the pistil.
Tomentum, short, soft, dense, cottony
hairs.
Transpiration, v. p. 40.
Trimorphic, occurring in three forms.
Truncate, abruptly terminated, as though
cut off at the end.
Tubular, hollow and cylindrical.
Tumid, having a blistered appearance,
swollen.
UNDULATE, wavy in outline.
Umbel, a flower cluster in which several
pedicels of about the same length
spring from one point, like the ribs
of an umbrella. An umbel is simple,
when each of its branches bears a
single flower ; compound, when each
ray bears a secondary umbel.
Unicellular, formed of one cell.
VASCULAR, relating to or furnished with
vessels.
Venation, the mode of veining.
Vernation, the order of unfolding from
leaf-buds.
Volute, rolled up.
WHORL, the arrangement of any organs
in a circle around an axis.
Winged, with a membranous expansion
attached.
NG BW eS
Abrotanella, 408
Absorption of moisture, 118
Acena, 45, 54, 106, 201, 202, 314, 366
i adscendens, 37, 202, 203
$3 glabra, 54
a microphylla, 201
3 novae-Zelandiae, 201
AA sanguisorbae, 37, 201, 202
Acianthus Sinclairii, 124
Aciphylla, 216, 239, 257, 276, 312, 316, 318,
321
6 Colensoi, 189, 318, 320
3 Monroi, 322
A squarrosa, 318, 320
x Traversivi, 318
Actinotus, 314
Adams, Mr. A. H., quoted, 6, 11, 414
Affinities of New Zealand flora, 30, 31
Affinities of South American flora to that
of New Zealand, illustrated
by Fuchsia, 292
Agathis, 58, 60, 304
= australis, 62
Aizoaceae, 50, 159
Aka, 280, 288
Akatawhiwhi, 280
Akatea. 282
Ake-ake, 225, 268, 269
Akiraho, 416
Alectryon, 55, 225
as excelsum, 225
Alpine vegetation, 22-24
Alps, Southern, 157
Alpine leaf-forms, described by Ruskin, 23
Alsewosmia, 52, 62, 399
a macrophylla, 399
a quercifolia, 399
Alterations in climate, 239
Alterations in leaf-form, due to moist
habitat, 241
Alternanthera, 55
Anemone Family, 160
Aniseed, 322
Angiosperms, 43, 47
Angelica, 322
+9 geniculata, 322
= gingidimm, 322
Angiospermae, 49
Annuals, absence of, in New Zealand, 42
Antarctic element in New Zealand flora,
25
Antiquity of New Zealand flora, 27-30
Apiwm, 315
"7 prostratum, 315
Apocynaceae, 340
Aralia, 300, 304
a crassifolia, 307
A Lyallii, 300
Araliaceae, 50, 300
Archeria, 323,
Aristotelia, 242, 244
i Fruticosa, 246
9 racemosa, 9, 42, 244, 246
Armstrong, Mr. J. B., referredéto, 145, 300
Arthropodium, 100
5 candidum, 102
" cirrhatum, 100
Arundo conspicua, 5, 322
Ascarina, 56
Ash, New Zealand, 225
Asplenium, 7
Assimilation, explanation of, 39
Astelia, 62, 98, 99, 100
Cunninghamii, 21, 100
a linearis, 100
7 nervosa, 100
Solandvi, 21
as spicata, 21
Auckland Island forest, description of,
281
Australian Bottle-brushes, 146
a element in N.Z. flora, 25, 32-34
Avicennia, 139, 253, 351-361
[A officinalis, 352
a5 germination of, 360
Azorella, 314, 315
op selago, 314
Balanophoraceae, 149, 150
33 fungoid appearance of, 149, 150
3 germination of, 149
Beeches, 8, 10
Beech Forest, 130
Beet Family, 154
Beilschmiedia, 175
3 Tarairi, 175
35 Tawa, 175
Bidi-bidi, 202
Bindweeds, 342, 344
Birches, 29, 134
Bird-catching plant, 159
Bitter juice as safeguard against browsing
animals, 244
Black Pine, 69
Blue colour, significance of, in flowers,
348, 349
Bolbophyllum, 118, 120, 124
“ pygma@um, 21 124
INDEX 445
Boradi, 202
Borage Family, 346
Boraginaceae, 53, 346, 348
Botanical Introduction, 38
Botting Hemsley, Mr. W., referred to, 31
Bottle-brush Family, 147
Bottle-brushes, Australian, 145, 146
Brachycome, 410
op Sinclairii, 410
Brachyglottis, 348, 435, 436
‘, Rangiora, 347, 435
Bracken fern, 3, as a food, 6
Bramble, 196
Bristles, as protective organs, 244
Broadleaf, 70, 298
Brown, My. R., of Christchurch. referred
to, 374
Buchanan, referred to, 23
Bucket-of-water tree, 146
Buckthorn Family, 235
Buckwheat Family, 151
Bulbinella, 102
Pr Hookeri, 102
99 Rossii, 102
Bulli-bull’, 202, 366
Bush, The, 8, tropical appearance of, 10,
Melanesian origin of, 8,
natural permanence of, 10
Bush lawyer, 19, 200
Bush sarsaparilla, 90
Buttercup Family, 160, 166
Butterflies, pollination by, 162
Butterwort Family 388
Cabbage-tree, 4, 8, 9, 28, 48, 88, 93, 95, 96,
98
Caladenia, 125
AS bifolia, 125
mp Lyallii, 125
ae minor, 125
Calceolaria, 36, 366, 368
PA Sineclairii, 367, 368
Callitriche, 56
7 antaretica, 36
Caltha, 171, 172
7 novae-Zelandiae. 171, 172
Calystegia, 342
oh sepium, 342, 343
- soldanella, 344
a Tuguriorum, 344
Campanulaceae, 52, 401, 403, 407
Canterbury Bell Family, 401
Caprifoliaceae, 399
Carex secta, 5
Carmichaelia, 140, 204, 206, 208, 239
os australis, 204, 208
Bnysti, 206
ae exsul, 206
- flagelliformis, 206, 216
Aa nana, 204
Carpodetus, 56, 188
+] serratus, 56, 188
Carrot Family, 313
Caryophyllaceae, 51, 55, 156, 158
Cassinia, 32, 323, 433
53 ameoena, 414
fulvida, 433
5 leptophylla, 433
” retorta, 238
“f Vauvilliersti, 433
Cassy tha, 55, 139, 176, 345
7H paniculata, 177
Catasetum, pollination of, 114
Cedar, New Zealand, 222
Celery Pine, 76
Celmisia, 23, 418, 422
oy argentea, 422
be coriacea, 418, 420
5s laricifolia, 422
3 lateralis, 422
Bs Lechleri, 418
i longifolia, 238, 418
es Lyallii, 420, 422
nA Mackaui, 382, 422
a Monroi, 418
e sessiliflora, 422
ip Traversti, 420
an vernicosa, 418
Centipeda, 408
Chatham Island Lily, 168, 347, 348
Cheeseman, Mr. T. F., referred to, 48, 57..
115, 116, 118, 286, 368, 405
Chenopodiaceae, 55, 154
Chenopodium, 55, 155
3 triandrum, 155
Chickweeds, 156, 157, 158
Chloroplasts, 39, 40
Christmas Tree, 288
Classification, key to, 49
Classification of Plants, 46
Cleistogamic flowers, 116, 220, 221, 263
An 5 in Viola, 263, 264
Cleistogamy, 296
Climate, effect of on plants, 239
Climate, variation in, 257
Climatic reserves, 12
Climbing plants of New Zealand, 400
Climbing Plants, profusion of, 10
Climbing stem, advantages of, 18
Clematis, 19, 162, 400
Clematis, colour of, 162
Clematis seed, description of, 164
Clematis afoliata, 166, 239
33 hexasepala, 166
= indivisa, 164, 166
at. parviflora, 166
Clianthus, 204, 210
3s puniceus, 210
Clover-dodder, 344
Clover Family, 203
446
Club-mosses of New Zealand, 8, 27
Cockayne, Dr. L., referred to, 10, 23, 133,
158, 198, 206, 212, 214, 246, 252,
256, 257, 258, 260, 294, 301, 321,
(footnote) 374, 375, 378, 380,
411
‘ Dr., on Discaria, 240, 241
Colenso, Dr., referred to, 238, 284, 321, 322,
343, 364
Colensoa, 347, 348, 403, 404
i physaloides, 404
Colour in gentians, 338
Colour in New Zealand flowers, 162,349. 436
Compositae, 29, 52, 346, 401, 405, 406, 422
nS colours of, 162
oF sub-alpine, 22
Coniferae, 58, 60, 70, 256
Connection between New Zealand and
Australian Floras, 25
Continental islands, 26
Convolvulaceae, 53, 342, 398
Convolvulus, 19, 342, 343
x erwbescens, 342
Coprosma, 22, 140, 246, 256, 258, 323, 390,
392, 414
Coprosma, fruit of, 394
Coprosma, pollination of, 392
Coprosma areolata, 396
my acerosa, 394, 396
oA arborea, 396
» Baueri, 392, 395
a Cunninghamii, 394
Pe fatidissima, 390, 398
% grandifolia, 151, 394
an linariifolia, 398
4 lucida, 392, 394
bs obconica, 394
Pe parviflora, 396
3 propinqua, 394, 398
A rhamnoides, 394
on robusta, 396
FS rotundifolia, 396
5 spathulata, 394
a tenuicaulis, 395
Corallospartiwm, 204, 206, 208
Cordyline, 28, 92, 98
a Australis, 88, 93
ie Banksii, 98
fe indivisa, 98
o pumilio, 98
Coriaria, 52, 226, 229
= ruscifolia, 226, 235
-s thymifolia, 226
Coriariaceae, 226
Cork-wood tree, 243
Cornaceae, 51, 297
Cornel Family, 297
Corokia, 297
ee buddleoides, 297
an cotoneaster, 298
PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Corynocarpaceae, 233
Corynocarpus, 52
BS levigata, 233
Corysanthes, 116, 120, 125
mS macrantha, 110, 125
Cottonwood, 433
Cotula, 434
55 atrata, 157
A coronopifolia, 434
7 filiformis, 170
oY speciosa, 316
Cow-leaf, 266
Cranesbill, 215
Crantzia, 313
Craspedia, 433
oF alpina, 157
es uniflora, 433
Crepis, 408
Cross-pollination, 44, 112, 106
Cross-pollination in Compositae, 406
= in Viola, 262
3 in Wahlenbergia, 403
Cruciferae, 52, 177
Criiger, Dr., quoted, 112
Cucurbitaceae, 379
Cucumber Family, 399
Cupressoid leaves, 375
Currant tree Family, 185
Currant, New Zealand, 246
Cuscuta, 53, 139, 177, 344, 345, 361
Cuscuta densiflora, 345
- trifolii, 344
=n germination of, 344, 345
Cushion plantis, 424, 426, 428
Cyathodes, 329
Cycadeae, 28
Cynoglossum, 348
Cypripedium, 112
Cyurtostylis, 125
— oblonga, 125
Bes rotundifolia, 125
Daerydium, 58, 74
laxifolium, 58, 76
4 cupressinum, T4
Dactylanthus, 54, 56, 139, 150, 151, 386
< Taylori, 150
Daisy Family, 405
-. Mountain, 418
+3 native, 410
Dandelion Family, 405
Dandelion, 407, 408
Danthonia, 4
Daphne Family, 269
Darwin, referred to, 111, 182, 184, 292, 370,
401
Daucus, 314
Deciduous trees of New Zealand, 9, 260
Dendrobium, 116, 120, 124, 356
3 Cunninghamii, 21, 111, 124
INDEX
Destruction of forest, 12, 13
Dianella, 98
_ intermedia, 98
Dichondra, 53, 344
aH repens, 344
Dicotyledonous plants, 47, 49
Diels, Dr., referred to, 21, 41, 158, 166, 170,
190, 208, 253, 257, 317
Dimorphism, 292
Discaria, 41, 54, 55, 239, 241, 257, 276, 370
a toumatou, 9, 239
Dispersal of seeds, devices for, 45
F in Compositae, 405-6
Dodder, 176, 345
Dodonead, 225, 268
‘5 viscosa, 225
Dogwood Family, 297
Domett, quoted, 8, 16, 20, 161, 286
Doodia caudata, 322
Dracophyllum, 323, 324, 330
latifolium, 324, 330
longifolium, 324, 330, 331
Be rosmarinifolium, 331
subulatum, 325, 331
AN Traversit, 325
- uniflorum, 330
He Urvilleanum, 325
Drimys, 51, 172
5 awillaris, 130, 172
Pe colorata, 172
Drosera, 52, 180
Droseraceae, 51, 180, 182
Drosera arcturi, 185
ey auriculata, 182
= binata, 182, 184
7 pygmea, 180
of rotundifolia, 180, 184
5 spathulata, 182, 184
Dysoxylum, 52, 222
ms spectabile, 68, 222
”
Earina suaveolens, 21, 111, 116, 120, 122
be mucronata, 21, 111, 120, 122
Edelweiss, New Zealand, 432
Edible fruits, 244
Eleocarpus, 248
a dentatus, 248
7 Hookerianus, 248, 250
Elatine, 51
Elatostema, 138
3 rugosum, 21, 138
Emerson, R. W,, quotation from, 1
Endemic plants of New Zealand, 1, 2, 31
Endemism, initial, 304
rs relict, 302
Engler, Prof., referred to, 30
Entelea, 9, 42, 48, 242, 278, 348, 436
9 arborescens, 242, 348
Environment in New Zealand, varied, 2
Epacridaceae, 323
447
Epacris, 35, 323, 326
re pauciflora, 323, 326
Epilobiwm, 292, 294
Epiphytes, 16, 20, 21
Ericaceae, 53, 323
Erechtites, 434
Bs prenanthoides, 434
Eryngium, 315
oy vesiculosum, 315
Ettingshausen, Baron von, referred to, 30
Eugenia, 194, 288
- matre, 288
Euphorbia, 55, 224
a glauca, 224
Euphorbiaceae, 224
Euphrasia, 386
antarctica, 386
+3 cuneata, 151
Evergreen leaves in New Zealand, 9
Exarrhena, 346
Exocarpus, 55
Experiments, Dr. Cockayne’s, 240
Eyebright, 386
”
Fagaceae, 128
Fern country, 6
Ferns, number of in New Zealand, 7
Fern-trees, 9, 27
Festuca duriuscula, 4
Field, Mr., quoted, 140, 142
Filmy-ferns, 7
Findlay, Dr., quoted, 110
Fire, origin of in Maori legend, 232
method of obtaining by Maoris
233
Fireweed, 246
Fitzgerald, Mr., referred to, 115
Flax, New Zealand, 48
Flax-Lily, 102
Flax Tribe, 102
Flax Family, 218
Flax, treatment of by natives, 104
Flies, pollination by, 162
Flora, Melanesian element in, 8
differences between Australian
and New Zealand, 33
Floral envelopes, 44
Flower, description of a, 43
Flower of Hades, 151
Flowering plants, number of in New
Zealand, 31
Foliage, poisonous, 435-6
Forest, types of, 15, 16
7 destruction of, 12, 15
is Passing of the, by the Hon,
W. P. Reeves, 13-15
Forget-me-nots, 346, 348
Fossil botany of New Zealand, 28, 30
Freycinetia, 49
Banksti, 80, 202
”
”
”
448
Frost, native trees susceptible to, 11
Fruits, edible, 244
Fruit, used as food by the Maoris, 248
Fuchsia, 8,9, 36, 292 |
Fuchsia Family, 290
of pollination of, 290-294
Fuchsia Colensoi, 293, 294
» excorticata, 201, 293, 294
1 Kirkii, 290, 294 |
5 procumbens, 290, 293, 294
Fungus on birches, 230
Fusanus Cunninghamii, 151
Gastrodia Cunninghamii, 122, 124
Gaultheria, 322, 323, 325, 326
A antipoda, 323, 327 |
» epiphyta, 21
a rupestris, 327
Gaya, 260
Fs Lyallii, 9, 260, 261
Lyallii, var. ribifolia, 261
Geniostoma, 336
3 ligustrifolium, 336
Gentiana, 263, 336
aa cerind, 336, 338
50 clusti, 338
“a SAXOSA, 336
A verna, 338
Gentianaceae, 53, 336
Gentian Family, 336
Gentians, colour of, 162
Geraniaceae, 51, 215, 224
Geranium, 215
. dissectum, var. australe, 215
3 microphyllum, 216
Geranium Family, 215
Germination of Avicennia, 360
7 of Balanophoraceae, 149
3 of Chickweed, 158
oy of Cuscuta, 344, 345
an of Kauri, 62
Bs ot Loranthus, 141
Gesneriaceae, 386, 388
Glossostigma, 368
“yy elatinoides, 368
Gloxinia Family, 386
Gnaphaliwm, 425, 432
aA leontopodium, 432
“ luteo-album, 425
Goebel, Prof., referred to, 171, 241, 374
Goodeniaceae, 52, 404
Goodenia Family, 404
Grass-trees, 329
Green flowers, number of in N.Z., 29
Greensill, Miss, referred to, 392
Griselinia, 51, 260, 298
= littoralis, 70, 298
» lucida, 21, 298 |
Groundsel, 434, 436
Guard-cells, 40
PLANTS OF NEW
ZEALAND
Guilds Plant, 16
Gum, fragrant, of taramea, 321, 322
33 Kauri, 64, 66
Gunnera, 54, 297
e monoica, 297
Gymnospermae, 46, 49
Haast, Sir Julius von, referred to, 23, 228
260
Haastia, 423, 424, 428, 432
f pulvinaris, 424, 430
Haberlandt, Dr., referred to, 38
Hades, Flower of, 151
Halophytes, 42, 155
Haloragidaceae, 51, 54, 295
Haloragis, 295
- alata, 36, 295
+3 cartilaginea, 414
a erecta, 295
Harakeke, 6
Hauama, 242
Heath Family, 323
Hector, Sir James, referred to, 158, 236
Hectorella, 158
oa cespitosa, 158
Hedley, Mr. C., referred to, 34
Hedycarya, 174
vr arborea, 174
Helichrysum, 372, 430
hy coralloides, 373, 432
e depressum, 432
ss grandiceps, 432
es selago, 430
ie virgineum, 432
Hell-bind, 345
Hemsley, Mr. W. Botting, referred to, 3T
Henslow, Prof., referred to, 375, 376
Herpolirion, 108
rf novae-Zelandiae, 108
Hibiscus, 260
“- Trionum, 260
Hill, Mr., referred to, 151
Hinau, 4, 9, 28, 248
Hoheria, 9, 250, 252, 261
<5 angustifolia, 390
a populnea, 250
= populnea, var. vulgaris, 252
Honeysuckle, 146
Honeysuckle Family, 399
Hooker, Sir Joseph, referred to, 2, 33, 34
57, 323
Horoeka, 306
Horopito, 172
Horse-Chestnut Family, 224
Houi, 250
Houhere, 250
Hutton, Captain, referred to, 25, 30, 36, 37
Huttonella, 204, 208
Hybrids, 150
INDEX 449
Hydrocotyle, 314
A Americana, 36
As Asiatica, 314
Bs novae-Zelandiae, 314,
Hydrophytes, 42
Hymenanthera, 266
a crassifolia, 266
Hymenophyllum, 7
Hypericum, 50, 263
Icacinaceae, 230
Ice-plant, 160
Incompletae, 224
Inconspicuous flowers, number of in N.Z.,
9, 29
Ini-ini, 284, 266
Initial endemism, 304
Ink-plant, 226
Insects, paucity of in N.Z., 162
Insect pollination in Viola, 262
Insectivorous plants, 182
Introduction, General, 1
=A Botanical, 38
Immutability of species, theory of,
combated, 259
Tpomea, 19
Tridaceae, 109
Tris Family, 109
Trishman, Wild, 239
Tronwood, 281
Islands, Oceanic and Continental, 26
Islands, outlying, flora of
Ivyworts, 300
Txerba, 52, 186
. brexioides, 186
Kahikatea, 16, 70, 272
Kaikawaka, 66
Kaikomako, 230, 233
a in Maori lore, 232
Kai-weta, 188
Kakaramu, 396
Kaka’s Beak, 210
Kalladi, 202
Kamahi, 189
Karamu, 394, 396
Karaka, 233, 235, 268
Karaka Family, 233
5 in Maori lore, 235
Karaka poisoning, 235 2
Karamu, 392
Kare-ao, 90
Kauri, 60, 62, 304
Kauri gum, 12, 64, 65
a3 pine, 202
Sn timber, 63
Kawaka, 66
Kawakawa, 128
Key to Classification, 49
Kerner, referred to, 198
Kie-kie, 80, 202
Kirk, Mr. T., referred to, 57, 132, 179, 188,
194, 234, 238, 243, 293, 310, 338,
358, 361, 420, 438
Knightia, 145
$s excelsa, 140, 146
Knot-grass, 152
Kohe-kohe, in Maori proverb, 174, 222
Kohutuhutu, 294
Kokoromiko, 378
Kopi, 234
Koradi, 202
Korari, 202
Korokia-taranga, 298
Koromiko, 369
Kotukutuku, 294
Kowdie Pine, 202
Kowhai, yellow, 36, 212, 214
ve red, 210
Kowhai-ngutu-kaka, 210
Kumara, 72
Kumarahou, 186, 236
Kuri-kuri, 321
Labiateae, 53, 364, 366
Laburnum, New Zealand, 214
Lacebark, 252
Lagenophora Forsteri, 410
Lancewood, 306
Large leaved plants, 347
Lasianthera Family, 230
Lauraceae, 55, 175
Laurel Family, 175
Laurel, New Zealand, 233
Laurelia novae-Zelandiae, 174
Leaf, description, 39
Leaf, dicotyledonous structure of, 39
Leaf, modifications in 41, 62, 69, 76, 78, 93,
106, 118, 120, 139, 246, 252, 256,
258, 276, 296, 305, 307, 319, 324.
373, 400, 422
Leafless plants, 198, 204, 344
Leaves, evergreen in New Zealand, 9
Legends, Maori, 70, 232, 236
Leguminosae, 51, 203
Lemon tree, 195
Lentibulariaceae, 388
Leptospermum, 272, 276, 323
PA scoparium, 244, 272, 274, 278
= ericoides, 274
Leucopogon, 322, 323, 328
AS Ffasiculatus, 323, 325, 328
a Frazeri, 323, 325, 328
Lianes, 16-19, 99
Libertia, 50, 109
a ixioides, 109
Libertia grandiflora, 109
Libocedrus, 66
“A Bidwillii, 66
e doniana, 66
450 PLANTS
Ligusticum, 313, 315
35 carnosulum, 157, 170, 316
ae Colensoi, 216
P latifolium, 315, 347
pa piliferwm, 316
Lilac, New Zealand, 186
Liliaceae, 50, 88, 96
Lily, Chatham Island 347, 348
Lily, Mountain, 166
Lily Family, 88
Lime tree Family, 242
Limosella, 296
Linaceae, 102, 215, 218
Lindsay, Dr. Lauder, referred to, 228
Linwm, 52, 218
i monogynum, 162, 218
Litsea calicaris, 175
Lobelia, 348, 403, 404
3 ance ps, 404
as Roughii, 157, 404
Lobeliaceae, 401
Localisation of species, 3
Logania, 369
Loganiaceae, 53, 335
Lomaria, 7
Looking-glass plant, 392
Loranthaceae, 51, 54, 138
Loranthus, 138, 139, 140, 142
3 Colensoi, 142
= decussatus, 145
* Fieldii, 140, 142
33 flavidus, 142
aA micranthus, 140, 141, 144, 145
A tetrapetalus, 139, 142
Luzuriaga marginata, 92
Lyatlia, 158
Lycopods, 8, 27, 28
Macropiper, 56, 268
aA excelsum, 128
Madder Family, 389
Magnolia Family, 172
Magnoliaceae, 172
Mahoe, 233, 264, 266
Mahogany trees, 222
Mahuika, legend of, 232
Maire, 335
Mairehau, 220
Maire-tawhaki, 288
Mako-mako, 246
Mallows, 250
Malvaceae, 50, 218, 250, 252
Manawa, 352
Mangeao, 175
Mangroves, 8, 253, 254, 352, 361
Mangrove roots, 355
~ swap, life in, 354
Manuka, 3, 12, 22, 272, 274
$5 Broom, 274
a rauriki, 274
OF NEW ZEALAND
Maori flower names, pronunciation of,
202
Maori Onion, 102
sp legend, of Kahikatea, 70
5a legend, of Kaikomako, 232
4 legend, of Tainni, 236
5 lullaby, 320
“n Painkiller, 172
H proverbs, quoted, 174, 176, 282..
284, 343
a scents, 321
as traditions, 280, 286
Mapau, 189, 195, 332
Maple, 195
a0 Family, 224
Mare’s Tails, 295
| Marsh Marigold, 171
Marvel of Peru Family, 159
Matai, 69, 70
Matipo, 332
Maui, legend of, 232
Mazus, 368
* pumilio, 368
Bs radicans, 367
Medullary rays, 82
Melanesian element in New Zealand
flora, 8
Melanesian affinities of New Zealand
flora, 31, 34
| Meliaceae, 222
Melicope, 220
Pe simplex, 220
om ternata, 220
Melicytus, 260, 264
PP ramiflorus, 233, 264
Melon Family, 399
Mentha Cunninghamii, 365
Meryta, 54, 312, 436
a5 Sinclairii, 244, 312, 347
Mesembryanthemum, 159, 239
a australe, 160
| Mesembryanthemum Family, 159
Mesophytes, 42
Metrosideros, 9, 278
| nn albiflora, 281, 282
| ‘ Colensoi, 281
a florida, 280, 282
- hy pericifolia, 280
- lucida, 280, 281
ae robusta, 21, 282, 356.
- scandens, 288
ce tomentosa, 284
Microtis, 120, 125
porrifolia, 111, 125
Mimulus, 366, 368
Mingi-mingi, 329, 398
Mint, 365
Miro, 68, 322
Mistletoe family, 138
Mistletoe, 142, 144
Moki-moki, 321, 322
Moko-mok’, 246
Monimiaceae, 55, 174
Monocotyledons, 49
33 description of, 47
“5 examples of. 48
Mountain Daisy, 418
Mountain Lily, 166
Moths, pollination by, 162
Movement in plants, spontaneous, 38
Miihlenbeckia, 9, 19, 152, 344, 401
FA adpressa, 152
7s axillaris, 152, 216
ee complexa, 152
Mulberry, New Zealand, 242
Miiller, Baron von, referred to, 379
Mutation of species, 370
Mutation theory, de Vries, 379
Mutton bird scrub, 438
Myoporum, 54, 362, 364
$3 letum, 362
Myosotidium, 301, 302, 347, 348
= nobile, 168, 347
Myosotis, 29, 346
3 australis, 346
as capitata, 346
a macrantha, 346
$9 spathulata, 346
55 uniflora, 346
Myosurus aristata, 36
Myriophyllum, 295, 296
aa elatinoides, 295
Myrsinaceae, 52, 331
Myrsine, 53, 189
eee, Family, 331
Myrtaceae, 50, 270
Myrtle, 272
Myrtus, 22, 288
bullata, 288
26 obcordata, 288
me pedunculata, 288, 390
Myrtle Family, 270
Native Daisy, 410
Natural permanence of Bush, 10
Naupata, 392, 395
Nei-nei, 329
Nertera, 398
oF depressa, 398
- dichondraefolia, 398
Nettle Family, 136
New Zealand Arbor Vite, 66
A Ash, 225
a Bramble, 196
A Cedar, 68, 222
PP Club-mosses, 8
me Currant, 246
4 jidelweiss, 432
a Flax, 88, 102, 218
06 Laburnum, 214
INDEX 451
New Zealand Laurel, 233
+ Lilac, 186
ma flora, affinities of, 30, 31
flora, Antarctic element in, 35-37
flora, antiquity of, 27-30
Bn flora, Australian element in, 25,
32-34
oy flora, foreign elements of, 35
+3 flora, origin of, 24-26
flora, South American element
in, 25
flowers, colour of, 162, 338, 349
Mulberry, 242
Oak, 350
- Primrose, 385
- Spinach, 160
Nightshade Family, 365
Nigger-heads, 5
Nihi-nihi, 344
Nikau Palm, 9, 48, 80, 84, 268
63 abnormal, 86
” whares, 84
Nitrogen, needful for plants, 182
Ngaio, 362
Ngawaka, 66
Ngutu-kakariki, 210
Nothofagus, 16, 29, 130, 132, 134, 150, 201
“7 betuloides, 132
ie cliffortioides, 15, 133, 134
4 fusca, 133, 134
° Menziesti, 132, 133, 137
| Solandri, 15, 133, 134, 139, 142, 145
Nothopanax, 144, 260, 304
anomalum, 305
5 Colensoi, 305
a lineare, 305
ea simplex, 305
Notothlaspi, 177, 178
* rosulatwm, 157, 178, 179
Notospartium, 204, 208
Number of flowering plants in New
Zealand, 31
Nux-Vomica Family 335
Nyctaginaceae, 159
Oak, New Zealand, 350
Oceanic islands, 26
Olea, 56, 334, 411
- Cunninghamit, 334
zs lanceolata, 334
Oleaceae, 335
Olearia, 22, 35, 323, 411, 414, 418, 422, 436
- Allomii, 414
oo angulata, 414
ne avicenniefolia, 416
= Buchanani, 414
- Colensoi, 9
a Forsteri, 416
es furfuracea, 415
*4 ilicifolia, 416
452 PLANTS
Olearia, insignis, 414
on Lyallii, 347
iy macrodonta, 416
3 moschata, 416
3 nitida, 415
o- semi-dentata, 411, 414
a virgata, 238, 239, 390, 416
Olive Family, 335
Onga-onga, 136
Onagraceae, 51, 290
Orchid Family, 109
Orchidaceae, 29, 35, 50, 109, 406
Orchids, fantastic forms of, 110
~ pollination of, 112, 115
nD structure of flowers, 111
Oreomyrrhis, 314
Origin of fire, Maori legend of, 232
6 of New Zealand flora, 24-26
Me of New Zealand flora, theories
of, 34
Orthoceras Solandri, 127
Osmosis, 296
Ourisia, 384
as cespitosa, 384, 385
or Colensoi, 385
a glandulosa, 384, 386
A macrophylla, 384, 385
Oxalic acid, 215
Oxalidaceae, 52, 215
Oxalis, 215, 216, 217, 263
‘5 corniculata, 216
by: magellanica, 37, 216
Ozothamnus, 372, 432
Pachycladon, 177, 179
4 novae-Zelandiae, 178
Pahautea, 168
Palm, 8
Palmaceae, 80
Palm Family, 80
Palm-lily, 93, 94
Palms, paucity of in New Zealand, 28
Palm tree, 28
Pandanaceae, 80
Papataniwhaniwha, 410
Papilionaceae, 172, 203
Pappus, 407
Para-para, 159
Parasites, 16, 1389, 344
Paratrophis, 136, 390
Paratrophis microphyllus, 136
Parietaria, 55, 138
= debilis, 138
Parroquet’s Beak, 210
Parrot’s Bill, 210
Parsley Family, 312
Parsonsia, 19, 53, 340
a capsularis, 340
FA heterophylla, 340
Passifloraceae, 51, 268
OF NEW ZEALAND
Passiflora, 29, 268, 400
ee tetrandra, 268, 400
“ Passing of the Forest,’’ 13
Passion flower, 19, 268, 400
Patch plants, 158, 208, 426, 428, 430
Pate, 233
Pa-totara, 322, 328
Pea-family, 203
Pennantia, 52, 230
ae corymbosa, 256
Pen-wiper plant, 178
Peperomia, 56, 127
5s Urvilleana, 21, 128
Pepper-tree, 172
Percentage of unisexual flowers in New
Zealand, 164
Periwinkle Family, 340
Persoonia toru, 148
Petrie, Mr. D., referred to, 320, (footnote),
388
Phebalium nudum, 200
Phormium, 48, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 210
Phormiwm Cookianum, 108
Phormium tena, 48, 88, 90
Plyllocladus, 58, 60, 76
- alpinus, 78
es trichomanoides 76, 78
Picris, 408
Pikiarero, 164
Pimelea, 162, 269, 270, 323
5 arenaria, 269, 270
Pi longifolia, 269
nH prostrata, 270
+. virgata, 270
Pine, 8
Pine Family, 58
Pink Family, 156
Piperaceae, 157
Piper, 128
4 excelsum, 127
Piri-piri, 201, 320, 322
Pisonia, 58, 159, 348
“3 brunoniana, 159, 244, 347
Pits in Coprosma leaves, 392
Pittosporaceae, 189
Pittosporum, 45, 52, 150, 189
Fe cornifolium, 21, 190, 192
5 crassifolium, 194
eugenioides, 145, 194
Kirkii, 194
FS nigrescens, 190
as obcordatum, 170, 190
3 Ralphii, 195
= rigidum 190
Fe tenuifolium, 189, 194, 195, 322, 332
Ss tenuifolium, var., fasiculatum,
190
Plagianthus, 250, 253, 254
~ betulinus, 9, 41, 241, 246, 254, 256,
258, 318
INDEX 453
Plagianthus divaricatus, 253, 254
Plant groups, 41
Plant guilds, 16
Plantago, 63
Plant life, 38
Plants of shingle slips, 157, 170
Plants, sense organs in, 217
Plants, sleep of, 217
Plants spontaneous motion in, 38
Plasticity of forms of plant life, 259
Plewrophyllum, 338, 416, 418
35 crinitum, 417
an speciosum, 302, 347, 417
Poa cespitosa, 4
Podocarpus, 68, 329
“e dacrydioides, 70
mo Ferruginea, 68, 322
4 nivalis, 68, 69
“ spicata, 69
cS totara, 69
Pohue, 343
Pohutukawa, 9, 284, 286, 288
Poison of tutu, 228
x karaka, 235
iz rangiora, 435, 436
Pokaka, 9
Pollination of Catasetwm, 114; Convol-
vulus, 343; Coprosma, 392; Cory-
anthes, 112; EHarina suaveolens,
116; Fuchsia, 290, 294; Knightia
excelsa, 146; Melicope simplex,
220, 221; Orchids, 112; Phormiwn,
106; Pittosporum Ralphii, 195;
P. tenuifolium, 190; Thelymitra
longifolia, 115; Pterostylis, 118;
Utricularia, 389; Wahlenbergia,
403
Pollination by birds, 106, 210, 214, 290, 388
=p by butterflies, 162
A by flies, 162
a by moths, 162
ye by wind, 128, 392
Pollination, processes of, 43, 44
a eross, in Compositae, 406
an eross, in Viola, 262
= cross, in Wahlenbergia, 403
“5 self, explained, 44, 263
a self, in Compositae, 407
as self, in Thelymitra, 115
Polypods, 7
Polygonaceae, 54, 151, 152
Polygonum, 152
iy aviculare, 152
Pomaderris, 54, 235, 236, 238
A apetala, 236, 238
et phylicefolia, 238, 323
Poporo-kaiwhiri, 174
Poro-poro, 202, 366
Portulaceae, 53, 158
Potts, Mr., 140, 141
Pratia, 403
Prickles, purpose of, 276
Primrose, Family, 333
Primrose, New Zealand, 385
Primulaceae, 333
Pronunciation of Maori flower names,
202
Proteaceae, 55, 56, 145
Pteris aquilina, 6
Pterostylis, 118
aS Banksii, 110, 111, 126
53 graminea, 110, 126
Pseudopanax, 256, 257, 306, 325
Fp crassifolium, 306, 308, 310
i ferox, 306
Pua-o-te-reinga, 151
Pua-tawhiwhi, 280
Pua-wananga, 164
Pukatea, 174
Puna-weta, 188
Punui, 300
Puriri, 202, 282, 349, 350
Puta-puta-weta, 188
Pygmea, 369
Quintinia, 186
50 serrata, 186
Rama-rama, 288
Rangiora, 435
Ranunculaceae, 50, 55, 160, 166, 168, 296
Ranunculus, 166
‘3 acaulis, 171
=p Baurii, 168
A Buchanani, 168
5 crithmifolius, 168, 170, 171
a5 Godleyanus, 168
a Haastii, 168, 171
a hirtus, 171
“4 insignis, 168
a lappaceus, 171
; Lyallii, 23, 166, 347
nts macropus, 171
3 nivicola, 168
4 rivularis, 171
“3 Traversti, 168
Raoul, referred to, 190, 380, 438
Raoulia, 208, 423, 425, 428, 430, 432
ey australis, 426
rs bryoides, 373
os eximia, 426
2) Haastti, 426
ae mammillaris, 373, 426
op Monroi, 216
Rapanea, 331
Pr salicina, 332
ao Urvillet, 332
Rata, 8, 9, 21, 278, 280, 281, 282, 284
Rata-vine, 19, 280
Rauhuia, 218
454 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Raukawa, 305 Scandinavian element in New Zealand
Raurekau, 394 flora, 31
Recapitulation, law of, 256 Schefilera, 313
Red Kowhai, 210 _ digitata, 151, 233, 312
Reeves, the Hon. W. P., quoted, 13 Schimper, referred to, 430
Relict endemism, 302 Scleranthus, 55
Reserves, climatic secured, 12 Screw Pine Family, 80
Reversion shoots, 374 | Scrophulariaceae, 53, 54, 366
Reversed spiral, in tendrils, 401 Scrub, the, 21
Rewa-rewa, 146 Scrub plants, typical leaves of, 22
Ribbonwood, 250-254 : Sea-bindweed, 344
Rimu, 15, 60, 74 Seed Dispersal, 45; in Compositae, 405-6
Rhabdothamnus, 54, 388 : Seedling Forms, 254, 257, 308
Solandri 388 Self-pollination, explained, 44; in Com-
Rhamnaceae, 50, 235 positae, 407; in Thelymitra,
Rhipogonum scandens, 90 115
Rhizophora, 356 Selliera radicans, 404
Rhopalostylis, 50, 84 | Senecio, 35, 436
oF sapida, 80, 84 FP antipodus, 438
Robinia, 141
Rock-lily, 102
Rohuhu, 288
a bellidioides, 438
eS glaucophyllus, 436
i Hectori, 347
Roots, adaptation of to environment, 358 3 Huntii, 436
4 membranous, 120 - + lagopus, 438
“5 parasitic, 149 = lautus, 436, 438
“ stilt, 360 6 Muelleri, 438
x structure of, 39, 356 8 perdicioides, 46, 170, 436
Rosaceae, 50, 195, 270 ss Pottsii, 436
Rose Family, 195
Rosette plants, 178, 179, 180
Rubiaceae, 52, 389
os rotundifolius, 438
A saxifragoides, 382, 438
seiadophilus, 19, 438
Rubus, 19, 149, 196, 198, 200, 344 Sensation in plants, 38
Ap australis, 200 Sense organs in plants, 217
4 cissoides, 198, 200 Shepherd's Lily, 166
A parvus, 201 Stellaria Roughii, 170
Ap Schmidelioides, 200 Shingle-slip plants, 157, 170, 178, 180, 317,
Rue Family, 218 428, colour of, 158
Rumex, 152 Sicyos, 54, 400
“1 flexwosus, 154 = australis, 244, 400
Ruskin, quoted, 23 | Skey, Mr., referred uo, 436
Rutaceae, 52, 218 Sleep of plants, 217
Rutland, Mr. J., referred to, 376 Snap-dragon Family, 366
Soda, obtained from plants 154
Salicornia, 55, 156 Solanaceae, 53, 365
73 indica, 156 Solander, Dr., referred to,
Salsola, 155 | Solanum, 366
3 australis, 155 rr aviculare, 348, 366
Samolus, 52, 57, 333 ry nigrum, 343, 366
os littoralis, 57, 333, 405 Somnus plantarwm, 217
Sandalwood Family, 148 Sophora, 9, 203, 210, 214
Santalaceae, 54, 148 a tetraptera, 36, 212
Santalum, 148 7 tetraptera, var. grandiflora, 36,
Cunninghamii 148 212
Sapindaceae, 224 . tetraptera, var. microphylla, 212
Sapota, 53 | = tetraptera, var. prostrata, 212
Sapotaceae, 331 South American element in New Zealand
Saprophytes, 16, 111 flora, 25, 36, 292
Sarchochilus adversus, 21 Southern Alps, 157, 258
Sarsaparilla Bush, 90 Spaniard, Wild, 321, 322
Saxifragaceae, 51, 185 Sparmannia, 244
INDEX 455
Spinach, New Zealand, 160
Spines, use of, 319, 321
Spinous plants, 276
Spongy tissue, 40
Spontaneous motion in plants, 38
Spurge Family, 224
Stack, Canon, referred to, 12
Stellaria, 156
as Roughii, 156, 157
Stem, processes of, 39
i structure of, 82, 356
% structure of, in Conifers, 60, in
Palmaceae, 82, in Cordyline,
89, 92
Stigmatic movements, 367
Stilbocarpa, 300, 304
a Lyallii, 300, 302, 304, 347
Pe polaris, 300, 302, 304, 347
Stitchworts, 156
Stomata described, 40
Structure of water plants, 295-6
Stylidiaceae, 52
Styphelia, 328
+3 acerosa, 330
- empetrifolia, 330
es robusta, 330
Sub-antarctic element in New Zealand
flora, 36
Sundew Family, 180, 182
Supple-jack, 19, 48, 90
Suppression of spines, due to alteration
of climate, 241
Suttonia, 331
s divaricata, 331
Tainui, 236, 238; in Maori lore, 236
Tanekaha, 60, 76, 78
Tarairi, 175
Taramea, 321, 322 .
Tataramoa, 196
Tarata, 194
Taraxacum, 408
Tauhinu, 238, 433
Taupata, 392, 395
Tawa, 16,175; in Maori proverb, 176
Tawari, 188
Tawhera, 80, 189
Tawhiri, 321, 322
Tawhiwhi, 189
Taylor, Rev. R., referred to, 150, 151
Tea-tree, 272
Tendril-bearing plants, 400
Tetragonia, 160
35 expansa, 160
Teucridium, 350
a parviflorum, 351
Teucrium, 350
Thelymitra, 115, 126
5 imberbis, 127
- longifolia, 115, 127
=r pulchella, 127
Theory, Dr. Cockayne’s, on leaf varia-
bility, 257
re Dr. Wallace’s, on the origin of
the New Zealand flora, 34
Thistle Family, 405
Thomson, Mr. G. M., referred to, 31, 112,
115, 116, 190, 194, 216, 220, 264,
276, 293
Thousand-jacket, 252
Thyme Family, 364
Thymelaceae, 55, 269
Tiliaceae, 50, 242
Tillea, 51
os moschata, 37
Timber, of Kauri, 63-4; Kahikatea, 72;
Matai, 70; Miro, 68; Puriri, 350;
Rimu, 74; Tanekaha, 76; Titoki,
225; Totara, 69
Titoki, 225, 268
Toa-toa, 78
Toi-toi, 4,5
Tomentum, purpose of, 420
Toot, 228, 230
Toro, 332
Toru, or Toro, 148
Totara, 15, 60, 69, 233
4 Mountain, 68
Transpiration, 40, 41, 120, 238
Trimorphism, 292
Tumatakuru, 239
Tupakihi, 226
Tupeia, 144
oo antarctica, 145
Tussock Country, 12
description of, 4,5
a grass, 3, 4
Tutin, 229, 230
Tutu, 226, 230
Tutu Poisoning, 228, 229
Tutu Wine, 229
Twining Plants, 19
Twining of leaf stems, in Clematis, 166
Types of Forest, 15
Typha, 49
Ps angustifolia, 6
Umbelliferae, 50, 312
Uneinia, 45
Uniformity, lack of, in bush, 8
Unique flower forms in New Zealand, 29
Unisexual fiowers, 164
Urtica, 136
as ferox, 136
Urticaceae, 54, 136
Utricularia, 54, 388
Sy monanthos, 389
a novae-Z elandiae, 389
“4 protrusa, 389
Variation leaf,in Veronica, 369
rt in Panax, 307
Variation in Parsonsia, 340
. in Rubus, 196-200
Vegetable Sheep, 424, 426, 428
Venation of leaves, 48
Verbenaceae, 53, 54, 349
Verbena Family, 349
Veronicas, sub-alpine, 22
as colour of, 162
Veronicas, 239
Veronica, 246, 257, 263, 270, 276, 348, 366,
367, 369, 371, 374, 379
a Benthami, 348
a5 cataractae, 383
Fe cupressoides, 380
2 elliptica, 36
a epacridea, 380
or Haastii, 380
6 Hectori, 380
9 Hulkeana, 383°
Ap Lavaudiana, 380, 382
ne lycopodioides, 380
os macrocarpa, 378
6 monticola, 379
a salicifolia, 278
c salicornioides, 380
os speciosa, 376, 378, 392
“i tetrasticha, 375, 380
- Traversti, 378
Viola, 29, 261, 263, insect pollination in.
262,
Violaceae, 51, 261
Violet Family, 261
_ Violets, 262, 264, colour of, 162
Viola Cunninghamii, 220, 262, 264
se filicaulis, 261, 264
3 tricolor, 262
Visewm, 144
5 Lindsayi, 144
Se salicornioides, 144
Vitex, 210, 350
ob littoralis, 349
pe lucens, 350
2
6 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Vittadinia australis, 411
Vogel, Sir Julius, referred to, 13
Vries, Prof. Hugo de, referred to, 370
Wahlenberagia, 342, 348, 401, 402, 403
- cartilaginea, 402
= gracilis, 402
Wallace, Dr. A. R., referred to, 25, 30. 34,
196
Wallflower Family, 177
Water Plants, structure of, 295. 296
Wattle Family, 203
Wawa-paku, 305
Waxy Gentian, 337
Weismann, referred to, 371
Weinmannia, 188
ve racemosa, 188, 189
- silvicola, 189
Wharangi, 220
Whau, 9, 242, 244, 246
Whauwhi, 250
Whipcord Veronicas, 372, 374
White flowers, prevalence of in New
Zealand, 162
White Pine, 16, 70
Wild Spaniard, 321
Be Trishman, 239, 240
Willow-herbs, 295
Wind-pollinated plants, 128, 392
Wina-still spaces, 171, 172, 238
Wines, made from Tutu, 229
Wineberry, 246
Wright, David McKee, quotations from, 3
Xerochlena, 432
Xerophytes, 41, 42, 159, 200, 239, 258, 296, 318
Xerophylla longifolia, 306
Yellow-button, 434
Yellow Kowhai, 36, 212
Zostera, 296
Prin ted by Whitcombe & Tombs Limited, Christchurch.—13126.
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