La ae EY ? * ais +, Fs 1k: *) A} <— ates, * oy tS aay ay Me a een {yaar oak mart eS ms oy i A Q t BAY ns LS ay wateas ee ‘i tk At G i+ ¥ +e \< 5 hid: Teepe é i: J} OO” SALUTE Ne Mala’ , 3 OF tha (@/2. f — a ee | | Written as an obvious protest against| the modern methods of teaching botany, I’. L. Sargent’s “Plants and Their Uses: An. Introduction to Botany” (Holt) pre- sents a curious and perhaps helpful’ point ; of view. The author begins with the as-|. | sumption that the obvious and most inter-!. esting questions to ask about a plant are , “What is it? What is it good for? or _ What does it do?” With these as a guid-| _ ing principle, it follows that the work ' _ @iffers radically from any of the tent &: | books now in use. For it lays emphasis, ) not upon processes such as photosynthesis, ; respiration, reproduction, and so forth, but | upon the plants that touch the a a existence of all of us, such as the foods, Vi beverages, drugs, fibres, and the like. The) ' i” ' first half of the book is taken up with de-|_ ty seriptions and historical notes upon the) ' . '| introduction into cultivation of all the bet-| ' ter-known economic plants. ‘The usual routine ground is covered, but tersely and with some haste, and the chief emphasis is| ’ laid on industrial botany, if there be such | a science. It is unfortunate that the first + modern textbook that approaches botany from this side should have inaccuracies of statement and a certain lack of perspective. For instance, opium is a narcotic, not an | intoxicant (p. 184); the Para rubber tree is Hevea hrasiliensis__nat—H—sasssmn———— ‘SHUBIOIIOD Pu O[[9TIO SB sjied yons| 4 pueyeiduos you prnoys ‘g9UR4SUI 103 |} | aeipe}y] ue AGM WOSvol Ietnoaed ou st|F gley} pue ‘so[nit SOUL 0} suorjdeoxe 318 | J g1eq} ynq ‘suemsey 94} JO ese 3} Ul 3 ape oq Wor}de0xe etqissod ® jt pee } ) ayes A[qeieyo} WO ST JovUTM ‘Ij ‘soootd | 0 ec eas o1ye0d YSsiTsug jo $19}e1d.10}U! | tT ysoq oY} ‘A}ISSedeT JO JSOTU[L ‘918 S.10308 | 0 Yst[suq yey} WolyUe}TO0O peoiq siq UI *MoIA JO JuIOd UAMO STY Wot s]uUeAo [[e | ye ‘QooId1eyseul B SBA ‘fjeins ‘o[[9q10 a sIy jnq ‘uvorvedsoyeys-un Ajio}yN SseM ca ‘... 6.0.4 sss024 Sog'y 3 8 eR 34 al PAGE a2. Classes of food-plants... ... ...0. 2. oeces.2 2) id: 35 Bike ANE 55 ve dig or Soe ae abl a Sk Hd A, 35 Pea RAMISOS e701 gk a oe Soe eta h ee Oe hee os 40 ao.” Harth-vegetables.. 0.00.0. oO oo 41 pa. .-Herbage-vepetables..... .... 6... Loe. e ceo. 2 ou 53 oc. Erut-yeretables. 6s. oes ee Tet cs ovo oan 85 Pee PUB! ka gS Olek Se oe Pe as ee 88 ou. Miscellaneous food-products... ...:...........-. (0 ee 91 40, Vegetable foods in general. ii 360 ig. cs. ee 113 41, Food as fuel and building material,................../23 114 a>. Measures of energy. « 6.0764 eee oo eee 115 43. Energy of vegetable foods...) .0...02.........3.. 9% oo 116 LG) WEUIONID «1 oo vos oot ee es) aq, ev A aa 45: .Food-planta in general. . 2... 0.6 eda. «> oe oe 122 46. The primitive centres of agriculture ...................... 122 47. Relation between culture-period and native home.......... 123 48. The multiplication of varieties. .... 0. /....... +>. sc na 126 au. Antifielal selection... . 2. Wan ee ee 127 CHAPTER IV FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Si. Fodd-adiuncteio is. A AS Po ial eee 128 ee TOR ks dl SR ee ee ee 128 Peet IVORY METOR, os Sob chedad bene tee Ubinas aa 2 oes oh enn 137 St, DAVORY BeCdB. .. salu Poe lew ull bh a. oo. ann 137 55, Miscellaneous condiments; 0.5.2. .............. 250 137 - th: SACTIOER: 5.2... ox ao eoe ae ee eee. 146 57. Non-gieoholic beverages.cc >i i. i0 3s). kes oes oe LO 150 58. Alcoholic beverages and stimulants in general............. 156 CHAPTER V MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS oo. Medicmes and poisons. ...... ......) ivan see ee 162 60; Non-poisonous drugs... 5... .....2..0.....0 0400 163 bd Pononous Grugs: 5.5... 65). . 2s ok 2 a ee 176 62. Plants poisonous to eat... ... 2:0) bs aloes ba 192 Go. Plants poisonous‘to handle. ............ 23. 4... oe 217 64. Potsovious plants in general. . 2. .-... )) oJ ol nae eee 219 CHAPTER. VI INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 65> User: mopstrial plants. |... 5 4o. 228 a Ud eats ie 222 66. CONTENTS “CHAPTER III VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS Pybersan General... 6.3 os 2g fas 2 ae 222 CONTENTS Vil PAGE SEE ESIAS HCI oo. os ng oe av ted 19 1d REE nee 225 SES SERS SP ot eas ee oh < enee t,o en rare al 228 INNER ISIE elena ao os wie Sis ncqye © 3 va ete bea 231 CIPRO aL fs st lee. ae ye Sa veel ee 239 ICRI TIRIE Dl eter ic, np zeae at eg ala ele Poe a ae 240 UNE EL MEMCTRR eh peti... os eh hn ts SOR wa ee 241 UM NRIN cet Ss Gar ae, an Nee 4 ne a ace oem 256 EMI WER MIR GE Lene s Se ss Cee yc cts ota oe ee a 272 NINN Ce ete da eye ar 5 ces, ee enon. ale cig iw oe ea ee *, 279 PEE EEE Ate eae cS oe cree ds aha oe Oa lee 280 MINE hee Ve ae ete a and fy cl ko ey tee ee ee 287 aN HIRE MGT CER 21) ck cae ss 2. dd od PRs ke PR es 290 RES ee eh ae Ot es. a ee a eee 295 Pg ee ea a i a, be es oe ke eee Ae ee 297 81. Useful and harmful plants in general..................... 302 CHAPTER VII CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION Pe SwHDOENAIC CIRINCAMON. oa... Lt Pease ile ag de 305 Pere tari autemigts ab CASRN VINE. 2... 2.6 tages oe oe 306 Pee MIA AYBIEINDS ¢ s\n. ot. eR lew eee 307 Sees Ssicent synteny ye es. LEE leo pee: 308 Beier ie ta tUrat BYSEOML 2 og: ie. . oe See ae 310 STi aY CCACTIIGUMY. 5.5... «5 owe sae 323 ME EMERG oie ha he hs AP kee sa age ne 326 CHAPTER IX THE CROWFOOT FAMILY Beeeerietar features: | bs ak PO ORES | eR Ae 328 ie, The vegetative organs compared........... 0. bases 330 Vill 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. M1, 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 7. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. CONTENTS | PAGE The reproductive system: . 0) 0. ja. oo nde ee 343 Plant formulas. 6320.0. 8 os ec be @ otc he Oe 352 The famuly chain... 000 ia a deal Gels 355 CHAPTER X VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS The Magnolia Family (Magnoliacerz)..................... 358 The Laurel Family (Lauraces),)...... 55... .... 2 Sa 360 The Crowfoot Order (Ranunculales or Ranales)............ 361 The Poppy Family (Papaveraces)..............2000) ae 361 The Mustard Family (Crucifere),.............. oe 362 The Poppy Order (Papaverales or Rhoeadales)............. 363 The Rose Family (Rosacese)...i.....°....«.. «ue 363 The Pulse Family (Leguminose).....:............05-50ee 365 The Rose Order (Rosales).)o 8200.00 -....°.. 2 367 The Linden Family (Tiliaces)...... 2... .......... 200 367 The Mallow Family (Malvaces).....0.. 0. 0... 090 369 The Mallow Order (Malvales): co. 04... ... 1. 370 The Parsley Family (Umbelliferz)............. 9 a 370 The Parsley Order (Umbellales or Umbelliflore)........... 371 The Buckwheat Family (Polygonaceez)................... 372 The Buckwheat Order (Polygonales)... 2... ...... 72. 372 The Birch Family (Betulacesz). ..2....-.../....,. 2a 373 The Beech Family (Fagaces). ...4...04.0. 27>... .. See 374 The Beech Order (Fagales): .<..0.: 4:29.05. 7.. 6 376 The Walnut Family (Juglandacer)......................5 376 The Walnut Order (Juglandales)....-2253 66... ..2... VS 376 The Willow Family (Salicacese)..., oi... 5.4... Se 377 The: Willow Order (Salieales),:.:.. se... i 377 The Crowfoot Series (Archichlamydee)................... aaa The Heath Family -((Ericaces®) 0.5. odaacee: 4c ad ee 378 The Heath Order (Ericales). ....0:43.c0css es a 1 379 The Morning-glory Family (Convolvulacer).............. 379 The Nightshade Family (Solanacese)..............:..50) ee 382 The Figwort Family (Scrophulariacerz)................... 382 The Mint Family (Labiats) :-. 2 .csepamen.. © 06 ee ee 383 The Phlox Order (Polemoniales or Tubiflore)............. 383 The Gourd Family (Cucurbitacer).. 00... .2--.. >) eee 383 The Bellflower Family (Campanulacee).................. 384 The Sunflower Family (Composit)... (5... .=—. 2 a ae 385 The Bellflower Order (Campanulales).................... 386 The Bellflower Series (Metachlanydee)................... 386 The Dicotyl Subclass (Dicotyledones) ................... 386 The Grass Family (Gramines). . .°.:. 25)... een 387 The Grass Order (Graminales or Glumiflore).............. 388 The Palm Family (Palmaces).:.:. .:os om deloee Se 388 The Palm Order (Palmales or Prineipes).................- 389 The Arum Family (Araces). 00)... ..3 <2 a Bie oe 389 The Arum Order (Arales or Spathiflore).................. 389 The Rush Family (Juncacez). 2)... 1. 2 2s. .th see 390 CONTENTS ix PA mun erie-baty Maminy (hanced). is): oe. ei ee dete ok ne 390 em ene ents Hannity (iridaces)... os. le Dt oee e. 390 152. The Lily Order (Liliales or Liliiflore)........4............ 390 fee. tne Orchid Family (Orchidacer). .. ..4 ... 2.0.2. 0..0..00' 391 154. The Orchid Order (Orchidales or Microspermez)........... 391 155. The Monocotyl Subclass (Monocotyledones).............. 391 156. The Case-Seed Class (Angiosperme)..................... 391 erie rine Pamiuy (F mages). . 6.0. ook Se eee el ek 392 eet me- Tew Panty | Paxaeen). .6 0 oo oe. oe eee eek. 392 159. The Pine Order (Coniferales or Conifere)................. 393 160. The Naked-Seed Class (Gymnosperme).................. 393 161. The Seed-Plant Division (Spermatophyta)................ 393 162. The Vegetable Kingdom (Vegetabilia).................... 394 CHAPTER XI KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION eee Pe PRODI OF UPIPINA: «.-. 5 ss... ooo. os Ades Sig we ee 428 me Ene doctrine Of special creation. -.... 66...) . ssh ake sean 429 165, The doctrine of organic evolution. ............:..-......:. 431 Ser COMIPERT AMADLAUIONS (0205 ic... oo. eee Sc aed eee ee ee dees 441 EE AAPL AIOUB So che fx - - os oi en oe he ne) ee 446 fa. cguirement versus Selection......:.%. 6.0. ..64 20. -5caent 452 Merrett SPU DLAIIOUS: occ. Na os Baek be ae meee 457 MERGED A CHORE be cs Se on Du ed ee a eee ee 461 ene eminent 1) PCROTAL 4 colg cs... «vba se te news one eee 464 CHAPTER XII LIFE-HISTORIES ICESU RE THEO hey ct 5. 2 cjc.Lbs alae Dole eee = oe ee 470 173. The Blue Algez (Class Cyanophyces).................... 470 174. The Green Alge (Class Chlorophycee)................... 476 175. The Brown Algze (Class Phzeophycesz).................... 485 176. The Red Algz (Class Rhodophycez)..................... 487 177. The Seaweed Subdivision, Algwe in general................ 491 178. The Fission Fungi (Class Schizomycetes) ................. 492 179. The Yeast Fungi (Class Saccharomycetes)................ 495 180. The Pin-mold Fungi (Class Zygomycetes)................. 495 181. The Water-mold Fungi (Class O6mycetes)................ 499 182. The Spore-sac Fungi (Class Ascomycetes)................. 499 183. The Spore-base Fungi (Class Basidiomycetes)............. 501 184. The Mushroom Subdivision, Fungi in general.............. 503 185. The Spore-sac Lichens (Class Ascolichenes)............... 504 186. The Spore-base Lichens (Class Basidiolichenes)............ 508 187. The Lichen Subdivision, Lichens in general............... 508 188. The Thallophyte Division, Lobeworts (Thallophyta)....... 509 ee Phe Liverworts (Class Hepatier):..°. 2.22... 2.2. - 5. ete 513 Za Phe True Mosses (Class Musci).... 2.2.0.2... 6250.0. 2008 519 x CONTENTS PAGE 191. The Bryophyte Division, Mossworts (Bryophyta).......... 530 192. The Ferns (Class Filicinezs): . =. 3.2). .20 5 2 532 193. The Scouring-rushes (Class Equiseting)................... 542 194. The Club-mosses (Class Lycopodine).................... 544 195. The Pteridophyte Division, Fernworts (Pteridophyta)...... 548 196. Cryptogams and Phenogams. ...... >...) . 17) ee 550 CHAPTER XIII THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE a07,: "The three kingdoms... »: i420) s tisies ss ) sa 561 205: The Inorganic: Realm. 2... 06.004. was... . 562 $90. The Organic Realm... 05 65 Gees os - . sc 569 200. Planta in general. . 6.045.008, Vip... o. .s 2 ‘574 © MTSE iow bb hws Pe we an Ge eM hoe. le 577 op) ca op a) am _ = a = PLANTS PLANTS AND THEIR USES CHAPTER I THE STUDY OF PLANTS 1. Botanical questions. When an unfamiliar plant at- tracts our attention usually the first questions we wish to ask are: What is it? What is it good for? or What does it do? Such questions have been asked from early times about plants in all parts of the world, and the classified knowledge which has been acquired in endeavoring to answer them has given us the science of botany. In beginning our study of the subject it will be profitable for us to consider in a general way what it really means to answer questions of this sort, so that we may appreciate something of their importance and what they involve. Each - question, as we shall see, has led to numberless others until © the science has so broadened as to embrace every reasonable inquiry that may be made regarding plants. 2. The beginnings of botany. Like most people to-day, the earliest botanical writers concerned themselves more with the uses of plants than with their forms and habits. Thus Pliny, the most learned of Roman writers on natural history, significantly remarks that there were, to be sure, other plants in the hedges, fields, and roadsides than those he had described, but they had no names and were of no use. It is surely only natural that the uses of plants should be what first arouses our interest in them. Every one can appreciate most readily the advantages of knowing all we can about things which contribute so greatly to our welfare. 3. Our dependence upon plants. Let us consider for a moment how much we depend upon the vegetable kingdom. Every one knows that in all we eat and drink, the nutritious, _ strength-giving part comes either from plants or animals. As the animals which yield us food depend in their turn either 1 2 THE STUDY OF PLANTS upon plants or upon plant-eating animals, it follows that if it were not for plants the whole animal kingdom, ourselves included, would soon starve. So too in the matter of clothing we depend partly upon the plants which yield cotton, flax, and similar materials, and partly upon those plant-fed ani- mals which give us silk, wool, and leather. Forests yield the chief materials for ships and other means of transportation, for houses, furniture, and innumerable utensils. The fuel which cooks our food, heats our dwellings, and drives the machinery of factories, ships, and locomotives, comes either from plants recently alive or from coal-plants which died long ages ago and were buried in the earth. In sickness, too, the drugs which allay our suffering and help to cure us, are almost entirely of vegetable origin. So whichever way we turn we find plants serving us in most important ways— feeding us, clothing us, sheltering us, warming us, working for us, and making us well—indeed, our dependence upon them is so constant that we seldom realize how intimately our lives are bound up with theirs. 4. Human needs and the needs of plants. We must not . forget that plants as well as animals are living things growing from infancy to old age, needing food and protection, and bearing offspring. Their various parts may be useful to us, but primarily are of use to the plants themselves. The plant- food which we take for our use, the plant had accumulated — for its own purposes. The thorns which make a hedge effect- ive against intruders, serve similarly as a defense to the shrub which bears them. Not only then as contributors to — our welfare, but as sharers in the mysterious gift of life, should plants have a profound interest for mankind. How plants obtain their food, how they avoid injury, in what re- spects they are like animals, and how they differ from them— such questions soon press for an answer, and then it is seen that all plants, even the most humble, may have secrets of value to tell us. 5. How plants are named. Whenever many objects are to be studied and compared, it is necessary to have some convenient system of naming them and some method of expressing the various degrees of resemblance and difference EARLY PLANT NAMES 3 _ which may be found. The number of plants which botanists - now have to deal with is estimated at about one hundred and seventy-five thousand. Only a small proportion of these plants have names in English, German, French, Italian, or other modern tongue; and even if they had, it would be an intolerable burden for students who need to consult the _ writings of foreign botanists to learn as many names for each plant as there are modern languages. Fortunately it has been agreed among botanists that each kind of plant shall have one botanical name, and only one, in all countries.! This name is Latin or of Latin form for the reason that the earlier botanical writings were in that language; and as educated people of whatever nationality are supposed to have some acquaintance with Latin, nothing could be more _ convenient for botanical purposes. For popular use, however, _ popular names are required and will be used ‘chiefly, there-. _ fore, throughout the coarse print of the following pages. 6. Early plant names. The exact form of the name by which each kind of plant should be known was not decided until the middle of the eighteenth century. Then certain practical reforms were brought about mainly through the writings of the great naturalist Linnzus who is revered as the Father of Botany. Before this time many of the names which botanists used were exceedingly cumber- some. The difficulties under which students then labored are well illustrated by the following passage which occurs in a letter to - Linnzeus from his friend Dillenius: 4 ede ie i et Rie, ene “Tn your last letter of all, I find a plant gathered in Charles Island, on the coast of Gothland, which you judge to be Polygonum erectum angustifolium, floribus candidis of Mentzelius and Caryophyl- lum saxatilis, foliis gramineis, umbellatis corymbis, C. Bauhin; nor do I object. But it is by no means Tournefort’s Lychnis alpina linifolia multiflora, perampla radice, whose flowers are more scat- _ tered and leaves broader in the middle, though narrower at the end.” The plant which this learned man had so much trouble in naming was afterwards called by Linnzus simply Gypsophila fastigiata— . the name now recognized by botanists. 1 Such, at least, is the botanical ideal. It is not always realized in practice. But mistakes and differences of opinion are surely to be ex- pected in the naming of such a vast number of objects. Yet after all the actual confusion produced is comparatively slight, while the ideal pursued has advanced the science wonderfully. 4 THE STUDY OF PLANTS 7. Binomial nomenclature. To each of the different kinds of plants and animals which were known in his time, Linnzeus gave a name like the one above, consisting of two parts. In doing this he made universal a principle very generally followed in the common names with which we are most familiar. Thus we speak of the White Mulberry, the Red Mulberry, and the Black Mulberry. Translated into Latin, these become the botanical names, Morus alba, Morus rubra, Morus nigra—the adjective part, as will be noticed, following the noun Morus according to the rule commonly observed in that language. So among the different kinds of oaks we have Quercus alba, Quercus rubra, and Quercus nigra; and to certain of the willows have been given the names Salix alba, Salix rubra, and Salix nigra. It will be seen that as the same component occurs repeatedly in the different names (just as in the names of persons there are many Smiths, Browns, and Robinsons and many Johns, ~ Jameses, and Marys); so by adopting for plants the binomial or two-part system of naming, botanists are able to designate with perfect accuracy the many thousand kinds of plants, by means of a comparatively small number of words—a very much smaller — number in fact than would be required if each kind had to have a name consisting of a single word. Thus, in the examples given it will be noticed that six words serve for naming nine different kinds of plants. Another great advantage of the binomial method is that the name alone may tell quite a good deal about the plant, for, as we have seen, those sorts which resemble each other closely have the first part of the name identical. From this the reader would know, for example, that Quercus aquatica must be some kind of oak, and Salix sericea, some sort of willow. 8. Species. Ordinarily, there is no danger of being mis- understood when we speak of such and such “sorts” or “kinds” of plants, in the way that people commonly do; but when we come to a careful study of plants we find among them such variety in the degrees of resemblance and differ- ence that the necessity arises for a more precise means of expressing ourselves. It thus becomes important to under- stand something of the distinctions which naturalists recog- nize between the different degrees of likeness among living things. When from a dozen seeds out of the same pod, say of a kidney-bean, we raise as many plants, there are twelve dis- tinct individuals no two of which are exactly alike in all particulars. Yet despite their individual differences, they re- v= ae VARIETIES 5 semble each other and the parent plant in a great many re- spects; and these peculiarities which they all have in common they share to an almost equal extent with innumerable other individuals. Taken together all these individuals which have this essential likeness form what is called a species. Thus, a species is a group of individuals regarded by experts as having about the same degree of resemblance as parent and offspring. It is, as we have seen, a familiar fact that among the off- spring of a single individual there are commonly various degrees of resemblance to the parent. The result is a more or less complete series of intermediate forms connecting the most dissimilar individuals one with another. Since among individuals known to be related closely such intermediate series commonly occur, botanists assume whenever connect- ing links of this sort are found between more or less dissimilar forms that the whole chain is so closely akin as to belong to one species. A striking instance of widely different forms connected closely by intermediate ones is afforded by the various sorts of cabbage and their kin (Figs. 63-70). These forms, including kale, cauliflower, kohlrabi, and Brussels sprouts, were doubtless derived, largely under man’s influ- ence, from the wild kale. Accordingly the name Brassica oleracea is applied not only to the wild plant but to all its cultivated descendants. There is no general English name applying to all the forms of this species. 9. Varieties. We have seen above that among the off- spring of a single plant there will be minor differences, and that among the individuals of a species the differences may . be very considerable. If in the examination of a number of specimens belonging to one species, a botanist finds certain individuals possessing in common some peculiarity or set of peculiarities which distinguish them clearly from the rest, as, for example, cauliflowers in contrast with other plants of the species Brassica oleracea, he calls the individuals thus dis- tinguished a variety, and gives it aspecial name. The cauli- flower thus becomes Brassica oleracea variety botrytis. Or, to take an example from wild plants, there are found among the individual trees that comprise the species called Salix nigra B:. THE STUDY OF PLANTS certain ones of which the leaves instead of being curved merely at the tip, as in the majority of black willows, are “faleate’’ or curved throughout like a scythe blade. All the individuals having this peculiarity are accordingly re- garded as forming a distinct variety, and when we wish to speak particularly of these we use the name Salix nigra variety falcata. Cultivated varieties which are known, or supposed, to have arisen in comparatively recent times, and show only minor peculiarities, are commonly distinguished from varieties of wild plants and from certain very well-marked varieties in cultivation by being named in English, French, or some other modern language. Thus we speak of the ‘“ Baldwin” and the ‘‘Spitzenburg”’ varieties of apple. As subordinate kinds or subvarieties of cauliflower we have similarly the “early snowball”’ and the ‘‘autumn giant.” The question as to whether a certain group of individuals should be ranked as a species or as a variety is one which is often difficult to decide, and different botanists sometimes reach different conclusions. In all cases, however, a variety is understood to be a group of individuals included within a species and consequently connected with the other members of the species by a series of intermediate forms. 10. The genus. In the same way that those individuals which possess some special set of peculiarities constitute a variety, and just as there may be several varieties in which the individuals are enough alike to form a species, so different species possessing in common certain features of a more general nature are grouped into a genus (plural genera). The name of the genus to which a given species belongs appears as the first component of the botanical name. In the examples already mentioned Gypsophila, Morus, Quercus, Salix, or Brassica is the generic part; fastigiata, alba, nigra, rubra, aquatica, or oleracea, 1 The beginner can hardly be expected to grasp more than vaguely the distinctions here presented between genus, species, and variety; and the same may be true as well of certain other distinctions to be con- sidered presently. His conceptions are likely to grow more definite, however, as his acquaintance with plants increases, and his efforts to gain such wider acquaintance will be much facilitated by starting with some conception, vague though it be, of what botanists mean by the groups of different rank which they distinguish. ] ee eS! oe ee eo PLANT FAMILIES AND HIGHER GROUPS 7 the specific part of the name. Both parts are required to form the name of the species. Alba, nigra, etc., by themselves are not names. 11. The authority. It has sometimes happened that different botanists have given different names to plants of the same species, and the same name to plants of different species. To avoid any un- certainty as to just what plant is meant it is customary in technical botanical writings to place after a specific name the name (usually abbreviated) of the person or persons who first gave to the plant the name adopted. For example, if we write Gypsophila fastigiata L., it is plain to a botanist that the species so called by Linnzus is the one intended. Linnzus in this case is called the authority for the name. In popular or elementary books, like the present, authorities are usually omitted for the reason that only plants well known to botanists are apt to be mentioned, and the authorities for these may readily be found in the more technical botanies in case of need. 12. Plant families and higher groups. On the same principle that similar species form a genus, similar genera are grouped into a family; and families which have certain fundamental points of similarity are associated to form still more inclusive divisions of the vegetable kingdom. Thus the oaks (Quercus), chestnuts (Castanea), beeches (Fagus), and other trees which agree in having their flowers in tassel- like clusters, and their nut-like fruits held in something corre- sponding to a beech-bur, make up the beech family or Fagacee. The poplars (Populus) and willows (Salix) which also have tassel-like flower-clusters but only small seeds bearing slender silky hairs, constitute the willow family or Salicacee. Lilies and similar plants compose the lily family Liliacee; palms, the palm family, Palmacee; pine-like plants, the pine family, Pinacee, and so on. Plants like cabbage and mustard with flowers of cross-like form belong to the mustard family Cru- cifere.? So closely similar to the Fagacee are the members of the birch family, Betulaceew, that botanists find it convenient 11t will be noticed that the botanical name of the families is formed usually by adding the termination acee to the main part of the name of a typical genus of the family. This termination corresponds to the English suffix aceouws, meaning ‘‘having the qualities or characteristics of.” The name is thus of adjective form, the noun plante being under- stood. Hence the full name of the willow family would be Plante salicacee, meaning salicaceous (or willow-like) plants. In a few cases like Crucifere (from L. cruz, crucis, a cross; fero, 1 bear) the name ex- presses a peculiarity of the whole family. 8 THE STUDY OF PLANTS to group the two families together into the beech order or Fagales. Similarly the Pinacee and another family resem- bling these cone-bearing plants form together the conifers, pine order, or Coniferales.* | All plants which agree with the Conzferales in having no — cases to contain their ripening seeds are grouped to form the naked-seedworts or Class Gymnosperme;? while all the orders which develop their seeds in closed cases comprise the case- seedworts or Class Angiosperme. Both together include all flowering and seed-producing plants, and so constitute the flowering plants, seed-plants, seedworts, or Division Spermatophyta, which together with the various divisions of flowerless plants make up the vegetable kingdom or King- dom Vegetabilia. From what has been said it is evident that even if we do not know the name of a plant much of importance may be told about it if we know the family to which it belongs, and quite a little if we know only its order or class. Regarding any plant the question, What is it? calls for much the same sort of answer as when we wish to identify a soldier. As with the latter we need to know the army, corps, brigade, regiment, battalion, and company to enable us to place him with military precision, so with the former to know its divi- sion, class, order, family, genus, species, and variety tells botanically its place in the vegetable kingdom. In knowing the position of a plant, however, there is this additional ad- vantage that as resemblances and differences are expressed in the botanical groups to a much greater extent than in the military subdivisions we are just so much better informed regarding the true nature and peculiarities of the plant. 13. The departments of botany. The peculiarities con- sidered in classifying plants are chiefly such as concern the form, construction, and arrangement of parts. An under- standing of botanical classification means, therefore, a knowl- 1'The termination ales in later botanical usage indicates the rank of eee but until recently has been used indiscriminately for various oe net ia tues ae < Gr. gymnos, naked; sperma, seed, 3 An’’gi-o-sper’mee < Gr. angion, a case. 4 Sper’ma-toph’’y-ta << Gr. phyton, a plant, DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANY 9 edge of the structure of plants, just as an account of the different kinds of steam-engines (e. g., locomotives, including freight-engines, passenger-engines, switching-engines, etc.; stationary engines, including horizontal engines, pumping- engines, hoisting-engines, and so on) would be a description of the form and position of the different parts of their ma- chinery. Moreover, not until we know about the different parts of a plant, as of a machine, are we in position to under- stand well what each part is for, and how they all work to- gether. A knowledge of plant structure has thus a twofold importance. Similarly a knowledge of the materials which enter into the various parts of a plant, as of a machine, is necessary if we would understand its capabilities and use- fulness. So one question leads to another, the proper appreciation of one aspect of plants requiring also the study of other aspects. In this way have arisen the different departments of botany, each one representing a special point of view and all being necessary to a comprehensive understanding of the subject. To the various departments have been given special names of which the following are the most important for a beginner to remember :-— Economic Botany views plants in their relation to man’s welfare. It is concerned with all the kinds which man uses for food, medicine, clothing, shelter, ornament, or for other purposes; and all which are harmful to him as weeds, poisons, or pests. The ways in which these plants are useful or harm- ful, and to what extent, to what peoples, for how long, and why—such questions as these it seeks to answer as far as possible. Chemical Botany is the study of the properties and quanti- ties of the various substances found in plants. Since the value of a useful plant often depends upon the presence of some special substance, such as sugar, the economic botanist has frequent occasion to learn about the chemistry of the plants with which he deals. Such knowledge is also necessary to an understanding of the life-processes of plants. Systematic Botany is concerned with the accurate descrip- 10 THE STUDY OF PLANTS tion, naming, and classification of plants. It investigates especially the resemblances and differences which botanists depend upon in their systems of arrangement. Geographical Botany seeks to discover the native home of each plant, its migrations, if any, and the nature of its habitat, 7. e., the surroundings amid which it grows wild. Fossil Botany is the study of the remains of plants of former ages which have been preserved as fossils. Biological ' Botany is the study of plants in regard to their ways of life as shown in the form and activities of their parts. Questions which relate simply to the form or structure of parts come within the subdepartment Vegetable Morphol- ogy 2 or Morphological Botany. Such as concern simply the activities of parts, or the life-processes going on within them, belong to Vegetable Physiology* or Physiological Botany. Finally, under Vegetable Ecology + or Ecological Botany come all questions as to how the different parts are adapted by their form and behavior to serve the welfare of the indi- vidual and the species, 7. e., the relation of plants to their homes. ; ' 1 Bi-o-log’-i-cal < Gr. bios, life; logos, logical account. 2 Mor-phol’o-gy < Gr. morphe, form. 3 Phys-i-ol’o-gy < Gr. physis, nature. 4 K-col’o-gy < Gr. oikos, household. Ecology considers the special ways in which plants solve the prob- lems of their domestic economy, such as their manner of obtaining food, protecting themselves, and providing for their offspring. Ecology, also spelt cecology, is a word recently come into use among botanists, to designate a branch of botany which has been developed almost entirely within the memory of those now living. It has been used in rather various senses but generally with the meaning given above at least implied. Sometimes especial emphasis is put upon the peculiar associa- tions or communities of plants that flourish in different kinds of homes, and upon the physical peculiarities of the homes themselves; but such matters are here referred in large part to geographical botany. CHAPTER II CEREALS 14. What cereals are. The ancient Romans, long before the Christian era, held each year at seed-time and harvest great festivals in honor of their goddess Ceres whom they worshiped as the giver of grain. In these celebrations offer- ings of wheat and barley, called cerealia munera or “gifts of Ceres,” held a most important part. Thus it was that the bread-producing grains came to be known as cerealia or cereals. We now include under this name not only wheat and barley but also rice, oats, rye, maize or Indian corn, and a few other grains of less importance, such as buckwheat. 15. Characteristics of cereals. The general appearance of the most important grain-plants is shown in Figs. 1 to 15. As will be seen, they all agree in having narrow grass-like leaves, and slender upright stems bearing numerous flowers in ‘‘ears”’ or “‘heads,”’ and finally, kernels enclosed by “‘ chaff” or “husks.” In all but maize each separate kernel is covered completely by two or more of these chaffy envelopes, and even in maize some thin papery chaff may be seen attached E. to the cob at the base of each kernel. All the cereals are annuals; that is to say, each completes its span of life within ayear. All of those mentioned, except buckwheat, are grasses which have been more or less changed from their wild state by ages of cultivation. Let us look more closely at the flowers of the oat. Although appearing rather unlike what we ordinarily call flowers, they have, as will be seen from Figs. 2 and 3, all the parts essential to a true flower. Indeed, because of their simplicity and perfection they afford a convenient standard with which to compare other flowers. In the center of the oat flower, as of flowers in general, is a pistil, in which may be distin- 11 12 CEREALS Fig. 1.—The oat (Avena sativa, Grass Family, Graminee). Plant in flower, showing sev- eral leafy stalks growing from one root. Three of the stalks bear flower-clusters. About one-fifth natural size. (Bail- lon.) guished (1) a lower swollen part, the ovary, containing a small egg- shaped body, the ovule; (2) a pair of elongated middle parts, the styles, each connecting the ovary with (3) a free, terminal part, the stigma, which is here like a little plume. Around the pistil © are three stamens very like what are commonly met with in other flowers. Each stamen consists of (1) a double sac, the anther, in which are produced innum- erable dust-like particles, the pollen, and (2) a threadlike part, the filament, on the upper end of which the anther is borne. When the anther is ripe it sheds its pollen, a particle of which com- ing to rest upon an oat stigma brings about the ripening of the ovule into a seed. As the ovule ripens, the ovary enlarges to keep pace with it, forming at last for the seed a firm protective cover- ing which together with the seed constitutes the grain. Mean- while the styles, stigmas, and stamens, having fulfilled their office, wither and fall off. The ripened ovary and its contents together with whatever parts ripen in connection with it (in this case two husks) constitute the fruit. Since the purpose of the flowe is to form seeds, and this is ac- complished by means of stamens and pistils, these are called the , : 7 7 } ; ; aa es ee eS Se ee ee ae ee a —— CHARACTERISTICS — 13 essential organs of a flower. A flower which has both is said to be perfect; if either alone, imperfect; or if with neither, rudimentary. While the floral parts of the oat are being formed they are protected by papery husks called bracts, a bract being or- Fic. 2.—Oat. A, Upper part of flower-cluster. B, a single spikelet in flower, with bracts spread somewhat apart. C, one of the outer bracts. D, an inner bract bearing an awn. J, pistil. G, lodicules. A and B about natural size, C, D, and J, enlarged. (Nees.) dinarily a small leaf-like organ belonging to a flower-cluster. A little cluster of grass-flowers together with their bracts, is called a spikelet. At the base of the inner bracts are the so-called lodicules which by swelling spread apart the bracts so as to expose the anthers and stigmas at the proper time for shedding or receiving the pollen. An awn is a bristle- like appendage such as make up the “‘beard”’ of many grasses. 14 CEREALS Fia. 3.—Oat. A spikelet (similar to B, Fig. 2) cut lengthwise to show the inner parts. Enlarged and somewhat diagrammatic. Sk, stalklet; R, R’, its continuation as a little rachis within the spikelet; C, C’, outer bracts; M, F, mature flower; Y, F, young flower not yet opened; R, F, rudimentary flower or pair of bracts with neither stamens nor pistils within; D, bract with awn (B); E, inner bract; G, lodicule; F, F’, fila- ments bearing ripe anthers (RA, RA’) from one of which pollen (P) is falling; Sc, stigma; Sy, style; Ov, ovary, containing an ovule (OL); | YA, a young anther; YA’, a similar one cut lengthwise to show the pollen forming within. (Original.) Fic. 4.—Oat spikelet in fruit. F, the awned inner bract swollen with the ripe kernel which it enwraps; A, awn; F’, another ripe ‘‘oat’’ separated from the little rachis (R) and turned to show its inner face where the © edges of the bract enclosing the kernel are seen not quite meeting at the center. About twice natural size. (Original.) A continuation of the stalk into-a flower-cluster is called its rachis. . Every one should be able to tell at sight such important plants as the six principal cereals. When in flower they may be distinguished by the peculiarities mentioned in the following synopsis taken in connection with the figures. 15 CEREALS AGTUVG AAY LVAH \\ .SLVO aOry aZIV IN Areyuourpns oq Avur YOM JO OMY IO 9M ‘S79] -oyids sory} SulIveq SIyOR. 94} JO quiot youn LPS sIaMoy y0oj10d OM} YM yopeytds your oyids 10 ,,avo,, yowduroo Print SA SIOMOY JOOJ ee et AO B BUIULIO} ‘SIPORA UTBUT OY} -Iod [BIOAVS Y}TAM SAO]}O -oyids opsuls & uo AyT}OoITIp ouI0g syopoxIdg oy} fArejyUSUTIpNt $49] Sulvoq siyovs ; ‘ -oytds ramoy oy} Jo Moy Vy ) ay} Jo JuIol Yougy ‘**UBUT B SB ][B} 8B . wWOpfes ‘MOT[OY U1048 ‘901 SUOUIRYS {OUI OY} UBY} JodIv] JoyNO {yoojsod A][}SOUI SIOMO] ay} ‘pouoyjey you sjyowrq ‘sutdoorp syopoytdg . 740 eed 4 eR Bie Joysnyo 5B RR Seta pear he xIs Suoweys foynuIUE | BSOO] B SULUIIOJ ‘UMO S}T sprig JojNo {pous}yey Yonur “yoo10 syopoytdg } Jo y[VIs B UO Yovo syopaytdg Soa) whe oe ao) AP RA Ace Tee Owe A PEON Ie ee CLT Ae A CEES: 6 ete aes uvuUl B uvy} IO] [e4 uo}jo ‘prpos U1048 {MOTOq (S189 ,, qoeduroo ut souo oyer[Tystd ‘doz oy} 4B ,,[OSSB},, 10 JoJSN[O OSOOT B Ul SOUO OFBUTUIBIS :y0o0JIOd UIT SIOMO[ AT STVAYHO TVdIONTUd AHL ? 16 CEREALS L S Fic. 5.—Rice (Oryza sativa, Grass rice plant, one-quarter natura rain-guard or ligule at base o (Martius.) P, upper part of ’ Family, Graminee). 1 size; S, a spikelet from the same; f leaf-blade, inner view; natural size. ; a. CEREALS 17 16. Importance of grains in ancient times. Many facts go to show that cereals must have been among the very first plants raised from seed. The Roman ceremonies, before referred to, were patterned after religious rites which had Fic. 6.—Rice. A, part of a flower-cluster of beardless rice, natural size. B, a spikelet of the same. F, a flower showing its six stamens, single pistil (with two styles and stigmas) and two lodicules. K,a ripe kernel. B, F, and K enlarged. (Nees.) been practised for centuries by the Greeks, among whom wheat and barley were greatly prized. Passages in the Hebrew Scriptures show that these were the grains cultivated throughout Palestine and in the valley of the Nile; and it is an interesting fact that a grain of wheat has been found 4 << a aw — O 18 A plant, a flower- d apart, a flower, and a kernel. Graminee). , two spikelets with bracts sprea (Baillon.) Fic. 7.—Rye (Secale cereale, Grass Family, cluster CEREALS 19 embedded in a sun-dried brick from one of the Egyptian _ Pyramids believed to be over five thousand years old. Cer- _ tain prehistoric remains of the Lake Dwellers in Switzerland i * Ulf - 4 f Wy, & NN By, r x weal Sh i Ny YI SPRL /Y | EN (i \ BAe, Y ET AS f ' f a N ! \\ iy r y % Wy ae fl he g \ + ; v iq \ ‘ ai i, ’ | Mt Yi, f \ 4 > %, at aN 4 Hq : ? Fic. 8.— Wheat (Triticum sativum, Grass Family, Graminee). A plant and flower-cluster of bearded wheat, a flower-cluster of beardless or ‘‘club’’ -_ wheat, a piece of the zig-zag rachis, a spikelet, a flower, and a kernel. ; (Baillon.) 2 ee ae show that wheat, barley, oats, and rye were in use among the ruder peoples of Europe, centuries before the Christian Era. The Chinese have record of the cultivation of rice in their country more than four thousand years ago. Until recent 20 CEREALS times they observed annually a very ancient custom in which rice grains were planted by the Emperor with appropriate ceremonies in token of its great value to the nation. Finally, in the New World, evidences abound of the cultivation of maize ages before the coming of Columbus. Ears of Indian corn occur along with the most ancient remains in Mexico and Peru. Moreover, the Spanish conquerors found that in Mexico the natives worshiped an agricultural divinity to K2~ Fic. 9.—Wheat. A, spikelet of beardless wheat, enlarged. F, flower with bracts spread. C, D, E, bracts. G, pistil with stamens, and a pair of ~ lodicules at base. K!, K2, kernel. R, rachis. (Baillon.) whom they brought the first-fruits of their maize-harvest, just as the Romans brought their offerings of grain to Ceres. 17. Earliest use of grains. Although we may be sure that the cultivation of the grains began many years before the time of our earliest records concerning them, we have no means of knowing how long ago they were first planted as a crop; nor have we any definite knowledge of how any one of them first came to be cultivated. Still there is good reason to suppose that before the advantages of planting were discovered, it was the custom to gather the wild grain when it was ripe, just as certain savage tribes do with other grains at the present day. Thus it would happen naturally CEREALS 21 i eee Ie eee ee Fig. 10.—Common barley (Hordeum sativum, var. vulgare, Grass Family, Graminee). Plant, flower-cluster, spikelet, flower, and fruit. (Baillon.) 22 CEREALS Fig. 12.—Six-rowed barley (H. sati- vum, var. hexastichon). B3, a group of three spikelets, as they appear together at a joint of the rachis. B, Bl, single spikelets. F, a flower (one stigma partly re- ¢ moved). Ki, K2, back and front \ views of kernel. All more or less enlarged. (Nees.) Fig. 11.—Two-rowed barley (H. sativum, var. distichon). Flower-cluster and base of a spikelet, slightly reduced. (Hackel.) — | . : CEREALS 23 Fig. 14.—-Maize. A spikelet from the tassel cut lengthwise to show its two flowers; the one on the right fully open, the other not yet mature. Sk, stalklet; C, C’, outer bracts; D, E, inner bracts of the open flower; G, lodicules, which by swelling have spread apart the bracts; F’, F’”, filaments cut across; ‘Be filament bearing ripe anther (R, A) shedding pollen (P); Y, A, young anthers, the left hand one cut to show the pollen. Enlarged. (Original.) Fic. 13.—Maize (Zea Mays, Grass Family, Graminee). A plant in flower. T, the ‘‘tassel”’ (a cluster of flowers having stamens but no pistils); S, stalk; L, leaf; E, E, E, the ‘ears’ (clusters of flowers hav- ing pistils but no stamens); N, N, nodes (swollen joints of the stem); B, B, brace roots, which serve as guys helping to hold the stalk up- right; R, earth roots; G, G, surface of ground. About one-twelfth natural size. (Original.) 24 CEREALS Fig. 15.—Maize. I. A young ear cut through the middle lengthwise. Sk, Sk, the main stalk; Sk’, a short branch which bears the ear; Sh, sheathing lower part of the leaf which enfolds the whole ear and its husks; B, blade of the same leaf; R, G, the rain-guard which keeps rain from running into the sheath and promoting decay; H, the ‘‘husks”’ or large, more or less leaf-like bracts around the ear; Sg, stigmas (the ‘“‘silk’’?) protruding beyond the husks. About one-third natural size. II. A spikelet of the same ear, showing the bracts (C, C’, D; 2 ae and the ovary (O), and the lower part of the style (SY) of the single pistil. Enlarged. III. Upper part of stigma of the same, showing the delicate hairs that cover it. Enlarged. (Original.) ' RICE 25 that the sort of grain which grew wild in a given locality would be the one first cultivated in that region, whence its cultivation would spread in course of time to other parts of the world. In Figs. 16 to 21 are indicated the region which is now believed to have been the native home of each cereal, and the range of its present cultivation. As will be seen by a comparison of the maps, five of the cereals are natives of the Old World, maize alone belonging tothe new. All six, however, are cultivated successfully in America, and to-day the markets of the world are supplied largely by grain raised in the United States. 18. Oats thrive in northern regions where most of the other grains do not flourish. This grain forms one of the chief foods of the Scotch, Icelanders, and Scandinavians. Where other grains are used more largely as human food, it is especially valued as a fodder for horses. 19. Barley, in spite of its more southerly origin, grows even farther to the north than oats, and thrives equally in subtropical regions. Although anciently of great importance as a breadstuff, it is now used chiefly for malting (see sec- tion 29) and as fodder for domestic animals. 20. Rye will grow in a poorer soil than any other grain. This fact accounts for its importance in regions that are hilly or otherwise difficult of tillage. From it is made a dark-colored bread, largely used by the peasantry of Aus- tria, Germany, and Russia. In Sweden rye is highly valued as a breadstuff by all classes. 21. Maize is one of the most important of the grains. The ease with which it may be grown in almost any climate, and the simple way in which the kernels may be prepared for eating, have made it almost as widely used among the sav- ages of the Old World, as formerly among the American Indians. It is less valued as a human food in Europe than with us, but is universally recognized as one of the very best foods for domestic animals, particularly for use in fattening. 22. Rice grows best in hot countries, and as the varieties most used require to be submerged for a considerable period in order to develop properly, their cultivation is restricted to localities where yearly flooding may be practised. At 26 CEREALS | the same time, this peculiarity makes it possible to grow rice where no other grain will thrive. Enormous quantities are Fic. 16.—Map of the world showing, by full black, the probable native (ona aud by dotted area, the present range in ‘cultivation, of wheat. riginal.) Fic. 17.—Map showing, as in Fig. 16, native home and present range of barley. (Original.) produced every year in the warm and moist regions of China, India, and the neighboring islands, and in our southern coast j RICE a States. Since it forms one of the principal articles of diet _ in the densely populated countries of eastern Asia, and has Fic. 18.—Map showing, as in Fig. 16, native home and present range of rye. (Original.) Fig. 19.—Map showing, as in Fig. 16, native home and present range of oats. (Original.) come to be very widely used in other parts of the world, rice doubtless serves as food for more human beings than any other grain. 28 CEREALS 23. Wheat. Throughout the greater part of Europe and America wheat holds the first place among vegetable foods. aR i is Peal : Fes LP ETC Mi faieeeiane Van Fic. 20.—Map showing, as in Fig. 16, native home and present range of rice. (Original.) be Sid | pike Pek a : ALT : arery wy Tat cee aes ; : CXS y: = : Fig. 21.—Map showing, as in Fig. 16, native home and present range of maize. (Origina »| Now that railways and steamboats have made transporta- tion easy, more and more wheat is being used; for whenever it is equally available it is usually preferred as a breadstuff BUCKWHEAT 29 to any other grain. Although much wheat of fine quality is raised abroad, especially in Russia, France, and Austria- Hungary, our country produces more than any other. Fic. 22.—Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum, Buckwheat Family, Poly- gonacee). A, upper part of plant, showing leaves and flower-clusters; natural size. B, a flower enlarged, showing the following parts:—in the center a single pistil on the ovary of which are borne three styles ending in rounded stigmas; around the pistil eight stamens in two rows, the inner row of three; between the rows of stamens at their bases, eight small protuberances (nectar-glands) which secrete a sweet liquid (nectar) from which bees make honey; outside of the other parts of the flower come a circle of five more or less leaf-like organs—the sepals— together constituting the ‘‘flower-cup”’ or calyx which in this case is white or whitish. C, the same showing the arrangement of its parts as they appear when the flower is halved vertically. D, stamens. £, the pistil enlarged. 4H, fruit, enlarged. F, the same cut lengthwise. J, the same, cut across, showing the flat curved embryo or rudimentary plantlet surrounded by seed food. G, embryo removed from the seed and viewed from the side. (Baillon.)\—The plant grows luxuriantly in fields to a height of 0.5-1.m. It is smooth throughout. Bees which come for nectar transfer the pollen from flower to flower and SO enable the plant to set good seed. 24. Buckwheat is sometimes included among cereals because it is cultivated for its grain. As will be seen, how- ever, from Fig. 22 this plant differs very much from the 30 apes CEREALS other cereals. It is a native of northern Asia where doubt- less it has been cultivated for a long time; yet its introduc- tion into other regions was comparatively recent. Like rye its chief merit is that it will yield a profitable crop on very poor soil. The flour made from it, however, is correspond- ingly poor in nutritive value. It is usually mixed with other sorts of flour to which it imparts an agreeable flavor. 25. The value of cereals. Why is it that the cereal grains have been valued so highly from the earliest times? What makes them so much better than other vegetable foods, and why are some of them superior to others? The fact that these plants ripen their seeds within a few months after planting, and under favorable conditions yield such a large return for the labor bestowed upon them, will doubtless partly account for the high favor in which they are held; but as much the same may be said of other vegetables of far less value as food, there must be some more important reasons. In order to understand these, we must know some- thing of the chemical composition of cereals; that is to say, we must learn what substances are to be found in the differ- ent grains and in what amount. , 26. Water in grains. Every part of a plant contains or- dinarily a certain quantity of water—succulent herbage and fruits like the watermelon having a great deal, while woody parts, seeds, and grains have comparatively little. The — quantity of water contained in a given specimen, is esti- | mated by drying a known weight of the material at the tem- perature of boiling water, and then reweighing to find how much has been lost: the loss will be practically equivalent to the weight of water originally present. In the Food Chart on page 114 the student will find indicated the average percent- age of moisture in each of the cereals and in various other vegetable foods as commonly found in the markets. A glance will show what a comparatively small amount the cereals contain. For this reason they keep remarkably well when stored, and take up very little room in proportion to the amount of nutriment they afford. 27. Ash. If the sample dried as suggested be burned until all of the combustible material is consumed, there will CARBOHYDRATES dl remain a small quantity of ash or mineral matter, varying somewhat in the different kinds of cereals as shown in the chart. Upon further analysis this ash is found to consist of certain earthy substances (potash, lime, magnesia, soda, and silica) variously combined with phosphorus, sulphur, and oxygen. It is important to remember that such substances form the principal constituents of bones and teeth, and that cereals are particularly rich in the mineral matters specially required for building these hard parts of our bodies. 28. Nutrients. A large part of the grain consumed in burning, consists of nutrients, 7. e., nutritious substances, which form the main bulk. Besides this there is a small amount of woody material (non-nutrient) contained chiefly in the hull. When this indigestible covering is removed in the process of milling, the meal or flour which is left, repre- sents therefore the nutritive part of the grain free from nearly all that is useless for food. Plainly, then, it is upon the composition of this inner part that the value of the grain must principally depend; and here, as we shall see, the most important differences are to be found. 29. Carbohydrates. If we knead a little wheaten dough in a considerable quantity of water, the latter becomes milky from the presence of a pure white substance which washes out from the dough, while there is left behind a curious, elastic, pale-colored mass sometimes called “‘wheat gum.”’ If we allow the milky water to stand for some time, a large part of the white substance will settle, thus showing that it is a fine powder which was merely suspended in the water, and not really dissolved. This white material is starch, as may be proved by adding to some of it a little iodine solution; this will turn it a dark bluish color, and starch is the only substance known to be thus affected. If starch be boiled with a dilute acid for a sufficient time it becomes mainly converted into a kind of sugar known as glucose, or grape-sugar, an important constituent of the commercial “glucose” of which large quantities are used in confectionery. Chemistry teaches us that this change is made possible by the fact that both starch and glucose con- sist of the same elements,—namely, carbon, hydrogen, and 32 CEREALS oxygen in nearly the same proportions,—the composition of starch being carbon, six parts; hydrogen, ten; and oxygen, five; as expressed by the formula C,H,.O;; while for pure glucose the formula is C,H,,0,. It will be noticed that in each there is twice as much hydrogen as oxygen; that is to say these elements are present in just the same,propor- tion as in water, which, as is well known, has the chemical formula H,O. ; ars. a ler eh arhael ee — aa Pe eh NUTS 39 Fic. 27.— Walnut (Juglans regia, Walnut Family, e; uglandacee). 1, a spring shoot bearing young leaves; ata, a staminate flower-cluster, and at 5, a cluster of three pistillate flowers. 2, a single staminate flower viewed from below, showing the numerous stamens, and three sepals and three bracts which cover them above; a, inner view of a single stamen; b, the same in side view. 3, a single pistillate flower, showing the two spreading stigmas protruding beyond the small calyx, which crowns the ovary. 4, the same cut vertically, showing the single ovule at the base. 4, a fruit with part of the husk removed, showing the rough-shelled nut within. 6, nut cut in half vertically, showing half of the four-lobed seed or ‘‘meat,’’ within. (Wossidlo.)—The plant is a handsome, widely spreading tree attaining a height of 20 m. Bark soon becoming thick and much cracked. Leaves smooth, dull green, bronzy to yellowish. Flowers greenish. Fruit-hull, green turning black. Wind carries the pollen from tree to tree. 40 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS Fia. Fic. 28.—Butternut (Juglans cinerea, Walnut Family, Juglandacee). A twig in autumn bearing a single leaf and a ripe fruit. Twig, in spring bear- ing two staminate flower-clusters. A single staminate flower viewed from above. A pistillate flower showing the two protruding stigmas. A nut removed from its husk, showing the deeply sculptured shell. The flowers, enlarged; the other parts reduced. (Britton and Brown.)— The plant is a forest tree becoming sometimes 30 m. tall; old bark roughish, gray; young twigs and leaves sticky-hairy; flowers brownish green; stigmas red; fruit green turning to brown, covered thickly with very sticky hairs, nut blackish. 29.—Pecan (Carya oliveformis, Walnut Family, Juglandacee). Twig in spring after removal of all the leaves but one and all the staminate flower-clusters below it except the lower part of their stalks. At the tip of the twig is the small cluster of pistillate flowers. Three-branched staminate flower-cluster. Staminate flower, top view. Stamen. Fruit. Nut, after removal of the husk. Flower and stamen, enlarged. (Britton and Brown.)—The plant is a large slender tree, becoming 50 m. tall; bark somewhat rough; young twigs and leaves hairy; mature foliage nearly smooth; flowers greenish; fruit brownish green; nut light brown. The native home of the various nuts and of other food- plants, the length of time they have been cultivated, and certain other matters of related interest, will be discussed at the end of this chapter. 34. Pulse, under which name are included peas (Figs. 37, 38), and beans (Figs. 39, 40),' agree with grains and nuts 1TIn the reference to the illustrations the reader will observe that the same Arabic numeral sometimes applies to more than one cut, Roman ————————— ee Uh J - 4 41 Fig. 30.—Shagbark Hickory (Carya alba, Walnut Family, Juglandacee). A single leaf. Staminate flower-cluster. Staminate flower, under side, enlarged. Twig bearing a single fruit. Nut. (Britton and Brown.)— A large tree becoming 36 m. tall; bark shaggy in narrow plates, gray; young twigs and leaves slightly hairy becoming smooth; flowers green- ish; fruit greenish brown; nut almost white. in that the nutritive part is contained within the seed, but differ from them in that the seeds ripen in a rather thin- walled pod which opens at maturity by splitting in halves from end to end. The very large amount of nutriment in proportion to bulk, together with the small percentage of water and oil (see chart) renders beans and peas among the very best foods for storage, and particularly adapts them for use upon long voyages. That they are highly nutritious is shown by the large amount of proteid they contain. This, however, is found to be of a sort resembling the proteid of cheese; and is not so easily digestible as that found in cereals. 35. Earth-vegetables we shall find to be a convenient numerals being added to distinguish them. Thus in the above refer- ence to the pictures of kidney-bean, Fig. 39 is understood as applying to Fig. 391 and Fig. 391, 42 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS ‘ me ay 8 y Fic. 31.—Almond (Prunus Amygdalus, Rose Family, Rosacew). INKS i aa ( Za a) \4 ts a ~— UU RAS OEP TONE Fic. 35.—Coconut. = le me Ol i I cee } kK ; : | q 4 i Fig. 39 I.—Kidney Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Pulse Family, Leguminose). Plant of a twining, ‘‘running”’ or ‘‘pole”’’ variety in flower and fruit X ws. (Vilmorin.)—The plant is a rough hairy annual vine or, in cer- tain ‘““dwarf’’ varieties, a bushy herb; flowers of various colors in- cluding white and lilac; fruit and seeds also of different colors and very variously marked. preerin 50 VARIOUS: FOOD-PLANTS Fic. 39 IIl.—Kidney Bean. A, flower, about twice natural size. B, the same with wings pressed down as if by a bee sucking nectar; showing the stigma and pollen-covered end of the style protruding from the coiled tubular keel. A bee’s head or back covered with bean pollen would be in position to deposit some of the grains upon the protruding stigma and thus enable the plant to set good seeds, while an instant later it would be touched by the pollen on the style and so receive a new load to take to another bean-flower. C, a flower cut in halves vertically to show the arrangement of parts before protrusion of the stigma. Enlarged and somewhat diagrammatic. (Original.) ‘. 3 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS 51 Fic. 40.—Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus, Pulse Family, Leguminose). Plant of a twining variety in flower and fruit x #. (Vilmorin.)—The plant is an annual closely resembling the Kidney Bean except that the flowers are greenish white and the pods are broad, flattened, and curved like a scimitar. large amount of indigestible material (cellulose) in propor- _ tion to the proteid and other nutritive constituents. From this it follows that not only are earth-vegetables more bulky to store than grains and pulse (and, moreover, cannot or- dinarily be kept longer than a few months) but in order to 52 " Fig. Nal; Eat =S % GP 4 . e@; \7 i ‘i Wy " g vay { : EVN | § ve ¥. AAU ; LYS : WF, 2 Fic . 42.— Beet. VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS 41.—Beet. foot Family, Chenopodiacee). showing the appearance of the parts above ground at the end of its first (Beta vulgaris, Goose- Plant year. X 4. (Original).—The leaves are smooth, green or more or less tinged with red; stem scarcely more than a ‘“‘crown”’ covering the top of the swollen root which projects some- what above the ground. A plant in its second year, the underground parts cut ver- tically, to show the swollen root which is feeding with its store of nutriment the crown, which has given rise to several erect branches bearing leaves, flowers and fruit. (Original).—Plant, a biennial, i. e., requiring two years to complete its life, the first year storing up food which during the second year it uses to build flower- and fruit-bearing shoots; stem- branches, commonly deep red; flow- ers, greenish; fruit, dry, rough, and brown. ba nce tetera te ne HERBAGE-VEGETABLES 53 Fic. 43.—Beet. A, root. B, leaf. C, small flowering branch. D, a flower just opened. J, vertical section of a flower-bud showing a bract, (6), a layer of crystals in the ovary wall, k, and, nectar glands (d, d). F, stamen, back view. G, a flower the same as D but older. 4H, seed. J, the same cut in half, to show seed-coat and the germ coiled around the seed-food in the center. A-—C, reduced, D—J variously enlarged. (Baillon, Volkens.) get as much nutriment from them as from grains or pulse, a very much larger amount must be eaten. It should not be supposed, however, that the indigestible parts of what we eat are altogether useless; for it has been observed in various experiments that digestive organs commonly work to better advantage when the nutritious materials undergoing diges- tion are present not in concentrated form but diluted, as it were, with a certain amount of finely divided cellulose or other harmless material which may act mechanically. 36. Herbage-vegetables may be defined as those which yield us nutriment in shoots developed above ground. They 54 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS >, V aid Fic. 44.—Turnip. (Brassica campestris, Mustard Family, Crucifere). Plants showing fleshy roots, and rosettes of leaves, as they appear at the end of the first year’s growth. x 2. (Vilmorin.)—Plant a biennial; root varying greatly in form and color under cultivation; leaves bright green; rough-hairy. Fig. 45.—Turnip. Middle section of second-year stem which bears the flow- ers. A lower leaf. Flower-cluster with young fruit. Fruit, natural size. (Britton and Brown.)—The plant in its second year becomes about 1 m. tall or less; the lower leaves are hairy, the upper ones smooth; the flowers yellow. . . F : ; 7 aes ae HERBAGE-VEGETABLES ABB _ Fie. 46.—Radish. (Raphanus sativus, Mustard Family, Crucifere). Fic. 47.—Carrot (Daucus Carota, Pars- Part of stem bearing leaves. ley Family, Umbellifere). Plant Flower cluster. Fruit. (Brit- showing root and rosette of leaves ton and Brown.)—Plant an an- at the close of the first year’s nual, or in cultivation behaving growth. (Nicholson.)—The roots as a biennial; roots flattened, vary considerably as regards form spherical or long-conical, vari- and color, being conical, cylindri- ously colored, mostly white or eal, or globular; red, orange, yel- red; stem and leaves bright green, low, or white; and from about more or less covered with stiff 5-50 em. long; leaves bright hairs; flowers pink or white. green, hairy. include “pot-herbs”’ and certain “salads.’’ The most nutri- _ tive part is in some cases the tender and more or less thick- - ened stem, as with asparagus (Figs. 62 I, II) and kohlrabi (Fig. _ 66). Sometimes as in kale, borecole, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts (Figs. 63-65, 67-69), watercress (Fig. 71), spinach (Figs. 72-74), and lettuce (Figs. 75-77) the leaves are of “most importance. With celery (Figs. 78, 79) the leafstalk is the part employed, while in the cauliflower (Fig. 70) it is the _ much branched and thickened flower-stalk, together with the - innumerable buds which it bears. In chemical composition, and consequently in food value, } et al 56 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS i ; Fic. 48.—Carrot. Upper part of plant in flower and fruit. (Baillon.)— . Plant a biennial, becoming about 1 m. tall; flowers mostly white, the . central one of a cluster being usually dark purple. Fig. 49.—Carrot. Flower, enlarged. (Baillon.) Fic. 50.—Carrot. Flower, cut in half vertically. (Baillon). VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS 57 _ Figs. 51-53.—The three upper figures. Carrot. Diagram of flower, showing ; Fic. Fic. the arrangement of the parts as they would appear if cut across and viewed from above. Fruit, viewed from the side.» Enlarged. Fruit, cut across, showing oil-tubes, at the bases of the long spines. (Baillon.) 54.—Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa, Parsley Family, Umbellifere). Plant at close of first year’s growth, showing fleshy root and a few of the young- er leaves, the older ones having been cut off. (Nicholson.)—The root varies somewhat in form but is commonly conical; the flesh whitish or pale yellow. 55.—Parsnip. Part of leaf, reduced. Part of fruit cluster, reduced. Fruit, enlarged. D, half of the same cut across. (Britton and Brown.) Plant a biennial or sometimes an annual, smooth or somewhat hairy, becoming 0.6—1.5 m. tall; leaves bright green; flowers similar in form to those of the carrot, but somewhat larger and yellow. Many insects are attracted by the clustered flowers. 58 7 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS Fic. 56.—Sweet Potato (Ipomea Batatas, Morning-Glory Family, Con- volvulacee). Stem, leaves and roots. X 3. (Redrawn. )—-Plant a per- ennial (i. e. growing more than two years) with creeping stems be- coming 2-3 m. long; leaves dark green, glossy; flowers purple, closely resembling those of the common morning-glory; roots becoming fleshy, sweet, and yellow within; fruit dry. herbage-vegetables are found to be a good deal like earth- vegetables. The chief difference is that the former have, on — the whole, a somewhat larger percentage of water, and a smaller amount of digestible carbohydrate. As against these deficiencies, however, there is a decidedly larger proportion of proteid in relation to the other nutritious materials. For example in lettuce which has at once the most water and the least proteid of any of the herbage-vegetables given in the table, we find that about one-third of the nutritive material (representing nearly one-quarter of the total weight exclusive of water) is proteid; while in the sweet potato (which of all the earth-vegetables given, has the least water and next to the most proteid) the proportion of proteid to other nutrients is approximately 1 to 12 (being to the total weight of the material dried, nearly as 1 to 18). . Fic. 57.—Sweet Potato. Flower-clusters coming from _leaf-axils, 3. Flower, cut vertically; natural size. Fruit, t. Seed, cut_in_ half vertically to show the folded germ in seed-food (dotted), #. (Original.) . 58, I.— White Potato (Solanum tuberosum, Night- shade Family, So- lanacee). Base of plant growing fromanoldtuber and producing Az new tubers at the w= tip of under- ground branches of the stem. (Baillon.)— Plant a perennial con- tinued from year to year by its tu- bers; stem erect, about 0.7 m. tall; leaves dull green, hairy; flowers lilac or white; fruit fleshy, green. 60 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS Fic. 58, II.—White Potato. Flowering branch. (Baillon.) Fig. 58, I1I.—White Potato. A, flower, about natural size. B, flower cut vertically, enlarged. C, stamen, enlarged, showing at the tip of the anthers the pores through which the pollen escapes and falls upon an insect visitor. D, berry, inside view. , same, cut across. F, seed, side view, and cut vertically to show the curved germ and the seed- food. (Baillon.) VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS 61 Fic. 59, I1.—Jerusalem Artichoke. (Helianthus tuberosus, Sunflower Family, Composite). Stem-tubers at base of stem, producing slender roots. (Vilmorin.)—The plant is a perennial herb, often 2 m. in height, closely resembling an ordinary garden sunflower. Fic. 59, I1.—Jerusalem Artichoke. Flower-cluster cut vertically to show a arrangement of the perfect florets forming a central mass or ‘“‘disk,”’ the neutral ray-florets surrounding them, and the protecting bracts or “‘involucre”’ looking like a calyx outside of all; the whole growing from the so-called ‘‘receptacle” or expanded top, of the floral stalk. (Baillon.)—Such a compact cluster of two kinds of flowers looks like one huge flower, and consequently becomes very attractive to many insects which transfer its pollen advantageously. 62 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS Fig. 59, II.—Jerusalem Artichoke. A disk flower enlarged and cut ver- tically to show the single pistil with two stigmas, long style with nectar glands at base, and one- -celled ovary containing a single erect ovule; appearing above the ovary is a tubular corolla dividing into five petal- tips (of which but three are shown), and bearing as many stamens the ~ anthers of which are united into a tube; also appearing above the ovary are slender sepals; and at the base of the flower a chaffy bract from the axil of which the flower arises. A neutral ray-flower having no stamens and only the vestige of a pistil in its rudimentary ovary, but showing a chaffy bract at its base, several sepals, and a much enlarged corolla — formed as if by the splitting of a tube nearly to the bottom along its inner side. (Baillon.) Fig. 59, 1V.—Jerusalem Artichoke. Fruit, side view, enlarged. The same on oe to show the germ occupying the whole of the seed within. aillon VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS 63 Fic. 60.—Onion. (Alliwm Cepa, Lily Family, Liliacee). A, bulb at the beginning of the second year’s growth (3) cut to show the short stem from which roots spring below, and, above, last year’s leaves of which there remain only the thickened bases forming the ‘‘ coats of the onion”’ and filled with food now being used up by the new leaves developing from a bud at the center. B, upper part of a leaf cut to show its tubular form. C, plant toward the end of its second year (8); the upper (once green) part of the leaves having withered, are replaced by a green hollow stem (shown cut across at D) which bears a cluster of white flowers, and finally the fruit. (A, original; B, C, D redrawn from Reichenbach.) 64 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS Fic. 61.—Onion. 2 Or) te . ‘(unjguard ps DSN JA) BUBUB quowUuy eee NR at mere CONG Nye.) ORs. 1ore ee eee ow FF aN mg ta" 8 aml eae BIpuy Sap), 0.26, 10) Oey CMON Eaten a (UOUVT ‘IRA poupa WW SNujU)) uoUlo'T SEAT | te NS Ee MSTOUL fe yin LLU) ) ETO OK ys UIUC) Me far ie St” men ae ae ee (UNYUDINY SNL) OBUBIC) DLO SII COV NSE ee Ree 8 Re, ee ee 8. ibe Ww wN ew ame w ae 1 OLITW jeotdory, Pe ea ee OS ne eee A ee (stupbyna SnpzNA}2,)) UO[OULIO}E AA on aiteromy|: 0 NS ee EY wg ae csp Ce Cah a la ta Oe 1 62 0 fh eM ond, (OPP Stunan,)) UOTPULYSN|AL TS ONAN eee ee BOLO PUB VISY O}BIOdUIOZ "Nt (wnsqns saquy) UBIO Uspaleryy qud00y AC Sek SC Om a er Wwe ia ot ae cae So}BI9 poyuy, ac | "NI Re ae ca Ye PO ea 1s oa (DISNAQD} $270.4 ) advi3-x0J UIOY IO N 9) Colt} 00 Co 9 BISY 9}BIOdUIO4 "AA SUISBV UBOUBIIOJIPAy| (nuafiur syr,4) oderg uvedomny qusoe yy)” *< Ft fe ee et BULICg a) OF TT) (sasuaopryo DIUDbDLy) AITOGMBIFD UIPIVY) i 1010 | Me uae male ease. Sib baa SUDIBAT O}'SIpUCIel, WTO KT SA ee ee one (‘aja ‘snapr snqnay) Sotiseqdsey yuolUuy i eee See Pe eee ee ee eres Cee Se toe Tee BIS "mM a) S06 Gee Cne*.6: BIE Lee (uni SNUNI ) ALOU) WwoUWIUIOD) 20° /17] 07; eae nea a an a ue TOU, BIBY | Vleleg “Kio (DIUSAWOp SNUNL.) WANT WOUTULOD OO YSTYOIg Cabin reds iciN coe: one Ce ER eee ee WEEN FOG a <8 Oke Bul ao When are Se ee Wyk: 8 ahs AOR) OF RES tony (vasa SNUNL) yovog OM OU Brae soe a Seas IOUIP, BISY {VISIOg Rpisae Stk ear ee (nuophig sniff) sourn?) UOUIULOD) OLLOISTY II Nec ae ee auiive Oa sah Man hae ce hime “eh sie a Sg Ke Senin ee cr hoe eee (‘040 ‘Sr UuNnULUuoa snthq) IVIg WOULULOD O18 COUT: |b Edel i ii aa Wey tM “S fadeinyy eyeiodmiey | fc ee ee ee (snyopy snug) ojddy wourm0d iene tt i aaa a OR aI OS a RI a ADEN ee sine ae (nuabuoja WnUDpION) queld-33q, quolouy Cee ECR CUCL at i et hoc OMe treo eek nn ATI ECA ek) (8 = ghee meant abe yes are (wnjuanasa wnarsiadooh'T) 0YVUIO J, co Cah RE er agi act tes ae Ne aga SOUL oss eae (DUMxDUL DILQUNINA) *d49 ‘ysenbg ueqiny, quoluy DSN Raley awe C ee. MeN Cee eas eee ae Tale 68 Chup . ‘OyIp (nypYyosout DIAQUNIN,)) "049 ‘ysenbg yoou-yoolg IOVUTAA VSI he * oo BOLOUTY YON "GQ 0} BOLIOUTY YINOG'N| (odag vnqunong) ‘ojo ‘panoy ‘urydung OMOYSIYOI Oe I CU TL ahh eee ake ee aed ee ee er ae vIpuy] ioe sawnc len ioe WURMIEL Une cents Tea ew lum (snayws suUnan,)) Joquinong guoriouy|“**** City Ms BollTy “Ntodoing “GQ pues “dome jot 2 ce ee ee (suajoaanb wnidy) A1a,aO quolUuy Set aN GW SOAS Wb. Cees . “RISV “M ‘BOL V ‘N ‘odoin 9 ee PO a ee ie ee ey he (narns panjav'T) 00n}}o'T 122 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS us with energy which shall be immediately available at any moment for the work of life. 45. Food-plants in general. When considering the cereal grains, we found that important facts regarding their special value and present use were explained by the original geo- graphical range and economic history of the species. We have now to conclude our study of food-plants by a com- parison, from this point of view, of the other kinds with these, so that we may arrive at some further general ideas concerning them. In the tabular view on pages 120-121 is given for each of the species already referred to, a brief statement of its native home and period of earliest cultivation, according to the opinion of recent authorities. Where these are doubtful an interrogation mark in parenthesis has been placed after the point in question. 46. The primitive centers of agriculture. We have al- ready seen that the three grains, wheat, rice, and maize, which have played a supremely important part in the history of mankind, are each native to a region which is widely separ- ated from the homes of the other two,—wheat being in- digenous to Mesopotamia, rice to southeastern Asia, and maize to tropical America. There is abundant evidence to show that it was in these regions, and in the lands immediately adjacent, that agri- culture was first systematically pursued, and thus made pos- sible the development of the great civilizations of antiquity. It is certainly a fact of profound significance in human history that wheat, the most valuable of the grains, should be native to a region so near the junction of the three continents of the eastern hemisphere. Antiquarian scholars are of the opinion that from the fertile valley of the Tigris and Eu- phrates as a center, agriculture, with the civilization which it implies, extended to all the great peoples of Africa, Europe, and southern and western Asia. A more restricted civiliza- tion of later development and less importance was that which arose in the valley of the Hoangho and Yangtse-Kiang, and formed the beginning of the present Chinese Empire. Still later, although many centuries before the coming of Colum- CULTURE-PERIOD AND NATIVE HOME 123 Fic. 121.—Map showing, by shaded areas, the three primitive centers of agriculture. bus, an important agricultural center was established on the - highlands of tropical America, and formed the basis of those remarkable civilizations of the Nahuas and Incas which the Spanish invaders overthrew. These three primitive centers of agriculture (Fig. 121) are important for us to remember, since, when taken in con- nection with what is known of the native homes of cultivated plants, they help us to understand why certain species have been cultivated so much longer than others, and why they have come to be so important. 47. Relation between culture-period and native home. It may be laid down as a rule that, other things being equal, the nearer the native home of a cultivated species is to the region forming one of the primitive centers of agriculture, | the longer has that species been under cultivation; and, conversely, the more remote its native home from an agri- cultural center, the more recently has it come to be cultivated. This, indeed, is what we should expect in view of the probable beginnings of agriculture already considered in our study of the grains (section 17). Reference to the foregoing tabular view will afford some interesting confirmations of this general principle, which in turn will help us to an orderly (and there- 124 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS fore more easily remembered) arrangement of the facts in our minds. Let us first ep ador the plants which were cultivated in ancient or in prehistoric times. As used in the tabular view the term prehistoric indicates, for plants of the Old World, a cultivation of over four thousand years, or in the New World of over two thousand years: ancient, means over two thousand years for Old World plants, or for New World species, a cultivation for more than five hundred years, or in some cases for over one thousand years. That is to say, the cultivation of the plants designated as prehistoric or ancient, preceded or was associated with the earliest civiliza- tions of the hemisphere to which they belonged. With refer- ence to their native homes we find that these plants fall readily into the following groups: — I. The Mediterranean Group: plants of which the native range fell within, or was adjacent to, the region about the eastern end of the Mediterranean sea—the region wherein were developed the great Eurasian civilizations of antiquity, ~ from which our own is principally derived. The plants in- cluded are wheat, barley, oats, rye, chestnut, filbert, walnut, almond, pea, beet, turnip, carrot, parsnip, onion, asparagus, cabbage, spinach, lettuce, celery, cucumber, egg-plant, apple, pear, quince, plum, common cherry, European grape, musk- melon, watermelon, lemon, banana, date, fig, and olive. Il. The Oriental Group: plants having their native home extending within or adjacent to the valleys of the Yangtse- Kiang and Hoangho, the seat of the most ancient of oriental civilizations. Under this head come rice, radish (?), peach, orange, and sugar-cane. III. The American Group: plants indigenous to the high- lands of tropical America or in lands adjacent thereto, that is, within or near the region occupied by the ancient civiliza- tions of the Western Hemisphere. This group includes maize, peanut, coconut, kidney-bean, Lima bean, sweet potato, white potato, pumpkins and squashes, tomato, pineapple, cacao, and bitter cassava. The plants which are indicated as of modern culture are believed not to have been cultivated by the ancients of the 4 CULTURE PERIOD AND NATIVE HOME 125 Old World before the beginning of the Christian Era, or in the case of New World forms, to have been in cultivation, at most only a few centuries before Columbus discovered America. By plants of recent culture are to be understood such as have been introduced into agriculture since the discov- ery of America. A glance at the tabular view will show that none of these ‘‘ modern” or “‘ recent’ plants are native to regions within or near to the primitive centers of agriculture. Some of these plants occur wild in both the Old and the New World; namely, raspberries, the garden currant, and the field mushroom. ‘Those confined to the Old World are buckwheat, rhubarb, and sago: those of the New World are the butter- nut, hickory, pecan-nut, Jerusalem artichoke, garden straw- berry, and northern fox-grape. The Brazil-nut and “carrageen”’ are the only other food- plants included in our list. Of these the wild product so — fully satisfies the demand, that the plants have never been cultivated, and their native homes are thus without special significance in the matter under consideration. It is, how- ever, a confirmation of the principle above stated, that no plant of any considerable agricultural importance has been derived from regions which are remote from the primitive centers of agriculture, or cut off from early communication with them, even though the climate may be highly favorable. This is true of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The facts we have stated show plainly that the native home of a cultivated food-plant stands in close relation with its importance to mankind. That is to say, just as we found that a knowledge of the chemical composition of plant-foods enabled us to understand in what manner and how much they were used, so now it appears that to know the original geographical ranges of cultivated plants helps us to explain the time and area over which their use has extended. Of course, many other considerations often need to be taken into account in order satisfactorily to explain all that is _ known regarding the differences in extent and duration of such usefulness. What should be insisted upon is that geo- graphical facts are of fundamental importance in discussing the economic history of food-plants. 126 VARIOUS FOOD-PLANTS 48. The multiplication of varieties. Besides the effect which geographical range has exerted upon the spread and period of cultivation, the differences in the number of varie- ties that have arisen through human agency among culti- vated plants may be attributed largely to the same important factor; since, as may be readily shown, the number of varie- ties in a given species is much influenced by the extent and duration of its culture. For, taken as a whole, the plants of ancient or prehistoric cultivation, as compared with those of modern or recent introduction, present a marked contrast in the greater number of different varieties which have come to be cultivated. Thus we have the common buckwheat, a ‘“‘modern”’ plant, without any well-marked varieties, as against the “‘ancient”’ oats and rye, each with several varie- ties; and the “prehistoric”? wheat, barley, rice, and maize, with scores or hundreds of varieties. If the comparison of the newer with the older be extended to nuts, vegetables, and fruits, a similar rule will be found to obtain; although it is true that more or less important exceptions will be encoun- tered. These exceptions go to show that other elements besides time of culture would have to be taken into account in any attempt to explain fully why one cultivated species should have more or less varieties than another. But these other factors need not be here considered, since our present purpose is to point out that just as the area of use and the culture-period of a plant have been dependent largely upon the geographical relation of its native home to a primitive center of agriculture, so upon these factors, in their turn, have largely depended the number of varieties which have been artifically developed. 49. How varieties arise. Finally, a brief consideration of how such “artificial”? varieties arise, will help. us to under- . stand why it is that long and widespread cultivation should tend to increase the number of these varieties. It will be remembered that when discussing what is meant by a “va- riety’’ as distinguished from a “‘species”’ (section 9) the state- ment was made that no two individual plants are exactly alike even though raised from seeds of the same parent. Sometimes the differences are very noticeable, and may af- ARTIFICIAL SELECTION 127 fect the plant as a whole, or any part, with reference to size, form, flavor, proportion of chemical constituents, time of appearance or ripening, hardiness, and so on. Since in plants which are raised from seed, the special peculiarities of the parent are found to reappear in its offspring to a greater or less degree, it becomes possible for the farmer to preserve in future crops the peculiarities which please him, by taking his seeds from those individual plants which satisfy him best. Thus if early ripening is the quality desired, the earliest seeds are the ones chosen year after year, until in the course of several, or it may be many generations, furnishing earlier and earlier plants, the offspring finally produced from these selected seeds are found to ripen their product so much sooner than any other sorts that they are recognized as a new variety. With many plants, such as strawberries, the seedlings are apt to vary so widely from the parent and from each other that the varieties are said to be “not true to seed”: and in these cases it is the practice when once a seedling possessed of desirable qualities has been obtained, to propagate it by means of “‘cuttings” or similar detached portions of the parent plant instead of by seed. Occasionally important differences appear among the in- dividuals raised from cuttings or the like, and these may similarly form the basis of new varieties. 50. Artificial selection. Besides these principal ways in which cultivated varieties arise, there are some others the consideration of which must be deferred to a later chapter. What at present concerns us is the general truth that to a very large extent hwman or artificial selection exerts a control- ling influence either upon the development or the perpetua- tion of varieties, and frequently upon both. Since the longer and more widespread the cultivation of a given plant has been, the more extensive and more varied must have been this influence, we should expect in general that the number of varieties of a cultivated plant would be proportional to the time and area of its cultivation; and this expectation we find to be justified by the facts. CHAPTER IV. FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS 51. Food-adjuncts. If by “food”? we mean whatever is eaten to supply the building materials or energy needed by the body, it must follow that much of what is eaten is not food. Various substances, such as pepper, sage, caraway, horseradish, and vanilla, or beverages, like tea or wine, are taken with food for an entirely different purpose; namely, for their flavor or stimulating effect, and scarcely, if at all, as nutriment. Such materials may be distinguished, there- fore, as food-adjuncts. The flavoring materials included un- der this head may be conveniently grouped as spices, savory herbs, savory seeds, miscellaneous condiments, and essences. 52. Spices are aromatic substances derived from hard or hardened parts of plants and used commonly in a pulverized state. For example, cloves (Fig. 122) are flower buds hard- ened by drying; allspice (Fig. 123), black pepper (Fig. 124), and red pepper (Figs. 125, 126) are dried berry-like fruits; mustard (Figs. 127, 128) is a seed; nutmeg (Fig. 129) is also a seed, and mace the fleshy network (dried) which sur- rounds it; cinnamon (Fig. 130) is the young bark of a tree; while ginger (Fig. 131) is a root-like stem which grows under ground. The peculiar aroma of a spice is in general due to the pres- ence of a volatile oil. Volatile oils bear a certain resemblance to the fixed oils, but differ from them in that they evaporate when exposed to the air, leave no greasy stain on paper, and all dissolve readily in cold aleohol. On account of the volatile nature of their flavoring constituent spices lose aroma when exposed to the air, especially after they have been ground. Advantage is often taken. of the ready evaporation of vola- tile oils to separate them by distillation. This process is essen- 128 SPICES 129 Fic. 122.—Clove (Jambosa Caryophyllus, Myrtle Family, Myrtacee). A, branch bearing leaves, flower buds, and expanded flowers. B, a flower bud (such as form when dried the ‘‘cloves’’ of commerce) cut length- wise to show the inner floral parts and the minute cavities near the surface containing the volatile ‘‘oil of cloves.’’ C, petal showing oil cavities. D, stamen, a, front; b, back; c, side. #, pollen grain, a and b, different views, much magnified. F, fruit. G, seed cut across. 4H, embryo removed, side view. J, same with one seed-leaf removed, to show the seed-stem within. (Niedenzu.)—The plant is an exception- ally beautiful evergreen tree of pyramidal form 9-12 m. tall, with smooth grayish bark, thick glossy leaves containing numerous cavities like those of the flower, and filled with a similar fragrant oil which perfumes the air around; flowers and flower-buds rosy red, highly fragrant, produced through the year; fruit fleshy, grayish brown. Native home, Molucca Islands. In use from ancient times in the East. tially as follows. The material to be distilled—say some clove spice—is heated in a vessel tightly closed except that from the top comes off a long tube which passes finally through cold water. The volatile oil, after being driven off as vapor by the heat, is changed back to a liquid upon being chilled. Sometimes the substance to be distilled is mixed with water, and in that case the volatile oil passes off with the steam. Both are condensed together, and flow from the chilled tube as a mixture of oil'and water. These two substances readily separate, however, since neither will dissolve the other more than slightly, and the oil will either sink (as oil of cloves and a few others) or float. Most volatile oils form films of peculiar form and often t - a “A ’ a ‘ 130 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fic. 123.—Allspice (Pimento officinalis, Myrtle Family, Myrtacee). G, flowering branch. F, flower, lower part cut vertically. AH, fruit, cut vertically, showing but one seed developed and this with a curved embryo which nearly fills the fruit, in the wall of which are numerous minute volatile oil cavities. (Niedenzu.)—Tree 10 m. or more in height with leathery aromatic leaves black-dotted beneath; flowers white; fruit fleshy, containing one or two seeds. Native to the West Indies and Central America, where they are often planted in rows called ‘‘pimento walks.”’ beautiful color when a single drop is let fall upon a broad surface of perfectly clean water. The curious shapes assumed by the films are called cohesion figures. The amount of volatile oil present in a spice is often ex- ceedingly small, even when the aroma is strong. Ginger and black pepper have each about 1-2%; allspice 3-4.5%; nut- meg 2-8%. Cloves are remarkable in having 18% of volatile oil. Oil of cloves is well known as a powerful drug, as is also the volatile oil of cinnamon. If taken in considerable quan- tities they act as poisons. The volatile oil of nutmeg is simi- larly poisonous if taken in more than small amounts. It is SPICES 131 Fig. 124.—Black Pepper (Piper nigrum, Pepper Family, Piperacee). A, fruiting branch, 3}. 8B, part of a spike showing three flowers, 3. C, fruit, cut vertically to show the seed within, its minute embryo in copious seed-food, ¢. (Baillon.)—A woody vine, tall-climbing partly by means of roots; leaves evergreen; flowers minute; fruit red. Native home, India. Fic. 125, I.—Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum, Nightshade Family, Solana-. cee). Fruiting plant, 3. (Vilmorin.)—An annual or biennial herb of shrubby appearance; leaves smooth; flowers whitish; fruit juiceless, red, yellow, or violet, very various in form and color. Native home, South America. 132 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fic. 125, Il.—Red Pepper. Fruiting branch of the ‘Chili pepper,” 3. (Vilmorin.) Fic. 126.—Red Pepper. Flower, cut vertically, enlarged. Fruit cut across near the top and near the base showing the single cavity above be- coming two cavities below; about natural size. Seed, cut vertically, enlarged. (Redrawn from Berg and Schmidt.) SPICES 133 Fic. 127.—Black Mustard (Brassica nigra, Mustard Family, Crucifere). Plant in flower and fruit, reduced. Pod. Seed, cut across showing the embryo with seed-leaves folded around the seed-stem, enlarged. (Britton and Brown.)—Annual, sometimes attaining a height of over 2 m.; leaves becoming smooth; flowers bright yellow; pods smooth; i ai brown. Native home, north temperate regions of Old orld. Fic. 128.—White Mustard (Sinapis alba, Mustard Family, Cruciferae). Stem with leaves. Top showing flowers and fruit, reduced. Pod, about natural size. (Britton and Brown.)—Plant an annual about 30-60 cm. tall; leaves hairy; flowers yellow; pod bristly; seeds light x abn Native home, temperate regions of Eurasia, and Northern rica. reported that the excessive use of this spice in India has re- sulted in dangerous, almost fatal consequences. In the small amounts necessary to give a mild and pleasant flavor to food all the spices in common use are not only wholesome to most persons but may be aids to digestion. Highly spiced food or strongly flavored confectionery, on the contrary, is apt to be unwholesome if much be eaten, and for young people positively injurious. It is a curious fact that the volatile oil to which mixed mustard owes its aroma and pungency does not exist in the seed itself, but is formed, during the process of mixing, from a tasteless substance through the action of an enzyme. Like diastase this enzyme acts only in the presence of moisture, and is destroyed by a temperature of 100° C. Hence, if dry mustard be sifted into boiling water no pungency is developed. 134 Fia. FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS 129.—Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans, Nutmeg Family, Myristicacee). A, fruiting branch showing a ripe fruit with pulp opening to let out the mace-covered seed, 3. B, stamens, enlarged. C, pistillate flower cut vertically, 3. p, perianth; g, pistil containing a single ovule. D, seed surrounded by the net-like ‘“‘mace”’ (a). EH, same, cut vertically to show the aril (a), the seed-coat (s), the seed-food (looking as if it — had been chewed and hence described as ‘‘ruminate’’), and the em- bryo (e). (Luerssen, Baillon.)—The plant is a tree attaining 20 m. in height; leaves evergreen; flowers pale yellowish; fruit dull orange color, downy, the pulp splitting open at maturity; seed brown, enveloped by a blood-red aril which like the seed is aromatic. Native home, Moluecas. - Certain of the spices contain in addition to their volatile oil a considerable amount of fixed oil which may be readily expressed from them. Black mustard seeds contain 15-25% of fixed oil, white mustard 25-35%, and nutmeg 25-30%. In the manufacture of table mustard the fixed oil is commonly removed from the ground seeds by pressure. It resembles olive-oil, and is used in much the same ways. While, as we have seen, the peculiar aroma of ginger and SPICES 135 Fic. 130, I.—Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Laurel Family, Laura- cee). Leafy branch with flowers and fruit. (Baillon.)—A tree attain- ing about 10 m. with thick rough bark, and young branches prettily speckled with dark green and light orange; leaves leathery, shining, evergreen; flowers whitish, of disagreeable odor; fruit a white-spotted purplish-brown berry. Although volatile oil is found in various parts of the plant no odor is perceptible at a short distance. Native home, Ceylon, India. Fig. 130, II.—Cinnamon. Flower complete, and cut vertically. (Baillon.) Fig. 130, I1I.—Cinnamon. Floral diagram. (Baillon.) 136 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fic. 131.—Ginger (Zingiber officinale, Ginger Family, Zingerberacee). Plant showing roots, rootstock, leafy and flowering stems. Flower. Floral diagram. (Baillon.)—A biennial or perennial herb, about 60 em. tall, with smooth leaves; flowers dingy yellow, aromatically fragrant; fruit a dry pod. Native home, India. of black pepper is due to the volatile oils they contain, the hot biting taste of these spices depends to a considerable extent upon certain resinous substances which are present in small amount. A somewhat similar substance, of even greater power, causes the fiery taste of red pepper. MISCELLANEOUS CONDIMENTS 137 Spices have been of singular importance in the history of the world. In ancient times the spices of the East were among the most valued articles of commerce that were _ brought to the peoples about the Mediterranean. During the Middle Ages cloves, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, mace, and black pepper were considered to be as fitting presents for kings as gold and precious stones. Spices together with silk and jewels formed the principal merchandise of the cara- vans which at that time served as the chief means of com- munication between the nations of Asia and Europe. The great desire of European navigators to reach the Spice Islands of the East was the motive which led to many of the daring voyages of the 15th century, and impelled Columbus to brave the Western route that brought him unwittingly to the New World. 53. Savory herbs are such as have aromatic herbage which is used, either fresh or dried, to season or to garnish food. The most familiar examples are sage (Fig. 132, 133), thyme (Fig. 134), spearmint (Fig. 135), summer savory (Fig. 136), sweet marjoram (Fig. 137), and parsley (Fig. 138). The flavor of each of these herbs depends upon the peculiar volatile oil which it contains, although only a very small amount of the oil is present. Thus there is but 0.2% in spearmint, 0.07% in thyme, and only 0.02% in sage. From this fact. one can judge what powerful substances these volatile oils must be. 54. Savory seeds include cardamoms (Fig. 139), and the so-called ‘‘seeds” of caraway (Fig. 140), anise (Fig. 141), star anise (Fig. 142), coriander (Fig. 143), and celery (Fig. 79). Cardamoms are true seeds, while the others mentioned, although commonly spoken of as seeds, are in reality seed- like fruits. Savory seeds differ from spices in being commonly used whole rather than pulverized. They all agree in possess- ing a strong aromatic flavor which has led to their use in cookery. As with.the savory herbs, their flavor depends upon the presence in each of a peculiar volatile oil, anise having 1-3%, cardamoms 4-5%, and caraway 6%. 55. Miscellaneous condiments. Horseradish and capers are food-adjuncts which differ so considerably from the others 138 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fig. 1382.—Sage (Salvia officinalis, Mint Family, Labiate). Plant in flower, #. Flower, t+. (Vilmorin.)}—A perennial herb with grayish, hairy, aromatic leaves; flowers blue; nutlets brown. Native home, Europe. Fic. 133.—Sage. A, flower, enlarged. B, corolla split down the back and spread out to show the attachment and form of the four stamens; one pair is rudimentary, the others have curiously developed anthers, which are remarkably well adapted to secure the transfer of pollen by bees from one flower to another. C, base of pistil, showing the four young nutlets. D, the same cut vertically to show the single ovule in each section of the ovary. (Luerssen.) FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS _ 139 Fic. 134.—Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, Mint Family, Labiate). Plant in flower. (Briquet.)—A perennial, low and shrubby with whitish-hairy aromatic stems and leaves; flowers lilac or purplish; nutlets brownish. Native home, southern Europe. Fic. 135.—Spearmint (Mentha spicata, Mint Family, Labiate). Flowering top, reduced. Flower. Corolla, stamens, and pistil. (Britton and Brown.)—A smooth perennial herb; flowers pale purplish; nutlets brown. Native home, Europe. Fic. 136.—Summer Savory (Satureia hortensis, Mint Family, Labiate). Flowering top, reduced. Flower. Calyx. Nutlet, enlarged. (Britton and Brown.)—An annual with downy stems and leaves; flowers purple; nutlets brown; finely roughened. Native home, Europe. 140 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fia. 137.—Sweet Marjoram (Origanum Majorana, Mint Family, Labiate). : Flowering plant, js. Flowering branch, 3}. Flower cluster. (Vil- morin.)—A perennial herb becoming annual in cultivation, leaves downy; flowers whitish or purplish; nutlets brownish. Native home, Eurasia. Fic. 138.—Parsley (Petroselinum hortense, Parsley Family, Umbellifere). Flowering and fruiting top, reduced. Leaf, upper part. Fruit, side view, enlarged. One-half of fruit cut across to show the six volatile oil- tubes in the wall. (Britton and Brown.)—A mostly biennial herb, attaining 1 m. in height, smooth throughout; flowers greenish yellow; fruit brownish, aromatic. Native home, Mediterranean Region. MISCELLANEOUS CONDIMENTS 141 Fic. 139.—Cardamoms (Elettaria cardamomum, Ginger Family, Zingibera- cee). A, leaf. B, flowering branch. C, flower, ?. D, same cut ver- tically. EH, F, G, various forms of pods, ?. H, seed, with covering, enlarged. J, K, seed, cut across and vertically, showing the seed-food (p and e) and the embryo (em). (Luerssen.)—A perennial herb with leafy shoots 2-3 m. tall; leaves pale green; flowers whitish, purple- striped; pods pale yellowish; seeds brown. Native home, India to Java. mentioned in this chapter as to require separate treatment. They agree in being used primarily for their sharp taste. Horseradish is the root of a familiar plant (Fig. 144) which owes its pungency to a minute amount of a volatile oil Fie. iG. Fia. Fig. 141, II Fig. 141, I. 140.—Caraway (Carum Carui, Parsley Family, Umbellifere). Flower- ing and fruiting top, reduced. Leaf, showing broad attachment to the stem. Fruit, side view, enlarged. Same, cut across, showing six volatile oil-tubes in one-half. (Britton and Brown.)—A biennial or perennial herb, aromatic throughout, becoming 30-60 cm. tall; leaves smooth; flowers white; fruit brownish. Native home, Europe. 141, I.—Anise (Pimpinella Anisum, Parsley Family, Umbellifere). Fruiting top, and base of plant. Flower. Fruit, side view, and cut across. (Germain de St. Pierre.)—An annual about 40 cm. tall, smooth; flowers white; fruit downy, light greenish brown. Native home, Egypt and Asia Minor. 141, Il.—Anise Fruit. A, one-half of a fruit still attached to the slender stalk from which it finally separates. B, the two halves of the fruit cut across to show the numerous volatile oil-tubes in the wall. (Drude.) FLAVORING PLANTS 143 Fig. 142.—Star Anise (Illicium anisatum, Magnolia Family, Magnoliacee). D, flower. C, fruit. B, a pod with seed cut vertically, showing its at- tachment to the axis (a), that of the seed to the pod (h), and the place of the minute embryo (m) in the copious seed-food. (Prantl.)—A, shrubby tree 6-8 m. tall; leaves evergreen, leathery, dotted with volatile oil-glands; flowers yellowish; fruit reddish brown. Native home, China and Japan. Fic. 143, I.—Coriander (Coriandrum sativum. Parsley Family, Umbellif- ere). Flowering and fruiting top. (Baillon.)—An annual growing about 1 m. tall, aromatic; flowers white; fruit yellowish brown. Native home, Southern Europe. Fic. 143, Il.—Coriander. Flower, enlarged. Same, cut vertically. (Bail- lon.) 144 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fic. 143, I1I.—Coriander. Fruit enlarged. Same, cut across. (Baillon.) Fic. 144.—Horseradish (Nasturtium Armoracia, Mustard Family, Crucif- ere). Plant in flower. (Baillon.)—A perennial about 60.cm. tall; leaves shining; flowers white, resembling those of mustard in form but smaller. MISCELLANEOUS CONDIMENTS 145 Fic. 145, I.—Caper-bush (Capparis spinosa, Caper Family, Capparidacee). _ Flowering branch showing spines, leaves, flower-buds (which form the condiment), flower, and young fruit. (Baillon.)—A_ straggling shrub about 1 m. tall; leaves glossy; flowers white with violet stamens; fruit dry. Native home, Mediterranean Region, and India. Fic. 145, Il.—Caper-bush. Flower, cut vertically. The ovary is borne upon an elongated continuation of the flower-stalk. (Baillon.) 146 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS (0.06%) very similar to that of mustard if not identical with it. This oil is so powerful an irritant that it will raise blisters when applied to the skin. Capers are flower-buds of the caper-bush (Fig. 145), preserved in vinegar. They contain a peculiar acid, and a volatile oil similar to that found in garlic. Under the head of miscellaneous condiments might also be included such sharp tasting vegetables as radish and onion which have already been considered. Fig. 145, I1].—Caper-bush. Floral diagram. Pod. Seed, entire. Same, cut vertically. (Baillon.) 56. Essences are flavoring substances extracted from plants in various ways, often dissolved in water or alcohol, and always in liquid form. Peppermint obtained from the whole plant (Fig. 146), wintergreen from the leaves and fruit (Fig. 147), vanilla from the pods (Fig. 148 I), lemon from the rind of the fruit (Fig. 106), and rose from the petals (Fig. 148 II, 148 III) are familiar examples. In peppermint, wintergreen, lemon, and rose the flavoring substance is a volatile oil. In vanilla it is a peculiar crystal- line substance called vanillin, which curiously enough occurs ESSENCES 147 also in the sugar-beet root, and is manufactured artificially from oil of cloves and from pine wood. But these artificial products are inferior in flavor to the natural product extracted from the vanilla ‘“bean.”’ Fic. 146, I—Peppermint (Mentha piperita, Mint Family, Labiate). Flowering top. (Baillon.)—A perennial herb, growing 1 m. tall, aro- matic; leaves bearing numerous minute volatile oil glands; flowers pale purplish; nutlets seldom formed. The oil of wintergreen is likewise manufactured artificially, but in this case the artificial product is indistinguishable from the natural one. Unlike most oils this sinks in water, being indeed the heaviest known of volatile oils. It is a 148 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fic. 146, I1.—Peppermint. Flowers, enlarged about five times, showing the two sizes often present. (Baillon.) Fic. 147.—Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens, Heath Family, Hricacee). Plant in flower and fruit, reduced. Corolla with attached stamens - spread out. Pod, cut across. (Britton and Brown.)—An undershrub growing about 5-15 cm. tall; leaves evergreen; flowers white; fruit bright red, consisting of the fleshy aromatic calyx enclosing a dry pod. Native home, North America. ESSENCES 149 Fic. 148, I.—Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia, Orchid Family, Orchidacee.) Flowering branch, reduced in size, showing leaves and air-roots. A, lip of the flower, and along its back the ‘‘column’’ formed of style and stamens grown together. B, C, column, side view and front view, show- ing anthers (a) and rudimentary stamen (s). D, top of column, cut lengthwise through anthers. E, seed, much enlarged. (Berg and Schmidt.) A tall, climbing herb attaching itself to trees by means of air-roots; leaves thick; flowers yellow; fruit a pod ripening in two years, 16-30 em. long, 7-10 mm. thick. Native home, Mexico. 150 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS powerfully acting substance possessing poisonous properties when used in more than very small amount. 57. Non-alcoholic beverages include those made from unfermented fruit juices, as, for example, lemonade; those made with syrups flavored with various essences, such as soda water mixtures; and those made by steeping the dried leaves of the tea-plant (Fig. 149), or boiling the prepared seeds of coffee (Fig. 150) or cacao (Fig. 115). The plants Fia. 148, II.—French Rose (Rosa gallica, Rose Family, Rosacew). (Bail- lon.)—Shrub about 1.5 m. tall; leaves hairy beneath; flowers pink to crimson; fruit brick-red. N ative home, Middle and Southern Europe, and Western Asia. This species crossed more or less with others is the principal source of ‘‘attar of roses.” yielding fruit juices or flavoring matters used for beverages, have already been sufficiently described for our present pur- pose. Tea, coffee, and cacao agree in each containing a crystalline constituent which belongs to the class of substances known as alkaloids. That of tea has been called theine, of coffee caffeine, and of cacao theobromine. Theine and caffeine have been found by chemists to be identical, and to differ but slightly from theobromine. Alkaloids differ chemically from oils and carbohydrates in containing nitrogen, and are distinguished from other FLAVORING PLANTS 151 2. ay) ge aS Fic. 148, III.—Scotch Rose (Rosa spinosissima, Rose Family, Rosacee). A, flowering branch. 8B, floral diagram. C, flower, cut vertically. D, pistil, with ovary cut open to show the single ovule within. £, fruit entire. F, same, cut vertically, to show the nutlets enclosed by the fleshy urn-like expansion of the flower-stalk which bears the other floral parts around its rim. (Baillon.)—Shrub about 1 m. tall, very prickly; flowers pink, white, or yellowish; fruit black. Native home, Eurasia. Although this species is not used for making attar it is here included as showing the floral structure more clearly than the more highly cultivated French rose. 152 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS Fia. 149, I.—Tea (Thea sinensis, Tea Family, Theacew). Flowering branch (Baillon.)—A shrub or tree growing 10 m. tall; leaves evergreen; flowers white, fragrant; fruit dry. Native home, China and India. Fig. 149, I1.—Tea. A, flower, entire. B, flower, cut vertically. C, floral diagram. D, fruit. EF, seed, entire. F, same, cut vertically. (Baillon.) . ‘ 4 NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 153 nitrogenous substances by the fact that alkaloids form com- binations with various acids in much the same way that ammonia and other alkalis will do. Among alkaloids are 6 a \ Ay \ \ A \) y e fea: ¥ ee, hy Sens =, “aNd has past Fic. 150.—Coffee (Coffea arabica, Madder Family, Rubiacee). Plant, show- ing general form. Flower entire, and cut vertically. Fruiting branch. (Baillon.) A small tree growing about 6-8 m. tall; leaves evergreen, glossy; flowers creamy white, delicately fragrant; fruit a crimson berry. Native home, Abyssinia, Mozambique, and Angola. included some of the most powerful poisons known and some of the most valuable medicines. Caffeine acts as a poison when taken in more than small amounts. Even in minute 154 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS quantity it often has upon the nervous system a marked effect, which may be injurious or beneficial according to circumstances. The coffee ‘‘bean”’ contains about 0.5-2% of caffeine, dried tea leaves about 1-3%. Theobromine, of which there is about 1.5% in the cacao seed, is found to be scarcely soluble in the fluids of the body, and thus exerts little if any effect. The most active constituent of each of the three beverage plants we are considering is the aromatic substance to which its peculiar flavor is due. In black tea there is about .5%, and in green tea about 1% of a volatile oil which is mainly developed during the curing or preparation of the leaves for market. The commercial value of a tea depends mainly upon the flavor imparted by its volatile oil. This flavor is carefully tested by experts who are known as ‘‘tea-tasters,”’ although curiously enough they smell rather than taste the samples submitted to them. Even so, the effect of the vola- tile oil upon the nervous system is so powerful as to cause giddiness and headache if the ‘‘tasting”’ be continued more than a few hours a day; and it is said that the most vigorous cannot pursue the work for many years without suffering serious consequences. The peculiar aroma of coffee is not found in the raw “‘bean”’ but is developed during the process of roasting; that of cacao arises during the process of fermen- tation which the seeds undergo before they are ready for market. In coffee the aromatic constituent is hardly as powerful as in tea, while in cacao it is so mild that vanilla and various spices are added as flavoring to make chocolate. Finally, mention must be made of an astringent constituent belonging to the class of substances known as tannins. This forms about 10% of dry tea leaves. It is similar to the sub- stance extracted from bark for tanning leather. Black ink is commonly made by combining tannin with a substance con- taining iron. When taken with food in considerable quanti- ties this astringent interferes with digestion. Prolonged boil- ing extracts it in large amount from tea leaves; consequently tea so prepared is most injurious. Steeping for a short time, on the contrary, removes but little of the tannin, while it ex- tracts practically all of the exhilarating and aromatic constit- NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 155 Fic. 150, I.— Coffee. Fruit, cut across to show the two seeds (the “coffee beans of commerce). Same, with lower part removed to show posi- tion of the embryo. (Baillon.) Fig. 151.—Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisie, Yeast Family, Saccharomyceta- cee). a, a single beer-yeast plant; greatly magnified; b, same sending forth a bud-like protrusion; c, same with bud more developed and a second one appearing; d, a colony produced by such budding without separation; e, a yeast plant divided into four within the enveloping wall; f, a plant dividing into two, each with a wall of its own, and thus able to resist adverse conditions for a long while; g, a cluster of four such resistant plants, one of which upon the return of favorable con- ditions is producing a budding colony; h, such a colony farther ad- vanced. (Luerssen, Reese.)—Beer yeast, the form here shown— used not only for beer but for bread—is not found wild; but the closely similar wine yeast occurs regularly upon the surface of grapes and (in its resistant form in the soil of vineyards) so does not have to be added to the grape ‘‘must”’ in making wine. The plant is very pale brown or colorless. Fig. 152.—Vinegar Ferment (Bacterium aceti, Rod-germ Family, Bacteria- cee). a, ordinary form of plant, grouped into chain-like colonies, +4°°; b, an irregular form occurring under very adverse conditions. (Migula.) —The plants are colorless, and form about themselves a mass of jelly which constitutes the ‘‘mother” of vinegar. 156 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS uents. A small amount of a tannin-like substance is found also in coffee, and in cacao. Cacao, although used as a bev- erage, is so nutritious that it should be regarded rather as a food than as a food-adjunct. 58. Alcoholic beverages and stimulants in general. Alco- holic beverages are either fermented or distilled. Fermented beverages include beers or malt liquors, and wines. Beer, as already stated (sections 19 and 29), is made by fer- menting a sweet liquid obtained chiefly from barley malt. In much the same way that the diastase in the sprouting grain changes the starch into sugar, an enzyme contained in the yeast which is added to the sweet malt liquid, changes its sugar into alcohol and the gas known as carbon dioxid. Yeast is a plant consisting of exceedingly minute bodies of the form shown in Fig. 151. These multiply very rapidly under favorable conditions of food supply and temperature. Hence a small amount of yeast added to a vat full of malt liquid soon becomes a considerable quantity. When the fermenta- tion is well under way the liquid is put into air-tight kegs or bottles so that the gas produced may be retained. When the beer is poured out this gas rises to the surface and forms bubbles of foam. After the sugar is converted into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas, the aleohol may be turned into acetic acid (the acid of vinegar) by a plant similar to yeast (see Fig. 152) unless its action is prevented. This is accomplished mainly by the addition of hops (Fig. 153) which at the same time impart their peculiar flavor to the beer and give it a bitter taste. The preservative action as well as the flavor of the hops is due chiefly to a volatile oil of which the fruit con- tains about 1%. The stupefying effect of beer is also believed to be due in large part to the flavoring materials derived from the hops. Malt liquors contain about 4-10% of alcohol. The process of fermentation may be observed readily by adding yeast to water sweetened with molasses and keeping the mixture for some hours in a warm place. Bubbles of carbon dioxid are given off abundantly and a faint smell of alcohol may be detected. If some of the fermenting mixture be boiled in a flask to kill the yeast, the neck of the flask being plugged with a wad of cotton wool (which will permit the ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AND STIMULANTS 157 access of only pure air to the mixture), the fermentation will be stopped and the liquid will keep indefinitely. The killing or exclusion of yeasts and similar agents of decomposition from foods to be preserved is the secret of the process of “canning’’ or “tinning’’ meats, vegetables, and fruits. Fic. 153.—Hops (Humulus Lupulus, Mulberry Family, Moracee). 1, branch bearing staminate flower-cluster. 2, branch bearing pistillate flower- clusters, and leaves. 3, pistillate flower-cluster. 4, two pistillate flowers and their bract. 45, ripe cone-like fruit-cluster. 6, a single fruit. (Wossidlo.)—A twining perennial herb with rough stems, grow- ing 10 m. tall; leaves rough, hairy; flowers, greenish; fruit, straw- colored. Native home, Europe, Asia, and North America. . Wine is made by expressing the juice of grapes or other fruit and allowing yeast (which occurs naturally on the surface of the fruit) to produce alcoholic fermentation of the 158 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS sugar contained in the liquid. When this process has gone far enough the fermentation is stopped, generally by heating to kill the yeast and any vinegar ferment that may be present, Fig. 154.—Juniper (Juniperus communis, Pine Family, Pinacew). Stam- inate flowering branch, 3. Pistillate fruiting branch, 3; a, stam- inate flower, enlarged; b, stamen, back view; c, same, lower view; d, two pollen grains; e, pistillate shoot; f, three ovules, and their scales, the front one bent down; g, same cut across; h, fruit, cut across, show- ing the three seeds in the aromatic pulp formed of the three scales grown together; 7, seed, entire; k, same, cut lengthwise to show em- bryo and seed-food. (Berg and Schmidt.)—Shrub with spreading branches, or a tree growing about.12 m. tall; leaves spiny-pointed, whitish above; flowers yellowish; fruit dark blue with a bloom. Native home, north temperate regions. and the wine is kept in tightly closed vessels to exclude the air and all ferments. By standing thus, wines develop with age minute amounts of certain flavoring substances, mostly ALCOHOLIC. BEVERAGES AND STIMULANTS 159 volatile oils, or ethers upon which depends chiefly the value of the wine, and probably also to a considerable extent the di- verse effects upon the human system of different wines of similar alcoholic strength. ‘The proportion of alcohol in wines is about 10-25%. Strong wines have alcohol added after fer- mentation. Champagne is a wine containing a large amount of carbon dioxid gas. - _ Distilled alcoholic beverages include spirituous liquors, such as brandy, rum, whisky, and gin; and liqueurs such as ab- sinthe. Spirituous liquors contain about 40-60% of alcohol. Brandy is made by distilling wine. Rum is distilled from molasses. Whisky and gin are both distilled from a sort of beer made from grain, generally maize, rye, or wheat. Gin differs from whisky in being flavored with the volatile oil of juniper berries (Fig. 154) and other aromatics. These flavoring matters act powerfully upon the system, and make gin an especially dangerous liquor. Liqueurs are sweetened spirituous liquors containing pe- culiar flavoring matters, usually volatile oils. In the case of absinthe the flavor is due chiefly to the volatile oil of worm- wood (Fig. 155). This is a very powerful drug, which, in comparatively small amount, produces violent convulsions. Absinthe acts similarly and is justly regarded as the most pernicious of all alcoholic beverages. All food-adjuncts, as we have seen, are taken with food primarily for their stimulating effect on the system. This effect is shown by more copious flow of the digestive Juices, and by generally increased activity of the digestive organs. The very savor of food as we say ‘‘makes the mouth water.” This is not because stimulating substances bring any con- siderable amount of energy into the body, but because they set free energy which the body has derived from nutritive substances and stored ready for use. Yet, since energy must be expended in digestion, a certain degree of stimulation may be helpful or even necessary. On the other hand, since the release of too much energy works harm, overstimulation is sure to prove injurious; and the danger of overstimulating is the greater from the fact that stimulation is pleasurable even when carried beyond the point of safety. This point 160 FLAVORING AND BEVERAGE PLANTS of safety varies widely with different individuals, and in the same individual under different conditions of health and sick- ness, and at different ages. Stimulants, therefore, may be helpful or harmful according to the amount used and the bodily condition of the individual. Overstimulation is al- ways followed by harmful reaction resulting in more or less exhaustion or derangement of the system which may lead to grave consequences, especially in the case of young people. Fic. 155.—Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium, Sunflower Family, Com. posite). Plantin flower. Leaf and flower-clusters. Outer floret, %, Inner floret, {. (Baillon.)—A perennial herb, about 1 m. tall; leaves white-silky; flowers greenish; fruit grayish. Native home, Europe. All food which has an agreeable flavor is more or less stimulating. In vegetable foods as we know the flavor nat- urally belonging to the plant or developed by heat is often — strongly marked and characteristic, as, for example, in turnip, parsnip, celery, cucumber, muskmelon, pineapple, peanut, and pop-corn; and this flavor is due commonly to the presence of a volatile oil, the amount of which, however, is so small that ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AND STIMULANTS 161 overstimulation is not to be feared. On the contrary, the flavoring matter by its presence greatly helps the digestion of the nutritive substances in the food. These natural flavors of foods, as we may call them, are generally all that persons in good health require. Artificial flavors, as we may call the . various aromatics added to food, may occasionally be used advantageously and with comparative safety to impart to insipid nutrients mild flavors similar to those of natural foods. Strongly stimulating beverages, however, such as tea, coffee, and alcoholic drinks are seldom necessary to health, and are often injurious to adults, while to young people they are frequently a source of lasting evils. The use of substances which act so powerfully on the nervous system should be regulated by the advice of one’s physician. The effect of artificial stimulants on the human body is much like that of a whip on a horse. We know it to be foolish and cruel to whip a colt, and it may ruin his chances of ever becoming a good horse. It is almost as foolish and may be dangerous to whip a willing horse, although a sluggish horse may need a touch of the whip occasionally to keep him up to his work; and emergencies sometimes arise when a horse must be vigorously whipped to obtain his utmost speed at any risk. So to a healthy child artificial stimulants other than the mildest are unquestionably pernicious; to a healthy adult they are unnecessary and generally harmful; to persons out of health, sometimes beneficial and sometimes injurious; while on rare occasions they are regarded by many physicians as a necessity for saving life. In such times of special need, however, stimulants are useful to a person only in so far as he has not previously by overuse deprived them of their power. It often happens that an intemperate person dies when a person who had always been temperate would be saved by the stimulant upon which the physician is de- pending. CHAPTER V MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS 59. Medicines and poisons. It is an old saying that medicines are substances which make the sick well and the well sick. This saying expresses in a way the truth that among medicines are included some of the most powerful poisons known. In fact, most medicines are poisonous, and most poisons medicinal. Experience has shown also that when a fatal dose of a certain poison has been taken, life may sometimes be saved by giving, as an antidote, some other poison in quantity sufficient even to cause death if the first poison had not already been taken. | From these facts it appears that no line of separation can be drawn between medicines and poisons. By a medicine we mean any substance used for the cure or relief of disease; and by a poison, any substance capable of injuring the body by other than mechanical means so as to cause death or serious harm if taken in undue quantity. Even too much food may be harmful or perhaps fatal, and the same is true of the most harmless medicines, but in these cases the bad effect is so largely the mechanical result of excessive quantity that we do not say poisoning has taken place. Foods are sometimes used as medicines, as, for example, olive-oil and Irish moss. The same is true of food-adjuncts in general, and, as we have already seen, many of these if taken in more than small amount are poisonous. We may recall also the fact that certain foods, such as tapioca, are obtained from plants which contain deadly poisons. Similarly the tubers of the white potato when young or when green in color, contain a powerful poison. Thus it is plain, that edible, medicinal, and poisonous plants must not be thought of as entirely separate and distinct classes, but merely as groups made for practical convenience. 162 NON-POISONOUS DRUGS 163 The number of plants which have been used medicinally is enormous. Many of these, however, have been found to be either so dangerous in their action or of so little value that they are now used if at all only by the ignorant. Neverthe- less, the number of those still used in scientific medicine is rather large. Numerous also are the poisonous plants known to botanists. Plainly, in the present chapter only a small pro- portion of these can be considered. The ones chosen are typical examples of those classes of medicinal and poisonous plants about which it is most important for a beginner to -know. The medicinal plants are thus divided: (a) those yielding non-poisonous drugs, and (b) those yielding poisonous drugs. Poisonous plants are grouped into (a) those dangerous to eat and (b) those dangerous to handle. 60. Non-poisonous drugs include various substances which may be more or less nutritious, stimulating, or irritating, or may be useful for their soothing influence upon inflamed surfaces, or for some other mild healing virtue. Some of the substances here included under this heading may perhaps under extraordinary conditions act as poisons; what is meant by calling them non-poisonous is that much larger quantities than are generally used would be required to produce any harmful effects under all ordinary circumstances. The chemical compounds upon which their value mainly depends include mucilaginous or gelatinous constituents, as- tringents, fixed oils, and volatile oils. Various other sub- stances of more or less importance occur in certain of the non- poisonous drugs but these need not concern us here, es- pecially as many of them are not yet well understood by chemists. Mucilaginous or gelatinous substances form the most im- portant part of the drugs known as gum arabic, tragacanth, marshmallow, flaxseed, quince seed, elm bark, sassafras pith, Iceland moss, Irish moss or carrageen, and licorice root. Gum arabic is an exudation from the trunk and branches of the gum arabic tree (Fig. 156) and related species. When pure the gum consists essentially of a carbohydrate called arabin, the formula of which is C;,.H.2On, the same as that of cane-sugar. Prolonged boiling with dilute acid converts 1644 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS arabin into a kind of glucose sugar, known as arabinose. A similar substance yielding arabinose forms about half of gum tragacanth, about one-third of the gum being a carbo- hydrate called tragacanthin (C,H,,O;) which differs from arabin in being insoluble, although it absorbs water and swells exceedingly. Tragacanth is an exudation from wounds made in the stems of the gum-bearing tragacanth shrub Fic. 156.—Gum Arabic Tree (Acacia Senegal, Pulse Family, Leguminose). A, flowering branch. B, flower. C, pod, half, showing seeds. JD, seed, cut between the seed-leaves to show seed-stem and seed-bud. JF, seed, cut across. (Taubert.)—A tree about 6 m. tall; bark gray; leaves grayish; flowers yellow; pod yellowish. Native home, tropical Africa. SS tree yields the best gum; several other species produce an inferior quality. (Fig. 157) and related species. The root of the marshmallow (Fig. 158) contains about one-third of its weight of a mucilage, having the same formula as tragacanthin. The same formula is given also to the mucilage yielded copiously by the outer coat of the flaxseed (Fig. 279). A similar mucilage but with the formula C,,H,,0,, is obtained in large quantities from the outer coat of quince seed (Fig. 93). The slipperiness of NON-POISONOUS DRUGS 165 the inner bark of our slippery elm and the closely similar English elm (Fig. 159) is due to the large amount of a muci- laginous carbohydrate which it contains. The pith of sassa- fras (Fig. 160) yields to hot water a similar mucilage. Fig. 157.—Tragacanth Shrub (Astragalus gummifer, Pulse Family, Legumi- nose). A, flowering branch. B, leaf from which the leaflets have dis- appeared, leaving only the stiff thorn-like ‘‘rachis’” and the toothed ‘“stipules.”’ C, flower. (Taubert.)—A shrub 30-60 cm. tall; flowers yellow; pod, small, one-seeded. Native home, Southwestern Asia. The jelly-like constituent of the lichen called Iceland moss (Fig. 161) is a carbohydrate known as lichenin or lichen- starch (CysH2 01). It is insoluble in cold water but be- comes dissolved upon boiling, and forms a jelly when cooled. Lichenin is almost if not quite identical with the gelatinous constituent of carrageen or Irish moss (Fig. 118) which we have already studied. The chief remedial constituent found 166 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS in the root of the licorice plant (Fig. 162) is a bitter-sweet, yellowish compound forming a jelly with water. The astringents present in vegetable drugs, or extracted from them, are various tannins, significant properties of which have already been described in section 57. As ex- amples of drugs used more or less for their astringency may Fig. 158.—Marshmallow (Althea officinalis, Mallow Family, Malvacee). Flowering top. (Baillon.)—A perennial herb about 1 m. tall, downy throughout; leaves pale purplish; fruit dry. Native home, Eastern Europe. here be mentioned the root of rhubarb (Fig. 163) and the bark and leaves of witch-hazel (Fig. 164), from both of which fluid extracts and other medicinal preparations are obtained. As examples of fixed oils much used in medicine for their lubricating or soothing effect, there are in common use the NON-POISONOUS DRUGS 167 expressed oil of almond, olive-oil, and the oil of cacao seed known as cacao butter, already studied for their food value (in sections 33 and 39); and to these may now be added castor- oil and the oily drug lycopodium. Castor-oil, obtained from the seeds of the castor-oil plant (Fig. 165), is believed not to be taken up by the digestive tract as a food, but to owe its Sid zt Y ae as “HD = Long) \\ Ss Gabe Sd G2 ‘ SA, ‘ eae Fig. 159.—English Elm (Ulmus campestris, Elm Family, Ulmacee). 1, flowering twig. 2, leafy shoot. 3, flower, entire. 4, same, cut ver- tically. 45, fruit. (Wossidlo.)—Tree attaining 30 m.; leaves becoming smooth; flowers greenish or brownish; fruit yellowish. Native home, Eurasia and Northern Africa. great medicinal value to its lubricant and mildly irritant properties. The sulphur-yellow powder known as lycopo- dium, obtained from the club moss (Fig. 166), consists of minute bodies called spores by means of which the plant per- petuates its kind. Each spore contains nearly 50% of a fixed oil, and the surface is remarkably repellent of water. A teaspoonful of the spores thrown into a bow! of water will 168 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS float as a thin layer, and one’s fingers may now be repeatedly thrust into the water and withdrawn without becoming wet in the least. Its waterproof nature gives lycopodium some value as an application to moist, inflamed surfaces of the body, and makes the spores useful aiso as a covering for Fig. 160.—Sassafras (Sassafras officinale, Laurel Family, Lauracew). A, flowering twig of staminate plant. B, branch bearing leaves and fruit. C, staminate flower. D, pistillate flower. EH, stamen, showing nectar glands at base of filament, and anther opening by up-turned valves. F, pistil, cut vertically. (Berg and Schmidt.)—Tree growing 20— 30 m. tall; young branches green; leaves becoming smooth, aromatic; flowers yellow; fruit blue on red stalks. Native home, Eastern North America. moist pills to prevent their sticking together. The large amount of fixed oil contained in the spores renders them, moreover, very inflammable, and has led to their use in the manufacture of fireworks, and also as a means of producing artificial ightning in private theatricals, NON-POISONOUS DRUGS 169 Fic. 161.—Iceland Moss (Cetraria islandica, Shield-lichen Family, Par- meliacee). Plant, natural size, growing nearly erect from dry earth. (Luerssen.)—Upper surface brownish or olive, pale below, often red- stained at the base; ‘‘fruit’’ forming chestnut-colored patches on the uppermost lobes. Native home, North America and Eurasia. Fic. 162. — Licorice (Glyc- yrrhiza glabra, Pulse Family, Leguminose). Branch in leaf, flower, and fruit. (Baillon.)— Perennial herb growing about 1 m. or more in height; leaves pale green; flowers violet or purple resembling those of a pea; fruit smooth. Na- tive home, Mediter- ranean Region. 170 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS Volatile oils form the most important constituent of a number of non-poisonous drugs which we have already stud- ied in the last chapter as food-adjuncts; namely, lemon, caraway, anise, cardamoms, spearmint, sage, ginger, and Fic. 163.—Medicinal Rhubarb (Rheum officinale, Buckwheat Family, Polygonacee). Plant in flower. A, flower, entire, enlarged. B, same, cut vertically. C, pistil; d, nectar glands. (Baillon.)—Perennial herb growing ’2 m. tall; leaves hairy; flowers greenish; fruit, dry, red- dish. Native home, Central Asia. hops. The drugs calamus, asafetida, and saffron are the only others of this class which call for mention here. Calamus consists of the underground stem of the sweet-flag (Fig. 167). It contains about 1% of a volatile oil to which it owes NON-POISONOUS DRUGS 171 Fic. 164, I.—Witch-hazel. (Hamamelis virginica, Witch-hazel Family, Hamamelidacee). Flowering branch. (Baillon.)—Shrub or tree grow- ing about 8 m. tall; leaves downy on veins beneath; flowers yellow, appearing late in the fall; fruit pale brownish; seeds black, shot forcibly from the pods when ripe. Native home, Eastern North America. Fic. 164, I1.—Witch-hazel. A, flowers and fruit. B, flower cut vertically and with petals removed. C, fruit, unripe, cut vertically to show the seeds. D, ripe fruit. (Baillon.) 172 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS its pleasant aromatic qualities. Asafetida is a gummy sub- stance obtained by drying the milky juice which exudes from the cut roots of the asafetida plant (Fig. 168 I) and related 7h Fic. 165, I.—Castor-oil Plant (Ricinus communis, Spurge Family, Euphor- biacee). Plant in flower and fruit. (Baillon.)—A_ tree-like herb, growing over 12 m. tall in the tropics; leaves and stem often reddish; flowers greenish; fruit smooth or prickly, splitting apart violently and so hurling the seeds to a considerable distance. Native home, probably tropical Africa or India. species. Many people regard it when in full strength as about the most ill-smelling of drugs. It is a curious fact, NON-POISONOUS DRUGS 173 however, that in spite of its odor asafetida is highly valued as a’ condiment and extensively used for that purpose in Persia and other oriental countries. Nor is its use as a food- adjunct confined to eastern peoples. Many of us have often relished it in gravies and sauces, little suspecting that the Fic. 165, 11.—Castor-oil Plant. A, staminate flower, just opening. B, same, fully open. C, branching stamens. D, pistillate flower, entire. 2, same, cut vertically. F, fruit. G, seed, entire, and cut vertically. H, Embryo. (Baillon.) flavor we were enjoying was due to a substance which is ordinarily most repulsive. The volatile oil upon which the odor and flavor of asafetida depend is chemically very sim- ilar to the oil of mustard, which as we know is pleasant to eat only in minute quantity. Indeed it is almost always true of food-adjuncts that “‘a little more than a little is by 174. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS Fic. 166.—Club-moss (Lycopodium clavatum, Club-moss Family, Lycopodiacee). 1, plant in ‘“‘fruit.’’ 2, spore-case, with the scale-like leaf which bearsit. 3, spores, highly magnified. (Wossidlo.)—A creep- ing evergreen with somewhat moss-like leaves, and stem attaining a length of 1 m. or more; spore-bearing cones yel- lowish; spores sulphur-yellow. Native home, Northern America and Eurasia. Fic. 167.—Sweet-flag (Acorus Calamus, Arum Family, Araceew). A, plant in flower, much reduced. 8B, flower-cluster, natural size. C, flower, with perianth spread, ¢. D, floral diagram. £, ovary, cut vertically, ¥, F, ovule, much enlarged. (Luerssen.)—Perennial herb about 60 cm. tall; flowers greenish; fruit fleshy, reddish. Native to North America and Europe. NON-POISONOUS DRUGS 175 much too much.”’ The opposite effect upon us of the same substance according as it acts in larger or smaller amount is well illustrated also in very many perfumes, and, as we shall a) CG ifs at ) _) = x = it . of \ by . Wha) oA WPS } “ 2 ~ : Y, i Fic. 168, I—Asafetida Plant (Ferula assa-fetida, Parsley Family, Um- bellifere). Plant in flower, and part of leaf. (Baillon.)—Perennial herb growing about 2-3 m. tall, with a milky juice of fetid odor; leaves bluish green; flowers pale yellow; fruit reddish brown. Native home, Southwestern Asia. more fully show, in a large proportion of medicines. Saffron consists of the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus (F ig. 168 II). It contains about 7% of a volatile oil of agreeable flavor, and a small amount of a deep yellow coloring matter which 176 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS however is of remarkable strength. One part of saffron shaken up with 100,000 parts of water gives a distinct yellow tinge. The principal use of the drug is to impart an attractive color and flavor to medicinal preparations. Most of the Fic. 168, II.—Saffron Crocus (Crocus sativus, Iris Family, Iridaceew). Plant in flower. Same, cut vertically, Style and stigmas. (Baillon.)— Perennial herb about 15-25 cm. tall; leaves hairy on the edge; flowers lilac or white, with style-branches bright red, appearing in autumn; fruit dry. Native home, Asia Minor. volatile oils above mentioned are used in medicine mainly for their stimulating effect or for imparting a pleasant flavor to other drugs. 61. Poisonous drugs comprise substances which depend POISONOUS DRUGS 177 for their power upon certain volatile oils, camphors, resins, alkaloids, and some other classes of compounds which we shall not need to discuss. A considerable number of the medicinal plants containing poisonous volatile oils we have already considered under the head of food-adjuncts. Cinnamon, wintergreen, clove, peppermint, spearmint, thyme, nutmeg, horseradish, mus- tard, allspice, and black pepper, will be recalled as examples of more or less powerful poisons which nevertheless in very small amount are grateful and often beneficial additions to our food. They are used in medicine partly for their attrac- tive flavor, partly for their stimulating or irritating effect, and partly as antiseptics.' Camphors are volatile substances, which form crystals at ordinary temperatures. They bear much the same relation to volatile oils that fats do to fixed oils, that is to say they are volatile oils of comparatively high melting-point. By camphor is most commonly understood the gum-like drug obtained by distillation from the wood of the camphor-tree (Fig. 169). This drug is conveniently distinguished as laurel camphor or laurinol. Its chemical formula is C,.H,,O. The volatile nature of laurinol is prettily exhibited by gently heating a little piece in the bottom of a glass tube held ob- liquely so that the vapor as it rises will come in contact with the cool glass at the upper end. Here will be formed snow- like crystals as the vapor condenses. Similar crystals may be noticed at the upper part of bottles in which camphor has been kept for some time. If small bits of laurel camphor be placed upon the surface of pure water contained in a per- fectly clean vessel the fragments will float and display curious animal-like movements due to the liberation of camphor vapor. The movement is checked by the presence of even a slight trace of oil. Laurel camphor has many important uses which need not here be mentioned. It should be remem- bered, however, that taken internally it is a powerful poison, ten grains (about 0.65 grams) having proved fatal to a child. 1 An antiseptic is a substance which is poisonous to the microscopic germs, or septic organisms as they are called, which cause fermentation, putrefaction, and certain diseases. | 178 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS Peppermint camphor, also known as menthol, C,)>H»O, is a substance of closely similar properties which is obtained from the volatile oil of peppermint and related species of plants. Its important uses are too familiar to need mention- ing. Although not so powerful a poison as laurinol, yet serious results may follow its careless internal use. a »! 4 oo » et ke Mu eet Fic. 169.—Laurel-camphor Tree (Cinnamomum Camphora, Laurel Family, Lauracee). Flowering branch, 3. (Baillon.)—Tree growing 12 m. tall; leaves thick; flowers yellow; berry dark red. Native home, China and Japan. Resins are non-crystalline solids or semisolids, soluble gen- erally in alcohol, ether, and volatile oils, but insoluble in water. They contain the same elements as volatile oils, but with a larger proportion of oxygen. On this account and POISONOUS DRUGS 179 o 2 uy Ree SS e Fig. 170.—Male-fern (Aspidium Filiz-mas, Polypody Family, Polypodiacee). 1, plant showing the rootstock which grows underground and pro- duces roots below, and above gives rise to leaves which unfold from coils (a, a) and finally produce ‘‘fruit dots’’ or sori on the back, }. 2, rootstock cut across showing the woody vessels (a, a) through which the sap runs. 3, segment of the leaf, under side, showing sori or clusters of spore-cases (b) each cluster protected by a cover or indusium(a). 4, a sorus cut vertically across the indusium. 4, the same cut at right angle to 4 through the leaf (a), much enlarged to show the indusium (5), and the spore-cases (c). 6, a spore-case discharging spores. _(Wos- sidlo.)—A perennial herb; leaves about 30-100 cm. long; fruit dots brownish. Native home, Northern Europe and North America. 180 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS from the circumstance that they are commonly associated in plants with volatile oils it is supposed that they are derived from the latter by oxidation; but they are often complex mixtures of obscure chemical composition. Comparatively few resins are poisonous, and of these, only those contained in the drugs called male-fern and Indian hemp need here Fic. 171, I—Indian Hemp (Cannabis sativa, Mulberry Family, Moracee). Staminate and pistillate plants. (Baillon.)—An annual 1-3 m. tall; leaves roughish; flowers greenish; fruit dry. Native home, Central Asia. concern us. It is the dried and pulverized underground stem of the male-fern (Fig. 170) and related species which con- stitutes the drug long known as a most valuable means of expelling tapeworms. The resin, which is the active con- — stituent, has proved, however, in overdoses to be a violent POISONOUS DRUGS . 181 poison. The resin of Indian hemp (Fig. 171) is obtained chiefly from the pistillate flower-clusters and fruits. Under the name of “‘hashish”’ resinous parts of the plant are smoked as an intoxicant by Eastern peoples. Medicinally the drug is used for its quieting effect upon the nerves in certain dis- eased conditions. It is highly injurious when taken in over- doses, and terrible effects follows its habitual use as an in- toxicant. Fig. 171, IIl.—Indian Hemp. Staminate and pistillate flower-clusters. Staminate flower. Pistillate flower. Pistil. Seed, entire and cut ver- tically. (Baillon.) Alkaloids, as we have seen, are vegetable substances which contain nitrogen, as well as carbon, hydrogen, and sometimes oxygen, and like alkalis form salts with acids. While certain of the alkaloids, as for example theobromine, which was referred to in the last chapter, are comparatively harmless in their action upon the human system, others, which are now to be considered, include some of the most powerful of poisons. 182. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS Out of the large number of drugs consisting of or containing poisonous alkaloids the few following may be taken as familiar examples: opium, tobacco, coca, atropine, quinine, strychnine, and aconite. Opium is the dried milky juice which flows from wounds made in the seed-pods of the opium poppy (Fig. 172). It Fic. 172, I.—Cpium Poppy (Papaver somniferum, Poppy Family, Papaver- acee). Flowering and fruiting top. (Baillon.)—An annual about 1 m. tall; leaves pale green; flowers white, red, or purplish; fruit dry, smooth. Native home, Mediterranean region. has been found to contain twenty different alkaloids. Of these morphine (C,;H,,NO;) is the most important. The chief uses of opium in medicine are to relax spasm, relieve pain, and induce sleep. Among various oriental peoples large quantities are consumed by smoking and in other ways as an ~~ —— POISONOUS DRUGS | eS Fie. 172, Il.— Opium Poppy: A, flower. B, floral diagram. C, fruit entire showing the oblique cuts made for obtaining the opium-milk. _D, pod cut vertically to show the numerous seeds on the wall. (Baillon.) ee! 184 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS | 4 ~intoxicant—a practice which leads to most degrading effects upon both mind and body. Tobacco consists of the dried leaves of the tobacco plant (Fig. 173) which have been previously submitted to a process of curing or fermentation. During this process is developed a peculiar volatile substance to which the aroma of the to- bacco is mainly due. The chief active constituent is the Fic. 173.—Tobaceo (Nicotiana rustica, and N. Tabacum, Nightshade Family, Solanacew). A, Turkish tobacco (N. rustica), flowering top. B, flower, entire. C, same, cut vertically. D, Virginia tobacco (N. Tabacum), flowering top. EE, flower. F, pod, opening for discharge of seeds. G, seed. H, same, cut vertically. J, stigma. (v. Wettstein.)— Turkish tobacco, an annual growing about 1 m. tall; leaves glutinous; flowers yellowish or greenish; fruit dry. Native home, South America and Mexico.—Virginia tobacco similar to the Turkish but growing 2 m. tall; flowers rose or purplish. Native home, South America. alkaloid, nicotine (C,)H,,N,), one of the most virulent of poisons. psa este ae ee Ne 2 Mt SER Fia. 180, I.—Poison Hemlock (Coniwm maculatum, Parsley Family, Um- bellifere). Flowering and fruiting top. (Baillon.)—A biennial about 1-2 m. tall; stem, smooth, purple-spotted; leaves parsley-like, of mouse-like odor when bruised; flowers white; fruit brownish. Native home, Eurasia. soned at the hands of the Athenians. Recent cases of poison- ing have resulted from eating the root by mistake for parsnip, the leaves for parsley, and the seeds for anise. Children have been poisoned by blowing whistles made from the hollow stem. 195 Z sues Serra Fig. 180, IIl.—Poison Hemlock. A, flower, cut vertically. B, fruit, entire. C, same, cut across. (Baillon.) Fig. 181, I1—Pokeweed (Phytolacca decandra, Pokeweed Family, Phyto- laccacee). Flowering branch. (Baillon.)—Perennial herb 1-4 m. tall; leaves smooth; flowers greenish white; fruit fleshy, dark purple. Native home, United States. Root and seeds poisonous. 196 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS The common pokeweed (Fig. 181) the young shoots of which are often cooked and eaten like asparagus, is very dangerous as regards its root and fruit, and even the herbage may prove poisonous unless thoroughly boiled and the water changed. Death has resulted from eating the root by mis- take for horseradish, parsnip, and artichoke. Children have died from eating the fruit, the seeds of which are especially Fig. 181, Il.—Pokeweed. A, flower. B, same, cut vertically. C, floral diagram. D, fruit. /, seed, entire. /’, same, cut vertically. G, root. (Baillon.) poisonous. Household remedies prepared from the plant “are widely used, but the cases of poisoning from overdoses of it ignorantly taken show it to be an especially dangerous medicine. The monkshood (Fig. 178) common in gardens is another plant the roots of which have been mistaken for horseradish, with fatal results. The bark of various trees and their roots is often chewed by young people, and often serious and sometimes fatal con- sequences have resulted from mistaking poisonous for harm- less kinds. The locust (Fig. 182) and elder (Fig. i have proved especially dangerous in this respect. ' PLANTS POISONOUS TO EAT 197 Fic. 182.—Locust (Robinia Pseudacacia, Pulse Family, Leguminose). Flowering branch. (Baillon.)—Tree growing 24 m. tall, twigs spiny; flowers white and fragrant; fruit a flat brownish pod. Native home, - Eastern North America. Fie. 183.—Elder (Sambucus cana- densis, Honeysuckle Family, Caprifoliacee). Fruiting branch with leaf. Flower. (Britton and Brown.)—Shrub about 1-3 m. tall, leaves nearly smooth; flowers white; fruit deep pur- ple or black. Native home, Eastern North America. 198 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS LL” Fia. 184.—Marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris, Crowfoot Family, Ranuncu-. lacee). Plant in flower. (Original.)—Perennial herb, growing 30- 60 em. tall; leaves smooth; flowers yellow; fruit dry. Native home, North Temperate regions. vertically. Ovule. Fia. 185.—Marsh-marigold. Stamen. Pistil, cut Seed, cut vertically. Fruit, splitting open to discharge the seeds. Embryo. (Redrawn from Gray.) PLANTS POISONOUS TO EAT 199 The danger attending the use of the herbage of the pokeweed as a pot-herb has already been noticed. Not infrequently deaths are caused by eating the leaves of poisonous wild plants picked by mistake for the marsh-marigold (F igs. 184, Ww ) ay ON ay Fig. 186.—Indian Poke (Veratrum viride, Lily Family, Liliacew). Upper and middle section of plant, 3. (Chesnut.)—Perennial herb about 1-2 m. tall; leaves somewhat hairy; flowers yellowish green; fruit dry. Native home, North America. ) 185), or other spring ‘“greens.”’ The plant which has proved most dangerous in this way is the Indian poke (Fig. 186). Another common herb which has sometimes been eaten for “greens” with fatal results is the jimson-weed (Fig. 187). 200 MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS PLANTS Fic. 187, I.—Jimson-weed (Datura Stramonium, Nightshade Family, Solanacee). Flowering and fruiting branch. (Baillon.)—A coarse annual about 1-2 m. tall; stem green; flowers white, heavy-scented, 5-10 em. long; fruit dry. Native home, Asia (?). Fig. 187, II. — Jimson- weed. A, flower, cut vertically. B, base of flower cut verti- cally, enlarged. C, fruit opening to dis- charge the seeds. D, seed, entire, and cut vertically. (Baillon.) PLANTS POISONOUS TO EAT 201 Fic. 188, I—Indian Tobacco (Lobelia inflata, Bellflower Family, Cam- panulacee). Flowering top. Tip of flower-cluster. Fruit. (Britton and Brown.)—An annual, growing 1 m. tall or less; leaves hairy; flowers light blue; fruit smooth. Native home, North America. Fic. 188, I1.—Indian Tobacco. A, flower, entire, 3. B, same, cut verti- cally. C, flower, with calyx and corolla removed. (Luerssen.) 202 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS Young shoots of the elder (Fig. 183) eaten as a pickle have also proved poisonous. The propensity which children have for chewing vari- ous leaves occasionally leads them into danger. ; as is well known, the pure oil expressed from them is quite harmless under ordinary conditions. Some of the worst cases of poisoning occur every year from Fic. 204.—Yew (Taxus baccata, Yew Family, Tazxacee). Branches with leaves and staminate flowers (oc), ovule-bearing flowers (2), and fruit (fr.); a, a single staminate flower; b, stamen with anthers still closed; c, same, with anthers open for discharging pollen; d, an ovule- bearing flower, the tip of the ovule seen projecting beyond the pro- tecting scale-leaves; e, same, cut vertically, showing tip of the stem- branch at z; f, fruit, half ripe, showing the cup-like envelope (aril) growing up from the base of the young seed; g, ripe fruit; h, same, cut vertically; 7, seed, cut vertically. (Eichler, Richard:)—Tree growing -20 7m tall; bark, reddish, flaky; leaves dark green above; fruit (aril) scarlet. eating poisonous mushrooms or ‘‘toadstools.”’ While any intelligent person; under competent guidance can learn to distinguish the edible species of fleshy fungi which grow abundantly in our fields and woods, it is exceedingly danger- 214 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS ous to suppose that one knows, when one does not know. It is indeed hardly safe for one who has not had good botanical training to depend upon even accurate pictures and descrip- tions of mushrooms; and it is decidedly unsafe for the average person to rely upon information gained from popular writings upon edible fungi. Not a few cases of poisoning within recent years have been traced to the misstatements in, or the misunderstanding of, attractive books or magazine articles on the subject. Another fertile source of danger is belief in the so-called rules ‘‘for telling a mushroom from a toad- stool,’’ such for example as the oft-repeated saying that a piece of silver placed in contact with mushrooms that are being cooked will turn black if they are poisonous. This and all similar rules are worse than worthless for not only is one led by them to regard as poisonous many edible forms, but some of the deadliest species might be called edible. Nothing less than thorough acquaintance with all the botanical char- acters which distinguish our common species at different ages can be relied upon to enable a person to tell the differ- ence between edible and poisonous mushrooms. There are no short cuts to such knowledge. The only really safe way for a beginner to learn about mushrooms with a view to eating them, is to be instructed by an expert botanist, in the field, or from fresh specimens. Until the student has learned the art of observing accurately he should distrust his own ability to determine specimens as edible with the aid of books alone. Meanwhile, it is desirable that he should learn some- thing about our two most poisonous species since the majority of fatal cases have been due to eating specimens of these or closely similar forms. The most deadly of all fungi is the death-cup (Fig. 205). Its name is derived from the fact that the stalk is enveloped at its base by a cup. Beware of any toadstool having such a cup. As the fungus presents an especially attractive appearance and has a pleasant flavor it has tempted many persons to their death. The symptoms of poisoning do not appear for a number of hours after the fungus has been eaten, and by that time so much of the poison has been absorbed into the system that recovery is hardly possible. Scarcely less poisonous, but more common is the PLANTS POISONOUS TO EAT 215 Fig. 205. Fic. 205.—Death-cup (Amanita phalloides, Gill-mushroom Family, Agari- Fic. cacee). Mushroom growing 7-20 cm. tall; cap white, straw-color, greenish, light brown, or yellow, uniformly or more or less spotted; smooth and satiny, convex at first, finally becoming concave; stalk white, and nearly smooth, bearing generally at the more or less swollen base a conspicuous cup-like envelope which may lie partly under ground, and near the cap a drooping ring or ‘‘frill’’; gills white. (Ches- nut.)—Native home, Europe and North America, mostly in woods. The most poisonous and one of most common of mushrooms, dangerous even to handle. 206.—Fly-amanita (Amanita muscaria, Gill-mushroom Family, Agaricacew). Mushroom growing about 10-14 cm. tall, highly at- tractive in appearance, smell, and taste; cap strongly convex at first, becoming flat or concave, white, yellow, orange to bright red, com- monly deeper-colored toward the center, sticky when moist, always bearing warts of a: mostly paler color; stalk bulbous at the base, with- out a conspicuous cup but bearing around it flexible shaving-like projections pointing upward, and near the cap a frill-like ring; gills white. (Chesnut.)—Native home, Eurasia, South Africa, North America; mostly in woods. Scarcely less poisonous than the death-cup. 216 Fia. Res Fic. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS. Fig. 209. 207.—Caper Spurge (Euphorbia Lathyris, Spurge Family, Huphor- hiacee). a, upper half of plant, 3; b, fruit, t+. (Chesnut.)—Annual growing 1 m. or less in height; leaves in four ranks; flowers greenish yellow; fruit somewhat fleshy. Native home, Europe; growing in old gardens and as a weed in Eastern States. 208.—Tall Buttercup (Ranunculus acris, Crowfoot Family, Ranuncu- lacee). Base of plant showing roots and leaves, 3. Flowering top, 3. Fruit enlarged. (Britton and Brown.)—Perennial herb, growing about 1 m. or less-in height; leaves hairy; flowers bright yellow; fruit dry. Native home, Europe; common as a weed in Northern States and Canada. : 209.—Ditch Crowfoot (Ranunculus sceleratus, Crowfoot Family, Ranunculacee). Base of plant, 2. Flowering and fruiting top, é. Flower, enlarged. Fruit, enlarged. (Britton and Brown.)—Annual herb growing 15-60 cm. tall; leaves smooth; flowers yellow; fruit dry. Native home, Eastern North America and Eurasia. ree ee ee - PLANTS POISONOUS TO HANDLE 217 handsome fly-amanita (Fig. 206), so called from its use as a fly-poison. It should be noticed that the base of the stalk in- stead of being plainly in a cup is bulbous and scaly. This fungus, like the death-cup, has a pleasant flavor; and after it has been eaten no sign of poisoning is noticed for several hours. Prompt medical treatment may then save the pa- tient’s life. 63. Plants poisonous to handle. The number of plants which poison the skin by contact is fortunately much smaller than the number of those poisonous to eat. Among the latter which have been already mentioned the death-cup, the fly- amanita, and the snow-on-the-mountain are the only ones poisonous to handle. The milky juice of the snow-on-the- mountain applied to the skin often causes intense itching and inflammation accompanied by blisters. The same is true of the juice of the nearly related caper spurge (Fig. 207) and of other spurges common in gardens. The colorless juice of several species of buttercups or crowfoots, espe- cially the tall buttercup (Fig. 208) and the ditch crowfoot (Fig. 209), blister the skin. These and related species are . sometimes used by European beggars to produce sores as a means of exciting compassion. In the United States by far the worst and most frequent cases of poisoning by contact come from the poison-ivy (Fig. 210) and the poison-sumac (Fig. 211) of the East, and certain of their relatives which live in other parts of the country. Poison-ivy may be distinguished from other com- mon vines for which it is apt to be mistaken, by the fact that its leaflets are in threes and its fruit white. Poison-sumac may be distinguished from the other common sumacs and other shrubs which it resembles, by the smoothness of its twigs and leaves and the even edge of its leaflets together with the slender cylindrical form of the part which bears them, the drooping of the flower-clusters and the greenish- white color of the hanging fruit. The symptoms of poisoning by either plant are inflammation with itching, swelling, and eruption. The poisonous principle of both species has re- cently been discovered to be a fixed oil, called cardol, which is soluble in alcohol. Hence the treatment recommended 218 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS, is to rub thoroughly the affected part every few hours with a concentrated solution of sugar of lead in alcohol of 50-75% strength. As alkalis convert the oil into a harmless soap, F 1g. 210.—Poison-ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron, Sumac Family, Anacardiacee). a, spray showing air-roots and leaves, 3; 6, fruit, 4. (Chesnut.)— Climbing or trailing shrub becoming 6-15 m. long, sometimes erect and bushy; leaves smooth or downy; flowers green; fruit smooth, waxy, grayish. Native home, North America. relief is also found by the application of a strong solution of cooking soda, as soon as possible after the poisoning. A fixed oil similar to cardol has been found to be the cause of poisoning by two of our native orchids known as lady- POISONOUS PLANTS IN GENERAL 219 slippers (Figs. 212, 213). The symptoms are like those just described, and the treatment recommended is the same. Fortunately there are many persons who are not affected by handling poison-ivy, poison-sumac, or either of the orchids mentioned; and there are other persons upon whom the effect is but slight. On the other hand, certain persons, particularly women and children, have skins so sensitive as to be poisoned by handling plants which are commonly re- garded as harmless. Thus one occasionally hears of a person who cannot handle the herbage of the carrot or parsnip, or who cannot wash parsnip roots without being poisoned. In all such cases, as also in cases of poisoning by the other plants ' referred to in this section, the treatment recommended is much the same as that given for ivy poisoning. 64. Poisonous plants in general. The preceding sections have shown that serious or even fatal consequences may result from eating, chewing, or sucking various parts of poi- sonous plants, or from overdoses of medicines prepared from them; that the juice of certain plants causes painful effects wherever it touches the skin; and that merely handling other kinds produces similar effects with certain persons. We have seen also that the number of common plants, both wild and cultivated, which are poisonous in one way or an- other is much larger than is generally realized. The practical conclusions to be drawn from these facts are surely very plain, but as they cannot be too strongly emphasized it may be useful to embody them in the following summary :— 1. Never put into the mouth any part of any plant with which you are not perfectly well acquainted and know to be harmless beyond the possibility of a doubt. 2. Be especially cautious with regard to plants which are young or show only young spring shoots, or which have not come into blossom or fruit; for the younger a plant is, or the fewer parts it displays, the more easily it may be mis- taken for some other kind. 3. Be suspicious of all plants which resemble those known to be poisonous; for such resemblance is likely to indicate relationship, and plants closely related are apt to possess similar properties. But never suppose a plant to be harm- 220 Fic. Ware: Fig. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS Fig. 211. 211.—Poison-sumac (Rhus Verniz, Sumac Family, Anacardiacee). Fruiting branch. (Chesnut.)—Shrub or tree 2-15 m. tall; leaves smooth, shining green above, pale beneath; flowers green; fruit grayish. Native home, Eastern North America, in moist ground. 212.—Showy Ladies’ Slipper (Cypripedium hirsutum, Orchid Family, Orchidacee). Leaf. Flower. Fruit, 3. (Britton and Brown.)— Perennial herb 30-60 cm. tall; leaves hairy; flowers white and crim- son; fruit dry. Native home, Eastern North America. Poisonous to touch. 213.—Yellow Ladies’ Slipper (Cypripedium parviflorum, Orchid Family, Orchidacee). Base of plant. Flowering top, 3}. Stigma and stamens, enlarged. (Britton and Brown.)—Similar to the showy ladies’ slipper - but flowers greenish yellow, more or less suffused or streaked with madder-purple. Native home, North America. POISONOUS PLANTS IN GENERAL 221 less simply because it bears a general resemblance to certain well-known harmless species; for some of the most poisonous plants very closely resemble and are nearly related to species highly valued for food. 4, Place no confidence whatever in any “rules” for telling poisonous from harmless species. te 5. Do not suppose that plants which are harmless to birds, cattle, or other animals, may not be poisonous to human beings; for many plants which are poisonous to us are eaten by various animals with impunity. 6. Learn to recognize at sight the species of your locality which are poisonous to handle. If possible get some one who knows the plants to point out specimens to you in the field, and show you the features by which they may be always recognized. Then let him test your knowledge on the matter to see if the characteristics of each species are firmly impressed on your mind. If you find you know well all the dangerous species you will feel safe in handling any others. 7. Never use medicines which you do not know to be en- tirely harmless, unless with the approval of your physician. 1Jn later chapters the student will be helped to recognize the more important families of plants, and will learn which of them consist en- tirely or almost entirely of poisonous species, and which families are comparatively harmless. Until he is able to classify the plants about him as to their families and is well informed regarding the extent to which relationship may be depended upon to indicate similarity of properties, safety requires that he should regard many harmkess species with suspicion. CHAPTER VI INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 65. Uses of industrial plants. By industrial plants we mean those which yield raw materials or products used in the industrial arts; that is to say, in such industries as spin- ning, weaving, building, paper-making, tanning, dyeing, and painting. Industrial plants cannot be separated entirely from edible and medicinal plants any more than those econo- mic groups can be distinguished sharply one from the other; for, as we shall see, there are industrial plants which also yield food or medicine or both. As with the economic plants already studied, so with these, we shall find it convenient to classify them according to the useful products which they yield. Out of the immense number of industrial plants more or less useful to mankind, we can here consider only a few of the most important which yield fibers, woods, cork, elastic gums, resins, coloring matters, tannins, oils, and fuels. 66. Fibers in general. Next to food-plants those produc- ing fibers have proved the most useful of all the vegetable kingdom, and have contributed most to the advancement of - civilization. Mankind while yet in the stage of savagery needed some sort of cordage easier to procure than sinews or strips of hide, and more suitable for bowstrings, snares, fish-lines, nets, baskets, and the like. He needed also some form of clothing less cumbersome and cooler than that afforded by the skins of animals. These needs were admirably met by twisting, plaiting, or weaving the flexible strands which he found strengthening roots, stems, and leaves, or by spinning the woolly covering of seeds. We know that sheep’s wool and other animal fibers, including the silk of which the silk- 222 FIBERS IN GENERAL 223 worm makes its cocoon, were used very early in certain re- gions as materials for fabrics, but in general it is safe to say that vegetable fibers have been far more extensively used than animal fibers even from prehistoric times. As civilization has advanced, and man’s needs have mul- tiplied, the uses of vegetable fibers have also multiplied, and their importance in daily life has increased enormously. To-day as their properties are better understood and their wonderful possibilities more fully realized, these fibers are coming -to be used more and more in place of animal fibers and other animal products. It is true that mineral fibers, such as asbestos and spun glass, and metals in the form of wire, are replacing vegetable fibers to a limited extent; but in spite of this the consumption of fibers from plants is steadily increasing. They are now used most extensively as materials for fabrics, cordage, plaiting, matting, wickerwork, thatch, brushes, stiffening, filling, paper, and various cellulose products. Fabrics are made of especially flexible fibers spun or twisted into yarns, threads, or cords, which are then variously intertwined by weaving, braiding, knitting, or netting. According to its texture a fabric may serve for wearing apparel, house-furnishing, decoration, awnings, sails, tape, belts, girths, webbing, burlap, gunny bagging, hammocks, nets, or lace. The finer fabrics are among the greatest triumphs of human skill and constitute the most highly developed of fiber products. Cordage includes yarn or thread for sewing or needlework, twine, fish-lines, cords, ropes, and cables. These consist, for the most part, of especially strong fibers, which are twisted into strands and then “laid” or twisted again in such a manner that they will not freely untwist. Plaiting consists of flat fibrous strands sufficiently pliable to be folded into plaits or flat braids and used for straw hats, fine basketry, and the like. Matting consists of elastic fibrous strands woven or braided into mats or screens. Wuickerwork is made of supple twigs, strips of wood or similar fibrous strands interlaced to form hampers and other stout baskets, or chairs and similar articles of furniture. Thatch consists of strips of fibrous material, overlapped and fastened so as to shed water, as on aroof. Brushes, including brooms and whisks, require fibers of special stiffness and elasticity. Stiffening, which is mixed with plaster like cow’s hair to give cohesion, calls for fibers which are at once strong and able to resist the softening influence of the plaster. Filling, such as the stuffing used in upholstery, calking for the seams of water-craft, casks, etc., and packing for objects to be 224 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS transported, require light fibrous material so soft and elastic that it will fully occupy the spaces into which it may be crowded. Paper consists of fibers, especially rich in cellulose, which have been soft- ened and compacted, and finally pressed into sheets or molded into other forms as papier-maché. Besides the more familiar uses of paper for writing, drawing, printing, book-binding, boxes, and so on, there are many others of considerable importance. Thus we have paper garments, paper napkins and other substitutes for fab- rics used in the household, paper pails and similar articles replacing -wooden ware, paper canoes and paper car-wheels. Such wheels hav- ing steel hubs and tires, are found to wear far better than wheels made wholly of steel. Fine paper is nearly pure cellulose. The larger the percentage of cellulose in a fiber the better the paper it makes. Fibers rich in cellulose are also the source of various cellulose prod- ucts, obtained by chemical means presently to be described. These products include guncotton which is a high explosive used in the manufacture of smokeless powder; collodion, of much use in surgery as a covering for wounds; celluloid, the well-known substitute for ivory, bone, tortoise-shell, and similar materials; and artificial silk which is coming to be used widely in place of the product of the silk- worm. From what has been said of the great variety of uses to which fibers are put, it follows that the term fiber must have a rather broad definition. Fibers may be either fine or coarse, flexible or stiff, elastic or soft. They differ also in structure and chemical composition, and in the part from which they are derived. They agree, however, in being comparatively slender structures, which although separately weak, form strong yet pliable articles of manufacture when twisted, woven, or otherwise intimately joined together. If we define fiber-plants as those which yield slender parts of economic use when thus united, it may be said that over a thousand species of them are known to be used more or less in various parts of the world. The great majority of these, however, are used only in restricted regions and are not cultivated. Less than fifty are of much commercial importance. Of these the most useful are the species yielding cotton, flax, jute, hemp, and manila. Fibers may be classified most conveniently for our present purpose into the following groups: (1) surface fibers, more or less hair-like outgrowths; (2) bast fibers, consisting entirely of such tough strands as form the bast or strength-giving - eee SURFACE FIBERS 225 Fig. 214.—Upland Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum, Mallow Family, Malva- cee). Plant in flower and fruit. (Baillon.)—An annual in cultivation, growing 1-2 m. tall; leaves downy; flowers yellow; fruit dry; seed brown.. Native home, probably India. part of the inner bark of stems; (3) woody fibers, composed entirely of wood; (4) mixed fibers, containing both woody and bast-like fibers; and (5) pseudo-fibers, which consist either of entire plants or of parts lacking both wood and bast. 67. Surface fibers occur upon stems, leaves, fruit, and seeds. The only one of much economic importance is cotton. This forms the woolly covering of the seeds of several species, principally the upland cotton (Figs. 214, 215) and the Sea Island cotton (Fig..216). The former is the chief fiber plant of the world. To-day it is cultivated throughout the tropics and very generally in subtropical regions. The southern United States produce more than all the rest of the world. Two thousand six hundred years ago it was raised in India ; a',% - 226 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 5 Fig. 215.—Upland Cotton. A, flower-bud. B, flower. C, unopened pod. D, open pod, displaying the masses of hairy seeds. F, pistil. F, stamen. G, ovary, cut across. H, seed showing mass of hairs (cotton). J, same, cut vertically, showing the much-folded embryo. (Baillon.) whence its culture slowly spread. It was introduced into this country in 1774. Long before the coming of Columbus, how- ever, Sea Island cotton was raised by the natives of tropical America. Upland cotton yields much the larger amount of fiber which although strong is only about 1-2 cm. long. The Sea Island cotton has a finer fiber, about 2.5-4 cm. long, and is therefore the more valuable; but the yield of the plant is SURFACE FIBERS 227 Fig. 216.—Sea Island Cotton (Gossypium barbadense, Mallow Family, Malvacee). Flowering top, 3. (Schumann.)—Similar to upland cotton but with seed black. Native home, West Indies. comparatively small and the cultivation is mostly confined to islands or regions near the coast. The fibers found on the seeds of each consist of simple, flattened and twisted hairs developed as outgrowths from _ the ‘“‘hull” or seed coat. In the wild state these hairs catch the wind like thistle-down and so are of service to the plant as means of spreading abroad its seeds. Cotton raisers, however, select varieties which hold their seeds firmly in the pod till they can be picked out by hand. Through selection also the best varieties have lost the yellowish or buff color of their seed hairs, and have become nearly or quite white. At the same time there has been developed in cultivation the remarkable twist before mentioned. This twist is of the 228 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS highest importance. It favors the interlocking of the fibers in spinning and thus makes possible yarns which combine in a wonderful way extreme fineness, softness, and strength. No other fiber has this peculiar twist. Of all others the wool of sheep, from its curliness, most nearly resembles cotton, which indeed well deserves to be called “ vegetable wool.” The separation of the fiber from the seed after picking is accomplished by a machine called a gin which either pulls the seed from the fiber by means of rollers, or tears away the fiber by the action of notched wheels revolving rapidly be- tween the bars of a grating too narrowly set for the seeds to pass through. The ginned fiber is ready for spinning after various machines have removed impurities, and combed the fibers approximately parallel. After spinning, the yarn is bleached, or dyed if necessary, and may be then twisted into thread or other cordage, or may be woven or otherwise made into a fabric. The cleaned fiber rolled into sheets is cotton batting, widely used for filling. In their crude state, cotton fibers are covered with an oily varnish which repels water. When this layer is removed and the fibers thoroughly cleansed there is obtained a white, fleeey mass which is highly absorptive. This is extensively employed in medicine and surgery under the name “absorbent cotton.” Like the best paper it is nearly pure cellulose. Many of the finer sorts of paper are made from cotton rags, waste from spin- ning mills, and fibers too short to spin. Absorbent cotton treated with nitric and sulphuric acids becomes converted into nitrocellulose or guncotton. An in- timate mixture of this with laurel camphor forms celluloid. Collodion is a form of nitrocellulose dissolved in ether and aleohel. Artificial silk is made by forcing collodion through | exceedingly fine openings into running water, where the collodion at once hardens into a silky fiber, which after thorough washing becomes well adapted to the same uses as natural silk. The carbon filaments of incandescent elec- tric lamps are charred cotton threads or sometimes car- bonized strips of paper pulp. Cotton is the fiber chiefly used also for candle and lamp wicks. 68. Bast fibers form, generally speaking, the strongest BAST FIBERS 229 Fia. 217, I.—Flax (Linum usitatissimum, Flax Family, Linaceew). Plant in flower. Young flower-cluster. Seed, entire and cut vertically. (Bail- lon.)—Annual, about 60 em. tall; leaves smooth; flowers light blue; fruit dry. Native home, Southeastern Europe and Asia Minor. and most elastic part of the framework of plants. In con- trast with the woody part they contain commonly a larger proportion of pure cellulose and are thus comparatively little affected by agencies of decay or the various chemicals which destroy or soften wood. The bast fibers of greatest economic importance are flax, jute, and hemp. Flaz is next to cotton, the most useful and valuable of all fibers. It has an even wider range of uses, but as its prep- 230 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS aration requires more labor, it is more costly and hence more a fiber of luxury. The flax plant (Fig. 217) flourishes throughout the temperate zones, and was cultivated in the Old World even during prehistoric times. To-day the world’s supply of flax comes chiefly from northern Europe. The bast of a flax plant forms the main strengthening element of its stem, running near the surface where, plainly, the strain is greatest. These fibers consist of nearly solid cylinders of almost pure cellulose. The essentials of the process by which pure flax is obtained are, first rotting or “retting’’ the stems and then, after drying them, breaking the weakened parts into fragments, and finally beating and combing these away from the bast. After further combing to separate the longest and best fibers, and then bleaching, they are ready to be manufactured into the finest linen fab- rics as well as such strong materials as canvas and duck, and the foundation of carpets and oil-cloth. The strongest thread and twine, and the finest lace are also made from flax, while from linen rags are made the best papers for writing and artist’s use. From this paper, by treatment with sulphuric acid, a “vegetable parchment” is made which fully takes the place of the parchment formerly manufactured from the skin of sheep. Jute is obtained from two closely related species (Fig. 218). Though cultivated from very early times in India the fiber has assumed commercial importance only within the nine- teenth century. The bast is extracted from the stem in some- what the same way as flax. In luster and fineness it rivals flax, but as it contains less cellulose it is inferior in strength and enduring qualities. Its most important use is for coffee- sacks, cotton-bagging, burlap, webbing, and similar coarse fabrics. It is coming rapidly into use, however, for finer fabrics, imitating linen and silk, and as a substitute or adul- terant of hemp it is used extensively in cordage; but it is ill-suited for this purpose on account of its rapid deteriora- tion. Hemp (Fig. 171) is coarser than flax but longer and stronger. It is thus especially well adapted for twine, rope, and heavy eordage, and likewise for sail-cloth, bagging, and similar MIXED FIBERS 231 coarse fabrics. Tarred ravelings of hemp rope are exten- sively used under the name of oakum for calking the seams of wooden vessels and also the joints of iron pipes, and the like. The plant has been grown and its fiber used for many centuries in the Old World. At present the largest supply comes from Northern Europe, and the best quality from Italy. The method of treatment is much the same as for flax. Fic. 217, I1.—Flax. Flower, cut vertically. Pistil and calyx. Stamens and pistil. Floral diagram. Pod open for diseharge of seeds. Seed, cut vertically. (Baillon.) 69. Mixed fibers consist of slender strands including both bast and wood so intimately united that it is difficult to separate one from the other. Such compound strands form the framework or skeleton of leaves, of many stems, and of certain fruits. The extraction of mixed fibers is commonly an easy matter from the fact that they are for the most part surrounded only by material so soft as to be readily remov- able. In other cases there is so little material beside the 232 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS fibers that isolation of the latter is unnecessary for many purposes. Manila, pineapple fiber, southern moss, straw, rush, maize-fiber; broom-corn, rattan, bamboo, coir, and vegetable sponge will serve as examples. Manila, sometimes called ‘“‘manila hemp,” is obtained from the fleshy leafstalks of a banana-like plant (Fig. 219) grown almost exclusively in the Philippine Islands. The fiber is extracted by scraping away the surrounding soft Jute (Corchorus olitorius (A) and C. capsularis (D), Linden fre. 218, 1. Family, Tiliacew). A, flowering and fruiting top of pot-herb jute. D, flowering top of podded jute. (Schumann.)—Annuals about 2-3 m. tall; leaves light green; flowers whitish yellow; fruit dry, elongated in pot-herb jute, globular in the other species. Native home, India. Fic. 218, I11.—Podded Jute. Fruit. (Baillon.) parts with a dull knife. Both a coarse and a fine fiber are thus obtained, the latter coming from near the edge of the stalk. The former is much stronger even than the true hemp, and makes the best of cordage. It is highly valued also for mats, bagging, and sail-cloth, while from old ropes of it is made manila paper. Manila bagging serves for stiffening plaster of Paris in making the building material known as staff’? which is extensively used for the ornamentation of MIXED FIBERS 933 temporary structures such as those of the Columbian and Pan-American Expositions. The fine fiber is woven by the natives into beautiful fabrics. 1 2 Ze y ty | NS Ny \ Fic. 219.—Manila Hemp Plant (Musa textilis, Banana Family, Musacee). Plant, flowers, and fruit. (Kew Bulletin.)—A tree-like perennial herb from the underground stem of which arise huge leaves whose over- lapping stalks make a trunk 6 m. or more in height, and support not only the immense leaf-blades but the heavy cluster of flowers and fruit; leaves pale beneath; flowers inconspicuous, covered by reddish bracts; fruit green, filled with numerous seeds. Native home, Philip- pine Islands. The leaves of the pineapple (Fig. 111) yield a similar fiber of extraordinary strength and fineness. From the finest of 234 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS this is made the celebrated pina or pineapple-cloth of the Philippines—said to be the most delicate and perhaps the most costly of vegetable textiles. Fic. 220.—Southern Moss (Tillandsia usneoides, Pineapple Family, Bro- meliacee). A, plant in flower, growing attached to bark. 8B, flower, enlarged. C, flower, cut vertically. (Wittmack.)—Perennial herba-— ceous air-plant hanging from trees to a length of 1-2 m., without roots, covered with grayish scales through which water is absorbed; flowers yellow; fruit dry; seeds hairy. Native home, Southern United States to Brazil. Fig. 221.—Rush (Juncus effusus, Rush Family, Juncacee). Plant in flower, 3. Calyx, corolla, and stamens. Fruit. Seed, edge and side views. (Britton and Brown.)—Perennial herb 3-12 dm. tall, smooth throughout; flowers greenish; fruit dry. Native home, North America and Eurasia. The fiber extracted from the stem of the so-called southern moss (Fig. 220) by retting is strikingly like horsehair in ap- pearance and stiffness, and is largely substituted for it as MIXED FIBERS 235 a stuffing in upholstery. The whole plant also is used as packing material. The straw of wheat, rye, barley, oats, and rice (Figs. 1-12) contains so little material besides the fibers, that the whole may be used for many purposes. This straw forms a valuable material for packing, filling of mattresses'and the like, thatch, plaiting for straw hats, baskets, and mats; and for coarse paper and pasteboard. What is commonly known as straw matting—the best sort used in place of carpet—is most gener- ally made of the stems of the rush shown in Fig. 221. Coarse mats are sometimes made of the husks of maize (Fig. 15) which contain strong mixed fibers similar to those of the straw of the other cereals. These fibers and others like them from the stem and foliage leaves are extracted and put to many uses of which the most important is paper- making. Broom-corn (Fig. 222) yields the tough, springy material from which most of our brooms and whisk brushes are made. This consists of the slender branches of the flower-cluster, _ripened and deprived of their fruit. Each branch or stalk is little more than a bundle of mixed fibers. Coarse brush material, as for street sweepers, is afforded by the similarly fibrous stems of the rattan (Fig. 223). When split or peeled they serve especially well also, under the name “reed,” for basketry, wickerwork, cane seats, ete. The stems of bamboo (Fig. 224) are used widely for similar purposes, and for an almost endless number of other uses. In eastern countries the bamboos form the main dependence of the people in supplying a large share of their needs. In tropical regions generally the coconut palm (Figs. 34-36) is also depended upon for an immense variety of uses—far too many to be here enumerated. Fibrous material obtained from the leaves has important domestic uses, but the fiber of greatest value is that known as coir, which is obtained from the nut husks by rotting away the softer material. Coir makes cordage of extraordinary lightness and elasticity es- pecially valuable for cables and running rigging. Its most familiar use is for door-mats and other matting subject to very hard wear. 236 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS ho ht believed to have been derived. B, flowering top of a cultivated form (var. vulgaris) which differs from the form used for brooms (var. technicus)mainly in having a more compact flower-cluster. Bo’, BQ, staminate and pistillate spikelets, enlarged. D, bract. K, fruit. G, lodicules. (Reichenbach.)—Annual 2-3 m. tall; stem solid; flowers concealed by bracts; fruit a grain. Native home, Mediterranean Region (?). Pre et tos i i a” Fic. MIXED FIBERS 237 iy H Al nA 223, I.—Rattans (Calamus spp., Palm Family, Palmacew). Plants showing their method of climbing over trees by means of grappling hooks at the end of the leaves. (Selleny.)—Woody vines sometimes attaining a length of 100 m. or more; leaves’ dark green above; flowers rosy or greenish; fruit polished. Native home, Tropical Asia and East Indies. 238 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS Fibers somewhat similar to those of the coconut husk form a network through the pulp of the sponge cucumber (Fig. 225). These when removed from the ripe fruit form ¢ | “i A Lf HE i A B Fic. 223, I1.—Rattans. Flowering and fruiting top (Calamus adspersus). A, seed. B, same, cut vertically. C, flower-cluster sheath (of C. Bangka). (Blume.) the “vegetable sponge’? which druggists sell for bathing pur- poses. In Japan it is used also in the manufacture of hats, as stuffing for saddles, etc. PSEUDO-FIBERS 239 Fic. 224.—Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris, Grass Family, Graminee). Plants in leaf. A, cluster of spikelets. B, spikelet with stamens protruding. F, flower. (LeMaout and Decaisne, Knuth.)—A tree attaining 26 m. in height; stems hollow; leaves rough; flowers concealed by bracts; fruit a grain. 70. Pseudo-fibers are commonly more or less spongy masses of material which are most useful as absorbents, al- though serving also for other purposes. Amadou and peat- moss are good examples. Amadou or spunk is a felt-like layer of exceedingly slender fibrils found within the rind of a shelf fungus (Fig. 226). Its most important use is as an absorbent in dentistry. Sheets of it resemble chamois or ooze leather and have been used for caps, table mats, etc. Peat moss (Fig. 227) is largely used as packing material. It is especially valued by horticulturists on account of the 240 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS readiness with which masses of the plant absorb and retain — moisture. ; 71. Woody fibers as here understood, are either slender twigs with the bark removed, or timber mechanically re- Fic. 225.—Vegetable Sponge (Luffa egyptiaca, Gourd Family, Cucurbita- cee). Tip of vine showing leaves, tendrils, and young flowers, 3. Staminate flower, with corolla spread open. Pistillate flower, cut vertically. Fruit, 3. Same, cut across. (Redrawn trom Duthie and Fuller.)—Annual vine; leaves rough; flowers yellow; fruit 30-100 cm. long; greenish with ten darker ribs. Native home, tropics of the Old World. WOOD IN GENERAL 241 duced to strips or shreds, or else chemically treated so as to separate the ultimate fibrils for paper pulp. Osiers from various species of willow (Fig. 228) afford woody fibers of the first kind which are extensively used for wickerwork. Thin flat strips of willow, poplar (Fig. 253), and other soft woods form the chip of which chip hats are braided. Similar strips of ash (Fig. 245), hickory (Fig. 30), and other hard woods which split easily and evenly make the splint which is woven into large market baskets, chair bottoms and backs, Fic. 226.—Amadou (Fomes fomentarius, Pore-mushroom Family, Poly- poracee). C, fruit-body growing out like a bracket from the side of a tree, 4. D, The same cut vertically, to show the numerous fine tubes extending downward vertically from which the dust-like spores fall. 3. (Hennings.)—Brownish or grayish above, rich brown within. Native home, Eurasia, North America, parasitic on beech, etc. and the like. White pine and spruce, shredded by machinery, yield the familiar packing material known as excelsior. Spruce and poplar are the chief woods used for the wood pulp from which the cheaper grades of paper are made, or as an in- gredient in book papers of higher quality. Thus the paper of this book is made of cotton rags mixed with poplar pulp. 72. Wood in general. In economic importance woods rank next to vegetable fibers. Just as the great use of fibers is for clothing, which is almost as necessary to us as food, so the great use of wood is for buildings, which are scarcely 242 Fie. INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 227.—Peat-moss (Sphag- num cymbifolium, Peat- moss Family, Sphagnacee). 14). plant im roast, 4... 15, spore-case, with lid still in place, 4%. (Kerner.)— Plants soft, yellowish green or purplish; “‘fruit”’ dark brown. Native home, throughout the world in bogs and peat swamps. less needful than clothing. Both materials serve us mainly by their mechanical strength, but with this difference, that whereas a fiber of- fers but little resistance except to stretching, a piece of wood main- tains its form but little changed against severe mechanical strains of whatever sort. Hence the great use of wood for support in struc- tures for shelter, storage, transpor- tation, and repose; and its wide application to innumerable minor uses. The ready separation of vegetable fibers and the facility with which they may be twisted and interlaced is matched by the comparative ease with which wood may be shaped and joined. The great importance of the wood-working trades, carpentry, joinery, turnery, and carving in- dicates something of the extent of our dependence upon the ma- terial in which they work. A further idea of the usefulness of this material may be gained from a brief review of the more impor- tant classes of things which are made wholly or in part of wood, and of the qualities they especially require in the material used. Buildings require different qual- ities in the frame, the exterior and the interior finish. Strength, ease of working, and availability in large dimensions are the main needs for the framing timbers; re- sistance to weather or adaptability WOOD IN GENERAL 243 to paint, for exterior finish; while hardness, as little shrink- age as possible, and an attractive appearance when polished are most desirable for interior finish. Furniture has needs similar to interior finish and at the same time demands special strength. Domestic utensils have no such need for beauty of material but generally require considerable strength and hardness. Fic. 228, I.— Willow (Salix sp., Willow Family, Salicacee). Staminate flowering branch. Pistillate flowering branch. (Baillon.)—Trees with yellowish or greenish flowers, dry fruits, and hairy seeds. Native home, throughout the North Temperate Zone. Boxes, including crates, need to be strong and when used for transportation, as light as possible. Cooperage, whether “dry,” as flour barrels, or ‘“‘wet,’’ as casks and tanks, or ‘‘white,’’ as tubs and pails, calls for wood which is stiff yet elastic and not liable to irregular twisting or warping even when in contact with fluid on only one side. Vessels, including all sorts of water-craft, present in the hull somewhat similar requirements to wine casks, the chief difference being that the fluid must be prevented from leak- ing in instead of leaking out. As regards the spars, uniform ee O44 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS stiffness through considerable length together with lightness are most important. Vehicles, in their running parts, require great toughness together with elasticity in order to meet the very severe and frequent shocks and wrenchings to which they are sub- jected; while on the body lightness and stiffness are especially desirable. Fic. 228, I1.—Willow. A, pistillate flower-cluster. B, staminate fiower. enlarged. C, same, cut vertically. D, pistillate flower, enlarged. E, pistil, cut vertically. F, seed, entire. G, same, cut vertically. (Baillon.) Harness though made mostly of other material may con- sist largely or wholly of wood, as with certain saddles, stirrups, hames, and yokes; and then, as being subject to much the same strains as parts of vehicles, needs scarcely less stiffness, lightness, and elasticity than they. Road materials, including wooden pavements and railway ties, require blocks or logs of exceptional strength and dura- “WOOD IN GENERAL _ 245 bility to stand satisfactorily the heavy loads and the alter- nate drying and wetting to which they are subjected. Fences require wood as durable under similar exposure but without the same mechanical strain. Poles, as for flags and wires, need similarly to resist decay and also to meet about the same requirements as spars. Trestlework, as for bridges and the like, needs especially stiffness with durability under exposure to weather. Piling, as the foundation for bridges, wharfs, and so forth, needs not only to be stiff but to be durable under water or in contact with moist soil. Mine timbering must be equally strong and at the same time able to resist decay under conditions of dampness much more trying than those of entire submergence. _ Industrial implements, machines, and weapons, mostly require wood of especial toughness to serve for handles, cogs, spindles, gunstocks, and the like. Canes and umbrellas call for fancy woods of attractive appearance and considerable stiffness, small dimensions being no drawback. Surgical appliances such as splints, crutches, and artificial limbs are best made of wood that is both stiff and light. Recreational appliances such as tennis-rackets, base-ball or cricket-bats, hockey-sticks, golf-clubs, croquet-mallets and balls, nine-pins, balls and bowling alleys, billiard cues, check- ers, and chessmen, are made mostly of wood that is especially tough or hard. Musical instruments such as violins, guitars, and pianos depend for their quality of tone mainly upon the resonance of the wood used in their construction. Toys are made generally of woods which are most easy to work, and the same consideration largely influences the selection of woods for various minor articles such as spools, button-molds, shoe-pegs, toothpicks, and matches. Other uses of wood apart from its value as constructive material will be referred to later. To the plant which produces a as to us who use it, wood serves mainly for mechanical support. In large trees the trunk must be a column of great strength in order to hold up 246 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS the immensely heavy crown especially when loaded with snow and ice, and severely strained by wind. So also must the branches be joined with great firmness to the trunk, and be stiff enough to hold the foliage well in place. Even the leaves require a woody framework or skeleton to keep their soft, green parts spread open to the sunshine. The woody parts of leaves are continuous with the new wood of the stem which in turn connects with the new wood of the root. What is absorbed by the root is conducted as-crude sap mostly through the new wood of root and stem to the food-making parts of the foliage. When as in many trees the new wood is formed next to the bark in successive layers it is distinguished as sap-wood so long as it retains its power of conducting sap. After a certain number of years, varying greatly in different kinds of trees, the wood is no longer useful in this way, but becomes more useful mechanically because of increased dryness, compactness, and strength. It is then known as heart-wood and is commonly distinguished from the sap-wood by a marked change in color. The color is due to the presence of substances formed as by-products of the plant’s activities but of no further use to it, and therefore best accumulated in wood which has ceased to be a channel for sap. The sap- wood is also used by the tree to some extent for the storage of food substances, which have but little color, as for example the sweet sap of the sugar-maple. Such food makes the sap-wood a particularly good feeding ground for wood-boring insects and other parasites which injure or destroy the wood. Its greater liability to the attacks of these destructive agents, together with its inferiority to heart-wood in strength lead commonly to the rejection of sap-wood for constructive purposes; while for ornamental uses as well, heart-wood is furthermore preferred on account of its more attractive coloring. A still further advantage of heart-wood for econom- ic use is the much larger masses of it which may be obtained from large trees. Thus we see that wood, especially heart- wood, is the great massive and resistant material of plants. In slender parts it is, as we have seen, either replaced by fibers or shares with them more or less the service of mechani- cal support. Viewed broadly, it may be said that wood cor- WOOD IN GENERAL 247 responds to the bony skeleton of animals in contrast with their tendons and hairs to which we may liken internal and external vegetable fibers respectively. A definition of wood in the economic sense requires that it be distinguished principally from fiber, because of the especially close similarity between them. Fibers, we have seen, are sometimes woody, while all true woods, as will presently appear, are fibrous. Cellulose is the main con- stituent of each. Woods and woody fibers contain in addi- tion to cellulose more or less of a substance (or mixture of substances) known as lignin. This is of uncertain chemical composition though known to consist of the same elements as cellulose. Like that substance it permits water and gases to pass readily through it. It is distinguished from cellulose by turning yellow instead of blue when treated with sul- -phuric acid and iodine. It is the fact that wood is used in comparatively large, firm masses which chiefly distinguishes it from fibers; while it is the fibrousness of wood that most readily distinguishes it from cork and other massive materials to be presently studied. Let us then for our present purpose define wood as the comparatively hard mass of fibrous ma- terial which serves mainly for mechanical support in plants and in various artificial structures. From earliest times wood has been the most widely useful material of construction. Our civilization has been developed largely upon its possibilities. In prehistoric times wherever it was abundant, wood was used almost exclusively for build- ings, utensils, and implements; though in regions less favor- ably situated various substitutes of course had to be found. Even before skill in metal-working had been acquired men were able to shape wood by means of their rude stone tools into many highly useful forms. Thus, only the rudest means are necessary for making from a single log a “dugout” canoe capable of holding many men: a fire kept alive along the top of a fallen trunk burns or chars the wood so that it may be scraped away till the desired form is reached. With the coming of metal tools and their improvement from time to time, more extensive use could be made not only of wood, but also, and for the same reason, of stone and other hard 248 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS materials. With still further mastery over metals both wood and stone have lately come to be replaced rather extensively in building by iron and steel. Nevertheless, in spite of the increased facilities for obtaining and working its various rivals, wood is now being used more than ever. During the past fifty years, in this country, each decade has shown a large and steady increase in the amount of wood used pro- portional to the population. The reason for this must be sought in the remarkable advantages which wood possesses over all other materials for a wide range of uses. The economic superiority of wood is well shown for ex- ample, by comparing it with metals such as iron and steel. (1) The supply of wood under proper forest management is practically inexhaustible and very widespread, while mines are not only exhaustible but strictly local. (2) Wood is” cheap, and metals are dear because of the much greater labor required in metal-working. Even as lumber, after long- distance transportation, wood rarely costs more than 50 cents a cubic foot, the price of iron being from $5 to $10; while the much greater ease with which wood may be shaped, reshaped, and combined in structures makes it much less expensive to manufacture. (3) Wood is stronger than is commonly sup- posed. In tensile strength, 7. e., resistance to a pull length- wise of the grain, a bar of hickory exceeds a similar bar of iron or steel of the same weight. Similarly the resistance to compression parallel to the grain (% e., against the ends of a stick) is found to be greater in a selected piece of hickory or hard pine than in a rod of wrought iron of the same weight and height. Though under certain conditions iron appears to be much stiffer than wood, it is found that a ten-foot beam of hard pine requires considerably more load to bend it by one inch than a similar bar of iron of same weight and length. (4) Wood endures a far greater distortion than metal with- out losing its power to recover the original form. (5) Wood does not rust or crystallize like metal, and, (6) as wood is a © poor conductor of heat it is not only pleasanter to touch but when used as the chief material of dwellings and ships has none of the injurious effects of iron and steel. (7) Wooden beams though combustible, are often safer in case of fire than Tere WOOD IN GENERAL 249 iron ones because the latter twist out of shape at high tem- perature in a way to wreck the entire structure. (8) Being unaffected by wines or other weak acids, and imparting no disagreeable flavor, certain woods may be used for casks where metal would be objectionable or even poisonous. (9) Woods have an organic beauty unrivaled by metals. (10) The peculiar elasticity of certain woods render them incomparably superior to any metal as material for the res- onant parts of violins and similar musical instruments. (11) Pieces of wood may be easily and strongly united simply by glueing, while metals require the more difficult operation of welding or soldering. As against wood it must be said (1) that it cannot be melted and cast or rolled; though by steaming, rods or sheets may be readily bent into curves of small radius; and when reduced to pulp, as we have seen, it can be pressed into almost any shape. (2) It shrinks or expands with variations of moisture, more than metals do under ordinary variations of temperature. (3) It decays unless proper precautions are taken to prevent, though under water wood lasts longer than steel or iron. (4) It is more easily crushed than iron and therefore is not so well suited for bearing the greatest weights or for resisting very heavy blows. (5) Finally, the greater hardness of many metals gives them obvious advantages over wood for sharp imple- ments and a large variety of objects that have to stand severe wear. A great deal is often gained by combining wood and metal because the properties of one so largely complement those of the other. A piece of wood consists essentially of a mass of extremely slender fibers or fibrils, each comparable to a fibril of cotton, but firmly cemented together. The valuable qualities of woods, and their defects as well, depend in great measure upon the character and arrangement of these fibrils and of similar parts associated with them. Therefore some knowl- edge of the structure of wood helps us to understand its prop- erties and to tell one kind of wood from another; and thus should lead us to a more intelligent, economical use of the material. The fibrous nature of wood is clearly shown by its splintery fracture when broken across the grain and by 250 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS its separation into more or less delicate strands when crushed. Those who have had experience in chopping wood know that the ax cleaves as a rule most easily when cutting toward the center of the log; less easily in any other lengthwise direc- tion, and least easily when directed slantingly or directly across the grain. This shows that the structural parts have a peculiarly definite arrangement. Something of this appears when we examine, for example, with a strong magnifier, the surface of a piece of pine wood, cut radially, 7. e., toward the center of the log. We see, as shown in Fig. 229, that the wood is made up mainly of very slender, thin-walled tubes yt) fc] 1) SS » ad aa Fic. 229.—Radial section of white pine wood. Magnified about 50 diame- ters. (Original.) each closed and tapering at the ends; and besides these are numerous flat bundles of much smaller tubes running at right angles to the others and radially. These bundles of finer structure are called pith-rays because they are some- what similar in texture to a cylinder of pith in the center of the log, and some of them at least, are extensions of it. Their relative softness makes the wood most easily separated along the planes in which they lie. Even to the naked eye their peculiar sheen makes the pith-rays apparent on a radial surface, and gives an especially attractive prominence to them in what the dealers call “‘ quarter-sawed ”’ timber. It is plain also that the fibrils, by which name we shall understand WOOD IN GENERAL 251 the closed longitudinal tubes that form the main part of wood, cannot be all just alike for they occur in alternating layers of darker and lighter color. Examination of these layers under the magnifier shows that in the lighter colored layer the tubes are of decidedly larger bore than those form- ing the darker layer. The pale layers of less compact ma- terial are called spring wood, and the more compact layers, summer wood, for reasons that will presently appear. On a tangential surface, that is to say, one cut with the grain but not toward the center of the log, these contrasted layers her 4 VAY { a \F \ Fic. 261.—Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana, Pine Family, Pinacee). Fruiting branch, 3. Leafy tip. (Britton and Brown.)—Tree growing 30 m. tall; bark brownish, shreddy; leaves dull green; flowers yellowish; fruit light blue. Native home, North America. Fic. 262.—Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens, Pine Family, Pinacee). Fruit- ing branch. (Nicholson.)—Tree growing over 100 m. tall; bark reddish brown; leaves mostly scale-like; flowers inconspicuous; fruit brownish. Native home, California. Fic. 263.—Hemlock (T7'suga canadensis, Pine Family, Pinacew). Leafy branch, 3. Staminate flower. Cone. Cone-scale. (Britton and Brown.)—Tree growing over 30 m. tall; bark flaky; leaves dark green above; flowers yellowish; fruit brownish. Native home, Eastern North America. 274 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS the coconut trunk (Fig. 34) is imported for the use of cabinet makers in ornamental work and to some extent for canes. Canes of rather curious appearance are made sometimes also from the mid-rib of the gigantic leaves of the date-palm Ss f aN LAN Mr BEA tC S= ae eo i—*<% f tia. 264.—Tree-cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. acephala, Mustard Family, Crucifere). Plant, zs. (Vilmorin.)—Perennial herb growing 2 m. tall; leaves, etc., as in other forms of cabbage. Native home, Western Europe. (Fig. 108). Another curious walking-stick is made from the stalk of an extraordinarily tall variety of cabbage (Fig. 264). The bamboo (Fig. 224) of which there are many species, has, as is well known, a very wide range of uses among which the most familiar to us are for canes and umbrella handles, fishing- INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 275 Fic. 265.—Bottle-gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris, Gourd Family, Cucurbitacee). Plant in fruit, 7%. Flower. (Vilmorin.)—Annual, climbing by tendrils to a length of 10 m. or more; hairy throughout; flowers white; fruit yellowish or orange, very various in form, sometimes 2 m. long. Native home, Old World Tropics. ———— Fic. 266, I.—Vegetable Ivory (Phytelephas microcarpa, Palm Family, Palmacee). Plants, in flower, a staminate plant in front, and a pistil- late one behind. (Karsten.)—Shrub with short stem sending up leaves 7-8 m. long; fruit dry. Native home, Tropical America. 276 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS rods, articles of furniture, and various ornaments. In tropical and eastern countries where bamboos flourish, the uses to which the light, strong stems are put would require pages to enumerate. The hard parts of certain fruits may be considered also as pseudo-woods, and are sometimes put to minor uses of importance. The hard inner shell of the coconut forms the Fic. 266, 11.—Vegetable Ivory. A, pistillate flower-cluster in bud. B, staminate flower. C, stamen. JD, pollen. Z£, pistillate flower, cut vertically, showing pistil accompanied by rudimentary stamens. F, fruit, cut across. G, seed. (Karsten.) bowl of the familiar coconut dipper. The shells of various gourds (Fig. 265) play a most useful part as vessels for holding liquid or storing food, in the domestic economy of many regions. Finally, may be mentioned the vegetable wory (Fig. 266) which is a seed-food that takes the form of nearly pure cellulose. Large quantities of these seeds are imported and used in place of ivory or bone for umbrella handles, PSEUDO-WOODS 277 knobs, buttons, balls, and various other small articles of turnery. For the most part, pseudo-woods, although sometimes Fic. 267.—Cork Oak (Quercus Suber, Beech Family, Fagacee). A, fruiting branch. B, twig with staminate flower-clusters. C, staminate flower. D, pistillate flower. (Redrawn after Schneider.)—Tree growing 15 m. tall; bark thick and spongy; leaves whitish, hairy beneath; flowers yellowish; fruit brownish. Native home, Southern Europe, and Northern Africa. locally important, are of comparatively small use and need not here be further discussed. 278 - INDUSTRIAL PLANTS © Fie. 268.—Cork Oak. Wedge of trunk cut across to show wood, with strong pith-rays and annual rings, and the thick bark consisting of the outer “virgin cork”’ (light colored) and the inner ‘‘cork mother” (dark colored). (Figuier.) é iE 5 i Fic. 269.—Harvesting Cork. (Figuier.) CORK 279 75. Cork is the light, waterproof, compressible yet elas- - tic material forming the outer bark of the cork oak (Figs. 267- 269). Like true wood it is built up of annual layers formed by a cambium. It differs from wood in having the inner layers the younger, in being non-fibrous, and in containing about 70-80% of a mixture of waxy and tallow-like sub- stances which is known as suberin. Very many plants pro- duce cork in their outer parts, but only the cork oaks form masses sufficiently large to be of economic use. The imperviousness to water, the elasticity, and the firm- ness of cork, upon which its economic value mainly depends, render it in the first place useful to the tree as a protection for the tender inner bark where processes of vital importance are carried on. Since these processes cannot proceed without free access of air the thick cork layer is found to be pierced by numerous breathing channels extending radially to the surface. Besides these channels rifts naturally occur in the outer bark as it is stretched by the increasing bulk of the wood within, and by the new layers of bark. In the young tree the first few layers of cork are compara- tively thick while those formed later are only about 1-2 mm. in thickness and soon become so brittle and so badly cracked as to be unfit for finer uses. Such inferior cork, suitable only for fuel, packing, fish-net floats, rustic work in conserva- tories, and the like, is all the tree ever produces if left undis- turbed. But in cultivation when the trees are from fifteen to twenty years old all of this ‘virgin cork,” as it is called, is cut away, great care being taken not to injure the tender part within known as the “cork mother” because it includes the cambium. The effect of this operation upon the tree is in every way beneficial. Henceforth the cork produced is more abundant, softer, and more homogeneous; the breathing channels are farther apart; and the cracks become far less troublesome. For a century and a half or even longer, at intervals of eight to fifteen years, slabs of fine cork 5-20 cm. thick are peeled from the trunk in the manner illustrated (Fig. 269). The harvesting takes place in summer when the inner bark adheres most firmly to the wood. After being stripped from the tree the slabs of cork are scraped so as to 280 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS clean the outer surface, are then flattened under pressure with the aid of heat, and finally tied in bundles for shipment. | By far the most important use of cork is for stoppers. It is estimated that the daily consumption amounts to twenty million. Cork stoppers are cut either by hand or by ma- chinery. Large flat corks have to be cut so that the channels pass from top to bottom. Such corks require, therefore, the use of some sealing material such as wax, to make them impervious. Smaller corks are cut so that the channels go from side to side and hence are air-tight without sealing. In the cutting, about half the material, or more, becomes waste chips. So valuable are the properties of cork, how- ever, that even in this form it may be utilized in important ways. Thus, pulverized and mixed with rubber or with boiled linseed-oil it forms when spread on canvas a floor cover- ing at once durable and sound-deadening. Coarsely ground cork serves well on account of its softness and elasticity as packing for fruit, especially grapes; and, when glued to paper forms a safe wrapping for bottles in transportation. The same remarkable properties make masses of cork most effective buffers for vessels. In the form of thin sheets it has long been used as a material for insoles and hat linings. The lightness of cork has especially recommended it for artificial limbs, handles, net floats, and life-preservers; while the uni- form texture and the ease with which it may be shaped have made it valuable to model makers and even to turners and carvers. Although cork was kris to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and there is record of its use by them for the soles of shoes ae as stoppers for wine vessels, it has been generally used only within the last few hundred years. 76. Elastic gums, including india-rubber or caoutchouc ! and gutta-percha,? are tough, more or less elastic and water- proof solids which separate as a curd from the milky juice of a number of tropical plants. Small quantities of caoutchouc are present also in many of our native plants having a milky juice, but the amount is ' Pronounced koo’chuk. ? Ch pronounced as in church, - 7 ELASTIC GUMS iad 281 much too small to be of any economic significance. The use of this juice to the plant is not altogether clear; but from the fact that it flows readily from a cut and after a little while hardens upon exposure to the air, the conclusion seems war- ranted that it serves in part at least as a ready means of Fic. 270.—Brazilian Rubber-tree (Hevea guyanensis, Spurge Family, Euphorbiacee). A, flowering branch. . ower-cluster. C, staminate flower. D, same with calyx removed. EE, pistillate flower, with calyx removed. (Berg and Schmidt.)—Tree growing 20 m. tall; leaves thin: flowers inconspicuous; fruit somewhat fleshy. Native home, Brazil. covering wounds promptly with a waterproof protection against agencies of decay. One of the most important American sources of caoutchouc ‘s the Brazilian rubber-tree (Fig. 270). Long before the coming of Europeans the South American Indians made use \ — 282 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS of crude rubber for various articles including water-vessels, shoes, and torches. Similar prehistoric use was made by the Kast Indians of the product they obtained from the india- rubber tree (Fig. 271) which yet remains one of the more important Asiatic sources of this remarkable substance. Simple, primitive methods of obtaining the raw material are still practised very generally by the natives of to-day who in various parts of the world collect the rubber which is ex- Fic. 271.—India Rubber-tree (Ficus elastica, Mulberry Family, Moracee). Tip of branch showing leaves, the youngest unfolding and still partly enwrapped by the protective stipule-case. (Original.)—Tree growing ' 30 m. tall; leaves thick and glossy; flowers similar to those of the fig fee page 102); fruit fig-like, greenish-yellow. Native home, Tropical ported to Europe and America for manufacture. First, ax cuts are made in the bark of a good-sized tree in such a way that the milk which flows from the wounds will run into little cups so placed as to receive it. The collector on his rounds empties the contents of these into a larger vessel which he finally carries to where the milk is to be curdled. The separation of the caoutchouc from the whey-lke part of the milk is accomplished variously; as for example, by mere exposure to the air, or by the addition of water or vari- ous salts; but the best rubber is obtained by the process of smoking as practised in Brazil. Over a smoky fire, made by burning Brazil-nut shells or certain palm seeds, the operator holds the broad end of a clay-covered paddle which has been dipped in the fresh milk, and turns it slowly till an even layer ELASTIC GUMS 283 of the rubbery curd has set. Then he dips the paddle into the creamy liquid again, and repeats the operation till suc- cessive layers form a cake of considerable thickness. The cake is then cut from the paddle, and hung up to dry until firm enough to pack for transportation. Crude rubber comes into the market also in the form of sheets, balls, or masses of various shapes; and is often mixed with a con- siderable quantity of clay, bark, and other impurities. Rubber was first made known to Europe in the report of Columbus’ second voyage, where the statement occurs that the Indians were found playing with elastic balls which bounced better than the “wind balls” of Castile. It was not, however, till after the middle of the 18th century that this elastic material came much into use. For many years it was scarcely more than a curiosity, serving in a practical way for little else than to rub out pencil marks. From this circum- stance it gained the name “rubber” and was ealled “india- rubber”’ because of its importation from the West Indies. Caoutchouc did not come from Asia till much later. As the unique properties of rubber—its unequaled elas- ticity combined with its great imperviousness to moisture— became more fully realized, effort was made to bring it into wide use. Thus, it was manufactured into elastic webbing, overshoes, waterproof garments, and various impervious fabrics. Such goods became popular for a while, but their use was much restricted by the fact that the best rubber ob- tainable was apt to harden and crack in cold weather, and tc soften or grow sticky insummer. Moreover, it was found that unprotected surfaces of pure rubber adhere; and that articles made of it were often worthless after a few months keeping, and were ruined by contact with oils. Much futile effort was expended to remedy these defects. Finally in 1844, Charles Goodyear, an American, announced his discovery that mixing a little sulphur with caoutchouc, and subjecting it to con- siderable heat, produces a substance that is even more elas- tic than pure rubber, is unchanged by any temperature be- tween —20° and +180°C., is less affected by oils or other solvents of the unchanged caoutchouc, does not become adhesive, and keeps well. This process of combining sulphur 284 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS with caoutchouc is called vulcanization. By using much sulphur and a high degree of heat hard rubber or vulcanite is produced. The discovery of vulcanization revolutionized the rubber industry. Not only were the old uses greatly extended but new uses for rubber have so multiplied that caoutchoue now ranks among the most important products of the vegetable kingdom. The elasticity of soft vulcanized rubber makes it invaluable in various articles of dress, for many surgical purposes, for elastic bands, solid or pneumatic tires, for various parts of machines, and for rubber balls, toys, and in- numerable other articles of minor use. Its imperviousness to water and air, combined with its flexibility, render it of greatest service for waterproof garments or coverings, sub- marine diving-dresses, flexible tubes or hose, water-bottles, air-cushions, life-preservers, portable boats, ete. Hard rub- ber takes a high polish and is very resistant to the action of acids and other corrosive fluids. Therefore it makes the best possible material for photographer’s developing trays, certain parts of fountains pens, telephones, surgical instru- ments, etc., while it is a most excellent and inexpensive sub- stitute for horn or shell in such articles as combs and handles. Both vulcanite and the softer vulcanized rubber are exten- sively used for insulation in electric work. Pure rubber on account of its remarkable adhesiveness is an indispensable part of the best surgeon’s plaster, and of the rubber tape used in repairing bicycle tires and in electric wiring. The curious erasing power of rubber, whether pure or vulcanized, is possessed by no other substance to anything like the same degree; hence one of its earliest uses still remains one of the commonest and most important. Caoutchouce as a raw material bears, as we have seen, some- what the same relation to the milky juice of plants that cheese bears to the milk of animals. That is to say, it sepa- rates from the fluid part as curd from whey, and becomes solid by drying. Chemically, however, caoutchouc is quite different from the proteid of which cheese mainly consists. Pure caoutchouc is a hydrocarbon; in other words, it contains only hydrogen and carbon in its composition. Commonly ELASTIC GUMS 285 associated with it are various substances, regarded as im- purities, among which are certain resins. These resins are believed to be derived from the caoutchouc through oxida- tion since they vary considerably in amount and differ chem- ically from the hydrocarbon merely by containing oxygen. Such compounds are appropriately called oxidized hydro- carbons, and are distinguished from carbohydrates by the fact that the oxygen and hydrogen they contain are not in the proportion of H,O. The distinctive characteristic of rubber is its .extreme elasticity. A curious result of this is the heat developed when a piece of it is stretched. Thus a sudden warmth is perceptible when a rubber band is quickly stretched in con- tact with the lip. On account of this property means have to be taken in the manufacture of rubber to prevent over- heating when large masses are vigorously worked. Gutta-percha differs from india-rubber in being very firm and comparatively inelastic at ordinary temperatures, though at about 50°C. it becomes highly elastic and plastic. It re- sembles caoutchouc in flexibility, toughness, poor conduc- tivity of heat and electricity, imperviousness to moisture, insolubility in dilute acids and in alcohol, and solubility in oil of turpentine, chloroform, naphtha, carbon bisulphid, ete. Unlike caoutchouc, however, gutta-percha is unaffected by fixed oils. In chemical composition gutta-percha consists like caout- chouc, of a hydrocarbon similarly associated with resinous substances presumably derived from it by oxidation. Unless well purified soon after being collected the change into resin may go so far as to make the whole mass worthless. Gutta-percha is obtained from several different species of trees all closely related to the taban-tree (Fig. 272) which was the original source. ‘All are confined to the region of Sumatra and Borneo. Owing to the foolish practice of felling the trees to obtain the milky juice, what was for many years the main source of supply is now destroyed. More conserva- tive methods of tapping, similar to those already described for caoutchouc-milk, give a continuous yield for many years. It has been also found that gutta-percha of the finest quality a Ring 286 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS may be extracted from the leaves by using solvents. In separating the solid from the liquid part of the milk obtained by tapping no special means are necessary. A hard “curd” soon forms. After removal of the worst impurities (some- times facilitated by boiling) the raw material is pressed into cakes or lumps and is then ready for export. Fig. 272.—Taban-tree (Palaquium Gutta, Sapodilla Family, Sapotacee). A, flowering twig. B, young fruit. C, flower. D, ripe fruit. JE, F, seed. (Burck.)—Tree 13 m. tall; leaves rusty-hairy beneath; flowers “white; fruit fleshy. Native home, Malaysia. The general use of gutta-percha dates only from about the middle of the 19th century. It was first brought prominently into notice by Dr. W. Montgomerie, an English surgeon stationed at Singapore. He found the natives using this extraordinary material for ax handles, sword hilts, and the like. This suggested to him important uses for it in surgery ows RESINS 287 and various industrial arts; and, thanks to him, manufac- turers soon came to realize that it was better adapted for certain purposes than any other substance. Among the more important or familiar applications of gutta-percha may be mentioned its use as waterproof ma- terial in boot-soles, and as cement for leather, ete., its use for piping, for speaking tubes, various surgical appliances, golf balls, and molded ornaments. Its most important use is as insulating material for electric wires, especially cables. The great Atlantic cables and other submarine or subter- ranean electric lines, upon which modern civilization so much depends, owe their successful operation largely to the gutta-percha used to cover the wires and so protect them and at the same time prevent serious leakage of electricity. 77. Resins, like elastic gums, are derived from liquids exuded by plants, and serve as a protective covering for wounds. The common resin obtained from the pitch or turpentine of pines is a familiar example. More or less fluid at first, owing to the presence of volatile oil, the resinous sap solidifies on exposure to the air, partly through evaporation of the volatile constituent and partly through its oxidation. Finally it may become hard and brittle. In this condition resins resemble various gums. But true gums, as we have seen, are either soluble in water or absorb it indefinitely; while they are insoluble in ether, alcohol, carbon bisulphid, and oils. Resins, on the contrary, are insoluble in water; but are mostly soluble in the other liquids mentioned, at least when hot. Sometimes a gum and a resin are intimately united, forming what is known as a “gum-resin.”’ Such a material is asafetida, which we have already studied. The name “gum” is also applied commercially to gum-resins, and resins, and even to rubbery materials; it is most con- venient, however, to restrict the term as indicated above, except for “elastic gums” from which no confusion is likely to arise. When a considerable amount of volatile oil is asso- ciated with a resin the mixture (commonly of a honey-like consistency as in the turpentine of pines and firs) is distin- guished as an oleoresin. Resins are always mixtures of sev- eral different oxidized hydrocarbons which agree in being 288 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS poor in oxygen and rich in hydrogen and carbon, very in- flammable, and, from their large proportion of carbon, burn- ing with a sooty flame. More or less resinous material is contained in the great majority of plants, and in many cases it is abundant. and valuable for use industrially. Rosin and copal, which are among the most important resins, will serve as typical ex- amples. Rosin is so much the most widely known of resinous ma- terials that it is commonly called ‘‘resin”’ as if it were the only substance to which that name could apply. Chemically it is known as colophony. It is one of the products obtained by distilling turpentine. What is properly called turpentine as already stated is the oleoresin which flows from wounded surfaces of pines and similar cone-bearing trees. When this is distilled the volatile parts that pass over and are con- densed form the familiar oil or spirits of turpentine, while the residue is rosin. The largest quantities are produced in our Southern States. Rosin is used as an ingredient in com- mon varnishes, is combined with tallow in cheap candles, and is extensively used in the making of yellow soap, inferior kinds of sealing-wax, and various cements. In shoemaker’s wax and certain medicinal plasters and ointments it enters as an important part. Musicians depend upon it to rosin the bows of stringed instruments, tin-men and plumbers use It as a flux in soldering, and it serves many other purposes in the industrial world. Its property of generating, when vigorously rubbed, that sort of frictional electricity called “resinous” has led to the use of rosin in certain forms of electric apparatus for experimental purposes. « Copal is aname applied rather indefinitely to a large variety of resins without much in common to distinguish them, but as strictly defined it is understood to include only such as occur naturally in hard masses resembling amber in appear- ance, and like that substance melting and dissolving only at a comparatively high temperature—a process requiring special precautions to prevent the resin and the solvent from catching fire. These resins make the best varnishes, and that is their main use. The botanical origin has long been - INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 289 Fic. 273.—Courbaril-tree and Zanzibar Copal-tree (Hymenea Courbaril, and Trachylobium Hornemannianum, Pulse Family, Leguminosae). A, flowering branch of courbaril-tree. B, pistil and base of flower, cut vertically. C, part of fruit. G, part of flower-cluster of Zanzibar copal-tree. AH, pistil and base of flower, cut vertically. J, fruit. K, seed. LZ, same, cut across. (Taubert.)—Courbaril-tree 16-20 m. tall; leaves smooth; flowers white; pod filled with a sweet, mealy pulp. Native of tropical America.—Zanzibar copal-tree of considerable height; leaves with translucent dots; flowers white; pod leathery, not opening. Native home, Tropical Eastern Africa. 290 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS uncertain, but it is now known that the finest copal of the East is a product of the Zanzibar copal-tree while the best South American copal is from the nearly related courbaril-tree (Fig. 273). The difficulty of tracing the prod- uct to its source arose from the fact that the best copal is dug by the natives out of the earth often in tracts of country from which all plants that could have produced it have dis- appeared. The hard resin, sometimes covered by an ac- cumulation of three or four feet of soil, is all that remains to show the former existence of copal-trees at that place. It isa fossil. The happy accident of finding leaves, flower-buds, and flowers embedded in masses of Zanzibar copal, finally gave the last link in a chain of evidence connecting the resin with the species which produced it. The South American copal is found embedded in the earth at the base of courbaril- trees, and often contains bits of courbaril-bark. When the resin exudes from the tree and solidifies it is still too soft to be of commercial value; only the slow process of time, perhaps centuries, can bring it to that state of almost glassy hardness which renders it indispensable for making the most durable varnish. 78. Coloring matters of some sort are almost universally present throughout the vegetable kingdom. In many cases they can scarcely be supposed to be of any benefit to the plant which produces them but must be regarded as merely waste products of the plant’s activity. This is very com- monly true of the vegetable coloring matters used in the in- dustrial and the fine arts as dyestuffs, pigments, inks, or the like. Such substances have been used from the remotest an- tiquity. In recent times, however, vegetable dyestuffs have come to be very largely replaced by various artificial com- pounds such as the well-known aniline dyes prepared by chemists from coal-tar. From among the vegetable pig- ments and dyestuffs that are still of importance in the arts gamboge, indigo, logwood, lampblack, and tan-bark may be selected as typical and familiar examples. Gambogeis a gum-resin obtained from the Siamese gamboge- tree (Fig. 274) and other Asiatic species of the same genus. The resinous material flows from the bark through cuts, COLORING MATTERS 291 and is collected in hollow joints of bamboo. In these it hardens into cylinders, which, after they are removed for export, are found to bear the marks of the curious receptacle. Gamboge mixes readily with water, and largely dissolves in oils and in alcohol. For this reason as well as for its bright transparent yellow color it is highly valued by artists as a pigment. It is widely used also to impart a golden tinge to’ Fig. 274.—Siamese Gamboge-tree (Garcinia Hanburyi, Gamboge Family, Guttifere). Branch with pistillate flowers and fruit; a, pistillate flower; b, staminate flower; c, stamens; d, pistil surrounded by rudimentary stamens; e, pistil; f, same, cut vertically; g, ovary, cut across. (Baillon, Hanbury.)—Tree about 18 m. tall; leaves glossy; flowers yellowish; fruit cherry-like, reddish brown. Native home, Southern Asia. varnish intended for certain purposes, especially in lacquer for metal work. Indigo has been called the ‘‘ King of Dyestuffs” in recogni- tion of the permanency and strength of its deep blue color, and the supremacy it has maintained over all rivals from the time of its first use in India thousands of years ago even to the present day, although an artificial indigo is now coming into use. Curiously enough the blue coloring matter is not present as such in indigo-plants. It is derived from a sub- 292 _ INDUSTRIAL PLANTS stance called imdican (C.gH3,NO,;) which is extracted by water from the leafy shoots, and, under the influence of an enzym which accompanies it, gives rise to a compound re- sembling glucose and to indigo blue (Cy,H,N.O,). A sub- stance which thus decomposes into a sugar and some other compound is known as a glucoside. Indigo blue is insoluble in water and can therefore be separated along with certain impurities by filtration. The pasty mass retained is dried in cakes to form the indigo of commerce. The insolubility of indigo blue in water presents a peculiar difficulty to its use as a dye, yet at the same time gives it a great advantage when once it is incorporated with a fiber. The difficulty is overcome by taking advantage of the fact that indigo blue may be readily changed (in various ways which increase the proportion of hydrogen) into a colorless substance called indigo white (Cyg.H,2N.2O.2) which is soluble in dilute alkaline solutions and has the fortunate property of quickly changing back to indigo-blue on exposure to the air. The means com- monly employed by dyers to change the indigo-blue is to add indigo to vats containing lime-water in which bran or mo- lasses or some other substance is undergoing fermentation. When the indigo is all transformed and dissolved, a piece of white woolen or cotton soaked in the solution and then exposed to the air soon takes on a permanent blue color. A considerable number of plants have been found to con- tain indican, and several different species are cultivated in India and other warm countries for the manufacture of indigo. Of these plants the most important one is the dyer’s indigo shrub (Fig. 275). Logwood is obtained from a small Central American tree (Fig. 276). It is exported in the form of logs from which the sap-wood has been removed. The coloring matter which it yields, is, like indigo, not present in the living plant but is derived from a colorless glucoside called hematoxylin (Cy,H,,0,) which in turn readily oxidizes to form the deep violet-purple compound known as hematein (C,,Hy20,). It is interesting to observe that this transformation involves the loss of two atoms of hydrogen just as does the change of the white indigo into the blue. Unlike indigo, however, COLORING MATTERS 293 Fic. 275.—Dyer's Indigo Shrub (Indigofera tinctoria, Pulse Family, Le- guminose). Flowering branch; a, flower, enlarged; b, standard (upper- most petal), back view; ¢, wing (side petal), inner view; d, e, keel-petal, inner and outer views; f, flower with corolla removed; g, pistil. h, fruit, natural size; 7, seed; k, same, cut vertically. (Berg and Schmidt.) — Shrub growing 2 m. tall; leaves downy beneath; flowers reddish yellow; fruit dry. Native home, Southern Asia. 294 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS logwood of itself does not make a permanent dye. It requires the use of a mordant, that is to say, some substance such as a salt of iron which fixes the dye upon the fabric. Thus used it makes one of the best blacks for wool or cotton. In com-_ bination with iron, etc., it is used also widely in the manu- facture of writing inks. Lampblack is the finely divided carbon deposited from the smoke of rosin or oil burned with slight access of air in Fic. 276.—Logwood-tree (Hematoxrylon campecheanum, Pulse Family, Leguminose). A, flowering branch. 8B, flower. C, same, cut verti- cally. D, pod. (Taubert.)—Tree about 8 m. tall; leaves smooth; flowers yellow, fragrant; fruit dry. Native home, Tropical America. a special chamber. It is used extensively in the making of printing-ink, and forms the basis of india-ink and of various black pigments used in painting, leather-finishing, and the like. Lampblack is one of the most important of coloring matters. Tan-bark is obtained from many trees, including hem- lock (Fig. 263), oak (Fig. 243), willow (Fig. 228), chestnut (Fig. 24), larch (Fig. 259), and spruce (Fig. 260), which are rich in tannins. These substances, as already explained in sections 57 and 60, are astringents which are present in OILS 295 various parts of many plants, and agree in forming an ink- like product when combined with an iron salt. Though chemically more or less diverse they mostly resemble indican and hematoxylin in being glucosides, and are believed to be usually waste products of the plant producing them. A property of tannins which renders them especially valuable to the dyer is that they are readily absorbed in solution by cotton, linen, and silk, and will then precipitate various dyes within the fiber, thus serving as a mordant. But the chief property which gives industrial importance to plants rich in tannins is the power which these substances have of so combining with animal skins as to render them permanently pliable and resistent of decay. Hence it is that a hide soaked, under proper conditions, in an extract of tan-bark becomes leather. At the same time, the staining powers of the tannin © and associated substances may be taken advantage of to impart a strong color to the product. 79. Oils, whether fixed or volatile, are very generally pres- ent throughout the vegetable kingdom; and, as we have already seen, they are often of much economic importance as food or flavoring, and in medicine. They are of scarcely less value in the industrial arts, immense quantities of dif- ferent vegetable oils being consumed in the manufacture of paints, printing-ink, varnishes, soaps, and perfumery, and as lubricants and illuminants. As vehicles for pigments fixed oils are selected which not only will hold the particles of coloring matter in perfect sus- pension, and so make it easy to spread them evenly over a surface, but which also will harden promptly when thus spread into a film exposed to the air. Oils which harden in this way are called drying oils although the change which takes place depends not upon the evaporation of a volatile solvent, as in the drying of certain varnishes, but upon the absorption of oxygen which changes the oil into a varnish-like substance. Linseed-oil, which is obtained by pressure from the seeds of flax (Fig. 217), is the one most widely used by painters. Its “drying” qualities are much improved by boiling. For use in printing-ink the oil is boiled until it is very thick. Other drying oils which are somewhat superior to linseed-oil are 296 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS poppy-oil, from the seeds of the opium poppy (Fig. 172), and nut-oil, from the kernels of the English walnut (Fig. 27). These being comparatively expensive are reserved for fine painting. Linseed-oil is invaluable also as a solvent for copal and other resins, with which it unites at a high temperature to form the highest class of varnishes. Entirely by itself it is used extensively to give an attractive “‘oil finish” to wood- work. In certain varnishes the volatile oil or spirits of tur- pentine, known commonly to the trade as “turps,” is the solvent used, and is likewise indispensable to painters as a means of thinning their colors. Any of the fixed oils combined with an alkali makes soap. When potash (or lye from wood ashes) is used soft soap is formed; hard soap being made with soda. Chemically the fixed oils are mixtures, in various proportions, of compounds called glycerides. A glyceride is so called because it consists of glycerin (the familiar sweetish substance soluble in water) combined with an acid. Linoleic, oleic, and palmatic acids are among the most important in vegetable oils. The gly- ceride of linoleic acid, called linolein, forms 80% of linseed- oil, and gives to this and to other drying oils their peculiar power of hardening by oxidation. Olein, the glyceride of oleic acid, is the main constituent of olive-oil. It is liquid at ordinary temperatures and becomes rancid by oxidation. Palmatic acid forms a glyceride, palmatin, which is not liquid at ordinary temperatures. It is the main solid constituent of coconut and other palm-oils. When any fixed oil is mixed with an alkali, the glycerides present are decomposed each into its peculiar acid and glycerin, and the acids unite with the alkali to form soap, leaving the glycerin free. Inferior grades of linseed oil and other cheap oils are used for soft-soap. Oil from the olive (Fig. 113) is used extensively for castile, and other fine toilet soaps. Other hard soaps of various grades are made from “‘ cocoa-butter ”’ (see section 39), and oils from coconut (Fig. 36), cotton-seed (Fig. 215), peanut (Fig. 32), and almond (Fig. 31). To give an agreeable odor to soap a large variety of volatile oils are introduced during the process of preparing the product FUEL 297 for market. The oils of wintergreen (Fig. 147), marjoram (Fig. 137), coriander (Fig. 143), thyme (Fig. 134), caraway (Fig. 140), and many others are thus used to a greater or less extent. These same volatile oils enter also into the manufacture of perfumery; and for this purpose many other volatile oils are more or less in demand, as, for example, the oils of nutmeg (Fig. 129), allspice (Fig. 123), sassafras (Fig. 160), peppermint (Fig. 146), spearmint (Fig. 135), orange-peel and orange- flowers (Fig. 106), and the oil distilled from the wood of red cedar (Fig. 261). It is to the fragrant oil obtained from the bark of white birch (Fig. 254) that the characteristic odor of Russia leather is due. None but fixed oils can serve as lubricants; and of these, only the non-drying ones are suitable. The vegetable lubri- cants most extensively employed are (1) olive-oil, used for this purpose mostly in southern European countries where a sufficiently good quality may be obtained at a low price, (2) rape-oil from the seed of a variety of turnip grown widely in northern Europe and India, and (3) cotton-seed oil used largely in this country. As illuminants vegetable oils have not to-day the impor- tance they had before the introduction of petroleum lamp-oil and paraffin candles. Nevertheless, large quantities of vegetable illuminants are still consumed, especially in regions where mineral or animal oils are comparatively expensive. Almost all the fixed oils in common use for other purposes have served for burning, but the non-drying oils are pref- erable. Olive, peanut, and rape oils, which are all rich in olein, are among the best. Palmatin, as we have seen, is an important constituent of coconut-oil. This substance sepa- rated from the more fluid parts of the coconut-oil and other palm-oils affords an excellent material for candles. 80. Fuel, whether as a source of heat or of power, being indispensable to the carrying on of almost every industry, and being also a necessity for steam-transportation, for the heating of buildings, and for cooking, it is plain that civiliza- tion could not have developed as it has, nor could it possibly go on, without this source of heat. 298 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS Anything which burns readily in the air will serve as fuel; and, indeed, various sorts of refuse are thus utilized: for ex- ample, wheat straw is made to run steam threshing-machines, and the crushed stalks of sugar-cane are used in the boiling of the juice. But, in general, wood, peat, and coal, and their products, charcoal, coke, and illuminating gas, are the fuels most extensively used. Wood is the most used of all fuels. All woods when per- fectly dry consist of nearly 99% of combustible material and about 1% of inorganic matter which remains as ash when the wood is burned. Air-dry wood contains about 25% of water, and in green wood it may be as much as 50%. This water reduces the fuel value not only as taking the place of combustible substances but also as using up the heat necessary for its evaporation. Hence the economy of well- seasoned fire-wood. The value of different fuels may be conveniently compared when stated in terms of the amount of water which a unit weight will evaporate. Thus, green wood is found to yield enough heat to convert about twice its weight of water at 100 C. into steam; air-dry wood about three and a half times; and perfectly dry wood over four times its own weight. So far as chemical composition is concerned soft woods should yield on burning about the same amount of heat as hard woods of equal dryness. In practice, how- ever, considerable differences are found, depending in part upon the ease with which complete combustion may take place, as shown by the amount of smoke, and in part upon compactness of structure, and so forth. Wood as being a flaming fuel is especially well adapted for heating surfaces of large extent, as in the boilers of steam-engines. The small amount and the soft crumbly nature of its ash give wood a further advantage over peat and coal. Peat consists of the more or less carbonized and compacted deposits of vegetable substances which accumulate in bogs and marshes, and, in the presence of water, slowly decompose. Peat-bogs form chiefly in northern countries. Near the sur- face they consist largely of moss like that shown in Fig. 227 with which, however, a number of other plants are found growing. In the deeper layers that have been buried for a 299 FUEL " ‘quody oy} vou yuRq FYSII oy} UO [IeIy (wnyofrauna wnphydouaydy) syur[d ,, JBo[-ospom,, (‘91u0}0q) ‘(stuajdowp py) SULA} SUIQUIT[O 918 OSBY} IBOU ‘ (WOLpUapo)/)) SIBOS {(sapwppi0,)) SULIOdSOUWIAS POA] IOIB'T 'G oBdIv] Y}IM ouo [eormpur[Ao B pue ‘(woipuapobursig)) YUNA} 0781jS801d Teplouod B ‘(DILy7/LHIG1) }0919 OM} ,,’SOSSOUT -qnp,, 19430 “p “(woLpuapopida’y) ,, ‘(uopiydoba py) uns} UOJ opeASOId B SITY} MOTO ¢ (Stla7douaydy) ULoj SuIquljo B (s1uajdovaq) ULdJ-901} B ay} JO o]pprur oy} Sutinp dures. & SsOUI-qnyjo,, JUBID YE ‘(SNsOwWDs SazLULY]DD) ,,YSNA BULINODS,, JUBID V *Z ‘VYSIL OY} 0} £SZOOI-99BIqQ [FIM ‘7 ‘oBeB sivad QOOO'OOO'OF JNOG* ‘ATYSnod ATOA ‘aq 0} paAdAdolfod ,, pOlMog SNOIofIuoqIey),, UI SUIMOIS porvodde savy 0} posoddns ore AoY} SV S}PUBTY [VOD—' 11% ive Meee ‘DIY 300 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS long period of time, the material is so transformed as to be like a soft, brown coal. In regions where wood is scarce peat is highly valued as a fuel. It is commonly more bulky than wood, and has from 5 to 15 times as much ash. Its heating power is about the same. Coal, like peat, consists of the decomposed and compacted remains of plants. It differs from peat principally in being harder and more completely reduced to carbon. But peat passes into coal by insensible gradations so that none but an arbitrary line can separate them. The coal with which we are most familiar may be regarded as a peat-like material of very great antiquity,—so ancient that the plants from which it was formed have been extinct for many ages. Some idea of the appearance of certain of these coal plants may be gained from Figs. 277,278. In comparison with wood and peat as a fuel, coal has the advantage of possessing greater com- pactness and more power of heating. It will convert into steam about 7 to 9 times its own weight of water. The most objectionable features of coal are its large amount of troublesome ash, which often interferes with good combus- tion, and its offensive smoke, which is excessive from soft coal. Charcoal burns without flame or smoke, and has over twice the heating power of wood, or as much as the average coal. It is produced mostly by smothered combustion of billets of wood, commonly arranged in conical piles, and coy- ered with earth. When wood is subjected to dry distillation creosote, wood-alcohol, and other volatile compounds pass into. the condenser, leaving charcoal in the retort. The charcoal produced at the highest temperature yields most heat when burned, and is therefore of most use in metallurgy; that produced at as low a temperature as possible is the most inflammable and thus the most suitable for mixing with niter and sulphur to make gunpowder. Coke bears somewhat the same relation to coal that char- coal does to wood. It is similarly obtained by smothered combustion in covered piles, or by heating in special ovens or retorts. Like charcoal it is nearly pure carbon, and is used extensively in metallurgy and for other purposes where a 301 FUEL Is Manu- t Now i It was originally a by-product the manufacture of illuminating gas. factured expressly for metallurgical purposes, the ovens being so constructed that the inflammable gases driven off smokeless fuel is required. in are made to serve largely as a source of heat in the process. PAN \\\ vi My sn cale- go ) illon ron sp (Ba iod (Lepidodend Ss s om the coal per -mo Fr giant club a of tree Family, Lepidodendracee) Fic. 278.—Fossil remains g coal or wood to a igh temperature in a retort, and collecting and purifying the ubjectin Q » ff. For obvious reasons coal-gas has proved to be a most convenient fuel especially adapted for household use Illuminating-gas is made by gas given o large cities. The study of fuels leads one to th in not only of the forests ink 302 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS of to-day and of bog-plants that lived perhaps hundreds of years ago, but in imagination one is led back to strange forests. which disappeared from the earth many thousands of years ago and became turned to stone. Therefore, if we ask ourselves, Whence comes this material that men burn to get heat and power? the answer is, From the bodies of plants, some of which lived ages before the coming of mankind. And if we further ask, Whence comes the energy which all these plants have stored in their bodies, and left for us to set free? students of nature tell us, From the sun. That is to say, plants with foliage are the sunbeam-traps of our planet, and except for their marvelous ability to lock the energy of sunshine into the material of food and fuel, the life of the world as we know it would be impossible. How plants are able thus to store up sunshine, and why they do it, are questions to be answered only by the study of their processes of life. 81. Useful and harmful plants in general. From our study of some of the more important groups of economic plants we have learned not only that the very existence of the human race depends upon the vegetable kingdom but also that the progress of humanity at every stage has been profoundly influenced by the properties of plants and by man’s knowledge of them. The needs of primitive man must have been met largely by wild plants. Through the cultiva- tion of plants, as we have seen, civilizations were developed in those regions where the most useful plants grew most abundantly. The desire for spices and similar luxuries led to the discovery of America. The vegetable products of the New World are now revolutionizing human life to the re- motest ends of the earth. Our brief study of vegetable foods, food-adjuncts, medi- cines, and raw products has shown that what we take from plants for our own use has often a similar use for the plants themselves, though sometimes the use is quite different; and in some cases, so far as we can see, the product is of no use whatever in the plant’s economy. In other cases it has been found that substances poisonous to us are also poisonous - to the plants which produce them, just as the venom of cer- USEFUL AND HARMFUL PLANTS 303 tain animals may be fatal to themselves. Since, however, some of these plant poisons are among the most valuable of medicines, it is plain that no dividing line exists between harmful and useful plants. - Judged in its relation to our welfare the same plant may be either useful or harmful according to what we do with it. Obviously, the more we know about their properties the less likely are we to suffer harm from plants, and the more likely are we to benefit by them. The student should understand clearly that in this book the aim is only to introduce beginners to the study of plants. Our purpose is merely to lay a good foundation for future studies which shall further advance general culture. There has been no intention of giving here a complete outline of — economic botany. Accordingly, a great many plants of high economic importance have not been mentioned; and some of the chief uses of plants, and some of the most serious ways of their working harm, have been passed over with bare mention, or have been ignored. Thus, in regard to the food of domestic animals but little has been said of the fod- der raised for them, and nothing at all of pasture plants upon which some of the principal industries of the world depend. The many plants which afford bees the material for making honey and wax, and those which serve as food for silkworms or other insects of economic value have also been neglected. So also have we omitted reference to the plants which do great service in binding shifting sands that but for these sand-binders would devastate extensive areas: to those plants similarly used to prevent the washing away of soils; to trees set out as wind-breaks for protecting tender vegetation, as drainers of swamp land, or for shade and beauty; and to the innumerable flowers and foliage plants cultivated or collected for ornament. Likewise, among harmful plants neither. weeds nor destructive parasites have been included. Not only has our study gale ee these groups of plants which especially affect the welfare of mankind but it has been forced to leave out of account some most extensive in- fluences which vitally concern animals in general. For ex- 304 USEFUL AND HARMFUL PLANTS ample, there is the influence of forests upon water-supply, by which is meant their action as reservoirs feeding the streams gradually in spring, thereby avoiding floods, and at the same time keeping back plenty for the dry season. Then, too, there is the important action of plants in soil- making, and the purifying influence of vegetation upon air and water whereby they are made to serve better the needs of animal life. All these various relations of plants to the life of the world, and to our own lives in particular, are as profitable and attractive matters of study as any that have claimed our attention; and the student will do well to learn all he can — regarding them. It should be said, however, that many of these relations are best understood in the light of vegetable biology. Moreover, the student’s pursuit of economic botany cannot well proceed much farther than we have here at- tempted to go, without his first acquiring such an elementary knowledge of systematic botany as the following chapters may help him to gain. CHAPTER VII CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION 82. Systematic classification. In Chapter I it was pointed out that the large number of plants which botanists have to study has made necessary some sort of classification or orderly arrangement into groups within groups. Plainly, one of the chief requirements of such an arrangement is that it shall bring nearest together those forms which are most alike, while it separates proportionately those which differ more or less from one another. Hence, in general, the most useful classification is that which indicates most truly the degrees of difference and resemblance by its manner of grouping the objects classified. To construct a classification of plants which shall meet this important condition as fully as possible has long been one of the chief tasks of the science of botany. Indeed, so important has the solution of this great problem seemed to botanists that until comparatively recent times it has en- gaged their attention almost exclusively. From their labors has at last resulted a classification which, although still incomplete in certain parts, is yet wonderfully adequate in its main features; and whether we consider the vastness of the undertaking or the success already attained, we must recognize it as one of the greatest achievements of the human mind. By its means to-day the student is enabled to gain a wider and deeper knowledge of the world of plants than was ever possible to the most learned botanist of former times. In the remaining chapters one of our chief aims will be to advance toward a general idea of modern systematic botany. Thus far in our study of useful plants, it has been most helpful to arrange them according to their uses; and it was sufficient for our purpose to mention merely incidentally 305 306 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION the family or other group to which botanists assigned each plant under consideration, leaving the resemblances and differences thus indicated to be realized more or less vaguely by the student. What was then vague we shall strive now to make more definite, and the student may be assured that very much of what he has been learning about economic plants will prove of service in the present study. 83. Early attempts at classifying. Perhaps the reader may ask why it is not sufficient for all purposes of study to classify plants according to their uses, somewhat as we have been do- ing. Such a method of classification was indeed employed by some of the earlier writers upon plants; and this was quite natural, since, as we have seen, they were concerned chiefly with plants in their relation to human welfare. But granting that every plant may be of some use (even though not yet discovered) we know that many are useful in more ways _ than one. Consequently, any classification according to uses would often have to include the same plant in several different groups. Moreover, the great majority of plants are not put to any special use, and affect our welfare only in the same general way as do the economic ones apart from their special uses. Hence, any attempt to classify all plants ac- cording to use would require us to have besides the economic groups, one general group that would include all plants; and in the subdivision of this group we should be face to face with the original problem. One of the earliest attempts to avoid this difficulty was a division into herbs, shrubs, and trees. This grouping accord- ing to size and general appearance was a step in the right direction, and for certain purposes is found to be a serviceable arrangement even to-day. Yet, aside from the objection that when applied to all known plants each group includes an enormous number of sorts, there is the further disadvan- tage that such a classification requires one to place in differ- ent groups plants which resemble one another more closely than they do any others of the group in which they are placed. Thus, for example, certain oaks which are nothing but shrubs would on that account be separated from all the other oaks which are trees; the same is true of willows and of many ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS 307 other genera that might be mentioned. Crude as this ar- rangement was, it afforded for many generations the best general classification of plants that anyone had to offer; and it was not until after the revival of learning in Europe, dur- ing the sixteenth century, that any important efforts were made to find a better way. 84. Artificial systems. An attempt was made to over- come the above objection regarding unnatural separation of sorts much alike, by calling the larger shrubs, trees, and the smaller ones, herbs, thus doing away altogether with the intermediate division. This, of course, lessened the difficulty in a way, but can hardly be said to have removed it. To make smaller groups, these two were again subdivided according to differences observed in this or that part. Thus, some writers made subdivisions according to the shape or arrangement of the leaves; others according to the form of the fruit or seeds; others still, according to peculiarities of some part of the flower; and so on, each writer basing his system upon characters taken from one or two parts. Many attempts of this sort were made during the next two centuries. Some of these systems were decided improvements over the earlier classification, but even the most elaborate of them had the same fundamental weakness already pointed out in the arrangement according to size. We know that plants which differ a good deal as regards a single part may be very much alike in all other respects, while plants much alike in a certain part may be otherwise very different from one another. For example, the fruits of the almond and the peach differ much in appearance when ripe, but otherwise ' an almond-tree and a peach-tree are almost exactly alike. On the other hand, the root of the beet and of the turnip are often of exactly the same shape, while the plants are strik- ingly different in all other respects. It is plain, therefore, that any arrangement of plants based upon a single character or very limited set of peculiarities, is bound to be unsatis- factory, because it cannot accomplish the chief purpose of a classification, namely, to group nearest together the sorts that are most alike. In a word, these systems failed chiefly because they are artificial, and so not well calculated to ex- 308 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION press the resemblances and differences among plants as we find them in nature. On the whole, as we have said, these artificial systems served to advance botanical knowledge; although after a while the increasing number of them became a serious burden to all who studied plants. Any system, it was thought, if only used by all, would be much better than having to use so many. At last a practical way out of the increasing confusion was found by the clear-sighted Linnzeus who came to the rescue much as he had done in the matter of plant names. 85. The Linnzan system. The great need for some system which would be used by botanists in general, could, of course, be met only by a classification that was more convenient than any of those already proposed. Linnzeus was the first to see clearly that the necessary convenience could not be expected in his day from any attempt at a natural arrange- ment, for the plants to be arranged were as yet very im- perfectly known. His predecessors had tried to produce a natural classification on an artificial basis, with results that were neither natural nor convenient. He aimed first of all at convenience, and to this end adopted a frankly artificial basis; yet in spite of this, as we shall see, his system proved to be more natural in many ways than any previously pro-- posed. In the Linnean system, the old division into herbs and trees was entirely abandoned; all plants were divided into twenty-four ‘classes,’ according to the presence, number, or form of certain essential parts (pistils) of the flower; and these classes were so grouped that all flowering plants were separated from those which have no true flowers. The latter constituted Class 24, Cryptogamia‘ or cryptogams, which includes all plants such as seaweeds, mushrooms, mosses, and ferns, that are either destitute of parts such as we find in flowers, or if anything corresponding to such parts are present they are hidden from our unaided sight. The other twenty-three classes include all plants in which floral parts essential to the formation of seed, are manifest,—such 1 Cryp-to-ga’-mia < Gr. kyryptos, hidden. THE LINNAAN SYSTEM 309 plants as are now often known as Phenogamia 1 or phenogams. Each class was again divided into several ‘‘orders”’ mostly according to the number, etc., of the other essential organs (stamens) of the flower. Under these orders Linnzeus grouped all the genera and species of plants known in his day. The distinctions upon which Linnzus depended were so easy to understand and remember, and afforded such a con- venient means of classifying any plant, that the system soon gained an immense popularity, especially in England, and led to a widespread study of plants. Moreover, in his time, explorations in various parts of the world were bringing to light a great many kinds of plants and animals, previously unknown; and as Linnzus had also published a convenient classification of animals, most of those new discoveries were sent to him to name and classify. On the foundations so broadly laid systematic botany progressed much more rapidly and better than ever before, and during more than half a century the system of Linnzeus remained practically the only one in use. We have said that although deliberately artificial, the Linnzan system was remarkably natural in many respects. This is shown in the separation of the cryptogamic from the phenogamic plants; also in the fact that the species of a genus were always kept together, and in the association of many of the genera into orders corresponding to certain of the families recognized to-day. To understand why this is, we must remember that plants which resemble each other in one particular have very gen- erally other points of resemblance as well; hence, almost any artificial system is bound to be natural to some extent, and to what extent will depend on how far the characters chosen imply other points.of resemblance. The reason why the Linnzan system was so natural, was that its founder had the sagacity to choose his characters primarily from the essential parts of the flower; for likeness in these parts in- volves a great deal of similarity in other respects. Thus, the 1 Phe-no-ga/-mi-a (written also Phenogamia and Phanerogamia) < Gr. phaino, to be manifest; gamos, marriage: because the floral organs essential to the production of seed are manifest. * 310 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION possession of true flowers implies the formation of seeds, and this in turn generally involves an elaborateness of struc- ture in the plant as a whole far greater than is found in cryptogamic plants, which, as we know, lack true flowers and seeds; while among flowering plants it constantly hap- pens (as the reader has doubtlessly already noticed in such familiar examples as the apple, pear, and quince) that close resemblance in the form of the seed-producing parts of the flower goes with fundamental similarity in all other parts of the plant. With all these advantages it is no wonder that this re- markable system should have exerted the wide influence which it did; but after all it was too artificial to serve per- manently as a final solution of the great problem of sys- tematic botany. Thus, for example, the group with two stamens and one pistil includes such widely different plants as olive and sage, while sage is kept far removed from other mints because they have four stamens. No one realized more fully than Linnzeus that his system was at best but a make- shift, fit only to serve the temporary needs of the science until botanists should be more extensively and more thor- oughly acquainted with plants than would be possible for many years to come; and he regarded his work only as a stepping-stone to the final achievement of an adequate clas- sification. 86. The natural system. As a contribution to the nat- ural system which he firmly believed would be developed in course of time, Linnzeus published a series of sixty-seven groups of genera which he called ‘‘natural orders.’’ He con- fessed his inability to define these groups by giving characters which would apply to all the genera of an order, and at the same time serve to separate the orders one from another; and left it for future botanists to discover how far the groups he had suggested really express the fundamental resem- blances and differences found in nature. The fuller knowl- edge of later times has largely justified a good share of these groupings; not a few of Linnzus’ natural orders are substantially equivalent to families recognized to-day, and have a place in modern classification often under the THE NATURAL SYSTEM 311 same or similar names. As examples may be mentioned the Palme or palms, Gramina or grasses, Orchidee or or- chids, Composite or composites, Conifere or conifers, and Filices or ferns. During the life-time of Linnzus, the only other important attempt at a natural classification was made by Bernard de Jussieu, of France, who was a correspondent of Linnzus, and was in charge of the royal botanic garden at Trianon. Here he grouped the plants as far as he could in natural orders, but he published nothing. In 1789, two years after the death of Linnzeus, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, nephew of Bernard, published a classification of genera under natural orders, one hundred in number. These were carefully de- fined by suitable characters, and thus constituted the first thoroughgoing attempt at a natural system. Not only were the genera grouped into well-defined orders, but the attempt was made to group the orders into higher and higher series, expressive of their degrees of likeness. On the foundation thus laid over a century ago the natural system now in general use has been slowly developing; the work of improvement is still going on, and more rapidly than ever before. Eventually the science of botany may . boast of a systematic classification founded upon, and, in a way, expressing, a full knowledge of vegetable forms. Yet, as we shall hope to show in a future chapter, there are good reasons for believing that such an ideal classification will embody in very large part the distinctions at present recog- nized, or in other words, that the main features of a truly natural system are fairly well established. The next genera- tion of botanists will doubtless have the advantage of a far better classification, especially of cryptogams, than that in use to-day; but we may well believe that their classification will be essentially the same in general principle and in its main features as that now used. To develop the present system has been a gigantic task, beset with many difficulties; and before we can rightly understand the outcome of all this botanical labor, we must consider still further the diff- culties overcome. Until we have mastered certain of these ourselves we are not fitted either to appreciate or to use to 312 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION best advantage the important results which botanists have achieved in systematic classification. 87. Technical description. One of the most serious diffi- culties with which the earlier botanists had to contend was the problem of giving one another a clear idea of what each had seen. It is plain that so long as they failed in this, their discoveries were of little consequence. At first sight it may seem a simple matter enough to tell what one sees, and be- ginners often wonder why botanists use so many peculiar words in their descriptions. ‘‘ What is the reason,” they ask, ‘that ordinary English is not sufficient for the purpose?” If the reader has ever attempted to use “ordinary English” in the way proposed, he will realize that it is far from easy to give a clear account of the peculiarities of a plant in that way. The result is much as when a landsman ignorant of nautical terms tries to describe the features of a vessel so that it may be recognized. Success may not be impossible, but such a method of going to work is at its best clumsy, roundabout, and misleading. It was largely because the early botanists had nothing better to use than the ordinary language of their day, that it often proved impossible for others to tell what the plants were that they had tried to describe. But little progress towards a satisfactory classification of plants could be expected as long as descriptions were so vague and incom- plete as to be largely unintelligible. Since an ideal botanical classification represents, as we have seen, the expression of all the resemblances and differ- ences among plants, its attainment must involve the use of words especially fitted to express unmistakably all the pe- culiarities that may be observed. Each part must have a special name, and the innumerable forms and features of each part must be indicated by simple words or phrases. Ordinary language has not’ been developed to serve any such botanical purposes any more than it has to serve similar nautical needs; hence, botanists have been forced to make a language of their own consisting largely of technical terms. 88. Early attempts at describing. Before the time of Linneus, the attempt was made by many botanical writers to avoid the language difficulty by the use of pictures to LINN AN REFORM IN TERMINOLOGY © 313 show what they meant, much as we have done in the fore- going chapters. A good picture is certainly to be preferred to a description that is not understood; but a little thought will show that pictures, however good they may be, cannot solve the whole difficulty. We cannot make a picture of a species, but merely of a single individual; and our conception of a species must be our idea of the features which all its individuals have in common. A number of pictures of dif- ferent individuals might convey more of this idea, but even then peculiarities perceptible only by touch, taste, or smell could be indicated only by words. Moreover, even features that may be represented in a picture generally need the help of words to point out what especially calls for attention; and when species are compared and classified one arrives at important general ideas which cannot be pictorially expressed. Add to these shortcomings the greater labor and expense involved in publishing pictures, and it becomes evident that verbal means are needed. For centuries, as we know, all learned works were written in Latin; consequently, it was from this language that the botanical terms were primarily taken. These were often common words to which a meaning was attached differing from the ordinary one, more or less, in its application; or, sometimes new words had to be coined and this was fre- quently done by latinizing words or combinations of words taken from the Greek. As with the early attempts at forming systems of classi- fication, so in the development of a botanical terminology or technical vocabulary, different writers went about the matter in different ways; and such independence of action naturally led in this case also to a good deal of confusion. From this embarrassment of riches, which threatened to be a serious hindrance to further progress, Linneus, again, found the best means of practical relief, just as he did in the matter of classification and nomenclature. 89. The Linnzan reform in terminology. Being thoroughly © familiar with the botanical writings of his predecessors, and endowed with a fine sense of fitness in language, Linnzeus was able to choose the best terms which had come into use, 314 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION define them in a convenient way, and add others so far as necessary. The publication of this carefully prepared vo- cabulary gave the necessary material for making botanical description henceforward an art, while in his systematic writings Linnzeus left examples of the art, well calculated to’ serve as models of excellence. In describing a plant his ideal was to state all that was necessary and nothing that was unnecessary to distinguish it from all other plants. Since the time of Linnzus, botanical terminology has been enriched and improved in various ways to meet the needs which have arisen with wider knowledge; but the art of describing plants still remains very largely what its first great master made it. Pictures are no longer deemed neces- sary to make up for vagueness of description; when it is possible to use them, their scientific value is much increased because what they lack may be supplied in words, and the significance of what is represented can be made plain. In- deed, to one familiar with the terms used, a complete bo- tanical description calls up so clear a mental picture of each part described, that a drawing sufficiently accurate for recog- nition might often be made even though no specimen of the plant had ever been seen. Surely this is a triumph such as ordinary language has never attained. . 90. Terminology and nomenclature. Persons who have only a superficial acquaintance with botany are apt to think of it merely as a study of names, which hinder rather than help one in learning whatever botanists may know of general interest about plants. Doubtless the student of the fore- going chapters already feels that this is far from true; yet this false opinion conceals a truth which it will be worth while for us to consider. Special names and descriptive expressions of various sorts do occupy a prominent place in the scientific study of plants, and these botanical technicalities doubtless present a more formidable appearance than the special terms of most other sciences. Yet, paradoxical as it may seem, the very fact that botanists use these means of expressing themselves, makes it much easier for a beginner to arrive at an under- standing of what they have to say, and so to a knowledge of - TERMINOLOGY AND NOMENCLATURE © 315 plants, than would otherwise be possible. The unusual fullness of their special vocabulary enables botanists to tell what they know in the fewest possible words and with least danger of being misunderstood. False ideas are the greatest hindrance to the pursuit of knowledge; and whatever will lessen the danger of these, especially to the beginner, is sure to save labor in the end. We have already seen (page 4) that the practice of hav- ing a double name for each species, instead of giving twice as much to remember as if the name of each sort were a single word, almost halves the burden upon one’s memory that one-word names would impose. The ease with which words are remembered depends, as we know, largely upon how frequently the word is encountered; hence, the student is helped not a little by the circumstance that a large majority of specific names are the very words from which the descrip- tive terms in common use have been derived. Further- more, these descriptive terms, as well as the names of the parts of plants and of genera and other groups, are in large part made up of a comparatively small number of Latin and Greek words, which once learned serve as helpful aids to the memory, and, indeed, often enable the student to tell at sight the meaning of a new botanical word. In our study of systematic botany we shall learn the more important descriptive terms as we need them in de- veloping a general idea of the natural classification of plants. The student will learn how to distinguish some of the more important families and higher groups, so that when he ex- amines a plant he can tell at least the sub-kingdom to which it belongs, usually also the class, sometimes the order, often the family, and in certain cases even the genus and species. At first we shall confine our study to those plants which produce flowers and seeds, leaving for later consideration the groups including ferns, mosses, lichens, mushrooms, and sea- weeds. CHAPTER VIII THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT 91. Flax asatype. De Candolle, one of the most learned of French botanists, was wont to say that he could teach all he knew of botany from a handful of plants. What he had in mind was doubtless the great truth that among the resemblances of plants to one another there are some of such fundamental importance that it becomes possible to discern amid the endless variety of forms a few plans of structure upon which all plants are built. His handful of specimens would have been so chosen that each might exhibit especially well the features common to many kinds, and thus serve at once as a convenient standard of comparison and as a means of teaching truths of very wide application. A form which in this way is representative or typical of any group, natural- ists call a type. Flax (Figs. 217 I, II) will serve well as our type of phen- ogams or seed-plants because it possesses all the parts which they commonly show, and exhibits them in comparatively unmodified condition. Like all true flowering plants it pro- duces seeds. 92. The seed may be compared roughly to an egg. Much as in a hen’s egg, for example, we have the shell covering a mass of food material provided for the chick or germ which lies within it, so in the seed (Fig. 279A) we find a protective seed-coat (c) enclosing seed-food (f) and a germ or embryo ' (e). Much of the food provided for the flax embryo is already stored within the little plant itself; what remains to be ab- sorbed has been likened to the white of egg and is called the albumen ? of the seed. The embryo within the seed is found 1 Em/bry-o < Gr. embryon, germ. 2 Al-bu’/men < L. albus, white. 316 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT 317 upon careful examination to be already a miniature plant, for it has a stem (s) bearing at its lower end the beginning of a root (r) which becomes apparent when the seed sprouts; while at the upper end of the stem are borne a pair of fleshy leaves (1) which after sprouting turn green, and between them a tiny bud (b) which is destined to grow into the stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit of the mature plant. Each of these parts of the embryo has been given a special name. The little stem which bears all the other parts is the cauwlicle.1 Each of the first leaves is a cotyledon.2, The bud at the top of the caulicle is known as the pluwmule,? while the rudimen- tary root at the lower end is called the radicle.4 93. The seedling and its development. When the seed germinates, the radicle is the first part to appear (Fig. 279B). Soon it grows into a root (Fig. 279C) covered with hairs through which absorption of soil-water takes place. Mean- while the cotyledons have been feeding upon the albumen to get material for their growth and for the elongation of the caulicle and root; and when finally this reserve food is ex- hausted, the empty seed-coat is cast off, the cotyledons become green and expand in the sunlight (Fig. 279D), and the plumule develops into a leafy shoot (Fig. 279E). As the root pene- trates downwards into the soil it sends forth branches in various directions (Fig. 2171). At the same time the leafy shoot grows upward developing stem and leaves by the con- tinual unfolding of a bud at its tip which began as the plumule (Fig. 279F). The place at which a leaf joins the stem is called a node,’ and the length of stem between two nodes, an internode.® 1 Caul’i-cle < L. cauliculus, diminutive of caulis, stalk << Gr. kaulos, stalk. 2 Cot-y-le’don < Gr. kotyle, a shallow cup, which some cotyledons are supposed to resemble. 3 Plum’ule < L. plumula, a little plume, which the plumule of certain plants, such as the peanut or almond, somewhat resemble. 4 Rad’i-cle < L. radiculus, diminutive of radix, a root. The term radicle is sometimes used so as to include the caulicle, and caulicle is sometimes made to include the radicle as above defined; but the terms are coming to be understood in the sense here adopted. ° Node < L. nodus, a knot, the joint being likened to a knot in a cord. 6 In-’ter-node < L. inter, between. 318 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT Fic. 279.—Flax Germination. A, seed, cut vertically to shoe the seed- coat (c), seed-food (f), embryo (e), with its seed-leaves (1), seed-bud (b), seed-stem (s) and seed-root (r). B, seed beginning to sprout; the seed- PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVISION OF LABOR 319 After a while new buds appear on the sides of the stem at points just above the nodes (Fig. 280), that is to say, in the azil' or upper angle between leaf and stem; and these buds as they expand become lateral branches, which in turn may branch similarly. Finally, some of these buds, instead of producing more foliage, develop flowers (Fig. 2171). 94. The flower and the fruit. In the center of the flower (Fig. 21711) we find a pistil 2 containing ovules * within an ovary *from the top of which grow five styles * each terminat- ing in a stigma. Around the pistil are five stamens,’ each producing pollen * within an anther® borne on a slender filament.1° Enveloping the stamens are five petals ' and five sepals.12 Pollen falling upon the stigmas, brings about the development of the ovules into seeds while the ovary ripens into a fruit. Pistils and stamens thus being essential to the production of seed are called the essential organs of the flower, while the petals and sepals, more or less enveloping them, are called the floral envelops or perianth.* 95. Physiological division of labor. Even such a cursory examination as we have made of our typical plant is sufficient 1 Ax’-il < L. azilla, arm-pit. 2 Pis’-til < L. pistillum, a pestle, such as apothecaries use for pound- ing drugs in a mortar, pistils often resembling pestles more or less in form. 3 O’-vule < L. ovulum, diminutive of ovwm, an egg. 4 Ov’-ar-y < L. ova, plural of ovum; ary, repository. ° Style < Gr. stylos, a pillar. 6 Stig’ma < Gr. stigma, a spot. 7Sta’men < Gr. stamon, a thread. 8 Pol’len < L. pollen, fine dust. 9 An’ther < Gr. anthein, to blossom. 10 Fil’a-ment < L. filum, thread. 11 Pet’al < Gr. petalos, outspread. 12 Sep’al < L. separ, separate, different. 13 Per’i-anth < Gr. peri, around; anthos, flower. stem (caulicle) has just pushed through the seed-coat and is pushing the seed-root (radicle) into the ground. C, later stage in which the radicle has elongated and produced root-hairs, while the caulicle has pushed up the seed. D, still later stage in which the caulicle has become further elongated and arched and the seed-leaves or cotyledons are growing out of the seed. E, plantlet showing pair of cotyledons ex- panded and ready to act like leaves; also three pairs of primary leaves and a stem developed from the seed-bud or plumule. F, plantlet still older, showing, in addition, secondary leaves, formed one at a joint. (Original.) 320 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT to show not a little variety and complexity in the different parts which compose it, and one is aware that much more complexity of structure would appear upon further study. But why the plant should have such a complex structure may not be at first so obvious. We are helped to an under- standing of the matter, however, by remembering that wherever there is much variety of work to be performed, it is an advantage to have the labor divided among different sets of workers, each fitted for their special share and codperat- Fic. 280.—Flax Bud cut vertically and much enlarged to show the develop- ment of the leaves from protrusions arising at the side of the dome- like stem-tip which consists of formative material. (Original.) ing with the rest. This principle is shown clearly in the com- munity to which we belong, where the labor of meeting the needs of the people as a whole is divided among farmers, miners, manufacturers, merchants, soldiers, teachers, and many other classes, while in each class the work is divided and subdivided again and again. The degree of specialization and codperation found in such advanced communities as our own chiefly distinguishes them, as we know, from such less advanced communities as the Indian tribes which preceded us upon the American continent; and we say that this was ORGANS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 321 largely because their conditions of life were simpler and so their needs less than ours. Similarly we should find the higher plants, such as fiax, contrasted most. significantly with such lower forms as Irish moss in the extent to which they exhibit a differentiation of parts and mutual helpfulness throughout; and we should find a similar reason to hold good. Accordingly, we may not inaptly compare the roots, the stem and its branches, the leaves, and the parts of the flowers and fruit of our plant to the various classes of workers which we find in a civilized community, since the work of the whole is similarly divided among the parts and all labor for the common good. It is such an idea as this that naturalists have in mind when they speak of the physiological division of labor observable in a plant or an animal. 96. Organs and their functions. In either a plant or an animal any part having a special office to perform is called an organ, the special office being known as its function.? Thus the root of our flax-plant is an organ the chief function of which is to absorb mineral substances from the soil. The function of ,the stem is mainly to support its leaves, flowers, and fruit advantageously; while the general function of its floral organs is to insure the production of good seed; and the function of its fruit is to bring about their dispersal. We often find the same function performed by different organs which are curiously unlike in other respects, as for example the function of support as performed by the tendrils of the pea (Fig. 37), the climbing roots of the poison-ivy (Fig. 210), and the grappling prickles of the rattan (Figs. 223], II). Organs which agree in function are said to be ana- logues * of one another, or to be analogous. According to their main functions the parts of our typical plant may be classified conveniently as organs of nutrition (e. g., the root, foliage, leaves, and cotyledons); of support (the stem and its branches); of protection (the bark); of reproduction (the 1Or’gan < Gr. organon, an instrument or tool. Since animals and plants are made up of organs they are called organisms, and the mate- rials which are present in them alone are called organic, to distinguish them from inorganic or mineral substances. 2Fune’tion < L. functio, performance. 3 An’-a-logue < Gr. ana, according to, logos, relation. 322 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT flower); and of dissemination (the fruit). The first three of these groups, since they have to do primarily with the individual life of the plant, form what is called the vegetative system, while the others being concerned only with propaga- tion and the care of offspring constitute the reproductive system. 97. Morphological differentiation. From what has been said of the life history of flax it is plain that the differentiation of its parts progresses as the plant grows older. We saw that the parts of the embryo within the seed are all much alike, as are also the young foliage leaves and floral organs within the bud; but as the plant matures and its needs become more varied the parts come to have different functions to perform and take on the various forms which fit them for their special kinds of work. Thus, the mature flax differs from the same plant in its infancy much as do the higher plants from the lower. But in spite of the progressive differ- entiation shown by a growing plant we feel that even its more highly specialized organs correspond somehow in a fundamental way with certain of the earlier or less specialized ones. Petals, for example, although widely different from cotyledons in function, are yet in some ways so much like them and like ordinary foliage leaves that cotyledons are often called ‘‘seed-leaves”’ while petals are familiarly known as “‘leaves of the flower.’’ So, too, in comparing the parts of different plants we often find a fundamental likeness along with marked differences in function. Thus, the climbing roots of the ivy before mentioned are essentially the same in important particulars as the absorbing roots of flax. Not only among plants but also among animals it is true that analogous organs may show important differences, and similarly that organs which are not analogous may be essen- tially alike as holding corresponding places in the funda- mental plan of structure. A man’s arm viewed as an organ for grasping is plainly the analogue of an elephant’s trunk, and an opossum’s tail; while viewed as a member of the body it corresponds to the fore leg of a horse, the flipper of a whale, and the wing of an eagle. Considerations of this ee MEMBERS OF THE PLANT BODY 323 nature lead us to inquire; What is the fundamental plan of structure exhibited by our typical plant? and What may we rightly regard as the members of such a plant-body? 98. Morphological units. We have seen that the embryo flax is a miniature plant already possessing a stem-part, rudimentary leaves, and the beginning of a root. These parts we recognize as representing the main divisions of the plant, at least before it. flowers, for we know that for many weeks as the plantlet grows it simply produces more root, more stem, and more leaves. If we examine minutely one of the leaf-buds (Fig. 280) we find it to contain a series of young leaves which are smaller and smaller as we approach the tip of the stem until finally they appear as mere lobes. Thus we see that a leafy shoot begins as a tiny dome- shaped mass of growing material, which as it elongates, be- comes differentiated into (1) lateral lobes, which grow into leaves, and (2) a central or axial part constituting the stem which bears them. Soon in the axils of the young leaves appear growing points like the cone at the tip, and each of these becomes a bud which may develop into a leafy branch. Since corresponding parts arise at regular intervals, the whole shoot, especially as it grows older, takes the form of a series of segments or equivalent divisions each consisting of a leaf-part borne by a stem-section from which a bud or rudimentary branch may also develop. The embryo, we remember, had just these parts, and in addition bore a root. Often, such a shoot-segment cut from a plant and placed under favorable conditions for growth will send out a root, and develop other segments much as an embryo does; and, commonly, a cutting which consists of a single leaf attached to a bit of stem, is the least part of a flowering plant that can be made to grow independently. Hence such a seg- ment consisting of an internode and its node, together with the leaf or leaves it bears, has been regarded as constituting, in a way, a unit of plant structure. 99. Members of the plant body. A plant like flax is some- times thought of as a colony of segments or in other words as a community of closely connected individuals each con- sisting of a stem-part and leaf-part, and capable of producing ot a 324 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT a root, and so leading an independent existence. On this view each segment would correspond to an individual animal and its leaf-part and stem-part would be likened to the members of the animal body, such as the trunk and the limbs. - With- out accepting this extreme view of what constitutes an individual plant—a view not in accord with what we have learned about the development of the shoot—it may still be convenient to regard the bodies of the higher plants as built up of segments, much as zoélogists regard the bodies of many segmented animals like earth-worms and lobsters as consisting of a series of roughly comparable units; and, similarly, just as the limb of an animal viewed as one of the main divisions of the body or of a segment is called a member, so the main divisions of a plant-segment—the stem, the leaf, and the root—viewed not as organs but merely as parts differing in origin and position, may be conveniently dis- tinguished as members of the plant body. But the question at once arises, supposing it to be admitted that the vegetating plant may be roughly likened to a many- storied building, each story being a segment, and the whole supported on a root foundation, can we yet find correspond- ing units of structure in the flower? If the flower is com- posed of segments it is evident that the different members must be more or less disguised. As regards the floral envel- opes we have already seen that their leaf-like nature is so thinly disguised that they are commonly recognized as “leaves of the flower.”’ Indeed, we have only to suppose the internodes of the stem-parts to have remained as short as they were in the bud, while the leaf-parts expanded, to see that so far as origin and relative position are concerned, the floral envelopes are essentially like a leaf-rosette. But the stamens and the pistil present greater difficulties. Still, when we come to compare other flowers with those of the flax, we shall find much evidence going to show that even stamens and pistils correspond in large part to leaves. One sort of evidence—not indeed conclusive, but yet significant— is the occurrence now and then of monstrous flowers in which actual green leaves occupy the place of the stamens and pistil, much as if the organs had determined to throw off all dis- MEMBERS OF THE PLANT BODY 325 guise and exhibit their true nature.! The proof of a theory is in the using; for the present it will be enough for us to have gotten a preliminary idea of what the segment theory means when applied to our typical plant. Other questions, closely connected with the foregoing one, are, What members may a segment have? and, How may these be distinguished under all their disguises? The flax embryo, as we have seen, represents a segment reduced to about its simplest terms. We here recognize an axial member bearing lateral members,—the stem-part and the leaf-part,— one implying the other. When the root-part appears we have another member which is also axial, but differs from the stem in being without leaves. As the root elongates there appear near its tip numerous hair-like projections which differ essentially from leaves in being merely superficial outgrowths not continuous with the innermost parts as is the case with leaves. Superficial appendages of this sort often occur in other plants on the stem and leaves as well as on the root. Such more or less hair-like outgrowths are best regarded as parts of members rather than as members. In the essential organs of the flower we meet with a difficulty regarding the real nature of the pollen-sacs and ovules or egg-sacs as we may call them. In the flax they both might be taken to be parts of the peculiar leaves which we regard as forming the stamens and pistil. But there are other plants, as we shall see, in which an ovule appears on the very tip of the stem or axis, while in some cases pollen-sacs seem to grow directly from the stem. We can then hardly call such organs parts of a leaf. On this account and for other reasons 1 The theory of floral structure which likens a flower to a leaf-rosette originated with the poet Goethe to whom it was suggested by seeing a green rose such as occasionally appears in gardens. This theory has proved to be a helpful means of understanding the relation of the various parts of plants to the fundamental plan of structure; but as it tells only part of the truth it has been somewhat misleading, and it requires to be modified considerably from its original form to be in accord with more recent views of vegetable morphology. As developed above, however, it is believed that the theory will be found to avoid the un- warranted assumptions which have brought into it discredit, and to re- tain the features which have made it useful, while at the same time such modifications are made as will render it a valuable means of con- veying modern views. 326 THE PARTS OF A SEED-PLANT which will appear later, we are led to regard both pollen-sacs and egg-sacs as distinct members of the plant body. We thus come to the conclusion that our typical plant viewed morphologically is made up of members of the nature of stem, leaf, root, pollen-sac, and egg-sac; and that the whole body may be furthermore regarded as -consisting of a chain of segments, each segment having at least a stem-part and a leaf-part and sometimes also other members. A root-member may be defined in a general way as typically a descending axis; a stem-member as an ascending leafy axis; and a leaf-member as a lateral, transversely flattened out- growth from a stem. Since stems and leaves imply one an- other, it is convenient to speak of them together as forming a shoot. Thus in our flax embryo the caulicle, cotyledons, and plumule constitute the shoot as distinguished from the root-part. A sac-member, such as a pollen-sac or an egg-sac, is really, as we shall see later, a spore-case essentially like that of Lycopodium (Fig. 166,2). Pollen grains are spores; and each egg-sac contains one or more comparatively large spores within which an embryo arises. Thus a sac-member is known by what it produces. As to how these different members may be further distinguished we shall learn more fully when we come to compare other plants with our type. 100. Homologies. We have already seen that the terms analogy, analogue, and analogous, afford us a means of ex- pressing physiological equivalence or similarity in function. To express morphological correspondence or similarity in origin and position naturalists use the companion terms homology, homologue, homologous. Members of the same sort are said to be homologues of one another; any form of leaf-member, for instance, being homologous with any other form. Cotyledons and petals are homologues, because both are leaf-members, and they would accordingly be spoken of as homologous parts, homologous organs, or homologous members. The principal parts of our typical plant and their homologies as here understood are indicated in the accom- panying diagram (Fig. 281). The tracing of homologies forms the basis of morphology, 1 Ho-mol’o-gy and when as in this case it extends along the front side of the ovary (that toward the center of the flower) the placenta is said to be ventral. The oppo- site side or back of the carpellary leaf, commonly marked by a ridge representing the midrib, is distinguished as the dorsal 7? aspect. The ovules of marsh-marigolds are essentially like those of flax and of all the crowfoot family. We may distinguish in each ovule a little stalk, the fwnicle,s which continues as a ridge, the raphe,® along the side of the main part or body of the ovule. At the small end is a minute opening, the micro- pyle.° An ovule which is bent so that the micropyle comes next to the funicle, or point of attachment, is termed anat- ropous.}! _ 1Car’-pel < Gr. karpos, fruit, as being essentially the fruit produc- ing part. 2 Gy-nee’-ci-um < Gr. gyne, female; oikos, house. 3 An-dree’-ci-um < Gr. andros, male. 4 Nec’-tar < Gr. nektar, the drink of the gods. 6 Pla-cen’-ta < L. a little cake, from its cake-like form in certain Pe rventieal <_L. venter, belly. 7 Dor’sal < L. dorsum, back. § Fu’-ni-cle < L. funiculus, diminutive of funis, a cord. ° Ra’phe < Gr. rhaphe, a seam. 10 Mi-cro-pyle < Gr. micros, small; pyle, gate. 11 A-nat’-ro-pous < Gr, ana, back; trepein, turn, be THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 347 Gyneecia essentially like those of marsh-marigold are found in Christmas roses, columbines, peonies, and monks- hoods (Figs. 178, 282, 287, 284). In anemonies (Fig. 297), each carpel contains at first the rudiments of several ovules, but only one (the lowest) develops, the rest remaining mere rudiments. Many genera, as for example, crowfoots, mouse- tails, meadow rues, and clematises (Figs. 285; 290, 293) have only a single ovule in each carpel from the first. In a few cases it happens, as in fennel-flowers (Fig. 286) and certain species nearly related to the Christmas rose, that the carpels are more or less united with one-another at the base, thus form- ing a compound pistil comparable to that of flax. As a result of this union of the carpels there is formed a single compound placenta which being at the center of the ovary is termed azile. Itis obvious that a compound pistil, say of five carpels, requires less material than an equal number of separate carpels of the same size, just as it takes less bricks to build a chimney with five flues than it does to make for each flue a separate chimney. Almost all of the crowfoot family have simple pistils, 1. e., consisting of but one carpel. The number of simple pistils may be many, as in crowfoots, mouse-tails, and anemonies; several or few, as in Christmas rose, colum- bines, peonies, and monkshoods; or only one, as in bane- berries. When both stamens and pistils are present (as in nearly all of the crowfoot family) the flower is said to be perfect; it is imperfect when either set of essential organs is absent or rudi- mentary. Flowers having stamens alone are called staminate; those with pistils alone, pistillate. In certain species of clematis both perfect and imperfect flowers occur; such plants are termed polygamous. Andreecia consisting of an indefinite number of stamens like those of marsh-marigold occur in the wood-anemony, peonies, and certain species of clematis (Figs. 194, 282, 291). Among cultivated peonies we often find flowers which have be- come “double”’ as the gardeners say. In these the outer sta- 1 Perfect flowers are symbolized in botany by the sign 8, staminate by <, and pistillate by 9. The expression 8 o 9 would thus stand for polygamous. 348 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY mens are replaced by more or less petal-like leaf-members which, however, differ considerably in shape from the petals, and show clearly their closer homology with filaments by nu- merous intermediate forms (Figs. 294, 295). What here takes place as an abnormality throws light upon the homology of certain curious and puzzling organs often called ‘“‘nectar- leaves’’ which take the place of the outer stamens in many flowers of the crowfoot family. In some anemonies—as in the wood-anemony—the outer stamens have anthers, while in other species like the pasque-flower the outer filaments are destitute of anthers but instead have swollen tips which secrete nectar (Figs. 194, 296 A). Antherless stamens are called staminodes.: The nectar-leaves are most probably of this nature. The Christmas rose has tubular staminodes; the mouse-tail, staminodes somewhat club-shaped and bent; crowfoots have them broadly expanded and _petal-like; fennel-flowers, more or less petal-like with a peculiar pouch; while in columbines there is an outer set of colored staminodes forming trumpet-like spurs which secrete nectar copiously, and next to the carpels two inner sets of five each which produce no nectar and are very thin and colorless (Figs. 284D, 285II, 296B-E). It is not unusual for botanists to speak of the petal-like nectar-leaves of this family as petals, but this is not in accord with the modern view of their homology. Most of the crowfoot family are like marsh-marigolds in having no corolla. In peonies are found unmistakable petals. These show that they belong to the perianth, not only by having a much wider base than the stamens, but also by the occurrence of transitional forms connecting them with sepals, as illustrated in Fig. 294. The series as there shown connects also sepals, bractlets, and bracts. Anemonies and fennel- flowers, as we have seen, have involucres or involucels which are sometimes so close to the flower as to be easily mistaken for calyx, and which indeed differ from calyces only in being separated from the floral whorls by a more or less developed internode. The case is especially deceptive when the sepals are petaloid, 2. e., brightly colored like petals, and the in- volucre is close to the flower. Flowers without a corolla are 1 Stam/-in-ode < L. stamen, staminis, stamen; Gr. eidos, a form. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 349 said to be apetalous... When as in peonies the flowers have calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, they are described as - complete. Many of the crowfoot family have the calyx petaloid, as In marsh-marigolds, anemonies, clematises, Christmas roses, fennel-flowers, baneberries, columbines, and monkshoods. In mouse-tails each of the sepals develops near the base a tubular pouch or spur (Fig. 285). Most commonly, the sepals, at least in the bud, overlap at the edges in such a way that some are wholly inside and some wholly outside, as shown in Figs. 282, 284. The sepals are then said to be imbricate,? and the same term applies to petals or similar organs thus overlapping. When the parts touch at the edges without overlapping, as for example the sepals of clematis (Fig. 290) they are valvate.s The arrange- ment of floral parts in the bud is called their estivation; + of leaves, their vernation.® _ Almost all the flowers of the family have the parts of each whorl alike; that is, the carpels of a flower are repetitions of one another, likewise the stamens, the petals, and the sepals when present. Such flowers are called regular. A few of the family have irregular flowers, as for example the monkshood (Fig. 178) so called from the peculiar cowl-like form of one of the sepals which is larger than the others and partially enwraps them. The hood covers also a pair of staminodal nectaries. The stamens with anthers and the gynoecium are regular. The stem part of the flower is called the torus * or receptacle. It represents the continuation of the flower-stalk or peduncle upon which the floral leaves grow. It is customary to speak of the way in which an organ is attached to its support as its insertion, or to say that’the organ is inserted upon what- ever bears it. Thus we say that the androecium and calyx 1 A-pet’al-ous < Gr. a, without, petalon, petal. 2 Im’-bri-cate < L. imbricatus, overlapping like roof-tiles. 3 Val’-vate < L. valve, folding doors. 4 JXs’-ti-va-tion < L. estivus, of the summer. 5 Ver’-na-tion < L. vernus, of the spring. 6 To’-rus < L. torus, a swelling, as being the swollen end of the floral axis. 350 THE CROWFOOT FAMILY of marsh-marigold are inserted upon the torus below the ovaries, or that their insertion is hypogynous.1 This implies that the gyncecium is inserted wholly above the other organs of the flower, or, in a word, that the ovaries are superior. Superior ovaries are found in nearly all of the crowfoot family. The torus is usually either convex (Fig. 290), conical (Fig. 293), or much elongated (Fig. 285). Peonies, on the contrary (Fig. 282), have the torus slightly concave so that it forms a shallow cup at the bottom of which the pistils are inserted, while around its rim are borne the stamens, petals, and sepals. Such insertion of the androecium and floral envelopes makes them perigynous? and the ovaries half- inferior. Wholly inferior ovaries occur as we shall see in other families but not in this. Throughout the family the floral organs are free, that is to say each set is inserted on the torus independently and develops unconnected with other sets. Furthermore, with few exceptions, the organs of each set are distinct, that is, unconnected with one another. The chief exceptions are in certain species related to the Christmas rose and in fennel- flowers where, as we have seen, the carpels have grown up joined together or are somewhat coalescent? as botanists say when the parts united are of the same sort. Another feature exhibited in general by the flowers of this family is the alternation of the parts, by which we mean that the members of one whorl or rosette stand in front of the spaces between the members of the next whorl or rosette, when of the same number. This is well shown in the floral diagrams, Figs. 178, 282, 284, 286, 287, 288, 290, 293. At first sight, this may not seem to be true of the stamens and stami- nodes of columbines and monkshoods but the alternation will be apparent when it is remembered that the parts are in whorls of five. The fruit of a flowering plant is understood to include the seeds and whatever parts ripen with them. The ripened 1 Hy-pog’y-nous < Gr. hypo, beneath; gyne, pistil. 2 Pe-rig’-y-nous < Gr. peri, around. 3 Co-al-es’-cent < co, together; alescere, to grow up. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 301 ovary is the pericarp! which may be dry as in marsh-marigold and nearly all the other genera, or may be fleshy as in bane- berries. When the pericarp opens to release the seeds it is said to be dehiscent,? and the manner of opening, its dehis- cence. The pericarp of marsh-marigold dehisces by a vertical slit, or suture * along the ventral or inner side, 7. e., the side toward the axis of the flower. A dry fruit consisting of one carpel dehiscing by the ventral or by the dorsal suture alone is called a follicles For other examples see Figs. 282, 287. A dry pericarp consisting of two or more carpels is termed a capsule. The fruit of fennel-flowers (Fig. 286) is a capsule in which each carpel dehisces by a short ventral suture near the top. A further peculiarity of the pericarp of the species illustrated is that except where the carpels are united, the wall separates into an outside and an inside layer, leaving a considerable empty space between. . Pericarps which do not open are said to be indehiscent. A small, dry, indehiscent fruit, like that of crowfoots, anemonies, and mouse-tails is termed an achene.* . We may then write our formulas of Magnolia, Illicitum, and Liriodendron * as shown on pages 404, 405. If we added to these examples other magnoliaceous genera we should of course introduce some new variations of structure, but these would afford us no better family characters. A formula typical of the family would still be the same as that given below the three genera mentioned. Comparing our magnoliaceous formulas with the ranunculaceous ones we find that while prevailing features differ—so much so indeed as to make it desirable to group the plants in separate fam- ilies—the departures from the type in one family often match those of the other. — There is, however, a general difference, not shown in the figures, which serves to separate the two groups. All mem- bers of the magnolia family have in the leaf-pulp, floral leaves, pith, and other soft parts, minute reservoirs of volatile oil, which are entirely lacking in the crowfoot family. These little reservoirs may be seen readily with a hand lens by viewing 1 Ex-stip’u-late < L. ex, without; stipula, stipule. 2 Hab’it < L. habitus, appearance. 3The plant formulas referred to in this and succeeding sections, together with the ranunculaceous formulas already given, are grouped on pages 404-427 to facilitate their being compared with one another. 360 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS a leaf, petal, or slice of pith against the light, when they ap-- pear as translucent, scattered dots. This oil it is which renders the flowers of the family fragrant, and gives its flavor to the fruit of star-anise. Scarcely a trace of such odors are to be found in the crowfoot family. We may therefore define the magnolia family as woody plants having fragrant, solitary, regular flowers, more or less like those of the crowfoot family, but with minute reservoirs of volatile oil in various parts. 107. The laurel family (Lauracez) consists also of woody plants with oil reservoirs similar to those of the magnolia family. This aromatic oil gives to sassafras (Sassafras officinale, page 168) and to cinnamon and camphor (Cinna- momum, pages 135, 178), as we have seen, their chief economic value. Between these and our examples of the magnolia and crowfoot families may also be found many other similarities, either in habit, form of leaves, or floral structure. The morphology of the gynoecium in the laurel family is somewhat doubtful. Apparently there is only a single carpel, much as in the baneberry, but in sassafras the three-lobed stigma may be evidence of three carpels which coalesce: so completely as to form a one-celled, one-styled pistil. A further peculiarity of sassafras is that the flowers are all imperfect and that the two kinds are always on distinct plants. The term diecious 1 is applied to this condition. A striking feature found throughout the family is the dehiscence of the anthers by uplifted valves. This is indicated in the formulas by FA~. Another general peculiarity is that the concave torus often becomes fleshy and cup-like in fruit—a condition indicated by T-T!. The sign © meaning “or otherwise’? when there are noteworthy exceptions, is also introduced in the formulas of this family, and ? is used to indicate doubt. . See pages 406, 407 for formulas of Sassafras and Cinnamomum and, derived from them (neglecting exceptions) a typical formula for the family. Woody plants with minute reservoirs of oil, and regular flowers more or less like those of the crowfoot family but having the perianth and andrecium mostly perigynous and the anthers 1 Di-e’ci-ous < Gr. dis, two; oikos, household; symbolized by @: 9. THE POPPY FAMILY 361 always dehiscing by uplifted valves, constitute the chief mem- bers of the family. _ 108. The crowfoot order (Ranunculales or Ranales). A comparison of the three families we have been studying shows them to be closely linked together, much as are the genera within each family. By such linkage there is formed a natural chain of families including these and several others resembling them in important respects. Such a group of families is termed, as we have seen (page 8), an order. That which clusters about the crowfoot family takes significantly the name of the crowfoot order. The prevailing characters of Ranunculales are expressed in the formula of the order given on pages 406, 407. Neglecting the more variable or exceptional features we may say that the plants of this order, though differing widely in habit, foliage, and inflorescence, are characterized by having usually cymose inflorescences of mostly perfect, regular, and hypogynous flowers with well-developed perianth often in whorls of three, stamens and carpels usually numerous, and all parts commonly distinct and free. 109. The poppy family (Papaveracez) is represented sufficiently well for our purpose by the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum, pages 182, 183). Like all the other species of its genus, it contains instead of volatile oil a milky juice from which, as we have seen, opium is obtained. Many other genera of the family contain a similar juice which in some cases is bright yellow, and in others red. Sometimes the juice is watery. The main structural features of Papaver appear in its formula on pages 406, 407. The only new features calling for special notice concern the gynoecium which, unlike any in the crowfoot order (ex- cept possibly th the laurel family), consists of several carpels so united as to form a compound pistil with a one-celled ovary. That is to say, the carpellary leaves as they grow have the right edge of one coalescent with the left edge of its neighbor. The united edges of neighboring carpels thus form placentz which lie along the outer wall of the compound 362 VARIOUS: PLANT GROUPS ovary. Such placentze are termed parietal.1_ The capsule in poppies opens peculiarly by little pores like windows under the eaves of the overhanging stigma-ring. Such opening by pores, is called poricidal ? dehiscence. With but slight modifications, not calling for special comment, the formula of Papaver becomes typical of the family as shown on pages 406, 407. The family may generally be recognized as being mostly herbs, commonly having a milky or colored juice, and hypogy- nous flowers with the floral envelopes most often in whorls of two, the stamens usually numerous, the pistil always compound, one-celled and with parietal placente, and the seeds albuminous with the embryo sometimes curved but neither coiled nor bent. 110. The mustard family (Cruciferz) agrees closely with the poppy family in general form and floral structure, as may be seen by comparing our figures of cabbages, turnips, mustards, and rape (Brassica, pages 54, 66-70), watercress and horseradish (Nasturtium, pages 70, 71, 144), and radish (Raphanus, page 55). The main family differences are in the bracts and bractlets, the number of stamens, and peculiarities of the gyncecium. While the members of the poppy family have bracts and often bractlets of the usual sort (which therefore do not call for special notice), the members of the mustard family are almost unique in having no bracts within the inflorescence. Hence they are described as ebracteate.* In a flower of the mustard family there are two outer and shorter stamens, alternating with two inner pairs of longer ones. Botanists regard these inner pairs as representing each a single stamen branched or divided into two. | The fact that a whorl is thus divided into sets is expressed in our formulas by the sign of division, +, connecting the number in the whorl with the number of sets. The carpels of the mustard family are normally only two, 1 Pa-ri’e-tal < L. parietalis, belonging to a wall < paries, a wall; indicated by the symbol () placed after the number of the carpels. 2 Por-i-ci’ dal < L. porus, pore; cedire, to cut; indicated by the sign® placed after that of the pericarp. 3 E-brac’te-ate < L. e, without; bractea, bract. Bo, THE ROSE FAMILY | 363 as in certain of the poppy family, but the ovary instead of being one-celled is divided into two compartments by a partition extending between the parietal placente. When ripe the carpels mostly separate from the placentz and from this partition. Such a fruit is called a silique.1 The ovules differ from any we have seen among the plants of the crow- foot order in lacking a raphe and being curved to a somewhat kidney-like form. When thus curved, ovules are described as campylotropous.? The seeds are almost always exalbuminous and have the embryo commonly bent in various ways—a peculiarity expressed in the formulas by GA. Note how closely similar are the formulas of Brassica, Nasturtium, Raphanus, and Crucifere given on pages 406, 407. As a definition of the family we have thus:— Mustard family: mostly herbs without milky or colored juice or oil reservoirs, often of sharp taste though pleasant flavor; ebracteate inflorescence; usually hypogynous flowers with all the parts in whorls of two (with the apparent exception of the four inner and longer stamens), the ovary divided into two cells by a partition joining the parietal placente; the fruit almost always a silique with exalbuminous seeds having the embryo variously bent. 111. The poppy order (Papaverales or Rhceadales) com- prises a few families well represented by the poppy and the mustard families and agreeing in having mostly racemose inflorescences of complete, hypogynous, regular or wrregular flowers with the sepals, petals, and stamens all distinct and free, and a compound pistil with parietal placente. It is the union of the carpels by their edges which mainly dis- tinguishes this from the crowfoot order. For comparison we have a typical formula of the order on pages 408, 409. 112. The rose family (Rosacez) as illustrated by the almond (Fig. 31, page 42), apple (Figs. 91 I, II, pages 86, 87), pear (Fig. 92, page 87), quince (Figs. 93 I, II, page 88), 1 Si-lique’ < L. siliqua, a pod; Cj*. * 2 Cam-py-lot’ro-pous < Gr. kampylos, curved; trope, a turn. E @. 364 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS peach (Fig. 94, page 89), plum (Fig. 95, page 90), cherry (Fig. 96, page 90), raspberry (Fig. 97, page 91), straw- berry (Figs. 98 I-III, page 92), and roses (Figs. 148 II, III, 298, pages 150, 151, 378), is seen to possess many features of floral structure resembling more nearly those of the crowfoot family than of any other family we have studied. Note in the formulas of Rosa, Fragaria, Rubus, Prunus, Cydonia, and Pyrus, given on pages 408, 409, that the floral envelopes are mostly in fives, while the essential organs are commonly numerous, and that all are free and distinct, except sometimes the carpels, which then, unlike poppy carpels, have axile placente. An unusual form of calyx is found in strawberries (Fra- garia). Here the sepals have stipules which coalesce in pairs so as to form what looks like a calyx upon a calyx, and is termed therefore an epicalyx.' The only other features not before encountered belong to the torus and the fruit. Throughout the family the torus is concave or cup-like, and it is mostly free as in peonies and our examples of the laurel family. In roses (Rosa) it completely envelopes the carpels, and be- comes fleshy and bright colored while the pericarps ripen into hard nutlets,? the whole forming a so-called ‘“‘hip.”’? The strawberry fruit consists mainly of the upper part of the torus,* much swollen and bearing numerous achenes. Rasp- berries have the upper part of the torus comparatively dry, and in fruit the pericarps finally separate from it. As these ripen, an outer layer becomes fleshy while an inner layer hardens like an olive stone. A fruit in which the pericarp is thus differentiated is called a ‘“‘stone-fruit”’ or drupe.* In raspberries and thimbleberries the little: drupes coalesce sufficiently to form a thimble-like mass after they separate from the torus. In blackberries, on the contrary, the little drupes remain attached to the part of the torus which bears 1 Epi-ca’‘lyx < L. epi, upon. § | 2 The hardening of the pericarp is expressed in the formulas by two inverted exclamation marks. 3 A small ¢ to represent part of the torus is used in the formulas instead of the large capital. 4 Drupe < L. drupa, a ripe olive. Cjj! THE PULSE FAMILY 365 them, or in other words, the pericarps adhere ' to the torus, as botanists say of the union of dissimilar parts. Such adhesion is represented in the Rubus formula by a bracket placed after the pericarp signs. The bracket is separated by a comma from the preceding signs to show that in this genus the pericarps are sometimes free. Similarly the expression ¢/,/, means that the upper part of the torus may be either dry or fleshy in fruit, while Cjj! means that each pericarp is hard within and fleshy with- out, t. e., drwpaceous. Each flower of plums, peaches, almonds, and cherries (Prunus) produces but a single drupe, and this has commonly but one seed within the “‘stone”’; though occasionally as in “‘philopena”’ almonds both of the ovules develop. It should be noted that neither the “‘stone” of a peach, plum, or cherry nor the ‘‘shell’”’ of an almond is part of a seed, but is the hardened inner layer of the pericarp, enclosing a seed or seeds. The torus of quince (Cydonia) and of apples and pears (Pyrus), envelops the gyncecium, is adherent to the com- pound ovary, and both ripen together into the kind of fruit called a pome 2 in which the seeds are enclosed in a ‘‘core”’ consisting of dry, more or less parchment-like pericarps, surrounded by the fleshy torus. An adherent torus envelop- ing the ovary is said to be epigynous,’ a term likewise applied to the stamens, or the floral envelopes which it bears; and, indeed, to the flower itself having such a torus. The ovaries of epigynous flowers are termed inferior. A typical formula for the family is shown on pages 408, 409. The family includes plants of various habit; without milky, colored, or acrid juice, and. lacking reservoirs of volatile oil; but having often fragrant flowers more or less like those of the crowfoot family, but perigynous or epigynous; mostly stipulate leaves, and frequently luscious fruit. 113. The pulse family (Leguminosz). Examples: pea- nut (Fig. 33, page 45), pea (Figs. 37, 38, page 48), beans 1 Ad-here’ < L. ad, to; herere, stick. 2 Pome < L. pomum, an apple or similar fruit. JT! Cj < 3 Ep-ig’y-nous < Gr. epi, upon; gyne, pistil. TV] 366 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS (Figs. 39, 40, pages 49-51), gum arabic tree (Fig. 156, page 164), tragacanth shrub (Fig. 157, page 165), licorice (Fig. 162, page 169), locust (Fig. 182, page 197), courbaril- tree and Zanzibar copal-tree (Fig. 273, page 289), indigo shrub (Fig. 275, page 293), and logwood-tree (Fig. 276, page 294). See on pages 408-411 the formulas given for Acacia, Hematoxy- lon, Hymenza, Trachylobium, Pisum, Phaseolus, Robinia, Indigo- fera, Glycyrrhiza, Astragalus, Arachis, and Leguminose. In their floral structure many acacias, like the gum arabic tree, approximate closely to certain members of the rose family, notably in the numerous stamens, and regular calyx and corolla. In some species the filaments are more or less coalescent. Stamens thus united are said to be monadel- phous. The logwood-tree (Hematoxylon), the courbaril- tree (Hymenzea) and the Zanzibar copal-tree (Trachylobium) present irregular corollas, with the peculiarity that the uppermost petal is at first enfolded by the side ones, and these in turn by the lower pair. A large majority of the family, represented by peas (Pisum), beans (Phaseolus), and the other examples referred to, have what is called a papil- ionaceous 2 corolla. This consists of five petals: one com- paratively large called the standard, which is above the others and enfolds them in the bud; two side ones called the wings; and two lower ones grown together to form what is called the keel. A curious condition of the androecium commonly found with the papilionaceous corolla is that there is one uppermost stamen free from the other nine which are more or less coalescent. Such an androecium is termed diadelphous.* Another peculiarity usually accompanying the papilionaceous corolla is the irregularity and coalescence of the sepals to form a calyx described as gamosepalous ‘ and bilabiate,® that 1 Mon’’a-del’phous < Gr. monos, one; adelphos, a brother; meaning in one brotherhood; indicated by the small parenthesis. 2 Pa-pil’’i-on-a’/ceous < L. papilio, a butterfly—from the resem- blance. This is expressed in the formula by P’’z}>). 3 Di’’a-del’phous < Gr. dis, two; FA%). 4 Gam/’o-sep’al-ous < Gr. gamos, union; 9). 5 Bi-la’bi-ate < L. bis, two; labiwm, lip; S$). THE LINDEN FAMILY 367 is to say, consisting of sepals more or less united, so as to form an upper and a lower lip. The most distinctive peculiarity of the family is its typical fruit, called a legume.: This consists of a single carpel which becomes dry and normally splits into two valves by dorsal and ventral sutures. Asin the mustard family we found that the radish has an indehiscent pod of two carpels which is essentially a silique in structure, so here in certain genera we find pods of one carpel, essentially legumes, but without the usual mode of dehiscence. Peanuts, for example, though indehiscent, are plainly like pea-pods in most important re- spects, and both may well be called legumes. A still stranger modification of legume is the fruit of Hematoxylon which dehisces into two valves but along lines midway between the ventral and the dorsal sutures, as indicated by Cj <>. The great majority of our wild or cultivated members of the pulse family may be recognized by their having mostly papilionaceous, or at least irregular corollas, and a single carpel which forms a legume, while in other respects these plants are similar to those of the rose family. 114. The rose order (Rosales) includes several families which agree for the most part with the rose and the pulse family in bearing botryose inflorescences of usually complete perigynous flowers, regular or irregular, having petals at least partly distinct, and pistils with a ventral or axile placenta. These features are indicated in the formula of Rosales on pages 410, 411. 115. The linden family (Tiliaceze.) Examples: jute (Figs. 218 I, II, page 232), and linden (Figs. 251, 252, page 264). See the formulas of Corchorus, Tilia, and Tiliacez on pages 410, 411. The bracts of lindens (Tilia) and the androecium and fruit of the family present the chief peculiarities which call for present notice. The bracts of jute (Corchorus) present 1 Leg’ume < L. legumen, beans, etc., or that which may be gathered by hand without cutting < legere, gather. Its sign is Cj >. 368 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS no special peculiarities. In lindens, however, the lowermost bract of the flower-cluster is large, forming a sort of involucre, and adheres for a considerable distance to the peduncle. Jute flowers, which have the stamens in two whorls of five each, thus conforming to the numerical plan of the other floral organs, afford the simplest condition. In other species the stamens appear to be indefinite in number, but close examination would show them to be grouped into five clus- ters opposite the five petals. Each cluster is taken to repre- sent the branches of a single one of the inner whorl of stamens, in much the same way that a pair of long stamens in the mustard family represent, as we have seen (section 110), a single branched stamen. The fact that the stamen-groups are opposite the petals (hence regarded as being of the inner stamen whorl) is expressed by placing the sign || between P and FA. Stamens in five clusters are said to be pentadelphous.* The stamens of the linden are always pentadelphous, and sometimes each cluster includes a staminode to which the anther-bearing filaments are coalescent. Throughout the family two pollen-sacs are borne by each filament which, however, divides more or less at the tip into a short stalk for each sac. The fruit of jute is a capsule dehiscing by dorsal sutures into valves attached to the radial partitions. Such dehiscence is called loculicidal.2. In lindens only one of the five carpels ripens, and commonly only one of the seeds which it contains. The pericarp becomes somewhat drupaceous so that the product of each flower resembles a small round almond. But a cluster of these nut-like fruitlets is formed by each in- florescence, and this cluster, borne on a common peduncle to which the bract still adheres, separates at maturity as a whole from the tree. The dry bract serves excellently as a 1 Pen’’-ta-del’/phous < Gr. pente, five. FA ~ + 5. 2 Loc’u-li-ci’’dal < L. loculus, a compartment; cedere, cut, because it is as if each compartment were cut into, so that in cross-section each division has a form something like the sign |. which is used to distin- guish this type of capsule in the formula of Corchorus. THE MALLOW FAMILY 369 sail to carry the fruit-cluster before the wind over smooth ground or a crust of snow. The family comprises mostly woody plants having mucilag- inous juices; and often fragrant flowers with petals imbricate and distinct; stamens numerous, pentadelphous, and free; anthers with two pollen-sacs; and styles coalesced throughout. 116. The mallow family (Malvacez). Examples: cotton (Figs. 214-216, pages 225-227) and marshmallow (Fig. 158, page 166). See pages 410,411 for formulas of Gossypium, Althea, and Malvacee. Several new features are presented in this family. An involucel is commonly present close to the flower, recalling the epicalyx of strawberries, but here we have bractlets in place of stipules. The estivation of the corolla is such that one edge of each petal overlaps its neighbor, while the other edge is in turn overlapped by the next in order. Aéstivation of this type is termed convolute.t The androecium appears to consist of a number of stamens borne upon a long tube enclosing the styles. This tube shows at the top, more or less distinctly, five projections which give evidence that the andreecium consists really of but five stamens coalesced by their filaments to form the tube, and branched above into the numerous stalks bearing pollen-sacs. Curiously enough each branch bears only a single pollen-sac and is thus equiva- lent to but half of an ordinary anther. The expression FA o-5)] would read “stamens numerous, divided into five groups, monadelphous, and adhering to the petals.” As a result of this adhesion the petals, although distinct, fall off in connection with the stamen-tube (as the fruit ripens) much as if they were coalescent. The fruit of marshmallow (Althza) represents a type very common in the family. Although indehiscent, the basal part of the several carpels, as they ripen, separate into as many nutlets, each containing a single seed. The fruit thus returns to a condition very like that of a cluster of anemone 1 Con’vo-lute < L. con, together; volvere, roll. P‘‘ is the sign. 370 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS achenes. A fruit thus splitting into one-seeded pieces is called a schizocarp.' The family comprises mostly herbaceous plants rich in muci- lage; with flowers often involucellate, seldom fragrant; petals convolute and distinct; stamens numerous, monadelphous, adhering to the corolla; anthers with only one pollen-sac; styles more or less distinct. ! 117. The mallow order (Malvales) contains several families having mostly cymose inflorescences of complete, regular, and hypogynous flowers; with the petals distinct (though often ad- hering to the pentadelphous or monadelphous stamens) and opposite the stamen-groups; and the pistils with axile placente. See pages 410, 411 for a typical formula of the order. 118. The parsley family (Umbellifere). Examples: car- rot (Figs. 47-53, pages 55-57), parsnip (Figs. 54, 55, page 57), celery (Figs. 78, 79, page 75), parsley (Fig. 138, page 140), caraway (Fig. 140, page 142), anise (Figs. 141 I, II, page 142), coriander (Figs. 143 I-III, pages 148, 144), asafetida (Fig. 168 I, page 175), water hemlock (Fig. 179, page 193), and poison hemlock (Figs. 180 I, II, pages 194, 195). See pages 410-413 for formulas of Conium, Carum, Petroselinum, Cicuta, Coriandrum, Apium, Pimpernella, Pastinaca, Ferula, Daucus, and Umbellifere. The name Umbellifere, meaning ‘‘umbrella-bearers,” was given to this family because almost all the members have inflorescences resembling umbrellas. This form of in-— florescence, called an wmbel,? may be likened to a raceme in which the internodes of the rachis are suppressed, thus bring- ing the bracts, when present, together as an involucre. In most of the parsley family, the inflorescence consists of a number of little umbels or wmbellules,? arranged in an umbel. Usually all the flowers of a cluster are perfect. An interest- 1 Schiz’o-carp < Gr. schizo, I split; karpos, fruit. Cj <+o. 2Um’bel < L. uwmbella, diminutive of umbra, shade. I/. 3 Um’bel-lule < L. wmbeliula, diminutive of umbella. i/. Each um- bellule may have a secondary involucre composed of secondary bracts which are symbolized by the B? which comes after the B. THE PARSLEY ORDER 371 ing exception is found in the carrot (Daucus) where there is often a central flower destitute of essential organs. Such a flower is described as neutral. The sepals are commonly reduced to small tooth-like projections, or they may be so united into a narrow ring as to appear obliterated. The calyx-teeth do not touch in the bud; hence their estivation is said to be open.2 More or less irregularity of calyx and corolla occurs among the outer flowers of an umbel, though most of the flowers are but little if at all irregular. The two-carpelled, inferior ovary ripens into a dry fruit which at maturity splits in halves, each half hanging from the top of a continuation of the torus, as shown in Fig. 141 II. Such a fruit is called a cremocarp.’ It is like a schizocarp except that it is the product of an inferior ovary. _Each half has several more or less pronounced ribs; and, in the wall, parallel to the ribs, are often tubular reservoirs of volatile oil giving a characteristic odor to the fruit. An odor similar to that of the fruit often pervades every part so that from an immature specimen or only a fragment ~ it is often possible to recognize these plants by their peculiar, though indescribable, smell. The stems have the rare characteristic of being hollow even at the nodes. Herbs rich in volatile oil, but with watery sap; having leaves exstipulate; flowers regular or irregular, mostly in compound umbels, often involucrate; the petals and stamens five, the carpels two, styles distinct; and the fruit a cremocarp—such are the typical members of the family. 119. The parsley order (Umbellales or Umbelliflore) in- cludes two other families which agree with the parsley family in having mostly wmbellate inflorescences of small, complete, epigynous flowers, with the petals and stamens distinct and alternate, and the carpels with but a single ovule in each. For the formula of Umbellalles see pages 412, 413. 1 Symbolized by the sign 6. 2 Expressed in the formulas by 8”‘. 3 Crem/o-carp < Gr. kremao, I hang; karpos, fruit. TC] < + 2. 372 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS 120. The buckwheat family (Polygonacez). Examples: buckwheat (Fig. 22, page 29) and rhubarbs (Fig. 112, page 104, and Fig. 163, page 170). See pages 412, 413 for formulas of Rheum, Fagopyrum, and Poly- gonacee. The stems of plants belonging to the buckwheat family are commonly swollen at the joints, and have above each node a thin tubular sheath formed by the coalescence of the stipules. These sheaths are called ocree,: and the plants or leaves are said to be ocreate. The parts of the flower are commonly in threes although there are some curious departures from the type. Thus in buckwheat (Fagopyrum) there are five sepals as against the six-leaved perianth of rhubarb (Rheum), but we may regard the missing sepal as represented by a bractlet which is ab- sent in the other inflorescence. Again, the six outer stamens of rhubarb are to be regarded as three pairs, each pair formed from the division of one stamen into two; while in buckwheat the andrcoecium is similar except that one of the outer stamens has remained undivided, thus giving but eight in all. That there are three carpels is shown clearly by the three distinct styles, though there is but one cavity from the base of which arises a single ovule. This ovule differs from the others we have studied in having the micropyle opposite to the funicle, that is to say, in being straight or orthotropous.? The family consists mostly of herbs with a watery juice which is often peppery and sometimes pleasantly acid, without ° reservoirs of volatile oil; having stems often swollen at the joints; leaves ocreate; styles two or three, distinct; ovary containing a single, orthotropous ovule; and the fruit an achene. 121. The buckwheat order (Polygonales) which con- tains only the above family, may be contrasted with the previous orders as having mostly paniculate inflorescences of small, regular, perfect, hypogynous flowers, with the perianth, 1Oc’re-a < L. a legging. Ll). 2 Or-thot’ro-pous < Gr. orthos, straight. Symbolized by a straight line over the numerical sign, E1, THE BIRCH FAMILY 378 leaves, and stamens distinct and alternate, and the ovary with but one cavity and one ovule. The formula of Polygonales is given on pages 412, 413. 122. The birch family (Betulacez). Examples: filbert (Fig. 23, page 36) and birch (Fig. 254, page 265). See pages 412-415 for formulas of Betula, Corylus, and Betula- cee. We meet in this family with the singular form of inflores- cence sometimes called “pussies,” or catkins, and known botanically as aments.:. An amentaceous inflorescence is typically an elongated, often dangling, cluster of imperfect flowers which are in the axils of scale-like bracts. It is a special form of spicate? inflorescence, spike? being the general term for a racemose cluster of sessile or nearly sessile flowers. If the internodes of a spike fail to elongate the flowers become crowded into a head or capitate * inflorescence. In the axil of each scale of a birch catkin we find three flowers (Fig. 254) closely crowded together and so forming the simplest sort of head. These heads of staminate flowers are borne along the sides of a slender hanging rachis, so that the whole compound cluster forms a typical ament. The pistillate heads occur on a stiffer rachis which commonly grows erect, and might therefore properly be called a spike although on account of its scale-like bracts botanists often speak of this inflorescence as a pistillate ament. In the pistillate inflores- cence of hazels (Corylus) the little heads (here two-flowered) are so few and crowded as to form a compound head of heads.‘ In the hazels the staminate flowers are solitary in the axils of the scales, thus forming simple aments; while the pistillate flowers are grouped in heads of two, and each flower is sur- rounded by an involucel formed of its special bract and its 1 Am’ent < L. amentum, a thong or shoestring. Jj. 2 Spi’cate, spike < L. spica, an ear of corn. I:. 3 Cap’i-tate < L. capitatus, having a head < caput, head. I’. 4 All these facts are expressed in the formulas by using an inverted exclamation point as the symbol of an amentaceous inflorescence, an inverted colon for spicate, and two inverted periods for capitate clusters. That the bractlets are adherent to the bracts by their lower parts is shown by the small bracket, 3. 374 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS two coalescent and adherent bractlets. Plants with both staminate and pistillate inflorescences borne upon the same individual plant are termed monecious.! The united bracts and bractlets of birches (Betula) ripen into dry scales forming a cone-like cluster of fruits made up of little samaras. In hazels the involucre becomes much enlarged in fruit, and each surrounds a much hardened peri- carp which because of its hardness and indehiscence is called a nut.? The family comprises woody plants without oil reservoirs but with resinous warts or hairs on the younger parts; simple, stipulate leaves; and monecious inflorescences, the staminate amentaceous, the pistillate in spikes or heads with coalescent bracts and bractlets, and the pistils of two carpels with azxile placente. 123. The beech family (Fagacez). Examples: chest- nut (Figs. 24-26, pages 37, 38), oaks (Figs. 242, 248, 267, pages 257, 258, 277), and beech (Fig. 257, page 268). See pages 414, 415 for the formulas of Fagus, Castanea, Quercus, and Fagacez. The inflorescences of this family resemble those of the preceding family in being moneecious and in part amenta- ceous. It is in the bracts and the way they are borne that we find the most significant differences—differences which become more striking as the fruit matures. Indeed, bot- anists have here met with a morphological problem of more than ordinary difficulty in the preliminary question: What are the homologues of bracts which ripen with a beechnut, a chestnut-bur, or an acorn? In the staminate inflorescences of beech (Fagus) and chest- nut (Castanea) the bracts are obvious enough and are suffi- ciently like those of the birch family to require no special 1 Mo-ne’cious < Gr. monos, one; oikos, household. This is indi- cated by @-@Q. If the staminate inflorescence differs in form from the pistillate the nature of each is shown by placing the inflorescence signs in corresponding order, 2. e., beginning with the staminate. Thus Iii would read ‘“staminate inflorescence amentaceous, the pistillate spicate, both compounded of heads.” 2In the formula this extra hardness of the pericarp is indicated by two inverted exclamation points. THE BEECH FAMILY 375 comment; while the staminate flowers of Quercus are ebrac- teate. The pistillate flowers of beech are two in a head (Fig. 257) which is enclosed in a little cup or cwpule } as it is called, bearing scales or spines on its outer surface. This cup eventually encloses completely the ripening nuts, and when mature splits into four partial valves to set them free. The cupule of chestnuts encloses three flowers, ripens into the spiny bur, and splits sometimes into four valves, and sometimes irregularly. Only one flower is in the scaly cupule of oaks (Quercus), and the single nut which constitutes the acorn is so little covered by the cupule as to make splitting of the cupule unnecessary. Evidently the projections of the beech cup, the spines of the chestnut-bur and scales of an acorn-saucer are homolo- gous, as is also the main part of the cupule of each. But where are the bracts? Do the four divisions of the ripened beech cup and chestnut-bur correspond to so many bracts which in the acorn-saucer remain coalesced? In that case the various outgrowths from the cupule would be regarded as mere projections like the spines on a leaf. This view is held by many botanists. Others maintain that the projections, spines, and scales are the free tips of bracts which have coal- esced by their bases to form the body of the cupule. On this view the cupule would be an involucre of many instead of but four bracts. A third view regards the main body of the cupule as stem, that is to say, as a cup-like development of the secondary peduncle, bearing numerous bracts. Thus regarded, the acorn scales, the beech-nut projections, and the branched spines of the chestnut-bur, are homologized with bracts which are entirely distinct and free from the concave inflorescence-stalk. This last theory seems to be the one most easily reconciled with the facts as they appear in other members of the family as well as in those we have studied.? 1Cu’pule < L. cupula, diminutive of cwpa, cup. : 2 This is the view adopted in our formulas. 7 does duty for the axial part of the ultimate inflorescences; jj ~ following shows that it becomes woody and cancave like a perigynous torus; while < 4 shows that it _ dehisces into four valves; or < that it is indehiscent; and Bj ~ that it bears numerous dry bracts. The other parts of the formulas should be readily understood from what has preceded. 376 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS The family consists of woody plants without oil reservoirs or resinous excretions; but with simple, stipulate leaves; and monecious inflorescences, the staminate mostly amentaceous, the pistillate more or less enclosed in a cupule, which bears dis- tinct, scaly, or spiny bracts; and the pistils of three or more carpels with axile placente. 124. The beech order (Fagales) comprises only the birch and the beech families. These agree in having monecious inflorescences with the staminate flowers mostly in aments, and the pistillate in spikes or heads; the flowers hypogynous or epigynous; the perianth leaves and stamens distinct and alternate; and the ovary with axile placente, and more or less completely divided into two or more cavities, all but one of which becomes obliterated in the fruit. See pages 414, 415 for the formula of Fagales. 125. The walnut family (Juglandacez). Examples: wal- nut (Fig. 27, page 39), butternut (Fig. 28, page 40), pecan (Fig. 29, page 40), hickory (Fig. 30, page 41), and black walnut (Fig. 246, page 260). Formulas of Juglans, Carya, and Juglandacee are given on pages 414, 415. In general appearance the inflorescences of the walnut family resemble those of the beech and the birch, families, but there is a curious adherence between the bracts, Fractlens and perianth leaves, unlike anything we have seen. Those which belong to each flower are all more or less united to form what at first sight might be mistaken for perianth alone. The fruit is mostly a drupaceous nut recalling the almond, but with the tough fleshy part dehiscing into four valves and differing also in having the epigynous torus as a component part. The walnut family may be distinguished as consisting of trees with scented, pinnately compound, exstipulate leaves; and monecious inflorescences, the staminate amentaceous, the pis- tillate in heads; each pistil of two carpels; and the fruit a de- hiscent drupe with a nut-like stone. , 126. The walnut order (Juglandales), contains only the THE CROWFOOT SERIES 377 family from which it derives its name. It is distinguished from the other orders with monecious inflorescences, staminate aments and pistillate heads, by having the perianth leaves or the epigynous torus adherent to the bractlets and bract of each, and the ovary with but one cavity and one ovule. The formula of J uglandales is given on pages 414, 415. 127. The willow family (Salicacez). Examples: willow (Figs. 228 I, II, pages 248, 244) and poplar (Fig. 253, page 264). Formulas of Populus, Salix, and Salicacee are given on pages 414, 415, Much simpler flowers are here shown than any previously mentioned, although scarcely any new features are pre- sented. The torus while cup-like in the poplars, is represented in the willows by one or two glandular projections which secrete nectar. It is plain that a cup divided, or failing to develope, at one or two places would be reduced to such flat projections. A peculiarity of the fruit of both genera is that its two carpels dehisce along their dorsal sutures exposing the small hairy seeds to the wind. This family which contains only the two genera mentioned, is composed of woody plants without oil reservoirs, but some- times with aromatic resinous secretions; the leaves simple and stipulate; the inflorescences amentaceous and diecious; the pistil of two carpels with parietal placente; and the fruit a capsule with numerous tufted seeds. 128. The willow order (Salicales) contains only the above family. Diccious aments of flowers without perianth but with numerous ovules, perigynous (?) torus, and free bracts, distin- guish this from the other orders. The formula of Salicales is givén on pages 416, 417. 129. The crowfoot series (Archichlamydez). A general view of all the orders which we have thus far studied shows them to agree (with but rare exceptions) in having no coales- cence among the petals. All the leaf-parts of any flower are at first similarly distinct as they arise in the bud. Some- 378 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS times petals do not appear at all, but when they do it is as distinct projections from the torus, comparable to the first rudiments of foliage leaves as they form near the tip of a developing shoot. The same is true of sepals, stamens, and carpels, as illustrated in Figs. 298, 299 I. If, however, a gam- osepalous calyx, a monadelphous andreecium, or a compound pistil is to be produced, it happens sooner or later that those Fig. 298.—Flower of Rose (Rosa alpina, Rose Family, Rosacew) in early stages, cut vertically and enlarged. Gr. pappos, grandfather, applied to the thistledown in allusion to white hair. STCj. 2 Met’-a-chla-myd’’-e-ous < Gr. meta, beyond. 3 Di’’cot-y-led’on-ous < Gr. dis, two; pe teton: seed-leaf. THE GRASS FAMILY 387 are called exogenous 1 or outside-growing, because new wood when formed is added on the outside of an older ring. 143. The grass family (Gramine). Examples: oat (Fig. 1- 4, pages 12-14), rice (Figs. 5, 6, pages 16, 17), rye (Fig. 7, page 18), wheat (Figs. 8, 9, pages 19, 20), barleys (Figs. 10-12, pages 21, 22), maize (Figs. 13-15, pages 23, 24), sugar-cane (Fig. 114, page 106), broom-corn (Fig. 222, page 236), and bamboo (Fig. 224, page 239). Formulas of Zea, Saccharmum, Andropogon, Oryza, Avena, Secale, Triticum, Hordeum, Bambusa, and Graminee are shown on pages 420-423. The grasses introduce us to a new sub-class, characterized partly, as we shall see, by having the leaf-veins running in a regular, more or less parallel system. Leaves with such a framework are said to be parallel-veined. Grass leaves always have the veins running lengthwise from base to tip. Other noteworthy features of grass leaves are that the base is wrapped about the stem so as to form a sheath the edges of which overlap as shown in Fig. 13; and the blades extend from only two sides of the stem, thus coming into two vertical ranks. Most grass stems are round and hollow like straws. Rarely, as in the stalk of maize, there is a solid cylinder of pith, through which run scattered bundles of firmer, more or less woody material, not forming true rings, but often so crowded toward the surface as to constitute a somewhat bark-like zone. From an erroneous idea that these scattered bundles originated near the center of the stem and were forced out- ward by new growth, all stems with scattered bundles were early described as “‘inside-growing”’ or endogenous —a term still used conveniently, however, by way of contrast for stems of seed-plants of the non-exogenous type. The bracts and bractlets of grasses in general are com- paratively thin and stiff, like the husks or chaff of grain, and have received the special name of glumes.* 1 Bx-og’en-ous < Gr. exo, outside; genes, seadavitvag: 2 En-dog’en-ous < Gr. endos, within. 3 Glume <_ L. gluma, husk of corn. In our formulas the glumaceous character is denoted by the inverted exclamation mark as in Bj. 388 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS The grain-like fruit of typical grasses resembles an achene in being the product of a simple pistil with one ovule and in being dry and indehiscent. It differs mainly in having the seed-coat adherent to the pericarp. A fruit of this kind is distinguished as a caryopsis.} As shown in Fig. 9 the embryo is placed at one side of the albumen. On the side toward the seed-food is a some- what shield-shaped organ, termed the scutellum,? through which the germ absorbs its nutriment when sprouting. Mor- phologically the scutellum is regarded by most botanists as the cotyledon of the embryo, enlarged and otherwise modified for its peculiar function. Unlike the embryo of dicotyledon- ous plants, the embryo of a grass, as of all the sub-class of seed-plants now to be studied, has but one cotyledon and is hence described as monocotyledonous.* Grasses may be easily recognized as mostly herbs with hollow, cylindrical stems; parallel-veined, two-ranked sheathing leaves; flowers enclosed by glumaceous bracts; and fruit a caryop- sis. 144. The grass order (Graminales or Glumiflore) com- prises grass-like plants with glumaceous bracts, a one-celled superior ovary, and a solitary ovule. The formula of Graminales is given on pages 422, 423. 145. The palm family (Palmacez). Examples: coconut (Figs. 34-36, pages 46, 47), date (Figs. 108, 109, pages 100, 101), sago palms (Figs. 116 I-III, pages 109, 110), rat- tans (Figs. 223 I, II, pages 237, 238), and vegetable ivory (Figs. 266 I, II, pages 275, 276). The formulas of Phoenix, Cocos, Calamus, Metroxylon, Phytele- phas, and Palmacez on pages 422, 423. Although in our examples the leaves are all pinnate and compound, many members of the family have simple palmate leaves, as for instance those from which the familiar palm- leaf fans are made. 1 Car’’y-op’sis < Gr. karyon, nut; opsis, resemblance. Its mor- phology is indicated in a formula by [CE; < G/N 2 Scu-tel’lum < L. a little shield. 5 Mo’’no-cot’’y-led’on-ous < Gr. monos, one. THE ARUM ORDER 389 The flowers of palms are borne on a fleshy rachis which is more or less branched and subtended by one or more large, thick bracts. Such a fleshy spike whether simple or branched is called a spadiz,' and the large bract subtending it a spathe.2 Palms may be distinguished as woody plants, usually with columnar trunks; large, plume-like or fan-shaped leaves; flowers on a mostly branched spadix formed within a spathe. 146. The palm order (Palmales or Principes) includes only the family of palms, which from their majestic appearance and high importance were well called by Linnzus the Princes of the Vegetable Kingdom. From other orders the woody trunks, large and often compound leaves, mostly branched spadizx, conspicuous spathe, and the superior ovary with one or more cells, and one or more ovules, will generally afford sufficient marks of distinction. See formula of Palmales on pages 422, 423,. 147. The arum family (Aracez) is exemplified by Acorus (Fig. 167, page 174.) See formulas of Acorus and Aracee on pages 422, 423. Although the members of this large family differ very much in general appearance and in many details of structure, our common sweet flag represents quite well their essential fea- tures. Asin the palms, there is a spadix, although it is always simple; and there is a spathe which, unlike that of the sweet flag, is generally highly colored. In our example, moreover, the spadix, while appearing as if lateral, is in reality terminal, having been pushed to one side by the peculiar elongated spathe which appears to continue the stem. The family may be defined as consisting of mostly perennial herbs, sometimes aromatic, often ill-smelling or acrid; with leaves of varied form, often netted-verned; and flowers in a sim- ple spadix, subtended by a more or less petaloid spathe. 148. The arum order (Arales or Spathiflore) comprises 1Spa’dix < Gr. spadix, a palm-branch. 2 Spathe < Gr. spathe, a broad flat blade or spatula. The exclama- tion marks used in the formulas after I and B indicate, as usual, the fleshy character, and the oblique line after B, its involucral nature. 390 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS but one other family besides the above. Both are made up of herbs with leaves of varied form, sometimes rudimentary or absent; regular flowers in an unbranched spadix, with one or more spathes; and the superior ovary having one or more cells and one or more ovules. See formula of Arales on pages 422, 423. 149. The rush family (Juncacez) is typified by the com- monrush. (Fig. 221, page 234.) See formulas of Juncus and Juncacez on pages 422, 423. At first sight the rushes appear somewhat similar to grasses, : and indeed certain botanists have regarded them as belonging to the same order. The resemblance comes chiefly from the grass-like leaves of many species and the glumaceous charac- ter of the perianth.1 The family may be defined as herbs with regular flowers having a glumaceous perianth, either six or three stamens, and a superior, compound ovary. 150. The lily family (Liliaceze). Examples: onion (Figs. 60, 61, pages 63, 64), asparagus (Fig. 62, pages 64, 65), Indian poke (Fig. 186, page 199), and lily-of-the-valley (Fig. 193, page 204). Formulas of Allium, Asparagus, Convallaria, Veratrum, and Liliacee are given on pages 424, 426. One of the largest and most important, the lily family is generally easy of recognition as being composed mostly of herbs with regular flowers having a petaloid perianth, six stamens and a superior, compound ovary. 151. The iris family (Iridacez) is represented by saffron (Fig. 168 II, page 176). See formulas of Crocus and Iridacee on pages 424, 425. The Iridacez are herbs having flowers like those of the lily family but with only three stamens, and an inferior ovary. 152. The lily order (Liliales or Liliiflore) comprises several families which are like the lily family in being mostly herbs with leaves of varied form; inflorescence never spadiceous 1 Indicated in the formulas by the inverted exclamation mark. we THE CASE-SEED CLASS 391 though sometimes spathaceous; flowers mostly regular; the ovary compound, superior or inferior; and seeds of moderate number and mostly medium size. See formula of Liliales on pages 424, 425. 153. The orchid family (Orchidacez). Examples: vanilla (Fig. 1481, page 149) and lady’s-slippers (Figs. 212, 213, page 220). See formulas of Cypripedium, Vanilla, and Orchidacee on pages 424, 425. Although in the flowers of this family we can recognize the fundamental type of structure exhibited by the lily-like families, it is here modified by many curious and elaborate complications. An orchid might be described as a lily with irregular perianth, one or two stamens inserted upon the style, the other four or five being suppressed or represented by staminodes, and with an inferior ovary so twisted as to bring the flower upside down. A flower thus turned is said to be resupinate.. However obscure the morphology of special parts may sometimes appear, orchids may usually be recognized as perennial herbs, with irregular, resupinate, epigynous flowers, having a petaloid perianth, one or two stamens adhering to the style, and a capsular fruit with exalbuminous seeds. 154. The orchid order (Orchidales or Microspermze) con- tains but one other family. This agrees with the orchids in comprising herbs similar to the epigynous families of the lily order but forming innumerable seeds of exceedingly small size. See the formula of Orchidales on pages 424, 425. 155. The monocotyl subclass (Monocotyledones) is made up of seed-plants having a monocotyledonous embryo, en- dogenous stem, and mostly parallel-veined leaves. Together with the dicotyl subclass they constitute 156. The case-seed class (Angiospermz) which includes all the flowering plants forming their seeds in a case or ovary 1 Re-su’pi-nate < L. re, back; swpinare, bend. The twist is indi- cated in a formula by @ placed after T. 392 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS consisting of one or more carpels—or in other words—all that have an angiospermous 1 gynoecium. Nearly all seed-plants belong to this class. 157. The pine family (Pinacez). Examples: juniper (Fig. 154, page 158), pine (Fig. 258, page 269), larch (Fig. 259, page 271), spruce (Fig. 260, page 272), red cedar (Fig. 261, page 273), redwood (Fig. 262, page 273), and hemlock (Fig. 263, page 273). See formulas of Pinus, Larix, Picea, Tsuga, Sequoia, Juniperus, and Pinacez on pages 424-427. A considerable variety of opinion obtains among botanists regarding the morphology of the floral parts of the pine family. According to one view the catkin-like clusters, or at least the seed-producing ones, are aments of very simple flowers; while according to the other view what appears to be a catkin or spike is a cluster of stamens or of carpels, and thus represents a many-stamened or many-carpelled flower. Without discussing the relative merits of these rival inter- pretations, we may provisionally adopt the latter as being the simpler view and as best serving our present purpose.? The carpels differ from those of the case-seed class (Angio- sperm) in being flattened structures; hence the ovules are. exposed, or at least are not enclosed in an ovary. The gynee- cium is therefore called “‘naked-seeded”’ or gymnospermous.’ In fruit the gyncecium and elongated torus form a cone with more or less woody scales and axis; or, as in the junipers (Juniperus), these parts may become fleshy and consolidated into a berry-like fruit. The great majority of the pine family are easily recognized as more or less resinous, mostly evergreen trees, producing cones. 158. The yew family (Taxacez) is exemplified by the yew (Fig. 204, page 213). See formulas of Taxus and Taxacez on pages 426, 427. Simplification of floral parts here reaches an extreme. In 1 An’’gi-o-sperm’ous < Gr. aggion, a vessel; sperma, seed. 2 In the formulas Tj indicates that the torus is here regarded as anal- ogous to an ament rachis. 3 Gym’’no-sperm’ous < Gr. gymnos, naked; sperma, seed. THE SEED-PLANT DIVISION 393 the yew (Taxus) not only is the perianth lacking and the andreecium reduced to a few stamens, but the gyncecium is only a solitary ovule borne directly upon the torus and with- out a carpel. This ovule ripens usually into a hard seed which is surrounded by a fleshy envelope formed by the upgrowth of a ring which at first encircles the base. Such an accessory seed-covering growing from below is called an aril.1. In other members of the family the staminate flowers are more cone-like, and there are a few with much reduced carpels each bearing a single ovule which may ripen into a drupaceous seed. The family consists of mostly evergreen, woody plants, with comparatively little resin or none at all; having cones much reduced, or else the ovules solitary and without carpels; and the seed arillate or drupaceous. 159. The pine order (Coniferales or Coniferz) comprises only the two families given above. They are distinguished as woody plants, with branched stem; unbranched, usualiy narrow, leaves; and imperfect flowers which have no perianth, but are often catkin-like, and commonly produce cones. See formula of Coniferales on pages 426, 427. 160. The naked-seed class (Gymnospermez), embraces only a few orders besides the pine order, with only one or two families in each. They all agree in being seed-plants with gymnospermous gyncecium, and are for the most part destitute of perianth. 161. The seed-plant division (Spermatophyta) is coexten- sive with that branch of the Vegetable Kingdom commonly known as Phanerogamia, phenogams, or flowering plants, because characterized by the production of flowers contain- ing at least either pollen-sacs or ovules. Since the produc- tion of seed is the function of these parts, and since no other plants produce true seeds containing an embryo, it is equally appropriate to speak of them as seed-plants, seedworts, or spermatophytes. The system of classification (although not always the sequence of groups) adopted in the foregoing pages is sub- 1Aril<. L. arillus, a dried grape (for no obvious reason). 394 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS stantially that of Engler and Prantl whose great work on the natural families of plants is now most generally followed, at least, with regard to phenogams. In this classification there are recognized among seed-plants about fifty orders and two hundred and eighty families. The eighteen orders, thirty-two families, and about a hundred genera of seed-plants included in this chapter are represented by formulas on pages 404-427 in order that the student may readily compare the more important structural characters of one group with those of another, and so gain a better grasp of the abstract ideas underlying a natural classification. Taken in connection with the accounts of the various groups given in the sections referred to by number before each formula, and with reference to the figures indicated in each section, the formulas will afford a most profitable means of reviewing the many details already studied, and will re- veal some of their wider relations. 162. The vegetable kingdom (Vegetabilia) which includes all plants is regarded most conveniently as consisting of four main divisions assumed to be equal in rank.} The highest division, that of seedworts or spermatophytes, includes most of the forms we have been studying. These agree not only in producing seeds but also in having true roots, stems, and mostly green leaves, all traversed by more or less woody strands, known as fibrovascular bundles, which form a framework or skeleton, and conduct nutrient juices - to every part. True roots, stems, and green leaves, all provided with fibrovascular bundles, occur also in such plants as the male- fern (Aspidium, page 179) and the club-moss (Lycopodium, page 174); but these plants propagate by spores developed in minute spore-cases, and never produce seeds. Plants thus characterized form the pteridophyte or fernwort division. (Pteridophyta). Next to these come such plants as peat moss (Sphagnum, page 242) which propagate by spores similar to those of fern- worts but contained in more or less urn-like cases commonly much larger than fernwort spore-cases, and usually borne on 1 This view differs somewhat from that of Engler and Prantl, but best suits our purpose as being the one most widely adopted at the present day. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM 395 conspicuous stalks; but these plants have no true roots, stems, or leaves with fibrovascular bundles, although often possessing very simply constructed parts resembling small roots, stems, and leaves. Humble green plants of this descrip- tion make up the bryophyte or mosswort division (Bryo- phyta). Finally come such comparatively simple forms as the so- called Iceland moss (Cetraria, page 169), the field mushroom (Agaricus, page 113), and the carrageen (Chondrus, page 112) which, although commonly propagating by spores that are sometimes in cases, have the cases either stalkless or other- wise plainly different from those of mossworts. True roots, stems, leaves, and fibrovascular bundles are never present, although the plant-body may be so lobed as to resemble somewhat that of higher plants. Hence these lowly organized plants form what is known as the thallophyte or lobewort division (Thallophyta). Our three examples of the lobewort division each represent one of its three subdivisions. These may usually be dis- tinguished by their different modes of life. The Iceland moss is an air-plant merely resting upon barren soil without having any means of drawing much nutriment from it, and is con- sequently dependent upon what it can get from the air. This mode of life is made possible by the somewhat spongy nature of the plant-body in which are embedded minute containers of chlorophyll that may become apparent upon wetting. Plants like this so-called ‘‘moss’”’ which thrive in barren places such as the surface of rocks, bark, dead wood, and sandy soil are of the lichen subdivision (Lichenes). The field mushroom differs from all lichens in being entirely destitute of chlorophyll because it feeds directly upon animal or vege- table manure in the soil. Lobeworts which can thus dispense with chlorophyll by feeding upon animals or plants or their decaying remains are of the mushroom or fungus subdivision (Fungi). Aquatic lobeworts, whether of fresh or salt water, which like carrageen contain chlorophyll (sometimes more or less obscured by red, brown, or blue coloring matters) form the seaweed or alga subdivision (Alge). The following synopses show in tabular view the divisions VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS 396 *(VLAHAOLVNUddg) SLUOMAAAG ‘SINVIG ONIUTMOT] ‘SNVDONATHY ‘NOISIAIC] ALAHAOLVWUaAY :][Ayd -O1OTYD JNOYIIA IO YALA {spoos Sulonpoid suvs10 YYIM 4Svo] 7B IO ‘SIOMOY OI} YL *(VLAHd ‘SEINVIG UVINOSVA -OdIUDLG) SLUOMNUAT ‘SNVDOLUAUD UVINOSVA ‘NOISIAICQ] ALAHAOGTUALY :{[Ayd :YIOMOWIVIJ AB[NOSBAOIGY -O1O[YO YIM SAVATR {S]IX’ Ilo} UI IO SoABET OY} UOdN oUIOG Sosvo oYNUTUT JO [[BUIS e puv ‘Soave, pue ‘sure}s ul poonpoid sorods Aq Apoetyo Suryesedoid ynq ‘spoos 10 sIoMOPY ons} Joyo yNoYALAA } ‘s}oor ond} YM Apoqg-juelg ‘(VLAHAOAUG) SLUOMSSOT ‘NOISIAI(] ALAHAOAUG : Y[V}S Jopusys B uodn ousog AT[eNsN st pue ‘sys Aq 10 pry Bw Aq suodo YOM osvd o¥I][-UIN [][eUISs B UT ATJSOUI Soods Suronpoid pus ‘{fAydoso[Yo YALA ‘(SUNAHOIT) NOISIAIGHOAG NAHOIT :JoM UoyM | qydooxo ~yquoredde you |[Aydoroyyo Syueutaynu oj ae oy} uodn Aporys Sutpuedep ynq ‘oxy | oy} puv ‘[los uodieq ‘yareVq ‘SyIOI 0} poyoRy}e SULATT | ‘SWVDOLdAUD UVINT ‘(IDNOW) NOISIAIGGAQ | ~IG() :SIXB O¥I][-W04s B SUOTe WOOUHsaAy :[[AYydoroyyo jo oynyysep ‘sureulor — | popMOdJO SowTyoeuTOS suoIsued SulAvoop Itey} uo 10 sjyuvjd JO s[eutUue UO SUIATT > :(VWLAHdAOTIVH],) SLUOM -XO OYI]-JBo] IO. Soqoy, YIM IO -ad0'T ‘NOISIAIQ] WLAHdOT {SJOOI SUI[GUIOSOISSo] IO a1OUI ‘(WDTY) “IVA, :¥[BjS dJopus[s B uO SyJMOISjNO YIM Us}jo yng NOISIAIGHOG GaaMvag :yueUIsId pet 10 ‘UMOIG OSBO OYI]-UIN [[VWIS B UI Jou ‘YIOMOUIVIF IB[NOSBAOIGY *® ‘antq AQ poyYSvul ssoy JO o10UI oq ABU Yor sarods oy} [[AYydos0[yo YY Jt BULYIB] puw ‘soAvo] IO ‘UI94S [Aydosoyyo Sururezuoo {1098M 4[wS 10 YSodJ UT SuULATT | ‘y[Aydosoyyo ynoyyIM JO YITAA } ‘s}oor ons} ynoYyyIM Apoq-yur[q WOGONIM WIEVLADAA AHL dO SISCONAG TIVHUUNGY) 397 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS (marppryotQ) “A PLYW#4O “LT '* °° °° °° GAOT “BP ‘re[ndoril ‘GB ) : (SPTBPIGIIO) *O PIYO :shourwnd|exo "ps (waonsaquburz) “yi 4abuy “OT *":sSo] 10 F ‘J ‘1 ay "+ **s (SOTBUIUIBZING) *O vuBUEg (m29D8nN J) “Al puDung ‘cil iy ee Tere QS 1erere 16 . euT. ay He) "ey ok ates eee :propsyed ‘SS9] 10 G "By (maonpity) ‘al Sty ‘PL acne tee «60 @ ene © eursaq ne 62 “ls By * (Serer) :ueuINq|®8 (maovpyjphunmy) “yi sujisomy “ET 19 "Bj :snouAsido "ff ‘Oo AIT Auioy 10 (wa00uv7T) “A LT CST :9 "BE :projeyed “ds >proyeyod Aysopy S (waovouns) "WY YsSny “IT °° “E10 Qg “Bs ‘snooseunis ‘ds f :snoudsodAy “pg ) JOU “9 10 g “BF yy ‘ps } ***:propeyed ‘ur “ds - fsnooovuBiquioul *q fe) (maovurpamUo)) yf pomipidy “OL - °° ** :poyeredes sows-uo]jod ‘ sso] 10 9 ‘ey | °°: (Seyeprs4yX) *O SSBID pofa ‘snooorpeds jou Q (wooprpamorg) “Y ajddvauid “6 ~ °°” :pojuredes jou sovs-ua]jod +g ‘ey { -MOTJaA :UouNn]e ATBOUT YFIA “ps ‘gsoUlo0RBl “WT | A (warDLV ) Tif WNL z°) Se RCM AN walt GNC sol DM hee AC) Toate vers W bier! 3 (soyery) ‘0 maniy :9-T “By {snosovqioy “48 4 oe ae "+39 10 Aysopg ‘Arp “ds ES ENV vee psi: Ql 7) 0 dh Ne a ek econ kf Sin ee eae :(soeTewmyed) ‘O Wied {9 “WI 'By :ApooM “48 } snod0B yeds *q !snoootpeds ‘1 ( 12d) “A “Pd emyed) ‘O wed P q q ip waoniadh, ys Yo) alka eS o | Wine ap Ro te ee SYVBOYs Poso]d YIM ‘| 1B nSuBII} = ‘pros 48 | oo : (SoTBUIUIvI "CEC ssBIxj ‘QO “wu ‘ds ( O) “A abpeg °s YIBoys Peso]d YIM "| -1v] 1} == Pll (soyBur 9)'O 9 °0 (mawuwmviy) “WY Ssvigy *G °°: BYPBOYS qyds yjIM *] :poue};ey 10 punod ‘moT]OY “UW “48 f ‘snosoBUIN]S *q ‘oyejnormed 10 oyvords “Ul “I (maapurd) ql aud ‘'D SpE es ES 8 ORR fae ORCI gk Tes NCR CMG NMC Ua aA Te Te Sa eT El :SO1110q Q 10 sauod ut ‘Auoq 10 Ap :poa]Be0UOD “ps +s0N00 rehuquoeGlohd Leroy Leh) fy 1 i : (SeTeIOJIMOD) *Q ed . (waovrny) ‘ymax "§ “TMB Adjnd yy14 10 snosoednip ‘pasodxe "ps :ouoU 10 Md¥ "90 19984800 ‘UT ‘o[dUIIs *] :potouBiq “48 Z (maon0byUry)) ‘al obyury) 6 Pe ety Pe et rea ee ns Ee 6 2.6 56 8 Ge Wie ere es ye, 8,0 : (soyvosyxUrIy) ‘oO osyUIy :poasou-UVj ‘g]duris iT !poyouBiq “48 % Es (DesUnDOR DY Si POR hc 2 NN Ea ie i ‘3 (sayepeos9) ‘CE peddO :punoduoy Ajoyeuutrd "ur "| /poyouviqun “Ur “4s 5 (WACANVIHOVLG ) SLOOIG: UAHOI_, ‘SdIUaG ATMOTITIAG :6L “XO ‘pogTun == ‘d| (w1ALOOIG) SLOOIG ‘SSVTIOGAG TALOOTCG (#WUTdISOIONY ) 2 (@AGAWVTHOIHOUYV) SLOOIG, :Z SUOPI[A4Oo $8,G 10 8, UT “UI B}IVd “Ff SWUAdSOIDNY rs YAMO'T ‘SAIUTG LOOAMOUD *4oUTxsIp 10 ‘o ‘d {pouloA-jou “UI *] :smomedOXO “UI “48 ‘SSVIQ) GAMS-ASV/) Z (#IALOOONOJN) SLOOONOJ| :"AO POSO]D B ‘SSVIDMOG TALOOONO : [ WOps] £409 +8,E UT “UE syed "yg {poutes-ja[[vied “Ur *] ‘snOuSTOpue “Ur "4s | ul pouedi “ps E @ (WWUAUSONWAY)) SNUAISONWAY) ‘SSVID Gaas-daMVN _ SES Tae a eae a 1 0-g SUOPET|A}OO +°AO POBO[D B UT pouedi you "ps “A[TUIBT “WT S1psO “'O :poproyAs “qs toyisoddo ‘ddo ‘0}vu10}/8 “478 $07 ‘— ‘sso] 16 O10UT ‘== +a1OUI 10 ‘4 {usu 10 [e1oAes ‘© SArezT]OS ‘T -ouoU ‘9 {(Ajturey Jo roquinu Aq poMoO][O}) UT SoUITJOUTOS 4deo -xo xo {A]JSOUI “UI ispoos ‘ps :4iMdy ‘Ij +8N107 “+9 {AIBAO “AO {SoTNAO GAIA sjadrvo ‘99 :s19qyUV ‘°G /SOpOUTUIVIS 7 {s10y}UB YFTM syUOUL -B]y 10 ‘suoUIEyS By ‘yjueied ‘ds ‘sjeyod ‘d ‘gjedos ‘s {;e10g 10 sioMog ‘HB :syowrq “q ‘Q0Ud0SdIOPUI “1 {SaAB] “| :UI09S “48 :SUOTPBIADIQGY SLUOMATIG AO SAITIWVY ATHGNOY ANC AO SISAONAG VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS 398 (waonprisvddv,)) ‘q 4edvy (@uafrans)) “wy PAvjsn (waon.000d nq) *y fiddog (MaIDINDT) “YY Jainv'T (warv0yswhpy) “yo Baujnny (MaIDYyIUDIAID)) “YW Qniys-hisaqnvayy (maonYyoubv yy) “q vyoubo Ry (marvUad sua fi) “yf paasuoo py (maon0p119giag) “We hisaquog (MIIDjINIUNUDY) *Y JOO{M0L) (maovmydwfi Ny) “yf fi7u-4210 4 (wmaon)fiydohivy) “yo ywd (M99DID]N}ILOJ) ‘YY IUD)SINT (maana90)0}AYT) *Y paanayod (DIIDJUDLDULY ) “WY YsUDLDU (waopipodouay,)) “yf .oofasooy (wanDUo0bhj0g) *Yy yoaynyong (MaovyJUDLOT) “yf 9079778. FT (wa000014/)) “A 210N (waonL0 JT) *Yy fissaqunyy (annum) “A “IGT (wmaonbvYg) “wy YyI00g (wma0v]nNjog) *Wq Yyouig (wa0npunjOn pf) “yo ynujzD AA (wmarnrWwAfy) “qq fissaghog (wa2v023DG') “A NON2M (wa0v1adtq) ‘qq 4addag “68 “SE LE ‘OF "GE aaa pd Sn ide "+ :payfeo-T “0 q33u9] jenbo qnoqs jo ‘oo-fF “BJ :(soyB Si )e siete a hs tee : pa]]e0-z ps -19Avdeg) “AO *8u0] b pus yloqs Z “Ul “vy ‘SNOUTUING]BxX9 “ps ‘o Addog hen RRS aS 7% ‘Ul ‘§ ‘WaUING]B ATIO GAIA ‘ps | ‘pozlun ‘+ Z% ‘a0 etarhi sib a 3s BIG Behe aes 0s, Ce ele ee ee sow :0 ‘d ‘peyran == ‘S {SOA[VA YJIM “B 'E.jo SsJIOYM F IO E UI ‘BJ Be OS aes is 6) Ow ewe ee ie 8, & snoyd “Jepeuour “By hee sles ‘B (:sjop : (S9TB] :poMoyjog +4 \ ** “goulgstp -]I0 -noung :poyesuoyo * ‘4 f° “By {qyoojaod "gy } qq :2e -8Y) ‘O °82 ‘GL ‘OL Sta eh ele eres ha TR Mcee ce SOA[BA ‘cg ‘xo 300} ‘29 ‘09 ‘cc anoyqyia “es ‘tednip e ‘ij | :sjop | ‘+7 ‘d Hes -MOID ‘69 “LY ‘IP “ISOA[BVA BIA ‘UI "Be ‘AIIOG B “IJ } -[10 :youry “xo :¢cg > 00 ‘UL “9 ‘LE ‘GE “xo ek) anal ae ISOATBA yno -sIp ‘Ss [ery ‘$e ‘xo ‘6 *xe porojoo ‘d qnoyyIa “eB fAIIeq @ IO AIP “IJ } -YJIM | iq “Ul “By | -SolIey | ‘JouTZSIp ‘snouA :projeyed ala i a "| pedeys-pjolgs suyvoy yyIM squoy orenbe ‘w-{ ‘a0 | -ZodAy ‘B } 10 YstuvaIs ‘s 7 ES Oe eRe BUR ER POI IAMS Fron ins het 1¢ 10 B'S Be a ee ee oan LOVIYM “UL *S tsnosoRqioy *q !AIIEq B ‘Ij So Sas Bae *Aroded ‘s !Aroded *q gues cn he ee RM pba a cian @ 23 "** "i )Brdeqoe “ay ‘snouAZodAy "pg !09B0I100 ‘4/8 "| ‘squoy “UI : (SayeMOZATOg) ‘O Aiioq snouAdsida ue “aj {*ddo ‘| ‘sayisvavd Apoom : (SaTeye}UBS) °C ee RO te eo ae ke oe :[BIU9yoe “Ij :-ddo ‘ur *] !Aroqyea des yyIM 89014 10 sqi10y :Aysop ‘ur ‘ay ¢-ddo *] yy sqiey 10 ‘des AH[IUI Y4IA S901} a ae aoe aia wank :sodnip 10 seieures “aj ‘4/8 “] ‘des A19yBA 44IM s00I} : (SaTVotjIQ) ‘O 9RI9N esourAd “UI ‘I **:soyndno ul ‘ayl]-ynu “ay ‘+ ¢ *a0 | : (SaTBBB,T) °C Sine 253 :@Yl]-9U09 “UW “IT 'Z ao f qoeeg :eyejndys ‘ejduiis ‘| :(soyepuryanf) -O ynuyeA :93e[NdYsxe ‘oayvuuld ‘| rane : (sayeorsApy) “OC ArsoqAeg :aze[ndiysxe ‘ajduits *] }) :snotowuour ‘I :snosoe}u0uIB 2 (SOTBOTTBS) “O MOTI :SNOMeIp *T ‘Ul ‘i aorta Arey “ps :ayeyndys ‘ayduns *| BT hore aoe :snoulwing]s ‘T “ps !pozran ‘F—] “8d ‘OT-T “ej :(SeTeledtq) ‘CG 1eddeg :ozvords ‘1 : (SoTwIpodousey)) "O JOOJaS005 ‘se ‘ge. -xe‘p “d ‘Aroded 10 ysiueels “Ul ‘8 yeaqMyong :proyeyed “wi ‘s poomjepurg :projedes ‘wm ‘ds SLOOIG. 399 VARIOUS PLANT GROUPS (maonYno1ajs)) “WY DIynI1a7G) (wmaopayv py) “A nonvD Ky (many) “A UapUrT (maonjiA) *Yy adnspH * (MIIDUULDYY) “WY ULOYININGG * (waonunpspI0ddrF]) * Yf INUWISIYI-9S.LO FT (marn1a9 PH) “yi e7dv py (waovyofinby) “A ANOTT (marnIpsvIvUYP) “yo sDULNY (maoniquoydny) ‘Wf abindyg (wasnr1a Pl) “WY 9asq-DULYyD * (MaoDINY) “WY ana * (man hxosyi hig) “WY DID (ma00UIT) “WY TD) * (waonpyDrO) “A S1yPTOQ * (maonlUDLAy)) “yy UNUudDLA‘) (wsourtmnbaT) ‘WY asjnd (waovsoy) *Y asoy (M29DUDjD) J) “WY 994j-aUDTT * (MaIDpriIUDWUY PT) “WY 2aZDY-YINM * (marvbdsfizvg) *q abovufixogy (maonjnssDL)) *Y aUurdiC PRs LD hr ares oe ‘:poqran ‘s! ‘prea ~jno sutuedo ‘z sovs-ualjod | MOY “Bs eo Mat Ces Gum Seeers :poqrun °s { pavan -jno Sutuedo ‘T sows-uapjod + :0O "BT : (SOTBATVIAT) ac ane Viggen hu :Q0UIJSIp "8 {prem ‘0 MOTEL ‘°G ey} ‘ddo -ul Sutuedo ‘Z% soes-ue]jod ‘oo ‘ur ‘wy | sdnois Gg 10 [ OJUT pozlun “ey :8]TIpuod} YJTM S9UIA ApOOM::AII0q vB Iy ) 2 (SoTeUUTeY) eau Nie GAM ae MIRE itiys PE :SOULA ‘OQ WON} HONG Jo ‘sqniys ‘s901} :AIp 10 snosoBdnip “sj | ‘dsurpusose “uM ‘9 TG DR Tene lee le ihipe. © ee :pod AIOY} BO] e ‘ij ‘oyeured ‘ddo "| ‘aBpnso11 ‘Pf : (SOT ee aati: :BIBUIES -epuldes) ‘oO posutn-Z B “Ij ‘snonploep ‘| Ai1aq-dB0g ee UA AEN i+ *ps :snooo :dn ofAd -ednip ‘IJ sehen fOr] -O1OTUL |S 2 eas pth ta ‘ps :snoeo -1op sudei -ednip ‘aj ‘euoupnoep ‘| J ‘aeynder ‘yg J :duisuey ‘ur ‘a CM Uk gh blag Se CR O M i ee ket 3 *20 : (soye od qoojiodut B :seqn yytur yy ‘ur -Imvi95)) Wee ai ‘peqyjop jou ‘| pie ulsel ‘O unia :8puB]s-{10 qi perop "| IO [IO YYIM -Blay sar aap pee :o1tjue ‘a[d ‘dn ofAd -WIs "| {podepuoddy ‘d ! (SaTe}IqIno -N9Q) ‘O pinoy :oded vB ‘ul ‘Ij ‘sired Ul pozIUN = "BJ ‘s]upuey ji ‘ur } :peqrun ‘urs (waopiypofiudn,)) “y ayyonshauoH *26 "ot ‘polip uoyM Zutuoyoe|q 3Ou ‘o}B[NdyWsxe ‘| | : (SoyTBIqny) :snous (ma0D19Qny) “W MepppAT “9G CC pop usyA Zulusyoeq "Ul ‘azB[Nd1}48 *| ic ‘OC JOppRByL :}OUTISIp *B -31do "g (maopurbnjUn) 7) “A UIDIUD) J "C6 Dee AS Te ALS Mw eee WELW VSS) OR dp eee SR key (@ Woe) 6 bah leume nae neue : (SoyBuIsB} URI q) ‘O UrejUR[q ‘fF ‘By pus ‘d's {4/8 ‘ojduris "| ‘ojwords ‘wi ‘t ‘Arodud ‘d (ma0D)NQ’jUIT) “WY MONLeppHI_ “FH “ ‘* [o]Ixe wyU00 -B[d !po][o0-[ *AO- fomenbe ‘ur (waov1u0Ubig) ‘q Diuoublg ‘eB °°" * "os [re]NBo1I1 ‘p {yeqoued wqusonld (wmaopiipjnydo19g) ‘Wy joNbiy °ZG FAO Gu "By S18] “NdeI ‘"B (maonunj0g) “Yq apoysjyBiN “16 3G ‘Ul By *ps ‘16 1B] TOjIxe + [8114 oo SUI ‘06 : (solB -ngot ‘g | ayueoR[d | -soii0, | -WI0J ‘90 ‘68 -1uoul CIO0UT) ROR OG | pe *P9qol-F *AO "ps So =e 219d) —[ sul ‘ren ‘Oo (MagDUagsa A) “WY DUaqIaA “GBB :poqo] jou “AO |} -UIIOJ ‘90 | -BZolI ‘Ff xolUd (wmaonurbn10g ) ‘Al abviog Tote) Eh let Pike fe Ce Tee Staak 1s TP Ta Te, eT ee . :SOUTA [88 :pogrun jou ‘sjo]}nU fF DUO; puBw poqo]-F *AO *xo Ajoyo|d (Maonjnijoruo,)) ‘Wf fidojb-Burusopy "JQ es **:SoUIA ‘UI ‘18 -u109 IJ UT S}JO[JNU Butu10J 1oU poqoy you “Ao | -ndea “B ) ‘Z ‘u *a0 (maovpwidapsy) *y paanyppy “QR °° tS AxBA uspjod meq} :JoUTJSIP soy Aqs qyIM (waovufis0d y) ‘yy aunqbogq ‘Gg :AiopMod usyjod :AypIu des “418 ‘poqiun se]Aq8 | fpoqlun sBUIsi}s : (soyeu pus (Maovuniuay) “q@ upyuay "pg ‘°° ‘:eyepndiysxe -B1}0945)) ‘IaMoJ ‘T ‘poljeo-—T “Ao i'd sv ‘O uenusy 10 (waon1uvb0T) ‘yy viuvboT ‘eg °°" sayejndys :Ar10yeM des AuBul ‘poplun AIO Auvul ‘| ‘poayjeo-% “AO | [qouTYsIp sBUIDTyS 8B “BI Ayjaed 10 -ded 8t (990270) ‘WY 2270 *FBo sqnays 10 soar} "WW {9 10 Far 'd tg “ey | yourstp ‘Z ‘eo | you ‘d | “d uo ‘vy (masnjod vy) *Y vIipod ny “Tg * *180QO]-B]]0100 AUBUI 8B “B} : (SaTRUEq |) *O AUOgY :Apoom :910UL (waon)nwW147) ‘Al ISOLUAd ‘08 A Ween Nala B eeeLR Ee NaS y COO WIM, © 6 Visie’ Sul vas dodet teow b erw © es ne ‘soyns 10 ‘ Ea G-N © Christmas rose CE 5, ) Ee A Iran Cpr 22.9 Eo G—N fennel-flower CE 5+) Ka Ta Cj <6) Ko G-N columbine CE 5 Eo TA Cras Eo G-N monkshood CE 3-5 E® TA C7 235 Ho G—N baneberry Chl Eo Aiea Cri Eo G—-N anemony CE EFie4+ Ta Cia El G-N clematis CEo,0 Eie2 + J igs Cla er. ‘Ei 1 G-N crowloot CE © Ei Ta Cie E1 G-N mouse-tail . CE © Ei TA Cie El G-N peony Ckhb= E& Ts, Cj <5+ Eo G-N CROWFOOT FAMILY CExc+ Es&-e0,« Ta Ci SEED-PLANTS ‘EA ICEi< Sis TA Cil< TA Ciill< Ta Clii< a ine CHE TA CI< x Ta Clo < Ta Ta Cle Piss | Ci< Ta TR Cf: TA CLE: E1 Et E3 ES Ea E1i+ Ea = "493 G/N G-N G-N G-N G-N G-N G-N -N 424 Ok Ob | Lf /1,/1-8 L!/,,/ x Li), FORMULAS OF I/ 8 Bi /2 +) Vis f@o Iy-Q Iy-9 SP” 3x 3,) SP” 3x 3,) SP” 3x 3) SP” 3x 3) SP” 3x 3,) SP” 3x3) SP” 3x 3) SP” 3x 3,) Allium (150) FA 6] Asparagus FA 6] Convallaria FA 6] Veratrum FA6 LILIACE FA 6,] Crocus (151) FA 3] IRIDACEZ FA 3] LILIALES (152) FA Seu Cyprepedium (153) SP”-?xzftx FAs SP” iX2 Vanilla FA ¢Xf ORCHIDACE SP”?x4,f%x FAtxf2, FA3 ORCHIDALES (154) SP’3xX3,7 V Fos — iF ; = ae S w= S n= S oir S >a CS = S-) <= = iS > s| Ke Co > fs z/S 4 a ay 2| /S a|/= z\/< ocr oF > = PRIMITIVE STOCK Fic. 300.—Family tree of Ranunculacez, illustrating the evolution of the group as provisionally suggested in the text (pp. 437-440). into one plane, is shown in Fig. 300. If our idea of the kinship of the different genera be correct, this diagram represents the branch- ing lines along which we may suppose these members of the family to have evolved. All that lies below the terminal twigs is supposed to be buried; and, in a general way, the further a branch or line of descent extends to the right the more is it supposed to depart from the original ancestral form. Our vertical diagram thus indicates that of all the living forms of Ranunculacee, Caltha most nearly resembles the ancestor of the family. According to this view the story of the family’s evolution would be somewhat as follows. Among the descendants of Caltha- like moisture-loving plants which grew in a remote geologic age, some retained for innumerable generations the characteristics which fitted them for living under the comparatively uniform con- ditions afforded by protected moist situations, and are represented to-day by our marsh-marigolds. In these have survived a most primitive type of flower, hypogynous, with many-ovuled, distinct 438 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION carpels, numerous stamens of ordinary form, and a regular perianth of almost leaf-like sepals; and a very simple form of palmate leaf and herbaceous stem. Certain other descendants of the primitive stock showed in very early times a modification of the torus and perianth (resulting in perigynous flowers with the perianth differ- entiated into a well-defined calyx and corolla), also an advance in complexity of leaf-form, and more or less woodiness of stem. The plants of this branch were thus able to thrive under the more exact- ing conditions of open fields, and have become the highly developed sturdy peonies of to-day. Very early in the development of what we may call the hypogynous branch of the family, there appeared some more or less Caltha-like forms, in which the carpels did not open at maturity, but separated like seeds from the parent plant. This change of habit made it unnecessary for more than one seed to mature in each carpel, so the result was an achenial instead of a follicular fruit. Those descendants which retained rudiments of several ovules became in time either forms of Anemone or of Clem- atis according as they developed the peculiarities of this or that genus; while similarly those in which the reduction to one ovule was complete, gave rise to such plants as buttercups and mouse-tails. In much the same way we find those descendants which comprise the more primitive subbranch with its many-seeded carpels becom- ing differentiated into forms retaining the original follicular fruit, and forms in which the fruit is indehiscent and fleshy, as in Actea. Along the lines with follicular fruit the appearance of forms with certain of the stamens changed into more or less conspicuous nec- taries give rise to a departure from the Caltha-like forms, which in turn became differentiated into those in which the corolla remained regular and those in which more or less irregularity was shown, as inmonkshood. Finally, the regular-flowered forms with staminodes developed such peculiarities as the spurs of Aquilegia, and the curious follicular capsule of Nigella, by which the modern genera of this subgroup are now distinguished. ‘It might fairly be asked whether entirely different lines of descent from those here given would not as well explain the modern forms upon which our reasonings have been based. Undoubtedly this is true. Thus, instead of supposing the progenitor of the family to have been an herb like the marsh-marigold we might perhaps with more probability assume it to have been a shrub or tree resembling a woody peony or a magnolia; for in other families there is much evidence in favor of the view that herbaceous seed-plants have had woody ancestors. But in this family we have no direct proof that its earliest members were woody, and for us to make the assumption would complicate our reasoning without rendering any clearer the general principle we are trying to make plain. Let the student, therefore, take our crowfoot family tree simply as rep- resenting one out of many possible ways of accounting for the facts at hand, and as liable to modification whenever new light appears on the problem. It is merely intended to illustrate the kind of reasoning that biologists employ in the absence of evidence from fossil remains, and DOCTRINE OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION = 439 If we trace the evolution of a given form backward to its beginning we come to more and more primitive conditions. Mouse-tails, for example, we should derive from ancestors re- sembling buttercups in having a shorter torus, more stamens, spurless staminodes, and broader leaves. It seems reasonable to suppose that these mouse-tail-buttercups left no unmodified descendants, and so were not exactly like any living form of buttercup, although we might fairly presume that they showed more of the relatively primitive buttercup structure than of the peculiar mouse-tail features. These buttercup-like ancestors would be traced back to progenitors more nearly resembling anemonies in which rudimentary ovules still bore witness to a previous many-ovuled stage, when also certain of the outer stamens were showing only rudimentary anthers and were secreting nectar on broadened filaments. The step from this form, from which both mouse-tails and anem- onies descended, to the marsh-marigold-like ancestors of the family, requires us to imagine little more than a previous full development of the ovules and anthers which later became reduced, and a more ordinary form of filaments and carpels. In the above examples of the way an evolutionist conceives the changes in a group to have progressed, innumerable details of the process have necessarily been omitted for the sake of simplicity. Many branches would have to be inter- polated if all living genera of the family were to be repre- sented, and there is no knowing how many dead branches should be shown to make the family tree complete. It must, of course, be frankly admitted that the conclusions are largely guesswork supported only by circumstantial evidence, for no remains of the very perishable ancestral forms of the crowfoot family have come to light. Our examples, however, are typical of evolutionary schemes in general, and so may help our understanding of the theory of evolution. One prevalent misconception which it should correct is the notion that forms now living are supposed to have been derived from ancestors just like other recent forms. On the contrary, the kind of conclusions they reach by such means. That such conclu- sions are at best far from satisfactory goes without saying; but herein lies a challenge to do better, and a spur to further study. 440 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION evolutionists believe that more or less modification is the rule among all the descendants of a given form, and that only rarely has it happened that ancestral forms have persisted for ages unchanged. Thus, in regard to the last examples, the most we should be willing to say is that mouse-tails were probably derived from plants something like the more primi- tive forms of recent buttercups, such as the ditch crowfoot (Fig. 209); that these ancestral crowfoots came from plants — something like our marsh-marigold; and so on. It is thought that single traits or a few traits in combination, are more apt to survive through long periods than the many peculiari- ties characterizing a complex structure. Closely connected with the erroneous view above men- tioned is the notion that all the modern representatives of a group can be arranged in a single series beginning with the most primitive, and passing on to the most highly evolved through survivals of the intermediate stages or ‘‘ connecting links.”’ From what has been said it will be obvious that such an arrangement would be possible only on condition that all the forms which had ever appeared were actually repre- sented by living descendants and that modification had occurred only in one direction. As a matter of fact, gaps, often great, between related forms are continually met with. Indeed, if the “connecting links” of the past, represented by the dead branches of our tree, had not disappeared there would be no possibility of classifying living forms into groups and subgroups, for there could be no limits to any group. Sometimes within a group it is as if Nature had as yet done little or no pruning, and the result is most bewildering to those who attempt a classification of the forms. No two students of the group are likely to agree as to where lines of demarca- tion should be drawn. Such a group is that of the roses previously mentioned. But even here, for all the embarrass- ing wealth of connecting links, it is quite impossible to ar- range the forms in a single series. There are many diverging series which branch again and again. Their relationships as inferred from their degrees of likeness can best be expressed by a branching system, and while of course the systematist must deal with his groups one after another insimple sequence, ACQUIRED ADAPTATIONS 441 he cannot make such a sequence adequately express his idea of their kinship. If we are warranted in supposing that all members of the crowfoot family are the descendants of plants like our marsh- marigold we may assume with scarcely less probability that plants closely similar to these primitive marsh-marigolds were the ancestors of all of the crowfoot order, and indeed that from plants having very much the same primitive characteristics came, in the course of geological ages, all of the dicotyls and perhaps all the monocotyls as well. Our mental images of ancestral forms are necessarily dim in pro- portion to the remoteness of the form conceived, and are likely to change as we receive new light. Yet these mental diagrams of things no longer to be seen help our seeing of the things about us. From the evolutionary point of view all life takes on a new significance. The possibility of gaining some glimpses of how the living world came to be as it is, makes all life more deeply interesting. Details of structure or behavior in a humble plant may lead us to some of the greatest truths of life. 166. Acquired adaptations. The belief that all existing organisms are the more or less modified descendants of rel- atively primitive forms, is now as generally held by naturalists as is the belief in universal gravitation among astronomers. Yet astronomers are still striving to understand how it is that the force of gravity can act as it does; likewise naturalists ‘are still debating the fundamental question as to how in- herited modifications have arisen. That somehow plants and animals have evolved is now taken for granted; but there are wide differences of opinion as to the way in which the changes have been wrought. In these few pages we can glance only briefly at the lead- ing views now held regarding the origin of species. Each theory aims to account for the appearance of those peculiari- ties of structure or behavior which distinguish one group from another; as for instance the climbing habit of clematis and the long, mostly hairy-tailed fruit which is found no- where else in the family except with certain anemonies in- habiting wind-swept fields. Peculiarities of this sort are 442 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION often connected in some helpful way with the life of the in- dividual—hairy appendages insuring to achenia widespread dissemination by wind, and the power to climb facilitating economically the quick exposure of green parts to sunlight. In such ways an organism, as we have seen, is adjusted, often marvelously well, to its environment; and we call the adjustments which promote its welfare adaptations. It is with questions of the origin and inheritance of adaptations that the debates of evolutionists are mainly concerned. We must, therefore, at the outset examine carefully just what is meant by an adaptation. Every individual plant or animal is found to have the power of modifying its form or behavior in response to out- side influences, and such modification is often beneficial. Indeed we need not distinguish here between form and behavior, for even structure is but the result of growing in certain ways, and growth is merely a slow kind of behavior. So we may say that each living thing, in so far as it is alive, has a certain limited power of adaptation through direct response to environing influences. As a seed sprouts, its little root turns toward the place of greatest moisture, while the young leaves are directed toward the light, and if the illumination be feeble the stem helps the leaves by elongating more than it would if the light were stronger. A tree exposed to strong winds of one prevailing direction takes on a one- sided form thereby reducing the strain. Herbs which in rich moist soil produce tall stems and ample foliage before they flower, will on a sandy roadside bloom as soon as they have made a few small crowded leaves and are only a few inches high, thus, doing the best they can under adverse conditions. Dandelions grown on a mountain side look very different from those grown in the lowlands (Fig. 301), and the peculiarities of each seem to fit in especially well with the contrasting conditions. Such cases of advantageous adjust- ment made during the life of an organism may be termed individual adaptations. From these we must distinguish characteristic adaptations, or advantageous peculiarities be- longing to whole groups. Of such adaptations the charac- teristics of clematis above referred to may serve as examples; ACQUIRED ADAPTATIONS 443 or we might take a mountain species of buttercup (Fig. 302) which differs from near relatives of the lowlands in having a stunted, compact form well suited to alpine conditions and a rosette of leaves somewhat resembling those of our moun- Fic. 301.—Common Dandelion (Yarazricum officinale, Sunflower Family, Composite). P, plant as it grows in the lowlands, reduced in size. M, plant as it grows at high altitudes, reduced in the same proportion as P. M’, the same plant as M less reduced. (Bonnier.)—Native home, Europe; very common as a weed in America. tain form of dandelion. A peculiarity supposed to have arisen in response to some direct influence of the environ- ment is said to be acquired. If it be characteristic of a group it is called an acquired character, while in so far as it serves to fit the organism for the special conditions of its life it is an acquired adaptation. 444 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION - It has been thought by many naturalists that the differ- ences among plants and animals may best be accounted for as peculiarities which have arisen in individual acquire- ments, these having become hereditary and thus characteris- tic after many generations of similar response to a similar environment. Suppose, by way of example, that some of the seedlings from primitive marsh-marigolds grew in a rather dry locality and were more or less shaded by over- growth. They might be expected to respond to the lessened light by elongation of the internodes and leaf-stalks, while a Fic. 302.—Pigmy Buttercup (Ranunculus pygmeus, Crowfoot Family, Ranunculacee). Plant. Flower. Fruit. (Britton and Brown.)— Perennial (?) herb 5-12 cm. tall; flowers yellow; fruit dry. Native home; northern America and Eurasia. finger-like lobing of the blades through increased growth along the ribs and scant growth of the pulp between the stem would be fortunate as enabling the leaves to catch more of what little light there was. But the less favorable conditions for food-making would render it impossible for them to form and feed as many seeds as the marsh plants had done; hence some of the later-formed ovules would be more or less starved. From the good seeds formed by these pioneer plants and scattered in the vicinity, a second generation would arise, the individuals of which would respond similarly to the same trying conditions. Innumerable generations might follow, ACQUIRED ADAPTATIONS 445 similarly responding, and if each generation were influenced ever so little by the responses of the generations before, that is to say, if the acquired peculiarities were inherited: to any extent, the foundations laid by the pioneers would be built upon by their descendants. As a result we should have in successive generations the stems growing longer, and the leaves more branched and finally becoming com- pound. An increased sensitiveness to light might be accom- panied by greater sensitiveness to contact and this might lead to a coiling of the leaf-stalks around neighboring twigs, thus establishing the habit of climbing by means of which better exposure to light would be most economically secured through utilizing for support the very bushes which had made the shade. As a consequence of the starving out of the upper ovules there would result finally a fruit the upper part of which had become a mere tail-like projection sur- mounting a one-sided indehiscent base. A general hairiness which had been developed in all the exposed parts of the plant in response to the dryness of its new environment might especially affect the fruit as being now especially ex- posed, and might lead even to an elongation of the tail which would thereby become well adapted for enabling the wind to carry the precious seed high over surrounding shrubbery. In some such way as this it is conceivable that the characters of a clematis may have evolved. The first naturalist to suggest that organisms had evolved through the accumulation of acquired characters was Jean Baptiste Lamarck, of France, who flourished in the early part of the nineteenth century. His doctrine is called La- marckism, or as modified by his more recent followers, Neo- Lamarckism. Lamarckians have advanced much evidence to show that acquired characters are often adaptive and may be inherited; but while most naturalists might concede the possibility of such characters being now and then adaptive, the great majority of evolutionists have remained uncon- vinced that acquired characters are ever fixed by inheritance. So far as we know, acquired characters do not long survive the conditions under which they arise. Cultivated plants escaped from cultivation soon become, as we have seen, 446 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION indistinguishable from wild plants of the same species. But might not very long subjection to changed conditions finally fix an acquired character? Possibly, and it should be said that the botanical evidence is perhaps more favorable to this view than the zodlogical; but if the facts can be explained without relying upon suppositions hardly possible to verify, we may build upon a safer foundation. 167. Selected adaptations. Dissatisfaction with La- marck’s explanation of modification through acquirement, deterred most of his contemporaries from accepting the theory of evolution, and it was not until Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace offered an explanation based upon acknowl- edged facts that evolutionism was welcomed at all widely by scientific thinkers. The new doctrine is generally known as Darwinism, because Darwin’s contributions in support of it were most extensive and important, although both Darwin and Wallace, working quite independently, came to sub- stantially the same conclusions, and announced them at the same meeting of the Linnzan Society of London in 1858. Darwin felt that the problem of how one species changes into another might best be attacked by studying the modi- fications which plants and animals undergo when domesti- cated. We have already seen (page 126) how much has been accomplished with cultivated plants by artificial selection,— farmers taking their seed from those individuals which please them best and continuing to pick out for propagation year after year the plants which show most fully those most de- sirable features. Here it would seem as if hereditary pecul- iarities were surely depended upon, and that the most strik- ing departures from an original form represented the sum of many small differences in one direction accumulated through successive generations by inheritance. Darwin reasoned that if it could be shown that plants and animals in nature were continually subjected to agencies which favored the propagation of individuals possessed of slight hereditary peculiarities contributing to their welfare, the most perfect adaptations would be accounted for and the origin of species scientifically explained. What natural agencies can be supposed to exert a selective SELECTED ADAPTATIONS 447 power at all comparable to man’s influence in developing artificial varieties? In the first place Darwin pointed to the fact that every kind of plant or animal produces more off- spring than can possibly come to maturity; for if none died without issue, the progeny of one individual or pair of in- dividuals would shortly cover the whole earth. Thus fifty dandelion plants from one, each bearing fifty-fold, and so on for nine generations, would make more than enough dande- lions to occupy every foot of dry land on the globe. In- numerable individuals of innumerable kinds are continually producing offspring in large numbers. Since many more are produced than can mature it appears that a competitive struggle for life must be going on throughout the living world; and, he argued, so intense is this struggle that if some indi- viduals had an adaptational peculiarity which gave them even a slight advantage over their rivals, such favored in- dividuals would be the ones to survive and leave offspring. Some of their offspring would be sure (judging from breeders’ experience) to inherit the same peculiarity, and these favored offspring would in turn transmit it more or less enhanced to certain of their descendants, and so on along lines of fa- vored individuals in which the peculiarity in question would . become more and more pronounced. This improvement would continue up to the point of adapting the organism as perfectly as possible to its environment. In this way a fa- vored race might become a new species through survival of the individuals best fitted to a slowly changing or slightly changed environment. The natural agencies which favor the survival of certain races in the struggle for existence Darwin compared in a metaphorical way to the human agencies which control the production of cultivated varieties. Both Man and Nature, he argued, act by selecting through successive generations certain peculiarities. Man chooses to encourage what pleases him. His method is Artificial Selection. Nature encourages only those peculiarities which best fit the organism to its environment; her way Darwin called Natural Selection. The phrase has been often misunderstood through failing to take it merely as a symbol of the way certain natural forces act. 448 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION Darwin defined natural selection as meaning “the preserva- tion of favored races in the struggle for existence.”’ He accepted Herbert Spencer’s phrase, ‘‘survival of the fittest’”’ as a good equivalent. | The theory of natural selection assumes, then, a struggle for existence among contemporary individuals in a given environment—a struggle resulting from vastly more of each kind being produced than can possibly survive, and so in- tense that even a slightly advantageous peculiarity may be enough to secure for its possessor both life and offspring. Such favoring peculiarities, according to the theory, are to be found in the small differences observable among indi- viduals of the same kind living in the same environment. Hence we need not suppose them to be acquired, and we may safely regard them as hereditary because experience shows that peculiarities of this sort are regularly inherited. Since these slight departures from the parent form take various directions under the same circumstances, they are termed fluctuating variations, in distinction from definite variations, which are all in the same direction, as must be the case with those due to the same influence—like a direct effect of the environment—acting upon similarly constituted organisms. Darwin did not pretend to explain the origin of fluctuating variations further than to regard them as con- stitutional peculiarities resulting from the interplay of in- ternal forces. These he saw might be so delicately balanced as to be readily disturbed by change of environment, and he recognized that a change of conditions commonly induces — variability, and so gives a wider range of differences for selec- tion to work upon, as when a horticulturist desiring to develop a new variety subjects his seedlings to unaccustomed condi- tions. But in so far as the variations are in different direc- tions, they must be regarded as induced by the change rather than produced directly by it, and so may be spontaneous rather than acquired. Darwin’s theory carried to its extreme by his modern followers, known as Neo-Darwinians, denies that acquired peculiarities are ever fixed by inheritance. Only what was inborn in the parent, they say, can be transmitted to the SELECTED ADAPTATIONS 449 offspring, and the more often such peculiarities have appeared in the line of ancestry the surer they are to reappear in all the descendants. Neo-Darwinism is thus in sharpest contrast with Neo-Lamarckism. The thoroughgoing Darwinian of to-day rejects all direct influence of the environment as a factor in organic evolution. Assume spontaneous variations, he would say, and let some of them be in adaptational direc- tions, then in the struggle for existence which is always going on, the life and death of rivals will turn upon which has in- herited the better equipment, and upon this will also depend the chance of transmitting to offspring the qualities which saved the parent’s life. Every gain in efficiency of adaptation will thus be preserved and successive gains accumulated till highest efficiency is reached, and when the most perfect adaptation has been secured it will be maintained indefinitely so long as the environment remains essentially unchanged. Since there are often different ways of attaining the same end, and so fitting different individuals successfully into the same environment, and since also there are different environ- ments to which a variable species may accommodate itself, such a species may give rise to several species in the course of many generations. If the intermediate forms or “‘connect- ing links” from being less perfectly adapted than the extreme forms should eventually succumb in the struggle, and so become extinct branches of the genealogical tree, gaps would appear between the surviving forms permitting us to define them as distinct species. A longer continuation of the same process would result in the differentiation of genera, families, and higher groups. Let us see how the theory of natural selection would apply to our supposed evolution of clematis. Imagine many thousand primitive marsh-marigold individuals inhabiting moist localities surrounded by drier spaces. These plants would be sure to vary somewhat in their ability to withstand _occasional dry seasons. Among the millions of seeds pro- duced by the tougher individuals a good share would surely be scattered along the edge of the drier spaces where there would yet be enough moisture for them to sprout. Those of the seedlings which had come from the toughest parents and 450 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION had inherited most fully their toughness would gain a feot- hold where the less favored of their fellows could not survive, and, since the adversities of the new environment would try them more and more as they grew older, only the very tough- est of them could produce seed. Still it might fairly be sup- posed that a few, at least, would do so. Most of these seeds would fall on the drier soil, the seedlings therefore would similarly compete, and the winners be selected from among the very toughest. Such rigorous selection might be expected to insure a progressive toughening in successive generations of drought-defying plants, and a continuation of the process might be expected to result in a gradual invasion of the drier spaces by much toughened descendants of the moisture- — loving form. Once accustomed to the drier soil they would have become less fitted for a wet locality and their progeny would consequently be excluded from the old home. During the gradual adaptation of the new form to its drier environ- ment, the individuals might acquire more or less adaptative peculiarities and so far as the toughness was not impaired thereby, these new features would be permitted by natural selection and might appear in successive generations just as if they were inherited. From marsh-marigold-like ancestors might thus evolve primitive anemonies through the indirect effect of drier conditions acting along the same lines and producing the same results as Lamarckians maintain would come from the direct effect of the same environment. During their evolution these anemonies might become differentiated into sun-loving and shade-loving species by the survival of those individuals best fitted to grow in sun or shade respec- tively. Success in the dry open fields would be favored by having the leaves lie next to the ground, so as to avoid as much as possible the withering effect of drying breezes, while in the shade it would be advantageous to have the leaves elevated so as to catch the light. This may account for the occurrence of ground rosettes in the anemonies of the open. and the prevalence of raised rosettes, borne upon an elevated lower internode, in anemonies of the wood. ‘These latter might similarly be differentiated through natural selection into shade-enduring anemonies on the one hand, and climb- SELECTED ADAPTATIONS 451 ing clematises on the other, according as the individuals of successive generations were born with the ability to make the most of the little light, or the ability to climb into the sunshine above. Now, since we are deriving these climbing plants from rosette-bearing ancestors it is easy to see how rosettes might pass into whorls of a few leaves and the few be reduced to two. Weshould then have the opposite leaves, characteristic of clematis, arising as an incidental result of the development of the climbing habit. So likewise the peculiarity of having four sepals, which characterizes the genus, may be-an incidental result of the opposite leaf- arrangement, for we have only to suppose that such a funda- mental change of habit in the growth of the foliage-leaves would show also in the arrangement of the floral leaves since these would be in a primitive condition readily permitting the change. Other changes involved in passing from the marsh-marigold-type to the clematis-type of flower and fruit, which we have already seen to be advantageous under the drier, sunnier, and windier environment, may be easily imag- ined to have been effected by the accumulation through heredity of innumerable spontaneous variations, each very slight but of vital importance to its possessor in the struggle for existence. According to the view above outlined, more and more highly developed groups would be separated from relatively primitive ones through the perpetuation of slight yet favor- able fluctuating variations, fitting their possessors to occupy the more and more trying environment. At the same time the more primitive forms would survive under the less exact- ing conditions and perfect their simpler structure. Inci- dentally there might be preserved through successive genera- tions acquired peculiarities of an adaptive sort or even nonadaptive ones, provided they were not seriously injurious; or, under the same proviso, there might be perpetuated such a characteristic feature as the plan of four in the calyx of clematis, which had arisen as a merely incidental result of some other modification. A peculiarity depending in this way upon another peculiarity is called a correlated character. Occasionally features of no conceivable use to their possessors, 452 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION as for instance the so-called rudimentary ovules of clematis, may escape entire obliteration. Characters of this sort are termed vestigial. Both vestigial and correlated characters imply adaptations—the one past and the other present—and thus may be said to result indirectly from natural selection; while even the acquired characters permitted by natural selection are most likely to survive when adaptational. Hence we may conclude that the central idea of Darwinism is the gradual accumulation through inheritance of slight selected adaptations. 168. Acquirement versus selection. We have seen that the chief difficulty which the Lamarckians have to face comes from their unproved assumption that acquired charac- ters may be fixed by inheritance. The Darwinians on the other hand in their efforts to avoid this difficulty have fallen into others which we must now examine. Darwin tells us that he made it a rule to note down every fact or criticism adverse to his theory as soon as it came to his attention; for, as he shrewdly observes, what is unfavorable to one’s view is most likely to be forgotten. With the utmost candor he discussed in his writings every objection known to him. He was thus his own severest critic, and since he pointed out to his opponents their most effective lines of attack, there rightly belongs to him a share in whatever victories they gain in the cause of truth against his theory. Surely no one would rejoice more genuinely than he in any better explana- tion of the workings of evolution. Since natural selection operates only through adaptive variations we should expect that the various systematic groups of plants and animals, representing as they do the surviving branches of the evolutionary tree, would be very generally definable by adaptive characters or at least by characters which clearly imply adaptations past or present. But on the contrary it is just this sort of character which is found to have least systematic value, and therefore as a rule we find systematic groups most clearly defined by pe- culiarities which so far as we can tell have no relation what- ever to the vital needs of the organisms possessing them. In tracing the supposed evolution of clematis we chose a few ACQUIREMENT VERSUS SELECTION 453 features as adaptive as possible; but even here we have to admit that the features which best distinguish clematises from anemonies are the ones that are least obviously adaptive. Thus, for example, it would seem to be highly improbable that the life of a plant or the welfare of its offspring could ever depend upon whether it had four or five sepals, and in our endeavor to connect this character with some adaptative feature we had to make a succession of roundabout supposi- tions. Yet most species of clematis are distinguished from anemonies by this very character, while the sharpest distinc- tion between the flowers of these genera is in the estivation. Here purely mechanical causes seem sufficient to account for clematis having the valvate form while anemony has the imbricate arrangement. A review of our generic, family, and ordinal definitions will show that the main dependence of systematists is upon just such non-adaptive characters as those of floral plan, leaf arrangement, or mode of branch- ing. If from this very large class of non-adaptive characters we subtract all the cases which give evidence of being either vestigial or correlative, we have left a considerable number inadequately accounted for by natural selection. It does not help matters for Darwinians to plead that we are very ig- norant of the functions of all living things, and hence that peculiarities seemingly useless may really be useful; for questioning our ability to distinguish what is useful from what is not tells against our suppositions regarding the uses of parts quite as truly as it does against a belief in their use- lessness. Lamarckism seems weakest when it attempts to account for highly developed adaptations; Darwinism when it deals with non-adaptive characters. We are led into further difficulties by Darwin’s neice that the great intensity of the struggle for existence resulting from over-production would suffice to perpetuate even slightly useful peculiarities. If we ask ourselves what really happens to the large number of seeds ripened by each genera- tion, we cannot fail to see that the struggle which Dar- — winians suppose to result from this immense number is much overdrawn. I am writing these lines in a pine grove. The trees are loaded with cones and from them come whirling 454 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION down thousands of seeds. But after hunting seedlings within and around this grove for many years I find that scarcely one in many thousand seeds ever gets a chance to sprout. There is seldom any crowding of the seedlings. The nearest neighbors may be many feet or many yards apart, and the saplings are much fewer than the seedlings. Some advantageous position with reference to light or depth of soil would account fully for their survival without any refer- ence to small peculiarities in the plants themselves. More- over, at bearing-time the question as to which trees shall send seeds to such favorable spots seems to be decided not so much by any peculiarities of the trees themselves or their seeds as by the strength and direction of the wind at a given moment and the obstacles that may happen to stand in the way. It does not appear that fitness is decisive. There is some crowding. Indeed the grove itself might be called a crowd of pine trees. But this crowding simply shows how many plants can grow for many years close together by individual adaptation to one another. The signs of such mutual accommodation are much more apparent than any signs of competition. As applied to this grove the idea of an intense ‘“‘struggle for existence” among its components would seem to be quite fanciful. One might urge that a Darwinian need not suppose any new species to be arising under the conditions described. Very true; but our illustra- tion was not chosen to show how species arise. It was selected as fairly representing conditions to be met with on every hand—conditions essentially similar to those under which all evolutionists believe that new species have somehow originated. An extreme case such as might be afforded by desert con- ditions increases our difficulties. Desert plants are always few and far between. There always seems to be room for many more. Competitions depending upon a surplus of individuals would appear in general to be quite out of the question. To be sure, each individual may be supposed to have a hard time growing under such severe conditions; but the fact that it lives there shows that it can stand them, and it seems to be enabled to do so by means of extraordinarily ACQUIREMENT VERSUS SELECTION 455 perfect adaptations to its strange environment. We are warranted in believing that these plants could not live there unless they had some such adaptations, but just where ex- treme adaptations are most necessary there is least compe- tition to account for them. But may not the environment operate selectively nevertheless? Perhaps, but even so it is not through the struggle of numerous competing individuals: any one of them that is favorably situated and is just able to stand the worst of the drought has as good a chance to in- crease and multiply as the toughest of all. It may also be pointed out that the most marked features of desert plants— such for example as extensive root system, succulent or greatly reduced foliage, nairy or thickened skin for checking loss of water, and an armament of thorns for defense against animals—are the ones most easily accounted for as originat- ing from direct effect of the environment or individual re- sponse; while as regards the defensive armament, which is often cited as a most perfect adaptation, it must be said, that grave doubts are raised as to its being of much use in the very cases where it is most forbidding, since few if any large browsing animals are found in those localities where the most highly developed armaments occur. In such cases any selective influence is hard to imagine. Naturalists have found many cases in which a selective influence, supposing it to exist, would have no opportunity to act upon small fluctuating variations in the Darwinian way. The climbing habit of clematis will serve to show what is meant. The coiling of the leaf-stalks by unequal growth stimulated by contact with a support, is an undoubt- edly useful power; but this power, it would seem, can be of service only after it is developed; a very slight curving of the stalk could not anchor a leaf. Therefore we cannot reason- ably suppose that the power to coil was developed from slight curving rendered more pronounced in successive generations by natural selection. Here it is the first step that counts, and it is just this step that the theory of natural selection is often unable to take. Artificial selection, not being restricted in its operation to variations of use to the plant, does not offer so close an 456 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION analogy with natural selection as Darwinians commonly assume. Nevertheless, cautious observation of plants and animals under domestication is sure to throw important light upon what happens in nature, for the artificial conditions being more under control, it is easier to estimate the effects which a given factor (such as heredity for instance) may safely be counted upon to exert. Some quite unexpected results have been reached through studies in the history of garden vegetables by Dr. E. L. Sturtevant of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station. Wishing to gain what evidence he could of “the extent of variation that has been produced in plants through cultivation,” he examined all pictures and descriptions in the old herbals—many of them entirely trustworthy records although published two or three centuries ago—and compared them with the more important recent records and with living examples of the forms now in cultivation. It seemed not unreasonable to expect that among so many plants, cultivated for centuries, at least a few examples would be found in which extreme types such as cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, and other derivations of the wild cabbage, might be connected by a series of slightly differing connecting links. In not a single case has such a series been found. So far as may be judged from the evidence, new types are not developed from other types by the cumulative selection of slight variations in a given direction; but they come suddenly, and each is distinct from its first appearance. All that the selection of slight variations ever accomplishes is the improvement up to a certain point of features already well marked; and ex- perience shows that this point is soon reached. A compact fleshy inflorescence, as of the cauliflower for instance, may be made more compact and more fleshy within certain rather narrow limits, and the highest degree of perfection can be maintained only by the most careful cultivation and generous enrichment of the soil. We have already seen that carrots under cultivation exhibit similar limitations. Such facts are as unfavorable to Lamarckism as to Darwinism since both suppose that types have always evolved through slight changes. | : SUDDEN ADAPTATIONS 457 Without going further into the difficulties which Lamarck- ians and Darwinians have had to meet in their endeavors to apply either theory, it must now be apparent that neither of them gives promise of affording complete general satisfac- tion to students of nature. It is hard to believe that acquired characters or fluctuating variations are often accumulated in a way to bring about the development of new species. One is thus driven to ask whether there is any possible way of explaining the course of organic evolution without de- pending upon these discredited assumptions. Some of our foremost naturalists believe that this great problem may be solved through the further study of variations, and on the basis of recent discoveries a new theory is developing with which we may hope to incorporate the main truths that have recommended Lamarckism and Darwinism to their advocates. Sudden adaptation, such as we have seen to be implied in the evolution of clematis, and have found to be one of the chief stumbling blocks of former theories, is made the corner stone of the theory we have now to consider. 169. Sudden adaptations. Professor Hugo de Vries, an eminent botanist of Amsterdam, Holland, was led to a new view of the process of evolution by studying for a number of years the descendants of some large-flowered evening primroses which had been imported from America and had escaped from a garden near his home into a neighboring field where they grew in great profusion.1 Among these _ escaped plants De Vries found a large amount of fluctuating variation in every part, and frequent abnormalities, but what especially attracted his attention was the appearance of two well-characterized forms which he recognized at once as new to science. One of these was distinguished by a short style and no stamens, while the other was peculiar in having smooth leaves of particularly beautiful appearance. Each was represented at first. by only a few specimens confined to a particular part of the field as if derived from the seeds of 1 By an odd coincidence these plants are of the form known as @no- thera Lamarckiana, sometimes called G@. biennis var. Lamarckiana, or grandiflora. The flowers, curiously enough, have the striking pecul- larity of opening suddenly at dusk. 458 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION a single plant. These three forms were found to come true to seed and when crossed the seedlings were like one parent or the other; or occasionally other new forms were produced, with or without crossing, which were as unlike the parent form as were the two new forms first discovered. In the course of seven generations several such new forms appeared, numbering in individuals about eight hundred out of a total of about fifty thousand plants raised. Similar forms also appeared in the field. All these new forms were distinct types differing from one another in several particulars such as shape and color of leaves, flowers or fruit, and annual, biennial, or perennial habit; and although growing together they did not intergrade. They were thus as sharply definable as species are, and they could be regarded as true species except for the fact that their differences distinguished parent from offspring. De Vries regarded them as elementary species equivalent to what botanists have been calling well-marked varieties, races, or subspecies, and as representing the abrupt changes through the accumulation of which species and higher groups arise. He calls variations of this sort mutations, the new forms being termed mutants. Hence we may designate as mutationism this new theory of evolutionary change. Mutationism supposes that from time to time, especially under the influence of changed conditions, some of the in- dividuals of a species bear offspring distinctly different from the parent, often in several particulars, and that the set of peculiarities thus suddenly arising is completely hereditary even when individuals of the new form are crossed with other forms of the same species. That is to say, the progeny from parents of two different mutations are like one or the other parent, and never intermediate as is often the case with crosses between fluctuating variations. If mutations again mutate and we have mutants of the second or higher degree, their hybrids may be wholly like one parent or the other, or may be apparently intermediate from having inherited one or more peculiarities from one parent and the rest from the other; but such cases of apparently intermediate forms show new combinations of elements rather than elements of an 1 Mu-ta’tion < L. mutatio, a changing. f SUDDEN ADAPTATIONS 459 intermediate sort, each element being always hereditary unless it gives place to a new element through mutation. While the parent form may continue to be inherited un- changed by certain descendants for innumerable generations the descendants of a mutation to which it has given rise may mutate again and again, until finally a form has arisen charac- terized by so many new elements that it is no longer capable of producing offspring like those of the original ancestral form. Then a new species has appeared; and by a similar differentiation through many successive mutations, there would arise genera, families, and groups of higher order. Whether the peculiarities of a mutation are beneficial or not is immaterial provided only they do not unfit the or- ganism for living under the conditions where it occurs. If it can gain a foothold either in the same environment as that of its parent or under some other set of conditions a new race or new species may be started. It has been commonly as- sumed by naturalists that every slightest peculiarity of an organism must have some important relation to its welfare whether apparent to us or not, since otherwise we could not understand its fitting into the environment under which it thrives. On this view we should have to suppose that all the peculiarities of the new forms of escaped primroses repre- sent sudden adaptations; but in that case it must be admitted that very diverse adaptations fit about equally well into the same environment. The assumption that every trait must be connected with some use, seems, however, to be quite gratuitous. This supposition is not at all necessary to the theory of mutations, although, as we have seen, it is a neces- sary incumbrance to the theory of natural selection. On the new view we may suppose that a mutation presents fea- tures which may be more or less beneficial, indifferent, or even more or less injurious; yet if it gets into an environ- ment which permits such a form to live, then the traits of each description may become characteristic of a sur- viving group. We all know that however useless or un- desirable defects or bad habits may be, they are not neces- sarily fatal, and are sometimes perpetuated. Thus we can account for the fact that many characters of the highest 460 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION systematic importance seem to have nothing whatever to do with utility. Yet, we know that many organs do serve marvelously well the needs of the organism. There is no reason, however, why their adaptive features may not have arisen through mutations, even without selection, and we have seen that initial stages in the development of many an adaptation are of so little use that selection could not reasonably be sup- posed to act on them. At the same time it is of course not impossible in other cases that natural selection may operate under certain conditions now and then occurring. Variations of the mutative sort would then serve especially well as steps in the process of species-making, because of the way in which they are inherited, while fluctuating variations might also sometimes contribute to the result, provided incompatible features did not arise as mutations. For the most part, however, selection may now be supposed to play only a subordinate role in organic evolution, its effects showing chiefly in the maintenance of a certain standard of perfection in an established type. A plant grows where it can, and it can grow at all only by having the chance, and being fit to take advantage of it. When we have said this we have ex- pressed about all that it is necessary to admit of the doctrine of natural selection. We must remember also that selection has at best but a negative value; it cannot originate any- thing, it can only favor certain individuals by weeding out others. As to mutations, the reader has doubtless already be- come aware of their striking likeness to ‘‘special creations.”’ If it could be shown that acquired characters may be passed over from one mutation to another, we might suppose that a direct influence of the environment is instrumental in originating species. We know that it does control individual peculiarities often in a striking way, and may not improbably account for the constant appearance of features sometimes attributed to other causes. The great difficulty often is to decide which of several possible causes may have brought about a given result; and only long continued, careful experi- ments can give a satisfactory answer. So far as we may judge from such extended observations as those of Dr. Stur- EVOLUTION BY CHOICE 461 tevant and others, the direct effects of external agencies like the effects of selection are confined to modifying types rather than originating them. Those of my readers who have played with a kaleidoscope will remember that as the cylinder is moved slowly forward or back gradual changes in the design take place, and any © favorite arrangement may be recovered by simply moving the cylinder back to the place where that arrangement ap- peared,—all this being possible so long as the cylinder does not move beyond a certain point; for if it gets ever so little beyond that point there is a sudden rearrangement of the elements thereby forming an entirely new design, which may in turn be modified as before by restricted changes of position. The gradual modification of the design within definite limits is like the modification of a type as effected by fluctuating variations or acquired characters; the sudden change is like a mutation upsetting the previous equilibrium and estab- lishing a new equilibrium which is not at all disturbed by vacillating modifications. 170. Evolution by choice. To make the foregoing anal- ogy complete we should have to imagine a kaleidoscope with the power of self-movement; for whatever may be the factors which bring about mutations, the process is somehow influ- enced from within. A living thing is active as well as passive. The idea is thus suggested that organic evolution may have as its controlling factor some power of choice, essentially like our own, residing in all living organisms—a will as truly free, although apparently very different because exercised under very different conditions. This is a hard saying, but perhaps we shall find it to contain important truth. Doubtless to many readers the idea of plants willing or choosing in any way whatever will appear quite absurd. “‘ How is it possible,” they will urge, ‘‘to conceive of voluntary action in vegetable life?’’ Let us try to consider the matter without prejudice. Surely, as we watch plants they seem to act spontaneously, to improve opportunities, and, some of them at least, appear to have gained experience. All ob- servers would agree that a climbing shoot or a root-tip acts almost as if it were intelligent. If the reader will admit that 462 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION plants in their responses to outside influence are sometimes capable of acting in one way rather than in another way which is equally possible, then all that is essential to what is here meant by choice will be conceded, and he may be willing to entertain an hypothesis which squares well with what we know of all living things. In such a hypothetical view we need not suppose that every action of every creature is an act of will. Many of our own acts are, as we say, mechanical or habitual. We may well suppose that most of the behavior of lower organisms, including the behavior of growth, is of this sort. Nor do we need to suppose that consciousness more than very remotely like our own accompanies any of the actions or reactions of plants. All the hypothesis requires is that sometimes, even with dimmest consciousness, any organism may be free to choose at a critical moment between alternatives profoundly affecting its constitution. By way of example let us suppose the seeds of a primitive buttercup to be carried near the seashore and to begin to sprout. Such plants are not accustomed to so much salt as would then be in contact with their roots. Here is a change of condition, favorable, as we have seen, to the occurrence of mutations. It has been found by experiment that plants of the same kind placed under the same conditions will absorb different amounts of the same substance, as, for instance, common salt. Thus of several seedlings the same in kind and age, growing with their roots in the same salt solution, some will absorb a larger percentage of the salt than others, and, indeed, may be poisoned while others survive. Some- times even the same individual may respond differently at different times. Now, what we may suppose to happen, according to our hypothesis, in the case of the buttercup seedlings is that some of them might choose to keep out so much of the salt that they could not get water enough to live; others might let in so much salt as to be poisoned by it; while still others might let in just enough salt to permit their having sufficient water, but not so much salt as would kill them. The survivors, as a consequence of their choice, would have their sap saltish and thus every organ would be affected in an unwonted way. Their seeds would start with EVOLUTION BY CHOICE 463 some salt in them already, and this might favor the seedlings enduring a larger amount of salt as they grew. Sooner or later the constitutional equilibrium of the plants would be so disturbed that a mutation would result. Several successive mutations might occur as seeds fell into salter and salter localities. At last would appear a form like our seaside crowfoot (Fig. 303) able to thrive where the salt is strong and showing many marks of its effect. The first mutation would give an hereditary salt-preferring type, while a succes- Ky a) a ANS “fd WESSON 2 Fic. 303.—Seaside Crowfoot (Ranunculus Cymbalaria, Crowfoot Family, Ranunculacee). (Britton and Brown.)—Perennial herb 4-22 cm. tall; leaves fleshy, smooth throughout; flowers yellow; fruit dry. Native home, Northern North America and Eurasia. sion of mutations caused by similar responses would produce a distinct species. The case of our stranded buttercups might be paralleled by an animal which in time of famine, was reduced to the choice of eating or rejecting unaccustomed food, and as a result of eating enough of it to sustain life, being modified in its habits and structure to the point of producing muta- tions. Whatever share in the final result of such an evolu- tionary process we may attribute to acquirement or to selec- tion we are still free to believe that it is the choice of 464 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION individuals confronted by alternatives which ultimately de- cides whether a given path shall be followed or not. That is to say, external conditions and previous decisions while they restrict the range of choice yet permit of choosing. Of course the reader will not suppose that our imaginary examples afford any real proof of volition in plants or animals. If either do have the power of choice we cannot hope to prove it any more than we can prove that we have such a power ourselves. What has been said is meant merely to show how one who believes that every living thing can choose, may think of evolutionary processes in terms of his belief. With this bare hint of a way of avoiding the pitfalls which await any purely mechanical explanation or any theory of evolu- tion by chance, the reader must be left to make such further applications of the hypothesis as he can. We may call this view, which refuses to regard any living creature as a mere mechanism, Evolution by Choice, since for want of a better name it will serve to emphasize the essence of the belief, which is that a certain measure of self-control is inherent in every organism and that upon this inscrutable power hangs the destiny of the living world. 171. Evolution in general. The creation of living things by successive steps, one growing out of another, is viewed by modern science as part of a gradual process of world- making which is understood to proceed in a somewhat similar manner. That is to say, the entire universe is believed to have evolved and to be evolving according to laws of change which have been the same from the beginning and will be the same to the end, or forever, if the process be endless. | The view most widely accepted is that from a vast nebula or vapor-like mass of incandescent star-dust, like those now seen in various parts of the heavens, our solar system for example with its central sun, its whirling planets and their moons, has slowly developed during countless ages, through the agency of gravitation acting together with other proper- ties of matter. During the course of its evolution each sphere is supposed to pass from a nebulous condition to a ball of glowing liquid, which, as it cools forms at first a solid crust, EVOLUTION IN GENERAL 465 and finally becomes cold and firm to the core. This view-of world evolution is called the nebular hypothesis.' According to the nebular hypothesis, as the molten in- terior of our earth lost heat it shrunk away from the solid crust, which, following it warped and wrinkled in an uneven way somewhat as the skin of a drying apple wrinkles to fit the shrinking pulp. When the earth was cool enough at the surface to permit condensation of the atmospheric watery vapor and its fall as rain, seas began to form in depressions between the upheaved regions of dry land. Subterranean forces, connected with the further loss of heat, continued to wrinkle the land into chains of mountains. Meanwhile storms, controlled by heat from the sun, brought water to the highlands from the sea to which it returned in streams cutting through the land and carving the surface into varied shapes. The rock waste carried seaward settled off shore, as layers of gravel, sand, or mud. These deposits in time became compacted into solid rock and were slowly upheaved again above the level of the sea. This new land was again washed into the sea or may have sunk beneath it and been covered by newer washings which later may have been again upraised. From such working over of the crust, most of the land, with its many layers of rock or soil (which is rock waste. on its seaward way) came to be as it is. From the many changes thus wrought—some gradual, some sudden—involving wide sway of air and water currents, and the continual though slow redistribution of rock materials—from all this has resulted a greater and greater variety of climate and soil— in a word, a progressive differentiation of the conditions affecting life. This differentiation represents more and more 1 A rival view known as the planetesimal hypothesis has of late years been gaining ground among geologists. This differs from the nebular hypothesis in supposing that such a solar system as our own evolves by the slow aggregation of innumerable small cold solid bodies (plane- tesimals) moving through space in rings or orbits like those of our planets. They are consequently drawn together without much violence into larger and larger masses by mutual attraction until there is formed a central sun and planets none of which at any time are altogether gaseous or liquid. Once these larger spheres are formed, other forces than those of mere shrinking with loss of heat are assumed to account for such geologic changes as those of which we have evidence. 466 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION varied sets of conditions offering fresh opportunities for living things. Life as we know it is possible only below a certain tempera- ture. The greatest heat in which living things are found to grow is that of certain hot springs where, it is reported that a centigrade thermometer registers about 55° (equivalent to 131° Fahrenheit). It will be remembered that water scalds at about 60° C. or 140° F. Under these extraordinary conditions, certain microscopic plants of most simple organi- zations are found to thrive.! It is fair to assume therefore that living creatures could not have appeared upon the earth until the crust had so far cooled that the waters were con- siderably below their boiling-point. Since the simplest forms of life we know and the oldest fossils we have, are aquatic, it is probable that the first living things appeared in the water; and since all the animals we know depend directly or in- directly upon vegetable food, it seems most likely that the earliest organisms were plants and that from them animals evolved. Confining our view to the vegetable kingdom, which here chiefly concerns us, we may picture to ourselves its evolution as proceeding in a general way from plants of comparatively simple organization, to those whose structure is more and more complex, greater morphologicai differentiation accom- panying fuller physiological division of labor. Such increase in complexity we speak of as progress from lower to higher organization, without meaning to imply that the higher forms are any more perfectly adapted than the lower to their respective environments. Indeed the simpler forms may be so well adapted to the less trying conditions that they may persist through countless generations essentially unchanged, provided thay have the opportunity to live in the kind of environment which suits them. Thus we find to-day, growing in water, plants which may be fairly supposed to have retained the main features characteristic of the pro- genitors of the vegetable kingdom. 1 Experiment shows that the spores of other very simple plants are not killed by a temperature considerably above that of boiling water, but they cannot grow under such conditions. EVOLUTION IN GENERAL 467 Many types of structure have become extinct, because changing conditions no longer afforded a suitable environ- ment, or, perhaps because no mutations of the old form could adapt it to new circumstances of peculiar difficulty. Relics of types which the world has thus outgrown have occasionally come down to us as fossils caught in the deposits which be- came rock in ages past. Sometimes a group, or perhaps part of its members, may have escaped extinction through the appearance of mutations Fic. 304.—White Water Crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis, var. capillaceus, Crowfoot Family, Ranunculacee). Plant, about 3. Flower. Fruit. (Britton and Brown.)—Perennial (?) herb about 30 cm. long; leaves submerged; flowers white; fruit dry. Native home, North America and Eurasia. fitting the individuals to live under less exacting conditions which therefore would permit simpler structure. Thus a buttercup able to live in water without being drowned could dispense with much of its root system and stiffening frame- work and so come to resemble, in the adaptation of its vege- tative organs to an aquatic life, a lower form of plant none of whose ancestors had been terrestrial. The white water crowfoot (Fig. 304) of our ponds and streams is a buttercup which we have every reason to believe has thus descended from a land species. In so far as a type of organism or organ 468 KINSHIP AND ADAPTATION becomes simplified in the course of its evolution and, so passes to a lower level of structure, it is said to degenerate. Much more extreme instances of degeneration will be dealt with in the following chapter. It thus appears that degeneration, persistence, and extinc- tion of types accompanies the general progress which charac- terizes organic evolution. In the evolution of human society likewise we find degeneration, persistence, and extinction of races along with a general progress of mankind from savagery to civilization. Here as in the evolution of lower organisms we may observe adaptation to changed conditions through sud- den or gradual modification. Migrations also play an import- ant part and have many consequences, among which conflicts are the most apparent although not necessarily the most sig- nificant. Periods of greater progress have been times of greater peace. Conflicts destroy or test; they do not create. Men or races unfit to live, if such there be, of course are better dead, and those menacing the progress of mankind are better subdued; but it is surely a partial view of human affairs that regards the world as one vast battlefield whose horrors have fostered the most precious characteristics of civilization. How- ever inevitable mortal conflicts have been, however fierce the struggle of competition, and however necessary it may have been to kill the worse that the better might live, we cannot say that anyone has been made better by the killing. Yet we may be sure that human advance toward the most perfect and abundant life has been delayed, and that whatever real progress Man has made has been in spite of his competitive struggles. The economies of co-operation and the advantages of mutual service achieve what competition never can. Mere struggle for supremacy when fiercest destroys most of what is best. Man’s mastery over nature and over his lower self has come through learning and choosing the better way. The evolution of mankind and that of lower organisms are alike in so many ways, it is thought that each may throw light upon the other. In human progress we recognize as the controlling factors of change: Opportunity,—offered by the environment; Experience,—representing its effect; Choice,— as the response to it, guided by Ideals. Of these the pivotal EVOLUTION IN GENERAL 469 factor is Choice, for by it opportunities are improved, experi- ence determined, and ideals pursued. What we ourselves and what former generations have chosen to do or endure is most largely responsible for what we are. Thus human affairs center about the human will. So throughout God’s world we are led to look for some opportunity offered to every creature, some experience by which it may profit, some choice of its own, and some divine guidance. Man’s choosing of the better way has led him heavenwards toward the highest, fullest life. As from a mountain side he may now look back and with the mind’s eye catch glimpses of his path and of the forking paths of fellow creatures many of whom have been as comrades at different stages of the long, long journey. .Traced backward all the paths seem to converge at the horizon as if all had come from the same point. Some of them, as they advance, keep to the level of the sea continuing always much the same; others climb for awhile to higher levels, then turning aside and traversing an easy plateau end at a precipice; still others after climbing for a while decline to lower levels; while others yet keep climbing and attaining various heights. Man’s path soon left the kingdom of plants, and ascending through the realms of worm, fish, reptile, and brute has reached at last the mountain path which leads beyond the clouds. Viewed broadly the progress of the world is seen to be orderly, and shall we not say, well ordered? New forms of life have come promptly to enjoy the ever increasing oppor- tunities afforded by the evolving earth. Advance has been made not without difiiculties, which being overcome have brought out the finest traits. Nor has there been lacking continual occasion for mutual help, and this has ever multi- plied the blessings of life. CHAPTER XII LIFE-HISTORIES 172. Cycles of life. Every creature which completes its span of life passes through various stages of development from germ to adult, and may in turn give rise to similar germs which may continue the process in endless round. Hence, until we are acquainted with the cycle of changes which normally characterizes a certain kind of plant or animal, we do not know it at all thoroughly; but as with adult structures so with life-histories, the knowledge of a few typical examples gives a general knowledge of many because of the inheritance among kin of fundamental resemblances. Moreover, since the life of the individual, as we have seen, more or less clearly repeats the series of ancestral forms, a knowledge of life-histories throws an important side light upon the relationship of different groups and helps us to picture the earlier stages through which a type has passed in its evolution. In the comparatively small space here available we cannot hope to do more than glance at the form and behavior of a few typical plants through the various stages of their lives. We shall, however, choose examples exhibiting so wide a range of peculiarities that the student may gain finally a comprehensive view of the vegetable kingdom sufficient for an introduction to more special study. 173. The blue alge (Class Cyanophycez). Among the useful plants we have studied the only alga is the so-called carrageen or “Irish Moss” (see page 112), and this, as we shall see, belongs to one of the most highly developed classes of seaweeds. It agrees with the great majority of alge, however, in being aquatic and containing chlorophyll, and in being without true stem-, leaf-, or root-members. Before 470 THE BLUE ALG 471 passing to a more detailed examination of the higher alge it will be most instructive for us to study some of the simpler forms. About as simple as any are the exceedingly minute plants which for want of a better name we may call tint-ball algze (Chroécoccus), and which when highly magnified present Fic. 305.—Tint-ball Alga (Chroécoccus turgidus, Tint-ball Family, Chroécoc- cacee). A, plant as ordinarily seen; magnified about 400 diameters. The inner shaded mass of protoplasm is bluish green, surrounded by a transparent gelatinous envelope. B, same, beginning to divide into two plants. C, the division advanced by the formation of a double wall between. D, the division complete. (Redrawn from Kirchner.)— Found in swamps and on wet rocks throughout the world. the appearance shown in Fig. 305. An individual (A) consists merely of a spheroidal mass of rather firm consistency and blue-green color, surrounded by a transparent gelatinous envelope. Near the center of the mass may be seen under favorable circumstances a comparatively small, somewhat denser spot. After the plant is dead, the application of pure water dissolves out a blue substance—called phycocyanin 1— leaving the yellow-green chlorophyll. This in turn if dis- solved out by alcohol leaves a colorless, minutely granular material which examined chemically would be found to consist of a highly complicated mixture of proteids. To such a mixture of organized proteids the name protoplasm ? has been given. This when active forms the living part of the plant. Whatever is alive in any plant or animal is protoplasm. Hence protoplasm has been called “the physical basis of 1 Phyco-cy’an-in < Gr. phykos, seaweed; kyanos, blue. 2 Pro’to-plasm < ML. protoplasma, the first creature made < Gr. protos, first; plasma, anything formed. 472 LIFE-HISTORIES life.’ Its exact chemical constitution is not known, nor does it seem likely that it ever can be known; for to analyze a sample of protoplasm chemically is to kill it, and dead pro- toplasm surely differs in important ways from protoplasm alive. Moreover, through the many complicated reactions going on within, any active mass of protoplasm is doubtless continually changing its composition. One of the products of the activity of the protoplasm of a tint-ball is the blue substance above mentioned; another product is the chloro- phyll by means of which it is able to make food in the sun- light like any other plant containing leaf-green. Still another product is the gelatinous material forming the envelope by which the little mass of protoplasm is surrounded. Chemical tests would show that this envelope consists of a kind of cellulose. The food which the protoplasm is able to make from the substances it absorbs through its cellulose shell from the surrounding water, is used by the plant as material for growth. That is to say, it uses the food to make new protoplasm out of which come new coloring matters, new cellulose, and other organic products. As the growth of the sphere is mainly in one direction it becomes elongated into an ellipsoid as shown at B. Meanwhile, the denser central part of the protoplasm has similarly elongated and finally divided into distinct halves. These halves move toward the ends of the ellipsoid, thus becoming surrounded on all sides by the thinner protoplasm. Soon there appears in the ellipsoid a plane of separation extending through the center at right angles to the long axis; then each of the portions of protoplasm on either side of this plane becomes larger and rounder, and each along the plane of separation builds a layer of cellulose which presently appears as a cross parti- tion (C). At last, as a result of further growth and rounding we have two distinct spherules of protoplasm, each with its central, denser part and each surrounded by its own cellulose envelope essentially like the original tint-ball. Thus through growth and division one plant has become two. These plants may remain attached to one another and each. of them may divide again and repeat the process a number of times without separating. The result then is a colony in THE BLUE ALG 473 which all the stages in the life-history of the individual may often be observed. We need a few technical terms to designate such parts as have just been described. A mass of protoplasm capable of more or less individual activity is called a cell.: All plants, and all animals as well, consist of one or more cells. Usually in plants the protoplasm is inclosed by a cellulose envelope known as the cell-wall, all within which is then distinguished as the cell-contents. Since a cell-wall implies at least the previous existence of living cell-contents, the term cell may be applied even to the empty chamber from which all life has gone. In the living protoplasm a comparatively large, dense kernel, more or less clearly marked off, is termed the nucleus,? the rest of the protoplasm being distinguished as the cytoplasm; * while any liquid part of the cell-contents is called cell-sap; and the entire protoplasmic part, a protoplast. The process through which one cell becomes two by enlarging and splitting in halves is known as fission.‘ Successive fissions often take place in such a way that the partitions are in planes at right angles to one another, with the result, shown in the tint-balls, that more or less cubical groups of cells are formed—an arrangement which sometimes passes into a globular or irregular one through changes in the direction of growth or division. If instead of forming partitions at various angles, the cleaving planes are always parallel, so that successive fissions are in the same direction, then we have a chain or row of cells. This is what happens in the colonies of alge known as “‘fallen stars’? (Nostoc, Fig. 306), because of the sudden appearance of their glisten- ing balls when swollen by rain. Here numerous blue-green cells, like beads on a string, are embedded in a copious mass of jelly secreted by the protoplasm; for instead of forming distinct cell-walls this mucilaginous cellulose, for the most part, becomes homogeneously fused. At intervals in the 1Cell < L. cella, a small room or hut. 2 Nu’cle-us < L.a little nut or kernel < nuz, nut. 3 Cy’to-plasm < Gr. kytos, a hollow or cell. Originally a synonym of protoplasm, the word cytoplasm has now taken on the restricted sense above defined. 4 Fis’sion < L. fissio, a dividing. 474 LIFE-HISTORIES chain somewhat larger cells are formed, each with a distinct wall. Certain of these cells, called heterocysts 1 have most of their protoplasm replaced by a pale or colorless cell-sap and Fic. 306.—Fallen Stars (Nostoc spp., Fallen Star Family, Nostocacee). A-F, Nostoc paludosum. i , ad AP ed A Oe ns Ss in = “AI ~ \ we: NS EC/ erga ah '&. Fic. 335.—Iceland moss. A small part of the apothecium and thallus shown in Fig. 334, magnified 400 diameters; showing the spore-sacs or asci (a), the paraphyses (p), the compact layer of mycelium (s) from which they arise, the alge (Pleurococcus) known as ‘‘gonidia’’ (g), the cottony mycelium (m), and the compact protective rind (r, r’). (Luerssen.) Fic. 336, I.—Beard-lichen (Usnea barbata, Beard-lichen Family, Usneacee). Natural size. Granules often appearing on the surface are soredia. (Baillon.)—Grayish or dull yellowish green throughout; often much longer than shown, with a tough central. Common on trees in various parts of the world. finally, keeps them supplied with all the carbon dioxid they need as a raw material for their food. Dissimilar or- ganisms living thus together with benefit to both are called 508 LIFE-HISTORIES symbionts,: and their co-operative mode of life, symbiosis.1 Plants which grow attached to some support from which they derive no nutriment are termed epiphytes. Lichens are aérial epiphytes or ‘‘air-plants.”’ Several aerial forms of Chlorophycesx besides Pleurococcus, and also a number of Cyanophycee including species of Chrodcoccus and Nostoc, serve as the algal symbiont in various lichens. So little has their structure been modified by the symbiosis, they may almost always be referred to forms found living independently. The fungal symbionts, on the other hand, have become so changed in many ways, that usually much uncertainty attends the effort to find their Fic. 336, Il.—Beard-lichen. a, b, a group of eight gonidia among which a hypha is branching. c, a soredium consisting of a single gonidium surrounded by hyphex, viewed as if cut across. d, the same in which the single gonidium has multiplied into several. e, a soredium which contains but a single gonidium, germinating by developing below in contact with the bark of a tree fine hypha-branches which serve as organs of attachment. f, the same, older, showing the multiplication of the gonidia, and the upward growth of the hyphe to form a thallus. (Schwendener.) near kin among non-symbiotic fungi. They may always be classi- fied, however, as either Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes, and it is to the former class that the great majority of lichen fungi belong. Ascolichenes are thus symbiotic Ascomycetes. 186. The spore-base lichens (Class Basidiolichenes) include only a few tropical forms of symbiotic Basidiomycetes which may be represented by the mushroom-lichen (Cora pavonia, Fig. 337). This consists of one of the tougher mushrooms associated with a Chroécoccus, or with another bluish alga, and assumes quite differ- ent shapes according to which alga is present and according as the nies or the fungal symbiont predominates and so determines the orm. 187. The lichen subdivision, lichens in general. Li- chens include about 5,000 species, none of which are of 1 Sym-bi-ont, Sym-bi-o’sis < Gr. symbiosis, living together; < syn, together; bios, life. 2 Ep’i-phyte < Gr. epi, upon. THE THALLOPHYTE DIVISION 509 much economic importance. They may be defined as algo- fungal air-plants. Although made up of plants which belong to different classes of Algze and Fungi, which therefore on theoretical grounds might require to be assigned each to its own class, lichens are in practice more conveniently treated as compound organisms forming an artificial group by them- selves. Fic. 337.—Mushroom-lichen (Cora pavona, Mushroom-lichen Family, Coracee). A, top view of fruit-body, natural size. B, under side showing hymenium (hym). (Strasburger.)—On trees in the tropics. Their dual nature, indeed, doubles the difficulty already encoun- tered in trying to associate different types of fungi with their nearest algal kin. It is of course always desirable to express as well as we can our knowledge of resemblances and our views of kinship; but all this may be done effectively by using names like Ascolichenes and Basidiolichenes (suggestive of relationship between the lichen- fungi and their non-symbiotic kin) and regarding them as forming a series parallel to the series of fungi, much as the fungal series is parallel to the algal. 188. The thallophyte division, lobeworts (Thallophyta) although composed of the humblest members of the vegetable kingdom yet contains, as we have seen, some of man’s best friends, and also some of his most harmful enemies, a knowl- edge of which gained only within recent years has been of incalculable benefit to mankind through improving methods 510 LIFE-HISTORIES of agriculture and hygiene. Moreover, a peculiar theoretical interest attaches to thallus-plants from the belief that they include representatives of the forms from which all higher living things have evolved. Since the highest differentiation of the plant-body in thallophytes is for the most part a more or less elaborate lobing, the name lobeworts becomes a significant English equivalent for the group. _ In our survey of thallophytic types, several classes were omitted as involving unnecessary complication. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the student has gained some idea of the evolution of thallo- phytes which may be useful to him in further study. As helping further to a general conception of this multifarious division let us briefly review the main lines of development along which we may reasonably suppose the reproductive and the vegetative system of lobeworts to have been evolved. With ali normal creatures it is as if the controlling purpose of life were the production of well-endowed offspring. Organic evolu- tion seems thus to present a series of attempts to find the best ways of achieving this purpose under all possible conditions of existence. In the most primitive organisms, typified by Chrodécoccus, there is no differentiation into repreductive and vegetative parts, for the entire individual becomes the offspring by fission. Growth in a way prepares for fission, but it may also be regarded as a preliminary part of the reproductive process. Hence we have here what may be called vegetative reproduction in its simplest form. It is a method of propagation admirably adapted to uniformly favorable condi- tions, such as these little water-plants enjoy; and, so long as favor- able conditions prevail, vegetative reproduction is the promptest possible way of taking fullest advantage of them. We therefore see it retained with more or less modification by organisms which have developed other methods as well, as for example in desmids. When the offspring remain attached, as in Nostoc, colonies arise, and the colony may propagate vegetatively as if it were an individual by dividing into groups of individuals or hormogonia. If the offspring produced by fission remain not only attached but in intimate or- ganic union, the result is not a colony of unicellular individuals but a multicellular individual composed of subindividual cells. What before was fission has become cell-division. Since the growth of multicellular organisms is entirely by cell-division, all growth may be traced back to the preparatory part of reproduction. We have seen that there is a great difference in the size of vege- table cells, some plants, such as Mucor, having the body consist of a single cell of relatively enormous size; and there are certain alge, less familiar, with a unicellular body very much larger than this. Such extraordinary development of a single cell seems not to have THE THALLOPHYTE DIVISION 511 been a very successful type of structure except in cases where some adventitious means of mechanical support could be depended upon, or, as in Mucor, dispensed with because of exceptionally favorable surroundings. But at best the utmost limit of size in a single cell is soon reached, and all large plants and animals consist of innumerable, minute cells. Muinuteness of the cell permits as a rule more rapid multiplication, and whether the cells be distinct individuals or the subindividual units of a body-community, minuteness facilitates taking advantage most promptly of all the food available. This principle is strikingly exemplified in- bacteria which are at once the smallest organisms known, and the ones ¢ca- pable of most rapid reproduction. Bacteria have been observed to divide at intervals of about a quarter of an hour. At this rate the progeny of one individual would be many millions in a single day. Most plants with a relatively large thallus reproduce vegetatively by setting free minute bits of their protoplasm. Thus most of the aquatic forms, e. g., Ulothrix, Coleochete, Laminaria, and Sapro- legnia convert certain of their protoplasts into swarm-spores resem- bling motile unicellular microbes; while the aerial Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, and Basidiomycetes produce dust-spores. Both swarm-spores and dust-spores besides being quickly formed and readily set free, have the further advantage from their minuteness of being easily and widely dispersed by currents of water or air, just as was the case with the two halves of the ancestral fission- plants. The larger thallophytes throughout their evolution have thus retained, in their formation of minute non-sexual spores, the most primitive method of reproduction, while vegetating by a single enlarged cell or by a multicellular thallus. An obvious limitation of this primitive, rapid method of repro- duction lies in the fact that it depends upon a continuance of favor- able conditions for its success in perpetuating the species, whereas in nature such conditions are often suspended through periods of adversity. A very simple organism like Chroécoccus living under fairly uniform conditions can bide its time through seasons of cold and drought and resume its very moderate activity when warmth and moisture return. But the chances of injury are decreased and the power of taking prompt advantage of every favorable oppor- tunity to grow, retained, if at the approach of winter, for example, the tender protoplasts harden by getting rid of superfluous water, become invested by a thicker, firmer wall, and store up what food they can instead of spending it all in immediate growth and re- production. A resting spore such as that of Nostoc thus provides for the future. An improvement upon this simplest type of resting spore is the zygospore in which two protoplasts co-operate to form a single, relatively large cell, well protected and richly stored with food for use at the time of germination. Even in the most primitive cases of co-operative provision for the welfare of offspring, a far-reaching 512 LIFE-HISTORIES advantage probably results from the union of different protoplasts. Much research in recent times warrants the belief that the offspring of two parents is benefited by the interaction of the slightly dif- ferent powers inherited from either side. Invigoration of the off- spring and increased adaptability are often plainly shown. Within specific limits, the beneficial effect of a cross, as the union of gametes from different individuals is called, has been found to be greater as the parents are less alike or have lived under more dissimilar condi- tions. Hence plants which can co-operate in the production of off- spring while living somewhat apart, make the most successful parents. Traveling gametes, as in Ulothrix, enable them to do this. But in order to travel well a gamete must be comparatively small, and when this is true of both gametes as in Ulothrix, the resulting - zygote cannot be large or very well provided with food, and is there- fore at a disadvantage in becoming a resting zygospore. Here then is an opportunity for a useful division of labor in co-operative repro- duction. Let one of the gametes remain small for traveling, and let the other become as large and as well stored with food as possible, then the result of their union will be a cross-fertilized zygote of superior capabilities. The fact that the most highly developed groups of alge, notably the higher Chlorophycez and the Rhodo- phycez, have adopted this expedient indicates that the experiment has been a great success among thallophytes wherever it could be fairly tried. Along with the possibility of cross-fertilization is apt to go also the possibility of union between gametes from the same individual. This is distinguished as close-fertilization. It is better than no fertilization at all, but seems scarcely more beneficial to off- spring than non-sexual reproduction. Where both gametes are set free, about the best that can be done is the formation of such zygotes as we find in Fucus, where the off- spring receives no further care after fertilization has taken place. When, on the other hand, as in Coleochete, only the male gamete is set free, the female plant gains the opportunity to act as a nurse to its offspring, giving it additional protection and sometimes food after fertilization until it is well able to take care of itself. This nursing may so affect the development of the offspring that it becomes strikingly different from the form which bears it; then we have an alternation of generations. It is in this new development, which represents the highest achievement of thallophytes in their care of offspring, that we shall find potentialities of the utmost importance for the further development of plants. Fungi, especially non-aquatic forms, have generally degenerated so far as to lose any power of fertilization they may once have had. This may be because in the more or less isolated situations they usually occupy, co-operative reproduction seldom is possible; and another important reason may be that their dependence upon ready made food throughout life makes invigoration and nursing THE LIVERWORTS OR HEPATICS 513 of offspring less important for the welfare of the species than rapid and prolific multiplication. 189. The liverworts or hepatics (Class Hepatice) take their name from a fancied resemblance of the broad-lobed thallus of certain lower forms to the lobed liver of an animal. Fic. 338.—Crystalworts (Riccia spp., Crystalwort Family, Ricciacee). A-C, R. Bischoffii; A, B, clumps of the plant growing on mud, (2) a, male plant; b, female plant. C, male plant, enlarged, showing the male gametangia or antheridia (a). D-H, R. minima. D, plants (2). E, fruiting plant enlarged, top view. F, a lobe, side view. G, a fruiting lobe, cut vertically through the young “‘fruit’’ or sporophyte, still more enlarged. H,spore-groupsand spores. J—M,R.glauca. J, K, plants (2). L, M, lobes, enlarged. N, O,-R. ciliata. N, two plants (3). O, lobes, enlarged. P-S, R. canaliculata. P, plant (3). Q, fruiting lobes, en- larged, top view. FR, same, under side. S, lobe cut vertically through the sporophyte. (Bischoff.)—Plants growing in moist places. There are about 3,000 species in the group. The most primitive liverworts belong to the group known as crystal- worts, occurring in all parts of the world and including many species. Some of these grow floating on the surface of still, fresh water and finally come to lie upon the mud when the water subsides in dry seasons. Other forms grow 514 LIFE-HISTORIES more upon moist earth or rocks; in these the thallus shows the broad liver-like lobing especially well, and often appears as a flat rosette (Fig. 338, 4, B). The more aquatic forms have narrow, much-branched, ribbon-like lobes (P, Q, R), and bear a striking resemblance to such alge as carrageen, while the forms with disk-like thallus (J, K), are closely similar to forms of sheath-algze. In both crystalworts and sheath-alge a lobe elongates by the continued division of a single terminal cell, which by its occasional forking gives rise to similar branches. Compare Fig. 314 with Fig. 338, P. One consequence of this continuous terminal growth and branch- ing is that when the older parts die and decay the newer parts are distinct plants which have thus arisen by a sort of vegetative re- production. No swarm-spores are produced, but the thallus often propagates non-sexually by single mature cells in various parts of the thallus dividing like a terminal cell and so producing a tiny ~ bud or brood-body which, separating, becomes a distinct plant. The main structural difference between the alga and the liverwort- thallus is a somewhat more advanced differentiation of the latter. ~ As the cells of Riccia grow older they may give rise on the lower surface to filamentous pseudo-roots and sometimes scale-like or tongue-like pseudo-leaves, while at the upper surface they may form a firm protective layer. Gametangia arise on the upper surface as in Coleochete but soon become immersed in the thallus through the growth of surrounding cells. Although strictly homologous with the gametangia of Coleochzte those of the liverwort are some- what more elaborate in structure. The male gametangium (Fig. 339, A-D) includes a number of cells producing motile gametes each hav- ing two flagella like the male gametes of Coleochete and differing from them chiefly in having a more slender body. The female gametangium (H, a”) isa flask-shaped multicellular organ containing a single female gamete. A female gametangium thus constructed is distinguished as an archegonium,! the female gamete being called an egg-cell. In some cases both male and female gametangia are borne on the same thallus, that is to say, the thallus is bisexual; while in other cases, a thallus has but one kind of gametangium, making it thus uniserual. In the bisexual plants close-fertilization can doubtless occur; while in the unisexual, only cross-fertilization is possible. Fertilization is effected by a single male gamete, which because of its slender form is able to make its way down the pro- jecting neck of the archegonium to the egg-cell. The zygote be- comes surrounded by a cellulose wall, and through repeated division forms a spherical mass of cells which at first are all much alike. This mass is a rudimentary sporophyte or embryo. The inner 1 Ar-che-go/ni-um < Gr. arche, first; gonos, generation. THE LIVERWORTS OR HEPATICS 515 cells each divide into four spores, while the outer cells become some- what thickened to form a protective case or capsule (Fig. 338 Q,R, 8). At the same time the basal part of the archegonium grows apace and may become so thickened as to give additional protection to the spores over the winter. When thus developed it is termed a calyp- tra.1_ The spores are set free in spring by the breaking down of the coverings about them, and they germinate by producing a row of cells of which the apical one finally develops a thallus like that already described. We have thus in Riccia quite as evident an alternation of generations as we found in Coleochete, both the oe and the sporophyte being somewhat more highly de- veloped. — ee Rg =e oe oS > of PEF ae Feo 5 Ny s o A > r1so—40 (cht eS oe NH -.< } 5 Fart im —" Fic. 339.—Crystalworts. A-C, Riccia glauca (28°): A, young antheridium; st, stalk. B, same, older. C, same, still older, showing the many cells, in which motile gametes (spermatozoids) are produced. D, ripe an- theridium of R. minima (412); e, outer cells of thallus; l, air-spaces. E, R. ciliata (282), growing-tip cut vertically to show the terminal cell (s) which by its successive divisions produces all the rest of the plant, the pseudo-leaves (b’—b’’”’) which project from the lower surface of the thallus and hold water for it, and archegonia, very young (a’) and full grown (a’’), ready for fertilization. (Waldner, Kny.) Both generations are still more highly developed in the umbrella- liverwort (Marchantia, Figs. 340-342), a common species growing on | the earth in moist localities. The spores germinate much as in Riccia, but the thalli are always bisexual. At first, however, both forms are essentially alike and resemble a brood-lobed Riccia. From the under side arise numerous unicellular pseudo-roots and many scale-like pseudo-leaves. On the upper surface are often formed numerous brood-bodies of the form shown in Fig. 342, which are produced at the bottom of little cups the whole suggesting a minia- ture nest full of eggs. By this peculiar form of vegetative reproduc- tion the gametophyte is rapidly multiplied; for as soon as a brood- 1Ca-lyp’tra < Gr. kalyptra, a veil. d16 LIFE-HISTORIES Fic. 340, I.—Umbrella-liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha, + Umbrella- liverwort Family, Marchantiacee). Male plant bearing antheridia- carriers (antheridiophores) ?. (Atkinson.)—The plant is common on moist earth, rocks, ete., throughout the world. Fig. 340, II1.—Umbrella-liverwort. Top of antheridiophore (%), cut ver- tically to show the cavities containing antheridia. (Atkinson.) body is carried away by some current of ‘rain water and comes to rest in a favorable spot it sends out pseudo-roots from whichever surface happens to be undermost, and begins to grow into a new thallus. After a while organs distinctive of the sex appear near the growing end, and curving upward become differentiated into a cylindrical stalk and an expanded top. In male plants (Fig. 340 I-IV) this top is a lobed disk on the upper side of which are pits, each containing a multicellular gametangium, from which come stender motile gametes like those of Riccia already described. Archegonia arise also on the top of what is at first a somewhat similar THE LIVERWORTS OR HEPATICS 517 ip ef Fig. 340, I11.—Umbrella-liverwort. Antheridium (52) showing the numer- ous cells within which produce spermatozoids. (Atkinson.) Fig. 340, [V.—Umbrella-liverwort. Spermatozoids, highly magnified. (Atkinson.) expansion (Fig. 341, I-V), but they come finally to lie underneath through the folding downward of the edges of the lobes. The female gametangia are thus protected by their position, and besides this they are covered by a hanging curtain (Fig. 341, V, p). When the plants are wet with rain or dew the flagellate male gametes are set free and swim or crawl from their elevated home down the stalk and to a female plant; then they climb up its stalk (doubtless aided by numerous hairs thereon) to the archegonia. The fer- tilized egg-cell gives rise to a spheroidal embryo which develops into a sporophyte resembling that of Riccia for a while but finally, by growth of the basal region of the capsule, producing a foot- stalk whose elongation pushes the sporangium through the top of the calyptra (Fig. 341, III). Meanwhile, elongated cells, called elaters1 (Fig. 341, IV), having elastic, spirally thickened walls are being formed among the spores; and when finally the cap- sule bursts open these elaters, by mechanical movements due to drying, eject the spores and so help to scatter them. The sporo- phyte is fed entirely by the gametophyte and lives as a parasite, the foot or lower end of the stalk serving as an haustorium. Especial interest attaches to the genus Anthoceros (often called horned liverworts from the form of the sporophyte), because these humble plants have preserved structures which help us to under- stand how all the higher plants may have originated. The game- 1 F-la’ter < Gr. elater, a driver. 518 LIFE-HISTORIES Fic. 341, I.—Umbrella-liverwort. Female plant (4), bearing archegonia- carriers (archegoniophores). (Atkinson.) tophyte develops from a spore in much the same way as happens with the other liverworts described. Even more than in Riccia it is like the thallus of Coleochzte, notably in possessing but a single chromatophore in each cell, and in having no trace of pseudo-leaves (Fig. 343). The gametangia are completely embedded in the thallus (Fig. 344). The embryo (£) develops a somewhat expanded foot which serves to hold the slender sporophyte in an upright position, and functions also as an organ of absorption. As the sporophyte continues to grow, however, it is plain that scarcely more than inorganic materials are taken in; for very soon, above the foot ap- pears an elongating zone of tissue containing much chlorophyll; and this enables the sporophyte to photosynthesize and so, unlike our other liverworts, to be almost self-supporting. If an Anthero-. ceros sporophyte should ever develop a root it would no longer need to be even a partial parasite, as now, but could lead an entirely independent existence. The elongating region connecting the cap- sule and the foot is morphologically a shoot, and thus we have in this little plant the beginnings of a differentiation into three mem- bers—sporangium, foot, and shoot. At the center of the shoot and THE TRUE MOSSES 519 { | $ Fic. 341, I1.—Umbrella-liverwort. Archigonio- : phores (3) bearing ripe ‘‘fruit’’ (sporophytes), the spore-cases of which are seen projecting beyond the curtains which protected them while young. Two of the spore-cases have burst showing the projecting elaters. (At- kinson.) FASTEST IRIS CLE Re NS ELTSAG extending into the capsule is a column of somewhat elongated cells, which is called the columella 1 (Fig. 345, c, c). Breathing-pores at the surface permit aération of the inner cells. Hepatice are plants producing archegonia upon a mostly prostrate and thalline gametophyte which may be variously lobed or branched and often resembles a flattened leafy moss, but which generally has well-contrasted upper and lower surfaces; and there is a sporangium generally dehiscing longitudinally and discharging its spores by means of intermingled thread-like elaters. There are about 3,000 species. 190. The true mosses (Class Musci). The name ‘‘moss”’ is popularly given to any small, matted plant of soft texture ‘Col-u-mel’la < L. diminutive of columna, a pillar. 520 LIFE-HISTORIES Fic. 341, 111.—Umbrella-liverwort. Top of archigoniophore (+) cut ver- tically to show the stalked sporophytes of different ages: the two inner ones are still within the enlarged wall of the archegonium; the right- hand one has protruded on its stalk leaving the archegonial wall as a sheath (calyptra) at the base of its stalk; while the left-hand one has burst open and is shedding its spores and elaters. (Atkinson.) Fig. 341, 1V.—Umbrella-liverwort. me, cluster of young spores; sp, spore. An elater. A piece of the same, showing the clastic spring-like spiral thickening within. All highly magnified. (Atkinson.) — THE TRUE MOSSES 521 Fic. 341, V.—Umbrella-liverwort. Archegonium (at the left) containing an egg-cell (e); and (at the right) the same, later, containing a young sporophyte (sp). #82 The neck (n) of the archegonium, and its base (v), are shown in both; as also the protective curtain (p). (Atkinson.) Fic. 342.—Umbrella-liverwort. Thallus (3) showing on the top seven brood-cups containing minute brood-bodies; and below numerous pseudo-roots, (Atkinson.) 522 _ LIFE-HISTORIES whether it be a seaweed, a lichen, a liverwort, or one of the higher plants. In strictest botanical use it belongs only to about 5,000 species of small green plants which have pseudo- leaves usually arranged spirally on a pseudo-stem, and pro- duce spores in urn-like cases opening mostly by a lid. Fic. 343.—Horned-liverwort (Anthoceros levis, Horned-liverwort Family, Anthocerotacee). Plant ({) with three ‘‘fruits’’ (sporophytes). (Luers- sen.)—Rather common in moist soil. Fic. 344.—Horned-liverwort. A, branched thallus. 3B, thallus (44) cut vertically to show the antheridia (an), the pseudo-roots (w), and a colony of Nostoc (k) which sometimes lives in the interior of this plant. C, vertical section through tip of thallus (#32) showing beginnings of archegonia (ar). D, section through older part of thallus (#82), show- ing a fertilized archegonium in which the egg-cell has begun to divide. E, embryo of sporophyte showing shoot-part above and foot below. (Hofmeister.) True mosses resemble liverworts except in having a mostly erect gametophyte with pseudo-leaves spirally disposed about a pseudo- stem which supports a sporangium dehiscing by a lid and lacking ela- ters. These peculiarities are shown in the peat moss (Sphagnum, Figs. 227, 346-349) and the cord moss (Funaria, Figs. 350-356). The spores of Sphagnum (Fig. 346) germinate in water by send- ing out a branched thread which resembles a filamentous alga. Sooner or later this thread gives rise at several points to apical cells each of which by its frequent oblique divisions produces a pseudo- stem with pseudo-leaves. If, however, the spore falls upon moist earth, its germination is more like such a liverwort as Anthoceros or Marchantia, for the initial thread soon develops into a flat- lobed thallus, producing slender pseudo-roots below, and _ vertical THE TRUE MOSSES 523 OND: Pe =——— WIS " 7) CSSA , WYAYD BY a ‘e \_\ ee CHE De ea oibge ), a aS = sat H ai oo} nee = Fig. 345.—Horned-liverwort. Young sporophyte (sg, sg) showing the be- ginnings of a columella (c, c) and spores (s). L, L, calyptra, 492. (Hofmeister.) Fic. 346.—Peat moss (Sphagnum acutifolium, Peat moss Family, Sphagna- cee). A, spore, highly magnified. C, spore (s) germinating in water producing a green branched thread or protonema (n, n’) from which buds (pr, pr) arise and produce gametophytes. (Schimper.)—Plant common in bogs. Fic. - 347. — Peat moss. Flat pro- tonema (pr, pr) produced on moist earth, giv- ing rise to a gametophyte (m) and pseudo-roots (w) 422. (Schimp- er.) 524 Fia. LIFE-HISTORIES 348.—Peat mosses. A, part of a gametophyte, enlarged, showing male branches (a, a, a, a) and female branches (5, 6). B, part of a leaf (S. cymbifolium), 39°, showing the net-work of green cells surrounding the large ones which fill with water or air. C, vertical section through a small piece of leaf (S. cuspidatwm) showing the small and the large perforated cells, 28°. D, cross-section through outer part of stem (S. cymbifolium) highly magnified. EH, male branch of S. acutifolium, with a vegetative branch at the base, 3%. F, same, with many pseudo- leaves removed to show the male gametangia (antheridia), #. G, an opened and empty antheridium, 28°. 4H, five cells containing young spermatozoids, 43°. J, such a cell nearly ripe, 29°. K, spermatozoid, 200, J, ripe ‘‘fruit’’ (sporophyte) with remains of the archegonium at its base borne on a stalk continuing the axis of the pseudo-stem which bears pseudo-leaves at its base; magnified. (Schimper.) ‘ THE TRUE MOSSES 525 moss-branches above (Fig. 347). In either case these vertical pseudo- leafy shoots are homologous with the ascending branches of Mar- chantia; but as seen in Fig. 348 they are much more elaborately constructed. At the surface of the stem are developed usually several layers of large cells with very thin walls which are kept from collapsing by ridge-like thickenings, and communicate with one another and with the exterior by pores (D) of considerable size. These cells soon lose their protoplasm and then form a sponge-like Fic. 349.—Peat mosses. A, tip of female branch of S. acutifolium, cut vertically to show the archegonia (ar), protective leaves (ch) still young, and older ones (y) acting like bud-scales. B, young ‘“‘fruit,”’ cut vertically to show the sporophyte of which the foot (sg’) is fixed in the head (v) of the stalk or pseudopodium (ps), and the spore-case (sg) is still enveloped by the calyptra (c) bearing above the old neck (ar) of the archegonium. C, ripe sporophyte of S. squarrosum, showing its lid (d) and spore-case (sg) emerged from the torn calyptra (c) and borne upon a pseudopodium pushing it beyond the formerly protecting pseudo-leaves (ch). All magnified. (Schimper.) or wick-like envelope which draws water from below by capillarity, and stores it ready for use. The pseudo-stem is strengthened by a uniform thickening of the walls of an inner cylinder of cells. The pseudo-leaves are made up chiefly of large, thin-walled cells (B) like the outer cells of the pseudo-stem, similarly reinforced by ridges and similarly perforated. They supply water to a net-work of small cells containing numerous chromatophores in which the work of photosynthesis is carried on. Vegetative reproduction so far as known takes place only through the separation of branches y ) 526 LIFE-HISTORIES by decay of the older part. Male gametangia (F’) are borne on the side of special branches which may be recognized as having their leaves more crowded and often reddish (A and EF). The numerous male gametes (K) are more elongated and more spiral than those of Marchantia, but are otherwise similar. Archegonia are produced at the tip of short branches surrounded by comparatively large leaves (Fig. 349, A). After the female gamete has been fertilized, the axis of the branch elongates into a stalk bearing at its tip the enlarging sporophyte enveloped in the calyptra (B, C). The sporo- phyte is differentiated into a short, thick foot (sg’) and a capsule in which there is a central mass of large air-filled cells surmounted by Fig. 350.—Cord-moss (Funaria hygrometrica, Cord-moss Family, Funaria- cee). A, germinating spore (442) showing a sap-filled cavity or vacuole (v) a pseudo-root (w, w), and the old outer spore-wall (s). B, further development of the thread (protonema) which comes from the spore, showing the main thread (h) and side branches from one of which (6) is growing a bud (K) destined to form a pseudo-stem and pseudo- leaves, and already sending out a pseudo-root (w), 72. (Sachs.) a hollow dome-like mass of spores, and the whole inclosed in a firm wall of small, hardened cells. A horizontal ring of these becomes finally so brittle as to render the top of the capsule separable like a lid (C,d). As the capsule enlarges, the calyptra (c) is ruptured, and . as the spore-case dries its form changes perceptibly from spherical — to subcylindrical but without elongation. The result is that the inner air-filled cells below the spore-mass are so much compressed, that a degree of tension is soon reached sufficient to blow off the lid with a perceptible report and scatter the spores to a distance of several inches. Elaters are thus unnecessary. In Funaria (Figs. 350-356) the spores when germinating (Fig. 350) produce a much-branched thread which makes a bright green, felt- like layer on moist earth. From this thread at many places arise directly vertical pseudo-shoots each consisting of an axis bearing THE TRUE MOSSES 527 be H eos] 3 08 3 yi ¢ ay ¥ mal MT C Soe. eee omert 3 i Fic. 351.—Cord-moss. Tip of a male gametophyte cut vertically to show the male gametangia (antheridia) of various ages from young (a) to almost full-grown’ (b); also paraphyse (c), protective pseudo-leaves (d) and foliage pseudo-leaves (e), 22%. (Sachs.) Fic. 352.—Cord-moss. A, antheridium discharging its spermatozoids (a), - 350, B,b, spermatozoid not yet escaped from its cell-wall; c, the same swimming freely, 29°. (Sachs.) delicate pseudo-roots from the lower part, pseudo-leaves arranged spirally along the sides, and at the tip either male or female game- tangia (Figs. 351-353). The gametophyte in Funaria is thus of somewhat simpler constitution than in Sphagnum. The cellular structure also shows less differentiation. On the other hand, the sporophyte is more complex. As shown in Figs. 354, 355 the foot becomes a long stalk, and the capsule develops several different tissues. The calyptra ruptures transversely at the base and is car- ried up on the capsule as a hood which falls off after the capsule is mature. A cylindrical spore-layer surrounds an inner mass of cells and certain inner cells of the lid break so as to leave behind on the capsule after dehiscence a fringe of teeth, called the peristome.1 Its function is to protect the spores and keep them from being blown out by a light breeze which would carry them only a short distance. | 1 Per’i-stome < Gr. peri, around; stoma, mouth. 528 LIFE-HISTORIES In dry weather, after calyptra and lid have fallen, a strong wind will shake the capsule on its slender elastic foot-stalk, and scatter the spores out between the teeth. ‘The most remarkable difference between the sporophytes of Funaria and Sphagnum is that the former like that of Anthoceros contains chlorophyll and is thus able ee, ce ac eee eee eee. ee ree oe we She ao . EST —= a ag a aan : - ae = NS, z ” ex b's —_ ee ° =a ‘x = ° ° o.° 2? ate En or 2 2 “8 e ore ) and first root (w). (Schenck.) or dry climates. One of our best developed northern ferns is the Aspidium already studied (Fig. 170, page 179). As shown in Figs. 361, 362, the spore in germinating produces first a row of cells, the terminal one of which soon divides in such a way as to produce a flat, heart-shaped thallus, which is rich in chlorophyll and sends out from the under side of the older part a number of pseudo-roots. By means of these the rear end is firmly attached to the earth while the lobed end slightly ascends. Finally on the lower surface appear archegonia near the tip, and male gametangia toward the base. The latter and their motile gametes are of the form shown in Fig. 363. The gametes, it will be noticed, are somewhat more highly developed than any found among the Bryophyta. That is to say, the spiral is larger and the flagella are more numerous. The archegonia, which are like the one shown in Fig. 364, differ but little from the others already studied. After fertilization the egg-cell divides into four (Fig. 365, A). The upper- most of these, by its further growth and division produces the foot (f) the function of which is to act temporarily as an haustorium for the embryo-sporophyte, and to push it out of the gametophyte and on to the earth. One of the lateral cells develops into the first root (w) while the opposite one becomes the growing point of the stem, and THE FERNS 537 the lowest cell gives rise to the first leaf. A later stage in the de- velopment of these parts is shown in Fig. 365, B. Covering the growing tip of the root, somewhat as a thimble covers a finger tip, is a protective organ termed the root-cap. Such a thimble-like cover- ing continually renewed by the meristem which it protects is char- acteristic of true roots. Root-hairs for absorption are soon devel- oped. The leaf (Figs. 365, B, 362, B) soon differentiates into petiole and blade, and curves so as to drag the tender leaf-tip up out of the ground. An extreme curving of this nature performed by every Fic. 363.—Fern Antheridium (Pteris sp., Polypody Family, Polypodiacee), 359 (Luerssen.) Fic. 364.—Fern Archegonium (Osmunda sp., Royal-fern Family, Osmunda- cee). A, first stage viewed from above, 82. B, same, cut vertically to show the central cell (c) from which the egg is formed, and the cells (h) which give rise to the neck, 222. C—-E, older stages, showing canal cells (he, be). F, neck with mouth closed. G, same, top view. H, same, mouth open. J, same as E but with egg-cell (e) ready for fertilization. (Luerssen.) : gO 8 oe op VW Ress sy branch of the developing leaves gives us the familiar crozier-like vernation characteristic of ferns. In the axis of the stem soon ap- pears a central cylinder of prosenchyma which developing also in the root and the leaf serves as a channel for conducting solutions absorbed by the root to the green food-making parts of the leaf, and likewise dissolved nutrients from the leaves to the stem and the root where they may be used in growth or stored as a reserve. As the stem grows larger, and leaves and roots become more numer- ous, its central cylinder becomes a hollow cylindrical net-work of broad flat meshes (Fig. 366), giving off slender branches to the 538 LIFE-HISTORIES Fiac. 365.—Fern Embryo (Pteris sp.). A, embryo removed from archegon- ium and cut vertically to show the first dividing wall (I, I) and the walls at right angles to this (II, II) whereby the fertilized egg-cell was divided into quadrants of which one (f) by further cell-division and growth becomes the foot, another (s) the stem, another (b) the first leaf, and another (w) the root. B, embryo still further developed but still attached to the prothallus (pr), cut vertically to show the foot (f) embedded in the archegonium (aw), the root (w) with its tip protected by a root-cap, the stem (s) and the incurved leaf (b). Magnified. (Hofmeister.) leaves and roots. When a leaf falls off it leaves a scar upon which one may see clearly traces of these slender branches which went into the petiole. In the trunk of a tree-fern (Fig. 367) the prosenchyma is par- ticularly well-developed and shows plainly a differentiation of tissues which is characteristic of all plants higher than bryophytes. Each strand is here found to contain thick-walled woody fibers (FB) and larger cells (VS) called vessels which have thin walls variously strengthened by ridges. These vessels correspond to the “pores” found in the wood of oak and other trees we have already studied. Such strands are called fibrovascular! bundles, and the plants or parts containing them are said to be vascular. The ultimate branches of the framework of a leaf are often nothing but single vessels. Be- sides the woody and the vascular tissues, which serve mainly for conducting fluids, ferns and higher plants often develop strands or layers of hardened, thick-walled cells whose function is mainly to give strength or afford protection. Such tissue is termed scleren- chyma? in general, or sclerotic parenchyma or prosenchyma in particular. An outer layer of the cortex as at (FZ) often becomes sclerotic and thus contributes much additional strength to a co- lumnar organ. The parenchyma of a fern-stem serves very largely for the storage of reserve food in the form of starch. From the epidermis of various parts may arise hair-like or scale-like out- growths which serve mainly to protect organs that are very young or especially need to be covered. Whereas in multicellular plants 1 Fi’/bro-vas’cu-lar <_ L. fibra, a fiber; vasculum, a small vessel. * Scler-en’chy-ma < Gr. skleros, hard. THE FERNS 539 “ll 1 4 Att Vit Pe le Ae DY ) Fic. 366.—Fern Stems (Aspidium spp.). A, underground stem (rhizome) of A. Filix-mas with rind removed to show the net-work of fibrovascular bundles. B, one mesh of this net-work enlarged to show the branches which enter a leaf to form its framework. C, cross-section of a rhizome (A. coriaceum) slightly enlarged to show the cylindrical fibrovascular system formed of two main strands, the upper (0) smaller than the lower (n), and the finer branches of these which enter the leaves. D, the fibrovascular cylinder of the same, removed and laid out flat after splitting the lower strand (u, u) in halves, leaving the upper strand (0) in the middle unbroken, as also the finer strands (6, b, b, b) which enter leaves and roots, and the larger strands (x, x, x, x, ©) which enter branches of the stem. (Sachs, Mettenius.) of simpler structure it was sufficient to distinguish merely different tissues, in the higher plants the differentiation has progressed so far that tissue systems must be recognized. Thus we have a tegu- mentary system consisting of the epidermis and its outgrowths, a vascular system comprising the vascular bundles,-and a fundamental system consisting mainly of parenchyma and including meristem, the green cells accessible to light, and the pith-like internal parts in which food is stored. The stem of an Aspidium (Fig. 170) as of nearly all our native ferns, remains mostly underground as a more or less horizontal rhizome. A considerable amount of starch stored over the winter in the fundamental tissues of this perennial organ, accounts for the rapid unfolding of the leaves in spring. Some of the leaves are entirely vegetative; other leaves bear numerous minute sporangia in clusters upon the back, each cluster being covered by a shield- like out-growth (Figs. 170, 3-5). A peculiar part of the sporangium is a ring of thickened cells running along the back (6c), which when 540 LIFE-HISTORIES at at ot et OOS st ks = ag es Phe oui fo F wey “ . a : ms = "Essoccss Sess Fig. 367.—Tree-Fern. Section of trunk. A wedge cut from the same, magnified to show the pith (P), a fibrovascular bundle (V F V) with its sclerenchyma (F B) and vessels (V S), and the rind (F L) and epidermis (£). (Baillon.) Fic. 368.—Fern Brood-bud (Aspidium Filix-mas) on base of leaf-stalk, i. (Luerssen.) THE FERNS 541 A Fic. 369.—Scouring-rush (Hquisetum arvense, Scouring-rush Family, Equisetacee). 1, spore-bearing shoot with erect branches ending in cone-like clusters (a) of sporophylls or sporangia-bearing leaves. 2, vege- tative shoot, with underground stem bearing tubers (a) gorged with food. 3, a sporophyll with sporangia, enlarged. 4, same, showing sporangia split open after discharging the spores. 5, 6, 7, spores with ‘‘elaters’’ wrapping closely, or more or less spread. (Wossidlo.)— Common in moist places. ripe suddenly straightens, so as to rupture the thin wall in front and eject the spores. Sporangia of this type although differing in many ways from those of the adder-tongue and its kin, are doubtless homologous with them, for students of ferns find a very complete series of intermediate forms connecting the extremes. Vegetative 542 LIFE-HISTORIES reproduction is sometimes accomplished in ferns by the formation on various parts of buds which fall to the ground and take root (see Fig. 368). Filicinze in general agree with the ferns described in being ont goniate, vascular plants, forming true roots and stems, and having alternate leaves upon which are borne sporangia that discharge their spores without elaters. The number of species is reckoned at about 3,000. 193. The scouring-rushes (Class Equisetingz) are repre- sented in modern times only by comparatively small plants of the genus Equisetum (Fig. 369)—about 25 species— which, however, are closely related to numerous gigantic rush-like coal plants, typified by the genus Calamites (Fig. 277, 2). In Equisetum cross-fertilization is accomplished by having male and female gametophytes which, as shown in Figs. 370, 371, differ considerably from one another, the female being much the larger and suggesting somewhat by its pseudo-leaves the nurse-plant of a moss. The sporophyte differs remarkably from that of any fern in the comparatively great development of the stem. This is hollow except at the nodes, and performs nearly all the work of photosyn- thesis. The roots do not differ essentially from those of ferns, but the foliage leaves are reduced to toothed sheaths serving chiefly to protect the tender regions of the stem. The fibro- vascular bundles of the stem are arranged in a ring, and in some forms (mostly extinct) a cambium like that of higher plants is developed which gives rise to successive rings of tissue. Such additional material by which increase in thick- ness is accomplished takes the name of secondary tissue, to distinguish it from the primary tissue formed by the primary meristem. The epidermis is often so filled with silica or flint, as to render the plants useful for scouring metal, and this accounts for the popular name. Certain subterranean branches of the rhizoma (a, Fig. 369) may have their funda- mental tissue gorged with reserve food, and thus form tubers which feed new growth in spring, and may sometimes serve as a means of vegetative reproduction. Among the vertical branches there is often a differentiation into the purely vegetative and the purely reproductive. The latter terminate THE SCOURING-RUSHES 543 Fic. 370.—Scouring-rush. A, male gametophyte or prothallus (432) show- ing antheridia (a, a). B-E, spermatozoids of various ages, much more highly magnified. (Hofmeister, Schacht.) Fic. 371.—Scouring-rush. Female gametophyte or prothallus (48) showing archegonia (a, a, a) and pseudo-roots (h). (Hofmeister.) in a cone-like aggregation of whorled sac-leaves. Each of these has a stalk ending in a shield-shaped expansion, six- sided from pressure. Behind each angle of the shield is a large sporangium dehiscing’ by a longitudinal slit (3, 4). The spores are peculiar in having four slender arms which close tightly about the spore when moist, and spread apart in drying, thus serving to eject the spores. They are there- fore called elaters (5, 6, 7). The massive, much-lobed gametophyte bearing gametangia above, and the comparatively large sessile sporangia of the scouring- rushes, indicate a closer kinship with the adder-tongues than with the true ferns, and suggest that the Equisetine may have evolved from Hepatic somewhat more moss-like perhaps than Anthoceros. They may be characterized as plants similar to ferns except in having 544 LIFE-HISTORIES relatively much greater stem-development, and in having the leaf- members whorled, the sac-leaves in cones, and the spores with elaters. 194. The club-mosses (Class Lycopodine) are well typi- fied by Lycopodium (Fig. 166) which is popularly regarded as a kind of ‘‘moss” because of the general resemblance of the leaves and stems, in form and proportionate develop- ment, to the pseudo-leaves and pseudo-stems of many true mosses. Fic. 372.—Club-moss (Lycopodium sp., see Fig. 166.) A, gametophyte (8§), showing archegonia (ar) and antheridia (an). B, old gametophyte (p) nursing a young sporophyte, 32. C, antheridium (29%) almost ready to discharge its spermatazoids. D, archegonium, cut vertically to show the egg-cells (0), the upper canal-cells dissolved into mucilage (he), and the lower canal-cell (bc), 292. (Treub.) The gametophyte (Fig. 372) is bisexual and massive, as in the adder-tongues, and mostly saprophytic; and the embryo resembles that of a fern in having but a single cotyledon. Its development is essentially like that of the next type to be described. The stem often forks but shows no secondary thickening. The leaves are unbranched, and in some species are all much alike, while in other cases the sac-leaves are smaller than the foliage leaves, are crowded into cones, and serve chiefly as protective scales for the sporangia. Each sac-leaf bears but a single spore-case on its upper surface near the base. There are no elaters. THE CLUB-—MOSSES 545 Fic. 373.—Mountain Selaginella (Selaginella helvetaci, Selaginella Family, Selaginellacee). A, sporophyte, }. B, young sporophyte growing from macrospore. (Bischoff.)—Native home, Eurasian mountains. Fic. 374.—Mountain Selaginella. Part of cone, showing a macrosporan- gium (a) containing three macrospores, and a microsporangium (b) discharging numerous microspores, 42. (Schenck.) . Another large group is Selaginella (Fig. 373) the sporo- phytes of which often resemble those of the club-mosses so closely that they were at first included in the same genus, and many forms in cultivation are still called by florists, lycopodiums. A most significant though inconspicuous difference is that Selaginella has two kinds of spores—minute ones, called microspores,! which are very numerous in anther- like saes termed microsporangia (b, Fig. 374); and macro- spores 2 (a) which are so large that four fill a macrosporangium. Both kinds of sporangia are borne singly on the stem just above or in the axils of upper leaves, in the same branch or cone. 1 Mi’cro-spore < Gr: mikros, small. 2 Mac’ro-spore < Gr. makros, large. 546 LIFE-HISTORIES Fic. 375.—Selaginellas. Germination of microspores. A-—E, different views of the spore showing the prothallus-cell (p), cells of the antheridium- wall (w), and the cell producing spermatozoids (s), *#2. In # the cell- walls have dissolved previous to discharging the spermatozoids. F, spermatozoids, 7%. (Belajeff.) The spores begin to germinate while still within the sporangium. The contents of each microspore divides into several cells (Fig. 375, A-D) one of which (p) represents the vegetative part of a male gametophyte, the others constituting a male gametangium, in the center of which is formed a cluster of elongated gametes closely resembling the male gametes of a liverwort. After leaving the sporangium the microspores liberate their motile gametes by rup- ture of the wall. The large cell which constitutes the macrospore is rich in reserve food and begins to germinate by dividing into a number of small cells within the wall. Soon the macrospores are set free from the sporangium, and continue to germinate by forming a few archegonia on the upper side, which eventually protrudes from the ruptured spore-wall shown in Fig. 376. After fertilization, the ege-cell divides into an upper and a lower half, the lower half grow- ing into an embryo, while the upper half develops into a peculiar organ called the suspensor (et). This by its elongation pushes the embryo, foot foremost, into the mass of vegetative cells upon which it feeds. The root and the shoot of the young embryo (Fig. 377) finally protrude from the macrospore, the foot (f) still remaining within as an organ of absorption in contact with the food supply. There are two cotyledons, which, containing chlorophyll, soon begin to make food for the plantlet, and aided by the developing leaves of the plumule, finally render the young plant self-supporting. From the upper side of each cotyledon (and often on later leaves) a flat THE CLUB-—MOSSES 547 Fic. 376.—Martin’s Selaginella (Selaginella Martensii, Selaginella Family, Selaginellacee). Germination of macrospore (98), cut vertically, showing the female gametophyte protruding from the ruptured spore- wall (spm) and exposing an unfertilized archegonium (ar), but still enclosing two embryos (emb!, emb2) which have been pushed down into the nutritive prothallus (pr) by their suspensors (et, et). (Pfeffer.)— Native home, Mexico; much cultivated. Fic. 377.—Martin’s Selaginella. Embryo (+32), cut vertically to show its suspensor (et), root (w), leaves (bl, bl), ligules (lig, lig), and tip of stem (st). (Pfeffer.) projection (lig) termed a ligule,! arises, which, by secreting mucilage, serves to keep the tender terminal organs from drying. The formation of macrospores that begin to germinate while still within the sporangium, marks a most important advance in the care of offspring; for by this means not only are the chances of cross- fertilization increased, but the embryo is afforded more protection, and the young plantlet can be provided with a larger quantity of promptly available food while preparing for independent life. Just one step further is needed as we shall see, to attain the high develop- ment of parental care achieved by seed-plants. A similar differen- tiation of the spores and sporangia into male and female is found also in certain types of Filicine, and in extinct Equisetine. As with scouring-rushes and ferns, so with the club-moss class, the modern species but feebly represent their kin of the coal age. These include giant lycopods such as Lepido- dendron (Fig. 278, page 301) and Sigillaria (Fig. 277, page 299) with much-branched trunks ten meters or more in height and often a meter in thickness, bearing cones as large as those of a pine tree, and forming extensive forests. 1 Lig’ule < L. ligula, a little tongue. 548 LIFE-HISTORIES The Lycopodine, which comprise in a very few genera about 600 species, occupy an intermediate place between Filicine and Equise- tine in the relative size of their leaves and in their arrangement which may be either alternate or whorled; but, while having the sac-leaves or sacs often in terminal cones, the sporangia are always solitary and never on the under side of a leaf; and there are no elaters. 195. The pteridophyte division, fernworts (Pteridophyta) is made up of the three classes above named. Ferns being especially typical of them all, the plants of this division are conveniently designated as fernworts. While, as we have seen, mossworts were perhaps the first green plants out of water to succeed in standing upright, it is among fernworts that we first find vertical growth producing lofty trunks. Spores formed near the top of such a trunk are plainly given an immense advantage since they may be dispersed over an extensive area. This highly beneficial provision for the welfare of offspring was made possible by the development of roots able to absorb subterranean moisture, and of leaves that could utilize it in con- nection with the air and sunlight. A protective function with reference to the sporangia or to tender parts of the stem was easily assumed by these lateral appendages, and in some cases became their chief or only office, as happened with the sheathing whorls of Equisetum or the cone-scales of Selaginella. Various differentia- tions of the stem-parts, gave rise to more or less branched ascending axes, either independent or climbing, or to more or less horizontal, often subterranean stems in which the capacity for storing food was often especially developed, and from which vertical branches or vertical leaves arose during seasons favorable for growth. For the bearing of spore-sacs either leaf-parts or stem-parts were available; and sometimes the one, sometimes the other was used. Nurse- plants were depended upon to foster the embryo and prepare it for independent, vigorous life; and the nurse itself was so well provided with reserve food that it could afford to dispense with food-making organs of its own to a considerable extent. It is thus perhaps of evolutionary significance that the gametophyte of fernworts is commonly much simpler in form and of less vegetative importance in the life-history of the plant than is the case in mossworts. An extreme of specialization in the reproductive function of the game- tophyte is found in those fernworts which have male and female spores, the latter having in general such a large amount of reserve food that the nurse-plant does not need to make any for itself and scarcely protrudes beyond the spore, while the former having no embryo to nurse reduces its vegetative part to a single cell. Such gametophytes are virtually hysterophytic, and it is interesting to observe that types which do not produce macrospores but are THE PTERIDOPHYTE DIVISION 549 closely akin to those which do, have more or less hysterophytic nurse-plants. In endeavoring to trace the evolution of fernworts we con- tinually encounter the question as to whether a given type or organ of relatively simple form is best regarded as primi- tive or degenerate. The evidence available is often conflict- ing and has led different botanists to very diverse conclu- sions regarding the kinship and evolution of the different groups. Another stumbling block has been the difficulty of distinguishing between the resemblances that arise from similar adaptation to the same environment though in different lines of descent, and those resemblances which are due to inheritance even under different environments. It is now generally admitted, however, that the fernworts of the coal period attained much higher development than any which have survived, and that several important features, such as the development of macrospores, have evolved in- dependently in each of the three classes. We have thus good reason to suppose that the progressive evolution of the Pteridophyta was mainly accomplished in’ geological ages long past, that this progress took place along the three main lines represented by our modern ferns, scouring-rushes, and lycopods, and that these fernworts of to-day are the more or less degenerate descendants of giant plants like those preserved in coal. When we take the adder-tongue fern as possibly represent- ing the sort of plant which first evolved from a liverwort like Anthoceros, we must accordingly make allowance for considerable modification of detail due to special adaptations in the course of ages and to more or less degeneration. We cannot say much more than that our supposed ancestor of the ferns presumably had rows of large sporangia along the edges of the blade-like expansion of a growing axis which put forth, below, cylindrical projections for absorbing water. ‘From such an ancestor, ferns, scouring-rushes, and club- mosses may perhaps be supposed to have evolved, one or another according as the stem-parts or leaf-parts reached greater or less, or about equal development, and the spore- sacs were multiplied or reduced in number and diminished 550 LIFE-HISTORIES or increased in size or otherwise modified to provide for the welfare of offspring. But however well these plants might succeed in utilizing under- ground moisture they could never take fullest advantage of the opportunities offered for life upon the land so long as they were dependent upon surface water to secure fertilization; and every fernwort still retains traces of its aquatic ancestry in the male gametes which must swim to accomplish their purpose. Thus fern- worts like mossworts are truly land-plants only during part of their life, although the former have attained a prodigious development upon land. Pteridophyta agree with Bryophyta in having archegonia, but are distinguished among cryptogams by developing true roots, stems, and leaves, in which a vascular system vs developed. 196. Cryptogams and phenogams. The highest develop- ment of plant life is associated with the production of seeds, which afford the. best possible provision for the welfare of offspring. There is abundant evidence to show that the earliest seed-plants differed but little from certain fernworts that had developed ma- crosporangia containing single macrospores. The first step toward converting such a macrosporangium into a seed might easily be taken if the macrospores remained attached to the plant until the archegonia were exposed, while the microspores, set free, were car- ried by wind to the attached gametophyte there to germinate and effect fertilization. The final step would come, when, after fertiliza- tion of an egg-cell thus doubly protected by nurse-plant and spore- sac, the nurse-plant itself should be further protected by continued growth of the surrounding parts and should be fed by the parent while it was in turn feeding the embryo. An embryo thus fed through a connection maintained with the parent plant, and pro- tected by a sporangium wall which finally becomes detached from the parent for dispersal, is a seed; the macrosporangium with its inclosed macrospore and female gametophyte is an ovule; the micro- sporangia are anthers; and the microspores, pollen grains. When such highly differentiated spore-sacs are borne upon leaves we have sac-leaves which we call either carpels or stamens. Pines and other gymnospermous plants (Figs. 258, 259, 260, 263) as we have seen, bear ament-like clusters of stamens or carpels each cluster forming what we may regard as a separate flower. A Selaginella which had certain cones producing microspores exclu- sively would thus be homologous with a staminate flower of Pinus, while an exclusively macrosporic cone would correspond to a pis- tillate flower. The morphology of the stamens and their parts in CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 551 | ' +. Fic. 378.—Norway Spruce. Ovule cut vertically and enlarged to show the embryo-sac (e) filled by the prothallus or endosperm and two archegonia (a), each with its neck (c) and swollen part (0) which contains an egg- cell with a nucleus (n); the nucellus (nc) surrounded by the integuments (7); pollen-grains (p) from which come pollen-tubes (¢) extending to the archegonia; and a part of the seed-wing (s). (Strasburger.) Pinus and related genera will doubtless be sufficiently clear without further explanation, but the carpels and ovules call for more de- tailed examination. Each carpel, as we have seen, bears two ovules on its upper side near the base (Fig. 258, 8). When cut in half vertically such an ovule exhibits the parts shown in Fig. 378. A single macrospore organically connected with the surrounding tissue constitutes what is termed the embryo-sac (e).. The rest of the ovule represents the macrosporangium, which is divided into a central part, the nucellus 1 (nc) in which the embryo-sac is embedded, and an outer layer, called the integument (7), which covers the nucellus except at the micropyle. Microspores, 7. e., pollen grains, intrusted to the wind, are carried to the pistillate flowers. Caught by a 1Nu-cel/lus < L. nucella, a little nut. 552 Fia. LIFE-HISTORIES B 379.—Norway Spruce. Fertilization of egg-cell. A, ripe egg-cell with nucleus (on) and lower neck-cell (cl), 72. 8B, same, later, the tip of a pollen-tube (p) having entered the egg-cell and discharged into it the male nucleus (sn) which approaches the female nucleus (on). C, same, later, the two nuclei having become fused into one, which soon divides into four nuclei that move to the lower end of the egg-cell. D, lower end of the egg-cell showing two of the four nuclei which have moved into it. EH, same after division of the four nuclei into eight. F, same after further division has produced four tiers of nuclei, all but the uppermost four being enclosed in cell-walls. G, same, after the middle tier of cells has elongated to form a suspensor which has pushed the lower tiers of cell into the prothallus (or endosperm) where they give rise, by repeated cell-division, to an embryo which is fed by the endo- sperm. The nutritious materials left over in the endosperm when the ovule has become a seed constitutes the seed-food which supports the young plantlet during germination. (Strasburger.) spreading carpel, they come finally to the micropyle where the integument is often prolonged in such a way as to lead them directly to the tip of the nucellus. Here they germinate by forming a few cells, some of which, remaining within the spore, represent the vege- tative part of the male gametophyte; while othe*s, the male gametes, form a hypha-like tube which penetrates the soft tissue of the nucellus and feeds upon it like a fungus. Meanwhile the macrospore CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 553 Fic. 380.—Norway Spruce. Growth of embryo. A, early stage, 192. B, later stage, 22. C, half-ripe embryo, showing below the protrusions from which the cotyledons are formed, 32. D, same, cut vertically. E, same, end view, showing the eight rudimentary cotyledons surround- ing the stem-tip. FF, embryo, fully formed (3), cut vertically to show the seed-leaves or cotyledons (c), the seed-stem (h), the beginning of the root (pl), root-cap (cp), fibrovascular cylinder of root (cl), pith of stem (m), and rudimentary fibrovascular strands (op) surrounding it. (Strasburger.) 554 LIFE-HISTORIES (or embryo-sac) has been developing some very simple archegonia. (a), consisting only of a large egg-cell (0), and one or more very small cells (c) representing the neck. See also Fig. 379, A. Presently the tip of a pollen-tube bearing the male nucleus reaches the egg- cell and discharges its nucleus into the female protoplast (Fig. 379 B). The male and the female nucleus fuse into one (C) and move to the opposite end of the egg-cell, there to form a group of small cells from which one or more embryos arise, but only one develops, in each seed. As in Selaginella, certain cells form a suspensor which pushes the developing embryo into the storage tissue of the game- tophyte. But in the pine and spruce this vegetative part of the nurse-plant, because of its long connection with the parent, is able to draw into itself a continued supply of nutritive material. Part of this nourishes the embryo till it develops root, stem, and leaves, while a surplus is stored around it as seed-food for the use of the plantlet when it has left the parent, and is ready to germinate (Figs. 379, 380). Not only is abundant food thus supplied to and for the embryo, but the sporangium wall (nucellus and integument) and the sac-leaf (cone-scale or carpel) are so well nourished after fertilization has taken place, that they grow enormously and be- come much hardened as organs of protection. The ripened ovule thus becomes a seed, and finally, as already described, separates from the parent and is aided in its aerial voyage to a home for life, by a wing derived from the carpel. The young sporophyte has simply to grow after the manner of its kind to become a tree and produce gametophytes which shall codperate in the formation of highly favored offspring. In view of the many resemblances between Pinaceze and Lycopodiacee it has been thought that plants closely related to the club-moss trees of the coal-period may have been the ancestors of both of these cone bearing groups. It should be said, however, that the remains of extinct gymnosperms represented by Cordaites (Fig. 277, 5) contemporaneous with Lepidodendron, show resemblances to the ancient ferns which indicate that the ancestor of the conifers was more fern-like than might appear merely from a comparison of modern types. | Cycas (Fig. 381) shows even closer affinity with ferns, as for in- stance, in the ample branched foliage-leaves which unroll as they develop, and the numerous sporangia borne upon a sac-leaf. In general the life-history is similar to that of Pinus, pollen spores being carried by the wind to a little chamber at the tip of a naked ovule to fertilize an egg-cell; but in this case the microspore upon germinating produces in the pollen-tube two motile gametes pro- CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 555 Fic. 381.—Japanese Cycad (Cycas revoluta, Cycad Family, Cycadacee). 1, seed-bearing plant. 2, macrosporangial leaf or carpel showing the naked ovules (macrosporangia) near its base. 3, microsporangial leaf, or stamen, showing the numerous microsporangia (anthers) on its lower face. (Wossidlo.)—Tree growing about 3 m. tall; fruit densely hairy. Native home, Japan; commonly cultivated as ‘‘sago-palm.”’ vided with numerous swimming-hairs.- One of these fertilizes the ege-cell. After fertilization a seed is formed, an abundance of extra food being stored about the single embryo. The sporophyte as it develops becomes, as we have seen, singularly like a tree-fern and at the same time so closely resembles a Metroxylon as to be called by florists a “‘sago-palm.”? While we must of course regard this outward resemblance as more or less superficial, it gains significance from the presence of much deeper. resemblances which have led botanists to regard the Cycad-type as a connecting link between the fern and the angiosperm. As already shown, the main difference between a gymnosperm and an angiosperm is that the latter incases its macrosporangia in carpellary leaves. Fertilization is accomplished, however, as before by means of a pollen-tube, which, starting from the stigma, has simply a longer road to travel before its tip reaches the egg-cell. Moisture to enable the microspore to germinate is afforded by a stigma, while food for the tubular cell is supplied by the tissues along its route. The parts concerned in angiospermic fertilization are shown in Fig. 382. When germinating, the pollen-cell produces two nuclei, one of which represents the vegetative part of the male 506 Fic. Fig. LIFE-HISTORIES 382.—Climbing Buckwheat (Polygonum Convolvulus, Buckwheat Family, Polygonacee). Pistil (48) during fertilization, cut vertically to show stalk-like base (fs) of ovary; stalk of ovule (fu); end of stalk (cha); the nucellus (nw), the micropyle, or opening to the nucellus (mz); the inner integument (77); the outer integument (ie); the embryo-sac (e); nucleus of the embryo-sac (ek); the egg-apparatus (e7) consisting of three cells, the lower one being the egg-cell and the two others com- panion cells which are thought to represent rudimentary archegonia; prothallial cells (an); style (g); stigma (n); pollen grains (p); and pollen-tubes (ps). A pollen grain falling upon the stigma produces a tube which grows down through the style, enters the micropyle, and penetrates to the egg-cell; here it discharges its (male) nucleus which fuses with the nucleus of the egg-cell and from this union an embryo arises. (Strasburger.)—The plant is an annual vine resembling buck- wheat but with greenish flowers; native to Europe but a common weed in America. 383.—Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Mustard Family, Crucifere). Development of the embryo. A-—D, successive stages, much magnified, showing the suspensor (et), lower end of embryo (h), cotyle- dons (c), and the stem-tip (p) from which the plumule arises. (Han- stein.)—The plant is annual, about 50 cm. tall, with small white flowers and dry fruit; native of Europe; common as a weed in America. CRYPTOGAMS AND PHENOGAMS 507 gametophyte, while the other is the essential part of a gamete. Here then is a gametophyte reduced to the simplest terms. The female gametophyte formed within the embryo-sac consists of a few cells forming two groups which lie at opposite ends of the macrospore. Those at the micropylar end (e7) include an egg-cell which is thus advantageously situated for fertilization by the pollen-tube entering the micropyle. The growth of the embryo from the fertilized egg- cell involves, as shown in Fig. 383, the formation of a suspensor (ef) which pushes the developing germ well into the mass of food. In this example the embryo comes to fill the sporangium completely while still attached to the parent, thus forming an exalbuminous seed, in which radicle, caulicle, and cotyledons are well developed. While it is not altogether clear how closed ovaries evolved from open carpels, the change may well have taken place as a result of the peculiar inrolling of the young leaf-lobes which primitive gymnosperms are supposed to have inherited from ferns. If ovules should form on such lobes while still inrolled, and the lobes should coalesce, the carpel would be angiospermic. However it happened, many highly important consequences of this advance are apparent. Most obvious is the greater protection of the offspring during the period of their dependence. There is also an enormous gain in possibilities for securing an advantageous cross. Thus a moist, projecting stigma becomes a target more likely to be hit by wind-carried pollen grains and more likely to insure their prompt germination, than the micropyle of a naked ovule. Expansion or branching of the stigma, such as we find to be characteristic of wind-pollinated angiosperms, shows how well this new organ lends itself to increasing the chances of pollination and at the same time favors economy in the amount of pollen produced. See Figs. 2-15, 27, 36,74 B, C, 109 C, D, 124 B, 158, 159, 165 IJ, 171 IT, 248, 248, 254, 256 B, 257, 267 D, ete. A still further advance in these directions came when insects and other animals were attracted to the flowers, and their services thus secured as carriers of pollen. The attractive odors, bright colors, and alluring sweets, together with the marvelous arrangements of the various floral organs, present modifications of endless variety and offer one of the most fascinating fields in the whole range of botanical study. See Figs. 22, 39 IJ, 48, 57, 59 77, 80, 91-100, 106, 133, 139, 145, 148, 156, 163, 164, 168 IJ, 172, 178, 187, 188, 189, 192, 217, 251, 275, 276, 282-293, 299, etc. This elaborate modification of stem-parts and leaf-parts codperat- ing with pollen-sacs and ovules to form what we call a flower brings with it the further possibility of utilizing these accessory organs, WAS SOU zak WYAD SNIIOI 00009 LIFE-HISTORIES @ “eae? e e ° 558 (‘yeurst10) snpouoo Ino SUoF [BI (Avp-07 Jo sudoy AUB O¥TIU qourxa ULOIJ popusd ‘SOINQONIYS SUTATT YIM OIeAUIOD 07 SUTBTUOL TISSOF JO You] IF UIzII -UN 910UI puBw 910UT 9q YSNUI SUOT qsooue oy} puodog Youd oul] VY} ooVI} C qsorpivea oY} 0} Yovq UO OS pue . -poOUul 04 OS]B OST osoy} yey} pu (suttodsoisue I poajoad Sullodsorsue ULopOUr YVY} BOPt 9jOUINI WOIf popusosop Auosoyuo Aq AuosojAyd jo woTze ») Alp OM SY “ofl] JO SULLOF q AoyZ YSnoyy[e) SULoF Uso Bue pus spvoAd oY} Jo S10JSo0Uv WOUTTLOD ULOPOUL JO SLOJSoOUB JOUILA VWOTF ‘SULATT MOU UOJ AUB OF} ABTLUTTS Sns o19yY MOA OY} 7VYY popou BAYSN]IE SNYZ ‘oury TeyUOZTIOY ouUTVS OY} Bvys Surpuodsoei100 sodA} qUuoIo¥Ip oY} v YJIM MOTO SuIdeq VpPAD YORK ‘sqyurod-MOIIe OY} 013 oY} Jo ojdurexo | p Aq oanjonsys Jo AzTxo] dar oAvy yey} szuvyd oA a0uB oY} IOJ Spu In AOA ssoq}qnop d1oM SoAjesuToy osep 910M SULIOdSO! qoyyIe Worf JUoLoyIp AIA) Ixo 0} sure yt ‘ArerjuOO OY} UO yey} Ajduit you soop poses ynq1dwoed,, Jo ALOVY} OY} Sur} qyuowidopaAop jo so I OARS YOIYM S1OJSVVUB O spvoA0 SUIATT A[asop) S10yso0uB eq prmoys 41 AjIvou UT OUIOD OF SB Ul ‘“peonpoad st [j99 BT} Toy} UL Ysno1y} posse UL SOUT] PozZOp 94} SUTMOTIOJ A SUIUT]JNO WRIseIpP B ST PouRIG JOVI MOT aAoqe vouRYSIP AQ WMOYS ST OUT} JO Jo UIBUL OSOY} OSTB YO ouLoD oavy Yorum ‘KABOY OUT, “STV WOT SoseIS SNONVA UY sBy WIOF Surat; Aue os ‘JYyStoy owes oY} yNoqeV 7B P TUL IBPIUIS B UOYM oyo[dui09 d oq [IM opAd-oj1] Yowo JO § q SuIBIDBIP OSOY} UT aov]d o1B SI pus ‘][99 o[ouIs a8BYS DAISSODONS oY} ‘41 oAOGe poueu dn “‘QYSIL OY} PABMOZ OOUBST pig ‘“SUTATT MOT SOAT}R}UOSOL wo ‘suodsorsue oy} jo oUly [B1}s Sno1y} syuUB[d SuMaMopy JO UOL}NOAY poso ‘Iopio jBinyeuU Aq pozBoIpul SuUOTPOIIP OY} eordéy @ Jo ATOYSTY-oft]T OY} duloo Suisvos1out :osevq oY} wad e1our JO SoyouBsq eYs OAOGB OUT] SuTOUBIG ddns oY} SurpeVazsnyt SuBISVI@— P8E “OIL 559 560 LIFE-HISTORIES ’ ’ or certain parts of them, to further protect the embryo and pro- vide for its surer and wider dispersal. Hence arise protective shells (Figs. 23-36) and various aids to dissemination, including wing-like or plume-like appendages (Figs. 55, 59, 76, 159, 197, 215, 248, etc.), for catching the wind; elastic springs for propelling the seeds to a distance (Figs. 164, 165), and succulent parts (Figs. 88-110) which being attractive food, lead animals to swallow indigestible seeds and transport them often to enormous distances. Thus, it is in plants which form seeds within a case that we find the most perfect provision for the welfare of offspring; and it is doubtless because of this provision that angiosperms are the dominating plants of to-day. In concluding our survey of vegetable evolution it may hélp us to a just perspective if we briefly review the main steps which the ancestors of angiosperms appear to have taken in their long upward journey. The accompanying diagrams (Fig. 384) will serve to recall the chief facts and conclusions already presented regarding the phylogeny of these highest plants, and also the ontogeny of modern types representing the supposed links in the series. In accordance with the “law of recapitulation” (see page 435) we find that the younger the stages the more they are alike, and that imma- ture stages of the higher types correspond to mature stages of lower types, the youngest stage of each being a single cell like the supposed ancestor of all. This reproduces simply by fission, a process which is retained by all higher forms as growth by cell-division resulting in cell-rows, cell-plates, or cell-masses variously differentiated into tissues and ultimately, tissue-systems. Vegetative reproduction occurs also in these higher forms through the occasional separation of cells or cell-groups capable of independent life. Sexual reproduc- tion appears with the fusion of two protoplasts to form one which afterward increases by division. In the aquatic forms the fusing protoplasts soon became motile and this motility is long retained in the male by their descendants while adapting themselves to a terrestrial life, and disappears finally when this is fully attained. The single protoplast resulting from the fusion of two gives a second unicellular beginning and thus the life-history of an individual becomes divided into a sexual and a non-sexual stage or generation. When the female protoplast remains attached to a plant in the sexual stage until after fertilization there results an egg-cell which becomes a non-sexual embryo if the connection be maintained so that the sexual generation may nurse the non-sexual. This new beginning, nursed by the more primitive stage, affords, it would seem, a good opportunity for the transition from life in water to life on land. Then, too, the nursing, when not excessive, both permits and encourages the highest development of the non-sexual genera- tion. Finally, it nurses the nurse, and thus through ample provision for both nurse and nursling produces a seed well cared for in every way. This is the greatest achievement of the vegetable kingdom. CHAPTER XIII THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE 197. The three kingdoms. It has long been the general opinion that all natural objects fall readily into three main groups or kingdoms—the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal. Over a century ago the characteristics of each kingdom as understood at the time, were given by Linnzus in his famous aphorism: ‘‘ Minerals grow; plants grow and live; animals grow, live, and feel.”"* This threefold division is still recognized as convenient, and the distinctions given are admitted as valid to a considerable extent; but that a mineral grows in essentially the same way as a plant, and that a plant lacks any quality that is found in all animals, would not generally be admitted by the naturalists of to-day. In order to understand modern views regarding the plant’s place in Nature we need to consider what is meant by grow- ing, living, and feeling. By “ growth”’ Linnzus seems to have meant merely increase in size. Yet is not the enlargement of a seaweed or a fish essentially different from the so-called growth of a salt crystal in concentrated brine? The crystal gets larger simply by additions upon the outside, while the living body increases in size by the incorporation within itself of substances de- rived from without. Moreover, the crystal as it enlarges remains substantially the same throughout, and all the parts behave alike. In a growing body on the contrary there is a. progressive differentiation of parts and functions. Hence we cannot say that a mineral grows in the same sense that an organism grows. But does not Linnzeus express the differences above in- 1 Lapides crescunt; vegetabilia crescunt et vivunt; animalia crescunt, vivunt et sentiunt. 561 562 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE sisted upon by saying that organisms are alive? Doubtless he meant to do so; yet what did he mean by life without any trace of feeling? What sort of feeling can a sponge or a jelly- fish have that we must deny to a climbing-plant, or to a swimming-plant that moves toward the light? Our only evidence that the animal feels is that it responds by move- ments to certain stimuli. When we watch plants carefully we find that they also respond to similar stimuli. Thus we are left without any distinction between plants and animals; and since what ‘feeling’ stands for in animals is found in plants as well, it would seem that this same “feeling” might be what best distinguishes living from lifeless bodies, and so underlies the various manifestations of life. According to a view which we must examine more at length it is because of their purposeful activities that animals and plants are called living, and because of their coordinated parts, organic. All other bodies are then appropriately termed lifeless or inorganic. This modern view of Nature implies a revised classification which may be conveniently presented in the following tabular form. (Inorganic Realm or Mineral Kingdom. Nature | Organic Roath See _Animal Kingdom. 198. The inorganic realm, it must be admitted, presents many points of fundamental similarity with the organic. Thus volume, mass, resistance, form, and all such physical properties are common to both realms. Furthermore, all the chemical elements found in animals or plants occur also in minerals, and often in the same combinations. Indeed many of the so-called “organic compounds” once supposed to be formed only within living bodies are now made in chemical laboratories by purely artificial means. Oil of wintergreen, indigo, and madder-red are examples we have already had occasion to notice. Many others might be added, including certain sugars. It has been urged that some day it may be possible to manufacture protoplasm artificially, and so break down the distinction now made THE INORGANIC REALM 563 between living and lifeless things. Certain naturalists go so far as to insist that even to-day no fundamental difference can be found that will absolutely distinguish all organisms from all minerals. They say that life consists merely of the activities of protoplasm, that these are determined solely by the combined properties of the several chemical elements of which protoplasm is composed, and that already it is possible to match every one of the fundamental properties of protoplasm by an artificial process. For example, if a crystal of copper sulphate be thrown into a solution of potassium ferrocyanide there is formed at once, by precipitation around the crystal, a membrane resembling a cell-wall, which presents every appearance of growing as a consequence of pressure from within and fresh precipitation wherever the two solutions come in contact. The artificial cell thus produced may attain considerable size and branch in various ways. Another striking experiment consists in putting a few grams of mercury into a flat-bottomed dish containing a 10% solution of nitric acid in water, and then placing a crystal of bichromate of potash on the bottom about an inch away from the mercury. As the potash salt dissolves it becomes surrounded by a reddish cloud which finally reaches the mercury. Then suddenly the mercury becomes agitated, moves toward the crystal, and envelopes it, very much as certain of the lower animals seize and swallow their prey. Finally, an experiment held to be of profound significance as showing in a mineral substance the very essence of growth and reproduction attended by anabolic and catabolic reac- tions, consists in adding to a certian quantity of acetic acid, chemic- ally equivalent amounts, successively, of phosphorous pentachlo- ride, zine ethyl, and oxygen. As a result there is formed double the original amount of acetic acid plus several substances which cor- respond to the by-products of organic metabolism.’ Here, then, we have what is regarded as the life-history of a molecule, which, so long as it is fed, grows and reproduces as if by fission and excretes much as a bacterium would do. 1 For the benefit of students familiar with organic chemistry the transformations above referred to may be expressed by the following equations copied from Les Problémes de la Vie, by E. Giglio-Tos. Part I, 1900, pp. 20, 21. Acetic acid Phosphorus Acetyl Phosphorus Hydrochloric (2 molecules) pentachloride chloride oxychloride acid CH, CH; + PCI = | + PCl,0 + HCl COOH COC1 COOH COC1 PC. . =~ | + PCl,0O + HCl CH; CH, 564 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE What is the utmost that may be inferred from such experiments? Have lifeless things really been made to act as if they were alive? It is plain that all we have here are simply imitations of isolated vital processes, and not such a coordination of activities as character- izes a living being. Living protoplasm does not merely feed, or grow, or reproduce, or respond to stimuli: it does all these things at once, and more; and its activities are so coordinated as to accomplish definite ends. Nothing which can do all that protoplasm does has ever been manufactured. Supposing it were possible, however, to effect a combination of elements which would imitate all the physical and chemical activities of protoplasm, and all at once; what would that mean? We could be sure that such artificial protoplasts would always do the same thing under the same condi- tions, and that corresponding parts would always act exactly alike. Acetyl chloride Zinc ethyl Methylethylketone Zine chloride a CH, CH; (ie el COCI CH; CH3 Zn < = a. Zn Cls via CHs CHs CH; CH; 6 ~e CH; ; Methylethylketone Oxygen Acetic acid CH; CH: CHz COOH | + Sone ere ve CH3 COOH CH; ne cH, COOH | + ao ee CO CH3 cH, COOH Thus for every two molecules of acetic acid four are finally produced. THE INORGANIC REALM 565 But this is precisely what seems not to happen with living proto- plasts. No two living things are ever expected to act in the same way in all respects. Furthermore, the theory of-evolution as we have seen, assumes that the halves ‘of a cell divided by fission have individual differences such as we should have no reason to expect in the artificial protoplasts of a single batch. We may well believe that something quite essential to life will always elude the efforts of any man to create a living thing. Nothing that has been done gives any assurance of the possibility of realizing such a dream. It used to be supposed that the transformation of a lifeless into a living thing might be scientifically demonstrated to occur in the appearance of bacteria in a putrescible substance. The supposed transformation was called spontaneous generation, a term also ap- plied to an older notion widely held that many of the lower forms of life arose spontaneously from dead matter, as maggots in cheese or pond-scum on a stagnant pool. What gave rise to the belief that bacteria were spontaneously generated was ‘that sometimes after a broth had been boiled in a flask and all air excluded, bacteria did appear within a few days. Investigation showed, however, that in these cases spores were present which were able to resist an amount of heat fatal to the plants in their actively dividing condition; and one had only to repeat the boiling till all the plants were killed in order to obtain a broth which could be kept indef- initely. Science was thus left without any proof of spontaneous generation, and it must now be said that so far as we know every organism has had a living parent or parents. The aphorism “ All life comes from former life ”’ still remains undisproved. Those who doubt that there is any essential difference be- tween living and lifeless things may still urge in favor of their view that certain plants are to all appearance practically lifeless during their so-called resting period; and if that be true we have a lifeless thing coming to life simply as a con- sequence of a change in temperature. So also, many simple organisms when frozen lose all trace of life except that they live as before, when they are thawed out. They may be submitted to a temperature of 250° below zero centigrade for any length of time and will resume their activities when warm. Or, they may be dried so as to show no more sign of life than so much inorganic dust, and then be revived by moisture. Thus when there is too much or too little heat, or not enough water present to permit signs of life, an or- ganism may be as inactive as a crystal and indistinguishable from a lifeless thing except in so far as under favorable condi- 566 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE tions it again becomes active. We should remember, how- ever, that even granting in such cases the appearance of life in a body which before was lifeless, it was a reappearance; and this previous life again confronts us with the original problem. We still must ask, Is there not some profound difference between a body in which life reappears and one in which life never has appeared? To this question the doubter may reply: “‘Let us go back then to the first of living things. Evolutionists suppose this to have come from something that had never been alive before. Does not the change here assumed imply that the inorganic realm merges so gradually into the organic that some organisms differ no more from some minerals than one organism or one mineral does from another?”’ Not at all. It does not follow just because one thing is transformed into another that the new may not be profoundly different from the old. An evolutionist, therefore, is free to believe that when the first living creature appeared upon the earth, a form of existence essentially different from any that had been here before, came into the world. We may suppose that as the earth was cooling from its molten state there were formed according to chemical and physical laws acting under conditions not since repeated, aggregations of com- pounds like those now found only in the organic realm; and that as soon as the temperature became favorable these aggregations became alive, exhibiting the activities of a living thing much as a revived creature would do. In saying this, however, we have admitted only that life may have appeared as soon as the conditions required for its manifes- tation were present. We have not implied that life is a product of the chemical and physical properties of matter, however necessary certain material conditions are to the manifestation of life in an organism. It may be freely ad- mitted that chemically and physically considered certain lifeless bodies are indistinguishable from certain living ones; that indeed one and the same body may pass from one condi- tion to the other without change of properties, and that when alive all the activities of its parts are describable in chemical and physical terms. All this would necessarily THE INORGANIC REALM 567 be true if the life principle were an immaterial something which could find expression in an organism only through material bodies presenting favorable properties under favor- able conditions; and if life be not inherent in matter we should expect that all attempts to find any difference between the matter with which life is associated and that which is lifeless, would fail, as they have done. It may be urged against the supposition of life having entered into lifeless compounds as a controlling force in the beginning that this virtually concedes the possibility of lifeless bodies becoming alive, and merely substitutes a wholly mysterious idea for a chemical con- ception of the process. It is conceded that an evolutionist who as- sumes a first livmg thing to have been produced in some way can hardly escape supposing this living thing to have become alive; but neither does he escape facing a mystery whether he tries to think about it in chemical terms or not. Scientific thinkers try to avoid unnecessary assumptions. Why then should -we assume that there ever was a first living thmg? There can be no more need of so doing than of trying to imagine a time when the universe began to exist. Parts of the universe may always have been alive. Yet granting this possibility, it may be argued that since no life could have existed upon the earth when it was a molten sphere we have still to account for the presence of life upon it to-day. The answer of modern as- tronomers to the question as to how our earth came to be inhabited is afforded by the theory of panspermia.t This theory supposes that innumerable living spores are traveling through the celestial spaces impelled by the radiation pressure of light. It has been found by experiment that minute particles allowed to fall in a vacuum are driven from their downward course by a beam of light; and it has been calculated that spherical spores 0.00016 mm. in diameter— such as we have good reason for believing to exist although too small to be seen through ordinary microscopes—would be moved readily by the pressure of sunlight if they should once pass out of our atmos- phere. Air currents would carry such bodies to a height of about 60 miles where, if electrified by a radiating auroral discharge they would be carried beyond our atmosphere and beyond the effective pull of gravity. The light pressure could then propel them to the orbit of Mars in about twenty days, and beyond our solar system in little more than a year. Thousands of years might be required for them. to reach other solar systems; but meanwhile the extreme cold, dryness, and other conditions prevailing in space would be favorable to their remaining alive and resting indefinitely. Within a solar system particles of dust are being attracted towards the sun. If a traveling spore should meet one of thése dust particles it might be 1 Pan-sper’ mi-a < Gr. pan, universal; sperma, seed or living germ. ? >] b 568 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE carried into the atmosphere of a planet, and without harm come to rest upon its surface there to germinate if the conditions proved to be favorable. It would thus appear that we have abundant scientific warrant for supposing that the first living things upon our earth were resting spores which came through vast spaces from some other planet; and that our simplest forms of life are being distributed sim- ilarly throughout the universe, just as similar living germs have been carried from planet to planet during endless ages for which it would be idle to seek a beginning. Life having always existed does not need to be accounted for in terms of physics and chemistry. If not in physical or chemical terms, how then can we define that which distinguishes all living from all lifeless things? Some naturalists have seemed to think that this question could best be answered by trying to interpret the more complex manifestations of life in the higher organisms through a study of the simpler manifestations of the lower forms: but this means trying to explain the life of which we know most by that of which we know least. A method just the reverse is surely more promising. When I ask myself what it is that makes me alive, my answer is: Not any par- ticular arrangement or movement of material particles of a certain sort, but rather an immaterial something which to some extent can control the arrangements and movements of such particles in accordance with purposes peculiarly my own. My body is alive only so long as it affords opportunity for the exercise of my will. It is my power of choice that makes me alive. What I choose gives me my character. My life and my individuality come from my power to choose and the way I use it. If you should ask me how I suppose an immaterial existence can exert an influence upon what is material, I must answer that I have no more idea than I have how mind can affect mind or matter affect matter. The real nature of either is doubtless very imperfectly expressed by any scientific defini- tions of them that were ever offered; but I donot need to know the ultimate truth about them in order to feel justified in be- lieving that somehow in every living creature the free will of something mental gets expressed through something material, 1 For a fuller account of the theory of panspermia the student may profitably consult Worlds in the Making by Svante Arrhenius, 1908, from which the calculations given above have been taken. i THE ORGANIC REALM | 569 whatever mind or matter may be and however they may inter- act. If lam right in my belief, then it follows that this power of choice which we have already seen reason to regard as the fundamental factor in organic evolution, is indeed the very essence of life. On this view an organism is recognized as alive when it shows signs of control from within, manifested by activities regarded as purposeful, and in so far peculiar to itself as to defy exact foretelling. It has been well said that no arguments can ever force a person to believe that even he himself has a free will; for, if it were true that he had a free will he must always be free to choose the other alternative. The reader will understand, therefore, in what follows that as a believer in free will I wish merely to show some of the consequences of this belief to anyone who is dis- posed to share it with me. ‘Those who agree with me will feel free to believe in the workings of will throughout the universe. They will conceive of the difference between a lifeless and a living thing as simply this: the lifeless thing must do whatever it does, while the living thing may do this or that. From this it follows that to us and to all other living things belongs in various measure a power of preference.! The range of this power in us though limited by a Power beyond ourselves increases according as it is used. And shall we not say that the Power which limits while it permits the exercise of our separate wills is reflected in what we call the inorganic realm? , 199. The organic realm. A typical living organism may be conceived of as a self-building boat formed of materials taken from the inorganic stream in which it floats, but con- trolled by an indwelling, immaterial power capable of steer- 1J7f the reader has studied philosophy he is doubtless aware that certain thinkers who concede a power of choice to all living things refuse to limit this power to the organic realm, but hold that a certain measure of conscious freedom is permitted to every particle of matter. They favor this view as enabling them to unify their conception of the universe, and at the same time to recognize the immanence of God throughout. The unification which is gained, however, by saying that all things are alive, deprives Life of any special meaning. For if nothing is really lifeless, being alive means no more,than simply existing. What- ever truth there may be in saying that all Nature is somehow alive seems to me to be implied in the view outlined above. 570 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE ing as it chooses. The materials of such a living boat as we have imagined would be continually dissolving into the stream; while, at the same time, fresh inorganic material, admitted by the indwelling power, would be building the structure anew. So long as these materials formed part of the boat or showed signs of having once belonged to its organized structure, we should call them organic; and we should apply the same term to any compounds possessing the same properties. So long as the materials were arranged in a way to permit the indwelling chooser to act through them directly, they would constitute living substance. Until thus controlled they would be simply lifeless substances; atter they had passed from this control they would be dead. Be- fore they had been organized and after they had ceased to bear the marks of organization we should call them inorganie. The materials of which these wonderful boats are made consist chiefly, as we have seen, of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. It is perhaps significant that each of the four is preéminent for certain properties which are in marked contrast with what characterizes one or more of the others. Carbon, in a sense, is the most solid of all known substances. It requires the highest tempera- ture to melt it, and in its diamond condition exceeds all other materials in hardness. It is remarkable for the dif- ferent ways it can combine, and as entering into more com- pounds than all the other elements taken together. Hydro- gen, on the other hand, is of all common elements the most fluid. It requires the utmost cold to freeze it and remains gaseous under the highest pressure. It is remarkable for the ease with which it may be made to pass from one com- pound to another. Oxygen, also a gas at ordinary tempera- tures, is preéminent for the stability of its compounds, and for the activity it shows in combining; while nitrogen, simi- larly gaseous, is in marked contrast as being most difficult to combine and most unstable in combination. We have here, then, three of the most fluid of substances, gaseous at all life-temperatures, combined with the most solid sub- stance known; and among the four we find the readiest com- biner, and the most inert; the easiest to displace, and the THE ORGANIC REALM 571 most firmly grappling; the stablest, and the most unstable, of all common elements. From the interplay of such oppo- ‘sites extraordinary resultants should appear. If localized wills are to gain progressive expression through masses of matter we should expect that the materials used would have both mobility and fixity. That is to say, we should look for a constant flow of particles,,and at the same time relative permanence in the arrangements into which they temporarily enter; for only thus could change be added to change. Furthermore, if such a will were to be free to oppose outside influences as well as to yield to them promptly, the material through which it responded should have unusual stability associated with an instability resembling that of explosive compounds. Accordingly, since the properties of a compound result from the properties of its constituent elements more or less modified by mutual influence, it may not be altogether fanciful to suppose that the solidity of carbon, the fluidity of hydrogen, the stability of oxygen, and the instability of nitrogen may be especially significant as properties which in combination largely account for the almost paradoxical properties of living substance which is characterized by permanence with constant change, and sen- sitiveness with resistance; and having withal such an exceed- ing delicacy of balance that an infinitesimal force is suffi- cient to release energy in one direction rather than another. Of course a complete explanation of the chemico-physical properties of this living substance, if ever attainable, must be vastly more complex than might appear from the vague suggestions given above as to possible connections between a few important facts. The’purpose of these hints is merely to indicate how increasing .knowledge of matter may help us to understand the conditions under which life is possible, and so be of profit in our dealings with the world in which we live. It seems only reasonable to assume that the prop- erties inherent in the materials of which all living bodies are composed should make possible and largely determine the activities they all exhibit. Whatever may be the explanation of the fundamental properties of protoplasm, they are indeed, marvelous to 572 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE contemplate. Our simile of the living boats would need to be much elaborated before it could well portray the bewilder- ing complexities of action and interaction which go on within the simplest organisms. We said that the materials of each organic craft were being continually lost and continually replaced. But we must remember that often more is added than is lost; then the organism grows. It should be said also that so long as inner impulses control the arrangement of the fresh material, and thus partly determine the character of the growing structure, the arrangements formed usually show progressive fixity, each arrangement determining some- what the arrangements which follow and rendering them less susceptible of change. Hence, old age with its decreasing mobility and final death is an incidental result of the pro- gressive fixity which makes structure and habit possible. Yet under certain conditions, as we have seen, protoplasm passes into a fixed condition, to all appearance like that of death, but from which it may revive with youth renewed. A similar renewal of mobility distinguishes reproduction from mere growth, and offsets death in the economy of na- ture. Our living boats, then, grow old, and may die; or, they may become inactive and afterward resume activity with youthful vigor. When they have grown large enough they form out of themselves new boats, similarly invigorated and similarly relieved from the hamperings of old habits or fixed arrangements ;—but not entirely, for each is built upon much the same lines as its parent, and in its own building can only modify the design. Yet what wonders may result from an ever so slight power of modification bearing the slightest im- press of achoice! This part may be modified in one way, that in another: and morphological differentiation with physio- logical division of labor may ensue. What one brief life can- not accomplish, another may; individuality, heredity, adap- tation, organic evolution—all are here implied. Such are the powers and potentialities of a mass of living jelly. Our imagined boats each built and captained by a choos- ing power are meant to represent living things in general. All plants and all animals, as we have seen, differ from all minerals in having differentiated organs adapted to the needs spe THE ORGANIC REALM 573 imposed by the conditions under which they live; and in detaching certain portions of their substance, such as seeds or eggs, capable of developing from infancy to old age by taking in as food suitable materials, transforming them, then building them into their bodies, and finally after utilization, eliminating them as waste products. Such being the charac- — teristics of all living things we should hardly expect any well- marked peculiarities by which all animals can be distin- guished from all plants. In fact there is not a single point of difference available for separating sharply the animal from the vegetable kingdom. The Linnean criterion of feeling we have already found to fail when applied to primitive types. So also the popular criterion of motion or locomotion must be rejected by anyone acquainted with the lower forms of life, which include not only motile plants but fixed animals; and we have only to remember the absence of chlorophyll from many plants to realize that even this highly charac- teristic vegetable substance does not afford an adequate mark of distinction between the two kingdoms. Not a few organisms behave like plants at one stage, and like animals at another. A considerable number of these vegeto-animal organisms have been claimed alike by botanists and zodl- ogists. The uncertainty in classifying such forms has led to the suggestion that a third organic kingdom, intermediate between the animal and the vegetable, be recognized to include all the kinds in dispute. This suggestion has not met with much favor among naturalists, for instead of lessen- ing the practical difficulties of the case it would really double them by giving us two uncertain boundary lines instead of one. Our best way surely is to meet the difficulty by trying to.define as strictly as possible what may be conveniently meant by animal and plant, remembering that whatever definition we frame is sure to be arbitrary. We know that the great majority of plants organize in- organic material, while the great majority of animals, if not all, have no such power and so must depend upon plants for their food. The raw materials which plants build up into food have only to be absorbed in solution from the water, soil, or air in which they live. The elaborated food of animals, 574 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE on the other hand, is generally solid and so requires to be dis- solved in a digestive cavity within the body before absorp- tion is possible. Plants which can make their own food from — materials always at hand have no such need for traveling about in search of food as most animals have; and while food-seeking calls for the special sensitiveness which Linnzeus termed feeling, food-making involves only such manifesta- tions of irritability as might easily escape his notice. A typical plant is thus a sedentary food-maker, a typical animal being a roving eater. It is only when plants lose more or less their power of making food, and animals their power of locomotion that doubt arises as to their kingdom, and then the question has to be decided not so much by rules and definitions, as by evidences of their kinship to un- doubted examples of vegetable or animal life. A Bacterium, for example, is classed as a plant because of re- semblances to a Nostoce which outweigh its animal-like motility and dependence upon organic food. If a Bacterium should develop a digestive cavity for the reception of its food we should say it had become an animal. The most fundamental difference between plants and animals appears thus to lie in the ways they prefer to get their food—the vegetable way being to make the best of what comes to it, the animal choosing rather to capture what plants have made. Returning to our simile of the boats it might be said that the vegetable craft choose to anchor in a stream of materials which they organize into food, while the animal craft navigate the stream and repair their losses entirely from other vessels. A modern revision of the aph- orism of Linneus, still, however, confessedly inaccurate, might read:—minerals crystallize; plants organize or re- organize materials which they absorb; animals reorganize food which they have swallowed. 200. Plants in general. The foregoing reflections upon the way natural objects are related to one another are in- tended especially to emphasize the pivotal place which plants hold in the economy of nature. It is now believed that the wide and rich possibilities of earthly life could not have been gained or maintained without plants. Plants were PLANTS IN GENERAL 575 presumably the first things to manifest individualized powers of choice upon our planet; and plants have so chosen that animals have been born and enabled to realize the highest opportunities of life. Hence, because some plants have chosen as they did, we are now able to choose as we do. One of the earliest results of plant choice was doubtless the fixed mode of life; and with this we may connect the building of a protective cellulose covering and framework readily permeable by fluid raw-food materials. The firmness of this framework, combined with its power of conducting fluids, permitted eventually the building, even upon land, of enormous structures hundreds of feet in height. Fixity, together with their powers of absorption, have thus enabled’ plants to attain in some cases the longest life and the greatest size of any organisms. Preferring to be home-keepers rather than hunters their more tranquil lives have given neither opportunity nor occasion for such specializations of sensitive- ness as are involved in the rapid and highly complex re- sponses of animals. Hence it is that their modes of life appear so different from ours although but modified mani- festations of the same fundamental, vital power. It is just because of the contrasts between vegetable and human life that plants are able to serve our needs in so many ways. They feed us because they have retained the power of food-making which our line of life has lost. They shelter us because they have learned how to form in wood a con- structive material better than any we or our ancestors could ever make. They clothe us because the cellulose fibers of their bodies make a better covering than the hairs our bodies have retained. They warm us and work for us because they can store up sunshine, as we cannot. They help to make us well partly because their waste-products are so different from ours. They excite our admiration by doing to perfec- tion so many things we cannot do at all. They harm us only when we have not learned to know them and to behave toward them as we should. There are thus abundant reasons why mankind should study the economic properties of plants as fully as possible. We may be sure there will always be much to learn regarding the relations of plants to human 576 THE PLANT’S PLACE IN NATURE welfare, and that all we shall learn about this or any other aspect of their lives may serve to enrich our own. Thus, an inexhaustible interest as well as an increasing command over the resources of our world is the reward of our endeavor. An even deeper interest than belongs to any idea of use or harm is also sure to be aroused by watching the behavior of these our fellow-creatures that are so different from us in almost every way. For, again, these very differences give them an endless fascination as objects of study; and, finally, it is just these differences which enable us to distinguish the incidental from the essential powers of life. In these or- ganisms we see individualized wills expressed under condi- ‘tions as different as possible from those which permit the action of our own power of choice. We cannot hope to fathom the mysteries to which the humblest plant may lead us; we can only say with the poet Tennyson— “Flower in the crannied wall, I pluck you out of the crannies, Hold you here, root and all, in my hand, Little flower—but 7f I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all, I should know what God and man is.” j 3 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Abnormalities, 436 Absinthe, 159 Absorbent cotton, 228 Acacia Senegal, Gum Arabic Tree Accommodation versus competi- tion, 454 Acer Saccharum, Sugar-maple Aceracee, Maple Family Acetic Acid, 156 Achene, 351, 386 Aconite, 182, 189, 190 Aconitine, 190 Aconitum Napellus, Monkshood Acorn, morphology, 375 Acorus Calamus, Sweet-flag Acquired adaptations, 441, 443; characters, 443, 445 Acquirement, permitted by nat- ural selection, 450; versus selec- tion, 452 Aerid juice, 357 Actea spicata, Baneberry Adaptation, 428, 572 Adaptations, 431; acquired, 441, 443; characteristic, 442; in- dividual, 442; origin of, 442; selected, 446; sudden, 457, 459 Adder-tongue, 532, 533, 558 Adder-tongue Family: tongue, 532, 533, 558; grape- fern, 532, 533. Adhere, 365 Adhesion of organs, 365 Aération, 530 fEstivation, 349; convolute, 369; imbricate, 349, 354; open, 371; plicate, 381; plicate-convolute, 381; valvate, 349, 354 ome Gill-mushroom Fam- ily Agaricus campestris, Field Mush- room adder- Agriculture, primitive centers, 122, 123 Air-cushions, 284 Air-plant, 508 Albumen, 316,°351, 352 Albuminous seeds, 355 Alcohol, 156 Alcoholic beverages, 156 Alcoholic fermentation, 495 Alga Subdivision, 395, 396 Algae, Seaweed Subdivision Alge, as gonidia, 509; in general, 491; of hot springs, 475 Algo-fungal air-plants, 509 Alkaloids, 150, 177, 181 Allium Cepa, Onion Allspice, 128, 130, 177; oil, 130, 297 Almond, 35, 42, 120, 124, 167, 363; kernel, 114; oil, 296; philopena, 365 Alpine Rose, 378 Alternate, floral organs, 350, 354; leaves, 342, 352 Alternation, of floral organs, 350; of generations, 485, 512 Althea ojficinalis, Marshmallow Amadou, 239, 241 Amanita muscaria, Fly-amanita phalloides, Death-cup Amarantacee, Amaranth Family Amaranth Family, 378 Amaryllidacee, Amaryllis Family Amaryllis Family, 397 Amber, 288 Amentaceous inflorescence, 373 Aments, 373 American, aspen, 264; food-plants, 124; elm, 259; laurels, 416, 417; sycamore, 267, 268; wood- anemony, 205 Ammonia, 33 577 578 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Anabolism, 84 Anabolism imitated, 563 Anacardiacee, Sumac Family Analogous organs, 321, 326 Analogues, 321, 322, 326 Analogy, 326 Ananas sativas, Pineapple Anatropous ovules, 346, 355 Ancestral forms vague, 441 Ancient food-plants, 124 Andreecium (see also stamens), 346, 347 Andropogon halepensis, Grass Sorghum, Broom-corn Anemone quinquefolia, American Wood-anemony nemerosa, Wood-anemony Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower Anemony, 328-356, 341, 404, 405 Angiosperme, (Case-seed Class), 8 Angiospermous gynoecium, 392 Angiosperms, 397; as dominating plants, 560; evolution of, 538 Aniline dyes, 290 Animal, fibers, 223; kingdom, 561, 562 Animals and plants defined, 573, 574 Animals evolved from plants, 466 Anise, 137, 142, 170, 370, 412, 413 Annual herbs, 333; rings, 253 Annuals, 352 Annulus, 529 Anther, 12, 14, 319, 550 Antheridia, 515, 516, 517, 527, 537 Antheridia-carriers, 516 Antheridiophores, 516 Anthers dehiscing by longitudinal slits, 354, 355; by -uplifted valves, 360; poricidal, 379; syngenesious, 384 Anthoceros levis, Horned-liverwort Anthocerotacee, Horned-liverwort Family Antiseptics, 177 Apetalous flowers, 349 Aphorism of Linnzus, 561; re- vised, 574 Apium graveolens, Celery Apocynacee, Dogbane Family Apothecium, 505 Johnson Appendages for dissemination, 560 Apple, 86, 87, 88, 121, 124, 363, 408, 409; pulp, 114; wood, 269 Aquatic ancestry of fernworts, 550 Aquifoliacee, Holly Family Aquilegia vulgaris, Columbine Arabin, 163, 164 Arabinose, 164 Aracee, Arum Family Arachis hypogea, Peanut Arales, Arum Order Araliacee, Ginseng Family Archegonia-carriers, 518 Archegonia, rudimentary, 556 Archegoniophores, 518 Archegonium, 514, 528, 537, 551 Archichlamydee, Crowfoot Series — Archichlamydeous flower, 378 Aril, 213, 393 Arrhenius, Svante, 568 Arrow-poison, 189 Artemisia Absinthium, Wormwood Artichoke, Jerusalem, 43, 61, 62, 120, 125, 385, 420, 421 Articles of dress, 284 Artificial, cell, 563; feeding, 563; lightning, 168; limbs, 245; 280; “ erygieee 446, 447, 455; silk, 224, 228; systems, 307 Arum Family, 389, 397, 422, 423: sweet-flag, 174 Arum Order, 389, 397, 422, 423 Asafetida, 170, 172, 173, 175, 287, 370, 412, 413 Ascolichenes, Spore-sac Lichens Ascomycetes, Spore-sac Fungi Ascospore, 501 Ascus, 501 Ash, in coal, 300; in foods, 114; in grains, 30; in peat, 300; in wood, 298, 300 Ash, splints, 241; white, 259; wood, 562, 259 Asparagus, 55, 64, 65, 114, 120, 124, 390, 424, 425 Asparagus “officinalis, Asparagus Aspen, American, 264 Aspidium Filix-mas, Male-fern Astragalus gummifer, Tragacanth Shrub Astringents, 154, 166 ee eS INDEX 579 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Atavism, 436 Atropa Belladonna, Belladonna Atropine, 182, 186 Attar of roses, 150 Authority, 7 Avena sativa, Oats Awn, 13 Awnings, 223 Ax handles, 286 Axil, 319 Axile placenta, 355 Bacillus subtilis, Hay Bacillus Bacteria, 492, 511 Bacteriacee, Rod-germ Family Bacterium, 574 Bacterium aceti, Vinegar Ferment acidi lactict, Milk-souring Bac- terium Bagging, 230, 232 Balls, 245, 277 Bamboo, 232, 235, 239, 274, 291, 387, 420, 421 Bambusa vulgaris, Bamboo Banana, 88, 98, 99, 121, pulp, 114 Banana Family, 397: banana, 98, 99; Manila hemp plant, 233 Banana Order, 597 Baneberry, 328-356, 334, 335, 404, 405 Barberry Family, 398 Bark, 252; origin, 254 Barley, 11, 15, 25, 120, 124, 126, 156, 235, 387, 420, 421; com- mon, 21; kernel, 114; range, 26; six-rowed, 22; two-rowed, 22 Barrels, 263 124; Base-ball bats, 245 - Basidiolichenes, Spore-base Li- chens Basidiomycetes, Spore-base Fungi Basidium, 502, 503 Basketry, 223, 235 Baskets, 241 Basswood, 263 Bast fibers, 224, 228 Bats, 245 Bayberry Family, 398 Bayberry Order, 398 Bay, Bull, 262 Bean, 40, 270, 365, 408, 409; kid- ney, 49; Lima, 51 Beard-lichen Family: beard-lichen, 507, 508 Beard, of grasses, 13 Bee plants, 303 Beech, 414, 415; European, 268; wood, 257, 268 Beech Family, 374, 398, 414, 415; chestnut, 37; cork ‘oak, 277, 278; English oak, 258; "Euro- pean beech, 268; red oak, 257 Beech Order, 376, 398, 414, 415 Beer, 156, 495 Beet, 43, 52, 53, 120, 124 Beet-sugar, 102 Beggar sores, 217 Beginnings, many, 433 bayer 186, 187, 208, 382, 416, 417 Bellflower, 384, 418, 419; creeping, 38 Bellflower Family, 384, 401, 420, 421: creeping bellflower, 381; Indian tobacco, 201 Bellflower Order, 386, 401, 420, 421 Bellflower Series, 386, 397 Belts, 223 Bent embryo, 363 Berberidacee, Barberry Family Berry, 351 Berry-like fruit, 392 Bertholletia excelsa, Brazil-nut Beta vulgaris, Beet Betula alba, White Birch Betulacee, Birch Family Beverage plants, 128 Biennial, 52, 333 Bignoniacee, Bignonia Family Bignonia Family, 401 Bilabiate calyx, 366 Billiard cues, 245 Binomial nomenclature, 4 Binders’ boards, 224 Biological botany, 10 Birch, 373, 412, 413; oil of, 297; white, 265; wood, 257, 263 Birch F amily, 373, "398, 414, 415; filbert, 36; white birch, 265 Bird’s eye maple, 263 Bisexual thallus, 514 580 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Bitter Cassava, 104, 110, 111, 121, 124 Bittersweet, 209, 212 Black, dye, 294; mustard, 133, 134; nightshade, 208, 212; pep- per, 128, 131, 136, 177; pepper oil, 130; pigments, 294; walnut, 260, 376 Bladderwort Family, 401 Bladder-wracks, 487, 488, 489 Blade, 336, 537 Blane-mange, Irish moss, 107 Blossom, 343 Blue Algze, 470, 492, 508 Bluebell type of flowers, 435 Boats, portable, 284 Body of ovule, 346 Bone substitute, 276 Boot-soles, 287 . Borage Family, 401 Boraginacee, Borage Family Borecole, Garden Kale Botanical pictures, 312; tions, 1 Botany, as a study of names, 314; beginnings, 1; departments of, 8; science of, 1; systematic, 314, 315 Botrychium Lunaria, Grape-fern Botryose inflorescence, 344, 345, 352 Bottle-gourd, 275, 383, 418, 419 Bowling-alleys, 245 Boxes, 243, 263, 268, 270 Brace root, 23, 299 Bract, 18, 3438, 352, 354 Bractlet, 348, 352, 354 Braiding, 223 Branch, 428 Brandy, 159 Brassica campestris, Turnip nigra, Black Mustard oleracea, var. acephala, Garden Kale and Tree-cabbage oleracea, var. Botrytis, Cauli- flower oleracea, var. capitata, Common Cabbage oleracea, var. gemmifera, Brus- sels Sprouts oleracea, var. gongylodes, Kohl- rabi ques- oleracea, var. sabauda, Savoy Cabbage oleracea, var. Wild Kale Brazilian Rubber-tree, 281 Brazil-nut, 35, 44, 120, 125, 282; kernel, 114; shells, 282 Brazil-nut Family, 400 Bread raising, 495 Breathing-pores, 519, 529 Breeding, 430 Bridges, 270 Bromeliacee, Pineapple Family Brood-body, 514, 521 Brood-bud, 540, 542 Brood-cup, 521 Broom-corn, 232, 235, 236, 387, 420, 421 Brooms, 223, 235 Brown Alge, 485 Brushes, 223; whisk, 235 Brussels sprouts, 55, 69 Bryophyta, Bryophyte Division Bryophyte Division, 530 Bryophytes, 395, 396 Buckthorn Family, 399 Buckthorn Order, 399 Buckwheat, 11, 29, 120, 125, 126, 372, 412, 413; climbing, 556; kernel, 114 Buckwheat Family, 372, 398, 412, 413: buckwheat, 29; climbing buckwheat, 6556; garden rhu- ao 104; medicinal rhubarb, 7 Buckwheat Order, 372, 398, 412, 413 Budding, reproduction by, 495 Buds; 319, 320; reproduction by, 540, 542 Buffers, 280 Building, 222, 263 Buildings, 242 Bulb, 43; solid, 336 Bull Bay, 262 Burlap, 223, 230 sylvestris, ' Burr of chestnut, 38, 375 Butter bacteria, 494 Buttercup, 216, 443; at the sea- shore, 462; evolution of aquatic form, 467; pigmy, 444 Buttercups, 217, 328-356 = INDEX 581 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Butternut, 35, 40, 120, 125, 376; wood, 261 Button-molds, 244 Buttons, 277 Buttonwood, 267, 268 Cabbage, 55, 120, 124, 274, 406, 407; common, 69; leaves, 114 Cabbages, etc., 362 Cabinet woods, 266, 268, 274 Cabinet work, 259, 261, 266, 270 Cables, 223, 235 Cacao, 103, 107, 108, 121, 150 Cacao-butter, 167 Cactus Family, 400 Cactus Order, 400 Caffeine, 150, 153, 154 Calamites ramosus, Giant Scour- ing Rush Calamus, 170 Calamus spp., Rattans Calisaya-tree, 188 Calking, 223 Calories in foods, 114 Calory, 116 Caltha palustris, Marsh-marigold Calycanthacee, Strawberry-shrub Family Calyptra, 515, 520, 526, 528, 529 Calyx, 29; bilabiate, 366; gam- osepalous, 366 Cambium, 252, 254, 542 Campanula rapunculoides, Creep- ing Bellflower Campanulacee, Bellflower Family Campanulales, Bellflower Order Camphor, 177, 228, 360 Camphors, 177 Campylotropous ovule, 363 Canal-cells, 544 Candles, 288 Canes, 245, 268, 274 Cane seats, 235 Cane-sugar, 101, 102 Cannabis sativa, Indian Hemp Canning, 157 Canoes, paper, 224 Cantaloup, Muskmelon Canvas, 230 Caoutchouc, 280, 281 Caper-bush, 145, 146 124, Caper Family, 398: 145, 146 Capers, 13¢ Caper Spurge, 216, 217 Capitate inflorescence, 373 Capparidacee, Caper Family Capparis spinosa, Caper-bush Cap of mushroom, 502 ie aa Honeysuckle Fam- ily Caps, 239 Capsella Bursa-pastoris, herd’s Purse Capsicum annuum, Red Pepper Capsule, 351, 515; enveloped loculicidal, 379; loculicidal, 368; marginicidally septifragal, 382; poricidal, 362; septicidal, 379; septifragal, 382 Caraway, 137, 142, 170, 297, 370, 410, 411 Carbohydrates, 31, 74, 114, 115 Carbon, 570 Carbonaceous foods, 115 Carbon dioxid, 68 Carbon filaments, 228 Carbonic acid gas, 68 Carboniferous period, 299 Cardamoms, 137, 141, 170 Cardol, 218 Carpel, 346, 352, 550, 551 Carpellary leaves, 352, 555 Carpentry, 242, 256, 271 Carpets, 230 Carpospore, 490 Carrageen, 105, 112, 121, 125, 163, 165, 395, 487, 491 Carrageen Family: carrageen, 112, 491 Carriages, 259, 260, 263 Carrot, 43, 55, 56, 57, 120, 124, 219, 370, 412, 413; wild, 430 Cars, 256, 259 Carum Carui, Caraway Carving, 242, 257, 363, 269, 280 Car-wheels, paper, 224 Carya alba, Hickory, Shagbark Carya oliveformis, Pecan Caryophyllacee, Pink Family Caryopsis, 388 Case-seed Class, 8, 391, 397 Case-seedworts, Case-seed Class caper-bush, Shep- 582 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, sah type indicating illustrations. Casks, 243 Cassava, Bitter, 104, 110, 111, 124 Castanea sativa, Chestnut Castile soap, 296 Castor-oil, 167 Castor-oil plant, 172, 173, 213 Catabolism, 85; imitated, 563 Catkins, 373 Caulicle, 317, 318, 319, 557 Cauliflower, 55, 70 Cedar, Red, 273, 392; oil of, 297; wood, 270 Celery, 5B, 75, 114, 121, 124, 137, 370, 412, 413 Cell, 473, 560; artificial, 563 Cell-contents, 473 Cell-division, 510 Cell-masses, 560 Cell-multiplication, 511 Cell-plates, 560 Cell-rows, 560 Cells, mostly minute, 511; of large size, 510 Cellular cryptogams, 396 Celluloid, 224, 228 Cellulose, oa, 276, 472; products, 223, 224 Cellulose covering, protective and permeable, 575 Cell-wall, 473 Cement for leather, 287 Cements, 288 Central cylinder, 528 Cerealia munera, 11 Cereals, 11-34 (see also Grains); the principal, 15; value of, 30 Ceres, 11 Cetraria islandica, Iceland Moss Chaff, 11 Chain, family, 355 Chairs, 223 Chair seats, 241 Characteristic adaptations, 442 Characters, acquired, 443 Charcoal, 298, 300 Chart, Food, 114 Checkerberry, 203 Checkers, 245 Cheese bacteria, 494 Chemical botany, 9; composition of foods, 114 rapidity of, Chemico-physical properties of living protoplasm, 571 Chenopodiacee, Goosefoot Family Chenopodiales, Goosefoot Order Chermes abietis, Spruce Aphis Cherry, 88, 90, 121, 209, 364, 408, 409; poisoning by leaves, 203; poisoning by stones, 205; wild black, 260; wood, 263 Chessmen, 245 Chestnut, 35, 37, 38, 120, 124, 294, 374, 414, 415; kernel, 114; wood, 257 Chests, 260 Chili Pepper, 132 China-tree Family, 399 Chip, 241 Chlorophycee, Green Algee Mee as 67, 74, 471, 476, 485, 487, ; Chocclate, 102, 154 Choice, in plants and animals, 463; power of, 568; the pivotal factor in evolution, "469 Chondrus crispus, Carrageen Choosing the better way, 468, 469 Choripetalous corolla, 379 Christmas Holly, 212; Rose, 330, 331, 328-356, 404, 405 Chromatophore, 476 Chrodécoccaceae, Tint-ball Family Chroécoccus turgidus, ‘'Tint-ball Alga Cicuta maculata, Water Hem- lock Cinchona Calisaya, Calisaya-tree Cincinnobolus, 500 Cinnamomum Camphora, Laurel- camphor Tree zeylanicum, Cinnamon Cinnamon, 128, 135, 177, 360, 406, 407 Cistacee, Rock-rose Family Citrullus vulgaris, Watermelon Citrus Aurantium, Orange medica, var. Limonum, Lemon Class, 8, 428 Classes, Linnean, 308 Classification, 305; by size, 306; by uses, 306; early attempts, 306; expressing kinship, 433 Cleanliness, 494 ¥ INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Clematis, 404, 405; erect silky, 337, 328-356; evolution of, 444, 445, 449, 457; mountain, 335, nee vine-bower, 336, 328- Clematis alpina, Mountain Clem- atis Vitalba, Vine-bower Clematis Climbing Buckwheat, 556 Climbing-ferns, 299 Climbing habit, evolution of, 455 Close-fertilization, 512 Clothes-pins, 259 Cloves, 128, 129, 177 Cloves, oil of, 129, 130 Club-moss, 167, 174, 326, 394, 544 Club-mosses, 544; giant, 299, 301 Club-moss Family, 554: club- moss, 174 Coal, 298, 300, 549; age, 547 Coalescence of floral organs, 354 Coalescent floral organs, 350 Coal plants, 299, 432 Coal-tar, 290 Coca, 182, 185, 186, 187 Coca Family, 399: coca, 185, 187 Cocoa, 102 Cocoa-butter, 296. Cocoanut, see Coconut Coconut, 35, 46, 47, 120, 124, 296, 388, 422, 423; dipper, 276; ker- nel, 114; oil, 296, 297; palm, 46, 47, 235, 274 Cocos nucifera, Coconut Coffea arabica, Coffee Coffee, 150, 153, 154, 155; aroma, 154 Coffee-sacks, 230 Cogs, 245 Cohesion figures, 129, 130 Coir, 232, 235 Coke, 298, 300 Coleochetacee, Sheath-alga Family Coleochete soluta, Free-branching Sheath-alga Collodion, 224, 228 Colonies, 510 Colophony; 288 Coloring matters, 222, 290 Colors of flowers, 557 Columbine, 328-332, 333, 334- 356, 404, 405 583 Columbus, Christopher, 283 Columella, 519, 529 Column, 149 Combs, 284 Commelinacee, Spiderwort Family Common, cabbage, 69; cherry, 121, 124; currant, 94; field mushroom, 107; pea, 12¢ Companion-cells, 556 . Compass plant, 73 Complete flower, 42, 349 Composite, Composites Composites, 311 Compound cyme, 344; flower, 385; inflorescence, 345, 352; leaf compared with leafy shoot, 342; leaves, 339, 352; pistil, 347 Concave torus, 355 Conceptacle, 487 Se 128; miscellaneous, 13 Conduction, 528 Cone-like fruit, 374 Cone of scouring-rushes, 543 Cones, 547 Cone-scales, 548 Conflicts destroy or test, 468 Conifere, Conifers and Pine Order Coniferales, Pine Order Conifers, 311; evolution of, 554 Conium maculatum, Poison Hem- lock Conjugating-cells, 497 Conjugation, 478 Connecting links, 402, 440, 449, 456 . Consumption, 494 Contrast of vegetable with human life, 575 Convallaria majalis, Lily-of-the- valley Convex torus, 355 Convolute estivation, 369 Convolvulacee, Morning-glory Fam- ily Cooking, 297 Cooperage, 243, 258, 259, 260, 261, 268, 270 Co-operative provision for off- spring, 511 Copal, 288, 290, 296 Copal-tree, Zanzibar, 366, 408, 409 584 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Copper sulphate for killing alge, 476 Cora pavonia, Mushroom-lichen Corchorus capsularis, Podded Jute olitorius, Pot-herb Jute Cordage, 223, 230, 232, 235 Cord-moss, 522, 526, 527, 528, 529 Cord-moss . Family: 526-529 Cords, 223 Cordaites, 299, 554 Core of pome, 365 Coriander, 137, 143, 144, 370 412, 413; oil of, 297 Coriandrum sativum, Coriander Cork, 222, 279; mother, 278, 279; oak, 277, 278 Corm, 336 Cornacee, Dogwood Family Corn, Indian (see Maize) Corolla, 438; choripetalous, 379; gamopetalous, 379; labiate, 383; papilionaceous, 366; strap- shaped, 385 Corolla, parts of, keel, 366; stand- ard, 366; wings, 366 Correlated characters, 451 Cortex, 530, 538 Corylus Avellana, Filbert Corymb, 345 Corymbose inflorescence, 345, 352 Cosmarium Botrys, Grape Des- mid Costate, 341 Cotton, 224, 225, 226, 227, 369, 410, 411; absorbent, 228; bag- ging, 230; batting, 228 Cotton-seed oil, 100, 296, 297 Cotyledon, 46, 48, 317, 318, 319, 546, 557 Courbaril-tree, 289, 290, 366, 408, 409 Coverings, waterproof, 284 Crassulacee, Orpine Family Crates, 243, 263, 270 Creation, special, 429 Creationism, 429 Creator as architect, 431 Creeping Bellflower, 381 Cremocarp, 371 Creosote, 300 cord-moss, Cricket-bats, 245 Crocus sativus, Saffron Crocus Croquet-mallets, etc., 245 Cross-fertilization, 512, 557 Cross-partitions in hyphe, 499 Crowfoot, 217, 328-356, 404, 405; white water, 467 Crowfoot Family, 328, 330, 358, 360, 398, 404, 405: baneberry, 334, 335; Christmas rose, 330, 331; columbine, 333, 334; ditch crowfoot, 216; erect silky clem- atis, 337; marsh-marigold, 198; monkshood, 191; mouse-tail, 330, 331, 332; mountain clem- atis, 335; pasque-flower, 338; peony, 329; pigmy buttercup, 444: seaside crowfoot, 463; tall buttercup, 216; vine-bower clematis, 336; white water crow- foot, 467; wood-anemony, 205 Crowfoot Order, 361, 398, 406, 407 Crowfoot Series, 377, 386, 397 Crowfoot type of flower, 435 Crown-tuber, 43 Crozier-like vernation, 537 Crucifere, Mustard Family Crude rubber, 283 Crutches, 245 Cryptogamia, Cryptogams Cryptogams, 308; cellular, 396; vascular, 396 Cryptogams and Phenogams, 550 Crystalwort Family: crystalworts, 513, 515 Crystalworts, 513, 515 Cucumber, 82, 83, 121, 124, 383, 418, 419; fruit, 114; sponge, 383 Cucumis Melo, Muskmelon sativus, Cucumber Cucurbita maxima, Hubbard Squash and Turban Squash moschata, Winter Crook-neck squash Pepo, Pumpkin, Long White Squash, Summer Crook-neck Squash, and Scallop Squash Cucurbitales, Gourd Order Cucurbitacee, Gourd Family Culture-period and native, home, 123, 125; of food-plants, 120 Cupule, 375 — INDEX 585 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. . Curly maple, 263 Currant, 88, 94, 121, 125 Cyamophycee, Blue Algze Cycad, 558; Japanese, 555 Cycadacee, Cycad Family Cycadales, Cycad Order Cycad Family: 397; eycad, 555 Cycad Order, 397 Cycads, 554; evolution of, 558 Cycas revoluta, Japanese Cycad Cycles of life, 470 Cydonia vulgaris, Quince Cyme, 344 Cymose inflorescence, 343, 344, 345, 352 Cyperacee, Sedge Family Cypripedium hirsutum, Ladies’ Slipper parviflorum, Yellow Ladies’ Slip- Japanese Showy per Cytoplasm, 473 Daily ration, 117, 118 Dandelions, 442, 443 Daphne, 205, 209 Daphne Mezereum, Daphne Darwin, Charles, 446 Darwinism, 446, 453, 456, 457; objections to, 452 Date, 88, 100, 101, 114, 121, 124, 388, 422, 423 Date-palm, 274 Datura Stramonium, Jimson-weed Daucus Carota, Carrot Dead substances, 570 Death, 572 Death-cup, 214, 215 De Candolle, Augustin Pyrame, 316 Decay, 494, 504 Decompound leaves, 339, 352 Decoration, 223 Definite variations, 448 Degeneration, 468, 512; in ferns, 535 Dehiscence of anthers, 354; by longitudinal slits, 355; by pores, _ 379; by uplifted valves, 360 Dehiscence of fruits, 351; dorsal, 359; loculicidal, 368; margin- icidally septifragal, 382; pori- cidal, 362; septicidal, 379; septi- fragal, 382; ventral, 351 Dentists’ absorbent, 239 Departments of botany, 8 Description, early attempts, 312; Linnzan ideal, 314; in ‘“ordi- es English,”’ 312; technical, Desert plants, 454 Desmidiacee, Desmid Family Desmid Family: grape desmid, 477 Desmids, 476 Determinate inflorescence, 343, 352 Devil’s Aprons, 485 Diadelphous stamens, 366 Diastase, 32 Dicots, 397 Dicotyledonous embryo, 386 Dicotyl Subclass, 397 Dietary standards, 117 Diet, mixed, 118; well-balanced, 118 Difference between animals and plants, 573 Digitalis purpurea, Foxglove Dicecious inflorescence, 360 Dippers, 276 Diseases due to fungi, 504 Disk, 61 Dispersal of seeds, 560; of spores, 511, 532 Dissemination, 560; organs of, 322 Distillation, 128 Distilled beverages, 159 Distinct floral organs, 350, 354 Ditch Crowfoot, 216, 328-356 Divided leaves, 339 Diving-dresses, 284 Division, 8 Division of labor, 321 Divisions of vegetable kingdom, 394, 396 Dogbane Family, 401; oleander, 206, 207 Dogwood Family, 400 Domesticated varieties, 430 Domestication, 446 Domestic utensils, 243 Door-mats, 235 Dorsal dehiscence of pericarp, 359; placenta, 346 Double flowers, 347 586 INDEX . All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Drawing-paper, 224 Drawers, 263, 268 Drugs, 163; poisonous, 176 Drupaceous, fruit, 365; nut, 376 Drupe, 364 Dry, cooperage, 243; fruits, 351; pericarp, 351, 355 Drying oils, 295 Duck, 230 Dugout canoe, 247 Dust-spore, 496, 498, 505, 511 Dust-spore-case, 496 Dyeing, 222 Dyers’ Indigo Shrub, 292, 293 Dyestuffs, 290 Early attempts at classifying, 306; at describing, 312 Ear of grain, 11 Earth-vegetables, 35, 41 Ebenales, Ebony Order Ebony Order, 491 Ebracteate inflorescence, 362 Ecological botany, 10 Economic, botany, 9, 304; impor- tance of fungi, 504; properties of plants, 575 Economics of co-operation, 468 Egg-apparatus, 556 Egg-cell, 514, 521, 551, 552, 556, 557, 560 Egg-plant, 85, 121, 124, 382 Egg-sac members, 352 Egg-sacs, 325, 326 Egg-spore Alge, Evolution of, 558 Elastic, bands, 284; gums, 999. 280, 287; springs for dissemina- tion, 560; webbing, 283 Elater, 517, 520, 526, 641, 543 Elder, 196, 197, 202, 208 Electric apparatus, 288 Elettaria cardamomum, Carda- moms Elm, 259; American, 259; bark, 163; English, 166; wood, 256, 259 Elm Family: 398; American elm, 259; English elm, 167 Elm-leaved Linden, 264 Embryo, 29, 48, 316, 317, 318, 351, 352, 514, 553, 556; bent, 363; curved, 362; dicotyledonous, 386; monocotyledonous, uncoiled, 355; of fern, 538 Embryo, parts of; cotyledon, 46, 48; plumule, 48; radicle, 48; scutellum, 388; seed-bud, 48; seed-leaf, 46, 48; seed-root, 48 Embryos, 547 Embryo-sac, 551, 556 Endogenous stems, 387 Endosperm, 551 Endospore, 478 Energy, in food, 114; measures of, 115; of vegetable foods, 116 Engler and Prantl’s classification, 394 English, elm, 165, 167; oak, 268; walnut, 261, 296 Environment, 431 Enzyme, 32, 494 Epidermis, 254, 530, 538, 640, 542 Epicalyx, 364 Epigynous flower, 365 ° Epiphyte, 508 3. Speanria Scouring-rush Fam- ily Equisetine, Scouring-rushes Equisetum arvense, Scouring-rush Erasers, 284 Erect Silky Clematis, 328-336, 337, 338-356 Ericacee, Heath Family Ericales, Heath Order Erysibe communis, Powdery-mil- dew Erythroxylacee, Coca Family Erythroxylon Coca, Coca Essence of life, 568, 569 Essences, 128, 146 Essential organs of flower, 13, 43, 319 Ethers, 159 Euphorbiacee, Spurge Family Euphorbia Lathyris, Caper Spurge marginata, Snow-on-the-moun- tain 388; European, beech, 268; grape, 88, 93, 121, 124; larch, 271; rasp- berry, 91 Evening-primrose, 457 Evening-primrose Family, 400 Evolution, 433; by choice, 461, 464; in general, 464; of clematis, INDEX 587 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 444, 445, 449, 452, 457; of crow- foot family, 487, 438; of fern- worts, 548, 549; of flowering plants, 559, 560; of human so- ciety, 468; of mankind, 468, 469; of mossworts, 531; of ovaries, 557; of plants, 560; of scour- ing-rushes, 543; of seed-plants, 558, 559, 560; of thallophytes, 510; of the universe, 464; of vegetable kingdom, 466 Exalbuminous seed, 363, 557 Excelsior, 241 Exogenous stems, 387 Exospore, 478 Exstipulate leaf, 359 Extinct, branches, 449; types, 467 Extinction, 467, 468 Eye-spot, 482 Fabrics, 223. Factors of change, 468 Fagacee, Beech Family Fagales, Beech Order Fagopyrum — esculentum, wheat Fagus sylvatica, European Beech Fallen Stars, 473, 474 Family, 7, 403; chain, 355; tree, 436, 437 Famine, effect of, 463 Fans, palm-leaf, 388 Farm implements, 256 Fat, 34; in foods, 114 Fats, 74, 114, 115 Feeding, imitation of, 563 Feeling, 573; in plants and ani- mals, 562 Fence rails, 258 Fences, 245, 260 Fennel-flower, 328-332, 333-341, 342-356, 404, 405 Fermentation, 156, 494 Fermented beverages, 156 Fern prothallium, 536 Ferns, 308, 311, 532; climbing, 299; evolution of, 558; fossil, 534; herbaceous, 535 Fernworts, 394, 396, 548 Fertility of hybrids a test of spe- cies, 430 Fertilization, 484, 552; in angio- Buck- sperms, 555, 556; in gymno- sperms, 551-555 Ferula assa-fetida, Asafetida Plant Fiber-plants, 224 Fibers, 222, 224; animal, mineral, and vegetable, 223 Fibrils, 250 Fibrovascular bundles, 394, 533, 538, 539, 540 Ficus carica, Fig elastica, India Rubber-tree Field Mushroom, 113, 121, 125, 395, 501, 502, 503 Fig, 88, 102, 121, 124 Figwort Family, 382, 401, 416, 417: foxglove, 204 Filament, 12, 14, 319 _ Filbert, 35, 36, 120, 124, 373; ker- nel, 114 Filices, Ferns Filicine, Ferns Filling, 223 Finishing lumbers, 263 Fireworks, 168 First of living things, 466, 566, 567 Fission, 473, 560 Fission-algze, 558 Fission fungi, 492; descendants of fission-alge, 495 Fishing-rods, 274 Fish-lines, 223 Fixed mode of life in plants, 575 Fixed oil, 34; of black mustard, 134; of white mustard, 134 Fixed oils, 128, 166, 295 Fixity, in animals, 573; of species, 429, 430 Flagellum, 482 Flavoring plants, 128 Flax, 224, 229, 231, 345, 435; asa type, 316; bud, 319, 320; ger- mination, 317, 318; plant, 229, 230, 231, 334 Flax Family, 399: flax, 229, 231 Flaxseed, 163, 164, 295, 318 Fleshy, fruits, 351; pericarp, 351, 355; torus, 364 Flint in epidermis, 542 Floats, 279, 280 Floor covering, 280 Flooring, 263, 270 588 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Floral envelops, 319 Floral organs, adhesion of, 365; arrangements for pollination, 557 Floral organs, alternate, 350, 354; coalescent, 350; distinct, 350, 354; epigynous, 365; free, 350, 354; hypogynous, 350; inser- tion of, 349; opposite, 368; par- tially coalescent, 354; perigy- nous, 350 Florets, 380 Flower, 319, 557 Flower-cluster, 343 Flower in the crannied wall, 576 Flower, parts of: androecium, 346; anther, 12, 14; calyx, 29; car- pel, 346; corolla, 43; epicalyx, 364; essential organs, 13, 43; filament, 12, 14; funicle, 346; gyneecium, 346; keel, 48; mi- cropyle, 346; nectar, 29; nectar- gland, 29; nectar-leaves, 348; ovary, 12, 14, 345; ovule, 12, 14, 346; pappus, 386; perianth, 43; petal, 42, 348; pistil, 11, 14, 345; placenta, 346; raphe, 346; receptacle, 349, 385; sepal, 29; silk, 24; stamen, 12, 14; stami- nodes, 348; standard, 48; stigma, 12, 14, 345; style, 12, 14, 345; torus, 349, 350; wings, 48 Flowering plants, 393, 396, 397; evolution of, 559 Flowers, attractions of, 557 Flowers, apetalous, 349; archichla- mydeous, 378; axillary, 345; clustered, 352; complete, 42, 349; compound, 385; double, 347; epigynous, 365; imperfect, 13, 347; irregular, 349, 354; metachlamydeous, 386; neutral, 371; perfect, 13, 347, 353; pis- tillate, 347; polygamous, 347; regular, 354; resupinate, 391; rudimentary, 13, 14; solitary, * 345; solitary axillary, 352; soli- tary terminal, 352; staminate, 347 Fluctuating variations, 448, 455 Flux, 288 Fly-amanita, 215, 217 Fly-poison, 217 Fodder, 303 Foliage, as a sunbeam-trap, 302; main work of, 85 Foliage-plants, 303 Follicle, 351 Fomes fomentarius, Amadou Food, 128; as fuel and building ma- terial, 114; chart, 114; favorite combinations, 119 Food-adjuncts, 128, 159, 302 Food-making, 74 Food-plants, 122; classes of, 35; native home and culture period, 120, 121 : Food-products, miscellaneous, 91 Foods, 302; vegetable, 113; vege- table versus animal, 119 Foot of sporophyte, 517, 538 Footstalk, 336 a effect on water-supply, 04 Form blocks, 263 Formative material, 254, 320 Formulas, plant, 352; of seed- plants, 404-427 Fossil, botany, 10; club-moss, 301; ferns, 534; scale-tree, 301 Fossils, 432 Fountain pens, 284 Foxglove, 204, 208, 382, 416, 417 Fox-grape, 125 Fragaria spp., Strawberry Frazinus americana, White Ash Free-branching Sheath-alga, 483 Free floral organs, 350, 354 Free will, 568, 569 French Rose, 150 Fruit, 12, 319, 350; cone-like, 374; dehiscent, 351; drupaceous, 365; dry, 351; fleshy, 351; indehis- cent, 351 Fruit-body, 500, 501, 502 Fruit, parts of: aril, 213, 393; burr, 38; chaff, 11; grain, 12; husk, 11, 12; kernel, 11; peri- carp, 351; pit, 89; seed, 350; stone, 89, 364; suture, 351 Fruits, 35, 88: achene, 351, 386; berry, 351; berry-like, 392; cap- sule, 351; caryopsis, 388; cremo- carp, 371; cupule, 375; drupa- INDEX 589 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. ceous nut, 376; drupe, 364; fleshy torus, 364; follicle, 351; hip, 364; legume, 367; nut, 374; nutlet, 364; pepo, 384; pome, 365; samara, 358; schizocarp, 370; silique, 363; stone-fruit, 364 Fruit-vegetables, 35, 85 Fucacee, Wrack Family Fucus vesiculosus, Bladder-wrack Fuels, 222, 279, 297 Fuel value of foods, 114 Funariacee, Cord-moss Family Funaria hygrometrica, Cord-moss Function, 321 Fundamental system, 539 Fungal diseases, 504 Fungi, 589 (see also Mushroom Subdivision) Fungi, in general, 503; parasitic upon parasitic fungi, 501 Fungus Subdivision, 395, 396 Funicle, 346 Furniture, 243, 257, 259, 263, 276 Gamboge, 290, 291 Gamboge Family, 400 Gamboge-tree, Siamese, 290, 291 Gametangium, 484 Gamete, 478, 512 Gametophyte, 485, 514, 515 Gamopetalous corolla, 379 Gamosepalous calyx, 366 Gaps, 449; limiting groups, 440 Garcinia Hanburyi, Siamese gam- boge-tree Garden, currant, 125; kale, 55, 68; rhubarb, 91, 104, 121 Garments, paper, 224; waterproof; 284 Gas, illuminating, 298 Gaultheria procumbens, green Winter- Gelatinous, substances, 163; ma- , terial, 472 Genus, 6, 428 Gentianacee, Gentian Family Gentianales, Gentian Order Gentian Family, 401 Gentian Order, 401 Geographical botany, 10 Geraniacee, Geranium Family Geraniales, Geranium Order Geranium Family, 399 Geranium Order, 399 Germ, 316, 352 aint carried from plant to plant, Germination of flax, 317, 318 Giant, club-mosses or lycopods, 299, 301, 547; scouring rush, 299 Gigartinacee, Carrageen Family Giglio-Tos, E., 563 Gill-mushroom Family: death-cup, 215; field mushroom, 113; fly- amanita, 215 Gills of mushroom, 502, 503 Gin, 159 Gin, cotton, 228 Ginger, 128, 134, 136, 170; oil, 130 Ginger Family, 397: cardamoms, 141; ginger, 136 Ginkgoacee, Ginkgo Family Ginkgo Family, 397 Ginkgo Order, 397 Ginkgoales, Ginkgo Order Ginseng Family, 400 Girths, 223 Glabrous, 343 Gliadin, 33, 34 Glucose, 31, 102 Glucosides, 292 Glumaceous perianth, 390 Glumes, 387 Glumiflore, Grass Order Gluten, 33 Glutin, 33 Glycerides, 296 Glycerin, 296 Glycyrrhiza globra, Licorice God, immanence of, 569 Goethe’s theory of flowers, 325 Golf, balls, 287; clubs, 245 Gonidium, 507 Goodyear, Charles, 283 Goosefoot Family: beet, 52, 53; spinach, 71, 72 Goosefoot Order, 398 Gossypium barbadense, Sea-island Cotton; herbaceuwm, Upland Cot- ton Gourd, 121, 275, 276 Gourd Family, 383, 398, 401, 418, 419: bottle-gourd, 275; 590 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. cucumber, 82, 83; hubbard squash, 81; long white squash, 79; muskmelon, 95; pumpkin, 76, 77, 78; scallop squash, 80; summer crook-neck squash, 79; turban squash, 81; vegetable sponge, 240; watermelon, 96; winter crook-neck squash, 81, 82 Gourd Order, 401 Grains (see also Cereals) 11, 12; earliest use, 20; in ancient times, leg Gramina, Grasses Graminales, Grass Order Graminee, Grass Family Grape, European, 88, 121, 124; northern fox, 88, 93, 125; pulp, 114; sugar, 31 Grape Desmid, 477, 479 Grape Family, 399: grapes, 93 Grape-fern, 532, 533 Grapes, 88, 93, 121, 157 Grasses, 11, 311 Grass Family, 387, 397, 422, 423: bamboo, 239; barley, common, 21; barley, six-rowed, 22; Barley, two-rowed, 22; broom-corn, 236; maize, 23, 24; oat, 12, 13, 14; rice, 16, 17; rye, 18; sugar-— cane, 106; wheat, 19, 20 Grass Order, 388, 397, 422, 423 Gravitation and evolution, 441 Greek origin of terms, 313 Green Alge, 476, 508 Growing-points, 254 Growth, 561, 572; a slow behavior, 442 Guitars, 245, 270 Gum, 32, 287 Gum arabic, 163, 164 Gum Arabic Tree, 163, 163, 366, 408, 409 Gum-resins, 287 Gum tragacanth, 164 Guncotton, 224, 228 Gunny bagging, 223 Gunpowder, 300 Gun-stocks, 261, 245 Gutta-percha, 280, 285 Gymnosperme, Naked-seed Class Gymnospermous gynoecium, 392 Gymnosperms, 397, 550 Gyneecium, 346; angiospermous, 392; gymnospermous, 392; naked-seeded, 392 Habit of plant, 359 ' Habits, 572 Hematein, 292 Hematoxylin, 292 Hematoxylon campecheanum, Log- wood-tree Hair-like outgrowths, 538 Half-inferior ovary, 350 Ha = melidaceee, Witch-hazel Fam- ily Hamamelis virginica, Witch-hazel Hames, 244 Hammocks, 223 Hampers, 223 Handles, 245, 280, 284 irr pine, 270; rubber, 284; soap, 96 Harmful plants, 302 Harness, 244, 259, 260 Hashish, 181 Hat linings, 280 Hats, 223, 238; chip, 241; straw, 235 Haustorium, 499 Hay Bacillus, 492 Hazel, 373, 412, 413 Hazelnut, 36 Head, 373; of grain, 11 Heart-wood, 246 Heath Family, 378, 401, 416, 417: mountain laurel, 202; sheep laurel, 202; wintergreen, 148 Heath Order, 379, 401, 416, 417 ‘Heating, 297 Helianthus tuberosus, Artichoke Heliopsis scabra, Oxeye Helleborus niger, Christmas Rose Jerusalem _ Helminthocladiacee, Thread-weed Family ; Hemlock, 273, 294, 392, 426, 427; poison, 194, 195, 209, 370; water, 193, 370; wood, 271 Hemp, 224, 230 Hemp, Indian, 193 Hemp, Manila, 232, 233 Hepatice, Liverworts INDEX 591 | All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Hepatics, 513 Herb, 330 Herbaceous, 333 Herbaceous Ferns, 535 Herbage-vegetables, 35, 53 Herbs, 306 Heredity, 572 Heterocyst, 474 Hevea = guyanensis, Rubber-tree Hickory, 376, 414, 415; nut, 35, 120, 125; shagbark, 41; splints, 241; wood, 260 Higher dicots, 397, 401 Hip, 364 Hippocastanacee, Horse-chestnut Family Hockey-sticks, 245 Holly, 212 Holly Family, 399: Christmas holly, 212 Holophyte, 495 Homologies, 326, 327 Homologous parts, 326 Homologues, 326, 327 Homology, 326 Honey, 303 Honeysuckle Family, 401: elder 197 Hoops, 259 Hops, 156, 157, 170 Hordeum sativum, var. distichon, Barley, Two-rowed; var. hexas- tichon, Barley, Six-rowed ; var. vulgare, Barley, Common Hormogonia, 475, 510 Horned-liverwort, 517, 522, 523 558 Brazilian Horned-liverwort Family: horned- liverwort, 522, 523, 558 Horn substitute, 284 Horsechestnut Family, 399 Horseradish, 137, 141, 144, 177, 362 Horticultural hybrids, 430 Hose, 284 Host, 211, 494 Hot springs 475 House-furnishing, 223 Hubbard Squash, 81 Hubs, 259, 263 containing alge, Human life contrasted with plant life, 575 Human welfare dependent. upon a knowledge of plants, 575 Humulus Lupulus, Hops Husk, 11, 235 Hybrids, 430 Hydrocarbon, 287 Hydrogen, 570 Hymenea_ Courbaril, tree Hymenium, 503 Hypha, 496 Hypogenous floral organs, 350, 355 Hysterophyte, 495 284; oxidized, 285, Courbaril- Ice age, 432 Iceland Moss, 163, 165, 504, 505, 506, 507 Ignorance not to be argued from, 453 Ilex Aquifolium, Christmas Holly Illicium anisatum, Star Anise Illuminating gas, 298, 301 Illuminants, 295, 297 Imbricate estivation, 349, 354 Imitation of feeding, 563; of vital processes, 564 Immanence of God, 569 Imperfect flowers, 13, 347 Implements, 245, 259, 260, 263. Incandescent lamp filaments, 228 Indehiscent fruits, 351 Indeterminate inflorescence, 344, 352 India ink, 294 Indian, corn (see Maize); hemp, 180, 181; poke, 199, 390, 424, 425; tobacco, 201, 202, 384, 418, 419° India-rubber, 283 India-rubber tree, 282 Indican, 292 Indigestible seeds for dissemina- tion, 560 Indigo, peal 291, 562; blue, 292; - white, 2 Indigofera elt Dyer’s Indigo Shrub Indigo Shrub, Dyer’s, 292, 293, 366, 408, 409 169, 395, 592 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Individual adaptations, 442; dif- ferences, 565 Individuality, 572 Induced variations, 448 Indusium, 179 Industrial implements, 245; plants, 222 Inferior ovary, 350, 365, 380 Infertile hybrids, 430 Inflorescence, 343, 352; amenta- ceous, 373; botryose, 344, 345, 352; capitate, 373; compound, 344, 345, 352; corymbose, 345, 352; cymose, 343, 345, 352; determinate, 343, 352; ‘diaeci- ous, 360; ebracteate, 362; in- determinate, 344, 352; monce- cious, 374; paniculate, 345, 352; polygamous, 354; race- mose, 345, 352; simple, 352; spicate, 373 Inflorescence, parts of: awn, 13; beard, 18; bract, 13, 354; bract- let, 354; chaff, 11; disk, 61; elume, 387; husk, 11; involucel, 344; involucre, 61, 344, 354; lodicule, 13; rachis, "14, 344; re- ceptacle, 61; spathe, 388; spike- let, 13 Inflorescences, ament, 373; catkin, 373; cyme, 344; ear of grain, 11; head, 373; head of grain, 11; panicle, 345; raceme, 344; spa- dix, 388; spike, 373; umbel, 370; umbellule, 370 Inheritance of acquired charac- ters, 446; of acquirements, 443 Ink, 290; India, 294; printing, 294, 295; writing, 294 Inorganic, realm, 562; substances, 321, 570 Insect-pollination, 557 Insects attracted by sweets, 557 Insertion, 349 Insoles, 280 Insulating material, 287 Insulators, 284 Integuments of ovule, 551, 556 Intensity of the struggle for ex- istence, 453 Interior finish, 257, 259, 261, 263, 268, 270 Internode, 317, 318 Interval cell-division, 495 Involucel, 344 Involucre, 61, 344, 354 Ipomea Batatas, Sweet Potato Tridacee, Iris Family Iris Family, 390, 397, 424, 425: saffron crocus, 176 Irish moss, 105, 112, 163, 165, 491 Iron and steel versus wood, 248 Irregular flowers, 349, 354 Ivory, Vegetable, 275, 276, 388 Ivy, Poison, 218, 21 Jambosa Caryophyllus, Clove Japanese Cycad, 5 Jerusalem Artichoke, 43, 61, 62, 120, 125, 385, 420, 421 Jimson-weed, 199, 200, 208, 210, 382, 416, 417 Johnson Grass, 236 Joinery, 242, 260, 266 Juglandacee, Walnut Family Juglanaales, Walnut Order ' Juglans cinerea, Butternut nigra, Black Walnut regia, Walnut Juice, acrid, 357; milky, 361; poisonous, 357 Juncus effusus, Rush Juniper, 158, 159, 392, 426, 427 Juniperus communis, Juniper virginiana, Red Cedar Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de, 311, 328; Bernard de, 311 Jute, 224, 230, 232, 367, 410, 411 Kale, a 120; garden, 68; wild, Kaleidoscope analogy, 461 Kalmia latifolia, Mountain Laurel Keel, 48, 366 Keels, 263 Kelps, 485 Kidney Bean, 49, 50, 85, 114, 120, 124 Kilogrammeter, 116 Kingdom, 8, 428 Kingdoms, The Three, 561 King of dyestuffs, 291 Kinship, 403, 428 Knitting, 223 INDEX 593 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Knobs, 269, 277 Kohlrabi, 55, 69 Labiate, Mint Family Labiate, corolla, 383 Lace, 223, 230 Lacquer, 291 Lactuca sativa, Lettuce scariola, Wild Lettuce Ladies’ slippers, 218, 219, 220, 391, 424, 425 Lagenaria vulgaris, Bottle-gourd Lamarckism, 445, 453, 456, 457 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, 445 Laminariacee, Sea-tangle Family Laminaria spp., Sea-tangles Lampblack, 290, 294 Larch, 294, 392, 424, 425; Euro- pean, 271; wood, 270 Larix decidua, European Larch Latin terms, 313 Lauracee, Laurel Family Laurel Camphor, 177, 228 Laurel-camphor Tree, 178 Laurel Family, 360, 398, 406, 407: cinnamon, 135; laurel-camphor tree, 178; sassafras, 168 Laurel, American, 416, 417; moun- tain, 203, 379; sheep, 202, 379 Laurels, 208 Laurinol, 177 Law of recapitulation, 435, 560 Lead-pencils, 270 Leaf, 324, 336, 538 Leaf-buds, 323 Leaflets, 339, 342, 352 Leaf-member, 326, 327, 348 Leaf-part, 323, 325 ; Leaf, parts of, ligule, 16; rain- guard, 16; ocrea, 372; stipule, 358 ' Leaf-stalk, 336 Leafy shoot compared with com- pound leaf, 342 Leather, 295 Leather-finishing, 294 Leaves, ‘352, 533; alternate, 342, 352; carpellary, 352; compound, 342, 352; decompound, 352; ex- stipulate, 359; ocreate, 372; of the flower, 324; opposite, 342, 352; palmate, 352; parallel- veined, 387; pinnate, 352; pri- mary, 318, 319; rosette, 342; secondary, 318, 319; sessile, simple, 342; stipulate, 358; ternate, 352; verticillate, 342; whorled, 342 Legume, 367 Leguminose, Pulse Family Lemon, 88, 97, 121, 124, 146, 170 Lemonade, 150 Lentibulacee, Bladderwort Family Lepidodendracee, Scale-tree Fam- 1 Lepidodendron (see also Giant Club-mosses, and Scale-tree), 547, 554 Lettuce, 55, 72, 73, 74, 121, 124, 385, 420, 421; leaves, 114; wild, 73 Lichen, 165 Lichenes, Lichen Subdivision Lichenin, 165 Lichens, 504 Lichens as Nature’s pioneers, 506 Lichen-starch, 165 Lichen Subdivision, 395, 396, 508 Licorice, 163, 166, 169, 366, 410, 411 Lid of capsule, 526 Life, always existed, 568; essence of, 568, 569; test of, 568, 569 Life-cycles, 559 Life-histories, 470 Life-history of a molecule, 563 Lifeless substances, 570 Lifeless things versus living things, 569 Life-preservers, 280, 284 Lignin, 247 Ligule, 16, 547 Likeness a measure of kinship, 433 Liliacee, Lily Family Liliales, Lily Order Liliiflore, Lily Order Lily Family, 390, 397, 424, 425: asparagus, 64, 65; Indian poke, 199; lily-of-the-valley, 204; on- ion, 63, 64 Lily-of-the-valley, 204, 208, 390, 424, 425 Lily Order, 390, 397, 424, 425 Lima bean, 51, 120, 124 594 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Lime in grains, 31 Linacee, Flax Family Linden, 263, 367, 410, 411 Linden, 362, 367, 410, 411; elm- leaved, 204 Linden Family, 367, 399, 410, 411: elm-leaved linden, 264; jutes, 232 Linen, 230 Linnean, reform in terminology, 313; Society, 446; system, 308 Linneus, 3, 308, 311, 312, 313; aphorism of, 561; revised, 574 Linoleic acid, 296 Linolein, 296 Linseed-oil, 280, 295, 296 Linum usitatissimum, Flax Liqueurs, 159 Liquors, 159 Liriodendron Whitewood Liverworts, 513, 530; evolution of, 558 Living beings, 562 Living substance, 570 Living versus lifeless things, 563 Lobelia inflata, Indian Tobacco Lobewort Division, 395, 396 Lobeworts, 509, 510 Locomotion of desmids, 478 Loculicidal dehiscence of capsule, 368 Locust, 196, 197, 208, 366, 408, 409; wood, 259; yellow, 259 Lodicule, 13 Loganiacee, Logania Family Logania Family: nux vomica, 189, 190 Logwood, 290, 292 Logwood-tree, 294, 366, 408, 409 Long life of plants, 575 Long White Squash, 79 Loranthacee, Mistletoe Family Lower dicots, 397, 398, 399, 400 Lubricants, 295, 297 Luffa egyptiaca, Vegetable Sponge Lycopodiacee, Club-moss Family Lycopodine, Club-mosses Lycopodium, 167 Lycopodium sp., Club-moss Lycopods, Giant, 547 Tulipifera, Tulip Macaroni, 33 Mace, 128, 134 Machinery, 257, 260, 263 Machines, 245, 259 Macrosporangium, 545 Macrospore, 545, 547 Madder Family, 401: calisaya-tree, 188; coffee, 153, 154, 155 Madder Order, 401 Madder-red, 562 Magnesia in grains, 31 Magnolia, 358, 262, 406, 407; wood, 263 Magnoliacee, Magnolia Family Magnolia Family, 358, 398, 406, 407: magnolia, 262; star anise, 143; tulip whitewood, 261 Magnolia grandiflora, Magnolia Mahogany, 266 Maize, 11, 15, 28, 24, 25, 28, 120, 122, 126, 159, 232, 235, 387, 420, 421; kernel, 114; range, 28 Malaria, 188 po aia 179, 180, 394, 536, 539, 4 Male protoplasts, motile, 560 Mallet-heads, 269 Mallow Family, 369, 399, 410, 411: marshmallow, 166; sea-island cotton, 227; upland cotton, 225 Mallow Order, 376, 399, 410, 411 Malt, 156; liquors, 156; sugar, 32 Malting, 32 Maltose, 32 Malvacee, Mallow Family Malvales, Mallow Order Manihot utilissima, Bitter Cassava Manila, 224, 232; hemp, 232; paper, 232 Manila Hemp Plant, 233 Maple, 261; stem, 254; sugar, 101; wood, 263 Maple Family, 399: sugar-maple, 261 Marchantia polymorpha, Umbrella Liverwort . Marginicidally septifragal dehis- cence, 382 Mariopteris, Climbing Ferns Marjoram, 418, 419; oil of, 297; sweet, 137, 140, 383 Market baskets, 241 INDEX 595 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Marshmallow, 163, 164, 166, 369, 410, 411 Marsh-marigold, 198, 199, 208, 328-356, 404, 405, 558 Mastery through choosing the better way, 468 Masts, 270 Matches, 245 Mats, 232, 235, 239 Matting, 223, 235; straw, 235 Mattress filling, 235 Meadow Rue, 339, 328-356 Mechanical causes in evolution, . 453 Mechanical equivalent of heat, 116 Medicinal plants, 162, 163; plas- ters, 288; rhubarb, 170 Medicines, 162 Mediterranean food-plants, 124 Megaphyton, Tree-ferns Meliacee, Melia Family Melia Family: mahogany, 266 Members, 323, 324, 326; of flower- ing plant, 327 Menispermacee, Moonseed Family Mentha piperita, Peppermint; spicata, Spearmint Menthol, 178 Meristem, 487 Meristematic tissue, 487 Metabolism, 84 Metachlamydee, Bellflower Series Metachlamydeous flowers, 386 Metallurgy, 300 Metal polishing, 542 Metroxylon leve, Smooth Palm Metroxylon Rumphii, Prickly Sago Palm ao Family, 400: daphne, 205 Microbes, 494 Micro-organisms, 494 Micropyle, 346, 552, 556 Microsperme, Orchid Order Microsporangium, 545 Microspore, 545, 546 Migrations, 468 Mildews, 499 Milk-souring Bacterium, 493 Milkweed Family, 401 Sago Milky juice, 361 Mineral fibers, 223; kingdom, 561, 562; substances, 321 Mineral matter in grains, 31 Mine timbering, 245 Mint, 418, 419 Mint Family, 383, 401, 418, 419: peppermint, 147, 148; sage, 138; spearmint, 139; summer savory, 139; sweet marjoram, 140; thyme, 139 Miscellaneous condiments, 137; food-plants, 35; food-products, 1 Misconceptions of evolution, 439, 440 Mistletoe, 210, 211, 212 Mistletoe Family, 398: mistletoe, 210, 211 Mixed diet, 118 Mixed fibers, 225, 231 Models, 280 Modern food-plants, 124 Molasses, 101 Molded ornaments, 287 Monadelphous stamens, 366 Monkshood, 189, 191, 196, 208, 328-356, 404, 405 Monocots, 377 Monocotyledones, Monocotyl Sub- class Monocotyledonous, 388 Monocoty! Subclass, 391, 397 Moneecious, 374 Montgomerie, Dr. W., 286 Moonseed Family, 398 Moracee, Mulberry Family Mordant, 294, 295 Morning-glory Family, 379, 401, 416, 417: sweet potato, 58, 59 Morphine, 182 Morphological, botany, 10; differ- entiation, 322, 572; units, 323 Moss, 395, 519, 544; Iceland, 395; Irish, 105; Peat, 394 Mosses, 308 Mosswort Division, 395, 396 Mossworts, 530 Mother of vinegar, 155 Motile gametes in cycads, 554; protoplasts, 560 Motion in plants, 573 596 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Mountain, clematis, 335, 328-356; laurel, 202, 379; seiaginella, 545 Mouse-tail, 330, 331, 332, 328- 340, 356, 404, 405 Mucilaginous material, 485; sub- stances, 163 Mucoracee, Pin-mold Family Mucor Mucedo, Pin-mold Mulberry Family, 378: fig, 102; hops, 157; Indian hemp, 180, 181; India rubber-tree, 282 Musacee, Banana F amily Musa sapientum, Banana; teztilis, 233, Manila Hemp Plant Musci, True Mosses Mushroom, 125; field, 107, 113, 395 Mushroom Division, 503 Mushroom Subdivision, 395, 396 Mushroom-lichen, 508, 509 Mushroom-lichen Family: mush- room-lichen, 509 Mushrooms, 111, 308, 501; poi- sonous, 213 Musical instruments, 245, 263 Muskmelon, 88, 95, 121, 124, 283 Must, 155 Mustard, 128,. 183, 177; oil: of, 133; volatile oil of, 173 Mustard Family, 362, 398, 406, 407: black mustard, 133; Brus- sels sprouts, 69; cauliflower, 70; common cabbage, 69; garden kale, 68; horseradish, 144; kohl- rabi, 69; radish, 55; Savoy cab- bage, 69; shepherd’s purse, 556; tree-cabbage, 274; watercress, 70, 71; white mustard, 133; wild kale, 66, 67 Mustards, 362 Mutant, 458 Mutation, 458 Mutationism, 458 Mutations like ean creations, 460 Mutual help, 469; support, 531 Mycelium, 497, 496 Myosurus minimus, Mouse-tail Myricacee, Bayberry Family Myricales, Bayberry Order Myristica fragrans, Nutmeg Myristicacee, Nutmeg Family Myrtacee, Myrtle Family Myrtales, Myrtle Order Myrtle Family, 400: allspice, 130; Brazil-nut, 44; clove, 129 Myrtle Order, 400 Mystery of life, 567 Naked-seed class, 393, 397 Naked-seeded gynoecium, 392 N ae objects not diagrammatic, 2 Natural orders, 310, 311 Names of plants, early, 3 Napkins, paper, 224 Nasturtium Armoracia, radish officinale, Watercress Native home and culture-period, 123 Native homes of food-plants, 120, 121 Natural, classification, 308; selec- tion, 447, 460; system, 310, 311, 328, 433 Nature, 562 Nebula hypothesis, 464, 465 Neck of archegonium, 521, 528, 551 Nectar, 29, 346; in flowers, 557 Nectar-gland, 29 Nectar-leaves, 348 Nemalion multifidum, weed Neo-Darwinism, 448, 449 Neo-Lamarckism, 445, 449 Nerium Oleander, Oleander Nervation, 337 Net floats, 280 Nets, 223 Netted-veined, 337 Netting, 223 Nettle Family, 398 Nettle Order, 398 Neutral flower, 371 Nicotiana rustica, Turkish To- bacco Tobacum, Virginia Tobacco Nicotine, 184 Nigella spp., Fennel-flowers Nightshade, black, 208 Nightshade Family, 382, 401, 416, 417: belladonna, 187; bitter. Horse- Thread- INDEX 597 All numbers refer to pages, heavy tyye indicating illustrations. sweet, 209; black nightshade, 208; egg plant, 85; jimson-weed, 200; red pepper, 131, 132; to- baccos, 184; tomato, 83, 84; white potato, 59, 60 Nine-pins, 245 Nitrocellulose, 228 Nitrogen, 570; need of, 115 Nitrogenous food, 114 Node, 23, 317, 318 Nomenclature, 314; binomial, 4 Non-alcoholic beverages, 150 Non-motile spores, 490 Non-nitrogenous foods, 115 Non-nutrients, 31 Non-sexual, generation; 560; re- production, 480, 483, 512; spores, 511 Northern Fox-grape, 88, 93, 125 Norway Spruce, 272, 551, 552, 553 Nostoc, 522, 574 Nostoc spp., Fallen Stars Nucellus, 551, 556 Nucleus, 473 Nurse-plants, 512, 548, 560 Nursing by mosswort gameto- phyte, 531 Nut, 374; drupaceous, 376 Nutlets, 364 Nutmeg, 128, 134, 177; oil of, 130, 297 - Nutmeg Family, 398: nutmeg, 134 Nut-oils, 101, 296 Nutrients, 31 Nutrition, organs of, 321 Nuts, 35 Nux vomica, 188, 189, 190 Nymphecee, Water-lily Family.. Oak, 294, 414, 415; cork, 277, 278; English, 258; red, 257 Oaks, 374 Oak wood, 256 Oakum, 231 Oars, 259 Oats, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 25, 120, 124, 126, 235, 387, 420, 421; kernel, 114; range, 27 Ocrea, 372 Ocreate stipules, 372 Odors of flowers, 557 (cology, 10 (Enothera spp., Evening Primrose (Enotheracee, Evening Primrose Family Offensive odors caused by blue alge, 475 Offspring, of two parents, 512; well-endowed, 510 Oil finish, 296 Oil, of almond, 167; of cacao, 167; of cloves, 129, 130; of mustard, 173; of nutmeg, 130; of saffron, 175; of turpentine, 288, 296; of wintergreen, 147 Oil reservoirs, 360 Oil-cloth, 230 Oils, 222, 295; drying, 295; fixed, 34, 128; non-drying, 297; vola- tile, 128 Ointments, 288 Old age, 571 Oleacee, Olive Family Olea europea, Olive Oleander, 206, 207, 209 Oleic acid, 296 Olein, 296 Oleoresins, 287 Olive, 100, 105, 124, 167, 296; oil, 101, 167, 296, 297; wood, 269 Olive Family, 401: olive, 105; white ash, 259 Once-compound, 339 Onion, 43, 63, 64, 120, 124, 146, 390, 424, 425; bulb, 114 Ontogeny, 435, 560 Oomycetes, Nater-mold Fungi Odspore, 484 Open estivation, 371 Ophioglossum vulgatum, tongue Opium, 182 Opium Poppy, 182, 183, 296, 361 Opposite, floral organs, 368; leaves, 342, 352 Opuntiales, Cactus Order Orange, 88, 97, 121, 124; pulp, 114; wood, 266 Orange-flower oil, 297 Orange-peel oil, 297 Orchidacee, Orchid Family Orchidales, Orchid Order Orchideew, Orchids Orchid Family, 391, 397, 424, 425: Adder- 598 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. showy ladies’ slipper, 220; yel- low ladies’ slipper, 220; vanilla, 149 Orchid Order, 391, 397, 424, 425 Orchids, 218, 219, 311 Order, 8, 428 Orderly progress, 469 Orders, Linnean, 309; natural, 310, 311 Ordinary English in describing, 312 Organic, compounds, 562; evolu- tion, 431, 572; materials, 570; realm, 562, 569; substances, 321 Organisms, 321, 562; as self-build- ing boats, 569 Organs, 321; adhesion of, 365; analogous, 321 Oriental food-plants, 124 Origanum Majorana, Sweet Mar- jorum Origin, of adaptations, 442; of life, 566; of life in the sea, 491; of species, 441 Origins, the problem of, 428 Ornamental, flowers, 303; woods, 268, 269 Ornaments, 268, 276 Orpine Family, 399 Orthotropous ovule, 372 Oryza sativa, Rice Osiers, 241 Osmunda, 537 Osmundacee, Royal-fern Family Ovaries, inferior, 350, 365, 380; half-inferior, 350; superior, 350 Ovary, 12, 14, 319, 345, 556 Overproduction of offspring, 447 Overshoes, 283 Overstimulation, 159, 160 Ovulary cavity, 345; divided by partition, 363 Ovule, 12, 14, 319, 325, 352, 550, 551; parts of, 346 Ovules, anatropous, 346, 355; campylotropous, 363; ortho- tropous, 372 Ozxalidacee, Oxalis Family Oxalis Family, 399 Oxeye, 380, 435 Oxidized hydrocarbons, 285, 287 Oxygen, 570; in grains, 31 Packing, 223, 235, 279, 280 Packing material, 239 Peonia officinalis, Peony Pails, 243; paper, 224 Painting, 222, 296 Paints, 295 Palaquium Gutta, Taban-tree Palmacee, Palm Family Palme, Palms Palmales, Palm Order Palm, oils, 296, 297, 389, 397, 422, 423; sago, 388; seeds, 282; stem, 255 Palm Family, 388, 397, 422, 423: coconut, 46, 47; date, 100, 101; rattans, 237, 238; sago palms, 109, 110; vegetable ivory, 275, 276 Palm Order, 389, 397, 422, 423 Palmatic acid, 296 Palmatin, 296, 297 Palmate nervation, 340, 352 Palmately compound, 340; di- vided, 340; ribbed, 337 Palm-leaf fans, 388 Palms, 311, 389 Paneling, 263 Paniculate inflorescence, 345, 352 Panspermia, 567 Papaveracee, Poppy Family Papaverales, Poppy Order Papaver somniferum, Opium Poppy . Paper, 223, 224, 228, 230, 235, 241; boxes, 224; canoes, 224; car- wheels, 224; making of, 222; manila, 232; napkins, 224; pails, 224 Papier-maché, 224 Papilionaceous corolla, 366 Pappus, 386 Parallel-veined leaves, 387 Paraphyses, 487, 503 Parasite, 303, 494 Parasitic fungi, 504 Parchment, vegetable, 230 Parenchyma, 530 Parietal placenta, 362 Parmeliacee, Shield-lichen Family Parsley, 137, 140, 370, 410, 411 Parsley Family, 370, 400, 412, 413: anise, 142; asafetida plant, 175; caraway, 142; carrot, 55, 66, 57; INDEX 599 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. celery, 75; coriander, 143, 144; parsley, 140; parsnip, 57; poison hemlock, 194, 195; water hem- lock, 193 Parsley Order, 371, 400, 412, 413 Parsnip, 43, 57, 120, 124, 219, 370, 412, 413; root, 114 Partition in ovary, 363 Parts of a seed-plant, 316 Pasque-flower, 338, 341, 328-356 Pasteboard, 235 Pastinaca sativa, Parsnip Pasture plants, 303 Patterns, 270 Pea, 40, 48, 120, 124, 365, 408, 409 Peace and progress, 468 Peach, 88, 89, 121, 124, 364 Peanut, 35, 45, 120, 124, 365, 410, 411; kernel, 114; oil, 100, 296, 297 ‘ Pear, 87, 88, 121, 124, 363 “Peat, 298; ash, 300; bogs, 298; moss, 239, 242, 298, 394, 522, 523, 524, 525 Peat-moss Family: peat-moss, 242, 523-525 Pecan, 35, 40, 376; nut, 120, 125 Pecopteris, 535 Pecopteris, Tree-ferns Pedate, 340 Pedicel, 344 Peduncle, 343 Pentadelphous stamens, 368 Peony, 329, 328-356, 404, 405 Pepo, 384 Pepper, black, 128, 131; red, 128, 131, 132, 382, 416, 417 ee Family, 398: black pepper, 131 Peppermint, 146, 147; 148, 177, 383; camphor, 178; oil, 297 Pepper Order, 398 Perennial, 58, 331, 332; herbs, 352 Perfect flowers, 13, 347, 354 Perforated cells, 524 Perfumery, 295, 297 Perianth, 43, 319; glumaceous, 390; petaloid, 390 Pericarp, 351, 352, dehiscing dor- sally, 359; dry, 355; fleshy, 355; winged, 359 Permanent tissue, 487 Perigynous floral organs, 350, 355 Peristome, 527, 529 Persistence, 466, 468 Petal, 42, 319, 348, 352 Petaloid perianth, 390; sepals, 348 Petiole, 336, 537 Petiolule, 339 Petroselinum hortense, Parsley Phanerogamia, Phenogams Phenogamia, Phenogams Pheophycee, Brown Algze Phaseolus lunatus, Lima Bean vulgaris, Kidney Bean Phenogamia, Phenogams Phenogams, 309, 393, 396, 397 Phenogams and cryptogams, 550 Philopena almonds, 365 Phlox Order, 383, 401, 418, 419 Phenix dactylifera, Date Phosphorus in grains, 31 Photographer’s trays, 284 Photosynthesis, 85 Phycocyanin, 471 Phycoerythrin, 487 Phycophein, 485 Phylogeny, 435, 560 Physical basis of life, 471 Physiological botany, 10; division of labor, 319, 321, 572 Phytelephas microcarpa, Vegetable Ivory Phytolacca decandra, Pokeweed Pianos, 245, 263 Picea excelsa, Norway spruce Pictures, botanical, 312 Pie-plant, 91 Pigments, 290, 291 Pigmy Buttercup, 444 Piling, 245, 257 Pimento officinalis, Allspice Pimento walks, 130 Pimpenella Anisum, Anise Pina, 234 Pinacee, Pine Family Pine, 241, 253, 392, 424, 425; Scotch, 269; wood, 250, 261, 270 Pine Family, 392, 397, 426, 427, 554: European larch, 271; hem- lock, 273; juniper, 158; Norway spruce, 272; red cedar, 273; red- wood, 273; Scotch pine, 269 600 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Pine grove illustrating mutual ac- commodation, 453, 454 Pine Order, 393, 397, 426, 427 Pines, 550 Pineapple, 88, 103, 121, 124, 233; fiber, 232; gall, 272 Pineapple-cloth, 234 Pineapple Family, 397: pineapple, 103; southern moss, 234 Pin-mold, 495, 496, 497 Pin-mold Family: pin-mold, 496, 497 Pin-mold Fungi, 495 Pink Family, 398 Pinnate, 341; nervation, 352 Pinnately, compound, 341; nerved, 341 Pinus sylvestris, Scotch Pine Piperacee, Pepper Family Piperales, Pepper Order Piper nigrum, Black Pepper Piping, 287 Pistil, 11, 14, 308, 319, 345; com- pound, 347; simple, 347 Pistillate flowers, 347 Pistil, parts of, ovary, 345; ovule, 346; placenta, 346; stigma, 345; style, 345 Pisum sativum, Pea Pith, 250, 254 Pith-rays, 250, 253, 254 Pivotal place of plants in economy of nature, 574 Placenta, 346; axile, 355; dorsal, 346; parietal, 362; ventral, 346 Plaiting, 223, 235 Planetesimal hypothesis, 465 Plane-tree, 267, 268 Plane-tree Family, 399: American sycamore, 267 Planks, 270 Plantaginacee, Plantain Family Plantaginales, Plantain Order Plantain Family, 401 Plantain Order, 401 Plant, formulas, 352; groups, 358; names, early, 3 , Plant life and human life, 575 Plants, annual, 11; biennial, 52; compass, 73; dicecious, 360; habit of, 359; monoecious, 374; ocreate, 372; perennial, 58; polygamous, 347; shrub, 36; tree, 36; glabrous, 343; pubes- cent, 343 ee and animals defined, 573, 574 Plants, how named, 2; in general, 574; our dependence upon, 1; needs of, 2 ; Plant’s place in Nature, 561 Plants poisonous, to eat, 192; to handle, 217 Plant segment, 324 Platanacee, Plane-tree Family Platanus occidentalis, American Sycamore Pleurococcacee, Wall-stain Algae Pleuroccus vulgaris, Waill-stain Alga Plicate zestivation, 381 Plicate-convolute xstivation, 381 Plum, 88, 90, 121, 124, 364; wood, 357, 263 ae 48, 317, 318, 319, 546, 5 Podded Jute, 232 Poison, Dogwood, see Poison- sumac; Hemlock, 194, 195, 209, 370, 410, 411 Poison-ivy, 217, 218, 219 Poison-oak, see Poison-ivy Poisonous bark, 196; drugs, 176; flowers, 205, 208; fruits and seeds, 209; herbage, 199; honey, 205, 207, 208; mushrooms, 111, 213; juice, 357; plants, 112, 162, 163, 192, 219; substances, 302; underground parts, 192; volatile oils, 177 Poisons, 162; as by-products, 192 Poison-sumac, 217, 220 Poke, Indian, 390, 424, 425 Pokeweed, 195, 196, 208, 209 Pokeweed Family, 398: pokeweed, 195, 196 Polemoniales, Phlox Order Poles, 245, 270 Pollen, 12, 14, 319; grain, 550, 551, 556 Pollen-sacs, 325, 326 Pollen-tube, 551, 555, 556 Pollination, 557 Polygamous flowers, 347, 354 INDEX 601 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Polygonacee, Buckwheat Family Polygonales, Buckwheat Order Polygonum Convolvulus, Climbing Buckwheat Polypodiacee, Polypody Family Polypody Family: male-fern, 179; pteris, 537 Polyporacee, Pore-mushroom Family Pome, 365 ee aes 478, 479, 480, 499, 55 Pond-scum Family: pond-scum, 479, 480 Poplar, 241, 263, 264, 377, 414, 415; wood, 263 Poppy, 208, 406, 407 Poppy Family, 361, 398, 406, 407: opium poppy, 182, 183 Poppy-oil, 296 Poppy, Opium, see Opium Poppy Poppy Order, 363, 398, 408, 409 Populus tremuloides, Poplar Porcupine-wood, 272 Pore-mushroom Family: amadou, 241 Pores of wood, 252, 538 Poricidal dehiscence, 362; of an- thers, 379 Portable boats, 284 Portulacacee, Portulaca Family Posts, 258, 270 Potash in grains, 31 Potassium, 74 Potato berries, poisonous, 210 Potato, sweet, 43, 58, 59, 379, 416, 417; white, 43, 59, 60, 210, 382, 416, 417 Potentialities of protoplasm, 572 Pot-herb Jute, 232 Pot-herbs, 55 Powdery mildew, 499, 500 Powdery-mildew Family: powdery mildew, 500 Preference, power of, 569 Prehistoric food-plants, 124 Prickly Sago Palm, 109, 110 Primary leaves, 318, 319; tissue, 542 Primitive centers of agriculture, 122, 123 Primitive man, 302 Primitive versus degenerate forms, 549 Primrose Family, 401 Primrose Order, 401 Primulacee, Primrose Family Primulales, Primrose Order Princes of the Vegetable Kingdom, 389 Principes, Palm Order Printing-ink, 294, 295 Printing-paper, 224 Progress and peace, 468; in evolu- tion, 466; made in spite of com- petition, 468 Progressive fixity of growing struc- tures, 571 Prolific multiplication, 512 Prosenchyma, 530 Protection, organs of, 321, 538 Proteid, 33, 74, 114, 115, 471 Protein in foods, 114 (see also Pro- teid) Prothallial cells, 556 Prothallus, 533, 536, 551 Prothallus-cell, 546 Protonema, 523, 526 Protoplasm, 471; artificial, 562; fundamental properties of, 571; potentialities of, 572 Protoplast, 473 Protoplasts, artificial, 564; fusion of, 560 Prunus Amygdalus, Almond Cerasus, Sour Cherry domestica, Plum Persica, Peach serotina, Wild Black Cherry Prussic acid in cherry leaves, 204; in cherry stones, 205 Pseudo-fibers, 225, 239 Pseudopodium, 525 Pseudo-root, 481, 521, 536 Pseudo-shoot, 481 Pseudo-woods, 256, 272 Pteridophyta, Pteridophyte Divi- sion -Pteridophyte Division, 548 Pteridophytes, 394, 396 Pteris, 537 Pubescent, 343 Pulse, 35, 40 Pulse Family, 365, 398, 399, 410, 602 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 411: courbaril-tree, 289; dyer’s indigo-shrub, 293; gum arabic tree, 164; kidney bean, 49, 50; Lima bean, 51; locust, 197; logwood-tree, 294; pea, 48; peanut, 45; tragacanth shrub, 165; Zanzibar copal-tree, 289 Pumpkin, 76, 77, 78, 85, 114, 121, 124, 383 Purifiers of air and water, 304 Pussies, 373 Putrefaction, 493 Pyrenoid, 476 Pyrography, 263 Pyrus communis, Pear Malus, Apple Quarter-sawed timber, 250, 257, 268 Quercus pedunculata, English Oak rubra, Red Oak Suber, Cork Oak Quince, 88, 121, 124, 363, 408, 409; seed, 163, 164 Quinine, 182, 186 Raceme, 344, 345 Racemose inflorescence, 345, 352 Rachis of inflorescence, 14, 344 Radicle, 48, 317, 318, 319, 557 Radish, 43, 55, 120, 124, 146, 362, 406, 407 Railway ties, 257, 258, 270 Rain-guard, 16 Ranales, Crowfoot Order Rancid oil, 296 Ranunculacee, Crowfoot Family Ranunculacee, family tree, 437 Ranunculales, Crowfoot Order Ranunculus acris, Tall Buttercup aquatilis, White Water Crow- foot Cymbalaria, Seaside Crowfoot pygmeus, Pigmy Buttercup sceleratus, Ditch Crowfoot Rape, 362 Rape-oil, 297 Raphanus sativus, Radish Raphe, 346 Rapid multiplication of cells, 511 Raspberry, 88, 91, 121, 125, 364, 408, 409 Rations, 115, 117 Rattan, 232, 235, 237, 238, 388, 422, 423 Raw products, 302 Ray-floret, 380 Reappearance of life, 566 Recapitulation, law of, 435, 560 Recapitulation or phylogeny by ontogeny, 559 Recent food-plants, 125 Receptacle, 61, 349, 385 Recreational appliances, 245 Red, alge, 487; cedar, 273, 392; cedar oil, 297; cedar wood, 270; oak, 257; pepper, 128, 131, 132, 136, 382, 416, 417 Redwood, 270, 273, 392, 426, 427 Reed, 235 Refuse in foods, 114 Regular flowers, 349, 359 Reproduction, 572; by budding, 495; by fission, 476; organs of, 321; sexual, 480; vegetative, 510 Reproductive system, 322, 343 Reservoirs of volatile oil, 359 Resin, 288 Resin-ducts, 252, 253 Resinous electricity, 288 Resins, 177, 178, 222, 285, 287 Resting spores, 475, 568 Resupinate flower, 391 Retting flax, 230 Reversion, 436 Rhamnacee, Buckthorn Family Rhamnales, Buckthorn Order Rheum officinale, Medicinal Rhu- barb Rhaponticum, Garden Rhubarb Rhizome, 336, 539 Rhodophycee, Red Alga Rhedales, Poppy Order Rhubarb, 125, 412, 413, 372; gar- den, 91, 104, 121; medicinal, 166, 170 Rhus Toxicodendron, Poison-ivy Vernizx, Poison-sumac Ribes rubrum, Common Currant Ribs, 337 Riccia spp., Crystalworts Ricciacee, Crystalworts Rice, 11, 15, 16, 17, 25, 1205522 INDEX 603 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 124, 126, 235, 387, 420, 421; kernel, 114; range, 28 Ricinus communis, Plant Rigging, 235 Rind, 485, 540 Road materials, 244 Robinia Pseudacacia, Locust Rock-rose Family, 400 Rod-germ Family: hay bacillus, 492; milk-souring bacterium, 493; vinegar ferment, 155 Root, 323, 324, 533, 538 Root-cap, 537, 538 Root-hairs, 317, 318, 319 Root-member, 326, 327 Roots, brace, 23 Rootstock, 336 Root-tuber, 43 Ropes, 223, 230 Rosa alpina, Alpine Rose gallica, French Rose spinosissima, Scotch Rose Rosacew, Rose Family Rosales, Rose Order Rose, 146, 408, 409, 432, 435; al- pine, 378; French, 150; Scotch, 151 Rose Family, 363, 399, 408, 409: almond, 42; alpine rose, 378; apple, 86, 87; peach, 89; pear, 87; plum, 90; quince, 88; rasp- berry, 91; roses, 150, 151; sour cherry, 90; strawberry, 92; wild black cherry, 260 Rose Order, 367, 399, 410, 411 Roses, 364; an ‘“‘unpruned”’ group, 440 Rosette, 342 Rosin, 288, 294 Royal-fern Family: osmunda, 537 Rubber, 280; balls, 284, crude, 283 Castor-oil Rubber-tree, Brazilian, 281; India, - 282 Rubber tubing, 284; type, 284 Rubbery materials, 287 Rubiacee, Madder Family Rubiales, Madder Order Rubus ideus, European Rasp- berry strigosus, Wild Red Raspberry Rudimentary flowers, 13, 14; or- gans, 436; ovules, 352 Rue Family, 399: lemon, 97; orange, 97 Rue, Meadow, 339, 328-356 Rules for telling a toadstool, 214 Rum, 159 Runners, 92 Rush, 232, 234, 235, 390, 422, 423 Rush Family, 390, 397, 422, 423: rush, 234 Russia leather, 297 Rustic work, 279 Rutacee, Rue Family Rye, 11, 15, 18, 25, 27, 114, 120, 124, 126, 159, 235, 387, 420, 421 Saccharomyces cerevisie, Yeast Saccharomycetacew, Yeast Family Saccharomycetes, Yeast Fungi Saccharum officinarum, Sugar-cane Sac-leaves, 550 Sac-member, 326, 327 Saddles, 244 Saffron, 170, 175, 176, 390, 424, 425 Saffron Crocus, 175, 176 Sage, 137, 138, 170, 383, 418, 419 Sago, 104, 125, 422, 423 ““Sago-palm,” 555 Sago palm, prickly, 109, 110; smooth, 109; spineless, 104 Sago-palms, 121, 388 Sail-cloth, 230, 232 Sails, 223 Salads, 55 Salicacee, Willow Family Salicales, Willow Order ' Salix sp., Willow Salvia officinalis, Sage Samara, 358 Sambucus canadensis, Elder Sandalwood Order, 398 Sand-binders, 303 Santalales, Sandalwood Order Sapindales, Soap-berry Order Sapodilla Family, 401: taban-tree, 286 Sapotacee, Sapodilla Family Saprolegniacee, Water-mold Fam- ly Saprolegnia Thureti, Water-mold 604 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Saprophyte, 493 Sap-wood, 246 Sassafras, 165, 168, 360, 406, 407; oil of, 297; pith, 163; wood, 260 Sassafras officinale, Sassafras Satureia hortensis, Summer Savory Savory, 418, 419; herbs, 128, 137; seeds, 128, 137; summer, 137, 383 Savoy: cabbage, 69 Saxifragacee, Saxifrage Family iS Theol Family, 399: currant, 4 Scale-like outgrowths, 538 Scale-tree, 299, 301 Scale-tree Family: scale-tree, 299, 301 Scallop Squash, 80 Schizocarp, 370 Schizomycetes, Fission Fungi Scitaminales, Banana Order Sclerenchyma, 538, 540 Sclerotic tissues, 538 Scotch Pine, 269; rose, 151 Scouring-rush, 541, 542, giant, 299 Scouring-rush Family: scouring- rush, 541, 543 Screens, 223 Scrophulariacee, Figwort Family Scutellum, 388 Sea Island Cotton, 225, 226, 227 Sealing-wax, 288 Seaside Buttercup, evolution of, 462 Seaside Crowfoot, 463 Sea-tangle Family: 486, 488 Sea-tangles, 485, 486, 488 Seaweed Division, 491 Seaweed Subdivision, 395, 396 Seaweeds, 308 Secale cereale, Rye Secondary, inflorescence, leaves, 318, 319; tissue, 542 Sedge Family, 397 Seed, 350, 351, 550; albuminous, 355; exalbuminous, 363, 557; of flax, 317, 318 Seed-bud, 48, 317, 318 Seed-coat, 316, 317, 318 Seed-food, 29, 316, 317, 318 543; sea-tangles, 352; Seed-leaves, 46, 48, 317, 318 Seedling, development, 317; of flax, 318, 319 Seed-oils, 101 Seed-plant Division, 393, 396, 397 Seed-plants, 393, 396, 397 Seed-root, 48, 317, 318 Seeds, 352; make best provision for offspring, 550; parts of, 29, 49, 316, 352; the greatest achievement of the vegetable kingdom, 560 , Seed-stem, 317, 318 Seed-wing, 551 Seedwort Division, 394, 396 Seedworts, 393, 394, 396, 397 Selaginella, 550 | Selaginellacee, Selaginella Family Selaginella Family: selaginellas, 545-547 Selaginella spp., Selaginellas Selaginellas, 545-547 Selected adaptations, 446, 452 Selection, artificial, 127, 446, 447; natural, 447, 448; subordinate role of, 460 Self-control inherent in every or- ganism, 464 Self-movement, 461 Sepal, 29, 319, 352 Septicidal dehiscence of capsule, 379 Septic organisms, 177 Sequoia sempervirens, Redwood Service versus competition, 468 Sessile, 342 Sewing-thread, 223 Sexual, generation, 560; reproduc- tion, 480 Sexuality lost in certain fungi, 501 Shade trees, 303 Shagbark Hickory, 41 Sheath, 337 Sheath-algze, 482, 483, 484, 514, 558; compared with spore-sac fungi, 501 Sheath-alga Family: cushion sheath-alga, 484; free-branching sheath-alga, 483 Sheep Laurel, 202, 379 Shelf fungus, 239 Shell substitute, 284 INDEX 605 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Shepherd’s Purse, 556 Shield-lichen Family: moss, 169 , Shingles, 270 Shipbuilding, 256, 270 Ships, 259 Ships’ knees, 270 Shoe-lasts, 263 Shoemaker’s wax, 288 Shoe-pegs, 245, 263 Shoe-soles, 287 Shoes, 282; wooden, 263 Shoot, 323 Shoot-segment, 323 ae kinds of: runners, 92; spur, 27 Showbill type, 263 Showy Ladies’ Slipper, 220 Shrub, 36, 306, 333 Siamese Gamboge-tree, 290, 291 Sigillaria, 547 Sigillaria, Giant Club-mosses Silica in epidermis, 542; in grains, 31 Silique, 363 Silk, artificial, 224, 228; of maize, 24 Iceland Silk-cotton Family: cocoa, 107, 108; Sterculia Family, 399 Silkworm food, 303 Simple inflorescence, 352; leaves, 339, 342; pistil, 347 - Sinapis alba, White Mustard Sinker, 211 Size of plants, enormous, 575 Skiffs, 260 Slippery Elm, 165 Smokeless fuel, 300, 301; powder, 224 | Smooth Sago Palm, 109 Snow-on-the-mountain, 203, 207, pa chy Snuff, 185 Soap, yellow, 288 Soap-berry Order, 399 Soaps, 288, 295, 296 Socrates, poisoning of, 194 Soda in grains, 31 Soda water mixtures, 150 Soft pine, 270; soap, 296 Soil bacteria, 494 Soil-binders, 303 Soil-building by lichens, 506 Soil-makers, 304 Solanacee, Nightshade Family Solanum Dulcamara, Bitter- sweet Lycopersicum, Tomato Melongena, Egg Plant nigrum, Black Nightshade tuberosum, White Potato Solar system, 464 Soldering flux, 288 Soles, 280 Solid bulb, 336 Solitary flowers, 345, 352 Solvents, 296 Soredium, 506, 508 Sorghums, 236 Sorus, 179 Sounding-boards, 270 Sour Cherry, 90 Southern Moss, 232, 234 Souvenirs, 268 Spadix, 388 Spars, 243, 270 Spathe, 388 Spathiflore, Arum Order Speaking tubes, 287 Spearmint, 137, 139, 170, 177, 338; oil, 297 Special creation, 429 Species, 4, 428; as units of, classi- fication, 431; destruction of 432; fixity of, 429, 430; limits of, 431; origin of, 441 Spermagone, 505 Spermatophyta, 8 Spermatophyta, Seed-plant Divi- sion _Spermatophytes, 393, 394, 396, 397 Spermatozoid, 515, 517, 527 Sphagnacee, Peat-moss Family Sphagnum spp. Peat Moss Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Wedge-leaf Sphenopteris, Climbing-ferns Spicate inflorescence, 373 Spices, 128, 302; danger of, 130, 133; history of, 137 - Spiderwort Family, 397- Spike, 373 Spikelet, 13 606 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Spinach, 55, 71, 72, 120, 124; leaves, 114 - Spinacia oleracea, Spinach Spindles, 245 Spineless Sago-palm, 104 Spinning, 222 Spirits of turpentine, 288, 296 Spirituous liquors, 159 Spirogyra sp., Pond-scum Spitting, danger from, 494 Splint, 241 Splints, surgical, 245 Sponge Cucumber, 238, 383, 418, 419 Spontaneous generation, 565; va- riations, 449 Spools, 245, 263 Sporangium, 484, 541 Spore, 167 Spore-base, Fungi, 501; Lichens, 508 Spore-case, 529 Spore-layer, 529 Spores, 511 Spore-sac Fungi, 499, 504 Spore-sac-leaf, 534 Spore-sac Lichens, 504 Spore-saes, 550 Sporophyll, 541 Sporophyte, 485, 514, 515 Spring wood, 251, 253 Spruce, 241, 292, 294, 424, 425, 561, 552, 553; aphis, 272; Nor- way, 272; wood, 270 Spunk, 239 Spur, 271 Spurge Family, 399: bitter cas- sava, 110, 111; Brazilian rubber- tree, 281; caper spurge, 216; castor-oil plant, 172, 173; snow- on-the-mountain, 203 Sputum, danger from, 494 Squash, 85, 121, 124, 383, 418, 419; hubbard, 81; long white, 79; scallop, 80; summer crook- neck, 79 Staff, 232 Stamens, 12, 14, 309, 319, 352, 550; diadelphous, 366; mona- delphous, 366; pentadelphous, 368; syngenesious, 384 Staminate flowers, 347 Staminodes, 340, 341, 348, 352 Standard, 48, 366 Star Anise, 137, 143, 358, 406, 407 Starch, 31; conversion into sugar, 32 Staves, 259 Stem, 324, 538; of fern, 540 Stem-member, 326, 327 Stem-part, 323, 325 Stems, 387, 533 Stem-tip, 320, 556 Stem-tuber, 43 Sterculiacee, Silk-cotton Familv Sterculia Family, 399 Stiffening, 223, 232 Stigma, 12, 14, 319, 345, 555, 556; enlargement of, 557 Stimulants, 156, 160, 161 Stimulating beverages, 161 Stimulation, 159 Stimuli, response to, 562 Stipulate leaf, 358, 359 Stipule, 358, 359 Stipules, ocreate, 372 Stirrups, 244 Stomata, 529, 530 Stone-fruit, 364 Stone of drupes, 365 Stoppers, 280 Storage of food-materials, 485, 538 — Strap-shaped corolla, 379, 380, 381, 385 Straw, 232, 235; hats, 223; mat- ting, 235. Strawberry, 88, 92, 121, 125, 364, 408, 409 Strawberry-shrub Family, 398. String-beans, 85 Structure, 572 Struggle for existence, 447, 454 Struggles for supremacy often destroy what is best, 468 Strychnine, 182, 188 Strychnos Nux-vomica, Nux Vom- ica ‘Stuffing for saddles, 238 Sturtevant, Dr. E. L., 456 Style, 12, 14, 319, 345 Suberin, 279 Subtend, 342 Succulent parts for dissemination, 560 INDEX 607 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. Sudden adaptations, 457, 459; variations, 456 Sugar, 32, 101 Sugar-beet, 101 Sugar-cane, 101, 106, 121, 124, 387, 420, 421; stalks, 298 Sugar-maple, 101, 261, 263 Sugars, 562 Sulphur in grains, 31 Sumac Family: poison-ivy, 218; poison-sumac, 220 Summer, crook-neck squash, 79; savory, 137, 139, 383; wood, 251, 553 Sunflower, 420, 421 Sunflower Family, 385, 401, 420, 421: dandelion, 443; Jerusalem artichoke, 61, 62; lettuce, 72, 73, 74; oxeye, 380; wormwood, 160 Superior ovary, 350 Support, organs of, 321 Surface fibers, 224, 225 Surgeon’s plaster, 284 Surgical appliances, 245, 284, 287; instruments, 284 Survival of the fittest, 447, 448 Suspensor, 497, 546, 547, 552, 556, 557 Suture, 351 Swamp-drainers, 303 Swarm-spore, 482, 511 rs aces algee, evolution of, 5 Sweating of cocoa, 103 Sweet, corn, sugar in, 32; flag, 170, 174, 389, 422, 423; marjoram, 137, 140, 383; potato, 43, 58, 59, 120, 124, 379, 416, 417; potato root, 114 Swietenia Mahogoni, Mahogany Sword hilts, 286 Sycamore, American, 267, 268; wood, 268 Symbiont, 508 Symbiosis, 508 Syngenesious anthers, 384 Synopsis of Seedworts, 397 Syringodendron, Giant mosses System, Linnzan, 308; natural, 310, 311, 328 Club- Systematic, botany, 9, 304, 305, 314, 315; classification, 305 Systems, artificial, 307 Taban-tree, 285, 286 Table mats, 239 Tall Buttercup or Crowfoot, 216, 241, 328-356 Tan-bark, 290, 294 Tanks, 243 Tanning, 222, 295 Tannins, 154, 166, 222, 294 Tape, 223 Tape-worms, 180 Tapioca, 104 Taraxicum officinale, Dandelion Taxacee, Yew Family Taxus baccata, Yew Tea, 150, 152; aroma, 154 Tea Family, 400: tea, 152 Tea-tasters, 154 Technical, description, 312; terms, 312 Tegumentary system, 539 Telegraph-poles, 270 Telephones, 284 Temperatures required by life, 466 Terminal flower, 343 Terminology, 314; Linnzan, re- form in, 313 Terms, technical, 312 Ternate nervation, 352 Tennis-rackets, 245 Test of life, 568, 569 Thalictrum flavrum, Meadow Rue Thallophyta, Thallophyte Division Thallophyte Division, 509 Thallophytes, 395, 396 . Thallus, 481 Thatch, 223, 235 Theacee, Tea Family Thea Sinensis, Tea Theine, 150 Theobroma Cocoa, Cocoa Theobromine, 150, 154, 181 Third organic kingdom, 573 Thread, 223 Thread-weed, 488, 490 Thread-weed Family: weed, 490 Thyme, 137, 139, 177, 383, 418, 419; oil of, 297 thread- 608 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. | Thymelecee, Mezereum Family Thymus vulgaris, Thyme Tilia ulmifolia, Elm-leaved Lin- den Tiliaceew, Linden Family Tillandsia usneoides, Southern Moss Timber, pi pins, 260 Tinning, 1 Tint-ball re 471, 558 Tint-ball Family: tint-ball alga, 471 Tires, 284 Tissue, 486, 560; systems, 539, 560 Tissues, meristematic, 487; per- manent, 487 Toadstools, 111, 213 Tobacco, 182, 184, 208, 382, 416, 417; Indian, 201, 384, 418, 419 Toilet soaps, 296 Tomato, 83, 84, 85, 121, 124, 382; fruit, 114 Tool-handles, 259, 260, 269 Toothpicks, 245, 268 Torches, 282 Torus, 349, 350, 352; concave, 355; convex, 355; epigynous, 365; fleshy, 364; hollow, 380 Toys, 245, 259, 263, 270, 284 Trachylobium Hornemannianum, Zanzibar Copal-tree Tragacanth, 163 Tragacanth Shrub, 164, 165, 366, 410, 411 Tragacanthin, 164 Traveling gametes, 512 Tree, 36; of life, 484 Tree-cabbage, 274 Tree-ferns, 299, 535, 538, 540 Treenails, 259 Trees, 306, 333 Trestlework, 245 Trianon botanic garden, 311 Triticum sativum, Wheat True, gums, 287; mosses, 519, 530; woods. 256 Trunk of fern, 540 Trunks, 263 Truth, supreme test of, 429 Tsuga canadensis, Hemlock Tuberculosis bacterium, 494 Tuber, 48, 541, 542 Tubiflore, Phlox Order Tubs, 243 Tubular floret, 380 Tulip-tree, 261, 358, 406, 407 Tulip Whitewood, 261, 263 Turban Squash, 81 Turkish Tobacco, 184 Turnery, 242, 257, 259, 263, 268, 269, 277, 280 Turnip, 43, 54, 120, 124, 362; root, 114 Turpentine, 287, 288, 296 Turps, 296 Twice-compound, 339 Twine, 223, 230 Type, plants, 316; rubber, 284; wooden, 263 Ulmacee, Elm Family Ulmus americana, American Elm campestris, English Elm Ulodendron, Giant Club-mosses Ulothrix zonata, Wool-weed Ulotrichacee, Wool-weed F ves! Umbel, 370 Umbellales, Parsley Order U mbelliferc, Parsley Family Umbelliflore, Parsley Order Umbellule, 370 Umbrella handles, 245, 274, 276 Umbrella liverwort, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521 Uncoiled embryo, 355 Universality of life, 569 Upholstery stuffing, 235 Upland Cotton, 225, 226 Upright posture of land-plants, 530 Urticaceew, Nettle Family Urticales, Nettle Order Useful bacteria, 494; plants, 302 Useless organs, 436 Usnea barbata, Beard-lichen Usneacee, Beard-lichen Family Valvate estivation, 349, 354 Vanilla, 146, 149, 391, 424, 425 Vanilla planifolia, Vanilla Vanillin, 146 Variation, 448, 449; under domes- tication, 456 Varieties, 5, 428; cultivated, 6; do- ie INDEX 609 All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. mesticated, 430; multiplication of, 126; origin of, 126 Various plant groups, 358 Varnishes, 288, 290, 294, 296 Vascular eryptogams, 396; parts, 538; plants, 396; system, 539 Vegetabilia, Vegetable Kingdom Vegetable, ecology, 10; fibers, 223; foods, 113; ivory, 275, 276; 388, 422, 423; morphology, 10; parchment, 230; physiology, 10; sponge, 232, 238, 240; versus animal foods, 119; wool, 228 Vegetable Kingdom, 8, 394, 396, 561, 562; culminating in seed- plants, 560; evolution of, 466 Vegetative, cone, 323; organs of crowfoot family, 330; . repro- duction, 510, 560; system, 322 Vegeto-animal organisms, 573 Vehicles, 244; for pigments, 295 Veins, 337 Veinlets, 337 Venation, 337 Ventral placenta, 346; suture, 351 Veratrum vivide, Indian Poke Verbenacee, Verbena Family Verbena Family, 401 Vernation, 349; crozier-like, 537 Vertical hypha, 496, 497 Verticil, 342 © Vessels, 243, 538, 540; in wood, 252 Vestiges, 436 Vestigial characters, 452 Vine, 333 Vine-bower Clematis, 336, 328-356 Vinegar ferment, 155 Violacee, Violet ¥F amily Violales, Violet Order Violet Family, 400 Violet Order, 400 Violins, 245, 270 Virgin cork, 278, 279 Virginia Tobacco, 184 Viscum album, Mistletoe Vitacee, Grape Family gy ai aa setae of, 563, Vitis spp., Grapes Volatile oil reservoirs, 359, 360 Volatile oils, 128, 159, 160, 170, ae 295, 296, 297; poisonous, Volition in plants and animals, 464 Vries, Hugo de, 457 Vulcanization, 284 Wagons, 256, 259, 260, 263 W allace, Alfred Russel, 446 Walnut, 35, 39, 120, 124, 376, 414, 415; black, 260; English, 296: kernel, 114; white, 261; wood, 256, 260 Walnut Family, 376, 398: black walnut, 260; butternut, 40; hickory, 41; pecan, 40; walnut, Walnut Order, 376, 398, 414, 415 Wall-stain Alga, 476, 477, 504 Wall-stain Family: wall-stain alga, 477 Waste products, 573 Water, Hemlock, 193, 370, 412, 413; in foods, 114; in grains, 30 Water-bottles, 284 Water-craft, 243 Watercress, 55, 70, 71, 362, 406, 407 Water-lily Family, 398 Watermelon, 88, 96, 121, 124, 383, 418, 419; pulp, 114 Water-mold, 498 Water-mold Family: water-mold, 498 Water-mold Fungi, 499 Waterproof, coverings, 284; gar- ments, 283, 284; material, 287 _ Water-supply, effect of forests on, 304 Water-vessels, 282 Wax, 303 Wax-beans, 85 Weapons, 245 Weaving, 222, 223 Webbing, 223, 230 Wedge-leaf, 299 Weeds, 303 Wearing apparel, 223 Well-endowed offspring, 510 Wet cooperage, 243, 257 Wheat, 11, 15, 19, 20, 28, 120, 122, 124, 126, 159, 235, 387, 610 INDEX All numbers refer to pages, heavy type indicating illustrations. 420, 421; gum, 31; kernel, 114; range, 26; straw, 298 Whisk brushes, 235 Whisks, 223 Whisky, 159 White, ash, 259; birch, 265; birch oil, 297; cooperage, 2438, 270; mustard, 133; oak wood, 256; pine, 241, 270; pine wood, 250, 251; potato, 43, 59, 60, 120, 124, 210, 382, 416, 417; potato tuber, 114; walnut, 261; water crowfoot, 467 Whitewood, 263; Tulip, 261 Whorl, 342 Whorled leaves, 342 Wicks, 228; wickerwork, 223, 235, 241 Wild, black cherry, 203, 260, 263; carrot, 430; cotton, 227; kale, 66, 67; lettuce, 73; red rasp- berry, 91 Will, 568; in plants, 462 Willow, 241, 243, 244, 294, 377, 414, 475 - Willow Family, 377, 398, 414, 415: poplar, 264; willow, 243, 244 Willow Order, 377, 398, 416, 417 Wind-balls, 283 Wind-breaks, 303 Wind-carried pollen, 557 Wind-flower, 328-356 | Wind-pollination, 557 Wine, 156, 157, 248, 495 Winged pericarp, 359 Wings, 48, 366 Winter Crook-neck Squash, 81, 82 Wintergreen, 146, 148, 177, 203, 297, 378, 379, 416, 417; oil of, 562 Witch-hazel, 166, 171 Witch-hazel Family: witch-hazel, 171 Wood, 241, 298; ash, 298; origin, 254; pulp, 241; structure, 249 Wood-alcohol, 300 ih aaa ce 205, 209, 328- 35 Wood-anemony, American American Wood-anemony) Wooden shoes, 263 Woodenware, 263 Woods, 222; true, 256 Wood-working trades, 242 Woody, fibers, 225, 240, 538; plants, 333, 352 Wool, vegetable, 228 Wool-weed, 480, 481, 558 bid eB sae Family: wool-weed, 48 World-making an evolution, 464 Wormwood, 159, 160, 385, 420, 421 Wrack Family: bladder-wrack, 488, 489 Wrapping for bottles, 280 Writing-inks, 294 Writing-paper, 224 (see X yapales, Yellow-eyed Grass Or- er Yarn, 223 Yeast, 155 Yeast Family: yeast, 155 Yeast Fungi, 495 Yellow Ladies’ Slipper, 220; Y. Locust, 259 Yellow-eyed Grass Order, 397 Yew, 212, 213, 392, 393, 426, 427 Yew Family, 392, 397, 426, 427: _ yew, 213 Yokes, 244, 263 Yoke-spore algze, evolution of, 558 Zanzibar Copal-tree, 289, 290, 366 Zea Mays, Maize Zingiber officinale, Ginger Zygomycetes, Pin-mold Fungi Zygospore, 478, 497, 511 Zygote, 482, 512 Pe e/7 He ETE E~ IR oh: r la 7 i cedaty — BROOKL. THE METRIC SYSTEM. ’ Units. THE MOST COMMONLY USED DIVISIONS AND MULTIPLES, Centimeter (cm), 1/100 meter; J/limeter (mm), 1/1000 meter; Jficron (u), 1/1000 millimeter. The micron is the unit in micrometry. Kilometer, 1000 meters; used in measuring roads and othe long distances. 5 Milligram (mg), 1/1000 gram. THE METER, for LENGTH..... THE GRAM, for WEIGHT 3.50 groceries, etc. Tue Liter, for ( Cubic Centimeter (cc), 1/1000 liter. This is more CAPACITY ....: | common than the correct form, Milliliter. Divisions of the wnits are indicated by Latin prefixes: deci, 1/10; cent, 1/100; milli, 1/1000. Multiples are designated by Greek prefixes: deka, 10 times; hecto, 100 times; £2/0, 1000 times; 7zyvZa, 10,000 times. TABLE OF METRIC AND ENGLISH MEASURES. METER = 100 centimeters, 1000 millimeters, 1,000,000 microns, 39.3704 inches. Millimeter (mm) = 1000 microns, 1/10 millimeter, 1/1000 meter, 1/25 inch, approximately. MICRON (sz) (unit of measure in micrometry)=1/1000 mm, 1/1000000 me- ter (0.000039 inch), 1/25000 inch, approximately. Inch (in.) = 25.399772 mm (25.4 mm, approx.). LITER = 1000 milliliters or 1000 cubic centimeters, I quart (approx.). Cubic centimeter (cc or cctm) = 1/1000 liter. Fluid ounce (8 fluidrachms) = 29.578 cc (30 cc, approx.). GRAM = 15.432 grains. Kilogram (kilo) = 2.204 avoirdupois pounds (2} pounds, approx.). Ounce Avoirdupois (4374 grains) = 28.349 grams ) (30 grams, Ounce Troy or Apothecaries’ (480 grains) = 31.103 grams) approx.). TEMPERATURE. To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit: (C. x $)-+32 =F. For example, to | find the equivalent of 10° Centigrade, C, = 10°, (10° x 3) + 32 = 50° F. To change Fahrenheit to Centigrade: (F.— 32°) X = C. Forexample,to reduce 50 Fahrenheit to Centigrade, F. = 50°, and (50°— 32°) X § = 10°C.; or — 40° Fahrenheit to Centigrade, F. = — 40°, (— 40°— 32°) = — 72°, whence — 72° Xx 8 = — 40°C. ’ —From ‘The Microscope” (by S. H. Gage) by permission, — NORMAN TA BROOKLYN erTANic GARDEN N,N. Y. Kilogram, 1000 grams, used for ordinary masses, like © i | enone at 7... i mini Centigrade | Fahrenheit | Ab dataae 1 Fahrenheit or a] : 3 +100 |° +212 || +16 +60.8 90 194 | 15 59 ae ee ha 14 Sy diy 70 158 | 13 55.4 r 60 140 | 12 53.6 ; 50 137) 11 51.8 ; 49 120.2 || 10 50 B48 118.4 | 9 48.2 bas 47 116.6 | 8 46.4 ie 46 114.8 || is maid 6 45 113 || 6 42.8 = t 44 111.2 | 5 41 5 43, 109.4 | 4 39.2 : 42 107.6 || 3 37.4 . 41 105.8 | 2 35.6 6 f 40 104 +1 +33.8 ti 30..| 102.2 0 +32 EF] ek BE 38 100.4 || —1 +30.2 =| S= ef 37 98.6 2 28.4 rz teh a 36 96.3 3 26 .6 ~ re 35 95: °4 4 24.8 hit 34 93.2 | 5 23 i 33 | 91.4_ 6 Bh: 2 f 32 89.6 7! 19.4 Sec 31 87.8 | 8 17.6 ! 30 86 9 15.8 4 i 29 84.2 | 10 14 } 28 82.4 | 11 1 e 27 80.6 | 12 10.4 } 26 78.8 | 13” 8.6 ‘i 25 17 14 6.8 i 24 75.2) 15 5 : 23 73.4 | 16 | 3.2 o oe eee 17 1.4 mA) 69.8 18 | —0.4 ‘ 20 | 68 19 2 m9 |) a2 |) - 20 4 : 18 64.4 | 2 ed Bae | 17 62.6 || —40 —40 ati ahhh , ae ETS wea tary ste 122 aos ees ae