ee,

AND

BLACKWELL.

| Vee

= cody,
coy

ra

J
~
*

Ph

3

New Zealand Fruits.
Freycinetia Banksii Coprosma, 3 sp.
Astelia Cunninghamii. Dysoxylum spectabile.

ants of New Zealand

BY

Re, ee ING:, - Base.

f.- We BLACK W HEE,

With 160 original Photographs by E. W. and F. B. Blackwell.

Notothlaspi rosulatum (4 nat. size).

LIBRARY

-W VYVORK
= VY VINE

CHRISTCHURCH, WELLINGTON, AND DUNEDIN, N.Z.;
MELBOURNE AND LONDON:

WHITCOMBE AND TOMBS LIMITED.

1906

“ Harth’s crammed with Heav’n,

And every common bush afire with God ;

But only he who sees takes off his shoes.”’

—E. B. BROWNING.

JUN 3=- 1907

LIBRARY

NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
iIARDEN.

PREFACE.

The Flora of New Zealand is one of the most remarkable known.
Indeed, it is so highly specialized, that these islands are generally
considered to constitute a distinct Botanical Region. Drude divides
the earth into fourteen such Regions, and New Zealand is the
twelfth on his list.“ This little colony is therefore botanically equal
in importance to districts of much vaster area. In spite, however,
of the fact that our Flora is one of the most interesting on the face
of the earth, there are very few who have any real acquaintanceship
with it. This ignorance is doubtless due to the inaccessibility and
technicality of the literature dealing with the subject. In this
work an endeavour has been made to give an account of our native
plants that will be intelligible to all. As few technical terms as
possible have been employed herein, and those used have been
explained either in the text or glossary. An attempt has also been
made to give as many interesting particulars of the species as the
limits of our space will allow.

It is hoped, therefore, that the volume will be of service to all
who wish to know something more of a vegetation that is unique.
To New Zealand teachers, but especially to those interested in
nature study, it should be of considerable value; as well as to all
colonists who have any love for the wild flowers of their neighbour-
hood. ‘Tourists, also, will find here the means for readily identifying
all the more conspicuous plants that they are likely to meet with,
whilst en route through the colony. Though no new species are
described here, many fresh facts have been embodied in the text,
and a great quantity of botanical information has been culled from
many sources for the book. Hitherto the student has only been
able to obtain much of this material by wide and laborious reading
in English and German publications and journals. Hence the
book will—we trust—be of some value to the botanist who wishes
to procure, in small compass, a suggestive guide for further research.

* Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie.

vl PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The work is not a Flora, and therefore does not include all known
species. It deals only with flowering plants, and, amongst these,
omits the grasses, and certain less important orders. The grasses
have been dealt with in special publications by Mr. Buchanan.
The other orders omitted are represented by species little likely to
attract the attention of any but the trained botanist. All the more
important and conspicuous flowering plants, and many of the rarer
ones, have been here described, except in the larger genera, such as
Coprosma, Veronica, Ranunculus, Olearia, and Senecio, where we
have been reluctantly compelled to content ourselves with a
selection of the chief types.

Such a book as this must be to a considerable extent a compila-
tion; and we have therefore made free use of the labours of our
predecessors in the field. Amongst these, especial mention may be
made of Sir J. Hooker, Dr. Cockayne, Dr. Diels, and Messrs. T.
Kirk, T. F. Cheeseman, G. M. Thomson, and D. Petrie. Indeed, all
botanical papers in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute”
have been carefully consulted, and all literature obtainable, bearmg
on the subject, has been read. Unfortunately, the profound paper
of Dr. Diels on the New Zealand Flora still remains untranslated,
and so is unaccessible to most students. We have therefore made
free use of it. We have to thank Dr. L. Cockayne for helping
us over many slippery places, and for much generous assistance
freely given. We are indebted to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman for the
identification of many dried specimens, and for other kindnesses.
Assistance has been received from Miss Irene Wilson in the
preparation of the glossary, and from Mr. J. Christie in the proof
reading. We are also under obligations to the following gentlemen
for the gift of photographs for reproduction as illustrations: Mr. J.
Deans, Mr. A. C. Gifford, Mr. A. Hamilton, Mr. H. Larkin, Mr. S.
Page, Mr. J. Crosby-Smith, and Mr. R. Speight.

It should be mentioned that for the first time an endeavour has
been made to bring the classification of the New Zealand flowering
plants into accord with modern ideas. We have therefore arranged
the families according to Engler’s system, and not in accordance
with that of Hooker and Bentham, hitherto in vogue. (Unfortunately
we have been unable to find room for a synopsis of the families, but
this may be obtained in any good modern text-book of botany.)

*These are shortly referred to in the foot notes, as Trans.

PREFACE Vil

The book accordingly starts with the pines,—the lowest group of
plants described,—and ends with the Composites, the most highly
specialized family in the Vegetable Kingdom. This arrangement
is much more in harmony with evolutionary ideas than that usually
adopted.

It is hoped that the book will be found up to date, and, though
its authors are conscious of its many short-comings, they trust
it will be of service to all who wish to learn something of the
fascinating problems in the Plant World around them.

R.M.L.
EK.W.B.
March 30th, 1906.

TAB OF SCONTEN TES:

INTRODUCTION.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION, p. 1. The open country, p. 3. The fern land, p. 6. The
bush, p. 8. The natural permanence of the bush, p.10. The destruction of the
forest, p.12. ‘The Passing of the Forest,” p.13. Types of forest, p.15. Lianes,
p. 16. Epiphytes, p- 20. The scrub, p. 21. Alpine vegetation, p. 22.

THE AGE AND AFFINITIES OF THE FLORA, p. 24. Oceanic and Continental islands, p. 26.
The age of the Flora, p. 27. The affinities of the Flora, p. 30. The Australian
element, p. 32. The Melanesian element, p. 35. South American element, p. 36.
Sub-Antarctic element, p. 36.

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION, p. 38. Plant Life, p. 38. Root and stem, p. 39. The leaf, p. 39.
The flower, p. 43. The dispersal of seeds, p. 45, Classification, p. 46. Key to the
New Zealand families of flowering plants, p. 49.

THE GYMNOSPERMS.

THE PINE FAMILY, p. 58. The Kauri, p. 60. The Kawaka, p. 66. The Miro, p. 68. The
Totara, p. 69. The Black Pine, p. 69. The White Pine, p. 70. The Red Pine, p. 74.
The Celery-leaved Pine, p. 76.

THE ANGIOSPERMS.

THE MONOCOTYLEDONS, p. 80. The Screw-pine Family, p. 80. The Palm Family, p. 80.
The Lily Family, p. 88. The Iris Family, p. 109. The Orchid Family, p. 109.

THE DICOTYLEDONS WITH FREE PETALS, p. 127. The Pepper Family, p. 127. The Beech
Family, p. 128. The Nettle Family, p. 136. The Mistletoe Family, p. 138. The
Bottle-Brush Family, p. 145. The Sandal-wood Family, p. 148. A Family of Root
Parasites, p. 149. The Buckwheat Family, p. 151. The Beet Family, p. 154. The
Pink Family, p. 156. The Marvel of Peru Family, p. 159. The Mesembryanthemum
Family, p. 159. The Buttercup Family, p. 160. The Magnolia Family, p. 172. The
Pukatea, p. 174. The Laurel Family, p. 175. The Wallflower Family, p.177. The
Sundew Family, p. 180. The Currant-Tree Family, p. 185. The “ Matipo’’ Family,
p. 189. The Rose Family, p. 195. The Pea Family, p. 203. The Geranium Family,
p. 215. The Flax Family, p. 218. The Rue Family, p. 218. The Mahogany
Tree Family, p. 222. The Spurge Family, p. 224. The Maple Family,
p. 224. The Tutu Family, p. 226. Pennantia, p. 230. The Karaka, p. 233.
The Buckthorn Family, p. 235, The Lime-tree Family, p. 242. The Mallow
Family, p. 250. The Violet Family, p. 261. The Passion-flower Family, p. 268. The
Daphne Family, p. 269. The Myrtle Family, p. 270. The Fuchsia Family, p. 290.
The Haloragis Family, p. 295. The Dogwood Family, p. 297. The Ivy Family, p. 300.
The Parsley Family, p. 313.

THE DICOTYLEDONS WITH UNITED PETALS, p.323. The Heath Family, p. 323. The Myrsine
Family, p. 331. The Primrose Family, p. 333. The Olive Family, p. 334. The Nux-
Vomica Family, p. 334. The Gentian Family, p. (336. The Periwinkle Family,
p. 340. The Bindweed Family, p. 342. The Borage Family, p. 346. The Verbena
Family, p. 349. The Thyme Family, p. 364. The Nightshade Family, p. 365. The
Snap-dragon Family, p. 367. The Gloxinia Family, p. 366. The Butterwort Family,
p. 388. The Madder Family, p. 389. The Honeysuckle Family, p. 399. The
Cucumber Family, p. 399. The Canterbury Bell Family, p. 401. The Goodenia
Family, p. 404. The Daisy Family, p. 405.

EkSa

Aciphylla Colensoi

=3 Monroi
Agathis australis (bush)

” ? (cones)

0 a (tree)

Aristotelia racemosa
Arthropodium cirrhatum
Astelia Banksii

», Cunninghamii

», nervosa
Avicennia officinalis

(aerial roots)

Avicennia officinalis (flower)
(roots)
(seed)

” ””
” ”?
Beech Forest
(Photo by A. C. Gifford)
Beilschmiedia Tarairi
Brachyglottis repanda
Cabbage-tree bush
Carex secta
(Photo by J. Deans)

Carmichaelia australis (flower)

ef 7 (seed)
Carpodetus serratus
Cassinia Vauvilliersi
Celmisia coriacea
” ”?
,, longifolia
Clematis indivisa
(staminate form)
Clematis indivisa
(pistillate form)
Clematis indivisa
(seed)
Clematis parviflora
Clianthus puniceus
Coprosma arborea
He lucida
ae tenuicaulis
Cordyline australis (bush)

OF

62
61
D5
152
144
145

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE
318
320

61

|
|
|

FIG. PAGE
Cordyline australis (flower) 23 95
Coriaria ruscifolia 69 9-227
Corynocarpus levigata 70 231
0 46 (trees) 71 234
(Photo by S. Page)
Corysanthes macrantha 35 126
Craspedia uniflora 153.434
Cupressoid Types 124 374
(Photo by H. Larkin)
Dacrydium cupressinum 12 Ui
Dactylanthus Taylori 42 150
Dendrobium Cunninghamii 34 = 128
(Photo by A. C. Gifford)
Discaria toumatou 73 240
(Photo by Dr. L. Cockayne)
Dracophyllum uniflorum 108 = 330
Drosera auriculata Spy alisha
», Spathulata 53-183
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)
Dysoxylum spectabile 68 223
Earina suaveolens il eelaley
» » Ba) L2it
Eleocarpus dentatus 76 247
5 Hookerianus i e2e9
Entelea arborescens 74 243
Epacris pauciflora 107 328
Flax, New Zealand 28 105
Freycinetia Banksii (flower) 13 79
a - (fruit) 14 81
Fruits, Group of Frontispiece
Fuchsia excorticata 94 291
Gaya Lyall 81 259
Gaultheria rupestris 106-326
Geniostoma ligustrifolium tt 336
Gentiana corymbifera 112 339
Gnaphalium trinerve 147 425
Griselinia littoralis 95 299
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)
Hedycarya arborea 50 173
Helichrysum bellidioides 151 429
ne erandiceps 150 428

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Helichrysum species
(Photo by H. Larkin)

Herpolirion novae-Zelandiae
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)

Hoheria populnea
(var. angustifolia)
9 ”
Ixerba brexioides
Kahikatea berries
Karaka grove
(Photo by S. Page)
Kauri bush
», cones
3) uree
Knightia excelsa
Kowhai (yellow)
a (red)
Leptospermum ericoides
+6 scoparium
(bush)
” 9
(flower)
Leucopogon fasciculatus
Lianes
(Photo by S. Page)
Ligusticum piliferum
Luzuriaga marginata

(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)

Macropiper excelsum
Mangrove (flower)

2 (aerial roots)
5 (stilt roots)
An (seed)

Melicope simplex

PP * (nat. size)
Melicytus ramiflorus
Meryta Sinclairii
Metrosideros hypericifolia

ne robusta (flower)
7 », (tree)

_ scandens

a tomentosa

Microtis porrifolia
Miro berries
Mihlenbeckia axillaris

ne complexa
Myoporum letum (flower)
+e) 99 (tree)

(Photo by S. Page)

44
43
120
119

PAGE

374

Myrtus bullata

108 |

| Ngaio Tree

129
353,

Nertera dichondrefolia
New Zealand Flax

(Photo by S. Page)
Nigger-heads
(Photo by J. Deans)
Nikau (bud in sheath)
,, (flower)
a ,, (nat. size)
,, (Grove of)

,, (abnormally branched)

Nothofagus (trees)
(Photo by A. C. Gifford)

Ve Menziesii (flower)

Nothopanax Colensoi

| Notothlaspi rosulatum

355 |

357
359
219
291
265
310
279
283
278
287
285
113

67
154
153
363
362

(Photo by R. Speight).
Olea Cunninghamii

| Olearia Forsteri

(Photo by H. Larkin)
furfuracea
ilicifolia

(Photo by J. Crosby Smith)

insignis
_ (Photo by A. Hamilton)
- nummularifola
a virgata
Orchids (group)
Ourisia macrophylla
(Photo by A. Hamilton)
Paratrophis microphyllus

_ Parsonsia capsularis
_ Passiflora tetrandra

Phormium tenax

Pimelea virgata

Pittosporum cornifoliam
(flower)

ded be)

Ae tenuifolium
Plagianthus divaricatus
Pleurophyllum speciosum

(Photo by A. Hamilton)
Podocarpus dacrydioides
ferruginea
totara

oe)

99

| Pomaderris phylicefolia

Pseudopanax crassifolium
(flower)

(seed)

x1

FIG. PAGE
93 289
135 397
298 105
119 362
2 5
16 85
I7/ 86
18 87
15 83
19 89
a7) alsa
38 135
97 303

Title Page

110 =. 3334
142 415
138 409
139 «410
137 407
140 411
141 413
30. =: 113
130 396385
39137
113 341
83 267
28 105
84 271
57 =6192
58 193
DOmLoN
80 255
143 «417
10 73

8 67

9 71
72 237
99 308

Xl
FIG.
Pseudopanax crassifolium 98
(tree)

(Photo by H. Larkin).
Pterostylis Banksii 32
Ranunculus Lyallii 49
Raoula australis 148

(Photo by H. Larkin)

. mamuillaris 149

(Photo by H. Larkin)
Rhabdothamnus Solandri 131
Rhipogonum scandens 20
Rhopalostylis sapida (grove of) 15
Rhopalostylis sapida 19

(abnormally branched
specimen)
Rhopalostylis sapida (bud in
sheath) 16
Rhopalostylis sapida
(inflorescence of) 17
Rhopalostylis sapida (flower,
nat. size) 18
Rimu (spray of) 12
Rubus australis 60
,, schmidelioides 59
Schefflera digitata 101
Selliera radicans 136
Senecio cassinioides 155
Lyall 156

”

PLANTS OF NEW

PAGE

306

119
169
426
427

387

ZEALAND

Senecio saxifragoides
Solanum ayiculare
Sophora tetraptera (flower)
2 ” (seed)

Stilbocarpa polaris

(Photo by A. Hamilton)
Stypheha acerosa
Supple-jack
Tawhera
Thelymitra longifolia
Totara

(Photo by S. Page)
Tree-ferns
Tupeia antarctica
Tussock Country

(Photo by J. Deans)
Veronica cataractae

f lycopodioides

5 monticola

a salicifolia

. speciosa
Traversii

9)
Veronicas (whip-cord)
(Photo by H. Larkin)
Vitex lucens
Whip-cord Veronicas
(Photo by H. Larkin)
White Pine
(Photo by S. Page)

FIG,

157
121
64

PAGE
439
365
211
213
301

332
91
81

113
(al

7

143
4

ants of New Zealand.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

““Oh, when I am safe in my sylvan home,
I tread on the pride of Greece and Rome,
And when I am stretched beneath the pines,
Where the evening star so holy shines,
I laugh at the lore and the pride of Man,
At the sophist schools and learned clan.
For what are they all, in their high conceit,
When Man in the bush with God may meet ? ”’
R. W. EMERSON.

NiEw ZEALAND is almost in the centre of the greatest water-
surface of the globe. It is indeed the Land’s End of the
world; and as such affords to the geologist, biologist, and
ethnologist, material of the highest interest. But not to the
scientist alone is it full of fascination. Any lover of Nature
will find here an inexhaustible store-house for his wonder and
admiration. Life everywhere is infinite in its variety and
unfailing in its resourcefulness. In New Zealand it has
developed many plants and animals unknown in any other
part of the world. Indeed, two-thirds of the indigenous
species of flowering plants are not to be met with elsewhere.
This is a much higher percentage of local forms than can be
found in any other islands of approximately the same extent.
This unparalleled proportion of endemic species is due, partly,
perhaps, to the long isolation of the islands, partly to the great

2.

a

2 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

variety of conditions they offer, and partly, no doubt, to the
nature of the floras from which their own has been derived ;
but also to unknown factors that have not, as yet, come
within the ken of the investigator.

Not only does the flora contain a unique assemblage of
local species, 1t also shows an unusually varied assortment of
plant families and associations. Nor is this to be wondered
at, if we consider the changes of climatic, geographical, and
geological conditions to be met with every few miles. We
would certainly expect to find many very different kinds of
vegetation between the warm sub-tropical ravines of the
voleanic Kermadecs, and the wind-swept heights of the sub-
Antarctic Auckland Islands; and we are not disappointed in
our search. Hooker, and other early botanists, declared that
the plant covering was constant over wide areas; but this
generalisation was largely due to an imperfect acquaintance
with the distribution of the species, and with the rarer forms
of the flora. It has not been borne out by the work of more
recent investigators. Many New Zealand plants are very
restricted in their distribution.

The altitudinal changes of climate are as well marked as
those of latitude. There is often not more than twenty or
thirty miles distance between the lne of sea-level and that of
perpetual snow. Thus, within a comparatively small area, all
types of plants may be found, from those of the sea-shore, to
those of alpine heights. Great variations in rainfall are also
to be met with in places not far apart. This, of course, is
largely due to the presence of high mountain chains, such as the
Southern Alps, the Kaikouras, and Ruahines. The smallest
average rainfall yet recorded is that of Clyde, with 15 inches,
and the highest, 228 inches, at Puysegur Poimt. The former
place is in Central, the latter in South-Western Otago; and
the distance between them is only 150 miles. Indeed, there
are few districts of equal extent that can show so many
changes of climate, elevation, and surface in such a small

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3

space as New Zealand. It might be expected, therefore, that
not many plants would cover large areas of the country to the
exclusion of other species; and this is the case. Except for
the beeches, the manuka, the tussock-grass, and the bracken
fern, few species monopolise any large tract of country. The
constant changes of surface, altitude, and climate must of
necessity be reflected in the plant-covering of the land. Even
the most careless observer 1s struck by the great differences
in the floras of the eastern and western sides of the dividing
range—differences corresponding in a large measure, to increase
or decrease of average rainfall. In some places, within a
distance of a mile or two, the beech forest of the drier regions
changes into the mixed bush of the moister western area.

New Zealand, therefore, presents a field of unsurpassed
interest to the botanist. Here he may find plants grouped
together into as many different associations as on a continent.
All classes of habitat, from the littoral to the alpine ; from the
arid plain to the lake, from the rock to the peat-bog, from
moorland to salt meadow, are well represented. Plants are to
be met with in an almost endless variety of situations. We
shall, however, at present consider only the plants of the open
plains, the forest (or, as it is locally termed, the ‘‘ bush ’’), the
scrub, and the mountains.

THE OPEN COUNTRY.
‘“*T see again the upland wilds,
Stern, rugged, bleak, and bare ;
The strong winds sweep o’er the hill sides steep
And the tussocks toss in the icy air
Silver and gold in the changing light,
Gold and silver far up on the heights
Of the mountain wild and bare.’’

DAVID MCKEE WRIGHT.
Throughout New Zealand, from Southland to the North Cape,
there are numerous open plains of greater or lesser extent.
In England such spaces would be meadow lands, carpeted with

4 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

a grassy sward, which would in spring and summer be spangled
with flowers. In New Zealand, they are covered with a
vegetation of a very different type. As far north as Lake
Taupo, it consists chiefly of tussock grass, toi-toi, and cabbage
tree (palm-lily). This plant formation is most highly developed
in Canterbury, where wide open tussock-clad plains cover an
area of two and a half million acres. The Englishman, on his
arrival here, is puzzled by the appearance of detached hillocks
of grass, in place of the continuous turf of the green fields to
which he is accustomed. He cannot understand that this dry

Fig. 1—Tussock Country.

hard wiry straw can replace, to a large extent, the pasture
lands of England. This plant association not only covers
much of the flat country, but is found in many places
throughout the South Island upon the hills, especially on the
eastern slopes of the ranges. The chief species of grasses
found in it are Poa caespitosa and Festuca duriuscula, but
some Danthonias are also to be met with in such situations.
The tussock country 1s dearly loved by every New Zealander.
It is full of associations for him. The stock-rider, the shepherd,
the swagger, and even the sun-downer know every aspect of

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 5

it. They have seen it in early morning, when every
tawny thread had its string of clammy mist drops. They
have seen it again at midday, a parched and thirsty land,
that seemed to be covered with broken yellow wavelets,
flying before the fierce squalls of the nor’-wester. They
have stumbled through the entangled tufts at night, too tired
to lift their feet. They have slept amongst them, tying
together adjacent bunches to form a tunnel in which they
might be sheltered from the cutting night winds of the plain.

In many places, particularly near water courses or shingly
river beds, the toi-toi (Arundo conspicua) largely replaces the
tussock. It is the tallest and most conspicuous grass in the
New Zealand Flora. It bears a considerable resemblance to

Fig. 2—Nigger-heads.

the magnificent Pampas Grass of the Argentine, now cultivated
all over the world. It is not, however, so large or so beautiful
as the American grass ; 1t flowers at a different season, and may
readily be distinguished by the more graceful droop of the
flowerstalk. The plumes of the pampas grass are taller,
straighter, and stiffer than those of the toi-toi. The edges of
streams on the tussock-clad plains are often fringed with flax
and bulrush, whilst, in the water itself, stand numbers of
blackened stumps about two feet high, bearing on their summits
drooping brushes of long, coarse, green, or tawny threads.
These are termed by the colonists, nigger-heads.

This plant, (Carex secta) carries out literally the advice of
St. Augustine, and makes of its dead-self a stepping stone to

6 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

higher things, for the lower portion of the stump consists of the
dead roots of past seasons; and by growing on these the plant
eradually raises itself out of the water of the bog in which it
erows, into higher and drier levels.

The edge of the New Zealand swamp has been well
described by Mr. A. H. Adams, in a poem called The Brave
Days To Be

‘*Out in the open, by the swampy pools,

The army of waving grasses went ;

First in the van the hosts of traupo reared
Long lines of ruddy spears ; close following
The green ranks of the ?harakeke came,
Lifting aloft their sullen flashing blades,

And sturdy bronze-brown standards ; and, behind,
The #tois’ white battalions flaunted far

Their dazzling banners and soft silver plumes,
While gaunt and motionless upon the hill,
The naked *cabbage-trees stood sentinel.”’

THe FERN LAND.

North of Lake Taupo, the tussock country ends. In
Auckland the open land is covered with heath or fern. Fern
country is found throughout New Zealand, but becomes more
plentiful towards the North. Here there are large areas
covered with the bracken, (Pteris aquilina ; var. esculenta).
In many places it grows in great luxuriance, rising to the
height of ten feet, and forming miniature forests that cover
the land to the exclusion of all other vegetation.

The rhizome of this fern, as is well known, was used by the
Maoris for food when none other could be obtained. It
therefore held an unportant place in their dietary, though it
can scarcely be described as a staple article of food. To
prepare it for use it was soaked, washed, placed on a flat rock,
and repeatedly beaten by a heavy stone pestle or club (patu.)

1. The bulrush (Typha augustifolia). | 3. Arundo conspicua.
2, The flax (Phormium tenax). 4. Cordyline australis.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION il

During the beating the fibres were picked out. The material
left behind bore some resemblance to arrowroot, but only the
pangs of hunger would induce the European to consider it
palatable.

Though there are no other varieties which cover so wide an
area, yet the ferns form such a prominent feature in the
Flora, that New Zealand is often termed “The Land of
Ferns,” and a fern frond has been taken as its emblem.

Fig 3—Tree-ferns.

Perhaps there is no country of equal size outside of the
Tropics, which has such a large number of different kinds of
ferns as New Zealand, and possibly none could show greater
magnificence of fern-life. Prominent amongst the species are
the tree-ferns. These help to give the forest that semi-tropical
appearance, which will shortly be described. There are,
in addition, a large number of species of Filmy-Ferns,
(Hymenophyllwm), Polypods, Aspleniums, and Lomarias. The

8 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand Club-Mosses (liycopods) are also exceptionally
well developed, and are the largest of the order known. ‘The
discovery of a number of the germinating spores of various
species in New Zealand is likely, before long, to add consider-
ably to our knowledge of the life-history and affimities of this
interesting order of plants.

Ta Buse,

the Tree-God !

Mine are forests not a few—

Forests, and I love them greatly,
Moss-encrusted, ancient, stately.”
DOMETT.

“Tam Tane

The New Zealand bush can scarcely be said to show any
typical aspect. It reflects the prevailing lack of uniformity of
the plant associations. Consequently, it is impossible to describe
ina single epithet its chief characteristic. Indeed, so varied
is it, that one can often find in a single forest, as many
different kinds of trees as there would be in half of Europe ;
and these, not belonging to a few orders as do the European
trees, but to the most widely divergent famihes. Palm and
pine, rata and mangrove, cabbage tree and fuchsia, beech and
fern—the Malayan and South American plant grow here in
apparent, if not real amity. At first sight, it would seem as if
the ends of the earth had been laid under contribution for
strange forms, which were afterwards assembled on these
islands, but a closer examination shows that this has not been
the case; for, though the bush has quite a patch-work appear-
ance, most of our trees, as will be shown subsequently, have
come to us from Malaysia, or at any rate from Melanesia.

There is, however, one undeniable characteristic of the
forests. They are gloomy, though it may be doubted whether
they are more sombre than those of many other regions. The
dark hue and leathery texture of the fohage, is no doubt due to

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 9

the fact that the native trees are evergreen. Leaves that
have to last through several seasons are rarely so soft in
texture, or light in tint, as those that have only to withstand the
storms of a few months. There are but few deciduous plants
of any kind in New Zealand. Gaya Lyallii, Plagianthus
betulinus, Olearia Colensoi, two species of Miihlenbeckia, a
North Island variety of Sophora, the Fuchsias, Discaria
toumatou, are perhaps the only deciduous, or partially deciduous,
plants to be found here. Hence the tender greens and browns,
which in spring delight the eye in the English woods, and
the more brilliant tints of autumn, are almost wanting in New
Zealand. Some few of the evergreens, however, (e.g., Hntelea,
Aristotelia racemosa) in addition to the native deciduous
species, have leaves of lighter green and softer texture than
the ordinary bush tree. Indeed, if a forest is closely looked at
from above, it will be found to show many different shades,
though the prevailing type of foliage is undoubtedly the dry,
hard, glossy, dark-green, simple, more or less oblong leaf.

Nor is the characteristic gloom of the forest relieved by its
blossoms, for the flowers of most of the New Zealand trees are
quite inconspicuous. They are generally small, and oftentimes
green, and completely hidden by the foliage. There are, of
course, exceptions. Among these may be mentioned those of
the whau, the hinau, pokaka, Gaya, Hoheria and the various
species of Metrosideros (rata and pohutukawa). As none of
these except the ratas ever form large forests, to the more or
less complete exclusion of other trees, 1t 1s rare to find the
bush showing any great profusion of bloom. Occasionally,
however, the rata covers with its crimson flowers the flanks of
some great mountain range, and the sight is then well worth
going far to see.

Such brilhancy of colouring, however, is rare. Yet, particu-
larly in the North Island, the beauty of the bush is much
enhanced by the Nikau Palm, the fern-tree and the cabbage-
tree, which are frequently found growing together in great

10 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

profusion. It would then almost seem as if the vegetation of
a tropical island from the warm Southern Seas had been
dropped in amongst our more sombre flora, for these three plants
all bring with them suggestions of a warmer land than this.
Indeed, some have said, basing their statements on this and
similar facts, that the climate of New Zealand has been, in
recent geological times, much warmer than at present. They
endeavour to strengthen their argument by adducing in
support of it, the evidence afforded by the profusion of
climbers and twiners, which often render the bush an almost
impenetrable jungle. However, conclusions as to past climate
based only on present characteristics of mature plants are of
little value. The true explanation of the resemblance between
our forests and those of sub-tropical regions is to be found in
the fact that nearly all our bush trees are of Melanesian
origin. The beeches are the most important exceptions to
this rule.

THE NATURAL PERMANENCE OF THE BUSH.

Another erroneous opinion is that the bush 1s 1mpermanent ;
that it actually flies before the advancing footsteps of civili-
zation. It is said that whenever tracks are cut through it,
decay sets in on both sides, the undergrowth dies, the ferns
and mosses disappear, and even the trees themselves become
gaunt and misshapen, and their leaves few and tattered. This
statement can only be regarded as incorrect. Even in the
drier districts where the trees are struggling against very
adverse conditions, a forest that has been ‘“‘ cut out’ will, in
time, replace itself, if not subjected to the interference of man
and other animals. Surveyors’ tracks through damp bush are
soon overgrown when left undisturbed; and, as Dr. Cockayne
has shown, a burnt area is soon re-forested, in the wetter
districts at least, though not necessarily retaining the same
predominant species.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION dial

Yet, it must be admitted that the limits of conditions within
which the varied life of the forest can maintain itself, are
comparatively narrow. Many of the native trees are
extremely susceptible to frost. Some of the bush-plants of
Otago cannot endure the winters of the more Northern
Canterbury Plains, but this is not because the forest 1s
decadent. The climate of these plains is an extreme one.
Plants that can flourish there must be able to withstand
excess of drought, heat, cold, and insolation. Mr. T. W.
Adams, of Greendale, has shown that there are but few foreign
trees and shrubs which can adapt themselves to these con-
ditions. It is, therefore, scarcely a matter for surprise that
this district and the somewhat similar one of Central Otago,
should be treeless. Undoubtedly, they were both once partially
bush-clad; but the destruction of their forests was probably
not in any way due to an increasing severity of climate. It is
susceptible of quite another explanation. In these districts
the rainfall does not reach thirty inches a year. Now, the
experience of many countries, but particularly of the United
States, proves that forests cannot exist permanently in regions
with a rainfall of less than thirty inches per annum. HU,
owing to a cycle of wet weather, accompanied perhaps by
other contributing causes, they manage to get a foothold in
arid districts, they are always lable to be swept off by fire ;
and, being once so destroyed, it is difficult for them, without
artificial assistance, to become reinstated.

The soil, unprotected by the shade of the foliage,
dries up, and germination 1s soon made impossible. On hull
slopes the spongy mosses no longer retain the moisture.
After rain, the rivers and streams become more quickly
flooded. Hundreds of acres of soil are thus frequently swept
away, and a bare rocky surface replaces the once dense forest.
This process is going on throughout New Zealand wherever
the bush is being artificially cleared, but the devastation is
greatest on the steep hill tops. In America it has been found

12 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

necessary to take special steps at great expense, to re-forest
the upper mountain slopes. In New Zealand, the Forestry
Department, with admirable foresight, has already secured a
number of climatic reserves on mountain summits. These
will have to be fenced off to secure the exclusion of sheep and
cattle, for such animals work irretrievable havoc in the forest
undergrowth, and to them must be attributed much of the
apparent decadence of the natural forests. Wherever they
have secured admission to the dense bush, seedlings and young
trees are soon trodden under foot, broken down, and killed:
hight is let im, and the bush gradually decays and disappears.

THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST.

As we have already seen, much of the tussock country of
the South was at one time forest-clad. The evidence of
charred logs on or below the surface of the ground, proves that
some of it, at any rate, was cleared by fire in recent times.
This may have been started spontaneously, or may have been
the work of pre-historic dwellers in the land. The Maoris in
the South Island have a tradition that when the Te Rapuwai
tribe spread over the country, Invercargill was submerged by
water, the forests of Canterbury and Otago were destroyed by
fire, and the Moa was exterminated. Canon Stack put this in
his list of uncertain traditions; but there is at least nothing
inherently mmprobable in the destruction of these forests about
this time. In Auckland, the presence of the kauri gum in vast
areas now treeless, or occupied only by the manuka and
other heath plants, is proof that at one time the kauri forests
were of much greater extent than at present. The cause of
their disappearance is unknown.

Whatever may have been the causes in the past, affecting
the reduction or increase of forest areas, they fall into insig-
nificance compared with the changes artificially wrought since

GENERAL INTRODUCTION ibe

the arrival of Europeans. It is impossible to give any but
the roughest estimate of the area covered by forest, when the
first white men reached New Zealand, but it was undoubtedly
very great. In 1893 the area still bush-clad was estimated at
twenty millions of acres. This acreage is being reduced
annually by an amount of not less than 100,000 to 200,000
acres. Clearly, our forests will last only a comparatively short
time if this rate is maintained. Of course, only a very small
proportion of timber is removed and utilised. Most of it is
burnt on the spot. Much of this destruction has been inevi-
table, but some of it, unfortunately, has been wanton. The
remark of Sir Julius Vogel, ‘that a swagger would burn down
a forest to ight his pipe,” is perhaps somewhat of an exaggera-
tion, though it must be confessed that some of the finest
kauri forests have been destroyed by such acts of carelessness.
Happily, most of the bush is too damp to be in danger of
accidental burning. The bigger trees must first of all be
felled, and the forest afterwards set fire to in the drier season
of the year. However necessary this clearing may be, it can-
not fail to leave with the lover of nature a feeling of sadness.
The Hon. W. P. Reeves (High Commissioner of New Zealand
in London) has well expressed this sentiment in a noble poem.
He has kindly given his consent to its publication here. The
final stanza is, we believe, now for the first time printed.

“THER PASSING OF THE FOREST.”

All cannot fade that glorifies the hills,

Their strength remains, their aspect of command,
Their flush of colour when calm evening stills

Day’s clamour, and the sea-breeze cools the land.
With shout of thunder and with voice of rills,

Ancient of days in green old age they stand
In grandeur that can never know decay,

Though from their flanks men strip the woods away.

14

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

But thin their vesture now—the restless grass,
Bending and dancing as the breeze goes by,
Catching quick gleams and cloudy shades that pass,
As shallow seas reflect a wind-stirred sky.
Ah! nobler far their forest raiment was
From crown to feet that clothed them royally,
Shielding their mysteries from the glare of day,
Ere the dark woods were reft and torn away.

Well may these plundered and insulted kings,

Stripped of their robes, despoiled, uncloaked, discrowned,
Draw down the clouds with white enfolding wings,

And soft aérial fleece to wrap them round,
To hide the scars that every season brings,

The fire’s black smirch, the landslip’s gaping wound ;
Well may they shroud their heads in mantle grey,

Since from their brows the leaves were plucked away !

Gone is the forest world, its wealth of life,
Its jostling, crowding, thrusting, struggling race,
Creeper with creeper, bush with bush at strife,
Warring and wrestling for a breathing space ;
Below, a realm with tangled rankness rife,
Aloft, tree columns, shafts of stateliest grace.
Gone is the forest nation. None might stay ;
Giant and dwarf alike have passed away.

Gone are the forest birds, arboreal things,
Eaters of honey, honey-sweet of song,
The tui, and the bell-bird,—he who sings
That brief, rich music we would fain prolong.
Gone the wood-pigeon’s sudden whirr of wings ;
The daring robin, all unused to wrong.
Wild, harmless, hamadryad creatures, they
Lived with their trees, and died, and passed away.

And with the birds the flowers, too, are gone

That bloomed aloft-ethereal, stars of hght ;
The clematis, the kowhai like ripe corn,

Russet, though all the hills in green were dight :
The rata, draining from its tree forlorn

Rich life-blood for its crimson blossoms bright,
Red glory of the gorges—well-a-day !

Fled is that splendour, dead and passed away.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 15

Gone are the forest tracks, where oft we rode
Under the silver fern-fronds climbing slow,

In cool, green tunnels, though fierce noontide glowed
And glittered on the tree-tops far below.

There, mid the stillness of the mountain road,
We just could hear the valley river flow,

Whose voice through many a windless summer day
Haunted the silent woods, now passed away.

Drinking fresh odours, spicy wafts that blew,
We watched the glassy, quivering air asleep,
Midway between tall cliffs that taller grew
Aboye the unseen torrent calling deep :
Till, like a sword, cleaving the foliage through,
The waterfall flashed foaming down the steep ;
White, living water, cooling with its spray
Dense plumes of fragile fern, now scorched away.

Keen is the axe, the forest fire streams bright,
Clear, beautiful, and fierce, it speeds for man
The Master, set to changeand stern to smite,
Bronzed pioneer of nations !—Ay, but scan
The ruined wonder wasted in a night,
The ravaged beauty God alone could plan,
And builds not twice! A bitter price to pay
Is this for progress,—beauty swept away !

TYPES OF FOREST.

Though the bush is generally of mixed type, yet, in certain
districts, particular species predominate to the more or less
complete exclusion of others. The Oxford and Alford Forests
consist almost entirely of Nothofagus Solandri. Nothofagus
Cliffortioides often forms the sole species in mountain districts.
In the North of Auckland the kauri is found in groves, and
sometimes even in forests. There are large areas in the east-
central portion of the North Island, in which the totara is the
prevailing tree. Throughout the lowland forests of the South
Island the rimu is plentiful, but the sub-alpine forests of the

16 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

western ranges consist almost entirely of the various species of
Nothofagus. In many districts of the North, particularly in
the south of Auckland Province, the tawa is found in immense
quantities. In swamps in both Islands large masses of
kahikatea (white pine) occur. In other places scattered through
the islands the rata is the prevailing tree. The coastal forests
usually produce a very great variety of trees. The beech,
‘ata, and kauri forests will be described more fully when the
trees themselves are dealt with.

LIANES.

“ Exulting Nature so delights,
So riots in profusion, she
Twice over does her work for glee !
A tangled intricacy first she weaves,
Under and upper growth of bush and tree
In rampant wrestle for ascendancy,
Then round it all a richer overflow
Of reckless vegetation flings,
That here close-moulding on the shrubs below
A matted coat of delicate leaves,
Mantles the muffled hfe whereon it clings,
Into a solid mass of greenery.
There mounting to the tree-tops, down again
Comes wildly wantoning in a perfect rain
Of trailers—self-encircling living strings
Unravellable ; see how all about
The hundred-stranded creeper cordage swings ! ’
DOMETT.

Plants which depend upon others for existence, and theretore
cannot group themselves into associations, are said to form
Guilds.* No description of the bush would be complete
without some reference to the guilds it contains. The chief
of these are the climbers or hanes, epiphytes, saprophytes and
parasites. Of these, only the first two need be considered here.

The climbing and creeping plants have had a special fascination
oD ‘o) de

“Ger., Genossenschaften.

GENERAL INTRODU

Fig. 4—Lianes.

17

18 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

for many writers. The term hane, lke the blessed word
Mesopotamia, seems almost to have been sufficient to bring
tears to the eyes of Kerner. In a rapturous passage he alludes
to it as the “ beautiful word hane”’ the “sweet word liane.”

It is difficult to see why the bush climbers should have
aroused so much enthusiasm. Possibly, it is because they are
comparatively rare in HKurope, and have, therefore, been
looked upon as symbolizing the luxuriance and strangeness of
the tropical forest. In England there are no climbers that
reach the tops of the trees except the ivy and honeysuckle.
Lianes reach their highest development in the Tropics, but
particularly in the West Indies and Brazil. In New Zealand,
both they and the epiphytes are better represented than
in any other extra-tropical country except Chili, whose forests
show frequent resemblances to those of New Zealand.

The advantage of a chmbing stem to the bush plant is
obvious. Little direct sunlight can penetrate into the cavernous
depths of the forest. The interior of the New Zealand
bush is immersed in a cathedral-ike gloom. Few plants,
therefore, can grow upon its floor. Only when some giant of
the forest falls, is there room for another to develop. Such
seeds as germinate must quickly struggle up to the light
overhead or die. There is no time for them to grow into
trees. Many, therefore, have developed a climbing habit,
in order to be able to ascend rapidly to the surface of the
ocean of green boughs, that toss above in the wind under
the ‘sweet flooding sunshine.’ They are careless of the
means by which they climb. Their one cry seems to be,
“more hght, more hght!’’*

Amongst our chmbers many different methods are adopted
for reaching the light. The kie-kie sprawls awkwardly over

* It is easy to be guilty of the “ pathetic fallacy,’ and to read into their upward
struggles our human emotions, as Kingsley has done in a well-known passage in At Last;
but such an interpretation will not help us towards a real understanding of plant nature.
At the same time, in mere description, it is often difficult to avoid the use of words or
phrases which may seem to imply in the plant a human motive. Where such may
happen to occur in this book, they must be understood purely in the descriptive and not
in the teleological sense.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 19

the ground until it falls across a tree. Then it fixes its roots
into the crevices of the bark, and pulls itself up. It often
ends in smothering its living ladder with immense masses
of sword-hke foliage, whose weight must be tremendous.
Similarly, several of the rata vines ascend by ivy-like rootlets.
The large rata-tree, however, strangles its support, putting out
transverse finger-like roots that cannot fail to impress the
ordinary observer with the apparent purposefulness of their
grasp. The lawyer, on the other hand, cat-lke, fixes its
recurved claws into the bark of a tree, and thus drags itself
up. The Clematis and Passiflora climb by tendrils. The
Supplejack, Miihlenbeckias, Convolvult, Parsonsias, Ipomea,
and Senecio sciadophilus twine. None of these are strong
enough to support themselves, though some of them—
particularly the lawyers and Miihlenbeckias—may occasionally
be found in the open, where they form mounded heaps, often
many feet in diameter, and several feet in height.

Wanderers through the bush are often puzzled by observing
cable-like stems that fall pendent from the roof of the forest to
its floor, without support. It seems impossible that these
climbers, with their flexible stems, could have got into such
a position without some external help. Often it will be found
that these rope-hke hanes belong to a species of Rubus, (the
bush-lawyer). They have originally been endowed with hooks
by which they have climbed up a tree. Their weight and
upward growth have finally disengaged them from the trunk
by which they have ascended, and in the course of years
they may be removed by various processes to a considerable
distance from it. If the hane is not a Rubus, then its position
can only be explained by supposing that the tree up which
it climbed has died, probably in an unavailing effort to push up
to the hght. Many young trees throughout the forest must
perish in this way.

The structure of the stem in hanes is of considerable
interest, but for a description of this some text book of botany
must be consulted.

20 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

EPIPHYTES.

““ What a load
That sturdy giant lifts in air!
His mighty arms are strong and broad,
But all with alien growths are furred,
A shaggy hide of creepers rare ;
Their forks are all blocked up and blurred
With tufts of clogging parasites
That crowd till not a spot left bare
Might offer footing for a bird! ’

DOMETT.

The epiphytes constitute another important plant guild.
These are plants which grow upon others, yet receive no
nourishment from them. They must be carefully distinguished
from parasites, with which they are often confused. The
parasite obtains its nourishment more or less completely from
the plant on which it grows. Some of the epiphytes, perhaps,
owe their existence to the same cause as the hanes. They
are plants which have assumed a habitat in the forks, or on the
branches of trees, in order to obtain more light; but this
explanation will scarcely account for the New Zealand species,
as these, without exception, are occasionally found growing on
rocks.

It is obvious that a plant which grows upon the bark of
a tree must often suffer from scarcity of water. Hence most
of our epiphytes have contrivances to protect them from
excessive transpiration, A plant, therefore, which can live
epiphytically, is also adapted for living on such a dry situation
as a rocky cliff. There, however, it may suffer from an excess
of sunshine. The physiological adaptations demanded by the
one situation are not necessarily quite the same as those
required for the other. Hence, though most epiphytes are
more or less commonly found growing on rocks, the converse:
is by no means true.

Epiphytes, lke hanes, are generally supposed to be the
mark of a tropical chmate. In Great Britain epiphytical

GENERAL INTRODUCTION PA

shrubs and trees are unknown, and the chief plants found
on trunks and lmbs of trees are accidental epiphytes, such
as mosses and ferns. The light spores of these are blown
about by the wind, and thus are able to reach lofty situations
on the face of a cliff, or in the forks of a tree. The seeds
of some dicotyledonous epiphytes, such as those of the rata,
may be carried about in the same way, but others are deposited
in position by birds. In New Zealand the number of epiphytes
is very large, considering the latitude of the country. We
must again, as in the case of the lanes, go to Chili to find
forests in a similar latitude with an equal abundance of
epiphytic growths. Diels suggests that this characteristic
is due to large rainfall in the forest regions of both countries.
The following list includes the most important of the epiphytic
species amongst the flowering plants :—Astelia Cunninghamit,
A. Solandri, A. spicata, Earina mucronata, E. autumnalis,
Dendrobium Cunninghamu, Bolbophyllum —pygmaeum,
Sarcochilus adversus, Peperomia Urvilleana, Pittosporum
cornifolium, Metrosideros robusta, M. Colensot, Griselinia lucida.
Diels includes in his list Hlatostema rugosum and Gaultheria
epiphyta, but is surely in error in doing so. EH. rugosum is
found only on the sides of creeks and rivers, and in very moist
places. It is plentiful, for example, on the rocky walls of
the Wanganui River in some parts of its course. G. epiphyta
is misnamed, and the error has apparently misled Diels.

THE SCRUB.

Perhaps some mention should be made here of the Scrub, as
it is strange to the visitor from the Northern Hemisphere.
The light underwood of the English copse or thicket is very
different from the impenetrable shaggy scrub of New Zealand.
In the wind-swept regions of the south, it is sometimes so

22 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

dense that progress through it is impossible. It must be
either avoided altogether or walked over. Anyone who essays
the latter method of advance, does so with the risk of falling
through the uneven floor of rigid branchlets which supports
him. Should this accident happen, he may be much bruised
or scratched, though he is not hkely to be seriously hurt. The
scrub consists chiefly of Coprosmas, but also contains species
of Cassinia, Olearia, Myrtus, etc. The leaves of the typical
scrub plant are small and sparse, the branches rigid, twiggy,
and often pointed. The manuka is often termed a scrub
plant, but its characteristics are rather those of the Heath,
which will be described later.

THE ALPINE VEGETATION.

In the South Island, the mixed lowland forest is generally
replaced at altitudes of from 1,000 feet to 2,000 feet, by the
beech forest. Beyond 3,000 or 4,000 feet this passes into the
the region of sub-alpine shrubs, which are mostly Veronicas and
Compositae. These, again, gradually give way to the alpine
herbs of the mountain meadows, moors, and shingle-slips.
With the line of perpetual snow all vegetation ends. In the
North Island there are only three peaks which rise over
7,000 feet, the volcanic mountains, Ruapehu, Egmont, and
Ngauruhoe. The first of the three is the highest, being
just over 9,000 feet. In the South Island, the Southern Alps,
which culminate in Mount Cook, 12,349 feet high, have
hundreds of peaks which are over 7,000feet. Hence the
alpine vegetation flourishes best on that range. The perpetual
snow-line ranges from about 7,000 feet in Otago, to 8,000 feet
in Nelson. The Kaikoura range on the East Coast also has
several peaks which are never free from snow. ‘There, too,
alpine herbage has been found, but this range has hitherto

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 23

been explored very imperfectly by botanists. The vegetation
of the Southern Alps, thanks to Buchanan, von Haast and Dr.
Cockayne, is now comparatively well known, though there are
doubtless a considerable number of mountain species yet to be
discovered. It is to this range, then, that botanists must turn
to find the best known New Zealand alpine plants. Nor need
they be mountaineers, for many of the species that belong
climatically to higher levels, come down to the lower passes,
and sometimes descend the river beds almost to the plains.
On the top of Arthur’s Pass, on the Canterbury-Westland
coach road, numerous alpine and sub-alpine species are to be
found. Here, in January, the wild flowers blossom in the
greatest profusion, forming a garden whose uncovenanted
beauty might easily put to shame the stately flower ranks and
geometrical foliage beds of many a prized parterre. ‘True,
white is the prevailing colour, broken occasionally by gleams
of yellow, but though there 1s no gorgeousness, there is at
least no disharmony of tone. Ranunculus Lyallii with its
large white cups, and Celmisias of various species, with their
large daisy-lke flowers, are conspicuous in such an alpine
meadow, by the size, beauty, and profusion of their blooms.
Even when these plants are not flowering, there is still to be
seen that wonderful variety of leafage so dear to every
mountain climber’s heart. Ruskin has well described it,
though writing of European forms. ‘The leaves of the
herbage at our feet take all kinds of strange shapes, as if
to invite us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-shaped,
spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed,
serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, in spires, in wreaths
endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same
from footstalk to blossom; they seem perpetually to tempt
our watchfulness, and take delight in outstripping our
wonder.”

The alpine plants and foliage must always have a fascination
for those who delight in beauty and variety of leaf-form.

24 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Their flowers, too, are certainly the most attractive amongst
those of the herbaceous plants of New Zealand. ‘Town
dwellers, in their untravelled and untrammelled ignorance,
frequently say that New Zealand has no wild flowers.
Certainly we have none in the neighbourhood of the cities,
or on the plains, that can compare with those of the fields
and hedgerows of Kngland. One reason for this is obvious.
Where not too dry, the land has, previous to the advent of the
white man, been covered with forest. There have been no
damp meadows or shady lanes to provide a home for annual or
bulbous plants. But though we have no pale beauty of
primrose or deep glow of violet, there is many a handsome
plant and many a _ sweet-scented flower amidst the great
lonelinesses of the Alps, for the pleasure of those who care to
leave the cities, and live for a time in the fresh air and glorious
scenes of the mountain heights.

THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLORA.

The discussion of the relationships of the fauna and flora
of Southern regions has given rise to some of the most
fascinating speculations of modern science. It has provided us
with quite unexpected glimpses into the past history of the
earth’s surface, and of the climatic conditions then prevailing.
We have learnt from it stories of sunken continents,
and of warm seas full of life, where now there are
only barren ice-sheets. However pleasant it might be to follow
the by-paths of Science in the investigation of such questions,
the limitations of our space prevent us from giving them any
adequate treatment here. A consideration of the chief factors
involved in the present distribution of animal and vegetable hfe
in the South Temperate Zone, would require references to strati-
graphical geology, ocean soundings, and to general geological
and astronomical theories quite outside the scope of this work.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 25

At present we are concerned solely with the origin of our
flora. It is clear, however, that such a question can only
be very imperfectly treated, if confined to a discussion of the
present distribution of plant hfe im southern lands. Any
conclusions derived from the study of botanical relations alone,
must be subjected to such modifications as may be demanded
by evidence obtained from the study of the other sciences.
For example, the plants of two widely separated districts often
show closer relationships than the animals do. This apparent
anomaly will be explained, if we remember that stretches of
sea which may prove insuperable barriers to the passage of
land animals, may be crossed by plants. We must, therefore,
in our treatment of the subject give conclusions that have been
based on a wider discussion than is possible here.

Whilst doing this, we shall consider shortly the evidence
of fossil botany, and of the present distribution of plant hfe
throughout the Southern Hemisphere. he first problem that
naturally arises in the discussion, is the connection existing
between the New Zealand flora and the Australian. This
is larger than can be accounted for by mere proximity.
Another question of unusual interest, 1s the origin of the
remarkable South American and Antarctic elements in our
flora. Probably the most complete and ingenious theory, yet
put forward to account for this connection, 1s that of the late
“Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. Some of his views have been
combated by Dr. A. R. Wallace and others ; but undoubtedly
the New Zealand biologist had a much wider knowledge of the
present and past conditions of distribution prevailing in the
Southern Hemisphere, than any of his critics. We _ shall,
therefore, adopt his views here. In one point all are agreed,
and that is as to the past great extension of the Antarctic
Continent into sub-temperate seas. ‘The demonstration of this
has been recently termed “one of the greatest triumphs of

"In the recent death of this distinguished scientist, New Zealand has suffered a loss
that can scarcely be too much deplored.

26 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

modern science.” We are proud to say that this magnificent
generalisation 1s in considerable measure due to the work of
New Zealand botanists. Before, however, considering the
botanical evidence, we must treat shortly of the general
characteristics of our fauna and flora.

OCEANIC AND CONTINENTAL ISLANDS.

For the purposes of the biologist, islands may be divided
into two classes, continental and oceanic. A continental island
is one which has at some period of its existence been united to
an adjacent land-mass. Its fauna and flora contain few
endemic species, and differ little, if at all, from that of the
neighbouring continental area. Great Britain is an excellent
example of a continental island. The British fauna and flora
are simply parts of the European fauna and flora. In quite
recent times the Straits of Dover have been dry land. An
oceanic island, on the other hand, is one that has never been
united to any continental area. Its fauna and flora are often
very fragmentary, and frequently contain a high percentage of
endemic species. Its plants and animals are generally provided
with good powers of distribution ; and have reached the island
from across the sea. The Azores may be taken as an example
of a group of Oceanic islands.

To which of these two classes shall we assign the islands of
New Zealand? It has characteristics both of continental and
oceanic islands, and it is, therefore, sometimes termed
anomalous. However, there is much evidence to show
that it was at one time attached to a land area probably much
larger than that of Europe; and that it is consequently entitled
to rank, geographically speaking, as a continental island.
Yet its fauna, unlike that of most large land areas, is very
fragmentary. The flora, though more complete than the fauna,
has also many gaps in it, and both fauna and flora contain

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 27
a larger proportion of endemic species than a typical con-
tinental island usually does. Nevertheless, there are many
reasons for the belief that the ancestral stock from which New
Zealand plant and animal life originated, was a continental one.
Before attempting to answer more precisely the question:
“Whence has our plant life come?’’ we must try to decide as
far as possible how long the present flora has been in
existence, and whether we must look for its ancestry here, or
in some foreign land.

THE AGE OF THE FLORA.

There is a common but erroneous opinion, that the New
Zealand flora shows marks of exceptional antiquity. There
are perhaps several groups of facts which have led to this
mistake. (1) Many of the New Zealand geological formations
are of great age. New Zealand is an old land. (2) The
almost complete absence of mdigenous mammalia, and the
presence of certain ancient forms of animal life, e.g. Peripatus
Sphenodon, (the tuatara, etc.), prove the unusual age of
the fauna. (3) The remarkable development of fern trees
and of club-mosses, and the comparative absence of large and
showy flowers seem almost to imply antiquity for the flora.

But none of these facts are sufficient to justify the belief.
The high age of part of the rocks and of the fauna is not a
necessary proof of the antiquity of the flora. Plants can
transport themselves over barriers insurmountable to animals.
Few wingless land animals can cross five hundred miles of
sea, yet we have evidence that this has been done by the seeds
of many plants. Hence, a comparatively young flora may
sometimes be found lving in company with a much more
ancient fauna. We must, therefore, rely entirely on the evi-
dence of the plants themselves for determining their antiquity
or otherwise. Hooker, it is true, states that the New Zea-
land lycopods “are the largest of the order, and present nearer

28 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

affinities to the fossil Lycopodiaceae of the coal period, than
any other existing plants*”’ ; but this opinion cannot justify the
extraordinary statement seen at times in the books of popular
writers, that the New Zealand flora is more like that of the
Carboniferous than is any other existing flora. Asa matter of
fact, our species of ferns and lycopods do not show affinities that
tend to prove them older than the ferns and lycopods of other
lands. Further, the evidence of the flowering plants does not
suggest that those of New Zealand are of any high degree of
antiquity. Many ancient forms, that once existed in New Zea-
land, and still exist in other lands, have been replaced here by
plants of a more modern type. One of the oldest orders of the
phanerogams is the Cycadeae. We have now no cycads
in New Zealand, though fossils show that they formerly
existed here. Changes of climate may have driven them out.
At one time they formed a considerable portion of the
vegetation of the globe, and they are still found in
large numbers in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of both
hemispheres. Turning to the Monocotyledons, we obtain
somewhat similar evidence. These plants are generally
supposed to be older than the Dicotyledons, though the testi-
mony of the rocks on this poimt is by no means indisputable.
They are, however, assuredly extremely old, and if our flora
were exceptionally ancient, we might expect them to be well
developed in New Zealand. The contrary, however, is the
case. Throughout the southern hemisphere the monocoty-
ledons are more poorly represented than in the northern.
Again, the facts of fossil botany seem to show that the palms are
one of the oldest orders of monocotyledons. In New Zealand
we have only one species of palm-tree. This paucity of
forms may perhaps be due to climatic or similar conditions.
In the tropics they are plentiful. On the other hand, it is
to be admitted that we have an ancient monocotyledon in
the cabbage-tree (Cordyline).

*““ Handbook of the New Zealand Flora.” (p. 387).

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 29

Amongst the dicotyledons, one of the oldest groups contains
the willow, poplar, oak, hazel-nut, birch, beech, chestnut, and
hornbeam. This group is highly characteristic of the Northern
Hemisphere, but though once well developed in New Zealand,
is now no longer represented here, except by the genus
Nothofagus, 1 which are included the “ birches”’ of the sub-
alpine forests. The most highly developed family of plants, on
the other hand, is the Compositae ; and this, though almost
wanting in the bush, is well represented in the open country
and in the alpine and sub-alpine scrub by more than 230
species. There is, indeed, little if anything in the distribution
of the dicotyledons, to suggest that the New Zealand Flora is
older than the European.

Again, it may be suggested that the large number of
green, inconspicuous flowers and the separation of the
sexes in an unusual proportion of the species are marks
of a primitive floral organization; yet it is doubtful whether
they can be so interpreted. The former characteristic is
obviously to a large extent dependent on local conditions ;
for the foreign representatives of New Zealand genera with small
flowers have often large and showy blossoms. The New Zealand
species of Viola, Passiflora, Myosotis, and of the various genera
Orchidaceae have less conspicuous blooms than the corres-
ponding species in other lands. This lack of brilliancy of the
local forms, obviously cannot be due in all cases, to their greater
antiquity, but is much more likely to be the result of the
adjustment, or lack of adjustment, of the flowers to the insect
hfe of the country. The unisexual condition of many of the
flowers may be susceptible of a similar explanation. It is at
any rate not a primitive but a secondary condition, for it can
easily be shown that most of our dicecious plants were in quite
recent times hermaphrodite. In a word, the long isolation of
New Zealand has certainly resulted in the development therein
of many unique forms, and also perhaps in the preservation of
some antique types, yet it cannot be said there is a sufficient

30 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

mass of facts to justify the statement that the flora as a whole
is of an exceptionally ancient type.

One line of evidence that night help us largely is, unfor-
tunately, not available at present to any large extent. Of the
fossil botany of these islands we know very little. The chief
paper on the subject is by the famous paleeo-botanist, Baron
von Ettingshausen. A translation of this appears in volume
xxii. of the Transactions. If the data contained in it are
reliable, it would seem (1) that the living flora has largely
been derived from the tertiary flora; (2) that the tertiary
flora was part of the original universal flora from which are
descended all plants of the present day; and (3) that only one
part of the tertiary flora has been changed into the living
flora, the rest having become extinct. It would appear also
that at one time there existed in New Zealand, trees similar to
the great redwoods of California, the Norfolk Island pine, the
she-oaks and gum-trees of Australia, the alders, oaks,
elms, and maples of the Northern Hemisphere, and the fig.
With the exception of the gum-trees, and perhaps the fig,
these are all old types, now extinct here, though existing
elsewhere. These identifications have in most cases been
made from fossil leaves only, and in the absence of flowers
and fruit; some of them, therefore, can only be regarded

as tentative.

THE AFFINITIES OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLORA.

The relationships of the New Zealand flora to those of other
lands, have given rise to greater discussion than its affinities to
those of the past. We have obviously much more material for
the investigation of the present distribution of plant hfe,
than for that of times long gone by. Still, many of the
problems concerned are very difficult of solution. Amongst
those who have dealt with these questions may be mentioned
the late Captain Hutton, Dr. A. R. Wallace, Professor Engler,

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 31

Mr. G. M. Thomson, and Mr. W. Bottmg Hemsley. It
is impossible to deal fully with the results of their work, but
an attempt will be made to give an intelligible, though
necessarily brief account of it.

Of the 1,400 flowering plants which New Zealand contains,
some two-thirds are found nowhere else. A considerable pro-
portion of the remainder is confined to New Zealand and
Australia, or to New Zealand, Australia, and other southern
districts. A section of the New Zealand flora shows a most
striking South American affinity. There are a few cosmopolitan
plants, and there is also an element usually termed Scandinavian,
which shows a relationship to a certain portion of the flora of
the Northern Hemisphere. As, however, the endemic species
constitute by far the greater portion of the flora, the foreign
affinities are best shown in the genera. Of these, 80 per cent.
are found in New Zealand, 10 per cent are endemic, and the
remaining 10 per cent are variously distributed. It is clear,
therefore, that the basis of the New Zealand flora has either
been derived from Austraha, or that the element common to
both has come from the same source. As a matter of fact, the
latter hypothesis is best supported by the evidence.
Several lines of argument, as has already been stated, show
that at one time New Zealand was more extensive than it is
now. It then stretched to the northward, through Lord Howe
and Norfolk Island, to New Caledonia, and perhaps even
as far as the Solomons. Another continental arm connected
Queensland with New Caledonia. Through these northern
extensions there passed, though not necessarily at the
same time, southward to New Zealand, and westward
to Queensland, the ancestral forms of much of the
vegetation common to the two countries. In this migra-
tion we have an explanation of the sub - tropical facies
of the New Zealand forests, and also of the fact that nearly
ninety per cent of our forest flora has Melanesian affinities.
It is probable that this northern extension existed in Miocene

a PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

times, but by the Hocene, much of it had disappeared. Thus
far, the problem of the Australian relationships of our flora is
comparatively simple, but on further examination we are soon
confronted with the fact, that, although New Zealand plants
show so many Australian affinities, yet most of the prevailing
and characteristic Australian forms are entirely absent from
our shores. An attempt to explain this anomaly will require
a somewhat fuller comparison of the two floras.

THE FLORAS OF NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA.

Isolation, varied environments, and doubtless other facts,
have been at work for a long time to give New Zealand a
unique flora. A visiting botanist would find here only
unknown plants around him. He would be puzzled, not only
by the strange local species, but also by the large number of
dissimilar plant associations to be met with in a small area.
Perhaps there is no more difficult flora in temperate regions
for the botanical tyro to classify. It seems to be a mixture of
many imcongruous elements. The visitor from Australia
would be little better able to cope with its difficulties, than the
traveller from England. In spite of the fact that so many of
the New Zealand genera are also to be found on the
neighbouring continent, no adjacent floras elsewhere are so
unlike as those on either side of the Tasman Sea. Yet the
distance between the two lands is little more than a thousand
miles. This hkeness with unlikeness constrained Sir Joseph
Hooker to say: “ Under whatever aspect I regard the flora of
Australia and New Zealand, I find all attempts to theorize
on the possible community of feature, frustrated by anomalies
of distribution, such as I beheve no two other similarly
situated countries on the globe present.”

The New Zealand forest is varied and mixed. The
Australian often varies little over immense areas of country.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION Die

The New Zealand bush is generally an inpenetrable jungle,
while throughout a great part of Australia
“The land hes desolate and stripped ;
Across its waste has thinly strayed
A tattered host of eucalypt,
From whose gaunt uniform is made,
A ragged penury of shade.”’

A mixed bush, somewhat similar to that of New Zealand, is
however, found in the wetter regions of South-Kastern
Austraha. But the enigma which baffled the speculations of
the earler botanists, hes in the fact that the most important of
the Australian genera are completely absent from New Zealand.
Hence results the lack of superficial resemblance between the
floras of the two countries. The gum trees, wattles, she-oaks,
bottle-brushes, hakeas, &c., which are so abundant in Eastern
Austraha, are without a single representative here. It might
well have been expected that some of these would have found
means of crossing the Tasman Sea.

It is little to be wondered at, then, that Sir Joseph Hooker
should have found it difficult to theorize concerning the relation-
ships of the two floras. Yet he seems scarcely to have realised
sufficiently that the differences of climate, surface, and geological
conditions existing between the two countries, are such,
that similar plant associations could not be expected to occur in
each. It must, however, be admitted that these differences in
themselves do not constitute a sufficient explanation of the
absence from New Zealand of the characteristic Australian
species and genera. The gum trees, wattles, hakeas, and she-
oaks, flourish as well here as in their native land; and some of
these at least can and do maintain themselves without artificial
aid in our islands. Of course they have been much assisted in
gaining a foothold here by the presence of clearings effected
by civilized man. Yet, their complete absence from New
Zealand, before the arrival of the European, can be
explained only on the assumption that they never before
obtained an opportunity of establishing themselves here. As

4

34 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

we have no large deserts, we could scarcely expect to find in this
country the mallee scrub, the myall, the salt-bush and the
spinifex of the Australian “bad lands”; but we might at least
have anticipated that forms related to these should occur in
New Zealand, modified only by the different conditions obtain-
ing here, though their absence may perhaps be explained on
the assumption that the specialized Australian forms did not
reach the inter-continental bridge, which formerly connected
New Zealand with the great northern land-area.

This answer to the problem may prove to be sufficient, but
there is at present no consensus of opinion amongst biologists
upon the subject. Dr. Wallace, looking rather to an Aus-
tralian than to a Melanesian origin of our flora, has put forward
a highly ingenious theory to account for the anomalies observed
by Sir J. Hooker. This theory, at one time received tentatively,
has more recently been subjected to considerable criticism at
the hands of Mr. C. Hedley and others.* _Onaccount, however,
of its general interest, it will probably be worth while to
outline it here, without attempting to form an exact estimate
of its value. In Cretaceous times, Australia existed as two
islands, an eastern and a western. <A wide belt of sea, broken
by islets, stretched from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the mouth
of the Murray river. The western island, according to Wallace’s
hypothesis, was the more ancient, and already possessed
many of the ancestral forms of the pecuhar and character-
istic flora of to-day. In eastern Australia, however, the
flora consisted chiefly of Melanesian and Antarctic species,
with possibly a small proportion of the more typical Australian
forms. About this time, or in the Eocene, the eastern island
was united by way of a land-bridge to New Zealand, and
by this connection the New Zealand flora obtained its
Australian element. Subsequently the eastern and western
islands became one, the connection with New Zealand
was broken, and the Australian types overran the new

*Natural Science, September, 1893, p 187

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 35

continent. This theory seems to lay too much stress on the
direct connection of Australia with New Zealand, whereas the
facts of the case scarcely require any such connection.
Indeed, we have in recent times received from Australia
a few species of plants directly across the Tasman Sea. Species
of Olearia, Senecio, Epacris, and of the Orchidaceae, have
probably reached us in this way. All these plants, however,
are provided with seeds that are either small, or furnished
with a pappus, so that they may have readily been blown
across the intervening ocean by a high wind. The fauna,
however, shows that our connection has been with the islands
to the north, rather than with Australia. There is evidence
of a much more recent connection with New Guinea and
Melanesia than with temperate Australia, which has
perhaps not been united with New Zealand since the
Triassic period.
Other Foreign Elements.

Other important elements in the New Zealand flora are the
Antarctic and South American. It 1s difficult to measure their
amounts statistically, as they depend not so much upon com-
munity of species, as upon the similarity of representative forms
in many genera. The American section is that part of the
flora which shows resemblances to plants living in temperate
or tropical South America. The Antarctic element consists
of plants which are related to others found in one or all of the
following places: Patagonia, Southern Chih, Tierra del Fuego,
the Falkland Islands, Tristan d’Acunha, The _ Crozets,
Kerguelen Land and the mountains of Victoria and Tasmania.
The term “ Antarctic’? as applied to these plants has been
objected to, as all the districts referred to, le outside of the
Antarctic Circle. Dr. Cockayne has suggested the word
“Fuegian,” in place of it; but it 1s probable that the more
correct term, “ Sub-Antarctic,” will be adopted. A few of the

plants belonging to this section are also found in South
Africa.

36 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

South American Hlement.

The South American element is better developed in New
Zealand than in Australia; this may be due to our being
somewhat nearer to Peru and Chil, than Australia is. The
genera Fuchsia and Calceolaria are confined to New Zealand,
and temperate or sub-tropical South America. Myosurus
aristata, Sophora tetraptera (The Yellow Kowhai), Haloragis
alata, Hydrocotyle Americana, Veronica elliptica, and a tew
other species, are also confined to the same two districts. It
may, however, be questioned whether the forms of these
species, occurring on both sides of the Pacific, are exactly the
same in every case. Further investigation is required on this
point. Probably about a fourth of the New Zealand genera
are also found in South America, though not confined to these
two places. A connection of such a pronounced nature as
this indicates that at some time the two stations must have
been united by land, or at least by a chain of islands.

The evidence of animal life shows that the former alternative
is the more probable one, and that there has been direct land
communication with South America, perhaps in sub-tropical
regions. From these and other reasons, Captain Hutton
assumed that in the Cretaceous, or Early Eocene, a Pacific
Continent connected New Zealand and New Guinea with
Chili.*

Sub-Antarctic Element.

But a much more striking phenomenon is the existence
between latitudes 55° 8. and 65° 8. of groups of islands separated.
sometimes by thousands of miles of sea, yet often possessing
native plants of the same species. This community of species
shows that these islands must have been in comparatively close
communication with each other in quite recent times. Some
of the plants referred to are found in New Zealand, more
particularly in the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island. A

*“Nature’’ July 13th, 1905, (This letter is probably the last published scientific
writing of the great biologist).

GENERAL INTRODUCTION on

few of them are also found in the Alps of South Eastern
Australia. The following plants may be taken as examples of
these sub-Antarctic types. Acaena sanguisorbae is known
from the Kermadecs to the Macquaries, and is also found in
Australia and Tristan d’Acunha, while 4A. adscendens occurs
from Marlborough to the Macquaries, and also in Chih,
Fuegia, and the Falkland Islands. Tillaea moschata is found
throughout New Zealand and the Southern Islands, and also
in South Chih, Fuegia, the Falkland Islands, Kerguelen’s Land,
and Marion Island. Oxalis magellanica has been collected in
Victoria, Tasmania, South Chil, and Fuegia as well as in
New Zealand. Callitriche antarctica is found in the Snares,
The Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, the Antipodes,
Macquarie Islands, Kerguelen’s Land, Falkland Islands, and
South Georgia. Other similar examples might readily be
given, but these will probably suffice for our present purposes.
This remarkable connection becomes even more striking, when
we examine the floras of the sub-Antarctic islands themselves.
Thus Mr. Hemsley* states that of eighty-four genera found in
the Falkland Islands, fifty-six are also represented in New
Zealand. More recent research may have modified these
numbers, but the proportion will probably not be largely
altered. Though these sub-Antarctic islands show such
marked resemblances in their plant hfe, there is no such
similarity amongst them in the distribution of the higher
types of land animals. Obviously, the connection, though a
very recent one, has not been a close one. Hence Captain
Hutton concluded that in Phocene times ‘A number of
islands existed in the Antarctic Ocean, which have since
then disappeared.’ According to this theory, there has been
no direct connection with the Antarctic continent since
the Jurassic period. At that time, New Zealand, South

America, and South Africa are believed to have been united
by land.

“Challenger Reports: Botany Vol. I, p. 57.

38 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Such a hypothesis as this 1s at best only tentative, and its
chief value lies in the stimulus it gives to research, and the aid
it affords in placing subsequent hypotheses on a more solid
foundation. ‘There are numerous other problems of considerable
interest in connection with both the internal and external
distribution of our indigenous plants, but these will not be
dealt with here.

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION.

PuANT LIFE.

At one time people spoke as if the life of the plant were
different from that of the animal. There are few so ignorant
now as to think that a distinction can be drawn between
plant and animal hfe. The plant responds to stimuli,
reproduces its kind, and grows, just as the animal does.
Moreover, every plant has the power of spontaneous motion as
a whole, or in some of its parts. Amongst the higher plants,
movements are confined to parts of the plant—the tendrils of
the vine twine; the stamens of the barberry respond to a
touch with a jumping motion ; the leaves of many plants close
at night ; others alter their position with the direction of the
hght that falls upon them. In all, there are movements in
response to gravitation, and to the action of lght, and in
connection with the processes of growth. In recent times
sensation has been claimed for many plants. All apparently
have the power of “sensing”’ gravitation, and some have been
recently declared by Haberlandt to possess “ ocelli”’ for perceiv-
ing hght. However, the life of the plant is so remote from all
that man knows of himself, that he can never hope to do more
than realize its meaning very imperfectly, though it can
scarcely be doubted that the more fully he can appreciate it,
and the more fully he can enter into sympathy with it, the
more fully will he understand himself.

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 39

Root and Stem.

For our present purposes, a plant may be considered as
consisting of root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit.
The root* is developed from the rootlet or radicle of the
embryo, and serves two purposes. It fixes the plant in the
soil, and absorbs water and salts in solution by means of
minute thin-walled hairs on the rootlets. The stem supports
the leaves and branches. The crude sap ascends through it to
the foliage at the tips of the highest twigs by a process or
processes, even now not well understood. Here the water is
evaporated, and any salts that it still contains are left behind
in the leaves and shoots. The stem and branches therefore,
as well as supporting the plant, enable the sap to ascend and
descend, and thus provide communication between different
parts of the tree.

THE LEAF.
The leaf is the chief organ by which the plant nourishes
itself. Air enters it by minute pores (stomata, singular stoma),
and brings with it a small percentage of carbon dioxide. ‘The
leaf retains the carbon, giving up most of the oxygen. With
the carbon, water, some oxygen and the salts obtained from
the soil, the plant is built up by marvellous and httle known
chemical reactions. The leaf, like all other parts of the plant,
consists of layers of very small cells. The first solid product
to appear in certain highly specialized cells as a result of the
absorption of carbon dioxide, is starch. This consists of the
three elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and is produced
only in the presence of the green colouring matter (chlorophyll)
by the action of sunlight. The process by which starch is
produced is termed assimilation.
A description of the structure of a typical dicotyledonous
leaf, will enable us to understand this function better.

*(The root is considered rather more fully under Avicennia.)

40 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The surface of the leaf is covered by a thin layer of waxy
material, which is almost impervious to water. This is
called the cuticle, and prevents the leaf from shrivelling up in
drying winds. Jmmediately below the cuticle hes a layer of
cells, which form the epidermis. In some cases they are
specially modified for the purpose of providing storage
for water, as a provision against drought. Below the
epidermis of the upper surface of the leaf, hes a layer of
elongated cylindrical cells, called the palisade cells. These
are regularly arranged with their longitudinal axes at rght
angles to the surface of the leaf, and constitute the wonderful
laboratories in which the process of assimilation is carried on.
The sap from the roots reaches these cells by way of the
midrib and veins. From the outer air they obtain carbon
dioxide. They are also provided with a large number of
microscopic grains stained with chlorophyll—the chloroplasts.
In the chloroplasts, under the action of sunhght—bright or
diffused—starch is formed. This is afterwards converted into
sugar, and conveyed by means of the conducting tissues or leaf
veins, to the parts of the plant where it is required. Below
the palisade tissue he a number of loosely arranged cells of
rather irregular shape, with air spaces between them. ‘These
constitute the spongy tissue, and though they doubtless
manufacture some food, yet they cannot receive as much
hght as the cells above them. Consequently they do httle work
in the process of assimilation. The epidermis of the leaf is
broken in numberless places by minute openings, the stomata,
which have been already mentioned. These are often confined
to the lower surface of the leaf. Hach stoma is surrounded
by a pair of crescent-shaped guard cells, which by alterations
in their form can open or close it, and thus check or
increase the amount of evaporation or transpiration from the
leaf.

Now, although there are thousands of plants in which the
leaf structure conforms comparatively closely to that already

30TANICAL INTRODUCTION 41

described, there are many others in which the leaf is more or
less modified to suit its special environment.

The anatomy and form of the leaf depend, to a very large
extent, upon the reaction between the plant and its surroundings,
as regards transpiration and assimilation. The object of the
plant is to expose as large a leaf surface as possible to the
action of the ight; while at the same time a balance must be
maintained between the loss of water and its supply. If
more water leaves the plant than enters it, the leaves must
inevitably wither, and this is a danger that the plant has to
cuard against at all hazards. Plants living in dry situations
have adopted most ingenious devices to reduce transpiration to
@ minimum, whilst obtainmg a maximum of assimilatory
surface. Some of these devices will be considered in connection
with the various species exhibiting them. Plants living in
wet situations require a different structure from those that
grow on bare rocky cliffs or shingle-slips. Hence, recent
writers have found it convenient and helpful to group plants
together, according to the modifications of stem and leat
structure that they exhibit, in response to their special
environments. As the water supply is the chief factor im
moulding the form of the plant, this classification has reference
chiefly to it. Dry soils, such as those of desert regions;
soils at times subject to a low temperature, or bogs abounding
in humic and other acids, are generally mhabited by plants
which have contrivances to check transpiration. Such plants
are termed Xerophytes. In New Zealand this group is
exceptionally well developed. Indeed, Dr. Diels, no mean
authority upon the subject, speaking of the shrubs of the open
plains, states “Their xerophytic structure is of striking
intensity, and difficult to understand in comparison with other
floras.” Again, in discussing the plants of the sub-alpine
pastures, he tells us their xerophytism is so extreme that their
physiognomy can be compared only with that of the
almost rainless Persian steppes. (For a fuller discussion
of this anomaly, see Discaria, Plagianthus betulinus, etc.)

49, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Plants which have been evolved in soils containing more
than a half per cent. of salts in solution, are termed halophytes.
Such plants are found chiefly near the sea-shore, by river
estuaries, or in salt marshes. They sometimes occur also in
desert areas, particularly in the dried-up beds of salt lakes.
They often bear resemblances to xerophytes. The water of
salt-meadows is apparently not readily absorbed by plants, and
consequently such situations may be physiologically dry.
Probably the presence of salts in solution interferes with the
passage of moisture by osmosis into the plant cells. A fuller
consideration of the structure of halophytes will be found under
the family Chenopodiaceae.

Hydrophytes ave plants which have been produced amidst
abundance of water of moderate temperature, and in the
absence of an excessive amount of dissolved salts. They will
be further considered under Myriophyllum. Mesophytes,
on the other hand, are plants whose structure indicates that
they have been developed in intermediate conditions, where
there was neither saturation with moisture, nor was there
drought. Mesophytes frequently lose their leaves at the end
of the growing season, and often die back to the ground.
Amongst them are a large number of annuals, bulbous, and
tuberous plants. New Zealand has remarkably few mesophytes.
Trees such as Hntelea and Aristotelia racemosa are mesophytic,
but dicotyledonous herbaceous mesophytes are almost com-
pletely absent from New Zealand. We have scarcely any
annuals, and very few bulbous plants. It is due to lack of
them that our lowland pastures and hedgerows do not display
in spring and early summer such brightness of colour as is
to be seen in many other lands.

30TANICAL INTRODUCTION 43

THE FLOWER.

The function of the flower is to produce seed, and so to
perpetuate the species. The essential parts are the stamens
and pistil. The pistil is in the centre of the flower, and
contains the female organs. At its base is the seed vessel, or
ovary, containing the unfertilized seeds or ovules. At the tip
is the stigma, which is the part of the flower specialized to
receive the pollen or male element. The stigma is frequently
supported by a stalk termed the style. In some flowers the
pistil consists of a number of parts called carpels, each con-
sisting of ovary, style, and stigma. These carpels may be
separate from each other, or united to form a composite pistil.
In some cases the union is so complete, that it is difficult to
say of how many carpels the pistil 1s formed. Generally,
however, the number of compartments or cells in the ovary, or
the number of stigmas, affords a sufficient mdication of the
number of carpels present. Round the pistil the stamens are
usually arranged in one or more concentric circles. They
consist of a stalk known as the filament, and an enlarged tip,
usually yellow, the anther. Here the pollen is borne. It
consists of very minute yellow grains which escape by the
opening of the anther. Before seed can be developed,
fertilisation, or union, must take place between the male
and female elements. The pollen grain is conveyed to the
stigma. It there grows, and puts out a long tube, which
penetrates through the loose tissues of the style ito the
ovary. In the ovary, it enters the ege-cell contained in one
of the ovules, and there fertilisation takes place. After
fertilisation the ovule commences to develop into the seed.

The process by which pollen is conveyed to the stigma is
called pollination or loosely, fertilisation. (Throughout the
book we shall use the more correct term in place of the more
popular one). Just as the formation and structure of the leaf
depend to a large extent upon its adaptations to its environ-
ment, in respect of assimilation and transpiration, so the form

44 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

and structure of the flower depend to a large extent on the
method of pollination adopted by it.

These methods are very numerous, and often very different,
and a great deal of complexity of contrivance, and apparent
purposefulness of action, is manifested by flowers in their
endeavours to secure effective pollination. If the pistil is
pollinated from its own stamens, it 1s said to be self-pollinated.
Darwin and others have shown, that, as a rule, seed obtained
from cross-pollinated flowers is healthier and more productive
than that from self-pollinated flowers. The result of continued
inbreeding is harmful to flowers as well as to animals; but
there are probably more exceptions to this rule than was at
first supposed; and in many plants there are special adapta-
tions for self-pollination. Cross-pollination may be brought
about by the action of wind or insects, or, more rarely, by
birds or other animals.

The exact methods adopted will be discussed in connection
with specific cases.

If stamens and pistil are found in one flower, it is said to be
hermaphrodite. If they are found on different flowers but on
the same plant, the species is then said to be monacious, but
if on different plants, it 1s termed diwcious.

THE FLORAL ENVELOPES.

Surrounding the stamens are usually two floral envelopes.
The outer one 1s the calyx, and the inner is the corolla. The
corolla is usually brightly coloured, and serves as an organ of
attraction for imsects and other animals. The individual
leaves of which it 1s composed are termed petals. They may
be free or united, regular or irregular in form, and, indeed,
manifest an infinite variety of shape, colour, texture and
arrangement. These characteristics depend almost entirely
upon the adjustment of the flower to the function of pollination.

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 45

The calyx is chiefly used as an organ of protection for
the flower bud. Its individual parts are termed sepals. They
are usually coloured green, but occasionally the calyx becomes
brightly coloured, and usurps the functions of the corolla. Calyx
and corolla together constitute the perianth. Sometimes
there is only a single ring (whorl) of parts in the floral
envelope, or both rings may be similar. In such cases the
floral envelope is termed simply a perianth. Flowers without
a perianth are said to be naked. If, however, it 1s clear that
the perianth is either calyx or corolla, but not both, the more
definite term may be employed. The missing whorl is then
described as suppressed or obsolete. Any leaf on a flower stalk
not belonging to the perianth is termed a bract.

THE DISPERSAL OF SEEDS.

After the seed is ripe, it has to be scattered. Many curious
devices are used by plants to accomplish this end. The seeds
may be so hight or so small as to be blown about by the wind.
They may be provided with down (e.g., as in the dandelion), to
assist them in travelling before a breeze. Sometimes they are
set in mucilage (as in Pittosporum). This may enable them
to cling to passing animals, and so to be carried for longer or
shorter distances ; or, again, they may be provided with hooks
for the same purpose, (as in the sedge Uncinia), or with a
grapnel-head, (as in Acena). Again, the whole fruit may
become sweet and succulent, and thus birds are attracted to it,
and eat it. The seeds then pass through the digestive
canals of the birds, and are distributed over the country
by them. The elder, gooseberry, flowering-currant, etc.,
are thus being distributed by birds over New Zealand.
Should the seed on the other hand fall to the ground
immediately below the parent plant, it would very
hkely be choked in the struggle for existence, or might

46 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

not obtain a sufficient amount of hght to enable it to
flourish. Hence, it is to be expected that plants whose seeds
are provided with good means for distribution, should be
found widely spread over the country, and this is often,
though by no means always, the case. The dandelion grows
everywhere, but Senecio perdicioides, with similar means of
distribution is confined to one locahty. It is often difficult
to say why one plant survives, and another becomes extinct,
in the struggle for existence. However, new lght is_ being
thrown on plant mechanisms daily, and we are beginning
to understand more fully the many adjustments of the plant to
its environment. It is certain, too, that our outlook upon the
vegetable world is gradually altering, and that the centre of
eravity of our ideas concerning the principles that guide plant
evolution is also shifting to some extent.

CLASSIFICATION.

The vegetable world may readily be separated into two
great divisions, plants without flowers, and plants with flowers.
The former division includes the bacteria, sea-weeds, pond-
slimes, moulds, fungi, toadstools, hchens, liverworts, mosses,
ferns, and club-mosses. They do not come within the scope
of this work. The flowering plants may again be readily
divided into two classes: (1) those in which the ovules are
not enclosed in an ovary, Gymnosperms (pines, firs, etc.) ;
(2) those with the ovules enclosed in an ovary (Angiosperms).
There are probably about 100,000 distinct kinds or species of
angiosperms at present living on the face of the earth. They
include the vast majority of all flowermg plants. In order
that they may be properly studied they have to be classified in
a complete and complicated fashion. One of the chief objects

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION AT

of this classification is to enable the investigator to identify
with certainty the specimen under investigation. In some
cases this can be done only after an elaborate study of the
plant; but in the majority of instances, half-an-hour’s work or
less should be sufficient to enable the student to name it. To
assist him in his work a key is here provided (v. p. 49).

The Angiosperms are first sub-divided into two sub-classes,
the Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The dicotyledons, on
germination, produce two seed-leaves or cotyledons, the mono-
cotyledons only one. ‘The seed-leaves of the dicotyledons are
generally entire, simple, rather fleshy leaves, unlike those
subsequently produced by the plant. The solitary seed-leaf of
the monocotyledons is usually long, narrow and similar to
those subsequently produced. There are many other external
differences between the two classes. In the monocotyledons, the
chief veins of the leaves run more or less parallel to the length
of the blade; in the dicotyledons the chief veins are not
parallel to each other, and are connected by a net-work of
smaller veinlets. Leaves of the former kind are said to be
parallel-veined. The latter are termed reticulate, or netted-
veined leaves. The parts of the flowers in a monocotyledon
are usually in three, or in some multiple of three. In the
dicotyledons there are usually fowr or five, or some multiple of
either of these numbers. The monocotyledon produces a root
consisting of a number of fibres, which sprout from the base of
the young plant. The seedling dicotyledon produces a single
root (tap-root), which is continuous with the stem. These
differences may be tabulated thus :—

MONOCOTYLEDONS. DICOTYLEDONS.
1. One seed-leaf. Two seed-leaves.
2. Fibrous roots. Tap-root.
3. Parallel-venation. Netted-venation.
4. Parts of flower in threes. Parts of flower in fours

or fives.

48 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

For ordinary field purposes, the venation is the most readily
available distinctive character, but the student will soon
recognise the differences between a mono- and a di-
cotyledon. The leaves of the monocotyledon are usually long
and narrow, and often sword-shaped. ‘They frequently have
sheathing bases. ‘The chief New Zealand monocotyledons are
the grasses, rushes, cut-grasses, bulrushes, native flax (Phor-
mium), cabbage-tree, supple-jack, and Nikau-palm. The
dicotyledons constitute the great majority of flowering plants.

The classes are sub-divided into sub-classes. The sub-
classes are split up into orders, the orders into families, the
famihes into genera, and the genera into species. The species
form the units on which the whole classification is built up.
It is impossible to define a species further, than by saying that
all plants of one kind are included in it. All individuals within
the species, are more like each other than they are like
any plants outside of it. The species are built up into genera.
The genus may contain any number of species. Thus, there
is only one species of Hntelea known, and it is confined to the
Auckland province. On the other hand, there are some eighty
species of Veronica in New Zealand, and many more in other
parts of the world.

Every plant has two names: (1) the name of the genus to
which it belongs; (2) the name of the species. Thus, there
are two kinds of native flax, each with the same generic name
(Phormium) but with different specific names, P. tenax and
P. Cookianum. ‘To the scientific name of the plant, should be
attached the name of the author of the species. This has not
been done here, as the names given in Mr. Cheeseman’s hand-
book have been adopted, except im one or two specially
mentioned instances.

In endeavouring to identify a species, the student should
remember that there is scarcely any rule in botany without
exceptions. Many of our New Zealand plants do not
completely exemplify the characters of the order, or genus,

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 49

to which they belong. It must not be supposed that a plant
cannot belong to a family, because in one or more points it
does not completely agree with the characters of the family.
On the other hand, it is also unsafe to suppose that
because a plant has certain characters of a family or genus it
must necessarily belong to that family or genus. The student
cannot be too strongly warned against Jumping at conclusions
of this sort. It is better, moreover, in identifying a specimen
to proceed by the method of “exhaustion”’ than by that of
identification, that is to say, it is safer to exclude first all
those familes and genera to which the plant cannot belong,
before determining that to which it does belong. An example
will illustrate clearly the various classificatory divisions.
The native flax belongs to the—
SPECIES: tenaz.
GENUS: Phormium.
Faminy: Liltaceae.
ORDER: Liliiflorae.
Sus-Cuass: Monocotyledons.
Cuass: Angiosperms.

KEY TO CLASSICATION.*
SUB-KINGDOM: Phanerogams or Flowering Plants.

1. Ovules not enclosed in an Ovary—Class 1. GYMNOSPERMAE, p. 46.
2. Ovules enclosed in an Ovary—Class 2. ANGIOSPERMAE, p. 46.
(i) Seed with one seed-leaf, leaves generally
parallel-veined. MONOCOTYLEDONS, p. 47.
(ii) Seed with two seed-leaves, leaves
generally netted-veined. DICOTYLEDONS, p. 47.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE ANGIOSPERMAE.
SUB-CLASS I. : Monocotyledons.

1. Perianth absent. 2.
Perianth present. 3

2. Climbing, shrubby plant. Leaves long, prickly. Freycinetia, p. 80.
Erect water or marsh plants. +Typha.

*N.B.—It is to be remembered that in many cases this key is true only for New
Zealand forms.

+ Not further described. 5

50

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

. Perianth superior, of 6 leaflets in 2 rows.

Perianth inferior, segments petaloid or fleshy.

. Flowers very irregular. Anther 1, attached to

the style.

Flowers regular, stamens 3.

. Perianth petaloid. Fruit a 1-3-celled, 3 or

more seeded berry or capsule.

Perianth fleshy. Fruit a 1-seeded drupe.

ORCHIDACEAE, p. 109.
TInbertia, p. 109.

LILIACEAE, p. 88.
Rhopalostylis, p. 84.

SUB-CLASS II. : Dicotyledons.
. Flowers haying both calyx and corolla.

Flowers with a single perianth or 0, the
calyx or corolla or both being absent.

. Petals free.

Petals more or less completely united.

. Stamens more than 20.

Stamens less than 20.

. Ovary inferior. Leaves usually opposite.

. Leaves with translucent dots. Shrubs or trees.

Ovary superior.

Leaves fleshy. Creeping or trailing herbs.

. Leaves stipulate.

Leaves exstipulate.

. Anthers 2-celled.

Anthers 1-celled. Leaves simple.

. Carpels free. Leaves compound.

Carpels combined. Leaves simple.

. Stamens hypogynous.

Stamens perigynous, carpels free.

. Carpels free.

Carpels united.

. Leaves with transparent dots.

Leaves without dots.

. Ovary inferior (or apparently so).

15.

16

Ovary superior.

. Flowers umbelled or in heads.

Flowers not in umbels or heads.

. Herbs. Stamens 5. Fruit of 2 carpels separ-

ating when ripe.

Shrubs or trees (rarely herbs) ; fruit of two or
more combined carpels.

Leaves stipulate.

Leaves exstipulate.

Style 1; stigma simple.

Styles or stigmas 2 or more, or stigma divided.

6.
MYRTACEAE, p. 270.
AIZOACEAE, p. 159.

We

eB).

8.
MALVACEAE, p. 250.
ROSACEAE, p. 195.
TILIACEAE, p. 242.

10.
ROSACEAE, p. 195.
RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160.
iar
+ Hypericum.
TILIACEAR, p. 242.
1S:
22.
14.
15.

UMBELLIFERAE, p. 312.

ARALIACEAE, p. 300.
RHAMNACEAE, p. 235.
16.
fe
20.

+Not further described.

Ife

18.

1G}

‘20.

‘21.

22.

23.

24,

25

26.

27

28.

29.
30.

31

32

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION al

Stamens pipetalous or alternate with the

petals. 18.
Stamens perigynous. Petals overlapping in

the bud. ONAGRACEAE, p. 290.
Stamens epipetalous. LORANTHACEAE, p. 138.
Stamens alternate with the petals. 19%
Cells of fruit 1-seeded. CORNACEAE, p. 297.
Cells of fruit many seeded. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185.
Cells of fruit 1-seeded. 21.
Cells of fruit many seeded. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185.
Shrubs. Griselinia, p. 298.
Herbs. HALORAGIDACEAE, p. 295.
Leaves stipulate. 23.
Leaves exstipulate. 33.
Carpels solitary or free. 24.
Carpels combined into a 1- or more-celled

ovary. 25.
Carpels solitary, 2 or more seeded. Flowers

irregular. ; LEGUMINOSAE, p. 203.
Carpels several, free, 1-seeded. Flowersregular. ROSACEAE, p. 195.
Ovary 1-celled. 26.
Ovary 2 or more celled. 30.
Ovules on the walls of the ovary. 27.
Ovules fixed to the base of the ovary. 29)
Climbing shrubs, PASSIFLORACEAB, p. 268.
Herbs or shrubs not climbing. 28.
Viscid glandular herbs. Flowers regular. DROSERACEAE, p. 180.
Herbs or shrubs, not glandular. Flowers

regular or irregular. VIOLACEAE, p. 261.
Herbs. Stamens 3-5, attached to the petals. CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156.
Stamens hypogynous. 31.
Stamens perigynous. 32.
Leaves opposite. Water herbs. + Hlatine.
Leaves alternate. Herbs. GERANIACEAE, p. 215.
Stamens opposite the petals. Ovules 1 in

each cell. Shrubs. RHAMNACEAB, p. 235.

Stamens 5, alternate, or 10 opposite and
alternate with the petals. Ovulesmany. SAXIFRAGACEAK, p. 185.

Carpels several, free, or one. 34,
Carpels combined into a 1 or more celled
ovary. 41.
Carpels several, free. 35.
Carpels solitary, 1-celled. 38.
Leaves opposite. 37.
Leaves alternate. 36.
Herbs. Carpels 5 or more. RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160.
Tree. Leaves simple, aromatic. DRIMYS, p. 172.
Herbs. Fruit dry. +Tillea.

+tNot further described.

38.

39.

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Shrubs or herbs. Fruit enclosed by the fleshy

carpels. Coriaria, p. 226.
Stamens hypogynous or epipetalous. 40.
Stamens perigynous. 39.
Stamens 5. Ovule 1. Corynocarpus, p. 233.

Stamens 10. Ovules 2 or more. LEGUMINOSAE, p. 203.

40. Stamens 4-5, epipetalous. MYRSINACEAE, p. 331.
Stamens 5. Ovule 1, pendulous, Pennantia, p. 230.
41, Ovary 1-celled, many oyuled. 42.
Ovary 2 or more celled. 43.
42. Glandular herbs. Drosera, p. 180.
Herbs, not glandular. CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156.
43. Stamens hypogynous. 44.
Stamens perigynous or inserted at the base of
a tumid disk. Trees or shrubs. 47.
44, Herbs. Sepals 4. Stamens 6. Ovary 2-celled CRUCIFERAE, p. 177.
Stamens 5 or 10. 45.
45. Shrubs or trees. Stamens free. Ovary 2-5
celled. Pittosporum, p. 189.
Herbs.. Ovary 5-celled. 46.
46. Stamens 5. Liam, p. 218.
Stamens 10, occasionally several sterile. GERANIACEAE, p. 215.
(including
OXALIDACEAB).
47. Leaves with transparent dots. RUTACEAE, p. 218.
Leaves without dots. 48.
48. Leaves pinnate. Dysoxylum, p. 222.
Leaves simple. 49.
49. Sepals free. Petals lobed or cut. TILIACEAE, p. 242.
Calyx 5-lobed. Ixerba, p. 186.
50. Ovary inferior. 51.
Ovary superior. 56.
51. Flowers minute, usually numerous, collected

56.

. Stamens alternate with corolla lobes.

into involucrate heads. COMPOSITAE, p. 405.

Flowers not collected into involucrate heads. 52.

.. Leayes opposite and stipulate, or whorled. RUBIACEAE, p. 389.
Leaves alternate, exstipulate. 53.

. Stamens 2, filaments cohering with the style. {STYLIDIACEAE.
Stamens 5. 54.

. Stamens inserted on the corolla lobes. 55.

Stamens epigynous, or inserted at the base of CAMPANULACEAE, p. 401
the corolla. (including LOBELIACEAE.
and GOODENIACEAE)
Alseuosmia, p. 399.

Stamens opposite the corolla lobes.
Corolla regular.
Corolla irregular, 2-lipped.

Samolus, p. 333.
57.
75.

tNot further described.

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION

57. Ovary and fruit very deeply 2-4 lobed; lobes

1-celled, 1-seeded. 58.
Ovary not deeply lobed. 60.
58. Leaves opposite. Ovary 4-lobed. LABIATAE, p. 364.
Leaves alternate. 59.
59. Ovary 4-lobed. BORAGINACEAE, p. 346.
Ovary 2-lobed. Dichondra, p. 344.
60. Leaves alternate or radical (0 in Cuscuta of
Convolvulaceae). Giz
Leaves opposite. Stamens epipetalous. ele
61. Stamens epipetalous. 62.
Stamens 10, hypogynous. ERICACEAE, p. 323.
62. Ovary 1-celled. 63.
Ovary 2 or more celled. 65.
63. Herbs. Sepals 2. +PORTULACEAE.
Herbs or shrubs. Sepals 4 or 5. 64.
64. Shrubs, leaves with glandular dots. Myrsine, p. 331.
Herbs, leaves not dotted. Samolus, p. 333.
65. Fertile stamens more than 6. Anthersl-celled. MALVACEAH, p. 250.
Fertile stamens 6 or fewer. 66.
66. Stamens 4, filaments long. +Plantago.
Stamens alternating with scales or antherless
filaments. 67.
Scales and sterile anthers absent. 68.
67. Shrub or tree. Leaves alternate. + Sapota.
Leafless climbing herb. Cuscuta, p. 344.
68. Anthers 1-celled. Shrubs or trees. Ovary
5-10-celled, ERICACEAE, p. 323.
Anthers 2-celled. 69.
69. Climbing or trailing herbs. CONVOLVULACEAE, p. 342.
Erect shrubs. 70.
70. Corolla-lobes overlapping in bud. Ovary 2-4-
celled. VERBENACEAE, p. 349.
Corolla-lobes plaited in bud. Ovary 2-celled. SSOOLANACEAB, p. 365.
71. Stamens 2 or 4. SCROPHULARIACEAE, p. 366.
Stamens 5. 72.
72. Climbing shrubs, anthers adhering to the
stigma. Parsonsia, p. 340.
Herbs or shrubs, erect or prostrate. 73.
73. Herbs, sepals 2. +PORTULACEAE.
Calyx 4 or 5-cleft. 74.
74. Herbs, very bitter. GENTIANACEAE, p. 337.
Erect or prostrate shrubs. LOGANIACEAE, p. 335.
75. Leaves opposite. 76.
Leaves alternate or 0. US)
76. Ovary 4-lobed to the base. OR
Ovary not deeply 4-lobed. 78.

53

+Not further described.

54 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

77. Herbs. LABIATAE, p. 364.
Shrubs or trees. VERBENACEAE, p. 349.
78. Ovary 1-celled, nearly 2-celled from the 2
projecting placentae. Rhabdothamnus, p. 388.
Ovary 2-celled. SCROPHULARIACEABE, p. 366
79. Small trees. Stamens 4. Leaves with
pellucid dots. Myoporum, p. 362.
Herbs. Stamens 2. Leaves hair-like or 0. | Utricularia, p. 388.
80. Perianth single. 81.
Perianth wholly wanting. 118.
81. Ovary inferior. } 82.
Ovary superior. 92.
82. Trees or shrubs. 83.
Herbs. 87.
83. Parasiticshrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. * LORANTHACEAE, p. 138.
Trees or shrubs not obviously parasitic. 84.
84. Flowers bisexual. 85.
Flowers unisexual. 86.
85. Shrubs or small trees, leaves alternate with
deciduous stipules. Pomaderris, p. 236.
Leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate. SANTALACEAE, p. 148.
86. Tree. Leaves alternate, with deciduous
stipules. Nothofagus, p. 128.
Tree. Leayesalternate, exstipulate, verylarge. Meryta, p. 313.
87. Flowers bisexual. Acena, p. 201.
Flowers unisexual. 88.
88. Stamens more than 20. +Acena glabra.
Stamens less than 20. 89.
89. Tuberous root parasite. Stems scaly. Dactylanthus, p. 150.
Non-parasitical leafy plants. 90.
90. A plant climbing by tendrils. *Sicyos, p. 400.
Not climbing by tendrils. Dile
91. Aquatic plants. Leaves opposite or whorled. HALORAGIDACEAE, p. 295.
Scape bearing plants. Leaves radical. *Gunnera, p. 297.
92. Leaves stipulate. 93.
Leaves exstipulate. 95.
93. A spiny shrub or small tree, often leafless,
stipules small. Discaria, p. 239.
Spineless herbs or shrubs. 94.
94. Herbs and shrubs. Stipules membranous,
sheathing the stem. POLYGONACEAE, p. 151.
Herbs and shrubs, stipules free. Flowers
unisexual, URTICACEAE, p. 136.
95. Carpels many, free. 96.
Carpels solitary or 1-celled, or ovary 2- or
3-celled. Mie

Those marked * have really a double perianth, but the calyx is so obscure, that they
are likely to be sought for in this division.
+Not further described.

96.
Sits
98.
2),
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.

107.

108.

109.

110.

1.
112.

113.
114,

115.

116

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION

Stamens hypogynous.

Stamens perigynous.

Carpels solitary or ovary 1-celled.
Ovary 2- or 3-celled.

Leaves 0.

Leaves opposite or alternate.
Twining, slender, parasitic plant.
Plants not parasitic or twining.
Fleshy, jointed, maritime herb.
Small shrub. Branches grooved. Fruit red.
Leaves opposite. Herbs.

Leaves alternate. Shrubs or trees.

Flowers unisexual, minute, green. Stamens4.

Flowers hermaphrodite.
Flowers minute, white.
Flowers minute, green.

Flowers in axillary fascicles.
Flowers in pairs. Stamen1. Seed 1.
Flowers in axillary spikelets. Ovule 1.

Ovules many.

Stamens 6 or more.

Stamens less than 6.

Flowers unisexual.
pinnate.

Flowers hermaphrodite, leaves simple.

Leaves large. Stamens 6-10, hypogynous.

Stamens 6-15, perigynous, opening by valves.

Flowers minute, green. Stamens 1-5, peri-
gynous.

Stamens 2-5, attached to the perianth lobes.

Stamens 2 or 4, on top of the perianth tube.

Stamens 4 or 5. Leaves not imbricated.

Leaves with transparent dots. Stamens on
the base of the perianth lohes.

Leaves without transparent dots.

Stamens on base of deciduous perianth lobes.

Stamens 4 on middle or top of deciduous
perianth lobes.

Shrubs or trees.

Herbs.

*Herb, juice milky. Leaves alternate.

Herb, sepals 4, stamens 6.

Leaves opposite or 0.

Leaves alternate.

A spinous shrub.
Stamens 4 or 5, perigynous.

Stamens 6-8. Leaves

55

RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160.
MONIMIACEABE, p. 174.
98.
tgs)
99°
101.
Cassytha, p. 176.
100.
Salicornia, p. 156.
+ Hxocarpus.
102.
106.
Parietaria, p. 138.
103.
104.
105.

+ Alternanthera.

+ Scleranthus.
Chenopodim, p. 155.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156.

107.
109.

Alectryon, p. 225.
108.
Pisomia, p. 159.

LAURACEAB, p. 175.

CHENOPODIACEAE, p. 154.
110.

THYMELACEAE, p. 269.
nae

MYRSINACEAE, p. 331.
112.
Santalwn, p. 148.

PROTEACEAE, p. 145.

115.

114.
Euphorbia, p. 224.
CRUCIFERAE, p. 177.

116.

iLife

Leaves opposite or 0.

Discaria, p. 239.

*The apparent perianth is really a ring of bracts.

+Not further described.

56 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Shrubs or trees. Stamens 2. Olea, p. 335.
117. Tree. Flowers unisexual. Stamens on the
perianth segments. PROTEACEAE, p. 145.
118. Leaves reduced to scales. Root parasite. Dactylanthus, p. 150.
Leaves present. BOS
119. Leayes opposite. 120.
Leaves alternate. 121.
120. Leaves serrate, stipulate. +Ascarina.
Water-herb, leaves exstipulate. Stamen 1. +Callitriche.
121. Herbs, leaves fleshy. Peperonua, p. 127.
Shrub, leayes very aromatic. Macropiper, p. 128.

An example or two of the method of using this key will
probably be of assistance to the novice. He has found,—let us
suppose,—an unknown plant which from its venation and
general appearance he recognizes as a dicotyledon. It will be
useless in most cases to try and identify it without the flower,
and frequently specimens also of more or less mature fruit will
be required. The first thing to notice is whether both calyx
or corolla are present. This being determined in the
affirmative, the student is directed to No. 2 in the Key. On
ascertaining that the petals are free he passes to No. 3. In
this flower the stamens are less than 20, this brings him
to No. 12. At this point he decides the ovary is inferior and
so passes on to No. 13. As the flowers are not in umbels or
heads, he proceeds to No. 15. His plant has exstipulate
leaves, and this brings him to No. 16. | The simple style and
stigma lead to No. 17, and the stamens alternating with the
petals to No. 18, thence to No. 19; and as the cells of the
ovary in his specimen are many seeded, he concludes that it
belongs to the family Saxifragaceae. On looking this up, he finds
a key to the genera. This he follows out in a similar
manner, and arrives at the Genus Carpodetus. There is
only one species, C. serratus, and in all probability he will
find his specimen coincide in detail with the description given
of this. Let us take one more example. In this case the
plant has the petals united. That leads us to No. 50, and as
the ovary is superior, we come to No. 56. The corolla of our

tNot further described.

BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION i,

plant is regular, so we reach No. 57; and the ovary not being
deeply lobed we proceed to No. 60. The leaves being alternate,
we reach No. 61, and the stamens being attached to the petals
we arrive at No. 62. The one-celled ovary brings us to No.
63, and the fact that there are five sepals to No. 64. Our plant
is a herb, so that it must evidently belong to the genus
Samolus, and as there is only one species it must be S. littoralis.
Of course, if there is a large number of species in the genus,
it may be impossible to determine the specific name of the
plant from the information in this volume. Recourse must
then be had to one of the standard floras of New Zealand
(e.g. Cheeseman’s, Kirk’s, or Hooker’s).

Coniferae.

THE PInE FAMILY.

Distribution.—The Coniferae form a widely distributed and ancient family,
having been well represented in the Carboniferous Age. In the northern regions
of the northern hemisphere they outnumber the ordinary broad-leaved trees by
about ten to one, and are of great importance and utility. The order includes a
number of large and valuable timber-trees, whose juices are almost invariably
resinous, and are used in the manufacture of turpentine, pitch, and Canada
balsam. Some of the New Zealand genera, such as Agathis, Phyllocladus and
Dacrydiwm differ much from the true pines, but all possess the same straight,
strong timber and resinous secretions. Outside New Zealand the best known
species are the Scotch Fir, the Norway Pine, the Californian Redwood, the
English Larch, the Norfolk Island Pine, the Deodar of the Himalayas, and the
Cedar of Lebanon. The last named is one of the most majestic and imposing of
trees. Sequoia gigantea of California (the Wellingtonia of our gardens), is the
largest known Conifer, the finest specimen seen having reached the height of
329 feet; while the tiny Dacrydiwm laxifoliwm, 2 inches in height, found in
alpine districts in New Zealand, is the smallest.

CHIEF CHARACTERS.

The true Pine has a branching trunk and evergreen leaves,
which are pointed and needle-like—sometimes set in little
bundles of two, three, or five. The plants bear pistillate
and staminate flowers upon the same stem. The staminate
flower is composed of a floral axis, bearing a number of
stamens, and the pistillate flowers form a catkin, each flower
being composed of a scale-like bract* with ovules suspended
on its inner surface. When the flowers ripen, these scales
become hard and thickened at the top, thus forming the
collective fruit called a cone.

The cone of the fir-tree differs from that of the pine, being
furnished with thin scales, rounded at the apex. Its leaves
also are more scattered. The leaves of the Larches
spring from a bundle of scaly buds, and become scattered
or solitary by the lengthening of the stem. The im-
brications of the cone are very loose, and the leaves

*The homologies of the various parts are still in dispute.

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60 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

are deciduous. The Cedars, again, differ from the Larches
in keeping their leaves for several years, and in bearing closely
imbricated cones. The stamens of the Junipers and Cypresses
bear spheroidal pollen, instead of oval, as do the Pines ; and the
Yew is easily distinguished by its coral-like drupes or berries.
The leaves of this tree are poisonous to animals, but the
berries appear to be innocuous. The Yew attains to a great
age, and has been reckoned to live for three or four hundred
years.

The woody tissue of the Conifers is noted for the absence of
ducts or vessels, and the presence at the same time of
bordered pits. This structure can be readily perceived even
in silicified wood. There is a similar structure in some of the
Magnoliaceae, such as Drimys, etc., but the character of this
wood differs considerably in other ways. The New Zealand
Coniferae include the Kauri, the Kahikatea, the Totara, the
Rimu, the Matai, the Tanekaha, the Miro, etc. The Tanekaha
(Phyllocladus) possesses only scale-leaves, the functions
of the leaves being performed by leaf-hke flattened
branchlets (phylloclades). The genus Agathis is an ancient
one, related to the Auracarias (Monkey Puzzle, etc.)

Key to the Genera.

1. Fruit a cone. 2
Fruit a nut or drupe. 3
2. Leaves oblong. Cone large, of many over-
lapping scales. Agathis, p. 60.
Leaves small. Cone of few, erect, woody
scales. Libocedrus, p. 66.
3. Fruita drupe, on fleshy, scarlet peduncle. Podocarpus, p. 68.
Fruit a nut in a fleshy cup. 4
4. Stems flattened into fan-shaped phylloclades. Phyllocladus, p 76.
Leaves linear or scale-like. Dacrydium, p. 74.

Genus Agathis.

This genus is found only in Australia, New Zealand, the Malayan and Fiji
Islands, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. Leaves flat, broad, parallel-veined ;
ovule solitary. Seed winged. Agathis orientalis of the East Indies is remarkable
for the quantity of valuable resin (Dammar) which it produces. (Name from the
Greek meaning a ball of thread, in allusion to the nearly spherical cone). 1 sp.*

*The number of species from New Zealand and the outlying islands recorded in
Cheeseman’s Handbook.

1

FAMILY

PINE

=
wv)

tial

Kauri Bush

Fig. 6.

(or)
bo

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Agathis australis.

The Kauri Pine is one of the most magnificent timber trees
known, but it is unfortunately fast disappearing under the
onslaughts of bush fires and needy colonists. Nor are
new plantations formed, as is the case with many other trees,
for the kauri is of such slow growth, that no man thinks it
worth his while to plant trees which take a thousand years
to mature. A kauri forest is a wonderful sight, with the
clean, erect stems rising lke grey columns to a height of
from 80 to 100 feet,—sometimes 60 or 70 feet without throwing
out a branch. The bark is thick and lead-coloured, and
peels off in heavy flakes. ‘The ashy hue of the bark
appears under certain atmospheric conditions to surround
the trunks with an undefined haze.”*~ Though from 80 to
100 feet is the usual height of the forest kauri, trees have
been found 150 feet high. There is a specimen at Mercury
Bay, which is 80 feet to the lowest branch, and 24 feet in
diameter. A tree five feet in diameter has been calculated to
be three centuries old. The undergrowth is usually not so
thick in a kauri forest as in ordinary mixed bush. A small
tree-fern, Nikau palms, a variety of Astelia, the fragrant
crimson Alsewosmia, and the climbing fern (Lygodiwm
articulatum) are, however, often found growing under the
stately pines.

The germinating kauri develops two seed leaves, narrow
and flat, extremely unlike any of those produced by the pines
of the Northern Hemisphere. The leaves in the young plants
are often spotted, and are of a reddish brown colour. ‘They
have no foot-stalks. The older leaves are thick, leathery, and
ereen. The branches are large and spreading,—leafy towards
the top of the tree. The male and female flowers are
produced in separate cones on the same tree; the
male catkins being one inch long, and the cones almost

*Kirk’s Forest Flora of New Zealand.

THE PINE FAMILY 63

round, two to three inches in diameter, and _ borne
near the tips of the branches. Hach scale of the cone
bears a single ovule. The seeds are wedge-shaped and
brown, bearing at the top on one side a thin, transparent wing,
which enables the wind to carry them readily. The kauri is
noted for its sound timber—hollow and defective trees being
rarely found. The price of the timber is usually ten shillings
for one hundred feet. The wood takes a fine polish, and is
generally wavy in grain, but a mottled variety is found which
is especially valuable in cabinet work. This mottled variety is
most frequent in rocky situations, and is sometimes caused by
the excessive development of small branchlets, but in many
cases the bark cannot keep pace in speed of growth with the
woody tissue. Flakes of bark thereupon become enclosed in
the sapwood, and under the tremendous pressure form dark
patches on a light ground. Occasionally thin films of clear
resin are also enclosed, which add to the colour and beauty of
the markings.

When the kauri trees are felled, it is a work of some
difficulty to transport them, as the country north of Auckland,
the special home of the kauri, is exceedingly rough and broken.
If the trees are growing on the banks of some stream, they are
felled, cut into suitable lengths by means of cross-cut saws,
worked by two men, and the logs rolled into the water. Here
they he until a “fresh” drives them down to the creek or
harbour where the “ boom” hes waiting. This boom is formed
of a circle of logs fastened together with chains. There may
be as many as fifty logs forming the chain, which sometimes
encloses acres of water. The logs enter the boom,—are
fastened together into a kind of raft, and towed to their
destination. If, however, the felled trees are far from deep
water, their carriage is much more difficult. A skidded road,
six to eight feet wide, is formed of greased logs. Thus a sort of
rough wooden tramway is made. The logs are hoisted on to
this road by means of “jacks,” or dragged by a team of

64 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

bullocks, anyhow, over and through the bush, breaking down
the thick undergrowth as they pass. The timber shrinks very
little if cut at the dormant season. It is used for general
building purposes,—for houses, bridges, wharves, and for boats,
masts, deck-planking, etc.

The whole tree is extremely resinous. Even the leaves of
fallen trees shew small white patches of gum when they begin
to shrivel, while large masses often form in the forks of the
branches. Chmbing for gum is a difficult and dangerous task.
The fact of the barrel of the tree being so huge, and rising so
high without a branch, renders the usual kind of climbing
impossible. A piece of weighted twine attached to a rope is
flung over the lowest bough, and the rope is hauled up over the
branch and down the other side. The climber then ascends
the rope, gains a foot-hold, and cuts out the gum from the
forks of the branches. A good tree-climber is said to make £3
or £4 per week, but men sometimes come to their death in
this dangerous work. The resin of the highest value,
however, is that which has been fossilized, and which is dug up
on lands where kauri bush once stood. This is the kauri gum
of commerce. Clear, transparent pieces command a high price,
and are used in place of amber in the making of small
ornaments. The scrapings and dust are used in the
manufacture of fire kindlers; the gum is used for varnish.
Sometimes clear pieces of gum are found in which are
embedded cones, leaves, small insects, etc. These specimens
are much admired. The colour of the gum varies from a pale
lemon-yellow to a reddish-brown, or even black. When the
children of the settlers desire a little pocket money, they will
often ask permission to go gum-digging in some newly ploughed
paddock, and are usually rewarded within a few hours by a
find of gum which will fetch several shillings at the store.
The price of the resin varies from £60 to £120 per ton. Gum
digging is the great resource of those who cannot find work
elsewhere, as a merely nominal fee is charged for digging on

THE PINE FAMILY 65

Fig. 7. Kauri Cones (3 nat. size).

6

66 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Crown lands, and the work requires only a hght iron rod and
a spade. Those who are old hands at the work are quick to
discover the best places to dig. When a large tree falls, its
roots tear up the earth, and form a mound with a hollow
beyond it. By the position of these mounds and hollows, an
expert will quickly decide on the direction in which the tree
fell. By the size of the mound, he judges the probable height
of the tree, and by the height of the tree he guesses the position
of the first branch. Then, stepping out this distance, he puts in
his spear to find the gum which lay in the forks of the branches
when the tree was alive and standing. One of the finest
collections of kauri gum has been gathered by a Mr. Rentoul
in the Kaipara. These valuable and beautiful specimens are
worthy of a fine museum. The Maoris often use pieces of gum
to light their fires, or as torches on a dark night. Such
torches burn with a bright flame, but give off a dark, heavy
smoke, with a strong resinous odour.

Genus Libocedrus.

Shrubs or trees. Branches in young plants much flattened ; four-sided when
mature. The male flowers form small catkins of 6 or 7 stamens; the female,
small cones of four woody scales. Ovules 2; seed winged. A genus of eight
species, two in Chili, two in New Zealand, and one each in New Caledonia,
Japan, China, and California. (Name from the Greek, signifying the drooping
cedar).

Libocedrus doniana (The Kawaka).

A lofty pine, 60-100 feet high, believed at first to be a Dacrydium. Its
foliage in the young stage somewhat resembles a fern. The leaves are of two
kinds, and are arranged in four rows. This four-sided arrangement is most
plainly seen in the mature branches. The male and female flowers occur on the
same tree, and are borne on the tips of the branchlets. The cone is Sin. long,
small and woody, containing either two or four seeds. The timber is finely
marked, and of a deep red colour, much valued for ornamental work by the
cabinet-maker. North Island only. Bay of Islands, Hokianga. Native name
Kawaka or Ngawaka, often termed New Zealand Arbor vite by the settlers.

Libocedrus Bidwillii (Bidwill’s Libocedrus).
This is a smaller and more common tree. Its timber is durable and useful,
but not so beautiful as that of the Kawaka. It is found in mountain districts in
both islands. The tree is often known to the bushmen as the Kaikawaka,

67

FAMILY

PINE

=
ov)

ELE

nat. size).

(

Fig. 8. Miro Berries

68 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

though Colenso states that its correct name is Pahautea. The polysyllabic name
“ Totarakirikotukutukw’’ has also been applied to it, but Colenso, with admirably
unconscious humour, states that “‘no old Maori would have thought of such a
thing.’’ It and the previous species are sometimes also called the New Zealand
Cedar, but must not be confused with Dysoxyluwm spectabile, to which this name
is often applied.

Genus Podocarpus.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves very variable. Catkins variable. Fruit a drupe,
often edible. A large genus found in tropical and sub-tropical countries.
According to the theory of Celakowsky, the female flower consists of one carpel,
and one oyule with two integuments. In most of the New Zealand species, as
the oyule ripens, the integuments become crimson and fleshy, thus attracting
birds. (Name from the Greek signifying foot-fruited, in allusion to the fleshy
peduncle). 7 sp.

Podocarpus ferruginea (The Rusty Podocarpus or Miro).

A large tree, covered with a grey or blackish bark,
which peels off in large flakes. The leaves are narrow and
pointed, and are set in two rows on the branches. Male
and female flowers are on separate trees—both axillary.
The fruit is of the size of a small plum. It is of a bright
red colour, and 1s covered when first ripe with a waxy
powder, which gives it a delicate bloom. Native pigeons are
very fond of the miro berries, and become very fat and
lazy when feeding on them. These fruits have the odour and
the taste of turpentine. They ripen in July and August, and
the flowers are produced in October and November. The
timber is hard and tough. It is not easily worked, neither is
it so durable as that of most of the other pines. The gum
which oozes from this tree possesses healing properties. It is
found in both islands. ‘The specific name alludes to the rusty
colour of the leaves.

Podocarpus nivalis (The Mountain Totara).

A much smaller tree than the preceding, often only a low shrub, densely
branched. The branches grow outwards rather than upwards, and send out
roots from their lower surfaces, thus forming a matted growth oyer the surface
of the ground. These matted roots serve to hold together the loose soil and
shingle of the alpine slopes, thus preventing landslips. The leaves are thick and
leathery, with a stout midrib. The integuments of the ovule become very

THE PINE FAMILY 69

swollen and form an attractive fruit, pleasantly sweet to the taste. Podocarpus
niwalis grows at an altitude of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The specific name has
reference to its sub-alpine habitat.

Podocarpus totara (The Totara).

A lofty timber tree, one of the most valuable in the colony.
The wood is of a reddish colour, and is equalled only by the
kauri for lightness, toughness, and durability. It is used for
telegraph posts, wharf piles, and sleepers—in fact, for anything
where durability is required. The Maoris hollowed out their
war canoes, sometimes seventy feet in length, from single
totara logs. Its timber was so highly prized by the natives
that fine, healthy trees became heirlooms, and disputes for
possession of these trees often led to bloodshed. Its chief
defect is in its brittle nature, as, when loaded to its full
strength, it may break suddenly without warning. It is very
hard, and resists the boring of the teredo or ship-worm (a
marine boring mollusc) more successfully than any other
timber. This tree is peculiar to New Zealand, and attains its
greatest height on low levels. The stiff, narrow leaves
culminate in a sharp, needle-like point. The bark of the tree
is often horizontally rmged near the base, and hangs in thin,
papery strips. The foliage is of a brownish hue, especially in
the young state.

Podocarpus spicata (The Spiked Podocarpus or Black Pine).

This pine, known to the natives as the Matai, is a lofty tree,
but never of very great diameter. In its young state the
branches are drooping, and bear scattered leaves of a deep
coppery tint. When mature, however, the branches are
upright and spiky lke those of an ordinary pine. Both
male and female flowers are born in spikes; hence the name
spicata.

The young and the old trees are so extraordinarily different
in appearance, that they were for some time believed to be
separate species. Specimens have, however, been observed

70 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

with the weeping, copper-tinted branches below, and ordinary
upright ones above. These are generally young trees of from
ten to twenty years old.

At a certain time of the year the matai trunks present a
brilliant appearance. Where the bark peels off, bright scarlet
or crimson patches appear below, and a tree thus scaled is a
beautiful object.

The wood of this tree is of great value, but 1s very slow in
growth. It is often used for the floors of ballrooms, skating
rinks, ete., as it takes an excellent polish, and can be made to
reflect almost lke a looking-glass. One curious fact in
connection with this timber is, that it will le prostrate in the
bush for years without decaying. Mr. Buchanan tells of a
prostrate matai over which three broadleaf trees (Griselinia
littoralis) had grown, enfolding it with their roots. These trees.
were calculated to be over 300 years old, yet the matai was
perfectly sound, and was split up for fencing posts. Another
was discovered with a fuchsia stem nine inches in diameter
erowing across it.

One would not at first sight, imagine the matai to be one of
the Coniferae, as its leaves are flat rather than needle-shaped,
and its fruit is lke a small black plum, contaiming only one
seed. The cotyledons, also, are two in number, as in any
broad-leaved tree. The shape of the mature tree is not conical
like that of a pine, but spreading, after the fashion of an
ordinary dicotyledon.

Podocarpus dacrydioides (The Dacrydiuwm-like Podocarpus or
White Pine.)
Native name, Kahikatea. The following, probably fanciful, derivation has
been given of this name: tea, whitish, from the colour of the wood, and kahika,
an ancient chief.

The Nga-potiki Maoris tell a pretty story concerning the
origin of this stately tree. It is said that a chief named
Pou-ranga-hua was once blown out to sea in his canoe and
cast ashore upon a strange island. The name of this island

THE PINE FAMILY Val

Fig. 9. The Totara (Podocarpus totara).

72 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

was Hawaiki. Here Pou-ranga-hua abode for some time, and
was kindly treated by the inhabitants, but longed to return
to his home and his wife. His canoe, however, was destroyed,
and he had no means of reaching the mainland. At_ last
his yearnings for home could be stifled no longer, and he
begged a huge bird, of the name of Tawhaitari, to fly with him
to Aotea-roa (New Zealand). On approaching the mainland,
Pou reached out his hand, and stretching under the wings
of the great bird, pulled out some of its finest and downiest
plumes, which he threw into the ocean. From these plumes
arose a lofty tree, which still bears fruit in the midst of
the waters. A branch of this was broken off by the
wind and cast ashore, and from this branch came all the
kahikatea forests of New Zealand. It is said that Pou carried
with him upon his aerial journey two baskets of seed kumaras,
which were unknown in New Zealand until that time.

The trunk of this tree is often. branchless for seventy or
eighty feet. The young leaves are flat and bronze-coloured,
but those of the mature tree are green and scale-like. The
catkins are very small, and are borne on the tips of the
branchlets. The fruit is set upon a curious red berry, eaten
by the Maoris. This berry or drupe is not the actual fruit,
but is formed from the scales which bear the fruit. In their
earliest stages these scales are white, and each one carries
an ovule. As a rule, only one of these ovules comes to
perfection. When this has occurred, the scales unite, become
fleshy, and of a rich crimson colour, forming an oval receptacle
with the shining blue-black nut embedded at its point.
The undeveloped ovules are still seen as little white points
at the base of the receptacle.

The timber of the kahikatea 1s hght in colour, and the logs,
having the same specific gravity as water, will not float
until fully immersed. Some of these logs, however, will
not float at all, and are known to the bushmen as “ sinkers.”’

THE PINE FAMILY 73

Fig. 10. The White Pine or Kahikatea.

74 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The wood is very suitable for the manufacture of paper and
is now used for that purpose. The tree grows chiefly in
swampy districts and in both islands.

Genus Dacrydium.

Shrubs or trees, found only in New Zealand, Tasmania, the Malay
Archipelago, and the islands of the Pacific. Leaves narrow and scale-like. Male
and female flowers on separate trees. Fruit, a small nut enclosed in a fleshy
cup. (Name from the Greek for a tear, in allusion to the weeping habit of some

nf

of the species). 7 sp.

Dacrydium cupressinum (The Rimu or Red Pine.)

This pine is one of the most beautiful objects in the New
Zealand bush. Its pale-green, drooping branches differ from
those of any other forest tree. “The leaves are only small
prickles, running up a long stem, from which branch out other
small stems whose united weight causes the main stem to hang
hike the branches of the weeping willow.” The whole tree,
when young, has the appearance of a lycopodium. Spruce-
beer was made from the young branches by Captain Cook, and
proved an excellent remedy for the scurvy. The seed is
curious, consisting of a nut placed in a cup lke that of an
acorn. This fruit 1s tiny, but beautiful, the nut being of a
blue-black and the cup red. The male flowers are produced in
inconspicuous green catkins at the end of erect branchlets.
The female are solitary, at the tip of curved branchlets, and
the nut is about one-eighth of an inch long. Prickles such as
those on the leaves run spirally round the trunk. The timber
is of a red or yellow colour, and beautifully marked. It
is used to great advantage in dadoes, panels, and for ceilings.
The Taranaki rimu is especially straight in the grain and
very resinous. It is much used for bridge-building in that
district. The heart-wood is extremely resinous, and was made
into torches by the natives. It was split into shreds and tied
into bundles, and only needed the ashes to be occasionally
knocked off to burn with a bright, steady blaze. The rimu

75

THE PINE FAMILY

Fig. 11. Kahikatea Berries (nat. size).

76 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

bark is said to be healing, but must be taken, so say the
natives, from the side of the tree toward the sunrise.

Dacrydium laxifolium (Zhe Loose-leaved Dacrydium).

This is the smallest conifer known. Trees of only two inches in height may
sometimes be found in fruit. The largest specimens are from 2 to 3 feet high, but
these have weak, straggling stems, and are compelled to support themselves by
the bush amongst which they grow. The flowers and fruit are similar to those of
the ordinary rimu.

Genus Phyllocladus.

A small genus, confined to New Zealand, Tasmania and Borneo. Leaves of
two kinds, some linear, others small and scale-like. True leaves are found only
upon young plants. As the tree grows these leaves disappear and their place is
taken by fan-shaped phylloclades. Male and female flowers upon the same tree.
Fruit, a small nut. (Name from the Greek signifying twig-leaf, in reference to
the fact that the leaves are replaced by shoots). 3 sp.

Phyllocladus trichomanoides (The Celery-leaved Pine).

The native name of this tree—Tanekaha—is said to signify
virile, or strong in growth. It is chiefly remarkable for the
beauty of its leaf stalks, which are so enlarged and flattened
out as to present the appearance of true leaves. In shape
they are fan-like, and closely resemble the fronds of a maiden-
hair fern. This curious metamorphosis of the leaf-stalks
usually takes place in those plants which inhabit hot and arid
regions.

The female flower of this pine is borne upon the edges of
the phylloclades, and the male flowers upon catkins at the tips of
the branches. The seedling tanekaha bears long, narrow
leaves, brownish-red above and green below, but these soon
fall away, and the true leaves are seen only as small scales on
the ends of the branches. The fruit is a small, inconspicuous
nut. The tree will grow to a height of sixty or seventy feet,
and the timber is much valued for its strength and durability.
The bark contains a large quantity of tannin, and a red dye is
obtained from it which is sometimes used in the preparation of
kid for gloves. The tannic acid of the bark is a valuable

eri

THE PINE FAMILY

A Spray of Rimu (nat, size)

Fig. 12.

78 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

astringent. The young saplings make excellent walking
sticks. If the stem, while growing, is bruised by some blunt
instrument, at regular intervals, the red dye contained in the
bark stains the white wood, giving to the stick a beautiful
mottled appearance.

Phyllocladus alpinus (Zhe Mountain Celery Pine or Toa-toa.)

This tree, hke Phyllocladus trichomanoides, produces no
true leaves, but only flattened twigs, which exercise all the
functions of leaves. These, however, are very differently
shaped from those of the lowland tanekaha. They are
clustered heavily together at the ends of the branches, and are
thick and fleshy, rather irregular in outline, and usually finely-
toothed. The male catkins are found in clusters of from three
to seven at the tips of the branches. The female are in
cones, the ovules in fleshy cups of a bright crimson colour.

The growth of this tree is rather curious. The
lower branches bend down in a_ sweeping curve,
rooting where they touch the ground. The tips of these
branches, however, rise again, and form the stem of a new
tree. This, in its turn, when its own branches are sufficiently
erown, will repeat the process and so form another new
generation. An old tree will in this way form a series of
rings, with the parent still growing in the centre. The tree
thus performs for itself the process of layering carried out by
nursery gardeners with many herbaceous plants. (There
must be, one would think, some difficulty in the ripening or
dispersion of its seeds, which has caused the tree to adopt a
different method of reproduction.)

~l
_
——

THE SCREW-PINE FAMILY

Fig. 13. Freycinetia Banksii (The Kie-kie) Flower (3 nat. size).

80 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Pandanaceae.

THE SCREW-PINE FAMILY.

Distribution.—Chiefly a tropical family. Some of the species form large
trees, but the majority are thick bushes. The name Screw-pine was given on
account of the remarkable twisting of the stem in some species. The various
species of Pandanus are noted for the large aerial roots, which, like flying
buttresses, prop the stem. Their leaves contain a strong fibre, which is used
in the making of sugar-sacks and fish-bags.

Freycinetia Banksii (The Kie-kie).

A lofty, climbing shrub. Leaves 2ft. in length, finely-toothed, concave,
sheathing at the base, with prickly margins. Flowers in terminal spikes,
3in.-4in. long, surrounded by white, fleshy bracts. Male flowers consisting of
bundles of stamens, female of several ovaries, surrounded by infertile stamens.
Fruit an oblong green spadix, with numerous, closely compressed carpels,
each in. long ; the lower part soft and hollow, filled with pendulous seeds ; the
upper part hard and solid. Seeds small, numerous, oblong. The fleshy white
bracts and young spikes of fruit are eaten by the natives and by children. The
long fibrous leaves are used in the manufacture of baskets. North Island :
and west coast of the South Island to Milford Sound. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori
name Kie-kie. The fruit is usually called Tawhara. 1 sp.

Palmaceae.

THE PatmM FAMILY.

Trees or shrubs, rarely climbers. Leaves large, divided, fan-like, with
sheathing petioles. Flowers on a branched axis, enclosed in a spathe.
Perianth of 6 segments; stamens 6. Fruit a berry or drupe.

Distribution.—This family of plants, which is said to be more valuable than
any other, is represented on the mainland of New Zealand by a single species—
the Nikau Palm—Rhopalostylis sapida. This tree is closely related to the Betel-
nut of the Hast (Areca Catechu).

Palm-trees are chiefly found in tropical regions, where they are often of
wonderful utility, in bestowing upon the inhabitants of those lands shelter, food,
light, heat, and clothing. The Coco-nut Palm, the Date Palm, the Sago Palm,

Sl

FAMILY

SCREW-PINE

THE

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Freycinetia Banksii Fruit (tawhara), (3 nat. size.

Fig. 14.

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82 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

and the Oil Palm together furnish sugar, starch, oil, resin, cordage, writing
materials, material for building and thatching, edible fruits, pleasant beverages,
vinegar, soap, etc. The palms reach their southernmost limit in New Zealand.

The stem of the palm differs greatly in structure from
that of other trees. The ordinary forest tree grows in
thickness by depositing fresh layers of tissue between the
wood and the bark. If a felled trunk be observed, it will
be seen at once that there is or has been a central pith, and
around this, concentric shells of wood have been deposited.
In young plants, the pith occupies a considerable portion of
the stem, in old trees it becomes obsolete. The stem of the
mature tree 1s, in fact, made up of a series of hollow cylinders
of woody tissue tapering to the top, and placed one inside the
other. The growth of such a stem is due to the presence of a
generating tissue immediately below the bark, which annually
gives rise to a layer of wood. Hach woody sheath is in
reality made up of a number of longitudinal strands or bundles
(the fibro-vascular bundles). Between the bundles, lines may
be seen radiating out from the centre to the outer edge of the
wood. These are the medullary or pith rays. The bundles
comprising such a trunk are said to be open, because the
generative tissue does not become exhausted, but the stem
continues to grow in thickness from year to year. Such a
structure is typical of the stem of a pine or dicotyledon.

On the other hand, in a monocotyledonous tree, such as a
palm, the pith always constitutes a considerable portion of the
stem, and the woody bundles are scattered through it, not
arranged in a circle round it as in the dicotyledons. Such
bundles are no longer capable of growth in thickness, as the
generating tissue 1s exhausted in their production. They are
therefore said to be closed. The stem of a palm-tree therefore
tapers but little, and cannot go on increasing in_ thickness.
This is typical of a monocotyledon”.

*The stem of the cabbage-tree, Cordyline, is exceptional.

2

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8

PALM FAMILY

7
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AMEN

A Nikau Grove (Rhopalostylis sapida).

Fig. 15.

84 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The fan-lke appearance of the beautiful leaves is due to the
splitting up of the large, entire leaf, caused by the shrinkage
of certain tissues. The flowers are sometimes borne on the
axils of the leaves, but in other cases are terminal. They
are, however, always enclosed while in bud, in a large spathe
or sheath.

Genus Ithopalostylis.

Trees with pinnate leaves, and ringed trunks. Flowers in large axillary
panicles. Flower-buds enclosed in a spathe. Stamens 6. Fruit adrupe. 2.sp.

Rhopalostylis sapida (7he Nikaw Palm).

A tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height. Stem ringed, green. Leaves 4ft. in
length. Spathes 2 or 3, 12im. long. Flowering axis white; flowers white.
Drupe 4in. long. Both islands: as far south as Akaroa on the east coast and
Dusky Bay on the west.

This elegant and graceful palm is found usually in thick
bush. Any specimen standing alone will have its leaves
bruised or broken. The Maoris used the nikau leaves in the
construction of their whares, or native huts. A frame-work
was made of manuka sticks, and the roof and walls composed
of palm leaves, which formed a covering as water-tight as if
built of iron. These leaves keep out the wet in a marvellous
manner, even though sitting underneath them, one can see
the clouds and stars through the interstices. Hvery separate
leaf division is a little channel, which conducts the rain-drops
to the ground outside. Nikau whares are extremely pretty
and picturesque, but are now rarely seen, owing to the
unfortunate cheapness of corrugated iron. Bushmen, how-
ever, still make them occasionally for temporary residences.

The top of the stem is fleshy and juicy, and is sometimes
eaten. The mikau palm will stand fire almost as well as the
cabbage-tree. After a big bush fire most of the trees are
killed, except the mikaus, the cabbage-trees, and the fern-
trees.

The flowers are sessile upon a thick, fleshy axis, the whole
inflorescence being enclosed when young in a large spathe.

PALM FAMILY

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86 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The fruit is of a vivid red when ripe, appearing lke a huge
bunch of coral. The berries are about the size of a large pea,
and are extremely hard. ‘They have been used by settlers for
bird-shooting when ammunition was scarce. ‘Though so hard,
however, they are much relished by the kakas or wild parrots.
These birds, unable to find foothold upon the smooth stem of
the palm, hang upside down, with one claw fixed on the base

of a leaf, and thus enjoy their meal.

Fig. 17. Flower of the Nikau. Rhopalostylis sapida, (4 nat. size).

The leaf-strips are much used by the Maoris for weaving
into baskets and kits of every description.

The bark is ringed with cicatrices formed by the falling off
of the dead leaves. The base of a fallen leaf, with the fan-like
part torn off, makes an excellent basket for carrying flowers.

A curious six-headed specimen of the nikau, about forty
feet high, was discovered not long ago in the Kaipara.
(Fig. 19).

THE PALM FAMILY

Fig. 18. Flower of Nikau (nat. size),

88 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

A species of Polypodiwm is sometimes found climbing up
the nikau stem, but as a rule the trunk is too smooth and
polished to allow creepers to gain any hold upon it.

Liliaceae.

THE Liny FAMILY.

Distribution.—An extensive family, occurring in all climates. The greater
number of these beautiful plants are herbaceous, with bulbous roots, but in
tropical countries they sometimes attain to the size of large trees. Two of the
most notable plants of this family, found in New Zealand, are the Cabbage Tree
(Cordyline australis) and the Flax (Phormiwm tenax). The lilies, tulips, and
hyacinths are well-known garden flowers, while the onion, leek, and asparagus
are useful vegetables. The Butcher’s broom is the only shrubby British species.
The calyx of all liliaceous plants is petaloid, that is, the sepals have the
appearance of petals. The herbaceous species usually produce large and showy
flowers.

Key to the Genera.

(a) Leaves net-veined. Fruit a berry.

Climbing shrubs. Rhipogonum, p. 90.
Creeping herbs. Luzuriaga, p. 92.

(b) Leaves parallel-veined. Fruita berry,
Glabrous terrestrial herbs. Berries blue. Dianella, p. 98.
Tufted silky herbs, usually ‘epiphytic. Astelia, p. 98.
Trees, or rarely herbs. Flowers white. Cordyline, p. 92.

(c) Leaves parallel-veined. Fruit a capsule.

1. Flowers racemed, yellow, with spreading perianth. Bulbinella.
Flowers panicled. D

2. Flowers white, perianth spreading. Pedicels jointed. Arthropodium p. 100.
Flowers red and yellow, tubular. Phormium, p 102.
Flowers, solitary, in spathes (sheathing

bracts), when in bud. Herpolirion, p. 108.

Genus Rhipogonum.

A genus of three species, one New Zealand and two Australian. Rope-like
climbers with alternate leaves, and racemes of greenish flowers. Perianth of 6
leaflets. Stamens, 6; longer than the petals. Fruit, a berry, scarlet. (Name
from the Greek, meaning jointed twig). 1. sp.

THE PALM FAMILY 89

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Fig. 19. Abnormally branched Nikau (Rhopalostylis sapida).

90 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Rhipogonum scandens (The Climbing Rhipogonum).

This is one of the most curious plants of the order. No
one who saw for the first time the black, snaky hane-like
stems of the supple-jack, would dream of relegating this plant
to the hly tribe. The flower is green and inconspicuous, and
is borne in long spikes or racemes, at the end of the shoots.
It is only by noting the number and arrangement of petals
and stamens, that one can realize that the Rhipogonum is a
lly. This strangling creeper forms one of the chief obstacles
in getting through the bush; and occasionally renders progress
impossible. The brown and black ropes hang and twist
everywhere, binding one tree to another, and forming loops
and nooses above and below. ‘The leaves, which are seen
in any number only near the ends of the shoots, are opposite,
oval, and entire, thick and leathery, with a metallic sheen
upon them. The berries are oval, pointed at the end, and of
a brillant scarlet. The wiry stems are so strong, that they
may be used as cords without fear of breaking. Rope-ladders
have been made from them, for the purpose of climbing the
steep cliffs which shut in the Wanganui River. They are
used also in basket-work. In the Chatham Islands, we hear
of native huts built of fern-posts, lashed together with supple-
jacks, and thatched with toi grass; also of rafts formed of
the flower stalks of Phormiwm Tenax, spliced with supple-
jacks.

The roots of the Rhipogonuwm are used by bushmen as a
medicine, and the plant is sometimes called “‘ Bush Sarsa-
parila.” The native name is Kare-ao, which is plausibly
interpreted to mean a twisting rope. FI. Dec.-Feb.

Genus Luzuriaga.

Small, creeping, glabrous herbs, with stems knotted at the joints. Leaves
with netted venation, alternate. Flowers regular. Perianth of 6 leaflets.
Fruit a berry. A genus of two species,.one in South America and one in New
Zealand.

THE LILY FAMILY

Fig. 20. Spray of Supple-jack (% nat. size),

‘92 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Luzuriaga marginata®™ (The Marginate Luzuriaga).

A pretty little plant, found chiefly in hilly districts. Leaves shining, #in.

in length. Petioles twisted. Flower terminal, white, #in. long. Berry round.
Both islands. Fl. Dec. and Jan. (The plant appears under the synonym
Callixene parviflora in Hooker’s Handbook and as Hnargea marginata in
Cheeseman).

Genus Cordyline.

A genus found in New Zealand, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. The five
New Zealand species are all endemic. Herbs or trees. Leaves crowded, and
sword-like. Flowers regular, bell-shaped, white. Stamens inserted on the
petals. Berry whitish, containing angular, black seeds. (Name from the Greek
signifying a club). 5. sp.

Cordyline belongs to the sub-family Dracenoideae, and is
therefore related to the dragon-trees. Dragon’s blood is the
resin which exudes from the bark of Dracena Draco. A very
famous specimen of this tree existed on the island of Teneriffe.
It was supposed to be about 6000 years old, but was
unfortunately blown down in 1868. It was then 70 feet
high, and nearly 45 feet in girth.

A peculiar secondary thickening of the stem takes place
in this sub-family. The primary arrangement of the bundles
of the stem is the same as in one of the palm-trees (v.
p- 82); but after all the woody cylinders have been originated
and are in course of development, a generating tissue appears in
certain regions of the stem round the bundles, and grows
radially, thus giving rise to secondary wood. For a fuller
description of the processes of division and extension of the
growing tissue, some text book of anatomy should be con-
sulted. The anatomy of the stem in the New Zealand species
of Cordyline does not appear to be known at all fully, and
would probably afford a profitable subject of investigation.

Diels makes a curious mistake with regard to C. australis.
He is surprised to find that it has a xerophytic structure,

*This name is given on the authority of Engler and Prantl’s Phanzenfamilien.

THE LILY FAMILY 93.

though it grows, according to him, in dense shade. As a
matter of fact, the cabbage tree, though often found in swamps,
is characteristic of open dry lands and bare grassy hill sides.
(See fig. 21). It is, therefore, not a matter for wonder that
the leaves should have devices protecting them against
excessive transpiration. The stomata are placed in the grooves
of the leaves, and are covered by cuticular projections, and
thus the passage of gases from and into the leaf 1s checked.

Fig. 21. Cabbage Tree Bush,

A similar arrangement is to be found in Dracophylluwm
latifolium.

Cordyline australis.

(Ti-kouka. The Cabbage Tree, or Palm Lily).

This is allied to the celebrated Ti (Cordyline terminalis) ot
the South Sea Islands, which formed an important part of the
food of the Polynesians. The prepared roots were eaten, and

94 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

from them an intoxicating drink was also obtained. The leaves
are eaten by cattle. They are also used in thatching, and a
rough kind of cloth is woven from the fibres. The genus is
found over the greater part of the tropical old world, but
chiefly in New Zealand, Australia, and the islands of the
Pacific. There are several interesting species found in New
Zealand—some tall and palm-like,—others stemless, sending

up their long, narrow leaves straight from the crown of the

plant just above the soil.

The cabbage-tree forms one of the most striking objects of
the New Zealand bush scenery. Its inappropriate name is
said to have been given by the early settlers, who used the
young and tender heads in place of cabbage. Palm Lily,
however, is a better term. The long bare stems, with
their bushy heads of grass-like leaves, cannot be contounded

with those of any other tree, and give to the landscape a

io
CO
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THE LILY FAMILY

strangely tropical appearance. It is one of the largest of the
ljJiaceous plants. Colenso states that he once saw a specimen,

Fig. 23. Cordyline australis (flower and leaf) 4 nat. size.

the trunk of which was sufficiently large to be used as a store-
room. A Maori had fitted a door into the trunk, and kept his
tools and baskets within it, though the tree was still living.

96 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

These plants appear to be wonderfully tenacious of life,—indeed
it seems to be almost impossible to kill them. A number of
trees were once cut down and thrown over a fence on to the
shingly beach of a creek. For eight months they lay there,
one fortnight rolling up and down in the salt tide, the next
baking high and dry in the sun. At last an exceptionally
high tide hfted them back again over the fence into the
paddock. As soon as they found themselves upon soil once
more, they sent out rootlets, and shortly afterwards were seen
to be budding vigorously.

A gun-digger in the north made his chimney of cabbage-
tree’ stems, digging a trench, and setting in the trunks side by
side. ‘These were then nailed together, and for some months a
fire was kept alight continuously,—until the stems were
burned through, and only parts of the outside bark left. The
man then left the place, and within a short time, that which
had been a blackened chimney, became a mass of living green,
Even a dry chip, flying from the axe, will, if it falls into a damp
place, root and bud. The fibre of the leaves is perhaps stronger
than that of the flax (Phormiuwm), and is much used by the
settlers in place of twine. The leaves are well adapted for
the making of paper.

The flowers of the various kinds are all white or cream-
coloured, and give out a strong, sweet scent. They are much
visited by bees. The fruit is not capsular, as is usual among
the lhhaceae, but succulent, and contains a number of angular
black seeds.

The cabbage-tree differs from most of its tribe in bearing a
huge tap-root, instead of bulbs or rhizomes. ‘This root, when
the plant is dead, rots away in the ground, and leaves a
narrow, round hole, sometimes eight feet in depth. Ferns and
small plants grow over the hole, and an unwary rider may be
easily thrown if the horse catch his foot in it.

The decaying leaves of the cabbage-tree are often phos-
phorescent at night. Pigeons feed upon the milky-white

THE LILY FAMILY Q7

Fig. 24. Astelia Cunninghamii (7; nat. size.)

98 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

berries. It is found in both islands, and flowers in November
and December.

Cordyline Banksw is distinguished from Cordyline australis by its much
longer leaves, 5 ft. to 6 ft. in length, and its drooping panicle of flowers.

Cordyline indivisa is a smaller tree, not often more than 10 ft. in height. Its
leaves are very thick and leathery, with yellowish midribs. This plant has also a
drooping flower-panicle. The fibre of its leaves was used by the Maoris in the
making of garments, and is said to be stronger than the fibre of the Phormium.

Cordyline pumilio is a small grass-like herb, with leaves not exceeding 2 ft. in
length, and a loose spreading panicle of white flowers. It is found only in the
northern parts of the North Island, and is easily distinguished from the other
species.

Genus Dianella.

A small genus, chiefly Australian. Rigid, shining herbs, with large panicles
of white or blue flowers. Leaves long, narrow. Perianth of 6 leaflets. Stamens 6.
Filaments incurved. Berry round or oblong. Seed, round. Root a rhizome.
(Name from the Latin “‘ Diana,’’ the Goddess of the woods). 1 sp.

Dianella intermedia (The Intermediate Dianella).

This plant is found in woods or open fern lands. The leaves are from 1 ft.
to 5ft. in length, and the flower panicles 10 in. to 18in. long. Flowers 4in.
across, white or pale blue. Berry 4in. long, blue. Both islands, also Norfolk
Island. Fl. Nov.-Dec.

Genus Astelia.

Large herbs, with heads of sword-hke leaves, usually

epiphytic. (Name from the Greek, meaning wanting
a stem or trunk). A very noticeable genus, forming

immense tufts high up on the branches of the loftiest
forest trees. The flowers are produced in large spreading
panicles, hke those of the Cabbage-tree (Cordyline). The
male and female flowers are found upon separate plants,
and owing to the height at which they grow, there has been
some difficulty in matching the sexes. Now and again, in
traversing the bush, one will find a mass which has been torn
from its support by its own weight, and has fallen to the ground,
In such a case it is possible to examine at leisure the long,
silky, chaffy leaves, with their sharply defined nerves, and—if it
happens to be the flowering or fruiting time—the great silky

THE LILY FAMILY 99

panicle of sweet, creamy or purplish blossoms, or close-set,
transparent, wine-coloured berries. In the Kuropean forests,
the trees invariably shed their leaves during winter, thus
giving to the smaller plants which grow beneath them a
possibility of obtaining air and sunshine, which is never
available in the New Zealand bush. The dark-green gloom
of the latter is never lhghtened, and few rays of sunshine can
ever filter through its leafy roof. The smaller plants are thus

Fig. 25. Astelia nervosa (+ nat. size)

threatened with death by suffocation, and their only chance of
life is to raise themselves to the level of the forest trees, and so
share with them the upper, sunnier air. Some, starting on
the ground, wreathe themselves around a sturdy tree-trunk
and climb steadily, leaving behind them leafless rope-lke
stems, until they reach a place where they may open out into
leaves and flowers, with some surety of bringing them to
perfection. Others, like the Astelias, rest securely in the

100 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

forks of the highest branches, eighty or one hundred feet
above the ground, appearing to the beholder from below hke
huge birds’ nests.

The flowers of Astelia are sometimes tinged with purple ;
and the long sprays of berries, with intermingled colours of
red, yellow, and green, are very pretty. The latter have a
sweet taste, and are eaten by the Maoris. There are two
species of New Zealand Astelias which grow in the open,
instead of in the bush, and are consequently not epiphytic.
These are linearis and nervosa, both of which are found in
sub-alpine districts in the North, but at lower levels in the
South Island.

The Astelias, like many other epiphytic plants, provide
against a long drought, by stormg up water in the thick,
curved bases of their circle of leaves. In the hottest and
driest summer, when even the great forest trees are beginning
to show signs of drought, the climber can rarely pull down a
tuft of Astelia without a sprinkle of water-drops. These
plants are natives of Australia, Tasmania, the Pacific Islands,
and New Zealand. The latter country possesses seven species,
of which all are endemic. The berry is 1-celled in A. linearis,
and A. Cunninghamit; it is 3-celled in the other species.

A. Cunninghamii—Leaves 2 ft.-5ft. long, 4im. to lin. broad, silky.
Flower scape 1 ft.-14$ft., much branched. Perianth jin. A. Solandri is
distinguished from A. Cunninghamii by its broader leaves, (3 in. across), and its
larger flowers (4in. in diameter). A. linearis is a small alpine species, with
leaves rarely more than 6 in. in length, and long, red berries.

Genus Arthropodium.

Herbs, with long grass-like leaves, and large, showy panicles of white flowers.
Perianth of 6 leaflets; stamens 6. Fruit a capsule; seeds angular, black.
Roots fibrous, fleshy. A small genus, found in Australia, Tasmania, and New
Zealand. (Name from the Greek signifying jointed foot or pedicel.) 2 sp.

Arthropodium cirrhatum (The Curled Arthropodium).
A handsome plant, 2ft.-3ft. high, with shining leaves and conspicuous white
flowers. Bracts leafy ; leaves 1ft. long, 1din. broad. Flowers #in.-lin. across.
The stamens of this plant are exceedingly beautiful. Seen under a magnifying

size)

nat.

1

FAMILY

7
u

42
a
=
=|
a
—
4
=|
n
|
z
BR 3
loeal &
=
4 8
|
a
o
+
n
<j

THE

26.

see
*
*

Fig.

102 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

glass they resemble small bottle-brushes, covered with orange or pink bristles.
Northern Island, growing profusely upon rocky cliffs. Fl. Noy.-Dec. (Name in
allusion to the brush-like filaments.) Usually known as the Rock Lily.

Arthropodium candidum (The White Arthropodium).
A much smaller plant, usually 7in. or 8in. in height, with soft, grass-like
leaves. Flower-stem very slender; flowers white, 5in. across, with recurved
petals. Damp woods, both islands. Fl. Jan.-Feb.

Genus Bulbinella.

Herbs, with fibrous or bulbous roots. A large genus, found in all temperate
climates. Leaves from the root, long and narrow. Flowers in racemes.
Perianth of 6 leaflets; stamens 6; filaments of stamens bearded. Fruita
capsule ; seeds black. 2 sp.

Bulbinella Rossii (Ross’s Bulbinella.)

A tall, sturdy plant, sometimes reaching 4ft. in height. Stem very thick ;
leaves 8in.-16in. long, recurved. Flowers yellow, asphodel-like, 4in. across-
This plant is abundant in Lord Auckland’s group, and in Campbell’s Island,
while the smaller species, Bulbinella Hookeri, is found in lowland and sub-alpine
pastures in both the Northern and Southern Islands of New Zealand. The
flowers are as large as in the former species, but the leaves and the whole plant
are smaller. It is frequently—at least in the Southern part of New Zealand—
known as the Maori Onion. In some places a whole mountain side may be seen
covered with a blaze of yellow from the presence of myriads of racemes of this
plant. Fl. Oct.-Dec.

Genus Phormium.

Large, tufted, perennial herbs, with fibrous roots, and radical isobilateral
leaves. Flowersin large panicles. Perianth of 6 leaflets, tubular, red, or yellow.
Stamens 6, longer than the petals. Fruit a long capsule, many seeded. A
genus of two species, both endemic. (Name from the Greek for a basket, in
allusion to the use of the leaves by the Maoris in basket-making). Maori name,
Harakeke.

Phormium tenax (The New Zealand Flax, or Flax-Lily).

This is a remarkable species, peculiar to New Zealand and
Norfolk Island. Like the cabbage-tree, it forms a distinct and
unmistakeable feature of the New Zealand landscape. It is
totally unlike the flax-plant known to Europeans, though the
two may be compared in the strength and usefulness of their
fibres. The Linaceae (Flax Tribe) constitute a family in

THE LILY FAMILY

Fig. 27. Arthropodium cirrhatum (The Rock Lily) (3 nat. size.)

104 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

themselves, and are all small, herbaceous plants, with delicate,
pale-blue petals. But the flax of the New Zealand swamps
and hillsides is an entirely different plant. The coarse, dark-
ereen leaves are often six feet or more in length, while its
flower-stem occasionally rises to a height of fifteen feet. The
finest variety 1s found by running water, while the plant of
the stagnant swamp remains comparatively small.

The settler is never in want of a piece of twine with a flax
bush growing near his home. He has merely to take one of
the long leaves, and tear a strip from it, and he holds in his
hand a piece of string that it is almost impossible to break.
The Phormium fibre is stronger than that of any other flax, but
it 1s also more brittle when twisted. As to the treatment of it
by the natives in the early days, we read in ‘“ Nicholas’s
Voyage,” (1814), that “the natives, after having cut 1t down
and brought it home green in bundles, scrape it with a large
mussel-shell, and take the heart out of it, splitting 1t with
their thumb-nails. The outside they throw away, and spread
the rest out in the sun to dry, which makes it as white as
snow. ‘They spin it in a double thread, with the hand on the
thigh, and then work it into mats, also by hand. Three
women may work on one mat at a time.”

This plant was known in England in the early part of the
nineteenth century. In the Annual Register of 1819, it was
stated that ropes made from the Phormiuwm had been
experimented with in the Portsmouth dockyards, and found to
stand the test. The ropes were said to be strong, pliable, and
very silky.

A Maori named Tupai visited England in the time of
George III., and was amused to see a plant of flax growing
in a pot under glass. It is said to have been cultivated in the
open by a Frenchman of the name of Freycinet, in 1813, when
it grew to a height of six feet, and bore a large spike of
flowers. It seems also to have been, a little later, successfully
cultivated in the British Isles, and to have ripened seeds as

THE LILY FAMILY 105

far northas the Orkneys. It can bear uninjured a temperature
of 15° Fahrenheit, and it is only at 9° that the tops of the
leaves become frost-bitten. It appears to be a plant suitable
for universal naturalization, on account of the varying
temperature it will bear unhurt, and the fact that sheep and
cattle do not usually eat it.

Fig. 28. Phormium tenax. (The New Zealand Flax.)

The root of the Phormiwm is a thick, creeping rhizome.
The leaves have no footstalks, but ascend straight from the
crown of the plant. The flowers are more curious than
beautiful, and are of a dull, dingy red, or sometimes yellow
colour. The dark stamens hang out far below the petals, and
are tipped with bright yellow anthers. These blossoms secrete
a great quantity of nectar, which is very attractive to birds.

106 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

They are visited constantly by the twis and parrots, which
thus cross-pollinate them. The seeds are black, shining, flat,
and packed closely in a capsule.

This plant has often been used medicinally. A pulp made
from the roasted and macerated roots 1s sometimes applied as
a poultice for abscesses, while a decoction of the same is said
to act hke a charm upon unbroken chilblains. The soft part
at the base of the leaf is placed over wounds to stop bleeding,
though some bushmen have an idea that the juice,of the leaf
acts as a poison to a cut, and aver that cuts obtained in the
handling of the leaves in a flax-mill usually fester.

A great quantity of the flax-fibre is now exported annually,
and is at present valued at £24 per ton. The Maoris used
this fibre for various purposes, such as making fishing-nets,
cloth, and many ornamental articles.

Love-tokens are said to have been made by the Maoris in
the early days from strips of flax-leaves.* A double shp-knot
was formed, which, if tightly pulled, ran into one large single
knot. The double loop was presented by the young Maori to
his sweetheart, who signified her consent to his silent proposal,
by drawing the two knots into one.

A flax-stick, or dried flower stem, 1s known to colonists as
a korari, koradi, or kaladi. The first name is of course, the
correct one (v. Acenda). It is very lhght and full of a
brown pith. By the Maoris of old time these stems were put
to many uses.

THE LEAF OF PHORMIUM.

The leaf of the flax is one of the strongest and most
remarkable known. When fully grown it attains a length of from
three to ten feet, with a breadth of from 3in. to 4in. The colour
varies from light yellow-green to a deep blue-green, with a
yellow or red margin. There are, however, many varieties.
The Maoris recognized more than fifty. Some of the cultivated

* John White’s ‘“Te Rou, or The Maori at Home.”

THE LILY FAMILY LOE

forms are much more richly tinted than the ordinary wild
varieties. The bronze-leaved flax is perhaps the finest of
those usually found in gardens. A variety, said to come from
the Chatham Islands, has, along with a tinge of bronze in the
leaves, beautiful crimson, almost translucent margins, and is
much more pendulous and graceful than the ordinary stiff
bayonet-like form. Variegated sports are common. One
of them at least appears to have originated in the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris. The leaf is lmear-lanceolate in shape with
an acute point, and is folded longitudinally from tip to base, so-
that at about a third of its length from the point, the two
upper and inner surfaces of the blade come together, and
throughout half the length of the leaf are in close contact-
At the butt of the leaf, the two halves are again separated by
the younger leaves, which are ensheathed by the older ones.
Large quantities of gum, which have been a source of great
difficulty to rope-makers, are secreted between the halves of
the blade. The leaves are arranged in fans. After the fan
has produced its flower, it withers away.

The minute structure of the fohage is no less remarkable,
than its form and general appearance. There is perhaps no
leaf on the face of the earth, that has greater powers of
withstanding tension than this one. The blade is intersected
longitudinally, by large numbers of plates of strong-walled
fibres, placed transversely to the breadth of the leaf. Between
each pair of plates there are strands of similar fibres, running
along the surface immediately below the cuticle (skin). Thus
a considerable amount of rigidity, accompanied by most
unusual strength, is developed in the leaves. The rigidity
enables them, in spite of their length, to stand vertically ; and
their great strength prevents them from being whipped to
pieces by the wind. The tenacity of the fibres arises chiefly
from the fact that the cells of which they are composed are
dry, hard, filled only with air, and have very much thickened
cell-walls. Schwendener has calculated that the sustaiming

108 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

power of such cells is equal to that of the best wrought iron
or hammered steel, while their ductility is from ten to fifteen
times as great as that of iron. Moreover, such mechanical
tissues are generally so arranged as to withstand the maximum
amount of strain, though occupying the minimum amount of
space in the leaf.

Habitat : Both islands, and Norfolk Island. Fl. Noy.-Jan. P. Cookianwm,

asmall species, is found in both islands on dry hill sides. It is occasionally
epiphytic.

Fig. 29. Herpolirion Novae-Zelandiae.

Genus Herpolirion.

Creeping, wiry herbs, with narrow, sheathing leaves. Flower-bud enclosed
in one or more spathes. Perianth 6-parted, tubular. Stamens 6. Fruit a
capsule. A small alpime genus of two species, one found in New Zealand, and
one in Australia and Tasmania. (Name from the Greek, signifying a
creeping lily.) 1 sp.

Herpolirion Novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand
Herpolirion).

This little plant is found in elevated swamps in Nelson and Canterbury, on
the Taupo plains, and in lowland swamps in Otago and Stewart Island. The
leaves are narrow and glaucous, lin.-2in. long ;

@; the flowers fin.-din. across,
white, or pale blue, almost sessile ; the bud is enclosed in a single spathe. FI.

Dec.-Feb.

THE IRIS FAMILY 109:

Iridaceae.

THE Iris FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, chiefly natives of warm and temperate
regions. Saffron is obtained from Crocus sativus, and orris root is the fragrant
rhizome of Iris florentina. The Flag, the Gladiolus, the Ixia, and the Crocus
are well-known garden plants. This family is represented in New Zealand by
the one genus Libertia.

Genus Libertia.
Herbs, with umbellate panicles of white flowers. Stamens with united
filaments. Capsule rounded, leathery or membranous. Seeds angular, deeply

pitted in the New Zealand species. (Named after Madame Libert, a French
botanist). 3 sp.

Libertia ixioides. (The Ixia-like Libertia).

Stem 6in.-2ft. in height. Leaves narrow, hard, pointed, 4in.-tin. broad.
Flower-stalk panicled. Branches enclosed in spathes, bearing umbels of from
2-10 white flowers. Perianth #in.-lin. across; petals larger than the sepals.
Capsule brown or yellow, 4in.-3$in. long. Both Islands: common. FI. Oct.-Jan.

Libertia grandiflora. (The Large-fowered Libertia).
Stem 2ft.-3ft. high. Leaves 4in. broad. Capsule #in.-3in. long, turgid,
obovoid. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec.

Orchidaceae.

THE ORCHID FAMILY.

Perennial herbs, terrestrial or epiphytic, with remarkably irregular flowers.
Leaves entire, usually sheathing at the base. Perianth of 6 parts; sepals 3 ;
petals 3, the lower of these called the labellwm or lip, usually large, spurred, and
differmg in form from the other two. Stamens united with the style to form a
column, containing from 2-8 masses of pollen. Fruita capsule ; seeds numerous.

Distribution.—One of the largest orders of plants, consisting of nearly 5,000
species, and represented in almost every part of the globe, except where the
climate is excessively cold. The beauty and strange irregular shape of the
flowers of this order are due to the variation in size, shape, and colour of the six
parts of the perianth.

110 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Its Fantastic Flower-Forms.

“There is no order of plants,” says Dr. Findlay, in his
paper on Orchidaceae in the ‘“ English Cyclopedia,” “the
structure of whose flowers is so anomalous as regards the
relation borne to each other by the parts of reproduction, or
so singular in respect to the form of the floral envelope. By
an excessive development and singular conformation of one of
the petals, called the labellum or lp, and by irregularities,
either of form, size, or direction of the other sepals and petals,
by the peculiar adhesion of these parts to each other, and by
an occasional suppression of a portion of them, flowers are
produced so grotesque in form that it is no longer with
the vegetable kingdom that they can compare, but their
resemblance must be sought in the animal world.” This is
no fanciful, far-fetched resemblance, as might be imagined by
those who have no large acquaintance with these strange
flowers. Anyone, observing for the first time the bee orchis
(Ophrys apifera) of the English downs, would find it hard to
beheve that he did not see before him the real insect, so
exactly does the flower reproduce the brownish-velvety body,
streaked with gold bands, and the pollen-covered legs. The
Fly, the Lizard, and the Monkey Orchis are hkewise natives
of Great Britain. ‘

In tropical countries the flowers of orchids, or parts of them,
show many curious resemblances to various animals. Grass-
hoppers, mosquitoes, dragon-flies, butterflies, swans, pelicans,
the skin of the tiger and of the leopard, the eyes and teeth of
the lynx, the face of the bull, the grin of the monkey, the head
of the serpent, the tail of the rattlesnake, frogs, lizards, even the
head of the extinct Dinotherium, are all mimicked by them.

The New Zealand species are not so curious in this respect
as those of most countries, though the little Silverback
(Corysanthes macrantha), with its lurid purple flowers, and
long antennae, has somewhat the appearance of a purple
beetle or cockroach (Fig. 35). Pterostylis graminea and P.

THE ORCHID FAMILY ie

Banksii have large, hooded, greenish flowers. Dendrobiwm
Cunningham, with its many flowered racemes of pale rose
and white, is perhaps our most beautiful orchid, though the
sweet-scented Harina mucronata and H. suaveolens are hardly
less beautiful. The commonest one is Microtis porrifolia,
which has a single, cylindrical, tubular, onion-like leaf, bearing
a flower-spike with numerous small green flowers.

The family Orchidaceae is found in almost all parts of the
world, but reaches its highest development in tropical regions.
In the temperate zone, these plants are chiefly terrestrial, but
in tropical countries they are usually epiphytic. The Neottia
nidus-avis of the British woods, like our Gastrodia, is a brown,
leafless saprophyte, deriving its nourishment from the decay-
ing organic matter of the soil in which it grows. The finest
forms come from the Malay Archipelago, and from South
America. Collectors go to these districts to hunt for new and
rare plants, and often risk their lives for the sake of getting a
fresh variety. Though the New Zealand forms are none of
them large and showy, yet they are full of interest to the
flower-lover and the naturalist.

STRUCTURE OF THE ORCHID FLOWER.

Darwin has shown that the orchid is probably a much
modified, highly specialized lily. Both orchid and lily have
three outer, and three inner perianth leaves, though these are
probably not completely homologous, and in the case of the
orchid they are generally very irregular and varied in shape.
In the lily they are usually regular and similar. The stamens
are reduced in number, generally either one or two anthers
only being present. The filaments and style are fused
together to form the “column,” in the centre of the flower.
The anthers are superior to the stigma, but are usually
separated from it by an intervening platform, termed the
rostellum, that assists in preventing self - pollination. The

112 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

pollen grains are collected together into a few club-shaped
masses termed pollinia. These are often provided with a
small glutinous pedicel, by which they may be strongly
cemented to any object with which they come in contact.
The ovary is inferior, (and in this respect therefore unlike that
of the lihes), and produces numerous minute seeds.

Pollination of Orchids.

Though most of the orchids require cross-pollination, and
many have elaborate devices to secure it, yet if these fail,
some of the species can be pollinated from their own anthers.
Many Orchid flowers remain open for a long time. Thus the
flower of one species of Cypripedium is said to last forty days,
and of another, seventy days. This would seem to suggest
that insect visits to these species are few and far between.
Mr. G. M. Thomson also remarks on the infrequency of insect
visits to those New Zealand orchids which he examined, though
he attributes this,* in part at any rate, to the general cold-
ness of the previous season. In spite of all their lures,
therefore, even the orchids at times are compelled to
resort to self-pollination. It is impossible to do more than
mention one or two of the more extraordinary devices, by means
of which cross-pollination is secured amongst foreign orchids.
We will then give a short account of the methods adopted by
New Zealand forms. Perhaps the mode of pollination adopted
by Coryanthes, as described by Dr. Criiger, is one of the most
extraordinary.

“This orchid has part of its labellum or lower lip hollowed
out into a great bucket, into which drops of almost pure water
fall from two secreting horns which stand above it, and when
the bucket is half-full, the water overflows by a spout on one
side. The basal part of the labellwm stands over the bucket,

*Trans. Vol. XI. 11, p. 418
+Darwin, Origin of Species, Sixth Edition, pp. 154-155.

THE ORCHID FAMILY

\
14
17

Fig..30. Thelymitraélongifolia’and Microtis porrifolia (4 nat. size).

114 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

and is itself hollowed out into a sort of chamber with two
lateral entrances; within this chamber there are curious fleshy
ridges.’ The most ingenious man, if he had not witnessed
what takes place, could never have imagined what purpose all
these parts serve. But Dr. Criiger saw crowds of huge
humble bees. visiting the gigantic flowers of this orchid, not in
order to suck nectar, but to gnaw off the ridges within the
chamber above the bucket; im doing this they frequently
pushed each other into the buckets, and their wings being thus
wetted, they could not fly away, but were compelled to crawl
out by the passage forming the spout or overflow. Dr. Criiger
saw ‘a continual procession’ of bees, thus crawling out of
their involuntary bath. The passage is narrow, and is roofed
over by the column, so that a bee, in forcing its way out,
first rubs its back against the viscid stigma, and then against
the viscid glands of the pollen masses. The pollen masses
are thus glued to the back of the bee which first happens
to crawl out through the passage of a lately expanded flower,
and are thus carried away. . . . . When the bee
thus provided flies to another flower, or to the same flower a
second time, and is pushed by its comrades into the bucket
and then crawls out by the passage, the pollen mass necessarily
comes first into contact with the viscid stigma, and adheres to
it, and the flower is fertilized. Now at last we see the full use
of every part of the flower; of the water secreting horns, and
of the bucket half full of water, which prevents the bees from
flying away, and forces them to crawl out through the spout
and rub against the properly placed viscid pollen masses and
stigma.”

In Catasetum, an allied orchid, the method of cross-pollination
is simpler, but none the less remarkable and effective. The bees
come to gnaw the ridges of the labellum, and in so doing must

ce

touch a long sensitive “antenna.” This apparently transmits

a sensation to another part of the flower,—a spring is set free,

THE ORCHID FAMILY TUS

and the pollen mass is shot out like an arrow against the back
of the entering bee, which carries it off to the female flower.

Pollination of some New Zealand Species.

The methods of pollination of some of the New Zealand
forms, have been described by Mr. G. M. Thomson and by
Mr. Cheeseman.* It would appear from Mr. Thomson’s
investigations, that several at least of our native orchids are
self-pollinated. Mr. Fitzgerald has shown in his “ Australian
Orchids,” that in the genus Thelymitra all forms may be found
between plants which are regularly self-fertile and are never
cleistogamic, and those which are completely dependent upon
insects for pollination. The New Zealand Thelymitra longifolia
is a very puzzling case. It is one of the commonest of New
Zealand orchids. In the North Island it is almost everywhere
abundant except in the dense bush. In the South Island it is
hardly less common. According to Mr. Cheesemant “ the
flowers usually open about nine o’clock in the morning, neatly
reclosing about four or five in the afternoon. There is,
however, considerable irregularity as to this, some varieties
only opening for a short time in the middle of the day, others
remaining expanded for a much longer period.” On the other
hand, in the South Island, it is rare to find an open flower.
Even in fine weather not more than a few per cent. of the
flowers open properly. The chief reason why flowers do not
open in wet weather is that rain destroys their pollen; many
of them therefore close in rain or adopt imgenious con-
trivances for keeping their pollen dry. Now, Mr. Cheeseman
has observed, (Joc. cit.), that rain reduces the pollen of this
plant toa pulpy mass. This is perhaps the primary reason
for its closing. One would consequently expect to find it
more frequently opened in the drier climate of Australia, than
in New Zealand. However, observations seem to show the

* Trans. Vol. V. p. 352, and Vol. XIII., p. 291.
+ Trans. Vol. XIILI., p. 293.

116 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

reverse to be true. Though the plant is well adapted for
cross-pollination, insects rarely visit it. Mr. Cheeseman
states, ‘ For the last seven years I have made it a practice to
vatch beds of this orchid, and, save on two occasions, I have
never seen winged insects enter the flower, and in both these
cases the pollinia were not removed.” Out of 218 flowers
examined, only seven had lost their pollinia. Thus, it would
appear, that the plant is occasionally, though very rarely,
cross-pollinated. On the other hand, as the species is a
predominant one, 1t must obviously be largely self-fertilized
and often cleistogamic, thus apparently forming an
exception to the general rule that it 1s a disadvantage to
a flower to be self-pollinated. Harina, Dendrobium, and
Corysanthes, on the other hand, are apparently completely
dependent upon insects to secure pollination. The following
description is abstracted from Mr. G. M. Thomson’s account
of the pollination of Harina suaveolens: “The flowers are only
about one-third of an inch in diameter, white in colour, with a
yellow centre, and with an almost overpoweringly sweet
perfume. The labellum is 3-lobed, and stands nearly erect in
front of the column. There is no nectary, but the tissue at the
base of the labellum is easily punctured, and exudes beads of
moisture. The column is short and erect, the stigmatic
surface very concave, with the viscid rostellum projecting
prominently forward above it. The anther is terminal and
deciduous, and encloses four pollinia attached in pairs to a
short stem, and resting on the rostellum. From the position
of the parts 1t appears to be impossible that self-pollnation
could take place. The pollima are very coherent, and he
closely ensconced in the anther case. For pollination by
insects, however, the parts are very simply fitted. An insect,
visiting the flower, would insert its head or proboscis into the
small square aperture between the labellum and the column,
and in withdrawing it would inevitably touch the viscid surface
of the rostellum, and bring away the pollima. Were these to

THE ORCHID FAMILY

Fig. 31. Earina suaveolens (nat, size).

118 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

be withdrawn just as they he on the summit of the column,
they would hardly be in a position to strike the stigmatic
surface of another flower in the hollow below the rostellum,
but in being withdrawn, the cap of the anther pulls them
slightly downward and depresses them considerably, so that
they are easily placed on the stigma of a second flower.”
Pollination in the genus Pterostylis has been well described
by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman.* The lip is sensitive, and, when
touched, closes up against the column. An insect landing upon
it is thus entrapped, and the only means by which it can escape
is by the narrow channel left between the column and the lip.
In passing along this channel, it must strike first the viscid
stigma below the rostellum, and afterwards the anthers above
the rostellum. The back of the insect will now be
sticky, so that it will carry off with it the pollinia, or portions
of them, to the next flower which it visits, and place them
upon its stigma. As each plant bears only a solitary flower, 1t
is clear that cross-pollination must be effected not only
between different flowers, but between different plants. The
flowers of this genus are pollinated by certain species of flies.
This method of entrapping insects seems to be unique in
the order. The large green hooded flowers of this genus are, in
spite of their size, not very conspicuous, and it is not always
easy to determine what attraction they possess for the insects.

The Absorption of Moisture.

Orchids are not only remarkable for the structure of the
flower, and for their methods of pollination, but in many other
ways. Thus, they have often highly specialized methods of
absorbing moisture. There is in New Zealand, a minute
species of Bolbophyllum, B. Pygmeum. It 1s not uncommon,
but is frequently overlooked, as it is so inconspicuous.
The genus has received its generic name, because, at the base
of each leaflet, is a small bulb, in which are concealed the

*Trans. Vol. V., Dp. 352.

THE ORCHID FAMILY

i
2
*
:
q
=
i

Fig. 32. Pterostylis Banksii (7 nat. size).

120 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

stomata by which the plant transpires. The object of this
arrangement 1s two-fold. It enables free transpiration to go on
in the wet season, when the plant is surrounded by moisture
that would otherwise choke the pores; and, in the dry season, the
concealment of the pores checks excessive transpiration. Again,
Dendrobium and Earina very frequently grow upon trees, or in
the clefts of rocks. In such situations, of course, no moisture
can be received from the soil; and if the leaves were thin and
broad, there would be excessive transpiration, and the plant
would wither. Consequently, they are narrowed, and have
become rather thick and leathery. The dimensions given in
Hooker’s Handbook for the breadth of the leaves in these
genera are: H. mucronata % to ¢ in., H. suaveolens 4 in.,
D. Cunninghamii § in. Contrast these leaves with those of a
shade-growing plant lke Corysanthes macrantha. ‘The latter
has round flaccid leaves full of moisture, which would soon
wither if exposed to strong sunlight. In Microtis, the leat
has been rolled up into a cylinder, no doubt with the object of
conserving its moisture. In Bolbophyllum, the leaf has been
reduced to a scale-like process.

But Harina and Dendrobium, have not only endeavoured to
check transpiration through the leaves, they have also increased
the root surface, and specialized it for the absorption of
moisture. After clamping themselves to the rock, or to the bark
of a tree, by their roots, they produce numerous other white,
membranous, papery, filamentous roots. The outer surface of
these roots is composed of a spongy tissue, that cannot fail to
absorb any moisture in the vicinity.

Key to the Genera.

1. Perennial epiphytes or rock plants. 2
Roots terrestrial, stems annual. 6
2. Pollen granular. 3
Pollen waxy. 4
3. Stem slender, leafy, Sepals free. Disk of lip
naked. Earina p. 122.
4. Leaves not on pseudobulbs 5

Leaves on pseudobulbs. Bolbopbyllum p. 124,

121

ORCHID FAMILY

THE

Earina suaveolens on tree bark.

g. 33.

Fi

122

10.

11.

IN

18.

Epiphytic herbs.
spikes, white, lip touched with yellow.
lip 3-lobed,.

shape ;

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Stem, slender, leaty. Lateral sepals attached
to column. Lip with crests on its face.

Stems very short, leafy. Lip concave, middle
lobe solid.

Plants with 1 or more leaves.

Plants leafless. Flowers numerous, brown.

Leaf solitary (2 in Caladenia bifolia).

Leaves 2 or more.

Leaf solitary, broad, membranous.

Leaf solitary, slender, flat or terete (2 broad
in Caladenia bifolia).

Flower 1.

Flowers few.

Flower sessile, purple, large.
filiform.

Flower with a long stalk.
upper concave.

Sepals and petals acuminate or awned.

Sepals and petals linear, obtuse.

Leaf tubular. Flowers many, minute, lip
below.

Leaf rounded, linear or fiat, but not tubular.

Flowers many, minute, with lip uppermost.

Flowers few, pink, blue or yellow.

Leaf flat. Flowers 1-4, pink. Lip glandular.

Leaf, rounded, thick. Flowers 1 or more,
yellowish or blue. Lip, sepals, and
petals all similar.

Flowers solitary.

Flowers more than one.

Flower large, green, helmeted. Lip narrow.

Upper sepal arched. Lip with large purple
gland.

Flowers numerous. Upper sepal oblong.

Flowers several. Upper sepal helmeted.

Lip with 5 ridges.

Lip 3-lobed.

Sepals long,

Sepals broad,

*Not further described.

Genus Harina.

Pollen masses 4.

Greek signifying Spring-flowering).

Leaves, narrow, leathery, numerous.

Dendrobium, p. 124.
*Sarcochilus.
uf

Gastrodia, p. 124.
8
15
9

12
10
11

Corysanthes, p. 125

*Adenochilus.
Acianthus, p. 124.
Cyrtostylis, p. 125.

Microtis, p. 125.
13
*Prasophyllum.
14
Caladenia, p. 125.

Thelymitra, p. 126.

16
Pterostylis, p. 126.

*Chiloglottis.
*Spiranthes.
18
*Lyperanthus.
Orthoceras, p. 127.

Flowers in terminal
Sepals and petals almost equal in
Fruit a capsule.

(Name from the

Earina mucronata (The Sharp-pointed Earina).

Leaves strap-shaped, 4in.-6in. long, 4in. broad, marked with whitish

longitudinal lines,
Root fibrous, fleshy. Both islands.

Fragrant.

Leaves linear, alternate, 2in.-3in. long, 4in. broad, rigid.
short, stiff racemes, larger than in mucronata.
Lip broad, 3-lobed, with two orange spots.
black dots, as are the backs of the sepals.

Flowers in slender panicles, white, tin. broad, lips spotted.
Fl. Oct.-Dec.

2 sp.

Earina suaveolens (The Fragrant Earina).

Sepals oblong.
Peduncle twisted, spotted with

Both islands. Fl. April-June.

Petals ovate.

Flowers in

THE ORCHID FAMILY 23

Fig. 34. Dendrobium Cunninghamii (4 nat. size)

124 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Dendrobium.

Epiphytic herbs, rigid in habit. Leaves, narrow, numerous. Flowers large,
usually racemed, rarely solitary. Petals smaller than the sepals. Lip large,
3-lobed. Pollen-masses, 4. A large genus, many of whose plants are cultivated
for the beauty of their flowers. (Name from the Greek, signifying tree-life, in
allusion to the epiphytic habit). 1 sp.

Dendrobium Cunninghamii (Cunningham's Dendrobium).

Stems shining, branched, pendulous, 1ft.-2ft. in length. Leaves lin.-14in.
long, din. broad, pale green, striped. Flowers in short racemes, #in. across, pale
rose-coloured. Petals as long as the sepals. Lip with a small claw. Both
islands. Fl. Noy.-Feb.

Genus Bolbophyllum.
Minute, leathery, epiphytic herbs. Stem matted, bearing small tubers or
bulbs, each carrying one or two leaves. Flower solitary or spiked, very similar
to Dendrobium. (Name from the Greek, signifying leaf-bulb). 1 sp.

Bolbophyllum pygmzeum (The Pygmy Bolbophyllum).

A very minute species. Bulbs no larger than a pea. Leaf solitary, sessile.
Flower solitary, minute. Both Islands.

Genus Gastrodia.

Terrestrial, leafless herbs, with twisted fleshy roots. Stem clothed with
brown scales. Flowers drooping, in racemes, brownish white. Petals smaller
than the sepals. Pollen-masses, 4. Found only in Australia, New Zealand,
Tasmania, and the Indian Islands. (Name from the Greek, signifying pot-
bellied).

Gastrodia Cunninghamii (Cunningham's Gastrodia).
A curious plant, 2ft. in height, with a thick, starchy root-stock, which was
sometimes used as food by the natives. Flowers, 10-20 upon a spike, dirty-green,

spotted with white, aromatic but unpleasant. Not uncommon in damp bush in
both islands. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 3 sp.

Genus Acianthus.
Slender herbs, with tuberous roots, and one single heart-shaped leaf.

Flowers large for the size of the plant, green or brown. Pollen-masses 8. (Name
from the Greek signifying pointed-flower). 1 sp.

Acianthus Sinclairii (Sinclair's Acianthus).
A tiny, transparent-looking plant, with small greenish-white flowers, two to
‘six Inaraceme. Leaf deeply two-lobed at the base. Common in the North
Island. Fl. Aug.

THE ORCHID FAMILY 125

Genus Cyrtostylis.
These are similar plants to Acianthus, differing only in the winged column,
and un-awned perianth. (Name from the Greek, signifying a curved column).

Cyrtostylis oblonga has an oblong leaf, and C. rotundifolia, a round one,
The former may be found in both islands; the latter on the east coast of the
Northern Island only.

Genus Corysanthes.

Small fleshy herbs, with broad leaves, and solitary purple flowers. Petals
smaller than the sepals. Pollen-masses four. Found in Australia, New Zealand,
and the Malay Archipelago. The species are usually distinguished by the varying
shape of the leaves, e.g. C. triloba, C. oblonga, C. rotundifolia. (Name
from the Greek, signifying helmet-flowered). 2 sp.

Corysanthes macrantha (The Large-flowered Corysanthes).

This is the largest of all the species. Leaf lin.-15in. broad, very thick,
silvery on the under-side. Flowers 4in.-lin. across, deep purple, with long-
tailed slender sepals and petals. Lip broad, spotted, recurved. Both islands :
damp bush. Also in Lord Auckland’s group. Fl. Oct.-Dec.

Genus Microtis.
Erect slender herbs, with sheathing leaves. Flowers in a thick spike, green,

minute. Pollen-masses four. A small genus, chiefly Australian. (Name de-
rived from the Greek, meaning a little ear). 1 sp.

Microtis porrifolia (The Onion-leaved Microtis).
A variable plant, from 6in.-24in. high. Leaf solitary, tubular. Flower-

spike 20-80-flowered. Flowers yin. long, green. Abundant in both islands.
Fl. Oct.-Jan.

‘

Genus Caladenia.

Slender, tuberous-rooted herbs. Leaf solitary (rarely 2). Scape 1-4-flowered.
Column winged. Pollen-masses four. (Name from the Greek, signifymg a
beautiful gland).

Caladenia minor (The Lesser Caladenia).

A slender, hairy plant, 2in.-8in. high. Leaf solitary, narrow. Flower
solitary, pink or purple, jin.-4in. across. Lip 3-lobed. Abundant on dry hills
in the Northern Island. Found also in Otago. Fl. Oct.-Jan. C. Lyallii is
a larger plant, with 1-2 flowers, 4in.-lin. broad. C. bifolia is a distinct plant,
with two radical, oblong leaves, and a solitary flower, #in.-lin. broad. Lip
broad, entire, with two lines of glands. Found on grassy hills in both islands.

126 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Pterostylis.

Slender, leafy, shining herbs, with tuberous roots, and solitary green
flowers. Leaves radical or cauline. Column broadly winged. Pollen-masses
4. A genus confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. (Name
from the Greek, signifying a winged column). 11 sp.

Fig. 35. Corysanthes macrantha (% nat. size).

Pterostylis Banksii (Banks’ Pterostylis).
A tall, slender herb, with numerous alternate leaves, and solitary, hood-
shaped green flowers, striped with white. Stem 6in.-18in. high ; flower 2in.-3in.
long. P. graminea is very similar to P. Banksw. Both islands. FI. Oct.-Jan.

Genus Thelymitra.

Erect, tuberous-rooted herbs. Leaves 1 or 2, narrow, with a membranous
sheath below. Flowers in a short spike, blue, purple, or yellow. Column hooded.
Pollen masses 4. A large genus, found only in Australia, Tasmania, New
Zealand, and the mountains of Java. (Name from the Greek, in allusion to the
hooded column capping the anther). 8 sp.

THE ORCHID FAMILY 127

Thelymitra longifolia (The Long-leaved Thelymitra).
A variable plant. Leaves 4in.-lin. broad, leathery. Spike 2-10 flowered.
Flowers }in.-?in. broad, blue or purple.
Thelymitra pulchella (The Pretty Thelymitra) is a large-flowered species ;
T. Colensoi (Colenso’s Thelymitra) and 7’. imberbis (The Beardless Thelymitra)
have yellow flowers.

Genus Orthoceras.
Erect, glabrous herbs, 10in.-12in. high, with tuberous roots, and radical,

grassy leaves. Upper sepal hooded; lateral sepals lengthened into long tails,
erect. Pollen masses 2. (Name from the Greek, signifying a straight horn). 1 sp.

Orthoceras Solandri (Solander’s Orthoceras).

Leaves yery narrow, with sheathing bases. Flower-spike 2in.-6in. long.
Bracts large, boat-shaped, greenish-brown. Flower 4in. long, livid purple.
Lateral sepals din.-1in. long. Lip drooping, with yellow stripe. Abundant on
clay hills in the North Island. Also found in Nelson.

Piperaceae.

THE PEPPER FAMILY.

Distribution.—The pepper plants are mostly natives of tropical or sub-
tropical regions. The structure of the wood is anomalous, but it is too
complicated for description here. The Piperaceae are noted for their pungent
leaves. Piper nigrum, the pepper-vine, produces our table pepper. This plant
bears spikes of red fruits, which, when dried by heat, become black and shrivelled.
These are known as peppercorns, and are ground into powder, forming
Black Pepper. White Pepper is obtained from the same fruit macerated in
water. The Kawa of the South Sea Islands is a member of this family, and is
closely related to the New Zealand Piper excelsum.

Genus Peperomia.

A large genus of 400 species, with two representatives in New Zealand.
Stems and leaves fleshy, bright green. Flowers in erect catkins. Stamens 2.
Ovary sessile; stigma sessile; berry sessile. (Name from its affinity to the
Pepper).

128 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Peperomia Upvilleana (D’ Urville’s Peperomia).

A juicy creeping herb, 4in.-10in. high. Leaves alternate, 4in.-lin. long,
broadly oblong, obtuse. Catkin with a footstalk, pale-green, erect, lin.-14in.
long. North Island ;: wet rocks, mossy stumps, etc. Kermadec Island, Norfolk
Island. Fl. March-April.

Genus Piper.

A large tropical genus of climbing shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate.
Flowers in erect, solitary, or twin catkins, axillary, green. Stamens 2. Ovary
sessile ; stigmas 2-5.

Macropiper excelsum (The Lofty Pepper).

A small tree, sometimes 20ft. in height, shining, aromatic. Leaves heart-
shaped, 3in,-5in. long, pointed at the tip, 5-7 nerved at the base. Leaf-stalks
winged at the base. Catkins slender, lin.-4in. long. Fruit a yellow berry.
Both islands as far south as Banks Peninsula. Kermadec Islands. Fl. Oct.-
Noy. Maori name Kawakawa.

A decoction of the leaves is used by the natives to allay
toothache, to cure rheumatic pains, and also to reduce
swellings or inflammation of any kind. The wet leaves and
twigs slowly burned produce a bitter smoke, said to be fatal to
insect life.

Fagaceae.

THE CHIEF FEATURES OF THE FAMILY.

The flowers of the order are small and inconspicuous, and as they are adapted
to wind pollination, have no special devices for attracting insects. Stamens and
pistil are found on the same plant, but in different flowers. The male flowers
are generally borne in catkins.

Distribution._—No older family of dicotyledonous trees than this is known.
It includes the birch, alder, hazel, hornbeam, beech, oak, and chestnut. Closely
allied to these are the willow, poplar, and walnut. The earliest oaks come from
the Cretaceous, and were coeyal with the first undoubted dicotyledons. The
method by which the pollen tube reaches the embryo sac in some plants of the
order is of a highly archaic type, known elsewhere only among the primitive
Casuariniae (she-oaks, etc.) of Australia. If antiquity, then, were a claim to
representation in the New Zealand forests, this family should be conspicuous
by the number of its species. It is, however, represented here only by some

THE PEPPER FAMILY

Macropiper excelsum (3 nat. size).

130 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

half-dozen species belonging to the southern genus Nothofagus, which is found
also in South America and Australia. In the northern hemisphere on the other
hand, the family is very largely developed, and includes most of the important
deciduous trees of North America and the Eurasian Continent. The forests,
therefore, of the north temperate zone are really of older type than those of
south temperate regions.

In South America, however, Nothofagus in many places forms as large a
component of the flora as in New Zealand. Darwin’s description, in “‘ The
Voyage of a Naturalist,’ of the forests of Tierra del Fuego, might well have been
written of some bush creek in south-western Otago. Replace Fagus betuloides
by a local species, and the Winter’s Bark by the closely alhed Drimys axillaris,
and the picture is now completely true for New Zealand.

Probably nowhere else in the southern hemisphere could one find two such
similar forests, sundered by an ocean one-third of the circumference of the earth
in width.

THE BEECH FOREST.

The beech is a most attractive tree, whether growing in
countless hosts, or in solitary state. When scattered over a
plain, such as the valley of the Upper Hutt, it gives the
landscape a spacious and _ park-like aspect. It is equally as
handsome, when it covers the folds of some giant alp with a
garment of uniform thickness and changeless hue. Perhaps
the beech forest is most beautiful when its depths are illuminated
by the rays of sunset.

It often happens in Canterbury, during a north-west gale,
that just before nightfall the sun drops below the heavy
curtain of clouds into the clear arch of sky below, and “at
evening it is light.’ As the level beams are thrown into the
recesses of some sombre bush-clad ravine in the foot-hills,
the sight is one to be remembered for a lifetime. Though
quite natural, it seems, from the vividness of its spectacular
effects, unnatural. The giant limbs of the trees push forth on
all sides with lance-like thrust, and the inter-spaces between
their wide-spreading horizontal branches, form pathways, by
which the shafted light can penetrate far into the bush. The
great halls of greenery are revealed in vista after vista, and in
the background are seen the brown, dead leaves, that “lag the
forest brook along,’ for in these drier districts there is little

dL

il

BEECH TREE

THE

In the Beech Forest

132 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

undergrowth. Over the countless green mosaics of the living
branches, with their two-ranked twigs and leaves, the evening
sunshine passes, and stirs into activity all the hfe within,
at the same time throwing into relief the infinite detail of
tracery and arabesque in bough and bole. The bearded lichens
trailing from the branches are almost motionless, though the
wind thunders overhead. One side of the valley is in the
dimmest twilight, whilst on the other every shoot flares out in
almost garish distinctness. The contrast is a violent one; but
it is soon gone, and only the rosy colours of the clouds above
remain to break the darkness. With sunset the north-wester
always lulls for a short time, and then its roar gives place
to the coo-ee of the weka and the melancholy cry of the owl.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEW ZEALAND SPECIES.

The genus Nothofagus has some half-dozen representatives
in New Zealand, all forest trees known to bushmen as “birch,”
but more correctly termed beech. It 1s now futile to hope that
the more exact name will become popular ; but we might at least.
expect some consistent nomenclature to be adopted through
the islands. At present the various species are designated
almost indifferently, white, red, black, silver birch, etc. What.
is the white birch in one part of the country may be the black
in another. Mr. T. Kirk proposed a set of names, which
might well replace the confused series now in use. Indeed,
the same authority tells us that ‘it is not too much to say
that the blundering use of common names in connection
with the New Zealand beeches, when the timber has been
employed in bridges and constructive works, has caused
waste and loss to the value of thousands of pounds.” The
use of the name birch in place of beech is, perhaps, somewhat
excusable, as both N. Menziesit of New Zealand and N.
betuloides of South America show some external resemblance
to the English birch.

THE BEECH FAMILY 133

Unlike most of the other New Zealand trees, the beeches
form great forests in which few other plants are to be found.
Ordinarily, the bush is extremely varied. Sometimes as many
as forty or fifty species of trees and shrubs can be found in an
acre of ground,—a greater variety than exists in the whole of
the British Isles. In Europe, on the contrary, one or two
species of trees generally constitute the greater part of the
forest. Amongst these, the beech may be mentioned as a
dominant form. Fossil evidence seems to show that the oak
in many places has given way to it. We know too little of
the past history of New Zealand, to enable us to determine if
the beech forests are on the increase or decrease here. Dr.
Cockayne considers that their distribution tends to show that
they are decreasing. This may be so, but beech forests that
have been cut out, if left undisturbed by man and animals,
will soon replace themselves. Other forest-forming trees do
not do this. The kauri, at least, is decadent, and the white
pine forests are largely confined to swamps, which often dry up
on the felling of the bush. Whereas the beeches are found both
in wet and dry lands; though they seem to prefer the drier
slopes of the mountains.

N. cliffortioides is a sub-alpine species only coming down to
sea-level in south-western Otago. N. Menziesw is found at
similar levels from Hauraki Gulf southward. N. Solandri is
perhaps the most abundant of our beeches, and forms immense
forests, particularly in drier situations, throughout the islands
as far north as the East Cape. On the dry eastern slopes of
the Canterbury ranges there is little else to be found in the
forests. N. fusca is more sparsely distributed throughout the
islands, being found in wetter situations. It is rarer in
Canterbury Province than in any other, though found in
small quantity on Banks Peninsula. One remarkable feature
im connection with the distribution of the beeches, is their
total absence from Stewart Island. This is quite inexplicable

134 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

at present. It can scarcely be thought that they have never
existed there. Possibly they have been displaced.

Genus Nothofagus.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves leathery, stipules deciduous. Male flowers several.
Perianth bell-shaped, 5-6-lobed. Stamens, 8-12, inserted round a central disk.
Female catkins usually erect; flowers, 2-4, sessile, with an involucre formed of
small scales. Ovary, 3-celled; cells, 1-ovuled. Fruit consisting of from 2-4
angular nuts enclosed in a prickly 4-valved involucre. (Name, signifying the
Southern Beech).

N. Menziesii (Wenzies’ Beech).

A large tree, 80ft.-100ft. in height, with silvery bark. Young shoots clothed
with brown hairs. Leayes shining, dark green, 4in. long, ovate or rounded,
obtuse, crenate. Fruiting involucre downy, 4in.-4in. long, with soft spines,
glandular at the tips. Nuts downy, 2-3-winged ; wings sharp, pomted. North
Island: Ruahine Mountains and Waikare Lake; South Island: from Nelson
to Dusky Bay. The *Silver Birch or Red Birch. F1. Noy.-March.

N. fusca (The Dusky Beech).

Trunk 80ft.-100ft. in height, sometimes 12ft. in diameter. Branches downy.
Leaves lin.-l}in. long, oblong-ovate, serrate. Male flowers 1-3; perianth
5-toothed. Fruiting involucre oyate. Nuts winged; wings toothed. North
Island : mountainous districts ; South Island: abundant. The *Black Birch or
Red Birch.

N. Solandri (Solander’s Beech).

Trunk 100ft. in height, 4ft.-5ft. in diameter. Bark white in young trees,
black in old. Young shoots very downy. Leayes fin.-#in. long, oblong, obtuse,
entire, oblique at the base, white below. Male flowers solitary ; perianth broad.
Fruiting involucre, hairy or shining, jin. long; segments with scales entire or
toothed. North Island: mountain forests ; South Island: alt. 3,000ft.-6,000ft.
The *White Birch. Fl. Noy.-Jan.

N. cliffortioides (The Cliffortia-like Beech).

A small tree, with leaves rounded or cordate at the base, in other respects
resembling N. Solandri. North Island: Ruahine Mountains; South Island:
Alps of Nelson and Canterbury. (Cliffortia is a genus of the Rosaceae.) The
*Mountawm Birch.

*These names are common but unreliable.

THE BEECH FAMILY 135

Fig, 38. Nothofagus Menziesii. Flower and leaf (? nat. size).

136 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Urticaceae.

THE NETTLE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A family of under 500 species found in almost every part
of the globe. The Nettles are the best-known plants belonging to it. The
stamens are bent down in the bud and often explode when ripe. Some of the
species yield remarkably tenacious fibres, which are used in cordage. (Name
from the Latin, signifying to burn, from the burning, stinging sensation caused
by the hairs of the nettles.)

Key to the Genera.

1. Tree, juice milky. Male flowers spiked. Paratrophis, p. 136.
Shrubs or herbs, juice watery. 2

2. Leaves with stinging hairs. Flowersin spikes or racemes. Urtica, p. 136.
Leaves without stinging hairs. Flowers in cymes or

clusters. 3

3. Shrubs. Leaves entire. Stamens, 4. Parietaria, p. 138
Herbs. 4

4. Herbs, leaves crenate. Stamen 1, tAustralina.

Herbs, with red brown leaves. Flowers in afleshy receptacle. Elatostema, p. 138.
+Not further described.

Genus Paratrophis.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, hard, evergreen. Flowers in spikes or
catkins, dicecious. Perianth of 4 leaflets. Ovary, ovoid; styles, 2. Fruit a nut
or drupe, 1-seeded. A small genus, chiefly tropical. 3 sp.

Paratrophis microphyllus (Zhe Small-leaved Paratrophis).

Tree, sometimes 30-40 ft. in height. If a slit be cut in the bark of this
tree, a thick, sweet, milky juice will flow from it. Leaves $ in.-2 in. long, oblong,
toothed. Male flowers in catkins, 4in.-?#in. long; female in short spikes or
clusters, whitish green. Drupe, red. Both islands. The Muilk-tree of the
settlers. Fl. Oct.-Noy.

Genus Urtica.

Herbs or shrubs, with stinging hairs. Leaves, opposite; flowers in axillary
clusters or spikes. Calyx of male flowers 4-partite, stamens 4. Calyx of female
flowers 2 or unequally 4-partite; stigma tufted. Ovary, ovoid. Ovule, erect.
Fruit a small dry nut. About 30 species, natives of tropical and temperate
regions. 4 sp.

Urtica ferox (The Fierce Nettle).

A tall shrub; stem woody; stinging hairs rigid, 4 in.-4 in. long. Leaves
2in. - 5in. long, variable in shape, coarsely serrate teeth ending in a hard bristle.
Leaf-stalks also covered with stinging hairs. Flowers in racemes. Both islands.
Fl. Jan.-March. Maori name Onga-onga.

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THE NETTLE FAMILY

Parat

Fig 39.

138 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The stinging sensation produced by this plant will sometimes last for three
or four days.

Genus Parietaria

Weak herbs, rarely small shrubs. Leaves entire, opposite, often downy.
Flowers in axillary cymes. Male flowers with 4-partite perianth. Stamens, 4.
Female flowers tubular; perianth, 4-partite. Ovary ovoid; ovule erect. Nut
minute. A small but widely distributed genus; found in waste places. The
Pellitory is a well-known English plant of the genus. (Ancient Latin name
referring to the growth of some species on walls). 1 sp.

Parietaria debilis. (The Weak-stemmed Parietaria).

Slender annual. Stem, 6 in.-24 in. long. Leaves, } in.-2 in. long, ovate,
acute. Female flowers in dense clusters. Both islands, common. FI.
Noy.-Dec.

Genus Hlatostema.

Succulent herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves unequal-sided, bronzed or brown-
red. Flowers often inconspicuous, surrounded by fleshy involucres. Male flower
with a perianth of 2 or 4 pointed leaflets. Female flowers with a small, im-
perfect perianth. Fruit a small compressed nut. A large tropical genus. 1 sp.

Elatostema rugosa. (The Wrinkled Elatostema).

A robust herb, shining or downy. Stem, 1 ft. -2ft. m height. Leaves,
4in.-10in. long, alternate, sessile, acute, toothed, auricled at the base.
Flowers, dicecious. Male flowers, with fleshy receptacles 4in. across, surrounded
by bracts. Female flowers with smaller, more hairy receptacles. North Island:
damp bush, or by the sides of creeks.

Loranthaceae.

THE MISTLETOE FAMILY.

Distribution.—The plants of the Mistletoe Family belong chiefly to the
hotter parts of Asia and America, though a few are found in Europe, Africa, and
New Zealand. In the genus Loranthus, a cup-like expansion of the flower-stalk
just below the perianth is considered by some botanists to be a calyx, and the
4-8 lobes of the perianth are regarded as petals. 'The members of this family are
all partially parasitic, and grow on trees and shrubs.

A plant, which can get the whole or part of its
carbonaceous food by robbing another, will require either no

THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 139

leaves, or leaves considerably reduced in size. Hence it is
that many parasitic plants have a very much reduced stem
structure and leaf area. In some of them little more than a
flower is developed, cf. Cuscuta, Cassytha, Dactylanthus.
Since parasites do not grow like other plants in the soil, but
send out processes which penetrate into the woody tissues of
their hosts, them method of germination is often quite
abnormal. Very frequently also the seed leaves are poorly
developed or altogether wanting, and the parts of the embryo
are but little differentiated. (Contrast Avicennia.)

New Zealand is very rich as compared with Great Britain
in woody parasites. In England there is only one such plant,
the Mistletoe (Viscum album). It grows commonly on soft-
wooded trees such as the poplar, silver fir, and apple. It
rarely attacks the oak, and when it did so it was an object of
worship to the Druids of early Britain.

Key to the Genera.

1. Leaves 0., branches jointed, flattened. Viscum, p. 144.
Leaves present. 2
2. Leaves opposite. Flowers hermaphrodite. Loranthus, p. 139.

Leaves opposite and alternate, flowers dicecious. Tupeia, p. 144.

Genus Loranthus.

An extremely interesting genus of about 200 species, all the members of
which are semi-parasitic shrubs. Flowers solitary or in racemes. Calyx cup-
shaped, more or less toothed. Corolla tubular, petals 4, free or united below.
Stamens 4, inserted on the petals. Style slender, deciduous. 6 sp.

The genus Loranthus is widely distributed throughout
tropical and sub-tropical regions, and some of the species
produce handsome and brilhant flowers in great abundance.
The finest of the New Zealand forms is L. tetrapetalus. It is
found most frequently upon Nothofagus Solandri. No finer
floral display can be seen in New Zealand than a gloomy forest
of Fagus trees lit up by immense masses of scarlet Loranthus
flowers, glowing like jewels among the dark green leaves of
the beech. It is seen, perhaps, at its best when one rows up

140 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

some sluggish lowland stream such as the Turakino, through
beech forest, whose boughs, briluant with Loranthus
blossom, meet overhead. ‘Tourists are very apt to mistake
this plant for the rata. LL. Fieldit* is perhaps as fine, but it is
little known. It grows in the beech forests to the south
and west of Ruapehu. Mr. Field says of it, ““ The Loranthus
forms large bushes in the tops of the trees, and the blossoms
are so abundant as almost to hide the foliage, so that each
bush, when in flower, looks like a flame. I believe the
largest bushes are quite ten feet in diameter, and those of six
feet are common. As the blossoms fall, the whole ground is
sprinkled with petals. They are yellow at their bases, but
shade gradually, through orange and scarlet, to crimson, and
even carmine at the tips.”

The flowers of this species open in a curious fashion, for
which at present no explanation is forthcoming. A few open
outwards from the apex in a normal way; but in most of
them the petals become detached at their bases, and roll
upwards and outwards (c.f. Anightia excelsa.) Their weight
drags the stamens downwards, and these finally break
off and fall to the ground, with the petals still attached to
them. We have probably here some curious and unexplained
device to secure cross-pollination; but the description
given by Mr. Field is obscure at one or two points, and, as in
a conjuror’s trick, the facts which have not been observed,
are probably the facts necessary for a solution of the problem.

L. micranthus 1s the species that 1s most abundant in the
lowland forests. It is almost everywhere common in any
piece of “bush” on the East Coast, from the Bay of Islands
southwards. It has many different hosts, and is sometimes
found in unexpected places. It has been obtained upon totara,
Carmichaelia, Coprosma, and even upon Rubus (the bush
lawyer). It also flourishes upon many introduced plants.
Mr. Potts noticed it upon the plum, pear, Abutilon,

*Trans. XVII., p. 288.

THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 141

white-thorn, pink-thorn, peach, and laburnum, at Ohinitahi
(Lyttelton). At Akaroa it grows abundantly, and flourishes
upon the false-acacia (Robinia). The great variety of its
habitats probably shows that the plant is not very dependent
on its hosts for nourishment. Indeed, its mass of green,
glabrous, glossy leaves look as if they could easily sustain it.
Obviously, when growing on the Robinia, it must, like the
English Mistletoe, sustain itself during the winter, as the false
acacia 1s deciduous.

The means by which the New Zealand species obtain their
nourishment, and their methods of germination, have not been
closely observed. Mr. Potts (“ Out in the Open,” p. 186) has
however, described with some detail the early stages in the
erowth of L. micranthus. The berries of all loranths are
extremely attractive to birds. In the case of L. micranthus,
as they ripen they become whitish, or slightly roseate, and
finally assume a rich golden-yellow hue. As soon as they are
ripe they are greedily eaten. Before the introduction of
foreign birds, they were probably eaten by the tui and the
bell-bird ; now it is the blackbird and thrush that feed upon
them. The seeds pass through the digestive canal of the
bird, and are glued by its slimy excrement to the branches of
trees. In some cases, doubtless, the viscid pulp of the berries
themselves enables the seeds to adhere to the branches of the
tree, so that it 1s not absolutely necessary that they should be
eaten. “In the first stage towards development,” says Mr.
Potts, ‘“‘ the adherent seed may be seen lying on the fostering
spray, quite firmly fixed, covered over with a strong coating
of transparent varnish; the indication of the future growth, a
smooth green speck at the large end of the seed.” For some
time no feeding stems are put forth. Long branches some-
what resembling rhizomes of a polypodium are then produced,
and follow the course of the branch of the host, sometimes
even descending the trunk of the main tree. Where these
stems cross each other they imosculate. At different points.

142 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

they send out suckers into the tree, and at these points,
rounded woody lumps are formed, invested with dark-brown
membranous scales. The earher leaves of the plant are
strongly tinged with reddish purple, some are of a pale bronze
margined with claret, and the branches are of a rich warm
brown. Some years elapse before the plants assume the
darker shades of green.

LL. Fieldii often puts out short rootlets which clasp the
branch, and frequently grows on branches smaller than
itself. ‘‘ Thus,’ Field (loc. cit.), ‘“‘ one with roots from one to
one and a half inches thick will grow on a branch no thicker
than a man’s little finger, which, of course, bends down with
its weight, so that the Loranthus swings about with every
breath of air.” Yet it is evident that the plant is nourished
by the beech tree, for, if the beech is killed, the Loranthus
invariably dies with it.

There are many points of interest known with regard to
the development of European species of Loranthus, and a
closer investigation of New Zealand forms will undoubtedly
well repay the labour spent upon it.

Loranthus Colensoi (Colenso’s Mistletoe).

A large glabrous shrub. Leaves 14 in.-2 in. long, broadly oblong or
obovate, with a short stout petiole. Flowers 13 in.-2 in. long, scarlet, in pairs,
on a short, stout, 3-9-flowered peduncle. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

I. Fieldi is a little-known somewhat similar species from the centre of the
North Island.

Loranthus tetrapetalus (The Four-petaled Mistletoe).

A much branched rigid shrub. Leaves decussate, 4 in.-? in. long, ovate or
elliptic. Flowers axillary, in opposite 2-4-flowered racemes. Petals free, scarlet,
recurved at the tips. Both islands. Common on Nothofagus Solandri. FI.
Jan.-Feb.

Loranthus flavidus (The Yellow Mistletoe).

Leaves 1 in.-2 in. long. Racemes drooping, 10-12 flowered. Flower
yellow, 4 in. long. Both islands.

THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 143

Fig. 40. Tupeia antarctica (pistillate flowers and berries) (3 nat. size.)

144 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Loranthus micranthus (The Small-flowered Mistletoe).

Leaves 13 in.-3 in. long, obovate or oblong. Flowers minute, green, 4 in.
long. Abundant throughout the islands. Fl. Oct.-Noy.

Genus Viscum.

Parasitical shrubs. The New Zealand species are leafless, small, with
flattened, jointed branches, much constricted at the joints. Flowers very
minute, unisexual, in spikes, or solitary, or whorled at the joints of the
branches. Male flower : perianth 3- or 4-leaved, anthers sessile on the perianth
lobes ; female flower: perianth 3- or 4-lobed. Style O or short, stigma obtuse.
Name from the Greek. 2 sp.

To this genus belongs the Mistletoe. Round it clings many
a myth from old Keltic and Teutonic times. The New
Zealand species, however, are insignificant, and seem to have
been unnoticed by the Maoris. Their mode of attachment to
the host is quite unknown. The European mistletoe puts out
a radicle which terminates in an attachment disk, that
becomes cemented to the host. From the centre of this disk
is pushed out a “ sinker”’ into the tissues of the branch below.
No further development takes place in the first year.
Subsequently, there is developed an extremely complicated
series of suckers, which may be compared to a rake in shape.
The process is very intricate, but highly interesting.

Viscum salicornioides (The Salicornia-like Mistletoe).
A small plant, much branched, 3 in.-4 in. high. Joints 4 in.-} in. long,
rounded. Flowers very minute, solitary or few together. Perianth 3-lobed.
Both islands, parasitic on various shrubs. FI. Noy.-Jan.

Viscum Lindsayi (Lindsay’s Mistletoe).

A small plant, 4 in.-6 in. high, branching, succulent. Joints of stem flat,
rather longer than broad, 34 in. broad. Flowers in spikes, ¢ in. long, very
minute. Perianth 3-lobed. Parasitic on Coprosma, Metrosideros, Melicope, etc.
South Island. Fl. Noy.-Jan.

Genus Twpeira.

Distribution.—An endemic genus of one species. It does not, lke
Loranthus, send out rhizomes which fasten themselves at many points to the
host, but has only one root. It is found parasitic on many different plants ; in
the south, perhaps, most frequently upon Panax. In the north of Auckland,

THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 145

however, it is the tarata (Pittosporwm eugenioides) which is attacked almost
exclusively. Cases of double parasitism have been frequently observed in
connection with Tupeia. Thus, in Riccarton Bush, Mr. J. B. Armstrong
discovered Loranthus nucranthus growing upon it. At Broken River, Mr. T.
Kirk found Loranthus tetrapetalus growing on Nothofagus Solandri, and itself
bearing 7’. antarctica.

The staminate flowers of T'uwpeia are found in panicles, in
which the individual blossoms are not only more numerous,
but larger in size than those on the pistillate panicles. Both
forms are of a greenish yellow hue. The berries are beautiful
and very varied in colour, ranging from white and pink to
deep purple on the same branch. The flowers and leaves
droop immediately the parasite 1s cut away from its host.

Tupeia antarctica (The Antarctic Tupeia).

Leaves 3 in.-15 in. long, obovate, with short petioles, pale-green. Panicles
6-10 flowered. Flowers % in. in diameter, greenish-yellow. Both islands. FI.
Oct.-Dec.

Proteaceae.

Distribution.—A remarkable family, found chiefly in Australia and the
Cape of Good Hope. Many species are grown for their curious or brilliant
flowers. The Australian Bottle-Brush (Banksia) is one of the most remarkable
species. Leucodendron argentewm is the Silver-Tree of the Cape.

Key to the Genera.

A small tree. Leaves entire. Fruit a drupe. Persoonia.
A lofty tree. Leaves serrate. Fruit dry. Knightia.

Genus Knightia.

Slender, lofty trees, Leaves leathery, shining, serrate. Flowers in dense
cone-shaped racemes. Perianth a club-shaped tube, the 4 segments finally
separating and becoming revolute. Ovules 4. Follicle 1-celled. Seeds winged
at the tip. A genus of two species, one of which is found in New Caledonia.
(Named after Knight, a writer on vegetable physiology).

11

146 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Knightia excelsa. (The Honey-suckle).

A tree, sometimes reaching to the height of 100ft. Leaves 4in. - 8in. long,
stiff, roughly notched or toothed, obtuse, linear-oblong. Flowers in racemes,

sessile, red, velvety, 2in.- 3in. long, 2in. in diameter. Perianth 1 in. - 14in.
long before expansion; 7; in. diameter in the middle. Follicle woody. North
Island and Pelorus sound. FI. Noy.-Dec.. Maori name Rewa-rewa. It is

sometimes called the Bucket-of-water-tree, because it is so slow of com-
bustion.

This plant is related to the Australian bottle-brushes. — It
is found only in the North Island and Marlborough, and, from
a distance, bears a considerable resemblance to the Lombardy
poplar. Several points in the growth and development of the
long tubular flowers are worthy of notice. The buds are set
round a long floral axis, and the whole cluster has a strange
appearance, like a bottle brush composed of red velvet. The
eradual opening of these buds is very curious, and well worth
watching. The top of the tube opens first, very shghtly, so
as to expose the tip of the style. It then sphts open, for a
short distance, into four separate segments at the base of the
perianth, leaving the tube still for the most part closed.
Finally, it bursts suddenly, and the four elastic segments
thus set free, roll themselves downwards, and coil into spiral
bands at the base of the perianth. The flower, now fully open,
presents a strange, tangled appearance, very different from
that of the bud.

The anthers, which are attached to the top of the perianth,
and in contact with the style, mature their pollen, while the
tube is still closed, and deposit it upon the swollen portion of
the style. This would suggest a device for self-pollination,
but a closer examination shows that it is, after all, an
ingenious contrivance to provide for cross-pollination. The
stigmatic surface is minute, and depressed in a small cup at
the top of the stigma. The flower is much visited by the
tuis and bell-birds. These birds, pushing their beaks into a
bunch of newly-opened flowers, receive the pollen upon the
front of the head, and probably smear it over the stigmas of

THE BOTTLE-BRUSH FAMILY 147

Fig. 41. Knightia excelsa (Bud and flower) (4 nat. size).

148 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

more fully developed clusters. The stigmas ripen later than
the anthers, and there is consequently little hkelihood of self-
pollination. The opening of the flower, and its subsequent
pollination, would afford excellent subjects of observation for
a nature study class. The wood of this tree is much used for
ornamental cabinet-work.

Genus Persoonia.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, leathery, variable. Flowers axillary, in
short spikes or racemes. Perianth a club-shaped tube, opening by 4 segments.
Ovules 1 or 2. Drupe with a 1 or 2-celled nut. A large Australian genus.
(Name after Persoon, a botanist of Cape Colony). 1 sp.

Persoonia toru. (The Toru or Toro).
A small tree. Leaves narrow, 3 in. -8 in. long, leathery, entire, polished on
both surfaces. Flowers in axillary 6-10 flowered racemes, 1 in. long. Perianth
tin. long. Ovary sessile, shining. North Island: Auckland only. Fl. Oct.-Nov.

Santalaceae.

THE SANDAL-wooD FAMILY.

Distribution.—A widely distributed family. The species found in Europe
and North America are herbaceous, while those inhabiting India, Australia, and
New Zealand, are shrubby or arborescent. Santalwm album, (The Sandal-wood),
an Indian species, is much prized for the fragrance of its wood. The family is
represented in New Zealand by two genera, each consisting of one species only.

Genus Santalum

Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate or opposite. Flowers cymose, axillary,
green. Perianth bell-shaped, composed of 4-5 leaflets, hairy at the base.
Stamens, 4-5. Disk, 4-5-lobed. Ovules, 2-4. Drupe, round, or shaped like a
top, 1l-seeded. An Asiatic, Australian, and Pacific Island genus.

Santalum Cunninghamii. (Cunningham's Sandal-wood).

A small tree, with variable leaves, opposite in young plants, alternate in
mature trees, 2in. - 4in. long, dotted, veimed. Flowers, tin. - fin. long, 4 - 5 lobed.
Drupe, 4in. long. North Island: northwards from the east coast.

ROOT PARASITES 149

Balanophoraceae.

A Famity oF Root PARASITES.

Distribution.—A small family, chiefly tropical, of which Balanophora and
Cynomorium are the principal genera. The latter was the Hungus Melitensis of
the Crusaders. The New Zealand species is endemic.

Lirre HIsToRY.

There is perhaps no more remarkable family of flowering
plants than this. Its members are all root-parasites, and lke
all parasites, have become very much reduced in structure.

The life history of one of the Balanophoraceae is shortly as
follows. The seed, which is very rudimentary, falls to the
ground, and reaches a suitable root buried under the vegetable
mould of the forest. It adheres to the root, and forms a little
tubercle. The bark of the host is broken open, and an
extraordinary series of developments takes place, that has as
yet received no adequate explanation. The wood fibres of the
host separate into a fan-like mass, and being diverted from
their original course, pass up towards the parasite. This in
its turn sends out cells and vessels, which penetrate between
the ascending vascular bundles of the host; and, by the
coalescence of the tissues of the two plants, an imtermediate
zone is formed, composed partly of the cells of each, though,
in some still stranger cases, there are also developed cells whose
origin cannot be definitely referred to either plant. This
phenomenon somewhat resembles a natural grafting, but it is
a grafting between plants of completely different types.

The tubercle now grows to the size of a fist, or larger, and
short, thick, fleshy shoots are sent out from it. These do not
develop true leaves, but in many cases produce scales, which
surround the flower-heads. The flowers are either terminal
or in spikes. The colouring of these flower shoots is often
most remarkable. They are frequently fungoid in appearance.
Indeed, early writers of the nineteenth century were so

150 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

puzzled by their resemblance to fungi, that they considered
them to be in some fashion crosses between a fungus and a
flowering plant. Such an idea, of course, appears ridiculous in
the light of modern knowledge. Crosses or hybrids only occur
between closely alhed forms. The Balanophoraceae are true
flowering plants, that have become highly specialized in
order to maintain their existence. Although they mimic
fungoid growths, they are no more closely related to the
fungi than penguins are to fishes.

Fig. 42. Dactylanthus, from Taylor’s New Zealand.

Dactylanthus Taylori (Taylor's Dactylanthus).

There is only one representative of the order in New
Zealand, Dactylanthus. This solitary species forms a distinct
tribe by itself. It was originally discovered in New Zealand by
the Rev. R. Taylor in 1857, growing on roots of Pittosporum and
Nothofagus, somewhere near the head waters of the Wanganui.
Since then it has been met with on several occasions, in widely
different parts of the North Island; but it is evidently not
common. Mr. Taylor describes it as having an earthy and

ROOT PARASITES ll

rather unpleasant smell”. On the other hand Mr. Hill, who
found it in the Kast Cape district, states that it was ‘‘ the
delicious daphne-lke fragrance which it emitted,” that first
drew his attention to it. Our plant, indeed, is not one of
the foul-smelling or fungoid forms, although the flowering
stems are inconspicuous and of a dull-brown colour, and are
clothed with overlapping fleshy scales. According to Taylor,
the “petals of the flowers are shghtly tinged with pink in the
centre, but in general they are of a dirty white and brown
colour.”

By the Maoris the plant is called Pua-o-te-reinga (The
flower of Hades). Why this term was applhed to it, 1s not
clear, but it seems not imappropriate. It has been found on
the roots of Schefflera digitata and Coprosma grandifolia, as
well as on the roots of the plants already mentioned. Fusanus
Cunningham and Huphrasia cuneata are also, it 1s believed,
partly root parasites. (The name Dactylanthus is from the
Greek, meaning Finger-flowered, 1 allusion to the finger-like
spike).

Polygonaceae.

THE BuCKWHEAT FAMILY.

Distribution.—A widely distributed family of plants, occurring both in
arctic and tropical regions. The leaves and stems are usually acid or astringent,
and frequently contain oxalic or malic acid. The Rhubarb, Sorrel, Dock, and
Buckwheat are well-known members of this family.

Key to the Genera.

1. Flowers, unisexual. Miihlenbeckia, p. 152
Flowers, hermaphrodite. 2

2. Stigmas, tufted. Rumex, p. 152.
Stigmas capitate. Polygonum 152.

*Rey. R. Taylor. New Zealand, and its Inhabitants, p. 697.

152 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Polygonum.

Very variable herbs, rarely shrubs, sometimes aquatic. Stipules often
fringed. Flowers white or red, usually in spikes or racemes, sometimes axillary
and solitary. Perianth 5-lobed; stamens usually 6-8. Ovary triangular. A
large genus, of which the British species are known as knot-grass, bistort, etc.
(Name from the Greek, meaning many knots, in allusion to the knotted stems).
3 sp.

Polygonum aviculare. (Zhe Common Knot-grass).

Stem woodyat the base. Branches hard, grooved, often prostrate, 6in. - 24in.
long. Leaves 4in. - 1$in. long, leathery, linear oblong ; stipules silvery, ragged.
Flowers small, axillary, 1-3. Nut triangular. Very common on waste ground,
perhaps introduced. Fl. Dec.-March.

Genus Miihlenbechia.

Shrubs, often climbing. Flowers usually spiked or panicled, sometimes
axillary and solitary. Perianth 5-lobed, becoming fleshy in fruit, white.
Stamens, 8. Ovary triangular in shape. Nut ovoid, black, enclosed in the white,
fleshy perianth. A small genus found in South America, New Zealand and
Australia. 4 sp.

Muhlenbeckia adpressa. (The Close-fitting Miihlenbeckia).

A large rambling climber. Stem, twining, grooved. Leaves 4-in. - 2in.
long, oblong or heart-shaped, 3-lobed in young plants. Flowers in spiked
panicles, green, small. Stigmas, plumose. Nut black, enclosed in the white
fleshy perianth. Both islands: common. Also in Norfolk Island, Australia and
Tasmania. Fl. Nov.

Muhlenbeckia complexa. (The Clasping Miihlenbeckia).

Stems slender, creeping or climbing, interlacing, wiry, grooved. Leaves
shining, }-inch -4inch long, rounded or heart-shaped. Flowers in spikes or
panicles, few. Nut black, encloged in the white fleshy perianth. Both islands.
Fl. Nov.

Muhlenbeckia axillaris. (Zhe Axillary-Flowered Miihlenbeckia).

A small, variable species, with slender, tufted branches. Leaves small,
shining, pin. - fin. long, oblong, obtuse. Flowers axillary, solitary. Perianth
fleshy in fruit. Both islands: chiefly in mountainous districts. Fl. Oct.-Nov.

Genus Rumex.

Herbs, rarely shrubby. Stipules ragged. Flowers in racemes or panicles,
inconspicuous, green or reddish, Sepals, 6, the 3 inner enlarged. Styles 3.
Fruit a triangular nut, covered by the three enlarged inner sepals. A large and
widely distributed genus, to which belong the Docks and the Sorrels. 2 sp.

THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY

Fig. 43. Miihlenbeckia complexa (4 nat. size)

154 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Rumex flexuosus. (ZVhe Tortuous Dock).

A much branched herb, 1ft. - 2ft. long, prostrate, shining. Leaves 4-in. - 8in.

long, linear-oblong, sometimes waved at the margins. Flowers in distinct
whorls. Lobes of perianth in fruit ~>in. long, veined, sometimes with 1 - 4
spines, keeled. Keel sometimes spiny. 30th islands: common. FI. Nov.-
March.

Fig. 44. Miihlenbeckia axillaris. Fruit (life size).

Chenopodiaceae.

THE BEET FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, distributed all over the world. Soda was at
one time obtained from the ashes of those species which grow in salt marshes.
Spinach (Spinacia) and beet (Beta) are used as table vegetables.

Sand-dunes, sea-marshes, deserts, and old lake bottoms are
more or less impregnated with salts of sodium, calcium,

magnesium, and potassium. Plants growing in such situations

THE BEET FAMILY 1p:

are termed halophytes, and it is in these localities that most
of the chenopods are found. Wherever the ground, on
drying, rapidly becomes encrusted with salt, there only
halophytes can grow. Plants usually halophytic may,
however, sometimes be found in soils that do not contain any
specially large amount of alkaline constituents; but in such
positions they often lose many of their chief characteristics.

Key to the Genera.

1. Stem leafiess, cylindrical, jointed. Salicornia, p. 156.
Stem leafy, not jointed. 2

2. Perianth without bracts. Chenopodium, p. 155.
Perianth with bracts, in the female flowers at least. 33

3. Perianth of male flowers without bracts. +Atriplex.
Perianth of male flowers bracteate. 4

4. Perianth fleshy in the fruit. tSuaeda.
Perianth winged or keeled in the fruit. Salsola, p. 155.

+Not further described.

Genus Chenopodium.

Herbs, often covered with a mealy dust, composed of the bladder-lhke, readily
separable cells of the hairs which cover the stems and leaves. Flowers 2-sexual,
small, greenish. Perianth 3-5 partite. A large genus of way-side weeds, the
fat-hens and goose-foots. (Name from the Greek signifying goose-foot). 7 sp.

Chenopodium triandrum (The Triandrous Chenopodium.)

Stems 6 in.-12 in. high, much branched. Leaves { in.-3 in. long, entire.

Flowers minute, fascicled at the ends of the branches. Stamens 2-4. Both
islands, Auckland to Otago. Fl. Noy.-Mar. This species appears to be endemic
in New Zealand. The specific name “ triandrum”’ implies that there are three
free stamens.

Genus Salsola.

Herbs or shrubs, with fleshy, often prickly leaves, extremely saline.
Flowers minute, axillary, 2-sexual. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt).
1 sp.

Salsola australis (The Southern Salsola).

A low woody shrub, 1 ft.-2 ft. high. Leaves hard, sharp-pointed, ovate,
$ in.-f in. long. Flowers inconspicuous. Sepals and stamens usually 5. This
is, perhaps, the same as the northern Salsola kali, which, as its name implies,
was at one time one of the chief sources of alkali.

156 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Salicornia.
Succulent, jointed, leafless herbs. Flowers minute, 2-sexual, sunk in the
joints of the stem. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt-horn). 1 sp.

Salicornia indica (The Indian Salicornia).

Stems prostrate. Branches ascending 6 in.-12 in. long. Joints variable in
size, sometimes bright pink in colour. Branches terminating in cylindrical
cones. Calyx fleshy. Stamens, 1 or 2. Fruit membranous. Both islands :
stony or muddy beaches. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

Caryophyllaceae.

FAMILY OF PINKS.

Distribution.—A large family, distributed over cold and temperate regions.
With the exception of the Pinks and Carnations, the flowers of the order are of
little general interest. Many of them are British weeds, and a number of them
have been introduced into the Colony. The juices possess no active properties
except in the case of Saponaria, which contains the poisonous principle

saponine.
Key to the Genera.

1. Sepals 4 or 5, united or free. ; 1
Sepals 2. Hectorella. p. 158.
2. Sepals free or united only at the base. 3
Calyx 5 toothed and nerved. +Gypsophila.
3. Petals 0. +Colobanthus.
Petals present. 4
4. Stipules 0. Stellaria, p. 156.
Stipules present, membranous. +Spergularia.

(+ Not further described).

Genus Stellaria.

Usually weak, straggling herbs, with small white flowers, found in temperate
and cold regions. Petals and sepals 4-5. Stamens 8-10. Of 80 species, 6 are
endemic in New Zealand. Many others have become naturalized. The chick-
weeds, stitchworts, &c., belong to this genus. (Name from the Latin, in allusion
to the star-like appearance of the flower).

Stellaria Roughii (Rough’s Chickweed).

This is a very distinct species, found only in the alpine districts of the South
Island. It is an erect, succulent herb, not more than four inches in height.
Leaves 4 in.-§ in. long. Flowers 4 in.-? in. across, terminal, solitary, green.
Petals smaller than the sepals. Seeds large, brown, hairy.

FAMILY OF PINKS bot

FLORA OF THE SHINGLE Fans.

The range of mountains known as the Southern Alps is a
very ancient one, and comparatively dry on its eastern slopes.
Consequently, there is not a sufficient amount of denudation
to carry off to lower levels, the broken rock formed by the
winter’s frosts. Immense masses of detritus collect on the
eastern flanks, forming in many places great shingle fans, which
are thousands of feet in height. In these localities have been
developed certain highly specialized plants not to be found
elsewhere. One of these, Notothlaspi rosulatum, is elsewhere
described at some length, others are Stellaria Roughii, Cotula
atrata, Ligusticum carnosulum, Craspedia alpina, Lobelia
Roughw. It is the first of these that we have now to deal
with. It grows at an altitude of from 4,000 ft. to 6,500 ft.,
on the shingle slps in various parts of Canterbury and
Nelson.

It is obvious that the ordinary chickweed of the garden
could not exist for long at such an altitude. Such a flaccid,
weak, prostrate plant would soon be broken and bruised by the
rain of shingle from above, or destroyed by the heat of summer
and the frosts of winter. For few, if any, plant habitats are so
subject to extremes of climate and the violence of storms, as
the shingle ship. In summer, the surface layers are dry, and
burning hot. In winter, they are wet, and even when not
covered by snow, icy cold. At a considerable depth below
the surface is a stream of water, often derived from melting
snow. At all seasons of the year, furious gales blow over the
unsheltered surfaces of the fans. In winter, the south-west
winds drive over them, laden with snow and sleet, and in
summer, they are swept by the no less furious, and sometimes
parching nor’-westers. Only a plant with a constitution of
surpassing hardiness and vigour can live under such rigorous
conditions, One of the strangest features in connection with
them, is that they endure all these hardships with little or no
soil to feed upon.

158 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Let us consider, shortly, how this alpine chickweed has
endeavoured to adapt itself to its remarkable habitat. Like
nearly all the other shingle plants, it has adopted as its colour
the dusky grey of its surroundings. Further, it is the only
erect native chickweeed, and thus, by its habit, it 1s to some
extent protected from moving shingle. Dr. Cockayne has
srown it from seed, and studied its changes of form.* Seeds
collected on Mount Torlesse, and grown at New Brighton
(Canterbury), took more than a year to germinate, and some of
them a year and tenmonths. The first pair of leaves after the
cotyledons, were spathulate, and of rather a glaucous green,
with long petioles. In the adult plant the leaves are sessile
and linear, and thus well protected from excessive trans-
piration. This reduction of leaf surface may also be regarded
as a protection against excessive insolation. Even in the
earlier stages of the plant both surfaces of the leaf are
protected by a thick cuticle, and on the under-surface there is
in addition a two-layered epidermis. Thus the colour, habit,
leaf-form, and leaf-structures are all doubtless adaptations to
environment.

Genus Hectorella.

A genus of one species, which is a small, tufted, fleshy plant, with leathery,
imbricating leaves. The flowers are white, nearly sessile; stems 1 in.-1$ in. in
height. Flowers 7 in. long. Capsule membranous. Named in honour of Dr.
Hector who discovered it in the alpine districts of Otago.

Hectorella czespitosa (The Tufted Hectorella).

This is a curious alpine patch plant of somewhat uncertain position. It is
generally included in the Portulaceae, but as Diels has shown, it should almost
certainly be regarded as one of the Caryophylaceae. It was originally discovered
by Sir James Hector in 1862. The flowers are arranged in circles, on the
flattened tops of the branches. It is probable that the structures which Hooker
considered to be two sepals, are really sepaloid bracts, and that what he termed
the corolla is a petaloid calyx. If these interpretations are correct, then the plant
is closely allied to such a Caryophyllaceous plant as Lyallia of Kerguelen’s
Land.

Trans. XXXIII p. 267.

THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY 159

Nyctaginaceae.

THE MARVEL OF PERU FAMILY.

Distribution.—A small family of plants, principally natives of warm
countries. Mirabilis dichotoma is the garden plant known as the Marvel of
Peru, or the Four o’clock Plant, from its habit of opening its flowers at that
hour of the afternoon. Bougainvillea spectabilis is remarkable for its large
rose-coloured bracts. Pisonia is the only New Zealand genus. The prickly
seeds of P. Brunoniana exude a glutinous substance which adheres to the wings
of small birds, and makes them easy of capture. Another West Indian species
has strong hooked spines on its branches, which render it an annoyance to
travellers.

Genus Pisonia.
Shrubs or trees. Leayes opposite, alternate or whorled. Flowers small,

green or reddish, in terminal corymbs. Perianth 5-lobed. Stamens 6-10,
unequal. 1 sp.

Pisonia Brunoniana (The Parapara).
A small tree, 12 ft.-15 ft. in height. Leaves opposite or whorled, 4 in.-
12 in. long, oblong, weak, entire. Flowers in compound cymes, hairy, 2 in.-4 in.
across. Perianth in. long. Stamens 7. Perianth of the fruit sticky, ribbed,
1 in.-15 in. long. Maori name para-para, sometimes called by the settlers the
Bird-catching plant. North Island: Ngunguru, Whangarei. FI. nearly all
the year round.

Aizoaceae.

THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY.

Distribution.—A family of nearly 500 species, found chiefly in tropical and
sub-tropical regions, notably in South Africa.

Key to the Genera.

Leaves angular. Petals many. Mesembryanthemum.
Leaves flat, petioled. Petals absent. Tetragonia.

Genus Mesembryanthemum.

Xerophytic herbs, usually creeping, often succulent. Leaves opposite,
without stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal. Calyx 5-lobed. Petals and
stamens numerous. Ovary with 5 or more cells. Fruit a capsule opening in
moist air only; seeds minute. (Name from the Greek, in allusion to the time
at which the flower expands.) 2 sp.

160 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Mesembryanthemum australe (The Southern
Mesembryanthemum).

Stems 1 ft.-2 ft. in length, prostrate, rooting at the nodes. Leaves united
at the base, 1 in.-3 in. long, thick, fleshy, shining, Flower-stems short, thick.
Flowers with spreading petals, % in.-1 in. across, white or pink. Petals 50-60.
Styles 5-8. Ovary 5-8 celled. Both islands: abundant on the sea-shore. Fl.
Noy.-March. Called by colonists, pigs’ faces or ice-plant.

Genus Tetragonia.

Herbs, erect or trailing. Leaves succulent, alternate. Flowers axillary.
Calyx 3-5 lobed. Petals 0. Stamens few or many. Styles 2-8. Ovary 2-8-
celled. Cells l-ovuled. Fruit round or angular, fleshy, sometimes horned.
(Name from the Greek, in reference to the angular calyx-tube.) 2 sp.

Tetragonia expansa.

An erect, branched, fleshy herb. Leaves 1 in.-3 in. long, glistening with
papille. Flowers solitary or in pairs, sessile or with very short stalks. Calyx
4-lobed. Stamens 12-16. Styles 3-8. Ovary 3-8-celled. Fruit angular,
usually with 2-4 horns. New Zealand Spinach. Kermadecs to Stewart
Island: on the seashore. FI. Dec. to Feb.

Ranunculaceae.

ButTteRcuP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY.

Distribution.—A family of about 700 species, found chiefly in temperate and
colder regions. It includes about 50 New Zealand species. Most plants of the
order contain an acrid juice which is almost invariably poisonous. Some furnish
valuable drugs, e.g., Hellebore and Aconite. Others are cultivated on account
of their beauty, such as Ranunculus, Anemone, Christmas Rose, Columbine,
Larkspur, and Clematis.

Key to the Genera.

1. Climbing shrubs Clematis.
Herbs. 2
9. Petals none. Caltha.

Petals present, Ranunculus.

BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 161

Fig. 45. Seed of Clematis indivisa (4 nat. size).

““ Clematis, so lovely in decline,
ers, when they cease to shine,
Fade into feathery wreaths, silk-bright,
And silvery-curled.’’

DOMETT.

162 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Clematis.

Shrubs climbing by twining petioles, with opposite compound leaves.
Flowers dicecious. Corolla wanting, sepals petaloid. (Name from the Greek,
signifying a vine-shoot). 9 sp.

Two peculiarities of New Zealand plants are well illustrated
by this genus. (1) A large number of our flowers are green
and inconspicuous, or at least not brightly coloured; (2) an
unusually large proportion of the species have stamens and
pistils on different individuals.

The genus Clematis in other lands contains many species,
which are blue, purple, or yellow. New Zealand has nine
species. Two of these have white flowers; in the remainder
the’ flowers are greenish-yellow or yellowish. In none are
they brightly coloured, and this lack of colour one finds
throughout the flora. The New Zealand violets are white,
the gentians are nearly all white, the flax proper (Linum
monogynum) is white. The corresponding species in other
countries are blue, or brightly coloured. Examples might be
multiphed indefinitely (e.g., most of our Compositae, Veronicas,
Pimeleas, etc., are white).

There is no doubt that the prevalence of white in the Flora
is In some way connected with the paucity of insects in New
Zealand. It has been said, that not only are our insect
species few in numbers, but there are few individuals of each
species. Such a broad statement, as this, is, however,
unwarranted. It is true that we have only fifteen kinds of
butterfly, and that several of these are rare, so that these
insects play a smaller part in the work of pollination here
than elsewhere. However, we have a considerable number of
forms of might-flying moths, several of the familes being well
represented, and it is generally supposed that they pollinate
white flowers, which are more conspicuous in the gloom than
coloured ones. It also seems probable that flies play a larger
part in the work of pollination here than they do elsewhere.
Too little, however, is known at present about the indigenous

BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 163

Fig. 46. Clematis indivisa—Staminate flowers (3 nat. size).

Meek clematis, tree dweller, child of dew,
Nursling of light and air !

Slow trailing stars, or showers of misty suns,
Whence is the hand thou reachest wistfully
Feeling, on earth, for something not of earth ?

JOHANNES ANDERSEN.

164 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

species in the lower orders of insects, to enable one to speak
definitely about them and their relationships to flowers.

Unisexual flowers.

Perhaps in no other part of the world is there such a large
percentage of unisexual flowers to be found, as in New
Zealand. Genera which are hermaphrodite elsewhere, are
often unisexual here. Out of 433 species examined Mr. G.
M. Thomson found 46 per cent.—a remarkably high
proportion—more or less unisexual.* Of the remaining 54
per cent., probably only a few are self-pollinated, although the
flowers are hermaphrodite. ‘There is reason to believe that in
some few cases (e.g., the willow and the oak), the unisexual
condition is the primitive one; but, in many of the New
Zealand plants, the presence of rudimentary organs, and the
hermaphroditism of closely allied forms elsewhere, prove that
suppression has taken place, and that we have here to do with
a secondary and not a primitive condition.

Clematis indivisa (The Entire-leaved Clematis.)

This is one of the best-known of the bush flowers. The leaves are thick
and glossy, and the flowers have no petals, the sepals acting both as protective
and attractive organs. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name P2wa-wananga,
Pikiarero.

Plants of C. indivisa, with their festoons of starry white
flowers, looped from tree to tree, ight up with delicate beauty
the edges of the dark bush in the early spring. It is not to be
wondered at that the northern Maoris gave to this species the
name of Pua-wananga, 1.e., the sacred or sanctified flower. Its.
feathery wreaths of seed are almost as beautiful as the flowers,
each seed in the cluster bearing a long silky, silvery plume,
which enables the wind to carry it to a distance. Pairs of
rudimentary leaves are found beneath each flower-stalk, and
these are believed to remain undeveloped, so that the flower

*Trans. XIII., p. 248.

BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 165

Fig. 47. Clematis indivisa—Pistillate flowers (nat. size).

Fancy could almost declare
That great Ophiucus, down-hurled
From his throne in the skiey star-world,
Had been caught with his glittering gems,
*Mid those giant entangling stems.
DOMETT.

166 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

may not be shaded, or hidden from the sight of the insects
upon which it depends for pollination.

The leaf-stems coil themselves spirally round the branches
of other trees, and so drag the plant up to the sunshine, which
is needed for the expansion of their flowers. When young,
these leaf-stems are remarkably sensitive, and, if gently rubbed,
will turn in the direction from which the friction comes.
They will seize, therefore, and coil themselves around any
twig or branch against which they are blown by the wind.

Clematis hexasepala (The Six-sepaled Clematis).

Very similar to C. mdwisa, but smaller. Found throughout the islands,
but not so commonly as the former. Fl. Sep.-Noy.

Clematis afoliata (The Leafless Clematis).

A remarkable plant, with leafless branches, and yellow flowers ; often
binding together, with its long wiry stems, the bush upon which it grows.
Found chiefly in the South Island: not common. It may still be collected
within a short distance of the foot of Colombo Street, Christchurch. Fl. Oct.
Clematis fetida (The Feetid Clematis) produces fragrant, greenish-yellow
flowers in great profusion, on long sprays. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Clematis parviflora
(The Small-flowered Clematis)—Flowers fewer, leaves smaller and softer than in
C. fetida. Rather local in the North Island, and rare in the South Island.
Fl. Oct.-Noy.

Genus Ranunculus.

Most of the species of this genus are known as Buttercups. Sepals 3-5.
Stamens many. Fruit a head of beaked achenes. 37 sp.

Ranunculus Lyallii (Lyall’s Ranunculus).

Stem erect, without runners. Achenes silky. Leaves peltate, flowers
white. Alpine districts of the South Island. Fl. Jan.-March.

This stately plant is the finest species of the genus. The
leaves, which are kidney-shaped in the young plants, are
circular and concave in mature specimens, thus forming saucers.
In them water often collects, and, as there are deep grooves
over the leaf-veins, Diels considers that moisture may be
absorbed at these places, but the matter has not yet been sub-
jected to experiment. The plant is known to colonists as the
Mountain, Shepherd’s, or Mount Cook Lily. The name is

BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 167

Fig. 48. Clematis parviflora (7 nat. size).

168 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

most inappropriate, as the plant is not a lily, but a large white
buttercup. However, any large-leaved herbaceous native plant
is called by the colonists a lly, especially if it has white
flowers. For another instance of the misuse of the name, v.
Chatham Island Lily, Myosotidiwm nobile.

Ranunculus Lyallit is not unlike the English king-cup in
its habit of growth, having the same large, round, fleshy
leaves and juicy stems. But the flower of the king-cup is
golden, and that of the Mount Cook Lily is of a pure and
waxy white. This Ranunculus grows only in the alpine
districts of the South Island, and at an altitude of from
2,000 to 4000 feet. It may, however, be readily seen on
Mackinnon’s Pass, on Arthur’s Pass, and near Mount Cook,
where it forms dense patches as high up as the Ball Hut on
the edge of the Tasman Glacier. It is one of the most
its white

beautiful plants in the New Zealand alpine flora
anemone-like flowers contrasting well with its large, dark glossy-
ereen leaves which sometimes measure fifteen inches across.
This plant and R. Traversw are the only species with peltate
leaves. It is cultivated with difficulty, as it requires the
ereatest heat possible during summer, and the most severe

cold in winter.
Other species which have extremely showy flowers are A.

Buchanani (Otago lake district), R. Godleyanus (headwaters of
the Rakaia), R. insignis (southern Nelson, 'Tararua, and
Ruahine Mountains), R. nivicola (Mount Kgmont). The only
similar species known outside of New Zealand, is R. Baurii of
the Transvaal mountains.

Ranunculus crithmifolius (Lhe Samphire-leaved Ranunculus).
Similar to the next species, R. Haastii, but with shining green fleshy leaves,
and short 1-flowered scapes. Wairau Gorge. Known only from a single
specimen.
The plant descriptions of many of the earler botanists were
often of necessity very imperfect, and, consequently, later
investigators have frequently had much difficulty in identifying

BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 169

Fig. 49. Ranunculus Lyallii (3 nat. size).

170 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

the species to which these descriptions allude. Sometimes
not a scrap of the original specimens, from which the
characters have been drawn up, is to be found in herbaria.
Under these circumstances, it is a matter of astonishment
how many of the original species have been identified with
certainty. In spite, however, of all the perseverance and
research of modern workers, a few of the forms apparently
known to the earliest explorers, have not been re-discovered in
recent times. In some cases it is probable that the plant has
been redescribed under a fresh name; in a very few cases, it
may be, that, by some lucky chance, the first collectors found
a plant that, on account of its extreme rarity, has never been
seen again. In R. crithmifolius we have a plant which has
not been re-identified since first found by Travers on the
shingle-slips of the Wairau Gorge. Even then only a single
plant was seen. (cf. Cotula filiformis, Senecio perdicioides,
and Pittosporum obcordatum.

It seems more than likely, therefore, that the plant was a
casual variant of some other form, than really a distinct
species. If, however, the original description is to be trusted,
R. crithmifolius is one of the most remarkable species of the
genus.

Like all other shingle-shp plants, it 1s highly specialized ;
otherwise it would not be able to live in the place whence it
was reported. <A full description of the conditions of lfe in
such a locality will be found under Stellaria Roughi. Rk.
crithmifolius has leaves, which, on a smaller scale, closely
resemble those of the rock samphire, a plant of an altogether
different order. They are thick, succulent, bluish-green, and
highly polished. They thus differ widely from the normal
leaf-forms of the genus.

Diels compares them with the leaves of Ligusticum carno-
sulum, which is one of the most singular species of the
flora, and also grows on the same shingle-shps in the Wairau
Gorge.

BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY Ne falt

Ranunculus Haastii (Haast’s Ranunculus).

Stem simple, erect, without runners. Achenes glabrous; leaves few, much
divided, leathery. Scape few-flowered, with leafy involucre. Perhaps the only
New Zealand species with a stout, fleshy rootstock. Shingle-slips in the South
Island, from Nelson to Otago. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

A similar plant to R. crithmifolius, but much more widely
distributed. Both species, however, were said to be found
together on the shingle-slips of the Wairau. R. Haasti has
flower-stalks as thick as the finger, and a stout, fleshy root-
stock that burrows deep into the shingle. Thus, by
increasing the succulence of its parts, it has managed to
adapt itself to an exceedingly inclement situation.

Ranunculus hirtus and Ranunculus lappaceus are the New
Zealand representatives of the English meadow buttercup,
whilst R. rivularis, R. acaulis, and R. macropus are found in
swamps and pools. There are also many introduced species.

Genus Caltha.

A genus of few species, occurring in temperate and cold regions. Perennial
herbs, with large, shining, radical leaves, and yellow flowers. 2 sp.

Caltha novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Caltha).

A stout, fleshy plant, with heart-shaped, auricled leaves, and 1-flowered
scapes. Petals none. Sepals coloured, petaloid. Stamens numerous. Carpels
5-8. Both islands in alpine districts. Dwarf specimens are found also in
Stewart Island. Fl. Oct.-Jan.

This is a httle alpine marsh-marigold, interesting on
account of its leaf structure. The functions of the upper and
lower sides of the leaves have been largely reversed. The
stomata are found on the upper surface, and the water storage
apparatus on the lower. ‘The lobes at the leaf base are
usually bent upwards, or even turned right over upon the
blade. A similar folding is found in the South American C.
dioneaefolia, and in this case Goebel considers that the object
of the bent leaf-bases 1s to secure wind-still spaces for the
stomata to function in. The margins of the leaf are also

72 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

sometimes so much inrolled as almost completely to overarch
the stomatic areas.

This method of obtaining wind-calm spaces is known in
other groups of plants. The leaves of many of the
Papihonaceae, for example, are infolded to protect the
stomatic surfaces.

In other species of the genus Caltha, normal leaf-structure 1s
found. Thus, in C. andicola of the Upper Andes, the stomata
are borne on the lower surface, and the leaf is otherwise of
the usual type. Intermediate forms between this and C.
novae-Zelandiae ave found elsewhere. The abnormal form
is evidently an adaptation to an alpine environment.

Magnoliaceae.

THE MaAGNouLiA FAMILY.

Distribution.—The plants of this order are chiefly natives of southern
North America, and of tropical and temperate Asia. Many of them are hand-
some shrubs, cultivated for their beauty and for the sweet scent of their flowers.

Genus Drimys.

Sepals 2-4; petals 5 or 6, in two rows. Stamens many; fruit a_ berry.
(Name from the Greek, signifying pungent). 3 sp.

Drimys axillaris (The Axil-fowered Drimys).

A small, evergreen tree, with glossy, alternate leaves, and black bark. The
flowers occur in the leaf axils, or in the scars of fallen leaves, hence the name
axillaris. Leaves simple, alternate, pellucid-dotted. Stamens 10-20. There is
in the South Island a pungent species, D. colorata, which has leayes
blotched with red, with a purple bloom on the under-surface and 2-seeded berries.
The wood of this tree is reddish in colour, and is used for inlaid work. The bark
is very aromatic, and is a tonic and astringent. A decoction of the leaves is often
used by bushmen as a medicine, and has earned the name of *‘ Maori Painkiller.”’
Flowers yellowish-green. Fl. Oct.-Dec. Called by settlers the Pepper Tree.
Maori name Horopito.

THE MAGNOLIA FAMILY

a

Fig. 50. Hedycarya arborea (3 nat. size)

174 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Monimiaceae.

Distribution.—A small family, chiefly tropical, found in South America,
Southern India and Tasmania. Leaves sometimes aromatic.

Genus Lauwrelia.

A genus of 4 species, including one found in Chili and two in Australia.
Trees. Leaves opposite, aromatic. Flowers dicecious, in panicles. Perianth
5-8 parted. Stamens 6-20 in the male, flowers reduced to scales in the female.
Ovaries 5-20, hairy. Achenes with long feathery styles. (Name in allusion to the
laurel-like leaves). 1 sp.

Laurelia novae-Zelandiae (The Pukatea).

One of the loftiest of New Zealand forest trees, sometimes reaching the
height of 150 ft. Trunk from 3 ft.-7 ft. in diameter, flanked with thin spreading
buttresses at its base. Bark pale. Leaves thick, 14 in.-34in. long, ? in.-14 in.
wide, toothed, shining. Flowers racemed, axillary, + in. across. Stamens 6-10.
Achenes 6-10. North Island ; northern parts of the South Island. Fl. Oct.-Nov.
Maori name Pukatea.

The wood of this tree is pale-brown, tinged with yellow, and
streaked with darker shades. It 1s much valued for boat-
building, as it does not split, and will not readily burn. The
pukatea, like the tawa, furnishes the Maori with an illustration

of cowardice.
Te waka pukatea, te waka kohe-kohe.
The pukatea canoe, the kohe-kohe canoe ;

v.e., The coward is like the canoe of pukatea, which, being
made of soft wood, soon gets water-logged and slow of motion.
The brave man is hike the kohe-kohe canoe, swift and strong.

Genus Hedycarya.
Trees. Leaves opposite. Flowers in panicles, axillary, dicecious. Perianth
5-10-lobed. Anthers sessile, numerous in the male flower. Ovaries numerous,
stigma sessile in the female flower. Ovule solitary. 1 sp.

Hedycarya arborea (The Tree-like Hedycarya).

Trunk 20 ft.-30 ft. in height. Bark dark in colour. Leaves 1 in.-4 in. long,
oblong, coarsely-toothed, rarely entire, shining or slightly hairy. Flower-
panicles hairy, shorter than the leaves. Perianth 4 in. across, yellowish. Fruit
oblong, 4 in long, orange-red, beaked. Both Islands: as far south as Akaroa.
Fl. Noy.-Dec. Maori name Porokaiwhiri or Poporo-kawhiri.

Or

THE LAUREL FAMILY da:

Lauraceae.

THE LAUREL FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large, chiefly tropical family, with only one HKuropean
species (Laurus nobilis), the Sweet Bay tree. Cinnamon, Cassia-bark, Camphor
and Clove Nutmegs, are all obtained from various species of this family.

Key to the Genera.

1. Leafless twining herb. Cassytha, p. 177.
Leafy trees. 2

2. Small tree. Flowers in a 4-5 leaved involucre. Litsea, p. 175.
Lofty forest trees. Flowers in panicles. Beilschmiedia, p. 175.

Genus Litsea.

Shrubs or trees, leaves usually alternate. Flowers in axillary umbels,
dicecious. Perianth absent, or 4-8-parted. Stamens 6-15 in the male flowers ;
rudimentary in the female. Berry ovoid. 1 sp.

Litsea calicaris.

A leafy, shining tree, 30ft.-40ft. in height. Leaves 3in.-4in. long,
oblong, entire, obtuse, pale brown when young. Leaves of involucre } in.-} in.
long. Flowers 4 or 5 together, delicately fragrant. Perianth of 5-8 segments,
cream-coloured. Stamens usually 12; anthers large,4-valved. Berry # in. long,
red. North Island. Bay of Islands to east coast. Fl. Sep.-Oct. Maori name
Mangeao.

Genus Beilschmiedia.

Lofty forest trees. Leaves alternate. Flowers in panicles, terminal or
axillary. Perianth of 6 segments. Stamens 12, some of which are usually
infertile. Berry ovoid. This genus is endemic in New Zealand. 2 sp.

Beilschmiedia Tarairi (The Tarairi).

A handsome tree, 60 ft.-80 ft. in height, with large, glossy leaves. Young
shoots and leaf-stalks clothed with rusty-coloured down. Leaves 3 in.-6 in. long,
leathery, ovate-oblong, obtuse, sometimes whitish below. Flowers in branched
panicles, inconspicuous, 1 in.-2 in. across. Perianth 4 in. across. Fruit an oval
berry, 14 in. long, purple, plum-like, very attractive to birds, but, unless boiled,
said to be poisonous to man. North Island: Auckland district. Fl. Nov.
Maori name Tarai.

Beilschmiedia Tawa (The Tawa).

A forest tree, 60 ft.-70 ft. in height, with slender branches, and pale, usually
narrow, leaves, 3 in.-4 in. long. Flowers in slender panicles, 2 in.-3 in. across,
green. Perianth in. long, smooth, shining. Fruit resembling a damson,
edible, in. long. North Island: abundant in hilly districts. South Island:
near Cook Strait.

176 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The tawa seed provides the Maori with two proverbs :—
Ka mahi te tawa who ki te rivi !
Well done tawa kernel fighting away !

He whati kau taana.

He tawa para !
He only runs away !

A tawa pulp !

Beilschmiedia Tarairi (4 nati. size).

Fig. 51.

The hard date-like stone of the tawa fruit symbolizes the
hero, whilst the fleshy pulp is the emblem of the coward.

Genus Cassytha.

Herbaceous plants, leafless, parasitical upon shrubs, to which they attach
Stems very slender. Flowers in heads, spikes or

themselves by suckers.
Stamens 12, 3 of which are imperfect.

panicles. Perianth of 6 segments.
Anthers 2-celled. Fruit enclosed in the fleshy perianth. A large genus, chiefly
Australian. (Name from the Greek, signifying the dodder, in allusion to the

resemblance between the two plants). 1 sp.

THE LAUREL FAMILY ey

Cassytha paniculata (The Panicled Cassytha).

Stems shining, 75 in.-74 in. in diameter, with small membranous scales in
the axils. Flowers in spikes, 1 in.-2im. long. _-Perianth $ in.-4 in. long, with
small round bracts at the base. Ovary glabrous. Northern parts of the North
Island.

This is a widely spread genus found chiefly in warm
climates. The New Zealand species is so abundant in some
districts north of Auckland as to cause frequent tripping. The
same form is also to be found in Eastern Australia, where the
genus is highly developed. The long, twining, thread-like
stems of the parasite much resemble those of the dodder,
though the two plants are not closely alhed botanically.
Further, the methods by which they attack the host plant,
and the way in which they germinate, are in both cases so
much alike, that one description will suffice for both genera.
(v. Cuscuta.)

Cruciferae.

WALLFLOWER FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large and useful family, comprising many plants used as
vegetables (e.g., turnip, radish, cabbage, cauliflower, cress, etc.). There are
nearly 200 genera and 1200 species, and these are found chiefly in cold and tem-
perate regions. In the Tropics they are rarely seen. The juices of the plants
belonging to this order are entirely innocuous. Of the seven New Zealand genera,
Pachycladon and Notothlaspi present most points of interest. Both are
endemic in these islands. The following genera of Cruciferae are also represented
in New Zealand, Nasturtiwm (the water-cress); Cardamine (the bitter-cress) ;
Sisymbriwm (the hedge-mustard) ; Capsella (the shepherd’s purse), and Lepidiwm
(the pepper-wort).

Genus Pachycladon.

An endemic genus, found only in the South Island. Leaves radical, tufted.
Root fleshy. Sepals, 5; stamens, 6. (Name from the Greek, signifying thick
branches). 1 sp.

13

178 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Pachycladon novae-Zelandiae. (The New Zealand
Pachycladon).

A stout, branching herb, found in mountainous districts of the South Island.
Leaves in rosettes. Scape, 2-5-flowered. Petals twice as long as the sepals.
Ascends to 5000 feet.

This is a remarkable endemic cruciferous genus of Central
and South-Western Otago. There is only one species, P.
novae-Zelandiae, unless indeed a form reported from the
mountains at the head of Lake Ohau, should prove to be
distinct. The foliage is arranged in the form of a rosette, 7.e.,
there is no stem. The leaves are, therefore, all radical, and
arranged in concentric circles round the flower stem. The
common dandelion is a typical rosette plant. Anyone who
has dug one of these weeds out of a lawn, knows what an
ugly bare patch is left behind. The rosette plant so completely
covers the soil beneath it, that nothing else can grow there.
In the struggle for existence it successfully chokes out its
competitors. However, the desire for exclusive territorial
possession, cannot be the purpose of the rosette of Pachycladon,
for it grows on the shingle-slips, where there is plenty of room.
Positions on such exposed situations are not greatly coveted,
for few plants can successfully brave the hardships of life in
such localities.

It is probable that Pachycladon owes its rosette form,
not to its environment, but to its ancestry. Many of the
Cruciferae have this type of leaf arrangement, and it is not
infrequently met with on the shingle shps. (See also
Notothlaspi).

Genus Notothlaspr.

A small endemic genus, found only in the South Island. Herbs, with thick
radical leayes, and scapes of white flowers. Stamens 6. Pods compressed,
winged, 4in. - lin. in length.

Notothlaspi rosulatum. (The Rosette-like Notothlasp1).

An erect, stemless herb. Leaves in a crowded rosette, hairy when young,
glabrous when old. Flowers white, fragrant, pyramidal. Shingle beds in the
alpine districts of the South Island. The Pen-Wiper Plant of the Settlers. Fl.
Dec.-Jan. 2 sp.

THE WALLFLOWER FAMILY 179

This is a singular endemic genus, of the detritus fans
and upper river-beds of the South Island. Kirk describes N.
rosulatum “‘as one of the most remarkable plants known,”
but is surely in error when he speaks of it “as now becoming
rare owing to the ravages of sheep.” The plant is quite
common in many sub-alpine districts, and certainly does not
appear to be generally attacked by sheep. It is sometimes
sought after by the settlers, and taken indoors, on account of
the delicious orange-like fragrance of the flowers.

As the name implies, the leaves are arranged in a rosette—
a plant form not unusual in such a habitat (v. Pachycladon
p. 178). The structure of the rosette, however, is very
remarkable, if not altogether unique. The flower-head, as
shown in the photograph on the title page, is much shorter
than in the typical form, but the picture gives a much better
idea of the character of the rosette than those drawn by
previous writers. That given by Mr. and Mrs. Featon in their
Art Album of the New Zealand Florais particularly misleading,
evidently having been drawn by someone who had not seen
the plant growing. The leaves overlap like the shingles of a
roof, and the whole rosette itself 1s curved like an umbrella, so
that only the outer edges touch the ground. ‘Thus, all rain
falling on it, quickly rolls off, and is rapidly conducted through
the loose shingle to the long characteristic tap-root, which
firmly anchors the plant amongst the drifting pebbles.
Underneath the umbrella-like foliage is a cavity, which is not
without its value in the economy of the plant. During the
day, since the shingle is hot, and the under surface of the plant
cool, vapour must then be condensed on the under-surface of
the rosette. Thus the leaves obtain a copious supply of
moisture throughout the period of insolation. At mght the
shingle cools down more rapidly than the plant, and
condensation now takes place upon the ground. The foliage
is thus kept dry, and protected to some extent from the effects
of frost.

180 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

One of the chief dangers the plant has to contend with,
arises from the continual moving of the stones of the shingle-
slips. Indeed, its rosettes are often buried, and sometimes
destroyed by them. However, specimens are not infrequently
found, in which a second rosette has been developed above the
original one, that had been covered by the ever-moving
shingle. Obviously, the fleshy leaves, the long-tap root
reaching to the wet stones below, the thick flower stem with
its conical mass of low-growing, densely crowded flowers, have
all been developed by the plant in its attempt to adjust itself
to the perils of a difficult environment. As in other plants of
the shingle-slips, the folage is of a sandy hue, that suggests
protective resemblance, but no sufficient explanation has yet
been given of this assimilation of colour to habitat.

Droseraceae.

THE SUNDEW FAMILY.

Distribution.— A remarkable family, with carnivorous habits ; usually
found in marshy or sandy ground. Dionea muscipula, the Venus’ Fly-Trap of
the North-American bogs, is wonderfully specialized for the catching of insects.

The Droseraceae are a widely distributed family, but the greatest number of
species is found in Australia. D. rotundifolia is found in almost all English
bogs. The leaves of this plant, when young, are curled like the fronds of a fern.
Some of the species yield a purple dye.

Genus Drosera.
Sepals, petals and stamens, 4, 5, or rarely 8. Flowers, white or purple, on
long weak stems, 6in.-18in. in length. The leaves of the different species are
very varied in shape. 6 sp.

Drosera pygmeea. (The Pygmy Drosera).
A very minute plant, with leaf rosettes less than gin. across. Stem, 1-
flowered, #in. high. Flowers white. Calyx 4-lobed; capsule 4-valved. Both
islands: local. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

THE SUNDEW FAMILY

Fig. 52. Drosera auriculata (3 nat. size)

182 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Drosera spathulata (The Spathulate-leaved Drosera).

Leaves in a rosette, each leaf from 4$-in. - #in. long. Flower-stem, lin. - 6in.
long; 1-6 flowered. Petals, white. Calyx, 5-lobed; petals, 5; stamens, 5.
From Mangonui to Stewart Island; local. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

Drosera binata (The Twin-leaved Drosera).

A very distinct species, with leaves like a two-pronged fork, all radical.
Flowers on slender stems, white, jin. - in. across, 6 to 8 on a stem.
Sepals, petals, and stamens, 4-5. Both islands; common in clay bogs. Fl.
Noy.-Feb.

Drosera auriculata. (The EHar-shaped Drosera).

A pretty little plant with pink or purple flowers, growing in dry soils. The
stems are slender and straggling; sometimes 2ft.-3ft. in length. The root-
leaves are few in number; those on the stems alternate, with two long narrow
processes on the upper part, like pointed ears. These, as well as the remainder
of the leaf, are covered with the long red hairs common to all Sundews. Seen
under a microscope, by artificial light, the leaf of the Sundew is a most beautiful
object, and well worth studying.

INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS.

Plants which grow in bogs often find it difficult to procure the
nitrogen necessary for their sustenance ; and they have, there-
fore, evolved means of catching and digesting flies and other
insects. Darwin was the first to investigate thoroughly, and
establish the carnivorous nature of numerous plants. Many of
the facts connected with them are highly remarkable, and for a
full description, the great evolutionist’s work on Insectivorous
Plants should be consulted. In the Droseraceae, or Sundews,
the upper surface of each leaf bears a number of bright red,
clubbed, glandular hairs, every one with a glistening drop of
viscid fluid at the upper end. These tentacles are longest round
the margin of the leaf, and grow gradually shorter towards the
centre. If an insect touches the centre of the leaf, it becomes
glued to the hairs, and, a few minutes afterwards, the marginal
tentacles bend towards it, and seize it. The orifices of its
respiratory organs become blocked up by the viscid fiuid, and,
finally exhausted by its struggles, the unfortunate insect dies.
The amount of the secretion from the tentacles increases,

THE SUNDEW FAMILY 183

Fig. 53. Drosera spathulata (3 nat. size). A. C. Smith.

184 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

and, if the insect is large, the whole leaf becomes more or less
concave, and large quantities of juice are poured out from the
glands. This juice is in many ways similar to the human
gastric fluid, and accomplishes the same purpose, for, after
several days, the insect is digested, and little of it is left, except
the wings and horny casing. The leaf then gradually opens
out, and, after a day or two, is again in a position to capture
insects. The sensitiveness of the tentacles is marvellous.
Thus, it has been said, that the four-thousandth part of a
miligram of ammoniun carbonate is sufficient to produce
motion in them, while a piece of a woman’s hair about two-
tenths of a millimetre (7.e. less than one-hundredth of an inch
in length), placed upon a gland, also caused inflection in the
filament belonging to the gland. The above description deals
chiefly with D. rotundifolia, an English and continental plant.
To it alone, Darwin devoted 270 pages of his book; but he
also experimented on two Australasian species—D. spathulata
and D. binata. He found that functionally they differed little
from D. rotundifolia. Both these species occur in New Zealand,
though Darwin’s specimens came from Austraha. The very
handsome D. binata, in particular, interested him very much.
He refers to it as “this almost gigantic Australian species.” In
it the bifurcated leaf-blade, which is very long and narrow, is
itself in no case inflected. Glands are borne, not only at
the ends of the tentacles in this species, but ‘“‘ on both upper
and lower surface of the blade, there are numerous minute,
almost sessile glands, consisting of four, eight, or twelve
cells.”* There are also on the backs of the leaves of this
species, a few tentacles near the margins. These tentacles
are remarkable in possessing no power of motion, but
even had they this power, they are generally too short to
bend round to the upper surface of the leaf. In their
present situation, they seem to be of little use; and Darwin
regards these and the sessile glands, as vestigial structures,
which have been lost in other species of the genus.

*Darwin “Insectivorous Plants,’ p. 282.

THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY 185

Splendid specimens of this plant are to be found at the head
of Paterson’s Inlet (Stewart Island). Another well-known and
readily accessible habitat is the Bluff Hill. Mr. G. M.
Thomson experimented on specimens of D. arcturi, from the
bogs on the top of Maungatua.* He considers that, owing to
its frequent complete immersion in wet weather, it is seldom
to be found in its native habitat with insects on the leaves.
However, he found that four specimens of Aphis (blight) from.
rose leaves were completely digested in about four days’ time
by a single leaf of D. arctwri, though young leaves were
easily sickened by an overdose of meat.

The method of pollination in the New Zealand species does
not seem to have been observed, though it is probably of con-
siderable interest.

Saxifragaceae.

THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, containing many beautiful Alpine species.
The London Pride, or None-so-Pretty (Saxifraga umbrosa) is used as a border
edging in English gardens. Many other plants of the family are cultivated in
rockeries, and some are remarkable for the chalky crust which forms on the
margins of their leaves. The British Grass of Parnassus (Parnassus palustris)
is one of the most beautiful of bog plants. The Currant and the Gooseberry are
largely cultivated for their fruits. The New Zealand genera have all woody
stems.

Key to the Genera.

1. Leaves opposite. 2
Leaves alternate. 3

2. Flowers in panicles. tAckama p.
Flowers in racemes. Weinmannia. p. 188.

3. Ovary superior. Ixerba. p. 186.
Ovary inferior. 4

4. Flowers racemose. Petals overlapping in bud. Quintinia. p, 18 .

Flowers panicled. Petals touching in bud. Carpodetus. p,. 188.

*Trans. N.Z. Inst. Vol xiii., p. 261.
{Not further described.

186 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

pes Cag Moet
Genus Quintinia.

Shrubs or trees with alternate leaves, and axillary or terminal racemes of
white or lilac flowers. Calyx-tube 5-toothed. Petals 5; stamens 5. Seed
winged. Q. serrata and Q. acutifolia are both endemic in New Zealand. (Name
in honour of La Quintinie, a French Botanist). 2 sp.

Quintinia serrata (The Serrated Quintinia).
A small tree, sometimes 20 ft. in height. The young shoots are extremely
viscid, and the whole plant is covered with small whitish scales. Leaves

Fig. 54. Ixerba brexioides (4 nat. size)

3in.-6 in. long, oblong, roughly serrate, leathery. Flowers 4 in. in diameter,
pale-lilac. Racemes axillary, 3 in.-4 in. long. Called by settlers New Zealand
lilac. Maori name, Kumarahou. North Island only: Auckland, Hawke’s Bay,
and Taranaki. Fl. Oct.-Novy.

Genus Ixerba.

An evergreen tree, with thick, leathery leaves, and flat panicles of white
flowers. Calyx 5-lobed; petals 5; stamens 5. (Name an anagram of Brewxia.)
1 sp.

Ixerba brexioides (The Brexia-like Ixerba).

A beautiful tree, sometimes 70 ft. in height. Leaves 3 in.-7 in. long,
coarsely-serrate, $ in.-1 in. broad. Flowers 14 in. across. | Petals waxy, white,

THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY 187

Fig. 55. Carpodetus serratus (3 nat. size).

188 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

pointed. North Island from Whangaroa to Hawke’s Bay. In woods, not
common. Maori name Tawar. Fl. Nov.-Jan.

Kirk considers this to be perhaps the most beautiful tree in.
the flora. This and the following genus are endemic.

Genus Carpodetus.
A shrub or tree, with alternate leaves, and axillary panicles of white flowers.
Calyx 5-6 lobed; petals 5-6; stamens 5 or 6, inserted with the petals. Fruit

round, fleshy, girdled by the calyx. (Name from the Greek in allusion to the
fruit being girt by the calyx-limb). 1 sp.

Carpodetus serratus (The Serrate Carpodetus).

A curious, flat-topped tree, about 20 ft. in height, with branches spreading
like a fan. Leaves and branches slightly hairy. Leaves beautifully veined and
marbled in appearance. Flowers very fragrant, small, white, in broad cymes,
hidden amongst theleaves. Fruit the size of a pea, black when ripe. This fruit
is very slow to ripen, taking nearly twelve months to come to perfection. As is
the case with many New Zealand plants, flowers and ripe fruit may be seen
together upon the tree. Found from North Cape to Stewart Island.
Fl. Nov.-Mar.

The native name Puta-puta-weta is derived from the fact
that the curious and repulsive insect known as the Weta
usually chooses the Carpodetus as a fit tree in which to bore
its holes. In the North Island, trees of this species are rarely
cut down unperforated by the longitudinal galleries of these
insects, which are frequently discovered in their holes.
Puta-puta literally signifies full of holes. Another name
by which it is known is that of Punaweta. In the
Uriwera country it is called Kai-weta (v.e. weta food). The
weta, or Maori Devil, is a large orthopterous insect of the

genus Deinacrida.

Genus Weinmannia.

Shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves, and regular flowers. Calyx-tube
4-5-partite ; petals 4-5 ; stamens 8-10, inserted with the petals. Fruit a capsule.
A large genus of about 50 species, found chiefly in tropical countries. (Named
after Weinmann a German writer). 2 sp.

Weinmannia silvicola (The Forest-loving Weinmannia).

A tree with dark-coloured bark, sometimes rising to a height of 70 ft.
Leaves opposite, very variable in form, unequally pinnate, or 1-3 foliolate ;

THE ‘‘MATIPO”’ FAMILY 189

leaflets in from 1-9 pairs. Flowers in slender racemes, 2 in.-6 in. long. Single
flowers 75 in. across, white. Capsule shining. Seed with a tuft of hairs at either
end. North Island. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Maori names, Tawhero, Kamahi.

Weinmannia racemosa (The Racemose Weinmannia).

A tree, from 70 ft.-90 ft. in height, with larger leaves and flowers than those
of W. silvicola. Leaves coriaceous, serrate, usually 1-foliolate, though young
shoots often develop 3-foliolate leaves. Racemes stout, erect, 1 in.-4 in. long.
Flowers white $ in. across. Both islands. FI. Jan.

Pittosporaceae.

ae IMT PO. + RANEY:

Distribution.—A small family, chiefly Australian. All the New Zealand
species are endemic. The North Island is richer in species than the South.
Some of the Australian species are cultivated for their flowers and coloured
berries.

Genus Pittosporum.

Flowers regular, axillary or in terminal umbels; dark-purple, red, or
yellowish green. Petals often recurved. Capsule woody. Some of the species
were known to the Natives as Mapaw. 18 sp.

Pittosporum tenuifolium. (The Thin-leaved Pittosporwm).

A small tree, with black bark, and flowers of so dark a purple as to appear at
times almost black. The branches give out a pungent odour when broken.
Leaves pale-green below, often reddish above, undulate, 1in.-3in. long. Capsule
3-valved. A very variable plant, of which there are four named kinds. FI.
Sept.-Nov.

This species is largely used for the formation of ornamental
hedges, and is then called the “‘ Matipo.”’ This is a misnomer,
as the Maoris apparently apphed this name to a species of
Myrsine. P. tenurfolium was called by them the Tawhi-
wht. The fragrant gum taken from it was collected and
hung round the neck in a sachet (v. Aciphylla Colensoi).
The plant is evidently pollinated by insects. The flowers are
bright purple at first, but become darker, and finally almost

190 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

black. Small drops of nectar are to be found at the base of
the corolla. Mr. G. M. Thomson* is in error in saying that
there is no perceptible fragrance. At night the flowers diffuse
a sweet odour that fills the air for many yards around. This
scent is evidently intended to attract might-flying insects. It
is strange, therefore, that the flowers should be so dark in hue,
for most night pollinated flowers are of a bright white colour.

Its dense pale-green foliage, black twigs, and shapely form,
make it one of the most attractive of the smaller native trees.
For some unaccountable reason, it 1s known to gardeners as
P. mgrescens.

Pittosporum obcordatum. (The Obcordate-leaved Pittosporum).
A small tree, with divaricating branches, small leaves, and white flowers.
Fruit not seen.

This plant was first collected by Raoul about 1842. He
reported it from Banks’ Peninsula, and it has been sought
for there by numerous later botanists, but never found.
For sixty years the plant was not again met with, and was
then found near Kaitaia by Messrs. Mathews and Carse. As
Raoul had visited this district, it 1s therefore very probable
that the habitat given in the first place was wrong. It is
the only New Zealand species with white flowers.

This error in the habitat has led Diels into supposing that
the smallness of the leaves in this species is due to its inhabit-
ing “one of the coldest districts in the wide area of distribu-
tion of the genus.” Even had the plant been found at Akaroa,
this statement would scarcely have been correct, for Akaroa
has a mild climate, with only very light frosts. P. tenuzfolium
var. fasiculatum however is found in Preservation Inlet, in
South-west Otago, where the climate is much more severe,
while P. rigidum is sub-alpine.

Pittosporum cornifolium (Zhe Cornel-leaved Pittosporum).

An epiphytal species. This is a beautiful little shrub, with small, drooping
terminal umbels of delicate reddish flowers. Flowering stem and buds deep red.

*Trans. XIII. p. 254,

““MATIPO’’ FAMILY

Pittosporum tenuifolium (? nat. size).

192 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Petals 4 or 5, recurved through half their length back to the stem, pale-green
inside. Sepals 5, very narrow, pale-green. Leaves bright green, coriaceous in
the older stage, beautifully veined on the under surface. Capsule 3-valved ;
valves of a brilliant orange colour on the inside. North Island chiefly. South
Island: Pelorus Sound, and Titi Island. Fl. Sept.

Pittosporum cornifolium, though possessed of rather insig-
nificant flowers of a dull purple, has very showy seeds. These,

Fig. 57. Pittosporum cornifolium—Flower (% nat. size)

as in other plants of the genus, are imbedded in gluten, which,,
in this case, is of a yellow colour. The seeds themselves are
blackish purple, and when the capsule opens, it discloses the
inner side of the valves, which are of a bright orange. The
combination of colours is very striking. It is probably
intended to attract birds, but, apparently, no investigation has.
been made to ascertain whether the seeds pass uninjured

THE ‘‘MATIPO’’ FAMILY 193

Fig. 58. Pittosporum cornifolium—Fruit (3 nat. size).

14

194 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

through their digestive canals, or in what way they are
distributed by them.

Pittosporum Kirkii (Kirk's Pittosporwm).

One of the most beautiful species. Bark reddish-purple. Flowers in terminal
umbels. Leaves narrow-linear, 2 in.-5 in. long. Epiphytal. North Island.
Ascends to nearly 3,000 feet.

Pittosporum crassifolium (The Thick-leaved Pittosporum).

A tree, with black bark. Shoots, sepals and under-surface of leaves covered
with close white hairs. Leavescoriaceous. Valvesdowny. Flowers in terminal
umbels, often solitary, deep-purple, nearly 4in. long. Capsule round, 2-4 valved.
North Island, chiefly on the East Coast. Fl. Sept.

This is a sea-side plant, and, like most species growing in
such a position has the epidermis and cuticle of the leaves
thickened to protect 1t from excessive transpiration.

Pittosporum Eugenioides (The Hugenia-like Pittosporwm).

A tree sometimes 40 ft. in height, glabrous, with large corymbs of fragrant
flowers of a greenish-yellow hue. lLeayes 2in.-3in. long, broadly oblong,
usually waved at the margins. Bark white. Capsules 2-3-valved. Both
Islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name Tarata. (Name from Hugena, a genus
of myrtles).

A beautiful tree whose pale-green leaves with undulating
margins, emit, when bruised, a lemon-lke odour. ‘The delicate
venation and lght-coloured, almost white, midrib add to the
beauty of the leaf. The Maoris mixed the resinous exudation
from the bark with the juice of the sow-thistle, and worked it
into a ball, which they chewed. In October the tree produces
masses of yellowish-green flowers, whose heavy honied odour
is almost sickly in its intensity. According to Mr. G. M.
Thomson, the plant is probably often self-pollinated ; but Mr.
Kirk points out in his Forest Flora, that, though stamens
and pistils are always present, one or other is often abortive,
so that the flowers are often practically unisexual.

The wood of this species, hke that of the other species of
the genus, is almost worthless. The tree is often cultivated
for its beauty, and is sometimes—though not so often as P.

THE ROSE FAMILY 195

tenuifolium—used to form an ornamental hedge. It 1s known
by a variety of names amongst the colonists, such as Mapau,
White Mapau, and even Maple and Lemon-tree. The Maori
name seems to have been Tarata, but it 1s also called the
Mapau.

Pittosporum Ralphii (Ralph’s Pittosporwm).

A somewhat similar species to P. crassifoliwm, but distinguished from it by
the broader leaves with slender petioles, the shorter peduncles, and smaller
capsules. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

A beautiful, somewhat laxly branched shrub 15 ft -20 ft.
high, found chiefly in the central district of the North Island
from the Wanganui to Tolago Bay. It grows abundantly in
the Christchurch Public Gardens. Its dark-crimson fascicled
little flower bells with their shghtly emergent yellow anther
tips, resting on the downy white young fohage, make it, when
in bloom, one of the most attractive of our larger shrubs.
The ripe introrse anthers may often be found in contact with
the viscid stigmas, so that the plant is probably frequently
self-pollinated.

Rosaceae.

THE Rose FAmMILy.

Distribution—An almost universally distributed family, though most
abundant in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. The plants of
this family are remarkable for the sweetness of their fruits, and the beauty of
their flowers. Hydrocyanic acid is contained in the seeds, leaves, and young
shoots of the Prwneae and Pomeae, but the other tribes possess only harmless
juices. The rose, the apple, the peach, the cherry, the strawberry, the plum,
all belong to this wide-spread and useful family.

Key to the Genera.

1. Climbing, prickly shrubs. Rubus, p. 196
Herbs with simple or pinnate leaves. Achenes many or few. 2

2. Herbs with pinnate leaves. Achenes 1 or 2. Aczena, p. 201
Leaves simple or pinnate. Achenes many. 3

3. Leaves pinnate. Styles short. +Potentilla.
Leaves simple or pinnate. Styles elongated. +Geum.

+Not further described.

196 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Rubus.

Scrambling, thorny shrubs, with alternate leaves, often palmately divided.
Calyx 5-lobed, petals 5, stamens many. Fruit a cluster of fleshy drupes, on a
cone-shaped receptacle. New Zealand species dicecious. (Name from the Latin
for a Bramble.) 4 sp.

The New Zealand Bramble is of the same tribe as the
raspberry and the blackberry, though its fruits are not so
fine. Its twining stems and hooked prickles form one of
the chief obstructions to a journey through the bush.
These hooks are so placed as to allow the plant to slip easily
up any support, though they will not permit it to be dragged
down. ‘The centre of the female flower is filled with carpels,
each one of which develops in the autumn into a small red or
yellow fruit. The aggregate of these little fruits forms the
berry, which is pleasant to the taste, and 1s often made by
settlers into a preserve. A sweet juice, which drops freely
from the cut stems, is drunk by bushmen when thirsty. The
native name, T'ataramoa, signifies a heap of prickles. The
Maoris have also bestowed this name upon the English furze,
and upon brambles generally.

The New Zealand species of Rubus do not present the
bewildering variety of form that is found in the genus in
Central Europe; but they nevertheless add considerably to
the perplexities of the local botanist. Nor have these
perplexities been reduced by the carelessness of various
writers on New Zealand plants. Thus A. R. Wallace* tells us
that “In New Zealand the prickly Rubus is a leafless trailing
plant, and its prickles are probably a protection against the
large snails of the country, several of which have shells from
Such an error could

be)

two to three and a half inches long.
scarcely have been made by anyone familiar with the natural
history of the country. Rubus is one of the commonest
species on the edge of the forest; and the snails referred to
belong to rare and disappearing species—rarely, if ever, found

** Darwinism,’’ Colonial Edition, p. 433.

THE ROSE FAMILY

Fig. 59. Rubus Schmidelioides (4 nat size).

198 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

in the neighbourhood of Rubus. The correct explanation is
given by }Kerner. It is, perhaps, worth quoting :—

“A plant distinguished by its unusually rich development of
barb-like spines, and deserving special mention here, is the
New Zealand bramble, Rubus squarrosus (RR. cissoides).
Each of its leaves is divided into three portions, each being
provided with a tiny blade at its apex; these three portions,
as well as the leaf-stalk, are green throughout their entire
length, and beset with yellow pointed prickles, which anchor
so firmly in the intertwined bushes and shrubs, that a wholly
inextricable tangle is the result.”

The passage quoted is provided with a good illustration of a
spray of R. cissoides.

Some confusion has also been caused in the determination
of the species, by the neglect of most botanists to notice
carefully enough the relation between the form of the plant
and its habitat.

Dr. Cockayne has, however, given a full account of the
development of R. cissoides* and a description of the various
forms which it assumes. Like the other New Zealand
species, in the forest it is a liane climbing by prickles,
and there it is provided with lanceolate acuminate leaflets.
The flowers are yellowish, and the fruit red. When found
in the open, it is a leafless mounded bush, consisting of
intertwining stems and muidribs, with far more numerous
prickles, than it has, when growing in the forest. This
is the stage described above by Kerner. An extraordinary
fact about this depauperated form is, that it has never been
known to produce flowers or frut. This is probably due
to the fact that the leafless plant is merely an arrested stage
in the development of the mature form. Dr. Cockayne
has also suggested that the absence of flowers may be due
to the destruction of the young growing points in exposed
situations.

}Natural History of Plants. I., 677 (English Translation.)
*Trans. XXXIII., p. 291.

THE ROSE FAMILY

Fig. 60. Rubus australis—Fruit (4 nat. size).

200 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Be this as it may, it is at least clear that, in one generation,
the plant changes from the leafy flowering lane of the forest,
to the leafless, compact, flowerless xerophyte of the open
country. As this form is unable to propagate itself, it has to
be perpetuated by escapees from the forest mits. The long
green twining stems of this variety with their yellow hooks
have a fascinating beauty, that must render the plant most
attractive to all lovers of nature.

The species of Rubus are generally known to colonists as
bush lawyers, apparently because it 1s much easier to get
into their clutches than out of them. Domett, with less than
his usual benevolence, refers to them as

““ That vile twine of prickles fine,

Which, if it touch you, cuts and clings

Where’er you pass through brier and bush.’’
Yet, in spite of this general condemnation, Rubus australis is
one of the finest ornaments of the fringe of the forest, when
in early summer it flings its great panicles of heavily-scented,
snow-white flowers over every bush and tree on the forest’s
edge.

Rubus australis (The Southern Bramble.)

A lofty climber. Leaves very variable ; the midribs armed with sharp,
hooked prickles. Leaflets usually 3-5, in long petioles, toothed. Flowers in
panicles, small, pink or white, axillary or terminal, fragrant. Fruit reddish,
dry. Both islands: in the bush or on its outskirts. Fl. Sept.-Dec.

Rubus cissoides (The Ivy-like Bramble).

A much smaller plant than the preceding. Stem without prickles, petioles
and midribs with few. Leaflets 3-5-foliate, very narrow, sometimes reduced to
midribs. Flowers in slender panicles, 2 in.-4 in. long. Petals yellowish. Fruit
very crowded. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct.

Rubus Schmidelioides (The Schmidelia-like Bramble).

A dense bush. Midribs without prickles. Leaves usually 3-foliolate, with a
longer petiole to the terminal leaf. Leaflets oval, rounded below, coriaceous.
Flowering panicles 2-6 in. in length. Petals broad, flowers 4 in. across. Fruit
yellow, sweet, juicy.

THE ROSE FAMILY 201

Rubus parvus (The Small Bramble).

A slender, prostrate plant, with reddish stems, 12 in.-18 in. long. Leaves
bronze in colour, simple, 1 in.-3 in. long, sharply toothed. Flowers few,
prickles few. Fruit 4 in.-1 in. long, red, sweet.

This is a beautiful little forest species, hitherto only found
near the head-waters of several western rivers of the South
Island. The leaves are most delicately veined, and in autumn
turn to a beautiful bronze colour. It is, therefore, one of
the few New Zealand plants that show autumn tints. Others
are Fuschia excorticata and a species of Nothofagus. Here
autumn lays no “ fiery finger on the woods,” and spring does
not renew. ‘The lack of these seasonal changes undoubtedly
detracts much from the beauty of the New Zealand forests.
The colours of the bush, though varied, are as a whole rather
sombre, and alter but little throughout the whole circle of the
year.

Genus Acena.

Perennial, prostrate herbs, with dense heads of minute flowers, and spinous
fruit. Leaves pinnate, the whole plant often reddish in colour. Calyx 4-5-
lobed, petals none. Stamens 1-10, rarely 30-40. Calyx-tube bristly, with
hooked or barbed spines. These calyces sometimes cling to the wool of sheep in
such quantities as to materially damage the fleece. (Name from the Greek for a
spine, in reference to the spinous calyces). Maori name Piri-piri.* 6 sp.

Aczena sanguisorbae (The Bidi-bidi).

Leaflets 8-10, 4in.-? in. long, coarsely toothed. Flowers in globose heads, on
peduncles 3 in.-6 in. long. Fruiting calyx 4-angled, with a long barbed purple
bristle at each angle. Stamens 2. Stems prostrate. Fl. Oct.-Jan. (Sanguisorba
means blood-stanching, and is in allusion to the supposed properties of the
European Sangiisorba or Burnet).

Acezena novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Acena).
Stems erect. Stamens 2 or 3. Fruiting calyx silky, red, slightly winged.
Bristles barbed, reddish purple. Flower-heads larger than in A. Sanguwisorbae.
Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan.

Aczena microphylla (Zhe Small-leaved Acena).

Chiefly distinguishable by the absence of barbs upon the bristles of the
calyx. Flower-stems 1 in.-3 in. long; heads sometimes sessile. Bristles 4,

bright red. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan.

*This name was applied to other small plants.

202 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The common Acena was called by the Maoris Piri-pin, but
colonists frequently corrupt the Maori name, and call the
plant Bidi-bidi. As a general rule, the Maori names are
more incorrectly pronounced as we go southward from
Auckland to Otago. This is largely due to the fact that, in
the north, Europeans have been brought ito closer contact
with the Maoris than in the south. In some few cases, the
difference in pronunciation may be due to differences in the
Maori dialects. The changes that take place often follow

i)

thus the Maori “ p” is softened into the

phonetic laws
European ‘‘b’’ as above, while “r” is replaced by “1” or
“d.” Poro-poro (Solanum aviculare) becomes Bulh-bull, and
Puriri becomes Boradi. This also explains such a form as

a flax-stalk —

“ Kowdie”’ pine for Kauri pine. Korari
similarly becomes Koradi or even Kalladi. ‘“ K” is also
sometimes altered into “g,” thus Kie-kie (Freycinetia Banksit)
becomes ghi-ghi. The last vowel in a reduplicated syllable
was faintly pronounced in Maori, and often disappears
altogether in the European form of the word, e.g., Poro-poro
gives Bulli-bull, and Piri-piri gives Bidi-bid.

Thus it is often possible to arrive at the correct Maori form
of a word from the aborted European spelling. At the same
time the reader should be careful not to assume that the
Maori plant-names given in the ordinary botanical text-books
are completely rehable. Very often they are merely local
Maori names, or are names applhed wrongly by Europeans, or
even merely fanciful terms, invented by some Maori on the
spur of the moment to please his botanical inquisitor.

Distribution of the Genus.

The genus is found only in the temperate regions of
the Southern Hemisphere. All the New Zealand species
are endemic, with the exception of A. sanguisorbae and
A. adscendens. These are more widely distributed. A.
sanguisorbae is a sub-Antarctic form. It is known from the

PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 203

Kermadecs to the Macquaries, and also has been collected in
Australia and Tristan d’Acunha, while A. adscendens occurs
from Marlborough to the Macquaries, and also in Chil,
Fuegia, and the Falkland Islands.

Leguminosae.

FAMILY OF THE PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC.

Distribution.—One of the largest of the families, comprising between 6,000:
and 7,000 species. Only 26 of these are native to New Zealand, and all of these
belong to the sub-order Papilionaceae, though many others have now been
introduced, such as the Broom, Gorse, Clover, ete. The New Zealand species
may all be readily recognized by their papilionaceous (butterfly-like) flowers, and
long seed-pods. From this family are obtained many vegetables, (e.g. Peas, Beans,
Lentils, etc.), while the Vetches and Clovers are useful for fodder. Wistaria,
Laburnum and Sweet-Pea are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. Other
plants furnish valuable resins and dyes (e.g. Copal-resin, Gum-arabic, Gum
Tragacanth, Balsam of Tolu, Indigo, etc.).

SuB-FAMILY PAPILIONACEAE.

This is an immense sub-family, abundant in most parts of
the world, but poorly represented in New Zealand. Plants
belonging to it are best recognized by the shape of their
corollas. The flower of the pea may be taken as a typical
example. There are five petals, of which the two front ones
are united to form the “ keel.’’ The two side petals are called
the ‘‘ wings,” and the back petal, which is generally large and
erect, is called the “‘ standard.’’ Inside the keel will be found
the ten stamens. One of these is usually free from the
other nine, which are united. Together they encircle the
pistil, which consists of a one-celled ovary, with a single style
and stigma, and develops into the well-known pod (legume) of
the pea. The New Zealand genera are all more or less
aberrant. In Sophora the two petals forming the keel are
scarcely united, the stamens are all free and the pod is

204 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

moniliform. In Clanthus the keel 1s comparatively large
and the standard small. Carmichaelia is remarkable for
its strange dehiscence. The pod of Huttonella, and of
Notospartium, 1s indehiscent, whilst the three last mentioned
genera, together with the aptly named Corallospartium, are
nearly leafless brooms.

Key to the Genera.

1. Stamens all free. Flowers large, yellow. Sophora, p. 210.
Stamens united. 2
2. Leafless or nearly leafless shrubs. 3
Herbs or shrubs with pinnate leaves. 5
3. Stem yellow, stout, leafless. +Corallospartium.
Stems green, often flattened. 4
4. Flowers pinkish-white, pods indehiscent. +Huttonella.
Flowers white, lilac, or variously coloured.
Valves of seed pods falling away. Carmichaelia, p. 204.
5. Herbs with pinnate leaves. Flowers blue
or purple. +Swainsonia.
Shrubs. Flowers large, scarlet, in drooping
racemes. Clianthus, p. 210.

+tNot further described.

Genus Carmichaelia.

Shrubs with grooved flattened branches, leafless except in very young plants.
Calyx 5-toothed; wings auricled at the base. Pods 1-12 seeded. A very
remarkable genus, peculiar to New Zealand and Lord Howe’s Island. The sides
or valves of the seed-pod fall away when the fruit is ripe, and the tiny black or
‘scarlet seeds are left hanging by a slender thread from the bare framework of the
pod. Flowers solitary, or in racemes or fascicles, white, red or lilac. (Named in
honour of the Cryptogamic botanist Carmichael). 19 sp.

Carmichaelia nana (The Dwarf Carmichaelia).

A small, sub-alpine species, about 4 inches in height. Branches thin, flat.
Leaves not seen. Flowers red, $ in.-4 in. long. Racemes 2-3 flowered. Pod
oblong, 4 in. long, with a short, straight beak. Seeds 2-4, black. Both islands :
in hilly districts. Fl. Dec.

Carmichaelia australis (The Southern Carmichaelia).

A much-branched shrub, 3 ft.-9 ft. high. Branches very flat, with distant,
alternate notches. Seedling leaves often 3-5-foliolate. Flowers striped lilac,
pale or dark, fascicles 3-12-flowered, very fragrant. Pods oblong with a short
beak. Seeds 1-4, scarlet. North Island: common. South Island: rare.
Fl. Noy.-Dec.

PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC.

Fig. 61. Carmichaelia australis—Fruit (2 nat. size).

206 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Carmichaelia flagelliformis (The Whip-like Carmichaelia).

A slender shrub, 4 ft. in height. Leaves on young plants, 3-5-foliolate.
Young shoots much elongated, like whip-cord. Flowers usually fascicled,
3-7-flowered. Pod oblong, with short, stout beak. Seeds 2-4, flat mottled with
yellow or red. Both islands, local in the North. FI. Dec.-Jan.

No genus is perhaps more characteristic of New Zealand
than this. The only representative outside these islands is the
well-named C. exsul of Lord Howe’s Island. In Carmichaelia,
particularly in the dwarf species, the reduction of leaf surface
has been carried almost to the disappearing point. It is
probable that this reduction is due to an attempt to protect
the plants from loss of moisture, and not from excessive loss
of heat by radiation, as nearly all the forms of the genus are
glabrous. There is evidence to show that Carmichaelia was
originally a genus of leaf-bearing forest shrubs. C. exsul puts
forth its many tender leaves in the moist shade of the famous
palm-forests of the picturesque Lord Howe’s Island. The
New Zealand species, compelled to live in the dry open plains,
develop leaves only in their early stages, or when growing in
shade. Some of the dwarf forms (e.g. C. Enysii*), never go
through a true leafy stage, but pass directly into a semi-leafy
form with flattened branches, and then into the leafless mature
form. ‘They probably represent the last developed type of the
genus. The flattening of the branches, which is seen in most of
the species, is useful to the plant in various ways. It enables it
to obtain a larger accumulating surface, without exposing this
surface directly to the hot rays of the mid-day sun. Indeed
the chief advantage of a flattened stem over a leaf, for the
purpose of assimilation, is that the stem is in a vertical
position, and, therefore, transpiration from its surface will not
be so great as from the horizontal leaf-blade. Further, the
flattened stem gets the full hght from the rising and setting
sun, when the heating effect 1s not excessive. In the closely
allied, scarcely distinct genus Corallospartium, the stomata are

*Dr. Cockayne. Trans. XXXIII, p. 91.

PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC.

Fig. 62. Carmichaelia australis—Flowers (5 nat. size).

208 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

protected by being sunk in hair-lined grooves in the stem.
According to Diels, the stiff branches of this genus prevent any
shaking which might promote evaporation ; and the unusually
well developed cuticle supplies further protection against
excessive transpiration. The stem is of a remarkably bright
yellow with deep grooves of a greenish hue running down it
longitudinally.

A leafless plant, such as C. australis, with long slender,
rounded branches, is sometimes termed a switch plant. The
dwarf species form patch-plants (v. Raoulia) in river-beds,
and on dry mountain sides. Their habit is extremely
singular, and they frequently give the impression of having
been comparatively tall plants that have been mown down by
the scythe, or of plants that have been suddenly arrested in
their growth. The squat, broad stems are singularly ungainly.

The genus is characterized by the strange method in which
the pod opens to allow the seeds to escape. The sides fall
away from the thickened edges, which are left on the plant,
and form a frame enclosing the seeds. These seeds are
suspended by slender threads, and are generally black or of a
brilliant red. Sometimes they are mottled. | The number in
a pod varies from one to twelve. Frequently there are only
one or two. Occasionally in their shape and markings they
resemble lady-birds.

The flowers of Carmichaelia, though small, are often very
dainty in appearance, and beautiful in colour and markings.
C. australis has thick clusters of delicate lilac blossoms, striped
with darker lines, and possesses a sweet scent. Many of the
species are yet insufficiently known.

The flowers of Huttonella, Notospartium, and Corallospartium
are very similar to those of Carmichaelia. Both species of
Notospartium are beautiful and graceful plants, now rare.
Corallospartium is one of the most remarkable plants of the
flora. Its long, yellow, coralloid, switch-lke stems are almost
unique amongst flowering plants.

PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC.

Fig. 63. Clianthus puniceus (4 nat. size).

210 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Clianthus.

A small genus of perhaps four species. The New Zealand species is endemic.
Small trees with pinnate leaves, and conspicuous flowers. Calyx 5-toothed,
Wings half as long as the keel. Pod oblong, 2-valved, many seeded. (Name
from the Greek, signifying a reclining flower, in allusion to the recurved standard).

Clianthus puniceus (The Scarlet Clianthus).

A drooping undershrub, with silky branches. Leaves 4 in.-6 in. long,
pinnate. Leaflets in 8-14 pairs. Flowers in long, pendulous racemes, bright
scarlet, 2 inches in length. Auckland Province, rare; chiefly near old Maori
cultivations. Fl. Aug.-Oct. This tree is known as the Red Kowhai, Parrot’s
Bill or Kaka’s Beak. Native name Kowhai-ngutu-kaka, signifying the Parrot-
beaked kowhai. It is also called in the Uriwera Country Ngutu-Kakariki, the
Parroquet’s Beak. Fl. Aug.-Nov.

This is one of the most gorgeous of our flowering plants. Its
flowers in their brilhancy of colour form a marked contrast to
the greens, whites, and yellows, of most other New Zealand
species. Though such a showy plant, it is scarcely a graceful
one. The heavy, dark-green, glossy, pinnate leaves do not set
off the scarlet flowers to the best advantage. However, the
plant is widely cultivated, and when introduced into England
in 1831, specimens of it were sold at £5 each. It grows well
in Dunedin, but is apt to be cut back in winter by the more
severe and continuous frosts of Christchurch.

The plant—always rare—is now scarcely ever seen except
in gardens, and is becoming extinct on the mainland, though
still to be found on the cliffs round Lake Waikare-Moana, and
on the Great Barrier Island. At one time it was comparatively
common in the Kast Cape district, and in the early days it was:
seen near the Bay of Islands. It would probably have been
long ago exterminated, had it not been cultivated by the
Maoris, and also by the Europeans. The flowers are pollinated
by birds (cf. Phormium, Sophora, Vitex, etc.)

Genus Sophora.

Trees with pinnate leaves, and conspicuous flowers. Calyx inflated.
Standard very broad ; wings shorter than the keel. Stamens 10, free. Pod
angled or 4-winged ; seeds oblong. (Name from Sophero, the Arabic for a
papilionaceous-flowered tree.)

PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. Piet

Fig. 64. Sophora tetraptera (4 nat. size).

A WI PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Sophora tetraptera (The Yellow Kowhat).

A handsome tree, sometimes 40 ft. in height, with pinnate leaves and large
gold-coloured blossoms. Leaves curled in bud, like the fronds of a fern. The
trees are often bare of leaves in the early spring, and the flowers are produced in
the axils of the leafless branches. Leaflets very variable, in from 6-40 pairs.
Calyx greenish ; stamens hanging loosely below the petals. Standard scarcely
reflexed. Pods 1 in.-5 in. long, with four membranous wings. Both islands.
Fl. Sept. Maori name Kowhav.

Var. grandiflora. Trunk sometimes 3 ft.in diameter. Flowers large, deep-
coloured ; standard shghtly reflexed. Leaflets in 10-25 pairs.

Var. nucrophylla. Standard not reflexed. Stamens exserted. Leaflets in
25-40 pairs. Flowers rather broader than in grandiflora.

Var. prostrata. Stems prostrate. Flowers small. Stamens exserted.
Leaflets in 2-4 pairs.

We have followed the usual practice of botanists in separating
the New Zealand species of Sophora into three varieties, but
this discrimination is by no means satisfactory. The life
histories of the various forms are at present insufficiently
known, and no doubt, when they are more fully studied,
several species will be created. It can scarcely be doubted but
that the variety grandiflora is entitled to specific rank.
Again, a common North Island form is deciduous, and
produces in early spring, before the bursting of the leaves,
dense masses of pale yellow blooms. S. microphylla goes
through two distinct stages in its development. In the first,
it is a flexuose shrub with wiry, yellowish, interlacing stems,
and a few small leaves. When the plant is from eight to
twelve feet in height this is gradually replaced by the mature
form, which has a rounded leafy head, naked trunk, and
straight brown branches. Dr. Cockayne informs us_ that
neither the typical form, nor S. grandiflora, goes through the
“scrubby” stage, but assumes the mature leafy form at
once.

The distribution of S. tetraptera outside of New Zealand is
generally given as South Chil, Juan Fernandez, Easter Island,
and Lord Howe Island. However, it may be doubted whether
one and the same species is to be found in all these widely
separated districts. It has been shown again and again, that

PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC.

Fig. 65. Sophoyra tetraptera (4 nat. size).

914 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

plants considered by the earliest botanists to be the same, but
erowing in habitats distant from each other, are really distinct
species. Dr. Cockayne has clearly proved* that there are at
least three, perhaps more, distinct species of Sophora in New
Zealand. The question at once arises, which of these are
endemic in the Colony and which are more widely distributed ?
Until the Chihan and other forms have been closely compared
with our local plants, it is impossible to say which foreign
species Gf any) are identical with the New Zealand forms.
This much, however, may be admitted. We have in the
distribution of the genus Sophora, evidence of a former closer
communication with the South American Continent.

The kowhai is one of the earliest of the spring-flowering
plants. The flowers are sulphur-yellow in colour, with a calyx
of old gold. At the time of opening, the corolla shows most
delicate tints of green at its base, which, however, disappear
when the blossoms are fully expanded. They secrete a large
quantity of nectar. The tuis or parson-birds will not take the
trouble to insert their brush-tongues to get at the honey, but
in their hurry, tear open the flowers with their beaks, leaving
the beautiful petals torn and ragged. The Maoris are said to
have regulated the time of their potato-planting by the
flowering of the kowhai.

The wood of this tree is handsome, and very valuable on
account of its extreme durability. House blocks have been cut
from felled trees which have lain from twenty to twenty-five
years in the damp bush. These logs show no sign of decay,
even when they have almost to be dug out of the ground.
The tree is sometimes called the New Zealand Laburnum.
The Maori name is said to mean yellow (the colour of the
flowers).

As might have been expected, the kowhai has not failed to
attract the attention of most writers of New Zealand poetry,
and it has been described in verse more often perhaps than

*Trans. XXXI. p. 373.

THE GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS 215

any other native plant. Beautiful descriptions of it are to be
found in the writings of Domett, Dora Wilcox, Johannes
Andersen, and others.

Geraniaceae.

(Including the Oxalidaceae).

THE FAMILY OF GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS.

Distribution.-—A family of 20 genera and 750 species, found chiefly in
temperate and hot climates. Many of the species have astringent and aromatic
properties. Oxalic acid is obtained from the Oxalidaceae. The Geraniums and
Pelargoniums are well-known garden flowers. Most of the latter are natives of
the Cape of Good Hope. ‘This family is very nearly allied to the Linaceae.

Key to the Genera.

1. Flowers irregular. tPelargonium.
Flowers regular. 2

2. Leaves lobed. Geranium, p. 215,
Leaves foliolate. Oxalis, p. 216.

tNot further described.

Genus Geranium.

About 100 species. Two of the New Zealand species are endemic, Herbs
with stems swollen at the joints, and stipulate leaves. Flowers regular. Fruit
with a long beak. 5 sp.

Geranium dissectum, var. australe (The Cut-leaved
Geranium).
A downy plant, 1ft.-2ft. in height. Leaves 5-7 lobed. Flowers two on
a stem, 4-inch across. Petals, notched, pink. Seeds, pitted. Both islands,
more common in the north. Fl. Nov.-Feb.

Genus Oxalis.

Flowers, regular. Stamens, 10, all fertile. Stems very slender. Leaves,
3-foliolate, the leaflets folding one upon another at night. About 240 species,
found chiefly in $8. Africa and 8. America. O. acetosella produces cleistogamic
flowers. Some tropical species have pinnate leaves. Flowers yellow, white, or
pink. (Name from the Greek, signifying sharp or acid), 2 sp.

216 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Oxalis corniculata (The Horned Oxalis).

A perennial herb, sometimes creeping. Leaves shining or downy. Stipules,
very small. Flowers, from 1-6 on astem, $in.-%4 in. across. Petals yellow.
Fruit an oblong capsule. Fl. Oct.-Mar.

Oxalis magellanica (Magellan’s Oxalis).

This little plant much resembles the English Wood Sorrel (O. acetosella).
It is smaller than corniculata, with slightly fleshy leaves, and solitary white
flowers. Capsules, round. Stipules, large. Both islands: in shady places. FI.
Aug.-Oct.

Our two dwarf species of Oralis are interesting from
several points of view. On a bright day O. corniculata enlivens
the turf with a blaze of little yellow flowers. It grows chiefly
in dry sunny localities, and it 1s one of the last of our indige-
nous plants to disappear before the advance of civilization.
There is no town in New Zealand in which there is such a
dearth of uncultivated native plants as in Christchurch, yet
this little Oxalis may be found on many of the lawns, even in
the centre of the town. Hagley Park hes almost within the
borders of the City, and here a few wild flowers eke out a
poverty-stricken existence for the dehght of the town-dweller,
if he care to notice them. The list is a short one, and
(excluding monocotyledons) includes Ovzalis corniculata,
Carmichaelia flagelliformis, Ligusticum (Aciphylla) Colensor,
Raoulia Monrot, Geranium microphyllum, Muhlenbeckia
axillaris and Cotula speciosa. None of them, except the little
Oxalis, have brightly coloured flowers; none of them are
showy or conspicuous, but every one of them is well worthy
of study, and ina German town of size equal to this, would
already have been monographed and examined micro-
scopically throughout, in all its stages.

O. magellanica is found chiefly in bogs and damp woods.
It is a widely distributed form, with a sub-antarctic range,
being found in Victoria, Tasmania, South Chil, and Fuegia.
Mr. G. M. Thomson found that the flower produced no seed

GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS Q17

even when the “ stigma was abundantly smeared with its own
pollen.” It is difficult to understand how such an extra-
ordinary characteristic as this is developed, but it is not
uncommon, particularly amongst the Orchidaceae. O. corni-
culata is endemic.

The genus Oxalis shows well the folding of the leaves known
as the “sleep of plants.” The head of the petiole droops,
and each blade is folded along the midrib, so that only the
edges, and not the surfaces of the leaf are exposed to the sky.
The position is, no doubt, as Darwin suggested, a method of

ce

protection against excessive loss of heat by radiation to a clear,
cold sky; but when this has been said, many things still
remain to be explained. The movement is generally stimulated
by the oncoming of darkness. However, it will take place at
regular intervals, for a time at least, in prolonged darkness, or
in constant illumination. There is, therefore, a tendency in
the plant to carry on the regular changes of position, in the
absence of the stimulus; but sooner or later unnatural con-
ditions produce disease, or an abnormal response in the leaves.
The mechanism, by means of which the movements are carried
on, 1s fairly well known. In many plants, it consists of a
cushion of cells on the petiole, which can be distended or
contracted by the injection of fluid into them, or its removal
from them. When the cushion is in a state of turgidity,
the leaf is raised; when it is flaccid, the leaf droops. The
“ sense-organs ’—if so they may be termed—by means of
which the plant can distinguish light from darkness, or
variations in lhght, are as yet very imperfectly known.
Haberlandt, however, has endeavoured to show that there are,
in many leaves, transparent microscopic lenses which he terms
“ocell ” (little eyes), whose function is to detect the alteration
in the amount of light received by the leaf, and thus, perhaps,
receive a stimulus, which will automatically control the motion
of the leaf.

This ‘‘ Somnus plantarum,’ as Linneus termed it, may be
readily witnessed in O. corniculata.

218 LANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Linaceae.

THE FLAX FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, found chiefly in tropical regions, and not
unlike the Malvaceae in the mucilaginous character of the seeds, and the
tenacity of the fibres. Linseed Oil is prepared from the oily seeds of the
Linum (or flax), and the woven material known to us as linen takes its name
from this plant, which produces it. The flowers of the flax are of a delicate
pale-blue, and the petals fall readily.

Genus Linum.

This is the largest genus of the order, and is usually found in temperate
climates. The New Zealand species is endemic, but several other species have
been naturalized.

Linum monogynum (The True New Zealand Flaz).

A perennial woody herb, 6 in.-24 in. in height, with pale-green shining
leaves, and terminal corymbs of white, mallow-like flowers. Flowers lin. in
diameter. Usually found on dry banks and cliffs, especially near the coast.
North and South Islands, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands. Fl. Oct.-Jan.
Native name Rawhima.

This is the true New Zealand flax; the plant which is usually
so called being a lly. The only point of resemblance between

the two plants is the possession by each of a strong fibre.

Rutaceae.

THe - RurE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, found in warm and tropical regions. These
plants are usually remarkable for their powerful and aromatic odour. The leaves
contain glands filled with a bitter volatile oil. The common Rue (Ruta
graveolens) is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic. Dictamnus fraxinella,
the false Dittany, is said to exhale so much of this volatile oil that the
surrounding air becomes charged with it, and faint flashes of light may be
obtained on warm still evenings, if a flame be brought near the plant. Of the
78 genera comprised in the order, only two are found in New Zealand.

THE RUE FAMILY

22.0 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Key to the Genera.
Sepals and petals, 5. Stamens, 10. Phebalium, p. 220.
Sepals and petals, 4. Stamens, 8. Melicope, p. 220.

Genus Phebalium.

Shrubs, with alternate, pellucid-dotted, simple leaves, and corymbs of white
flowers. Calyx small. 28 species are found in Australia, but only one in New
Zealand.

Phebalium nudum (The Naked Phebaliwm).

A slender, branching shrub, with reddish bark. Leaves, lin. -14in. long ;
flowers, + in.-4 in. across; white, in terminal corymbs; endemic. North Island :
as far south as the Thames. Great Barrier Island. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Maori name
Mairehau.

Genus Melicope.

Flowers, regular. Sepals and petals, 4. Stamens, 8. Ovary of 4 carpels.
Shrubs or trees, with dotted leaves, simple or ternate. Flowers terminal or
axillary; small. About 15 species, two of which are endemic in New Zealand.
(Name from the Greek, in reference to the lobed glands round the ovary).

Melicope ternata (The Ternate-leaved Melicope).

A small tree, with shining yellowish-green leaves, and axillary cymes of
greenish flowers. Leaves opposite ; 3-foliate; leaflets, 2in.-4in. long. Flowers,
4in. in diameter. Seed, black, shining. Common in the North Island; local in
the South. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name Wharangi. The gum of this tree is
said to have been chewed by the natives.

Melicope simplex (Zhe Simple-leaved Melicope).

A small tree, 3ft.- 12ft. high. Leaves alternate, usually simple, rarely
3-foliolate, Jin.- #in. long. Leaf stem flattened, broad. Flowers, }-in. across,
white or pink, fascicled on the branches. The appearance of this plant is
different in every respect from that of M. ternata.

This is one of the few New Zealand plants that have been
shown to have cleistogamic flowers (v. Viola Cunninghamit.)

Mr. G. M. Thomson found specimens of Melicope simplex
on Pigeon Island in Lake Wanaka, with closed flowers that
were seeding freely.” On examining them he found that the
flowers were much reduced, and adapted for self-pollination.
The sepals were normal, and the petals nearly so, but of the
eight stamens found in the well-developed flower, four were

*Trans. Vol. XXIV. p. 416.

THE RUE FAMILY Deal

either altogether rudimentary, or had the anthers apparently
aborted. The other four had large anthers on short filaments.
The four carpels, in place of being in contact, were completely
free, and instead of having four united styles, as in the
normal flower, with a single stigma, the cleistogamic flower

Fig. 67. Melicope simplex (life size).

had four more or less distinct styles. The flowers were pen-
dulous, and probably the pollen matured early, and was shed
into the apex of the corolla, thus reaching the stigma. As the
filaments were shorter than the ovary, 1t was impossible for
the pollen to pass directly from anther to stigma.

This plant, like several other New Zealand species, is found
sometimes with hermaphrodite, sometimes with dicecious

222 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

flowers, an anomaly that has never been fully explained. It is
probable that we have here, examples of species that are
changing from the hermaphrodite to the unisexual condition,
or vice versa. The problem presented is one of considerable
interest and importance, and should in the future attract the
attention of investigators.

Meliaceae.

THE FAMILY OF MAHOGANY TREES.

Distribution. — A tropical family of forest trees, which includes the
Mahogany, the Indian Satin Wood, and the Red Cedar of Australia. Found
chiefly in Asia and America.

Genus Dysoxrylum.

About 30 species, all large forest trees, often with a strong odour of garlic.
‘One species alone is found in New Zealand, and that is endemic. (Name from
the Greek, meaning sowr or acid, in allusion to the bitter principle contained in
the leaves.)

Dysoxylum spectabile (The Handsome Dysoxylum).

A tree, often 50 ft. in height, with handsome glossy leaves, unequally
pinnate. Flowers 4 in. broad, white, produced in drooping axillary panicles.
The fruit is large and conspicuous, the hard thick capsule opening gradually, and
showing the brilliant scarlet covering of the seeds. This extra covering is called
the aril. (Mace is the aril of the nutmeg.) This tree is known to settlers as
the New Zealand Cedar. Maori name Kohekohe. 1 sp.

This is one of the most beautiful trees of the New Zealand
flora. Its large glossy leaves, its white, hly-of-the-valley-like
flowers, springing from the bare parts of trunk or branch, and
its large fruits, make it a conspicuous object in the bush of the
North Island, to which it is practically confined. In the South
Island it is rare, and is found only in the north of Nelson and
Marlborough. The leaves are very bitter, and an infusion of
them is sometimes used by bushmen as a tonic. The wood is
hight, and very useful for fencing posts in loose sand. In
such situations it 1s more durable than any other New Zealand
tree.

THE FAMILY OF MAHOGANY TREES 223

Fig. 68. Dysoxylum spectabile.—Unripe fruit (+ nat. size).

bo
BSD
Tee

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

_ Euphorbiaceae.

THE SPURGE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large and interesting family of plants, with about 4000
species, but poorly represented in New Zealand. In some respects this family is
allied to the Geraniaceae, but, from the absence of petals in many genera, it is
placed amongst the Incompletae by Hooker. Xylophylla has flattened branches,
which bear flowers on their margins. The milky juice contained in the stems of
many of the species is usually highly poisonous. Some species produce resin,
caoutchoue, or oil, while others yield a valuable food-starch, from which cassava,
arrow-root, and tapioca are made. The Croton-oil, and Castor-oil plants are
members of this family, while the Common Box is well-known as a garden
edging. Some euphorbiaceous plants, such as Powsettia, are cultivated in
gardens and greenhouses for their brilliantly coloured bracts.

Genus Huphorbia.

Herbs with milky juice, rarely shrubs. Flowers cymose, terminal, enclosed
in a perianth-hke 4-5-lobed involucre, with yellowish or purple glands between
the lobes. Stamens unequal, jointed in the middle. Hach separate stamen of
the inflorescence is regarded as a male flower. Often it is provided with a scale-
like bract at its base. In the centre of this cluster of male flowers, is a single
female flower, consisting of a stalked 3-celled ovary. Cells 1-ovuled. Capsule
3-lobed. Some of the African and Canary Island species closely resemble Cacti,
and sometimes attain a height of 30 ft. The common weed known as the
Spurge, is a European Huphorbia. 1 sp.

Euphorbia glauca (The Glaucous Huphorbia).

A shining, glaucous herb, 1 ft.-2 ft. high. Rootstock woody, thick. Stem
branched at the top, leafy. Leaves 1 in.-4 in. long, broadly oblong or narrow.
Floral leaves broad, whorled. Involucres bell-shaped, 4 in. across, fleshy, with
4 or 5 purple glands. Capsule the size of a pea, smooth. Both islands: sea-
beaches. Common. FI. Oct.-Feb.

Sapindaceae.

THE MAPLE AND HoRSE-CHESTNUT FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large, chiefly tropical, family, including many plants with
poisonous properties. Some species yield a pleasant fruit, while their leaves are
highly poisonous. The nut-like fruits of the Sapindaceae lather freely in water,
and are used in the West Indies for washing purposes. The Maples and

THE MAPLE AND HORSE-CHESTNUT FAMILY 225

Horse-Chestnuts are amongst the most handsome trees belonging to the order.
The North American Sugar Maple, Acer saccharmuwm, contains a great quantity
of sugar in its sap.

Key to the Genera.

Leaves simple (in the N.Z, species). Dodonea, p. 225.
Leaves pinnate. Alectryon, p. 225.

Genus Dodonea.

Small trees, sometimes viscid. Leaves alternate. Sepals 3-5, petals none,
stamens 5-8. <A genus chiefly Australian. Flowers terminal or axillary.
(Named after Dodoens, a German botanist.)

Dodonea viscosa (The Viscid Dodonea).

A small hard-wooded tree, with viscid shoots. Leaves linear-oblong, entire,
1-3 im. long. Flowers in small terminal panicles, green. 10-12 stamens are
found in the male flowers. Fruit dark-brown, flat, winged. Both islands: dry
woods. Fl. Oct.-Noy. Native name *Ake-ake, perhaps signifying for ever and
ever, in allusion to the durability of the wood. The wood was much used for
native clubs, and is now valued by settlers for making mauls, as it does not
spread. 1 sp.

Genus Alectryon.

A tree, with black bark, and hairy branches. Leaves pinnate, 4 in.-18 in.
in length; leaflets 2 im.-4 in. Flowers in erect panicles. Calyx 4-5-lobed ;
petals none; stamens 5-8. Fruit a capsule, coriaceous. (Name from the Greek,
signifying a cock, in allusion to the scarlet, comb-like aril of the seed). 1 sp.

Alectryon excelsum (The Lofty Alectryon).

A handsome tree, sometimes 60 ft. high, Flowers, fruit, and branches
clothed with a rusty-coloured down. The whole of the flowering panicles
appear to be of a reddish brown, from the deep colour of the anthers. The seed
is black and shining, enclosed in a bright scarlet aril. An oil obtained from
these seeds is said to have been used in the making of native perfumes. This
tree is sometimes called The New Zealand Ash, and its timber is largely used.
Maori name, Titoki. Fl. Nov.-Dec.

One of the best known of the bush trees, often comprising
a large portion of the forest. It grows as far south as
Banks Peninsula, where, with several other North Island
forms, 1t reaches its southern-most habit. The prominent
jet-black seed, embedded in its scarlet envelope with flattened
crest and one side terminating in a spur, is one of the most

attractive objects for the ordinary visitor to the bush.

*This name was applied by the Maoris to other hard-wooded trees.

16

226 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Coriariaceae.

THE Tuto FAMILY.

Distribution.—A small family of about 12 species, found in Europe, China,
Japan, India, Peru, and New Zealand. The four New Zealand forms vary
greatly.

Genus Corvaria.

Herbaceous plants, or small trees. Racemes erect or drooping. Flowers
axillary. Leaves, 4 in.-3 in. long. 4 sp.

Coriaria ruscifolia (Zhe Ruscus-leaved Coriaria).

A small tree, with shining opposite leaves, and long drooping racemes of
tiny, greenish flowers. These racemes are 6in.-12in. long. The flower petals
become red and fleshy while the seeds are ripening, and are filled with a purple
juice. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name: Tupakihi or Tutu, perhaps
from Tutu, deep crimson (colour of the fruit). (Ruscus is the plant known as
the Butcher’s Broom).

The family Coriariaceae possesses only one genus, Coriaria,
whose remarkable distribution has been given above. Of the
New Zealand species, two, C. ruscifolia, and C. thymifolia, are
said to be found also in South America; the identity, however,
of these forms with ours has been questioned. This dis-
tribution has been used to prove a former land connection
between New Zealand and South America, but the order is
probably a very ancient one, and the discontinuity of
distribution is more likely to be due to relict endemism,
than to direct communication between these two remote
districts. The family may at one time have been widely
distributed over the face of the globe, and have died out in all
places except those in which it is now found.

C. thymifolia is known in New Granada as the Ink-plant,
as the juice of its fruit is used as a writing fluid. Rather a
curious character of the genus is the formation of the fruit
from the persistent petals, which become fleshy and full of
purple juice.

THE

TUTU

FAMILY

Coriaria ruscifolia (4 nat. size),

Tig, 69.

228 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

EFFECTS OF THE POISON.

The tutu is well known as the most remarkable of New
Zealand’s poisonous plants. Some of the animals liberated
here by Captain Cook died from the effects of eating the
leaves, and in the early days of the Colony the settlers lost
large numbers of their animals in this way. Thus Dr. Lauder
Lindsay states in the “ British Medical Review ” (July 1865) :
“He seemed a fortunate farmer or runholder who had not lost
more than 25 per cent. of his stock from toot-poisoning, whilst
in some instances, the losses were so high as 75 per cent.”
Sir Julius von Haast narrates how an elephant travelling with
a circus, died from eating this plant by the way-side. Further,
there are on record a few cases in which human beings have
lost their lives from eating the shoots or berries of the tutu.
The poison produces vomiting, convulsions, frothing at the
mouth, and death.

It has been found that a dose of about a milligram of the
extract “ produces nausea, vomiting, and incapacity for work
extending over twenty-four hours in a healthy, full-grown
man.’’*

Various methods of treatment have been employed to
counteract the effects of the poison, including the use of
lime-water, ammonia, stimulants, and the inhalation of
chloroform followed by sedatives and bleeding. If the ex-
perience of stock owners is to be trusted, the last mentioned
is the most efficacious means of affording relief. No antidote
is known. Maori children, poisoned by eating the berries, were
smoked over a fire of green boughs, being shaken all the time!

There is some reason to believe that the accounts given of
the effects of the poison on stock have been exaggerated.
Horses have been known to eat freely of this plant without
evil results. Possibly the over-driving of cattle and sheep
has in many cases intensified the action of the poison.

*Basterfield and Aston: Trans. Vol. XXXIII., p. 345.

THE TUTU FAMILY 229

Tutu WINE.

Though the green shoots and seeds are intensely poisonous,
the Maoris prepared from the juice of the berries a beverage,
of which, according to Colenso, they drank large quantities.
In the early days of the Colony the settlers also used to
make a wine from the fruit, after removing the seeds.
However, this wine was not above suspicion. Canon Stack
relates how he drank the wine upon one occasion when
travelling in company with Bishop Harper. Fortunately,
neither of them did more than taste it. Shortly after
swallowing it, the Canon lost all feeling in his extremities, and
could scarcely retain his seat, but felt that he must fall forward
on his face. A mist came over the room, and he perceived
that he was being poisoned, and must ask for an emetic. Soon,
however, his feet began to tingle, and the strange sensation
passed. The good Bishop was similarly affected, so, judging
from this case, the beverage can scarcely be recommended for
general use.

THE NATURE OF THE POISON.

The poison apparently affects the medulla oblongata, and
basal ganglia of the brain. Various attempts were made to
isolate the poisonous principle, and this was finally accom-
plished by Professor Easterfield and Mr. Aston in 1900.
The results of their work will be found in the paper already
referred to. At the end of their article is also a full biblio-
graphy of the subject. These workers find that “all the New
Zealand species of Cortaria, contain a highly poisonous
erystalline glucoside, of the formula C,,H,,O,.” To this they
give the name “tutin.”’ The poisonous principle of tutu is,
therefore, allied to the bitter substances found in many plants,
such as amygdalin, found in bitter almonds ; liquorice-sugar,
found in the liquorice root; salicin, contained in the leaves
and young bark of poplars and willows ; and convolvulin,

230 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

obtained from the jalap-root. The poisonous constituent of
the European C. myrtifolia has been termed “ coriamyrtin ”’
and is distinct from “tutin,” though both probably belong to
the same chemical series.

Icacinaceae.

THE LASIANTHERA FAMILY.

Distribution.—An unimportant tropical family, comprising 38 genera, of
which only one is found in New Zealand. This genus is also found in Norfolk
Island.

Genus Pennantia.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate. Flowers in large terminal panicles.
Sepals and petals 5. Stamens 5, attached to the top of the stem. Drupe
small, stone three-angled. The genus is named after the Scotch naturalist,
Pennant.

Pennantia corymbosa (The Corymbose Pennantia.)

A tree, 10-40 ft. in height. Leaves 1 in. to 4 in. long. Flowers small,
numerous, waxy-white, fragrant; flowermg stems white and hairy. Drupes
black and fleshy. Both islands. Fl. Noy.-Dec. Maori name, Kaikomako.

This is an interesting little tree, not uncommon in many
parts of the country. In its young state it 1s a shrub, with
long, flexuous, interlacing branches, and small, distant, sessile,
truncate, variable, wedge-shaped leaves. When full-grown, it
is a handsome tree, 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, with broadly oblong,
short-stalked, glossy leaves, about two inches in length.
Only a keen student of nature would recognize in the rather
ugly shrub, the precursor of the ornamental tree. The
profuse, white, fragrant flowers make it well worthy of
cultivation. The curious black fungus, so common on the
native beeches, is sometimes found on the bark of this tree.

The seed is suspended in the ovary by a remarkable
filamentous process, which originates outside the fruit, and,

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LASIANTHERA FAMILY

THE

Fig. 70,

932 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

after running along one of the external faces, enters by a pore
near the apex.
The Kaikomako in Maori Lore.

The story concerning the origin of fire is one of the best
known Maori legends. There are several variants of it.
Maui, the famous hero and demigod, one evening maliciously
extinguished all the household fires, so that, when morning
came, 1t was impossible for his mother to cook the daily meal.
This the hero had foreseen, and it gave him the required
excuse to go to the bowels of the earth, where dwelt the dread
goddess of fire, Mahuika. He thus hoped to discover whence
came fire. He reached the abode of the goddess by a
subterranean path, and begged from her a spark to rekindle
the terrestrial hearths. On receiving this daring request, the
goddess pulled out one of her finger-nails, and with it there
leaped forth a stream of fire. Maui carried off the flame with
him, but, wishing to learn more of its origin, put it out before
he had gone far. He returned to the cavern of the goddess,
and told her that he had accidentally lost the fire. She drew
out a second finger-nail, and Maui carried off the fire and
extinguished it as before. The same trick was repeated by
Maui until Mahuika had pulled out all her nails except that
on one of her big toes. By this time, however, the goddess
recognized that she was being tricked. So, when Maui
returned for the twentieth nail, she tore it out and violently
dashed it on the ground. Immediately her dwelling was filled
with flames. Maui escaped to the upper world, but was chased
by the goddess with conflagration. With great presence of
mind, he turned himself into a bird, but even then he was
likely to have perished, for a pool of water into which he
plunged, was boiling hot. Indeed, he would undoubtedly have
been burned, had he not called to his assistance the gods of
the wind and rain and hail. These quenched the fires, and
Mahuika, appalled by the terrors of the tempest, fled shrieking
to the underworld. As she went, however, Maui saw her

THE KARAKA FAMILY 233

throw the seeds of fire into several trees. Amongst these were
the kaikomako, mahoe, totara, and pate. Thus he obtained
the coveted knowledge, for if a sharp pointed kaikomako stick
is worked vigorously along the surface of a flat piece of mahoe
(Melicytus ramiflorus), or pate (Schefilera digitata), a groove
is formed, which fills with fine dust. This, being gathered to
one end of the groove, will presently smoke; and, if the
worker 1s sufficiently adroit and strong, he will at last be able
to kindle a flame.

Strangely enough, this primitive method of obtaining fire
was the only one known to the Maoris. Those, who have
tried it, alone know what violent exertion and care are needed
to ensure kindling by these means. Smoke is readily obtained
by the vigorous worker, but flame rarely ever.

Corynocarpaceae.

THE KARAKA FAMILY.

Distribution.—A family of two species, one in New Zealand and the other
found in New Caledonia and the adjacent islands.

Corynocarpus levigata (The Smooth Corynocarpus).

A handsome tree, with glossy, laurel-like foliage. Leaves 3 in.-7 in. long,
oblong. Flowers in erect panicles, 4 in. in length. Flowers 4 in. in diameter,
white. Petals concave. Fruit oblong, 1 in. in length, extremely poisonous.
Found in both islands. Fl. Aug.-Dec. Maori name, Karaka. This tree is
often called by settlers the “‘ New Zealand Laurel.’’ The Karaka forms the
chief forest in the Chatham Islands, and was much used by the natives in the
making of canoes.

This is one of the handsomest of New Zealand trees. The
rounded, massive heads of laurel-like leaves are to be seen
rising near most Maori clearings, as far south as Long-
Look-Out Point, on Banks Peninsula. This is its southern-
most habitat, though it also grows in the Chatham Islands,

I34 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

where it is known to the natives as Kopi. It is common in
many places near the coast in the North Island, where it has
obviously been planted by the Maoris; and it is also
sometimes to be found along river-banks, being specially
plentiful in the neighbourhood of the Wanganui River. In
the South Island it is rarer, though Kirk (Forest Flora,
p. 178) is scarcely right in calling it “ very rare,” as it grows

Fig. 71. Karaka Grove.

in great abundance along the coast-line north of Kaikoura in
the neighbourhood of old Maori settlements.

The kernel of the orange-coloured, damson-shaped fruit was
one of the staple articles of diet of the Maori. Consequently,
the tree was much cultivated, and, as the young plants grow
readily from self-sown seeds in the shade of the old, the
karaka 1s very often to be found in groves. These groves,
according to Colenso, were strictly tapu. His account* of the

Trans. IV., p. 317.

THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY I35

manner of preparation of the food, and the action of the poison
is extremely interesting.

Mr. Skey investigated the nature of the poison, and came
to the conclusion that it was probably a glucoside (v., under
Coriaria ruscifolia.) He isolated the bitter principle in
beautifully radiating acicular crystals, and considered that
it was similar to digitaline (7.e., the drug obtained from the
root of the fox-glove). (v., also under Pomaderris.)

THE HoME OF THE KARAKA.

The Maoris state that they originally brought the karaka
with them from their semi-mythical Eden (Hawaiki), but
science contradicts this statement. Until quite recently, the
genus was believed to be endemic, but it has now been found
in New Caledonia and the New Hebrides, so that it is
probable the plant came into New Zealand when there was a
land extension to the north. It is apparently quite unknown
in the Western Pacific, whence the Maoris came to New
Zealand, but a very similar tree growing in Polynesia bears, it
is said, the same name. It is probable, therefore, that the
name karaka was attached to the New Zealand tree by the
Maoris, because of its resemblance to a tree found in their
former home, and not because they brought it with them.
The Maoris wore chaplets of the leaves upon their heads,
when they visited the graves of their ancestors on any
important occasion.

Rhamnaceae.

THE BuckTHORN FAMILY.

Distribution.—A widely-distributed family, occurring in warm and
temperate regions. Some of the species possess edible fruits, while the bark of
others yields a tonic, and is used in medicine. Yellow, green and blue dyes
are also obtained from some of the fruits. The leaves of Ceanothus americanus
have been used as a substitute for tea.

236 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Key to the Genera.
Leafy shrubs. Leaves alternate. Pomaderris, p. 236.
Spinous shrubs. Leaves opposite or 0. Discaria, p. 239.

Genus Pomaderris.

Shrubs, clothed with a hoary stellate down. Leaves alternate. Calyx-tube
divided into 5 lobes. Petals 5 or O. Stamens 5. Flowers in terminal or
axillary corymbs or panicles. About 22 species, found only in Australia, New
Zealand, and New Caledonia. (Name from the Greek, signifying a covering and
the skin, the fruit being loosely covered by the calyx).

Pomaderris elliptica (The Elliptical-leaved Pomaderris).

A branching shrub, 2-10 ft. in height. Leaves 2-3 in. long, shining above,
white with down on the under-surface. Cymes fragrant, many-flowered. Calyx,
white. Petals crisped at the edges, greenish-white. North Island: dry hills.
Fl. Sept. Native name, Kumarahou, from Kwmara, a tuber-like root, and how,
growing deep or strongly.

Pomaderris apetala (The Tainut).

A small tree 6 ft.-20 ft. in height, trunk 5 in.-6 in. in diameter. Leaves,
flowers, and flowering stems clothed with dense soft hairs. Cymes many-flowered.
Petals none. Fruit a capsule. North Island only, rare and local. Fl. Oct.-Noy.
Maori name Tami.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE TAINUI.

This plant was discovered in New Zealand by Sir James
Hector, and described by him in 1879* as Pomaderris Tainut.
It is of special interest because of the Maori legend attached
to it. When Sir James was in the Mokau district in
December, 1878, he was informed by the Maoris, that a certain
tree, which had sprung from the green boughs used in the
flooring of the canoe “ Tainu,” was still growing in_ that
district. The Tainui was one of the six famous canoes of
the Great Heke, and in it the ancestors of the Waaukatos,
Ngatimaniapotos, and other tribes, came to New Zealand some
five hundred and fifty years ago. Sir James expressed a
doubt as to the credibility of this statement concerning the
origin of the tree. The Maoris then offered to show him the
living specimens, which were growing on a spur between the

“Trans. XI. p. 428.

THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY Dot

Mokau and the Mohakatina Rivers. The scientist, on seeing
them, was forced to admit that he had not observed any tree
of the kind in New Zealand before, and the Maoris considered

Fig. 72. Pomaderris phylicefolia (4 nat. size).

this admission was prima facie evidence of the truth of their
tale. Sir James concurred in their view, and suggested that,
“if we could hereafter determine the original habitat of the
tree, 1t might give us a clue to the whereabouts of their

238 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

ancestral home, Hawaiki, the place whence the Maoris originally
migrated to New Zealand.” But, unfortunately for the lover
of romance, there is a sequel to the tale. When the earthen
pot of tradition, and the iron pot of science, go down the
stream together, it is the former which is likely to be broken.
Kirk has shown (Forest Flora, p. 11) that the plant is none
other than the Australian Pomaderris apetala. Moreover, the
genus Pomaderris, so far as 1s at present known, 1s peculiar to
New Zealand and Australia, and does not occur in the South
Seas. It is obvious, therefore, that the story has grown up to
explain the tree, and that the presence of the plant in New
Zealand is no proof of the truth of the legend. Indeed, on
examination of the tale, discrepancies in it soon appear. The
species is not confined to the habitat where it was first found,
nor was the “‘T'ainui”’ stranded near the Mokau, but at Kawhia.

Pomaderris phyliczefolia (The Phylica-leaved Pomaderris).

A strongly scented, heath-like shrub, which grows profusely amongst the
small tea-tree, upon gum-lands. The branches are thickly covered with soft
hairs, and the leaves so much recurved as to appear to be round rather than flat.
The flowers are axillary, in cymes of 3-5, and are of a yellowish colour. North
Island. Fl. Aug.-Oct. Maori name Tawhinw.* (Phylica is an African genus of
the order, consisting of heath-like shrubs).

This plant is often abundant in the open country in the
North Island, and constitutes, particularly in Auckland
Province, one of the chief components of the lowland heaths.
Its structure also is typical of the heath-plant. The small
leaves bear their stomata on the under-surface, in wind-still
tubes, formed by the mrolled margins and the rough hairs.
Transpiration is thus checked, and the plant is enabled to
withstand long continued insolation. Similar leaves may be
found in Olearia virgata, Cassinia retorta, and Celmisia
longifolia.

The roots of this plant were, according to Colenso, some-
times used for fish-hooks, when bone ones were lacking.

*This name is also applied to Cassinia leptophylla.

THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 239

Genus Discaria.

About 14 species, of which 1 is found in New Zealand. Much branched,
almost leafless, usually thorny shrubs, with twisted interlacing stems. Branches
grooved. Leaves 4 in.-f in. long. Flowers axillary, fascicled, small. Petals 0,
or4or5. Stamens4or5. Fruit a dry hard drupe. (Name from the Greek
signifying a disk, from the ovary being situated on a broad disk).

Discaria toumatou (The Wild Irishman).

A spinous bush, sometimes 20 ft. in height. Flower 4 in. in diameter, white;
calyx, downy. Leaves, when present, fascicled or solitary in the axil of
spines. North and South Islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Tumatakurw.

XEROPHYTIC LEAVES.

It doubtless sometimes happens, that, owing to slow move-
ments of the earth’s crust, the climate of a plant habitat
alters. There is reason, for example, to believe that, at some
past time, the climate of the Canterbury Plains, and perhaps
of other parts of New Zealand, was much more arid than it
now is. Under changing circumstances, a plant has either to
accommodate itself to its new environment, or give place to
other and better adapted species. There are many ways in
which a plant can adjust its leaf to the conditions of a
desert climate. The leaf may be set obliquely to the sun,
as in Eucalyptus ; it may provide itself with water-storage
apparatus, as in Mesembryanthemum ; the leaf margins may
be recurved, as in Olearia virgata; the total leaf surface
may be reduced, as in many Veronicas; or again, the leaves
may become spinescent, as in Aciphylla. If all these
methods fail in protecting the transpiring surface sufficiently,
the plant may become leafless. Then the stem has to
take on the functions of a leaf, as in Carmichaelia, Clematis
afoliata, etc.

Now Discaria has nearly been reduced to these straits to
prolong its existence. Such extreme measures, however, are
only adopted by the plant, if other devices for protection against
drought fail, or are unavailable; for a stem cannot be expected
to carry on the work of assimilation as efficiently as a leaf.

240 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The leaves of the Wild Irishman are fairly abundant in spring,
become fewer in summer, and are altogether wanting in
autumn and winter. Most of the shoots are reduced to green
pungent spines, sometimes with brown tips. These when old
lose their chlorophyll, and become very hard and dry. They
are then so strong and needle-like, that they were often used

Fig. 73. Discaria toumatou (4 nat. size).
(Moist air form on the left, ordinary form on the right.)

by the Maoris for tattooing, when bone or other needles were
unprocurable.
Dr. Li. COCKAYNE’S EXPERIMENT.

The small deciduous leaves, and hard green acuminate shoots
of Discaria at once proclaim it a plant of dry localities. Asa
matter of fact, it 1s found chiefly on sand-dunes, on arid or
clayey hill-sides, and on stony plains. ‘hat it should acquire
such a highly xerophytic structure is therefore little to be

THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 241

wondered at, but the strangest part of the story yet remains
to be told. Dr. Cockayne has studied its development, and has
also shown by an experiment, which is probably destined to
become classic, that Discaria was originally a spineless leafy
plant adapted to a moist habitat.* The seedling plant is erect,
leafy, and bears no spines. After it attains an inch or two in
height, spines begin to develop in the leaf axils, and the
fohage becomes gradually sparse. If, however, the plant is
now put into a warm moist chamber, no more spines will be
developed, the leaves will be retained, and,—in a word,—the
plant returns to its seedling form. Nor is this a temporary
change, for this form will be retained as long as the plant
remains in an atmosphere saturated with moisture. And in
this complete suppression of the spines, Dr. Cockayne’s
experiment is unique. Goebel, perhaps the greatest living
botanist, recently said :—‘“‘ I do not think that up till now any
more has been proved, than that in moist air the formation of
prickles and thorns is retarded; there is no proof that it can
be suppressed.” + Dr. Cockayne seems clearly to have shewn
that complete suppression is possible.

Such a remarkable experiment as this cannot fail to be
profound and far-reaching in its effect on biological ideas of
the species. As will be pointed out (v. Plagianthus betulinus,
p. 256), the seedling often passes through the ancestral forms
of the species in its development. We must, therefore, assume
that Discaria had originally small thin leaves, adapted to a
moist climate, but has changed its characters in response to
the stimulus of a drier atmosphere. Sixty years ago the
dogma of the fixity of species was one of the most sacred
beliefs of biologist and layman. Darwin showed us that
Species are not fixed; and now there are not wanting many
indications, which seem to prove, that in some cases,
individuals even, may show a marvellous plasticity.

*The New Phytologist Vol. IV. No. 4, On the Significance of the Spines in Discaria
toumatou.
}Plant Organography Eng. Trans. Part I. pp. 263, 264.
1L%/

242, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Tiliaceae.

THE LIME-TREE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A family of 40 genera, and 340 species. Tilia is the only
genus found in cold regions. The Knglish Lime-tree (Tilia europea), the
typical plant of the order, furnishes the bast used by gardeners. Bast mats are
made from it in Russia. From Corchorus capsularis, the Jute, the Indian
tribes made their nets and fishing-lines, while another yariety of the same plant
was used by the Egyptians as a vegetable. It is said that one species of
Aristotelia possesses fibres of such strength and toughness, as to be used as
strings for musical instruments. Sparmannia africana, a pretty shrub with
umbels of white flowers, and with evergreen leaves, is cultivated in Britain as a
hothouse plant.

Key to the Genera.

1. Fruit a spinous capsule. Entelea, p. 242.
Fruit a drupe or berry. 2

2. Leaves opposite. Aristotelia, p. 244.
Leaves alternate. Eleocarpus, p. 248.

Genus HEntelea.

A genus of only one species, almost confined to the North Island of New
Zealand. Leaves alternate, flowers regular. Sepals and petals, 4 or 5. Stamens
numerous ; fruit spiny. (Name from the Greek, signifying perfect, referring to
the stamens, as opposed to the wnperfect ones of Sparmannia). Maori names,
Whau, Hawama. FI. Oct.-Nov.

Entelea arborescens (The Shrubby Entelea).

The genus is confined to these islands, and this is its only
species. The tree may, therefore, be regarded as pecuharly
a New Zealand plant. Its large leaves and beautiful white
flowers make it one of the handsomest of small trees. It used
to be common along the coast of the northern part of the
North Island, being particularly plentiful north of Auckland
and in the neighbourhood of Gisborne. It is not found nearer
Wellington than Paikakariki, and in the South Island has been
seen only in the Collingwood district and near the Croiselles.
In some places this tree is called the New Zealand Mulberry,
on account of the shape of the leaves.

These leaves are very large, sometimes nine or ten inches in
length, heart-shaped, and with toothed margins. They are

THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 943

beautifully veined, soft, and fade quickly when gathered. The
flowers are produced in large drooping clusters, and are of a
pure white, with crumpled petals, each single blossom being
about an inch in diameter. The petals are pointed, and are four
or five innumber. The fruit is dark-brown, and rough with
long bristles. These spines are often an inch in length. It 1s
unfortunate that this beautiful tree 1s now becoming rare.

Fig. 74. Entelea arborescens—Flower and Fruit (§ nat. size).
However, it is easily cultivated from seed, and will grow in
any sheltered situation.

The wood is remarkably light, and was used by the Maoris
in the construction of floats for their fishing-nets, and of small
rafts. It is about half the weight of cork, and the whau is
sometimes, therefore, termed “ the cork-wood tree.’ Mr. T.
Kirk suggested that it might be utilized for life-belts.

944 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

This is one of the three large-leaved trees of New Zealand
that by their fohage seem to suggest a tropical origin. The
other two are Meryta Sinclairii and Pisonia brunoniana. Its
nearest relation 1s apparently Sparmannia of the Cape of Good
Hope. It has been suggested that the spinous character of the
fruit is probably due to the need for protection against grazing
animals, in the country whence it originally came. Perhaps
the only other New Zealand fruit similarly protected, is the
nut of Secyos australis.

It seems, however, unlikely, that either of these plants has
indued itself with bristles, as a safeguard against browsing
mammalha. Bitter juices are a better protection than thorny
leaves, and an edible fruit 1s often of more value to the plant,
than one which is inedible. As a matter of fact, the spinous
fruits of the whau form no protection to it, for if stock are
running in the neighbourhood, all the young plants are eaten
up by cattle, before they have time to develop their seeds.
Indeed, were the fruit of the whau edible, the bristles upon it
would be a quite insufficient defence against grazing animals,
as they are often fond of sharp plants. Horses, for example,
will eat dead thistles in preference to grass. Sheep sometimes
eat the prickly leaves of Leptospermum scoparium, and, did
they taste sufficiently pleasant, the sharp tips would not
hinder stock from grazing on the plant. It is the bitter acrid
Juice developed in the leaves which is its chief safeguard.
It seems probable, therefore, that some other reason must be
sought for to explain the spinous coat of the seed of the whau.

Genus Aristotelia.

Small trees, with opposite, deeply-toothed leaves. Flowers in panicles or
racemes. Fruit a berry. (Named in honour of Aristotle). 3 sp.

Aristotelia racemosa (The Racemose Aristotelia).
A small tree 6ft.-30ft. high, with red bark. Flowers in large panicles,
varying in colour from a faint rosy flush to deep claret. Fruit, a red 3- or
4-celled berry. North and South Islands. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

THE LIME-TREE FAMILY

Fig. 75, Aristoteliajracemosa (4 nat. size)

246 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

This is another handsome tree of the same order as the
whau. It is common everywhere throughout the islands at
altitudes from sea-level up to 2,000 ft. In bush clearings, it is
one of the first plants to come up, and would, on this account,
be termed by the Americans a “fireweed.” It goes by
different names in different districts. In Otago, it is the New
Zealand Currant, or Moko-mok’. In Canterbury, it is called
the Wine-berry. In the North Island, it is the Mako-mako.
Its graceful plumes of rosy flowers make it one of the most
attractive objects of the bush in Spring. The red-brown
under-surfaces of its leaves flash into view with every breath
of wind, and the memory of their beauty is one of the pleasantest
recollections of the lover of the New Zealand bush. The genus
also occurs in South America and Australia. Our species,
therefore, perhaps indicate an American connection at some
remote period. |The wood is white, and is much used for
conversion into charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder.

Aristotelia fruticosa (The Shrubby Aristotelia).

A much-branched shrub, 3ft.-6ft. high. Flowers solitary, or in small cymes
or racemes. Leaves linear, lanceolate to elliptic, oblong, entire, crenate or
serrate. Fl. Oct.-Nov. ;

A sub-alpine plant of the most variable habit, and extreme
mutability of leaf form. These changes of form may be due to
the extreme sensitiveness of the plant to alteration of environ-
ment, or it may possibly be due to the fact that the plant
is undergoing mutation (v. Veronica). At any rate, few of
our variable species afford more promising material for
experiment. Like so many other New Zealand plants, in one
of its stages it resembles a twisted Coprosma (v. Plagianthus
betulinus). The leaves of the seedlings are sometimes
similar to those of A. racemosa. he leaf form of the last-
mentioned species, according to Dr. Cockayne, may, therefore,
possibly be regarded as typical of the “common ancestral
stock.”

THE LIME-TREE FAMILY DAT

Fig. 76. Eleocarpus dentatus. (Six flowers life size.)

248 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Hleocarpus.

Soft-wooded trees, with alternate leaves, and long racemes of white or
greenish flowers. The two New Zealand species are endemic. Leaves coriaceous,
serrate. Fruit a drupe. (Name from the Greek, signifying an olwe and fruit,
the drupe resembling an olive in appearance.)

Eleeocarpus dentatus (The Toothed Elaocarpus).

A round-headed tree, with trunk 1ft.-3ft. in diameter, and oblong-obovate
leaves, with recurved margin. The leaves of H. Hookerianus are linear, oblong
or lanceolate, and the margins are flat. This distinction enables the two species
to be separated. Maori name Hinau. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Noy.

One of the most beautiful flowering trees in the New
Zealand bush. In a good season, the whole tree is covered
with racemes of creamy, saucer-shaped flowers, each raceme
having the appearance of a spray of lily-of-the-valley. The
petals are deeply fringed at the edges, and the leaves are
strongly notched. The fruit resembles the damson, and was
used for food by the Maoris, who greatly valued it. A chief who
owned a fine grove of Hinau trees was considered a wealthy
man, while to rob the grove of its fruit was regarded as
a capital offence. The fruit was prepared in the following
way :—It was collected into the hull of a canoe, and soaked in
water. After along steeping, the berries were rubbed between
the hands, the stalks and skins strained out, and the coarse
grey meal, left behind, was made into a cake, baked and eaten.
This cake had a dark appearance, and was too oily for
European tastes.

Rats are very fond of the kernel of this fruit, and bore
cleverly through the shell in order to obtain it.

The bark of the Hinau makes an excellent blue-black dye,
and was used by the Maoris for dyeing the black threads in
their garments. This bark contains over twenty per cent. of
tannin, but is not much used. The wood 1s difficult to burn,
and might be employed with advantage where there is special
danger of fire. In the Maori language hz signifies to bleed or
emit sap; maw is a shrub or tree.

THE LIME-TREE FAMILY YAY

Fig. 77. Eleocarpus Hookerianus (life size).

250 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Eleeocarpus Hookerianus (Hooker's Eleocarpus).

A smaller species, called Pokaka by the Maoris. The flowers do not open
out so widely as those of the Hinau, and are greenish-white in colour. Drupe
blue, small. Found in both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan.

Malvaceae.

THE FAMILY OF MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS.

Distribution.—An important and widely distributed family, occurring
chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Of the 60 genera belonging to the
order, only four are found in New Zealand, and of these, three areendemic. The
Malvaceae are generally mucilaginous, and non-poisonous. The most valuable
genus is Gossypium. The delicate unicellular hairs which cover the seeds of these
plants, form the cotton so largely used in manufacture.

The Hollyhock (Althea), the tree-mallow (Lavatera), the Abutilon, and the
Hibiscus, are much cultivated for their flowers. Hibiscus cannabimus is the
Deccan Hemp of western India. A decoction of the Marsh Mallow is used in
throat affections.

Some of the New Zealand trees of this order are noted for the strength and
beauty of their inner bark, which is used for various ornamental purposes.

Key to the Genera.

1. Ovary 1 or 2 celled. Plagianthus, p. 253.
Ovary 5 celled. 2

2. One ovule in each cell, Hoheria, p. 250.
Two or more ovules in each cell, Hibiscus, p. 260.

5. Ovary 10-12 celled, Gaya, p. 260.

Genus Hoherva.

Trees with tough inner bark. Leaves extraordinarily variable. Flowers
white, axillary, on jomted peduncles. (Hoheria is a modification of the native
name). Maori names Howi, Whawwhi, Howhere. 1 sp.

Plants of both this and of the next genus (Plagianthus), are popularly
known as Ribbonwoods. The bast or inner bark is perforated by the medullary
rays, and this gives to it a characteristic ribbon-like appearance. This genus is
endemic in New Zealand.

Hoheria populnea (The Poplar-like Ribbon-wood).
The varied names given by the Maoris in different districts
to this plant, are all said to spring from the same root. Whaw

MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS Q51

Fig. 78. Hoheria populnea, var. vulgaris (2 nat. size).

252 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

signifies wrapped about, netted,—like lace, and the tree is so
called from the character of its inner bark. The settlers name
it lace-bark, ribbon-wood, or thousand-jacket. This inner
fibre is remarkably tough, and is, therefore, often used for
cordage. It is also beautifully perforated, and has been
employed for many ornamental purposes, such as trimming for
ladies’ hats, basket work, etc. Lace-bark bonnets are said to
have been at one time fashionable in Nelson. ‘The houhere
is one of the most beautiful of the small trees of the forest.
It is covered in autumn with a sheet of white, starry flowers,
which are often developed in such profusion as entirely to
conceal the leaves. There is a large number of recognized
varieties, but, as Dr. Cockayne has shewn, H. angustifolia at
least should be regarded as a distinct species. It is found
only in the South Island, flowers earlier than the North
Island variety, and the seedling stages of each are different.
When several feet in height, it becomes like one of the
twisted shrubby Coprosmas (v. Plagianthus betulinus, p. 256).
The branches are then wiry and interlacing, and the stems
reddish, not dark brown or black as in older specimens.

Thousands of plants in this stage may be seen on the
Akaroa-Flea Bay Road. The North Island form does not pass
through a coprosma-like stage. The two varieties illustrated
will show the difference between H. populnea, var. vulgaris,
and var. angustifolia. The former has broad, ovate, deeply-
toothed leaves, while those of the latter are long and narrow.
The Hoherias sometimes grow to a height of 40ft.

The flowers are very beautiful, with snow-white petals and
numerous stamens. They are produced in fascicles in the axils
of the leaves, sometimes only two or three together, and
sometimes in bunches of from twelve to twenty. The stamens
are curiously arranged, being united, as in all the Malvaceae,
into a tube, but breaking apart again lower still into separate
bundles, each of which contains five or six stamens. The
fruit is dry, and the seeds pendulous.

MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 953

The wood of this tree is white and very tough. It is
occasionally used by cabinet makers, and makes excellent
firewood. <A soothing drink was made from the bark by the
Maoris.

Genus Plagianthus.

Shrubs or trees, with rough inner bark, and divaricating branches. Flowers.
axillary or terminal. Leaves usually entire. Seeds pendulous. (Name from
the Greek, signifying oblique, from the unequal petals). 3 sp.

Fig. 79. Hoheria populnea, var. angustifolia (§ nat. size),

Plagianthus divaricatus (The Wide-branched Ribbon-wood).

A curious shrub, with slender, widely-branched, tough stems. Leaves and
flowers both minute. Leaves fascicled; flowers white, tubular, axillary.
Stamens, 6-10. Fruit a round capsule containing one or two seeds. Both
islands. Fl. Oct.-Noy.

This plant is very different from the other species of the
genus. It grows only by the seaside, where it forms dense
bushes, which become very compact owing to the interlacing
of the delicate sprays. Diels classifies it with Avicennia
as a mangrove plant, and, according to him, the stout

254 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

cuticle and leaves rich in slime, show excellently how
dependent the mangroves are upon the dampness of the
atmosphere for their moisture. However, P. divaricatus,
though found at the head of tidal creeks and estuaries is really
a plant of the salt meadows, and not of the tidal flats, and can
scarcely be termed a mangrove.

Plagianthus betulinus (The Birch-like Ribbon-wood).

A tree, varying from 30ft.-60ft. in height, with terminal panicles of white
flowers. The young shrub forms a mass of tortuous interlacing branches.
Leaves lobed, or coarsely toothed. Petals rounded at the tips. North and
South Islands, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands. Fl. Jan.-Feb.

P. betulinus is readily distinguished from most of the other
denizens of the New Zealand forests by its softer leaves,
which resemble those of a deciduous tree, rather than those
of an evergreen. Indeed, in most localities of the South
Island, the plant does lose its leaves on the approach of
winter. It has obtained its specific name (betulinus) from the
resemblance of its foliage to that of the Enghsh birch.
Plagianthus, however, has much larger leaves than Betulus.
Owing to the presence of an inner, ribbon-like bark, it
is generally called the Ribbon-wood by the colonists. The
Maoris used this bark for making rope and twine for their
fishing nets. It also makes a good substitute for the Raphia,
used by gardeners in tying up soft plants.

STRANGE SEEDLING FORMS.

The young stages of the plant are very different from
the older forms. An extraordinary proportion of New
Zealand trees and shrubs pass through one or more distinct
intermediate stages before reaching the adult form. In a
considerable number of cases (e.g. Pennantia corymbosa,

MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS

Fig. 80. Plagianthus divaricatus (with pistillate flowers). (? nat. size.)

956 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Hoheria angustifolia, Plagianthus betulinus) the intermediate
form, in its compact scrubby habit, and small leaves, bears
a remarkable resemblance to certain Coprosmas. In other
examples, the intermediate form, though not of the type of a
Coprosma (e.g. Pseudopanax), 1s simpler than either the first
or third stages, which often resemble each other. These
remarkable differences between the appearance of New Zealand
plants in their earlier and later stages, have puzzled botanists
very much. They seem to be but little known outside of our
islands. Thus, Dr. Cockayne states :—‘‘ On this point I can
speak with some authority, since during the past few years,
I have personally raised from seed thousands of species of
extra-tropical plants, and in few, save certain Australian
genera and Conifers, have I noticed any marked change in
leaf to take place.”

THE Law oF RECAPITULATION.

Now it is generally believed that the same law of develop-
ment holds in the plant world as in the animal world, 2.e.,
that the individual in its development goes through, in order,
the same stages that its ancestors have gone through, in their
development. Thus, in the mammalian embryo, a fish stage
and a reptilian stage are clearly to be recognized. However,
this law must not be interpreted too literally, and in
considering any special example, large allowances have to be
made for the effect of environment, and for unknown factors.
We cannot, therefore, reason backwards from embryonic to
ancestral life, with any assurance of accuracy. However, the
law is broadly true, and of considerable biological value.
Now evolution, — unless accompanied by degeneration, —
usually proceeds from the simple to the complex. But,

4Trans., Vol. XXXI. p. 356.

THE MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 257

one of the difficulties that has presented itself to the
investigator of the New Zealand trees and shrubs, is, that the
intermediate stage is often simpler than the seedling form,
and thus the usual law seems to be reversed. This puzzled
Dr. Diels considerably. In reference to Pseudopanax, he
states, that the most remarkable thing about the leaf changes
is, that in all similar cases there is a progression from simple
to more complicated forms, but here, on the contrary, the
high degree of differentiation of the young foliage suffers
reduction later on. Hence, he considers, that in this case,
recapitulation of the ancestral history is not probable.

Dr. COCKAYNE’S THEORY.

Recently, however, Dr. L. Cockayne has put forward a
theory to account for these curious metamorphoses.* Within
our limits, it is not possible to discuss this interesting
hypothesis fully, though it is certainly one of the most
remarkable and suggestive ever put forward with regard to
our native plants.

It had already been shewn by Dr. Diels, that an unusually
large percentage of the trees and shrubs in the New Zealand
Flora are xerophytic in structure (v. Introduction, p. 41, also
Veronica, Aciphylla, Discaria, etc.). This type of plant
structure seems to indicate, that the past climate of New
Zealand was much more arid than at present. The vegetation
of the Canterbury Plains in particular, is of a desert type.
Such a belief is supported by the geological evidence.
Captain Hutton has pointed outt that during the Pliocene
period, the Southern Alps were much higher than they are
now. He considered that the land surface of New Zealand
then extended eastward to the Chathams, and southward to
the Auckland Islands. Under these circumstances the
climate of the interior would approach to the continental in

*Trans., Vol. XXXIII., p. 277 +Trans., Vol. XXXII. p. 182.
18

258 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

character. The plains to the east of the Southern Alps
would be subjected to a great range of temperature, and
great drought. Dr. Cockayne ingeniously explains the
developmental stages of the present lowland plants, by
reference to these past conditions. Obviously, only those
plants that could develop protection against the rigours of the
climate, would survive the test of such an environment.
When the land again sank, the climate would become moister
and more insular, Xerophytic plants, if still plastic, would
again assume their original form, or, if unable to do this,
would become extinct, or retire to the shingle-fans, dry rocks,
and river-beds, where we now find them.

Let us now apply this hypothesis, to explain, if possible,
the forms through which Plagianthus betulinus passes in its
development. A seedling of this species goes through three
distinct stages in reaching the mature form. (1) The stem
and branches of the young plant are erect, the leaves are of
definite shape, somewhat similar to those of the mature stage,
but with truncate or cordate bases. (2) The seedling, now
erown into a shrub, changes its appearance completely. The
branches become long, drooping, twiggy, flexuous, and of a
red-brown colour. The leaves are very much reduced in size,
and very variable in shape. The plant might now be taken for
one of the Coprosmas. None but a careful observer would be
likely to recognize in this unkempt twisted shrub, the young
form of the handsome beech-like tree. (3) The third or
mature form, already described, is a handsome, graceful tree,
with large, alternate, rather flaccid leaves.

These forms, if Dr. Cockayne’s theory is correct, represent
in order (1) the early Phocene type, existing when the climate
was mild, before the elevation of the mountains; (2) the
interwoven coprosma-like stage of the later Pliocene deserts ;
and (3) the mature form of the present day, which resembles
the early Phocene type, as the climate has once more become
comparatively temperate.

THE MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 259

Such a daring hypothesis as this, shows how botanists
are beginning to believe in the extraordinary plasticity of
plant life. Whatever explanation of these strange changes of
form may ultimately be held, the problem suggested by the

Fig. 81. Gaya Lyallii (4 nat. size).

wonderful transformations, which many New Zealand plants
undergo in their development, must surely give pause to any
belated believers in the immutability of species. They cannot
possibly have any theory to account for such unnecessary

260 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

instability of form. Even those who believe that each species
has a certain definite type form, which is independent of
environment, will find themselves confronted with many
paradoxes amongst antipodean plants.

Genus Hibiscus.

Herbs or shrubs, with large and handsome flowers. A chiefly tropical genus.
Flowers axillary or terminal. Capsule 5-valved. (Hibiscus is the Greek name for
the flower.) 2 sp.

Hibiscus trionum (The Starry Hibiscus).

An annual or biennial herb, 1-2 ft. high. Stems rough with hairs. Flowers.
lin.-14in. in diameter, straw-coloured, with dark eye. Calyx inflated,
membranous. Leaves palmately-lobed. From the North Cape to Whangarei,
local. South Island: West Wanganui. (The specific name literally means of
the constellation of the Wain).

Genus Gaya.

Shrubs or small trees, with large white flowers. Leaves alternate, entire.
About 7 species, one of which is endemic in New Zealand. (Called after the:
botanist, Gay.)

Gaya Lyallii (The Large-fowered Ribbon-wood).

A beautiful shrub, found only in the mountainous districts of the South
Island. This is one of the very few New Zealand trees which shed their leaves,
in the winter, and show autumnal tints. The leaves are clothed with stellate:
hairs, and are deeply notched. South Island, sub-alpine. Fl. Feb.-March.

This plant is one of the many surprises of the New Zealand
forest. The traveller, who sees for the first time its cherry-
like blossoms amidst the greenery of the bush, usually regards,
it as an escape from some garden. Its soft, tender, deciduous
leaves are in strong contrast to the normal, hard, glossy
leaf of the typical trees of the New Zealand forest, whilst its
flowers are equally different from the typical, minute, greenish
clusters of Nothopanax, Griselina, Melicytus, etc.

Owing to a mistake of Sir Julius von Haast, it is generally
stated that the tree is deciduous only at high levels, but the

*Trans. XXXVIL., p. 368.

THE VIOLET FAMILY 261

plant is probably deciduous even at sea-level. It certainly is
so in the Christchurch Gardens, where it grows only a few
feet above high-water mark.

The under-surface of the leaf of the var. ribifolia, 1s
covered with a down of stellate hairs. As this variety is only
found in drier localities, the obvious value of this covering is
to enable the leaves to retain their moisture. G. Lyallit has
hairs only on the veins. The two forms are never found
growing together; and this discontinuous distribution, as well
as other characters, seems to show that they are specifically
distinct.

The inner-bark of this tree has the same _lace-like
appearance as that of Hoheria.

Violaceae.

THE VIOLET FAMILY.

Distribution.—Family of about 300 species, found both in temperate
and tropical regions. The temperate forms are usually herbaceous, while those
of warmer climates become shrubs or trees. The Violet and Pansy are well-
known garden flowers.

Key to the Genera.

1. Flowers irregular. Viola, p. 261.
Flowers regular. 2

2. Flowers dicecious. Melicytus, p. 264.
Flowers perfect. Hymenanthera, p. 266.

Genus Viola.

Three New Zealand species, all endemic. Petals unequal, the lower one
spurred. Capsule with three valves. In most of the species of Viola, the
ordinary flowers set no seeds. The plant, however, produces, at a later stage,
green-coloured, self-pollinated flowers, which seed freely.

Viola filicaulis (The Thread-like Violet).

So-called from its slender, thread-like stem, which is prostrate. Leaves
alternate, shining, heart-shaped. Flowers yellowish. Abundant in both
islands. Ordinary flowers Nov.-Dec. ; cleistogamic flowers Jan. and Feb.

262 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Viola Cunninghamii (Cunningham's Violet).

Stem short, with a woody rootstock. Leaves tufted ; peduncles longer than
the leaves. Both islands, in damp situations. Flowers white. Produces
cleistogamic flowers in the lowlands.

The New Zealand violets are practically scentless ; or, if they have any odour
at all, it is that of musk. The situation in which they are often found is well
described in the following stanza :

*’ Here, in this bend of the creek, in the rushes, and long lush grasses,

Wild white violets nestle, and musk in the water weeds :

Here there is stillness and shelter, for the wandering wind as it passes

Is caught in the tall green flax, and dies in the rushes and reeds.”’

INSECT POLLINATION IN THE GENUS VIOLA.

The method of cross-pollination in the genus Viola is well
worthy of study. It is best illustrated by reference to the
garden Pansy (V. tricolor); for the flowers of the cultivated
varieties of this plant are larger than those of any of the wild
species, and the parts therefore admit of readier examination.
The description here given applies, therefore, to the common
forms of the pansy, but it is also correct with slight
modifications for the other species of the genus. The flower
is unsymmetrical, and one of the petals is provided with a long
hollow spur. The anthers are prolonged into a hood, or
projection, which surmounts them. This forms part of the
connective (v.e. the part joming two anther-cells together). In
two of the stamens, the connectives are also produced
backward into long narrow arms, terminating in the spur of
the corolla. The stamens do not, as in most flowers, open
outward, but the pollen escapes on the inside into the ring
formed by the hoods of the anthers, and falls thence on to a
brush-like series of hairs on the lower petal. The pistil has a
short, somewhat curved style, with the stigma in a hollow on
the side of its rounded head. Just below the stigmatic
surface is a small platform, or lid, the function of which will
be presently clear.

The two long arms of the anthers have honey-glands on
their base ; and the honey secreted by them is collected in the
spur of the corolla. An insect endeavouring to get at this

THE VIOLET FAMILY 263

honey, therefore, will encounter with its tongue the pollen
collected on the hairs of the petal, and, in drawing back its
head, will force the little platform on the style against the
stigmatic surface, and thus protect the flower from self-
pollination. In going to another flower, the insect will
naturally brush the upper side of the projecting lid, when
entering the flower, and thus cross-pollination will be effected.

CLEISTOGAMIC FLOWERS IN THE GENUS VIOLA.

Although cross-pollination is essential to the welfare of many
plants, there are many others in which self-pollination results
in the production of good seeds. In other cases, flowers which
are usually cross-pollinated, become adapted for receiving the
pollen from their own stigmas, when, from some reason or
other, cross-pollination fails. Under these circumstances
many plants produce what are known as cleistogamic flowers.
(Cleistogamic, from the Greek, meaning concealed marriage).
These are flowers which never open, but which nevertheless
produce seed, as a result of the application of their own
anthers to their own styles. Cleistogamy is known amongst
plants belonging to widely divergent orders. Thus it 1s found
amongst species belonging to the following genera :—dArabis,
Azalea, Gentiana, Hypericum, Oxalis, Veronica, etc. Probably,
however, it is better known in the genus Viola, than in any
other.

Cleistogamy is generally resorted to, when wet weather
prevails about the time when the flowers should open, or when
the plants themselves happen to grow in moist or shady
places. This method of pollination is sometimes effected by
mechanisms as ingenious as those found in plants which are
cross-pollinated. The petals which are no longer required
for the attraction of insects, become rudimentary, or are
altogether wanting. When they are present, they are
generally greenish, or greenish-white. The anthers are so
situated, that they come into contact with the stigma as soon

264 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

as it is mature, or there may be a space between the anther
and stigma. In this case the pollen grains put out their
tubes, which attach themselves to the stigmatic surface. Thus
pollination is effected with certainty. It is obviously better for
the plant to be self-pollinated, than to remain infertile. In
New Zealand, cleistogamy has been studied in the genus Viola
by Mr. G. M. Thomson.”

In Viola filicaulis, cleistogamic flowers are often found in
the months of January and February. They are borne very
close to the root, on short. curved stalks less than an inch in
length. The sepals are normal, and the petals, in place of
being irregular in shape, as they are typically in the violet,
are all of the same form. The stamens are apparently all
represented, and have the anthers, when present, appressed
to the pistil. (However, in many cases, one or only two
filaments have anthers, and in no case is the connective
produced backward into a spur). The style is as long as
usual, but if straight, would be beyond the reach of the
anthers. It therefore hes coiled up on the top of the ovary.

In V. Cunninghamii, the reduction of cleistogamic flowers
has been carried further even than in JV. filicaulis. In the
former species there is no trace of petals, and the stamens
are much more rudimentary. Only two are provided with
anthers, and these, enclosed in their hoods, are closely appled
to the stigmatic surface.

Genus Melicytus.

Small trees, with regular flowers and alternate leaves. Fruit a berry,
containing angular seeds. Found only in New Zealand and Norfolk Island.
(Name from the Greek, signifying honey and a cavity, in reference to the small
scales behind the anthers, at first mistaken for nectaries). 4 sp.

Melicytus ramiflorus (The Branch-flowered Melicytus).

A tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height, with white stems and greenish-yellow
flowers. The latter are produced in fascicles upon the branches below the leaves,
and are minute, being only $in. in diameter. Leaves oblong, serrate. Berry
violet-coloured. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. Maori names Mahoe, Imi-im.

*Trans., Vol. XI. p. 415.

THE VIOLET FAMILY

Melicytus ramiflorus (4 nat. size).

266 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

A small tree, most abundant in the bush, growing to a
height of 30 ft., with a rounded head, and many short, brittle
branches. It sends up a large number of young saplings, or
suckers, from the ground at the foot of the trunk. The leaves
are alternate, with toothed margins, and the flowers are
produced, either in the axils of the leaves, or upon the bare
branches. The male and female flowers are found upon
separate trees. The fruit is a violet coloured berry, containing
black, angular seeds, and is a favourite food of the wild pigeon.
Though so much smaller than many of the forest trees, the
mahoe is a noticeable object in the bush, as its straight, thin
trunks are often covered with a white fungoid growth, which
is ike a coating of whitewash. This was one of the woods
used by the natives, in the making of fire by friction. In the
South the plant is generally known as the Ini-Ini, in the
North it is called the Mahoe. On Banks Peninsula it is some-
times called the Cow-leaf, as cows are very fond of its foliage.

Genus Hymenanthera.

A small genus of woody shrubs, found in New Zealand, New South Wales,
Tasmania and Norfolk Island. The foliage differs considerably in the different
species. The leaves may be toothed or entire, fascicled or alternate; the flowers
solitary or fascicled. Name from the Greek, signifying united anthers.

Hymenanthera crassifolia (Zhe Thick-leaved Hymenanthera).

A low shrub, with rigid, twisted branches, and white bark. The flowers are
small and axillary ; the berries purple and white, } in. in diameter. Maritime
rocks in both islands, and up to 2,000 ft. near the coast. Fl. Oct.-Dec.

This plant frequently forms a dense cushion of short rigid spinous branches,
closely appressed to a rock or stone. The berries and flowers are produced on the
underside of the branches, and are completely invisible from above.

THE PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY

Fig. 83. Passifiorat etrandra (% nat. size).

268 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Passifloraceae.

THE PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY.

Distribution.—A fairly large family, chiefly natives of the West Indies, and
of tropical America. The New Zealand species is endemic. The fruit of some
of the species is edible, and contains numerous small seeds enveloped in
mucilage. The Passion-flower and the Tacsonia are beautiful and well known
garden and greenhouse plants.

Genus Passiflora.

Climbing plants, with slender, elongated tendrils. Calyx-lobes 4-5. Petals
4-5, rarely 0; stamens 4-5. Fruit juicy. Seeds black. 1 sp.

Passiflora tetrandra (The Tetrandrous Passion-flower).

A slender climber, with glossy leaves 14 in.-4in. long, and delicate flowers,
4in.-lin. across. Sepals and petals 4. Flowers cymose, green, with beautiful
coronas of white or yellow filaments. Fruit very handsome, bright orange,
1 in.-14 in. in diameter, many-seeded. In both islands, on the edge of the bush.
Banks Peninsula the southern limit of many species. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

This, our only passion-flower, finds its southernmost habitat
on Banks Peninsula. Here, in the warm, sheltered, almost
sub-tropical valleys of the various bays, several native plants
are found which do not occur further south. Amongst them
may be mentioned the titoki, the nikau palm, the karaka, the
true pepper (Macropiper), and the ake-ake (Dodonea). At
one time, a piece of bush ran from the hills across the plains
in a north-westerly direction, to beyond Papanui. The only
fragment now left of this forest is Deans’s Bush, which also
contains several of the plants just mentioned. The passion-
flower still grows wild there, and in a sheltered gully, known
only to a few, near Sumner. In more remote portions of the
Peninsula it is not uncommon. There is still a grove of
karakas at Long-look-out Point, originally, perhaps, planted
by the Maoris. Scattered trees are to be found elsewhere in
the neighbourhood. The nikau forms a forest in, and gives
its name, to a beautiful bay on Akaroa Harbour. The titoki -
is the chief component of a handsome forest remnant near

THE DAPHNE FAMILY 269:

Kaituna. The ake-ake is not uncommon in several places.
Many specimens of it may be seen near the Maori village at
Rapaki.

According to Colenso, the dried wood of the passion-flower
formed an excellent slow match, by means of which the Maoris
were able to carry a spark from village to village.

Thymelaceae.

THE DAPHNE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A family of about 500 species, most of which are natives of
Australia and South Africa. The flowers of Daphne are sweet-scented, and the
berries of some of the species are poisonous. The Lace-bark tree of the West
Indies is a member of this family, and the fibre of other Indian and Chinese
species is made into paper.

Key to the Genera.

Stamens, 2. Pimelea.
Stamens, 4. Drapetes (not further described).

Genus Pimelea.
Erect or prostrate shrubs, with opposite leaves, and terminal heads of white
or yellow flowers. Perianth tubular, 4-lobed. Stamens 2. Fruit dry or pulpy.

A genus peculiar to Australia and New Zealand. (Name from the Greek,.
signifying fatness, in allusion to the oily seeds). 12 sp.

Pimelea longifolia (The Long-leaved Pimelea).

A shrub, 2ft.-6ft. in height. Leaves numerous, shining, 1 in.-2 in. long,
Zin.-3in. broad, flat. Flowers silky, fragrant, white, $in. long. Stamens
exserted. Nut enclosed in the tube of the perianth. Abundant in the North
Island ; found also in the northern parts of the South Island.

Pimelea arenaria (The Pimelea of the Sand-dunes).

A small, silky, shining plant, white, with soft hairs. Stem 8 in.-24 in. high.
Leaves close-set, spreading, }in.-$ in. long, oblong or rounded, hairy, silky, and
shining, Flowers white, silky, }in. across. Fruit pulpy, edible. North
Island: sand-dunes. FI. Jan.-April.

270 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Pimelea prostrata (The Prostrate Pimelea).

A yery variable species, often with erect, ascending branches. Stems
2in.-10in. long, hairy. Leaves variable, 75 in.-4in. long; floral leaves slightly
larger. Flowers #in.-4in. long, hairy or silky; the lobes of the perianth
shorter than the tube. Fruit usually fleshy. Both islands: abundant. F 1.
Oct.-March.

Pimelea virgata (The Twiggy Pimelea).

Asmall erect shrub, 1ft.-2ft. in height. Leaves spreading 4in.-1 in. long,
narrow, oblong, silky or shining. Floral leaves similar. Flowers in a small
head, 8-10 together, tin. long, silky; lobes broad. Nut dry or pulpy. Both
islands : common.

The genus Pimelea is exclusively Australasian. It consists
of a number of Veronica-like shrubs. The species are very
variable, and pass into each other. P. arenaria is a halophyte
(v. p. 42) of the sand-dunes, which has a clothing of wool and
sunk stomata, for the purpose of hindering transpiration. The
cell-structure 1s similar on both sides of the leaf, which hangs
down more or less vertically. A similar arrangement of leaf-
cells is found in other plants of the sand-hills. In such
situations they are exposed to much wind, fierce and long-
continued sunshine, and extremes of drought. Special
adaptations are clearly required in order to enable a plant to
exist under such conditions. P. arenaria, like most of the
sand-dune plants, has long roots. Other species are found in
the heaths, and some reach sub-alpine elevations.

Myrtaceae.

THE MyrtTLEe FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family of about 2000 species, chiefly tropical.
Many of them abound in aromatic oils, while others furnish gums.

The flowers of this family are very similar to those of the Rosaceae, the
main distinction between them being that the carpels are more or less free,
particularly in the stigmatic region, in the Rosaceae ; whilst in Myrtaceae, the
carpels are completely united, the union extending to the stigmas. Many of the

FAMILY

DAPHNE

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Fig. 84.

272 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

myrtles, also, have glands in all their parts, which secrete ethereal oils that give
the plants an aromatic odour. ‘This is, perhaps, the most striking character of
the family. The corolla is usually white, and the filaments, which are often a
bright red, serve as the chief organs of attraction for insects. Cloves are the
flower buds of a species of Hugenia. Another species of the same genus
furnishes the fruit from which allspice is obtained. The guava is the fruit of
Psidium guava. The only European species is the well-known Myrtle.

The oil of eucalyptus, obtained from H. globulus, is antiseptic in its action.
This tree is often planted, on account of its rapid growth, for the purpose of
drying up swamps, and thus keeping off malarial fevers.

Key to the Genera.

1. Fruita capsule. )
Fruit a berry or drupe. 3

2. Leaves alternate. Leptospermum, p. 272.
Leaves opposite. Metrosideros, p. 278.

3. Seeds solitary. Eugenia, p. 288.
Seeds 2 or more. Myrtus, p. 288.

Genus Leptospermum.

Shrubs or trees, with alternate, entire leaves. Flowers regular, white or
pink. Calyx 5-lobed, petals 5; stamens numerous. Capsule woody. About 28
species, of which 3 belong to New Zealand, and 20 to Australia.

Leptospermum scoparium (The Manuka Broom).

A shrub or tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height. Leaves leathery, hard, with
sharp points. Flowers scentless, on very short stalks, white or rosy, 4 in.-? in.
across. Capsule bursting by 4 or 5 valves, very woody. Maori names Manuka,
Kahikatoa. Colonists’ name, Tea-Tree. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-April.

This is the most abundant of New Zealand shrubs. It is
the colonial counterpart of the English broom and gorse, and
is as beautiful as either of these. One of the loveliest sights
of the land is a great valley at Christmas-time, clad with
Leptospermum in full flower. From the distance of a mile or
two, the country seems to be spread with a sheet of snow, so
profusely does the plant flower. A variety 1s known which
has the petals splashed with deep crimson. It is often
cultivated in gardens, and vies in beauty with many more
pretentious blooms.

To the Maoris the tree was known as the manuka. By the
settlers it 1s generally called tea-tree. It has acquired this
name because early voyagers and colonists sometimes used its

THE MYRTLE FAMILY 273

Fig. 85. Leptospermum scoparium.

19

274 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

pungent leaves in place of tea. Indeed, the whole plant,
including leaves, flowers, fruit, and young shoots, is highly
aromatic, and the oil which it contains, will perhaps, in future,
be put to some useful purpose.

The flowers are generally hermaphrodite, but are sometimes
imperfect or unisexual. A branch may occasionally be found
bearing flowers which are staminate only, while on the lower
portion of the same branch last year’s seed capsules are borne.
The capsule is hard and woody, of a reddish-brown colour.
Very small specimens occasionally bear flowers. A plant
was once observed, not more than half-an-inch in height,
which bore a flower and duly developed seed. The flower
appeared to be actually lying upon the ground.

The wood of this tree is largely used for fences and
firewood. The Maoris made use of it for their paddles and
spears, and a bunch of the twigs makes an excellent broom.

Leptospermum ericoides (The Heath-like Manuka).

A larger tree than the preceding. Leaves narrow, acute, glabrous or silky,
fascicled. Flowers 4 in. across, white, very fragrant. Maori name Manuwka-
rauriki. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan.

This is nearly, but not quite as common a plant, as the
previous one. Like the former species, at high levels, in
wind-swept localities, it becomes prostrate, and is reduced to a
few inches in height. In suitable positions, however, it grows
to be a larger tree than L. scopariwm, sometimes attaining a
height of sixty feet, and a diameter of one to three feet. Its
timber is hard and durable, and is used for jetty piles, spokes
of wheels, fence-rails, and other purposes. It is also much
sought after for firewood, and this has led to the cutting out
of all the larger trees over wide areas, so that in many places
it is now impossible to procure it. To many old settlers,
however, the odour of burning manuka logs brings memories
of the pleasant winter evenings of times long past.

THE MYRTLE FAMILY 275

Fig. 86. Leptospermum scoparium (life size).

276 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Older trees of both species have their trunks covered with a
light brown bark, that readily strips off, and is frequently
used for fire-kinding. For the camper-out, Leptospermum
provides fragrant bedding, easily collected, and not readily
surpassed for comfort.

There is little undergrowth in the manuka copse, and the
ground below it becomes carpeted with dead leaves, almost as
in a pine forest. There are, perhaps, several reasons for this
lack of undergrowth. The plant often grows on poor ground ;
the resinous leaves may, lke the pine needles, make bad
mould ; and the shrub itself probably exhausts the soil. Yet
sometimes certain orchids are found below it, which are rare
elsewhere, and various other plants seem to prefer the manuka
grove as a habitat.

Mr. G. M. Thomson has discussed the probable origin
of the New Zealand species. L. scopartum, with sharp
leaf tips, is found abundantly in south-eastern Australia ;
but L. ericoides, with less pungent points to its leaves, is
endemic. Mr. G. M. Thomson states that the rigid,
sharp-pointed leaves of the former indicate that the species
originated in a land, where there were herbivorous mammalia,
for he considers that ‘such sharp-pomted leaves are
probably so developed in order that they may be as
obnoxious as possible to grazing animals.”* As the genus
has come to us from a northern land, where possibly
marsupials and other grass-eating animals were abundant,
this explanation seems feasible. It also appears to receive
confirmation from the fact that the endemic species has
less prickly leaf-tips than the one with wider distribution.
However, there is another, and, perhaps, simpler interpre-
tation of such sharp-pointed leaves. They may be due
merely to leaf-reduction, produced as a means of protection
against excessive transpiration (v. <Aciphylla, Veronica,
Discaria). Indeed, that the modification, in the case of

*New Zealand Journal of Science, Vol. II., p. 371.

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FAMILY

MYRTLE

THE

Fig. 87. Leptospermum ericoides (life size)

278 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Leptospermum scoparium, is climatic rather than defensive,
is shown by the fact, that, m certain mountain localities,
the leaves become less rigid, more rounded, and less acute.
(See, however, under Hntelea for a further discussion of the
matter.)

Fig. 88. Metrosideros robusta, showing encircling roots.

Genus Metrosideros.

Shrubs or trees, often climbing. Leaves opposite, leathery. Flowers§in:
terminal cymes, umbels, or racemes, white, pink, or scarlet, often very showy.
Calyx 5-lobed ; petals 5, small. Stamens numerous, very long, white or scarlet.
(Name from the Greek, meaning iron-hearted, in allusion to the iron-like
hardness of the timber). Plants of the genus are usually known to the colonists.
by the Maori name Rata. 11 sp.

279

MYRTLE FAMILY

~,
v)

THI

Metrosideros hypericifolia (4 nat. size).

Fig. 89.

280 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Metrosideros florida (The Flowery Rata).

A shrub, or lofty climber. Leaves 14 in.-3 in. long, oblong, obtuse, entire,
shining. Flowers in large terminal cymes. Petals yellowish, or pale pink,
inconspicuous. Stamens 1 in.-14 in. long; filaments orange-red to crimson,
anthers golden. Fruit a woody capsule, half the length of the calyx-tube. Both
islands: common on forest trees. Fl. Nov.-April. Maori names: Aka,
Akatawhwhi, Pua-tawhiwhi. English name Rata-vine.

The rata-vine is one of the most remarkable climbers of the
New Zealand forest. The stem is sometimes six inches in
diameter, and climbs to the tops of the highest trees. It is
often confused with Metrosideros robusta, but it is the latter,
not the former, which strangles its support.

Bushmen quench their thirst with the juice of the rata-vine.
A slit is cut in the wood, and the bark left hanging, when a
clear juice drops freely from the cut. A piece of rata-wood
four feet in length, and three inches in diameter, was kept in
a workshop for three weeks, until apparently quite dry. Then
a cut was made lengthwise in it, and it yielded a gallon
and a half of quid. This juice was of a clear, bright, pinkish
hue, and tasted somewhat like dry cider. The inner rata-bark
is used to heal sores, and to stop bleeding. It is sometimes
boiled with the bark of the rimu and the kauri, to make a
lotion for the sore backs of horses. According to the Maori
tradition, the bark of this, as of other trees, when required for
healing purposes, should be cut from the side upon which the
sun rises.

Metrosideros hypericifolia (Zhe Hypericum-leaved Rata).

A straggling climber. Bark ragged ; branches 4-angled. Leaves sessile,
4 in.-% in. long, oblong, shining, rather membranous. Flowers small, in lateral
cymes or racemes. Petals white or pink, 4 in.-§ in. long. Capsule } in. long.

Damp bush, in both islands. Fl. Noy.-Jan.

Metrosideros lucida (The Shining Rata).

A shrub or tree, 40-60 ft. high. Leaves 1 in.-34 in. long, silky when young,
shining when mature, pointed at both ends. Flowers in short terminal cymes.
Petals small, scarlet. Stamens nearly an inch long, scarlet. Both islands ;
Lord Auckland’s group. Fl. Dec.-Jan. A variety with yellow flowers has been
found on Arthur’s Pass.

THE MYRTLE FAMILY 281

Metrosideros lucida, the rata of the South Island, is known
as the iron-wood in Otago. It grows in masses on the slopes
of the Southern Alps, and in a good rata year, adds much to
the beauty of the scenery. New Zealanders speak of the
Otira Gorge at such a time as one of the sights of the world,
but their patriotism has perhaps led them to overpraise it a
little. Yet, when in January, the flanks of a great mountain
range are ablaze with

** Flowers, that with one scarlet gleam

Cover a hundred leagues, and seem
To set the hills on fire! ”’

the sight is one which many would travel far to see. In
Canterbury, on the eastern slopes of the Alps, this rata is rare.
It apparently cannot stand a dry climate. It is much more
common on the east coast of Otago, south of Dunedin, where
it frequently overhangs the sea-cliffs, though it does not root in
the same fantastic manner as the pohutukawa.

In the Auckland Islands, it 1s the chief component of a
forest, as fantastic as any that was ever goblin haunted.
It reminds one of the sunless forest of Undine, or of the still
more terrible forest of the Seventh Circle of the Inferno :—

““ Where no track
Of steps had worn a way, not verdant there
The foliage, but of dusky hue, not light
The boughs and tapering, but with *knares deformed,

And matted thick: fruits there were none, but thorns
Instead, with venom filled.’’

The rata, as 1ts common name, ironwood, suggests, produces

an extremely hard timber, with qualities similar to those of
other members of the genus.

Metrosideros albiflora (The White-flowered Rata).

A climbing shrub. Leaves shining, 1 in.-3 in. long, narrowed at both ends.
Flowers in terminal cymes. Petals small, white. Stamens very slender.
Capsule 4in. long. North Island: in forests. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

*Knares, gnarled branches.

282 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The long twining stems of the rata vines were used by the
Maoris for various purposes ; and references to them appear in
several legends. Metrosideros albiflora (the Akatea) gives rise
to the Maori equivalent of Nil desperandum. Thus an ancient
proverb runs :

’

““ Rangitihi upoko i takaia ki te akatea.’
Rangitihi’s head was bound up with the akatea.
Rangitihi was a hero of old who had his head spht by his
enemy's club. With splendid courage he bound the broken
skull round with akatea, and, encouraging his fleeing men, led
them on again. ‘This time it was to victory.

Metrosideros robusta (The North Island Rata).

A tree, 50 ft.-100 ft. in height. Trunk sometimes 10 ft. in diameter.
Leaves 1in.-14in. long, oblong, obtuse, leathery, shining. Flowers in large
terminal cymes. Petals small, scarlet. Stamens 1 in. long, scarlet. Capsule
4 in.-4 in. long. North Island. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Rata.

This is the North Island rata. It is often described as
twining round some forest tree, ensheathing it, and finally
killing it by a close embrace; this account, however, misrepre-
sents, 1f it does not traduce, M. robusta. It does not begin
life as a clhmber, though there are species which do so, e.g.,
Metrosideros florida; but it very often germinates as an
epiphyte high up in the forks of a tree. The seeds are
minute, and readily blown about by the wind, so that they
may thus be driven to a considerable elevation. As the
young plant develops, it sends down roots towards the ground.
These roots mosculate, and slowly enclose the stem of the
supporting tree, which at last is crushed by the grip of the
rata (v. Fig. 88). This, at least, is the generally accepted
explanation. It must, however, be confessed that the details
of the process have hitherto escaped observation. Apparently
the only tree which can resist this iron hug is the puriri—the
strongest and toughest of all New Zealand trees. It may
sometimes be seen bursting the encircling roots of the
epiphyte.

THE MYRTLE FAMILY

Fig. 90. Metrosideros robusta—Buds and flowers (? nat. size).

284 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The crimson stamens of the rata give to it, as to other
species of the genus, a most attractive appearance when in
flower. Though not so gorgeous as the pohutukawa, it is,
perhaps, brighter in colour than the more southern M. lucida.

The Maoris have a proverb about the flower, which is a
curious commentary upon their ideas of truthfulness.

Keiwhawhati noa mai te rau o te rata!

Don’t pluck and fling about to no purpose the blossoms of the rata !

According to Colenso, this means :

Don’t become ashamed when your lying is detected.

The timber of the rata is hard and durable, but scarcely so
valuable as that of the pohutukawa. Lake other species of the
genus, 1t makes excellent firewood ; and a green rata tree once
kindled in the bush will sometimes smoulder for months.

Metrosideros tomentosa (The Downy Rata).

A handsome tree, sometimes 70 ft. in height, with spreading branches.
Branchlets and under surfaces of leaves covered with short, dense white hairs.
Leaves 1 in.-3 in. long, variable in shape, with recurved margins. Flowers in
large terminal cymes, brilliant scarlet. Buds snow-white, woolly, petals small,
scarlet, stamens 1in.-14in. long, scarlet. Capsule woody, 3-lobed and 3-valved.
North Island: cliffs on the sea-coast. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name
Pohutukawa.

M. tomentosa rarely grows far from the sea or an inland
lake. It finds a foothold in all sorts of impossible looking
plates. Often it clings to the side of a cliff, and puts forth
long twisted roots that attach it to the rocky wall. Specimens
may frequently be found hanging from the top of a bank,
with the roots above, and the branches almost dipping into
the sea below. Oysters may sometimes be gathered from
these pendent branches. When growing on level ground,
great bunches of red, fibrous rootlets may occasionally be seen
hanging from the boughs. These do not reach the ground,
and their function is unknown.

THE MYRTLE FAMILY I85

Fig. 91. Metrosideros tomentosa (3 nat. size).

286 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The usual habitat of the pohutukawa is well described in
the following lines :—

““ The stony faces of the cliffs thus rent
Showed twisted strata, strangely earthquake bent,
Running on each side circularly up—
A great grey hollow like a broken cup !
From crest and crevice, tortuously flung
Those monstrous iron-hearted myrtles hung—
Stiff snaky writhing trunks, and roots that clave
And crawled to any hold the ramparts gave.’’
““ Ranolf and Amohia,”’ p. 474.

Thus Domett, with his affluence of epithet, describes the
tree as it clings to its rocky stronghold. Surely it was some
vague perception of its fantastic shape and ocean-loving
nature, that led the Maoris to think that a bough of
pohutukawa was the last earthly hand-hold of the spirit when
it leapt off from the world above into Reinga (the under-
world). For it was believed by them in olden times, that the
ghosts of the dead travelled northward along the mountain
ranges, until they came to the ridge of “‘ wild rocks” running
out to sea inthe extreme north, known as Cape Reinga.
Passing along this to the very extremity of the land, they
came at last to a giant pohutukawa, with a great limb
overhanging the rocks of ocean. To this branch the spirits
hung for some time, reluctant to leave the upper world. At
length, through a sea-weed fringed cavern, they plunged into
the gloomy realms of Po. But time changes all things. So
many were killed in the wars of Hongi, that the great branch
became bent downwards by the number of spirits who
thronged it. When Mr. Cheeseman visited the Remga in
1895, the famous ‘“ Spray-sprinkled”’* tree was still to be
seen. It however bore marks of extreme old age, and the
projecting branch had long before been broken off. Only its
whitened stump remained. And little wonder, for though the
wars of Hongi killed their thousands, European customs and
European civilization have killed their tens of thousands.

*Pohutukawa is said to mean spray-sprinkled. The name therefore is singularly apt.

o)
a

THE MYRTLE FAMILY

Fig. 92. Metrosideros scandens (life size).

288 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

By the settlers, the tree is often known as the Christmas
Tree, because it flowers about the end of the year. Kark
considers it to be “‘ perhaps the most magnificent plant in the
New Zealand Flora.” The timber of the pohutukawa is
extremely hard and durable.

Metrosideros scandens (The Climbing Rata).

A climbing shrub. Leaves 4in.-4in. long, sessile, broadly oblong, obtuse,
shining, the under-surface covered with glandular dots. Flowers in cymes,
3-flowered, axillary. Petals small, white. Stamens 4in. long, white. Capsule
din. long. Bothislands. Fl. Feb.-March. Maori name Aka.

Genus Hugenia.
Shrubs or trees. A genus very similar to Myrtus. The only New Zealand
species is endemic. Calyx 4-5-lobed; petals 4-5, often deciduous. Stamens
numerous. Fruit a berry.

Eugenia Maire (The Maire).

A tree, 20ft.-50ft. high. Bark white; branchlets 4-angled. Leaves
1in.-2in. long, oblong, lanceolate, pointed at the tip. Flowers in axillary or
terminal corymbs. Calyx 5-toothed; petals 5. Berry red. North Island and
north of South Island. Fl. June-July. Maori name, Maire Tawhaki.

Genus Myrtus.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, evergreen, dotted with glands. Flowers
axillary, solitary, or in small cymes. Calyx-lobes 4-5; petals 4-5; stamens
numerous. Fruita berry. A chiefly tropical and sub-tropical genus. The four
New Zealand species are all endemic.

Myrtus bullata (The Embossed Myrtle).

A shrub or small tree. Leaves reddish-brown, swollen between the veins,
3in.-2in. long. Calyx 4-lobed. Flowers 4in.-fin. across. Petals white,
Berry red. Both islands: rare in the South. FI. Dec-Jan. Maori name
Ramarama. The leaves of this plant are very beautiful, and much used by
florists in making nosegays and button-holes.

Myrtus obcordata (The Obcordate-leaved Myrtle).
Leaves }in.-4in. long ; flowers }in.-}in. across. Calyx 4-lobed. Berry red,
black, or violet. Both islands, rather local. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

Myrtus pedunculata (The Pedunculate Myrtle).
Branchlets 4-angled. Calyx and peduncles shining. Leaves rounded at the
tip. Calyx 5-lobed. Berry small, yellow or red. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan.
Maori name Rohutu.

THE MYRTLE FAMILY

Fig. 93. Myrtus bullata (2 nat. size).

290 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Onagraceae.

THe FucHsia FAMILY.

Distribution.—A considerable family, chiefly inhabitants of temperate
regions. Some of the species possess slightly astringent properties, and others,
of the genera Fuchsia, Clarkia, and Ginothera, are cultivated for their flowers.

Key to the Genera.

Herbs. Fruit a capsule. Epilobium, p. 294.
Shrubs or trees. Fruit a berry. Fuchsia, p. 290.

Genus Fuchsia.

Shrubs or trees. Bark thin, papery. Leaves alternate. Flowers solitary,
axillary, trimorphic. Calyx with 4 segments; stamens usually exserted. Fruit
a berry, black or purple. (Named after Fuchs, a German physician). 3 sp.

This well known and closely defined genus is represented in
New Zealand by three species. The flowers of the New
Zealand forms, though not without beauty of their own, have
scarcely the attractiveness of the ordinary garden varieties.
However, Fuchsia procumbens (generally known to gardeners
under the synonym Fuchsia Kirkit) is often to be found in
cultivation in our gardens and greenhouses. It lacks the
graceful, pendulous flower-stalks, which enhance so much the
beauty of the cultivated forms, but it is a very dainty little
species. The sharp contrast between the beautiful waxy
yellow of the calyx, and the intense pure blue of the pollen,
would make it noticeable anywhere. Any other colour but
yellow is rare in pollen, and such a bright hue as this has
probably some definite though unknown significance. It is of
the same colour in the two other New Zealand species. It
is also extremely viscid. This no doubt enables it to cling
readily to any insect which may enter the flower. The tw
and the korimako may sometimes also be seen with their fore-
heads smeared with it, for the flowers are cross-pollinated by
them. The viscidity is due to the development by the pollen
grains, of structureless drops of a glutinous fluid, that very
readily draws out into long fine threads. A simular secretion

THE FUCHSIA FAMILY 291

Fig. 94. Fuchsia excorticata (? nat. size).

292 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

may be found in the pollen grains of the evening primrose,
Godetia, Clarkia, and some species of Hpilobium.

All the New Zealand forms of the genus Fuchsia are
endemic, and the only other known species come from South
America and Mexico. ‘Thus our Fuchsias well illustrate the
former connection existing between New Zealand and South
America (v. Introduction p. 36).

But, for botanists, the chief interest of the New Zealand
forms lies in the methods by which cross-pollination is attained.
It has long been known that in flowers of certain plants,
dimorphism or trimorphism exists, 7.e., stamens and styles are
found of two, sometimes of three different lengths. It was
not, however, until Darwin had investigated the matter, that
a complete explanation of these variations of form was forth-
coming. In his work on the “ Forms of Flowers” he has
dealt with this subject very fully. The common English
meadow primrose is the first plant which he discusses, and it
is usually taken as the type of a dimorphic flower. If a number
of primrose flowers are examined, it will be found that in
some the anthers are placed at the top of the corolla tube, and
in others they are attached inside the tube half-way down its.
length. Those flowers which have the anthers at the rim of
the corolla tube, have a style which is concealed within the
tube, and the other flowers, with the short stamens, have a,
style which protrudes from the tube. In other words, long
stamens go with a short style, and vice versa. Now a bee
pushing its way into a flower with short stamens, gets the
pollen on to its tongue, but, if it goes into a flower with long
stamens, the pollen sticks to its head. The pollen from its head
can clearly only be placed upon the stigma of a flower with a
long style, while that from the tongue, must, on the other hand,
be placed upon the stigma of a flower with a short style.
Thus cross-pollination is inevitable. It has further been shown
that the primrose is infertile with its own pollen, so that its
existence is dependent upon the presence of insects.

THE FUCHSIA FAMILY 293

Mr. G. M. Thomson was the first to show* that the New
Zealand fuchsias have several forms of flower in the one
species, but the late Mr. T. Kirk investigated the matter
more fullyt. He showed that in each of the three New Zealand
species of Fuchsia there are three forms of flower, and in some
cases, also, intermediate forms. In every case, however, there
are eight stamens, and a single style with a globose stigma.
The differences in the flowers of the various species may thus
be shortly summarized :—

Fuchsia excorticata.—(1) Long-styled form. The style is
more than twice the length of the calyx-tube. The stamens
are almost without filaments, attached to the calyx-tube.
The pollen grains, if present, are yellow, and apparently
abortive. The flower is therefore a female one.

(2) The mid-styled form. The style is about one and a half
times the length of the calyx-tube; the anthers have long
filaments, but are shorter than the style; the pollen is well
developed, and of a deep mazarine blue. This flower is
hermaphrodite.

(3) The short-styled form. The style is little, if any, longer
than the stamens, which are about the same length as in the
second form. The pollen is well developed. The flower is
hermaphrodite.

Fuchsia Colensot.—Only the long-styled and miud-styled
forms are known in this species, but Kirk “ entertains no
doubt ” of the existence of a short-styled form.

Fuchsia procumbens.—There is a long-, short-, and mid-
styled form ; but the stamens are of the same length in each
case.

The exact significance of these forms is not well known,
and would form an interesting subject of investigation for
students. All the forms of F. excorticata are found in the
same district, but on different plants. The long-styled form is
obviously pollinated by the short and mid-styled forms ; and it

*Trans. XIII., p. 263. tTrans. XXV., p. 261.

294 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

produces fruit more abundantly than either of the other forms.
This makes it probable that forms with short styles are not
self-pollinated. However, the evidence on the point is
unsatisfactory. Kirk failed to find fruit in any quantity
on F. procumbens, and explained its absence by the statement
that the three types of F’. procumbens were not growing in the
same district ; but Dr. Cockayne informs us that it fruits as
readily as the other species. Obviously, a full explanation of
the characteristics of this flower has yet to be given.

The timber of F. excorticata is heavy, and difficult to work,
but very strong and durable.

Fuchsia excorticata (The Tree Fuchsia).

A shrub or tree, 10 ft.-45 ft. in height. Leaves 14in.-4 in. long, silvery
beneath, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute, obscurely toothed. Flowers
drooping, ¢ in.-1 in. long. Calyx dark-purple; petals red-purple. Pollen-grains
blue. Berry oblong. Both islands; Stewart Island. FI. Aug.-Dec. Maori
name Kotukutukw or Kohutuhutu, and of the fruit, Koni.

Fuchsia Colensoi (Colenso’s Fuchsia).

A smaller species, often not more than 1 ft. in height. Petals minute.
From the Waikato to Stewart Island. Fl. Oct.-Feb.

Fuchsia procumbens (The Prostrate Fuchsia).
A slender, prostrate plant, 6 in.-18in. long. Leaves ovate or cordate,
4 in.-4in. long. Flowers $ in.-? in long, solitary, axillary, erect. PetalsO0. Berry
shining, pale-red. Auckland: sandy or rocky places. FI. Noy.-Feb. (Often
called by the synonym F’, Kirkii).

Genus Hpilobiwm.

Herbs, rarely woody. Leaves opposite or alternate. Flowers in axillary or
terminal spikes or racemes. Sepals 4, petals 4, stamens 8. Fruit a 4-valved
capsule. Seeds crowned with tufts of white hairs. New Zealand possesses about
32 species, 27 of whichare endemic. (Name from the Greek meaning upon a pod,
in reference to the position of the flower).

The genus Hpilobiwm has been recently monographed by
Prof. Haussknecht of Jena. There are about 160 species,
chiefly in temperate and arctic regions. The English species

THE FAMILY OF MARE’S TAILS 295

are known as Willow-herbs. The Epilobiums are generally
comparatively insignificant, though often dainty little plants.
Many of them show interesting devices for securing
pollination.

Haloragidaceae.

THE FamMIty OF MARE’sS TAILS.

Distribution.—A small family, widely distributed, but of little importance.
All the British species are aquatic. The flowers are inconspicuous, and often
devoid of petals. The Haloragidaceae are closely related to the Fuchsia family,
but the flowers in the former are often much reduced.

Genus Haloragis.

Herbs, erect or creeping. Leaves usually opposite. Flowers usually
axillary, rarely in spikes or panicles. Calyx-lobes 4; petals 4 or 0; stamens 4-8.
Fruit a small nut, 2-4-celled. 5 sp.

Haloragis erecta* (The Erect Haloragis).
An erect or sub-erect herb, 1ft.-3 ft. high. Stem 4-angled; leaves opposite,
4 in.-14in. long, coarsely serrate. Flowers minute, green, in drooping, terminal
racemes. Nut 4-angled, green. Both islands: dry hills. Stewart Island. Fl.
Noy.-Jan. (H. alata of Cheeseman, etc.)

Genus Myriophyllum.

Aquatic or marsh plants. Leaves usually whorled, much dissected when
submerged. Flowers small, axillary, white. Pistillate flower destitute of petals.
Stamens 4-8. Fruit, 2-4 1-seeded nuts. (Name from the Greek, signifying a
thousand leaves, from the deeply-cut foliage).

Myriophyllum elatinoides (The Elatine-like Myriophyllum).

Leaves 4 in a whorl. Flowers white, on a leafy spike, 2in.-6in. long.
Fruit of 4 minute nuts.

This species may be taken as typical of a water plant. It

grows submerged in ponds and streams, and, consequently,
requires a very different structure from a land-growing plant.

*Das Pflanzenreich (Engler), under Haloragidaceae.

296 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Where water is at all times available without stint, obviously,
an elaborate root system is not required. Hence, water plants
have few roots, and sometimes none at all. In the latter case
they float (e.g. Utricularia protrusa) ; at other times the roots
are merely hold-fasts, for in many water plants there is a thin
epidermis, so that water can be taken in all over the whole
surface of the plant by osmosis. Consequently, also, water
conducting tissues in the stem are not required; and, as no
firm tissues are needed to keep the plant upright, woody fibres
are always wanting in the stem, which is maintained in
position by the buoyancy of the water. In most water plants
there are large air chambers, which reduce the specific gravity
of the plant, and assist to float it. It is therefore very flaccid,
and, when removed from water, collapses. The leaves, too,
are generally cut up into many narrow segments. In many
of the Ranunculi, a submerged leaf may be much divided,
whereas a leaf growing in alr on the same plant remains
undivided. In many water plants, the ratio of leaf surface to
leaf bulk, is at least a hundred times greater than it is in
certain xerophytes. Taken altogether, the structure of a
submerged plant is simple, as compared with one of the same
order, growing on land.

In most cases, the flower stem is elevated above the water
before flowering commences. In Limosella, which lives in
rain pools, if the plant should happen to be submerged at the
time of flowering, the flowers become cleistogamic (v. Viola,
p. 264) and self-pollinated. The perianth is, of course, water-
tight, and so the pollination takes place in air. Plants, the
pollination of which takes place in water are extremely rare.
Amongst them, however, may be mentioned the grass-wrack,
(Zostera), which may be found throughout the colony, on the
mud-flats of the sea-shore. However, in Zostera, the pollen
grain has a unique structure.

In Myriophyllum, the flowers are raised to the surface of
the water. Most of the species are moncecious, and, as in all

THE CORNEL OR DOGWOOD FAMILY 297

other monececious plants, the pistillate flowers mature before
the staminate ones, and so cross-pollination is inevitable.

Genus Gunnera.

Creeping herbs, with small, inconspicuous flowers, Sepals 2 or 3; petals 2,
3, or 0; stamens 2 or 3. Ovule solitary. Fruit a small drupe. The New
Zealand species have no petals. (Named after Gunner, a Swedish bishop and
botanist).

Gunnera monoica (The Solitary Gunnera).

Tufted, creeping. Leaves 4 in.-3 in. across, crenate, kidney-shaped. Flowers
in slender panicles. Perianth of two narrow segments; stamens 2. Drupe
qzin. long. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Noy.

Cornaceae.

THE CORNEL OR DoGwoop FAMILY.

Distribution.—A small and unimportant family, chiefly found in temperate
regions. Aucuba japonica, the variegated laurel, and the Cornelian Cherry,
Cornus mas, are cultivated in gardens. Two or three of the species are said to
possess tonic properties.

Key to the Genera.

Leaves white underneath. Flowers perfect. Corokia, p. 297.
Leaves glossy. Flowers unisexual. Griselinia, p, 298.

Genus Corokia.

Shrubs or trees, with alternate leaves, silvery beneath. Calyx 5-toothed.
Petals, 5, silky, yellow. Stamens, 5. This small genus is peculiar to New
Zealand and the Chatham Islands. (Name from the Maori). 3 sp.

Corokia buddleoides (The Buddleia-like Corokia).

A small tree, with long narrow leaves, shining above, and downy beneath.
Flowers in slender panicles. Corolla tin. long, yellow. Drupe, orange-red.

298 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

North Island: Mangonui to East Cape. Fl. Dec. Native name Korokia-
taranga.

Corokia Cotoneaster (The Cotoneaster-like Corokia).

A rigid shrub, with interlacing black branches. Leaves alternate or fascicled,
oblong or ovate. Petals yellow, broader than in Corokia buddleoides. Drupe
din. across, red. From the North Cape to the Bluff. Fl. Oct.-Nov.

Genus Griselinia.
Shrubs or trees, often epiphytic. Leaves very thick and glossy, oblique,
leaving a scar when they fall. Calyx 5-toothed; petals 5. Stamens, 5-

Staminate and pistillate flowers on separate trees. The New Zealand species.
are endemic. 2 sp.

Griselinia lucida (The Shining Broadleaf).

From 3ft.-30 ft. in height, often epiphytic. Leaves 4in.-8 in. long, very
thick, shining. Flowers in axillary panicles, green or yellow, 3in-6 in.
long. Petals 0. Drupe dark-purple. Both islands, but more common in the
north. Fl. Nov.-Dec. (Native name Puka. A name given to any broad-leaved
tree).

Griselinia littoralis (The Broadleaf).

A tree, sometimes 60ft. in height, differing from Griselinia lucida in its.
terrestrial habit, and smaller, less glossy leaves, which vary from 1 in.-3 in,
in length. Flower panicles small. The pistillate flowers possess 5 petals. This.
tree, though often crooked in growth, is valued for its timber, which is very
durable. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Nov.

299

OR DOGWOOD FAMILY

THE CORNEL

Griselinia littoralis.

Fig, 95.

300 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Araliaceae.

THE Famity oF ARALIADS, OR IVYWORTS.

Distribution.—This family is closely allied to the Umbelliferae, but is
chiefly tropical in its distribution, though some species are found in Canada,
N.W. America and Japan. The New Zealand species are all endemic. The
British Hedera Helix, the Common Ivy, is well-known, and much cultivated.
The berries are emetic and purgative. Tetrapanax papyrifera furnishes the
rice-paper of the Chinese. The stems of this plant, which is found only in
the island of Formosa, are filled with a pure white pith, from which the
paper is made. This pith is also used in the making of artificial flowers.
Some of the species of Aralia have slight medicinal properties.

Key to the Genera.

1. Herbs. Stilbocarpa, p. 300.
Shrubs or trees. 2

2. Leaves 9 in.-20 in. long, entire, glossy. Meryta, p. 312.
Leaves smaller, simple or digitate. 3

3. Flowers in simple or compound umbels. : 4
Flowers in large panicles. Schefilera, p. 312.

4. Styles distinct, tips recurved, ovary 2-4-celled. Nothopanax, p. 304.

4. Styles united into a cone. Ovary 5-celled. Pseudopanax, p. 306.

Genus Stilbocarpa.

A genus of two species, endemic in New Zealand. Leaves radical, large.
Flowers crowded, conspicuous. Petals, 5; stamens, 5; styles, 3 or 4. Fruit,
round ; axis hollow. Cells, 1-seeded. (Name in allusion to the shining fruit).

Stilbocarpa polaris (The Polar Stilbocarpa).

A large herbaceous plant. Leaves, 6 in.-12 in. broad ; round or kidney-
shaped, thick, rough with hairs, lobed, coarsely toothed. Leaf-stalk 12 in.-18 in.
long, with a lobed sheath. Flowers in terminal or axillary umbels, 4 in.-9 in.
across. Corolla + in. across, yellow, with a purple eye. Fruit the size of a
peppercorn, shining. Auckland, Antipodes, Macquarie, and Campbell Islands.
Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Pani.

Stilbocarpa Lyallii (Lyall’s Stilbocarpa).

A robust herb, 1 ft.-3 ft. in height. Stems horizontal, giving out long
arched trailing branches, which tend to root atthe tip. Leaves radical, shining
above, hairy beneath, round or kidney-shaped, lobed, toothed. Flowers in
umbels, purplish-red, 3 in.-12 in. across. Petals, 4; stamens, 5. Fruit round,
black, shining ; cells 1-seeded. Coasts of Foveaux Straits, Stewart Island,
The Snares. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

We have followed Engler and Prantl (Pflanzenfamilien III., 8, 57) in
placing Kirk’s Aralia Lyallii under the genus Stilbocarpa, thus restoring it to
the position origimally given it by Mr. J. B. Armstrong.

THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 301

All the outlying islands of New Zealand, if not mere
rocks, contain one or more species of plants not found on
the mainland. Thus the Chatham Islands possess one

Fig. 96. Stilbocarpa polaris.

genus, Myosotidium, and about thirty species of flowering
plants and higher Cryptogams not found elsewhere. Dr.
Cockayne gives the following numbers for the endemic species

302 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

of flowering plants on the Southern Islands out of a total
number of 1483 :—Auckland Islands, 10; Campbell Island,
7; Antipodes Islands, 3; Macquarie Island, 3; Snares
Islands, 2. In addition to these, there are no less than 29
species not found on the mainland, but growing on more
than one of the southern Islands. On the three Kings Islands
five species are endemic, and three others are known only from
other outlying Islands (Cheeseman). In the Kermadecs only
5 species out of 115 are endemic,—a smaller percentage than
might have been expected.

Stilbocarpa polaris, the plant under discussion, 1s found on
the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, and Macquarie Islands.
It must not be confused with the equally fine S. Lyalli,
which is found on Stewart Island, and the islands of Foveaux
Straits. A full discussion of the origin of these remarkable
forms, found only in isolated spots of the earth’s surface,
would be out of place here; but the subject 1s of so much
interest and importance, that it cannot be passed over without
some slight reference to theories regarding it. It is obvious
that these plants may be divided into two groups, (1) those
that are very closely related to mainland forms, (2) those that
are not closely related to any species of the mainland.
Amongst the latter are some of the most magnificent plants
of the Flora (e.g., Plewrophyllum speciosum ; Myosotidium.)

Now, there are two possible explanations of the distribution
of species limited to narrow areas and solitary islets : (1) it
may be due to relict endemism, that is to say, the plant was
once widely distributed, but has for some reason or other
become almost extinct, and now exists only on outlying
islands, or in remote corners of the mainland. Thus, to take
an example from the human race, the limitation of the once
widely distributed Kelts to Brittany, Wales, Ireland, and the
North Scotland, is a case of relict endemism. (2) If, however,
the species has been developed on the off islands, or outlying
peninsulas, owing to special conditions existing there, then we

THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 303

Fig. 97. Nothopanax Colensoi (# nat. size).

304 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

have a case of initial endemism. Now it is often difficult to
say which explanation should be adopted, in a given case.
If the plant is closely allied to one existing on the mainland,
we probably have a case of initial endemism. If, however,
it belongs to a type not represented on the mainland, it is
more likely that we have to do with an example of relict
endemism ; and that the species was once widely distributed,
and now, having been almost exterminated, finds a sanctuary
only in inaccessible localities and remote islands. In some
cases Paleo-botany comes in to give us assistance in solving
the problem. Thus, fossils show us that the genus Agathis
was once widely distributed, though now restricted to
Auckland province (where the Kauri is found), to the Malay
Archipelago, and to Queensland. Thus in the Kauri we have
a clear case of relict endemism. The older botanists,
however, generally neglected this method of explaining
restricted distribution, in favour of the hypothesis of initial
endemism. There can, however, be but little doubt that
forms like the one under consideration, are more likely to have
been at one time widely spread, than always to have been
restricted to their present habitats. Though Stelbocarpa is a
genus endemic in these islands, yet it is closely connected
with the widely distributed genus Aralia. On the mainland,
Stilbocarpa is now confined to South-western Otago, but, as
it must have reached that district from the outside, it has
certainly, at one time, had a wider distribution.

S. Lyallii sends out runners, which pass under stones
and through crevices in the rocks, rooting in suitable
localities. It is thus able to cover wide areas. This
characteristic also readily distinguishes it from S. polaris,
which is without runners.

Genus Nothopanac.
A remarkable genus of shrubs or trees, showing much variation in leaf-
form. All the New Zealand species are endemic. Flowers in umbels, racemes,
or panicles, green, inconspicuous. Petals and stamens 5. Ovary 2-4-celled.

THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 305

Fruit fleshy, 2-5-celled, 1-seeded. (Name from the Greek, signifying a remedy
for everything, in allusion to the Chinese drug Ginseng, obtained from a plant of
this family, and believed by the Chinese to possess healing virtue of a miraculous
kind. The prefix notho signifies southern). 7 sp.

Nothopanax lineare (The Narrow-leaved Nothopanazx).

A shrub, 5 ft.-8 ft. in height. Leaves of two forms: (1) linear, erect
or spreading, 6 in.-9 in. long, +im.-4 in. broad, leathery, broad, sharp-pointed,
with a noticeable midrib; (2) linear lanceolate, crowded at the tips of the
branches, 14 in.-33 in. long, very leathery, acute or obtuse. Flowers in small
terminal umbels. Fruit urn-shaped, 3-5-celled and seeded. South Island :

Southern Alps; rare. Nelson to Southland. FI. Jan.-Feb.

Nothopanax simplex (The Simple-leaved Nothopanaz).

A small tree, 5ft. - 20ft. im height. The most variable of all the species.
Leaves: (1) Ovate, serrate, on long foot-stalks ; (2) 5-foliolate, leaflets petioled,
linear, lobed, or pinnate-partite ; (3) 3-foliolate; leaflets sessile, lanceolate ;
(4) 1-foliolate, oblong, 2 in.-5 in. long, serrate, or almost entire. Flowers in
short terminal or axillary compound umbels. Fruit compressed ; 1-seeded.
Both islands ; Stewart Island; Auckland Islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan.

Nothopanax Edgerleyi (Hdgerley’s Nothopanaz).

A tree, 20ft. - 40ft. in height. Leaves of two forms: (1) 3 - 5-foliolate ;
leaflets oblong—lanceolate, acute, pinnatifid or lobed, purple beneath ; (2) 1-
foliolate, 3 in.-9 in. long, oblong-lanceolate or obovate, membranous, shining.
Petioles jomted to the blade, 1 in.-4 in. long. Flowers in axillary compound
umbels, racemose. Styles 3 or 4. Fruit small, round, purplish-black, 3 - 4-
seeded. Both islands; Stewart Island. Fl.-Jan.-Feb. Maori name Rauwkawa.
The leaves are aromatic, and were used by the Maoris in the making of
perfumed oils.

Nothopanax anomalum (The Anomalous Nothopanazx).

A shrub, 6ft. - 12ft. high, with rough divaricating branches. Leaves of two
forms : (1) 3-foliolate, with stipules at the base of a widened petiole, in the
mature stage leaflets rarely pinnatifid ; (2) 1-foliolate, with secondary stipules at
the base and apex of the flattened petiole. Flowers small, in small axillary
umbels, 2-10-flowered. Styles 2, recurved. Fruit ¢ in.-} in. in diameter,
compressed, mottled. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Wawa-pakuw.

Nothopanax Colensoi (Colenso’s Nothopanax).

A shrub, 10 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 3 in.-9 in. long, 3-5 foliolate, with a
2-lobed sheath. Leaflets 2 in.-6 in. long, thick and leathery, roughly toothed ;
veins indistinct. Flowers in heavily scented terminal umbels. Fruit roundish,
compressed, 2-celled and 2-seeded. Styles 2. Both islands: as far north as

the Thames. FI. July-Oct. Maori name, Raukawa.
21

306 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Pseudopanac.

Shrubs or trees, with shining leaves, extremely variable in form during
different stages of the tree’s growth. Flowers in umbels, panicles, or racemes.
Staminate flowers with 5 petals and 5 stamens. Pistillate flowers without
petals, ovary 5-celled. Fruit rounded, fleshy. (Name signifying a false Panaz).
6 sp.

Pseudopanax crassifolium (Zhe Thick-leaved Lancewood).

A spreading tree, 20 ft.-60 ft. in height; trunk 10 in.-20 in. in diameter.
Leaves polymorphic. Flowers in terminal compound umbels. Stamens, 5 ;
styles 5; seeds 5. Fruit round. The leaves and wood of this tree send out an
unpleasant odour. The timber is used for fencing posts, sleepers, piles, etc.
Both islands; Stewart Island. Var. wnifoliolatuwm is common in the Auckland
district, but rare elsewhere. Fl. Feb.-April. Maori name Horoeka.

Pseudopanax ferox (The Savage Lancewood).

A small tree, 15 ft.-26ft. in height. Leaves of 3 forms. (1) Of seedlings,
narrow, linear-lanceolate, acute, toothed, brownish. (2) Of unbranched shrubs,
12 in.-18 in. long, 3 in. broad, the tips turned downwards towards the stem, very
thick and leathery; roughly toothed; teeth sharp, hooked. (3) Of mature trees,
3 in.-5 in. long, } in.-2 in. broad, linear-obovate, thick, rigid, pomted. Flowers
in terminal umbels; staminate flowers in 6-10 racemes, with 4 petals and 4
stamens. Pistillate umbel compact, ovary 5-celled. Fruit oval, shining, larger
than in P. crassifoliwm, 1-seeded. Both islands. Much rarer than the preceding
species.

This is an endemic genus, distinguished chiefly by the
remarkable metamorphoses through which the foliage of the
species P. crassifolium and P. feror passes. Many New
Zealand plants show strange vicissitudes in their leaf-develop-
ment, but in none are they stranger than in these. Yet,
curiously enough, no account of their minute structure has
yet been published, though the leaves of many other species
have been microscopically examined. In no other genus,
perhaps, are the leaf forms so well worthy of the student’s
research; so different are they in the juvenile, from the mature
stages, that, on several occasions, the earlier botanists put the
mature and immature forms of the same plant, in different
genera. P. crassifolium was discovered on Cook’s first
voyage, and, in Dr. Solander’s MS., the young form is
called Xerophylla longifolia, while the mature is termed

THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 307

SOLE Ogg 3 NE gd

ey ae Fhadd Se ih s.
9 ras ae io fa ae i: “ay ke

Fig. 98. Pseudopanax crassifolium. (Tree with deflexed and mature leaves.)

308 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Aralia crassifolia. Even so late as 1867, Sir J. Hooker,—the
greatest of all systematists,—described the mature state as
Panax crassifolum, and the young state as P. longissimum,
and yet he had had the plant under cultivation at Kew for
fifteen years.

The seedling forms of P. crassifoliwm have been described
by Kirk,“ and more fully by Dr. Cockayne.t In the following
description, drawn up from specimens gathered by us in the
Kaipara district, the chief stages are lettered. (a) The
cotyledons are persistent, with prominent swollen midrib, and
reddish, shghtly recurved margin. (b) The first leaf is
somewhat leathery, linear-oblong, green, often blotched with
pale-brown, one or two inches in length, and irregularly
coarsely toothed, with a leaf-stalk one-third the length of the
blade. (c) The second and third leaves are linear-lanceolate,
with minute distant teeth. The upper surface is black-green,
spotted with pale brown, whilst the under surface is lighter in
colour. The midrib is raised on both surfaces. (d) The
fourth and few succeeding leaves are linear, spreading, and
pointed shghtly upwards, with stout, distant teeth, quite
different from the serrations of the first leaf. The tips are
yellowish, the upper surface black, with green shining through
it, often marked with paler brown blotches. The leaves are
now quite stalkless, and clasp the stem with a shghtly smaller
leaf-sheath. (e) This stage is the most remarkable, and
remains permanent from fifteen to twenty years. The leaves
are rigid and deflexed, and surround the top of the tree like
the ribs of a half-closed umbrella. They are of great length,
and extremely narrow. Kirk measured them up to 43 in. in
length. Their average width is about half-an-inch. They
are very thick and leathery in texture, with sharp tips, and
distant marginal teeth. The midrib is highly developed,
occupying nearly a third of the leaf surface, and is yellowish in

* Forest Flora,’’ p. 260. +Trans. XXXI., p. 391.

THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 309

Fig. 99, Pseudopanax crassifolium—Flower. (4 nat. size.)

310 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

by the underlying green, and sometimes blotched with green
or brown near the teeth. In this stage the stem is usually
simple, and reaches a height of from fifteen to twenty feet.
(f) After a long period of growth, these simple linear leaves
are followed by dark-green compound leaves, consisting of
three to five leaflets, 8-10 in. long, with petioles several inches
in length. These leaflets are not so thick and rigid as those of
stage (e), and the stalks are not yet more than half-an-inch in
length. (g) The succeeding leaves are of a similar type, but
have longer petioles, and the leaflets are broader and thicker.
If the stem is branched, the plant now occasionally flowers.
(h) This is the final stage. The leaves again become simple,
but are, at first, not otherwise different from the previous
stage. The following leaves, however, become very hard and
thick, the teeth gradually become fewer and more distant, and
sometimes disappear altogether. The leaf of the mature
plant is from 4 in. to 6 in. in length, linear, almost or quite
entire, hard and thick, dark green with prominent midrib,
jointed to a short, thick petiole. Probably such an extra-
ordinary series of changes in the leaf-form of any tree is
unique. It must not be supposed that all the species go
through as many transformations as P. crassifoliwm, though
all of them show many variations in leaf shape. In P. crassi-
folium, var. unifoliolatum, the deflexed leaf-form passes by
imperceptible gradations into the final stage, and there is no
trifolhate stage. The later deflexed leaves become, in this case,
very coarsely toothed, incised, and expanded at the tips, before
adopting their final form. If the head of the tree is destroyed,
shoots are developed at the base, and these again reproduce
the long, black, toothed leaves of the juvenile form; but the
leaves in this case are frequently not deflexed, but horizontal.
Kirk’s statement that the large toothed simple leaves pass, as
a rule, more gradually into the mature state in the South
Island than in the North, (Forest Flora, p. 60), scarcely seems.

THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS Buel

Fig. 100. Meryta Sinclairii (4 nat. size).

a1? PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

to be accurate, as in the Kaipara district, at least, the
prevailing variety 1s P. wnifoliolatum.

Genus Meryta.

A genus of about 16 species, of which one is endemic in New Zealand.
Branches resinous. Leaves large, glossy. Flowers in terminal panicles, sessile.
Staminate flowers with a 3-5-toothed calyx; petals and stamens 4-5. Stamens
longer than the petals. Fruit an oblong berry.

Meryta Sinclairii.

A handsome tree, from 12 ft.-24 ft. in height. Leaves very glossy,
alternate, 9 in.-20 in. long, 4 in.-10 in. broad, margin waved, neryes prominent.
Flowers in erect panicles, greenish-yellow. Staminate flowers in fours, each
with 4 stamens. Pistillate flowers solitary or crowded, petals 5-6, styles 3-6,
unfertile stamens 5-6. Fruit % in. long, oblong, black, shining, 3-6-celled,
1-seeded. Three Kings Islands, Taranga Island. Rare. Fl. June.

Genus Schefflera.

About 20 species, of which one is endemic in New Zealand. Shrubs or
trees, with digitate leaves. Flowers umbellate, in racemes or panicles. Calyx
5-toothed. Petals and stamens 5. Styles 5-10. Fruit round, fleshy, 5-10-
celled, 5-10-seeded.

Schefflera digitata.

A small tree, 10 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 5-10-foliolate, with sheathing
petioles ; leaflets petioled, membranous, toothed, 3 in.-7 in. long, oblong-
lanceolate, sometimes pinnatifid. Umbels } in.-3 in. across. Fruit purplish-
black, +sin.-~;in. in diameter. Both islands: abundant. Stewart Island.

Fl. Feb.-March.

Umbelliferae.

THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large and widely distributed family of plants, which, from
their varying properties, may be divided into four groups :—

(1) Those which possess a poisonous watery sap, such as the Hemlock ;
(2) those which contain aromatic oils, such as the Caraway and Anise; (3) those
which yield gum-resins, such as Asafoetida; (4) those whose roots, stems, or
leaves are edible, and are used as vegetables, such as Celery, Carrot, Parsley, etc.
Of the New Zealand genera, Aciphylla and Ligusticum are the most important.

THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS

Fig. 101.

314 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Key to Genera.

1. Umbels simple or irregularly compound, fruit without oil-cavities. 2
Umbels usually compound. Oil-cavities present. 5

2. Fruit compressed laterally, or constricted at the narrow surface of

junction of the two carpels. 3

Fruit with broad surface of junction, almost cylindrical. Eryngium, p. 315.

3. Stems (in the New Zealand species) usually creeping. 4
Leaves radical. Actinotus.

4. Fruits flat. Hydrocotyle, p.314.
Fruits scarcely broader than thick. Azorella, p. 314.

5. Umbels usually compound, primary ridges only present. 6
Umbels compound, secondary ridges present, often more strongly
developed than the primary. 11

6. Stems creeping. Umbels simple. Crantzia.
Stems erect. sub-erect or climbing. Umbels compound or

irregularly compressed. 7

7. Carpels winged. 8
Carpels not winged. 10

8. Stems erect or climbing. Carpels with two broad lateral wings. Angelica, p. 322.
Carpels with 3 or 5 wings on each face. 9

9. Umbels compound. Ligusticum, p. 315.
Umbels in erect spikes or panicles. Aciphylla, p. 316.

10. Ribs 5. Glabrous herbs with lateral or terminal umbels. Apium, p.315.
Ribs 5. Usually a hairy plant, umbels borne on a scape. Oreomyrrhis.
11. Fruit bristly. Daucus.

Daucus, Oreomyrrhis, Actinotus, and Crantzia are unimportant genera, with
inconspicuous flowers, and will not be further noticed here.

Genus Hydrocotyle.

A rather large genus of small, creeping herbs, with inconspicuous green
flowers. Leaves round or kidney-shaped, often 3-7 lobed. (Name from the
Greek, signifying water, and a salver, in allusion to the shape of the leaves in
some species). 9 sp.

Hydrocotyle novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Hydrocotyle)

Leaves obscurely 5-7-lobed ; umbels 5-12-flowered. Carpels with one rib.
Both islands. Fl. Noy.-March.

Hydrocotyle asiatica (The Asiatic Hydrocotyle).

Leaves kidney or heart-shaped, almost entire. Umbels 2-4-flowered, rarely
1-flowered. Carpels with 3 ribs. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-March.

Genus Azorella.

Tufted herbs, with simple or divided leaves. Umbels simple or irregularly
compound. Fruit sub-quadrate, 5-ribbed. A genus of about forty species, of
which nine are endemic in New Zealand.

This is an Antarctic genus of cushion plants. Azorella
selago has a typical sub-Antarctic distribution Acena (ef.
p. 203), being found in Macquarie Island, Tierra del Fuego, Port

THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY alo

Famine, Hermit Island, Kerguelen’s Land and the Crozets.
Most of the New Zealand species grow on the sub-alpine
moors, where our sub-Antarctic genera are generally to be
found. Some of the Chilan Azorellas are so compact and
covered with hairs, that, at a short distance, they bear a
considerable resemblance to madrepore corals.

Genus Hryngiwm.

Thistle-like herbs, with rigid, prickly, often glaucous leaves. Umbels
reduced to heads. Flowers mixed with bracts. The roots of the British Sea
Holly (Hryngiuwm maritimum) are candied and used as a sweetmeat. Some of
the species are cultivated in gardens for the sake of the delicate blue colour of the
whole plant. (An old Greek name for a kind of Thistle.) 1 sp.

Eryngium vesiculosum (The Vesiculate Eryngium).

A small rigid herb, 2in.-5in. high. Leaves toothed, spinous. Flower-heads
axillary. Both islands: sandy beaches. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

Genus Apium.

Glabrous herbs. Leaves pinnate; umbels compound, terminal or lateral. A
small genus, to which belongs the Celery of our gardens. (A Latin name for the
Wild Parsley and similar plants). 1 sp.

Apium prostratum (The Prostrate Parsley).

Leaves very variable, sessile or stalked, alternate, or radical and fascicled.
Flowers white, rays 3-12. Both islands: common. FI. Nov.-March.

Genus Ligusticum.
Erect herbs, usually glabrous and aromatic. Leaves pinnate or decompound.
Umbels compound, rarely simple. Flowers white or red. Carpels with 3-5

winged ridges. Oil-tubes often obscure. (Name from Liguria, the home of the
officinal species). All the New Zealand species are endemic. 17 sp.

Ligusticum latifolium (The Broad-leaved Ligusticum).

A robust plant, 3ft.-5ft. in height. Stem 3in.-4in. thick at the base,
radical leaves 1 ft.-2 ft. long, coriaceous, 2-pinnate. Bracts large. Umbels
2in.-3in. across ; crowded. Flowers reddish. Fruit 4 in. long. Carpels with 5

primary ridges, rarely 4 or 3. Auckland and Campbell Isles. FI. Dec.-Jan. A
Magnificent species.

316 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Ligusticum piliferum (The Bristly Ligusticum).

Stems 10in.-20in. high, reddish-purple. Leaves 3in.-12in. long; leaflets
6-12 pairs, sessile, $in.-lin. long, ovate, toothed, 2-3-lobed to the base, margins
of teeth tipped with bristles. Umbels 2in.-3in. across. Flowers white.
Carpels 3-winged or one 5-winged. South Island: mountainous districts. Fl.
Feb.-March.

Ligusticum carnosulum (The Fleshy Ligusticum).

Leaves and umbels all from the root. Leaflets cut into fleshy lobes
tin.-%in. long. Umbels glaucous, compound. Involucral leaves in 3-5 segments.
Carpels 4-ridged. South Island: rare and local. Fl. Jan.

This is a remarkable shingle-slip plant, which, according to
Diels, ‘‘ shows in the numerous irregular windings of the thick
stem, traces of the never ceasing battle with the shingle.”
Whenever the shoot is buried, it turns again to the nearest
point of the surface, and works its way up to daylight. The
leaves do not begin to develop until the stem has grown above
the accustomed level of the shingle-stream. The stem
remains quite naked below. The umbels are so_ shortly
stalked, that the flowers remain within the protection of the
foliage, which does not open out until the seed is ripe and
ready to escape. The leathery leaves can withstand a
considerable rain of shingle, and so great is their flexibility,
that Diels compares them to little india-rubber tubes, whose
fine division secures the freest mobility to the individual
sections.

Genus Aciphylla.

Erect, rigid, perennial herbs. Leaves with sheathing bases, pinnate or 2-3
pinnate, with dagger-shaped segments. Flowers in long spikes or panicles.
Bracts linear. The New Zealand species are all endemic. Besides these, two
species are also found in Australia. (Name from the Greek, meaning needle-
leaved). 13 sp.

The genus Aciphylla is foundin New Zealand and Australia
only. All the New Zealand species are endemic, and most of
them are characterized by long, sword-like, spinous, radical
leaves, which form a dense tuft of lance-like spikes, a foot or
two in height. The long flower stalks are clothed with

THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY

Fig. 102. Ligusticum piliferum (4 nat. size).

318 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

similar spinescent bracts, guarding the flowers with veritable
chevaux de frise. No plant could be. better defended
against the attacks of grazing animals, and the earlier
botanists naturally concluded that the purpose of the spines
was protective. One thing puzzled them. Why should
plants, which were indigenous to a land where no animals
browsed, be guarded by such terrible thorns? There was no
satisfactory answer to this question, though Wallace“ even
goes so far as to suggest that “they may have gained their
spines to preserve them from being trodden down by the
moas, which for countless ages took the place of mammals in
New Zealand.” However, the trend of recent investigation is
to show that the spines are not protective, but the natural
results of modifications resulting from the struggle against
drought.

Many New Zealand plants at some stage or other of their
existence are of a xerophytic type, (v. Introduction, p. 41) and
perhaps no better example could be found than Aciphylla.
Why so many of our plants should be xerophytic is a puzzle
to botanists, but a fuller discussion of the question will be
found under Plagianthus betulinus (pp. 254-258).

That the leaves should be reduced to spines in Aciphylla is
especially remarkable, because the leaves of other members of
the family are often large, and well developed. Those,
however, of A. Colensoi and A. squarrosa are in the seedling form
quite flaccid and grass-liket, while, according to Mr. Cox of
the Chatham Islands, the leaves of A. Traversii are so soft that
sheep eat them greedily. On well stocked stations the plants
therefore suffer severely, and are soon exterminated. ‘These
anomalies of leaf-form tend to show that the ancestors of the
genus Aciphylla were of a normal type.

If further argument were required to show that the spinous
leaves of Aciphylla are really drought-forms, and not protective

*** Darwinism,’’ Colonial Edition. p. 433.
| Cockayne: Trans. XXXIII., p. 279.

319

THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY

Aciphylla Colensoi.

Fig. 103.

320 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

against grazing animals, it 1s to be found in the fact that
Aciphylla quickly disappears on country over which stock
runs. By a curious irony of fate, the protection of the spines,
when needed most, is wanting.* The young plants are
greedily eaten by cattle and sheep, and so, as the old plants
die off, no others are allowed to grow up and take their
place. Rabbits, too, attack the mature plants and destroy
them. They are small enough to eat a single leaf, without
danger from its neighbours.

Aciphylla Colensoi (Colenso’s Spaniard).

Plant 2 ft.-8 ft. high. Leaves 1ft.-2 ft. long, 4 im.-? in. broad, spinous,
greenish-yellow. Leaf-sheath also provided with a pair of simple or divided
spines, the whole forming a mass of bayonet-lke spikes. |Umbels arranged in a
stout, erect, leafy raceme. Both islands. Maori name, Taramea. Fl. Novy.-Dec.

Aciphylla squarrosa (The Rough Spaniard).

A much smaller plant than the preceding, and greyer in colour. The leaf
segments are also narrower, being only 7g in.-} in broad, and the fruit is much
smaller. Maori name, Kuri-Kwri; Colonists’ name, Spaniard or Wild Spaniard.

This plant yields a semi-transparent resinous gum, which
afforded the most prized scent in use among the Maoris. ‘The
species 1s not found in the lowlands, and in the North Island is
generally alpine or sub-alpime. Hence the gum was only
obtained with some labour and difficulty. Certain observances
also had to be carried out in collecting it. According to
Colenso,t it could be collected only by maidens, and then only
after the proper prayers and charms had been said by the
priest (tohunga).

There is a dainty little Maori lullaby, in which the name:
taramea occurs with those of other odorous plants :—

“Taku hei piripiri
Taku hei moki-moki
Taku hei tawhiri
Taku kati taramea.’’

*Petrie: ‘ N.Z. Journal of Science,’* 1891, p. 260. tTrans. XXIV p. 458.

THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY 3

Fig. 104. Aciphylla Monroi (3 nat. size).

322 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Colenso thus translates it :—

“* My little neck satchel of sweet scented moss,
My little neck satchel of fragrant fern,
My little neck satchel of odoriferous gum,
My sweet smelling neck locket of sharp pointed taramea.’’

The gum of the taramea was collected at early dawn ; and
with it were mixed the fronds of moki-moki, (the fern Doodia
caudata), and of the piri-piri, (certain species of Hepaticae),
the fragrant resin of the tawhin, (Pittosporwm tenuifolium),
the oil of the miro, (Podocarpus ferruginea), and the flowers
of pa-totara (species of Lewcopogon and Gaultheria). The
mixture was subjected to heat for some days; and then
strained through a sieve made of the plumes of the toi-toi
(Arundo conspicua). It was afterwards placed in carved boxes,
where the mats of the chiefs were kept, or was used as a
satchel by girls, in the way described by Colenso.

Aciphylla Monroi (Monro’s Spaniard).

A small, flaccid species, 6 in.-18in. high. Leaves 3 in.-5 in. long, shining,
pinnate. Scape slender, soft. Umbels in an open branched panicle, in the axils
of flaccid, 3-5 parted bracts. Flowers yellowish. Fruit 4 in. long. Carpels
5-ribbed, or one 3-ribbed. South Island: alpine or sub-alpine districts. FI.
Dec.-March,

Genus Angelica.

Erect or climbing herbs. Leayes pinnate or 2-3-pinnate. Flowers in
umbels, white. Fruit compressed. Primary ribs3 : wings 2. A small genus of
about 25 species. (Thus named on account of its supposed healing properties).
D Sp.

Angelica geniculata (The Jointed Angelica).

Stems 2 ft.-4 ft. long, forming tangled masses, scrambling over other shrubs.
Leaves when young, 3-lobed; entire in the mature state, ovate, slightly crenate.
Flowers white, in terminal or axillaryumbels. Carpels 3-4 ribbed, 2-winged ; oil
canals present. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

Angelica Gingidium (The Native Aniseed).

A herbaceous plant, with radical pinnate leaves, oblong in outline. Flowers

white, umbels compressed, 1 in.-3 in. in diameter. Both islands. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

The whole plant is highly aromatic. It is greedily eaten by
sheep, and, though originally very abundant, is often almost
exterminated by them in accessible places. The plant is
known to shepherds and runholders as Aniseed.

THE HEATH FAMILY 323

Ericaceae.

(Including Epacridaceae).

THE HEATH FAMILY.

Distribution.—A considerable family, often with astringent properties.
Some species are narcotic and poisonous, while a few produce edible fruits.
Many are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. In Australasia they are
represented chiefly by the Epacridaceae.

The headquarters of the family are in Cape Colony, where there are at
least 400 species of heaths. These are small evergreen shrubs, which grow in
great abundance, and form the chief vegetation of open plains and dry hill sides.
An assemblage of such plants, from its prevailing constituents, is generally also
termed a heath. Naturally not all the plants in a heath belong to the order
Ericaceae. The typical heath plant, however, whether belonging to this order
or not, has small, dry, hard leaves, often sharp-pointed, and with inrolled margins.
The Scotch heather may be taken as an example.

In New Zealand, in addition to various genera of Hricaceae
(e.g. Gaultheria, Leucopogon, Epacris, Dracophyllum) there
may be found in the heaths, particularly in the South, Cassinias,
Olearias, Coprosmas, and some other shrubs. In the Auckland
province, Pomaderris phylicefolia and Pimelea are found
along with the true heaths, Leucopogon fasciculatus and
Epacris pauciflora. Everywhere however, Leptospermum, 1s
the chief component of the heath associations of New Zealand.

By far the commonest plant of the order here, is
Leucopogon Frazeri, which is found throughout the islands on
dry open ground from sea-level to 5,000ft. Its small orange
drupe is sometimes eaten, and has a sweetish taste. Gaul-
therias are found in both North and South Islands. The
white fruit of G. antipoda is known as the snow-berry in
Otago, and is occasionally eaten. Like most of the other pro-
ducts of the New Zealand bush, it cannot be recommended
to the epicure. The white, fleshy, outer portion, consists of
the calyx, which has remained persistent, and become juicy.
According to Hooker, the fruit is strangely variable, dry
dehiscent capsules being found on the same spray as the

324 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

berries. No other observer seems to have noted the occur-
rence of this curious phenomenon. It certainly is very rare, if
existent. Its little white bell-hke corollas make Gaultheria
the prettiest of our common heaths.

Mr. G. M. Thomson has tried to prove the existence of
a correlation, between the pungent tips of the leaves, in
certain species of this order, and the presence of herbivorous
animals. Leucopogon Frazert, which has sharp-pointed leaves,
is found, not only in New Zealand, but also in Australia.
L. fasciculatus, which he erroneously states to be without
pungent leaf-tips, 1s endemic. Of five species of Archeria
two found in New Zealand, and one in Tasmania, have rounded
apices to the leaves, whereas the two Australian species have
sharp-pointed tips. It is possible, that the acute apices
of the Australian plants, may be a protection against grazing
animals, but it is just as likely, that they may be an adaptation
to the drier conditions of the Austrahan climate. The fact
that many of the endemic species of the genus Dracophyllum
have leaves with pungent tips, seems in favour of the latter
hypothesis.

This genus has its headquarters in New Zealand, with
a few outlying representatives in Australia and New
Caledonia. Plants belonging to it are generally known to
colonists as grass-trees, though this term is also applied in
Otago to the lance-wood (Pseudopanax). The name is
doubtless due to the long grass-like leaves of most of the
species. The broad-leaved species, D. Traversii of the South
Island, and D. latifolium, found chiefly in the kauri forests.
of the Auckland province, are known as nei-nei, and might
almost be taken for a kind of cabbage-tree. D. latifolium
produces a great spike of handsome red flowers. D. swbulatwm
and D. Urvilleanum are components of the heaths, the former
being found only in the North Island. D. longifolium is a
common sub-alpine tree in the South Island, reaching sea-level
in Southern Otago and Stewart Island. The leaves of D.

THE HEATH FAMILY

Fig. 105. Leucopogon fasciculatus (2 nat. size.)

326 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

latifollum were sometimes used by the Maoris in the
manufacture of specially fine garments.

Key to the Genera.

Sub-family Ericeae. Stamens, hypogynous; anthers, 2-celled,
opening by pores.

Fruit a false berry. Gaultheria, p. 326.
Sub-family, Epacrideae. Stamens, epipetalous; anthers, 1-celled.
1. Fruit a drupe. 2
Fruit, a many-seeded capsule. 4
2. Fruit with a1-10-celled bony nut; cells with one pen-
dulous seed. 3
Fruit with 5 or more minute 1-seeded nuts. *Pentachondra.
3. Pedicels covered with imbricating bracts. Styphelia, p. 328.
Pedicels with few bracts, close to the calyx. Leucopogon, p. 328.
4. Leaves with broad sheathing bases. Dracophyllum, p. 330.
Leaves without sheathing bases. 55
5. Flower solitary. Bracts, as in Styphelia. Epacris, p. 326.
Flowers racemed. Bracts few or 0, *Archeria.

*Not further described,

Genus Gaultheria.

Shrubs with alternate, rarely opposite leaves, Corolla bell-shaped or urn-
shaped. Stamens 10, anthers opening by pores, each pore provided with 1 or 2
awns. Disk cup-shaped, 10-lobed. Ovary 5-celled.

A genus of about 100 species, found in America, South-Eastern Asia,
Tasmania, and New Zealand, G. procwmbens furnishes the Checker-berry of the
United States,

Gaultheria antipoda (The Snow-berry).

A very variable, erect, or prostrate bush. Branches with scattered black
or yellow-brown bristles. Leaves hard, shortly stalked, orbicular-oblong,
lanceolate. Flowers small, white or pink, usually solitary. Corolla #;in. in
length or more. Berry pink or white, in. in diameter. Both islands: common
at all elevations, Colonists’ name Snow-berry, Fl. Oct.-Nov.

G. rupestris (the Rock Snow-berry) is a similar plant, also very variable,
with flowers usually in racemes. It is not so common as the previous species.

Genus Hpacris.

Small shrubs. Leaves usually closely imbricating, but not sheathing, Corolla
tubular or bell-shaped, lobes not bearded.

Epacris pauciflora (The Few-flowered Epacris).

A twiggy shrub, 1ft.-4 ft. high. Leaves coriaceous, 4$in.-{in. long,
concave, oblong-lanceolate, narrowing suddenly at the tip. Flowers collected
at the tips of the erect branches, white. Corolla with a very short tube.

THE HEATH FAMILY Oot

Fig. 106. Gaultheria rupestris (2 nat. size).

528 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Auckland to Nelson. Fl. Sept.-Nov. A handsome plant, whose rod-like
inflorescence of white flowers is one of the most beautiful objects of the Northern

heaths.

(FenuUs Leucopogon.

Shrubs, leaves imbricating or
scattered. Flowers white or pink,
solitary, or in racemes or bundles.
Corolla tubular, lobes spreading,
bearded. An Australian and Malayan
genus of about 130 species, some-
times included in Styphelia. (Name
from the Greek, signifying white
beard, in allusion to the bearded
lobes of the corolla). 3 sp.

Leucopogon fasciculatus

(The Bundle-flowered

Leucopogon).

A shrub or small tree, leaves
somewhat whorled, spreading, 4in.-
lin. long, linear-lanceolate, pointed,
obscurely veined below. Flowers
in fascicled spikes. Abundant in
the northern heaths. Fl. Oct.-Nov.

Leucopogon Frazeri
Frazer’s Leucopogon.

A small, erect or prostrate, strag-
gling plant, 2in.-6in. high. Leaves
close set, 4in.-tin. long, linear-
oblong, with pungent tips. Flowers
solitary, axillary, rather large, red-
dish-white. Fruit an orange coloured
edible drupe. Extremely abundant
in all dry situations. Fl. Oct.-Jan.
Maori name Pa-totara.

Genus Styphelia, Sm.

Fig. 107. Epacris pauciflora (2 nat. size.) Shrubs. Leaves rigid, pungent,
parallel-veined below. Flowers small,

white or yellowish. Corolla funnel-shaped, or urn-shaped. A genus of the
Pacific Islands and Australasia, with about 30 species. (Name from the Greek,

meaning hard or rough, in reference to the leaves). 5 sp.

THE HEATH FAMILY

Fig. 108. Dracophyllum uniflorum (? nat. size).

330 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Styphelia acerosa (The Prickly Styphelia).

A shrub or small tree, with blackish branches, Leaves about } in.-J in. long,
acerose, linear, Margins often recurved, with 3-7 parallel veins on the under side.
Drupe white or red, 4 in.-4 in. in diameter. Abundant throughout the islands,
variable. FI. Oct.-Nov. Maori name Mingi-mingi. (Cyathodes acerosa of
Cheeseman.)

S. robusta is a very distinct and handsome species from the Chathams.
S. empetrifolia is a sub-alpine species, These shrubs have a slight resemblance
to young plants of the genus Podocarpus.

Genus Dracophyllum.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves long, rigid, grass-like, with sheathing bases, and
generally crowded to the endsof the branches, which are marked by the ring-scars
of the fallen leaves. Flowers in racemes or spikes, rarely solitary. Corolla
tubular or bell-shaped, generally white, Anthers 5, sessile at the mouth of the
column. Disk of 5 erect scales. (Name signifying dragon-leaved, in allusion to
the resemblance of the leaves to those of the Dragon-tree of Teneriffe, v. p. 92).

A strange genus of Australasian and New Caledonian Epacrids, known to-
Colonists as Grass-trees. 18 sp.

Dracophyllum latifolium (The Broad-leaved Grass-tree).

A shrub or tree, from 10ft.-25 ft. high, branches given off in whorls.
Leaves 10 in.-2ft. long, and from 1in.-2in. broad at the base, tapering into
drooping points, and forming a head resembling that of the cabbage-tree. From
the centre of this head rises a large cylindrical panicle of closely packed red
flowers, from 6 in.-18 in. long. The flowers themselves are minute, about 4 in.
long. Both islands: common in Auckland, but rarer towards the South: in the
South Island, only in Nelson and Westland. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Maori name
Nei-nev.

This singular plant is replaced in the mountainous districts of the South
Island, by the closely allied Dracophyllum Traversii.

Dracophyllum longifolium (Zhe Long-leaved Grass-tree).

A shrub or tree, 3 ft.-30ft. high. Leaves 3in.-10in. long, with a large
sheath at the base, which is suddenly contracted into a narrow blade, } in.-} in.
broad. The flowers are white, in crowded racemes, 1 in.-2in. long. Each flower
has a large brown bract at its base. North Island, rare, becoming more common
towards the South. In Campbell Island it forms the chief portion of the woody
vegetation. Fl. Oct.-Dec.

Dracophyllum uniflorum (Lhe One-flowered Grass-tree).

A stout, erect shrub. Leaves $in.-3in. long, ~)in.-4in. broad, pungent.
Flowers solitary, $ in.-§ in. long, almost hidden by the sheathing bracts. An
alpine species of the South Island. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

THE MYRSINE FAMILY oon

Other species of Dracophyllum are D. Urvilleanum, some-
what resembling D. longifoliwm, but much smaller. It is
found in both islands. D. rosmarinifoliwm (The Rosemary-
leaved Grass-tree) is a small, often prostrate, alpine species of
the South Island, with obtuse leaves and with the flowers
solitary or in pairs. D. swbulatum is an allied form with
pungent leaves, found only in the North Island.

Myrsinaceae.

THE MyYRSINE FAMILY.

Distribution —An unimportant family, chiefly tropical. A few, however,
reach Cape Colony, New Zealand, and Florida. They are only to be
distinguished from the primroses by their fruit and habit. They differ from the
Sapotaceae in not having a chambered ovary. According to Mez,* the family
contains some 900 species and 32 genera. These plants are, however, of little
economic value.

Key to the Genera.

Petals completely free. Suttonia.t
Petals more or less united, sometimes only at the base,
but more often through a third of their length. Rapanea, p. 331.

+See, however, Cheeseman’s “ Flora,’ for remarks on this nomenclature.

Genus Suttonia.

A large genus of trees and shrubs. Flowers usually fascicled, small. Calyx
4, rarely 2 or 0. Petals 4, deciduous. Fruit a drupe. (Named in honour of
Sutton, an English botanist.)

Suttonia divaricata (The Divaricate Suttonia).

A straggling bush. Leaves and flowers very small, the former 4 in. long,
the latter =; in. in diameter. Drupe round, depressed. Both islands: damp
bush. Also Lord Auckland’s Group. Fl. Oct.-Nov.

Genus Rapanea.

Sepals small, 4-5; sometimes almost free, sometimes united at the base.
Petals 4-5, generally papillose on the margin. Stamens inserted on the throat.
of the corolla, sessile. Fruit spherical, dry or fleshy. Trees or shrubs, with
entire, rarely toothed leaves.

*Cockayne, Trans. XXXV. p, 355

Ba a PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Rapanea salicina (The Willow-leaved Rapanea).

A small tree, sometimes 40 ft. in height, with narrow, shining leaves, 4 in.-
6 in. long, produced chiefly at the tips of the branches. Flowers in numerous
small fascicles on the bare branches, whitish-green, 7 in. broad. Berry red,
+ in.-5 in. long. Both islands. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Maori name, Toro.

The timber of this tree is of a red colour, and is beautifully veined. It is

much used by cabinet-makers, but is not sufficiently durable for outside work.

Fig. 109. Styphelia acerosa (4 nat. size).

Rapanea Urvillei (D’ Urville’s Rapanea).

A small tree, sometimes 20 ft. in height. Leaves reddish-brown, with
waved margins, 1 in.-14 in. long. Flowers small, white, in fascicles on the
lateral branchlets. Berry 4 in. long, black. Fl. Dec.-Feb. Native name
Mapau, Mapou, or Matipo. The name Matipo is generally applied by
Kuropeans to Pittosporwm tenwifolium, but this is apparently the plant to which
the Maoris attached the name. It bears some resemblance to Pittosporwm
tenuifoliuwm, but can be readily distinguished by the reddish colour of the leaves.

Common in both islands.

THE PRIMROSE FAMILY 333

Primulaceae.

THE PRIMROSE FAMILY.

Distribution.—This is a family of wide distribution, but chiefly found in
temperate regions or alpine districts. The species possess no economic value,
but many are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. The Primrose, the
Auricula, the Polyanthus, and the Cyclamen are well-known garden plants. The
little alpme Soldanella is remarkable for its heat-producing powers. This
delicate little plant generates warmth sufficient to melt the ice above it, so that
it can raise its blue-fringed bells into the air for the purpose of attracting
pollinating insects. New Zealand possesses only one representative of the
Primulaceae, the inconspicuous and unimportant herb Samolus.

Genus Samolus.

Herbs, with alternate leaves, and regular flowers. Calyx 5-toothed ; corolla.
5-lobed; stamens 5, alternating with 5 staminodia. Capsule 5-valved. (Accord-
ing to Pliny, the name is Druidical for a healing marsh plant.) 1 sp.

Samolus littoralis (The Sea-side Samolus).

A small creeping herb. Leaves thick, shining, § in.-1 in. long; spathulate,
often recurved. Flowers + in.-§ in. across, white. Both islands: by the sea-
coast. Fl. Noy.-Jan.

This little genus is remarkable for its wide geographical
range, being found in wet, gravelly places almost everywhere.
It is also interesting, as being the only group in the family
known to possess staminodia. In all the other genera the
stamens are antipetalous, 1.e., they are situated opposite to
the petals ; and it has been suggested that possibly this 1s due
to the suppression at some time of an outer whorl of stamens,
still present in Samolus as staminodia. S. littoralis frequently
carpets the salt meadows, and produces a profusion of white
flowers, which are in beautiful contrast to the brown-green of
the leaves.

334 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Oleaceae.

THE OLIVE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A family of nearly 400 species, occurring chiefly in tropical
and warm temperate regions. This family includes two British species, the Ash
(Fraxinus) and the Privet (Ligustrum). The Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) is a well-
known garden plant. From the Olive (Olea) a valuable oil is obtained.

Genus Olea.

Trees or shrubs. Leaves usually opposite, entire, leathery. Flowers
axillary, inconspicuous, racemed or panicled. Staminate flowers with a 2-4-lobed
calyx. Petals absent. Stamens 2; anthers large, exserted. Pistillate flowers
with an unequally 4-lobed calyx. Ovary 2-celled. Fruit a drupe, 1- or 2-celled.

Olea Cunninghamii (The Maire).

A large tree, with whitish branches. Young shoots downy. Leaves 3 in.-
6 in. long., linear-oblong, obtuse, leathery. Flowers greenish-white, 10-15
together. Raceme 4 in.-? in. long, erect. Drupe 4 in. long. North and east of
the North Island. Fl. Oct.-Nov.

Olea lanceolata.

Smaller in all its parts than O. Cumninghamiu. Bark white. Leaves 2 in.-
4 in. long, acute, with raised veins. Racemes 6-10-flowered, slightly hairy.
Flowers minute. Berry crimson, 4 in. long, North Island: bush. Fl. Oct.-

Dec.

Loganiaceae.

THrt Nvox-Vomica FAMILY.

Distribution.—An essentially tropical family, but extending to North
America, Australia, and New Zealand. Many of the plants contain powerfully
poisonous principles, notably so the genus Strychnos. Strychnos nux-vomica,
the poison-nut of the East Indies, yields the poisonous drug strychnine. The
Upas tree of Java is also well known as containing a deadly poison.

THE OLIVE FAMILY

Fig. 110. Olea Cunninghamii (4 nat. size).

336 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Geniostoma.

Shrubs. Flowers small, axillary. Calyx 5-cleft. Corolla bell-shaped,
5-parted. Stamens 5. Fruit a capsule. The genus is also found in Madagascar
and the Bourbon Islands, and in the Asiatic and Polynesian Islands. (Name from
the Greek, signifying bearded mouth, in allusion to the hairs at the mouth of the
corolla). 1 sp.

Geniostoma ligustrifolium (The Privet-leaved Geniostoma).

A small tree, with shining, pale-green leaves. Leaves 14in.-3in. long, ovate-
oblong, membranous, pointed. Flowers in short corymbs on the branches, }in.
across, green or white. Corolla lobes reflexed. Stigma large, 2-lobed. Capsule
round, pointed, +in. in diameter, valves separating from the placentiferous axis.
North Island: not uncommon. FI. Sept.-Oct.

Gentianaceae.

THE GENTIAN FAMILY.

Distribution.—The plants of this family range over the entire globe.
They contain a bitter tonic principle, which is used medicinally. The New
Zealand species are chiefly alpine, but the little pink Centaury (Erythrea
Centawriwm), an introduced plant, is common on waste ground throughout the
Colony. The Gentians are the most striking flowers of the European Alps.

Key to the Genera.

Flowers large, ovary with one style. Gentiana,p. 336.
Flowers small, ovary with 2 styles. *Sebma.
*Not further described.

Genus Gentiana.
Erect herbs, with opposite leaves, and solitary or cymose flowers. Calyx
4-5-cleft. Corolla bell-shaped, 4-5-cleft. Flowers blue, yellow, or white, large
and conspicuous. 6 sp.

Gentiana saxosa (The Gentian of the Rocks).

An erect herb. Stem-leaves few. Flowers large, 3 in. long, white,
numerous. Root-leaves usually in a rosette, 4in.-3in. long, often thick and
fleshy. Both islands: in mountainous districts. Fl. Feb.-March.

Gentiana cerina (The Waxy Gentian).
A trailing herb, with shining leaves, and thick fleshy stems. Flowers
crowded at the ends of the branches, 4 in. long. Corolla white, striped with
reddish-purple. Auckland Islands.

THE NUX-VOMICA FAMILY oe

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338 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

COLOUR IN GENTIANS.

The flowers of this genus include some of the brightest
gems of alpine regions. The corolla differs much in hue in
different species, but no finer shades of blue are known than
those of G. verna and G. clusii. They surpass in beauty all
the blues of lower levels. Ruskin, in his matchless diction,
writes of the ‘‘Star Gentian in its uncontested queenliness,
wholly without similitude.’ The yellow gentian, with its
spires aflame on the crown of an Alpine pass, stirred
Matthew Arnold to unwonted admiration.

Indeed, nearly all the species foreign to New Zealand are
brilliantly coloured. Of sixteen species found in the Andes
and Peru, half are red, four purple, two blue, one yellow, and
one alone white. But, as has already been pointed out
(v.. Clematis, p. 162), flowers which are brightly tinted
elsewhere, are in New Zealand very frequently pure white.
When we come to examine the New Zealand species, of which
there are about ten, we find that they are all, if true to type,
white. Some, occasionally, however, exhibit shades of red,
purple, violet, and pale lemon; but the deep blues, yellows, or
purples, so characteristic of the gentian elsewhere, are here
unknown. Strangely enough, the most brilhant of our species
is Gentiana cerina of the Auckland Islands. Like so many
other Auckland Island plants (v. Pleurophyllum), it has
a depth of hue unknown amongst plants of the same genus on
the mainland. According to Kirk,* it is one of the most
beautiful plants in the flora. The corollas vary in colour from
a pure waxy white, to white with a vertical stripe, purple,
reddish-purple and violet. It is in other respects, also, an
extremely variable plant ; and, like most of the gentians, very
interesting botanically.

*Trans., Vol. XXVII. p. 339.

THE GENTIAN FAMILY 339

Fig. 112. Gentiana corymbifera. (life size).

340 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND
Apocynaceae.

THE PERIWINKLE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family of about a thousand species, chiefly tropical,
of which the Periwinkle (Vinca) is the only British genus. Many of the plants
possess more or less poisonous properties, though some have edible fruit. The
Oleander, every part of which is poisonous, is cultivated for the beauty of its
flowers.

Genus Parsonsia.

A small genus (about 10 species) of climbing plants. Leaves remarkably
variable. Flowers in panicles. Fruit of two, long, narrow, pod-like capsules.
Seeds silky-haired. (Named in honour of Parsons, a botanist). 2 sp.

Parsonsia heterophylla (The Varied-leaved Parsonsia).
Stems as thick as a quill, shining. Leaves leathery, 1 in.-2 in. broad, oblong,

or lanceolate, 3in.-4in. long, with lobed margins. Flowers white, scented, } in.

long. Anthers within the corolla. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec.

Parsonsia capsularis (The Capsulate Parsonsia).

Stems slender. Leaves usually 2in.-3in. long, narrow. Panicles few-
flowered. Corolla #5 in. long, white, red, or rarely yellow. Anthers protruding
beyond the corolla. Both islands. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

There can be but little doubt that the New Zealand species
are insufficiently defined. It is probable that there are still
one or more undescribed species in the country. The young
plants, with their long, narrow, leathery, red-brown leaves,
will not be recognized, unless their development has been
watched. The beautiful fragrant panicles of white or red
jessamine-like flowers are much sought after, by visitors to
the bush.

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342 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Convolvulaceae.

THE BINDWEED FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, chiefly tropical. The large rhizomes
frequently contain an acrid, milky juice, sometimes used for medicinal purposes.
The flowers are usually large and ornamental. The Kumara or Sweet Potato,
which was introduced into New Zealand in very early times, belongs to this
family. From the roots of Hxogoniwm, jalap is obtained.

Key to the Genera.

1. Stems leafy, prostrate or twining. 2
Stems leafless, twining, parasitic. Cuscuta, p. 344.
2. Corolla plaited. Style 1. 3
Petals overlapping in bud, Styles 2. Dichondra, p. 344.
3. Stigmas 2. 4
Stigma 1-, 2-, or 3-lobed, *Ipomcea.
4. Ovary imperfectly 2-celled. Bracts large,
enclosing the calyx. Calystegia, p. 342.
Ovary 1-celled, bracts small or wanting. Convolvulus, p. 342.

*Not further described.

Genus Convolvulus.

Perennial herbs, with milky juice, chmbing by means of their twining stems.
Flowers funnel-shaped, white, pink, or rarely blue. Sepals 5; corolla 5-angled.
Stamens 5. Fruit acapsule. 1 sp.

Convolvulus erubescens (The Blushing Convolvulus).

Stems prostrate, 2in.-12in. long, never twining. Leaves variable in shape,
usually oblong-hastate or cordate. Flowers white. In Australian specimens.
they are often rose-coloured. Both islands, in dry places. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

The species of this genus and the next are often widely
distributed. C. erubescens is closely allied to the English C.
arvensis, and is found chiefly on dry hill sides, It is common
near Sumner (Christchurch). Calystegia sepiwm is another
plant, which, though sometimes rose-coloured elsewhere, is
always white in New Zealand (cf. Wahlenbergia). ‘The
name erubescens therefore, as applied to our species, 1s not
significant.

Genus Calystegia.
Closely allied to the previous genus, and sometimes united with it, but.
distinguished by the characters given in the Key to the Genera. 4 sp.

Many species are cultivated for their large showy flowers.
In the bud, the corolla is spirally twisted. The anther lobes,.

THE BINDWEED FAMILY 343

as in the gentians, separate at the base, and thus assume the
shape of an arrow head. They produce large pollen grains.
These, however, are considerably exceeded in size by the
pollen of the melon and marrow. Insects alighting on the
long projecting style, smear it with pollen from the flowers
they have visited, and so cross-pollination is effected. This at
least is the method probably adopted in most of the species.
However, C. sepiwm in Europe is chiefly pollinated by a
particular species of hawk-moth (Sphina convolvuli), and the
areas of distribution of the plant and moth largely correspond.
Still, the plant often does not set seed. It would be
interesting to examine the process of pollination of the New
Zealand species, and find what insect takes the place of the
European moth.

Calystegia sepium (The Bindweed).

Stem slender, cimbing. Leaves 2 in.-4in. long, oblong, deeply lobed at the
base, lobes rounded or truncate. Bracts enclosing the calyx longer than the
sepals. Corolla bell-shaped, 2 in.-4 in. broad, white. Both islands, becoming
less common towards the South. FI. Dec.-Feb.

A very handsome plant, which becomes a mischievous weed
in gardens. It not only sends up thousands of suckers which
exhaust the soil; but also strangles and smothers with its
entwining stems and large leaves, any other plant which may
be near.

C. septum was known to the Maoris as ‘“‘pohue,’ and the
roots were used by them for food. This is strange, as those of
the English plant supposed to belong to the same species, are
considered purgative. A similar case is that of Solanwm
nigrum, a cosmopolitan plant, whose leaves are usually
considered poisonous, and yet were used by the Maoris as
greens. As is well known to gardeners, the Convolvulus is
abundantly provided with roots, hence doubtless the Maori
proverb given by Colenso :-—

““ He nui pohue toro ra raro,”’
The Convolvulus (roots) are many and spread below.

2 The thoughts of man’s mind are many and secret.

344 _ PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Calystegia Tuguriorum (The Smaller Bindweed).
Corolla 1 in.-2 in. across. A very sunilar plant to the proceeding, but smaller
in all its parts, and generally not climbing, but sprawling over bushes at the
edge of the forest and elsewhere. Both islands. FI. Dec.-Jan.

C. Tuguriorum is one of the brightest of way-side flowers.
It may often be found clambering over clumps of
Miihlenbeckia or Rubus, by the roadside. Its large snow-
white blossoms form one of the chief floral ornaments of the
later summer.

Calystegia soldanella (The Soldanella-like Calystegia).

Stems prostrate, often buried beneath the sand; leaves fleshy, rounded or
kidney shaped ; flowers solitary, almost as large as in the previous species, pale
rose-coloured, or red, striped vertically with yellow, or yellowish white. Both
islands : abundant on sandy beaches. Native name Nihi-nihi. European name
Sea-bindweed. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

Genus Dichondra.

A genus found in Australia, Tasmania, South America, and New Zealand.
Calyx 5-parted ; corolla 5-lobed. Fruit a capsule. 2 sp.

Dichondra repens (The Creeping Dichondra).

A small, prostrate herb, with silky leaves, and small yellow flowers. Calyx
longer than the corolla.

Genus Cuscuta.

Parasitic plants, adhering by suckers to their hosts. Leayes 0. Flowers in
small clusters or racemes, white, pink or yellow. Stems thread-like, often red in
colour. Calyx petaloid, 4-5-parted ; corolla 4-5-lobed; stamens 4-5. Cuscuta
europaea is a most beautiful little plant, with bright red stems, and waxy-white
clusters of flowers.

This is a genus of twining leafless parasites, found in all
parts of the world. Only one New Zealand form is known,
and it is rare. The clover-dodder (C. trifolii) has, however,
been introduced from Europe, and is proving a pest in some
localities. The seeds in this genus develop on damp ground.
No cotyledons are formed, but the young plant is a spirally
twisted thread. It germinates late in the year, when there is
already plenty of vegetation about it. As it grows, the upper
end of the plant keeps on revolving from right to left, while the

THE BINDWEED FAMILY ‘ 345

lower end fastens itself to the soil. As the seedling contains
hittle or no chlorophyll, and does not produce cotyledons, it
obviously must cease to grow as soon as the reserve material
contained in the seed is exhausted, unless it has by this time
come in contact with some other plant, from which it can
obtain nourishment. If, within four or five days after
germination, it does not meet with some support, the filament
falls to the ground, but may retain its vitality there for
several weeks, “ waiting for something to turn up.” Extra-
ordinary as it may appear, the dodder seems to be quite
unable to put out suckers or rootlets of any kind to obtain
nourishment from the damp earth. Should, however, it touch
a living plant in the course of its gyrations, 1t makes two or
three coils round it. It is apparently able to distinguish
between a dead and a living support. Wherever a coil
touches its prop, a row of small protuberant suckers appears,
which forces itself into the tissues of the host, and extracts
nutriment from it. When this attachment is made, the
portion of the plant below the lowest series of suckers, dies.
It has now severed its connection with the ground. If it has
the good fortune to find a host with juicy tissues, it quickly
puts forth a net-work of intertwining threads and tendrils,
that justify the name of “ Hell-bind,” sometimes given to it.
The development of Cassytha p. 177 is very similar to that of
Cuscuta.

Cuscuta densiflora (The Dense-flowered Cuscuta).

A small plant, with matted, thread-like stems, and crowded racemes of
flowers, in, long. It is found only in the South Island, and much resembles
the Brazilian C. racemosa. Port Underwood, South Island.

346 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Boraginaceae.

THE BORAGE FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, found chiefly in temperate regions. It is
represented in New Zealand by three genera only. The rough, bristly leaves
were considered by Linneeus to be so characteristic of the family, as to allow of
his giving toit the name of Asperifolia or Rough-leaved Plants. The economic uses
of the family are unimportant, but the flowers of many of the species are of a
most beautiful blue colour. Myosotis palustris, the Water Forget-me-not, is one
of the best known plants of the order.

Key to the Genera.

Nuts large. Myosotidium, p. 347.
Nuts minute. Myosotis, p.346.

Genus Myosotis.

About 30 species in all. Herbs, annual or perennial. Root-leayes stalked ;
stem-leaves sessile. Flowers in racemes. Calyx 5-lobed; corolla 5-lobed; mouth
partly closed by 5 small scales. Nuts shining. 4 sp.

The genus Hxarrhena, formerly considered distinct, 1s now
included in Myosotis. The forget-me-nots of New Zealand
are little likely to give rise to such a wealth of romance and
poetry, as that which clusters about the European species.
Myosotis capitata, best known from the Auckland Islands, is
the only one of a deep blue colour, and even a white form of it
is known. WM. australis and M. uniflora have, strange to say,
yellow flowers. Those of M. macrantha are purple or white.
The flowers of the remaining species are generally insignificant
and without any depth of colouring.

Myosotis spathulata (The Spathulate-leaved Myosotis).
A weak, prostrate herb. Leaves $in. long, slightly rough. Flowers jin.
across, solitary, white, with a yellow eye. Both islands: in stony places.

Myosotis capitata (The Capitate Myosotis).

A robust plant, 6 in.-18 in. high. Leaves softly hairy, with broad petioles.
Flowers in dense racemes, blue or purple, + in. long. South Island: Otago.
Auckland Islands. The specific name has reference to the fact that the
flowers are crowded together, so as almost to form heads like those of the
Composites.

THE BORAGE FAMILY 347

Genus Myosotidiwm.

Large fleshy herbs, 1 ft.-3 ft. in height. Leaves large, ovate, parallel-veined.
Flowers regular, in dense 1-sided racemes. Calyx 5-lobed ; corolla 5-lobed ;
throat closed with 5 swellings. Stamens5. Fruit large, 4-angled, winged. 1 sp.

Myosotidium nobile (The Chatham Island Lily).

Leaves thick and shining, bright green. Flowers in a dense head, 2in.-5 in.
across. Corolla 4in.-3in. broad, azure blue, with purple eye. Fruit the size of
a hazel nut. Chatham Islands only.

It is remarkable how many of our large-leaved plants are
to be found only on the off-islands. Amongst such may be
mentioned Meryta Sinclairii of the Northern Islands,
Stilbocarpa polaris, Ligusticum latifolium, Pleuwrophyllum
speciosum of the Southern Islands, and Myosotidium of
the Chatham Islands. Other species, with leaves of more
than average dimensions found chiefly in the Southern
Islands, are Olearva Lyallw and Stilbocarpa Lyallii.

Myosotidiuwm is one of the noblest species in the flora, but is
fast becoming extinct in its original home. It soon disappears
wherever stock are running, and is now scarcely to be found
anywhere, except at the foot of cliffs, and in similar inac-
cessible positions. At one time it was mistakenly supposed
to be found upon the Snares, as well; but it is probable that
Stilbocarpa Lyallit seen from a distance, was mistaken for it.

As most of these large-leaved forms have probably at some
time been more widely distributed (v. Stilbocarpa polaris, p.301)
it would seem that on the New Zealand mainland, such
plants are in some way at a disadvantage in the struggle for
existence. There are no herbaceous plants in the North or
South Island, amongst the dicotyledons, with leaves as large
and handsome as those of Myosotidium. Amongst the most
conspicuously large-leaved forms are Colensoa, Ranunculus
Lyall, and allied species of buttercup. There are, however,
two or three shrubs or small trees in the North Island,
(Brachyglottis rangiora, and Pisonia Brunoniana), and one in
the South, (Senecio Hectort), with leaves that reach a foot or

348 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

more in length. The whau (Hntelea arborescens), also has
leaves of more than usual size. Of these species Brachyglottis is
the only one that iscommon. Hntelea is becoming rarer every
year, and Prsonia is local in its distribution, being confined to
Auckland Province. Obviously then, the large flaccid leaves,
characteristic of the Tropics, are not suitable for our colder
chinate, though they seem to have been more common in New
Zealand once, than they are now.

Myosotidiwm, indeed, would still flourish in the Chatham
Islands, were it not for the interference of man. Unfortunately,
it 18 more exposed to the attacks of enemies than most
members of the family. It differs, in the lack of barbed
bristles on the nuts, from the allied genus Cynoglossum, and
from most Boraginaceae, in the absence of the coarse hairs,
which is their marked characteristic. It has been suggested
that the lack of bristles and hairs is due to the fact that
Myosotidiwm has been evolved in the Chatham Islands, where
it has not required such protection ; but it is perhaps just as
reasonable to suppose that Myosotidium may have existed
elsewhere, and that it has been exterminated in other districts
owing to its lack of protection, or, more probably, to the
unsuitability of its huge leaves for its habitat.

The plant is much cultivated in gardens in New Zealand,
and is then known as the Chatham Island Lily. A much
better name would be the Giant Forget-me-not. The great,
dark-green, glossy leaves form a striking contrast to the
masses of deep-blue flowers. It may be noted that blue
flowers are extremely rare in the New Zealand flora. Indeed,
the brightest blues are to be found in the flowers of the
outlying islands. No Veronica of the mainland has such a
depth of colour as Veronica Benthami of the Auckland Islands.
There is no such blue to be found amongst the native flowers
of either the North or South Island. Solanwm aviculare is
violet to magenta, and Wahlenbergia is sometimes pale-blue.
The flowers of Colensoa and Lobelia are also more or less

THE VERBENA FAMILY 349:

distinctly blue, but the intense azure of the alpine gentian, or
the borage, is entirely absent from the mainland flora.

Little is known of the significance of blue in the floral
world. Kerner considered that the indigos of the order
Boraginaceae may, In many cases, be due to the fact that the
plants live amongst faded yellow-grasses, with which blue
provides an excellent contrast. New Zealand, however, does
not furnish further evidence for this theory, for in accordance
with it, one would expect to find blue a common colour in the
tussock country ; but this is not the case. Herman Mueller
considered that bees preferred a deep violet-blue to any other
colour, and claimed that it was the latest colour evolved. The
presence of blues hke those of Myosotidiwnm and Veronica
Benthami in the outlying islands, and their absence in New
Zealand, does not appear to support his claim.

Verbenaceae.

THE VERBENA FAMILY.

Herbs, shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, rarely alternate, without stipules.
Flowers regular, or irregular. Calyx 4-5-parted, corolla 4-5-lobed, often 2-lipped.
Stamens usually 4 or 5, often in pairs. Ovary 2-4-celled; cells 1-2-ovuled.
Fruit a drupe ; or separating into 4 1-seeded nutlets.

Distribution.—The Vebenaceae are found chiefly in tropical or sub-tropical
regions. They possess no important properties, though some are slightly
aromatic. The Verbenas of our gardens are American in their origin. The
Lemon Plant is a South American species. Vitex littoralis, the New Zealand
Puriri, and Tectona grandis, the Kast Indian Teak, furnish timber of a very
durable character.

350 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Key to the Genera.

1. Corolla 2-lipped. 2
Corolla regular. 3
2. Trees. Leaves 3-5 foliolate. Flowers pink or
red. Vitex, p. 350.
Shrubs. Leaves simple. Flowers white. Teucridium, p. 350.
3. Maritime trees. Leaves opposite. Flowers
' yellow-brown. Avicennia, p. 351.
Leaves alternate, pellucid-dotted. Flowers
white, lilac-spotted. Myoporum, p. 362.

Genus Vitex.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves 3-5-foliolate. Flowers in axillary, or terminal and
paniculate cymes. Calyx and corolla 5-lobed, corolla 2-lipped. Stamens 4.
Drupe 4-celled. 1 sp.

Vitex lucens (The Puriri).

A fine tree, from 50ft. to 60ft.in height, often called the New
Zealand Oak, on account of the strength and durability of its
timber. It is not injured by damp or exposure, and is
therefore extremely valuable for ship-building purposes. The
logs are often perforated with large holes, but these do not
affect the timber, except in so far as it has sometimes to be
cut to disadvantage. These holes are made by a soft-bodied
grub, which develops into the puriri moth. The leaves of the
puriri are handsome, being of a bright, glossy green, the
leaflets 3in.-4in. long. The flowers are in axillary panicles,
4-8 together, pink or red, irregular in shape, and with exserted
stamens. The roots of the puriri never penetrate deeply into
the ground, but he near the surface, so that the tree is easily
blown over in a gale of wind. It is endemic in New Zealand,
and is restricted to the northern part of the North Island. It
is easily cultivated, and flowers more or less all the year
round.

Genus Teucridium.

Shrubs, stem 4-angled, slender. Leaves opposite, entire. Flowers solitary,
axillary. Corolla 2-lipped; stamens exserted. Ovary 4-lobed, 2-celled. Fruit a
small, rough, 4-lobed nut, consisting of 4 1-seeded achenes. (Name in allusion
to its resemblance to Tewcriwm, the Wood-sage or Germander). 1 sp.

THE VERBENA FAMILY 351

Teucridium papvifolium (Zhe Small-leaved Teucridium).

A shrub, 2ft.-5ft. in height, forming close thickets; branches and leaves
slightly hairy. Leaves roundish or oyal, ¢in. long. Calyx bell-shaped, with 5

sharp teeth. Corolla hairy, bell-shaped, 4in.-$in. long. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

Fig. 114. Vitex lucens (3 nat. size).

Genus Avicennia.
Maritime trees, with branching roots. Leaves opposite, entire, hoary.
Flowers in capitate panicles, sessile, surrounded by bracts. Calyx 4-5-parted
Corolla leathery, small, 4-5-lobed. Stamens 4, short. Ovary 2-celled. Fruit an

352 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

oval nut, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Seed a large embryo, cotyledons very broad and
thick. (Name in memory of a celebrated Oriental physician). 1 sp.

Avicennia officinalis (Zhe Mangrove).

A tree, with spreading branches, growing in salt creeks and _ estuaries.
Leaves 2in.-3in. long, oblong, obtuse, leathery. Flower-panicles yellowish-
brown, corolla 4 in. long. North Island: as far south as Thames River. FI.
May-June. Maori name, Manawa. (Forster originally named this plant 4.
resimifera, from the belief that the gum chewed by the natives came from this
source. This gum was perhaps kauri-gum. Lindley, in his “‘ Vegetable
Kingdom,’’ when speaking of the Mangrove, improves upon Forster’s statement
thus: “‘It exudes a kind of green aromatic resin, which furnishes a miserable
food to the barbarous natives of New Zealand.’’ The source of the error may be
traced to Crozet’s ‘‘ Voyage to Tasmania’’ ; v. Ling-Roth’s Translation p. 36).

This is the mangrove of the Auckland Coast. It is to be
found on all tidal flats north of Kawhia on the West, and of
Tauranga on the East Coast. The species, however, is not
endemic, but occurs also in Australia, throughout Melanesia
and Malaysia to India, and sporadically as far North as Mount
Sinai in the Red Sea. It 1s replaced by another species of the
same genus elsewhere in the tropical world. Mangroves have
been generally regarded as the pariahs of the forest, and
A. officinalis has not escaped the usual condemnation. Thus,
the following impassioned but somewhat inaccurate description
of 1t occurs in one of the earliest of New Zealand novels :—

“Oh! those mangroves. I never saw one that looked as if
it possessed a decent conscience. Growing always in shallow
stagnant water, filthy black mud, or rank grass, gnarled,
twisted, stunted, and half bare of fohage, they seem like
crowds of withered, trodden down old criminals, condemned
to the punishment of everlasting hfe. I can’t help it if this
seems fanciful. Anyone who has seena mangrove swamp will
know what I mean.”

Doubtless, however, much of the evil reputation of the
mangrove forest, is due to the fact that, to its presence, has
long been erroneously attributed the prevalence of malaria in
tropical river estuaries. Miasmatic vapours were supposed to
arise from the pestilential mangrove swamps, and spread their

THE VERBENA FAMILY

Fig. 115. Avicennia officinalis. The Flower (life size).

354 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

contagion around. Science had not then burdened the mis-
guided mosquito with sins of transmission, as well as of
commission. Hortunately, New Zealand does not possess the
malaria carrying mosquito (Anopheles), and so her mangrove
forests, in spite of their foul appearance, are no more dangerous
to human life than any other part of the country. Indeed, at
high tide, a mangrove swamp is often a pleasant place to punt
in, for then the somewhat sickly odour of the mud, is replaced
by the fresh smell of the sea.

Nor is the New Zealand mangrove so ugly, as those of more
tropical regions. The gruesome conception of the mangrove
forest existing in the minds of most people, is doubtless derived
largely from the well known word picture of Kingsley’s “‘ West-
ward Ho.” The passage begins: “The night mist began to
steam, and wreath upon the foul beer-coloured stream,” etc.
Then follows a description of the hoarse night raven; the
loathly alhgators lounging in the slhme; the sad-coloured
mangrove-hens wailing sadly; and the great purple crabs
crawling over the snake-hke roots. Of these hideous accessories,
only the mangrove-hen (the weka), and the crabs, are to be
found in New Zealand.

LIFE IN THE MANGROVE SWAMP.

The twisted and gnarled stems and roots give to the tree an
unwarranted appearance of age, so that even the youngest
mangrove looks old. Barnacles and oysters fix themselves
upon the roots which are uncovered by the withdrawal of the
tide ; eels wriggle in and out of their holes, and the mass of
fibrous rootlets which forms a mat beneath the mud, provides
dwelling places for innumerable blue and red crabs. These
are sought after, not only by the sober-hued wekas, but also
by the beautiful kingfishers. A dark-coloured fish, with curious
flexible dental plates, may frequently be seen swimming over
the flats at low tide, so that there is no lack of life in the
swamp.

THE VERBENA FAMILY

Sw)
Or
Or

THE Roots oF THE MANGROVE.

A tree which grows in salt water must, of necessity, have roots
differing much from those of a tree growing on land, and the
root structure of Avicennia, as of all mangroves, is replete

Fig, 116. Mangrove trees, showing aerial roots.

with points of interest. Botanically speaking, the root is the
result of the development of the rootlet of the embryo, and it
would seem an easy matter, therefore, to distinguish between
root and stem. In many cases it is so, but there are some
plants in which the root simulates a stem (v. Metrosideros

356 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

robusta, p. 282), and many in which the root produces shoots.
As a result, itis very often difficult to determine whether a
plant structure is a root or stem. Ordinarily, the stem
produces shoots bearing leaves, grows upwards, and, especially
in herbaceous plants, contains green colouring matter
(chlorophyll). On the other hand, the root does not usually
produce shoots, does not contain chlorophyll, and grows
downwards. These distinctions suffice in most cases, but not
in all. Thus, the tuber of the potato is a stem which grows
underground, and its shoots are under ordinary circumstances
reduced to buds (“eyes”). Many plants have creeping
underground stems (rhizomes) e.g., Solomon’s Seal. On the
other hand, some roots are aerial (v. Dendrobiwm, p. 124), or
produce shoots, e.g., suckers of the white poplar, plums, etc.
There is only one point which can be certainly relied upon to
distinguish a root froma stem. A root never directly produces
leaves. A stem does.

Now, the roots of the Rhizophora, a tropical mangrove, are
not derived from the rootlet of the embryo, but from the stem
of the plant—so, on account of their mode of origin, they are
termed adventitious roots, ¢.e., roots not formed in the natural
manner. They are obviously used to stay the plant, and give
it foothold in the soft mud. Avicennia has few of these
supports, but makes use of its roots in a way that is almost
unique. Kirk (Forest Flora, p. 272) tells us that, “At low
water their naked trunks are exposed, and the mud is seen to
be thickly studded with erect shoots from 1 ft. to 3 ft. high,
given off from the tangled roots.” He has here fallen into
error. The structures described are not shoots, but upward
growing roots containing chlorophyll, and are not more than a
foot in height. They never produce leaves, and only very
rarely fork or branch. They must therefore be regarded as.
roots which have lost their most characteristic reaction, and
which grow upwards instead of downwards. As they contain
chlorophyll, it is probable that they assist in the work of

THE VERBENA FAMILY

Mangrove roots.

Fig. 117.

358 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

nourishment. But they have a more remarkable function
than this. If they are closely examined, they will be found to
be studded with pores, similar to the lenticels found in the
branches of many trees. These pores are for the purpose of
allowing air to enter and leave the internal tissues of the
plant. The mangrove, growing in the tidal mud, where little
or no oxygen can get to the roots directly, turns the tips of
its roots into the air, and by this ingenious means obtains its
necessary supply of oxygen. Nor is this the only adaptation
of the root to its altered environment. Most rootlets are
provided with a small shield at the tip, technically known as
the “ root-cap.” This protects the tender, growing point as it
forces its way between the particles of the soil. Such protec-
tion would be superfluous in plants rooting in water,—in the
mangrove, and in many marsh-growing plants, it is wanting.
But the grey-green, asparagus-like pegs which arise from
the thickly interlaced network of fibres, also serve another
purpose. One cannot but notice the similarity in their
appearance and arrangement, to the breakwaters formed of
single posts, which may be seen in many English seaports.
They run sometimes in straight lines, sometimes in curves,
and sometimes in vandykes. Usually, they are from two to
four inches apart, but in some places the mud is so thickly
studded with them, that it would be scarcely possible to slip a
pencil between. When the tide is coming in, or when a flood
comes down the creek, these vertical pegs greatly break the
force of the water. They are exceedingly elastic, and spring
back at once into an upright position if a heavy weight is
placed upon them and then removed. Not content with
keeping back the flood, they gather in their myriad rootlets, as
in a sponge, all the silt and sediment that is brought down by
the rivers. The thick mud settles and cakes among the root
fibres, while the pegs hold back any sticks, straws, or rubbish
afloat in the water. The fibrous matting between the pegs is
rarely laid bare, save after a heavy flood, and spreads widely,

THE VERBENA FAMILY 359

Fig. 118. Seeds of Avicennia officinalis.

360 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

forming a huge disk that prevents the mangrove from being
upset. The tree is further propped up by a number of stilt
roots. These, however, are not so large or so long as in the
typical mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) of the tropics.

The trees, thus buttressed, stayed, and fixed by their varied
roots, stand firm in the highest tide and the strongest flood,
and gather about them material for a rich soil, which
eradually becomes suitable for cultivation. Then they step
farther out into the water and begin their work again. So far
as can be roughly estimated, the mud-flats are thus raised by
the action of the mangroves, on an average, a little over an
inch each year. This rate of speed is probably only that of the
present time, as it must have been much slower in past years,
before the bush was so extensively cut. Since the clearing of
the land, slips have become much more frequent, and hence
the rate of deposition 1s now faster than before.

THE GERMINATION OF AVICENNIA.

It is obvious that, if the seed of the mangrove fell
undeveloped into the mud below the tree, it would be hable to
be carried off by the rising tide. To avoid this fate, the
embryo in many mangroves passes through no resting stage,
but continues to grow until its weight breaks it away from
the seed-case and from the tree. Thus the young plant of
Rhizophora mucronata sometimes attains the length of two
feet, before it falls from the parent tree. It then drops
vertically downwards, and its weight and club-shaped form
cause it to penetrate for some distance into the mud, where it
remains standing in an upright position. According to
Schimper, within the short space of a few hours, it produces
roots which fix it firmly in position. Medieval travellers, not
content with this marvellous series of adjustments to environ-
ment, spoiled the story by stating that the mangrove trees

THE VERBENA FAMILY 361

gave birth to barnacle-geese, which dropped from the seeds
placidly into the water below them—a truly appalling meta-
morphosis !

With all their ingenious contrivances, the young Rhizophoras,
however, may sometimes be found cast up in the drift left by
the falling tide on the shore. In Avicennia the embryo is
provided with two large fleshy cotyledons, which present the
extraordinary and almost unique feature of being unaccom-
panied by any trace of a rootlet.

Although well developed, it does not fall from the husk
before it leaves the tree. The whole seed drops to the mud.
There it splits and allows the embryo to escape. The plantlet,
as in Cuscuta (v. p. 345), shows wonderful vitality. As the
cotyledons possess a large food supply, the embryo may
remain drifting with the tide for weeks without a holdfast,
and yet survive. Generally, however, it quickly attaches
itself to the mud by putting forth four or five adventitious
rootlets, which are so arranged as to give the maximum
support possible. They are stout, stiff, and divergent, and
penetrate the mud at an angle of 50° or 60° with the
surface.

The descriptions given of the germination of the mangrove
in Dendy and Lucas’s Botany, Kirk’s Forest Flora, and other
standard works, are quite erroneous. Kirk’s description, also,
contains various other errors, in addition to those already
pointed out. He states that the tree only attains its greatest
luxuriance in deep water. On the contrary, the tree never
grows in deep water, and its luxuriance depends largely on
the depth of the mud in its vicinity. The wood is described
as being white, straight in the grain and perishable, whereas
it is brown and durable, with the tissues arranged in layers
which cross each other diagonally, thus making it difficult
or impossible to split, except on the round.

Much work has yet to be done on the development and
germination of the embryo in Avicennia.

362 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Myoporum.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, entire or serrate, pellucid-dotted.
Flowers axillary, solitary or in fascicles. Calyx 5-lobed; corolla 5-lobed,
stamens 4. Ovary 2-5-celled; cells 1-, rarely 2-seeded. A genus found chiefly in
Australia and the Pacific Islands. (Name from the Greek, in reference to the
leaf glands). 1 sp.

os
Fig. 119. Ngaio tree on the sea-beach.

Myoporum letum (The Ngaio).

A small tree, 10 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 2 in.-4 in. long, lanceolate, acute,,.
partially serrate, bright-green, shining. Flowers 2-6 together. Corolla $in.-3 in.
broad, white, spotted with lilac. Drupe jin. long. Both islands: usually
near the sea-shore. FI. Oct.-Dec.

The Ngaio tree is well known throughout the islands.
Though not restricted to the sea-coast, it 1s seldom found
far inland. At times it may be met with growing almost
within high-water mark. When young, it is a_ beautiful,

THE VERBENA FAMILY

Fig. 120. Myoporum letum (life size).

364 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

shapely bush ; but, as it grows older, the lower branches get
broken off, and the tree becomes gnarled and distorted. The
black buds are protected by a gummy secretion. The leaves
are full of translucent oil-glands, which give them a highly
characteristic appearance. These glands, though most con-
spicuous in the leaf, are found in other parts of the plant, and
indeed similar secreting spaces are found throughout the order.
Their function is apparently unknown. As the upper epidermis
is often lens-shaped over the glands, it is possible that they
may in some way or other be related to the light reaction of
the leaf.

According to Colenso, a decoction, made from the leaves of
Myoporum, was used by the Maoris to protect the face and
hands from the bites of sand-flies and mosquitoes.

Labiateae.

THE THYME FAmILy.

Distribution.—A very large family, chiefly found in temperate regions. The
species are often aromatic, the leaves containing volatile fragrant oils. These leaves
are much used for flavourings, or as ingredients in perfumes. Some of the species
are medicinal. The Lavender, Mint, Rosemary, Sage, Patchouli, Marjoram,
Penny-royal, Thyme, Basil, and Horehound, all belong to this family. Some
exotic species of Salvia are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. The family
is represented in New Zealand by two unimportant genera.

Key to the Genera.

Calyx almost equal. Stamens equal. Mentha, p. 364.
Calyx 2-lipped. Stamens in pairs. tScutellaria.

t+tNot further described.

Genus Mentha.

Perennial, strongly aromatic herbs. Flowers in whorled cymes, often form-
ing dense heads. Calyx 5-toothed; corolla 5-lobed or 2-lipped. Stamens, 4.
Nuts smooth, dry. Several British species have been introduced into New
Zealand. (Name from the Greek). 1 sp.

THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY 365

Mentha Cunninghamii (Cunningham's Mint).

A slender, prostrate, fragrant herb. Stems often matted, hairy. Leaves
1 in.-4 in. long, rounded or oblong, obtuse, pellucid-dotted. Flowers axillary,

6

solitary. Calyx 75 in.-} in. long. Both islands: dry places. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

Fig, 121. Solanum aviculare (4 nat. size).

Solanaceae.

THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY.

Distribution. — A large family, chiefly tropical. A few of the species
furnish edible fruits or tubers, but the greater number are narcotic and poisonous.
The most important of all the species is Solanwm tuberosum, the Potato. This
plant contains a small quantity of the narcotic principle solanine, which,
however, is destroyed by cooking. The Tomato, the Egg-plant, the Capsicum,
the Cape Gooseberry, and the Winter-cherry, are all members of this family.
Datura, Nicotiana, and Petunia are cultivated for their flowers. The Henbane
(Hyoscyamus niger), the Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis), and the Deadly

366 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Nightshade (Atropa belladonna), possess strongly narcotic and poisonous pro-
perties. The last-named plant furnishes the valuable drug atropine. Solanwmn
is the only genus found in New Zealand.

Genus Solanum.

Herbs, shrubs or small trees. Flowers regular, blue, purple, or white.
Calyx and corolla 4-5-lobed; stamens 4-5. Anthers usually exserted, forming a
cone in the centre of the flower. Berry round or oblong, 2-celled, many seeded.
(Latin name for the night-shade, found in Pliny). 3 sp.

Solanum aviculare (Zhe Poro-poro).

A branched leafy shrub. Leaves 4 in.-10 in. long, oblong or lanceolate, entire,
or lobed, or pinnatifid, membranous, shining. Flowers cymose, 3-10 together,
usually dark-purple. Anthers spreading. Berry oval; edible. Both islands,
Norfolk Island, Tasmania. Fl. Dec.-March. The plant is often called by the
settlers, the Bulli-bull (vy. Acena, p. 202).

Solanum nigrum (The Black Nightshade).

A common weed. Stems, 1ft.-3 ft. high. Leaves 1in.-4in. long, ovate,
rarely lobed. Flowers }in.-4in. across, in umbels, white. Berry fin.-}in. in
diameter, black or red. Both islands. FI. all summer.

Scrophulariaceae.

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large and widely-distributed family. It is well repre-
sented in New Zealand by about 100 species. A few of the species are partially
parasitic ; some produce deadly poisons, and many are cultivated for the beauty
of their flowers. The Veronica, Fox-glove, Snap-dragon, Mullein, and Calceolaria
are well-known garden plants. The powerful drug digitalin is prepared from the
Fox-glove. The leaves of Scrophularia nodosa, Verbascum Thapsus, and Veronica
officinalis have also been used medicinally.

The corolla in this order is two-lipped, but the lps are
closed, not open, as in the Labiatae. The flowers of the
snap-dragon (Antirrhinum), monkey musk (Mimulus), and
Calceolaria, are typical of this order, while those of the
Veronica are less so. From their structure, it 1s obvious that

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 367

most of them are insect-pollinated. The monkey-musk is
especially interesting, as it shows very marked stigmatic
movements. When an insect pushes its way into the
flower, its head comes into contact with the style, which
terminates in two flaps, between which he the stigmatic
surfaces. They immediately close, and thus protect the
stigma from receiving pollen from its own stamens, as the
insect withdraws from the flower. If they have not been
pollinated,- the lps of the stigma re-open in about five
minutes, and remain open until again stimulated, but
as soon as the influence of the pollen is felt, they remain
permanently closed. Other members of the order show
sunilar movements.

Calceolaria Sinclair is a beautiful plant found growing
beside streams, from Hawke’s Bay to Hast Cape. It produces
erect panicles, a foot in length, of white flowers, spotted with
purple. The pretty little Mazus radicans is not uncommon in
boggy places, in both islands. The upper lip is purple and
bi-lobed ; the lower is tri-lobed with a ‘‘ wide band formed of
three rows of brownish-yellow hairs leading down to the
honey cavity.” This of course is a guide-line for insects
entering the flowers. The style is found immediately under
the upper lip, and bears at its apex a pair of stigmatic plates.
These are sensitive, as in the monkey-musk, and close rapidly
on being irritated. The flowers are very fragrant. The most
important genus in New Zealand is Veronica, which is more
fully described below.

Key to the Genera.

1. The teeth of the upper lip cover the lateral teeth in the bud. 9}

The teeth of the upper lip covered in the bud by one or both
of the lateral teeth. 7

2. Fertile stamens, 2. 3
Fertile stamens, 4. 4

3. Corolla inflated. Stigma with more or less rounded head. Calceolaria, p. 368,
Corolla not inflated. Stigma of 2 blades. tGratiola.

4, Stigma of 2 blades. 5
Corolla minute, stigma not divided. 6

5. Corolla swollen at the throat, +Mimulus,
Corolla not swollen at the throat. Mazus, p. 368,

tNot further described.

368 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

6. Stigma flattened, large. Glossostigma, p. 368.
Stigma club-shaped. tLimosella.

7. Stamens, 2. Veronica, p. 369.
Stamens, 4. 8

8. Stigma with a rounded head. Ourisia, p. 384.
Stigma dilated. Euphyrasia, p. 386.

tNot further described.

Genus Calceolaria.

Soft-leaved herbs. Flowers in short racemes. Calyx 4-cleft; corolla 2-
lipped. In the American species, the lower lip only is inflated, but in the New
Zealand species both lips are swollen. Capsule 2-valved. A large South
American genus. (Name from the Latin for a slipper). 2 sp.

Calceolaria Sinclairii (Sinclair’s Calceolaria).

An erect, slender herb, with coarsely-toothed leaves, and branched panicles
of small white flowers, spotted with purple. Corolla 4 in. across. Capsule 4 in.
long. North Island: Hast Cape, Hawke’s Bay. Fl. Dec.-Feb. A charming
plant, well worthy of frequent cultivation.

Genus Mazus.

Herbs. Flowers usually racemose, terminal. Calyx campanulate. Corolla
2-lipped, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed. Stamens 4. Capsule 2-valved.
(Name from the Greek signifying a breast, erroneously given in allusion to the
supposed swollen corolla). 2 sp.

Mazus pumilio (The Dwarf Mazus).

Scape 1-6-flowered. Leaves fascicled. Corolla blue, 4in.-$in. across.
Both islands, as far south as Canterbury.

Genus Glossostigma.

Tufted, prostrate herbs. Leaves spathulate. Flowers solitary. Calyx
3-5-lobed. Corolla 2-lipped, 5-lobed. Stamens 2-4. Stigma large, dilated.
Capsule 2-valved. (Name from the Greek in allusion to the tongwe-shaped
stigma). 2 sp.

Glossostigma elatinoides (The Elatine-like Glossostigma).

A minute plant, 1 in.-2 in. long. Stems rooting at the nodes. Leaves ¢ in.-
4 in. long, entire. Flowers 4 in. long. Stamens 4. Both islands: damp
places.

This is an interesting, moss-like, swamp-plant, differing
from a Mimulus in the minute corolla, and in the large
tongue-shaped stigma. As in Mimulus, the stigma is

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 369

sensitive, but its movements are quite different from those of
the two-armed style of the latter plant. The method of
pollination of the Glossostigma, which is remarkably
interesting, has been described by Mr. Cheeseman.”

Genus Veronica.

A genus of about 200 species. Herbs or shrubs, rarely trees, with opposite
leaves. Flowers in axillary racemes, usually blue, purple, or white. Sepals 4-5 ;
corolla 4- (rarely 5-) lobed. Stamens 2. Capsule 2-celled. (The name is Greek,
signifying the sacred picture. A European species is said to bear upon its petals
a representation of Christ). Maori name Koromiko. 84 sp.

Distribution.—A large European and Asiatic genus, which reaches its
highest development in New Zealand, where there are more than 80 species
already recorded, while doubtless others still remain undiscovered. Since the
publication of Hooker’s Flora, the two independent genera, Pygmea and Logama,
have been amalgamated with it, and this has helped somewhat to swell the list of
species, until now it outnumbers that of any other native genus. Nowhere else
do the Veronicas constitute such a large and prominent portion of the flora.
Many of them are handsome shrubs, and nearly all of them have somewhat
conspicuous flowers. They may be found almost anywhere from the sea-coast up
to Alpine heights, except on dry open flats, like the Canterbury Plains, where
little grows but the tussock grass. They may well therefore be considered one of
the most representative genera of the Flora.

VARIATION IN VERONICA.

As might be expected, in no other local genus, are the
species so difficult of discrimination. They show such an
extreme variability, that it is possible to describe only the
chief forms. From a piece of ground a few yards square, may
sometimes be taken a dozen specimens, all showing differences
of shape and structure, that in another genus would entitle
them to varietal, or even to specific rank. ‘To increase the
difficulties of the systematist, many of the species,—particularly
those belonging to the whipcord section,—alter largely under
cultivation and change of environment. Most large genera
show variability, but this one to such an excessive extent, that
it compels one to doubt the possibility of defining the species

eWravs. Xs 355:
25

370 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

by morphological characters alone. Hach variety will require
to be grown from carefully selected seed, and its whole life
history known, before its claim to distinctiveness can be
properly determined. Until this has been done, no satisfactory
list of species can be prepared.

An enquiry into the causes of this Protean fickleness of
form would lead us too far afield. No biological problems
however, are more fascinating, or more important, than those
presented by the variation of individuals within a species ;
several of them may therefore be mentioned here. (1) How
far is hybridism responsible for variation ? (2) To what
extent does change of environment induce variation? (3) Does
variation take place by imperceptible gradations, or by small
leaps and bounds? (4) How far are variations, induced during
the life-time of the individual, inherited by its descendants ?
These questions have absorbed the attention of many
naturalists for years. Vast quantities of information have
been collected concerning them. ‘They seem to have been
studied, theoretically at least, from every point of view, yet it
is questionable whether we have acquired a deeper insight into
them than Darwin had, when he wrote his ‘“ Origin of
Species,” now nearly fifty years ago. (1) Some affirm the
importance of hybridization in producing variation, while
others deny it. (2) Change of environment probably induces
ereater variation than was at one time considered possible.
Nature is infinitely plastic (v. Discario, p. 240). (3) The
third question has recently been asked anew by the famous
botanist, Prof. Hugo de Vries, of Amsterdam; and he has
adduced a considerable amount of experimental evidence, to
shew that new species do not arise by imperceptible changes
out of the old, but that a large number of similar and
concomitant, though perhaps minute, variations are found in
certain individuals of the species, and from these individuals a
new type arises. Such a discontinuous variation he terms a
mutation, and species producing them are said to be mutable.

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 371

(4) The fourth question stated above may be termed
Weismann’s problem. It has caused more discussion than any
other Darwinian question, and has divided evolutionists into

Fig. 122. Veronica speciosa (4 nat. size).

two camps. It is by no means solved as yet, though perhaps

at times we feel that we have a glimmering of the solution.
These, and other similar problems, are of the highest interest

to biologists, and not without their bearing on human life, but

372 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

they cannot be discussed further here. They are mentioned
merely for the sake of pointing out that the students of the
New Zealand Flora have opportunities, such as are granted to
few, of studying such questions. The great variety of
environment to be found in the islands, the extreme
sensitiveness of many species to change of habitat, the fact
that representatives of a single genus hke Veronica can be
found at all altitudes from the sea-shore to snow-line, the
wonderful variety of forms, in this and other genera, to be
found in a single locality, all combine to afford the New
Zealand student of plant ecology, a field for investigation
perhaps unsurpassed within the same area, in any other part
of the Globe.

WHIP-CORD VERONICAS.

For our present purposes, we may roughly divide the New
Zealand Veronicas into four sections. (1) Shrubs with
normally expanded entire leaves; (2) shrubs with minute
scale-like leaves, often imbricating, and closely appressed to
the stem ; (3) shrubs with toothed, generally fleshy leaves ;
(4) herbs or semi-herbaceous plants with creeping slender
stems. The second of these divisions only, will require
consideration here. This includes the remarkable species often
spoken of as the whip-cord veronicas, on account of the close
resemblance of their stems to a piece of green whip-cord, or
the plaited thong of a whip-lash. It has also been termed
the ‘‘mimetic”’ series. Some resemble a cypress so closely
as to deceive any but the expert botanist; others mumic
the tamarisk, and another might well be taken for a lycopod.
There are few, if any, more remarkable forms than these
amongst our flowering plants. Various endeavours have
been made to explain their extraordinary appearance,—an
appearance, however, that is largely shared by certain species

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 373

of Helichrysum belonging to the sub-genus Ozothamnus (v. fig.
121). A partial clue to their origin is to be found in the fact
that all species of this section, under certain circumstances,
put forth leaves of a type, widely distinct from, and much
more normal, than the scale-like plates with which they are
usually covered. A similar phenomenon appears in many
other aberrant plants. Other New Zealand species which

Fig. 123. 1. V.propinqua. 2. V.tetrasticha. 3. V. Hectori. 4. V. Armstrongii.
5. V. elliptica. 6. V. epacridea. 7. V. cupressoides.

show a lke heterophylly, as it may be termed, are
Helichrysum (Ozothamnus) coralloides, Raoulia bryoides, and
Raoulia mammillaris. There can be but little doubt that, in
each case, the larger leaved form is the ancestral one. It
may therefore be expected, in accordance with the ordinary
law (v. p. 256), that the seedling form in its development
would pass through a stage with large leaf-surfaces. Such
a stage is often termed a ‘ reversion shoot.” Reversions

374 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

to the earlier form are, however, not necessarily confined to
young plants, but are also sometimes found upon the mature
specimen. .

Unfortunately, but little attention has hitherto been given
to the leaf-forms of the whip-cord Veronicas. Prof. Goebel,

Fig. 124. 1. Helichrysum microphyllum. 2. H. coralloides. 3. H. microphyllum (var.)
4. Veronica lycopodioides. 5. Libocedrus Bidwillii. 6. V. Tetrasticha.

the famous botanist of Munich, was the first to study them
experimentally, and, after him, Mr. R. Brown, of Christchurch,
showed how extremely plastic these strange forms are. It is.
to be regretted, that the latter has not published an account
of his experiments, in some accessible scientific periodical.
Recently, however, Dr. Cockayne, in his valuable studies on
the germination of New Zealand seedlings, has carefully
investigated the younger stages of a considerable number of
species of Veronica.

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY o1D

He has found, that in several cases at least, the seedling
passes through a stage with large leaves, unlike those of the
mature form. The development of Veronica tetrasticha* may
be taken as an example. It is a beautiful little sub-alpine
plant, with tetrangular stem and cupressoid leaves. Dr.
Cockayne collected seeds of it, from plants growing on shingle
slips on the Craigieburn Mountains. They were planted, and
found to be slow of germination, and the remarkable conclusion
was come to, that, “ between the juvenile and mature plants,
so far as observed, there is no resemblance.” The adult plant
has minute, overlapping, dark-green leaves, appressed to the
stem, narrowly triangular in shape, with broad sheathing bases
that meet round the stem. They are fleshy, concave on the
upper surface, and flat on the lower, and often bear a row of
marginal hairs. On the other hand, the first leaves produced
subsequently to the cotyledons, are spathulate, with or without
petioles, “ pale-green above and purplish beneath, covered above
and beneath with erect, stout-hooked, white hairs, with hooks
turned upwards towards the apex of the leaves.” The base
only of the leaf is appressed to the stem, the rest of it being
spreading, with the apex curving downwards. The leaves,
though succulent, are scarcely fleshy. So far as the other
whip-cord veronicas have been observed, similar differences
between the young and mature forms have been noticed.
Perhaps the most remarkable result of Dr. Cockayne’s
researches, was the proof that the seedling form remains
permanent, so long as the plant is kept m a warm moist
atmosphere.

Various theories have been put forward to explain the
depauperated leaf forms of these veronicas. Prof. Henslow
compares them to Tamarix, Thuja and Cupressus,+ and
says, with regard to the origin of all such plants, that: “ such
forms are due to precisely the ‘same causes; the same or
homologous organs put on precisely the same morphological

HUMANE, NOOME, os CVI +The Origin of Plant Structures, p. 108.

376 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

features, in response to the similar and direct actions of a like
environment, so that all these species have arisen without any
aid from natural selection whatever.’”’ Without entering into
the wider question as to the method of evolution, which is
obviously outside of the scope of this work, it may at once be
admitted, that the remarkable reduction of leaf surface in
these plants, 1s a direct response to altered environment, but
surely Prof. Henslow is wrong in suggesting that the reduction
in the size of the leaf is due to the alpine habitats of the
species, as most of them are plants of the upper river terraces,
rather than of the high alps; and they often grow in
clefts of rocks, on shingle slips, and in other arid situations, so
that their depauperated leaves are more likely due to their
xerophily than to the rigours of an alpine habitat. It must be
remembered that the vertical distribution of these species was
but little known when Hooker’s Handbook of the New
Zealand Flora was published, and Professor Henslow has
apparently relied largely on the altitudes given there.

Veronica speciosa (Zhe Handsome Veronica).

A stout shrub, with angular branches. Leaves oblong, thick, shining,
1 in.-4 in. long, 1 in.-14 in. broad. Flowers in dense racemes, deep purple, 4 in.
in diameter. Stamens long. Capsule 4in. long. North Island: Hokianga
(now extinct). Fl. Oct.

A rare and beautiful form with crimson flowers, which
flourishes best, when in reach of the sea spray. It was
formerly found at Hokianga Heads, but is apparently now
extinct in that locality. According to Mr. Rutland, it is
however, still to be found in Titirangi Bay, Marlborough ; but
this habitat requires confirmation. Many varieties of this
plant are cultivated in gardens. ‘The glossy green leaves, and
large racemes, densely packed with flowers, make it a very
attractive shrub. As in other sea-side plants, the leaves are
protected by a two-layered epidermis.

SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY

Fig. 125. Veronica salicifolia (% nat. size).

378 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Veronica salicifolia (The Willow-leaved Veronica).

A large shrub; branches cylindrical. Leaves linear, 2 in.-6 in. long, shining.
Flowers variable, in long racemes, white, mauve, or bluish-purple. Corolla
2din.-+in. diameter. Capsule #in. long. Both islands, abundant. FI.
Dec.-Jan. Maori names, Kokoromiko, Koromiko.

Of all the species of the genus, this is probably the most
abundant. It is almost everywhere common throughout the
islands, and along with various hybrids between it and
Veronica speciosa and Veronica macrocarpa, is much cultivated
in gardens. There are a number of allied species, which are
only being gradually separated from it by botanists. The
flowers are usually white, and produced in densely packed
racemes several inches in length. The leaves are much used
as a remedy in cases of diarrhcea.

Veronica Traversii (TZravers’s Veronica).

A small shrub. Leaves #in.-lin. long, 4in.-4in. broad, leathery, flat.
Racemes 1in.-2in. long. Corolla 4in. diameter. Capsule 4in. long. South
Island: river-beds (Canterbury) ; Southern Alps; Otago. Fl. Jan.-Feb.

Dr. Cockayne* raised a number of young plants of this
species, from seeds gathered from a single parent plant. The
seedlings showed marked differences amongst themselves. It
is, of course, possible, that this may have been due to
hybridization, which, according to Hooker at least, occurs
frequently among the veronicas. In order to eliminate the
probability of error from this cause, capsules were collected
from three other plants, and their seeds on germination showed
the same variability. No two seedlings seemed to be alike ;
hence Dr. Cockayne came to the conclusion, “that the
individual does not nearly produce itself true from seed.”
Young plants, however, derived from the same parent, were
more like each other, than they were like the descendants of
any other plant. Dr. Cockayne informs us that he is not
altogether satisfied with the accuracy of these results, and
considers that the experiments should be repeated, with

*Trans. Vol. XXXI. p. 376.

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 379

further precautions against error, such, for example, as the
artificial pollination of the plants employed.

Such a variable species as this is hkely to give evidence of
some value for or against de Vries’s Mutation theory
(v. p. 370), and it also throws some light on the wonderful range
of forms of Veronica sometimes found in a single locality. So

Fig. 126, Veronica Traversii ({ nat, size).

numerous are these, and so difficult of discrimination, that
Baron Miiller once proposed to solve all difficulties, by lumping
together nearly twenty distinct types under one specific name!

Veronica monticola (The Mountain-loving Veronica).
Leaves close-set, more or less overlapping, 3 in.-1 in. long, 4 in.-% in. broad,
narrowed into a short, thick petiole, slightly concave above, but not keeled
beneath. Racemes 1 in.-14 in. long, dense-flowered. Flowers white, 4 in.
across. Mountain districts from Nelson to Otago. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

380 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Veronica lycopodioides (The Lycopodiwm-like Veronica).

A large, erect shrub. Branches 4-angled, leaves closely imbricate, +5 in.
long. Flowers in dense heads at the tips of the branches, white. Corolla 4in across.
South Island: Southern Alps, Macaulay River, Wairau Gorge, Lindis
Pass, Otago. This plant is one of the whip-cord veronicas referred to on p. 372.
Fl. Dec.-Mar.

Veronica tetrasticha, Veronica Hectori, Veronica salicornioides, and Veronica
cupressoides belong also to this class of veronicas, having the same closely
iumbricated leaves.

Veronica epacridea (The Epacris-like Veronica).

A small, rigid shrub. Leaves closely imbricate, recurved, rendering the
branches 4-angled in appearance. Flowers without stalks, in pairs among the
upper leaves, forming an oblong head. South Island: Tarndale, Southern Alps,
Mt. Darwin, Wai-au-ua Valley, etc.

This species belongs to the rock-growing group of veronicas.
Dr. Cockayne says of the seedling: “The whole plant is very
succulent and soft. Such structure is an admirable provision
against drought, growing as it does on solid rock or shingle-
slips, for it cannot put down a long root in search of water, as
the adult plant can; nor is there so much danger of its drying
up with excessive transpiration, since, being of very low
stature, the large stones of the shingle-slips, or the fissures of
the rock, where alone the seed can germinate, will protect it
from drying winds. The same remark would apply to
Veronica tetrasticha, a companion plant. It is curious that
this soft, succulent form of leaf is the permanent form of
Veronica Haastw, a closely allied plant, restricted to regions
subject to the western rainfall.’’*

Veronica Lavaudiana (Lavaud’s Veronica).

A small, stout herb. Stem at first prostrate; branches ascending. Leaves
4in.-}in. long, broad, leathery. Flower-spikes 4in. long, in corymbs 1 in.-2in.
broad. Corolla 4in. across, white or purple. South Island: Banks Peninsula.
Fl. Nov.

This beautiful little Veronica was one of Raoul’s discoveries.
He named it after Lavaud.t It belongs to the third section
of veronicas, 2.e., those with toothed and rather fleshy

Ai breezy 0.0.0.4 55 105 oisi
+Commodore of the Nanto-Bordelaise expedition for settling the South Island.

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 38 1

Fig. 127. Veronica monticola (life size).

382 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

leaves. They are nearly all rock-growing plants, and are
generally found in limited and discontinuous areas. Veronica
Lavaudiana is an extremely rare species, being found in only
a few localities on Banks’ Peninsula. It 1s still to be seen on
Dover Castle, The Giant's Causeway, and on some other
isolated rocks, that rise like islands from a sea of tussocks on
the tops of the Lyttelton Hills. These cliffs afford a sanctuary
to several other rare species. Unfortunately, the frequent
grass fires, and grazing animals, are together causing much

Fig. 128. V.lycopodioides (3 nat. size).

havoc amongst native plants upon these hills, and the only
ones that appear likely to survive are those that can exist on
the bare faces of inaccessible cliffs. Amongst the rare forms of
the Peninsula may be mentioned Senecio saxifragoides,
Celmisia Mackawi, and Veronica Lavaudiana, all of them
interesting and handsome species.

Veronica Lavaudiana bears pink buds, and beautiful white
blossoms, that open in late October, after the cultivated spring
flowers are past, and before the annuals have come into bloom.
Coming as it does between the seasons, it 1s sometimes of
considerable value to florists in the preparation of wreaths,

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 383

and floral decorations. Unfortunately, however, it is not well
known, and is in cultivation only in a few gardens near
Christchurch.

Veronica Hulkeana, on the other hand, is not infrequently
to be seen listed in gardeners’ catalogues. It is an allied
species from the mountains and river gorges of eastern Nelson,

Fig. 12. Veronica cataractae (life size).

and bears long sprays of lilac-coloured flowers in loose panicles,
sometimes a foot in length. It is one of the handsomest and

most graceful species of the genus.

Veronica cataractae (The Waterfall Veronica).

A small, slender herb. Stems prostrate at the base, and ascending. Leaves
very variable, oval or oblong, 4in.-6in. long, serrate. Racemes very slender,
few-flowered. Corolla 5in.-?in. broad, white with red spots. Stamens short.
North Island: Kast Coast, Ruahine Mountains. South Island: Western Otago.
Fl. Feb.-March.

384 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

This species may be taken as a type of the herbaceous
section of the genus. The flowers are very pretty, the petals
being white, spotted with dark-red at the entrance to the
throat. The species is often cultivated, particularly in gardens
in and around Dunedin. These, and the allied species,
approach more closely to the European forms, than do the
other New Zealand veronicas. It is strange, however, that
they should be separated from their congeners by a hemi-
sphere, for the veronicas do not grow in the tropics. It is
difficult to say if the veronicas covered at one time all the
intervening area, or whether they have spread from north to
south, or south to north. Certainly, the greater development
of the genus in the south, lends some colour to the latter
surmise, but general opinion has regarded northern forms as
coming south, and not vice versa.

Genus Ourisia.
Alpine herbs with perennial roots. Calyx 5-lobed; corolla 5-cleft; stamens 4.

Capsule 2-valved. (Named in honour of Ouris, a French Governor of the
Falklands). 8 sp.

Ourisia macrophylla (The Large-leaved Ourisia).
Stem erect. Leaves all from the roots, hairy, 1in.-6in. long. Flower-stem
2in.-30in. in height. Flowers in umbels. Corolla 4in. long. Capsule 4 in.
long. Both islands: mountain ranges. Fl. Jan.-Feb.

Ourisia ceespitosa (The Tufted Ourisia).

Stem creeping. Leaves opposite, numerous, round, 4 in. across. Flower-
stem 2in.-4in. long, lin.-6in. flowered. Corolla 4in.-3in. across, white,
Capsule $4 in. long. Both islands: Ruahine Mountains, Southern Alps, Otago.
Fl]. Feb.-March.

Ourisia glandulosa (The Glandular Ourisia).

A small, stout herb. Leaves closely imbricating, }in.-1in. long, $ in.-? in.
broad, thickly covered with rough glandular hairs. Flower-stems 1 in.-2 in. long.
Flowers 1 in.-3 in., white, 4 in.-?im. across. South Island: Mt. Sealy, Southern
Alps, Otago Lake district. Fl. Jan.-Feb.

A genus of distinctly Antarctic distribution, found in the
mountains of Tasmania, New Zealand, South America and

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 385

Fuegia. The beautiful white flowers, and large cordate leaves,
bear some slight resemblance to those of the Chinese Prim-
rose, and it 1s possibly on this account that O. macrophylla
is called by colonists, the New Zealand Primrose. The leaves
decrease in size, and become more coriaceous, the higher up

Fig. 130. Ourisia macrophylla (4 nat. size)

the mountains the plant is found. Thus Owrisia macrophylla,
with large, tender leaves, up to six inches in length, is found
in damp shady places at lower altitudes, reaching nearly to
sea-level in Stewart Island. In Ourista Colensot, found on the
tops of the Ruahine Range in the North Island, and at an
altitude of 3,000 feet in the Waiau Mountains in the South
Island, the leaves are half an inch or less. In Ourisia
cespitosa, found on the Southern Alps at altitudes of from

26

386 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

3,500 to 6,000 feet, the leaves are thickly coriaceous, and only
4 in.-$ in. in length, whilst Owrisia glandulosa, found at the
height of 5,000 feet in the Otago lake district, has become
reduced to a patch-plant.

Genus Huphrasia.

Herbs, with opposite leaves. Calyx 4-lobed, rarely 6. Corolla 2-lipped,
5-cleft. Stamens 4. Capsule oblong, 2-valved. A small genus, chiefly found in
Australia and New Zealand. The European species are partially parasitic.
(Name from the Greek for joy, in allusion to its reputed virtue). 8 sp.

Euphrasia antarctica (The Antarctic Eyebright).

A small herb, 1in.-2in. high. Leaves 75 in.-4in. long ; margins recurved.
Flowers $ in.-jin. across. Both islands: in alpine situations. Fl. Jan.-March.

The genus Euphrasia belongs to a group of plants which
are nearly all root-parasites. (v. Dactylanthus, p. 150.) The
New Zealand species are also doubtless parasitic, though
they have not as yet received any close investigation. The
Kuphrasia seedlings develop first of all normally, but, on the
secondary rootlets, there are produced small round nodules—
not unlike those on the roots of a leguminous plant. Their
function, however, is completely different. | When they come
in contact with the root of another species, they put out short
absorption-cells, which penetrate the tissues of the host.

They are mostly little known alpine plants; often tufted, or
moss-like. The genus owes its English name to the once
prevalent belief that the juices of one of the species removed
blindness, or at least improved the sight of the eyes.

Gesneriaceae.

THE GLOXINIA FamMILy.

Distribution.—A large, chiefly tropical family, possessing no important
properties, but much cultivated for the beauty of its flowers. Some of the South
American species are epiphytic. Gloxinia is one of the best-known stove-plants.
The Calabash tree of N. America, Crescentia Cujete, has edible fruits. The
family is represented in New Zealand by a genus of a single species.

THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY

Fig. 131. Rhabdothamnus Solandri.

388 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Rhabdothamnus.

A slender, twiggy shrub, 2 ft.-6 ft. high, with opposite leaves, and pretty
yellow and red striped flowers. Sepals 5; corolla bell-shaped, 2-lpped. Upper
lip 2-lobed, under 3-lobed. Stamens 5, one rudimentary. Anthers combined.
Ovary 1-celled ; ovules numerous. Capsule 2-valved; seeds minute. (Name
from the Greek, signifying a twiggy shrub). 1 sp.

Rhabdothamnus Solandri (Solander’s Rhabdothamnus).

Stem hairy. Leaves round or broadly oblong, 4in.-3in. across, toothed,
rough, membranous. Flowers terminal or axillary; corolla % in. long,
orange-red. North Island: as far South as Wellington. Fl. Oct.-Noy.

This is the only New Zealand representative of the large
tropical family Gesneriaceae. Mr. Petrie has recently* studied
the pollination of the flower, which presents various points of
interest. It seems probable that it will have to be added
to our list of bird-pollinated species, which is already
comparatively long.

Lentibulariaceae.

THE BUTTERWORT FAMILY.

Distribution.—A widely-dispersed family, of which the two principal genera
are Pinguicula and Utricularia. The leaves of plants of the former genus contain
a principle which will render milk solid without forming whey, hence the name
Butterwort.

Genus Utricularia.

Herbs usually aquatic and floating, with no true roots; the root stock
giving off long, root-like capillary branches. Calyx 2-partite; corolla 2-lipped ;
stamens 2, capsule 2-valved. Flowers yellow, white, or purple. Name from the
Latin, meaning a little bladder, in reference to the small spherical traps with
which the plants are provided, for the purpose of catching insects, etc. 6 sp.

Few plants, surely, can show a more complete series of
adaptations to their environment than these. The bladders
float the flower to the surface of the pond, so that pollination

Trans. XXXV., p. 321.

THE MADDER FAMILY 389

may take place above the water, and also collect nitrogenous
material; the filamentous leaves of some species are an
adaptation to the aquatic habitat; the shape, colouring,
and arrangement of the parts of the flower secure cross-
pollination where possible, whilst, if this fails, self-pollination
ensues as a result of a delicate readjustment of the position
of stigma and anther ; and, finally, isolation by water, secures
the plants from attacks by creeping insects, and insures the
visits of flying insects, which, alone, are likely to be useful to
them.

Utricularia Protrusa.—A floating, slender plant, with a scape of yellow
flowers. Leaves finely divided; stem bearing minute bladders. Bogs in the
North Island. Utricularia novae-Zelandiae has white flowers, and entire
radical leaves. This plant was discovered growing upon damp rocks in Palliser
Bay. Utricularia monanthos is not more than lin. in height, with a single,
purple flower. The rhizomes bear minute bladders. It has been found in the
South Island, and also in Tasmania.

. Rubiaceae.

THE MADDER FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large and widely distributed family of about 4500 species,
divided into two tribes, the Cinchonoideae and Coffeoideae. Most of the species
are found in warm and tropical regions. Coffee is obtained from the seeds of
Coffea arabica, and Quinine and Peruvian Bark from plants of the genus
Cinchona. Ipecacuanha is prepared from the rootstock of Cephaelis Ipecacu-
anha, a native of Brazil. Bowvardia is cultivated for its flowers. The New
Zealand plants belonging to the family have all inconspicuous flowers, and are
often wind-pollinated, though most foreign species are insect-pollinated.

Key to the Genera.

1. Trees or shrubs. Fruit a berry-like drupe. Coprosma, p. 390.
Herbs, leaves opposite or whorled. 2

2, Creeping herbs, with opposite leaves and red berries. Nertera, p. 398.
Slender, erect, or trailing herbs with whorled leaves. 3

3. Corolla wheel-shaped, +Galium.
Corolla funnel or bell-shaped. tAsperula.

tNot further described.

390 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Coprosma.

Shrubs or trees, very variable in size and appearance. Leaves opposite,
rarely whorled, often pitted on the under-surface, in the axils of the veins.
Flowers regular. Calyx 4-5-toothed or lobed; corolla campanulate or funnel-
shaped, 4-5-lobed. Stamens 4-5. Anthers exserted. Styles divided into from
2-4 lobes, usually long. Drupe round or oval. (Name from the Greek, signifying
excrement, in allusion to the smell of one or two species.) 39 sp.

New Zealand has no more highly developed, or characteristic
genus, than Coprosma. ‘The name is derived from the Greek,
and refers to the evil odour that the leaves of certain species
give out, when bruised. Anyone who has forced his way
through scrub, formed of the well named C. fatidissima,
knows that the smell from it becomes in time almost insup-
portable. The stench is somewhat suggestive of carbon
bi-sulphide, but apparently no attempt has yet been made to
determine its source. There are some forty species in the
genus, ranging in size from small prostrate shrubs, to trees
of 20 ft. to 30 ft. high. In some parts of New Zealand the
scrub consists chiefly of Coprosma. The most characteristic
species of the genus are twiggy shrubs, which frequently
cover the ground so thickly, that it 1s impossible to force a
way through them. Oftentimes, the only method of getting
past the coprosma-scrub is to walk over the top of it. This
method of progression, however, is not a very satisfactory one,
as there is often much risk of falling through, up to the neck.
The shrubby coprosmas generally produce small, round, or
linear leaves, less than an inch in length. It must not,
however, be imagined that all shrubs with small leaves and
twiggy interlacing branches, belong to this genus.

It has already been pointed out that there is a considerable
number of species of plants, which, in a juvenile stage of their
existence, assume a coprosma-like appearance (v. Hoheria
angustifolia, p. 256.) Other plants, in their mature forms,
also often resemble the coprosma type, e.g., Olearia virgata,
Myrtus pedunculata, Paratrophis, etc.

THE MADDER FAMILY 391

Fig. 132. Coprosma lucida (% nat. size).

392 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

The larger species of Coprosma bear little resemblance to
coprosma-scrub. They have often leaves several inches in
length, which are of a brighter green than those of the
shrubby forms. Some of these are well known plants, and
are frequently cultivated. Thus C. lucida, which with several
other arboreous species, is known as Karamu, is frequently
found in gardens, being valued on account of the beauty of its
small orange-red berries. It has been suggested that the
_seeds of this and of C. Bawert might be ground for coffee, as
the genus is not far removed from that of the coffee plant.
Indeed, a member of the Wellington Philosophical Society
once provided his fellow members with ‘ coffee ’’ from the
latter plant. This drink was said to possess a splendid aroma,
but the experiment does not seem to have been repeated.

C. Bauert is much used for hedges in Wellington and Mel-
bourne. In the former place it 1s generally known as taupata
(sometimes nauwpata) ; in the latter it is called the looking-
glass plant. It is a sea-side plant with bright glossy green
leaves, which possess a two-layered epidermis. In _ this
respect it differs from many other species of the genus.

Veronica speciosa, another sea-side plant, differs similarly
from many of the other veronicas. C. Baweri seems to
flourish best, when in reach of the ocean spray. The stipules
of this and of other species possess an apical gland,
which secretes a viscid fluid that protects the tender leaf bud.
Similarly, the bud scales of the horse-chestnut are covered with
an extremely sticky secretion, that protects the bud in winter.

’

In many of the species there are developed in the axils
of the lateral veins, and the midrib, small pits that have
given rise to much investigation,* but their function is still
unknown.

POLLINATION IN COPROSMA.

Probably the flowers of all species of Coprosma are wind-
pollinated. Pistillate and staminate flowers are formed on

*Greensill : Leaf structure of Coprosma, Trans, XXXV., p. 342.

THE MADDER FAMILY 393

Fig. 133. Coprosma arborea (2 nat, size).

394 PLANTS: OF NEW ZEALAND

different plants; and vary little in different species. In their
insignificance, their protruding stamens with pendulous
anthers, and dust-like pollen flying in clouds, they are
typical of wind-pollinated plants. Insects are seldom seen on
the flowers, though, according to Mr. Cheeseman,* a small fly
visits the male flowers of C. propinqua, possibly to feed on the
pollen, but, as it is never seen on the female flowers, it can be
of no use in the work of pollination. The styles are long and
projecting, and are covered with stigmatic protuberances,
which are well calculated to catch the wind-blown pollen.

FRUIT.

The fruit is a berry, containing generally two plano-convex
seeds. It may be of various colours, and is often very pretty.
The pale-blue translucent fruits of C. acerosa, var. brunnea,
are very attractive, and are often eaten by children. In C.
spathulata the drupe is black, in C. luwcitda—as already stated—
orange-red, in other species (e.g. C. Cunninghamit) it is
colourless and translucent, in C. rhamnoides the immature
fruit is bright-red, and finally becomes black. In C. obconica
it 1s yellowish white, and broader than it is long: thus the
characters of the fruits are valuable, in discriminating the
species. The flowers throughout the genus are useless for this.
purpose, as they are so much alike.

Coprosma grandifolia (The Large-leaved Coprosma).

A shrub, 6ft.-15ft. in height. Leaves 4in.-8in. long, 14in.-3 in. broad,
acute, membranous, not shining. Flowers in terminal or lateral fascicles,
sessile, green. Calyx minute; corolla narrow, funnel-shaped or tubular. Drupe
4in. long, orange-red. North Cape to Buller River. Fl. April to June. Maori
name, Rauwrekau.

Coprosma lucida (The Karamu).

Glossy-leaved, except in var. obovata, 2 ft.-15 ft. in height. Leaves 2in.-5 in,
long, oblong, acute, coriaceous. Calyx 4-5-toothed. Corolla 4-5-lobed ; stamens.
4 or 5. Styles very long, slender. Drupe 4in. long, orange-red. Both islands.
Fl. Sept.-Nov.

Auras, SD. To}, Boel}.

THE MADDER FAMILY 395:

Coprosma Baueri (The Tauwpata).

A shining shrub, from 1 ft.-20ft. in height. Leaves almost fleshy, ovate,
glossy, margins often recurved. Stipules broad. Staminate flowers in dense:
heads ; calyx 4-toothed ; corolla 4-lobed. Pistillate flowers 3-5 only; calyx and

Fig. 134. Coprosma tenuicaulis with berries (% nat. size).

corolla 4-toothed. Drupe jin.-}in. long, orange-yellow. North Cape to
Greymouth: sea cliffs. Norfolk, Kermadec, and Chatham Islands. Fl.
Sept.-Nov. Maori names, Tawpata and Nawpata.

396 PLANTS OF NEW ZEKALAND

Coprosma robusta (The Robust Coprosma).

A stout shrub, 2 ft.-12 ft. in height. Bark pale-brown. Leaves shining,
1 in.-5 in. long, 4 in.-2 in. broad ; margins often slightly recurved. Flowers in
dense heads. Calyx and corolla 4-5-toothed or lobed. Drupes thickly set, 4 in.
long, red or vellow. North Island and northern part of South Island, Chatham
Island. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Maori name, Kakaramu or Karamu.

Coprosma arborea (The Tree Coprosma).

A small tree, 15 ft.-30 ft. in height. Leaves 1in.-2in. long, 4in.-1 in. broad.
Petioles winged, reddish below. Flowers in round heads, sessile, greenish-white,
on arrested axillary shoots. Calyx and corolla 5-lobed Pistillate flowers 4-10,
in round clusters. Drupes in dense heads, 4 in. in diameter, translucent,
finally black. A most distinct species. North Island: as far south as the

Lower Waikato. Fl. Oct.-Nov.

Coprosma rotundifolia (The Rouwnd-leaved Coprosma).

A spreading shrub, 4 ft.-12 ft. in height. Bark pale; young shoots hairy.
Leaves in pairs, distant, }in.-lin. long, ovate, round or oblong, membranous,
downy. Flowers sessile, axillary, solitary or fascicled, greenish-white.
Staminate flowers without calyx; corolla deeply 4-5 cleft. Pistillate flowers
with 4-5-toothed calyx, and 3-4-lobed corolla. Drupes usually in pairs, roundish,
4in. broad, red. Both islands: in thick bush. FI. Sept.-Oct.

Coprosma areolata (The Areolate Coprosma).

A slender shrub, 6 ft.-15 ft. in height. Branches often fastigiate. Leaves
4 1n.-% in. long, ovate or oblong, acute, thin, membranous, flat, with large spaces
between the veins. Flowers axillary, solitary, or in clusters of 2-4. Staminate
flowers with spreading lobes, § in. across, pale-mauye or pink. Pistillate flowers
funnel-shaped, 4-lobed. Drupe solitary, round, 75 in.-$in. in diameter, black.
Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct.

Coprosma parviflora (The Small-flowered Coprosma).

A rigid shrub, 4 ft.-14 ft. in height. Bark pale-brown ; young shoots hairy.
Leaves 4 in.-? in. long, leathery, fascicled, lmear-oblong or obovate ; veins faint.
Flowers solitary, or 2-4 together, 74 im.-; in. long. Drupe round, white, or
tinged with violet; finally black. Both islands: abundant. Fl. Nov.-Jan. A
very variable species.

Coprosma acerosa (The Acerose Coprosma).

A low shrub, 1 ft.-4 ft. in height. Stem prostrate or sub-erect, with
interlacing branches. Leaves usually in pairs, + in.-% in. long, 34 in.-;5 in.
broad; veins faint. Flowers on minute terminal branchlets. Staminate
flowers solitary, or 3-4 together, without calyx; stamens 4. Pistillate flowers
solitary, 7s in.-75 in. long, tubular, 4-lobed. Drupe round or oblong, é in.-4 in.
long, clear, white, or pale-blue. Both islands: sea-coasts or river-valleys.

397

R FAMILY

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‘(OZIS Of) BILOFHAPUOYOIP VACION “CET STA

398 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Coprosma propinqua (The Kindred Coprosma).

A thickly-branched shrub, 6 ft.-20 ft. in height. Bark brown; young shoots
downy. Leaves #in.-5in. long, ~;in.-tin. broad. Flowers solitary or 2-5
together ; fascicles involucrate. Staminate flowers usually fascicled ; calyx 0;
corolla 4in.-4in. long. Pistillate flowers -5-75in. long, 3-4-lobed. Styles
short. Drupe round, opaque, 4in. long, usually changing from yellow or white
to black. Both islands: damp _ places. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name
Mingimingi.

Coprosma linariifolia (The Narrow-leaved Coprosma).

A slender shrub or tree, 4 ft.-20 ft. in height. Young shoots downy. Leaves
not fascicled, $in.-15in. long, 4in.-4in. broad, flat, rather membranous, veins
faintly seen. Flowers terminal, on small branchlets. Staminate flowers in
small fascicles; calyx 0; corolla 4in.-4in. long. Pistillate flowers solitary,
qy in.-t in. long. Calyx 4-5-lobed; lobes long. Drupe broadly-oblong, 4 in.-4in.
long, translucent, finally black. Both islands. Fl. Oct.

Coprosma feetidissima (The Fetid Coprosma).

A slender, twiggy shrub, 6 ft.-10 ft. in height, or a small tree 20 ft. in height.
Branches interlacing, young shoots downy. Bark pale-red or grey. Leaves
variable, distant, #in.-24in. long, }in.-}in. ‘broad ; midrib obvious. Flowers
axillary or terminal, sessile, fuchsia-like, solitary or in pairs. Staminate
flowers $in.-%in. long, funnel-shaped, 4-5 to 8 or 10-lobed, rarely 6-lobed.
Stamens as many as the lobes. Pistillate flowers 3-5-lobed. Drupe 4in.-} in.
long ; yellow or red, rarely white and translucent. Odour of shrub strong and
unpleasant. Both islands, Chatham, Stewart, Auckland, and Campbell Islands.
Fl. Aug.-Oct.

Genus Nertera.

Prostrate soft-leaved herbs. Stipules minute. Flowers terminal or axillary,
solitary, sessile. Calyx 4-toothed; corolla 4-5-lobed; stamens 4-5; anthers
exserted. Fruit a fleshy drupe. 4 sp.

Nertera depressa (The Oblate-berried Nertera).

A perennial herb, growing in patches. Stem rooting at the nodes. Leaves
round or ovate, shining. Flowers terminal. Drupe red, depressed. Both
islands: Stewart and Auckland Islands. Fl. Oct.-Jan.

Nertera dichondreefolia (The Dichondra-leaved Nertera).

Stem creeping, hairy, 3in.-2ft. long. Leaves dull-green, membranous,
hairy, ovate or cordate. Stipules acute. Flowers and fruit larger than in
N. depressa. Both islands. Stewart Island. Fl. Oct.-Dec. (Dichondra is a
genus of Convolvulaceae, q.v.)

THE MELON AND CUCUMBER FAMILY 399

Caprifoliaceae.

THE HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY.

Distribution.—The Caprifoliaceae are natives chiefly of the northern parts
of Europe, Asia, and America. They are more rare in the Southern Hemisphere.
Their uses are unimportant, but many of the species are cultivated for the
beauty and fragrance of their flowers. The Guelder Rose, the Honeysuckle or
Woodbine, the Elder, the Snowberry, the Laurustinus, the Leycesteria, and the
Weigelia, all belong to this family.

The only genus by which the family is represented in New Zealand is that of
Alseuosmia, which is endemic.

Genus Alseuosmia.

About 4 species, very difficult to determine on account of their variability.
Shrubs with alternate leaves, and fragrant, drooping flowers. Calyx 4-5-toothed ;
corolla 4-5-lobed; stamens 4-5. Berry crimson, 2-celled. Minute tufts of
reddish hairs are produced in the leaf-axils. (From the Greek for a grove and a
sweet-smell, in reference to the delicious odour of the species).

Alseuosmia macrophylla (Zhe Large-leaved Alsewosmia).

A shrub, 4 ft.-10 ft. in height. Leaves 3 in.-7-in. long, oblong, often glossy.
Flowers drooping, solitary, or in 1-3-flowered fascicles. Corolla 14in. long,
erlmson. Berry 4$in. long, crimson. Both islands: rare and local, FI.
Oct.-Nov.

Alseuosmia quercifolia (The Oak-leaved Alseuosmia).

A slender shrub. Leaves 1in.-4in. long, oblong or oyate-lanceolate, variable,
entire or lobed, almost membranous. Flowers solitary, or in fascicles of 3-6.
Corolla 4 in.-? in. long ; tube red, lobes greenish. Stigma often longer than the
petals. Both islands: rare and local. Fl. Oct.-Dec.

Cucurbitaceae.

THE MELON AND CUCUMBER FAMILY.

Distribution.—A large family, chiefly tropical. Many of the species
furnish fruits and vegetables, such as the Melon, Cucumber, and Pumpkin. The
plants contain a strong purgative, which, in some species, is so concentrated as
to render them poisonous; in others, howeyer, this substance is so diffused,
especially under cultivation, that the plants become useful as food,

400 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

renus Sucyos.

Annual creeping herbs. Calyx 5-toothed, corolla 5-lobed. Filaments 3-5,
anthers united. Staminate flowers racemed, pistillate panicled. Fruit small,
leathery, 1-seeded. Tendrils branched. (Name from the Greek, signifying a
cucumber.)

Sicyos australis (The Southern Sicyos).

A glabrous herb, with stems 2 ft.-10 ft. long. Leayes 5-7-lobed. Flowers
green, 4 in. across, axillary. Fruit a nut, with barbed spines. Both islands:
very rare. Fl. Dec.-March. Found also in the Kermadecs and Norfolk Island.

This is one of the many climbing plants of New Zealand.
Sicyos chimbs by tendrils, as also do Clematis and Passiflora.
The tendril-bearing plant has a great advantage over other
forms of chmbers. It can grip hold of smaller projections
than can be seized by a twining ster., and can climb up
great tree-trunks by this means, when such a stem would
fail altogether to ascend. Nature rarely develops a new
organ for a new function, but generally modifies an old
one to do the work. Thus, we find that tendrils are merely
modified leaves or stems, or even roots. In Clematis, it 1s the
petiole that forms the tendril; in Passiflora tetrandra, and
Sicyos, the tendrils are probably modified branches. The
twining of a tendril is caused by its outer side growing more
rapidly than the inner, and thus producing curvature. The
tendrils of Sticyos are unusually sensitive, and, a few minutes
after they touch an obstacle, the tips will completely encircle
it. The tendency to curve is also communicated to the rest
of the tendril, so that it coils up hke a corkscrew. Now, as
both of its ends are fixed, it is clear that the torsion would
soon cause it to snap, if some provision were not made
to guard against such an accident. This misfortune is
ingeniously prevented, by the reversal of the spiral. One
part of the tendril coils from right to left, while the other part
is twisted in the opposite direction. A short straight portion
unites the two coils. There are several advantages in the
reversed spiral. If a tendril is twisted an equal number of
times in opposite directions, then there is no strain from the

THE CANTERBURY BELL FAMILY 401

torsion, and the tendril can be pulled straight without any
twists being left in it. If, on the other hand, a continuous
spiral is strained, the convolutions can be effaced, but kinks
are left in it, and a break is likely to ensue at any one of
them. In a strong wind, therefore, the continuous spiral
would be broken, whilst the plant with tendrils in reversed
spirals “rides out the gale with a long range of cable paid
out.” The coiling of the tendrils brings the plant and its
support close together in calm weather, and enables them to
separate somewhat in a storm. The reversed spiral is not
uncommon in nature. It is frequent in the twining stems of
Miihlenbeckia. It is often found where a long band, whose
ends are fixed, has to be packed in a short space, e.g., the
intestines of the tadpole, the pond mussel, and the colon of a
ruminant. It may be well seen in the tendrils of Sicyos
australis.

From this short account, it may be gathered that the
tendril is one of the most perfect of Nature’s contrivances.
Those who wish to pursue their investigations further, should
read Darwin’s classic work on Climbing Plants.

Campanulaceae.

(Including Lobeliaceae.)

THE CANTERBURY BELL FAMILY.

Pollination.—The flowers of this family approach in type those of the
Composites. The anthers ripen first, and the style receives pollen shed by the
anthers, while the stigmas are closed. The flower afterwards becomes female,
and, if not insect-pollinated, self-pollination takes place in a similar way to that
described under Compositae. (For further details, see Wahlenbergia).

27

402 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Key to the Genera.

Sub-Family Campanuloideae: Flowers regular. Anthers

usually free. Corolla bell-shaped, stamens free. Wahlenbergia, p. 402.
Sub-Family Lobelioideae: Flowers irregular. Anthers
united.
1. Fruit, a coriaceous capsule, 2-valved at the top. Lobelia, p. 403.
Fruit a berry. 2
2. A tall herb, with flowers in racemes, and large leaves. Colensoa, p. 404.
Small creeping plants with prostrate stems. 1Pratia.

tNot further described.

Genus Wahlenbergra.

Erect or ascending, generally glabrous, milky herbs. Flowers terminal,
drooping in the bud, white or blue. Calyx-lobes 3-5 ; corolla bell-shaped,
5-lobed. Stamens 5, epigynous, with filaments dilated at the base. Ovary 2-5-
celled. Style simple, hairy at the top. Stigmas 2 or 3. (Named after a
Swedish botanist.) This genus largely takes the place in south temperate
regions of the North Temperate Campanula. 3 sp.

Wahlenbergia gracilis (The Graceful Blue-bell).

A slender annual. Stem 1 in.-24 in. high, angular, branches terminating in
slender 1-flowered peduncles. Leaves 4 in.-2 in. long, radical, spathulate,
petioled, toothed; cauline sessile, linear oblong. Flowers variable in size and
form. Corolla 4 in.-} in. long; blue, purplish, or white. Abundant throughout
the islands, up to 4000 ft. Fl. Oct.-Mar.

W. saxicola has larger and more beautiful flowers, and is common in the
hilly and sub-alpine districts of Otago.

W. gracilis is one of the commonest of flowers in dry
situations on open plains, and grassy hill-sides. It might be
described as the New Zealand blue-bell, except that the
application of the term to a flower, which is more often white
than blue, is scarcely appropriate. The colour, though
commonly a dingy white, varies in shade from white to deep
blue. In Tasmania and Australia, where the plant is also
abundant, the colour of the corolla is generally brighter than
in New Zealand specimens. JW. cartilaginea is a curious
little sweet-scented mountain species, found in Nelson. The
coriaceous petioles, with cartilaginous margins, short stout
scapes, and low habit, are highly characteristic of an alpine
plant.

THE CANTERBURY BELL FAMILY 403

The method of pollination in the genus is typical of that of
the order. The anthers ripen before the stigmas, and the
pollen is discharged on to the hairs on the outside of
the style, which at this time is closed, but afterwards divides
into two arms. The pollen is carried up by the growing
style, but cannot reach the stigmatic surfaces, which are
closely pressed together. On the hairy tip of the style it is
presented to imcoming insects, which remove it to other
flowers. Honey is secreted at the base of the style by a disk,
and is, in most Campanulaceae, protected by the expanded
base of the filament, so that it can only be obtained by an
insect which can insert its proboscis into the narrow slit,
between two adjacent stamens. This arrangement, and the
drooping habit of the flower, show that plants of this family
are specially adapted for bee pollination, though other insects
may also visit them.

As the pistil ripens, the two arms of the style separate,
disclosing the papillose stigmas, and finally become recurved.
They are right in the way of any insect which may enter the
flower, or endeavour to obtain the honey at the foot of the
bell. Thus cross-pollination is likely to be effected; but, if
this fails, then the recurvature of the stigmas against the
pollen-covered surface of their own styles, will secure self-
pollination; so that, in one way or another, fertilization is
ensured. The flowers of Pratia, Lobelia, and Colensoa, are
similar to those of Wahlenbergia. In Pratia, the white
corolla is provided with purple guide-lines, leading back to the
honey-glands at the base of the flower.

Genus Lobelia.

Erect or ascending, milky herbs. Leaves alternate. Flowers racemose or
axillary. Corolla-tube split to the base down the back, 2-lipped ; ovary 2-celled,
Capsule usually dehiscing by 2 valves at the top. (Named after a Flemish
botanist). A large and widely-spread genus, of which several species are
commonly grown in gardens, 3 sp.

404 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Lobelia anceps (The Doubtful Lobelia).

A herb, 6 in.-12 in. high. Stems triangular. Leaves 1 in.-3 in. long,
spathulate or oblong. Flowers 4 in. long, pale blue, on short axillary peduncles,
North Island, and northern part of South Island. LZ. Roughii is a remarkable
alpine and sub-alpine species, from the mountains of Nelson.

Genus Colensoa.

This genus is separated from Lobelia, on account of the berried fruits. 1 sp.

Colensoa physaloides (The Physalis-like Colensoa).

Stem flexuose, branched, 2 ft.-3 ft. high, woody at the base. Leaves
alternate, membranous, ovate, with petioles 3 in.-6 in. long. Racemes 6-12-
flowered ; corolla 1 in.-2 in. long, blue. Berry 4 in. in diameter. Northern

parts of Auckland province. (Physalis is the Cape Gooseberry).

Goodeniaceae.

THE GOODENIA FAMILY.

A small family of chiefly Australian and Polynesian plants, differing only
from the Campanulaceae in the absence of milky juice, and in the presence of a
pollen-cup (v. Selliera).

Genus Selliera.

Small, hairless, rather fleshy,
creeping herbs. Corolla 1-lipped,
split posteriorly to the base.
Stamens 5, epigynous, anthers
free. Ovary 2-celled, style simple,
carrying at its apex a small 2-
lipped cup. Fruit a berry. 1sp.

Selliera radicans
(The Rooting Selliera).
Stems juicy, 2 in.-10 in. long.

Leaves 4 in.-3in. long, spathulate,
obtuse, entire, petiole half-clasping the stem. Flower-stalks solitary, or several
together, 1- or 2-flowered. Flower }in. long. Berry very variable in size.
Fl. Nov. Jan. Both islands, abundant in the salt meadows.

Fig. 136. Selliera radicans (3 nat. size).

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 405

The plant is found abundantly in the salt marshes along the
coast line; often forming, with Samolus littoralis, a carpet
starred with white flowers, Just above high water mark, on the
edges of the estuaries and salt-water lagoons. Its method of
pollination is most interesting™.

The little white flower has a curiously one-sided appearance,
and the casual observer almost invariably thinks that half the
corolla is torn away.

Compositae.

THE Daisy, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY.

Distribution.—This is the largest family of flowering plants, comprising
12,000 species. Some of the species contain a milky, acrid juice. Under cultivation,
many of the Compositae produce so-called “‘ double ’’ flowers, e.g. the disk florets,
usually tubular, tend to become ligulate or rayed. This is seen in the Daisy, the
Chrysanthemum, the Dahlia, etc.

The Chicory, the Endive, the Artichoke, and the Lettuce, are also members
of this family.

CONTRIVANCES FOR POLLINATION AND SEED DISPERSAL.

A family which includes nearly ten per cent. of all the
known flowering plants must be one which is well fitted to
survive in the struggle for existence, and is likely also to
represent a highly developed type. Indeed, the Composites are
generally regarded as being at the head of the Vegetable
Kingdom. It is worthy of note that the majority of the
species are herbs, though, amongst the New Zealand forms,
there is an unusually large percentage of shrubs. Very often
they are plants with radical leaves.

In such a successful family, it might be anticipated that the
various devices for pollination and distribution of the seed
would cause diversity of structure, but the characters of the

*Cheeseman Trans., Vol. IX. p. 342.

406 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

flowers and seeds are remarkably constant. This is, doubtless,
due to the fact that the contrivances employed for pollination
and seed-distribution, though comparatively simple, are yet
highly efficient. The family may be contrasted in this respect
with the Orchidaceae, (q.v.). In spite of there being many
and most complex adaptations for pollination among the
orchids, yet their flowers are often sterile, and species have to
rely for survival upon the occasional production of large
numbers of seeds in a single capsule. In the Composites, on
the other hand, each pistillate floret produces only one seed,
and many florets are abortive. Nevertheless, some of the
species (e.g. dandelions, thistles, etc.) are amongst the most
abundant weeds known. No plants are more often victorious
in competition with their rivals, or better adapted for offensive
warfare.

The chief contrivances by which the success of the family
has been procured are the following. The involucral bracts
replace the calyx, and protect the flower-head as a whole in
the bud, and also as a rule bend up and enclose the young
fruit. The sex of the florets varies in different species.
Commonly, however, the ray florets are pistillate, and the disk
florets hermaphrodite. Not infrequently, however, the florets
of the ray are sterile, and therefore only of value in attracting
insects. The first obvious gain in the massing together of the
flowers in heads is conspicuousness. Another advantage is
that insects may pass from flower to flower without loss of
time.

Cross-pollination is thus effected in the family. Honey is
secreted by a ring of glands round the base of the style. When
the flower opens, the style-arms are closed. The stamens
ripen first, and the pollen falls upon, and is carried up by the
still growing style through the anther ring. Any insects now
visiting the flower must come in contact with it on entering,
and remove some of the pollen. Finally, the arms of the style
expand, and expose the now mature stigmas. Should these

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 407

fail of insect pollination, they frequently curl back, until they
touch the pollen collected on the style itself, and thus effect
self-pollination. ‘These stages may be readily followed in the

Fig. 137. Olearia insignis (2 nat. size),

dandelion. (cf. also Campanulaceae, p. 403). After pollina-
tion, the calyx tube usually grows upwards, bearing on its
summit a parachute of bristles or hairs (the pappus). In this
way the well known “clock” of the dandelion is formed.
The pappus hairs vary considerably in character, and generic
distinctions are sometimes based upon their differences. The

408

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

seed, thus provided with down, may be floated for long

distances by the wind.

or

Flowers of the disk not strap-shaped. No milky juice.
All flowers strap-shaped.
Anthers obtuse at the base, or shortly tailed.
Anthers sagittate at the base, or long tailed.

Key to the Genera.

Milky juice present.

to
wor

Stigmas flattened with marginal rows of papillae, and terminal

hairy unreceptive portions.
Style arms usually truncate, rarely produced into appendages,
generally with a crown of long hairs at the base.

Pappus 0 or obscure.
Pappus present.

Achenes contracted into a short beak.

Achenes obtuse or truncate.

Achenes rounded or slightly flattened.

Achenes much flattened. Ray-florets in 2 or more series.

Shrubs or trees.

Herbs with radical leaves.

Florets 1.
Florets more than 1.

Herbs with heads on erect racemose scapes.
Herbs with solitary terminal heads.

Head solitary on a slender peduncle.

Heads deeply sunk amongst the apical leaves.

Pappus 0, or abortive.

Achenes usually crowned with a bristly pappus.
Heads pedunculate, or mossy alpine herbs.
Heads axillary, sessile, not mosslike herbs.

Heads pedunculate.

Alpine herbs with sessile or sub-sessile heads.
Outer florets small, two lipped. Anthers shortly tailed.

Shrubs.

Outer florets filiform, ligulate or tubular.
Herbs, outer florets in two or three series, filiform.
Herbs or shrubs, inflorescence terminal,

ligulate or tubular.
Anthers sagittate.

Anthers usually with long, slender tails.

Annual or perennial herbs.

Shrubs, cushion like, or with alternate leaves.

Pappus bristles capillary, in 1 series, often slightly united

at the base.

Pappus hairs as long as the florets, plumose, head com-
pound with a common involucre.

Cushion-like, or tufted plants.

Upright shrubs with alternate leaves.

Pappus, or at least some of it, of plumose bristles.

Pappus of simple bristles.

Achenes angled, spinulose, and prolonged into a beak.

Achenes rounded, narrowed above and not beaked.

outer florets

Lagenophora, p. 410.
Brachycome, p. 410.
Y(
10
8
9
Olearia Forsteri, p. 415.
Olearia, p. 411.
Pleurophyllum, p. 417.
Celmisia, p. 418.
Vittadinia, p. 411.
Haastia, p. 423.
12
14
13
Centipeda.
Cotula, p. 434.
Abrotanella.

Brachyglottis, p. 435.
at)
Erechtites, p. 434.

Senecio, p. 436.
Helichrysum, p. 430.
17
18
19

Gnaphalium, p. 425.

Craspedia, p. 433.
Raoulia, p. 425.
Cassinia, p. 433.
Picris.

21
Taraxacum.
Crepis.

The genera Centipeda, Abrotanella, Picris, Crepis, and
Taraxacum (the dandelion) are not further dealt with.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 409

Fig. 138. Olearia furfuracea (life size).

410 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Lagenophora.

Small, perennial, daisy-like herbs. Leaves radical, rarely cauline. Ray-
florets white, rarely purple. Disk-florets yellow. Achenes compressed,
sometimes with a short beak. Pappus 0. (Name from the Greek, signifying a
flagon and to bear, in allusion to the form of the achenes). 6 sp.

Lagenophora Forsteri (Forster’s Lagenophora).

Leaves roundish, obtuse, lobed or crenate. Flower-stem lin.-6in. long,
slender, Heads 4in.-4in. across. Ray-florets numerous, white. Achenes
beaked. Both islands. Kermadecs, Stewart Island, Chatham Island. Native
Daisy : Maori name Papatanwhaniwha. FI. Oct.-Jan.

Fig. 139. Olearia ilicifolia (4 nat. size).

Genus Brachycome.

Small, tufted, perennial, daisy-like herbs. Leaves mainly radical. Disk-
florets numerous; ray-florets in 1 series, white, blue or purplish, revolute.
Achenes flat, with winged margins or 4-angled; beak 0. Pappus of short
bristles or 0. (Name from the Greek, signifying short-haired, in allusion to the
pappus). 5 sp.

Brachycome Sinclairii (Sinclair's Brachycome).

A shining herb, with radical leaves, #in.-3 in, long, rounded at the tip, entire,
lobed, pinnatifid. Flower-stems 2-6. Heads 4in. across. Bracts of involucre
green, or with purple margins. Achenes very small, shining. Native Daisy.
Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Feb.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 411

Genus Vittadinia.

Herbs, with a woody rhizome. Ray-florets numerous; disk-florets fewer.
Achenes narrow, compressed, ribbed. Pappus unequal. A genus of about
thirteen species, chiefly natives of the Sandwich Islands. 1 sp.

Vittadinia australis (The Southern Vittadinia).

Stems 3in.-10in. high. Branches slender, leafy. Leaves 4in.-3in. long.
Head solitary, terminal. Rays white. Fl. Oct.-Feb.

Fig. 140. Olearia nummularifolia (% nat. size).

Genus Olearia.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves very hard, leathery, usually white or buff-coloured
on the under-surface. Heads terminal or axillary, varying much in size.
Florets usually numerous, 5-lobed. Anthers 5. Pappus of one or more rows of
hairs. Achenes ribbed. (Name from Olea, the Oliwe, in allusion to the shape of
the leaves, in some of the species.) 35 sp.

Distribution.—This is a large New Zealand and Australian genus of shrubs
and trees. All the New Zealand forms, however, are endemic, thus indicating
that the Australian species have long been separated from ours by the Tasman
Sea. Some of the most beautiful of the New Zealand shrubs belong to this
genus. As in most genera with many species, a great amount of variability
is found, Thus Dr. Cockayne* points out that in O. semidentata of the Chatham

‘Trans. XXXIV. p. 288.

412 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Islands, the leaves show great variation in several respects. The proportions,
and actual size, not only vary largely, but some bear abundant tomentum on the
upper surfaces, there being none in others. Three plants growing side by side
in the vicinity of Lake Rangatapu might readily have been taken for distinct
species, yet the conditions under which they were growing appeared to be the
Same.

In large genera, such as Veronica and Coprosma, the
variability is so great that it is most difficult to fix the
limits of the species. The same difficulty presents itself in
Olearia ; but will to some extent be removed when our
knowledge of the genus is fuller than at present. Several
species are known only from a few specimens, and others are
extremely local in their distribution. This is the more
remarkable, as the pappus with which the seeds are provided
is eminently calculated to scatter the species widely. Some
of the finest plants in the genus are endemic in the off-islands.
Thus O. semidentata is found only on the Chatham Islands.
It bears handsome flowers of a bright purple, whose colour is
a striking contrast to the white of other species. According
to Mr. Cox, a white-rayed form is, however, sometimes found.
But this is not the only Olearia endemic to these islands.
O. Chathamica, which somewhat resembles the magnificent
O. angustifolia and O. Traversii, with opposite leaves, are also
found nowhere else. The latter was originally mistaken by
Dieftenbach for the Mangrove (Avicennia officinalis), which it
slightly resembles. Many specimens of it are to be seen in
the Christchurch Gardens, and there are also several well-
grown plants beside the Hereford Street Bridge in the same
town. O. operina is only known from the Sounds on the
West Coast of Otago. O. angustifolia—a beautiful plant,
whose flowers have white rays and a violet disk is found
chiefly in exposed places near Paterson’s Inlet (Stewart
Island), though it has been reported from south-west Otago.
O. Traillii, another noble species, is known only from one or
two localities on the mountains at the head of Paterson’s
Inlet; O. Lyallii is endemic in the Snares and Auckland

Y, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY

Fig. 141. Olearia virgata, var. aggregata (2 nat. size).

414 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Islands, where it forms thickets. It is a plant with large
leaves, green on the upper surface, and covered with a white
tomentum below. The effect of the wind on a forest of such
plants has been well described by a New Zealand poet (Mr. A.
H. Adams).

““ As the leaves to a fiercer gust lean,
The wind throws their undersides
Upwards to sight ;
And the foam of the forest-sea flashes to white,
Out over full fathoms of green.’’

O. Buchanani appears to be known from one specimen only,
and comes from an uncertain locality in the North Island.
O. Allomiti is a distinct species from Great Barrier Island.
O. angulata has only been reported from the North Cape
district. There is considerable reason for believing that this
locality was in recent times, — geologically speaking, — an
island, and, as such, it appears to have possessed several
endemic species in addition to this one, e.g., Cassinia amena,
Haloragis cartilaginea, and a Coprosma. Several other
species of Olearia are, apparently, very rare.

This remarkable development of endemic species in the off-
islands of New Zealand, undoubtedly suggests that we have in
these, new forms originated by isolation. The distribution of
the genus, therefore, well illustrates initial endemism, and
may be contrasted with such a form as Stilbocarpa polaris
(v. p. 801), which illustrates relict endemism.

Olearia semi-dentata (The Toothed Olearia).

A small, slender shrub, 1 ft.-2ft. in height. Leaves white below, thin,
1in.-24in. long, +in.-4in. broad, acute, partially serrate. Heads numerous ;
ray-florets purple. Chatham Islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. A bog plant.

Olearia insignis (The Remarkable Olearia).

A shrub, 1 ft.-8 ft. in height. Leaves 3in.-5in. long: lin.-4 in. broad, very
thick, shining above, white below. Heads terminal, 3in. across. Rays narrow.
Achenes silky. Pappus-hairs in one series. The finest species of the genus.
South Island: Nelson and Marlborough. FI. Dec.-Jan.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 415

This is a straggling plant growing in the crevices of the
rocky banks of the Clarence, Conway, and several other rivers.
The leaves are white underneath, and a beautiful glossy green
shines through the greyish bloom of the upper surface. The
white involucral bracts are in a large series of rings, and form
a cup-like envelope to the flower, similar in shape to that of
the Scotch thistle. The large, beautiful, daisy-hke flowers,
with their ragged white rays, seem strangely out of place in

Fig. 142. Olearia Forsteri (4 nat. size).

the blaze of the sun on the dry, burning, rocky walls of some

river gorge.

Olearia furfuracea (The Bran-like Olearia).

A shrub or tree, 6ft.-20ft. in height. Leaves 2in.-3in. long, 14in.-24in.
broad, obtuse, rarely acute, margins often unequal at the base, silvery below.
Branches velvety, twigs grooved. Corymbs large, loose. Heads 4in. long;
florets 8-12. Ray-florets white; pappus white. Achene slightly hairy, angled.
North Island: Auckland, Taranaki, Mokau River. Fl, Sept.-Oct. A bush plant.

Olearia nitida (The Shining Olearia.)

Leaves less leathery than in O. furfuracea, and more ovate in shape; very
silvery below. Heads 4in.-}in. long, numerous. Florets 16-20. Both
islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. A bush plant.

416 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Olearia macrodonta (The Large-toothed Olearia).

A small tree, 6 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves and branchlets whitish. Leaves
2 in.-4 in. long, 1 in.-14 in. broad, acute; veins divergent. Corymbs large ;
heads # in. long; florets 8-12; rays 3-5. Achenes ribbed, hairy. Both islands :
mountainous places. Fl. Jan. The whole plant emits a musky scent.

Olearia ilicifolia (The Holly-leaved Olearia).

Leaves glaucous, musk scented, 3 in.-4 in. long, 4 in.-#? in. broad, acute
margins with spinous teeth, yellowish below. Corymbs large, musk-scented.
Disk-florets 5-6: rays 5-7. Achenes ribbed, hairy. Both islands. Fl. Noy.-
Jan. Much cultivated.

Olearia moschata (The Musky Olearia).

A shrub or tree, 5 ft.-14 ft. in height. Leaves white below, 4in.-~in. long,
obtuse, leathery. Corymbs 2-4 times as long as the leaves. Heads few, florets
12-20, rays 7-12, long, white. Achenes ribbed, silky. South Island: local, Fl,
Jan.-March.

Olearia avicennizefolia (The Avicennia-leaved Olearia).

Branches grooved. Leaves 14in.-4in. long, #in.-14in. broad, narrowed at
both ends, white below. Heads small. Ray-florets 1, rarely 2, ray broad: disk-
florets 2. Achenes silky. Pappus-hairs in one series. South Island: Stewart
Island. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Much cultivated.

Olearia virgata (The Twiggy Olearia).

A twiggy shrub, often forming thickets. Leaves }in.-4in. long, opposite,
leathery, white beneath. Heads } in. across; florets 7-12, white. Achene
glabrous. Pappus white or reddish. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. A plant of
the open country or seashore,

Olearia Forsteri (Forster's Olearia).

Stem 5 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 13 in.-3 in. long; 1 in.-2 in. broad,
leathery, oblong, white below, obtuse, margins waved. Heads numerous,
sessile, shining. Anthers exserted. Both islands. Fl. Apr.-May. Maori
name Akiraho. A plant of the open country, or edge of the bush.

Genus Pleurophyllwm.

Large, succulent herbs. Leaves mainly radical, with strongly-marked ribs.
Flowers in racemes, on a long scape. Florets numerous. Achene marked with
lines, and set with stiff hairs. Pappus-hairs in 3 series. Name from the Greek,
meaning ribbed-leaved). 3 sp.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 417

Pleurophyllum
speciosum

(The Handsome Pleuro-
phyllum).

Leaves all radical, 6 in.-
18in. long, 6 in. - 10 in.
broad, usually flat upon
the ground, forming a large
rosette, bristly above, woolly
below. Flower stems with
several leafy bracts. Heads
8-20, 14 in.-24 in. across.
Ray-florets purplish-white,
handsome. Achenes covered
with stiff hairs, all lying in
one direction. Pappus-
hairs not thickened up-
wards. Auckland and
Campbell Islands. Fl. Dec.-
Jan.

Pleurophyllum
criniferum

(The Hairy Plewro-
phyllum).

Radical leaves, 1 ft.-4 ft.
long, 4 in. - 12 in. broad,
entire, with long sheathing
petioles, white beneath,
slightly rough above.
Nerves 7-15 ; margins with
a few distant teeth. Scapes
2 ft.-6 ft. high, grooved.
Stem-leaves sessile, white.
Heads 15-30. Ray-florets
inconspicuous. Achenes as
in P. speciosum. Pappus-
hairs slightly thickened up-
wards, Antipodes Islands.
Auckland and Campbell
Islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan.

The Auckland Islands
contain a magnificent Fig. 143. Pleurophyllum speciosum.
assemblage of herbaceous

418 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

plants, unrivalled in beauty on the mainland of New Zealand. Amongst them
are several species belonging to the endemic genus Pleurophyllum. The general
appearance of these plants is well described by Kirk.*

Genus Celmisia.

Herbs, aster-like, with radical, simple leaves, more or less clothed with silky
or cottony hairs. Stems 1-flowered. Heads large. Ray-florets white. Pappus of
2 series of rigid bristles. Achene glabrous or silky. A beautiful genus, of which
all but 2 species (C. longifolia, and C. Lechleri) are endemic in New Zealand. Of
these, C. longifolia is found both in New Zealand and Australia, and C. Lechlert
is a doubtful Peruvian species. 43 sp.

Celmisia coriacea (The Leathery Celmisia).

Leaves 8 in.-20 in. long, ? in.-3 in. broad, acute, with deep longitudinal
furrows, sheathing at the base, woolly above, silvery below. Flowering-stem
6 in.-36in. high. Head 14in.-4in. across ; bracts numerous, cottony. Achene
tin. long, hairy, compressed. Rays many, narrow, 14in. long. Both islands :
mountainous districts. The Mountain Daisy. Fl. Dec.-March.

Celmisia Monroi (Monvro’s Celmisia).

Leaves 3 in.-7 in. long, 4 in.-? in. broad, acute, white with wool. Sheath
half as long as the blade. Flower-stem very woolly. Heads 1 in.-14 in. across.
Rays few, spreading. Achene glabrous. Bothislands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. A species
midway between C. coriacea and C. longifolia.

Celmisia longifolia (The Long-leaved Celmisia).

Leaves 1 in.-16 in. long, 5 in.-§ in. broad, acute, silvery above, cottony
below. Head 4in.-14in. broad, bracts often black at the tips. Achene glabrous
or silky. Both islands; Stewart Island. Fl. Dec.-March.

Celmisia vernicosa (The Varnished Celmisia).

Leayes in rosettes, sessile, 1in.-4in. long, 4in.-}in. broad, thick, rigid,

sometimes slightly serrate at the tip. Flower-stem 1in.-8in. high, with broad
bracts. Disk-florets purple, rays white. Achene roughly hairy. Very shining
in all its parts. Auckland and Campbell Islands. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

Closely alhed to the genus Olearia, and differing from it
chiefly in habit, is the genus Celmisia. There are some forty
species in New Zealand, which, with one exception, are all
endemic. The flowers are white, daisy-like, and often very
beautiful. Most of the species are found in sub-alpine regions,
and hence are termed by the settlers, Mountain Daisies. The
leaves are frequently set in a rosette, and are often stiff

*Report of the Australasian Association, 1891, p. 220.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 419

af z ait

Fig. 144. Celmisia coriacea (4 nat. size).

420 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

and sword-lke. They are usually covered with a brown,
silvery, silky, hoary, gold-coloured, snowy, or buff tomentum,
which makes them extremely attractive in appearance. In
some cases, the midrib is also brightly coloured. Thus, in
Celmisia Traversu, the leaves and flower stems are covered
with a rich brown velvety coating of hairs; the midrib is a
deep purple, and the sheath is covered with a silky, snow-
white tomentum. Several species are frequently to be found
in cultivation, in rockeries and alpine gardens.

The leaves in most species are constructed so as to avoid
excessive loss of water by transpiration. For example, those
of C. coriacea are stiff and leathery. The lower side is covered
with a thick silvery felt of hairs, which also covers the upper
sides of the young leaves. As they grow older, however,
the tomentum of the upper-side becomes woven into a thin
skin that hes close to the surface of the leaf. Underneath
this pellicle, les the two-layered epidermis used for water-
storage. The sheaths are covered with a loose felt, whose thin
walled hairs probably absorb the water that runs down to them
from the surface of the leaves. This may be of special value
to the plant when the ground is frozen in winter, and water
cannot reach it through the roots. According to Kirk,
shepherds use the tomentum of this plant for lamp-wicks.

OC. Lyalliti is even more admirably adapted than C. coriacea
for an alpine habitat. Indeed, Diels considers the structure
of its leaf unique amongst dicotyledons. It has narrow
linear leaves, that might be readily mistaken for those of a
grass, and which Diels compares in structure to those of a
steppe grass. True palisade cells are wanting, and are replaced
by a chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma of small rounded cells,
similar to that found in the leaf of an iris or grass. It is
curious that this structure should have been adopted, in a plant
of an order so widely divergent from the grasses, but many
Composites have leaves which externally resemble those of a
grass, though it would be very difficult, perhaps impossible, to

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 42]

Fig. 145. Celmisia coriacea (3 nat. size).

422 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

find one with an internal structure similar to that of the
leaf of C. Lyallii. Probably the large palisade cells were
insufficiently protected from transpiration, and hence the
adoption of the grass-like leaf. The stomata are in hair-filled,
longitudinal grooves, on the under surface of the leaf, and thus
the exposed transpiration surface is reduced to a minimum.

We have here, therefore, a remarkable example of the
principle, that the shape, and general appearance of the foliage,
depend to a greater extent upon environment, and less upon
heredity, than is generally supposed.

In C. sessiliflora the leaves are reduced to an inch or two in
height, and the plant forms broad masses surrounding the
flower heads, which are sunk amongst the apical leaves; and in
C. argentea the leaves have become needle-like and involute.
The leaves are also reduced to needles in C. lateralis and
C. laricifolia. It is such remarkable adaptations as these, that
have enabled Celmisia to become one of the dominant genera
of the New Zealand sub-alpine meadows.

Though so highly characteristic of mountain regions, the
genus is also found on the lowlands, and by the sea-shore.
C. longifolia, for example, in one of its many forms, is found
throughout New Zealand, from the sea-coast, up to the height
of about 5,000 feet. OC. Mackauwi, however, another very
distinct form, is only known with certainty from one spot on
Banks Peninsula. There, however, it is fairly plentiful, and
is scarcely likely to suffer extinction, unless at the hands of
too enthusiastic collectors, so that perhaps it will be wiser not
to disclose the exact position of its habitat.

Some of the Celmisias, hke many Olearias and other
Composites, have varnished leaves. Some also closely
resemble the Andean Asters and LErigerons, and _ this,
doubtless, more because of similarity of habitat, than because
of affinity.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 42%

Genus Haastia.
Tufted, woolly shrubs, forming dense masses, sometimes several feet across.
This genus differs from Raoulia in having tailless anthers. | Flower-heads large,
solitary, sunk amongst the upper leaves. Ray-florets female. Disk-florets

Fig. 146. Celmisia longifolia, var. (} nat. size).

numerous. Achene shining, narrow, sometimes ribbed. Pappus-hairs rigid,
white. (Name in honour of Sir Julius von Haast). This genus is endemic in
New Zealand. 4 sp.

494 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Haastia pulvinaris (The Cushion-like Haastia).
Rootstock woody : plant forming a cushion 3 in.-5 ft. across. Leaves tawny
or buff-coloured, with thick, close wool, densely imbricating. Heads 4 in.-4 in.
across. Rays very short. Achene shining. Pappus-hairs free to the base.
South Island: mountainous districts. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Colonists’ name, Vegetable
Sheep.

Haastia pulvinaris has been more closely studied than any of
the others. It 1s sometimes incorrectly described as belonging
to the shingle-slips, but is really a rock-plant. Though often
found at the edges of the fans, and sometimes even surrounded
by detritus, it will, if examined, be found rooted to the
under-lying rock. It has been found only on the mountains
of South Nelson, and exists there at an altitude of from
5,000 feet to 6,000 feet ; it 1s therefore a true alpine, and, like
other alpines, has had to devise special means of protection
against the rigours of the climate.

HaApir.

Haastia is a shrub, but it 1s as unlike a typical shrub as
possible. It has no little twigs to be broken, or slender
branches to sway in the wind. It is a compact, low-growing
cushion plant,* often covering an area of from twelve to twenty
square feet. The branches are all of the same height, and so
closely fitted together, that 1t 1s impossible to thrust a pencil
point between them. ‘The wind may sweep round the plant,
but it cannot move or shake it. The leaves of Haastia, how-
ever, are 1ts most unique characteristic. They are from 41in. to
4 in. in length, and so closely packed together as to be matted
into a cushion, and indistinguishable from each other, while
attached to the plant. Whenever they are exposed, they are
thickly felted with long, slender, woolly hairs, that give the
plant its characteristic appearance, and its popular name of
vegetable sheep. On the tip of the leaf, as might be expected,
the covering of wool is densest. One value of this covering is
clearly to protect the plant from the intense cold, to which it
is exposed. Indeed, its whole structure is evidently not only

*u. p. 426.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 425

intended “to keep the cold out,” but also to protect it from
loss of heat by excessive radiation, to the clear cold skies of
winter.”
Genus Gnaphalium.
Woolly or cottony herbs, Leaves alternate, Heads small, solitary, fascicled,
or in corymbs. Florets all fertile, bracts usually white. Achene small, hairy.

Pappus-hairs in 1 series, sometimes united at the base. (Name from the Greek,
referring to the wool with which the plants are covered). 10 sp.

Fig. 147. Gnaphalium trinerve.

Gnaphalium luteo-album (The Yellowish-white Gnaphalium).
Annual or biennial. Leaves narrow, #in.-2 in. long, woolly, the upper ones
without foot-stalks. Heads fascicled, 4 in.-tin. long, yellowish-brown. Bracts
shining. Achene dotted with pits. Both islands; Stewart Island. Fl. Dec.-
March. A common weed.

Genus Raoulia.

Small, tufted, alpine herbs, often growing in dense masses. Leaves very
small, imbricate, often silky or woolly. Heads small, terminal, solitary.

*y. Trans. XXXII., p. 150.

426 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Disk-florets numerous, outer florets in 1 or 2 series. Pappus of 1 row of hairs.
Achene small, oblong. A small genus almost confined to New Zealand. (Named
after Raoul, the French botanist). 17 sp.

Raoulia Haastii (Haast’s Raoulia).

A prostrate herb, much tufted. Branches not more than 1in. high. Leaves
closely imbricating, -; in. long, obtuse, coriaceous. Plant glabrous, sometimes
with a few loose hairs. Head 4in.-tin. long; florets 6-8. Achene slightly
hairy. South Island. Fl. Noy.-Dec.

Raoulia eximia (The Extraordinary Raoulia).

Stems 1 ft. in height, forming cushions, sometimes several feet in length.
Rootstock woody, Leaves 4in. long, almost hidden by dense tufts of white

Fig. 148. A Cushion Plant (Raoulia australis).

velvety hairs. Heads numerous, terminal, sunk among the leaves. Achene
silky. Pappus few-haired. Vegetable Sheep. South Island: mountainous
districts. Fl. Jan.

Raoulia mammillaris (The Breasted Raoulia).

Stems 1 ft.-2 ft. in height, forming knobby grey patches, sometimes several

feet in length. Leaves 7; in.-751n. long, imbricate, cottony or woolly. Heads
#in. long, terminal, sunk amongst the leaves. Florets about ten. Achene
compressed, silky. Pappus few-haired. Vegetable Sheep. South Island:

mountainous districts.
CUSHION-PLANTS.

Plants which grow in low, compact masses, are frequently
called “ cushion-plants,’ and sometimes “ patch-plants.”” In

427

DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY

DAISY,

Fig. 149. Raoulia mammillaris.

428 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

many parts of the world there are no examples of these
curious and interesting forms of vegetation, except amongst
the mosses. In New Zealand, however, there is quite a large
number of phanerogamic cushion-plants. The most typical
examples are to be found in the genera Raoulia and Haastia.

When species of these genera are covered with woolly hairs,

Fig. 150. Helichrysum grandiceps (2 nat. size).

they may, from a short distance, so resemble a sheep, as to
deceive the unwary. Hence has arisen the name, ‘ vegetable
sheep,’ which is applhed to the species of Haastia, and to
several species of Raoulia. The New Zealand forms of
cushion-plant are found chiefly in stony river-beds (e.g. of the
Waimakariri, Rakaia, Waitaki), on rocky mountain sides, and
also on shingle-fans. Their curious forms of leaf and stem

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY

Fig. 151. Helichrysum bellidioides (life size).

430 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

have been developed, probably, as a protection against drought
and excessive radiation (v. Haastia pulvinaris, p. 424). In
other parts of the world, patch-plants are found chiefly in
alpine districts. Their occurrence in low-land regions, as in
New Zealand river-beds, is exceptional. In the Swiss Alps
they are represented by certain species of Androsace and
Saxifraga, which, however, are rather rosette-plants, than true
cushion-plants. They are most abundant in the Andes, where,
according to Schimper, their representatives are forms of most
diverse affinity. This really shows that the common habit of
the various cushion-plants is due to environment, and not
to relationship. Indeed, the conditions of life in some parts of
the Andes, are so similar to those in the Southern Alps, that
the vegetation in these widely separated districts is externally
much alike. A New Zealander, suddenly put down in the
Andes of Peru or Bolivia, might still think himself at home, on
account of the similarity of the plant forms about him, to those
of his native land. This resemblance, however, is only in
small part due to actual affinity, and much more to parallelism
of evolution, resulting from similarity of surroundings.

The New Zealand Raoulias are often very beautiful, owing
to their symmetry of form and leaf arrangement. Some are
coralloid in appearance, though resilient to the tread, like a
good carpet. They grow where other forms of life cannot find
a footing, and thus have generally plenty of room to develop
their own individuality.

Genus Helichrysum.

Herbs or small shrubs. Leaves alternate, woolly. Heads solitary or in
corymbs. Bracts of the involucre often appearing like petals. Disk-florets
4-5-toothed. Ray-florets few. Pappus-hairs simple, or studded with short
bristles. About 16 species in New Zealand, all endemic. (Name from the

Greek, signifying an everlasting flower) 16 sp.

Helichrysum selago (The Selago-like Everlasting).

A shrub, 4 ft.-9ft. in height. Leaves closely imbricate, leathery, concave,
woolly. Head terminal, sessile, solitary, not sunk amongst the leaves. Florets

FAMILY

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AND THISTLE

DANDELION,

DAISY,

nat. size).

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432 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

numerous. Achene slightly hairy, Pappus-hairs not thickened upwards.
South Island: Kaikouras, Mount Torlesse, Otago. Fl. Jan. (Selago, a South
African genus of plants.)

Helichrysum grandiceps (The New Zealand Edelweiss).

A tufted herb. Stems 1in.-7in. high. Leaves closely imbricating, silvery-
white on both surfaces, +in.-$in. long, tips often recurved. Heads terminal,
surrounded with leafy bracts, white with wool. Florets numerous. Achene
hairy. Pappus-hairs slightly thickened upwards. South Island: mountainous
districts. Fl. Jan.-March. Very similar to the Swiss Hdelweiss, differg only in
the rounder shape of the leaves and bracts.

Helichrysum is a large genus, found in most parts of the
world. It includes the plants known as Immortelles, which
owe much of their beauty to the scaly bracts collected round
the flower-heads. These involucres may be snow-white,
golden-yellow, or rose-red. The sacred flower, which the
Greek pilgrims bring from Mount Athos, is H. virgineum. H.
arenarium is well known in the Rhine Valley. The genus is
closely related to Raoulia and Haastia on the one hand, and
to Gnaphalium on the other. The New Zealand species are
all endemic, and are usually divided into three sub-genera.
Sub-genus (1) Xerochlaena consists of herbs with daisy-like
flowers; (2) sub-genus Ozothammus consists of shrubs, some-
times of a most extraordinary appearance, while the plants of
sub-genus (3) Leontopodioides much resemble the Swiss
Edelweiss, Gnaphalium leontopodium. H. grandiceps is the
Edelweiss of the Southern Alps. Probably the most
remarkable species of the genus is Helichrysum (Ozothamnus)
coralloides (fig.123). It is a rare, sub-alpine rock-plant, with
thick, fleshy, closely appressed, overlapping, grey, shiny
leaves, which give the plant the appearance of being dead and
withered, though it may be in active growth. H. depressum
presents a somewhat similar appearance. The living plant
might readily be taken by the passer-by for a bush of leafless
twigs, that had been dead for months. In H. coralloides the
tips of the leaves are hard, brown, and scale-like, and suggest
strongly the appearance of the bracts of a pine cone. Indeed,

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 433

a branchlet of this species might well be taken for a small pine
cone, or for an unusually hard and membranous unopened
catkin. Unfortunately, the leaves have not hitherto received
any close examination, and so no account of their microscopic
structure can be given. The interstices between the bases of
the leaves are closely packed with felted hairs. On the outer
surfaces the tips of the hairs are brown-red; elsewhere they

are white.
Genus Cassinia.

Shrubs. Leaves small, entire, often rusty-coloured below. Heads terminal,
in corymbs or panicles, Florets tubular. Achenes papillose. Pappus-hairs in
1-4-rows, slightly thickened at the tips. (Name in honour of M, Cassini, a
French botanist). 5 sp.

Cassinia leptophylla (The Narrow-leaved Cassinia).

Stems 5 ft.-12ft. high. Branches and under-surfaces of leaves clothed with
white tomentum. Leave ;4‘in.-7jin. long, obtuse, marginsrecurved. Heads in
corymbs, 4 in.-} in. long. Florets 6-10. Both islands. Colonists’ name
Cottonwood, Maori name Tauhinu.

Cassinia Vauvilliersii (Vawvilliers’ Cassinia).
Stems 2ft.-Sft. high. Branches covered with viscid yellowish tomentum.
Leaves $1n.-4 in. long, coriaceous, obtuse, glutinous. Heads in round corymbs
tin. long. Both islands.

Cassina fulvida (The Yellow Cassinia).

Stems 2ft.-5ft. high, with slightly viscid yellow tomentum. Leaves
é in.-} in. long, sessile, obtuse, glutinous above, clothed with yellow tomentum.
Heads $ in.-}in. long, in corymbs. Florets 6-10. Scales among the florets few
or 0. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-March.

Genus Craspedia.

Erect, leafy, perennial herbs, with globose, woolly heads. Leaves radical and
alternate. Florets 5-12, tubular, 5-toothed, intermixed with transparent scales.
Achene silky, oblong. Anthers 2-tailed, Pappus of 1 row of soft feathery hairs.
(Name from the Greek, signifying a fringe, in allusion to the white hairs upon
the margins of the leaves). 1 sp.

Craspedia uniflora (The One-fowered Craspedia).

Stem 4 in,.-20in. high. Leaves chiefly radical, 1in.-8 in. long, fringed with
white hairs. Head rounded like a ball, or disk-shaped, + in.-2 in. across.
Plorets yellow or white. The whole plant is usually clothed with a white, woolly,
or cottony tomentum, but is sometimes glabrous. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-

March. Several species seem to be included under this name.
29

434 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Genus Cotula.

Perennial herbs, often succulent, sometimes aromatic. Stems prostrate or
creeping. Leaves radical or alternate, usually pinnatifid. Heads small,
terminal or axillary. Florets
4-5-toothed. Anthers without
tails. Achenes compressed, some-
times winged. Pappus 0. About
50 species, of which 19 are
endemic in New Zealand. (Name
from the Greek, signifying a
cup, in allusion to the shape of

the involucre).

Cotula Coronopifolia
(The ( ‘oronopus-leaved
Cotula.)

Stems fleshy, creeping, rooting
at the nodes. Branches 3 in.-
10in. high. Leaves $in.-2in.

long, sheathing at the base, lobed

g;
or pinnatifid. Heads 4in. across,
yellow. Ray florets in 1 series ;
corolla 0. Achene flat, winged.
Both islands ; marshy places.
Fl. Sept.-March. English name
Yellow - button. (The English
Coronopus is the Wart-Cress.
The name is originally from the

Greek, meaning raven-footed).

Genus Hrechtites.

Erect, glabrous, or cottony
herbs, 1 ft.-4 ft. m height. Leaves
simple or pinnatifid. Heads in
corymbs. Rays 0. Florets tubu-
lar, 3-5-toothed. Anthers without

tails. Pappus in many series of

Fig. 153. Craspedia uniflora (3 nat. size).

small, soft hairs. About 7 species,

of which 3 are endemic in New Zealand. (A Greek name for groundsel).

Erechtites prenanthoides (The Prenanthes-like Hrechtites).
Leayes 2 in.-6in. long, narrow, hairy or shining, the upper ones sessile, with
toothed auricles. Heads in loose corymbs. Florets about 18 in.-20in. Disk-
florets 4-lobed. Achenes angular. Pappus-hairs rigid. Both islands. Fl.

Oct.-Jan. (Prenanthes is a Kuropean and West African genus of Composites).

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 435

Genus Brachyglottis.
Shrubs or trees. Branches and under surfaces of leaves white with tomentum.
Heads numerous, in large panicles. Achenes short, papillose. Pappus-hairs
seriate. 2 sp.

Brachyglottis repanda (The Wavy-leaved Rangiora).
Stems 8 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 14in.-6 in. long, soft, dull green above,
milky-white below, wavy in outline. Flower-panicles drooping, usually terminal.
Heads #in.-$in. long, whitish, bracts of involucre shining. North Island
chiefly. Fl. Aug.-Oct.

Fig. 154. Brachyglottis repanda (4 nat. size).

Brachyglottis Rangiora (The Rangiora).

Stems 8 ft.-14 ft. in height. Leaves 6in.-9 in. long, glossy, often unequal at

the base. Flower panicles axillary or terminal, with an entire ovate leaf at the
base of the branch. Involucres purple. North Island chiefly. Fl. July-Sept.

Plants of this genus are well known to the Maoris, under the
name Hangiora. The leaves were much used by them for
application to wounds, and old sores. Possibly the poisonous
principle found in them is antiseptic, and thus the wound was
cleansed by the use of the leaf. Horses are not infrequently
poisoned by eating the foliage of Brachyglottis. The late Mr.
Skey endeavoured to isolate the poisonous principle, but failed

436 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

to do so, though he obtained some curious reactions with the
balsamic exudation from the stem of the freshly cut shrub.*
The leaves of Brachyglottis rangiora are very handsome, and
rival in size those of Hntelea or Meryta. The flowers are
produced in large, heavily scented plumes, and are very
attractive to bees.
Genus Senecio.

Herbs, shrubs or trees, with alternate leaves. Heads terminal; flowers
solitary, or in corymbs or panicles. Florets yellow ; rays rarely white or purple.
Disk-florets tubular, 5-toothed. |Pappus of one or more rows of hairs. Achene
round or angular. (Name from the Latin, signifying an old man, from the white
hairs of the pappus). 30 sp.

Senecio lautus (The Elegant Senecio).

Stem sometimes prostrate, 3in.-24in. long. Leaves fleshy, 1 in.-2 in. long,
often auricled at the base, narrow, toothed, lobed or pinnatifid. Heads in
corymbs, +in.-?in. across. Rays 10-15, yellow. Achene grooved, shining or hairy.
Pappus soft, white. Bothislands: Stewart and Chatham Islands. Fl. Oct.-March.

This is a genus of world-wide distribution, and very varying
habitat, of which the common groundsel is generally regarded
as the typical form. In New Zealand it 1s well represented,
and includes among its species some of our most beautiful
shrubs. The prevailing white of the New Zealand flora is
generally modified in this genus to yellow. here are over
thirty indigenous species, which, with one exception, are
also endemic. As in Olearia, many of these forms, though
provided with excellent means of distribution, are extremely
local. S. glaucophyllus is apparently only known from the
limestone rocks of Mount Arthur in Nelson, and S. Pottsii
froma single habitat inthe Upper Rangitata. S. perdicioides,
originally discovered by Banks and Solander, and then lost for
nearly a hundred years, is found only in the East Cape
district. The remarkable S. Huntit is confined to the
Chathams, S. Muwellert to an island in Foveaux Straits and to
the Snares, S. antipodus to the Antipodes. Perhaps the only
one which can be said to be abundant, is the multiform
S. lautus, though S. bellidioides, and one or two other sub-
alpine species are comparatively common. The handsome

“Trans. XIV., p. 400.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY

Fig. 155. Senecio cassinioides (nat.

438 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

S. saxifragoides, supposed by Kirk to be confined to Banks
Peninsula, is undoubtedly the typical S. lagopus of Raoul
(Choix 21. T. 17). It still produces its large-leaved rosettes
on the southern faces of cliffs, where Raoul found it,
near Akaroa. It is also plentiful behind Lyttelton, often
growing in altogether inaccessible localities, and it is the only
Senecio which haunts these situations on the peninsula. It
may be found in flower from early spring to late autumn: but

Fig. 156. Senecio Lyallii (+ nat. size).

its blossoms are produced in greater profusion in summer.
S. scvadophilus is an interesting liane, the only New Zealand
climber of the genus. It is known from only a few scattered
habitats in the South Island. It may occasionally be seen in
the neighbourhood of Akaroa, covering the green top of some
tree with its network of yellow flowers. S. rotundifolius
is the mutton-bird scrub of Stewart Island. Its leaves are
much used by tourists for post cards, the white tomentum of
the underside affording a suitable surface for writing.

DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 439

Fig, 157. Senecio saxifragoides (3 nat size).

GLOSSARY.

ABERRANT, differing from the usual
structure, varying from the ordinary
type.

Abortive, imperfectly developed.

Acerose, needle-shaped, with a stiff
point.

Achene, a small, hard, dry fruit, which
does not open spontaneously.

Acicular, slender, or needle-shaped.

Acrid, harsh, biting.

Acuminate, narrow, tapering to a point.

Acute, sharply pointed, but not drawn
out.

Albuminous, containing albumen, a form
of food material stored within the
seed.

Annual, a term applied to plants which
perish in one year.

Anther, Vv. p. 43.

Apex, the growing point of a stem or
root, the tip of an organ.

Apical, at the point of any organ or
structure.

Appendage, a part added to another, @.g.,
leaves are appendages to a stem.

Appressed, kept under, lying flat for the
whole length of the organ.

Arborescent, attaining the size or
character of a tree.

Aril, a membranous or fleshy seed-
covering, formed by an expansion of
the stalk attached to the ovule,
often brightly coloured.

Assimilation, v. p. 39.

Auricled, having ear-shaped appendages.

Awn, a bristle-like appendage, especially
occurring in grasses.

Axil, the angle formed between the
branch and trunk, or between the
stem and the leaf.

Axillary, growing in an axil.

Axis, an imaginary line, round which the
organs are deyeloped. Floral ais,
that part of the stem or branch upon
which the flowers are borne.

Bast, the inner, fibrous bark of a tree.

Bearded, having tufts of hairs.

Berry, a pulpy fruit containing seeds.

Biennial, a term used of plants which live
through two years.

Blade, the expanded portion of a leaf.

Bract, an undeveloped leaf on a flower
stalk.

CALYX, v, p. 44.

Cambium, a layer of tissue formed
between the wood and the bark,
producing wood on the inside, and
bark on the outside.

Campanulate, bell-shaped.

Capitate, arranged in a head.

Capillary, slender, hair-like.

Capsule, a dry seed-vessel, which splits
open spontaneously for the purpose
of shedding its seeds.

Carpel, v. p. 43. :

Cartilaginous, hard and tough, (as the
skin of an apple-pip).

Catkin, a pendulous spike of flowers, of
one sex only.

Cauline, belonging to the stem, applied
to leaves borne on the stem, as
distinct from those that spring near
the root.

Cell, an independent unit of protoplasm,
usually contained in a membranous
envelope.

Cellulose, the material composing the
cell wall, the carbohydrate which
is the basis of paper.

Chlorophyll, the green colouring matter
contained in plant-cells.

Cleistogamic, having flowers which never
expand, and which are necessarily,
therefore, self-pollinated. v. p. 269.

Compressed, more or less flattened.

Cone, the fruit of a pine tree, formed of
woody bracts.

Connective, that part of the anther which
separates the two lobes.

Cordate, a term applied to heart-shaped
leaves, with the petiole at the broad
end.

Coriaceous, tough, leathery.

Corolla, v. p. 44.

Corona, a series of out-growths from the
corolla, either free or united, which
may appear like an additional ring of
petals or stamens.

Corymb, a flat-topped panicle of flowers.

Cotyledon, a seed leaf, the first leaf
produced by a young plant. v. p. 47.

Crenate, a leaf form in which the margin
is divided into rounded teeth.

Crucitferous, in the form of a cross.

Cupressoid, cypress-like.

Cuticle, the outermost skin covering the
epidermis.

GLOSSARY 44]

Cyme, a broad and flattened branched
flower-cluster of which the middle
flower opens first.

Cymose, bearing, or relating to cymes.

DeEcIpuUOUS, applied to those parts of a
flower which fall when the fruit is
formed, or to trees whose leaves fall
in autumn.

Decompound, several times divided.

Decussate, in pairs, alternately at right
angles.

Defiexed, bent, or turned abruptly down-
wards.

Dehiscent, opening spontaneously when
ripe, as seed capsules.

Depressed, sunk down, hollowed, as if
flattened from above.

Dicotyledon, a plant with two seed-
leaves.

Digitate, fingered, a compound leaf in
which all the separate parts spring
directly from the apex of the petiole.
as in Schefflera.

Dilated, expanding into a _ blade, as
though flattened.

Dicecious, v. p. 44.

Dimorphism, v. p. 292.

Disk, a circular development, usually of
the receptacle within the flower,
sometimes consisting only of a ring of
prominences, which secrete nectar.

Dissected, applied to a leaf, divided into
numerous irregular portions.

Divaricating, spreading asunder at a
wide angle, extremely divergent.

Drupe, a stone fruit, such as a plum.
(The fruit of Rubus is an aggregation
of drupes).

Ecouocy, the study of plant-life in
relation to environment.

Embryo, the rudimentary plant formed
within the seed.

Endemic, confined to a certain locality,
peculiar to a country.

Entire, applied to a leaf of which the
margin is not indented.

Epidermis, v. p. 40.

Epigynous, placed on the ovary, applied
to corolla and stamens.

Epipetalous, seated on the petals.

Epiphyte, v. pp. 20, 21.

Epiphytic, growing on other plants by
way of support.

Exserted, protruding beyond, as stamens
beyond the tube of the corolla.

Exstipulate, without stipules.

FASCICLE, a dense cluster of flowers,
leaves, stems, or roots.

Filament, a slender thread, the stalk of
the anther. v. p. 43.

Filiform, thread-like.

Flaccid, weak, flabby.

Flexuous, bending alternately in different
directions.

Floret, a small flower, one of a cluster of
compound flowers.

Florula, a small flora, the botanic
account of a small district.

Foliaceous, leafy, leaf-like in texture.

Foliate, clothed with leaves.

Foliolate, provided with leaflets.

Follicle, a fruit of one carpel, opening by
the inner or anterior seam.

GLABROUS, smooth, shining, without
hairs.

Gland, an organ for secreting oil or other
liquids on the surface of some part of
the plant. It sometimes ends in a
hair or bristle.

Glandular, bearing glands.

Glaucous, sea-green, covered with a
bloom, as a cabbage-leaf.

Gluten, a tough nitrogenous substance
occurring in grain after the removal
of starch.

Glutinous, covered with a sticky
exudation.

HALOPHYTE, Vv. pp. 42 and 155.

Hastate, spear-shaped.

Herbaceous, a term applied to plants

without a woody stem.

Hermaphrodite, v. p. 44.

Heterophylly, the occurrence of leaves of
more than one form upon the same
stem.

Hoary, grey with fine hairs.

Host, the plant from which a parasite
draws its nourishment.

Hybrid, a plant obtained by the
application of the pollen of one
species to the stigma of another.

Hydrophyte, a water-plant. v. p. 42.

Hypogynous, seated beneath the ovary.

IMBRICATE, Overlapping, like the scales of
a fish.

Indehiscent, applied to fruits which do
not open along regular lines to
liberate the seed.

Indigenous, native to a country.

Inferior, below some other organ; é.g.,
calyx below ovary.

Inflorescence, the arrangement of the
flowers and flower-stalks.

TInosculate, to grow together at points.

Insolation, exposure to the direct rays of
the sun.

4492 PLANTS OF

Introrse, turned inwards.
Involucre, a circlet of bracts,
around a flower-cluster.
Involucrate, having an involucre.
Involute, having the margins of the
leaves rolled inwards.
Irregular, unsymmetrical,
regularity of form.

placed

wanting in

LANCEOLATE, narrow and tapering, like
the head of a lance.

Lateral, fixed on or near the side of an
organ.

Legume, a two-valved seed-vessel, open-
ing down both seams.

Lenticel, an opening occurring in the
bark of a plant through which water
vapour is given off.

Liane, a woody climber.

Ligneous, woody.

Linear, narrow,
than wide.

Lobe, any division of an organ, especially
a rounded division.

v. pp. 16-19.

several times longer

MESOPHYTE, a plant which avoids both
extremes of moisture and drought.
Vv. D. 42.

Moniliform, necklace-shaped,
string of beads.

Monocotyledon, a plant producing only
one seed-leaf. wv. p. 82.

Moneecious, v. p. 44.

like a

NEcTARY, the organ in which honey or
* nectar is secreted.

Node, that part of a stem from which
leaves, branches, or leaf-buds are
given off.

Nodule, a small knot, or rounded body.

Nut, a hard, one-seeded fruit, with woody
covering.

OBOVATE, applied to leaves that are
ovate, with the broader part towards

the apex.

Obscure, uncertain, hidden.

Obsolete, scarcely apparent, almost
vanished.

Obtuse, blunt or rounded at the end.

Orbicular, applied to a leaf with a
circular outline.

Osmosis, the mixing of liquids through a
membrane separating them.

Ovary, that part of the pistil which
contains the ovules. v. Pp. 43.

Ovate, egg-shaped, applied to a solid
body, as a fruit.

Ovule, the young seed in the ovary
v. p. 43.

NEW ZEALAND
PALMATE, applied to leaves with five
lobes.
Papillae, soft superficial glands or
protuberances.

Papillose, covered with papillae.

Pappus, thistledown, the tufts of hairs
on achenes or fruits, the calyx of
composite florets.

Parasite, v. p. 20.

Pedicel, a flower-stalk, the support of a
single flower.

Peduncle, the general name for the stalk
of a flower or flower cluster.

Pedunculate, on a peduncle.

Pellicle, a small skin, the outer cuticular
covering of plants.

Pellucid, partially or wholly transparent,

Peltate, target-shaped, applied to leaves
attached by their lower surface to the
stalk, instead of by the margin.

Perianth, v. p. 45.

Perigynous, inserted round the ovary.

Persistent, remaining till the part which
bears it is wholly matured, as the
leaves of evergreens.

Petal, v. p. 44.

Petaloid, like a petal, having a floral
envelope resembling petals.

Petiole, the footstalk of a leaf.

Phanerogaimic, v. pp. 49, 428.

Phylloclade, a fiattened branch assuming
the form and function of a leaf.

Phyllode, a petiole taking on the form
and function of a leaf.

Pinnate, with leaflets arranged along each
side of a common petiole.

Pinnate-partite, pinnately parted, with
the lobes extending more than half-
way to the mid-rib.

Pinnatifid, cut into lobes extending about
half-way from the margin to the mid-
rib.

Pitted, marked with small depressions.

Pistil, v. p. 43.

Placenta, the organ which
ovules in an ovary.

Placentiferous, bearing placentae.

Plumose, feathery, as the pappus of
thistles.

Pollen, v. p. 43.

Pollination, v. pp. 43, 44.

Pollinia, v. p. 112.

Polymorphic, with several or various
forms.

Pome, an inferior fruit of several cells,
of which the apple is the type.

Protandrous, having the anthers mature
before the pistils in the same flower.

Protogynous, having the pistils receptive
before the anthers have ripe pollen.

Puberulous, minutely downy with hairs.

bears the

GLOSSARY 443

QUADRATE, four-sided, square, or nearly
square.

RACEME, an inflorescence in which the
flowers are born on pedicels along a
single, undivided axis.

Racemose, having racemes, raceme-like.

Radical, applied to leaves or flowers
springing from or very near the root-
stock.

Radicle, the rudimentary root of the
embryo.

Receptacle, the point of the peduncle
(above the calyx) upon which corolla,
stamens, and ovary are inserted; also
applied to the axis upon which a
head of capitate flowers is situated.

Regular, uniform, symmetrical.

Revolute, having the margins rolled out-
wards.

Rhachis, or rachis, the axis of an inflores-
cence, or of a compound leaf.

Rhizome, a stem of root-like appearance,
prostrate or underground, producing
roots below and stems above.

Rosulate, collected into a rosette.

SAGITTATE, applied to a leaf shaped like
an arrow head.

Saprophyte, a plant which lives upon
dead organic matter.

Scandent, climbing.

Scape, a leafless flower-stalk arising from
the ground.

Sepal, v. p. 45.

Sepaloid, resembling a sepal.

Series, a row.

Serrate, with regular pointed teeth, like
a saw.

Sessile, without a stalk.

Simple, consisting of a single piece.

Spadix, a spike with a fleshy axis.

Spathe, a large bract enclosing a flower-
cluster.

Spathulate, oblong, with the lower part
narrow and tapering.

Spike, an inflorescence bearing sessile
flowers along a common axis.

Spinulose, with minute spines.

Sporadic, occurring here and there in a
scattered manner.

Stamen, v. p. 43.

Staminodia, false stamens, bearing no
anthers.

Stellate, star-shaped.

Stigma, v. p. 43.

Stipule, a leaf or scale-like appendage at
the base of the leaf-stalk.

Stoma, stomata, v. p. 39.

Style, v. p. 43.

Sub-quadrate, nearly square.

Sucker, a shoot of subterranean origin.

Superior, growing or placed above, usually
applied to the ovary when free from
the calyx; or to the calyx when it
appears to be above the ovary.

TERETE, circular in transverse section,
eylindric, and usually tapering.

Ternate, in threes, as three in a whorl or
cluster.

Tetrangular, four-angled.

Tetrandrous, having four stamens, free
from the pistil.

Tomentum, short, soft, dense, cottony
hairs.

Transpiration, v. p. 40.

Trimorphic, occurring in three forms.

Truncate, abruptly terminated, as though
cut off at the end.

Tubular, hollow and cylindrical.

Tumid, having a blistered appearance,
swollen.

UNDULATE, wavy in outline.

Umbel, a flower cluster in which several
pedicels of about the same length
spring from one point, like the ribs
of an umbrella. An umbel is simple,
when each of its branches bears a
single flower ; compound, when each
ray bears a secondary umbel.

Unicellular, formed of one cell.

VASCULAR, relating to or furnished with
vessels.

Venation, the mode of veining.

Vernation, the order of unfolding from
leaf-buds.

Volute, rolled up.

WHORL, the arrangement of any organs
in a circle around an axis.

Winged, with a membranous expansion
attached.

NG BW eS

Abrotanella, 408
Absorption of moisture, 118
Acena, 45, 54, 106, 201, 202, 314, 366
i adscendens, 37, 202, 203
$3 glabra, 54
a microphylla, 201
3 novae-Zelandiae, 201
AA sanguisorbae, 37, 201, 202
Acianthus Sinclairii, 124
Aciphylla, 216, 239, 257, 276, 312, 316, 318,
321
6 Colensoi, 189, 318, 320
3 Monroi, 322
A squarrosa, 318, 320
x Traversivi, 318
Actinotus, 314
Adams, Mr. A. H., quoted, 6, 11, 414
Affinities of New Zealand flora, 30, 31
Affinities of South American flora to that
of New Zealand, illustrated
by Fuchsia, 292
Agathis, 58, 60, 304
= australis, 62
Aizoaceae, 50, 159
Aka, 280, 288
Akatawhiwhi, 280
Akatea. 282
Ake-ake, 225, 268, 269
Akiraho, 416
Alectryon, 55, 225
as excelsum, 225
Alpine vegetation, 22-24
Alps, Southern, 157
Alpine leaf-forms, described by Ruskin, 23
Alsewosmia, 52, 62, 399
a macrophylla, 399
a quercifolia, 399
Alterations in climate, 239
Alterations in leaf-form, due to moist
habitat, 241
Alternanthera, 55
Anemone Family, 160
Aniseed, 322
Angiosperms, 43, 47
Angelica, 322
+9 geniculata, 322
= gingidimm, 322
Angiospermae, 49
Annuals, absence of, in New Zealand, 42
Antarctic element in New Zealand flora,
25
Antiquity of New Zealand flora, 27-30
Apiwm, 315
"7 prostratum, 315

Apocynaceae, 340
Aralia, 300, 304

a crassifolia, 307

A Lyallii, 300
Araliaceae, 50, 300
Archeria, 323,
Aristotelia, 242, 244

i Fruticosa, 246

9 racemosa, 9, 42, 244, 246
Armstrong, Mr. J. B., referredéto, 145, 300
Arthropodium, 100

5 candidum, 102

" cirrhatum, 100
Arundo conspicua, 5, 322
Ascarina, 56
Ash, New Zealand, 225
Asplenium, 7
Assimilation, explanation of, 39
Astelia, 62, 98, 99, 100

Cunninghamii, 21, 100
a linearis, 100
7 nervosa, 100
Solandvi, 21

as spicata, 21

Auckland Island forest, description of,
281

Australian Bottle-brushes, 146

a element in N.Z. flora, 25, 32-34
Avicennia, 139, 253, 351-361

[A officinalis, 352

a5 germination of, 360
Azorella, 314, 315

op selago, 314

Balanophoraceae, 149, 150
33 fungoid appearance of, 149, 150
3 germination of, 149
Beeches, 8, 10
Beech Forest, 130
Beet Family, 154
Beilschmiedia, 175
3 Tarairi, 175
35 Tawa, 175
Bidi-bidi, 202
Bindweeds, 342, 344
Birches, 29, 134
Bird-catching plant, 159
Bitter juice as safeguard against browsing
animals, 244
Black Pine, 69
Blue colour, significance of, in flowers,
348, 349
Bolbophyllum, 118, 120, 124
“ pygma@um, 21 124

INDEX 445

Boradi, 202
Borage Family, 346
Boraginaceae, 53, 346, 348
Botanical Introduction, 38
Botting Hemsley, Mr. W., referred to, 31
Bottle-brush Family, 147
Bottle-brushes, Australian, 145, 146
Brachycome, 410
op Sinclairii, 410
Brachyglottis, 348, 435, 436
‘, Rangiora, 347, 435
Bracken fern, 3, as a food, 6
Bramble, 196
Bristles, as protective organs, 244
Broadleaf, 70, 298
Brown, My. R., of Christchurch. referred
to, 374
Buchanan, referred to, 23
Bucket-of-water tree, 146
Buckthorn Family, 235
Buckwheat Family, 151
Bulbinella, 102
Pr Hookeri, 102
99 Rossii, 102
Bulli-bull’, 202, 366
Bush, The, 8, tropical appearance of, 10,
Melanesian origin of, 8,
natural permanence of, 10
Bush lawyer, 19, 200
Bush sarsaparilla, 90
Buttercup Family, 160, 166
Butterflies, pollination by, 162
Butterwort Family 388

Cabbage-tree, 4, 8, 9, 28, 48, 88, 93, 95, 96,
98

Caladenia, 125

AS bifolia, 125

mp Lyallii, 125

ae minor, 125
Calceolaria, 36, 366, 368

PA Sineclairii, 367, 368
Callitriche, 56

7 antaretica, 36
Caltha, 171, 172

7 novae-Zelandiae. 171, 172
Calystegia, 342

oh sepium, 342, 343

- soldanella, 344

a Tuguriorum, 344
Campanulaceae, 52, 401, 403, 407
Canterbury Bell Family, 401
Caprifoliaceae, 399
Carex secta, 5
Carmichaelia, 140, 204, 206, 208, 239

os australis, 204, 208

Bnysti, 206

ae exsul, 206

- flagelliformis, 206, 216

Aa nana, 204

Carpodetus, 56, 188

+] serratus, 56, 188
Carrot Family, 313
Caryophyllaceae, 51, 55, 156, 158
Cassinia, 32, 323, 433

53 ameoena, 414

fulvida, 433

5 leptophylla, 433

” retorta, 238

“f Vauvilliersti, 433
Cassy tha, 55, 139, 176, 345

7H paniculata, 177
Catasetum, pollination of, 114
Cedar, New Zealand, 222
Celery Pine, 76
Celmisia, 23, 418, 422

oy argentea, 422

be coriacea, 418, 420

5s laricifolia, 422

3 lateralis, 422

Bs Lechleri, 418

i longifolia, 238, 418

es Lyallii, 420, 422

nA Mackaui, 382, 422

a Monroi, 418

e sessiliflora, 422

ip Traversti, 420

an vernicosa, 418
Centipeda, 408
Chatham Island Lily, 168, 347, 348
Cheeseman, Mr. T. F., referred to, 48, 57..

115, 116, 118, 286, 368, 405

Chenopodiaceae, 55, 154
Chenopodium, 55, 155

3 triandrum, 155
Chickweeds, 156, 157, 158
Chloroplasts, 39, 40
Christmas Tree, 288
Classification, key to, 49
Classification of Plants, 46
Cleistogamic flowers, 116, 220, 221, 263

An 5 in Viola, 263, 264
Cleistogamy, 296
Climate, effect of on plants, 239
Climate, variation in, 257
Climatic reserves, 12
Climbing plants of New Zealand, 400
Climbing Plants, profusion of, 10
Climbing stem, advantages of, 18
Clematis, 19, 162, 400
Clematis, colour of, 162
Clematis seed, description of, 164
Clematis afoliata, 166, 239

33 hexasepala, 166

= indivisa, 164, 166

at. parviflora, 166
Clianthus, 204, 210

3s puniceus, 210
Clover-dodder, 344
Clover Family, 203

446

Club-mosses of New Zealand, 8, 27
Cockayne, Dr. L., referred to, 10, 23, 133,
158, 198, 206, 212, 214, 246, 252,
256, 257, 258, 260, 294, 301, 321,
(footnote) 374, 375, 378, 380,
411
‘ Dr., on Discaria, 240, 241
Colenso, Dr., referred to, 238, 284, 321, 322,
343, 364
Colensoa, 347, 348, 403, 404
i physaloides, 404
Colour in gentians, 338
Colour in New Zealand flowers, 162,349. 436
Compositae, 29, 52, 346, 401, 405, 406, 422
nS colours of, 162
oF sub-alpine, 22
Coniferae, 58, 60, 70, 256
Connection between New Zealand and
Australian Floras, 25
Continental islands, 26
Convolvulaceae, 53, 342, 398
Convolvulus, 19, 342, 343
x erwbescens, 342
Coprosma, 22, 140, 246, 256, 258, 323, 390,
392, 414
Coprosma, fruit of, 394
Coprosma, pollination of, 392
Coprosma areolata, 396
my acerosa, 394, 396
oA arborea, 396
» Baueri, 392, 395
a Cunninghamii, 394
Pe fatidissima, 390, 398
% grandifolia, 151, 394
an linariifolia, 398
4 lucida, 392, 394
bs obconica, 394
Pe parviflora, 396
3 propinqua, 394, 398
A rhamnoides, 394
on robusta, 396
FS rotundifolia, 396
5 spathulata, 394
a tenuicaulis, 395
Corallospartiwm, 204, 206, 208
Cordyline, 28, 92, 98
a Australis, 88, 93
ie Banksii, 98
fe indivisa, 98
o pumilio, 98
Coriaria, 52, 226, 229
= ruscifolia, 226, 235
-s thymifolia, 226
Coriariaceae, 226
Cork-wood tree, 243
Cornaceae, 51, 297
Cornel Family, 297
Corokia, 297
ee buddleoides, 297
an cotoneaster, 298

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Corynocarpaceae, 233
Corynocarpus, 52

BS levigata, 233
Corysanthes, 116, 120, 125

mS macrantha, 110, 125
Cottonwood, 433
Cotula, 434

55 atrata, 157

A coronopifolia, 434

7 filiformis, 170

oY speciosa, 316
Cow-leaf, 266
Cranesbill, 215
Crantzia, 313
Craspedia, 433

oF alpina, 157

es uniflora, 433
Crepis, 408
Cross-pollination, 44, 112, 106
Cross-pollination in Compositae, 406

= in Viola, 262

3 in Wahlenbergia, 403
Cruciferae, 52, 177
Criiger, Dr., quoted, 112
Cucurbitaceae, 379
Cucumber Family, 399
Cupressoid leaves, 375
Currant tree Family, 185
Currant, New Zealand, 246
Cuscuta, 53, 139, 177, 344, 345, 361
Cuscuta densiflora, 345

- trifolii, 344

=n germination of, 344, 345
Cushion plantis, 424, 426, 428
Cyathodes, 329
Cycadeae, 28
Cynoglossum, 348
Cypripedium, 112
Cyurtostylis, 125

— oblonga, 125

Bes rotundifolia, 125

Daerydium, 58, 74
laxifolium, 58, 76
4 cupressinum, T4
Dactylanthus, 54, 56, 139, 150, 151, 386
< Taylori, 150
Daisy Family, 405
-. Mountain, 418
+3 native, 410
Dandelion Family, 405
Dandelion, 407, 408
Danthonia, 4
Daphne Family, 269
Darwin, referred to, 111, 182, 184, 292, 370,
401
Daucus, 314
Deciduous trees of New Zealand, 9, 260
Dendrobium, 116, 120, 124, 356
3 Cunninghamii, 21, 111, 124

INDEX

Destruction of forest, 12, 13
Dianella, 98

_ intermedia, 98
Dichondra, 53, 344

aH repens, 344
Dicotyledonous plants, 47, 49
Diels, Dr., referred to, 21, 41, 158, 166, 170,

190, 208, 253, 257, 317

Dimorphism, 292
Discaria, 41, 54, 55, 239, 241, 257, 276, 370

a toumatou, 9, 239
Dispersal of seeds, devices for, 45

F in Compositae, 405-6
Dodder, 176, 345
Dodonead, 225, 268

‘5 viscosa, 225
Dogwood Family, 297
Domett, quoted, 8, 16, 20, 161, 286
Doodia caudata, 322
Dracophyllum, 323, 324, 330
latifolium, 324, 330
longifolium, 324, 330, 331
Be rosmarinifolium, 331
subulatum, 325, 331

AN Traversit, 325

- uniflorum, 330

He Urvilleanum, 325
Drimys, 51, 172

5 awillaris, 130, 172

Pe colorata, 172
Drosera, 52, 180
Droseraceae, 51, 180, 182
Drosera arcturi, 185

ey auriculata, 182

= binata, 182, 184

7 pygmea, 180

of rotundifolia, 180, 184

5 spathulata, 182, 184
Dysoxylum, 52, 222

ms spectabile, 68, 222

”

Earina suaveolens, 21, 111, 116, 120, 122

be mucronata, 21, 111, 120, 122
Edelweiss, New Zealand, 432
Edible fruits, 244
Eleocarpus, 248

a dentatus, 248

7 Hookerianus, 248, 250
Elatine, 51
Elatostema, 138

3 rugosum, 21, 138
Emerson, R. W,, quotation from, 1
Endemic plants of New Zealand, 1, 2, 31
Endemism, initial, 304

rs relict, 302
Engler, Prof., referred to, 30
Entelea, 9, 42, 48, 242, 278, 348, 436

9 arborescens, 242, 348
Environment in New Zealand, varied, 2
Epacridaceae, 323

447

Epacris, 35, 323, 326

re pauciflora, 323, 326
Epilobiwm, 292, 294
Epiphytes, 16, 20, 21
Ericaceae, 53, 323
Erechtites, 434

Bs prenanthoides, 434
Eryngium, 315

oy vesiculosum, 315
Ettingshausen, Baron von, referred to, 30
Eugenia, 194, 288

- matre, 288
Euphorbia, 55, 224

a glauca, 224
Euphorbiaceae, 224
Euphrasia, 386
antarctica, 386

+3 cuneata, 151
Evergreen leaves in New Zealand, 9
Exarrhena, 346
Exocarpus, 55
Experiments, Dr. Cockayne’s, 240
Eyebright, 386

”

Fagaceae, 128
Fern country, 6
Ferns, number of in New Zealand, 7
Fern-trees, 9, 27
Festuca duriuscula, 4
Field, Mr., quoted, 140, 142
Filmy-ferns, 7
Findlay, Dr., quoted, 110
Fire, origin of in Maori legend, 232
method of obtaining by Maoris
233
Fireweed, 246
Fitzgerald, Mr., referred to, 115
Flax, New Zealand, 48
Flax-Lily, 102
Flax Tribe, 102
Flax Family, 218
Flax, treatment of by natives, 104
Flies, pollination by, 162
Flora, Melanesian element in, 8
differences between Australian
and New Zealand, 33
Floral envelopes, 44
Flower, description of a, 43
Flower of Hades, 151
Flowering plants, number of in New
Zealand, 31
Foliage, poisonous, 435-6
Forest, types of, 15, 16
7 destruction of, 12, 15
is Passing of the, by the Hon,
W. P. Reeves, 13-15
Forget-me-nots, 346, 348
Fossil botany of New Zealand, 28, 30
Freycinetia, 49
Banksti, 80, 202

”

”

”

448

Frost, native trees susceptible to, 11
Fruits, edible, 244
Fruit, used as food by the Maoris, 248
Fuchsia, 8,9, 36, 292 |
Fuchsia Family, 290
of pollination of, 290-294
Fuchsia Colensoi, 293, 294
» excorticata, 201, 293, 294
1 Kirkii, 290, 294 |
5 procumbens, 290, 293, 294
Fungus on birches, 230
Fusanus Cunninghamii, 151

Gastrodia Cunninghamii, 122, 124
Gaultheria, 322, 323, 325, 326
A antipoda, 323, 327 |
» epiphyta, 21
a rupestris, 327
Gaya, 260
Fs Lyallii, 9, 260, 261
Lyallii, var. ribifolia, 261
Geniostoma, 336
3 ligustrifolium, 336
Gentiana, 263, 336
aa cerind, 336, 338
50 clusti, 338
“a SAXOSA, 336
A verna, 338
Gentianaceae, 53, 336
Gentian Family, 336
Gentians, colour of, 162
Geraniaceae, 51, 215, 224
Geranium, 215
. dissectum, var. australe, 215
3 microphyllum, 216
Geranium Family, 215
Germination of Avicennia, 360
7 of Balanophoraceae, 149
3 of Chickweed, 158
oy of Cuscuta, 344, 345
an of Kauri, 62
Bs ot Loranthus, 141
Gesneriaceae, 386, 388
Glossostigma, 368
“yy elatinoides, 368
Gloxinia Family, 386
Gnaphaliwm, 425, 432
aA leontopodium, 432
“ luteo-album, 425
Goebel, Prof., referred to, 171, 241, 374
Goodeniaceae, 52, 404
Goodenia Family, 404
Grass-trees, 329
Green flowers, number of in N.Z., 29
Greensill, Miss, referred to, 392
Griselinia, 51, 260, 298
= littoralis, 70, 298
» lucida, 21, 298 |
Groundsel, 434, 436
Guard-cells, 40

PLANTS OF NEW

ZEALAND

Guilds Plant, 16
Gum, fragrant, of taramea, 321, 322
33 Kauri, 64, 66
Gunnera, 54, 297
e monoica, 297
Gymnospermae, 46, 49

Haast, Sir Julius von, referred to, 23, 228
260
Haastia, 423, 424, 428, 432
f pulvinaris, 424, 430
Haberlandt, Dr., referred to, 38
Hades, Flower of, 151
Halophytes, 42, 155
Haloragidaceae, 51, 54, 295
Haloragis, 295
- alata, 36, 295
+3 cartilaginea, 414
a erecta, 295
Harakeke, 6
Hauama, 242
Heath Family, 323
Hector, Sir James, referred to, 158, 236
Hectorella, 158
oa cespitosa, 158
Hedley, Mr. C., referred to, 34
Hedycarya, 174
vr arborea, 174
Helichrysum, 372, 430
hy coralloides, 373, 432
e depressum, 432
ss grandiceps, 432
es selago, 430
ie virgineum, 432
Hell-bind, 345
Hemsley, Mr. W. Botting, referred to, 3T
Henslow, Prof., referred to, 375, 376
Herpolirion, 108
rf novae-Zelandiae, 108
Hibiscus, 260
“- Trionum, 260
Hill, Mr., referred to, 151
Hinau, 4, 9, 28, 248
Hoheria, 9, 250, 252, 261
<5 angustifolia, 390
a populnea, 250
= populnea, var. vulgaris, 252
Honeysuckle, 146
Honeysuckle Family, 399
Hooker, Sir Joseph, referred to, 2, 33, 34
57, 323
Horoeka, 306
Horopito, 172
Horse-Chestnut Family, 224
Houi, 250
Houhere, 250
Hutton, Captain, referred to, 25, 30, 36, 37
Huttonella, 204, 208
Hybrids, 150

INDEX 449

Hydrocotyle, 314

A Americana, 36

As Asiatica, 314

Bs novae-Zelandiae, 314,
Hydrophytes, 42
Hymenanthera, 266

a crassifolia, 266
Hymenophyllum, 7
Hypericum, 50, 263

Icacinaceae, 230
Ice-plant, 160
Incompletae, 224
Inconspicuous flowers, number of in N.Z.,
9, 29
Ini-ini, 284, 266
Initial endemism, 304
Ink-plant, 226
Insects, paucity of in N.Z., 162
Insect pollination in Viola, 262
Insectivorous plants, 182
Introduction, General, 1
=A Botanical, 38
Immutability of species, theory of,
combated, 259
Tpomea, 19
Tridaceae, 109
Tris Family, 109
Trishman, Wild, 239
Tronwood, 281
Islands, Oceanic and Continental, 26
Islands, outlying, flora of
Ivyworts, 300
Txerba, 52, 186
. brexioides, 186

Kahikatea, 16, 70, 272
Kaikawaka, 66
Kaikomako, 230, 233

a in Maori lore, 232
Kai-weta, 188
Kakaramu, 396
Kaka’s Beak, 210
Kalladi, 202
Kamahi, 189
Karamu, 394, 396
Karaka, 233, 235, 268
Karaka Family, 233

5 in Maori lore, 235
Karaka poisoning, 235 2
Karamu, 392
Kare-ao, 90
Kauri, 60, 62, 304
Kauri gum, 12, 64, 65

a3 pine, 202

Sn timber, 63
Kawaka, 66
Kawakawa, 128
Key to Classification, 49
Kerner, referred to, 198

Kie-kie, 80, 202
Kirk, Mr. T., referred to, 57, 132, 179, 188,
194, 234, 238, 243, 293, 310, 338,
358, 361, 420, 438

Knightia, 145

$s excelsa, 140, 146
Knot-grass, 152
Kohe-kohe, in Maori proverb, 174, 222
Kohutuhutu, 294
Kokoromiko, 378
Kopi, 234
Koradi, 202
Korari, 202
Korokia-taranga, 298
Koromiko, 369
Kotukutuku, 294
Kowdie Pine, 202
Kowhai, yellow, 36, 212, 214

ve red, 210
Kowhai-ngutu-kaka, 210
Kumara, 72
Kumarahou, 186, 236
Kuri-kuri, 321

Labiateae, 53, 364, 366
Laburnum, New Zealand, 214
Lacebark, 252
Lagenophora Forsteri, 410
Lancewood, 306
Large leaved plants, 347
Lasianthera Family, 230
Lauraceae, 55, 175
Laurel Family, 175
Laurel, New Zealand, 233
Laurelia novae-Zelandiae, 174
Leaf, description, 39
Leaf, dicotyledonous structure of, 39
Leaf, modifications in 41, 62, 69, 76, 78, 93,
106, 118, 120, 139, 246, 252, 256,
258, 276, 296, 305, 307, 319, 324.
373, 400, 422
Leafless plants, 198, 204, 344
Leaves, evergreen in New Zealand, 9
Legends, Maori, 70, 232, 236
Leguminosae, 51, 203
Lemon tree, 195
Lentibulariaceae, 388
Leptospermum, 272, 276, 323
PA scoparium, 244, 272, 274, 278
= ericoides, 274
Leucopogon, 322, 323, 328
AS Ffasiculatus, 323, 325, 328
a Frazeri, 323, 325, 328
Lianes, 16-19, 99
Libertia, 50, 109
a ixioides, 109
Libertia grandiflora, 109
Libocedrus, 66
“A Bidwillii, 66
e doniana, 66

450 PLANTS

Ligusticum, 313, 315

35 carnosulum, 157, 170, 316

ae Colensoi, 216

P latifolium, 315, 347

pa piliferwm, 316
Lilac, New Zealand, 186
Liliaceae, 50, 88, 96
Lily, Chatham Island 347, 348
Lily, Mountain, 166
Lily Family, 88
Lime tree Family, 242
Limosella, 296
Linaceae, 102, 215, 218
Lindsay, Dr. Lauder, referred to, 228
Linwm, 52, 218

i monogynum, 162, 218
Litsea calicaris, 175
Lobelia, 348, 403, 404

3 ance ps, 404

as Roughii, 157, 404
Lobeliaceae, 401
Localisation of species, 3
Logania, 369
Loganiaceae, 53, 335
Lomaria, 7
Looking-glass plant, 392
Loranthaceae, 51, 54, 138
Loranthus, 138, 139, 140, 142

3 Colensoi, 142

= decussatus, 145

* Fieldii, 140, 142

33 flavidus, 142

aA micranthus, 140, 141, 144, 145

A tetrapetalus, 139, 142
Luzuriaga marginata, 92
Lyatlia, 158
Lycopods, 8, 27, 28

Macropiper, 56, 268

aA excelsum, 128
Madder Family, 389
Magnolia Family, 172
Magnoliaceae, 172
Mahoe, 233, 264, 266
Mahogany trees, 222
Mahuika, legend of, 232
Maire, 335
Mairehau, 220
Maire-tawhaki, 288
Mako-mako, 246
Mallows, 250
Malvaceae, 50, 218, 250, 252
Manawa, 352
Mangeao, 175
Mangroves, 8, 253, 254, 352, 361
Mangrove roots, 355

~ swap, life in, 354
Manuka, 3, 12, 22, 272, 274

$5 Broom, 274

a rauriki, 274

OF NEW ZEALAND

Maori flower names, pronunciation of,
202
Maori Onion, 102
sp legend, of Kahikatea, 70
5a legend, of Kaikomako, 232
4 legend, of Tainni, 236
5 lullaby, 320
“n Painkiller, 172
H proverbs, quoted, 174, 176, 282..
284, 343
a scents, 321
as traditions, 280, 286
Mapau, 189, 195, 332
Maple, 195
a0 Family, 224
Mare’s Tails, 295
| Marsh Marigold, 171
Marvel of Peru Family, 159
Matai, 69, 70
Matipo, 332
Maui, legend of, 232
Mazus, 368
* pumilio, 368
Bs radicans, 367
Medullary rays, 82
Melanesian element in New Zealand
flora, 8
Melanesian affinities of New Zealand
flora, 31, 34
| Meliaceae, 222
Melicope, 220
Pe simplex, 220
om ternata, 220
Melicytus, 260, 264
PP ramiflorus, 233, 264
Melon Family, 399
Mentha Cunninghamii, 365
Meryta, 54, 312, 436
a5 Sinclairii, 244, 312, 347
Mesembryanthemum, 159, 239
a australe, 160
| Mesembryanthemum Family, 159
Mesophytes, 42
Metrosideros, 9, 278
| nn albiflora, 281, 282
| ‘ Colensoi, 281
a florida, 280, 282

- hy pericifolia, 280

- lucida, 280, 281

ae robusta, 21, 282, 356.
- scandens, 288

ce tomentosa, 284
Microtis, 120, 125
porrifolia, 111, 125
Mimulus, 366, 368
Mingi-mingi, 329, 398
Mint, 365
Miro, 68, 322
Mistletoe family, 138
Mistletoe, 142, 144

Moki-moki, 321, 322
Moko-mok’, 246
Monimiaceae, 55, 174
Monocotyledons, 49

33 description of, 47

“5 examples of. 48
Mountain Daisy, 418
Mountain Lily, 166
Moths, pollination by, 162
Movement in plants, spontaneous, 38
Miihlenbeckia, 9, 19, 152, 344, 401

FA adpressa, 152

7s axillaris, 152, 216

ee complexa, 152
Mulberry, New Zealand, 242
Miiller, Baron von, referred to, 379
Mutation of species, 370
Mutation theory, de Vries, 379
Mutton bird scrub, 438
Myoporum, 54, 362, 364

$3 letum, 362
Myosotidium, 301, 302, 347, 348

= nobile, 168, 347
Myosotis, 29, 346

3 australis, 346

as capitata, 346

a macrantha, 346

$9 spathulata, 346

55 uniflora, 346
Myosurus aristata, 36
Myriophyllum, 295, 296

aa elatinoides, 295
Myrsinaceae, 52, 331
Myrsine, 53, 189
eee, Family, 331
Myrtaceae, 50, 270
Myrtle, 272
Myrtus, 22, 288

bullata, 288

26 obcordata, 288

me pedunculata, 288, 390
Myrtle Family, 270

Native Daisy, 410
Natural permanence of Bush, 10
Naupata, 392, 395
Nei-nei, 329
Nertera, 398
oF depressa, 398
- dichondraefolia, 398
Nettle Family, 136
New Zealand Arbor Vite, 66
A Ash, 225
a Bramble, 196
A Cedar, 68, 222
PP Club-mosses, 8
me Currant, 246
4 jidelweiss, 432
a Flax, 88, 102, 218
06 Laburnum, 214

INDEX 451

New Zealand Laurel, 233
+ Lilac, 186
ma flora, affinities of, 30, 31
flora, Antarctic element in, 35-37
flora, antiquity of, 27-30
Bn flora, Australian element in, 25,
32-34
oy flora, foreign elements of, 35
+3 flora, origin of, 24-26
flora, South American element
in, 25
flowers, colour of, 162, 338, 349
Mulberry, 242
Oak, 350
- Primrose, 385
- Spinach, 160
Nightshade Family, 365
Nigger-heads, 5
Nihi-nihi, 344
Nikau Palm, 9, 48, 80, 84, 268
63 abnormal, 86
” whares, 84
Nitrogen, needful for plants, 182
Ngaio, 362
Ngawaka, 66
Ngutu-kakariki, 210
Nothofagus, 16, 29, 130, 132, 134, 150, 201
“7 betuloides, 132
ie cliffortioides, 15, 133, 134
4 fusca, 133, 134
° Menziesti, 132, 133, 137
| Solandri, 15, 133, 134, 139, 142, 145
Nothopanax, 144, 260, 304
anomalum, 305
5 Colensoi, 305
a lineare, 305
ea simplex, 305
Notothlaspi, 177, 178
* rosulatwm, 157, 178, 179
Notospartium, 204, 208
Number of flowering plants in New
Zealand, 31
Nux-Vomica Family 335
Nyctaginaceae, 159

Oak, New Zealand, 350
Oceanic islands, 26
Olea, 56, 334, 411
- Cunninghamit, 334
zs lanceolata, 334
Oleaceae, 335
Olearia, 22, 35, 323, 411, 414, 418, 422, 436
- Allomii, 414
oo angulata, 414
ne avicenniefolia, 416
= Buchanani, 414
- Colensoi, 9
a Forsteri, 416
es furfuracea, 415
*4 ilicifolia, 416

452 PLANTS

Olearia, insignis, 414
on Lyallii, 347
iy macrodonta, 416
3 moschata, 416
3 nitida, 415
o- semi-dentata, 411, 414
a virgata, 238, 239, 390, 416
Olive Family, 335
Onga-onga, 136
Onagraceae, 51, 290
Orchid Family, 109
Orchidaceae, 29, 35, 50, 109, 406
Orchids, fantastic forms of, 110
~ pollination of, 112, 115
nD structure of flowers, 111
Oreomyrrhis, 314
Origin of fire, Maori legend of, 232
6 of New Zealand flora, 24-26
Me of New Zealand flora, theories
of, 34
Orthoceras Solandri, 127
Osmosis, 296
Ourisia, 384
as cespitosa, 384, 385
or Colensoi, 385
a glandulosa, 384, 386
A macrophylla, 384, 385
Oxalic acid, 215
Oxalidaceae, 52, 215
Oxalis, 215, 216, 217, 263
‘5 corniculata, 216
by: magellanica, 37, 216
Ozothamnus, 372, 432

Pachycladon, 177, 179

4 novae-Zelandiae, 178
Pahautea, 168
Palm, 8
Palmaceae, 80
Palm Family, 80
Palm-lily, 93, 94
Palms, paucity of in New Zealand, 28
Palm tree, 28
Pandanaceae, 80
Papataniwhaniwha, 410
Papilionaceae, 172, 203
Pappus, 407
Para-para, 159
Parasites, 16, 1389, 344
Paratrophis, 136, 390
Paratrophis microphyllus, 136
Parietaria, 55, 138

= debilis, 138
Parroquet’s Beak, 210
Parrot’s Bill, 210
Parsley Family, 312
Parsonsia, 19, 53, 340

a capsularis, 340

FA heterophylla, 340
Passifloraceae, 51, 268

OF NEW ZEALAND

Passiflora, 29, 268, 400
ee tetrandra, 268, 400
“ Passing of the Forest,’’ 13
Passion flower, 19, 268, 400
Patch plants, 158, 208, 426, 428, 430
Pate, 233
Pa-totara, 322, 328
Pea-family, 203
Pennantia, 52, 230
ae corymbosa, 256
Pen-wiper plant, 178
Peperomia, 56, 127
5s Urvilleana, 21, 128
Pepper-tree, 172
Percentage of unisexual flowers in New
Zealand, 164
Periwinkle Family, 340
Persoonia toru, 148
Petrie, Mr. D., referred to, 320, (footnote),
388
Phebalium nudum, 200
Phormium, 48, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 210
Phormiwm Cookianum, 108
Phormium tena, 48, 88, 90
Plyllocladus, 58, 60, 76
- alpinus, 78
es trichomanoides 76, 78
Picris, 408
Pikiarero, 164
Pimelea, 162, 269, 270, 323
5 arenaria, 269, 270
Pi longifolia, 269
nH prostrata, 270
+. virgata, 270
Pine, 8
Pine Family, 58
Pink Family, 156
Piperaceae, 157
Piper, 128
4 excelsum, 127
Piri-piri, 201, 320, 322
Pisonia, 58, 159, 348
“3 brunoniana, 159, 244, 347
Pits in Coprosma leaves, 392
Pittosporaceae, 189
Pittosporum, 45, 52, 150, 189
Fe cornifolium, 21, 190, 192
5 crassifolium, 194
eugenioides, 145, 194
Kirkii, 194
FS nigrescens, 190
as obcordatum, 170, 190
3 Ralphii, 195
= rigidum 190
Fe tenuifolium, 189, 194, 195, 322, 332
Ss tenuifolium, var., fasiculatum,
190
Plagianthus, 250, 253, 254
~ betulinus, 9, 41, 241, 246, 254, 256,
258, 318

INDEX 453

Plagianthus divaricatus, 253, 254
Plant groups, 41
Plant guilds, 16
Plantago, 63
Plant life, 38
Plants of shingle slips, 157, 170
Plants, sense organs in, 217
Plants, sleep of, 217
Plants spontaneous motion in, 38
Plasticity of forms of plant life, 259
Plewrophyllum, 338, 416, 418
35 crinitum, 417
an speciosum, 302, 347, 417
Poa cespitosa, 4
Podocarpus, 68, 329
“e dacrydioides, 70
mo Ferruginea, 68, 322
4 nivalis, 68, 69
“ spicata, 69
cS totara, 69
Pohue, 343
Pohutukawa, 9, 284, 286, 288
Poison of tutu, 228
x karaka, 235
iz rangiora, 435, 436
Pokaka, 9
Pollination of Catasetwm, 114; Convol-
vulus, 343; Coprosma, 392; Cory-
anthes, 112; EHarina suaveolens,
116; Fuchsia, 290, 294; Knightia
excelsa, 146; Melicope simplex,
220, 221; Orchids, 112; Phormiwn,
106; Pittosporum Ralphii, 195;
P. tenuifolium, 190; Thelymitra
longifolia, 115; Pterostylis, 118;
Utricularia, 389; Wahlenbergia,
403
Pollination by birds, 106, 210, 214, 290, 388
=p by butterflies, 162
A by flies, 162
a by moths, 162
ye by wind, 128, 392
Pollination, processes of, 43, 44
a eross, in Compositae, 406
an eross, in Viola, 262
= cross, in Wahlenbergia, 403
“5 self, explained, 44, 263
a self, in Compositae, 407
as self, in Thelymitra, 115
Polypods, 7
Polygonaceae, 54, 151, 152
Polygonum, 152
iy aviculare, 152
Pomaderris, 54, 235, 236, 238
A apetala, 236, 238
et phylicefolia, 238, 323
Poporo-kaiwhiri, 174
Poro-poro, 202, 366
Portulaceae, 53, 158
Potts, Mr., 140, 141

Pratia, 403
Prickles, purpose of, 276
Primrose, Family, 333
Primrose, New Zealand, 385
Primulaceae, 333
Pronunciation of Maori flower names,
202
Proteaceae, 55, 56, 145
Pteris aquilina, 6
Pterostylis, 118
aS Banksii, 110, 111, 126
53 graminea, 110, 126
Pseudopanax, 256, 257, 306, 325
Fp crassifolium, 306, 308, 310
i ferox, 306
Pua-o-te-reinga, 151
Pua-tawhiwhi, 280
Pua-wananga, 164
Pukatea, 174
Puna-weta, 188
Punui, 300
Puriri, 202, 282, 349, 350
Puta-puta-weta, 188
Pygmea, 369

Quintinia, 186
50 serrata, 186

Rama-rama, 288
Rangiora, 435
Ranunculaceae, 50, 55, 160, 166, 168, 296
Ranunculus, 166
‘3 acaulis, 171
=p Baurii, 168
A Buchanani, 168
5 crithmifolius, 168, 170, 171
a5 Godleyanus, 168
a Haastii, 168, 171
a hirtus, 171
“4 insignis, 168

a lappaceus, 171
; Lyallii, 23, 166, 347
nts macropus, 171

3 nivicola, 168
4 rivularis, 171
“3 Traversti, 168
Raoul, referred to, 190, 380, 438
Raoulia, 208, 423, 425, 428, 430, 432
ey australis, 426
rs bryoides, 373
os eximia, 426
2) Haastti, 426
ae mammillaris, 373, 426
op Monroi, 216
Rapanea, 331
Pr salicina, 332
ao Urvillet, 332
Rata, 8, 9, 21, 278, 280, 281, 282, 284
Rata-vine, 19, 280
Rauhuia, 218

454 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Raukawa, 305 Scandinavian element in New Zealand
Raurekau, 394 flora, 31
Recapitulation, law of, 256 Schefilera, 313
Red Kowhai, 210 _ digitata, 151, 233, 312
Reeves, the Hon. W. P., quoted, 13 Schimper, referred to, 430
Relict endemism, 302 Scleranthus, 55
Reserves, climatic secured, 12 Screw Pine Family, 80
Reversion shoots, 374 | Scrophulariaceae, 53, 54, 366
Reversed spiral, in tendrils, 401 Scrub, the, 21
Rewa-rewa, 146 Scrub plants, typical leaves of, 22
Ribbonwood, 250-254 : Sea-bindweed, 344
Rimu, 15, 60, 74 Seed Dispersal, 45; in Compositae, 405-6
Rhabdothamnus, 54, 388 : Seedling Forms, 254, 257, 308
Solandri 388 Self-pollination, explained, 44; in Com-
Rhamnaceae, 50, 235 positae, 407; in Thelymitra,
Rhipogonum scandens, 90 115
Rhizophora, 356 Selliera radicans, 404
Rhopalostylis, 50, 84 | Senecio, 35, 436
oF sapida, 80, 84 FP antipodus, 438

Robinia, 141
Rock-lily, 102
Rohuhu, 288

a bellidioides, 438
eS glaucophyllus, 436
i Hectori, 347

Roots, adaptation of to environment, 358 3 Huntii, 436

4 membranous, 120 - + lagopus, 438

“5 parasitic, 149 = lautus, 436, 438

“ stilt, 360 6 Muelleri, 438

x structure of, 39, 356 8 perdicioides, 46, 170, 436
Rosaceae, 50, 195, 270 ss Pottsii, 436

Rose Family, 195
Rosette plants, 178, 179, 180
Rubiaceae, 52, 389

os rotundifolius, 438
A saxifragoides, 382, 438
seiadophilus, 19, 438

Rubus, 19, 149, 196, 198, 200, 344 Sensation in plants, 38

Ap australis, 200 Sense organs in plants, 217

4 cissoides, 198, 200 Shepherd's Lily, 166

A parvus, 201 Stellaria Roughii, 170

Ap Schmidelioides, 200 Shingle-slip plants, 157, 170, 178, 180, 317,
Rue Family, 218 428, colour of, 158
Rumex, 152 Sicyos, 54, 400

“1 flexwosus, 154 = australis, 244, 400
Ruskin, quoted, 23 | Skey, Mr., referred uo, 436
Rutaceae, 52, 218 Sleep of plants, 217
Rutland, Mr. J., referred to, 376 Snap-dragon Family, 366

Soda, obtained from plants 154

Salicornia, 55, 156 Solanaceae, 53, 365

73 indica, 156 Solander, Dr., referred to,
Salsola, 155 | Solanum, 366

3 australis, 155 rr aviculare, 348, 366
Samolus, 52, 57, 333 ry nigrum, 343, 366

os littoralis, 57, 333, 405 Somnus plantarwm, 217
Sandalwood Family, 148 Sophora, 9, 203, 210, 214
Santalaceae, 54, 148 a tetraptera, 36, 212
Santalum, 148 7 tetraptera, var. grandiflora, 36,

Cunninghamii 148 212
Sapindaceae, 224 . tetraptera, var. microphylla, 212
Sapota, 53 | = tetraptera, var. prostrata, 212
Sapotaceae, 331 South American element in New Zealand
Saprophytes, 16, 111 flora, 25, 36, 292
Sarchochilus adversus, 21 Southern Alps, 157, 258
Sarsaparilla Bush, 90 Spaniard, Wild, 321, 322

Saxifragaceae, 51, 185 Sparmannia, 244

INDEX 455

Spinach, New Zealand, 160
Spines, use of, 319, 321
Spinous plants, 276
Spongy tissue, 40
Spontaneous motion in plants, 38
Spurge Family, 224
Stack, Canon, referred to, 12
Stellaria, 156
as Roughii, 156, 157
Stem, processes of, 39
i structure of, 82, 356
% structure of, in Conifers, 60, in
Palmaceae, 82, in Cordyline,
89, 92
Stigmatic movements, 367
Stilbocarpa, 300, 304
a Lyallii, 300, 302, 304, 347
Pe polaris, 300, 302, 304, 347
Stitchworts, 156
Stomata described, 40
Structure of water plants, 295-6
Stylidiaceae, 52
Styphelia, 328
+3 acerosa, 330
- empetrifolia, 330
es robusta, 330
Sub-antarctic element in New Zealand
flora, 36
Sundew Family, 180, 182
Supple-jack, 19, 48, 90
Suppression of spines, due to alteration
of climate, 241
Suttonia, 331
s divaricata, 331
Tainui, 236, 238; in Maori lore, 236
Tanekaha, 60, 76, 78
Tarairi, 175
Taramea, 321, 322 .
Tataramoa, 196
Tarata, 194
Taraxacum, 408
Tauhinu, 238, 433
Taupata, 392, 395
Tawa, 16,175; in Maori proverb, 176
Tawari, 188
Tawhera, 80, 189
Tawhiri, 321, 322
Tawhiwhi, 189
Taylor, Rev. R., referred to, 150, 151
Tea-tree, 272
Tendril-bearing plants, 400
Tetragonia, 160
35 expansa, 160
Teucridium, 350
a parviflorum, 351
Teucrium, 350
Thelymitra, 115, 126
5 imberbis, 127
- longifolia, 115, 127
=r pulchella, 127

Theory, Dr. Cockayne’s, on leaf varia-
bility, 257
re Dr. Wallace’s, on the origin of
the New Zealand flora, 34
Thistle Family, 405
Thomson, Mr. G. M., referred to, 31, 112,
115, 116, 190, 194, 216, 220, 264,
276, 293
Thousand-jacket, 252
Thyme Family, 364
Thymelaceae, 55, 269
Tiliaceae, 50, 242
Tillea, 51
os moschata, 37
Timber, of Kauri, 63-4; Kahikatea, 72;
Matai, 70; Miro, 68; Puriri, 350;
Rimu, 74; Tanekaha, 76; Titoki,
225; Totara, 69
Titoki, 225, 268
Toa-toa, 78
Toi-toi, 4,5
Tomentum, purpose of, 420
Toot, 228, 230
Toro, 332
Toru, or Toro, 148
Totara, 15, 60, 69, 233
4 Mountain, 68
Transpiration, 40, 41, 120, 238
Trimorphism, 292
Tumatakuru, 239
Tupakihi, 226
Tupeia, 144

oo antarctica, 145
Tussock Country, 12
description of, 4,5

a grass, 3, 4
Tutin, 229, 230
Tutu, 226, 230
Tutu Poisoning, 228, 229
Tutu Wine, 229
Twining Plants, 19
Twining of leaf stems, in Clematis, 166
Types of Forest, 15
Typha, 49
Ps angustifolia, 6
Umbelliferae, 50, 312
Uneinia, 45
Uniformity, lack of, in bush, 8
Unique flower forms in New Zealand, 29
Unisexual fiowers, 164
Urtica, 136
as ferox, 136
Urticaceae, 54, 136
Utricularia, 54, 388
Sy monanthos, 389
a novae-Z elandiae, 389
“4 protrusa, 389

Variation leaf,in Veronica, 369
rt in Panax, 307

Variation in Parsonsia, 340

. in Rubus, 196-200
Vegetable Sheep, 424, 426, 428
Venation of leaves, 48
Verbenaceae, 53, 54, 349
Verbena Family, 349
Veronicas, sub-alpine, 22

as colour of, 162
Veronicas, 239
Veronica, 246, 257, 263, 270, 276, 348, 366,

367, 369, 371, 374, 379

a Benthami, 348

a5 cataractae, 383

Fe cupressoides, 380

2 elliptica, 36

a epacridea, 380

or Haastii, 380

6 Hectori, 380

9 Hulkeana, 383°

Ap Lavaudiana, 380, 382

ne lycopodioides, 380

os macrocarpa, 378
6 monticola, 379
a salicifolia, 278

c salicornioides, 380
os speciosa, 376, 378, 392
“i tetrasticha, 375, 380
- Traversti, 378
Viola, 29, 261, 263, insect pollination in.
262,
Violaceae, 51, 261
Violet Family, 261
_ Violets, 262, 264, colour of, 162
Viola Cunninghamii, 220, 262, 264
se filicaulis, 261, 264
3 tricolor, 262
Visewm, 144
5 Lindsayi, 144
Se salicornioides, 144
Vitex, 210, 350
ob littoralis, 349
pe lucens, 350

2

6 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND

Vittadinia australis, 411
Vogel, Sir Julius, referred to, 13
Vries, Prof. Hugo de, referred to, 370

Wahlenberagia, 342, 348, 401, 402, 403
- cartilaginea, 402
= gracilis, 402
Wallace, Dr. A. R., referred to, 25, 30. 34,
196
Wallflower Family, 177
Water Plants, structure of, 295. 296
Wattle Family, 203
Wawa-paku, 305
Waxy Gentian, 337
Weismann, referred to, 371
Weinmannia, 188
ve racemosa, 188, 189
- silvicola, 189
Wharangi, 220
Whau, 9, 242, 244, 246
Whauwhi, 250
Whipcord Veronicas, 372, 374
White flowers, prevalence of in New
Zealand, 162
White Pine, 16, 70
Wild Spaniard, 321
Be Trishman, 239, 240
Willow-herbs, 295
Wind-pollinated plants, 128, 392
Wina-still spaces, 171, 172, 238
Wines, made from Tutu, 229
Wineberry, 246
Wright, David McKee, quotations from, 3
Xerochlena, 432
Xerophytes, 41, 42, 159, 200, 239, 258, 296, 318
Xerophylla longifolia, 306

Yellow-button, 434
Yellow Kowhai, 36, 212

Zostera, 296

Prin ted by Whitcombe & Tombs Limited, Christchurch.—13126.

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